Salvage Engineer's Book PDF

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0910-LP-107-7400
U.S. NAVY SALVAGE ENGINEERS HANDBOOK, VOLUME 1 (Salvage Engineering)
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE AND SALE; ITS DISTRIBUTION IS UNLIMITED.
PUBLISHED BY DIRECTION OF COMMANDER, NAVAL SEA SYSTEMS COMMAND
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LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES
Date of original pages is: Original. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 May 1992 Total number of pages in this publication is 766, consisting of the following:
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CHANGE NUMBER
DATE
TITLE AND/OR BRIEF DESCRIPTION
ENTERED BY
to C APTAIN C HARLES A. B ARTHOLOMEW ,
whose drive and vision defined the need and created the opportunity for the handbook, and whose experience and mentorship led the way in its crafting.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Captain Charles A. (Black Bart) Bartholomew was an engineer who made the Navyand salvagehis career. A graduate of the United States Navy Academy, Webb Institute of Naval Architecture, and the Navy Deep Sea Diving School at the Washington Navy Yard, he served in a number of engineering billets before assignment in 1970 to the heavy repair ship USS HECTOR during a period of significant battle-damage repair and combat support operations in southeast Asia. From there he was ordered to the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) in Washington, D.C., where is served in several offices, including that of the Supervisor of Salvage. From 1977 to 1985 he was Commanding Officer of the Naval Experimental Diving Unit, served on the Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet staff, and was Repair Officer and then Production Officer at the Long Beach, California Naval Shipyard. In 1985 Captain Bartholomew was transferred back to the nations capital and NAVSEA to serve as Director of Ocean Engineering and Supervisor of Salvage and Diving where he served until his untimely death in 1991. During his twenty-two years as a Navy diver and salvor, Captain Bartholomew participated in the salvage of sixteen ships, numerous aircraft, and the space shuttle Challenger. The "Bart" in his nickname derives in part from his surname and in part from the acronym for "Bitts And Round Turns," a common term used in seamanship.
Commander Bert Marsh was commissioned in 1975 through the NROTC program at Oregon State University and immediately attended the Navy Deep Sea Diving School at the Washington Navy Yard. He is a plank owner in the Special Operations community as a diver and salvor, having served on both ARS and ASR (salvage and submarine rescue) ships. During his earlier shipboard tours, he served as diver or salvage officer on numerous aircraft salvage operations and in several ship and small craft recoveries. As an exchange officer with the Royal Navy, Commander Marsh participated as diver, bell operator, or diving officer on the RN saturation diving vessel, making open ocean dives to 500 FSW. He then transferred to the Navy Postgraduate School where he earned an MSME and shifted to the Engineering Duty Officer community. During tours at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and NAVSEA, Commander Marsh directed salvage operations from Alaska to the Persian Gulf. His salvage experience has included submarine strandings, hydrofoil PHM salvages, oil and gasoline tanker firefighting and salvage, along with combat salvage and structural integrity evaluation of the USS PRINCETON during the Gulf War. Commander Marsh is currently serving as the Commanding Officer of the Navy Experimental Diving Unit in Panama City, Florida.
Lieutenant Commander Richard W. Hooper, a native of Baltimore, Maryland, graduated from Loyola College, Baltimore (Bachelor of Science, Chemistry and Physics) in 1980 and was subsequently commissioned through Officer Candidate School as an Engineering Duty Officer. His assignments have included Boilers Officer aboard USS INDEPENDENCE (1981-1984) and Ship Overhaul Project Officer, Drydocking Officer, and Diving Officer at Norfolk Naval Shipyard (1985-1988). Lieutenant Commander Hooper received his MSME from the Naval Postgraduate School in 1991 and is currently assigned to the Naval Sea Systems Command, Office of the Supervisor of Salvage and Diving as the Assistant for Salvage Operations.
The Salvage Engineers Handbook was a significant goal for Captain Bartholomew. His death in 1991 left considerable doubt as to the survival of this engineering project, however, his road map provided Commander Marsh and Lieutenant Commander Hooper clear direction for the completion of this undertaking.
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FOREWORD
In a 1948 address to the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Rear Admiral W.A. Sullivan, Chief of Navy Salvage and Supervisor of Salvage during World War II, called salvage "a branch of engineering." That precept has been oft quoted, and generally endorsed by salvors, naval architects, and engineers of various disciplines who have become involved in salvage work. Despite this general consensus, no institution offers significant instruction or grants a degree in salvage engineering. For the most part, individuals evolve into salvage engineers through years of application of a naval architecture or engineering education to the problems of ship salvage. Training by experience has its advantages, but the lack of a welldefined, structured academic base has left salvage engineers with a dearth of literature specific to the field. If a profession is known by its technical writing, salvage engineering could easily be overlooked. There is a fairly extensive body of literature on marine salvage, but apart from calculation and analysis sections of reports of specific salvage operations, very little published material addresses the engineering aspects of ship salvage. This handbook has been assembled to provide the Navy salvage engineer an authoritative and comprehensive reference work comparable to the standard reference works available for other technical disciplines. Most of the subject matter presented is not new, but has been gleaned from many different sources. Salvage engineering is by its nature interdisciplinary, innovative, and improvisational; it is quite impossible to include in a single volume a thorough treatment of all the fields encompassed by the profession. This handbook should be taken as an outline of an extremely broad and diverse subject. Many of the component subjects are extensively treated in available literature and the aspiring salvage engineer should expect to gain a complete knowledge of the profession only by reference to works on related topics, extensive study of salvage histories, and time on the proving ground of experience. The Salvage Engineers Handbook is part of a family of references that includes the U.S. Navy Towing Manual, the Emergency Ship Salvage Material Catalog (ESSM), the U.S. Navy Underwater Cutting and Welding Manual, the Technical Manual for Use of Explosives in Underwater Salvage, and the six volume U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, which was developed concurrently with the handbook. The handbook builds and expands on these works, in particular the Salvage Manual, taking it as a point of departure. While there is an intimate relationship between the salvage engineer and salvage officer (they may, on occasion, be the same person), this handbook concerns itself with the engineering aspects of salvage. In general, information provided in the mentioned references is not repeated, except as necessary to maintain the continuity of discussion, or to prevent excessive searching between manuals. The Handbook has been published in two volumes. Volume 1 is a comprehensive treatment of salvage engineering and related calculations. Volume 2 is the users manual for the NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE), computer software designed for field work, which relieves the salvage engineer of much of the tedium of salvage calculationsbut not of the assumptions and underlying mechanics that make the calculations meaningful. Salvage engineers, as engineers and as salvors, are members of a profession defined by concepts, rather than a craft defined by procedures. It has been said that there is no substitute for good judgement in the absence of hard fact. Good judgement in the absence of fact is made possible by a thorough understanding of similar situations. Only through mastery of the underlying concepts is it possible to improvise or innovate solutions to problems where standard procedures do not apply. Familiarity with established practice combined with eager evaluation of new situations are the underpinnings of a progressive profession. This is doubly true in salvage, where the requirements to deal with old ships, operate in remote, undeveloped areas, and improvise in the field mandates a knowledge of techniques and equipment considered obsolete in other fields, while the advances in shipbuilding technology and increases in ship size demand that salvors be familiar with the latest innovations. The Salvage Engineers Handbook is intended to be the standard reference for the salvage engineer. However, this standard reference is a dynamic work, refined by the continuing experiences and knowledge of the community it serves. Evaluation and discussion will pave the way for subsequent, improved editions.
R. P. FISKE Directory of Ocean Engineering Supervisor of Salvage and Diving, USN
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INTRODUCTION
Salvage engineering is a broad-based, interdisciplinary field. Salvage engineers must have a firm grasp on the principles of naval architecture to be able to assess the strength and stability of a damaged vessel. A working knowledge of strength of materials, mechanics, dynamics, and structures is requisite, as are some understanding of soil mechanics, fluid dynamics, coastal processes, safety engineering, and the theory and practice associated with rigging systems design and operation, pumping operations, compressed air system design and operation, metals fabrication, industrial processes, and explosives use. An effective salvage engineer will also be familiar with ship operations, deck seamanship, machinery operation, diving, and oil spill remediation. Above all else, however, a salvage engineer must understand salvagewhat it is, and why it is. In the words of Rear Admiral W.A. Sullivan: Commercial salvors provide their services voluntarily in the expectation of financial reward in the form of a fixed fee, a per diem rate, or a salvage award based on the value of the ships or goods salved. Commercial salvage is viable only so long as the potential salvage award exceeds the cost of the salvage. The economics of military salvage operations are not as easily summarized. Salvage is a mission assigned to certain ships and units; it is not an economic venture. Although projected mission costs may influence the decision to conduct a particular operation, the returns of a successful operation are not always measured in financial or even tangible terms. Political, environmental, or military considerations sometimes require that the price of salvage be paid, no matter how high. Military or other government agencies of most maritime countries maintain some form of salvage capability because national interests may require the undertaking of commercially unattractive salvage operations, and to ensure that salvage assets will be available for wartime use. Public Law 513 (10 U.S.C. 7361 et seq) authorizes the Secretary of the Navy to provide "by contract or otherwise, necessary salvage facilities for public and private vessels upon such terms as he determines to be in the best interest of the United States." As unnecessary government competition with the salvage industry would not be in the best long-term interest of the country, peacetime salvage services provided by the Navy and other military services are largely limited to salvage of government owned assets. Salvage services may be provided to nongovernment assets if commercial salvors cannot or will not provide the required services. Salvage operations conducted by military forces and assets during peacetime generally fall into one of the following categories:
The salvage officer . . . must know sufficient naval architecture to be thoroughly conversant with the subjects of ship stability, buoyancy, and trim. He must know something of the strength of ships so that he can estimate the stress that can be placed on a ships structure with safety. He should be an engineer conversant with the laws of mechanics, of the strength of materials and of gases, especially those pertaining to compressed air. He must know about the nature of soils and rocks upon which a vessel may strand and he must be most thoroughly versed in the principles of salvage. He must know something of the valuation of ships and of their cargoes, for, in addition to salvaging ships, he will have to decide whether or not a ship offers sufficient salved value to warrant the expense and risk involved in its salvage. The salvage officer must be a man of experience and decision. He will have no time when he arrives at the scene of a wreck to make long surveys and to consider a plan of action. He will have to decide upon this very quickly and he is not apt to hold his position long if he makes many mistakes.
Marine salvage is a service provided to ship and cargo owners with the object of preserving a significant portion of the value of the ship, its cargo, or both. Typical salvage services include rescue towing, debeaching stranded vessels, raising sunken vessels, firefighting, damage control assistance, and cargo recovery or removal. Salvors universally apply the term casualty to a vessel requiring salvage assistance, in keeping with the definition of the word as something "harmed or destroyed as the result of some act or event." Although operationally similar, wreck removal, harbor clearance, and similar operations are not salvage in the strictest sense, as the casualty has little or no salvage value.
Salvage of publicly owned vessels and clearance of Federally controlled harbors. Salvage assistance to allied navies/governments. Clearance of critical waterways at the request of the U.S. Coast Guard or U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Salvage or removal of vessels presenting a severe pollution hazard, when no commercial assets are available, and when requested by the U.S. Coast Guard. Salvage of vessels that present a unique training opportunity, as determined by the Supervisor of Salvage. Recovery of aircraft components to support mishap investigations as required by military and civil agencies. Recovery of valuable or sensitive objects belonging to government agencies. Support of oceanographic research. Assistance to state and municipal governments. Salvage of commercial vessels when no adequate commercial assets are available and the government is contracted by the vessels owners.
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Wartime salvage may fall into any of the above categories, depending on priorities at the time. The principal reason for wartime naval salvage, however, is to recover assets that cannot be procured elsewhere in sufficient quantity at any cost. Examples of wartime salvage operations include:
Systems Design Designing systems to apply or resist forces, or to recover buoyancy: (1) Designing pulling, lifting, or parbuckling systems. (2) Designing and constructing cofferdams, current deflectors, and similar structures. (3) Selecting and evaluating attachment points for lifting or pulling systems. (4) Designing and installing structural reinforcements. (5) Designing and assembling dewatering systems using pumps, compressed air, induced buoyancy devices, or a combination of methods. (6) Designing, constructing, and installing large patches. (7) Designing field-built or improvised weight- and cargo-handling systems. (8) Evaluating anchor holding power and designing mooring systems. (9) Designing and constructing footings and shallow foundations. (10) Modifying existing systems for salvage use.
Expedient repairs to damaged ships, or refloating lightly damaged ships for immediate return to duty. Firefighting, damage control assistance, expedient repair, and rescue towing of ships damaged by enemy action. Salvage and delivery of more heavily damaged ships to repair facilities for eventual return to duty. Clearance of vital ports and waterways. Recovery of war critical cargo, shipboard equipment or munitions for further use, and/or to prevent enemy use. Recovery of sensitive or classified items to prevent enemy recovery. Salvage or recovery of enemy assets for intelligence or friendly use.
Salvage engineering combines elements of both field and design engineering. In addition to assessing the condition of a ship casualty in its awkward situation, the salvage engineer must often oversee the operation of purpose-built salvage systemsbeach gear, lifting systems, specialized salvage craft, etc. The salvage engineer is also called upon to design specialized systems, modify existing systems, and determine operating limits for systems and equipment used outside their designed operating conditions. As the principle technical advisor to the salvage officer, the salvage engineer plays a critical role in selecting salvage methods and developing salvage plans. Salvage engineering can be divided into the following categories:
Systems Operation Ensuring that engineered systems are operated safely and effectively; establishing operating limits for improvised or modified systems and ensuring that operating personnel know system operating characteristics and limitations. Planning Estimating feasibility and the time, manpower, materials and specialized assets required to accomplish tasks; devising, with other salvage personnel, means to improve damaged vessel conditions; estimating casualty stability, reserve buoyancy, and strength during and following planned salvage actions. Documentation Providing salvage calculations, systems design data, and technical analysis of operations for postsalvage reports.
Evaluating Ship Casualties Estimating a casualtys stability, reserve buoyancy, and strength based on known and estimated conditions. Local Strength Analysis Determining the capacity of portions of casualty or assisting ship structure to carry extreme or unusual loads. Determining Environmental Effects Estimating forces and pressures resulting from currents, wind, waves, and other environmental factors.
Salvage engineering design differs from conventional design practice in three significant areas:
Selection of component material and size. Treatment of fatigue considerations. Precision of calculations and measurements.
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In conventional engineering design, component material and size are selected to give adequate strength for a clearly defined design load. Design loads are determined by dividing the "known" failure load by a factor of safety to provide a reserve of strength in a system or component. Tabulated failure loads for various materials are averages based on destructive testinga particular sample of the material may fail at higher or lower loads. The factor of safety is therefore a factor of uncertainty. In any design, there is additional uncertainty about a components actual failure mode, behavior of the material in the vicinity of its ultimate stress, applicability of design theory assumptions, operating environment, quality control during fabrication and installation, and additional stresses introduced by deformation of components within the system. Design safety factors recommended or required by regulatory bodies are selected to give an acceptable degree of certainty that a structure will carry the design load. Standard safety factors vary depending on service and the anticipated result of failure. For example, safety factors for systems where failure may endanger human life are much higher than for similar systems where there is no life hazard. The changeable environment of salvage work, with its requirement to work with sometimes incomplete data, increases uncertainties concerning failure modes, applicability of design theory assumptions, operating environment, and quality control. In such cases, safety factors should be increased over those recommended for design work wherever possible. Oilfield design, beset with similar uncertainties, is typified in the phrase "build it stout for hell!" Salvors, however, must often work with the limited materials at hand. In salvage engineering design, choice of component materials and size is often forced by capacity of handling systems or material availability, and the salvage engineer must determine limiting loads based on the strength of components to be used. In many cases, it is necessary to accept lower factors of safety than called for by standard design practicesalvage system components, such as chain, wire rope, sheaves, structural shapes, etc., may see loads that exceed their normal safe working or design load. Because a reduced safety factor gives less certainty that the structure will not fail under load, design and operating procedures should be modified to remove personnel and critical equipment from danger areas during system loading when circumstances dictate the acceptance of reduced safety factors. Safety factors for some structures are based on an assumed loss of material through corrosion or other forms of deterioration over a given service life. Lower safety factors can be accepted safely if failure loads are calculated from actual rather than nominal or initial component dimensions. Component service life is a major concern in conventional design. Structural component stress levels are selected to avoid fatigue failure. Salvage systems are often designed for short-term or one time use on a single operation; fatigue is not a primary consideration. Short term use must be defined in terms of load cycles, however, not time. As an example, structural reinforcements and tensioned wire rope on a stranded casualty are subjected to load fluctuations or reversals by the passage of waves. With a 5- to 7-second wave period, the components may experience over 17,000 load cycles per day. The salvage engineer must ensure that system components subjected to excessive stresses or cyclic loading during salvage operations are carefully inspected prior to reuse, and scrapped if unacceptably worn or deformed.
The salvage engineer is almost always faced with imprecise information or totally unknown conditions that must be estimated. In some instances, sound approximations will provide sufficiently accurate results. In other situations, measurement of casualty dimensions and/or extensive numerical integration may be necessary for adequate precision. The precision of input data limits the precision of calculations. For example, drafts can seldom be read more precisely than 3 inches on ships outside well-protected harbors. A calculation based on displacement from observed drafts, such as ground reaction, can therefore be no more precise than 3 times the ships TPI. A similar awareness of the accuracy of data from curves or drawings must be maintained. Calculated data with unjustified significant digits can instill false confidence in operating personnel. Wherever possible, the salvage engineer should determine and provide an error range with calculated values. If for example, it is calculated that the freeing force for a particular stranding is 500 short tons 50 tons, salvors are aware that the casualty may pull free with as little as 450 tons line tension. On the other hand, they are also aware that at least 550 tons of pulling force should be available, and that until the pulling force is well above 550 tons, there is no reason to suspect a miscalculation or the presence of unknown factors. There is also a fundamental difference in the way salvage engineers and ship designers approach naval architecture. Naval architects, as designers, deal with ships as designed, as built, or as modified, while salvage engineers deal with them as wrecked. The differences in approach resulting from this distinction are subtle but significant. Naval architects examine proposed ship designs and alterations in normal operating, or intact conditions, and certain hypothetical conditions of damage. The salvage engineer on the other hand, deals with ships in conditions of known or identifiable damage. This is not to say that a salvage engineer does not design, or examine hypothetical conditions; it does say that in most cases, those conditions have as their point of departure an initial damaged condition. Since most naval architects deal with new construction or modifications to fairly new ships, they concern themselves chiefly with current design practice and rules. However, old ships dont disappear from the seas on the adoption of new rules or practices, but, like MacArthurs "old soldiers," only gradually fade away. Strandings, collision, mechanical breakdown, and other marine incidents are part of the fading process, and are more, rather than less, likely as a ship ages. The salvage engineer must therefore have at least a passing knowledge of ship design and construction practices for the last 40 years or so, as well as the most current methods. An oft quoted, humorous anecdote states that
Ship salvage is a science of vague assumptions based on debatable figures from inconclusive instruments, performed with equipment of problematical accuracy by persons of doubtful reliability and of questionable mentality.
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This statement, attributed to an unidentified chief mate of a European salvage tug, is sometimes used to justify a slaphazard approach to salvage work. It should instead be taken as a sobering warning as to the changeable nature of salvage work and supporting engineering analysis. Because salvage is conducted in an uncontrolled and often imperfectly defined environment, assumptions are sometimes necessarily vague, and are always subject to change. This should prompt a periodic reevaluation of the data and assumptions employed, and the conclusions they have produced. The temptation to overengineer a situation must be resisted, however. The second part of above quoted anecdote is less well known but equally as instructive as the first part:
The captain of a salvage vessel is said to be a man who knows a great deal about very little, and he goes on knowing more and more about less and less until finally he knows practically everything about nothing. The chief engineer on the other hand, is a man who knows very little about a great deal and keeps on knowing less and less about more and more until he finally knows practically nothing about everything. The salvage master starts out knowing practically everything about everything and ends up knowing nothing about anything due to his association with captains and engineers.
Because the aims of a salvage operation are usually quite limited, it is easy to focus attention too narrowly, to the exclusion of peripheral, but none the less vital issues. It is just as easy to include too many extraneous considerations, to attempt to engineer the world. A large part of a salvage engineers contribution to an operation is subjective analysis that does not involve calculation or detailed measurement. Even as mariners develop a seamans eye, engineers develop an analytical view of the world around them. In applying this view to a ship casualty, an engineer may note items overlooked by others, and obtain an intuitive feel for the casualty. By the same token, experienced salvors and seaman may note things overlooked by the engineer. By comparing impressions, operators and engineers can create a synergy that can solve problems that might defeat them when working alone. Salvage engineering can be truthfully called a science of boundaries and boundary conditions. The salvage engineers art is to recognize boundary conditions and their significance to calculations and assumptions. Having established operating boundaries, the salvage engineer must be mindful of how closely the operation approaches those boundaries. Calculations based on a mix of hard data and assumptions are not absolute, but can be assigned a confidence level. The salvage engineer must be aware of the confidence level of his calculations and recommendations and communicate this to the salvage officer or salvage master.
The feel for the casualty can only be obtained by direct observation. While it is not possible for the salvage engineer to personally observe all aspects of a salvage operation, he should get out on deck, crawl the bilges, and see for himself the condition of the casualty insofar as practical. The engineer should also make time to observe salvage work and preparations in progress. By so doing, the salvage engineer can get a feel for the kind of problems facing the salvors, and may be able to suggest improvements or modifications. He can also ensure that systems and components are fabricated to design specifications. Innocent and seemingly minor field expediencies, such altering the orientation of timbers or structural shapes to ease fabrication, can seriously compromise a structure. Time spent in MBWA (Management By Walking Around) is time well spent. The engineer who isolates himself from the salvage operation to work on his calculations is of little practical use to the salvors, and therefore likely to be ignored. The amount of engineering analysis that can or should be conducted is often determined by time constraints. The planned removal of a wreck that has lain on a beach for some time can proceed in a thoughtful, orderly mannerthere is little if anything to lose should the wreck be damaged by weather or surf, so time is available for extensive data gathering, analysis, and planning. On the other hand, a casualty stranded on an exposed coast and subject to scouring currents may be destroyed in days or even hours if not successfully refloated. It has been said that perfect is the enemy of good enough. The time and effort expended to perfect a good enough analysis or plan may not be justified, especially if the delay results in additional damage to the casualty or prevents successful salvage. This recognition should be tempered with the realization that some jobs may be impossible without careful engineering analysis, despite time constraints. The adage that "there is never enough time to do it right, but always time to do it over again" may not apply. There may be only time to succeed or fail on the first attempt. The almost explosive increase in the power and utility of personal computers in recent years has greatly increased the ability of the salvage engineer to provide real-time engineering analysis. A few computer programs have been developed specifically for salvage calculations and planning; others are under development. The NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE), running on an MS/DOS-based microcomputer, can perform hydrostatic, stability, longitudinal strength, and ground reaction calculations. The U. S. Navy Salvage Engineers Handbook, Volume 2 (S0300-A8HBK-020) describes the capabilities and operation of POSSE. Use of POSSE or a program with similar capabilities permits the salvage engineer to provide a quick initial assessment, and to evaluate the effects of proposed actions before they are taken, even when little time is available for planning and analysis. The increased speed of salvage calculations also allows the salvage engineer to spend more time with the salvors and understanding the problems at hand.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XIX LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXV LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXIX STANDARD NAVY SYNTAX SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXXIII
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1-1 1-2 1-2.1 1-2.2 1-2.3 1-2.4 1-2.4.1 1-2.4.2 1-2.4.3 1-2.4.4 1-2.5 1-2.5.1 1-2.5.2 1-2.5.3 1-2.5.4 1-2.6 1-2.7 1-2.8 1-3 1-3.1 1-3.2 1-3.2.1 1-3.2.2 1-3.2.3 1-3.3 1-3.4 1-3.5 1-3.6 1-3.7 1-3.8 1-3.9 1-3.10 1-3.11 1-4 1-4.1 1-4.2 1-4.3 1-4.4 1-4.4.1 1-4.4.2 1-4.5 1-4.5.1 1-4.5.2 1-4.5.3 1-4.5.4 1-4.6 1-4.6.1 1-4.6.2 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 HULL FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 LOCATION OF POINTS WITHIN A SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 LOCATION OF POINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 SHIP DIMENSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 THE BODY PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 HALFBREADTH PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 SHEER PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 DESCRIPTIVE TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 COEFFICIENTS OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 MIDSHIP SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 WATERPLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 PRISMATIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7 SHIP PROPORTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7 OFFSETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 WETTED SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 DISPLACEMENT AND BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 SHIPS WEIGHT, DISPLACEMENT AND CAPACITY . . . . . . . . 1-9 STANDARD LOADING CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10 U.S. NAVY SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10 COMMERCIAL VESSELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11 LOADING INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11 DEADWEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11 CHANGE IN DRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12 TONS PER INCH IMMERSION (TPI)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14 RESERVE BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14 CENTER OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14 CENTER OF BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15 METACENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15 CENTER OF FLOTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15 BONJEANS CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15 APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 TRAPEZOIDAL RULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 SIMPSONS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17 SIMPSONS FIRST RULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17 SIMPSONS SECOND RULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19 APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19 MOMENTS AND CENTROIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-20 SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21 VOLUMES AND CENTROIDS OF VOLUME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22 GENERAL FORMS FOR AREA AND MOMENT CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23 OTHER SIMPSONS RULE FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-26 5, 8, MINUS ONE AND 3, 10, MINUS ONE RULES . . . . . . 1-26 SIMPSONS RULES FOR ANY NUMBER OF ORDINATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-26 1-4.7 1-4.8 1-4.9 1-4.10 1-4.10.1 1-4.10.2 1-4.10.3 1-4.10.4 1-4.10.5 1-4.10.6 1-4.10.7 1-5 1-5.1 1-5.2 1-5.3 1-5.4 1-5.4.1 1-5.4.2 1-5.4.3 1-5.5 1-5.6 1-5.7 1-5.8 1-5.9 1-5.9.1 1-5.9.2 1-5.9.3 1-5.9.4 1-5.9.5 1-5.9.6 1-5.9.7 1-5.10 1-5.10.1 1-5.10.2 1-5.10.3 1-5.10.4 1-5.10.5 1-5.10.6 1-5.11 1-6 1-6.1 1-6.2 1-6.2.1 1-6.2.2 1-6.2.3 1-6.2.4 1-6.3 OTHER INTEGRATION RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GENERAL NOTES FOR NUMERICAL INTEGRATION . . . . . . INTEGRATION OF DISCONTINUOUS CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . CALCULATION OF HULL PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FUNCTIONS OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDAGE DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STATION SPACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FULL SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOWEST WATERLINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENDS OF FULL HULL FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TANK AND COMPARTMENT VOLUMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRANSVERSE STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EQUILIBRIUM AND STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTERNAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXTERNAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HEIGHTS OF CENTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HEIGHT OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HEIGHT OF THE CENTER OF BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . METACENTRIC HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RIGHTING ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RIGHTING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHANGE OF DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE STABILITY CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CORRECTION FOR ACTUAL KGI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RANGE OF STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RIGHTING ARM AND RIGHTING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . METACENTRIC HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANGLE OF DECK EDGE IMMERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RIGHTING ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EFFECTS OF HULL FORM ON THE STABILITY CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BEAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FREEBOARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SIDE AND BOTTOM PROFILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PROHASKAS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL STABILITY PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL POSITION OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL POSITION OF THE CENTER OF BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL POSITION OF THE CENTER OF FLOTATION (LCF)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL METACENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRIMMING ARMS AND MOMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-26 1-27 1-27 1-28 1-28 1-28 1-28 1-29 1-29 1-29 1-29 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-32 1-32 1-32 1-33 1-33 1-35 1-35 1-36 1-36 1-36 1-37 1-38 1-38 1-39 1-39 1-39 1-39 1-39 1-39 1-40 1-40 1-40 1-40 1-40 1-41 1-42 1-42 1-42 1-42 1-42 1-42 1-42 1-43
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1-6.4 1-6.5 1-6.6 1-7 1-7.1 1-7.1.1 1-7.1.2 1-7.1.3 1-7.1.4 1-7.1.5 1-7.1.6 1-7.2 1-7.3 1-7.4 1-7.5 1-8 1-8.1 1-8.1.1 1-8.1.2 1-8.1.3 1-8.2 1-8.2.1 1-8.2.2 1-8.2.3 1-8.3 1-8.4 1-8.5 1-9 1-9.1 1-9.1.1 1-9.1.2 1-9.1.3 1-9.2 1-9.2.1 1-9.2.2 1-9.2.3 1-9.2.4 1-9.2.5 1-9.3 1-9.4 1-9.5 1-9.6 1-9.6.1 1-9.6.2 1-10 1-10.1 1-10.1.1 1-10.1.2 1-10.1.3 1-10.1.4 1-10.2 1-10.2.1 1-10.2.2 MOMENT TO CHANGE TRIM ONE INCH (MT1)I . . . . . . . . . DRAFTS AFTER A CHANGE IN TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MOVEMENT OF LCB AND LCG WITH CHANGE OF TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PARAMETRIC DETERMINATION OF HULL CHARACTERISTICS . . . PARAMETRIC MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REQUIRED INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DISPLACEMENT AND COEFFICIENTS OF FORM . . . . . . . . . HEIGHTS OF CENTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TONS PER INCH IMMERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MOMENT TO TRIM ONE INCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL POSITIONS OF CENTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CALCULATION HIERARCHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPLICATIONS TO SALVAGE CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT AND STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT SHIFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL EFFECTS OF WEIGHT SHIFTS . . . . . . . . . . OFFCENTER WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STABILITY CURVE CORRECTION FOR OFFCENTER WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT ADDITIONS AND REMOVALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT CHANGES AWAY FROM THE CENTER OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT CHANGES WITHOUT CHANGE OF TRIM . . . . . . . POINT OF CONSTANT DRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INCLINING EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALLYING SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BALLAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPAIRED STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLOODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PERMEABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DOWNFLOODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLOODING INTO LIQUID-FILLED SPACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOOSE WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FREE SURFACE EFFECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CROSS-FLOODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIQUIDS OF DIFFERENT DENSITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BULK CARGOES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FREE COMMUNICATION EFFECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADDED WEIGHT VERSUS LOST BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . LOSS OF GMI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRYDOCKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BLOCK REACTION AND RESIDUAL BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . DOCKING STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHIP CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FRAMING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL FRAMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRANSVERSE FRAMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMBINATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONGITUDINAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OTHER LONGITUDINAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-43 1-44 1-45 1-45 1-45 1-46 1-46 1-47 1-48 1-48 1-49 1-49 1-50 1-50 1-50 1-51 1-51 1-52 1-52 1-53 1-53 1-54 1-54 1-56 1-56 1-56 1-57 1-57 1-57 1-58 1-58 1-58 1-60 1-60 1-64 1-64 1-64 1-64 1-64 1-65 1-66 1-66 1-66 1-67 1-69 1-69 1-70 1-70 1-70 1-71 1-71 1-71 1-71 1-10.3 1-10.3.1 1-10.3.2 1-10.3.3 1-10.4 1-10.5 1-10.6 1-10.7 1-10.8 1-10.9 1-10.9.1 1-10.9.2 1-10.9.3 1-10.9.4 1-10.9.5 1-11 SHIP 1-11.1 1-11.1.1 1-11.1.2 1-11.1.3 1-11.2 1-11.2.1 1-11.2.2 1-11.2.3 1-11.2.4 1-11.3 1-11.3.1 1-11.3.2 1-11.4 1-11.5 1-11.5.1 1-11.5.2 1-11.6 1-11.7 1-11.8 1-11.9 1-11.9.1 1-11.9.2 1-11.9.3 1-11.10 1-11.11 1-11.12 1-11.12.1 1-11.12.2 1-11.12.3 1-11.12.4 1-11.13 1-11.14 1-11.14.1 1-11.14.2 1-11.15 1-11.16 1-11.17 TRANSVERSE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 FLOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-72 SHELL PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-72 DECKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-72 BULKHEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 OTHER STRUCTURAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 SUPERSTRUCTURES AND DECKHOUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 DAMAGE-RESISTANT FEATURES OF SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 SUBDIVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 FLOODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 LIKELY DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75 STRUCTURAL DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75 ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF NAVAL SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75 STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76 STRESSES IN SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76 STRUCTURAL STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76 LOCAL STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78 WEAPONS EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78 LONGITUDINAL BENDING STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78 LOAD CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-79 BUOYANCY CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-79 WEIGHT CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-79 SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-80 VARIATIONS IN LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-81 CHANGES IN WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-81 WAVE-INDUCED BUOYANCY DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82 CURVE SCALES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-83 SECTION MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-84 EFFECTIVE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-84 CALCULATING SECTION MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-85 SHEAR STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-88 BENDING STRESS IN INCLINED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-94 COMBINED STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95 ACCEPTABLE STRESS LEVELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95 FAILURE DEFINITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95 FACTORS OF SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95 COMMON MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96 HULL GIRDER DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97 APPROXIMATE STRENGTH CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97 WEIGHT CURVE APPROXIMATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97 STATION COEFFICIENT METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-98 BARE HULL ESTIMATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-98 COFFIN DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-101 SHIPS WITHOUT PARALLEL MIDBODY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-102 WAVE BENDING MOMENT WITH NONSTANDARD WAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-102 MURRAYS METHOD FOR APPROXIMATING MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-104 STILL WATER BENDING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-104 WAVE BENDING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-108 SECTION PROPERTY DESIGN RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-108 BY RULE SECTION MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-109 STRENGTH CONSIDERATIONS IN SALVAGE OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-109
S0300-A8-HBK-010
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CHAPTER/PARAGRAPH
C HAPTER 2 - S TRUCTURAL E NGINEERING

2-1 2-2 2-2.1 2-2.2 2-2.3 2-2.3.1 2-2.3.2 2-2.3.3 2-2.3.4 2-2.3.5 2-2.3.6 2-2.3.7 2-2.4 2-2.5 2-3 2-3.1 2-3.2 2-3.3 2-3.4 2-3.5 2-3.6 2-3.7 2-3.7.1 2-3.7.2 2-4 2-4.1 2-4.2 2-4.3 2-5 2-6 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 HULL STRENGTH IN SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 DAMAGED STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 STIFFENED PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 GRILLAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5 DESIGN CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 PLATE FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 INTER-FRAME FLEXURAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 INTER-FRAME TRIPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 GRILLAGE INSTABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 RESIDUAL STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 HERZOG FORMULA FOR STIFFENED PANELS UNDER UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 PLASTIC STRESS AND RESIDUAL STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 ULTIMATE STRENGTH COMPUTER PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . 2-13 BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 THEORY OF FLEXURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29 SUPERPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30 OBLIQUE LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 ASYMMETRICAL SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 CONTINUOUS BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 CURVED BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33 CONCENTRIC BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34 ECCENTRIC BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35 STRUTS AND COLUMNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 COMPRESSION BLOCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 LONG AND SHORT COLUMNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37 ECCENTRIC LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38 FLAT PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39 CYLINDERS AND SPHERES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42 2-6.1 2-6.1.1 2-6.1.2 2-6.2 2-6.3 2-7 2-7.1 2-7.2 2-7.3 2-7.3.1 2-7.3.2 2-7.3.3 2-8 2-8.1 2-8.2 2-8.3 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-11.1 2-11.1.1 2-11.1.2 2-11.2 2-11.3 2-11.3.1 2-11.3.2 2-11.3.3 2-11.3.4 2-11.3.5 2-11.4 2-11.5 THIN-WALLED CYLINDERS AND SPHERES . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTERNAL PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXTERNAL PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RING-STIFFENED CYLINDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THICK-WALLED CYLINDERS AND SPHERES . . . . . . . . . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BOLTS AND RIVETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONNECTIONS IN WOODEN STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . NAILS AND SPIKES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SCREWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BOLTED JOINTS IN WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESSES IN COMPOSITE STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMBINED STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESS CONCENTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TORSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BROKEN OR MISSING STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRIDGING DISCONTINUITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRACKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BUCKLED STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OPENINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPENSATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CUTS IN STIFFENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPENSATION FOR CUTS IN STIFFENERS . . . . . . . . . . . DAMAGE OPENINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXISTING OPENINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REINFORCING UNDAMAGED STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INCREASED STRESSES CAUSED BY REINFORCEMENT . . . 2-42 2-42 2-42 2-43 2-44 2-45 2-45 2-46 2-48 2-48 2-49 2-51 2-52 2-52 2-52 2-53 2-57 2-60 2-60 2-61 2-61 2-62 2-62 2-63 2-63 2-65 2-66 2-66 2-66 2-66 2-66
C HAPTER 3 - E NVIRONMENTAL F ORCES

3-1 3-2 3-2.1 3-2.2 3-2.3 3-2.3.1 3-2.3.2 3-3 3-4 3-4.1 3-4.1.1 3-4.1.2 3-4.2 3-4.2.1 3-4.2.2 3-4.2.3 3-4.2.4 3-4.2.5 3-4.3 3-4.3.1 3-4.3.2 3-4.3.3 3-4.4 3-4.5 3-4.5.1 3-4.5.2 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-7.1 3-7.1.1 3-7.1.2 3-7.1.3 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 WAVES, SURF, AND SWELLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 DEEP WATER WAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 SHALLOW WATER WAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 WAVE FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 NONBREAKING WAVE FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 BREAKING WAVE FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 WATER LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 TIDAL CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 CIRCULATION PATTERNS AROUND TIDAL INLETS . . . . . . . . 3-8 HYDRAULIC CURRENTS IN TIDAL INLETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 NONTIDAL CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 BEACH CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 LITTORAL CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 WIND CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 HYDRAULIC CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 RIVER CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 CROSS-SECTIONAL CURRENT VARIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 FRICTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 CORIOLIS FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 WATER LAYERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 CURRENT OBSERVATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 CURRENT EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 CURRENT FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 SCOUR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16 WIND FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16 WEATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 SOIL PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 GRAIN PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19 AGGREGATE PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20 PERMEABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21 3-7.1.4 3-7.2 3-7.2.1 3-7.2.2 3-7.2.3 3-7.3 3-7.4 3-7.4.1 3-7.4.2 3-7.5 3-7.5.1 3-7.5.2 3-7.6 3-7.6.1 3-7.6.2 3-7.6.3 3-7.6.4 3-7.6.5 3-7.6.6 3-8 3-8.1 3-8.1.1 3-8.1.2 3-8.1.3 3-8.2 3-8.3 3-8.3.1 3-8.3.2 3-8.3.3 3-8.3.4 3-8.3.5 SHEAR STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SOIL BEARING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UNIT BEARING STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BEARING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SEAFLOOR PENETRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BOTTOM BREAKOUT FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LITTORAL PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SCOURING, SEDIMENTATION, AND LITTORAL TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PREDICTION OF BEACH EROSION OR ACCRETION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RETAINING WALLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACTIVE EARTH FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PASSIVE EARTH FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SOIL IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRY STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DILATENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PLASTICITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DISPERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ORGANIC SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SOIL PROPERTY TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICE
............................. ICE FORMATION AND BEHAVIOR ICE FORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SEA ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INLAND ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICE FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICE PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . ARTIFICIAL ICE ISLANDS . . . . . . . CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTERNAL SHEAR STRENGTH . . SLIDING AT THE BOTTOM . . . . . . OVERTURNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-21 3-23 3-23 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-27 3-28 3-30 3-30 3-31 3-31 3-32 3-32 3-32 3-32 3-32 3-32 3-32 3-33 3-33 3-33 3-33 3-35 3-36 3-36 3-36 3-37 3-37 3-37 3-38
xi
S0300-A8-HBK-010
CHAPTER/PARAGRAPH
CHAPTER/PARAGRAPH
C HAPTER 4 - S URVEYS AND P LANNING

4-1 4-1.1 4-1.1.1 4-1.1.2 4-1.1.3 4-1.1.4 4-1.1.5 4-1.1.6 4-1.2 4-1.3 4-2 4-2.1 4-2.2 4-2.2.1 4-2.2.2 4-2.2.3 4-2.2.4 4-2.2.5 4-2.2.6 4-2.2.7 4-2.2.8 4-2.3 4-2.4 4-2.4.1 4-2.4.2 4-2.4.3 4-2.4.4 4-2.4.5 4-2.4.6 4-2.4.7 4-2.4.8 4-2.4.9 4-2.4.10 4-2.4.11 4-2.4.12 4-2.5 4-2.5.1 4-2.5.2 4-2.5.3 4-2.6 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 SALVAGE OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 OFFSHORE SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 HARBOR SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 CARGO AND EQUIPMENT SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 WRECK REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 CLEARANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 AFLOAT SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 PLANNING FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 INITIAL RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 INFORMATION DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 SALVAGE SURVEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 SURVEY BREAKDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 PRELIMINARY SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 DETAILED SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4 TOPSIDE SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 INTERIOR HULL SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 MACHINERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 DIVING AND EXTERIOR HULL SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 SAFETY SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 SURVEY TEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 SURVEY TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 DRAFT READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 DETERMINING CASUALTY MOVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 HULL DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 HULL STRAIN READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 DAMAGE REPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 VERIFYING COMPARTMENT DESIGNATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 TANK SOUNDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 UNDERWATER VIDEO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 TIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 HYDROGRAPHIC DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 REPEAT SURVEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 AERIAL OBSERVATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 CORRELATION OF SURVEY INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 STATUS BOARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 SHIPS PLANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 COMPUTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 SUNKEN SHIP SURVEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 4-2.7 4-2.8 4-3 4-3.1 4-3.2 4-3.3 4-3.4 4-3.5 4-4 4-5 4-5.1 4-5.1.1 4-5.1.2 4-5.2 4-5.3 4-6 4-6.1 4-6.2 4-6.3 4-7 4-7.1 4-7.2 4-7.3 4-7.3.1 4-7.3.2 4-7.3.3 4-7.3.4 4-7.4 4-7.4.1 4-7.4.2 4-7.4.3 4-7.4.4 4-7.4.5 4-7.4.6 4-7.4.7 4-7.5 4-8 4-8.1 4-8.2 HARBOR CLEARANCE SURVEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RETENTION OF INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE SALVAGE PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE PLANNING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALVAGE PLAN DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALVAGE PLAN ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HARBOR CLEARANCE PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PLANNING FOR AFLOAT CASUALTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIAISON WITH REPAIR ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OPERATIONAL BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTRACT TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EVALUATION FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COST FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COSTING NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENGINEERS AND PRACTICAL PEOPLEI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALVAGE CREW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIVERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADDITIONAL PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WATER DAMAGE PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HAZARDOUS MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HAZARDOUS MATERIAL DEFINITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HAZARD AWARENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HAZARD EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PROTECTIVE MEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HELICOPTERS IN SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PLANNING AND COORDINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OBSERVATION AND SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PERSONNEL TRANSFER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EQUIPMENT TRANSFER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LINE HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CARGO OFFLOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MEDICAL EVACUATION AND RESCUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHANNEL AND FAIRWAY OBSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALVAGE REPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE POST-SALVAGE OPERATIONS REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . THE SALVAGE TECHNICAL REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 4-12 4-12 4-12 4-13 4-14 4-15 4-15 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-18 4-18 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-20 4-20 4-20 4-21 4-21 4-22 4-22 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-24 4-24 4-24
C HAPTER 5 - S TRANDED S HIPS

5-1 5-2 5-3 5-3.1 5-3.1.1 5-3.1.2 5-3.2 5-3.2.1 5-3.2.2 5-3.2.3 5-3.2.4 5-3.2.5 5-3.2.6 5-3.2.7 5-3.3 5-3.3.1 5-3.3.2 5-3.3.3 5-4 5-4.1 5-4.1.1 5-4.1.2 5-4.1.3 5-4.1.4 5-4.2 5-4.2.1 5-4.3 5-4.4 5-4.4.1 5-4.5 5-5 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 THE STRANDING CONDITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 DISTRIBUTION AND CENTER OF GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 CENTER OF GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 GROUND REACTION DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 DETERMINING GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 RESIDUAL BUOYANCY DISTRIBUTION METHOD . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 CHANGE OF DISPLACEMENT METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 CHANGE OF DRAFT FORWARD METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 TONS PER INCH IMMERSION METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 CHANGE OF TRIM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 SUMMARY OF GROUND REACTION CALCULATIONS . . . . . . 5-8 STRANDING ON MULTIPLE POINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 WEIGHT CHANGES AND GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9 NEUTRAL LOADING POINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 CHANGES IN GROUND REACTION FROM WEIGHT CHANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11 USE OF WEIGHT AND BUOYANCY CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13 ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES ON STRANDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13 SEAFLOOR EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13 FRICTION AND FREEING FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13 TURNING PULL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14 MUD BOTTOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16 DAMAGE AND IMPALEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16 TIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16 TIDE AND GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16 WAVE EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17 CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18 SCOUR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18 WIND FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18 STABILITY OF STRANDED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19 5-5.1 5-5.2 5-5.3 5-5.4 5-5.5 5-6 5-7 5-7.1 5-7.1.1 5-7.1.2 5-7.2 5-7.3 5-7.4 5-8 5-8.1 5-8.2 5-8.3 5-8.3.1 5-8.3.2 5-8.3.3 5-8.3.4 5-8.3.5 5-8.3.6 5-8.3.7 5-9 5-9.1 5-9.2 5-9.3 5-9.4 5-9.4.1 5-9.4.2 5-9.4.3 5-9.4.4 EFFECT OF GROUNDING ON CENTER OF GRAVITY . . . . . EFFECT OF GROUNDING ON THE METACENTER . . . . . . . . GROUNDING OFF CENTERLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STABILITY DURING AND AFTER REFLOATING . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY OF STRANDED STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRENGTH OF STRANDED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFLOATING STRANDED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MOVING STRANDED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REDUCING GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REDUCING FRICTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INCREASING WATER DEPTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TEMPORARY REDUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXPLOSIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPLYING FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TUG BOLLARD PULL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIGH-CAPACITY WINCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GROUND TACKLE NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REQUIRED GROUND LEG SCOPE AND LENGTH . . . . . . . . LINEAR PULLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BEACH GEAR PURCHASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HEAVING SYSTEM LOCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FOUNDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVISED BEACH GEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TENSIONING PURCHASES WITH VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . UNDERWATER EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SCOURING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AIR LIFTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JETTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DREDGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MECHANICAL DREDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HYDRAULIC DREDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVISED DREDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALVAGE DREDGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19 5-19 5-19 5-20 5-20 5-20 5-21 5-21 5-21 5-22 5-23 5-23 5-23 5-24 5-24 5-26 5-26 5-26 5-26 5-26 5-26 5-28 5-29 5-29 5-30 5-31 5-32 5-32 5-32 5-32 5-33 5-33 5-34
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C HAPTER 6 - S UNKEN AND C APSIZED S HIPS

6-1 6-2 6-3 6-3.1 6-3.2 6-3.2.1 6-3.2.2 6-3.2.3 6-3.2.4 6-4 6-4.1 6-4.1.1 6-4.1.2 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SINKING CONDITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SEAFLOOR EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLUID FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WATER DEPTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WAVES AND SWELLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STABILITY OF SUNKEN SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPLETELY SUBMERGED VESSELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FREE SURFACE IN SUBMERGED VESSELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRANSITION FROM SUBMERGED TO SURFACED STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6-1 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-4 6-4 6-4 6-5 6-5 6-6 6-7 6-4.1.3 6-4.2 6-4.3 6-4.4 6-4.5 6-4.5.1 6-4.5.2 6-4.5.3 6-4.5.4 6-4.6 6-4.7 6-5 6-6 ATTITUDE WHEN FREELY FLOATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8 PARTIALLY SUBMERGED VESSELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9 SHIPS PARTIALLY SUPPORTED BY THEIR BUOYANCY . . . 6-10 SHIPS DEWATERED WITH COFFERDAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 BUOYANCY AND FREE SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 FIXED BUOYANCY WITHOUT FREE SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 FIXED BUOYANCY WITH FREE SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 VARIABLE BUOYANCY WITH FREE SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12 VARIABLE BUOYANCY WITHOUT FREE SURFACE . . . . . . . 6-12 LONGITUDINAL STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12 KEEPING THE SHIP UPRIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12 STRENGTH OF SUNKEN SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13 RIGHTING CAPSIZED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
C HAPTER 7 - R IGGING S YSTEMS

7-1 7-2 7-2.1 7-2.2 7-2.2.1 7-2.2.2 7-2.3 7-2.4 7-2.5 7-2.6 7-2.7 7-2.8 7-2.9 7-2.10 7-2.11 7-2.12 7-2.13 7-2.14 7-2.15 7-2.16 7-3 7-3.1 7-3.2 7-3.3 7-3.4 7-3.5 7-3.6 7-3.7 7-3.8 7-3.9 7-3.10 7-3.11 7-3.12 7-3.12.1 7-3.12.2 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 WIRE ROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 CORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 CONSTRUCTION CLASSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 EFFECTS OF CONSTRUCTION ON ROPE PROPERTIES . . . . 7-3 TYPE OF LAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 PITCH OR LENGTH OF LAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 PREFORMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 TYPE OR GRADE OF METAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 WIRE ROPE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 RESERVE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7 STRETCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7 WIRE ROPE TERMINAL FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8 BENDING STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8 DRUMS AND SHEAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10 RADIAL PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12 WIRE ROPE SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13 WIRE ROPE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14 CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17 STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17 OPEN LINK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17 RIGGING CHAIN END FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17 ANCHOR/MOORING CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18 STUD-LINK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18 WELDED STUD-LINK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19 DI-LOK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22 CAST STUD-LINK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25 SQUARE-SECTION CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25 SPECIAL-PURPOSE CHAINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-26 CHAIN BENDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28 CHAIN LINKS AND CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30 DETACHABLE LINKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30 SHACKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31 7-3.12.3 7-3.12.4 7-3.12.5 7-3.13 7-4 7-4.1 7-4.2 7-4.3 7-4.4 7-4.5 7-4.6 7-4.7 7-4.8 7-4.9 7-5 7-6 7-6.1 7-6.2 7-6.3 7-6.4 7-6.4.1 7-6.4.2 7-6.4.3 7-6.4.4 7-6.4.5 7-6.5 7-6.6 7-7 7-8 7-8.1 7-8.2 7-8.2.1 7-8.2.2 7-8.2.3 7-8.2.4 7-8.2.5 SWIVELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EQUALIZERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAIN STOPPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAIN IDENTIFICATION AND INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FIBER LINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FIBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TWISTED FIBER LINES (3-STRAND)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRAIDED FIBER LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FIBER LINE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRETCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BENDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TERMINATIONS AND CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DETERIORATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RIGGING HARDWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT-HANDLING AND LIFTING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BOOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRANES AND DAVITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLOATING CRANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVISED SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GIN POLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SWINGING DERRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHEER LEGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRIPOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OTHER IMPROVISED SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PURCHASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LINE-HANDLING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACCELERATION LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DECK FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BITTS AND SIMILAR FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PADEYES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DECK PADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TOWING BRACKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GENERAL-PURPOSE PADEYES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REPLENISHMENT AT SEA (RAS) PADEYES . . . . . . . . . . . . PADEYE DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31 7-32 7-32 7-32 7-34 7-34 7-34 7-36 7-36 7-36 7-36 7-36 7-36 7-37 7-40 7-50 7-50 7-54 7-56 7-59 7-59 7-60 7-61 7-62 7-62 7-64 7-67 7-68 7-69 7-69 7-69 7-70 7-71 7-71 7-71 7-72
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CHAPTER/PARAGRAPH
C HAPTER 8 - R ECOVERING B UOYANCY

8-1 8-1.1 8-1.1.1 8-1.1.2 8-2 8-2.1 8-2.1.1 8-2.1.2 8-2.1.3 8-2.2 8-2.3 8-2.4 8-2.4.1 8-2.4.2 8-2.4.3 8-2.4.4 8-2.4.5 8-2.4.6 8-2.4.7 8-2.4.8 8-2.4.9 8-2.5 8-2.5.1 8-2.5.2 8-2.6 8-2.7 8-2.8 8-3 8-3.1 8-3.1.1 8-3.1.2 8-3.1.3 8-3.1.4 8-3.1.5 8-3.1.6 8-3.1.7 8-3.1.8 8-3.2 8-3.3 8-3.4 8-3.5 8-3.5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 SELECTION OF SPACES TO BE DEWATERED . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 PATCHING NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 PATCH STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 UNSTIFFENED PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 STIFFENED PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 PLANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 BUILT-UP PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 LARGE PREFABRICATED STEEL PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 CEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 AGGREGATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 ADMIXTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 CONCRETE DELIVERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 CONCRETE CONSISTENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 CONCRETE PROPORTIONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 CONCRETE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 DIMENSIONING CONCRETE PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9 FIBER COMPOSITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9 COMPOSITE PANELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 GRP LAY-UP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 SALVAGE AND COLLISION MATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11 HANDLING MODERATE-TO-LARGE PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12 STRUCTURAL PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12 PUMPS AND PUMPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13 PUMP THEORY AND TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13 ATMOSPHERIC HEAD (HA)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14 VAPOR PRESSURE HEAD (HVP)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14 STATIC SUCTION HEAD (HS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14 STATIC DISCHARGE HEAD (HD)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14 FRICTION HEAD (HF)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15 TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD REQUIRED (TDHR)I . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15 TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD AVAILABLE (TDHA)I . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16 PUMP CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16 PRIME MOVERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17 POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17 DYNAMIC PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-18 JET PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19 8-3.5.2 8-3.6 8-3.6.1 8-3.6.2 8-3.7 8-3.7.1 8-3.7.2 8-3.7.3 8-3.7.4 8-3.7.5 8-3.8 8-3.9 8-3.9.1 8-3.9.2 8-3.9.3 8-3.10 8-3.11 8-3.11.1 8-3.11.2 8-3.11.3 8-3.11.4 8-3.11.5 8-4 8-4.1 8-4.2 8-4.3 8-4.4 8-4.4.1 8-4.4.2 8-4.4.3 8-4.4.4 8-4.4.5 8-4.4.6 8-4.4.7 8-4.5 8-5 8-5.1 8-5.2 8-6 8-6.1 8-6.2 8-6.3 AIR LIFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALVAGE PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ALTERNATIVE PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INSTALLED PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PUMP SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SPACE CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REQUIRED HEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OPERATING REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLURRIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PUMPING OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIMITING TOTAL HEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRAINAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PUMPING CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PUMPS IN UNUSUAL SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PUMP POWER REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SPECIFIC GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VISCOSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VAPOR PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABRASIVENESS AND CORROSIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSED AIR DEWATERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSED AIR BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALVAGE COMPRESSORS AND AIR SOURCES . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSED AIR DEWATERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RECOVERABLE BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VENTS AND STANDPIPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXPEDIENT BLOWING FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REMOVING LIQUIDS OTHER THAN FLOODWATER . . . . . . . BLOWING AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . AIR FLOW REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSED AIR DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OPERATIONAL NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMBINED USE OF AIR AND PUMPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXCESSIVE EXTERNAL PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXCESSIVE INTERNAL PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INDUCED BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXPEDIENT BUOYANCY RECOVERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAST-IN-PLACE FOAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OTHER WATER DISPLACEMENT METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20 8-21 8-22 8-22 8-23 8-23 8-23 8-23 8-23 8-23 8-24 8-27 8-27 8-27 8-27 8-28 8-28 8-29 8-29 8-30 8-32 8-32 8-33 8-33 8-34 8-35 8-36 8-37 8-37 8-37 8-37 8-38 8-38 8-40 8-40 8-40 8-41 8-41 8-42 8-42 8-42 8-44
C HAPTER 9 - W EIGHT
9-1 9-2 9-2.1 9-2.2 9-2.3 9-2.4 9-2.5 9-2.6 9-2.7 9-2.8 9-2.9 9-2.10 9-2.11 9-2.12 9-3 9-3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REMOVABLE WEIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLOODWATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BALLAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FUEL AND OTHER LIQUIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STORES AND PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AMMUNITION AND WEAPONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BOATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PORTABLE EQUIPMENT AND UTILITY VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . STRUCTURE AND FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANCHORS AND CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CREW AND EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT ADDITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BLADDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9-1 9-2 9-2 9-2 9-3 9-3 9-3 9-3 9-3 9-3 9-3 9-3 9-3 9-4 9-4 9-3.2 9-3.3 9-4 9-5 9-5.1 9-5.2 9-6 9-6.1 9-6.2 9-6.3 9-6.4 9-6.5 9-6.6 9-6.7 9-6.8 9-6.9 9-6.10 TEMPORARY TANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4 COMPARTMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5 WEIGHT SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5 DISPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6 LIGHTERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6 JETTISONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9 HANDLING METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10 LIQUIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10 BULK CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11 BREAKBULK CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11 CONTAINERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11 VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-14 BOATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-14 WEIGHT-HANDLING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-14 HELICOPTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-15 WORK FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-15 DISCHARGE RATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-15
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CHAPTER/PARAGRAPH
CHAPTER/PARAGRAPH
C HAPTER 10 - E XPLOSIVES
10-1 10-2 10-3 10-3.1 10-3.2 10-3.2.1 10-3.2.2 10-3.2.3 10-3.2.4 10-3.2.5 10-3.3 10-3.3.1 10-3.3.2 10-3.3.3 10-3.4 10-3.4.1 10-3.4.2 10-3.4.3 10-3.4.4 10-3.5 10-3.6 10-4 10-4.1 10-4.2 10-4.3 10-4.3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 EXPLOSIVES SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2 EXPLOSIVES THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 EXPLOSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 PROPERTIES OF EXPLOSIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 BRISANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 SENSITIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 SENSITIVENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 WATER RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 UNDERWATER EXPLOSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 SHOCK WAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 SCALED DISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 BUBBLE PULSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 BLAST EFFECTS OF UNDERWATER EXPLOSIONS . . . . . . . 10-7 STRUCTURAL EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7 LINEAR CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8 MULTIPLE CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9 BALLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9 EFFECTS ON MARINE LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10 SAFE DISTANCES FOR ABOVE-WATER BLASTS . . . . . . . . 10-10 EXPLOSIVES WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11 CHARGE WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12 UNDERWATER BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12 CUTTING AND FRACTURING CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-13 SHAPED CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-13 10-4.3.2 10-4.3.3 10-4.3.4 10-4.3.5 10-4.4 10-4.4.1 10-4.4.2 10-4.4.3 10-4.4.4 10-4.4.5 10-4.5 10-4.6 10-4.7 10-4.7.1 10-4.7.2 10-4.7.3 10-5 10-5.1 10-5.2 10-5.3 10-6 10-6.1 10-6.2 10-6.3 10-6.4 FRACTURING CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTACT CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARGE PLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHIP SECTIONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SEAFLOOR BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ROCK BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CORAL BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BLASTING IMPALEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SETTING ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHANNELING IN SOFT BOTTOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONCRETE AND MASONRY BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TIMBER AND PILE CUTTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REDUCING UNDERWATER SHOCK WAVE PRESSURE AND IMPULSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARGE PLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BUBBLE SCREENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FIRING SEQUENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PERMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CORPS OF ENGINEERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STATE AND LOCAL AGENCIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OPERATIONAL NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TEST SHOTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXPLOSIVES EXPERTISE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. MILITARY EXPLOSIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-14 10-16 10-16 10-16 10-18 10-18 10-20 10-20 10-20 10-20 10-21 10-21 10-21 10-22 10-22 10-22 10-23 10-23 10-23 10-23 10-23 10-23 10-24 10-24 10-24
APPENDIX/PARAGRAPH
PAGE NUMBER
APPENDIX/PARAGRAPH
PAGE NUMBER
A PPENDIX A - D OCUMENTATION M ATRIX

A-1 PURPOSE
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A-1
A-2
REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
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A-1
A PPENDIX B - I NTACT S HIP I NFORMATION

B-1 B-2 B-2.1 B-2.2 B-2.3 B-2.4 B-2.5 B-2.6 B-2.6.1 B-2.6.2 B-2.6.3 B-2.6.4 B-2.6.5 B-2.7 B-2.8 B-2.9 B-2.10 B-2.11 B-2.12 B-2.13 B-2.14 B-2.15 B-2.16 B-2.17 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHIP-SPECIFIC DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CURVES OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFFSETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BONJEANS CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INCLINING EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STABILITY AND LOADING DATA BOOKLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DAMAGE CONTROL (DC) BOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TABLES AND DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRAFT DIAGRAM AND FUNCTIONS OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . DAMAGE CONTROL PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIQUID LOAD DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLOODING EFFECT DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TANK SOUNDING TABLES OR CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPARTMENT AREAS AND VOLUMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BOOKLET OF GENERAL PLANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHIPS INFORMATION BOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRUCTURAL PLANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DOCKING PLANS AND REPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRIM AND STABILITY BOOKLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DEADWEIGHT SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAPACITY PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPONENT DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOGS AND RECORDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-3 B-4 B-4 B-4 B-4 B-5 B-5 B-5 B-6 B-6 B-6 B-6 B-6 B-7 B-7 B-7 B-8 B-8 B-8 B-8 B-2.18 B-2.19 B-3 B-3.1 B-3.2 B-3.3 B-3.4 B-4 B-4.1 B-4.1.1 B-4.2 B-4.3 B-4.3.1 B-4.3.2 B-4.3.3 B-4.3.4 B-4.3.5 B-4.3.6 B-4.4 B-4.4.1 B-4.4.2 B-4.4.3 B-5 COMPUTER-GENERATED INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8 SHIPPING REGISTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-9 STANDARD VESSEL DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-9 U.S. NAVY SHIP AND SERVICE CRAFT DESIGNATORS . . B-10 U.S. COAST GUARD VESSEL DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . B-11 U.S. ARMY VESSEL DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-12 MARITIME ADMINISTRATION (MARAD) CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-12 NAVSEA DRAWING NUMBERING AND FORMAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-13 SHIP WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE (SWBS)I . . . . . . . B-13 SUBGROUPS AND ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-13 DRAWING NUMBERING AND CATALOGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-13 DRAWING FORMAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-14 TITLE BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-14 REVISION BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-15 REFERENCE BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-15 LIST OF MATERIALS BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-15 GENERAL NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-15 ZONE IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-15 OBTAINING AND USING SHIPS DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . B-16 NUMBERING SYSTEM FOR OLDER DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . B-18 TYPE DESIGNATOR/HULL NUMBER CHANGES . . . . . . . . . . B-18 SCALING DIMENSIONS FROM DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-18 VESSEL CHARACTERISTICS TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-19
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APPENDIX B - INTACT SHIP INFORMATION (CONTINUED)

B-6 B-6.1 B-6.1.1 B-6.1.2 B-6.1.3 B-6.2 B-6.3 B-6.4 B-6.5 B-6.6 B-6.6.1 B-6.6.2 B-6.6.3 B-6.7 B-6.7.1 B-6.7.2 B-6.7.3 B-6.8 B-6.8.1 COMMERCIAL VESSEL DESCRIPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CARGO-HANDLING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GENERAL CARGO SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMBINATION CARGO-PASSENGER SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFRIGERATED CARGO SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ALL HATCH SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTAINER SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTAINERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VERTICAL CELL CONTAINER SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HORIZONTAL LOADING CONTAINER SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . ROLL-ON/ROLL-OFF SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VEHICLE CARRIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRAIN SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRAILER SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BARGE CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LASH SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-28 B-28 B-29 B-29 B-29 B-30 B-31 B-31 B-32 B-33 B-33 B-34 B-36 B-36 B-38 B-38 B-38 B-39 B-39 B-6.8.2 B-6.8.3 B-6.9 B-6.9.1 B-6.9.2 B-6.9.3 B-6.9.4 B-6.9.5 B-6.9.6 B-6.10 B-6.10.1 B-6.10.2 B-6.11 B-6.12 B-6.12.1 B-6.12.2 B-6.13 B-6.14 B-6.15 SEABEE SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BARGE CONTAINER (BACO) SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TANKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TANKER PIPING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TANK CLEANING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COASTAL (SMALL) TANKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MID-SIZE TANKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LARGE TANKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DOUBLE-HULL TANKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BULK CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ORE/OIL CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ORE/BULK/OIL (OBO) CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GREAT LAKES BULK CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIQUIFIED GAS CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG) TANKERS . . . . . . . . . LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS (LNG) CARRIER . . . . . . . . . . . . CHEMICAL CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VESSEL CHARACTERISTICS TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-39 B-40 B-40 B-41 B-42 B-42 B-42 B-42 B-42 B-43 B-44 B-44 B-45 B-47 B-47 B-49 B-49 B-50 B-50
A PPENDIX C - S TABILITY AND C ONSTRUCTION S TANDARDS

C-1 C-2 C-2.1 C-2.1.1 C-2.1.2 C-2.1.3 C-2.1.4 C-2.1.5 C-2.1.6 C-2.2 C-2.2.1 C-2.2.2 C-2.2.3 C-2.2.4 C-2.2.5 C-2.2.6 C-2.2.7 C-2.3 C-2.3.1 C-2.3.2 C-3 C-3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1 STABILITY STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1 U.S. NAVY STABILITY STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-2 WIND HEEL COMBINED WITH ROLLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-2 OFFCENTER WEIGHT CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-2 TOWLINE PULL FOR TUGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-3 HIGH-SPEED TURNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-3 TOPSIDE ICING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-3 RESIDUAL (DAMAGE) STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-4 U.S. COAST GUARD STABILITY STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . C-5 WEATHER CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-5 BULK CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-6 TANK BARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-6 DECK CARGO BARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-7 LIFTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-7 TOWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-8 MOBILE OFFSHORE DRILLING UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-9 IMO STABILITY STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-9 IMO RESOLUTION A.167I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-9 IMO RESOLUTION A.562I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-10 LOAD LINES AND LIMITING DRAFT MARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-12 LOAD LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-12 C-3.1.1 C-3.1.2 C-3.1.3 C-3.1.4 C-3.1.5 C-3.1.6 C-3.1.7 C-3.2 C-4 C-4.1 C-4.2 C-4.3 C-4.3.1 C-4.3.2 C-4.3.3 C-4.3.4 C-4.3.5 C-4.3.6 C-4.3.7 C-4.3.8 C-4.4 SEASONAL AND REGIONAL LOAD LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUBDIVISION LOAD LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SCANTLING DRAFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GREAT LAKES LOAD LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SPECIAL SERVICE COASTWISE LOAD LINES . . . . . . . . . . . COMBINATION LOAD LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOAD LINE REQUIREMENTS AND INSPECTIONS . . . . . . . . NAVY LIMITING DRAFT MARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION MODULUS STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION MODULUS REQUIREMENTS FOR NAVY SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABS SECTION MODULUS STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1990 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REQUIRED SECTION MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BENDING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MINIMUM SECTION MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REQUIRED MOMENT OF INERTIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PERMISSIBLE SHEAR STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HULL GIRDER SHEAR FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EFFECTIVE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIGHER STRENGTH MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1980 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-13 C-13 C-13 C-13 C-13 C-13 C-14 C-14 C-15 C-15 C-16 C-16 C-16 C-16 C-18 C-18 C-18 C-19 C-20 C-21 C-21
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A PPENDIX D - B ASIC E NGINEERING C ALCULATIONS

D-1 D-2 D-2.1 D-2.2 D-2.3 D-2.3.1 D-2.3.2 D-2.3.3 D-2.3.4 D-2.3.5 D-2.3.6 D-2.4 D-2.5 D-2.6 D-2.6.1 D-2.6.2 D-2.6.3 D-2.6.4 D-2.7 D-3 D-3.1 D-3.2 D-3.2.1 D-3.2.2 D-3.2.3 D-3.2.4 D-3.2.5 D-3.3 D-3.4 D-3.5 D-3.5.1 D-3.5.2 D-3.5.3 D-3.5.4 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1 MATHEMATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1 CUBIC EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1 TRIGONOMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2 ANGULAR MEASURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2 RIGHT TRIANGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3 TWO-ANGLE FORMULAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3 GENERAL TRIANGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3 STRAIGHT-LINE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-4 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-4 INTEGRAL CALCULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5 INTEGRATION BY PARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5 INDEFINITE INTEGRALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5 INTEGRAL TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-6 USES OF INTEGRALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-6 MISCELLANEOUS CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-7 SOLID MECHANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-7 UNITS OF MASS AND FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-7 STATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8 COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8 NONCOPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-9 MOMENTS AND COUPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-9 COPLANAR NONCONCURRENT FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-10 NONCOPLANAR NONCONCURRENT FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . D-10 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-11 CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-12 MOMENT OF INERTIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-12 PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-12 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-13 PRODUCT OF INERTIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-13 MOMENTS OF INERTIA ABOUT INCLINED AXES . . . . . . . . . D-13 D-3.5.5 D-4 D-4.1 D-4.1.1 D-4.1.2 D-4.2 D-4.3 D-4.4 D-4.5 D-5 D-5.1 D-5.1.1 D-5.1.2 D-5.1.3 D-5.1.4 D-5.2 D-5.3 D-5.4 D-5.5 D-6 D-6.1 D-6.2 D-6.3 D-6.3.1 D-6.3.2 D-6.3.3 D-6.4 D-6.5 D-6.6 D-6.6.1 D-6.6.2 D-6.6.3 PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER . . . . . . DENSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SPECIFIC VOLUME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SPECIFIC GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VISCOSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VAPOR PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SURFACE TENSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSIBILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLUID MECHANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLUID STATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MANOMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE FROM INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE FROM COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLUID MASSES UNDER ACCELERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REYNOLDS NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EQUIVALENT DIAMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HYDRAULIC RADIUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRENGTH OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSIVE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRENGTH AND LOADING . . . . HARDNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADDITIONAL DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FAILURE MODES AND SAFETY FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRITTLE MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DUCTILE MATERIALS IN STATIC LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . DUCTILE MATERIALS IN CYCLIC LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-13 D-14 D-14 D-14 D-14 D-15 D-16 D-16 D-16 D-17 D-17 D-17 D-17 D-18 D-19 D-19 D-19 D-20 D-20 D-20 D-20 D-20 D-21 D-21 D-21 D-21 D-22 D-22 D-24 D-24 D-24 D-25
A PPENDIX E - E NGINEER S T ABLES A PPENDIX F - C OMPREHENSIVE E XAMPLES

F-1 INTRODUCTION
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F-1
F-2
CASUALTY DESCRIPTION
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F-1
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CHAPTER/PARAGRAPH
CHAPTER/PARAGRAPH
A PPENDIX G - A NCHORING S YSTEMS

G-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1 G-2 DRAG-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3 G-2.1 FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3 G-2.1.1 TRIPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3 G-2.1.2 PENETRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3 G-2.1.3 BURIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-4 G-2.1.4 STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-5 G-2.2 HOLDING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6 G-2.3 SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-8 G-2.4 DRAG ANCHOR TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-9 G-2.5 DRAG ANCHOR NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-10 G-2.5.1 STEVSHARK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-10 G-2.5.2 DELTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-10 G-2.5.3 BRUCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-10 G-2.5.4 HOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-10 G-2.5.5 STEVIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-10 G-2.5.6 MOORFAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-10 G-2.5.7 IMPROVED STOCKLESS ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-10 G-2.5.8 STANDARD STOCKLESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-11 G-2.5.9 STOCK ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-11 G-2.5.10 DORIS MUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-11 G-3 DEADWEIGHT ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-11 G-3.1 HOLDING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-11 G-3.1.1 STATIC SHORT-TERM AND CYCLIC LOADING IN COHESIVE SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-12 G-3.1.2 STATIC SHORT- AND LONG-TERM LOADING IN COHESIONLESS SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-13 G-3.1.3 SHEAR KEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-14 G-3.1.4 OVERTURNING RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-14 G-3.2 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-15 G-4 GRAPPLING DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-16 G-5 DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-16 G-5.1 PROPELLANT-EMBEDDED ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-17 G-5.1.1 HOLDING CAPACITY IN CORAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-19 G-5.1.2 HOLDING CAPACITY IN ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-19 G-5.1.3 SEDIMENT OVERBURDEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-20 G-5.1.4 TOPOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-20 G-5.2 IMPACT-DRIVEN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-20 G-5.3 JETTED-IN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-20 G-5.4 VIBRO-DRIVEN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-21 G-5.5 G-5.6 G-5.6.1 G-5.6.2 G-5.7 G-5.8 G-5.8.1 G-5.8.2 G-5.8.3 G-5.8.4 G-5.9 G-5.9.1 G-5.9.2 G-5.9.3 G-5.9.4 G-5.9.5 G-5.9.6 G-5.10 G-6 G-6.1 G-6.1.1 G-6.1.2 G-6.1.3 G-6.1.4 G-6.2 G-6.3 G-6.3.1 G-6.3.2 G-6.3.3 G-6.3.4 G-6.4 G-6.4.1 G-6.4.2 G-6.5 G-6.6 G-6.6.1 G-6.6.2 G-6.6.3 G-6.6.4 AUGURED-IN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SITE DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPLICATING OR HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . SPECIALIZED SURVEY TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLUKE PENETRATION AND KEYING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STATIC HOLDING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHORT-TERM CAPACITY IN COHESIVE SOILS . . . . . . . . . . LONG-TERM CAPACITY IN COHESIVE SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . SHORT- AND LONG-TERM CAPACITY IN COHESIONLESS SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FACTORS OF SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DYNAMIC HOLDING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CYCLIC LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRENGTH LOSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FACTORS OF SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPULSE LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COHESIVE SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COHESIONLESS SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HOLDING CAPACITY ON SLOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FOUNDATIONS AND ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HOLDING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LATERAL LOAD CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UPLIFT CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSIVE LOAD CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEEL STRESS ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUBMERGED ANCHOR PILE HEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PILE ANCHORS IN ROCK SEAFLOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LATERAL CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SOIL OVERLYING ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ROCK LAYER OVERLYING SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UPLIFT CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INCREASING LATERAL LOAD CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOAD APPLIED BELOW THE PILE HEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PILES WITH VARIABLE CROSS SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . SPECIAL SEAFLOOR CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PILE INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRIVEN PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRILLING AND GROUTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JACK-IN PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JETTED PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-21 G-21 G-21 G-22 G-22 G-22 G-22 G-23 G-24 G-24 G-24 G-24 G-24 G-25 G-25 G-26 G-27 G-27 G-28 G-28 G-29 G-30 G-31 G-32 G-33 G-33 G-33 G-33 G-34 G-34 G-35 G-35 G-35 G-35 G-35 G-36 G-36 G-36 G-36
PILE
A PPENDIX H - FFG-7 C LASS D ATA

H-1 INTRODUCTION
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H-1
B IBLIOGRAPHY/G LOSSARY/I NDEX

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY-1 GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GLOSSARY-1 INDEX
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INDEX-1
xviii
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE NUMBER TITLE PAGE NUMBER FIGURE NUMBER TITLE PAGE NUMBER
C HAPTER 1 - N AVAL A RCHITECTURE

1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-13 1-14 1-15 1-16 1-17 1-18 1-19 1-20 1-21 1-22 1-23 1-24 1-25 1-26 1-27 1-28 1-29 1-30 1-31 1-32 1-33 1-34 1-35 1-36 1-37 1-38 1-39A 1-39B 1-40 1-41 PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 HULL FORM NOMENCLATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 APPROXIMATE SHIP PROPORTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7 RELATIVE POSITIONS OF M, B, AND G DURING SMALL INCLINATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15 CURVILINEAR FIGURE APPROXIMATED BY SERIES OF TRAPEZOIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 SIMPSONS THREE-ORDINATE RULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17 SIMPSONS MULTIPLIERS FOR LONG CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18 SIMPSONS MULTIPLIERS WITH HALF-SPACED STATIONS . . . . . 1-19 VARIABLES FOR MOMENT AND SECOND-MOMENT CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-20 DETERMINATION OF VOLUME BY NUMERICAL INTEGRATION . . . 1-22 CALCULATING SECTIONAL AREA BELOW THE LOWEST WATERLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-29 INHERENT INTEGRATION ERROR IN FULL WATERLINES . . . . . . . 1-29 STABILITY OF A FLOATING OBJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30 DEVELOPMENT AND LOSS OF RIGHTING ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30 STABILITY OF A SUBMERGED OBJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31 RIGHTING ARM (GZ)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31 UPSETTING ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31 TYPICAL STABILITY CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-36 FFG-7 CLASS CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-37 STATICAL STABILITY CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-37 ASSUMED KG FOR STABILITY CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-38 CORRECTION TO STABILITY CURVE, G TWO FEET HIGHER THAN ASSUMED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-38 EFFECTS OF CHANGING HULL FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39 INFLUENCE OF HULL FORM ON STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-40 RESIDUARY RIGHTING ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-40 TRIM DUE TO SHIFT IN LCGI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-43 TRIMMING MOMENTS AND LONGITUDINAL METACENTER . . . . . . 1-43 CALCULATION HIERARCHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-50 LIST DUE TO TRANSVERSE SHIFT OF GI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-52 REDUCED RIGHTING ARM DUE TO TRANSVERSE SHIFT OF GI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-52 CORRECTION TO STATICAL STABILITY CURVE FOR TRANSVERSE SHIFT OF GI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-53 FREE SURFACE EFFECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-60 POCKETING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-61 POCKETING ANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-61 FFG-7 CLASS SHIP LIMITING WINDS FOR ICING CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-65 STABILITY CURVE SHOWING RANGE OF INSTABILITY (LOLLING)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66 DRYDOCKING FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66 DRYDOCKING PLOTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-67 LONGITUDINAL FRAMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69 LONGITUDINAL FRAMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69 TRANSVERSE FRAMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70 COMBINATION FRAMING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71
FOR THE
S ALVAGE E NGINEER
1-42 1-43 1-44 1-45 1-46 1-47 1-48 1-49 1-50 1-51 1-52 1-53 1-54 1-55 1-56 1-57 1-58 1-59 1-60 1-61 1-62 1-63 1-64 1-65 1-66 1-67 1-68 1-69 1-70 1-71 1-72 1-73 1-74 1-75 1-76 1-77 1-78 1-79 1-80 1-81
STEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-72 STERN ASSEMBLIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 EFFECTS OF A SILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75 FFG-7 TRANSVERSE SUBDIVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75 SHEER DEFEATING PROGRESSIVE FLOODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75 DEFLECTIONS FROM PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND TERTIARY STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76 HULL GIRDER BENDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76 WATER PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-77 RACKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-77 LOCAL STRENGTHENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78 APPROXIMATE BUOYANCY CURVE FOR FULL-BODIED SHIP . . . 1-79 LOAD, SHEAR, BENDING MOMENT CURVE RELATIONS AND CONVENTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-80 WAVE-INDUCED BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82 TROCHOIDIAL WAVE FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82 INEFFECTIVE SHADOW ZONES AT DISCONTINUITIES . . . . . . . . . 1-84 MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR INCLINED PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-85 FRIGATE HULL SECTION AT STATION 10I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-86 SHEAR STRESS IN THE HULL GIRDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-88 SHEAR STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-89 BUOYANCY, WEIGHT, AND LOAD CURVES FOR FFG-7I . . . . . . . 1-93 STILL WATER LOAD, SHEAR, AND BENDING MOMENT CURVES FOR FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-93 STILL WATER BENDING STRESSES FOR FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-94 STRESSES IN INCLINED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-94 HULL GIRDER DEFLECTION DETERMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97 STATION COEFFICIENT WEIGHT CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-98 MACHINERY WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-99 COFFIN DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-101 ADJUSTING LCG OF THE COFFIN DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-101 GENERAL PARALLEL MIDBODY WEIGHT CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-102 CENTROID OF A TRAPEZOID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-102 PARABOLIC WEIGHT CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-103 ALTERNATE WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION FOR SHIPS WITHOUT PARALLEL MIDBODY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-103 FFG-7 BENDING MOMENT WITH VARYING WAVELENGTH . . . . 1-103 RATIO OF MAXIMUM TO STANDARD WAVE BENDING MOMENT AS A FUNCTION OF BLOCK COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-104 NORMALIZED WAVE BENDING MOMENT AS A FUNCTION OF BLOCK COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-104 RATIO OF WAVE BENDING MOMENT TO STANDARD BENDING MOMENT, CB =0.46I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-105 RATIO OF WAVE BENDING MOMENT TO STANDARD BENDING MOMENT, CB =1.0I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-105 NORMALIZED WAVE BENDING MOMENT AS A FUNCTION OF WAVE HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-106 DETERMINATION OF STILL WATER BENDING MOMENT BY MURRAYS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-106 MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT FOR FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-109
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2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-16A 2-16B 2-17 2-18 2-19 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-24 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN STIFFENED PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 GRILLAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5 TYPES OF STIFFENING, WITH APPLICABLE FORMULAS FOR PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 STIFFENED PLATE NOMENCLATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 FIELD BENDING STRESS IN PLATING LONG DIRECTION . . . . . . . . 2-7 FIELD BENDING STRESS IN FREE FLANGES IN LONG DIRECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8 FIELD BENDING STRESS IN PLATING IN SHORT DIRECTION . . . . . 2-8 FIELD BENDING STRESS IN FREE FLANGES IN SHORT DIRECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9 SUPPORT BENDING STRESS IN PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9 SUPPORT BENDING STRESS IN FREE FLANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10 SHEAR STRESS IN LONG WEBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10 SHEAR STRESS IN SHORT WEBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11 DEFLECTION AT CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11 BEAM END RESTRAINTS AND LOADINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 FLEXURAL (BENDING) STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15 MOMENT DIAGRAMS BY PARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31 MOMENT DIAGRAMS BY PARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31 OBLIQUE LOADING AND ASYMMETRIC BEAM SECTIONS . . . . . . 2-32 CONTINUOUS BEAM SOLUTION BY SUPER POSITION . . . . . . . . 2-32 EQUAL-SPAN, UNIFORMLY LOADED CONTINUOUS BEAM . . . . . 2-33 CURVED BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED STRUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38 KERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39 FLAT PLATE LOADING AND EDGE RESTRAINT CASE . . . . . . . . . 2-40 STRESSES IN THE THIN-WALLED CYLINDER UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42 2-25 2-26 2-27 2-28 2-29 2-30 2-31 2-32 2-33 2-34 2-35 2-36 2-37 2-38 2-39A 2-39B 2-40 2-41 2-42 2-43 2-44 2-45 2-46 2-47 CYLINDER BUCKLING FACTORS, KI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THICK-WALLED CYLINDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WELDED JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FILLET WELD GEOMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BOLTED JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MULTIPLE FASTENER JOINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ECCENTRICALLY LOADED CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BOLTED SPLICE FOR TIMBER FRAMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMBINED STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESS CONCENTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESS CONCENTRATION FOR ELLIPTICAL OPENING IN INFINITE PLATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESS CONCENTRATION FOR SQUARE OPENING IN INFINITE PLATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESS CONCENTRATION FOR SQUARE OPENINGS IN INFINITE PLATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESS CONCENTRATION FOR RECTANGULAR OPENING IN FINITE PLATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THEORETICAL STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . THEORETICAL STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . RIGID BRIDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYING REINFORCEMENT INTO SOUND STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . WELDING REPAIR TO CRACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REPAIRING TRIPPED AND BUCKLED STIFFENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . FREE-EDGE STIFFENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DOUBLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CUTS IN STIFFENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPENSATION FOR OVERSIZE CUTS IN STIFFENERS . . . . . . . 2-43 2-44 2-45 2-46 2-46 2-47 2-48 2-51 2-52 2-53 2-54 2-54 2-55 2-55 2-56 2-57 2-60 2-61 2-62 2-63 2-64 2-65 2-65 2-66

3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 DEEP WATER WAVE FORECASTING CURVES AS A FUNCTION OF WIND SPEED, FETCH LENGTH,AND WIND DURATION . . . . . . . 3-2 DECAYED WAVE PREDICTION CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 BREAKER HEIGHT AND WATER DEPTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS FOR NONBREAKING WAVES . . . . . . . . 3-5 MINIKIN WAVE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 TYPICAL TIDE AND CURRENT PLOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 TYPICAL EBB-TIDAL DELTA MORPHOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 GENERAL CURRENT CIRCULATION OUTSIDE A TIDAL INLET . . . . . 3-9 SEA-INLET-BASIN SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 DIMENSIONLESS SOLUTIONS FOR SEA-INLET-BASIN FLOW . . . . 3-11 POLE FLOAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-16 3-17 3-18 3-19 3-20 3-21 3-22 CURRENT DRAG COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CURRENT FORCE DEPTH CORRECTION FACTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . FFG-7 CLASS SHIP STRANDED BROADSIDE TO CURRENT . . . . TYPICAL STRENGTH PROFILE FOR NEAR-SHORE SILTY CLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NORMALIZED LONG-TERM BREAKOUT FORCE AS A FUNCTION OF BREAKOUT TIME PARAMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STORM WAVE ATTACK ON BEACH AND DUNE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FALL VELOCITY OF AN ISOLATED PARTICLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PARTICLE FALL VELOCITY CORRECTION EXPONENT . . . . . . . . . EARTH FORCES ON RETAINING WALLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRILINEAL SOIL CLASSIFICATION PLOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICE FORCES ON A FIXED STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 3-14 3-15 3-22 3-26 3-27 3-28 3-29 3-31 3-32 3-37
C HAPTER 4 - S URVEYS
4-1 HARBOR CLEARANCE SUMMARY SHEET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
AND
P LANNING
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5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10 5-11 FORCES ON A STRANDED SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 UNIFORM GROUND REACTION DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 ASYMMETRIC GROUND REACTION DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 CHANGE OF DRAFT FORWARD METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 GROUND RESTRAINTS ON A STRANDED SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9 NEUTRAL LOADING POINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 EFFECTS OF WEIGHT CHANGES ON GROUND REACTION . . . . . . 5-11 EFFECTS OF WEIGHT CHANGES ON GROUND REACTION . . . . . 5-12 TURNING PULL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14 STRANDING CASE FOR EXAMPLE 5-2I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15 GROUNDING OFF CENTERLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19 5-12 5-13 5-14 5-15 5-16 5-17 5-18 5-19 5-20 5-21 5-22 POTENTIALLY HIGH-BENDING-MOMENT STRANDINGS . . . . . . . . MEASURING HULL GIRDER DEFLECTION WITH DRAFT PLOT . . TYPICAL PULLING ARRANGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PULLING ARRANGEMENTS FOR UNUSUAL CIRCUMSTANCES . . . FLOATING BEACH GEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PULLING PADEYES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVISED WIRE ROPE STOPPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALVAGE TUG SCOURING AWAY SOFT MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL AIR LIFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JETTING NOZZLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVISED DREDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20 5-21 5-24 5-25 5-27 5-28 5-28 5-30 5-32 5-33 5-33
C HAPTER 6 - S UNKEN
6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 STABILITY OF COMPLETELY SUNKEN SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUBMERGED SHIP WITH LARGE FREE SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFLOATED SHIP WITH LOW FREEBOARD AND EXTENSIVE FREE SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DEVELOPMENT OF STABILITY IN RAISING A COMPLETELY SUNKEN SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 6-6 6-7 6-7
AND
6-5 6-6 6-7 6-8 6-9
C APSIZED S HIPS
SUBMERGED EQUILIBRIUM ATTITUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8 SUNKEN SHIP STABILITY. MAIN DECK ABOVE WATER . . . . . . . . . 6-9 SUNKEN SHIP STABILITY. MAIN DECK ABOVE WATER . . . . . . . . . 6-9 SUNKEN SHIP PARTIALLY SUPPORTED BY BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . 6-10 GROUND REACTION FOR PARTIALLY BUOYANT (SUBMERGED) SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10

7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14 7-15 7-16 7-17 7-18 7-19 7-20 7-21 7-22 7-23 7-24 7-25 7-26 7-27 7-28 7-29 WIRE ROPE CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 WIRE ROPE "X" CHART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 WIRE ROPE LAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 LAY LENGTH, SIX-STRAND ROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 WIRE ROPE TERMINAL FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8 CORRECT & INCORRECT APPLICATIONS OF TEMPORARY WIRE ROPE TERMINATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8 WIRE ROPE BRACKETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 EFFECT OF SHEAVE DIAMETER ON 6X19 AND 6X37 CLASS ROPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 DIMENSIONS FOR DRUM CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10 FLEET ANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11 SHEAVE GROOVE NOMENCLATURE, PROPORTIONS, AND TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11 KNUCKLE OR FAIRLEAD SHEAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12 CURVE SHEAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12 SHEAVE CATEGORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13 STRAND NICKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15 TYPICAL TENSION BREAK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15 WIRE BREAKAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15 FATIGUE FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15 OPEN AND CLOSED KINKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-16 BIRD CAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-16 PEENING AND ABRASION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-16 POPPED CORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-16 STRESSES IN A CHAIN LINK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17 GENERAL FEATURES OF STUD-LINK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19 STUD-LINK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19 DEFLECTION OF 1-INCH STUD-LINK CHAIN UNDER LATERAL LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22 ADMIRALTY PATTERN SQUARE SECTION MOORING CHAIN . . . . 7-25 CHAIN BENT OVER A CURVED SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29 RESULTS OF CHAIN BENDING TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29 7-30 7-31 7-32 7-33 7-34 7-35 7-36 7-37 7-38 7-39 7-40 7-41 7-42 7-43 7-44 7-45 7-46 7-47 7-48 7-49 7-50 7-51 7-52 7-53 7-54 7-55 7-56 7-57 7-58 7-59 7-60 7-61 TYPICAL LINKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DETACHABLE LINKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAIN SHACKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SWIVELS, GROUND RING, AND SPIDER PLATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EQUALIZER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAIN STOPPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RIGGING HARDWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PLATE SHACKLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TURNBUCKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DERRICKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NOMENCLATURE FOR CARGO BOOM AND KINGPOST . . . . . . . . FORCES ON CARGO RIG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STUELKEN OR NEWPORT NEWS HEAVY LIFT BOOM . . . . . . . . . ROTATING CRANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ROTATING NONTOPPING CRANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NONROTATING CRANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SALVAGE SHEER LEGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL OFFSHORE FLOATING CRANE LIFT CURVES . . . . . . . . GIN POLE FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MODIFIED GIN POLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVISED SWINGING DERRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHICAGO BOOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FIELD-BUILT SEER LEGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRIPODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVISED WEIGHT-HANDLING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PURCHASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HEAVY PURCHASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LINE-HANDLING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VERTICAL FREE-STRANDING PADEYE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HORIZONTAL PADEYES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SMIT TOWING BRACKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PADEYE DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30 7-30 7-31 7-31 7-32 7-33 7-40 7-40 7-49 7-50 7-50 7-51 7-54 7-55 7-55 7-56 7-57 7-58 7-59 7-60 7-60 7-61 7-61 7-62 7-63 7-65 7-66 7-67 7-70 7-70 7-71 7-72
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8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-5 8-6 8-7 8-8 8-9 8-10 8-11 8-12 8-13 PATCH CONNECTIONS - FIXED EDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 JIG FOR SHAPING CONTOURED PLATE PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 CONCRETE PUMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 GRP PATCH LAY-UP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 FIBERGLASS PANELS AND REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11 COLLISION MAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11 SALVAGE MAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12 PUMPING HEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13 FRICTION FACTORS FOR PIPE FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15 EFFECT OF POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16 DISCHARGE HEAD AND PUMP CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17 TYPICAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVES . . . . . . 8-18 6-INCH PUMP, FOUR-WAY FIRE HOSE CONNECTION MANIFOLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19 8-14 8-15 8-16 8-17 8-18 8-19 8-20 8-21 8-22 8-23 8-24 8-25 8-26 8-27 DRAG COEFFICIENTS FOR SPHERES, AFTER PRANDTL . . . . . . . SOLID TRANSPORT FLOW REGIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PUMP RIGGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PUMP PERFORMANCE CORRECTION FACTOR CHART . . . . . . . . PRESSURE CAPACITY CURES FOR DIFFERENT COMPRESSOR TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BLOWING FITTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSED AIR DEWATERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EMERGENCY COMPRESSED AIR FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DISCHARGE COEFFICIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIMITING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE WITH COMPRESSED AIR . . PONTOONS PLACED INSIDE HOLDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL CAST-IN-PLACE FOAM SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAST-IN-PLACE FOAM STABILITY PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24 8-25 8-26 8-31 8-35 8-36 8-36 8-37 8-38 8-39 8-41 8-42 8-43 8-44
9-1 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-5 FLAT-TOPPED BARGE MODIFIED TO CARRY BULK CARGO . . . . . 9-8 STAND-OFF LIGHTERING - PACKAGED CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8 STAND-OFF LIGHTERING - LIQUID CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9 REMOVING BULK CARGO FROM A GEARLESS CARRIER . . . . . . 9-10 REMOVING BULK CARGOES FROM FLOODED HOLDS . . . . . . . . . 9-11 9-6 9-7 9-8A 9-8B 9-9 UNLOADING POLLUTANT BULK CARGO AND RETURNING SLURRY WATER CASUALTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11 CARGO SLINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-12 FORKLIFT ATTACHMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-12 FORKLIFT ATTACHMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-13 OFFLOADING VEHICLES OR RO/RO CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-14
10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 DETONATION ADVANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 EFFECTS OF CHARGE DIAMETER ON DETONATION VELOCITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 PRESSURE-TIME HISTORY VERSUS DISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 GAS BUBBLE EXPANSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6 PRESSURE-TIME SIGNATURE 60 FEET FROM 300-POUND TNT CHARGE DETONATED IN DEEP WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6 SEAFLOOR GEOMETRY LIKELY TO FOCUS EXPLOSIVE ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7 DAMAGE FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8 GEOMETRY FOR CALCULATING SHOCK FACTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9 MINIMUM DELAY BETWEEN DETONATIONS IN CHARGE ARRAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9 CHARGE CONFIGURATIONS TO CHANNEL EXPLOSIVE FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11 10-11 10-12 10-13 10-14 10-15 10-16 10-17 10-18 10-19 10-20 10-21 10-22 SHARED CHARGE CUTTING SEQUENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL SHAPED CHARGES FOR SALVAGE WORK . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL MANUFACTURES DATA FOR LINEAR SHAPED CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVISED SHAPED CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FRACTURING CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEEL CUTTING CONTACT CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OBSTRUCTION BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXCAVATION ROCK BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CORAL BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SETTING ANCHORS WITH EXPLOSIVE CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . TAMPING FACTOR, C, FOR CONCRETE BREACHING CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHOCK WAVE EFFECTS FOR VARIOUS BLASTING CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12 10-13 10-14 10-15 10-15 10-16 10-18 10-19 10-20 10-21 10-22 10-22

B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9 B-10 CORRECTION TO DISPLACEMENT FOR TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3 LIQUID LOAD DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5 FLOODING EFFECT DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6 TYPICAL HYDROSTATICS TABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-7 CAPACITY PLAN - MULTI-PURPOSE DRY CARGO SHIP . . . . . . . . B-8 LLOYDS REGISTER OF SHIPS ENTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-9 STANDARD NAVSEA DRAWING TITLE BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-14 LIBERTY SHIP (MARAD TYPE EC2)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-30 GENERAL CARGO SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-30 THREE-HATCH SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-32 B-11 B-12 B-13 B-14 B-15 B-16 B-17 B-18 B-19 B-20 INTERMODAL CONTAINER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VERTICAL CELL CONTAINER SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ROLL-ON/ROLL-OFF SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BARGE CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TANKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TANKER PIPING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BULK CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OBO PROFILE, DECK PLANS, AND LOADING CONDITIONS . . . . GREAT LAKE BULK CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIQUEFIED GAS CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-33 B-35 B-37 B-39 B-40 B-41 B-43 B-45 B-46 B-48
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A PPENDIX C - S TABILITY
C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 USN WIND HEEL CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . USN OFFCENTER WEIGHT CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . USN DAMAGE STABILITY CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASSUMED AFTER DAMAGE ROLL ANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . USCG LIFTING CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . USCG CRITERIA FOR MOBILE OFFSHORE DRILLING UNITS . . .
AND
C ONSTRUCTION S TANDARDS
C-7 C-8 C-9 C-10 C-11 IMO WIND HEEL CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOAD LINE MARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIMITING DRAFT CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WAVE INDUCED SHEAR FORCE DISTRIBUTION, 1990 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DECK STRUCTURE IN WAY OF LARGE OPENINGS . . . . . . . . . . . C-10 C-12 C-14 C-19 C-20
C-2 C-3 C-4 C-4 C-7 C-9

D-1 D-2 D-3 D-4 D-5 D-6 D-7 D-8 D-9 D-10 D-11 D-12 D-13 RIGHT TRIANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2 UNIT CIRCLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2 GENERAL TRIANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3 STRAIGHT LINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-4 RESULTANTS OF COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES . . . . . . . . . . D-8 RESOLUTION OF FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8 FORCE POLYGON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-9 RESULTANT OF NONCOPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-9 FUNICULAR DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-10 NONCOPLANAR, NONCONCURRENT FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-11 PRODUCT OF INERTIA AND PARALLEL AXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-13 SIMPLE MANOMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-17 MANOMETER WITH FLUIDS OVER MEASURING FLUID . . . . . . . . D-17 D-14 D-15 D-16 D-17 D-18 D-19 D-20 D-21 D-22 D-23 IMMERSED RECTANGULAR PLATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLUID MASS UNDER CONSTANT LINEAR ACCELERATION . . . . . STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEEL TENSILE STRENGTH VS HARDNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAFE STRESS COMBINATIONS FOR BRITTLE MATERIALS (MAXIMUM NORMAL STRESS THEORY)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAFE STRESS COMBINATIONS FOR BRITTLE MATERIALS (COULOMB-MOHR THEORY)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAFE STRESS COMBINATIONS FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS (MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL S-N CURVE FOR STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAFE OPERATING STRESS ENVELOPE DETERMINED BY SODERBERG LINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-18 D-19 D-20 D-21 D-22 D-24 D-24 D-25 D-25 D-25
APPENDIX F - COMPREHENSIVE EXAMPLES

F-1A F-1B F-2 F-3 F-4 F-5 F-6 F-7 F-8 F-9 FFG-7 AGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-1 FFG-7 AGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-2 DAMAGE TO FFG-7, FR 204I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-3 SECTION AREAS FOR STRANDED FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-8 GROUND REACTION DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-11 DRAFT AT LIFTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-13 DRAFT AT INSTABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-17 FFG-7 10-SEGMENT WEIGHT CURVE, WITH FLOODING . . . . . F-20 BUOYANCY/GROUND REACTION CURVE FOR STRANDED FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-20 STEPPED BUOYANCY/GROUND REACTION CURVE FOR STRANDED FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-22 F-10 F-11 F-12 F-13 F-14 F-15 F-16 F-17 F-18 LOAD CURVE FOR STRANDED FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHEAR CURVE FOR STRANDED FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BENDING MOMENT CURVE FOR STRANDED FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . DRAFT AT LIFTING, PARTIALLY DEWATERED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRAFT AT INSTABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FFG-7 STABILITY CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FFG-7 STABILITY AND WIND HEEL CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT, WAVE BUOYANCY, AND LOAD CURVES FOR REFLOATED FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WAVE SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT FOR REFLOATED FFG-7I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-23 F-23 F-24 F-26 F-28 F-30 F-30 F-33 F-34

G-1 G-2 G-3 G-4 G-5 G-6 G-7 G-8 G-9 G-10 G-11 G-12 G-13 G-14 SIMPLIFIED ANCHOR TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1 FORCES AFFECTING ANCHOR PENETRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3 ANCHOR PENETRATION IN COARSE-GRAINED SOILS . . . . . . . . . G-4 ANCHOR PENETRATION IN STIFF SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-4 HOLDING CAPACITY PLOTS FOR DIFFERENT ANCHOR BEHAVIOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-5 BURIAL BEHAVIOR VERSUS ARTICULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6 ANCHOR HOLDING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-7 DRAG-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-9 SPECIALIZED ANCHORS FOR SOFT (MUD) SEAFLOORS . . . . . . G-11 DEADWEIGHT ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-12 SOIL FAILURE MODES FOR SLIDING DEADWEIGHTS . . . . . . . . . G-14 INSTALLATION SEQUENCE FOR A PROPELLANT-EMBEDMENT ANCHOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-17 NAVY PROPELLANT-EMBEDDED ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-19 IMPACT-DRIVEN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-20 G-15 G-16 G-17 G-18 G-19 G-20 G-21 G-22 G-23 G-24 G-25 G-26 G-27 G-28 JETTED-IN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SOIL FAILURE MODES FOR DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS . . SHORT-TERM HOLDING CAPACITY FACTORS FOR COHESIVE SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TIME FOR DISSIPATION OF EXCESS PORE PRESSURE . . . . . . . . DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHOR CYCLIC LOAD CAPACITY (WITHOUT SOIL STRENGTH LOSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRAIN-RATE FACTOR (I) FOR COHESIVE SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . INERTIAL FACTOR (IF)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRAIN-RATE FACTOR (I) FOR COHESIONLESS SOIL . . . . . . . . . ANCHOR PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LATERAL SOIL PRESSURE AND SKIN FRICTION ON PILE ANCHOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COEFFICIENTS AY, BY, NHI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MOMENT COEFFICIENTS AM AND BMI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PILE ANCHOR FAILURE MODES IN ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVING PILE ANCHOR LATERAL CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-20 G-22 G-23 G-25 G-25 G-26 G-26 G-27 G-28 G-29 G-30 G-32 G-33 G-35
F OLDOUTS
FO-1 FO-2 FO-3A FFG-7 CLASS LINES PLANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FP-1 FFG-7 CLASS CURVES OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FP-3 FFG-CLASS BONJEAN CURVES (ROSSETTE FORMAT)I . . . . . . . FP-5 FO-3B FO-4 FO-5 FFG-7 CLASS BONJEAN CURVES (PROFILE FORMAT)I . . . . . . . FP-7 FFG-7 CLASS LONGITUDINAL STRENGTH AND INERTIA SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FP-9 FFG-7 TROCHOIDIAL WAVE ON FFG-7I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FP-11
XXIII (XXIV BLANK)
S0300-A8-HBK-010
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NUMBER TITLE PAGE NUMBER TABLE NUMBER TITLE PAGE NUMBER
C HAPTER 1 - N AVAL A RCHITECTURE

1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11 TYPICAL COEFFICIENTS OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 TAYLORS COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 APPENDAGE ALLOWANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-28 APPROXIMATE KGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32 APPROXIMATE KG OF CARGO IN FULL HOLDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33 LONGITUDINAL POSITION OF THE CENTER OF BUOYANCY . . . . 1-42 EFFECT OF WEIGHT MOVEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-51 SELECTED PERMEABILITY FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-58 TRANSFERENCE FACTOR - TANKS 50 PERCENT FULL . . . . . . . 1-62 TRANSFERENCE FACTOR - TANKS 95 PERCENT FULL . . . . . . . 1-62 TRANSFERENCE FACTOR - TANKS 98 PERCENT FULL . . . . . . . 1-63
FOR THE
S ALVAGE E NGINEER
1-12 1-13 1-14 1-15 1-16 1-17 1-18 1-19 1-20 1-21 1-22
ADDED WEIGHT VERSUS LOST BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-65 STANDARDS OF SUBDIVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 SECTION MODULUS FOR FFG-7, STATION 10I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-87 HULL DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97 STATION COEFFICIENTS, CSNI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-98 MACHINERY WEIGHTS FOR COMBATANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-99 WEIGHTS OF BRONZE PROPELLERS (LBS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-100 LIGHTSHIP WEIGHT SUMMARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-100 PROHASHAS ORDINATES FOR THE COFFIN DIAGRAM . . . . . . . 1-100 COEFFICIENT C FOR MEAN LCB IN MURRAYS METHOD . . . . 1-107 WAVE BENDING COEFFICIENT FOR MURRAYS METHOD . . . . . 1-108

2-1 EFFECTIVE BREADTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 2-2 PLASTIC MODULUS, S, FOR FFG-7, STATION 10I . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 2-3A-M REACTION, SHEAR, BENDING MOMENT, AND DEFLECTION FOR TRANSVERSELY LOADED BEAMS OF UNIFORM CROSS SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16 THRU 2-28 2-4 BEAM DEFLECTION COEFFICIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30 2-5 MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR BASIC BEAM LOADINGS . . . . . . . . . . 2-30 2-6 CONTINUOUS BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33 2-7 ANALYTICAL EXPRESSIONS FOR CURVED BEAM SECTION PROPERTY, ZI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34 2-8 CURVED BEAM STRESS FACTORS, KI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35 2-9 CRESCENT BEAM POSITION STRESS FACTORS, KI. . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 2-10 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-16 2-17 SHORT COLUMN FORMULAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COEFFICIENTS K AND K1 FOR FLAT PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ALLOWABLE LOADS FOR COMMON NAILS IN SIDE GRAIN OF SEASONED WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ALLOWABLE LOADS FOR LAG BOLTS OR LAG SCREWS . . . . . . ALLOWABLE LOADS PER BOLT LOADED AT BOTH ENDS (DOUBLE SHEAR)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TWISTING FACTORS FOR RECTANGULAR SHAFTS . . . . . . . . . . . TORSION RELATIONSHIPS FOR SHAFTS OF VARIOUS CROSS SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DESIGN RULES FOR EDGE STIFFENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37 2-41 2-49 2-50 2-51 2-58 2-59 2-64

3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 SHAPE COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HEIGHT COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SOIL CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PIANC SOIL CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PERMEABILITY COEFFICIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17 3-17 3-18 3-19 3-21 3-21 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-13 SOIL BEARING COEFFICIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BEARING CAPACITY CORRECTION FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FIELD ESTIMATES OF CLAY BEARING STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . APPROXIMATE SOIL BEARING STRENGTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAXIMUM NONSCOURING CURRENT VELOCITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION AND WALL FRICTION ANGLES . . . ICE CONCENTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 3-23 3-24 3-24 3-29 3-31 3-34

5-1 COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION FOR STRANDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13 5-2 5-3 COMPARISON OF UNDERWATER EXCAVATION METHODS . . . . . . 5-30 IMPROVISED DREDGE DESIGN GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33
C HAPTER 6 - S UNKEN
6-1 SHIPBOARD MANHOLE COVER SPECIFICATIONS (ASTM STANDARDS F1142, F1143, AND F1144)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
AND
C APSIZED S HIPS
xxv
S0300-A8-HBK-010
TABLE NUMBER TITLE
PAGE NUMBER
TABLE NUMBER TITLE
PAGE NUMBER

7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14 7-15 7-16 7-17 7-18 7-19 7-20 7-21 7-22 7-23 7-24 7-25 7-26 WIRE ROPE BREAKING STRENGTH (POUNDS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 WIRE ROPE LINEAR WEIGHT (WEIGHT IN LB/FT)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6 WIRE ROPE RESERVE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7 WIRE ROPE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7 APPROXIMATE COMPACTNESS FACTOR OF WIRE ROPES . . . . . . . 7-7 WIRE ROPE WIRE DIAMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 SHEAVE AND DRUM DIAMETER RATIOS FOR WIRE ROPE . . . . 7-10 SHEAVE AND DRUM GROOVE DIMENSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11 ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURES ON SHEAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12 KNUCKLE BLOCK ALLOWABLE REDIAL PRESSURE EXPONENTS 7-12 DIAGNOSTIC GUIDE TO COMMON WIRE ROPE DEGRADATION . 7-14 ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR ALLOY STEEL CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . 7-18 NAVY STUD-LINK CHAIN (MIL-C-24633)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20 COMMERCIAL STUD-LINK CHAIN (ABS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21 NAVY DI-LOK CHAIN (MIL-C-19444)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23 COMMERCIAL DI-LOK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-24 BLACO AND BLECO "SPECIAL STEEL" CAST CHAIN . . . . . . . . 7-25 ADMIRALTY PATTERN SQUARE SECTION MOORING CHAIN . . . . 7-25 CHARACTERISTICS OF COAST GUARD BUOY CHAIN (MIL-C-22521A)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-26 CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL MARINE RAILWAY HAULING CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27 CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL ABRASION-RESISTANT CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28 CHAIN LINKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30 CHAIN FITTINGS AND CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30 COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS - NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC FIBER ROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34 RELATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE CONSTRUCTION FOR THE SAME FIBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-36 NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC FIBER ROPE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . 7-37 7-27 7-28 7-29 7-30 7-31 7-32 7-33 7-34 7-35 7-36 7-37 7-38 7-39 7-40 7-41 NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC ROPE LINEAR WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, CHAIN SHACKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, ANCHOR SHACKLES . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, CHAIN SHACKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, HEAVY DUTY ANCHOR SHACKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, REGULAR SWIVELS . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, JAW ONE END SWIVELS . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, CHAIN SWIVELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, SWIVEL SHACKLES . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, CHAIN STOPPER (PELICAN HOOK)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, CHAIN STOPPERS (DEVILS CLAW)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, CHAIN STOPPERS (DOG OR ULSTER TYPE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTH, END LINK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRENGTH OF TURNBUCKLES FROM ASTM STD F 1145I . . . . LIMITING AXIAL LOADS FOR MILD STEEL TUBES (S.W.L. OVER 10 TONS) FACTOR OF SAFETY = 4 ALL LOADS IN SHORT TONS (2,000 LBS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIMITING AXIAL LOADS FOR MILD STEEL TUBES (S.W.L.10 TONS OR LESS) FACTOR OF SAFETY = 5 ALL LOADS IN SHORT TONS (2,000 LBS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. NAVY CARGO BOOM DESIGN SAFETY FACTORS . . . . . . . . SNAP LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAFE WORKING LOADS FOR NAVY BITTS (MIL-B-17397D)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM STANDARDS FOR STEEL DOUBLE BARREL BITTS . . . . . STEEL WELDED HORN-TYPE CLEAT (ASTM STD F1074-87)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RAS/FAS PADEYES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-39 7-41 7-42 7-42 7-43 7-43 7-44 7-44 7-45 7-45 7-46 7-46 7-47 7-48
7-53
7-42
7-43 7-44 7-45 7-46 7-47 7-48
7-53 7-54 7-68 7-69 7-69 7-69 7-71

8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-5 8-6 8-7 8-8 8-9 8-10 8-11 8-12 RECTANGULAR PLATE COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 CONCRETE DENSITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 CONCRETE CONSISTENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 VARIATION OF CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH WITH AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 WATER CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 AGGREGATE VOLUME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 CONCRETE MIXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 VAPOR PRESSURES AT 68 FI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14 FRICTION FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14 OBSTRUCTION FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14 PUMP CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17 8-13 8-14 8-15 8-16 8-17 8-18 8-19 8-20 8-21 8-22 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PUMP POWER SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AIR LIFT CONSTANTS, CI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PUMP CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAVY SALVAGE PUMP CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIMIT DEPOSIT VELOCITY FOR PARTICLES GRATER THAN 1 MM IN DIAMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PUMPS RIGGED IN PARALLEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VISCOSITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PERMISSIBLE MATERIALS FOR PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAVY SALVAGE (DIESEL-DRIVEN) COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAVY SALVAGE SHIP AIR SYSTEM CAPACITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17 8-20 8-21 8-22 8-26 8-26 8-30 8-32 8-35 8-35
9-1 9-2 9-3 9-4 BOAT AND CRAFT WEIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAVY AND MARINE CORPS AIRCRAFT WEIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIQUID STORAGE TANKS AND BLADDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MILITARY CRAFT FOR LIGHTERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-6 9-5 9-6 9-7 9-8 LOGISTICS SUPPORT SHIP CAPACITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7 LIFT CAPACITIES FOR NAVY, MSC, COAST GUARD, AND ARMY SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10 DRY CARGO CONTAINER CAPACITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-14 IMPROVED PORT UNLOADING TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-16
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10-1 10-2 10-3 DEGREE OF DAMAGE FOR VARIOUS SHOCK FACTORS . . . . . . . 10-8 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND MK 8 MOD 2 HOSE CHARGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9 FISH KILL RANGE CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 POWDER FACTORS (LB/YD3) FOR ROCK BLASTING . . . . . . . . . ROCK DENSITY AND TOUGHNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MATERIAL FACTOR, K, FOR CONCRETE BREACHING CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARACTERISTICS OF MILITARY EXPLOSIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18 10-19 10-21 10-24
A PPENDIX A - D OCUMENTATION M ATRIX

A-1 SALVAGE DOCUMENTATION MATRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-2

B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9 B-10 B-11 B-12 B-13 B-14 B-15 B-16 B-17 B-18 B-19 B-20 B-21 U.S. NAVY SHIP AND CRAFT DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. COAST GUARD VESSEL DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. ARMY VESSEL DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MARAD CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (GROUP 1)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . MARAD CLASSIFICATION OF SHIP MACHINERY, PROPELLERS, AND PASSENGER CAPABILITY (GROUP 2)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF COMMONLY USED DRAWINGS . . . . . STANDARD DRAWING SHEET SIZES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. NAVY PLANNING YARD ASSIGNMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OLD SWBS GROUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FULL LOAD HYDROSTATIC DATA FOR SELECTED NAVY HULLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION FOR SELECTED NAVY HULLS . . . . . . . . SECTION STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES FOR SELECTED NAVY HULLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HULL CHARACTERISTICS, AUXILIARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HULL CHARACTERISTICS, SURFACE COMBATANTS . . . . . . . . . . HULL CHARACTERISTICS, SUBMARINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WINDAGE AREAS, AUXILIARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WINDAGE AREAS, SURFACE COMBATANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WINDAGE AREAS, SUBMARINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WINDAGE AREAS, SERVICE CRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WINDAGE AREAS, FLOATING DRYDOCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL GENERAL CARGO SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-10 B-11 B-12 B-12 B-12 B-14 B-15 B-16 B-18 B-19 B-20 B-21 B-23 B-24 B-24 B-25 B-26 B-27 B-27 B-27 B-31 B-22 B-23 B-24 B-25 B-26 B-27 B-28 B-29 B-30 B-31 B-32 B-33 B-34A B-34B B-35A B-35B CHARACTERISTICS OF A TYPICAL THREE-HATCH SHIP . . . . . . . TYPICAL VERTICAL CELL CONTAINER SHIP CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL VEHICLE CARRIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRAILER SHIP CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BACO SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL OBO CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUIFIED GASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL LNG SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ARTUBAR INTEGRATED TUG-BARGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FORM CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL COMMERCIAL VESSELS, CIRCA 1988I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FORM CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL COMMERCIAL VESSELS, CIRCA 1980I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FORM CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL COMMERCIAL VESSELS, CIRCA 1965I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL MERCHANT SHIPS, CIRCA 1965I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHTS AND CENTERS FOR TYPICAL MERCHANT SHIPS, CIRCA 1965I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL MERCHANT SHIPS, CIRCA 1953I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHTS SUMMARIES FOR TYPICAL MERCHANT SHIPS, CIRCA 1953I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-33 B-34 B-38 B-38 B-40 B-44 B-47 B-49 B-49 B-51 B-52 B-53 B-54 B-55 B-56 B-57
A PPENDIX C - S TABILITY
C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6
AND
C ONSTRUCTION S TANDARDS
C-7 C-8 C-9 C-10 C-11 FACTOR C1 FOR MINIMUM SECTION MODULUS, 1990 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRUCTURAL EFFECTIVENESS FACTORS, 1990 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABS SECTION MODULUS FOR SHIPS OF ORDINARY STEEL CONSTRUCTION, 1980 RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHIP LENGTH FACTORS, F AND S, 1980 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . SECTION MODULUS STANDARDS FOR SHIPS OF HIGHER STRENGTH MATERIAL CONSTRUCTION, 1980 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHIP TYPE AND LENGTH FACTOR, K, 1980 ABS RULES . . . . . C-18 C-20 C-21 C-21
FACTORS FOR CALCULATION OF MINIMUM GM FOR GRAIN CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-6 VALUES FOR FACTORS X1 AND X2 FOR IMO RESOLUTION A.562I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-11 VALUES FOR FACTORS K, AND S FOR IMO RESOLUTION A.562I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-11 FACTOR CST FOR STANDARD STILL WATER BENDING MOMENT, 1990 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-17 WAVE PARAMETER H FOR WAVE INDUCED BENDING MOMENT AMIDSHIPS, 1990 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-17 WAVE BENDING MOMENT DISTRIBUTION FACTOR, 1990 ABS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-18
C-12
C-22 C-22
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D-1 D-2 D-3 FUNCTIONS OF RELATED ANGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-11 VISCOSITY UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-15 D-4 D-5 D-6 VISCOSITY CONVERSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-15 TYPICAL SURFACE TENSIONS (68 F, AIR CONTACT)I . . . . . . . . D-16 EQUIVALENT DIAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-20
A PPENDIX E - B ASIC E NGINEER S T ABLES

E-1 E-2 E-3 E-4 E-5 E-6 E-7 E-8 E-9 WATER FACTORS (AT POINT OF GREATEST DENSITY - 39.2 F)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS ON WATER DENSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND ALUMINUM ALLOY FOR NAVY SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPICAL MECHANICAL CONSTANTS OF METALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL STEELS . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF W SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL TEES CUT FROM W SHAPES (WT)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF S SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL TEES CUT FROM S SHAPES (ST)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1 E-1 E-13 E-2 E-2 E-3 E-5 E-7 E-8 E-9 E-14 E-15 E-16 E-17 E-18 E-19 E-20 E-10 E-11 E-12 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF M SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF HP SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES FOR AMERICAN STANDARD CHANNELS (C-SHAPES)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF MISCELLANEOUS (MC) CHANNELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PROPERTIES OF EQUAL AND UNEQUAL LEG ANGLES (L SHAPES)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT AND GAGE OF STEEL PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEIGHT OF STEEL PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRUCTURAL TIMBER ALLOWABLE STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TIMBER SIZES FOR DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DENSITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIQUID DENSITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-10 E-11 E-12 E-13 E-14 E-15 E-15 E-16 E-17 E-18 E-21

G-1 G-2 G-3 G-4 G-5 G-6 G-7 G-8 G-9 G-10 COMPARISON OF ANCHOR TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ANCHOR TYPES . . . . . . G-2 POWER LAW COEFFICIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6 ANCHOR SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-8 RATING OF DRAG-EMBEDMENT ANCHOR TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-8 COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION FOR DEADWEIGHT ANCHORS . . . . . G-13 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-16 PROPELLANT-EMBEDDED ANCHORS (PEA)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-17 PEA CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-18 NCEL 20K PROPELLENT-EMBEDDED ANCHOR TESTS IN ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-19 G-11 G-12 G-13 G-14 G-15 G-16 G-17 CONDITIONS COMPLICATING DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHOR USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SOIL STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHOR EFFECTS ON SUBMARINE SLOPE STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PILE ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RECOMMENDED LIMITING VALUES FOR UNIT SKIN FRICTION AND END BEARING FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS FOR CHAIN LATERAL FORCE IN SAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-21 G-22 G-27 G-28 G-30 G-33 G-34
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Abbreviations for References: ABS AISC AISI API ASCE ASME ASNE ASTM BUSHIPS CFR DM DDS FM GENSPECs IMCO IMO (R) INA NAVSEA NAVSHIPS NAVFAC NSTM OCIMF SDS SAE SNAME TM USC UWSHM American Bureau of Shipping American Institute of Steel Construction American Iron and Steel Institute American Petroleum Institute American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Society of Naval Engineers American Society for Testing of Materials Bureau of Ships, now Naval Sea Systems Command U.S. Code of Federal Regulations Design Manual (NAVFAC) Design Data Sheet Field Manual General Specifications for Ships of the United States Navy International Maritime Consultative Organization, now IMO International Maritime Organization (Royal) Institution of Naval Architects Naval Sea Systems Command Naval Ship Systems Command Naval Facilities Engineering Command Naval Ships Technical Manual Oil Companies International Marine Forum Ship Design Standard Society of Automotive Engineers Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Technical Manual United States Code Underwater Ship Husbandry Manual
Other Abbreviations: BHP BS&W CB CFM CG EHP EOD ESSM FC FSW GPM HGPS IHP IPS IWRC LEL MARAD NAVSEA 00C NCEL NOAA NOS NOSC NOSCDR NPSHA NPSHR PMS POL PPM PSI RPM SCF SCFM SHCP SITREP SHP SWL TDHA TDHR UEL USAV USCGC USNS USS WSC XIPS, EIPS Brake Horsepower Bottom Sediment and Water Center of Buoyancy Cubic Feet per Minute Center of Gravity Effective horsepower Explosive Ordnance Disposal Emergency Ship salvage Material Fiber Core Feet of Seawater Gallons per Minute High Grade Plow Steel Indicated horsepower, installed horsepower Improved Plowed Steel Independent Wire Rope Core Lower Explosive Level Maritime Administration Naval Sea Systems Command, Director of Ocean Engineering and Supervisor of Salvage Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration National Ocean Service Naval On-Scene Coordinator Naval On-Scene Commander Net Positive Suction Head Available Net Positive Suction Head Required Preventive Maintenance System Petroleum, Oil, and Lubricants Parts per Million Pounds Per Square Inch Revolutions Per Minute Standard Cubic Feet Standard Cubic Feet per Minute Ship Hull Characteristics Program Situational Report Shaft Horsepower Safe Working Load Total Dynamic Head Available Total Dynamic Head Required Upper Explosive Level United States Army Vessel United States Coast Guard Cutter United States Naval Ship United States Ship Wire Strand Core Extra Improved Plowed Steel
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STANDARD NAVY SYNTAX SUMMARY

Since this manual will form the technical basis of many subsequent instructions or directives, it utilizes the standard Navy syntax as pertains to permissive, advisory, and mandatory language. This is done to facilitate the use of the information provided herein as a reference for issuing Fleet Directives. The concept of word usage and intended meaning which has been adhered to in preparing this manual is as follows: "Shall" has been used only when application of a procedure is mandatory. "Should" has been used only when application of a procedure is recommended. "May" and "need not" have been used only when application of a procedure is discretionary. "Will" has been used only to indicate futurity; never to indicate any degree of requirement for application of a procedure. The usage of other words has been checked against other standard nautical and naval terminology references.
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COMMON ABBREVIATIONS ON SHIPS STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS A ab; abov. ABS abt. a c; A C accom adj. A. E. alt. alum amm; ammo AP app. approx ard. arrgt. ASTM AT avg aux AWG b B b/b BA bbl bd. B. E. bel. bet. bev. bhd bhp; BHP B. K. bkt. BL bldg blk bm. B. M. bosn bot; bott. bdry; bound. B. P. br. B. R. Br. Dk. brg. brz. b. s. B. S. Bt. Dk. btk. BV area above American Bureau of Shipping about alternating current accommodation adjustable after end (rear or stern) alteration aluminum ammunition after perpendicular; after peak; airport approved; appendix approximate; approximately around arrangement American Society for Testing Materials airtight average auxiliary American Wire Gage breadth (general) breadth of ship; maximum breadth or beam back to back bulb angle barrel board beveled edge below between bevel bulkhead brake horsepower bilge keel; bar keel bracket baseline building block; black beam (structural member bolted manhole cover plate boatswain bottom boundary between perpendiculars brass boiler room bridge deck bearing bronze both sides butt strap boat deck buttock Bureau Veritas BWG bwk. cal calc. cap. carp. C. B. c to c; c/c cfm chg. chk. plt. C. I. cir C. L. clk. cm coam. comp. compt. conn. const constr. cont. corr. CRS CS csk. ctr. cu cu ft cu in. CVK cyl d D DB dbl. dblr. d c; D C deg dept det. dev. dia; diam diag. diam dim. disp. dist. div. dk dn; dwn. D.O. do dr. Birmingham Wire Gage bulwark caliber calculated capacity carpenter center of buoyancy; Carnegie Beam Section center to center cubic feet per minute charge checker plate cast iron; corrugated iron circular; circumference; circulating centerline calked; calking centimeter coaming composition (brass or bronze) compartment connection constant construction continuous corrected cold rolled or corrosion resistant steel cast steel countersink or countersunk center cubic cubic feet cubic inch center vertical keel cylinder or cylindrical depth (general) diameter; draft of ship depth of ship; down (ladders) double bottom double doubler deck covering; direct current degree department detail developed diameter diagonal diameter dimension displacement distance division; divided deck down diesel oil ditto door
Glossary-17
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COMMON ABBREVIATIONS ON SHIPS STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS drg; dwg D. W. DWT doz ea. E. H. elec el; elev. E. M. emer; emerg. encl. eng. engr. eq equip. equiv. ER E. S. esc. est. etc. exist. exp. ext ext. fab. F&A F. B. FBK fbd. fcsle F. E. F. H. fig. F. I. P. F. K. F. L. flg. flr. FO ford. found. FP fr fr sp; F S ft FT FTD FW fwd ga. gal gar; garbd. galv. drawing deadweight; drinking water deadweight dozen each extra heavy electric; electrical elevation; elevator expanded metal emergency enclosed engine; engineering engineer equal; equation equipment equivalent engine room extra strong escape estimated and so forth existing expanded; expansion external exterior; extend fabricated fore and aft flat bar flat bar keel freeboard forecastle forward end flat head figure fair in place flat keel fixed light; floodable length flange floor fuel oil forward foundation fore peak; forward perpendicular; flanged plate frame frame spacing; far side; forged steel feet; foot flame or fume tight flame or fume tight door fresh water; feed water forward gage; gauge gallon garboard galvanized gen. genl. G. I. gird. G. M. I. govt. ht; h H H. B. hd. hex. h/h hls. H. M. S. horiz. hp; H P H. R. H. R. S. ht. HTS hvy. I IB ihp; IHP ID in inbd incl. insp. inst. int. interl. inv. I. P. S. jog. jr. K KP l L lb LBP lg. L. H. lin. lkr. LLWL LO LOA long. L. R. lt. lvr. LWL generator general galvanized iron girder galvanized malleable iron government height draft, H-beam half breadth head hexagonal heel to heel holes hull medium steel horizontal horsepower half round hot rolled steel height high tensile steel; heat treated steel heavy I beam inner bottom indicated horsepower inside diameter inch; inches inboard including; included inspection; inspector instrument internal intercostal inverted; invoiced iron pipe size joggle junior keel kingpost length (general) length of ship pound length between perpendiculars long left handed lineal locker length on the load waterline lubricating oil length overall longitudinal Lloyds Register light lever; louvre load waterline
Glossary-18
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COMMON ABBREVIATIONS ON SHIPS STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS m mach. machy, mchry mag. mar. matl. max mn dk; M D mech. med. met. MG M. H. M. I. min misc. mk. M. L. mld. mm m. m. M. P. M. S. MS M. V. MV N. A. nav. N. M. S. no. norm. N. & F. N. S. N. T. S. NV NWT O. A. O. B. OD off. O. H. open. opp. ord. O. S. OT OTH pass. patt. pc. P. C. P. C. D. perf. perp. P. H. pl. plat. meter machine machinery magazine margin; marine material maximum main deck mechanical medium metal machine gun; motor generator manhole malleable iron minimum miscellaneous mark molded line; mold loft; margin line molded millimeter moment mid-perpendicular medium steel; machine steel; machine screw motorship mushroom ventilator; motor vessel motor vessel naval architect; neutral axis navigating; navigation nonmagnetic steel number normal near and far near side not to scale Norske Veritas nonwatertight overall outboard outside diameter office; officer oval head; open hearth opening opposite ordinate outside; outstanding; other side oil tight oil tight hatch passage; passenger pattern piece pitch circle pitch circle diameter perforated perpendicular pilothouse plan platform plt pr. prelim; prel. press. prop. psi pt. P S; P & S PW qtrs. r rad. rd. ref. req. red. reqd. res. RFW rev. R. H. riv. rm. rpm; RPM rt. sect. sep. sett. sgl. sh. sht. shp; SHP sk. sol. spa. spec. sq SS st sta. stan; stanch star; stbd. std. stiff. stl. str. struct. STS SW symm. t T temp T. F. O. T. F. W. thd. plate pair preliminary pressure propeller pounds per square inch point port and starboard potable water quarters radius radius; radiator round reference requisition; required reduction required reserve reserve feed water reverse right hand; round head rivet room revolutions per minute right section separate settling single shape; sheer sheet shaft horsepower sketch solid space; spaced specification; special square steamship straight station stanchion starboard standard stiffener steel stringer structural special treatment steel salt water symmetrical thickness T-bar; top; tons template; temporary; temperature tons fuel oil tons fresh water thread
Glossary-19
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COMMON ABBREVIATIONS ON SHIPS STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS thk. thru. tk. tol. tot. trans. trk. T. S. T. S. W. T. T. U U. D. USS US Std. USSG V vent. vert. VK thick; thickness through tank tolerance total transverse trunk this side; turbine ship; twin screw tons salt water tank top up (ladder) upper deck United States Ship; United States Standard United States Standard United States Standard Gauge vent; volume ventilator vertical vertical keel V. L. V. M. L. vol. w; W wt. W. Fl; W F W. I. W. M. wt W. S. WT WTD WTMH X. H. X. S. X. X. H. X. X. S. yd Z vertical ladder vertical metal ladder volume weight; weld weight wide flange section wrought iron wire mesh weight wrought steel watertight watertight door watertight manhole extra heavy extra strong double extra heavy double extra strong yard Z bar
TIGHTNESS ABBREVIATIONS AT FT NWT OT OTB OTF airtight flametight nonwatertight oiltight oiltight bulkhead oiltight floor OTM WT WTB WTF WTM oiltight manhole watertight watertight bulkhead watertight floor watertight manhole
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY (AWS) JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESS ABBREVIATIONS Joining Processes Letter Designation AAW AHW BB BMAW CAW DB DW FB FLB FLOW FW GCAW GMAW GSSW GTAW HW IB Welding Process Air-Acetylene Welding Atomic Hydrogen Welding Block Brazing Bare Metal-Arc Welding Carbon-Arc Welding Dip Brazing Die Welding Furnace Brazing Flow Brazing Flow Welding Flash Welding Gas Carbon-Arc Welding Gas Metal-Arc Welding Gas-Shielded Stud Welding Gas Tungston Arc Welding Hammer Welding Induction Brazing Letter Designation IW NTW OAW OHW PEW PGW PTW RB RW SAW SCAW SMAW SW TB TCAB TCAW UW Cutting Processes Letter Designation AAC AC AOC CAC Cutting Process Air-Carbon-Arc Cutting Arc Cutting Oxygen-Arc Cutting Carbon-Arc Cutting Letter Designation FOC MAC OC POC Cutting Process Chemical Flux Cutting Metal-Arc Cutting Oxygen Cutting Metal Powder Cutting Welding Process Induction Welding Nonpressure Thermite Welding Oxy-Acetylene Welding Oxy-Hydrogen Welding Percussion Welding Pressure Gas Welding Pressure Thermite Welding Resistance Brazing Roll Welding Submerged Arc Welding Shielded Carbon-Arc Welding Shielded Metal-Arc Welding Stud Welding Torch Brazing Twin-Carbon-Arc Brazing Twin-Carbon-Arc Welding Upset Welding
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INDEX
A-FRAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-50, 7-56 ACCELERATION LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13, 7-68, D-7, D-19 ACTIVE EARTH FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30, 3-31 ADDED WEIGHT VERSUS LOST BUOYANCY METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-65 ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF NAVAL SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75 ADDITIONAL PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20 AERIAL SURVEYS OF CASUALTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 AFLOAT SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2, 4-15 AFTER BODY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 BUOYANCY OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-79, 1-104 AFTER PERPENDICULAR (AP)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-3, 1-15, 1-44, 1-80, 5-7, 5-12, F-6, F-8, H-9, H-13 AIRCRAFT CARRIERS CHANGE OF DRAFT OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13 RESIDUAL DAMAGE STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-4 SIDE PROTECTION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75, C-4 STRENGTH DECK OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 TRUCK CRANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-56 WEIGHT REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3 AIR LIFT (AIR LIFTING)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30, 5-32, 8-20, G-16 AIR LIFT CONSTANTS (C)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32 DESIGN CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32 FOR UNDERWATER EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30 OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20 AIR PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32, 8-20, 8-22, 8-33, 8-36, 8-37, 8-39 THRU 8-41 BLOWING AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-38 CALCULATIONS OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20 CONVERSION TABLES FOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-35 RELATIONSHIP TO DEPTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-33 ALLOWABLE STRESS (ACCEPTABLE STRESS) AS DEFINED BY FAILURE MODES OR SAFETY FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95, D-24, D-25 BEAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29 HULL GIRDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95, C-2 MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45, 2-46 ALUMINUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96, D-20, E-2, E-3, E-18 AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPING (ABS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-69, 1-70, 1-109, C-12, C-16 AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18, 7-19, D-14 ANCHOR(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33, 4-13, G-1 THRU G-36 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ANCHOR TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-2 ARTICULATION AXIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6 AUGURED-IN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-21 BEACH GEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 5-29, G-3 BOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-9 THRU G-11 DEADWEIGHT (CLUMPS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1 DESCRIPTIONS AND PERFORMANCE DATA FOR VARIOUS ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6 THRU G-11 DIRECT-EMBEDMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1, G-11 THRU G-15 DOUBLED, TANDEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-7 DRAG, DRAG-EMBEDMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1, G-3 THRU G-11 DRAG DISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-5 EMBEDMENT DEPTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, G-12, G-15, G-22 THRU G-24 FLUKE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3 THRU G-6, G-17, G-19, G-22 FREELY ARTICULATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6 GRAPPLING DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1 HOLDING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6 IMPACT-DRIVEN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-20 JETTED-IN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-20 PILE FOUNDATIONS AND ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1, G-28 THRU G-36 PILE ANCHORS IN ROCK SEAFLOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-33 POWER LAW METHOD FOR CALCULATING HOLDING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6 PROPELLANT-EMBEDDED ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-16, G-17 THRU G-19, G-22 PROPELLANT-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS (PEA)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-17, G-19, G-21, G-22 SUBMERGED ANCHOR PILE HEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-33 SWBS GROUPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-13, B-19 TYPICAL WIEGHTS (SHIPBOARD)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-55, B-57 VIBRO-DRIVEN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-16, G-21
Index-1
S0300-A8-HBK-010
ANCHOR/MOORING CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18 THRU 7-30 ANCHOR SHACKLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-40, 7-42, 7-43, 7-45 ANCHORING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1 ANGLE OF HEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-35 THRU 1-38, 1-53, 1-58, 6-8, C-3, C-5, H-5 APPENDAGE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5, 1-28 APPENDAGE ALLOWANCE, DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-28 APPLYING FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24, 6-1 APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 THRU 1-29 AREAS AREA CALCULATIONS, GENERAL FORMS FOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23 CURVES OF SECTIONAL AREAS (SEE BONJEANS CURVES) INTEGRATION FORMULAE TO DETERMINE AREA UNDER CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 THRU 1-19 MOMENTS OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 THRU 1-29 COEFFICIENTS OF FORM SIMPLIFY AREA AND VOLUME CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 MIDSHIP SECTION COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
SECTION AREA WATERPLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12 WATERPLANE COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 WETTED SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 ARS-50I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 ARTIFICIAL ICE ISLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36, 5-27 ASYMMETRICAL SECTIONS (BEAMS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 ATTACHMENT POINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 4-5, 4-13, 4-14, 5-28, 7-69 THRU 7-72, B-8 AUGURED-IN ANCHORS (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-21 AUXILIARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-28, 1-57, 1-69, 1-70, 1-73, 1-75, 4-9, 5-25, 9-2, 9-3, B-1, B-23, B-25, B-28 PARAMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-45 THRU 1-49, 1-108 AUXILIARY MACHINERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75, 8-22 STEAM SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-40 AXIAL LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-45, 2-47, 7-52, 7-53 AXIAL STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6, 2-14, 2-15, 2-38, 2-52 AXIS, NEUTRAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13, 2-15, 2-29, 2-39, 2-66, 7-8, 8-4, 8-9 BEAMS, STIFFENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22, 1-78, 1-93 THRU 1-95, 2-66, B-7, B-22, B-23, F-24 SHIP SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-84 THRU 1-89 STRUCTURAL SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-7 THRU E-14
BALDT, INC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22, 7-41 THRU 7-46 BALE CUBIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, B-32 BALLAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, 1-11, 1-57, 1-64, 1-65, 1-100, 3-30, 4-4, 4-5, 8-33, 8-40, 9-1, 9-2, 9-4, 9-10, B-4, B-9, B-31, B-34, B-39, B-42 THRU B-44, C-7, C-8, H-1 THRU H-13, BALLAST PUMPS AND PIPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19, 8-22, B-14, B-18, B-30 BAR STEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 BARE HULL WEIGHT ESTIMATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-98 BARGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-11, 1-12, 1-43, 1-46, 1-47, 1-90, 1-100, 3-24, 4-5, 4-15, 5-24, 5-26, 5-27, 5-32, 5-33, 6-2, 7-56, 8-37, 9-4, 9-6, 9-8, 9-10, 9-11, 9-14, 9-15, B-10, B-11, B-39, B-40, B-50, C-7, C-16, G-36 BARGE CARRIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, B-39, B-51, B-54, B-55 BARYCENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6 BASELINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 THRU 1-5, 1-8, 1-32, 1-45, 1-50, 1-56, 2-2, 2-13, B-57, F-9, F-12, F-31, F-32, H-7 BASEPLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 BASIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 THRU 3-10, 5-34, B-51, G-18 BEACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-8, 3-11, 3-16, 3-27, 3-30, 3-34, 3-36, 5-31 CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11, 5-18 ERROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27, 3-30, 5-18 SLOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-11, 5-21 SURF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18 SURVEY(S) (HYDROGRAPHIC)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 BEACH GEAR (GROUND TACKLE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6, 4-23, 5-24 THRU 5-29, 7-1, 7-31, G-3 ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3 ATTACHMENT POINTS (FOUNDATIONS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5, 7-69 THRU 7-72, 8-28 COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 7-22, 7-31 HEAVING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24, 5-26 IN ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-34, 3-36 IMPROVISED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29 LINEAR PULLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 7-67, 8-27 INSPECTION OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29, 7-16, 7-33 PURCHASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 5-29, 7-64 SEAFLOOR SURVEYS FOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Index-2
S0300-A8-HBK-010
BEAM(S) (SHIPS DIMENSION)

AS ONE OF A SHIPS PRINCIPLE DIMENENSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 INFLUENCE ON TRANSVERSE STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39
1-2 1-2 RANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 RELATIONSHIP TO SHIPS PROPORTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7 BEAM(S) (STRUCTURAL)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 THRU 2-36 ASYMMETRICAL SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 BENDING STRESSES IN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-84, 1-95 CANTILEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30, 7-56, 7-69 COMPOSITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52 CONCENTRIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34 CONTINUOUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32, 2-33 CRESCENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 CURVED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16 THRU 2-30 DEFLECTION COEFFICIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30 ECCENTRIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35 ELASTIC BEAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-80 FLEXURE THEORY FOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 MOMENT DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30, 2-31 MOMENT OF INERTIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29, 2-32, 2-35, 2-37 NEUTRAL AXIS IN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29 OBLIQUE LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 ORTHOGONAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 PLASTIC MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 PLASTIC STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16 THRU 2-28 RESIDUAL STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 RESTRAINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-80, 2-16 THRU 2-28 SHEAR DIAGRAM (OR CURVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 STRENGTH ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 SIMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76 SIMPLY SUPPORTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 SHIPS HULL AS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76, 1-80, 1-84, 1-95, 2-2, 2-4, 2-66 STRENGTH (STRESS FLEXURE) FORMULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-84, 2-29, 2-32, 2-35, 2-36, 7-8, 8-4, 8-9 WIDE-FLANGED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 BEAM WIND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-53, 1-57, C-2, C-4, C-9, C-10 BEARING CAPACITY (SOIL, FOUNDATIONS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 THRU 3-25, 3-26, 5-23, G-15, G-31, G-33 FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14 STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-47, D-20 BETWEEN DECKS (SEE DECKS) BILES METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-101 BITTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35, 7-36, 7-69, B-50, C-3, C-8 BLADE ANCHOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16, G-11 BLAST EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74, 10-2, 10-7, 10-10, 10-11, 10-17, 10-21 THRU 10-23 BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 THRU 10-24 BLASTING GELATINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12 BLOCK COEFFICIENT (CB)I . . . . . . . . 1-6 THRU 1-9, 1-13, 1-42, 1-46, 1-47, 1-50, 1-83, 1-103, 1-107, 1-108, B-52, C-10, C-11, C-16 THRU C-18, C-21 BLOCK REACTION AND RESIDUAL BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66 BLOWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34, 8-36, B-44 BODY PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 BOLLARD PULL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24, 5-25 BOLTED AND RIVETED CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46 THRU 2-48, 2-51, 7-41, 8-12 BOLTED JOINTS IN WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51 BONJEANS CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15, 1-27, 1-28, 1-79, 1-82, 1-91, 1-92, 5-4, 5-6 THRU 5-8, B-2, B-3, B-14, B-16, F-3, F-8, F-9, F-12, F-20, F-31 BOOM(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17, 5-29, 5-30, 7-1, 7-50 THRU 7-52, 7-54, 7-56, 7-59 THRU 7-61, 7-68, 9-3, 9-7 THRU 9-11, 9-14, 9-15, B-31, B-44, B-45, B-55, B-57, C-7 BOREHOLES, BLOCKHOLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18 BOTTOM BREAKOUT FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25, 3-26 BOTTOM PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-59, 1-71 THRU 1-74, 1-77, 2-2, 2-3, 8-9, 8-37, F-3 BOW THRUSTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-28, 1-5 BOX-SHAPED LIGHTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12 BRACKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48, 7-70, 7-71 BRAIDED FIBER LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-36 BRAKE HORSEPOWER (BHP)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
MAXIMUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MOLDED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index-3
S0300-A8-HBK-010
BREAKERS (WAVES)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-3, 3-6, 3-11, 4-8, 5-18 BREAKING STRENGTH (FIBER AND WIRE ROPE, CHAIN)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4, 7-5, 7-18, 7-20, 7-21, 7-23 THRU 7-28 BREAKOUT FORCE (SUCTION)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5, 7-37, 7-38 BREAKWATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 BREASTHOOKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 BRITTLE MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-53, D-21, D-24, D-25 BROACH (BROACHING)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14, 5-18, 5-29 BROKEN OR MISSING STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61 BRUCE (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-5, G-6, G-8 THRU G-10 BUBBLE PULSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 BUCKLED STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62 BULBOUS BOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-73, B-51 BULK CARGO(ES)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, 1-58, 1-64, 1-98, 4-9, 8-20, 9-8, 9-11, 9-16, B-30, B-32, B-34, B-35, B-45, B-51, C-5 BULK CARRIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-12, B-12, B-29, B-43, B-44, B-51 THRU B-56, C-5, C-6 BULKHEAD(S)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73, 6-3, 8-41 BULKHEAD DECK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 THRU 1-75, B-35, B-37, B-39, C-14 BULWARK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, C-12 BUNKERS (FUEL)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-9 BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 THRU 1-15, 1-30, 1-31, 1-65, 1-79, 1-82, 1-104, 5-4, 5-6 THRU 5-8, 5-19, 6-4, 6-6, 6-7, 6-9 THRU 6-12, 8-37 BURIAL (ANCHOR)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-4 THRU G-6, G-10, G-11, G-16, G-21 BUTTOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 BY RULE SECTION MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-109, G-15 THRU G-22 CALCULATING SECTION MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-85, 1-109 CALCULATIONS OF HULL VOLUMES AND PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 THRU 1-29 CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 CANTILEVER FRAMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-71, 1-74, B-32 CANTILEVER BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30 CAPSIZING, CAPSIZED SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-53, 1-74, 5-19, 5-20, 6-5 THRU 6-7, 6-13, 6-14, 7-56, B-43, F-16, F-17, H-6 CAPSTANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 7-67, 8-11, B-57 CARPENTER STOPPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26 CAST-IN-PLACE FOAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 6-11, 8-42 THRU 8-44 CAST IRON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96 CAST STUD-LINK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25 CASUALTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-59, 2-2, 3-14, 3-27, 3-36, 4-1 THRU 4-3, 4-15, 4-19, 4-20, 4-22, 4-23, 5-16, 5-19, 5-20, 5-28, 5-34, 7-10, 7-56, 8-23, 8-37, 9-3, B-48, B-51, C-1 CENTER OF BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14, 1-15, 1-31 THRU 1-33, 1-42, 1-54, 8-43 CENTER OF FLOTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15 CENTER OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14, 1-32 THRU 1-35, 1-42, 1-52 THRU 1-57, 1-64, 1-65, 1-67, 1-101, D-21 CENTER OF GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15, 5-2 THRU 5-4, 5-8, 5-10 THRU 5-12, 5-14, 5-16, 5-19, 5-22, F-6, F-10 CENTER OF VOLUME (BUOYANCY)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14, 1-31 CENTER VERTICAL KEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 CENTERLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 CENTERPLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-2 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14, 8-16 THRU 8-18, 8-21, 8-22, 8-26, 8-32 CENTROID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14 THRU 1-16, 1-20 THRU 1-23, 1-27, 1-28, 1-43, 1-54, 1-85, 1-91, 1-92, 1-101, 1-102, 2-15, 2-30, 2-47, 2-48, D-21 CHAIN STOPPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-32, 7-45, 7-46 CHANGE IN TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-36, 1-43, THRU 1-45, 1-48, 1-52, 1-54, 1-55 CHANGE IN DRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12 THRU 1-14 CHANGE OF DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14, 1-36 CHANNEL AND FAIRWAY OBSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23 CHANNELING, DREDGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23, 5-30 THRU 5-34, 10-18 THRU 10-20 CHEMICAL CARRIERS, TANKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-46, B-50 CHEZY FORMULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 CHINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 CHOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8, 7-69 CLAPOTIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 CLAY (SEE COHESIVE SOIL) CLEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-69 CLINOMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 COAMING (HATCH)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-31, B-32, C-20 COASTWISE SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 COFFIN DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-100 THRU 1-102 COHESIONLESS SOIL (SAND, SILT)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-22 THRU 3-25, 3-27, 3-28, 5-13, 5-14, 5-22, G-22, G-27 COHESIVE SOIL (CLAY)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 THRU 3-28, 3-30, 3-32, 5-13, 5-14, 5-16, 5-22, 5-30, 5-33, 8-6, 8-20 G-2, G-3, G-10, G-11, G-16, G-18, G-20 THRU G-22, G-26 THRU G-28 COLLISION BULKHEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75 COLUMNS (STRUCTURAL)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 THRU 2-39, 6-3, E-4 COMBINATION FRAMING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, B-32, B-34, B-37, B-41, B-47
Index-4
S0300-A8-HBK-010
COMBINED STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95, 2-1, 2-46, 2-52, 7-17 COMMON SHIPBUILDING MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96 COMPARTMENTATION, SUBDIVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 COMPRESSED AIR . . . . . . . . . . 3-37, 4-5, 6-6, 6-11, 6-12, 8-1, 8-17, 8-19, 8-20, 8-33 THRU 8-37, 8-39, 8-40, 8-42 THRU 8-44, 9-10, B-14, B-19, G-36 COMPRESSION BLOCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 COMPRESSIVE FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-12, 2-36 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-36, 8-8, 8-43, D-21, G-19, G-34 OF BRITTLE MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-21, D-24 OF CAST-IN-PLACE FOAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-43 OF COLUMNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 THRU 2-39 OF CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 OF CORAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-19 OF DUCTILE MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-21, D-25 OF ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 OF MILD STEEL TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-53 OF ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-19, G-34 OF TIMBER, WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-16 COMPRESSIVE LOADS, COMPRESSION, STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-12, 2-15, 2-38, 2-45, 2-51, 2-52, 2-54, 7-50 THRU 7-52, D-20, D-21, E-16 COMPUTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11, 1-27, 4-9, 5-4, 5-8, 9-2, B-9, D-2 CONCENTRIC BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34 CONNECTIONS (STRUCTURAL)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70 THRU 1-72, 2-3, 2-45, 2-46, 2-48, 4-5, 5-28, 7-13, 7-32, 7-36, 7-41, 8-12 CONSTRUCTION CLASSES (WIRE ROPE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS (SHIP)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 CONTACT BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18 CONTAINER SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-97, 1-98, 1-100, B-30, B-34, B-35, B-52, B-53, B-55, B-56 CONTAINERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, 1-58, 4-9, 4-23, 9-4, 9-5, 9-11, 9-16, B-9, B-30, B-32, B-34, B-35, B-37, B-39, B-40, B-51, B-53 CONTINUOUS BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32, 2-33, 5-8 CONTRACT TYPES (SALVAGE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17 CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24, 5-31 CORAL BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-20 CORDAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35 CORIOLIS FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 CORRELATION OF SURVEY INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96, 2-3, 4-20, 7-3, 7-4, 7-13 THRU 7-15, 7-19, 7-22, 7-25, 7-32, 7-33, 8-6, B-46, C-15, D-23 CORROSION-RESISTANT STEELS (STAINLESS STEELS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96, E-3, E-18 COSINE CORRECTION (STABILITY CURVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-53 COST ESTIMATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16 THRU 4-18 COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12, 4-16 THRU 4-18, 4-23, 9-16, G-2, G-21, G-28 COUPLE(S) DEFINITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-9 IN GENERAL FORCE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8 THRU D-11 IN SHIPS (RIGHTING, UPSETTING, TRIMMING)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30, 1-31, 1-35, 1-52, 6-6 CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-37 CROSS-FLOODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-64 CROSS-SECTIONAL CURRENT VARIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12, 3-13 CROSS-STIFFENED GRILLAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 CRUISER STERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 CURVE SCALES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-83 CURVED BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33 THRU 2-36 CUT-UP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 CUTS IN STIFFENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65, 2-66 CYCLIC LOADING, STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION-1 THRU INTRODUCTION-4, 2-2, 2-53, 3-5, 6-4, D-23, D-25, G-12, G-24 THRU G-27 CYCLO-BALL INDUCED BUOYANCY SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-44 CYLINDERS (STRENGTH ANALYSIS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42 THRU 2-44 CYLINDERS AND SPHERES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44 DAMAGE
STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TO BEACH GEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . TO CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TO CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TO COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS TO CRP PROPELLERS . . . . . . . TO FIBER ROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . TO PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TO WIRE ROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29 . . . .
9-5, 9-6, 9-8, 9-16 . . . . . . 7-32, 7-33 . . . . . . 8-35, 8-39 . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31 . 7-34, 7-36, 7-37 8-16, 8-17, 8-19, 8-30, 8-32 . . . . . . . 7-8, 7-13 THRU 7-16
Index-5
S0300-A8-HBK-010
DAMAGE (SHIPS) 3-18 10-9 FROM ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33, 3-36 LOCAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14, 7-63 RESISTANCE TO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-34, 1-59, 1-70, 1-72, 1-74, 1-75, B-47, B-49, B-50, C-1 THRU C-7, C-12 THRU C-15 STRUCTURAL, HULL GIRDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-84, 1-109, 2-2, 2-3, 2-12, 2-60 THRU 2-66, 8-44 TO CASUALTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4, 4-5, 4-7 THRU 4-10, 4-15, 4-16, 4-19, 5-1, 5-18, 6-1, 6-2, 6-4, 6-10, 6-12, 6-13, 8-33, 8-37, 8-40, 8-44, 9-2, B-28 DAMAGE CONTROL (DC) BOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11, 1-57, 1-90, B-4 DAMAGE OPENINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63, 2-66 DAMAGED STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, B-9, C-14, H-1, H-4 DAMAGED STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 DATUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7, 4-4, 4-7, 4-8, 5-10, 8-13, D-17, F-28, F-31 DEADRISE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4, 1-40, 5-20, 5-22 DEADWEIGHT (ANCHOR)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1, G-2, G-11 THRU G-15, G-21, G-28 DEADWEIGHT SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8 DEADWEIGHT (DWT)I . . 1-8, 1-12, B-28, B-30, B-31, B-33, B-34, B-36 THRU B-40, B-42, B-44 THRU B-46, B-48, B-49, B-52, B-54 THRU B-57, C-12 DEADWEIGHT COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12 DEADWOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 DECK(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 THRU 1-75, 2-1 THRU 2-4, 3-5, 4-5, 4-7, 5-28, 6-3, 8-43, B-6, B-14, B-32, B-33, B-35, B-37 THRU B-45, B-51, B-53 THRU B-57, C-12 THRU C-16, C-20 THRU C-22, F-8, H-1 TWEEN DECKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33, 1-57, 1-73, 1-74, 1-100, 9-15, B-8, B-31, B-32, B-39, B-44 CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-36, B-37, B-39, B-44 FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5, 5-26, 5-28, 7-36, 7-69 THRU 7-72 STRENGTH DECK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, B-21, B-22, B-31, B-53, B-54, B-56, C-20, F-18, F-25 UPPER DECK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-37, C-20 THRU C-22 DEEP TANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-64, 8-33, B-32, B-56, B-57, F-14 DEEP WATER WAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-3 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15, 1-76, 1-95, 1-97, 2-1, 2-3 THRU 2-6, 2-15 THRU 2-33, 2-39, 2-40, 3-13, 4-7, 5-4, 5-7, 5-8, 5-11, 5-13, 5-21, 7-22, 8-2 THRU 8-4, 8-11, B-3, B-41, C-15, F-2, F-7, G-29, G-35 DERRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33, 7-59 THRU 7-62, B-11, B-29, B-44 DESIGN CURVES FOR STIFFENED PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5 THRU 2-12 DESIGN STRESS (SEE ALLOWABLE STRESS) DESIGN WATERPLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 DETACHABLE LINKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30, 7-33 DETAILED SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 4-3, 4-4, 4-8 DETERIORATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 7-14, 7-35, 7-37, 8-1, 9-5, C-15, D-23 DETERMINING CASUALTY MOVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 DETONATION VELOCITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 DEWATERING . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66, 2-1, 5-21, 6-3, 6-11, 6-13, 8-1, 8-3, 8-13, 8-19 THRU 8-23, 8-28, 8-30, 8-33, 8-35 THRU 8-37, 8-39, 8-42, 9-10, F-26 DI-LOK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18, 7-22 THRU 7-25, 7-32 DIAMETER, EQUIVALENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-20 DIAPHRAGM PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22, 8-23, 8-27 DIESEL ENGINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20, 5-25, 8-17 DILATENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-32 DIMENSIONS, SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, B-19, B-23, B-24, B-31, B-33 THRU B-35, B-38, B-40, B-44, B-46, B-49, B-51 THRU B-56 DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS (SEE ANCHORS) DISPERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-32 DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5, 1-9 THRU 1-15, 1-28, 1-29, 1-36, 1-40, 1-46, 1-50, 1-57, 1-65, 1-106, 5-4, 5-8, 5-29, 6-7, 6-10, 8-43, 8-44, B-2, B-8, B-19, B-23, B-24, B-31, B-33, B-34, B-38, B-44, B-49, B-52, B-54 THRU B-56, C-2 THRU C-8, C-10, H-3, H-5 THRU H-7, H-9, H-13 DISPLACEMENT AND BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 THRU 1-15 DISPLACEMENT AND COEFFICIENTS OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-46 DISPLACEMENT, CHANGE OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-36 DISPLACEMENT VOLUME ()I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9, 1-12, 1-15, 1-19, 1-28, 1-29, 1-47, 1-60, 1-63 THRU 1-65, 6-6, 6-7, 6-9, 6-11 DISTRIBUTED LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14, 2-15, 2-30, 2-65, 6-3, 8-1, C-15, F-19 DIVERS, DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11, 4-6 THRU 4-8, 4-10, 4-18, 4-19, 5-32, 5-34, 6-4, 6-13, 7-13, 8-12, 8-40, 8-42 DOCKING STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66, 1-67 DORIS (SEE ANCHORS) DOUBLE BOTTOM(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-74, 1-75, B-31, B-42 THRU B-44 DOUBLER PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62, 2-65, 2-66, 5-28, 7-72 DOWNFLOODING, DOWNFLOODING ANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-58, 6-4, C-5, C-9 DRAFT (CARGO LIFT)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-15, 9-16 DRAFT (SHIP)I. . . . . 1-2, 1-7, 1-12 THRU 1-14, 1-40, 1-44, 1-51, 1-54 THRU 1-56, 1-65, 1-82, 3-14, 4-15, 5-4 THRU 5-10, 5-12, 5-13, 5-16, 5-17, 6-2, 9-6, 9-7, B-2, B-3, B-5, B-7, B-19, B-23 THRU B-25, B-30, B-31, B-33, B-34, B-38, B-40, B-44, B-46, B-49, B-51 THRU B-57, C-13, C-14, H-6, H-9, H-13 DRAFTS, DRAFT READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7, 5-8, 5-21, F-2 DRAFTS AFTER A CHANGE IN TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-44
ENVIRONMENTAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-6, 3-14, EXPLOSIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6 THRU
Index-6
S0300-A8-HBK-010
DRAG, DRAGGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36, 5-14, 5-18, 7-25, B-50 DRAG (HYDRODYNAMIC)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3, 3-14, 4-19, 5-18, 6-4, 6-13, 7-68, 8-5, 8-24, C-1 DRAG (KEEL)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5, 1-42 DRAG (WIRE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 DRAG, DRAG DISTANCE (ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25, G-1 THRU G-6, G-8 THRU G-11, G-16, G-21, G-28 DRAG-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS (SEE ANCHORS) DREDGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15, 5-23, 5-30 THRU 5-34, 8-24 DRILLING AND GROUTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-28, G-35, G-36 DRIVEN PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-2, G-35, G-36 DRUMS AND SHEAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10, 7-14 DRY STRENGTH (SOIL)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-32 DRY STRENGTH (FIBER ROPE)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34, 7-37 DRYDOCKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66 THRU 1-68, 1-71, 1-77, 1-81, B-7 DUCTILE MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-40, 2-47, 2-53, D-21, D-24, D-25 DUNNAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-32 EARTH PRESSURE, EARTH FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30, 3-31, G-14, G-28 EBB-TIDAL DELTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 ECCENTRIC LOADS, LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38, 2-48, G-15 EDUCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34, 8-19, 8-22 EELLS (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3, G-5, G-10 EFFECTIVE (EQUIVALENT) BREADTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-6, 3-25, G-15 EFFECTIVE LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39, 3-25, G-15, G-34 EFFECTIVE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-84, 1-88, C-20 ELASTIC, STRESS, DEFORMATION; ELASTICITY . . 1-80, 2-3, 2-15, 2-29, 2-39, 2-42, 2-52, 4-7, 5-9, 7-7, 7-22, 7-34, 7-36, 8-9, D-20, D-21, G-15, G-28 ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22, 8-27 ELLIPTICAL STERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 EMBEDMENT DEPTH (IN SEAFLOOR)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25, 3-26, 5-26, G-4, G-12, G-13, G-15, G-22 THRU G-24 ENDURANCE LIMIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, D-23, D-25 ENGINEERS AND PRACTICAL PEOPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18 ENTRANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4, 3-8, 3-10, 4-15 ENVIRONMENT EFFECTS OF . . . . . . 1-64, 1-65, 1-82, 2-2, 2-46, 3-1 THRU 3-18, 3-23 THRU 3-31, 3-36, 4-19, 5-1, 5-13, 6-1, 6-2, 8-5, C-2, C-9, C-7, F-35 OPERATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 4-1, 4-19, 7-13, 8-17, 8-23, D-24, H-1 PROTECTION OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2, 4-12, 4-20, 4-21, 9-1 THRU 9-3, 9-9, 10-10, 10-21, 10-22, B-49 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-23 EPOXY RESIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 EQUALIZERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-32 EQUILIBRIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9, 1-30, 1-32, 1-52, 1-59, 1-80, 3-23, 3-25, 5-4, D-11, D-12, G-6 EQUIVALENT DIAMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-20 EQUIVALENT DIMENSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25 ESSM SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19, 7-22, 8-22, 8-35, 9-4, 9-14 EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23, 5-30 THRU 5-32, 6-2, 8-20 EXISTING OPENINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66 EXPANSION TRUNK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 EXPLOSIVE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23, 10-4 THRU 10-24, G-16 APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12, 10-13, 10-20 BARRICADES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11 BLAST EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3, 10-4 THRU 10-10, 10-21, 10-22 BUBBLE PULSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 THRU 10-7 BUBBLE SCREENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-22 CHAPMAN-JOUQUET (C-J) PLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 CHARGE GEOMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3, 10-11, 10-13 CHARGE PLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7 THRU 10-9, 10-11, 10-12, 10-16, 10-18, 10-21, 10-22 COMMERCIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3, 10-14, 10-24 CONCRETE AND MASONRY BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-21 CONTACT CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-16, 10-18 CORAL BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-20 COUPLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 CUTTING AND FRACTURING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-13 THRU 10-19, 10-21 DAMAGE FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8 DANGERS TO DIVERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-24 DETONATION VELOCITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 EFFECTS ON MARINE LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10 FRACTURING CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-13, 10-14 HAZARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17, 8-27, 8-37, 9-2, B-29 INTERNAL CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11, 10-18, 10-20, 10-21 LINEAR CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8 MILITARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-24
Index-7
S0300-A8-HBK-010
EXPLOSIVE(S) (CONTINUED) 10-22 10-23 REDUCING SHOCK WAVE PRESSURE AND IMPULSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11, 10-17, 10-21, 10-22 SETTING ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-21 SHAPED CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-13 SHIP SECTIONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-16 SHOCK FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8 SHOCK WAVE EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4, 10-5, 10-7 THRU 10-10, 10-22 TAMPING, STEMMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11, 10-21, 10-22 TENSION PULSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3, 10-14, 10-19 TEST SHOTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-23 TIMBER AND PILE CUTTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-21 EXTERNAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32 EXTERNAL PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 2-45, 8-41 FACE BAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64, 2-66 FACTOR OF SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95, 2-46, 7-35, 7-53, 7-69, 7-70, 7-72, 8-3, 8-43, D-24, D-25, G-13, G-24, G-25, G-27 FAILURE DEFINITION, FAILURE MODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95, D-24 FAIRLEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27, 7-36 FATIGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-46, 2-53, 3-5, 4-19, 5-18, 7-3, 7-10, 7-13 THRU 7-16, 7-32, 7-33, D-23 THRU D-25, E-3, G-2 FATIGUE FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15, D-23 FETCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2, 3-3 FIBER LINE, FIBER ROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-32, 7-34 THRU 7-39, 7-64, 7-69 FIBERGLASS (GRP)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9, B-34 FIRE, FIREFIGHTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57, 1-74, 1-75, 2-3, 8-19 FIXED PRICE CONTRACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17 FLARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5, 1-40 FLAT PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39, 2-41, 8-1, 8-2 FLEXURE (THEORY)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 2-12, 2-14 THRU 2-33, 2-35, 2-52 FLOATING CRANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 7-56, 7-58, 9-14, C-7 FLOODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57 THRU 1-59, 1-63 THRU 1-65, 1-72 THRU 1-75, 1-81, 1-109, 2-1, 2-2, 3-35, 3-37, 4-5, 5-23, 6-1, 6-2, 6-10, 8-1, 8-23, 9-1, B-5, B-6, C-14, H-1, H-6 FLOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-71, 1-73 FLUID FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-4, 3-14, 3-16, 5-13, 6-2, D-17 THRU D-19 FLUID MECHANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-17 THRU D-19 FLUID PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28, 8-30, D-15, D-16, E-1, E-21 FLUKE(S) (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3 THRU G-6, G-8 THRU G-11, G-17 THRU G-23, G-25 FOAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11, 8-10, 8-12, 8-42 THRU 8-44, B-43, E-19 FOREBODY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 FOREFOOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73, 5-22 FORM STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30, 6-7 FORWARD PERPENDICULAR (FP)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 FOUNDATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 2-1, 2-3, 3-23, 3-36, 3-30, 5-23, 5-28, 7-69, G-15, G-28 THRU G-36 FRAME(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69 THRU 1-73, 2-7, 2-12, 2-61, 4-7 FRAMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-29, 1-69, 1-70, 1-73, 5-28, 8-5, 8-12, B-7, B-14, B-19, B-37, B-38, B-42, B-48 FRAMING SYSTEM(S)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69, 1-70 COMBINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, B-32, B-34, B-37, B-41, B-47 LONGITUDINAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, B-37, B-41, B-47 TRANSVERSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, B-37, B-47 FREE COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57, 1-64, 1-65, 3-4, 6-6, 8-37, B-6 FREE SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-47, 1-48, 1-57, 1-58, 1-60 THRU 1-66, 1-74, 6-6, 6-9, 6-11, 6-12, B-6, B-29 FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 7-41, 7-56, 7-72, D-21 FREEBOARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-14, 1-40, 1-75, 4-7, 6-5, 6-7, B-29, B-35, B-49, B-55, C-1, C-4, C-5, C-7, C-8, C-10, C-12 THRU C-14 FREEING FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14, 5-13, 5-21 THRU 5-23, F-1, F-26 FRICTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3, 3-4, 3-10, 3-12, 3-13, 3-16, 3-18, 3-21 THRU 3-25, 3-27, 3-31, 3-32, 3-37, 5-13 THRU 5-18, 5-20 THRU 5-24, 5-30, 7-13, 7-36, 7-64, 7-66, 8-14 THRU 8-16, 8-19, 8-24, 8-27, 8-28, 8-38, 9-16, F-26, G-4, G-11, G-13, G-14, G-23, G-24, G-27, G-28, G-30, G-33, G-36 FUNCTIONS OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-28, B-2 GAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36, D-22 GAGE (SHEET)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-15 GAGE PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-17 GELIGNITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12 GENERAL CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33, 1-58, 1-100, 9-8, 9-15, 9-16, B-8, B-33, B-34, B-50 THRU B-52, B-54 THRU B-57 GENERAL CARGO SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 THRU 1-8, 1-12, 1-32, 1-57, 1-100, 8-33, 9-15, 9-16, B-8, B-12, B-30, B-31, C-5, C-16, C-21, C-22 GENERAL PARALLEL MIDBODY METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-101, 1-102 GENERAL-PURPOSE PADEYES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-71 GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR SHIPS (GENSPECS)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70
MULTIPLE CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9, OPERATIONAL NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index-8
S0300-A8-HBK-010
GIN POLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-50, 7-59, 7-61 GIRDER (SEE ALSO BEAM)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-71, 1-76 THRU 1-79, 1-84, 1-86, 1-95, 1-97, 2-1 THRU 2-4, 2-13, 2-29, 2-61, B-35, C-20 GIRDER, HULL . . . . . . . 1-11, 1-72, 1-74, 1-76 THRU 1-95, 1-97 THRU 1-102, 2-1 THRU 2-3, 2-13, 2-29, 2-60 THRU 2-66, 3-5, 4-7, 4-14, 5-1, 5-2, 5-9, 5-20, 6-2, 6-13, 8-1, 8-12, 8-43, 9-1, 9-5, B-34, C-15 THRU C-22, F-18 THRU F-25, F-30 THRU F-35 BENDING STRESS DISTRIBUTION DURING STRANDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-77 CASUALTY STRENGTH ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97 FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 LOAD CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-79 LONGITUDINAL STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78 SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95 STRENGTH (SEE LONGITUDINAL STRENGTH) STRENGTH, IN RELATIONSHIP TO DECKHOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 STRESSES AFFECTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76 ULTIMATE STRENGTH COMPUTER PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 WEIGHT CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-79 GLASS REINFORCED PLASTIC (GRP)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96, 8-3, 8-9 THRU 8-11, E-20 GM (SEE ALSO METACENTER)I . . . . 1-33 THRU 1-36, 1-39, 1-41, 1-45, 1-48, 1-50, 1-51, 1-56, 1-57, 1-66, 1-67, 6-9, 6-11, 8-1, B-4, B-7, B-55, B-57, C-1, C-5 THRU C-9, C-11, F-14, F-16, F-17, F-28, F-29, H-9, H-13 GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 GRAPPLING DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1, G-16 GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9, 1-14, 1-15, 1-21, 1-30 THRU 1-38, 1-40, 1-42 THRU 1-45, 1-49, 1-51 THRU 1-57, 1-59 THRU 1-61, 1-63 THRU 1-68, 1-82, 1-90 THRU 1-92, 1-101 THRU 1-103, 1-106, 1-107 GREAT LAKES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33, 3-35, C-5 THRU C-7, C-13 GREAT LAKES BULK CARRIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-74, 9-11, B-12, B-29, B-44 THRU B-47, B-51, B-53 GRILLAGE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69, 1-70, 2-5 THRU 2-12, B-3 GROSS TONNAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10 GROUND LEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24, 5-26, 5-27, 5-29, G-1, G-3, G-5 GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-50, 1-78, 3-5, 3-15, 3-16, 4-4, 4-7, 4-9, 4-14, 5-1 THRU 5-23, 5-26, 5-30, 5-34, 6-1, 6-10, 6-14, 7-56, 9-1, 9-2, 9-4, B-30, F-1, F-4, F-6 THRU F-13, F-15, F-16, F-18, F-20 THRU F-22, F-26 GROUND REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23 GROUND TACKLE (SEE ALSO BEACH GEAR)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22, 5-24, 5-26 THRU 5-29, 5-31 GROUNDING OFF CENTERLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19 GUNWALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-72, 3-13 GZ (SEE RIGHTING ARM) HALFBREADTH PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 HARBOR CLEARANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 4-10, 4-11, 4-15, 5-30, 6-1, 8-23 HARBOR SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 HARDNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96, 3-24, 3-35, 7-12, 7-17, 7-28, D-22, D-23 HATCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 2-55, 6-6, 7-36, 7-60, 9-10, 9-11, 9-15, B-33 THRU B-35, B-39, B-40, B-45, B-51, B-56, B-57, C-12, C-20 HAWSER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25, 7-3, 7-70 HAZARDOUS CARGOES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5, 4-20, B-50 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20 HEAD (HYDRAULIC)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-12, 3-14, 5-32 THRU 5-34, 6-3, 8-1, 8-13 THRU 8-23, 8-25 THRU 8-30, 8-32, 8-39, 8-41, 9-5, 9-10, D-19 HEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32, 1-33, 1-35 THRU 1-42, 1-53, 1-56, 1-58, 1-59, 1-61, 1-63 THRU 1-65, 3-17, 6-8, C-1 THRU C-10, C-14, H-5 HEIGHTS OF CENTERS (BUOYANCY, GRAVITY, METACENTER)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32 THRU 1-34 HELICOPTER(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 4-2, 4-8, 4-15, 4-21 THRU 4-23, 9-3, 9-8, 9-15, B-10, H-6 HERZOG FORMULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 HIGH-CAPACITY WINCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26 HIGHLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-71, 9-8, 9-15 HOG (HOGGING)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76, 1-77, 1-91, 2-3, 5-21, B-3, B-42, 1-81 HOLD (CARGO)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-29, 1-33, 1-64, 1-76, 1-107, 8-27, 8-33, 9-6, 9-15, B-7, B-8, B-29 THRU B-31, B-34, B-38 THRU B-41, B-43, B-52, C-6, C-20 HOLDING CAPACITY (ANCHOR)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1 THRU G-8, G-10, G-11, G-16 THRU G-29, G-33 HOOKES LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15, 2-42, D-21 HORSEPOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-99, 1-100, 5-25, 8-29, B-32 THRU B-34, B-38, B-44, B-49 THRU B-53, C-3, C-8 HOSE (PIPELINE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31, 5-32, 5-34, 7-71, 8-7, 8-14, 8-15, 8-26, 8-36, 8-37, 8-40, 9-8, 9-10 HULL CHARACTERISTICS, PARAMETRIC DETERMINATION OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-45 THRU 1-50 HULL GIRDER (SEE GIRDER, HULL) HULL GIRDER FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 HULL DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7, 5-4, 5-6 THRU 5-8, 5-11, 5-12, 5-21, B-3, F-2, F-7 HULL FORM(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-8, 1-16, 1-29, 1-39, 1-103, B-2, B-9, B-43 HULL STRAIN READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 HULL STRENGTH IN SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 5-20, 6-13 HULL STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69 THRU 1-75, 1-96, 2-4, 8-5, 8-12, B-7, B-31, B-32, B-36, B-37, B-41, B-46, B-47, B-49, B-50 HULL SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 HYDRAULIC BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-39 HYDRAULIC CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10, 3-12
Index-9
S0300-A8-HBK-010
HYDRAULIC DREDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33, 5-34 HYDRAULICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 HYDROGRAPHIC DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8, 4-14 HYDROSTATICS, HULL (FUNCTIONS FOR FORM)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-9 THRU 1-15, 1-28, 1-45, B-2, B-5, B-7 I-BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35, E-4 ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-33 THRU 3-38, 7-36 FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 FORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33 THRU 3-35 FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33, 3-34 ICING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-64, 1-65, 3-18, C-3 ISLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-34, 3-36 THRU 3-38, 5-27 PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-35, 3-37 PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-36 ICEBREAKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-51 IMPACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46, 2-60, 3-4, 3-6, 5-18, 6-12, 7-68, D-22, D-23, G-36 IMPACT-DRIVEN ANCHORS (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-16, G-20 IMPAIRED STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-58 THRU 1-65, 1-67 THRU 1-69 IMPROVED STOCKLESS ANCHORS (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-9, G-10 IMPROVISED SYSTEMS BEACH GEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28, 5-29 DREDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31, 5-32, 5-34 WEIGHT HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-59 THRU 7-63 IMPULSE LOADING (ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-24, G-25 THRU G-27 INCLINATION (HEEL, LIST, ROLL)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32, 1-36 INCLINING EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-56, B-4, B-14 INDUCED BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1, 8-42 THRU 8-44 INERT GAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-33, 8-36, 8-37, 8-40, B-29 INITIAL RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 INITIAL STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15, 1-33, 1-34, 1-39, 1-40, 1-57, 1-63, C-1, F-14, F-28 INLAND ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-35 INTACT STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, C-1 THRU C-3, C-5 THRU C-10, H-3 THRU H-6 INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 THRU 1-29, D-5, D-6 CALCULATIONS FOR FUNCTIONS OF FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-28 DISCONTINUOUS CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-27 GENERAL FORMS FOR AREA AND MOMENT CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23 GRAPHICAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 INTEGRAL CALCULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5, D-6 MOMENTS AND CENTROIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-20 NUMERICAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 THRU 1-27 OTHER INTEGRATION RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-26 SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21 SIMPSONS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17 THRU 1-19, 1-26, 1-29 TRAPEZOIDAL RULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16, 1-24, 1-29 VOLUMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22 INTER-FRAME FLEXURAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12 INTER-FRAME TRIPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12 INTERCOSTAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69, 1-70 INTERIOR HULL SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 INTERNAL PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42 THRU 2-45, 8-17, 8-35, 8-38, 8-40, 8-41, 8-44 INTERNAL SHEAR STRENGTH (ICE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-37 INTERNAL WATER DISPLACEMENT (INDUCED BUOYANCY)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-42 THRU 8-44 JACK-IN PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-36 JACKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23, 5-23 JET PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33, 5-34, 8-17 THRU 8-19, 8-21, 8-22 JETTED-IN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-16, G-20 JETTED PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-35, G-36 JETTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30, 5-32, 8-19, 8-22 JETTISONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6, 9-9 JIG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5, 8-10 KARL KROYER (INDUCED BUOYANCY SYSTEM)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-44 KEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 THRU 1-5, 1-32, 1-66 THRU 1-68, 1-71, 1-72, 1-76, 1-77, 1-85 THRU 1-87, 1-89, 2-2, 3-34, 5-1, 5-19, H-7 KEELSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 KERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28, 3-29, 8-15, D-6, D-10, D-19 KNEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-72, 9-16, B-50 KNUCKLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4, 1-5, F-6
Index-10
S0300-A8-HBK-010
KNUCKLE BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66 KNUCKLE SHEAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12 KROYER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-44 LAMINAR LANDING LATERAL LATERAL
FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOADING BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-15, D-20 5-29, 7-56, 9-2, 9-3, 9-6, 9-8, 9-14, B-10 THRU B-12 LOAD CAPACITY (ANCHOR)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-2, G-6, G-8, G-11 THRU G-14, G-16, G-17, G-19, G-22 THRU G-27, G-29, G-35
2-39 THRU 2-41 2-39 THRU 2-41 LAY (ROPE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1, 7-3, 7-34 LIAISON WITH REPAIR ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16 LIBERTY SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-31 LIFTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 3-3, 4-23, 5-21, 5-32, 6-1, 6-2, 6-4, 6-8, 6-11 THRU 6-13, 7-1, 7-2, 7-17, 7-50 THRU 7-63, 7-68, 9-1 THRU 9-3, 9-10, 9-12, 9-14, C-2, C-3, C-7 LIGHTER(S), LIGHTERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8, 4-13, 5-16, 5-18, 9-5 THRU 9-9, 9-15, 9-16, B-10 THRU B-12, B-29, B-38, B-49 LIKELY DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75 LIMITING DRAFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4, C-4, C-14, H-6 LINE HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22 LINE-HANDLING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 7-67 LINEAR CHARGES (EXPLOSIVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8 LINEAR DIMENSION RATIO (EXPLOSIVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 LINEAR PULLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 7-67 LINES PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3, B-3 LIQUID LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, 4-4, 4-5, B-5, B-8, B-41 LIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30, 1-32, 1-36, 1-39, 1-52, 1-53, 1-58, 1-64, 4-4, 5-1, 5-19, 5-21, 6-1, 6-5, 6-9, 6-10, 8-40, 9-1, B-5, B-7, B-34, C-4, H-1, H-3 LITTORAL PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11, 3-27, 3-28, 5-18 LNGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-46 LNG CARRIER, TANKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-45, B-46 THRU B-48, B-50 LOAD CURVE, DISTRIBUTION (SHIP)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 1-79, 1-81 THRU 1-83, 1-90, 1-92, 1-93, F-23, F-33, F-34 LOAD LINE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11, 1-75, B-43, C-1, C-12 THRU C-14 LOADING INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11, C-16 LOCAL LOADS, STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 2-1, 2-2, 2-14 THRU 2-66 LOCATION OF POINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-2, 1-32, H-7 LOLLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33 LONG-TERM CAPACITY (ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6, G-13, G-17, G-19, G-23, G-24, G-29 THRU G-35 LONGITUDINAL FRAMING, STRENGTH MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69 THRU 1-71, 1-84, 4-7, B-31, B-32, B-37, B-41, B-47, C-20 LONGITUDINAL METACENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-42 LONGITUDINAL METACENTRIC HEIGHT (GML)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-43, 1-44, 1-48 LONGITUDINAL METACENTRIC RADIUS (BML)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-42, 1-48 LONGITUDINAL POSITION OF THE CENTER OF BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-42 LONGITUDINAL POSITION OF THE CENTER OF FLOTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-42 LONGITUDINAL POSITION OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-42 LONGITUDINAL PRISMATIC COEFFICIENT (CP)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7, 1-46 LONGITUDINAL STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-42 THRU 1-45, 6-5, 6-8, 6-12 LONGITUDINAL STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70 THRU 1-72, 1-76 THRU 1-109, 2-2, 2-13, 8-12, 9-2, B-31, B-37, C-15, C-16, F-18 THRU F-25, F-30 THRU F-35, H-7 LONGITUDINAL STRENGTH DRAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-79, B-7, FP-9 LONGITUDINALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69 THRU 1-71, 1-73, 1-77, 1-87, 2-2, 2-4, 2-62, 4-7, B-34, B-38, 8-12 LOOSE WATER (FREE SURFACE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57, 1-60 THRU 1-63 LOSS OF GMI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66 LOST BUOYANCY METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-65 LPGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-46 LPG CARRIER, TANKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-46, B-47, B-48 LWT (WARPING TUG)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-11 MACHINERY, MACHINERY SPACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-58, 1-71, 1-73 THRU 1-75, 1-78, 1-98 THRU 1-100, 2-3, 3-33, 4-1, 4-4, 4-5, 4-20, 5-22, 5-30, 5-31, 7-71, 8-1, 8-22, 8-33, 8-44, B-1, B-9, B-12 THRU B-14, B-18, B-33, B-37 THRU B-41, B-43 THRU B-46, B-49, B-52, B-54 THRU B-57, C-4 MAGAZINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5, 7-56 MAIN DECK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-72, 1-74, 1-96, 6-3, 9-10, B-14, B-18, B-31, B-35, B-38, B-41 MANHOLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3, 8-36, 9-10 MANIFOLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19, 8-22, 8-27, 9-16 MARGIN PLATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-73 MAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28, 6-2, 6-13, 7-50 THRU 7-52, 7-60 MEASUREMENT TON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 5-29, 7-64 MECHANICAL DREDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33
Index-11
S0300-A8-HBK-010
METACENTER (M)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15, 1-28, 1-32, 1-38, 1-41, 1-51 THRU 1-55, 1-65, 1-67, 5-19, 6-6, 6-7, 6-9, 6-11, 8-1, 8-19, B-7 METACENTRIC HEIGHT (GM)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33 THRU 1-39, 1-47, 1-48, 1-51, 1-56, 1-57, 1-66, 1-67, 5-16, 5-19, 5-20, 6-7, 6-9, 6-11, 8-1, B-4, B-7, B-19, B-43, C-1, C-5 THRU C-9, C-11, F-29, H-9, H-13 METACENTRIC RADIUS (BM)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33, 1-34, 1-36, 1-39, 1-41, 1-47, 1-51, 6-5 THRU 6-7, 6-9, 6-11, 6-12, B-2 MIDSHIP PLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 MIDSHIP SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-4, 1-6, 1-7, 1-42, 1-47, B-2 MIDSHIP SECTION COEFFICIENT (CM)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-47, B-51, B-53, B-54, B-56 MIDSHIPS BENDING MOMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82, C-16 MINIKIN FORMULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 MINIMUM ACCEPTANCE STRENGTH (WIRE ROPE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 MINIMUM FREEBOARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-75, B-36, C-1, C-12 THRU C-14 MINIMUM SECTION MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-109, C-16, C-18 MODULUS BULK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-16, E-3 OF ELASTICITY (YOUNGS MODULUS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5, 2-7, 2-12, 2-29 THRU 2-31, 2-37, 2-52, 7-7, 7-8, 7-52, 8-4, 8-9, D-21, E-3, E-16 OF RIGIDITY (SHEAR MODULUS)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-57, 2-58, D-23, E-3 OF RUPTURE (SEE ALSO ULTIMATE STRENGTH)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-23 PLASTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 SECTION (SEE SECTION MODULUS) TANGENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-23 MOLDED DIMENSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 MOMENT OF TRANSFERENCE (FREE SURFACE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-61, 1-62, 1-64 MOMENT ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32, D-9 MOMENT CALCULATIONS (NUMERICAL INTEGRATION)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-20, 1-23 MOMENT OF INERTIA (I)(SECOND MOMENT OF AREA)I . . . 1-21, 1-22, 1-24, 1-25, 1-28, 1-34, 1-43, 1-47, 1-48, 1-60, 1-78, 1-84, 1-85, 1-94, 1-95, 1-97, 1-108, 2-4, 2-48, 2-52, 6-6, 6-7, 6-9, 6-11, C-15, C-18, C-19, C-22, D-12, D-13, E-5 THRU E-17, H-7 MOMENT TO CHANGE TRIM ONE INCH (MT1)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-43, 1-44, 1-48 MOMENTS AND CENTROIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-20 MOORFAST (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-45, G-6, G-8 THRU G-10 MOVEMENT OF LCB AND LCG WITH CHANGE OF TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-45 MOVING STRANDED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21 MUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57, 5-13, 5-16, 5-22, 5-31 THRU 5-33, 6-2, 8-20, 8-21, 9-2, G-2, G-3, G-8, G-10, G-11, G-24, G-28 MUDCAPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18 NAILS AND SPIKES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48 NATURAL ROLLING PERIOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32, 1-34, 1-35, 1-56 NAVAL SEA SYSTEMS COMMAND (NAVSEA)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-6, 4-4, 4-12, 4-23, 4-24, B-9, C-1 NAVMOOR (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, G-3, G-6, G-9, G-10 NAVY STOCKLESS (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-9 THRU G-11 NEARSHORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 THRU 3-13, 3-18, 3-22, 3-23, 3-27, 3-28, 3-30 NEGATIVE APPENDAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 NET TONNAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10 NEUTRAL AXIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22, 1-78, 1-89, 2-2, 2-13, 2-15, 2-29, 2-39, 2-66, B-7, B-21, B-22 NEUTRAL BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 NEUTRAL LOADING POINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14, 5-10 THRU 5-13 NEWTONS SECOND LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-68, D-7 NOMINAL STRENGTH (WIRE ROPE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4, 7-5 NONBREAKING WAVE FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 NONTIDAL CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-10 NUMBERING SYSTEMS FOR DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-13, B-18 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 THRU 1-29 NYLON (FIBER ROPE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34 THRU 7-39 OBLIQUE LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 OBOI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-46, 1-47, B-44, B-51 OFFCENTER WEIGHT (SEE ALSO TRANSVERSE STABILITY)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-52, 1-53 OFFSETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8, 1-28, 1-29, 1-33, 1-79, 5-4, 5-8, B-3, B-9, FP-1 OFFSHORE SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 OIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36, 3-37, 4-8, 4-13, 4-20, 7-19, 7-21, 8-6, 8-11, 8-14, 8-17, 8-21 THRU 8-23, 8-27, 8-30, 8-32, 8-42, 9-3, 9-4, 9-6, 9-7, 9-11, 9-14, B-9, B-11, B-12, B-19, B-30, B-32, B-41 THRU B-43, B-45, B-50, B-54, B-56 THRU B-58 OPEN FORM CONTRACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17 OPEN LINK CHAIN (CLOSE-LINKED CHAIN)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17, 7-18 OPERATIONAL BASES (COST)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16 ORDNANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 4-12, 4-15, 9-3, B-4, G-2 ORE CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-11, 1-12, 1-33, 1-57, 1-75, C-6, C-21 ORGANIC MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57, 3-19, 8-6 ORGANIC SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-32 OVERTURNING FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6, 3-17, 3-36 OVERTURNING RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-38, G-14, G-15
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PADEYE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28, 7-69 THRU 7-72 PALLETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, 9-11 PANAMAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-29 PANTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 2-12, 4-5 PARALLEL MIDBODY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4, 1-101 PARALLEL SINKAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-56, 5-9, 5-10 PARAMETRIC DETERMINATION OF HULL CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-45 THRU 1-50, 1-79, 1-98 PARBUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 3-23, 6-1, 6-14, G-3 PARTIALLY SUBMERGED VESSELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9, 6-10 PASSIVE EARTH FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31 PATCH(ES)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5, 2-61, 8-1 THRU 8-12 PAYLOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11, B-44 PELICAN HOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-32, 7-45 PENDANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 5-27, 7-71 PENETRATION, SEAFLOOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25, 5-16, 6-2, G-3 THRU G-5, G-9 THRU G-11, G-14, G-16 THRU G-20, G-36 PERMEABILITY, FLOODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-29, 1-58, 1-63, 8-42, B-5 PERMEABILITY, SOLIDS AND SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-21, 3-26, 8-27, G-25 PERMITS FOR EXPLOSIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-23 PERPENDICULARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-34, 1-42, 1-44 THRU 1-46, 1-56, 1-74, 1-79, 1-80, 1-83, 1-97 THRU 1-99, 1-103, 1-106 THRU 1-108, 5-2, 5-7, 5-10, 5-16, 5-20, B-34, B-35, B-39, B-45, B-50, C-5, C-16, F-6, F-35, H-1 PERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11, 1-34, 1-56, 1-65, 1-74, 3-13, 3-18, 3-32, 4-3, 4-6, 4-8 THRU 4-10, 4-12, 4-14 THRU 4-23, 5-29, 6-4, 7-8, 8-23, 8-44, 9-2, 9-3 PERSONNEL TRANSFER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21, 4-22 PILE FOUNDATIONS AND ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30, G-1, G-2, G-20, G-28 THRU G-36 IN ROCK SEAFLOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-33 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-28, G-35 VARIABLE CROSS SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-35 PINNACLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97, 5-4, 5-8, 5-10, 5-19, 5-20 PITCH OR LENGTH OF LAY (ROPE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 PLANKS (IN PATCHES)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3, 8-4 PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 4-2, 4-12 THRU 4-15, 4-17 THRU 4-23, 5-34 PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95, 2-3, 2-13, 2-53, 4-7, 5-9, 7-34 PLASTIC STRESS AND RESIDUAL STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-13 PLASTICITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-21, 3-32, D-23 PLATE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-4, 2-6 THRU 2-39, 2-41, 2-46, 2-47, 2-54 THRU 2-56, 2-61 THRU 2-66, 8-2, 8-3, 8-5, 8-12, 8-36, B-6, E-2, E-4, E-15, G-10, G-16, G-19 THRU G-22, G-28 PLATE FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12 PLATE SHACKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31, 7-32, 7-40, 7-41 PLATE STEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-3, 1-28, 1-59, 1-69, 1-70, 1-78, 1-84, 1-87, 1-88, 1-94, 1-96, 1-109, 2-2 THRU 2-13, 5-18, 5-23, 8-2, 8-3, 8-5, 8-12 PLYWOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2, 8-10, B-34 POCKETING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-61 THRU 1-63 POINT OF CONSTANT DRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57 POISSONS RATIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6, 2-40, 2-42, E-3 POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-59, 4-12, 4-14, 4-20, 9-2 POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20 POLYARAMID (KEVLAR)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34, 8-9 POLYURETHANE FOAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-42, E-19 PONTOONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21, 6-10 THRU 6-13, 7-56, 8-42 POROSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20, 3-21, 6-2 POSITIVE APPENDAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 POUNDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78 PORICELLI-BOYD-SCHLEIFFER REGRESSION ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-45, 1-79, 1-98 PREDICTION OF BEACH EROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 PREFORMING (WIRE ROPE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 PRELIMINARY SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3, 4-4 PRESSURE AIR LIFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20 BLOWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-38 COMPRESSOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34 DIFFERENTIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-38 EXTERNAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 8-41 HYDROSTATIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-58, 1-59, 8-38, D-17, D-18 INTERNAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 8-41 PUMP (HEAD)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13 THRU 8-16, 8-22, 8-23 VAPOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-32, D-16 PRESSURE-TIME PLOT (EXPLOSIVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 PRINCIPAL STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95, 2-52, D-24 PRINCIPLE OF SIMILARITY (EXPLOSIONS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5
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PROGRAM OF SHIP SALVAGE ENGINEERING (POSSE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-45, 2-15, 4-9, B-8, C-15 PROHASKAS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-41 PROOF STRESS, STRENGTH, TEST, LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18, 7-20, 7-21, 7-23 THRU 7-28, 7-33, D-23 PROPELLANT-EMBEDDED ANCHORS (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-17, G-19, G-21, G-22 PROPELLER(S)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5, 1-73, 1-100, B-12, B-14, B-30, B-52, B-55, B-57, C-3, C-8 PROPERTIES MECHANICAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-20 THRU D-23 OF EXPLOSIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4, 10-24 OF ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33 THRU 3-35 OF LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3 OF LIQUIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-20 OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1 THRU E-3, E-16, E-18 THRU E-20 OF ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-19, G-34 OF SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 THRU 3-24 OF STRUCTURAL SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-4 THRU E-15, E-17 OF TRIANGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2, D-3 OF WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1 PHYSICAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-47, D-14 THRU D-16 PROPORTIONAL LIMIT, ELASTIC LIMIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22, D-21 PULLING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24 THRU 5-27, 5-29, G-1 PUMP(S)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-13 AIR LIFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20 AXIAL FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17, 8-21 BALLAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19 CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16, 8-18, 8-23, 8-28 THRU 8-31 CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-59, 8-19, B-29 CENTRIFUGAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14, 8-16 THRU 8-19, 8-21, 8-22, 8-26, 8-32 CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17, 8-21, 8-22 EDUCTORS (JET PUMPS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19 INSTALLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17, 8-21 POWER, PRIME MOVERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17, 8-28 RECIPROCATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17, 8-21 ROTARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21 SALVAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21, 8-22 SLURRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26 SUBMERSIBLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22, 8-26 SUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14, 8-16, 8-21 THRU 8-23, 8-28 TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16 THRU 8-22 PUMPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66, 3-38, 8-1, 8-13 THRU 8-32, 9-10 CARGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27, 9-10, 9-11, 9-16, B-41, B-42, B-49 CAVITATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16, 8-19 COMBINED WITH COMPRESSED AIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-40 FLAMMABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27 FRICTION, HEAD LOSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15 HEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66, 3-38, 8-1, 8-13 THRU 8-32, 9-10 SLURRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24 THRU 8-26, 8-32 SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-13, B-14, B-18, B-41, B-49 VISCOSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23, 8-30 PURCHASE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24, 5-26, 5-27, 5-29, 7-64, 7-66, 7-67
RACKING STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-77, 5-18, 7-70 RADIAL PRESSURE (WIRE ROPE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12 RADIUS, HYDRAULIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-20 RADIUS OF GYRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-34, 1-85, 2-36, 7-52, D-13 RAKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-46, 1-47, 1-49, 1-5 RANGE OF STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-37 THRU 1-40, 1-52, 5-20, C-1, C-8, C-12 RECIPROCATING PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17 REDUCING FRICTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22 REDUCING GROUND REACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21, 5-22, F-16 REFERENCE POINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-2, B-7, H-7 REFLOATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-68, 5-21 THRU 5-23, 6-5 THRU 6-13, 8-27, 9-2, B-42 REINFORCING UNDAMAGED STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66 RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS (EXPLOSIVES)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 REPAIRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96, 2-1 THRU 2-3, 2-45 THRU 2-48, 2-60 THRU 2-66, 4-9, 4-15, 4-16, 8-1 THRU 8-12, B-7 REPLENISHMENT AT SEA (RAS) PADEYES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-69, 7-71 REPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-56, 4-7, 4-23, 4-24, B-7, B-13 RESERVE BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14, 1-57, 1-74, 1-75, C-1, C-4, C-12 THRU C-14, F-26, H-1, H-6 RESERVE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75, 7-7, C-15, C-16
Index-14
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RESIDUAL STRESS(ES)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 7-4, 7-32, D-23 RETAINING WALLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 REYNOLDS NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28, 8-15, 8-24, D-19, D-20 RIGGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26, 6-12, 6-13, 7-1 THRU 7-72, 8-26 RIGGING CHAIN END FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17 RIGGING HARDWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-40 THRU 7-49 RIGHTING ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31, 1-35 THRU 1-39, 1-41, 1-43, 1-53, 1-60 THRU 1-64, 5-19, 6-6, 6-8, C-1 THRU C-10, C-12, F-30, H-5 RIGHTING CAPSIZED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14 RIGHTING ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39, C-1 THRU C-11, F-30 RIGHTING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30, 1-31, 1-35, 1-39, 6-12, C-2, F-29 RIGID BODY ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12 THRU 5-14 RING-STIFFENED CYLINDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43 RIPRAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11, E-19 RIVER CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12, 3-13 RIVETED (BOLTED) CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-46, 8-12 ROCK BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18 ROCK DENSITY AND TOUGHNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-19 ROCK STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-34 ROLL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32, 5-18, 5-22, 7-68, C-2, C-4, C-10, C-14 ROLL-ON/ROLL-OFF (RO/RO)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, B-29, B-36, B-51 ROLLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10, 7-11, 7-13 THRU 7-16 ROPE FIBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34 THRU 7-39 WIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61, 5-29, 7-1 THRU 7-16 RUDDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73, 5-16, 5-25, B-47 RUN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 RUPTURE STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-21 SAFETY FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95, 4-6, 4-14, 5-29, 7-13, 7-35, 7-54, D-24, G-25 SAG (SAGGING)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76, 1-77, 1-81, 1-91, 2-3, 5-21, B-3 SALLYING SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57 SALVAGE CREW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7, 4-13, 4-18, 4-19, 4-22 SALVAGE DREDGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34 SALVAGE MACHINERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22, 9-1 SALVAGE OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 4-2 SALVAGE PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 4-3, 4-6, 4-12 THRU 4-14, 9-15 DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14 SALVAGE REPORT(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12, 4-23, 4-24 SALVAGE SURVEY(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 THRU 4-12 SALVORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-4, F-13 SCANTLINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75, 1-86, 1-96, 9-4, B-6, B-7, B-41, B-43, B-50, C-15, C-16, C-18, C-20 SCOUR (AND SEDIMENTATION)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9, 3-11, 3-16, 4-6, 4-15, 5-18, 5-30, 5-31, 6-2, G-13 SCOUR CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 SCREWS (SEE PROPELLERS) SEA ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-33 THRU 3-38 SEAFLOOR BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18 THRU 10-20 SEAFLOOR EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13, 6-2 SEAFLOOR PENETRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25 SEAKEEPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 SEAKINDLINESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-34, 1-57 SEAWORTHINESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-29, F-30 SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA (SEE MOMENT OF I) SECTION MODULUS CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22 HULL GIRDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 1-84 THRU 1-88, 1-108, 1-109, 2-3, 4-9, C-15, C-16, C-18, C-20 THRU C-22 STIFFENER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 STRUCTURAL SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-5 THRU E-14 TIMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-17 TORSIONAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-52 SECTION PROPERTY DESIGN RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-108 SECTIONAL AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15, 1-19, 1-22, 1-26, 1-28, 1-29, 1-79, 1-82, 3-12, B-2, B-3, C-16, C-20 SEDIMENT OVERBURDEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-20 SENSITIVITY (EXPLOSIVES)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 SENSITIVITY (SOIL)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 SHACKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29, 7-18, 7-30, 7-31, 7-33, 7-36, 7-40 THRU 7-43, 7-45, 7-70, 7-72, G-7 SHAFT ALLEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-14, G-15 SHALLOW WATER WAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 THRU 3-6, 3-29, 5-18, 6-4
Index-15
S0300-A8-HBK-010
SHAPED CHARGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3, 10-12 THRU 10-14 SHEAR (FORCE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 1-88, 1-89, 1-93, 1-108 SHEAR FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-46, 7-15, 7-17, 7-72 SHEAR STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-88 THRU 1-90, 1-93, 1-95, 1-96, 2-2, 2-6, 2-7, 2-46 THRU 2-48, 2-52, 2-53, 2-57, 2-58, 2-60, 2-65, 3-13, 3-37, 3-38, 5-23, 7-17, 7-52, 8-9, C-18, C-19, D-15, D-17, D-20, D-23 THRU D-25 SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-80, 1-92 SHEAR KEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-13, G-14 SHEAR MODULUS (MODULUS OF RIGIDITY)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-57, 2-58, D-23, E-3 SHEAR STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66, 3-18, 3-19, 3-21 THRU 3-25, 3-32, 3-37, 5-14, 5-22, 6-13, 8-8, 8-43, 8-44 SHEAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29, 7-52, 7-64, 7-8, 7-10 THRU 7-14, 7-16 SHEER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5, 1-75 SHEER LEGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18, 5-21, 6-10, 6-13, 7-50, 7-56, 7-59, 7-61 SHEER PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 SHEER STRAKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-72, 1-76, 2-2, B-34 SHELL PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-3, 1-5, 1-8, 1-15, 1-28, 1-58, 1-69 THRU 1-72, 1-78, 2-3, 2-4, 2-55, 5-6, 6-12, 7-69, 7-71, 8-5, 8-12, 8-40, B-3, B-7, B-13, B-14, B-18, B-36, C-19, C-20, F-8, F-24 SHIFTING BOARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-29, 1-64 SHIP CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69 THRU 1-75 SHIP DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1 THRU B-28 SHIP DIMENSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 SHIP PROPORTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7 SHIPS FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4, 1-5 SHIPS PLANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8, 4-9, B-1 THRU B-9 SHIPS DEWATERED WITH COFFERDAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 SHIPS PARTIALLY SUPPORTED BY THEIR BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10, 6-10 SHIPS WITHOUT PARALLEL MIDBODY (WEIGHT CURVE FOR)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-102 SHOCK EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 2-3, 2-60, 10-4, 10-5, 10-7 THRU 10-10, 10-21, 10-22 SHOCK FACTOR (IN EXPLOSIONS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8 SHOCK WAVE (EXPLOSIVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4, 10-5 SHORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 6-3, 9-5 SIDE PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4, 1-70 THRU 1-73, 1-77, 2-2, 5-18, 5-23, 8-27, 8-33, C-12 SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 THRU 3-3, 3-30 SIGNIFICANT WAVE METHOD (WAVE FORECASTING)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 SILT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16, 3-18, 3-19, 3-21, 3-24, 3-28, 3-32, 5-13, 5-16, 5-18, 5-31, 5-32, 6-2, 8-6, G-2, G-3, G-13, G-22, G-30 SIMPSONS RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17 THRU 1-19, 1-26, 1-27, 3-25, F-30 SINE CORRECTION (STABILITY CURVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-38, F-29 SINKING CONDITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 SINUSOIDAL (WAVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82, 1-83 SKEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 SLAMMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57, 1-78, B-50 SLENDERNESS RATIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-37, 7-52, C-20 SLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17, 7-30 SLURRY (SLURRIES)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-64, 8-21, 8-23 THRU 8-26, 8-32, 8-42, 8-44, 9-11 SNAKEHOLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18 SNAP LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13, 7-68 SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 THRU 3-32 BEARING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23, 3-25, 3-26, G-31 CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 FRICTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13, 5-14 IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-32 MECHANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-2 OVERLYING ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-33 PROPERTY TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32 SONAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-5, 1-28, 4-6, 4-8, 5-6, B-14, B-18 SOUNDING TUBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36, B-30 SOUNDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4 THRU 4-6, 4-8, 4-9, B-6 SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS (WIRE ROPE)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 SPECIAL-PURPOSE CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-26 SPECIFIC GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-59, 2-49, 2-50, 3-28, 3-35, 7-34, 8-20, 8-24, 8-28, B-47, D-14, E-1, E-18 THRU E-20 SPECIFIC VOLUME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, 1-12 THRU 1-15, 1-47, 1-58, 3-14, 8-17, D-23 SPECIFIC WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-14 SPHERES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 2-45, 8-42, 8-44 SPRING LAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2, 7-6 SQUARE-SECTION CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25 STABILITY CURVE (SEE ALSO TRANSVERSE STABILITY)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-36 THRU 1-40, 1-53, 1-61 THRU 1-63, 1-66, 5-19, C-1, C-3, F-29, F-30 ANGLE OF DECK EDGE IMMERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39 CORRECTION FOR ACTUAL KGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-38 CORRECTION FOR OFFCENTER WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-53 CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-37
Index-16
S0300-A8-HBK-010
STABILITY CURVE (CONTINUED) 1-40 1-39 RANGE OF STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-38 RIGHTING ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39 RIGHTING ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39 RIGHTING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39 STABILITY DURING AND AFTER REFLOATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20 STABILITY OF STRANDED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19, 5-20 STABILITY OF SUNKEN SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 STANDARD LOADING CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10 STANDARD STOCKLESS (ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-9, G-11 STANDING RIGGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2, 7-13 STATIC HOLDING CAPACITY (ANCHOR)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-22 THRU G-24, G-27 STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 STATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, D-7 THRU D-11, D-17 STATION COEFFICIENT METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97, 1-98 STATION SPACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3, 1-28 STATO (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-3, G-6, G-8 THRU G-10 STATUS BOARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96, D-22, D-25, E-1 THRU E-4, E-15, E-18 STEM ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 STERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-46, 1-73, 1-75 STERN POST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 STEVIN (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-6, G-8 THRU G-10 STEVSHARK (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-8 THRU G-10 STIFFENED PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-6, 2-13, 8-1, 8-3 STIFFENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-5 THRU 2-7, 2-12, 2-32, 2-61 THRU 2-63, 2-65, 2-66, 6-3, 7-72, 8-2, 8-3, 8-9 THRU 8-12, C-20 STILL WATER BENDING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-81, 1-82, 1-90, 1-104, 1-106, 1-107 STOCK ANCHORS (SEE ALSO ANCHORS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-11 STRAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13, 2-44, 2-57, 2-60, 7-14, D-20, D-21, D-23 STRAIN HARDENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-23 STRAKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2, 1-72, 1-73, 1-76, 1-87, 1-94, 2-2, 2-13 STRANDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-50, 1-65, 1-77, 3-15, 3-36, 4-3 THRU 4-10, 4-14, 5-1 THRU 5-29, F-1 THRU F-28 STRANDINGS ON MULTIPLE POINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97, 5-8 STRENGTH ALUMINUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3, E-2, E-3 BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 THRU 2-36 BOLTED, RIVETED CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-47, 2-48, 2-51 BULKHEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17 THRU 7-28 COLUMNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 THRU 2-39 CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 CYLINDERS AND SPHERES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42 THRU 2-45 DECK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-72, 1-76, 1-86, 1-88, 1-108, 6-3, B-31, B-32, B-36, B-37 FIBER ROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34 THRU 7-38 FLAT PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39 THRU 2-41 FORMULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76 THRU 1-109, 2-29, 2-32, 2-35, 2-36, 8-4, 8-9, B-7, B-21, B-37, C-15 THRU C-22 GRPI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 HULL GIRDER(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 THRU 2-4, 2-13, 5-20, 6-13 ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36, 3-37 MANHOLE COVERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-20 THRU D-25 MILD STEEL (MS) TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-52, 7-53 PATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 THRU 8-4 RIGGING HARDWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-41 THRU 7-48 SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36, 3-37 STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3, E-2, E-3 STIFFENED PLATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7 THRU 2-12 WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45, 2-46 WIRE ROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 THRU 7-6 WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-49 THRU 2-51, 8-3, E-16 STRENGTH OF STRANDED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20 STRENGTH OF SUNKEN SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13 STRESS CONCENTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-47, 2-53 THRU 2-57, 2-61, 2-63, 2-66, 7-33, 8-12 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-21 STRESSES IN COMPOSITE STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52 STRESSES IN SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-76, 1-82
EFFECTS OF HULL FORM ON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39, METACENTRIC HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index-17
S0300-A8-HBK-010
STRETCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7, 7-14, 7-34, 7-36, 7-60 STRINGER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-72 STRUCTURAL DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75, 2-2, 2-3, 4-5 STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60 THRU 2-66 STRUTS AND COLUMNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 THRU 2-39 STUD-LINK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18 THRU 7-25, 7-28, 7-32, 7-33 SUBDIVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 THRU 1-75, 6-6, B-5, B-6, C-4, C-6, C-13, C-14, H-1 SUBMERGED ANCHOR PILE HEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-33 SUCTION, MUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-16, 3-23, 3-25 THRU 3-27, 5-13, 5-16 THRU 5-18, 5-21, 5-22, 5-24, 5-30, 5-31, 5-33 5-34, 6-2, 8-26 THRU 8-28, 8-30, 8-32, 8-33, 8-40, 8-41, 9-11, B-45, F-26, G-11, G-23, H-3 SUNKEN SHIP SURVEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 SUPERPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30, 2-32, 2-40, 5-8 SUPERSTRUCTURES AND DECKHOUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 SURF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-4, 3-6, 3-11, 3-17, 3-18, 4-1, 4-8, 4-21, 5-17, 5-18, 5-26 SURFACE AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9, 3-10, 3-23, 3-36, 3-37 SURFACE PERMEABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-63 SURFACE ROUGHNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5, 8-15 SURGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7, 3-17, 3-27, 5-18, 5-31, 6-4, 8-35 SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 THRU 4-11, 4-14, 4-22, 6-13 SURVEY TEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6, 4-10, 4-11 SURVEY TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 SWELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-17, 3-27, 4-4, 4-6, 4-8, 5-17, 5-18, 5-20, 5-23, 5-26, 6-4 SWINGING DERRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-60, 7-61 SWIVELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31, 7-43, 7-44 TANK SOUNDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8, 4-9, B-6 TANK VOLUMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-29 TANK VESSELS (TANKERS, OILERS, TANK BARGES)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7, 1-8, 1-11, 1-28, 1-29, 1-32, 1-46, 1-59, 1-70, 1-74, 1-75, 1-80, 1-97, 1-100, 1-108, 4-8, 4-9, 4-22, 8-17, 8-19, 8-27, 8-33, 8-40, 9-2, 9-6, 9-10, B-10, B-12, B-19, B-23, B-25, B-29, B-40 THRU B-42, B-49, B-50 THRU B-57, C-6, C-21, C-27 TANK(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-29, 1-57, 1-59, 1-73, 2-42, 4-5, 4-8, 4-10, 6-8, 6-13, 8-22, 8-23, 8-27, 8-33, 8-37, 8-40, 9-2, 9-4 THRU 9-6, 9-10, B-1, B-4, B-5, B-7 THRU B-9, B-14, B-28 THRU B-30, B-33, B-35, B-39, B-44, B-47 THRU B-49, C-15, C-19 TEMPERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, 1-65, 3-33, 3-35, 3-37, 5-25, 7-35, 8-7, 8-10, 8-13, 8-30, 8-34, 8-38, 8-39, B-48, D-12, D-14, D-23, E-1 TEMPORARY REDUCTION (GROUND REACTION)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23 TENSILE FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-46, 7-15, 7-72 TENSILE STRESS, LOADS, TENSION . . . . . . . 1-95, 2-1 THRU 2-3, 2-15, 2-38, 2-42, 2-44, 2-45, 2-51, 2-52, 2-54, 2-61, 2-62, 7-7 THRU 7-72, D-20, D-21 TENSILE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-47, 7-34, 7-69, 8-8, C-21, C-22, D-21, D-22, E-2, E-3 TENSION PULSE (EXPLOSIVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 TENSIONING PURCHASES WITH VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29 TERMINATIONS AND CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8, 7-30, 7-36, 7-40 THRU 7-49 THEORY OF FLEXURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14, 2-15 TIDAL INLETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 THRU 3-10 TIDAL CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-12, 3-13, 4-6, 5-16, 5-31 TIDAL ZONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27, 7-22 TIDE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7, 3-12, 3-34, 4-4, 4-6, 4-8, 5-9, 5-16, 5-17, 5-19, 5-20, 6-4, 9-8 TIMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71, E-16 THRU E-18 TONNAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10, 1-11, B-9 TONS PER INCH IMMERSION (TPI)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14, 1-53, 1-48, 5-5, B-2 TOPSIDE SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5, 4-6 TORSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71, 2-7, 2-48, 2-57 THRU 2-59, 5-18, 7-14, D-23 TOUGHNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35, D-22 TOWING BRACKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-70, 7-71 TRAIN SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-39 TRANSFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-39 TRANSOM FRAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73 TRANSOM STERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 TRANSVERSE BULKHEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74, 1-75, 1-77, B-36, B-41, C-18, C-19 TRANSVERSE FRAMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, B-48 TRANSVERSE INERTIA COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-47 TRANSVERSE STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30 THRU 1-41, C-1 THRU C-12 CENTER OF BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31 CHANGE OF DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-36 CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-37 DEVELOPMENT AND LOSS OF RIGHTING ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30 EQUILIBRIUM AND STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30 EXTERNAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32 FORM STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30 HEIGHT OF THE METACENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-34 HEIGHTS OF CENTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32
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TRANSVERSE STABILITY (CONTINUED) 1-30 1-36 METACENTRIC HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39 METACENTRIC RADIUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33 PROHASKAS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-41 RIGHTING ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31, 1-35, 1-39 RIGHTING ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39, C-2 THRU C-4, C-7, C-9, C-10 RIGHTING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-35, 1-39 STABILITY CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-36 THRU 1-40 STABILITY OF A FLOATING OBJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30 STABILITY OF A SUBMERGED OBJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31 UPSETTING ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31 TRANSVERSE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-69, 1-71 TRAPEZOIDAL RULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16, 1-24, 1-29 TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-42, 1-44, 1-49, 5-1, 5-2, 5-4 THRU 5-8, 5-10, 5-11, 5-16, 5-17, 5-20 THRU 5-22, 6-1, 6-5, 6-8, 6-12, 8-1, 8-27, 8-37, 8-43, 9-1, 9-2, B-2, B-3, B-5, B-18, C-14, H-1, H-6, H-9, H-13 TRIM AND STABILITY BOOKLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11, 1-57, B-7 TRIM ANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-43, 1-45 TRIM ARMS, MOMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-43, 1-44, 1-49, 1-52, 1-54, 1-55, 1-66 TRIPOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-62 TRIPPING (ANCHOR)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-109, 2-3, G-3 THRU G-5, G-9 THRU G-11 TRIPPING (STRUCTURAL)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 1-109, 2-3, 2-7, 2-12, 2-62, 2-63 TROCHOID (WAVE)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82, 1-83, 1-103, F-30 THRU F-32, FP-11 TROUGH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82, 1-108, 3-5 TUG BOLLARD PULL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24 TUGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 THRU 1-6, 3-36, 4-1, 4-13, 4-18, 5-24 THRU 5-26, 5-31, 7-70, B-50, C-3, C-8, G-10 TUMBLEHOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4, 1-5, 1-40 TUNNELING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30, 5-32 TURBULENT FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-29, 8-15, D-20 TURNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15, 5-14 THRU 5-16, B-36, B-37, B-45, C-3
INTERNAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U.S. MARITIME ADMINISTRATION (MARAD)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, B-12 ULCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-28, 1-29, B-40, B-42 ULLAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8, B-30 ULTIMATE STRENGTH (SEE ALSO TENSILE STRENGTH)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-13, 7-54, 7-69, 7-70, D-21 THRU D-25 ULTIMATE STRENGTH COMPUTER PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 UNDERWATER EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23, 5-30 THRU 5-32, 8-20 UNDERWATER EXPLOSIONS (SEE ALSO EXPLOSIVES) BLAST EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 THRU 10-10, 10-21, 10-22 BOREHOLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18, 10-22 BUBBLE PULSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 SEAFLOOR BLASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-18 THRU 10-20 SHIP SECTIONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-16, 10-17 SHOCK WAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4, 10-5, 10-7 THRU 10-10, 10-21, 10-22 UNDERWATER VIDEO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 UNDERWATER WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19 UNIT BEARING STRENGTH (SOIL)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23, 3-24 UPLIFT CAPACITY (ANCHOR)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-2, G-11, G-17, G-19, G-22 THRU G-28, G-30, G-33, G-34 UPSETTING ARM, MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31, 1-39, 1-52, 6-6 VARIABLE BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11, 6-12 VECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4, 7-59, D-8, D-10 VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29, 9-1, 9-3, 9-8, 9-14, B-35, B-37 VEHICLE CARRIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-37 VENTILATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63, 4-5, 4-19, 8-23, 8-36, 9-16, B-4, B-32, B-35, B-49 VERIFYING COMPARTMENT DESIGNATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 VERTICAL PRISMATIC COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7, 8-5 VERTICAL SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-80, 1-88 VIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78 VIBRO-DRIVEN ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-16, G-21 VIDEO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 VIRTUAL RISE OF GI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57, 1-63, 1-64, 5-19 VISCOSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28, 3-29, 8-15, 8-21, 8-23, 8-24, 8-29, 8-30, D-15 THRU D-17, D-19 VITAL SPACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74, 1-75 VLCCI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 THRU 1-8, 1-12, 1-28, 1-29, 1-36, 1-97, 5-21, B-40 THRU B-42, B-51, B-52 VOIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20 THRU 3-22, 6-2, 7-1, 8-6, B-19, B-20 VOLUMES AND CENTROIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22
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WALL-SIDED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-35 WATER RESISTANCE (EXPLOSIVES)I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4, 10-24 WATER BOTTOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-59 WATER DAMAGE PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5, 4-20 WATER DEPTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 THRU 3-6, 3-14, 3-15, 3-34, 4-3, 4-8, 5-12, 5-14, 5-18, 5-23, 5-30, 5-31, 5-33, 6-2 THRU 6-4, 6-8, 8-3, 8-20, 8-38, 8-40, 8-42, 9-4, 9-6, 9-8, 9-10, 9-14, F-9, F-12, F-14, F-16, F-28, G-2, G-11, G-16 THRU G-18, G-20, G-21, G-36 WATER LAYERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13, 3-33 WATER LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7, 3-12, 3-17, G-15 WATERPLANE COEFFICIENT (WWP)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6, 1-12, 1-24, 1-25, 1-46 THRU 1-48 WATERPLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1, 1-3, 1-6, 1-7, 1-12, 1-14, 1-15, 1-24, 1-25, 1-28, 1-35, 1-39, 1-40, 1-42 THRU 1-44, 1-48, 1-51, 1-54, 3-25, 6-5 THRU 6-9, 6-11 THRU 6-13, H-9, H-13 WATERTIGHT SUBDIVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74, 1-75, B-34 WATERWAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 4-15 WAVE(S)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 THRU 3-7, 4-8, B-47 CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9, 3-11, 5-18 FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 THRU 3-6, 6-4, 5-17, 5-18, C-15 HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 PERIOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 THRU 3-3 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT BY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-29, 3-30, 5-18 STANDARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82, C-15, F-30 VELOCITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2, 3-4 WAVE BENDING MOMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82, 1-83, 1-97, 1-102 THRU 1-105, 1-108, C-15 THRU C-19, F-25, F-30 THRU F-35 WAVE-INDUCED BUOYANCY DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-82, F-30 WEAPONS EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-78, 2-3, 2-60 WEATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-7, 3-12, 3-17, 3-18, 3-27, 3-36, 3-37, 4-1, 4-2, 4-4, 4-5, 4-13, 4-15, 4-19, 4-21, 5-13, 5-26, 6-1, 6-2, 8-7 WEATHER DECK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74, 4-6, 6-3, 9-15, B-19, B-37, B-39, C-6, C-7, C-12, C-15 WEB FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-71, 2-61, 9-16, B-35, B-38 WEIGHT ADDITION, REMOVAL SHIFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32, 1-51 THRU 1-53, 1-60, 5-11 THRU 5-13, 9-1 THRU 9-5, F-28 AND STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-51 THRU 1-57, 8-1 AND TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-51, 1-52, 1-54, 1-55 BALLAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-58 CHANGE OF DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-51 INCLINING EXPERIMENT, SALLYING SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57 MOVEMENT OF CENTER OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-51 OFFCENTER WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-52, 1-53 POINT OF CONSTANT DRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57 WEIGHT CHANGES WITHOUT CHANGE OF TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-54 WEIGHT CURVE APPROXIMATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-97 THRU 1-103 WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION, CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-79 THRU 1-81, 1-90 THRU 1-92, 1-98 THRU 1-103, F-18 THRU F-20, FP-9 WEIGHT STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-30 WELDED-CONSTRUCTION (SHIPS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 WELDED STUD-LINK CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18 THRU 7-21, 7-32 WELD, WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-70, 1-71, 2-3, 2-45, 2-46, 2-62, 2-63, 5-28, 7-32, 7-72, 8-5 WETTED SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 WILDCAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27, 7-30, 7-67 WINCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24, 5-26 THRU 5-29, 7-10, B-9, B-32, B-48, B-51, B-58 WIND CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 WIND FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16, 3-17, 5-18 WIND HEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17, C-1, C-2, C-4, C-9, C-10, H-5 WIND PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-32, 3-1, 3-16, C-1, C-9, H-5 WINDLASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-67, B-58 WING TANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74, 1-75, B-42, B-44, B-45 WIRE ROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61, 5-29, 7-1 THRU 7-16, 7-64, 7-69, G-5, G-33 INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14 SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13 STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 TERMINAL FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8 WOODEN SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 WORKING STRESS (SEE ALSO ALLOWABLE STRESS)I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37, 2-47, D-24 WRAPPER PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 WRECK REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1, 4-17, 6-1 WRENCHING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14, 5-22, 5-24 YIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-13 YIELD POINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-21 YIELD STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-96, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 7-17, C-21, C-22, D-21, D-23 THRU D-25, E-2, E-3 YIELD STRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45, 2-47, C-15 YOUNGS MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-21, D-23
Index-20
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CHAPTER 1 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE FOR THE SALVAGE ENGINEER

1-1 INTRODUCTION Ships are built for a wide variety of purposes, but all must meet certain fundamental requirements. They must have reserve buoyancy to enable them to carry their designed loads and resist damage, stability to resist environmental forces or damage, and strength to withstand the stresses imposed on their structure by their own weight, cargo, stores, and the sea. The following discussion provides the salvage engineer with the basics of surface ship construction, stability, and strength. Submarine construction and stability are discussed in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 4 (S0300-MAN-A6-040). Vessels are built to construction specifications based on stability and strength requirements, that are, in turn, based on intended service. Publicly owned vessels (Navy, Coast Guard, etc.) are built to government specifications. Most Navy ships are built to the General Specifications for Ships (GENSPECs), published by the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA), although some auxiliaries are built to commercial specifications. Stability standards for Navy ships are established by Design Data Sheet (DDS) 079 issued by the Naval Ship Engineering Center. Construction rules and stability standards for commercial vessels are established by classification societies, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), and government regulations for the country of registry; the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) and United States Coast Guard (USCG) establish and enforce construction rules and stability standards for U.S. vessels. The U.S. rules are often based on IMO standards. The U.S. Maritime Administration (MARAD) may place additional requirements on ships built with Federal financial assistance. MARAD also produces standard designs for certain types of merchant ships. Stability and construction standards are discussed in Appendix C. There is a basic difference in the way naval architects and salvage engineers approach the problems of ship stability and strength. Naval architects, as designers, divide the subject into examinations of intact and damage conditions. The stability and strength of a proposed design is examined in normal operating, or intact, conditions, which must, as matter of course, include free liquid surfaces in tanks. Damage stability analysis examines a ship design in various hypothetical conditions of damage that include breaches in the immersed hull. The salvage engineer on the other hand, deals with damaged stability and strength, i.e., ships in conditions of known or identifiable damage, that may or may not include breaches in the immersed hull. There is a subtle distinction between damage and damaged stability. A salvage engineer doesnt really deal with damage stability, or for that matter, with intact stability either. He deals with damaged stability, and conditions that can reasonably be attained from the initial damaged condition. While the salvage engineer also examines hypothetical conditions, those conditions usually have as a point of departure an initial damaged condition. This chapter discusses ship stability in light of those factors that provide and enhance stability, and those that impair or degrade. Those familiar with standard naval architecture texts may feel that this handbooks treatment of the subject glosses over the distinction between intact and damage stability. This is true to some extent, because in the main, the distinction just doesnt matter to salvage engineers; they deal with stabilitygood, bad, or indifferentas they find it. The fact that free surface occurs in intact ships does not obscure the fact that it always impairs stability. 1-2 HULL FORM A ships hull is a complex geometric form that can be defined accurately by mapping its surface in a three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system. If a Cartesian coordinate system is used, conventions usually set the Z-axis vertical, the X-axis longitudinal and the Y-axis athwartships. Principal dimensions are measured along these axes. The hull form can be shown in two dimensions by a series of curves formed by the intersection of the hull surface with planes parallel to these axes. The hull form, chosen by the designer, controls the stability and performance characteristics of the ship in its normal environments. 1-2.1 Location of Points Within a Ship. Because a ship is a three-dimensional mobile object, references within the ship itself must be established for locating points in, on, and about the ship. The position of any point in the ship can be described by measuring its position from reference planes or lines. The following planes are most commonly used:
Centerplane A vertical plane passing fore and aft down the center of a ship; the plane of symmetry for most hull forms. Design Waterplane A horizontal plane at which the hull is designed to float. Midship Plane A transverse, vertical plane perpendicular to both the centerplane and the design waterplane, located at the midpoint of the molded hull length between perpendiculars on the design waterplane. Baseplane A horizontal plane passing through the intersection of the centerplane and the midships plane, or through the lowest point of the molded hull.
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The intersections of the reference planes with specified locations on the hull create additional reference lines and points:
Forward Perpendicular (FP) A vertical line through the intersection of the stem and the design or load waterline (DWL, LWL). After Perpendicular (AP) A vertical line at or near the stern of the ship. In naval practice, the after perpendicular passes through the after extremity of the design waterline; in commercial practice, the after perpendicular usually passes through the rudder post, or the centerline of the rudder stock if there is no rudder post. Midship Section ( or MS) An intersection of the midship plane with the molded hull.
Centerline (C L or CL) The projection of the centerplane in plan or end views of the hull. Baseline (B L or BL) The projection of the baseplane in the side or end views of the hull. In ships with design drag where the baseline passes through the intersection of the midships section and the keel, parts of the hull will be below the baseline. For ships with flat-plate keels that float on an even keel, the baseline, bottom of the molded surface, and top of the keel plate coincide; if the keel plate is an outside strake (lapped over the adjacent strakes rather than butt-welded to them), the top of the flat-plate keel is below the bottom of the molded surface by the thickness of the strakes on each side of it (the garboard strakes). In vessels with hanging bar keels, the top of the keel coincides with the bottom of the molded surface.
1-2.2 Location of Points. The position of any point in the ship can be described by its:
Height above the baseplane or keel. Athwartships position relative to the centerplane. Longitudinal position relative to the midship section or to one of the perpendiculars.
1-2.3 Ship Dimensions. Molded dimensions, lines, etc., describe the fair surface defined by the framing and are principally of use to the shipbuilder. Displacement dimensions and lines describe the surfaces wetted by the sea and are of principal interest to the naval architect and salvage engineer in determining stability and performance characteristics. Extreme dimensions, such as extreme breadth, account for projections such as overhanging decks, fender rails, etc. Molded dimensions differ from displacement dimensions by the plating, planking, or sheathing thickness. In steel ships, this difference usually amounts to less than one percent of the total displacement. Displacement dimensions are not usually tabulated as such; if desired, they are deduced by adding plating thickness to molded dimensions, or deducting appendage measurements from extreme dimensions. The principal dimensions of a ship are length, beam, and depth. Two other important dimensions are draft and freeboard. Figure 1-1 shows the principal dimensions of a ship.
Length between perpendiculars (L, LBP or Lpp), is used for the calculation of hydrostatic properties. Length overall (LOA) is the maximum length of the vessel, including any extensions beyond the perpendiculars, such as overhanging sterns, raked stems, bulbous bows, etc. Length on the waterline (LWL or LWL) may or may not be the same as LBP, depending on the location of the perpendiculars; tabulated LWL is usually taken on the design waterline. Beam or breadth (B) is the width of the ship. Molded beam is measured amidships or at the widest section from the inside surface of the shell plating. Maximum beam or extreme breadth is the breadth at the widest part of the ship, and is equal to the molded breadth plus twice the plating thickness plus the width of fenders, overhanging decks, or other solid projections. Draft (T) is the vertical distance between the waterline and the deepest part of the ship at any point along the length. Drafts are usually measured to the keel and are given as draft forward (Tf), draft aft (Ta) and mean draft (T or Tm). A ships forward and after draft marks are seldom at the perpendiculars and mean draft is not necessarily amidships; the slight errors introduced by using drafts at these points can be discounted if trim is not extreme. Molded drafts are measured from the molded baseline, while keel drafts are measured from a horizontal line though the lowest point on the bottom of the keel extended to intersect the forward and after perpendiculars. Navigational or extreme drafts indicate the extreme depth of sonar domes, propellers, pit swords, or other appendages which extend below the keel, and are therefore not used to calculate hydrostatic properties. Draft scales for keel drafts are usually placed on both sides of the ship at each end as near as practical to the respective perpendiculars. The external draft marks are generally Arabic numerals, with height and spacing arranged so that the vertical projection on the vessel of the numeral heights and vertical spacing between numerals are both six inches. The draft figures are placed so that the bottom of the figure indicates the keel draft. Drafts can thus be read to the nearest quarter-foot (3 inches) in relatively calm waters. Freeboard (F) is the vertical distance between the waterline and the uppermost watertight deck. Depth (D) is the vertical distance between the baseline and the uppermost watertight deck and is the sum of freeboard and draft. Molded depth is measured from the top of the outer keel to the underside of the main or freeboard deck at the side. Depending on hull form and ships attitude, both freeboard and depth can vary along the length of the ship. Unless otherwise specified, tabulated values for depth and freeboard are usually taken at midships or at the point of minimum freeboard.
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1-2.4 Lines. The shape of a ship is B developed to meet specific requirements of speed, seakeeping ability, and capacity for the intended use of the vessel. The shape MIDSHIPS of the hull is defined by the plan shapes SECTION produced by the intersection of three D families of orthogonal planes and the hull surface. Most hulls are symmetrical about the vertical plane of the centerline. The T intersection of the ships molded hull surface with this and parallel planes is called a buttock, or buttock line. The term C L buttock was formerly applied only to the AP FP portions of these lines aft of midships; the DWL forward portions were called bow lines. A plane parallel to the baseplane and LBP perpendicular to the centerline plane is a LOA waterplane. The intersection of waterplanes and the molded hull are called Figure 1-1. Principal Dimensions. waterlines (WL). The intersection of transverse planes perpendicular to both waterplanes and buttocks are termed sections. The superimposed sections (body plan), waterplanes (halfbreadth plan), and buttocks (sheer plan) form the lines plan or lines drawing for the ship. Like other engineering drawings, the lines plan is composed of views from ahead or astern, from above, and from the starboard side. Figure FO-1 is the lines plan for an FFG-7 Class ship. The lines plans for steel ships usually show the molded surface. For surface ships, the molded surface is the inside of the shell plating, while the molded surface for submarines is the outside of the hull plating. For vessels with hanging bar keels, the line of the bottom of the keel is shown on the sheer plan to complete the lower contour of the vessel; the keel line is not usually shown for vessels with flat-plate keels because it lies so near the line of the bottom of the molded surface. Because of the greater hull thickness, wooden ships may have separate molded and displacement lines drawings. 1-2.4.1 The Body Plan. The body plan shows the outline of the transverse sections of a ship at equally spaced stations or ordinates along the length of the ship. The distance between perpendiculars is commonly divided into 10 or 20 equal spaces by 11 or 21 stations, including the forward and after perpendiculars. More or fewer stations may be used depending on the complexity of the hull shape. Half-spaced stations may be used when the shape of the hull form changes rapidly, such as near the bow and stern. As the transverse sections are normally symmetrical about the centerline, it is conventional to show only half sections with the forward stations on the right and after stations on the left. Stations are numbered from forward aft, with the forward perpendicular as station zero on U.S. Navy ships. Stations forward of the forward perpendicular (if any) may be designated by negative numbers or letters. Commercial vessels, particularly foreign-built vessels, commonly number stations from aft forward, with the after perpendicular as zero. 1-2.4.2 Halfbreadth Plan. Due to symmetry, it is conventional to show only half of the waterplanes in a halfbreadth plan. Waterlines are designated by their height above the baseline. The waterlines define the shape and area of the waterplane and are spaced closely enough to accurately define the waterplane at any draft. 1-2.4.3 Sheer Plan. Superimposed buttocks form the sheer plan. They are spaced as necessary to adequately define the ships form.
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1-2.4.4 Descriptive Terms. Certain other geometric concepts are useful in describing a ships form. Figure 1-2 illustrates some of the following definitions:
ONE-HALF OF MOLDED BREADTH CAMBER TUMBLEHOME
Parallel midbody In many modern ships, the form of the hulls transverse section in the midships region extends without change for some distance fore and aft. This is called parallel midbody and may be described as extensive or short, or expressed as a fraction of the ships length. Even in ships without parallel midbody, the form of the fullest transverse section changes only slightly for small distances forward or aft. Forebody The portion of the hull forward of the midship section. After body The portion of the hull abaft the midship section. Entrance The immersed portion of the hull forward of the section of greatest immersed area (not necessarily amidships) or forward of the parallel midbody.
SHEER AFT
FREEBOARD
MOLDED DEPTH
DESIGN WATERLINE DESIGN DRAFT MOLDED DRAFT DEADRISE
C L
MOLDED BASE LINE
SHEER FORWARD
DEPTH
Figure 1-2. Hull Form Nomenclature.
Run The immersed portion of the hull aft of the section of greatest immersed area or aft of the parallel midbody. Deadrise The departure of the bottom from a transverse horizontal line measured from the baseline at the molded breadth line as shown in Figure 1-2. Deadrise is also called rise of floor or rise of bottom. Deadrise is an indicator of the ships form; fullbodied ships, such as cargo ships and tankers, have little or no deadrise, while fine-lined ships have much greater deadrise along with a large bilge radius. Where there is rise of floor, the line of the bottom commonly intersects the baseline some distance from the centerline, producing a small horizontal portion of the bottom on each side of the keel. The horizontal region of the bottom is called flat of keel, or flat of bottom. While any section of the ship can have deadrise, tabulated deadrise is normally taken at the midships section. Knuckle An abrupt change in the direction of plating or other structure. Chine The line or knuckle formed by the intersection of two relatively flat hull surfaces, continuous over a significant length of the hull. In hard chines, the intersection forms a sharp angle; in soft chines, the connection is rounded. Bilge radius The outline of the midships section of very full ships is very nearly a rectangle with its lower corners rounded. The lower corners are called the bilges and the shape is often circular. The radius of the circular arc is called the bilge radius or turn of the bilge. The turn of the bilge may be described as hard or easy depending on the radius of curvature. If the shape of the bilge follows some curve other than a circle, the radius of curvature of the bilge will increase as it approaches the straight plating of the side and bottom. Small, high-speed or planing hulls often do not have a rounded bilge. In these craft, the side and bottom are joined in a chine. Tumblehome The inward fall of side plating from the vertical as it extends upward towards the deck edge. Tumblehome is measured horizontally from the molded breadth line at the deck edge as shown in Figure 1-2. Tumblehome was a usual feature in sailing ships and many ships built before 1940. Because it is more expensive to construct a hull with tumblehome, this feature is not usually incorporated in modern merchant ship design, unless required by operating conditions or service (tugs and icebreaking vessels, for example). Destroyers and other high-speed combatants are often built with some tumblehome in their mid and after sections to save topside weight.
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Flare The outward curvature of the hull surface above the waterline, i.e., the opposite of tumblehome. Flared sections cause a commensurately larger increase in local buoyancy than unflared sections when immersed. Flaring bows are often fitted to help keep the forward decks dry and to prevent "nose-diving" in head seas. Camber The convex upwards curve of a deck. Also called round up, round down, or round of beam. In section, the camber shape may be parabolic or consist of several straight line segments. Camber is usually given as the height of the deck on the centerline amidships above a horizontal line connecting port and starboard deck edges. Standard camber is about one-fiftieth of the beam. Camber diminishes towards the ends of the ship as the beam decreases. The principal use of camber is to ensure good drainage in calm seas or in port, although camber does slightly increase righting arms at large angles of inclination (after the deck edge is immersed). Not all ships have cambered decks; ships with cambered weather decks and flat internal decks are not uncommon. Sheer The rise of a deck above the horizontal measured as the height of the deck above a line parallel to the baseline tangent to the deck at its lowest point. In older ships, the deck side line often followed a parabolic profile and sheer was given as its value at the forward and after perpendiculars. Standard sheer was given by: sheer forward = 0.2L + 20 sheer aft = 0.1L + 10
where sheer is measured in inches and L is the length between perpendiculars in feet. Actual sheer often varied considerably from these standard values; the deck side profile was not always parabolic, the lowest point of the upper deck was usually at about 0.6L, and the values of sheer forward and aft were varied to suit the particular design. Many modern ships are built without sheer; in some, the decks are flat for some distance fore and aft of midships and then rise in a straight line towards the ends. Sheer increases the height of the weather decks above water, particularly at the bow, and helps keep the vessel from shipping water as she moves through rough seas. Some small craft and racing yachts are given a reverse or hogged sheer to give headroom amidships without excessive depth at bow and stern.
Rake A departure from the vertical or horizontal of any conspicuous line in profile, defined by a rake angle or by the distance between the profile line and a reference line at a convenient point. Rake of stem, for example, can be expressed as the angle between the stem bar and a vertical line for ships with straight stems. For curved stems, a number of ordinates measured from the forward perpendicular are required to define the stem shape. Ships designed so that the keel is not parallel to the baseline and DWL when floating at their designed drafts are said to have raked keels, or to have drag by the keel. Cut-up When a keel departs from a straight line at a sharp bend, or knuckle, the sloping portion is called a cut-up. High-speed combatants usually have a long cut-up aft (extending 13 to 17 percent of LWL) to enhance propeller performance and maneuverability. Ice-breaking vessels often have a cut-up forward to allow the ship to ride up on the ice. Deadwood Portions of the immersed hull with significant longitudinal and vertical dimensions, but without appreciable transverse dimensions. Deadwood is included in a hull design principally to increase lateral resistance or enhance directional stability without significantly increasing drag when moving ahead. Sailing craft require deadwood to be able to work to windward efficiently. Skegs or fins are fitted on barges to give directional stability. Deadwood aft is detrimental to speed and quick maneuverability and is minimized by use of cut-up sterns in high-speed combatants and by arched keels or sluice keels (with athwartships apertures) in tugs and workboats. Appendages Portions of the vessel that extend beyond the main hull outline or molded surface. Positive appendages, such as rudders, shafts, bosses, bilge keels, sonar domes, etc., increase the underwater volume, while negative appendages, such as bow thruster tunnels and other recesses, decrease the underwater volume. Shell plating, lying outside the molded surface, is normally the largest single appendage, and often accounts for one-half to two-thirds of the total appendage volume. Appendages generally account for 0.2 to 2 percent of total immersed hull volume, depending on ship size, service, and configuration. Paragraph 1-4.10.2 discusses methods for estimating appendage displacement. Hull Surfaces Hull surfaces are either warped, consisting of smoothly faired, complex three-dimensional curves, developed, consisting of portions of cylinders or cones, or flat. Hydroconic hulls are built up of connected flat plates rather than plates rolled to complex curves. Hydroconic construction lowers production costs and may simplify fitting patches to a casualty.
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1-2.5 Coefficients of Form. Coefficients of form are dimensionless numbers that describe hull fineness and overall shape characteristics. The coefficients are ratios of areas or volumes for the actual hull form compared to prisms or rectangles defined by the ships length, breadth, and draft. Since length and breadth on the waterline as well as draft vary with displacement, coefficients of form also vary with displacement. Tabulated coefficients are usually based on the molded breadth and draft at designed displacement. Length between perpendiculars is most often used, although some designers prefer length on the waterline. Coefficients of form can be used to simplify area and volume calculations for stability or strength analyses. As hull form approaches that of a rectangular barge, the coefficients approach their maximum value of 1.0. The following paragraphs describe the most commonly used coefficients. Table 1-1 gives sample coefficients for different type ships. 1-2.5.1 Block. The block coefficient (CB) is the ratio of the immersed hull volume () at a particular draft to that of a rectangular prism of the same length, breadth, and draft as the ship: CB = BTL where: B T L = = = = immersed volume, [length3] beam, [length] draft, [length] length between perpendiculars, [length]
Table 1-1. Typical Coefficients of Form.

Block Coefficient CB Navy Ships Aircraft Carrier (CV-59 Class) Battleship (BB-61 Class) Cruiser (CGN-38 Class) Destroyer (DD-963 Class) Frigate (FFG-7 Class) Replenishment Ship (AOR-1 Class) Salvage Tug (ARS-50 Class) 0.578 0.594 0.510 0.510 0.470 0.652 0.542 Commercial Vessels General Cargo (slow-speed) General Cargo (medium-speed) General Cargo (high-speed) Tanker (35,000-ton DWT) Large Tanker (76,000-ton DWT) VLCC (250,000-ton DWT) Container Ship RO/RO Ore Carrier Great Lakes Bulk Carrier Passenger Liner Barge Carrier Large Car Ferry Ocean Tug, Trawler Offshore Supply Vessel Harbor Tug Ocean Power Yacht (250 ft LWL) 0.800 0.700 0.576 0.757 0.802 0.842 0.600 0.568 0.808 0.900 0.530 0.570 0.530 0.550 0.660 0.585 0.565 0.992 0.980 0.972 0.978 0.997 0.996 0.970 0.972 0.995 0.995 0.956 0.950 0.910 0.833 0.906 0.892 0.938 0.880 0.810 0.695 0.845 0.874 0.916 0.740 0.671 0.883 0.950 0.690 0.820 0.680 0.850 0.892 0.800 0.724 0.984 1.000 0.810 0.850 0.770 0.981 0.908 0.729 0.694 0.780 0.760 0.750 0.777 0.791 Midship Coefficient CM Waterplane Coefficient CWP
Type Ship
1-2.5.2 Midship Section. The midship section coefficient (CM) is the ratio of the area of the immersed midship section (Am) at a particular draft to that of a rectangle of the same draft and breadth as the ship: CM = where: AM = B T = = area of the immersed portion of the midships section, [length2] beam, usually taken at the waterline, [length] draft, [length] AM BT
If the vessel has bulges or blisters below the waterline, CM may be greater than 1.
Coefficients for commercial vessels are typical values; coefficients for specific ships will vary. Coefficients of form for U.S. Navy ships can be obtained from Naval Sea Systems Command, Code 55W. Coefficients for many merchant vessels are available from the National Cargo Bureau, telephone (212) 571-5000. The builders hull number or name and type of vessel must be provided to access the data files.
1-2.5.3 Waterplane. The waterplane coefficient (CWP) is the ratio of the area of the waterplane (AWP) to that of a rectangle of the same length and breadth as the ship: CWP = AWP LWL B
where: AWP = B LWL area of the waterplane, [length2] = beam, [length] = length on the waterline, [length]
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1-2.5.4 Prismatic. The longitudinal prismatic coefficient (CP) is the ratio of the immersed volume to the volume of a prism with length equal to the ships and cross-section area identical to the midship section: CP = C = B AM L CM
where: = AM = L = immersed volume, [length3] area of the immersed portion of the midships section, [length2] length between perpendiculars, [length]
If length between perpendiculars and length on the waterline are equal (as they are for Navy ships), the prismatic coefficient is equal to the block coefficient divided by the midships section coefficient. The prismatic coefficient thus indicates the longitudinal distribution of the underwater volume of a ships hull. For a given length, breadth, draft, and displacement, a low (fine) CP indicates a hull with fine ends. A large (full) value for CP indicates a hull with relatively full ends. For this reason, the prismatic coefficient is sometimes called the longitudinal coefficient. The vertical prismatic coefficient (CVP) is the ratio of the immersed hull volume to the volume of a prism having a length equal to the ships draft and a cross section identical to that of the waterplane: CVP = where: AWP = T immersed volume, [length3] area of the waterplane, [length2] = draft, [length] = AWP T
BREADTH; DEPTH; DRAFT, FT
125
100
75
H DT EA R B
The vertical prismatic coefficient is equal to the block coefficient divided by the waterplane coefficient and indicates the vertical distribution of the underwater volume. A full CVP indicates a concentration of volume near the keel and a fine CVP, a concentration nearer the waterline.
50
PTH DE
T DRAF
25
1-2.6 Ship Proportions. Throughout this handbook and many naval architecture texts, relationships and approximations for 0 various hydrostatic and stability parameters 0 450 600 750 900 are given as applicable to ships of ordinary, LBP, FT or normal form. With the broad range of FROM ELEMENTS OF SHIP DESIGN, R. MUNRO-SMITH, 1975. ship type, size, and service requirements, normal form is best defined by a range of coefficients and dimension ratios. Table Figure 1-3. Approximate Ship Proportions. 1-1 gives typical coefficients of form and Figure 1-3 shows approximate linear relationships between length, beam, depth, and service draft. The relationships given below, adapted from R. Munro-Smiths Elements of Ship Design, and deadweight coefficients (defined in Paragraph 1-3.3), are used to estimate ship dimensions during preliminary design and can help to determine whether a hull should be considered normal. Dimensional Ratios: Ship type General Cargo Tankers VLCC L/B 6.3 to 6.8 7.1 to 7.25 6.4 to 6.5 B/T 2.1 to 2.8 2.4 to 2.6 2.4 to 2.6 T/D 0.66 to 0.74 0.76 to 0.78 0.75 to 0.78
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Maximum block coefficient for service conditions: CB 1.00 0.23 Vk L CB 1.00 0.19 Vk L CB 1.00 where: Vk = L = Beam range:
L 9 L 9 L 9
(general cargo ships)
(tankers, bulk carriers)
0.175
Vk L
(VLCC)
service speed, knots length between perpendiculars, ft
+ 20 ft B + 15 ft B + 39 ft B B
L 9 L 9 L 9 L 5
+ 25 ft (cargo ships) + 21 ft (tankers, bulk carriers) + 50 ft, or 46 ft (VLCC)
where: B = beam, ft Beam to length relationship: B = Ln where B and L are given in feet and: n 0.61 to 0.64 for general cargo ships 0.66 to 0.68 for VLCC
Length-beam product to deadweight relationship: 0.0093LB = where: L B DWT T C = = = = = = = length between perpendiculars, ft beam, ft deadweight, lton draft, ft 0.85 to 2.0 for general cargo ships 0.525 to 0.590 for tankers 0.446 to 0.459 for VLCC DWT C T
1-2.7 Offsets. The hull form can be described in tabular format by a set of measurements known as offsets. Offsets are distances measured from the centerline to the side of the ship at each station and waterline. Molded offsets are measured to the molded surface (inside of shell plating for steel surface ships); displacement offsets are measured to the outer hull surface. Offsets define the hull proper, without appendages. Supplementary appendage offset tables are sometimes available. Molded or displacement offsets are usually presented in a table in the form feet-inches-eighths. The table of offsets for an FFG-7 Class ship shown in Figure FO-1 is typical. The waterline halfbreadth entry for station 4 at the 8' 0" waterline reads 10 - 2 - 3 indicating 10 feet, 23 8 inches. Since the station spacing is given as 20.4 feet on the plan (LBP = 408 feet, 408/20 stations = 20.4), this offset precisely locates the point on the skin of the ship 81.6 feet from the forward perpendicular (4 20.4), eight feet above the baseline and 10 feet 23 8 inches from the centerline. Lines drawings can be constructed from tables of offsets. Of more use to the salvor is the fact that offsets can be obtained from body or halfbreadth plans and used to determine ship volumes and areas by numerical integration (described in Paragraph 1-4). Offsets can be scaled from arrangement drawings, or in the worst case, measured on site.
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1-2.8 Wetted Surface. The area of all or part of a ships hulls wetted surface is important to hydrodynamic resistance and pressure force calculations. Wetted surface multiplied by average shell thickness calculates shell volume to be added to the molded volume to determine total displacement. The area of complex hull surfaces can be calculated by numerical integration from offsets or the shell expansion plan, but this is a tedious and time-consuming task. Wetted surface can be estimated by one of the following empirical relationships: Denny-Mumford Formula: AS = 1.7L T Taylors formula: A S = C D L Haslar formula for fine-lined ships: AS = 3.3
2/3
= 1.7L T T
Table 1-2. Taylors Coefficient.
L B CB
B/T
3.5 4.0 5.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
C
16.0 16.5 17.5 20.5 21.3 22.2 23.0 23.8 24.5 25.1 26.3 27.2
L 2.09 1/3
11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
where: AS L T B CB D C = = = = = = = =
16.0 18.0
wetted surface, ft2, at mean draft T, ft length between perpendiculars, ft (immersed length) displacement volume, ft3 = CB LBT mean draft, ft molded beam, ft block coefficient displacement, ltons a coefficient, ranging from 15.2 to 16.0 for vessels with 0.8 Cm 0.98 and 2.5 B/T 3.5. For shallow draft vessels, C is expressed as a function of B/T in Table 1-2.
1-3 DISPLACEMENT AND BUOYANCY A body immersed in a fluid will experience an upward force equal to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced. This force of buoyancy is the resultant of the normal pressures exerted by the fluid on each element of the immersed bodys surface. Buoyancy is opposed by the downward force of gravity, or the objects weight. In order for equilibrium to exist, the two forces must be balanced. An object heavier than an equivalent volume of water has negative buoyancy and will sink until it encounters a solid object or denser liquid, where its apparent weight is decreased by the buoyant force acting on it. Similarly, an object less dense than water will exhibit positive buoyancy and will float with an immersed volume such that the weight of the displaced water exactly equals the objects weight. Deeper immersion requires the application of force. An object whose density equals that of the surrounding water is said to have neutral buoyancy and will float at whatever depth it is placed. A ship floats by enclosing large volumes of less dense material, principally air, in a watertight skin so that its average density is less than that of the surrounding water. To be useful, a ships effective density must be much less than that of the surrounding water to allow the ship to support not only its own weight, but also that of crew, cargo, stores, etc. 1-3.1 Ships Weight, Displacement and Capacity. An objects displacement is the weight of the water it displaces; displacement represents the force of buoyancy (B) acting on the object. For a ship in static equilibrium, floating free of any solid support, displacement (D) is equal to the weight of the ship and everything in it (W), measured in long tons of 2,240 pounds. Displacement is usually given for either the lightshipthe weight of the ship without cargo or storesor full-load conditions. A ships displacement is related to the volume of displaced water, called the displacement volume or volume of displacement ( or V), by the weight density of water (g/gc). D = g gc = W
If mass density is given in slugs per cubic foot, and g in feet per second per second (ft/sec2), g/gc gives weight density in pounds-force per cubic foot. In a standard gravitational field (g = 32.174 ft/sec2) pounds-mass and pounds-force are numerically equal. Since the worldwide variation of gravitational acceleration is slight, weight density in pounds-force per cubic foot () can be taken as numerically equal to mass density, in pounds-mass per cubic foot without significant error.
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With weight held constant, the product of displacement volume and water density must also be constant. For a given weight, displacement volume varies inversely with the density of the surrounding waterdisplacement volume in water of known density can be related to displacement volume water of any density: 1 1 = 2 2 2 = 1 1 2
The density of seawater varies with salinity and temperature, but is approximately 64 pounds per cubic foot; the density of fresh water is about 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. It is sometimes more convenient to use the inverse density, or specific volume (), of 35 cubic feet per ton of seawater. The equivalent figure for fresh water is 35.9, commonly rounded to 36. W = sw 35 = fw 36
W =
36 fw = sw 35 Care must be exercised not to confuse displacement, measured in long tons, with gross, net, or register tonnage. Tonnage is a measurement of the enclosed volume of a ship used to describe her cargo capacity and does not indicate displacement. Register tonnage (gross and net) is measured according to the rules of the country of registry or international rules, and is used as a basis for port fees, canal tolls, and similar charges. Measurement tons were formerly equal to 100 cubic feet, but the more recent international rules determine tonnage by formulas that do not relate volume to tonnage directly. Gross tonnage is a measure of the internal volume of the entire shipthe hull plus enclosed spaces above the main deck. Net tonnage is derived from a formula based on the molded volume of cargo spaces, the number of passengers carried, molded depth, and service draft; net tonnage gives an indication of the ships earning capacity. Commercial vessels engaged in international voyages are issued a Tonnage Certificate by the country of registry. Certain special tonnages, such as Suez or Panama Canal tonnages, are calculated by somewhat different formulae and recorded on separate certificates. Cargo capacity may also be given in conventional volumetric units. Tank capacities are usually specified in barrels, gallons, or cubic meters. For petroleum products and other liquids subject to thermal expansion, practical capacity is less than net capacity, to ensure that a tank "filled" with cold oil will not overflow as the oil warms. U.S. Navy practice sets oil tank operating capacity at 95 percent of net capacity; U.S. Merchant Marine practice at 98 percent. Dry cargo capacity is specified in cubic feet or cubic meters. Bale capacity is the volume below deck beams and inboard of cargo battens, that is free for the stowage of bags, barrels, crates, bales, pallets, etc. Grain capacity is the net molded underdeck volume, after deductions for the volume of frames, floors, and other structure, that is available for the stowage of granular bulk cargo. Capacity of container ships is expressed as the number of standard 8-foot-wide by 8-foot-high containers of specified length that can be carried, often converted to 20-foot equivalent units (TEU), or 40 foot equivalent units (FEU). Capacity for roll-on/roll-off (RO/RO) cargo and vehicle carriers may be expressed as the number of units that can be carried or as the area of the cargo decks, in square feet or square meters. 1-3.2 Standard Loading Conditions. Displacement and stability characteristics are often referenced to certain standard conditions of loading. 1-3.2.1 U.S. Navy Ships. Characteristics are usually tabulated for the following standard conditions of loading (from NSTM Chapter 096):
Condition A - Lightship The ship complete, ready for service in every respect, including permanent ballast (solid and liquid), onboard repair parts, aviation mobile support equipment as assigned, and liquids in machinery at operating levels, without any items of variable load (provisions, stores, ammunition, crew and effects, cargo, aircraft and aviation stores, passengers, saltwater ballast, fuel and other liquids in storage tanks). Formerly Condition II. Condition A-1 - Lightship Condition A without permanent ballast. Formerly condition II-A. Condition B - Minimum Operating Condition A condition of minimum stability likely to exist in normal operation (following the ships liquid loading instructions). For warships, Condition B approximates the ships condition toward the end of a hostile engagement following a long period at sea. Liquids are included in amounts and locations that will provide satisfactory stability, trim, and limitation of list in case of underwater damage. Formerly Condition V. Condition C - Optimum Battle Condition As formerly applied to minor combatants, the ship loaded with full ammunition allowance and two-thirds provisions, fuel, lube oil, etc. Fuel distribution and seawater ballast are in accordance with liquid loading instructions, except that service tanks are assumed half-full and one pair of storage tanks per machinery box are assumed empty. Formerly Condition LS. In current practice, this condition applies only to ships with extensive underwater defense systems, such as aircraft carriers and battleships. Liquids are carried in the amounts and locations that provide the optimum resistance to underwater damage.
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Condition D - Full Load Two different full-load conditions are defined: (1) Full load (contractual) The ship complete, ready for service in every respect; Condition A plus authorized complement of personnel and passengers and their effects, full allowance of ammunition in magazines and ready service spaces, full allowance of aircraft and vehicles with repair parts and stores, provisions and stores for the periods specified in design specifications, sufficient fuel to meet endurance specifications, anti-roll tank liquid, liquids in tanks to required capacity in accordance with liquid load instructions, and cargo in the amounts normally carried or a specified portion of full capacity. This condition is used for weight estimates and reporting. (2) Full load (departure) Same as full load (contractual) except that fuel and lube oil tanks are 95-percent full, potable and feed water tanks 100-percent full. Formerly Condition VI. This condition is used in inclining experiment reports.
Condition E - Capacity Load The ship complete, ready for service in every respect; Condition A plus the maximum number of crew and passengers that can be accommodated, with their effects, maximum stowage of ammunition in magazines and ready service spaces, full allowance of aircraft and vehicles with repair parts and stores, maximum amount of provisions and stores that can be carried in assigned spaces, tanks filled to maximum capacity (95 percent for oil tanks, 100 percent for fresh water), maximum amounts of cargo and supplies, with the provision that the limiting drafts not be exceeded.
Data is sometimes tabulated for special or unusual loading conditions, such as special ballast conditions for amphibious warfare ships. Details for each condition of loading are found in the ships damage control book. Standard displacement is a condition defined by the Washington Naval Conference of 1923 as "The displacement of the ship, fully manned, engined, and equipped ready for sea, including all armament and ammunition, equipment, outfit, provisions and fresh water for the crew, miscellaneous stores and implements of every description that are intended to be carried in war, but without fuel or reserve feed water on board." Standard displacement was defined primarily as an aid to ensuring compliance to restriction on warship size and total naval tonnage under international treaties, but provides a convenient means of comparing warships and is commonly given in published summaries of naval strength, such as Janes Fighting Ships. Characteristics for standard displacement are not normally tabulated in damage control books or similar documents. 1-3.2.2 Commercial Vessels. Two major conditions of loading are referenced in dealing with commercial vessels:
Lightship, Lightweight, or Light Displacement The ship with all items of outfit, equipment, and machinery, including boiler water and lubricating oil in sumps, but without cargo, provisions, stores, crew, or fuel. Fully Loaded Lightship plus cargo, fuel, stores, etc., to settle the ship to her load line. Also loaded, load, or full-load displacement. For ships designed to carry different classes of cargo, full-load conditions may be tabulated for each type of cargo.
The trim and stability booklet will normally tabulate stability data for ballasted and partly loaded conditions, and for end of voyage and intermediate conditions with varying amounts of fuel and stores consumed. 1-3.2.3 Loading Instructions. Specific loading instructions are provided to help operating personnel avoid loading the ship so that her stability is dangerously low or the hull girder is overstressed. The most basic instruction is that ships shall not be loaded so heavily that their load line (merchant) or limiting draft marks (naval) are submerged. Detailed loading instructions are given in the trim and stability booklet for merchant ships or the damage control book for Navy ships. In certain types of ships, such as container ships, RO/RO ships, barge carriers, and ferries, improper loading can easily reduce stability to dangerously low levels. In other ships, such as tankers and ore carriers, improper loading can seriously overstress the hull. Transient conditions created while loading or unloading can also degrade stability or overstress the hull. Load and stability computers supplement or replace loading instructions on many tankers, bulk carriers, and other large ships or ships with unusual stability problems. Load computers are briefly described in Paragraph 4-2.5.3. 1-3.3 Deadweight. Deadweight (DWT) is the load carried by a ship. It is the difference between the lightship displacement and total displacement of the ship at any time. Maximum or load deadweight is the carrying capacity of a ship measured in 2,240-pound long tons, and is the difference between the lightweight and fully loaded displacements. Deadweight includes fuel, provisions, munitions, crew and effects, cargo, or any other weight carried. For a merchant ship, cargo deadweight, paying deadweight, or payload is the part of the deadweight that is cargo and therefore earning income. It is not uncommon for the deadweight of a merchant ship to be given, but not its full-load displacement. A deadweight coefficient (CDWT) can be defined as the ratio of full-load displacement to total deadweight: CDWT = where: CDWT FL DWT = = = deadweight coefficient full-load displacement total deadweight FL DWT FL = DWT CDWT
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Typical ranges for deadweight coefficient are given by R. Munro-Smith (Elements of Ship Design, 1979): General cargo ship Ore carrier Bulk carrier Oil tanker Very large tanker, VLCC 1.39 1.30 1.19 1.16 1.28 1.61 1.39 1.28 1.25 1.32
1-3.4 Change in Draft. Draft is significant as the only principal dimension that varies routinely, while length and beam remain essentially constant. Volume of displacement, and therefore draft, will change as a ships displacement changes due to loading or discharging cargo, consuming or loading fuel or stores, or flooding. The new volumes and mean drafts can be computed by using the relationships shown. For example: a box-shaped lighter 100 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 10 feet in depth, displacing 429 tons of seawater with zero trim. Because waterplane area is constant at any draft, drafts can be found by: = W = 35 (429) = 15,015 ft3 = L B T = 100 (30) T = 15,015 ft3 T = LB = 15,015 = 5 ft 100 (30)
where: W L B T = = = = = = displacement volume, ft3 = LBTCB; for box-shaped lighter CB = 1.0 total weight of the barge, lton specific volume of seawater = 35 ft3/lton length between perpendiculars, ft beam, ft draft, ft
If weight (displacement) is decreased to 350 tons, the new mean draft is given by: = 35W = 35(350) = 12,250 ft3 T = 12,250 = 4.08 ft = 4 ft 1 in. 3,000
For a complex ship shape, drafts cannot be calculated directly. The change in draft (T) can be determined if certain assumptions are made. The increase in volume can be considered to be a prism of uniform thickness with vertical sides and horizontal section with area equal to the waterplane area. For a wall-sided vessel (one with vertical sides, like the box-shaped lighter), this is mathematically exact; it is sufficiently accurate for most ships for small changes in draft. The thickness of the prism is determined by dividing its volume by the area of the waterplane: T = (15,015) 12,250) = = AWP L B CWP (100)(30)(1.0)
= 0.92 ft = 11 in. where: T AWP = CWP = = change in draft, ft = change in displacement volume, ft3 waterplane area, ft2 waterplane coefficient
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The salvor may encounter ships in water of varying densities. The waters of harbors and estuaries might be salty, fresh or brackish; the salinity and density of the water may depend on the state of the tide. The equalities shown can be used to relate displacement volume, draft and displacement of any ship in water of any known density. Recalling that: 1 1 = 2 2 1 1 L B T CB 1 where: L B T CB = = = = = = = displacement volume, ft3 water density, lb/ft3 inverse density or specific volume, ft3/lton length between perpendiculars, ft beam, ft draft, ft block coefficient
1
2 2 L B T CB 2
2
With length and breadth constant, and CB assumed constant for a small change in draft, T1 1 T1 T2 = T2 2 1 2
and: T2 = SW FW T12 1 = 35 36
For saltwater and fresh water:
and: 36 TFW = TSW 35 The difference between fresh water and seawater drafts may range from 6 inches for an FFG-7 to 1.2 feet for a large aircraft carrier, or more on a large crude carrier. Differences encountered when dealing with brackish water will be correspondingly less, and may be dealt with by using values for fresh water and saltwater as upper and lower boundaries if the water density is unknown or variable.
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1-3.5 Tons per Inch Immersion (TPI). The foregoing analysis can be carried a step further to determine the change in displacement (D) required to cause a change in draft of one inch. For seawater: T = ; AWP Substituting 1 inch = 1 12-foot for T: D = AWP (35)(12) = AWP 420 = TPI = 35D T = 35 D AWP
W =
T AWP 35
where: D 35 AWP = TPI = displacement, lton = displacement volume, ft3 = water density, lb/ft3 = specific volume, ft3/lton waterplane area, ft2 = tons per inch immersion, lton/in.
Tons per inch immersion for water of any density can be obtained by a similar calculation. 1-3.6 Reserve Buoyancy. The watertight volume between the waterline and the uppermost continuous watertight deck provides the reserve buoyancy to the ship. Although this volume does not actually provide any buoyancy, it is available to enable the ship to take on additional weight. Freeboard is an indication of the reserve buoyancy remaining. Freeboard and draft can be considered opposite ends of a sliding scale, with draft representing the buoyancy in use and freeboard the buoyancy remaining. 1-3.7 Center of Gravity. A homogeneous bodys center of gravity is located at its center of volume, or centroid. The center of gravity of a ship is not so easily definable, but can be assumed to be located on the centerline near the midship plane in a ship floating without list or trim. The center of gravity of a ship is a function of weight distribution; its position varies with loading. With all weights stationary, the center of gravity remains fixed regardless of the movement of the ship. Its position relative to any of the three reference planes along a perpendicular axis (n) is given mathematically by: n dw = G = W where: G n W = = = position of the center of gravity along any axis distance from the origin to an incremental weight dw, or to an individual weight w total weight = w nw w
The location of the center of gravity greatly influences the stability characteristics of a vessel: the vertical location (VCG, or KG) influences a vessels ability to resist heeling forces; the longitudinal location (LCG) relative to the longitudinal location of the center of buoyancy determines trim; and a transverse location (TCG) off the centerline results in a list.
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1-3.8 Center of Buoyancy. The force of buoyancy, like gravity, can be resolved to act upwards through a single point. The center of buoyancy (B) is located at the centroid of the submerged hull form. As the ship inclines, the shape of the underwater volume changes and the center of buoyancy moves to the new geometric center. When a ship is at rest without list, the center of buoyancy is on the centerline directly below the center of gravity. The location of the center of buoyancy responds directly to draft changes. As the ships displacement is increased or decreased with a corresponding change in draft, the center of buoyancy will move to the new centroid of the redefined submerged hull form. 1-3.9 Metacenter. As shown in Figure 14, vertical lines drawn through successive centers of buoyancy (B1, B2, and B3) as the ship inclines slightly intersect at an imaginary point on the centerline called the metacenter (M). In a stable vessel, M is located above the center of gravity. The vertical location of M is one of the most critical parameters affecting a ships initial stability. 1-3.10 Center of Flotation. The center of flotation is the point about which the ship trims and heels, and is at the geometric center of the ships floating waterplane. It is usually located aft of midships, although it may be forward of midships in fullbodied ships.
(HEEL ANGLES EXAGGERATED) M
WL2 WL WL 1 G WL WL1 B2 B1 B WL2
1-3.11 Bonjeans Curves. Bonjeans Curves or Curves of Sectional Areas are a Figure 1-4. Relative Positions of M, B, and G During Small Inclinations. collection of curves plotting sectional area along the X-axis against draft on the Y-axis. The curves are usually presented in one of the two formats shown in Figure FO-3. The section area curve may show area for either the whole section, or for one side only, as noted on the drawing. The areas generally do not account for appendages, but may include shell plating, as noted on the drawing. Section areas can be taken from the curves for any draft and any condition of trim or hull deflection. Section area is converted to unit buoyancy by dividing by the specific volume of water (35 cubic feet per long ton per foot of length for seawater). Volume of displacement and other hydrostatic properties can be determined by integration of section area or derived unit buoyancy ordinates by the numerical methods described in Paragraph 1-4. The rosette arrangement (Figure FO-3A), with all the curves drawn to a single set of axes, produces a more compact drawing and is favored by some designers because lack of fairness in the hull will show itself with the curves lying side by side. Section areas are read from the intersection of a horizontal line through the station draft on the center scale with the appropriate curve. When calculating buoyancies for varying waterlines or wave profiles, it is sometimes more convenient to arrange the curves along the ships profile, with a vertical axis at each station as shown in Figure FO-3B. With the section area curves arranged in this format, a trimmed waterline can be plotted as a straight line passing through the forward draft at station zero, and the after draft at the after perpendicular, eliminating the need to determine draft at each station. Section areas can be picked off by drawing a horizontal line from the intersection of the waterline with each vertical station marker to the appropriate curves. If the Bonjeans Curves are not available in this format, the curves and area scale can be traced from the rosette onto a hull profile drawn on tracing paper. The horizontal length scale for the hull profile is not critical, but should be consistent throughout its length if buoyancy is to be calculated on waterlines that are not horizontal.
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1-4 APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS The salvage engineer may be required to calculate hydrostatic data for a casualty when curves of form or other documents are not available; for a casualty in an unusual condition, such as a ship floated upside down or on its side; or for portions of a ship that has been cut into sections. A ships form consists of a number of intersecting surfaces, usually of nonmathematical form. Areas and volumes enclosed by these surfaces, as well as moments of areas and volumes, and second moments of area, must be determined to calculate hull hydrostatic characteristics. For a curve plotted on an xy coordinate system, the area under the curve and moments, second moments (moments of inertia), and location of the centroid can be expressed as simple integrals. Since hull forms are seldom definable by mathematical equations, areas, moments, and volumes are calculated by manual integration methods rather than by direct integration. Manual integration methods are also used to evaluate any parameter that can be expressed as a curve of a function of some variable. For example, the total force, location of the center of effort, and force moment of an unevenly distributed force (such as current forces) can be determined from a curve showing the force distribution. Graphical and numerical manual integration methods are described in the following paragraphs. 1-4.1 Graphical Integration. An obvious way to calculate the area under a curve (or within a shape) is to plot the curve to scale on graph paper and count the squares under the curve. This method can be extended to calculate the first moment of area, My = xy dx, by multiplying the height (number of squares, y) in each column by its distance from the origin (x), and summing all such products. In the same way, the second moment is calculated by multiplying the height of each column by x2. By adopting sign conventions and adjusting the location of the origin, moments can be calculated about any desired axis. Graphical integration of large, complex areas is very tedious, but can be very accurate for even the most complex or discontinuous curves. 1-4.2 Numerical Integration. Numerical integration methods, or rules, are based on the same premise as graphical integration; that the area under a curve can be closely approximated by breaking the area up into smaller shapes whose areas can be calculated or estimated easily, and summing the areas of these shapes. Most rules depend upon the substitution of a simple mathematical form for the actual curve to be integrated. The accuracy of the result depends upon the accuracy of the fit between the real and assumed curves. 1-4.3 Trapezoidal Rule. The trapezoidal rule substitutes a series of straight lines for a complex curve to allow integration of the curve in a simple tabular format. Conceptually, the trapezoidal rule is the simplest of the numerical integration rules. A curvilinear shape can be approximated by a series of n trapezoids bounded by n + 1 equally spaced ordinates, y0, y1, y2, y3, ..., yn, (at stations x0, x1, x2, x3, ..., xn) as shown in Figure 1-5. If the station spacing is h, the area (a0,1) of the first trapezoid is: a0,1 = y0 + y1 2 h
y0
y1
y2
y3 ......................... h
yn-1
yn x
x0
x1
x2
x3 .........................
x n-1
xn
Figure 1-5. Curvilinear Figure Approximated by Series of Trapezoids.
The total area of the shape (A) is approximately equal to the sum of the areas of the trapezoids: A = a0, 1 = = y0 y1 2 h y 2 0 a1, 2 h 2y1 a2, 3 y1 y2 2 h ... an 2 2 y3 . . .
1, n
y2 y3
h yn
...
yn
yn
2y2
y = h 0 2
y1
y2
y3
...
yn 2
This expression is called the trapezoidal rule, and can be used to calculate areas of any shape bounded by a continuous curve, simply by dividing the shape into a number of equal sections and substituting the ordinate values and the station spacing, or common interval, into the rule. The common multiplier for the trapezoidal rule is the common interval (h). If the common interval and common multiplier (CM) are separated into two factors, the common multiplier for the trapezoidal rule is 1. The factors by which each ordinate is multiplied (1 2, 1, 1, 1, ..., 1 2) are the individual multipliers (m). The products of the individual multipliers and ordinates are called functions of area, (A). The area under the curve is thus expressed as: A = y dx = h f (A)
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Because the trapezoidal rule substitutes a series of straight lines for the curve to be integrated, it is best suited for use with smooth, long-radius curves such as the waterlines of a ship. The rule underestimates the area under convex curves, and overestimates the area under concave curves. Accuracy increases as station spacing is decreased. If greater accuracy is required in regions of considerable curvature, e.g. at the ends of the ship, stations are taken at half-divisions. When half-spaced stations are used, the individual multipliers for the half-stations and adjacent stations must be adjusted. If, for example, a half-station is inserted between ordinates 1 and 2: A = y0 y1 2 h y1 y1.5 h 2 2 y1.5 y2 h 2 2 y2 y3 2 h ... yn
1
yn
h y 1.5 y1 y1.5 1.5 y2 2y3 ... yn 2 0
3 1 3 1 1 y1 y1.5 y2 y3 ... y = h y0 2 4 2 4 2 n The individual multiplier for the half-station is 1 2, and 3 4 for the station on either side of it. A similar analysis will show that if several sequential half-stations are inserted (i.e., 21 2, 31 2, 41 2, etc.) the multipliers for all stations and half-stations between the first and last half-stations is 1 2, and the multiplier for the two outlying whole stations is 3 4. It may be more convenient to use the first form of the rule, to avoid divisors greater than 2, in which case all the individual multipliers are doubled. 1-4.4 Simpsons Rules. The replacement of a complex or small radius curve by a series of straight lines limits the accuracy of calculations, unless a large number of ordinates are used. Integration rules that replace the actual curve with a mathematical curve of higher order are more accurate. Simpsons rules assume that the actual curve can be replaced by a second-order curve (parabola). Figures 1-6 through 1-8 demonstrate the derivations of Simpsons rules. 1-4.4.1 Simpsons First Rule. Figure 1-6 shows a curve of the form y = ax2 + bx + c. It is expressed by three evenly spaced ordinates y0, y1 and y2, at x = 0, 1, and 2 (station spacing = 1). The values of the ordinates are: y0 = a (0)2 y1 = a (1)2 y2 = a (2)2 The area under the curve is:
2 A = (ax 2 0
y
Y = ax
2
+ bx + c
y0
y1
y2
x=0 h
x=1 h
x=2
X h AREA = __ (y0 + 4y1 + y2 ) 3
Figure 1-6. Simpsons Three-Ordinate Rule.
b (0) b (1) b (2)
c = c c = a c = 4a b 2b c c
for x = 1 for x = 1 for x = 2
bx
c) dx =
ax 3 3
bx 2 2
cx
2 0
8 a 3
2b
2c
Now c = y0 and y1 = y0 + a + b, and y2 = y0 + 4a + 2b. Substituting and solving for a and b: y2 2 y1 = y0 a = ( y2 2b 2 y1 2 y0 a = y1 y0 (y2 2y1 2 y0) = 3 y 2 0 y2 2 2 y1 4a y0 ) 2 y0 2b 2a = y0 2a
b = y1
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Area (A) is expressed as: A = 8 a 3 2b 2c = 8 y2 3 4 y 3 2 2 y1 2 y0 3 y0 2 2 4 y = 3 0 1 y 3 0 y2 2 2 y1 4 y 3 1 2 y0 1 y 3 2
= 2 y0 = 1 y 3 0
3 y0 4 y1
y2 y2
4 y1
8 y 3 1
For an ordinate spacing of h rather than unity: A = This relationship is Simpsons first rule, or 3-ordinate rule, commonly called Simpsons rule. The rule calculates correctly the area under a second order curve and will approximate the area under any curve that passes through the same three points. The accuracy depends on how closely the actual curve approaches the parabolic form assumed by the rule. Simpsons Rule is the numerical integration rule used most widely for ship calculations. h (y 3 0 4 y1 y2 )
6 1 1
5 4 4
4 1 1 2
3 4 4
2 1 1 2
1 4 4
0 1 1
STATION 3-ORDINATE MULTIPLIERS SIMPSONS MULTIPLIERS
Figure 1-7. Simpsons Multipliers for Long Curve.
The rule can be extended to calculate the area under a long nonparabolic curve such as a ships waterline. If the length of the curve is divided into enough equal parts, as shown in Figure 1-7, it can be reasonably approximated by a series of parabolic segments. For a curve divided into n equal parts, the area between the first (0) and third (2) ordinates would be given by: A0 where: A0-2 h L n = = = = area under the curve between the first and third ordinates distance between ordinates = L/n length of the curve number of sections between ordinates = number of ordinates - 1
2
h (y + 4y1 + y2) 3 0
Similarly, the area between the third (2) and fifth (4) ordinates would be: A2 The area between the fifth (4) and seventh (6) ordinates: A4 and so on. The total area is the sum of all the two section areas: A = A0 =
2 6 4
h (y + 4y3 + y4) 3 2
h (y + 4y5 + y6) 3 4
A2
A4
... An
2 n
h y 4y1 2y2 4y3 2y4 4y5 2y6 ... yn 3 0
This is the general form of Simpsons rule. Since the rule consists of a summation of areas over two sections of a curve divided into a number of equal sections, the curve must be divided into an even number of sections (by an odd number of stations) to apply the rule. The common multiplier (CM) is 1 3; the individual multipliers are 1, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4,..., 2, 4, 1. The derivation of the individual multipliers as a tabular summation of the 3-ordinate rule multipliers for each two adjacent sections is shown in Figure 1-7.
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In regions where the slope of the curve changes rapidly, the accuracy of the rule can be increased by inserting intermediate (half-spaced) stations. When half-spaced stations are used, the individual multipliers are modified. For example, a half-station could be inserted at 21 2 were there a rapid change in form between the third and fourth stations of the curve in Figure 1-7. The area between the first and second stations is calculated as before: A0
2
h (y + 4y1 + y2) 3 0
With the insertion of the half-station (21 2), the 3-ordinate rule can be applied to the area between the third and fourth ordinates (A2-3), with an ordinate spacing of h/2: h y h y 2 = y2 4y2.5 y3 = 2 2y2.5 3 32 2 3
A2
The area between the fourth and sixth stations (A3-4) is now: A3 and so on. The total area is: A = A0 = =
2 4
h (y + 4y4 + y5) 3 3
A2
A3
... An
1 n
y2 2y3 h 2 y2.5 y y3 4y4 y5 ... yn y0 4y1 y2 3 2 2 h 1 1 y 4y1 1 y2 2y2.5 1 y3 4y4 2y5 ... yn 3 0 2 2
Note that unless another half-spaced station is inserted, the number of sections (n) will be even, and the rule unworkable. Intermediate stations can be inserted at any equal division of the station spacing (third-stations, quarter-stations, etc.) and multipliers deduced in a similar manner. Intermediate stations can be inserted anywhere along the length of the curve so long as two rules are followed:
An even number of intermediate stations must be inserted, so that the total number of segments remains even (total number of ordinates is odd). Intermediate stations must be inserted so there are an even number of segments in each group of consecutive whole or partial segments (each group of whole or partial segments includes an odd number of ordinates).
Intermediate stations are commonly used near the ends of waterlines where the hull form changes rapidly with respect to length. The individual multipliers can be quickly determined by tabulating and summing the appropriate 3-ordinate rule multipliers as shown in Figure 1-8. 1-4.4.2 Simpsons Second Rule. Rules can be deduced, in a similar manner, for areas bounded by different numbers of evenly spaced ordinates, or by unevenly spaced ordinates. For four evenly spaced ordinates:
6 1/2 1/2
5-1/2 2 2
5 1 1/2 1-1/2
4 4 4
3 1 1/2 1-1/2
2-1/2 2 2
2 1 1/2 1-1/2
1 4 4
0 STATION 1 3-ORDINATE
MULTIPLIER
1 SIMPSONS
MULTIPLIER
Figure 1-8. Simpsons Multipliers with Half-Spaced Stations.
A =
3h (y0 + 3y1 + 3y2 + y3) 8
This is Simpsons second or three-eighths Rule. The general form is: A = 3h (y0 + 3y1 + 3y2 + 2y3 + 3y4 + 3y5 + 2y6 + ... + yn) 8
Simpsons second rule can be used with 4 + 3i ordinates, where i is a positive integer (i.e., 4, 7, 10, 13, etc.). 1-4.5 Applications. The derivations of Simpsons rules and the trapezoidal rule were demonstrated with area computations to aid conceptualization, but the rules can integrate any function that can be plotted on Cartesian coordinates. If, for example, the ordinates represent sectional areas along a ships length for a given waterline, the products of the multipliers and ordinates are functions of volume, (V), and their summation (integral of the curve) is the volume of displacement. Calculation of areas, moments, centroids, and second moments of areas by the are described in the following paragraphs.
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1-4.5.1 Moments and Centroids. As shown in Figure 1-9, the moment of an elemental strip of area about some vertical axis YY is xydx. To determine the moment of a larger area about the axis, the integral M = xy dx must be evaluated. Instead of multiplying the value of y at each station by the appropriate multiplier, the value xy is multiplied, where x is the distance from the station to the reference axis, and dx is the width of each strip, or the common interval h. The value y dx = hyn is the area of the strip an; the first moment of this area about some reference axis YY is: MYY = xnhyn = xnan The total moment is the sum of the moments of all the strips, that is, the integral of the incremental moments along the length:
yy
AREA a = ydx
x 1/2 yn xx dx FOR SHADED STRIP: a = ydx ay2 y3dx i = ___ = ____ 12 12 Myy = xa = x(ydx) Iyy = x 2a = x2(ydx) 3 y2 y dx y 2 ( ydx) _____ Ixx = __ a + i = __ + 2 2 12
yn
Figure 1-9. Variables for Moment and Second-Moment Calculations.
L MYY = xn an dx 0
The integral can be evaluated numerically: x a dx = n n where: CM (A) mn = = = common multiplier for the appropriate integration rule function of area = mnyn common multiplier for the appropriate rule and station xn CMf (A) = CM xn f (A)
If the reference axis is chosen to fall on an ordinate station, then the moment arms have the common interval (h) as a common factor, i.e., xn = snh, where xn is the moment arm and sn is the number of stations from the reference axis to station n. The factor h can be brought outside the summation: MYY = CMh sn(A) The products of the number of stations from the reference axis and the functions of area, sn(A), are the functions of moment (M): MYY = CMh (M) The distance from the centroid of the shape to the reference axis (x) is the moment divided by the area: x = MYY A = CM h f (M) = CM f (A) f (M) h f (A)
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The centroid of a symmetrical shape lies on the axis of symmetry, and its location can be defined by summing moments about a single axis perpendicular to the axis of symmetry. To precisely locate the centroid of an asymmetrical shape, moments must be summed about another, perpendicular, axis. The calculation can be performed by taking ordinates perpendicular to the first set and integrating with respect to y rather than x. Moments about an axis XX can also be determined using y ordinates, but with slightly less accuracy. Referring again to Figure 1-9, the moment about axis XX of the elemental strip dx is: y y2 y MX X = a = y dx = dx 2 2 2 where y is the height of the strip, and a its area. The total moment is the integral of the incremental moments along the length, and the integral can be evaluated numerically: MX X Ly n an dx = = 0 2 yn 2 CM f (A)n = CM yn f (A)n 2
The product of the y ordinate and the function of area for each segment can be defined as the function of moment about x, (MXX): f MX X = y f (A) = y 2 mn MX X = CM 2 f MX X
where mn is the individual multiplier for the nth ordinate. The distance from the centroid of the shape to the axis XX (y) is the moment divided by the area: MX X A CM f MXX f MXX 2 = CM f (A) 2 f (A)
Moments can be summed about any axis, although it is simplest to sum them about an axis through x0 so that the number of stations from the reference axis is simply the station number. For ship calculations, moments are often summed about the midships section to reduce the size of the products and sums for manual calculation, and because the centers of flotation, buoyancy, and gravity normally lie near midships. When moments are summed about a station other than an end station, a sign convention must be adopted so that distances to one side of the reference axis (and therefore moments and functions of moments) are negative. 1-4.5.2 Second Moments of Area. The second moment of area (moment of inertia, I) of a plane shape about an axis YY parallel to the vertical ordinates is given by:
L IYY = 0 x2y dx
where: IYY = x = L = second moment of area about some axis YY distance from axis YY to elemental vertical strip of height y and width dx length of the area whose second moment is desired, measured along an axis perpendicular to YY
An analysis similar to that taken for the calculation of first moments will show that the second moment of the area under a curve is calculated by: IYY = CMh2 (IYY) where: CM h (IYY) sn mn yn = = = = = = common multiplier common interval function of second moment about axis YY = sn2mnyn number of stations from axis YY to station n individual multiplier for station n height of the ordinate at station n
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The second moment of an area (moment of inertia) is always smallest about an axis through its centroid, (the neutral axis in bending stress analysis). If moment of inertia about some axis YY, parallel to the neutral axis is known, the moment of inertia about the neutral axis (INA) is found by the parallel axis theorem: INA = IYY - Ad 2 where d is the distance from axis YY to the neutral axis, and A is the total area of the section. The second moment of area about an axis XX perpendicular to axis YY can be calculated by taking ordinates perpendicular to the first set and integrating twice with respect to y rather than x. To determine the second moment about a horizontal axis of symmetry, such as the moment of inertia of a waterplane about its centerline, the integration can also be performed using the original set of ordinates. In Figure 1-9 (Page 120), y is the half-ordinate of an incremental strip of a waterplane measured from the centerline. The second moment of area of the incremental strip about the centerline is: y 2 ixx = a 2 where: ixx a i0 dx = = = = = second moment of area of incremental strip about the centerline area of the incremental strip second moment of area of the incremental strip about a horizontal centroidal axis (1 12)y3dx if strip is assumed to be rectangular width of the incremental strip y 2 i0 = y dx 2 1 3 1 3 y dx = y dx 3 12
The total second moment of half-waterplane area is:

L 1 1 L IXX, half = y 3dx = y 3dx 0 0 3 3 The second moment of the total area is twice this amount, and this will be the second moment about the centerline, since the waterplane is symmetrical about the centerline. The integration y3dx can be performed numerically:
CM h IX X = 2 3 where: CM h (IXX) = = = common multiplier common interval function of second moment about axis XX = mnyn3 individual multiplier for station n height of the half-ordinate at station n
f IX X
y0 0 1 2 3 4 y4 = 0 ORDINATES FOR AREA INTEGRATION ORDINATES FOR VOLUME INTEGRATION (AREAS) 0 1 2 3 4 x0 x1 x2 x3
mn yn
= =
1-4.5.3 Volumes and Centroids of Volume. Volumes are calculated by integrating a curve of sectional areas. To calculate the volume of the tank shown in Figure 1-10, the shape is first cut at several stations to form section outlines. The area of each section is calculated, and the areas taken as ordinates along the length of the tank. Integrating the area ordinates by the trapezoidal rule: V = a dx = h (V) where: (V) mn an = = =
a0
a1
a2
a3
Figure 1-10. Determination of Volume by Numerical Integration.
function of volume = mnan individual multiplier for station n area of section at station n
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The moment of volume about some axis YY is: MYY = h2 (M) where: (M) sn = = function of moment of volume about axis YY = snmnan number of stations from axis YY to station n
The distance of the centroid from axis YY: d = h 2 f (M) = h f (V) f (M) h f (V)
These forms are exactly the same as those used to calculate areas and moments and centroids of areas; the only difference is that ordinate values represent areas rather than linear distances. Integrations can be performed along additional axes to precisely locate the centroid of the shape. 1-4.5.4 General Forms for Area and Moment Calculations. Calculation of areas, moments, centroids, and second moments of area by Simpsons first and second rules can be expressed in general forms: A = (CM) h f (A) MYY = (CM) h f (M) CM MXX = f MXX 2 x = where: A MYY MXX = x y IYY IXX CM h (A) (M) (MXX) (IYY) (IXX) s m yn = area under a curve between selected stations = first moment of area about axis YY first moment of area about axis XX = distance from centroid of area to axis YY = distance from centroid of area to axis XX = second moment of area about axis YY = second moment of area about centerline axis XX = common multiplier for the appropriate rule (1, 1/3, 3/8, etc) = common interval = function of area = mnyn = function of moment about YY = snmnyn = sn(A) = function of moment about XX = mnyn2 = yn(A) = function of second moment about YY = sn2mnyn = sn(M) = sn2(A) 3 = function of second moment about XX = mnyn = number of stations from axis YY (or integration start point) to station n = individual multiplier for station n for the appropriate rule = height of the ordinate at station n (half-ordinate for IXX) (CM) h f (M) = (CM) f (A) f (M) h f (A)
Examples 1-1 and 1-2 demonstrate the use of the trapezoidal rule and Simpsons rule to calculate waterplane functions for an FFG-7 Class ship.
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EXAMPLE 1-1 CALCULATION OF WATERPLANE PROPERTIES BY TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
Using 11- and 21-ordinate trapezoidal rules, calculate the waterplane area (AWP), location of the center of flotation (LCF), moment of inertia of the waterplane about the centerline (ICL) and a transverse axis through the LCF (ICF), tons per inch immersion in saltwater (TPI), and waterplane coefficient (CWP) for the 16-foot waterline of an FFG-7 Class ship. Compare these values with actual data. Actual Properties:
L Bmax AWP LCF
= = = =
408 ft 45.6 ft 13,860 ft2 24.1 ft aft of midships = 228.1 ft from forward perpendicular
ICF ICL TPI CWP =
= 135,888,480 ft4 = 1,664,145 ft4 = 33 tons/in 0.745
Since the waterplane is symmetrical about its centerline, areas and moments can be found by integrating one side of the waterplane along the centerline with half-ordinates (halfbreadths) measured from the centerline, and doubling the results. Halfbreadths for the 16-foot waterline, in feet, inches, and eighths, are taken from Figure FO-1. The integrations are best performed in a tabular format. To integrate on 11 ordinates, halfbreadths for stations 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 are used. Integration on 11 ordinates: Station Ordinate, y ft-in-1/8 ft 0-4-5 0.39 6 -10 - 5 12-11 - 0 17- 9 - 2 20-11 - 5 22- 7 - 1 22- 8 - 3 21- 8 - 4 19- 7 - 1 16- 8 - 6 12- 7 - 0 6.89 12.92 17.77 20.97 22.59 22.70 21.71 19.59 16.73 12.58 Multiplier m
1
Integration on 21 ordinates: (A) my ft2 0.19 6.89 12.92 17.77 20.97 22.59 22.70 21.71 19.59 16.73 6.29 168.34 Lever (M) (IYY) s s (A) s (M) ft ft3 ft4 0 0.0 0.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 6.89 25.84 53.31 83.88 112.95 136.20 151.97 156.72 150.57 62.90 941.23 6.89 51.68 159.93 335.52 564.75 817.20 1063.37 1253.76 1355.13 629.00 6237.65 (IXX) m y3 ft4 0.03 327.1 2156.7 5611.3 9221.4 11527.9 11697.1 10232.4 7518.0 4682.6 995.4 63969.9 Station Ordinate, Multiplier y m ft-in-1/8 ft 0 - 4 - 5 0.39 1/2 3 - 7 - 6 3.65 1 6 -10 - 5 6.89 1 10- 0 - 2 10.02 1 12-11 - 0 12.92 1 15- 6 - 1 15.51 1 17- 9 - 2 17.77 1 19- 6 - 7 19.57 1 20-11 - 5 20.97 1 21-11 - 5 21.97 1 22- 7 - 1 22.59 1 22- 9 - 4 22.79 1 22- 8 - 3 22.70 1 22- 3 - 7 22.32 1 21- 8 - 4 21.71 1 20- 9 - 5 20.80 1 19- 7 - 1 19.59 1 18- 2 - 1 18.18 1 16- 8 - 6 16.73 1 15- 1 - 0 15.01 1 12- 7 - 0 12.58 1/2 (A) Lever (M) (IYY) s ft2 ft ft3 ft4 0.19 0 0.0 0.0 3.65 1 3.65 3.65 6.89 2 13.78 27.56 10.02 3 30.06 90.18 12.92 4 51.68 206.72 15.51 5 77.55 387.75 17.77 6 106.62 639.72 19.57 7 136.99 958.93 20.97 8 167.76 1342.08 21.97 9 197.73 1779.57 22.59 10 225.90 2259.00 22.79 11 250.69 2757.59 22.70 12 272.40 3268.80 22.32 13 290.16 3772.08 21.71 14 303.94 4255.16 20.80 15 312.00 4680.00 19.59 16 313.44 5015.04 18.18 17 309.06 5254.02 16.73 18 301.14 5420.52 15.01 19 285.19 5418.61 6.29 20 125.80 2516.00 338.18 3775.54 50052.98 (IXX ) ft4 0.03 48.6 327.1 1006.0 2156.7 3731.1 5611.3 7495.0 9221.4 10604.5 11527.9 11836.8 11697.1 11119.4 10232.4 8998.9 7518.0 6008.7 4682.6 3381.8 995.4 128200.7
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
h = 408/10 AWP = 2h (A) MFP = 2h 2 (M) x

(M) = h (A) = 2h 3 (IYY) = IFP - Ad 2
= = =
40.8 ft 2(40.8)(168.34) 2(40.8)2(941.23) 941.23 (40.8) 168.34
= 13,736.5 ft2 = 3,133,618 ft3
h = 408/20 AWP = 2h (A) MFP = 2h2 (M) x

(M) = h (A) = 2h 3 (IYY) = IFP - Ad 2
= 20.4 ft = 2(20.4)(338.18) = 2(20.4)2(3775.54) 3775.54 = (20.4) 338.18
= 13,797.5 ft2 = 3,142,457 ft3
= 228.1 ft from FP = LCF
= 227.8 ft from FP = LCF
IFP ICF
= =
2(40.8)3(6237.65) = 847,288,842 ft4 847,288,842 - 13,736.5(228.1)2 = 132,516,043 ft4 2(40.8/3)(63,969.9) 13,736.5/420 13,736.5/(408 45.6) = 1,739,981 ft4 = 32.7 tons = 0.738
IFP ICF
= 2(20.4)3(50,052.98) = 849,865,964 ft4 = 849,865,964 - 13,797.6(227.8)2 = 134,155,856 ft4 = 1,743,529 ft4 = 32.9 tons = 0.742
ICL = 2(h / 3) (IXX) = TPI = AWP / 420 = CWP = AWP / (LB) =

Comparison:
ICL = 2(h / 3) (IXX) = 2(20.4 / 3)(128,200.7) TPI = AWP / 420 = 13,797.6 / 420 CWP = AWP / (LB) = 13,797.6 / (408 45.6)
Actual
AWP, ft2 LCF, ft fm FP ICF, ft4 ICL, ft4 TPI, tons/in CWP
13,860.0 228.1 135,888,480 1,664,145 33 0.745
11 Ordinate Value Error, % 13,737.8 0.88 228.1 0.00 132,502,924 2.49 1,739,981 4.56 32.7 0.91 0.738 0.94
Value 13,797.500 227.800 134,155,856.000 1,743,529.000 32.900 0.742
21 Ordinate Error, % 0.45 0.13 1.28 4.77 0.30 0.40
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EXAMPLE 1-2 CALCULATION OF WATERPLANE PROPERTIES BY SIMPSONS RULE

Use Simpsons first rule with 11 ordinates to calculate the waterplane properties that were calculated in Example 1-1. Compare the results with actual data and the results by trapezoidal rule. Ship dimensions and actual waterplane properties are the same as for Example 1-1. Halfbreadths for stations 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 from Figure FO-1 are used to integrate on 11 stations. Integration: Station Ordinate, Multiplier (A7) my ft2 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 0.39 27.56 25.84 71.08 41.94 90.36 45.40 86.84 39.18 66.92 12.58 508.09 Lever (M) s (A) ft 0.0 27.56 51.68 213.24 167.76 451.80 272.40 607.88 313.44 602.28 125.80 2,833.84 13,820.1 ft2 3,144,882 ft3 (IYY) s (M) ft4 0.0 27.56 103.36 639.72 671.04 2259.00 1634.40 4255.16 2507.52 5420.52 1258.00 18,776.28 (IXX) m y3 ft4 0.06 1308.3 4313.4 22445.1 18442.7 46111.4 23394.2 40929.8 15036.0 18730.4 1990.9 192,702.4
y
ft-in-1/8 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0-4-5 6 -10 - 5 12-11 - 0 17- 9 - 2 20-11 - 5 22- 7 - 1 22- 8 - 3 21- 8 - 4 19- 7 - 1 16- 8 - 6 12- 7 - 0 ft 0.39 6.89 12.92 17.77 20.97 22.59 22.70 21.71 19.59 16.73 12.58
s
ft 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
h AWP = MFP = x IFP ICF ICL TPI CWP =

Comparison:
408/10 3 h (A) 2 3 h2 (M)

2
= = =
40.8 ft 3 (40.8)(508.09) 2 3 (40.8)2(2833.84)

2
= =
(M) h (A) 3 h 3 (IYY) IFP - Ad2

2
2833.84 (40.8) 508.09

2 3 (40.8)3(18,776.28) 850,156,311 - 13,820.1(227.6)2 2 3 (40.8/3)(192,702.4) 13,820.1/420 13,820.1/(408 45.6)
227.6 ft from FP 850,156,311 ft4 134,508,685 ft4 1,747,168 ft4 32.9 tons 0.743
LCF
= = = =
= = = = =
= = = = =
3 (h/3) (IXX) AWP/420 AWP/(LB)

2
Actual Value
11 Ordinate Simpsons Rule Value Error, % 0.29 0.22 1.02 4.99 0.30 0.27 13,820.1 227.6 134,508,685 1,747,168 32.9 0.743
Trapezoidal Rule Error, % 11 Ordinate 0.88 0.00 2.49 4.56 0.91 0.92 21 Ordinate 0.45 0.13 1.28 4.77 0.30 0.40
AWP, ft2 LCF, ft fm FP ICF, ft4 ICL, ft4 TPI, tons/in CWP
13,860 228.1 135,888,480 1,664,145 33 0.745
The accuracy of an 11-ordinate Simpsons rule compares favorably with that of a 21-ordinate trapezoidal rule. Simpsons rule with 21 ordinates is only marginally more accurate than with 11 ordinates for this waterplane shape. Note that Simpsons rule calculates the moment of inertia about the centerline with slightly less accuracy than the trapezoidal rule. The derivation of the form: ICL = (CM)(h/3) (IXX) assumes a constant ordinate over the entire section (see Paragraph 1-4.3.3). The Simpsons multipliers do not correct for this assumption. The constant-ordinate assumption is essentially correct for very full ships and barges with extensive parallel midbody, and will yield very accurate values for ICL. Accuracy of ICL calculations for fine-lined ships can be increased only by using very close station spacing or integrating along an axis perpendicular to the centerline. The 5 percent accuracy shown here should be sufficiently accurate for most salvage work.
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1-4.6 Other Simpsons Rule Forms. Simpsons rules can be derived for numbers of ordinates for which the first two rules do not apply, and to determine areas of "left over" segments at the ends of curves. 1-4.6.1 5, 8, Minus One and 3, 10, Minus One Rules. An additional Simpsons rule, known as the 5, 8, minus one rule, is used to determine the area between two ordinates when three consecutive ordinates are known. For ordinates y0, y1, and y2, the area between the first and second ordinates is given by: 1 h (5y0 + 8y1 - y2) A0-1 = 12 The area between the second and third ordinates can be found by applying the rule backwards: 1 h (-y0 + 8y1 + 5y2) A1-2 = 12 The validity of the 5, 8, minus one rule can be verified by observing that the sum of the expressions for the two sectional areas is the 3-ordinate rule: 1 h 5y0 8y1 y2 A = A0 1 A1 2 = y0 8y1 5y2 12 1 h y0 4y1 y2 = 3 The 5, 8, minus one rule cannot be used for moments. The first moment of the area between the first and second ordinates (A1-2) about the first ordinate is given by the 3, 10, minus one rule: 1 2 h (3y0 + 10y1 - y2) M1 = 24 These two Simpsons rules are at times convenient, but are less accurate than the first and second rules. 1-4.6.2 Simpsons Rules for Any Number of Ordinates. Simpsons rules can be combined one with another to derive rules for numbers of ordinates for which the first two rules do not apply. For example, the first rule can be used for 3, 5, 7, 9, ... ordinates, and the second rule for 4, 7, 10, .... ordinates. A rule can be deduced for six ordinates as shown below: 3 h y0 3y1 3y2 y3 A0 3 = 8 1 h y3 4y4 y5 A3 5 = 3 3 9 9 3 1 4 1 y1 y2 y3 y3 y4 y5 A = A0 3 A3 5 = h y0 8 8 8 3 3 3 8 1 h 9y0 27y1 27y2 17y3 32y4 8y5 = 24 This is not the only rule suitable for six ordinates. By skillful use of the 5, 8, minus one rule, a rule with less awkward multipliers can be deduced: 1 h 5y0 8y1 y2 A0 3 = 12 3 h y1 3y2 3y3 y4 A1 4 = 8 1 h y3 8y4 5y5 A4 5 = 12 A = A0
1
A1
A4
5 25 25 25 25 5 y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 = h 24 24 24 24 15 12 25 h 0.4y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 0.4 y5 = 24 Substituting the same values for ordinates y0 through y5 in each rule will verify that they are equivalent. Rules deduced in this manner can be used in the general forms described in Paragraph 1-4.4.4. 1-4.7 Other Integration Rules. Simpsons rules and the trapezoidal rule are satisfactory for most manual calculations. The Newton-Cotes, Tchebycheffs, and Gauss rules are more accurate, but require more tedious manual calculations. These rules are described in most general naval architecture texts, such as Basic Ship Theory by K.J. Rawson and E.C. Tupper, or Muckles Naval Architecture by W. Muckle and D.A. Taylor.
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1-4.8 General Notes For Numerical Integration. The numerical integration rules presented have relative advantages and disadvantages. When time and/or access to high-speed computers permits, the salvage engineer may select the optimum integration rule for a well-defined curve. For curves where ordinates are tabulated for only certain stations, a rule appropriate to that number and spacing of stations must be adopted. Some generalizations about the applicability of integration rules are listed below:
The trapezoidal rule uses constant ordinate spacing and simpler multipliers than the other rules. Any number of ordinates can be used. The rule can accommodate half-stations at any point, and the multipliers for half-stations are easily derived. For a single integration (area calculation) of a gentle curve, the trapezoidal rule is nearly as accurate as the Simpsons rules, but progressively greater errors are introduced on successive integrations (for moments and moments of inertia). Simpsons rules and the trapezoidal rule include the common interval as part of the common multiplier and can therefore calculate areas or volumes, moments, centroids, and second moments of area (single, double, and triple integrations) directly. Simpsons rules are the most commonly used integration rules because they are more accurate than the trapezoidal rule, but simpler to use than the more accurate Newton-Cotes, Tchebycheffs, and Gauss rules. Simpsons rules exactly integrate first-, second-, and third-order curves. Successive integrations produce progressively higher order curves: the curve of area under a second-order curve is a third order curve, and the curve of the moment of areas is then a fourthorder curve. Simpsons rules will therefore exactly calculate the first moment of a second-order curve, or the second moment of a first-order curve. Calculating the second moment of a second-order or higher curve involves integrating a fourth-order equation, so some error is introduced even for a parabolic curve. Additional error may arise for an arbitrary curve. Experience has shown that Simpsons rule calculates moments and second moments of relatively smooth, continuous curvessuch as those describing ship formsaccurately if a sufficiently close station spacing is used. An even-ordinate Simpson rule is only marginally more accurate than the next lower odd-ordinate rule; odd-ordinate Simpson rules are therefore preferred, and almost universally used in salvage.
1-4.9 Integration of Discontinuous Curves. The integration rules discussed are applicable to continuous curves. The area under a discontinuous curve can be obtained by applying appropriate rules to the portions of the curve between discontinuities and summing the areas. For curves with large numbers of closely spaced discontinuities, it is simpler to divide the curve into segments at the discontinuities, approximate each segment by a rectangle, triangle, or trapezoid, calculate the area of each segment, and sum the areas to find the total area. The centroid of each segment can be calculated or estimated. Moments, second moments, and the centroid of the entire area can be calculated by summing the products of each area and the lever arm from its centroid to a selected axis in a tabular format. Replacing a segment of the curve between discontinuities (stations) with a horizontal line at a value equal to the average ordinate creates a rectangle with area equal to the area under the curve between the two stations. If the curve between stations can be reasonably approximated by a straight line, a horizontal line intersecting the curve midway between stations has a y value equal to the average ordinate. Repeating this process along the length of the curve creates a stepped curve. If the discontinuities, and subsequent stations, are evenly spaced, the curve can be integrated by a modification of the trapezoidal rule: A = y dx = h
n 1 n
MYY = xy dz = h 2 IYY = x 2y dx = h 3 where: A MYY IYY h sn yn = = = = = =

n 1
n 1
sn 1/2 yn
sn 1/2 2 yn
area under a curve between stations 0 and n first moment of area about axis YY second moment of area about axis YY common interval number of stations from axis YY (or integration start point) to station n height of the mid-ordinate between stations n and n-1
Weight distribution curves for ships are usually drawn assuming a constant weight distribution between stations as stepped curves. The addition of the continuous buoyancy curve and stepped weight curve creates a discontinuous load curve. The load curve is usually stepped as described above to facilitate integration along its length to define the shear curve. Alternatively, the buoyancy curve can be stepped before summing with the weight curve. A stepped 10-segment (11-ordinate) buoyancy curve can be constructed from standard Navy 21-station Bonjeans Curves by taking unit buoyancy calculated from section areas for odd station as the average unit buoyancy for segments bounded by even stationsunit buoyancy for segment 02 is based on section area for station 1, that for segment 24 on the area for station 3, etc. Example 1-4 includes an integration of this type.
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1-4.10 Calculation of Hull Properties. Various integrations of a ships hull form are used to determine properties such as displacement, locations of centers, tons per inch immersion, etc., known collectively as functions of form, hydrostatic functions, or hydrostatic data. Waterlines, buttocks, and stations of lines drawings are spaced to support numerical integration, usually by Simpsons or the trapezoidal rules. Halfbreadths (offsets) taken along the length of a waterline provide ordinate values to define the waterplane shape; halfbreadths taken at different waterlines at the same station provide ordinate values to define the station shape. Because ships are symmetrical about the centerline, integrations are customarily performed for one side of the section or waterplane only, and doubled to give the total area or moment. When working from offsets, sectional areas are usually calculated by vertical integration on horizontal ordinates from the centerline. An integration up to a waterline gives section area corresponding to that waterline. Integrating the curve of areas along the ships length gives volume of displacement; the centroid of the volume is the center of buoyancy. Waterlines are integrated along the ships length to determine area of the waterplane, location of the centroid of the waterplane (center of flotation), and moment of inertia of the waterplane about the centerline and about a transverse axis through the center of flotation. From these properties, tons per inch immersion, location of the metacenter, etc., can be calculated. Displacement volume can be calculated by taking waterplane areas as ordinates and integrating vertically. Longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy (LCB) is obtained by longitudinal integration of the sectional areas. Height of the center of buoyancy (KB) can be obtained by vertical integration of waterplane areas, or by calculating a vertical moment of area for each section. The sum of all the vertical area moments divided by the sum of the sectional areas gives KB. Integrations of this form are included in Example 1-4 and Appendix F. 1-4.10.1 Functions of Form. Functions of hull form are usually calculated for each waterline so they can be plotted as a function of draft as the ships Curves of Form, also called Hydrostatic Curves, or Displacement and Other Curves (D & O Curves). Figure FO-2 is a reproduction of the curves of form for an FFG-7 Class ship. Hydrostatic data is also recorded in the Functions of Form Diagram (Figure B-1) for Navy ships and Hydrostatic Tables (Figure B-2) for commercial vessels. The salvage engineer may be required to calculate hydrostatic data when curves of form or other documents are not available or for a casualty in an unusual condition. Whether functions of form are calculated for a complete range of drafts or for only a few selected drafts depends on the form of the ship and the nature of information required by salvors. Manual calculations are best performed on organized tabular forms called displacement sheets.
Table 1-3. Appendage Allowances.

Ship Type Appendage allowance: APP/FL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0167 0.0200 0.0049 0.0060 0.0106 0.0057 0.0049 0.0024 0.0014 0.0075
1-4.10.2 Appendage Displacement. Volumes and dis. . . 0.0060 . . . 0.0015 placements (buoyancies) based on section areas taken from Bonjeans Curves do not include appendage volume/ dis. . . 0.0050 placement, although sectional areas from some Bonjeans . . . 0.0040 Curves include shell plating. If known, appendage dis. . . 0.0010 placements can be added to the integrated displacement; effect on LCB can be determined by moment balance. When . . . 0.0025 appendage buoyancy is unknown, appendage displacement . . . 0.0081 can be estimated as a fraction of full load displacement, . . . 0.0035 . . . 0.0046 called an appendage allowance. Appendage allowances . . . 0.0015 vary with ship size, type, and configuration. Warships generally have more and larger appendages than auxiliaries or commercial vessels. Vessels with high power-to-size Source: 1Jamestown Marine Services, 1990, unpublished; based on data from 22 ratios have larger screws and rudders than lower powered hull types entered into ship data files for the NAVSEA POSSE Program vessels; appendage allowance increases with the number of screws. Large bow sonar domes on combatants are faired into the hull, and are included in Bonjeans Curves and offsets; keel-mounted domes are appendages. For a given ship type and configuration, appendage allowance generally increases as size decreases. Approximate appendage allowances for different ship types are given in Table 1-3. Appendage displacement is essentially constant with draft, as most appendages (except shell plating) are low on the hull and will be emerged only by extremely low drafts. Once determined, appendage displacement can be added to the integrated displacement for any draft that covers the appendages to determine total displacement. Shell plating displacement can be adjusted for drafts less than full load by assuming that onehalf of the shell plating volume is concentrated in the bottom third of the draft range, and the remaining volume is evenly distributed over the upper two-thirds of the draft range. It is usually safe to assume that LCB for the displacement with appendages is virtually the same as that for the integrated (without appendages) displacement. 1-4.10.3 Station Spacing. In full-bodied ships (low-speed general cargo, large tankers, bulk carriers, etc.) the lengths of the waterlines between stations in the midbody are nearly straight lines. In many modern full-bodied ships, the waterlines over the midbody are, in fact, straight lines, forming a parallel midbody. Integration on 10 equal divisions of length (11 stations, 0-10) is sufficiently accurate for most purposes. If the curvature of the waterlines increases sharply near the ends of the ship, half-spaced stations can be inserted to increase accuracy, for example, at stations 1 2, 11 2, 81 2 and 91 2.
Single-screw, small combatant with keel sonar dome1 . . . . . . Twin-screw, small combatant with keel sonar dome1 . . . . . . . Single-screw, small combatant with bow sonar dome1 . . . . . . Twin-screw, small combatant with bow sonar dome1 . . . . . . . Twin-screw amphibious warfare ships with well decks1 . . . . . . shell plating only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all other appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Twin-screw LST1 without bow thruster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . with tunnel bow thruster (negative appendage) . . . . . . . Single-screw merchant ships and auxiliaries of ordinary form, less than 5,000 tons full load displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shell plating only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all other appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Single-screw merchant ships and auxiliaries of ordinary form, 5,000 to 15,000 tons full load displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . shell plating only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all other appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Single-screw merchant ships and auxiliaries of ordinary form, greater than 15,000 tons full load displacement . . . . . . . . . . . Twin-screw merchant ships and auxiliaries of ordinary form . . shell plating only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all other appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VLCC, ULCC, very large bulk carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
... ... ...
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Accuracy can be increased by reducing the station spacing throughout the length of the curve. This increases the number of calculations to be performed, but avoids determining additional multipliers and may be simpler to program for computer calculation. For ship calculations, offsets are usually tabulated for either 11 or 21 basic stations (10 or 20 equal divisions), with half-stations as necessary. Offsets for Navy ships are normally tabulated for 21 basic stations, although additional tables may be prepared for very close station spacing. Offset tables for 2-foot station spacing are available for the FFG-7, for example. Even when 21-station offset tables or Bonjeans Curves are available, integration on 11 stations is sufficiently accurate for most hull volume calculations on any smooth hull form, including fine-lined warships. 1-4.10.4 Full Sections. In full, relatively flat-bottomed sections, special care must be taken in calculating the area from the base to the lowest waterline to avoid error. Figure 1-11 shows a section near midships where the turn of the bilge fairs into a straight line (the rise of floor line) at point A. If the entire area below CD is calculated using horizontal ordinates from the centerline, very close ordinate spacing must be used to avoid error because of the rapid change of form in the shell line. The area below CD can be calculated accurately using vertical ordinates from CD, with halfspaced ordinates inserted near the outboard end, or by dividing the area into two segments, as shown. The area KABC is a trapezoid whose area can be calculated accurately when the position of A and rise of floor can be determined. The area ADB can be obtained by using Simpsons rule, either with horizontal ordinates measured from AB, or with vertical ordinates measured from BD.
C L
C K
Figure 1-11. Calculating Sectional Area Below the Lowest Waterline.
1-4.10.5 Lowest Waterlines. When displacement volume is calculated by vertical integration of waterplane areas, the volume under the lowest one or two waterlines is calculated separately. Since the form of the ship changes so rapidly near the keel, the volume under the lowest one or two waterlines is calculated by integrating sectional areas along the ships length. This volume is added to the volume determined by integrating waterplane areas from the lower waterlines upward to obtain the total volume of displacement. 1-4.10.6 Ends of Full Hull Forms. On SIMPSONS RULE very full hulls, such as spoon-bowed ASSUMED PARABOLIC barges, large tankers (VLCC, ULCC), and FORM bulk carriers, the parallel midbody extends WATERPLANE nearly to the ends of the ship, where it OUTLINE joins to a short forebody or afterbody with steep or sharply curving lines. The aft ends of the lower waterlines of many fine-lined ships also curve sharply. If the ordinate adjacent to the end ordinate is some 2 1 FP STATIONS distance away from the end of the parallel midbody, the curve from this ordinate to TRAPEZOIDAL RULE ASSUMED STRAIGHT LINE the end ordinate (which is 0 or very small) assumed by Simpsons rules or the trapezoidal rule will fall well inside the Figure 1-12. Inherent Integration Error in Full Waterlines. actual waterline as shown in Figure 1-12. This will cause a serious underestimation of area for the end sections that will lead to even greater errors in calculations of moments and second moments about axes near midships because of the long lever arms. Intermediate stations should be inserted so that there are ordinates near the ends of the parallel midbody and at least one or two ordinates in the forebody and afterbody. Alternatively, waterplane areas for the midbody, forebody, and afterbody can be calculated separately and summed. The midbody area can be treated as a rectangle or integrated by a 3-ordinate Simpson or trapezoidal rule; the midbody and forebody areas can be calculated by any convenient rule with appropriate ordinates. 1-4.10.7 Tank and Compartment Volumes. A compartments molded volume is greater than its floodable volume (the volume of liquid that can be contained), because of the volume occupied by fittings and structure. Floodable volumes of filled holds, machinery spaces, living spaces, etc., are estimated from molded volumes by use of permeability factors, as explained in Paragraph 1-9.1.1. Framing, sounding tubes, sea chests and similar structures in ordinary skin tanks typically occupy about 21 4 to 21 2 percent of the molded volume in double-bottom tanks, about 1 percent in cargo tanks (i.e., permeability of empty tanks is 971 2 to 973 4 percent, and 99 percent, respectively). Heating coils, if fitted, usually occupy an additional 1 4 percent of the molded volume. Flush tanks lie entirely within the ships framing and are externally stiffened, so floodable volume, or capacity, is essentially equal to molded volume. To calculate volumes and centroids of flush tanks, offsets are taken to the inner surface of the tank, rather than the hull molded surface. Bale capacity of holds is calculated from offsets taken from sections showing the line of cargo battens, line of the bottoms of deck beams, and the top of the hold ceiling (above the inner bottom) including any gratings, with deductions for stanchions and other obstructions. Grain capacity is the molded volume, less the volume of structure, hold ceiling, and shifting boards.
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1-5 TRANSVERSE STABILITY

W
Transverse stability is the measure of a ships ability to resist rotation about its longitudinal axis and return to an upright position after being disturbed by an upsetting force. The following paragraphs define the elements of transverse stability and provide methods to calculate the transverse stability characteristics of a vessel. 1-5.1 Equilibrium and Stability. A ship floating at rest, with or without list and trim, is in static equilibrium; that is, the forces of gravity and buoyancy are equal and acting in opposite directions in line with one another. Stability is the tendency of a ship to return to its original position when disturbed after the disturbing force is removed. Stability can be described as positive, negative, or neutral. 1-5.2 Internal Forces. The internal forces affecting floating bodies are the forces of gravity and buoyancy. Both of these forces act at all times on wholly or partially submerged bodies. Figure 1-13 illustrates the relationship between the forces of buoyancy and gravity. Assuming the prism floats with half its volume submerged, and with the center of gravity located as shown, the prism can come to rest in either position (a), with the center of gravity directly above the center of buoyancy, or (c), with the center of buoyancy above the center of gravity. In either position, the forces of buoyancy and gravity act along the same vertical line. If the prism is inclined from (a) to (b), or from (c) to (d), a couple, or righting moment, is developed between the lines of action of buoyancy and gravity that tends to move the body back to its original position, i.e., the body floats with positive stability in either position. In position (a), with the center of gravity above the center of buoyancy, stability is provided by the bodys shape, or form, and is termed form stability. If the width of the prism is reduced while the center of gravity remains on the centerline at the same location, a situation arises in which the center of buoyancy does not move far enough to be to the right of the center of gravity as the body is inclined from (a) to (b). The body can then attain positive stability only in position (c), with the center of buoyancy above the center of gravity. Bodies floating with the center of buoyancy above the center of gravity develop positive initial righting moments regardless of shape. This mode of stability is called weight stability. Sailing yachts with deep weighted keels, spar buoys, conventional ships with very low centers of gravity, and submarines all exhibit weight stability. Capsized ships floating upside down very often have their centers of gravity below the center of buoyancy, and operate in a weight stability mode.
B (a) CENTER OF GRAVITY W W
W (c)
(b)
(d) Figure 1-13. Stability of a Floating Object.
20
Z B
(a) INCREASING RIGHTING ARM (GZ)
37 G B Z
45 G Z
(b) MAXIMUM RIGHTING ARM
(c) DECREASING RIGHTING ARM
80
61 G
(e) UPSETTING ARM (NEGATIVE GZ)
(d) RIGHTING ARM REDUCED TO ZERO (GZ = 0)
Figure 1-14. Development and Loss of Righting Arm.
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The center of buoyancy of a ship moves as the ship is inclined, in a manner that depends on the shape of the hull near the waterline. The center of buoyancy initially moves away from the centerline as the ship is inclined, as shown in Figure 1-14. At some angle of inclination, the center of buoyancy begins to move back towards a vertical reference line drawn through the original position of the center of buoyancy. The vertical line of action of the center of gravity continues to move outward as the ship is inclined. At some angle of inclination, the line of action of gravity moves outboard of the line of action of buoyancy, creating an upsetting moment. Ships that have slowly heeled through progressively greater angles of inclination will suddenly capsize when this angle of zero righting moment (angle of vanishing stability) is passed. In Figure 1-15, the prism is assumed to be neutrally buoyant so that it is wholly submerged but clear of the bottom. An inclination from (a) produces an upsetting moment that tends to rotate the prism away from its initial position. Conversely, a inclination from (c) produces a righting moment. A submerged object clear of the bottom or other restraints can therefore have positive stability in only one position, that is, with the center of buoyancy above the center of gravity. Submerged objects therefore operate in a weight stability mode. The difference in behavior of floating and submerged objects is due to the fact that the center of buoyancy of a submerged object is fixed at the center of volume of the object, while the center of buoyancy of a floating object will generally shift when the object is inclined. Because the center of buoyancy of a submerged object is fixed, the righting moment cannot change to an upsetting moment as the object inclines unless the position of the center of gravity shifts. Stability of submarines and other submerged objects is discussed more completely in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 4 (S0300A6-MAN-040). Figure 1-16 shows how a stable ship subjected to normal disturbances will develop moments tending to return the ship to its original position. A couple is formed as the lines of action of the opposing forces of gravity and buoyancy are separated. The arm of this couple, called the righting arm, is the lever to which the ships weight is applied to right the ship. Figure 1-17 shows the upsetting arm developed when unstable ships are disturbed.
B (a) B (b)
W (c)
W (d)
Figure 1-15. Stability of a Submerged Object.
M RIGHTING MOMENT W1 W B1 Z G L B L1
C L
Figure 1-16. Righting Arm (GZ).
UPSETTING MOMENT
G Z
W1 W B1 M L B L1
C L
Figure 1-17. Upsetting Arm.
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1-5.3 External Forces. Ships are inclined by various external forces:
Wave action, Wind, Collision, Grounding, Shifting of onboard weights, and Addition or removal of weight.
Any inclination of a ship can be termed heel, but inclinations are broadly defined as heel, list, or roll depending on the duration and nature of the forces causing the inclination.
Heel The term heel is specifically applied to noncyclic, transient inclinations caused by forces that may be removed or reversed quickly. Such forces include wind pressure, centrifugal force in high-speed turns, large movable weights, etc. List A list is a permanent, or long-term inclination, caused by forces such as grounding or offcenter weight that are not likely to be removed suddenly. Roll When an inclining force is suddenly removed, a ship does not simply return to its upright position, but inclines to the opposite side and oscillates, or rolls, about its equilibrium position for some time before coming to rest. The natural rolling period (period of roll assumed by a ship free of restraints and exciting forces) is a function of weight and buoyancy distribution. Rolling is cyclic in nature and is induced or aggravated by short duration, repetitive or cyclic forces, such as wave forces.
1-5.4 Heights of Centers. The relative heights of the centers of gravity and buoyancy and the metacenter govern the magnitude and sense of the moment arms developed as the ship inclines. They are, therefore, the primary indicators of a ships initial stability. Nominally, the symbols KG, KB, and KM indicate the heights of the centers of gravity and buoyancy and the metacenter above the bottom of the keel, while the symbols VCG and VCB indicate the vertical positions of the centers of gravity and buoyancy, measured from the baseline. In practice, KG/KB and VCG/VCB are used almost interchangeably; in steel ships with flat plate keels, the difference in height above baseline and keel for any point is generally less than two inches and is not significant. 1-5.4.1 Height of the Center of Gravity. The height or vertical position of the center of gravity above the keel (KG or VCG) is defined by weight distribution. KG can be varied considerably without change of displacement by shifting weight up or down in the ship. Conversely, it is possible to add or remove weight without altering KG. In most ships, the center of gravity lies between six-tenths of the depth above the keel and the main deck: 0.6D < KG < D where: D = hull depth, keel to main deck For barges with raked or ship-shaped bows and cut-up sterns, lightship KG can be estimated as 0.53D. For tank barges, KG for full load varies little from the lightship value. Table 1-4 gives very approximate values for the height of the center of gravity for several types of merchant ships at lightship, and for some naval ship types at full load. Calculation of KG can be a laborious and time-consuming process, but ignorance of the height of a ships center of gravity invites disaster. If the height of the ships center of gravity is known for any condition of loading (lightship, for example), and the location of added or removed weights is known, the new height of the center of gravity can be calculated: KGnew = where: KG W w kg = = = = height of the ships center of gravity, G, above the keel total weight of the ship and contents individual weights added (+) or removed (-) height above keel of centers of gravity of added or removed weights, w Wold KGold Wold w (kg) w
Table 1-4. Approximate KG.
KG (D = depth at midships)
Ship Type
Merchantmen (KG at lightship)1: Dry Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Passenger/Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Insulated Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cross-Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil Tanker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Naval ships (KG at full load)2: Cruiser/Destroyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frigate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amphibious Warfare without well decks (LST/LKA/LPH) . . . . Amphibious Warfare with well decks (LSD/LPD/LHA/LHD) . . Fleet replenishment (AE/AOE/AOR/AFS/AO) . . . . . . . . . . . . Tender/Repair Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.55D 0.61D 0.63D 0.72D 0.62D 0.5D 0.68D 0.75D 0.72D 0.68D 0.69D
Source: 1 Applied Naval Architecture, R. Munro-Smith, 1967 2 Jamestown Marine Services, 1990
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Height of the center of gravity of cargo can generally be obtained from the ships officers, usually the chief mate. In the absence of better information, the design estimations proposed by R. Munro-Smith (Applied Naval Architecture, 1967) shown in Table 1-5 may be helpful. 1-5.4.2 Height of the Center of Buoyancy. The height of the center of buoyancy above the keel (KB) is solely a function of the shape of the underwater volume. As the centroid of the underwater hull, the center of buoyancy is lower in flat-bottomed, full-bodied ships, such as tankers and ore carriers, than in finer lined ships like destroyers or frigates. Disregarding changes in the shape of the immersed hull due to trim and heel, KB of any ship is a function of displacement, and therefore of draft. The height of the center of buoyancy can be calculated by summing incremental waterplane areas (aWP) multiplied by their heights above the keel (z) and dividing the result by the displacement volume (): KB = 1 a z dz wp
Table 1-5. Approximate KG of Cargo in Full Holds.

Hold/Space No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 tween decks
KG of Cargo (D = depth of hold)

0.7D + depth of double bottom 0.7D + depth of double bottom 0.7D + depth of double bottom 0.7D + depth of double bottom 0.7D + depth of double bottom height above keel to half depth of tween deck at mid length of the space
Based on full holds (homogeneous cargo) in general cargo ship with machinery amidships, three holds forward and two aft. In ships with extensive parallel midbody, it may be more appropriate to apply the expression for hold No. 3 to all holds in the parallel midbody, with the expression for No. 1 or No. 2 (depending on fineness of forebody) applied to the forward most hold. A similar analysis should be applied to holds aft of the machinery space, if any.
This expression can be evaluated by numerical integration methods if accurate drawings or offsets are available. In practice, KB can be approximated with sufficient accuracy for salvage work as 0.52T for full-bodied ships and 0.58T for fine-lined ships. At very light drafts, KB is closer to the given waterline because the lower waterlines are usually much finer than the waterlines in the normal draft range. As a vessels underwater hull form approaches a rectangular prism (CB = 1.0), KB approaches 0.5T. The following empirical relationships give estimates for KB that are very close to calculated values for merchant vessels of ordinary form at normal drafts: KB = 1 5T 3 2 AWP AWP AWP where: Tm AWP = = mean draft, [length] = displacement volume, [length3] waterplane area, [length2] Tm (Morrishs Formula)
KB = Tm
(Posdunines Formula)
1-5.4.3 Metacentric Height. The transverse metacentric height (GMT), commonly called the metacentric height, of a ship is the vertical separation of the center of gravity and the transverse metacenter (see Figure 1-4) and is a primary indicator of initial stability. A ship with a positive metacentric height (G below M) will tend to right itself by developing righting arms as soon as an inclining force is applied. A ship with a negative metacentric height (G above M) will list to either port or starboard with equal facility until the centers of buoyancy and gravity are on the same vertical line, and thereafter develop positive righting arms. This condition, known as lolling, is a serious symptom of impaired initial stability. Metacentric height is calculated by subtracting the height of the center of gravity from the height of the metacenter above the keel: GMT = KMT - KG Transverse Metacentric Radius. The transverse metacentric radius (BMT) is the vertical distance between the center of buoyancy and the metacenter. This distance is termed a radius because for small heel angles, the locus of successive centers of buoyancy approximates a circular arc, with the transverse metacenter as its center. Metacentric radius is equal to the moment of inertia of the waterplane about its longitudinal centerline (transverse moment of inertia, IT) divided by the underwater volume of the hull (): BMT = IT
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For a rectangular waterplane, IT = LB3/12, = LBT and: IT LB 3 12 LBT B2 12T
BMT =
= where: L B T = = = length between perpendiculars, [length] beam, [length] mean draft, [length]
If the waterplane shape can be accurately defined, the moment of inertia can be determined by numerical integration. If not, the transverse moment of inertia of most ships waterplanes can be approximated by: IT CIT LB3 where CIT is the transverse inertia coefficient and is approximated by CWP2/11.7 or 0.125CWP - 0.045. These expressions for transverse inertia coefficient are derived from the analysis of numerous ships, and are reasonable approximations for use in salvage for ships with CWP < 0.9. For ships with CWP > 0.9, LB3/12 is a closer approximation of the transverse moment of inertia of the waterplane. Height of the Metacenter. The height of the metacenter above the keel is calculated by adding the metacentric radius to the height of the center of buoyancy above the keel: KM = KB + BM GM = KB + BM KG
When denoting transverse metacenter, BM, KM, and GM, the subscript "T" is often omitted as understood. Ships with large GM develop large initial righting arms and therefore respond to moderate disturbing forces with sharp, short-period rolling. These ships are said to be stiff. Ships with smaller metacentric heights develop smaller initial righting arms and roll more gently in a seaway. Ships with small metacentric heights are said to be tender. Insufficient initial stability results in constant rolling in even gentle seas, making work difficult, and may allow extreme rolling in heavier seas, perhaps causing the ship to take on water or capsize. Excessive initial stability, or stiffness, is also undesirable because it produces an uncomfortable ride, reduces personnel effectiveness, increases requirements on weapons stabilization systems, increases lateral acceleration loads on topside cargo and equipment, and increases hull stresses. These matters usually do not concern the salvage engineer, but very stiff rolling of a casualty under tow may damage sensitive equipment, loosen patches, or place excessive loads on damaged structure. The term seakindly is used to describe a ship whose metacentric height is great enough to give adequate stability, but not large enough to cause excessive stiffness. The natural rolling period is a function of weight and buoyancy distribution and can be expressed as a function of GM and transverse radius of gyration (k): TR = where: TR k = = = GM = g = natural rolling period, seconds transverse radius of gyration of the ship mass, [length] 0.4 to 0.5 times the beam, depending on depth and transverse weight distribution transverse metacentric height, [length] acceleration due to gravity, [length/sec2] 2k g GM
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If GM and k are expressed in feet, and g is taken as 32.174 ft/sec2, the rolling period formula reduces to: TR = and:
2 k GM = 1.108 TR
1.108 k GM
If the natural rolling period is known, GM can be estimated. Taking radius of gyration k as beam (B) multiplied by a coefficient (C), a conservative estimate of GM can be made: GM 2 CB T R
The coefficient C can be taken as 0.4 to 0.5 for naval surface ships (0.44 average), 0.4 to 0.45 for submarine hulls based on bodies of revolution, and 0.32 to 0.37 for other submarines. Ships and Marine Engines, Volume IV, The Design of Merchant Ships (Schokker et al, 1953) gives some experimentally derived values for commercial vessels: 0.425 for large cargo and passenger liners, 0.385 for smaller passenger liners, 0.390 for a loaded passenger liner, and 0.405 for an ore ship in ballast. This same text references Laursens possibly more correct approach of expressing radius of gyration as a function of both beam and depth: k = C B2 + D2 where the constant C ranges from 0.35 to 0.39 for cargo ships of ordinary form. The rolling period formula will not give an accurate estimate of GM for a ship rolling in a seaway because the rolling period is modified by wave and wind forces. Significant changes in GM will be reflected by marked changes in rolling period; increased rolling period is a sign of deteriorating stability. An empirically derived relationship holds that stability is adequate when: TR 2 B where: B = beam, ft 1-5.5 Righting Arm. At equilibrium, the forces of gravity and buoyancy act equally in opposition along the vertical centerline. As the center of buoyancy shifts with a heel, the two opposing forces act along separate and parallel lines. The forces establish the couple which tends to return a stable ship to the upright position. The distance GZ between the lines of action of the center of gravity and the center of buoyancy, as shown in Figure 1-16, is the righting arm. The sine of the angle of inclination () is the ratio of GZ to GM. sin = GZ GM
GZ = GM sin
This relationship applies for heel angles so small that the waterplane shape is not appreciably changed, usually taken as less than 10 degrees for wall-sided ships and 7 degrees for fine-lined ships. At greater angles of heel, the metacenter moves away from the centerline and the relationship between GZ and GM no longer applies. 1-5.6 Righting Moment. The force applied to a righting arm (GZ) is the ships weight. The righting moment (RM) developed at any angle of heel is given by: RM = W GZ At any angle of heel, the stability of the ship is measured by the righting moment developed. Since the righting moment is equal to the righting arm times displacement and displacement normally remains constant as the ship heels, the righting arm may also be used to measure stability for a given condition of loading. This assumption lends itself to the use of the cross curves of stability as discussed in Paragraph 1-5.9.
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1-5.7 Change of Displacement. Any change of displacement will affect the righting moments developed by the ship. An increased displacement increases W in the expression RM = W GZ, but also affects GZ by:
Increasing draft and thereby KB. Increasing , thereby reducing BM as I will not change significantly (BM = I/).
The height of the metacenter is normally reduced as displacement increases because the increase in KB is usually less than the reduction in BM. The opposite effects will be noted when displacement is decreased. Additionally, the location of the added weight will affect the location of the center of gravity and therefore GM and GZ. These effects are simultaneous but not normally compensatory. The net effect of a change in displacement may be either an increase or a decrease in righting moments. In general, the addition of low weight or removal of high weight will increase stability, but each change of displacement must be carefully analyzed to determine its exact effect. 1-5.8 List. List, a long-term inclination of the ship to one side or the other, is caused by:
8 7
DD
CV
Offcenter weight. Negative GM. A combination of offcenter weight and negative GM.
6 5 4 3 2 1
RIGHTING ARMS, FEET
Before attempting to correct a list on a ship, the cause must be determined. Inappropriate corrective measures will only aggravate the situation. A list caused by offcenter weight is identified by the ships tendency to return to its listing condition when an external force is applied temporarily and then removed. A list caused by negative GM is identified by the ships tendency to loll, or list to either side with equal facility, when disturbed. A list caused by a combination of offcenter weight and negative GM is identified by the ships tendency to list with equal facility to either side, but with a greater degree of list to one side. Negative GM is the most serious condition that causes a list and should be corrected first. Paragraph 1-9.4 discusses the effects of negative GM in greater detail.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ARS
AOR
8 7 6 5 4 3
LCC
RO/RO
1-5.9 The Stability Curve. The righting 2 arm GZ is the distance between the lines of 1 action of buoyancy and gravity at any 0 angle of heel. Since the expression GZ = 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 GM sin cannot be used at larger angles of INCLINATION, DEGREES heel, the righting arm for a given heel angle is determined by accurately locating Figure 1-18. Typical Stability Curves. the centers of gravity and buoyancy, and measuring the separation between their lines of action. If movable weights within the ship can be neglected, the center of gravity can be assumed to be fixed. As the ship heels, the center of buoyancy will move to the new center of the underwater volume, which can be determined by numerical integration or graphical means. As a ship heels, it also changes its trim to some extent to maintain constant displacement. This small change in trim can usually be disregarded when calculating righting arms. Centers of buoyancy for various inclinations, and the resulting righting arms are determined by numerical integration. These computations can be shortened somewhat by the methods described in Paragraph 1-5.11. A plot of righting arm against heel angle is variously called a curve of statical stability, stability curve, righting arm curve, or GZ curve. Figure 1-18 shows typical stability curves for various ship types.
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1-5.9.1 Cross Curves of Stability. As a ships displacement is variable, the designers prepare stability curves for a range of displacements. It is customary to plot righting arm values against displacement for each of a number of angles of inclination to create a group of curves known as cross curves of stability. By entering the cross curves with the displacement of the ship and reading the righting arms for each angle of heel, a stability curve for any displacement can be developed. Since height of the center of gravity varies with loading, an assumed position of the center of gravity was used by the designer to develop the cross curves of stability. Once the stability curve has been corrected for the true location of the center of gravity, the following stability data can be obtained:
SHIP WATERTIGHT TO MAIN DECK CENTER OF GRAVITY ASSUMED 19.00 ABOVE BOTTOM OF KEEL AMIDSHIPS 3 45
RIGHTING ARM - FEET
70 2 30
60
20 1 10
3,000
4,000
DISPLACEMENT IN SALTWATER - TONS
Range of stability.
Figure 1-19. FFG-7 Class Cross Curves of Stability.
Righting arm and moment at any angle of inclination. Maximum righting arm and moment. Angle of the maximum righting arm and moment. Metacentric height. Angle of deck edge immersion.
5 KG ASSUMED AT 19 DISPLACEMENT = 3200 TONS 4
RIGHTING ARMS IN FEET
The following examples use the FFG-7 Class cross curves of stability from Figure 1-19 to develop the initial and corrected stability curves. Figure 1-20 is the stability curve as taken from the cross curves for a displacement of 3,200 tons.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
DEGREES OF INCLINATION RANGE OF STABILITY
Figure 1-20. Statical Stability Curve.
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1-5.9.2 Correction for Actual KG. If the actual center of gravity lies above the assumed center of gravity, the metacentric height is decreased and the ship is less stable; conversely, if the actual center of gravity is below the assumed center, the metacentric height is increased and the ship is more stable. Figure 1-21 shows that the actual righting arm, GnZn is equal to the assumed righting arm plus or minus the vertical distance between the actual and assumed KG, multiplied by the sine of the angle of heel: GnZn = GZ GGn sin The actual, or corrected, stability curve can be constructed graphically as a sine curve correction. The GGn sin curve is plotted to the same scale as the curve of statical stability as shown in Figure 1-22. The ordinates of the corrected curve are the differences between the ordinates of the two curves and can be picked off and plotted using dividers, as shown, or determined by tabular calculation. If the actual height of the center of gravity is less than the assumed height, the correction curve is plotted below the horizontal axis. The assumed KG is sometimes called pole height. It is a common practice, especially with European designers, to develop cross curves based on an assumed pole height of zero. Since the assumed position of the center of gravity coincides with the keel, the resulting cross curves are termed KN curves. 1-5.9.3 Range of Stability. The range of stabilitythe range of inclinations through The new stability curve is again the difference between the two curves.which the ship develops positive righting armsis indicated by the intersections of the stability curve with the horizontal axis. For the corrected stability curve in Figure 1-22, the range of stability is from 0 to 75 degrees.
G1 Z1 = GZ - G G1SIN0 G2 Z2 = GZ + G G2SIN0 0 Z1 Z W1 W Z2 0 0
G1 G G2
L L1
C L
Figure 1-21. Assumed KG for Stability Curve.
5
RIGHTING ARMS - FEET
GZ for KG = 191, = 3200 TONS
GG1sin = 2sin
2
LOSS IN RIGHTING ARMS DUE TO RISE IN G 0

10 20 30 40 50 60 DEGREES OF INCLINATION 70 80 90
5 KG = 21 DISPLACEMENT = 3200 TONS

RIGHTING ARMS - FEET
4
G1Z1 = GZ - GG1 sin

1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
DEGREES OF INCLINATION
RANGE OF STABILITY
Figure 1-22. Correction to Stability Curve, G Two Feet Higher Than Assumed.
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1-5.9.4 Righting Arm and Righting Moment. The righting arm at any inclination is read directly from the curve. Because each stability curve applies only to a specific displacement and KG, the righting moment can be obtained directly for any angle by multiplying the righting arm by the displacement. Maximum righting arm, maximum righting moment, and angle of maximum righting moment can be determined by inspection of the stability curve. From the corrected stability curve in Figure 1-22, maximum righting arm is approximately 1.1 feet at 51 degrees of inclination, giving a maximum righting moment of 3,520 foot-tons (1.1 ft 3,200 tons). Maximum righting arm and the angle at which it occurs are important parameters when an upsetting moment is applied gradually or statically. Once the upsetting moment exceeds the maximum righting moment, the ship will list past the angle of maximum righting arm. If the upsetting moment is not immediately removed, the ship will capsize, because as the ship heels to progressively greater angles, righting moment, already less than the upsetting moment, will steadily decrease. However, ships can, and do, safely roll past their angle of maximum righting arm in response to short-term or cyclic upsetting forces. 1-5.9.5 Metacentric Height. GM is the measure of the slope of the GZ curve at the origin. The metacentric height is equal to the height of the intersection of a tangent to the statical stability curve at the origin with a perpendicular to the horizontal axis at 57.3 degrees (one radian). Although metacentric height can be approximated from a stability curve by this means, it is more common that GM is known and the intercept is sketched to help draw the initial part of the stability curve. The corrected stability curve in Figure 1-22 indicates a GM of approximately 1.2 feet. 1-5.9.6 Angle of Deck Edge Immersion. For most hull forms, an inflection point in the curve corresponds roughly to the angle of deck edge immersion. This point is not necessarily at or near the angle of maximum righting arm. The inflection results from the abrupt change in the shapes of the waterplane and underwater volume as the deck edge is immersed. The rate of increase in righting arm has changed from positive to negativei.e., righting arms are still increasing, but at a slower rate. The angle of deck edge immersion varies along the length of the ship, but lies within a relatively narrow range for the large midbody sections that have the greatest influence on the stability curve. The stability curve in Figure 1-22 shows the angle of deck edge immersion to be about 38 degrees. 1-5.9.7 Righting Energy. The area under the stability curve, (foot-degrees, meterradians), is a measure of the ships dynamic stabilityits ability to absorb energy imparted by winds, waves or other external forces. A ship with very little area (righting energy) under its stability curve could be rolled past its range of stability and capsized by even a momentary disturbance. 1-5.10 Effects of Hull Form on the Stability Curve. While initial stability (righting arms at small angles of heel) depends almost entirely on metacentric height, the overall shape of the stability curve is governed by hull form. Figure 123 shows how changing hull form increases or decreases righting arm by altering the position and movement of the center of buoyancy. Figure 1-24 (Page 1-40) illustrates how altering hull form affects the stability curve as described in the following paragraphs.
INCREASED BEAM
INCREASED DEPTH
TUMBLEHOME AND FLARE FINING THE BILGES 1-5.10.1 Beam. Of all the hull dimensions that can be varied by the designer, beam LOCAL INCREASE IN IMMERSED VOLUME has the greatest influence on transverse stability. Metacentric radius (BM) was LOCAL LOSS IN IMMERSED VOLUME shown to be proportional to the ratio B2/T in Paragraph 1-5.4.3. BM, and therefore Figure 1-23. Effects of Changing Hull Form. KM, will increase if beam is increased while draft is held constant. If freeboard is held constant while beam is increased, the angle of deck edge immersion is decreased; righting arms at larger angles and the range of stability are reduced. If the depth remains constant, overall stability will be reduced because KB decreases, increasing BG, although this will be offset at small angles by the increase in BM.
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1-5.10.2 Length. If length is increased proportionally to displacement, with beam and draft held constant, KB and BM are unchanged. In practice, increasing length usually causes an increase in KG, reducing initial stability. If length is increased at the expense of beam, righting arms are reduced over the full range of stability. If length is increased at the expense of draft, righting arms will be increased at small angles, but decreased at large angles. 1-5.10.3 Freeboard. Increasing freeboard increases the angle of deck edge immersion, increasing righting arms at larger angles and extending the range of stability. If draft is held constant, increasing freeboard causes a rise in the center of gravity, mitigating the benefits of increased freeboard to some extent. 1-5.10.4 Draft. Reduced draft proportional to reduced displacement increases initial righting arms and the angle of deck edge immersion but decreases righting arms at large angles. 1-5.10.5 Displacement. If length, beam, and draft are held constant, displacement can be increased only by making the ship fuller. The filling out of the waterline will usually compensate for the increased volume of displacement, and BM, as a function of I/, will increase. Height of the center of gravity will also be decreased by filling out the ships form below the waterline. These changes will enhance stability at all angles.
INCREASED BEAM INCREASED LENGTH DECREASED DRAFT INCREASED FREEBOARD REFERENCE STABILITY CURVE
INCREASED LENGTH DECREASED BEAM
FLARE
REFERENCE STABILITY CURVE INCREASED DISPLACEMENT
EXTREME TUMBLEHOME AND/OR DEADRISE

FROM STABILITY AND TRIM OF FISHING VESSELS, J. ANTHONY HIND, 1982.
Figure 1-24. Influence of Hull Form on Stability.
1 S 1-5.10.6 Side and Bottom Profile. As M can be seen in Figures 1-13 and 1-25, the increase in waterplane breadth and area L W caused by inclining a wall-sided ship can Z G W1 be calculated by simple geometry. The stability curve develops good early righting B1 B arms and range of stability. Extreme deadGZ = MS+GMsin rise (fining the bilges) or tumblehome in the vicinity of the inclined waterline reC duces the increase in waterplane area and L outward shift of the center of buoyancy, resulting in a shallow stability curve. Ships Figure 1-25. Residuary Righting Arm. with flaring sides develop large righting arms because of the rapid increase in waterplane area and large shift of the center of buoyancy as the ship is inclined. A round-bottomed ship with vertical sides beginning somewhat above the water line, such as a tug or icebreaker, will roll easily to small angles of inclination but develop strong righting moments at large angles. In the same way, flare or watertight sponsons some distance above the water line will have no effect on initial stability, but will cause a sharp upward turn in the stability curve at larger angles of heel.
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1-5.11 Prohaskas Method. As shown in Figure 1-25, the righting arm at large heel angles can be thought of as consisting of two parts: GZ = MS + GMsin The distance from the upright metacenter to the line of action of buoyancy (MS) is called the residuary stability lever. The GMsin term depends principally on KG, while MS is essentially a function of hull form. For inclinations up to about 30 degrees in merchant hulls of ordinary beam to draft ratio, MS can be approximated as: MS = where: BM = metacentric radius of the upright ship A more accurate approach is to define a residuary stability coefficient (CRS): CRS = where : BM = metacentric radius of the upright ship, [length] GZ can now be defined in terms of GM, BM, and CRS: GZ = (BM)CRS + GMsin Using this basic approach, a regression analysis was performed using data from 31 warship hulls to obtain expressions for CRS in terms of other hull parameters. The following expressions give reasonable estimates for CRS at 30 degrees of heel for fine-lined ships: CRS = 0.8566 1.2262 KB T B T 0.035 B T MS BM BM 2 tan sin 2
CRS = 0.1859 KB = 0.8109 T where: KB T B CM = = = = height of the center of buoyancy above the keel, ft mean draft, ft beam, ft midships section coefficient
0.0315
0.03526 CM
0.2536 CM
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1-6 LONGITUDINAL STABILITY Longitudinal stability is the measure of a ships ability to resist rotation about a transverse axis and to return to its original position. Longitudinal stability is particularly important when refloating stranded ships. The effects of weight shifts, additions, and removal may not be apparent since a grounded ship is restrained from responding as a floating ship would. The effects must be calculated to ensure that the salvor can accurately predict trim and longitudinal stability of the vessel when afloat. 1-6.1 Trim. Because the angles of inclination about transverse axes are quite small compared to typical angles of heel about a longitudinal axis, trim is defined as the difference between the forward and after drafts: t = Taft where: t = trim Regardless of the difference between forward and after drafts, if a ships waterline is parallel to the design waterline, it has zero trim. Most ships are designed with equal forward and after drafts. Some ships are designed with a deeper draft aft, called keel drag, to keep the propellers adequately submerged in all operating conditions, or with a slightly deeper forward draft. Drag or other designed differences in fore and aft draft should not be confused with trim. For ships with drag, trim is defined as: t = Taft Tfwd drag Tfwd
Trim greater than one percent of the ships length is usually considered excessive. Excessive trim significantly alters the shape of the underwater volume and can adversely affect transverse stability. 1-6.2 Longitudinal Stability Parameters. The longitudinal positions of centers of buoyancy, gravity, and flotation and their movements influence the longitudinal stability characteristics of a ship. The height of the longitudinal metacenter, similar in concept to the transverse metacenter, is the other major parameter of longitudinal stability. 1-6.2.1 Longitudinal Position of the Center of Gravity. The longitudinal position of the center of gravity (LCG) is determined by summing weight moments about a vertical transverse reference plane, normally through one of the perpendiculars or the midship section. 1-6.2.2 Longitudinal Position of the Center of Buoyancy. The longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy (LCB) is the longitudinal location of the centroid of the underwater hull. For most hull forms, LCB lies near the midships section. For low-speed, full-bodied cargo vessels, the optimum position of the center of buoyancy (from a hull resistance standpoint) is about 0.02LWL forward of midships. As speed increases, the optimum position moves aft. At a speed-to-length ratio (Vk/ L) of 1.0 the optimum position is 1 to 2 percent of LWL aft L = 2. Table of midships and about 4 percent aft of midships for Vk/ 1-6 gives approximate ranges for the longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy as a function of the block coefficient. In a ship at rest, the longitudinal positions of the centers of gravity and buoyancy lie on the same vertical line. LCB and LCG are therefore the same distance from the midship section in a ship floating on an even keel. In a ship with trim, there is a small difference in the distances of B and G from midships due to their vertical separation, but this difference is so small that it can usually be ignored.
Table 1-6. Longitudinal Position of the Center of Buoyancy.

CB
0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80
LCB Relative to the Midship Section

0.016L aft to 0.002L forward 0.011L aft to 0.009L forward 0.002L aft to 0.020L forward 0.010L forward to 0.027L forward 0.015L forward to 0.030L forward
From Ships and Marine Engines, Volume IV, Design of Merchant Ships, Schokker et al, 1953
1-6.2.3 Longitudinal Position of the Center of Flotation (LCF). The center of flotation is the geometric center of the ships waterplane. The ship trims about a transverse axis through the LCF. The location of the center of flotation is required to calculate final drafts after a change in trim. This can be calculated if the shape of the waterplane is known. In ships of normal form, the center of flotation may lie either slightly forward or slightly aft of midships. The center of flotation of fine-lined ships is usually about five percent of the ships length aft of midships. A broad transom increases the relative proportion of waterplane area aft of midships and will tend to shift LCF aft. If unknown, the center of flotation can be assumed to be amidships without introducing significant error to most salvage calculations. 1-6.2.4 Longitudinal Metacenter. The longitudinal positions of the centers of buoyancy and gravity are simply projections of these centers onto the vertical centerplane. The longitudinal metacenter, in contrast, is a point distinct from its transverse counterpart. Its height is an indication of the ships ability to resist trimming forces. Longitudinal Metacentric Radius. The longitudinal metacentric radius (BML) is the vertical distance between the center of buoyancy and the longitudinal metacenter. The longitudinal metacentric radius is calculated by: BML = IL
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If the waterplane shape is defined by ordinate stations, the moment of inertia can be determined numerically. If not, the longitudinal moment of inertia of most ships waterplanes can be approximated by: IL B L 3 CIL where CIL = tegression analysis derived longitudinal inertia coefficient, approximated by 0.143CWP - 0.0659. For a rectangular barge, IL = B(L3)/12; the value of CIL for a rectangular waterplane (the limiting value) is 1/12 or 0.0833. Because the longitudinal moment of inertia is proportional to the cube of the ships length rather than beam, the longitudinal moment of inertia and longitudinal metacentric radius are much greater than their transverse counterparts. Height of the Longitudinal Metacenter. The height of the longitudinal metacenter (KML) is given by: KML = KB + BML Longitudinal Metacentric Height. The longitudinal metacentric height (GML) is the distance between the center of gravity and the longitudinal metacenter. GML = KML - KG = KB + BML - KG 1-6.3 Trimming Arms and Moments. If the center of gravity is displaced from its longitudinal position in vertical line with the center of buoyancy, as shown in Figure 1-26, a trimming moment (MT) equal to GG1(W) tends to rotate the ship about a transverse axis through the center of flotation. As the ship inclines, the shape of the underwater volume changes and the center of buoyancy moves until it is again in line with the center of gravity. Simultaneously, the projection of the position of the center of gravity onto a horizontal plane moves towards the high end of the ship. For small trim angles, the horizontal translation of the position of the center of gravity can be neglected. The trim resulting from a known trimming moment could be determined precisely by iterative numerical integration, but this would be a tedious process. Simple methods to estimate trim with reasonable accuracy are described in the following paragraphs. A ship trims about an axis through its center of flotation because LCF lies at the centroid of the waterplane. The moments of volumes of the wedges immersed and emerged as the ship trims are equal, although the volumes are not. Because the volumes are not equal, the ships will settle or rise slightly as it trims to maintain constant displacment. LCF also shifts slifhtly as the ship trims and changes draft.
LCF
G B
G1
W LCF W1 B G1 B1
L1 L
Figure 1-26. Trim due to Shift in LCG.
ML
MT LCF G B ZL B1 L1 L
W W1
Figure 1-27. Trimming Moments and Longitudinal Metacenter.
1-6.4 Moment to Change Trim One Inch (MT1). A trimming moment applied to the ship in Figure 1-27 causes a longitudinal inclination or trim angle, . The immersion and emergence of the two wedges of buoyancy causes the center of buoyancy to move forward a distance BB1. A longitudinal righting arm GZL develops. Because the small vertical separation between B and G is much less than the longitudinal metacentric height, GZL and BB1 are approximately equal. The moment arm GZL can be related to the longitudinal metacentric height as in transverse inclinations: GZL sin = , GZL = GML sin Mt = W GML sin GML where: GZL = GML longitudinal righting arm, [length] = longitudinal metacentric height, [length] Mt = trimming moment, [length-force] W = ships weight, [force]
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By similarity of triangles: sin = where: t L = = change of trim, [length] = Tf Ta length between perpendiculars, [length] t L
Setting change in trim equal to one inch or 1 12-foot: Mt = where: GML Mt W L = = = = longitudinal metacentric height, ft trimming moment, ft-tons ships weight, lton length between perpendiculars, ft W (GML ) 12 L
This moment is called the moment to change trim one inch (MT1); in metric units, a moment to trim one centimeter (MTCM) is similarly defined. MT1 is useful for evaluating the effect of trimming moments so long as the change in trim is not great enough to change the waterplane area or shape appreciably: Mt t = MT1 If longitudinal metacentric height (GML) is unknown, MT1 can be closely approximated by using metacentric radius (BML), since the difference between GML and BML is small a percentage of their values: IL (BML ) W IL 35 = (seawater) MT1 = 12 L 420 L 12 L This value is known as the approximate moment to trim one inch. MT1 can also be approximated less accurately by an empirical relationship: MT l = where: TPI = B = tons per inch immersion, lton/in ships beam, ft 30 (TPI)2 B
1-6.5 Drafts After a Change in Trim. As a ship trims about the center of flotation, the change in draft at the bow is proportional to the ratio of the distance between the forward perpendicular and the center of flotation to the length of the ship: Tf = t df
L New Tf = Tf Tf Likewise, the change in draft aft: L New Ta = Ta Ta where: Tf t df L Ta da = = = = = = change in draft forward change of trim distance from forward perpendicular to LCF length between perpendiculars change in draft aft distance from after perpendicular to LCF Ta = tda
and distance, draft, trim, and length are measured in like units.
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1-6.6 Movement of LCB and LCG with Change of Trim. As discussed in Paragraph 1-5.3, movements of LCB and LCG accompany changes of trim. From Figures 1-26 and 1-27: BB1 GG1 t = = tan = BML GML l BB1 = where: BML GML t L = = = = = longitudinal metacentric radius longitudinal metacentric height change of trim length between perpendiculars trim angle BML t L , and GG1 = GML t L
and trim and length are measured in like units. The shift of LCG or LCB with a change in trim can be closely approximated by: t (MT1) BB1 or GG1 = W where: t MT1 W = = = change of trim, in. moment to trim one inch, lton/in. ships weight, lton
1-7 PARAMETRIC DETERMINATION OF HULL CHARACTERISTICS The hull characteristics of a ship are determined and tabulated when the ship is designed and verified following construction. This information is contained in a number of different documents, described in detail in Appendix B. The two most useful documents are the previously discussed cross curves of stability and curves of form. In the absence of detailed stability information or the precise mapping of the hull form necessary to develop hydrostatic characteristics by numerical integration, hull characteristics must be estimated. Methods of estimating some of the required parameters have been presented in the previous sections. When information is extremely limited, an analytical method, based on a parametric hull model, can be employed. This method has been shown to yield results within 10 percent of rigorously determined values for most ship forms. The parametric method has its inception in a regression analysis of 31 commercial hull types published by Joseph D. Porricelli, J. Huntly Boyd, Jr., and Keith E. Schleiffer in the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Transactions, Vol.91, pp. 307-327, August 1983. Many of the relationships were subsequently refined though further regression analysis by Herbert Engineering Corporation as part of the NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE) development work in 1990 (use of POSSE is detailed in Volume 2 of the Salvage Engineers Handbook). At the same time, relationships for stability parameters and weight distributions applicable to warships and other finelined ships were developed. The parametric factors for warships and naval auxiliaries were derived from analysis of U.S. Navy hulls and may not apply precisely to ships of other navies. This is particularly true of amphibious warfare ships and fleet replenishment auxiliaries. U.S. Navy amphibious warfare ships and replenishment auxiliaries are designed for a 20-knot service speed and are correspondingly finer than slower auxiliaries and bow-door LSTs with typical speeds in the 10- to 16-knot range. 1-7.1 Parametric Model. The method creates a baseline parametric model of the hull, consisting of the following parameters for the full-load condition: Coefficients of form, CB, CWP, CP, CM Displacement and weight, D, W Height of the center of buoyancy, KB Height of the Metacenter, KM Height of the Center of Gravity, KG Metacentric radius, BM Metacentric Height, GM Tons per Inch Immersion, TPI Moment to Trim One Inch, MT1 Longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy, LCB Longitudinal position of the center of flotation, LCF Longitudinal position of the center of gravity, LCG Parameters for other conditions are extrapolated from the baseline, or full-load model.
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1-7.1.1 Required Information. This method requires only limited information: Length between perpendiculars, L Breadth, B Depth, D Maximum summer draft amidships, T Design sea speed at normal service draft, Vk This information is available from sources such as the ABS Record, Janes Shipping Registry, Lloyds Register of Shipping, etc., or may be compiled from other sources, including the ships crew or agents. 1-7.1.2 Displacement and Coefficients of Form. To determine the necessary hydrostatic characteristics of a ship, the coefficients of form are first estimated, starting with the block coefficient: V CB = f1 1.10736 0.550401 k L where: Vk L f1 = = = design sea speed at service draft, knots length between perpendiculars, ft 1.61 for destroyer type hulls (including cruisers based on destroyer hulls, such as CG-16, CG-26, CG-47, etc.) 1.41 for frigates 1.28 for cruisers 1.08 for bulk carriers 1.06 for liquid petroleum gas (LPG) carriers 1.04 for liquid natural gas (LNG) carriers 1.03 for ore-bulk-oil (OBO) carriers 1.03 for lumber ships 1.025 for product tankers/chemical carriers 1.01 for crude carriers 1.00 for breakbulk freighters and most barges with rake* 0.98 for cargo liners (16-18 kts) 0.97 for container ships 0.96 for Navy replenishment oilers (Vk 20 kts, AO/AOE/AOR) 0.95 for RO/RO ships 0.93 for Navy replenishment vessels other than oilers (Vk 20 kts, AE/AFS) 0.91 for amphibious warfare ships (LSD/LPD/LPH/LKA/LST) 0.89 for barge carriers, Navy repair ships/tenders (AR/AD/AS)
In the context of the following discussions, the phrase "barges with rake" refers to ocean going barges with raked, ship-shaped or spoon-shaped bows, and cut-up sterns, usually with skegs. It does not apply to box-shaped lighters or to barges designed for harbor use with identical flat rake at bow and stern. CWP = k1 0.702 CB
Waterplane coefficient:
where: k1 = 0.360 0.325 0.336 0.339 0.387 0.370 0.316 0.306 for for for for for for for for barge carriers and barges with rake container ships RO/RO ships naval repair ships/tenders destroyers, frigates, and cruisers well deck type amphibious warfare ships (LSD/LPD) Navy replenshishment ships and fast LKA, LST (20 kts) other merchant ship types and slow-speed naval auxiliaries CP = 0.917 CB + k2 where: k2 = 0.073 for merchant ships and naval auxiliaries 0.075 for barges with rake 0.147 for destroyers, frigates, and cruisers
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient:
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Midships coefficient: CM = CB CP
With an estimate for block coefficient, displacement volume and displacement can be estimated: = L B T CB = where: = D = displacement volume at full load full-load displacement = W = specific volume of water = 35 ft3/lton for seawater ships weight at full load L B T CB = W
1-7.1.3 Heights of Centers. Height of the center of buoyancy (KB) is estimated by a form of Posdunines formula: KB = where: CWP = CB waterplane coefficient = block coefficient T = mean draft CWP CB + CWP T
Metacentric radius is equal to the transverse moment of inertia of the waterplane (IT) divided by the displacement volume (): BM = IT can be expressed as: IT = L B 3 CIT where CIT is the transverse inertia coefficient and is a function of waterplane shape. CIT is determined from the waterplane coefficient (CWP): CIT = 0.125 CWP = 0.125 CWP 0.045 0.043 for ships for barges with rake IT
Transverse metacentric height for the full-load departure condition (corrected for free surface) is correlated to beam, or beam to depth ratio, depending on ship type: B for cargo liners and container ships GM = 2.816 - 1.88 D B = 15.86 - 19.62 D B = 0.714 + 2.2 D = f2 B B2 T = f3 + - 0.53 D 12 T 2 where: f2 = 0.055 for barge carriers and RO/RO ships 0.065 for bulk carriers 0.075 for OBO carriers f3 = = 1.18 for barges with rake 1.00 for barges without rake for tankers in general
for cargo ships in general for other merchant ship types for barges
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From the estimates for KB, BM, and GM, KM and KG can be estimated: KM = KB + BM KG = KM - GM Since the estimate for KG is based on the parameterized GM estimate, the value returned is the virtual, or effective KG (corrected for free surface). GM does not parameterize well for U.S. Navy hulls because Navy stability standards (described in Appendix C) do not include minimum GM requirements. Uncorrected full-load KG does parameterize well, as a function of depth: KG = f4D where: f4 = = = = = = 0.55 0.61 0.63 0.72 0.62 0.50 for for for for for for cruisers and destroyers frigates amphibious warfare ships without well decks amphibious warfare ships with well decks (LSD/LPD) fleet replenishment auxiliaries repair ships/tenders (Navy hulls)
For Navy hulls, GM (uncorrected for free surface) is calculated from the estimates for KB and KG. The parametric factors were derived from an analysis of U.S. Navy hulls and may not apply precisely to ships of other navies. 1-7.1.4 Tons Per Inch Immersion. TPI is calculated directly, using the estimated waterplane coefficient to estimate waterplane area: L B CWP TPI = 420 where L and B are measured in feet. 1-7.1.5 Moment to Trim One Inch. A value for MT1 is found using estimates for longitudinal metacentric height or radius: GML W 12 L where BML is given by: BML = IL = IL 35 W MT1 = IL 420 L BML W 12 L
MT 1 =
The longitudinal moment of inertia, IL, of a ship-shaped waterplane can be expressed as: IL = B L 3 CIL where the longitudinal inertia coefficient, CIL, is given by: CIL = 0.143 CWP - k3 where: k3 = 0.0659 0.0664 0.0643 0.0634 for for for for merchant ships and slow-speed auxiliaries replenishment auxiliaries amphibious warfare ships destroyers, frigates, and cruisers
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1-7.1.6 Longitudinal Positions of Centers. The distance from the forward perpendicular to LCF, LCB, and LCG can be estimated as follows. LCF is estimated as a function of speed (Vk) and length (L): V LCF = 0.5L k + 0.914 160 V = 0.485 L k 100 V = 0.5 k 135 0.95 = 0.5 L V k V = L 0.5 k 135 V = 0.5 L k 135 where Vk is given in knots and L in feet. LCB at full load and zero trim is approximated as a function of length (L) and prismatic coefficient (CP): LCB = L 0.5 - 0.175CP - k4 where: k4 = 0.125 0.111 0.117 0.126 0.146 for for for for for merchant ships and slow-speed auxiliaries replenishment auxiliaries amphibious warfare ships destroyers, frigates, and cruisers barges with rake 0.9 for tankers
for bulk carriers
0.924 1.03 0.924 0.95 0.23
for single-screw cargo ships and naval auxiliaries
for twin-screw cargo ships with transom sterns
for twin-screw cargo ships with cruiser sterns
for barges with rake
To estimate the longitudinal position of the center of gravity, trim must be known or estimated. If unknown, trim can be estimated from similar ships as a percentage of length. Multiplying trim (t) in inches by MT1 gives the trimming moment Mt: MT 1 (t) = Mt Trimming moment divided by weight (W) gives the trim arm or lever (GZL): = GZL W Since the trim arm is the horizontal separation between LCB and LCG prior to trimming: LCB GZL = LCG Upon trimming, LCB will relocate to a position in vertical line with LCG. LCG can be assumed to be directly above the estimated LCB for a ship with zero trim at normal full-load departure condition. 1-7.2 Changes. The values calculated are for the full-load departure conditions, and must be corrected for other conditions. Floating or grounded drafts can be observed on site. New floating displacement, drafts and location of center of gravity are determined by evaluating the effects of all weight changes from the normal full-load departure condition. Hydrostatic properties are assumed to vary linearly with draft according to: TPI2 = TPI1 MT12 = MT11 LCB2 = LCB1 LCF2 = LCF1 TPI1 0.0075 T1 - T2 MT11 0.025 T1 - T2 LCB1 0.002 T1 - T2 LCF1 0.004 T1 - T2 Mt
Where the subscript 1 denotes the full-load condition and the subscript 2 the new condition. The drafts T1 and T2 are taken at the LCF for each condition.
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Longitudinal locations are referenced to the forward perpendicular. These relationships apply only so long as the change in draft or trim does not cause a significant change in the shape of the underwater hull form. KM does not vary significantly with draft until draft is dramatically decreased, to approximately two-thirds full-load draft, after which it increases. 1-7.3 Calculation Hierarchy. Only CB, GM (or KG), and LCF are calculated directly from the basic input data (L, B, T, D, Vk). Because other parameters are successively calculated from previously calculated parameters, basic data, and empirically derived factors, there is a hierarchy of accuracy among the calculated parameters. This hierarchy is shown in the two panels of Figure 1-28. Two panels are used to reduce the complexity of the diagram. The basic input parameters are listed across the top of each of the two panels. 1-7.4 Cautions. The parametric method described in this paragraph was developed through regression analysis of typical, conventional hull forms. The less typical a particular hull, compared to ships of the same type, the greater the error introduced by use of the relationships given. As this method is based primarily on analysis of the speed-to-length ratio, errors will be larger for an underpowered hullfor example, a hull designed for 20 knots but actually powered for only 16 knots.
Vk
L CB
B T B B B L TPI L L GM
CWP KB CT IT BM KM
KG
B T L
Vk
W,
CB CP TPI IL CWP IT KB BM
LCF
CM LCB LCG GZL MT MTI
BML
KM
KG
Figure 1-28. Calculation Hierarchy.
Because of the interdependence among various parameters, changing any parameter (except LCF) creates a ripple effect that necessitates recalculation of other parameters. Mixing bits of actual data with data calculated by the analytical method in a set of salvage calculations without recalculating lower precedence parameters tends to give poorer results than complete sets of either calculated or actual data. Specifically, hydrostatic properties and coefficients of form must be compatible. Within the framework of these limitations, the parametric method yields results sufficiently accurate for salvage work, and provides a means to evaluate a casualtys condition when only limited information is available. 1-7.5 Applications to Salvage Calculations. The nature of the relationships in the analytical method dictates the methodology of their use. From the input data, the method calculates parameters and creates a baseline ship model in the full-load condition. From the base condition, parameters at other conditions are calculated by one of two approaches.
The new condition is defined by drafts (for example, drafts on departure from last port). Change in block coefficient is calculated first. With the new block coefficient, mean draft and trim, a new set of parameters is calculated. The difference between old and new displacements gives the required weight change between the full-load and new condition. If the change in draft results from stranding, the difference between old and new displacements is the ground reaction. This approach can also be used to determine the amount and LCG of weight that must be added or removed to reach a desired draft and trim. The new condition is defined by change in weight (consumption of fuel and consumables, flooding, cargo discharge, etc.). The sum of weight change and old displacement gives the new displacement. Change in draft is calculated from the total weight change and TPI. For large weight changes, the change in draft is calculated incrementally, recalculating TPI for each intermediate draft. Shift of LCG is calculated by moment balance. A new block coefficient is calculated from the new displacement and mean draft. With the new block coefficient and mean draft, a new set of parameters is calculated as for the full-load condition, except that the new LCB is calculated from the new LCG.
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1-8 WEIGHT AND STABILITY
The salvage engineer must fully appreciate the relationship between weight and ship stability. The addition and removal of weight is the most common evolution affecting a ships stability and can be the result of onloading and offloading cargo and equipment, refueling, consuming stores or fuel, ballasting, etc. Weight additions and removals have three effects:
Change of displacement with attendant change of draft. Movement of the center of gravity. Development of trimming or inclining moments.
Displacement changes cause draft changes and changes in the hull characteristics. The change in the transverse metacentric radius is particularly important because of its potential effect on stability. Both weight additions and removals may change the moment of inertia of the waterplane. Weight additions will increase and weight removals will decrease displacement volume. Table 1-7 illustrates the general effect of weight changes on an intact ship. To evaluate a weight change, it is simplest to assume that the weight is added or removed at the center of gravity (G) for the purpose of calculating the effect on mean draft, and then moved to its final location in a series of steps to account for the effects of its vertical, transverse, and longitudinal moments.
Table 1-7. Effect of Weight Movements. CENTER OF GRAVITY Up Down Port/Starboard No change Up Down No change Down Up CENTER OF BUOYANCY No change No change To low side Up Up Up Down Down Down
ACTION Weight shift up Weight shift down Weight shift transverse Weight added at G Weight added above G Weight added below G Weight removed at G Weight removed above G Weight removed below G
STABILITY Decrease Increase Decrease Decrease Decrease Increase Increase Increase Decrease
METACENTER* No change No change No change Down Down Down Up Up Up
*Relative movement of metacenter is based on the relationship BM = I / and assumption that waterplane shape and area do not change appreciably for moderate changes of draft and displacement. As draft increases with added weight, the reduction in BM [I /] is greater than the rise of B. Conversely, as draft and displacement decrease, the increase of BM is greater than the lowering of B.
1-8.1 Weight Shifts. When weights are moved about the ship, displacement and mean draft remain constant; stability parameters that are functions of displacement or draft, such as height of metacenter, are therefore unaffected. The distance the center of gravity moves when a weight is shifted is the product of the weight (w) times the distance moved (d), divided by the total weight of the ship (W): wd GG1 = W This distance can be resolved into vertical, transverse, or longitudinal components. A single weight shift can cause any combination of transverse, vertical, or longitudinal shifts of the center of gravity with attendant effects on longitudinal and transverse stability. Although they occur simultaneously, each effect can be assumed to occur independently; the effects can be calculated separately as though they were occurring sequentially. Change of KG alters GM and righting arms as discussed in Paragraph 1-5. The effects of longitudinal and transverse weight shifts are discussed in the following paragraphs.
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1-8.1.1 Longitudinal Effects of Weight Shifts. When a weight movement has a longitudinal component, LCG shifts and the ships weight acting through the new center of gravity and buoyancy acting through the old center of buoyancy form a couple, or trimming moment, as shown in Figure 1-26. The magnitude of the trimming moment is: Mt = W GG1 where: W Mt GG1 = = = ships weight trimming moment longitudinal distance from the old LCG to the new LCG
W1 W
L Z G1 B G L1
The trimming moment is also equal to the product of the weight moved (w) and the longitudinal distance moved (d). Mt = wd 1-8.1.2 Offcenter Weight. The effect of offcenter weight is to create an inclining moment. This effect can be evaluated by calculating the lateral movement of the ships center of gravity off the centerline. The magnitude of the inclining moment is: MI = W(GG1) where: GG1 MI W = = = lateral (horizontal) shift of center of gravity, [length] inclining moment, [forcelength] ships weight (including the offcenter weight), [force] wd GG1 = W where: d = lateral (horizontal) distance that the weight w is moved, [length] W GG1 = wd = MI
C L
Figure 1-29. List Due to Transverse Shift of G.
W1
W Z Z1 B T
0
L G L1
since:
G1
C L
then:
Figure 1-30. Reduced Righting Arm due to Transverse Shift of G.
The inclining moment will cause the ship to list to an angle where the center of buoyancy is again in vertical line with the center of gravity. The angle of list becomes the new equilibrium position; when disturbed, the ship will roll about the angle of list. The effect of a permanent list is to reduce the righting arms and range of stability when the ship rolls towards the list, and increase them when the ship rolls away from the list. For small angles of inclination (less than 7 to 10 degrees), list can be found by reference to the metacentric height. From Figure 1-29, the list due to an offcenter weight can be seen to be: GG1 tan = GM wd = tan 1 W GM
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1-8.1.3 Stability Curve Correction for Offcenter Weight. Figure 1-30 shows a ship whose center of gravity has moved from G to G1. When inclined towards G1 to some angle , the righting arm developed is not GZ, but a smaller arm, G1Z1. The reduction in righting arm (GT) is: GT = GG1cos As with the sine correction for actual KG, the offcenter weight correction, as a cosine curve, is plotted to the same scale as the curve of statical stability as shown in Figure 1-31. The corrected stability curve is the difference between the two curves. The angle at which the corrected curve crosses the horizontal axis is the angle of list caused by the offcenter weight. Extending the curve to the left of the origin shows the increased righting arms developed on the side away from the list. In dynamic situations, the increase in righting energy on the side away from the list does not increase stability because the ship will roll about the angle of list. If the ship is subjected to a constant upsetting force, such as a steady beam wind, the increased righting arms provide additional stability if the ship is oriented so that the upsetting force heels the ship away from the list, towards its strong side. The increased righting arms and energy must also be overcome if the salvage plan calls for the ship to be heeled away from the list by external forces. It should also be remembered that if the ship is heeled towards its strong side, the area under the curve from the point where the curve crosses the axis to the angle of heel represents stored energy. If this area is larger than the area under the stability curve on the weak side, the ship could capsize if suddenly released.
3
2 1 0 1 2 3 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
GG1 COS
COSINE CORRECTION CURVE FOR OFFCENTER WEIGHT
INITIAL STABILITY CURVE WITH KG OF 21
LOSS IN RIGHTING ARMS DUE TO OFFCENTER WEIGHT
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
ANGLE OF INCLINATION, RANGE OF STABILITY ROLLS TO STBD
3
2 1 0 1 2 POSITIVE RIGHTING ARMS, STBD 3 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ANGLE OF INCLINATION, POSITIVE RIGHTING ARMS, PORT RANGE OF STABILITY ROLLS TO PORT CORRECTED STABILITY CURVE ANGLE OF LIST
Figure 1-31. Correction to Statical Stability Curve for Transverse Shift of G.
1-8.2 Weight Additions and Removals. Weight addition or removal at the center of gravity changes displacement without introducing trimming or inclining moments. The increase or decrease in mean draft in inches (T) is approximately equal to the weight added or removed (w) in tons divided by the tons per inch immersion (TPI): w T = TPI
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1-8.2.1 Weight Changes Away From the Center of Gravity. When weights are added or removed at some distance from the center of gravity, the center of gravity moves toward the added weight, or away from a removed weight, to a new position determined by the size and location of the weight. The weight change can be treated as an addition (or removal) at the center of gravity, followed by a shift to the location where the weight is added: (Gg) (w) GG1 = (W1) where: GG1 Gg W1 w = = = = shift of ships center of gravity, [length] distance between ship and added weight centers of gravity, [length] = the distance d that the weight is "shifted" new total weight of ship, [force] = W w weight added (+) or removed ()
The new vertical, transverse, and longitudinal positions of the center of gravity can also be calculated directly, by summing moments. Height of the center of gravity is given by: W (KG) w (kg) KG1 = W w where: KG1 W KG w kg = = = = = height of the ships center of gravity after weight change, [length] original weight (displacement) of the ship, [force] original height of the ships center of gravity, [length] weight added (+) or removed (-), [force] height of the center of gravity of the added or removed weight above the keel, [length]
New transverse and longitudinal positions of the center of gravity can be determined by the same method. A longtitudinal moment caused by weight addition or removal will not necessarily trim the ship. Most ships are not symmetrical about a transverse axis; as a ship settles or rises, the change in buoyancy is weighted towards one end, causing LCB to shift towards the fuller end. If the buoyancy moment generated by the shift in LCB equals the trimming moment, the ship will not trim. Conversely, a weight added directly above or below the center of gravity may cause the ship to trim to keep the centers of buoyancy and gravity in vertical line. For any weight addition or removal, a ship will assume the trim that brings the center of buoyancy directly under the new center of gravity. The trim resulting from a weight change can be determined very precisely by calculating LCB for trimmed waterlines at the new displacement until a trim is found that brings LCB under LCG. Simpler approximate methods to determine trim resulting from weight changes can be derived by determining where weights must be added or removed from a ship to change draft without changing trim. These methods are described in the following paragraphs, and are sufficiently accurate for virtually all situations. 1-8.2.2 Weight Changes Without Change of Trim. If a weight is to be added to a ship without changing trim, it must be added at a location that will be in vertical line with the resultant upward force of the added buoyancy. If the rise or sinkage is parallel, the added buoyancy results from the immersion of a layer of uniform thickness between the old and new waterplanes. The center of buoyancy of this layer is very close to the midpoint of a line connecting the centroids (centers of flotation) of the old and new waterplanes. For small draft changes through a ships normal range of drafts, the old and new waterplanes are very nearly the same size and shape. The line connecting the centroids is therefore essentially vertical and the center of buoyancy of the immersed layer is in line with the centroid of the old waterplane, or center of flotation. For moderate weight changes, causing small changes in draft, at locations other than the center of flotation, trim can be closely approximated by: a. Taking the distance from the added or removed weight to the LCF as the trimming arm, b. Multiplying the trimming arm by the weight to determine trimming moment, and c. Dividing the trimming moment by MT1 to find the resulting trim. For larger weights whose addition or removal causes draft changes large enough to appreciably change hydrostatic functions, the trimming arm is taken as the distance from the new LCG to the LCB at the new waterline. Since TPI varies with draft, an iterative solution is required, as shown in Example 1-3.
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EXAMPLE 1-3 WEIGHT AND TRIM

This example calculates trim resulting from moderate (causing small changes in draft) and large weight additions at various locations on an FFG-7 Class ship. a. Calculate the change of trim when a 100-ton weight is added to an FFG-7 Class ship at the following locations: (1) Center of Flotation. First estimate of new mean draft: (2) Center of Gravity. (3) 50 feet abaft the forward perpendicular. FFG-7 Curves of Form are given in Figure FO-2. Initial drafts are 14 feet, 6 inches, forward and aft, LBP is 408 feet. From the curves of form: T Tnew = w/TPI = 1,000/32 = 31.25 31 inches Told - T = 14' 6" - 31" = 11 feet 11 inches b. Calculate the location for the center of gravity of 1,000 tons of weight to be removed from an FFG-7 Class ship with initial drafts of 14 feet 6 inches forward and aft without changing trim.
Second estimate of new mean draft:
TPI LCF LCB MT1 W
= = = = =
32 23.4 feet abaft midships LCG = 1.4 feet abaft midships 745 foot-tons 3,495 tons
TPI at 11' 11" TPIavg T Tnew = LCF at 11' 9"
= = = Tnew =
28.5 (32 + 28.5)/2 = 30.25 1,000/30.5 = 33.06 33 inches - T = 14' 6" - 33" = 11 feet 9 inches 14 feet abaft midships
Center of buoyancy of immersed layer (lcb) is approximately midway between the old and new LCF, (23.4 + 14) = 18.7 feet abaft midships lcb = 2 Removing the 1,000 tons so that the center of gravity of the removed weight is approximately 19 feet abaft midships will cause no noticeable trim. c. Calculate the change in trim for an FFG-7 Class ship with initial drafts of 14' 6" forward and aft if 1,000 tons are removed from the following locations: (1) LCF.
Calculate the increase in mean draft: T =
Tnew
w 100 = 3.125 inches 3 inches = TPI 32 = Tnew T = 14 feet 6 inches 3 inches = 14 feet 9 inches
Calculate the change in trim for 100 tons added at: (1) Center of Flotation
(2) LCG. The change in draft is small, so adding the weight at LCF causes no change of trim. This is verified by observing that the LCF at the new mean draft of 14 feet 9 inches is 23.5 feet. The center of the new waterplane (LCF) is only 0.1 foot from the center of the old waterplane, so the center of buoyancy of the immersed layer is essentially directly over the old LCF. (2) Center of Gravity Trim arm = = = = distance from LCF to added weight 23.4 - 1.4 = 22 feet w(trim arm) = 100(22) = 2,200 foot-tons Mt / MT1 = 2,200/745 = 2.95 3 inches by the bow (3) 100 feet forward of midships.
Tnew LCB at 11' 9" MT1 at 11' 9" MT1avg
= = = =
11' 9" (from part b.) 6 feet forward of midships 565 foot-tons (745 + 565)/2 = 655
(1) 1,000 tons removed at original LCF
Mt t
GG1 Gg GG1 LCG1

trim arm
= = = = = = = =
(3) 50 feet abaft the forward perpendicular 50 feet abaft the forward perpendicular is 154 (204 -50) feet forward of midships Trim arm Mt t = = = 23.4 + 154 = 177.4 feet 100(177.4) = 17,740 foot-tons Mt/MT1 = 17,740/745 = 23.81 23 inches by the bow
Mt t
(Gg)(w)/(W + w) 23.4 -1.4 = 22 feet (22)(1,000) / (3,495 - 1,000) = 8.8 feet forward -1.4 feet (aft) + 8.8 feet (forward) = 7.4 feet forward of midships distance from new LCG to new LCB 7.4 - 6 = 1.4 feet (LCG is forward of LCB) 1,000(1.4) = 1,400 foot-tons Mt/MT1 = 1,400/655 2 inches by the bow
(2) 1,000 tons removed at original LCG
GG1 LCG1 trim arm Mt t
= = = = =
0 1.4 feet abaft midships 6 + 1.4 = 7.4 feet (LCG is aft of LCB) 1,000(7.4) = 7,400 foot-tons Mt / MT1 = 7,400/655 11 inches by the stern
(3) 1,000 tons removed 150 feet forward of midships
Gg GG1 LCG1
trim arm Mt t
= = = = = =
150 + 1.4 = 151.4 feet (151.4)(1,000)/(3,495 - 1,000) = 60.7 feet aft 1.4 feet (aft) + 60.7 feet (aft) = 62.1 feet abaft midships 62.1 + 6 = 68.1 feet (LCG is aft of LCB) 1,000(68.1) = 68,100 foot-tons Mt/MT1 = 68,100/655 104 inches by the stern
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1-8.2.3 Point of Constant Draft. When a weight is added at some point away from the LCF, the ship trims as it sinks to a new mean draft. Drafts on the opposite side of the LCF are reduced by the effect of trim, but increased by parallel sinkage. At some point the reduction in draft caused by trim equals the increase in draft caused by parallel sinkage: T due to parallel sinkage = T due to change of trim w Tparallel sinkage = TPI wd1 wd1 d2 Ttrim = t = MT 1 MT 1 L wd1d2 w = TPI MT 1 (L) where: t d1 MT1 L TPI d2 w = = = = = = = change of form, in. distance from the LCF to the added or removed weight, ft moment to change trim one inch, ft-ton/in length between perpendiculars, ft tons per inch immersion, lton/in distance from the point of constant draft to the LCF, ft weight added or removed, lton
The relationship can be solved to determine the point of constant draft for weight added or removed at a known location. It is generally more useful to solve for d1 to find the point where weight must be added or removed to keep draft constant at some point: (MT1) (L) d1 = (TPI) (d2) Note that w cancels out of the equation. So long as the weight change is not large enough to significantly alter MT1, TPI, or the position of LCF, the amount of weight added or removed does not affect the location of the point where weight must be added or removed to keep draft constant at another point. 1-8.3 Inclining Experiment. The predictable and measurable effects of offcenter weight are used to determine height of center of gravity in an inclining experiment. By shifting a known weight a specified distance, the movement of the center of gravity can be determined. The resulting inclination (heel) observed and the tangent formula (see Paragraph 1-8.1.2): GG1 wd tan = = GMeff W (GM) is solved for the as inclined, or effective metacentric height, GMeff: GMeff = GG1 tan = wd W tan
Inclining experiment reports are an important source of data for ship characteristics, especially a baseline vertical position for the center of gravity. 1-8.4 Sallying Ship. Sallying ship is a procedure in which the ship is rocked, or sallied, by rapidly shifting weights back and forth, by rhythmically heaving on the deck edge with a crane, or by personnel running back and forth. If, after inducing rolling, all exciting forces are removed, the ship will roll with the time of roll equal to her natural rolling period. It is impossible to remove all exciting forces, but if the ship is sallied in calm water, is clear of the bottom throughout her roll, the number of mooring lines has been reduced to the minimum acceptable and those remaining are slack, and the ship is free of any other significant restraints, her rolling period will closely approximate the natural rolling period, TR. GM can be estimated by means of the rolling period formula: 1.108 k 2 C B 2 0.44B 2 GM = T T T R R R To determine the rolling period accurately, the ship should be timed through several rolls and the result divided by the number of rolls to find the average rolling period. A derivation of the rolling period formula, with constants for various ship types, is given in Paragraph 1-5.4.3. Sallying ship is often performed in conjunction with an inclining experiment as a check on the accuracy of the experiment or to provide a means to calculate an initial estimate of GM. The accuracy of the procedure is degraded by the influences of offcenter weights, free surfaces, and exciting or restraining forces, such as personnel moving about the ship, unslackened crane hoists or mooring lines, hydrodynamic effects of water entrained by the moving hull surface in confined basins, etc.
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1-8.5 Ballast. A ships loading varies considerably during a voyage as fuel and stores are consumed, and for merchant ships and auxiliaries, from one leg of a voyage to another as cargo is taken on and discharged. Ballast, liquid or solid, is carried to maintain stability or seakindliness. As fuel is consumed from double-bottom tanks, the ships center of gravity rises and metacentric height is reduced. Saltwater ballast taken into low tanks restores metacentric height to a safe value. All ships require certain drafts, displacement, and trim for seakindliness, propulsion efficiency, and steering control. Discharge of cargo from forward holds and tanks trims the ship by the stern. A light draft forward causes pounding and slamming in a seaway, reduces visibility from the bridge, and makes steering difficult in beam winds. Fuel and cargo oil tanks were formerly used alternately as sea water ballast tanks in most ships. Environmental protection standards now prohibit discharge of oily water in most areas, so modern ships are usually designed with dedicated or segregated ballast tanks (SBT). Normal practice is to provide ballast capacity such that the ships displacement in ballast is 40 to 60 percent of the full-load displacement. Cargo tanks are often piped for ballast; if the tanks have been cleaned prior to taking ballast, the ballast is clean and can be discharged overboard; otherwise the ballast is dirty and is discharged to receiving facilities ashore. Ballast tanks are distributed over the length of the ship to provide flexibility in controlling trim and hull bending moments. In general cargo ships, the combined center of the ballast tanks is usually near or below the combined center of the fuel tanks. Ships designed to carry dense cargo, such as stone and ore carriers, have an excess of volume that is taken up by wing ballast tanks. Some of these vessels are very stiff in light condition, so high ballast tanks are fitted to reduce metacentric height. Fuel tanks are still commonly piped for saltwater ballast for emergency use. Many warships are fitted with compensating fuel tanks that admit seawater through openings in the bottom of the tanks as fuel is drawn off the top, maintaining nearly constant weight and center of gravity in the tank. Solid ballast, usually consisting of loose stone or sand, river mud, or other dredge spoil, is sometimes carried by cargo ships. Decomposing organic material in mud ballast can produce flammable and toxic gases, such as methane or hydrogen sulfide. Solid ballast, carried in holds or tween decks, can degrade stability by shifting, as explained in Paragraph 1-9.3. Fixed solid ballast is sometimes fitted, particularly after conversions involving addition of high weight and in submarines. Ordinary concrete or special heavy aggregate concrete is commonly used. The U.S. Navy has used cast iron ingots or lead pigs weighing about 60 pounds each. The cast iron ingots are sometimes covered with a layer of 3 to 4 inches of cement mortar. High density drilling mud stowed in double-bottom tanks is also used as ballast. Ballasting instructions, where applicable, are included in the damage control book for Navy ships, and in the trim and stability booklet or loading instructions for commercial vessels.
1-9 IMPAIRED STABILITY
A ships afloat stability can be impaired or otherwise changed by any of the following:
Addition, removal, or shift of weight, changing KG, Change in the shape of the submerged hull from grounding or battle damage changing KM, Free surface effect of loose liquids (FS), causing a virtual rise of G, Free communication with the sea (FC), causing a virtual rise of G, or Any combination of the above.
The first three conditions affect stability of the intact ship as well. Only free communication with the sea is predicated on damage to the hull. As the primary indicator of initial stability, GM can be expressed as a function of the above effects: GM = KM KG FS FC The following paragraphs demonstrate the methods to calculate and apply the effect of these conditions on stability. 1-9.1 Flooding. Flooding can be caused by breaches in the hull, accumulating firefighting water, damaged saltwater systems, or any other condition that admits uncontrolled amounts of liquid into the watertight envelope of the ship. Seawater flooding increases displacement and reduces reserve buoyancy. Offcenter flooding causes list and reduces transverse stability. Major flooding towards the ends of the ship reduces longitudinal stability, and in extreme cases may result in the loss of the ship by plunging. The effects of added weight on stability and trim are addressed in Paragraph 1-8. In addition to the increased weight, loose water causes other serious consequences discussed in the following paragraphs.
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1-9.1.1 Permeability. The effects of flooding are mitigated by the contents of the flooded compartment. The space occupied by solid objects or watertight volumes cannot be occupied by floodwater, so total volume and weight of floodwater admitted is reduced. This effect is called permeability, and a permeability factor, or ratio of the volume of floodwater to the total volume of the space, can be defined: available volume = total volume The volume of the water entering a flooded space can be determined by calculating the volume of the space and multiplying by an appropriate permeability factor. The permeability of tanks can usually be taken as the percentage of full capacity to which they are filled to calculate the amount of floodwater admitted. Not using a permeability factor will result in overestimating the amount of water a space contains. If the exact quantity of floodwater cannot be determined, it is usually safest to err on the high side by disregarding permeability. Permeability for cargo can be calculated from cargo density or stowage factor, as explained in Appendix E, U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010); the appendix includes an extensive list of material densities and cargo stowage factors. Permeabilities calculated from cargo stowage factors or cargo densities may not be entirely accurate for breakbulk cargo in rigid watertight packaging (cans, steel boxes, etc.) as water will not be able to enter all void spaces in the cargo. Permeability factors for some typical spaces and cargoes are given in Table 1-8. 1-9.1.2 Downflooding. Downflooding occurs when a ship heels sufficiently to immerse an opening above the normal waterline, such as an open door or holed shell plating. This angle of heel is defined as the downflooding angle. Righting arms are reduced as the water accumulates on the low side, and as an offcenter weight creates an additional upsetting moment. A ship rolling so that it cyclically immerses a shell opening may assume a permanent list or increase the period and angle of roll due to the free surface effect described in the next paragraph. As roll angle and period increase, the time the opening is immersed increases, admitting greater amounts of water. 1-9.1.3 Flooding into Liquid-filled Spaces. Tanks often contain immiscible liquids, such as fuel or cargo oil, with densities different from seawater. If an oil tank is holed, there may be either a net inflow or outflow of liquid. There may be an inflow even if the liquid level in the tank is above sea level. If the density of the oil in the tank is low enough that its head pressure at the hull penetration is less than the seawater head pressure, water will flow into the tank. Head pressure is a function of liquid depth and density: P h = h = where: Ph h = = = = head pressure liquid weight density liquid specific volume = 1/ liquid depth at point in question h
Table 1-8. Selected Permeability Factors.
Miscellaneous Spaces on Naval and Commercial Ships1: Permeability, Space Full Load Minimum Operating Condition
Engine rooms (steam turbine) fully flooded above mid height below mid height lower third Engine rooms (diesel and gas turbine) Firerooms Auxiliary machinery spaces Pump rooms Steering gear rooms Shops Offices, electronics spaces Living spaces General stores Magazines Powder Small arms Small arms ammunition Rocket stowage Torpedo stowage Handling rooms Chain locker
0.85 0.90 0.75 0.70 0.85 0.90 0.85 0.90 0.85-0.90 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.80-0.90 0.60 0.80 0.60 0.80 0.70 0.80 0.65
0.85 0.90 0.75 0.70 0.85 0.90 0.85 0.90 0.85-0.90 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.80 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.65
Cargo Spaces: Space Tanks, empty, on molded volume2 Double-bottom tanks Cargo tanks Tanks of known capacity Empty With liquid contents Bulk and breakbulk cargo (average)3 Container holds3 RO/RO holds (average)4 Liquids in cans or barrels1 Permeability,
0.97 0.99 1.00 1 - percent full 0.60-0.80 0.70 0.85 0.40
Notes:
1 2
From Naval Ship Engineering Center Design Data Sheet, DDS 079-1, Aug 75 See Paragraph 1-4.10.7 for discussion. 3 See Appendix E, U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) for discussion of how to calculate permeability/volume of floodwater from cargo stowage factor/density. 4 Permeability of hold around containers; does not include space inside containers/ trailers.
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The equilibrium liquid level in the tank is the level that will give the same head pressure as the seawater. When there is an outflow of liquid from the tank, the equilibrium level can be determined simply: 1 h1 = sw hsw sw h1 = hsw i where the subscripts i and sw denote properties of the liquid inside the tank and of the seawater outside the hull, respectively. Since specific gravity is directly related to density , the ratio of seawater to product specific gravities can be substituted for the density ratio. The outflow of liquid lightens the ship, and may trim or heel it, varying hsw, so an iterative solution is required. When there is an inflow of seawater into the tank, a water bottom forms. If the tank is holed at its bottom, hi remains essentially constant, but lies over the water bottom of depth hsw,i. Equilibrium head pressure at the hull penetration is now expressed: i hi + sw hsw, i = sw hsw The inflow of seawater adds weight and may trim or heel the ship. It is possible that the liquid level will reach the tank top before equilibrium is reached; the block of oil is held in place by sea pressure, and there can be no further weight addition, even if the ship continues to settle, unless oil escapes through tank vents or other avenues. Tankers carrying light oils that have suffered severe bottom damage may float in this manner, with much of the ships weight transmitted from the tank tops to the water through the oil mass, rather than through the sides of the hull to the bottom structure. Since the lower level of the liquid mass is above the hull penetration, and separated from it by a water bottom, there is little leakage in calm seas. If the side of a tank is holed at a height such that the internal head pressure is less than the seawater head pressure, water will flow into the tank. If the hole is low enough that it is covered by the water bottom, the situation is identical to that described above. If the hole is above the top of the initial water bottom, there will be an ongoing oil-seawater exchange until the water bottom covers the opening. The local seawater depth over a hull opening can vary with time as the ship rises, settles, trims, or lists in response to weight changes, or as tide rises and falls around a stranded or sunken ship. Tanks may be subject to either inflow or outflow at different times. Heavily damaged tanks will normally reach equilibrium in 20 minutes or less, although significant leakage will continue from casualties that strand at a tide that is higher than subsequent low tides. It is not always necessary to discharge a damaged tank completely to stop oil or other light liquids from leaking into the sea. The water bottom formed when a tank is damaged near its bottom can prevent further discharge of liquids lighter than water. For example, in a tanker with a 50foot molded depth and a 30-foot draft, there is a 20-foot difference in head between sea level and oil level in full cargo tanks. If a full tank is breached through its bottom plating, oil leaks out until the internal oil head balances the external seawater head. The depth of oil is determined by converting the water head to an oil head. For the tanker described, and an oil specific gravity of 0.8: hi = where: hsw hi g, sw g, i = = = = depth to tank penetration = local draft for bottom rupture = 30 ft oil depth with head equivalent to seawater head, ft seawater specific gravity = 1.025 oil specific gravity = 0.8 g, sw g, i hsw = 1.025 30 = 38.44 ft 0.8
For fresh water, specific gravity is taken as 1.0, and oil depth is found by dividing the draft or penetration depth by specific gravity; for the case described above, the equivalent oil head is 37.5 feet. As a practical matter, the equilibrium oil depth has been reached when the cargo pumps begin to draw water instead of oil. The thickness of the water bottom can be increased by drawing oil from the top of the tanks with portable pumps, allowing water to flow in through the breached plating. In the initial stages of a pollution incident, salvors should attempt to create or increase water bottoms in damaged tanks, especially if pumping or storage capacity is limited and several tanks are leaking. As operations continue, water bottoms can be systematically increased until the tanks are completely discharged. Liquid and solid pollutants can be removed by the methods discussed in Paragraphs 3-3 and 3-4, and the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 5 (S0300-A6-MAN-050). The effectiveness of water bottoms is limited for water-soluble liquids or liquids with a specific gravity very near one. Water bottoms cannot be created at all under liquids with specific gravities greater than one. Many bulk chemicals fall into this category, as well as some crude oils and bunker fuels. Many chemicals are also highly soluble in water and cannot be contained by water bottoms.
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1-9.2 Loose Water. Liquid in a partially flooded compartment is free to move as the ship inclines. The adverse effects of loose water result from the unrestrained movement of masses of water. The movement of significant weights causes the ships center of gravity to move off the centerline as the ship inclines. 1-9.2.1 Free Surface Effect. The movement of the ships center of gravity caused by loose water movement can be related to the width of the free surface and the angle of inclination. The loss of righting arm results from the weight of a wedge of water transferred from the high to the low side, as shown in Figure 1-32. For small angles, the volume of the wedge in a rectangular tank can be calculated: y (y tan) dl = Vwedge = 0 0 2
l l
B M W1 W 0 Gv 0 Z G2 W g 0 G g L L1
y tan dl 2
2
where: l y = = = length of the tank half-width of the tank (from its centerline) angle of inclination
C L
Figure 1-32. Free Surface Effect.
For a rectangular tank, the centroids of the wedges are at 2 3y from the centerline of the tank; the plan area of most tanks approximates a rectangle sufficiently to assume that the centroid of the wedge lies 2 3y from the centerline. The centroid of the transferred wedge therefore moves a total distance of 4 3y. The moment of volume of the transferred wedge is:
l y 2 tan l 2 4 d l y = tan y 3 dl moment of volume = 0 0 2 3 3
The integral 0l 2 3y3 dl is the second moment of area (moment of inertia), i, of the liquid surface (see Paragraph 1-4.5.2 for a derivation). Substituting: moment of volume = i tan The weight moment of the transferred wedge is: weight moment = f i tan where f is the weight density of the fluid in the tank. The weight shift and accompanying moment will cause a shift of the ships center of gravity parallel to the inclined liquid surface (and the inclined waterline) to a new position G2: f i tan f i tan = GG2 = W w Righting arms are reduced by the transverse shift of center of gravity; the transverse component of the shift GG2 is found by multiplying by the cosine of the angle of inclination: i tan f i sin f GG2 transverse = GG2 cos = cos = w w The righting arm with free surface is found by subtracting the transverse shift of G from the righting arm without free surface: f i sin GZcorr = GZ GG2 transverse = GZ w where: W w GZcorr = = = = weight of the ship weight density of the water in which the ship is floating volume of displacement righting arm corrected for new position of the center of gravity, G2
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The free surface correction is applied to the basic statical stability curve by graphical or tabular means in the same way the sine correction for increased KG is applied (see Paragraph 1-5.10.1). The effect on stability of a free surface can be much greater than the effect of the weight of the floodwater. The total correction is the sum of the corrections for each free liquid surface. The component of the weight moment causing the transverse shift of center of gravity, f isin, is called the moment of transference. For many ships, moments of transference are tabulated for each tank, with f expressed in long tons per cubic foot. Moments of transference are normally calculated for a slack condition (50 percent full) and a full condition (100 percent for water tanks, 95 percent for Navy fuel tanks, 98 percent for commercial vessel cargo tanks) for a series of heel angles. The free surface correction for each tank at each angle is obtained by dividing the moment of transference by the ships displacement. Tabulated moments of transference are included in the damage control books of newer Navy ships. Approximate moments of transference can be calculated by assuming a rectangular free surface: moment of transference rectangle = f i sin = f where: l b = = compartment length compartment width
W W1
3 lb 3 1 lb sin = 12 sin 12 f
L1 L
For seawater flooding, where f is 35 cubic feet per long ton, the expression reduces to: l b 3 sin moment of transference sw = 420 where l and b are measured in feet. If a tank or flooded space is nearly full or nearly empty, the liquid pockets when the ship heels; that is, the liquid moves to expose the deck or to cover the overhead, as shown in Figure 1-33. Once the liquid begins to pocket, the center of gravity, g, of the liquid mass moves very little as heel angle increases. The reduction in righting arm is simply that of an offcenter weight of known location. Model tests have shown that pocketing normally decreases free surface effect by approximately 25 percent. The angle at which pocketing occurs can be predicted by geometry. As the tank shown in Figure 1-34 is inclined, a wedge of liquid shifts from the high side to the low side. The increase in water level on the low side is equal to the decrease on the high side. This distance (h) can be expressed as a function of the tank breadth (b) and the angle of inclination, : b h = tan 2 Pocketing occurs at angles of inclination where h is equal to or greater than the liquid depth in the tank (d) or the overhead clearance (a) as shown in Figure 1-34. Solving for : 2h p = tan 1 p b where: p hp = = angle of inclination where pocketing begins a or d, whichever is less
L1 W W1 L
Figure 1-33. Pocketing.
C L b
l1 a b _ tan = h 2 y w l
d w1
Figure 1-34. Pocketing Angle.
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Tabulated moments of transference account for pocketing and tank shape. When using approximate moments, a statical stability curve can be constructed by applying a free surface correction for angles up to p, and an offcenter weight (cosine) correction for larger angles. Alternatively, the gradual diminishment of the moment of transference can be evaluated by defining the moment of transference as the product of f i and some factor C that is less than sin: moment of transference = f i C where: f i C = = = fluid density (tank contents), lton/ft3 moment of inertia of the free surface, ft4 transference factor from Table 1-9, 1-10, or 1-11
Table 1-9. Transference Factor Tanks 50 Percent Full.

Ratio of depth to breadth 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 Angle of inclination, deg 10 0.13 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 20 0.14 0.21 0.27 0.31 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 30 0.14 0.21 0.27 0.34 0.40 0.50 0.57 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 40 0.12 0.19 0.26 0.33 0.40 0.53 0.65 0.74 0.83 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 50 0.11 0.16 0.23 0.30 0.37 0.51 0.66 0.80 0.94 1.06 1.16 1.24 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 60 0.09 0.14 0.20 0.26 0.33 0.47 0.63 0.79 0.96 1.13 1.30 1.47 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 70 0.06 0.10 0.16 0.21 0.27 0.41 0.56 0.74 0.92 1.12 1.34 1.56 2.0 2.7 3.7 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 80 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.16 0.21 0.33 0.47 0.65 0.85 1.06 1.30 1.56 2.1 3.1 5.0 9.3 13.4 16.2 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 90 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.14 0.24 0.38 0.54 0.74 0.96 1.22 1.50 2.2 3.4 6.0 13.5 24.0 37.0 54.0 73.0 96.0 121.0 150.0
The moment of transference factor C depends on the degree of fullness, ratio of depth to breadth of the compartment, and the angle of inclination. To simplify evaluation of the factor C, tanks or flooded spaces are assumed to be full or empty (no free surface), half-full (worst case) or 95 percent full in naval practice or 98 percent full in merchant practice (normal operating condition). Tables 1-9 through 1-11, reproduced from the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Principles of Naval Architecture, give factors for 50, 95, and 98 percent full tanks. These tables have been derived for rectangular tanks but will provide sufficient accuracy for most tanks if certain adjustments are made to the entering parameters of breadth and depth. Tanks with substantial variation in breadth, such as those that are approximately trapezoidal in plan view, usually have a small free surface effect; the breadth at the narrow end should generally be used to determine the depth to breadth ratio. If greater accuracy is required, breadth can be taken as:
3
Table 1-10. Transference Factor Tanks 95 Percent Full.

b =
12 i l
For tanks not rectangular in transverse section, the depth should normally be taken as the greatest depth. Accuracy can be increased by taking depth as n times the distance from the free surface to the tank top, where n is 2 for tanks 50 percent full, 20 for tanks 95 percent full, or 50 for tanks 98 percent full. The tables should be entered with the next larger value for depth to breadth ratio unless interpolations are made. The increase in accuracy gained by interpolation is usually insignificant.
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Computing moments of transference may be time-consuming and tedious. Figure 1-32 shows that an equivalent righting arm Gv Z can be developed by extending the line of action of gravity back through the ships centerline. Raising the ships center of gravity to Gv has the same effect on stability as shifting it to G2. The virtual rise in the center of gravity can be related to the actual transverse shift: GG2 = GGv sin At small angles (less than 7 to 10 degrees), GZ = GMsin; the reduction in righting arm is approximately GGvsin: GZcorr = GM sin GGv sin Setting the two expressions for GZcorr equal: f i sin GM sin GGv sin = GZ w Noting that GMsin = GZ and canceling common terms:
Table 1-11. Transference Factor 98 Percent Full.

Virtual rise of G = F S = GGv =
f i w f i =
w i f i f
= For flooding from the sea, the density ratio becomes one, and: GGv = where: GGv i = = = virtual rise of the center of gravity from free surface effect transverse moment of inertia of the free surface volume of displacement i
If free surface exists in several tanks or compartments, the virtual rise of G is calculated separately for each compartment and the results summed to determine the total virtual rise. The virtual position of the center of gravity is then used to develop a corrected stability curve, as described in Paragraph 1-5.9.1. Treating free surface effect as a virtual rise of the center of gravity provides a relatively quick and easy estimate of the reduction in initial stability. The method overestimates the reduction in righting arm at larger angles because it does not account for pocketing or the reduction in lever arms of the transferred wedge as heel angle increases, but is acceptably accurate if the sum of i for all slack tanks in ft4 is less than twenty times the displacement in long tons. When virtually all free liquid surfaces are subject to pocketing at small angles, as in ships with nearly full fuel load or cargo tanks, it is common practice to determine the reduction in righting arm (by transference) at an arbitrarily selected angle of 5 or 10 degrees, and translate the reduction in righting arm into loss of metacentric height by dividing by the sine of the angle. Equipment, cargo, or stores that pierce the floodwater surface reduce the area and effect of the free surface; this effect is called surface permeability. The surface permeability factor is the moment of inertia of the actual free surface divided by the moment of inertia of an unpierced plane surface with the same outer perimeter. Surface permeability is very difficult to estimate accurately. An error in estimation can cause the salvor to believe the ship is more stable than it actually is. If, on the other hand, surface permeability is neglected, the calculations will indicate less stability than the ship actually possesses, erring on the safe side for the salvor.
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1-9.2.2 Cross-flooding. Situations exist where, by design or damage, liquids can freely transfer, or cross-flood, between athwartships tanks:
Damaged longitudinal bulkheads. Cross-flooding ducts fitted between shaft alleys, voids, and similar spaces in small ships to prevent the large offcenter weight moments that would result if only one side flooded. Faulty or inadvertently opened valves or valve manifolds, especially those connecting deep tanks where the liquid surface is above the level of the valve. Anti-roll tanks consisting of two tanks, normally carried about half-full, on opposite sides of the ship connected by relatively smalldiameter sluice pipes.
The shift of liquid from one space to another is treated as a moment of transference between the two tanks to determine reduction in righting arm. The effect on initial stability, as a loss of metacentric height, is calculated for each tank separately. 1-9.2.3 Liquids of Different Densities. A tank may contain two different liquidsone of them is usually seawater. Examples include ruptured cargo or fuel tanks and compensating tanks with water bottoms. Even if the tank is filled with liquid, there is a free surface at the interface between the two liquids that will remain parallel to the inclined waterline. There will be a wedge of volume on the low side where the denser liquid displaces the less dense, and a corresponding wedge on the high side where the less dense liquid displaces the denser, causing the center of gravity of the tank to shift. This effect can be evaluated by using the difference in densities for the value f in the expressions for moment of transference and virtual rise of G. 1-9.2.4 Bulk Cargoes. Bulk cargoes, such as grain and ore, and loose solid ballast, can produce an effect similar to that of free surface, but the effect is modified by friction and inertia of the individual particles. In general, bulk cargo will begin to shift when the angle of inclination is approximately equal to the angle of repose of the cargo. This is the angle between the horizontal and the slope of a granular bulk material that is freely poured onto a horizontal surface. However, violent or cyclic ship motions or vibration can cause the cargo to shift at smaller angles. A cargo that shifts during a heavy roll to one side will not necessarily shift back when the ship rolls to the opposite side. The tendency to roll to greater angles on the low side can cause progressive cargo shifting that can lead to capsize. Some cargoes, especially certain ores, may act like semi-liquid slurries in the presence of even a small amount of moisture, and shift readily when inclined. Ships designed to carry bulk cargo, such as grain, are fitted with permanent or temporary longitudinal bulkheads in their holds that may be supplemented with shifting boards to limit cargo movement. The cargo is normally pressed up to the tops of the holds and between the overhead deck beams. If the cargo is not large enough to fill the hold, a portion of the grain is bagged and laid over the bulk grain to prevent shifting. The cargo may also be tommed down by placing tomming boards, held in place by shores extending to the deck above, over the leveled cargo. 1-9.2.5 Free Communication Effect. A partially flooded, noncenterline space open to the sea introduces the effects of both offcenter weight and free surface. In addition, floodwater is free to enter or leave the space as the ship inclines. The distribution and weight of floodwater varies with time as the ship inclines. This creates virtual rise in the center of gravity, in addition to that caused by free surface: Virtual rise of G = F C = GGc = where: A = y = 1 = plan area of the flooded compartment transverse distance from the center of the flooded compartment to the ships centerline volume of displacement to the after flooding to the waterline Ay2 1
Free communication exists only when the water level inside the damaged compartment remains the same as the sea level outside the hull. This occurs only when the hull opening is relatively large compared to the volume of the space, and the compartment is vented. 1-9.3 Icing. Ice accumulation in freezing weather steadily adds high weight, increasing displacement and raising center of gravity. In severe conditions, ice thicknesses of six inches or more can collect on weather decks in a short time. Ice builds up as spray or precipitation freeze onto above-water structures. The rate of accumulation is therefore influenced by relative direction of winds and seas, and is seldom uniform on both sides of the ship. The offcenter weight of accumulated ice will cause list that may cause increased ice accumulation on the low side, especially if the primary source of ice is wind-driven spray. High winds often accompany icing conditions; ice loading can severely degrade the ships ability to withstand heeling moments from beam winds. As an example, a destroyer that has adequate stability for a 100-knot beam wind without ice meets the wind heel criterion (see Appendix D) for only 80 knots with 200 tons of accumulated ice. The 200-ton ice accumulation corresponds to an average ice thickness of 5 to 6 inches over those areas subject to icing. The effect is more severe on smaller vessels; 50 tons of topside ice on a 140-foot minesweeper reduces maximum righting arm from 1.2 feet to 0.7 feet, and reduces maximum allowable beam wind from 85 to 40 knots.
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Once ice has started to form, it will continue to form as long as conditions favor icing. The only recourse is to remove the ice or leave the area where ice formation is likely. Frequent heading changes can help prevent the accumulations of large weights of offcenter ice. Icing presents particular difficulties to ships that are not free to maneuver, such as strandings and vessels under tow. The effects of accumulated weights of ice (and snow) must be evaluated before refloating a heavily coated stranding. Removing ice from an unmanned vessel under tow may be difficult or impossible; conditions favorable to icing are often also unfavorable for at-sea personnel transfers. At slow towing speeds, the time needed to reach an area where conditions are significantly less favorable to icing may be considerable. Offcenter ice accumulation is likely on towed vessels because tows follow a relatively steady course. It is important to ensure that a casualty has adequate stability under icing conditions, or that heaters or other means to prevent icing be installed, if the casualty is to be towed through areas where icing is likely. The U. S. Department of Commerce Publication Climatological and Oceanographic Atlas for Mariners provides guidance for expected winds and icing conditions. In general, heavy to severe icing will occur when wind speed is greater than 30 knots and air temperature less than 28 degrees Fahrenheit. Icing predictions can also be provided by Fleet Weather Centers and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Damage control books for some Navy ships include icing studies and limiting wind velocity curves for various thicknesses of accumulated ice. Figure 1-35 is the limiting wind curve for an FFG-7 Class ship with 9 inches of ice on the foredeck; there are also curves for 6 inches and 12 inches of ice. The fuel-ballast sequence numbers refer to steps in the prescribed tank emptying and ballasting sequence. The plot is entered by reading vertically from the appropriate fuel-ballast sequence number to the solid wind heel curve, and then horizontally to the maximum wind speed for which the ship meets the Navy wind heel criteria. The dashed lines show the increase in allowable wind that can be gained by ballasting the indicated tanks. For example, at fuel sequence 6, the ship has adequate stability to withstand 58-knot beam winds with 9 inches of ice on the foredeck. Continuing vertically along the sequence 6 line shows that the limiting wind can be increased to 62 knots by ballasting tank 5-32-0-W, or 72 knots by ballasting 5-32-0-W, 5-116-0-W, and 5326-1 and 2-W. If necessary, fuel tanks 5250-1 and 2-F, which are emptied by sequence 4, can be ballasted to increase limiting wind to 83 knots. Limiting wind curves from damage control books are based on specific loading conditions, and the assumption that the prescribed tank emptying/ballasting sequence has been followed. They are not valid for conditions that differ significantly from these assumptions. 1-9.4 Added Weight Versus Lost Buoyancy. The foregoing discussions have assumed that flooding, with or without free communication, increases the weight of the ship by the weight of the floodwater. This method, called the added weight method, assumes that none of the hull surface exposed to the buoyant force of the water is lost.
9" ICE ON FOREDECK
90 85 80
WIND SPEED (KNOTS)
5-100-3&4-F 5-250-1&2-F
75 70 65 60 55 50 45
5-116-0-W 5-326-1&2-W 5-32-0-W
40 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
FUEL BALLAST SEQUENCE NUMBER

Figure 1-35. FFG-7 Class Ship Limiting Winds for Icing Conditions.
Table 1-12. Added Weight Versus Lost Buoyancy.
Item Change in displacement Change in volume of displacement Change in draft, trim, and list Shift of center of gravity Shift of center of buoyancy Shift of metacenter Free surface correction required Free communication correction required
Added Weight yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
Lost Buoyancy no no yes no yes yes no no
An alternative method, called the lost buoyancy method, can be used where floodwater in free communication with the sea is assumed to remain part of the sea, and the flooded portion of the ship no longer contributes buoyancy. The vertical pressure forces about the flooded compartment are assumed to act on the sea rather than on the ship. Flooding in free communication with the sea can be assessed by either method, but the two methods cannot be mixed during calculations. Table 1-12 itemizes the important points of the two methods. The method used is a matter of personal preference, although the added weight method is more commonly used. Unless otherwise specified, hydrostatic and stability calculations in this book are made by the added weight method. A more complete discussion of the lost buoyancy calculation method can be found in the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Principles of Naval Architecture.
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1-9.5 Loss of GM. Loss of GM can result from added high weight (raised G) or increased displacement (lowered M), or both. New initial righting arms are calculated using the new value for GM. The stability curve can be corrected for the new KG with a sine curve correction as described in Paragraph 1-5.9. A ship with a very low metacentric height will roll sluggishly. If GM is negative, the ship is initially unstable and will loll to some angle where the center of buoyancy has moved sufficiently to begin to develop positive righting arms. The ship will settle with equal facility to the same angle of loll on either side. The angle of loll may be estimated by: = tan
1
POSITIVE RIGHTING ARMS, STBD LOLLING RANGE 57.3
57.3 ANGLE OF LIST POSITIVE RIGHTING ARMS, PORT
NEGATIVE GM
2 GM BM
Figure 1-36. Stability Curve Showing Range of Instability (Lolling).
Where GM is the absolute value of GM. When GM is negative, the corrected stability curve will indicate the list or angle of loll and a measure of the stability remaining beyond the angle of loll as shown in Figure 1-36. A warship or laden merchant vessel with negative metacentric height is in a very dangerous condition. A positive metacentric height should be restored immediately. In general, negative metacentric height is dealt with by one of three methods:
Recovering lost waterplane to increase the transverse metacentric radius. Free surface is suppressed by pumping from slack tanks directly overboard or by consolidating the contents of slack tanks to press up as many tanks as possible. Partially flooded spaces should be dewatered if they can be made tight and pumped, or allowed to flood to the overhead. When there are several slack tanks or partially flooded spaces, judicious selection of spaces to be pumped down can result in a simultaneous suppression of free surface and a lowering of G. The effects of both the reduction of free surface and loss of low weight should be calculated before emptying low tanks or spaces. In some cases, the net effect of pumping out is to raise the center of gravity unacceptablyflooding the space from the sea would be more effective. The dewatering sequence should be arranged to avoid reducing GM dangerously while pumping out. In ships with marginal stability, the transient free surface created while pumping down solid flooded spaces can cause loss of GM. Shifting weights transversely to correct a list caused by negative GM will only aggravate an already dangerous situation. If enough weight is shifted or added to bring the ship upright, it will list to the opposite side to an angle approximately twice that of the original list; the loll angle is now added to the list due to offcenter weight. 1-9.6 Drydocking. A ship being drydocked is subject to an unusual loading situation; part of the ships weight is supported by keel blocks, part by the surrounding water. This condition is complicated by changes in the size and shape of the submerged hull form as draft changes while the dock is pumped out. This situation is analogous in many ways to that of a grounded ship, where part of the ships weight is supported by the ground and part by water, and hull form changes with the state of the tide or passage of waves. The fundamental stability problem is to determine whether the ship will remain stable from the time it first touches the blocks until it has completely settled, or landed, on them. On undocking, the problem is whether the ship will be stable from the time it begins to leave the blocks until it is completely afloat. Positive GM is taken as the indicator of adequate stability. The following discussion of docking stability is summarized from NAVSHIPS Technical Manual (NSTM) 997, Docking Instructions and Routine Work in Drydock. 1-9.6.1 Block Reaction and Residual Buoyancy. When the keel of a ship begins to land on the blocks in a drydock, it pushes down with an initial force w, causing a block reaction, P. A ship with trim, t, by the stern, will contact the aftermost keel block first. This block is called the knuckle block because the ship pivots on it. Strictly speaking, the knuckle rer1 action is not the entire block reaction, but r can be assumed to be in most cases. The Gv block reaction has two effects: a virtual W L weight removal at the keel and a longG B1 W1 L1 itudinal trimming moment. As the ship setP tles on the blocks, P increases from zero and is distributed over all the blocks. As the water level falls, the distributed block reaction increases until it equals the ships weight, W. The actual or residual buoyancy, B, is equal to W - P. It is the residual buoyancy that determines the ships hydrostatic characteristics. Figure 1Figure 1-37. Drydocking Forces. 37 diagrams the forces on a ship during drydocking.
Suppressing free surface to lower virtual height of the center of gravity, Shifting weight downward in the ship, removing high weight or adding low weight to lower the center of gravity, or
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MEAN DRAFT, FEET
1-9.6.2 Docking Stability. Stability while docking is analyzed either by evaluating the effect of weight removal at the keel, or by balancing moments about the point of first contact. Draft at landing and draft at instability (GM = 0) are determined and compared. Figure 1-38 shows sample plots for an FFG-7 Class ship. Draft at Landing. Summing longitudinal moments about the knuckle block: ML = Wr B1r1 where: W r B1 r1 = = = = ships weight distance from knuckle block to LCG, as shown in Figure 1-38 residual buoyancy of the ship at current draft distance from knuckle block to LCB, as shown in Figure 1-38
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 2.5 WEIGHT MOMENT, Wr = 3,769(118.4) 446,250 FOOT-TONS 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 RESIDUAL BUOYANCY MOMENT B1 r1 DRAFT AT LANDING 14.9 FEET
MOMENT, FOOT-TONS x 10 5
DRAFT AT LANDING 17
MEAN DRAFT, FEET
16 15 14 13 12 11 5
W(KG)= =3,769(18) =67,842 FOOT-TONS
KM1 B 1
The weight moment (Wr) is constant while the residual displacement and LCB vary with draft. The draft at landing is the draft where ML is zero with the keel parallel to the tops of the keel blocks; that is, where the weight and buoyancy moments are equal, with B1 and r1 determined for the ship with her keel parallel to the keel blocks. Buoyancy moments can be calculated for a range of drafts and plotted as shown in Figure 1-38. The draft at landing is indicated by the intersection of the weight moment and buoyancy moment curves. Draft at landing can be estimated by:
13.25 FEET
6 7 8 9
4
DRAFT AT INSTABILITY
10
MOMENT, FOOT-TONS x 10
DRAFT AT INSTABILITY
Figure 1-38. Drydocking Plots.
T1 = Tm where: Tl Tm = = draft at landing, ft mean draft on entering the dock, ft
P 12(TPI) TPI = tons per inch immersion, lton/in
The block reaction at landing, PL, is given by: PL = where: t MT1 = = trim on entering the dock, in moment to trim one inch, ft-lton/in h = distance from application of P (knuckle block) to LCF, ft t (MT1) h
A rule of thumb for estimating draft at landing is: T1 = Tmax 2 (t) 3
where Tmax is the deepest draft on entering the dock, and Tmax and t are given in consistent units. Draft at Instability. After touching the keel blocks, GM is given by: GM1 = KM1 - KGv where: GM1 KM1 = = metacentric height after touching blocks height of the metacenter after touching blocks KGv = virtual height of the center of gravity
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The center of gravity undergoes a virtual rise due to the addition of negative weight at the keel. The height of the virtual center of gravity is: KGv = w(kg) W(KG) ( P) (0) W(KG) = = W P B1 w
It is useful to plot GM1 for various drafts to visualize the relationship between the metacentric height and draft while the ship is on the blocks. The draft at instability is found by setting GM1 equal to zero: 0 = KM1 KGv = KM1 KM1 = W(KG) B1 W(KG) B1
KM1 (B1) = W(KG) By considering the products as moments and plotting moments against drafts as shown in Figure 1-38, the draft at instability is shown by the intersection of the two curves. If this draft is less than the draft at landing by a comfortable margin, the ship should remain stable until firmly supported by the keel blocks, or when it begins to leave the blocks on refloating. Example 1-4 illustrates the stability calculations for an FFG-7 Class ship entering drydock.
EXAMPLE 1-4
An FFG-7 Class ship with initial conditions as shown is to be drydocked. Determine draft at landing and whether the ship will remain stable throughout the docking. Initial conditions:
B1r1 as a function of draft: r1 Tm ft

= 330 - [408/2 - LCB*]
B1 ltons
3,769 3,660 3,290 2,910 2,550 2,210
LCB* ft
-3.18 -2.6 -0.08 2.6 5.32 8.1
r1 ft
122.82 123.42 125.92 128.6 131.32 134.1
B 1r 1 ft-tons
462,909 451,644 414,277 374,226 334,866 296,361
L Tf Ta Tm W LCG KG
= = = = = = =
408 ft 14 ft 3 in 16 ft 1 in 15 ft 2 in 3,769 tons 7.6 ft abaft midships 18 ft
15.17 15.0 14.0 13.0 12.0 11.0
The knuckle block will contact the keel at a point 330 feet abaft the forward perpendicular. From the Curves of Form (FO-2):
* from midships, negative values aft and positive forward
Wr and B1r1 are plotted as functions of draft in Figure 1-38, showing a draft at landing of approximately 14.9 feet.
c. Draft at instability:
LCB LCF MT1 TPI

a.
= = = =
3.2 ft abaft midships 23.8 ft abaft midships 773 ft-tons 32.5 tons
KM1(B1) = W(KG) =
W(KG) 3769(18) = 67,842 foot-tons
Initial estimates for draft at landing: 408 h = 330 23.8 = 102.2ft 2 t (MT1) 22 (773) P = = = 166.4 102.2 h P 166.4 T1 = Tm = 14.74 ft = 15.17 12 (32.5) 12 (TPI) or
KM1(B1) as a function of draft: Tm ft

15.17 15.0 14.0 13.0 12.0 11.0
B1 ltons
3,769 3,660 3,290 2,910 2,550 2,210
KM1 ft
122.82 123.42 125.92 128.6 131.32 134.1
KM1B1 ft-tons
84,049 81,764 73,992 65,882 58,089 50,609
Tl t Tl
b.
= = =
Tmax - 2/3(t) 22 in = 22/12 ft 16.08 - [2/3(22/12)] = 14.86 ft
W(KG) and KM1(B1) are plotted as functions of draft in Figure 1-38, showing a draft at instability of approximately 13.25 feet.
d. Margin between draft at landing and draft at instability: Draft at landing - Draft at instability = 14.9 - 13.25 = 1.65 feet Draft at landing exceeds draft at instability by 1.65 feet; the ship will be completely settled on the docking blocks well before the residual buoyancy ceases to provide adequate stability.
Draft at landing by plotting:
Ml = r = Wr =
Wr B 1r 1 330 - [408/2 - (-7.6)] = 118.4 3769(118.4) = 446,249.6 446,250 foot-tons
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1-10 SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Vessels are built to construction specifications based on intended service. Publicly owned vessels (Navy, Coast Guard, etc.) are built to government specifications. Most Navy ships are built to General Specifications for Ships (GENSPECs), although some auxiliaries are built to commercial specifications. Construction rules for commercial vessels are established by classification societies and government regulations for the country of registry; the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) and United States Coast Guard (USCG) establish construction rules for the United States. The hull structure consists of a watertight grillage of stiffened plates supported by a framework of mutually supporting longitudinal and transverse members. The framework and shell plating work together to carry imposed loads. The framework carries imposed loads and stiffens the shell plating to allow it to function effectively as a strength member under edge and lateral loading. The arrangement of the structural members is dictated by the framing system. Structural members, with the exception of shell plating and stanchions, are categorized as either longitudinal, with their long axes approximately parallel to the ships centerline, or transverse, with their long axes athwartships or vertical, approximately perpendicular to the longitudinal members. In a general context, any structural stiffener can be called a frame, although the term is usually reserved for the transverse frames described in Paragraph 1-10.3.1. 1-10.1 Framing Systems. While ships vary considerably in the details of their construction, most conform to one of two basic framing systems. Some reflect a combination of the two systems. With longitudinal and transverse structural members crossing at right angles, only one can be continuous. In the longitudinal system, shown in Figure 1-39, this conflict is resolved by the use of closely spaced continuous longitudinal members with intercostal transverses. The transverse system, shown in Figure 1-40 (Page 1-70), uses closely spaced continuous transverse members with intercostal longitudinals.
INNER BOTTOM
MARGIN PLATE
CENTER GIRDER (KEEL)
BOTTOM DETAIL: SLOT FLOOR
FLAT BAR
LONGITUDINALS AT NONWATERTIGHT FLOOR
FLOOR THROUGH BRACKET
SHORT LENGTH
FLOOR
LONGITUDINAL
CONTINUOUS LONGITUDINAL AT WATERTIGHT FLOOR
LONGITUDINAL CUT AT WATERTIGHT FLOOR
Figure 1-39. Longitudinal Framing.
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In wooden ships and riveted steel construction, continuity of the intercostal members depends on the strength of the joining connections; the intercostal members contribute less direct strength to the framing grillage and serve primarily to stiffen the longitudinal members and shell plating. With good alignment and modern welding practices, full strength can be maintained, regardless of the previous assembly continuity of members. In modern, welded-construction ships, framing systems are distinguished by the relative size, number, and spacing of transverse and longitudinal members. Longitudinally framed ships have many small, closely spaced longitudinals, with fewer, larger, and more widely spaced transverses; transversely framed ships have many small, closely spaced transverses, with fewer, larger, and more widely spaced longitudinals. For average merchant ships, typical close spacing is 2 to 4 feet, typical wide spacing is 10 to 15 feet. Merchant ships and naval auxiliaries may use either longitudinal or transverse framing, depending on the service of the ship. Generally, the same system is used throughout the ship. Most naval combatants (except submarines) are longitudinally framed, with transverse framing near the bow and stern. Because naval ships require a greater reserve of strength to provide damage resistance, their frame members are generally deeper and/or more closely spaced than those of similarly sized merchant vessels. Appendix B describes the construction and characteristics of different types of ships.
MAIN DECK STRINGER
GUNWALE ANGLE
WATERTIGHT BULKHEAD
TWEEN DECK
DECK BEAMS
SHEER STRAKE
WATERTIGHT BULKHEAD
DECK GIRDER STANCHION INNER BOTTOM
BEAM KNEE FRAMES
WATERTIGHT FLOOR TANK SIDE BRACKET
CENTER GIRDER PLATE FLOOR
SIDE GIRDER LIGHTENING HOLE FLOOR
MARGIN PLATE
AIR HOLE
LIMBER HOLE BRACKET BRACKET FLOOR FRAME BAR REVERSE BAR BRACKET
1-10.1.1 Longitudinal Framing. LongiFigure 1-40. Transverse Framing. tudinal framing systems (Figures 1-39A and 1-39B) are more efficient structurally, providing greater strength for the same weight; they are, however, less efficient in the use of internal space because of the deep web frames supporting the longitudinals. Longitudinal framing has been widely used in tankers and bulk carriers where the disruption of internal spaces caused by the web frames is unimportant. Modern practice tends increasingly towards longitudinal framing, or a combination system, in most types of ships. 1-10.1.2 Transverse Framing. Transverse framing (Figure 1-40) is most often found in dry cargo vessels where deep web frames would interfere with cargo stowage. Wooden ships are transversely framed. Given the load-carrying capacity of wood, the lack of longitudinal strength of this system limits the maximum length of wooden vessels. Conversely, this system provides good resistance to racking stresses caused by lateral forces that tend to distort a vessels cross section. 1-10.1.3 Combination Systems. There are framing systems that combine elements of both longitudinal and transverse framing. Figure 1-41 shows two common combination framing systems. The combination framing system was introduced to overcome the disadvantages of longitudinal framing for dry cargo vessels. Longitudinal strength is provided by longitudinal framing in the double bottom and under the strength deck; transverse framing is used along the side plating where longitudinal bending stresses are smaller. Plate floors and heavy transverse beams are fitted at intervals to support the main deck and bottom longitudinals and increase transverse strength. Cantilever framing is a modification of the combination framing system with some special features. It was developed to facilitate the building of ships with very long and wide hatchways where the remaining deck structure provides insufficient transverse and longitudinal strength. Transverse strength is maintained by the use of special web frames, or cantilevers, at frequent intervals abreast the hatchways. The ship is strengthened longitudinally by heavier than normal sheerstrakes and deck stringer plates. The side plating may be extended upward at the sheerstrake as a heavy bulwark, in place of the usual light bulwark or rails. Hatch side coamings are deep and may be continuous through the length of the hatch deck. If the ship has two hatches abreast, a deck girder or longitudinal bulkhead is fitted on the centerline.
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1-10.1.4 Connections. In riveted construction, a variety of plates, angles, and scarfs were used to create strong and rigid joints between structural members. In welded construction, most connections between plates and shapes are made directly through butt or fillet welds, although brackets and angle bars are used in some joints for extra stiffness. 1-10.2 Longitudinal Members. Longitudinal structural members resist bending about athwartships axes.
LONGITUDINALS HATCH COAMING STRONG BEAM BETWEEN HATCHWAYS TRANSVERSE BEAM
CANTILEVER
BEAM TRANSVERSE SIDE FRAME
LONGITUDINALS
LONGITUDINAL FRAMING IN BOTTOM
1-10.2.1 Keel. The keel is a major longitudinal member that runs the length of the ships bottom along the centerline. In CANTILEVER FRAMING COMBINATION SYSTEM large ships, the keel normally consists of an outer flat keel, the inner (plate) keel, a vertical keel (sometimes called the center Figure 1-41. Combination Framing Systems. vertical keel, or CVK), and a horizontal top flange called the keel rider plate. In small vessels, the outer keel, vertical keel, and rider plates may consist of an I- or H-beam, while in large vessels, the keel is a built-up section. Duct keels are flat-plate keels with two center girders, instead of one, on either side of the keel plates. Duct keels are commonly used forward of propulsion machinery spaces to provide a pipe tunnel. The keel usually varies in cross section along the length of the ship. Some newer vessels have no distinct keel. Instead, there is a cellular double bottom consisting of a grillage of heavy stiffeners plated over top and bottom. In this system, the center girder is generally distinguishable from the side girders only by location. In very large, broad vessels, specially strengthened longitudinals, called docking keels, are fitted at some distance to either side of the center keel. The docking keels help distribute docking loads as the ship rests on three rows of keel blocks. In smaller vessels and some older merchant vessels, an outer vertical keel or bar keel is fitted. In wooden vessels, the keel is usually a large timber, or series of timbers scarfed together. A timber keelson may be fixed atop the keel to increase strength. In glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) vessels, the keel may be a wooden or metal member firmly bonded to the GRP skin, or may consist of a multiple-fiber layup. 1-10.2.2 Other Longitudinal Members. Structural members that run the length of the vessel along shell plating or decks are variously termed stringers, girders, or longitudinals. These members stiffen the entire structure against longitudinal bending loads, and reinforce shell and deck plating against local loads. They may be built-up sections or standard structural sections. In the U.S. Navy, longitudinal members along the side plating are called stringers; those along the bottom plating, longitudinals; and those under decks, girders. In large ships, heavy, deep, bottom longitudinals may be fitted at some distance to either side of the keel. These members are often sized and located to carry the vertical loads imposed by side blocks when dry docking. The heavy longitudinals are variously called sidegirders, keelsons, or docking keels. Bilge keels may be fitted externally at the turn of the bilge to improve seakeeping by resisting rolling. Bilge keels are not usually structural members; if they are attached by load carrying connections and extend for a significant length of the ship, they may contribute to the ships longitudinal strength. 1-10.3 Transverse Structural Members. Transverse members are fitted primarily to stiffen the hull and enable it to resist shear and torsional loads. 1-10.3.1 Frames. Transverse frames are analogous to ribs extending from the backbone of the keel inside the shell plating. They may continue to the upper decks in their full cross section or be reduced in size at some height above the keel. Frame spacing and dimensions often vary throughout the length of the ship to compensate for variations in loading. Intermediate partial frames may be added for local strengthening. Web framesdeeper-than-normal frames with heavy flangesare often placed at intervals of several frame spaces, to stiffen and strengthen the hull. Frames connect the longitudinal members and maintain spatial relationships in the face of shear and torsion. They also strengthen the plating against bending under hydrostatic and dynamic loads or buckling under hull shear and bending, and act as ring stiffeners. U.S. Navy practice is to number frames from the forward perpendicular (frame 0) aft; most foreign and many U.S. commercial vessels number frames from aft forward. Frames forward of the forward perpendicular are designated by letters or negative numbers. 1-10.3.2 Floors. The portion of the frame from the keel to the turn of the bilge is a floor. Floors that do not continue into frames are sometimes used for local strengthening or machinery foundations. Deep floorsdeeper than the standard floorsare used at the ends of the ship and in high-load areas.
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1-10.3.3 Beams. Athwartships deck stiffeners are called beams. They strengthen the deck against local loads, including hydrostatic loads for weather decks, and contribute to overall ship strength by increasing rigidity. Deck beams normally join directly to frames at their outboard ends, forming a continuous frame ring. Triangular brackets, called beam brackets or beam knees, are fitted to stiffen the joint, or the beam is faired in to the frame in a smooth arc to form a continuous structure, as shown in Figures 1-39, 1-40, and 1-41. 1-10.4 Shell Plating. Shell plating is the side and bottom plating; i.e., those portions of the ships skin that hold back the sea. Bottom plating extends from the keel to the turn of the bilge, side plating from the turn of the bilge to or slightly beyond the upper or main deck edge. Shell and deck plating is arrayed in longitudinal strips called strakes. The strake adjacent to the keel is called the garboard strake. The outer keel may be incorporated into a keel strake. Strakes are lettered from the keel outboard, starting with the garboard strake as A. The strake at the turn of the bilge is the bilge strake. The uppermost strake, which joins to the strength deck plating, is the sheer strake. The keel, garboard, bilge, and sheer strakes contribute significantly to longitudinal strength, and are usually constructed of heavier or stronger plate.
FOREFOOT CASTING
WEB
SHELL PLATING
COLLISION BULKHEAD
BREASTHOOK
RABBET WRAPPER PLATES
STEM BAR PLATE STEM
SCARF SCARF FOR KEEL PLATE

GARBOARD STRAKE
FLAT PLATE KEEL
CASTING
BAR STEM (OLDER, RIVETED, CONSTRUCTION)
BULBOUS BOW
1-10.5 Decks. Decks subdivide the vessel into horizontal levels; weather decks also close the top of the hull and maintain the ships watertight integrity. Decks add Figure 1-42. Stems significant strength and rigidity to the structure as a whole and limit the extent of flooding after damage, provided they are or can be made watertight. Decks may be steel or aluminum plating or wooden planking, and may be covered or sheathed with wood, tile, linoleum, or other materials. The main deck is the highest continuous watertight deck and is usually the strength deck or upper flange of the hull girder. Because of the main decks significance to hull strength and watertight integrity, it is used as the reference for numbering other decks. The outboard strake of main deck plating is normally designated the main deck stringer and is either heavier or reinforced to provide longitudinal strength. The connection of the deck to the sheer strake is critical to hull strength. Deck to sheer strake connections are often made by means of a welded T-joint which may be backed up with an angle called the deck stringer angle or gunwale bar. Alternatively, the connection may be made by means of a riveted gunwale bar, or the sheer strake may be rounded and butt-welded to the deck stringer. The U.S. Navy uses the following definitions:

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Platform or Platform Deck Deck extending less than the full length of the ship below the lowest complete deck; sometimes called an orlop deck. Flats Noncontinuous platforms between deck levels. Half-Deck A partial deck above the lowest complete deck and below the main deck. Forecastle Deck A partial deck above the main deck at the bow. Poop Deck A partial deck above the main deck at the stern. Upper Deck A partial deck above the main deck in the midships region, or one extending from the waists to either bow or stern.
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Decks above the main deck are called superstructure decks and may be referred to as levels. The term level also refers to nonwatertight horizontal subdivision, usually by gratings of very deep compartments; for example, the upper level of a machinery space. In merchant ships and auxiliaries, tween decks are often fitted to provide one or two levels above the hold bottom to allow cargo to be subdivided or carried high to prevent stiff rolling. 1-10.6 Bulkheads. Bulkheads further subdivide levels or decks into compartments of varying size. Bulkheads may extend through one or several decks and may be classed as structural, watertight, or joiner (also called partition or screen) bulkheads. Structural bulkheads are those that, by design, contribute significantly to the ships strength. They stiffen the hull by resisting racking and torsional stresses and distribute vertical loads. Watertight bulkheads are designed to withstand significant hydrostatic loads and are installed to increase the ships resistance to damage by containing flooding. Transverse watertight bulkheads extend upward to a specified deck called the bulkhead deck. Bulkheads are strengthened by angle or bar stiffeners where necessary, or are constructed of corrugated plate. Joiner or partition bulkheads separate and subdivide living, working, storage or other spaces, but impart no watertight integrity or significant strength to the ships structure. Bulkheads often fit into more than one class, although all bulkheads act as partitions. In practice, watertight bulkheads are almost always structural, while structural bulkheads are often watertight. 1-10.7 Other Structural Members. The Stem Assembly (Figure 1-42) forms the bow of the ship. In its original and simplest form, still used in wooden ships and boats, the stem or stem post consisted of a heavy, rectangular timber which is, in essence, an upward continuation of the keel to which the side planking was attached. In ships of iron or steel construction, the stem was a rectangular forged bar attached at its base to the keel, usually through a forefoot casting. This type of bar stem has been largely superseded by the plate stem, built up of curved wrapper plates, although bar or heavy pipe stems are still commonly used on Great Lakes bulk carriers. The sharper portions of the stem are formed by welding the side plates to an ordinary stem bar or length of round bar or tube, or by butt-welding the plates together. The entire assembly is reinforced by a closely spaced network of deep floors, frames, stringers, and horizontal plate breasthooks. Vertical centerline stiffeners are fitted in stems of large radius and bulbous bows. Stern Assemblies, seen in Figure 1-43, close the aft end of the hull and must accommodate propeller shafts and rudder assemblies, as well as resist the dynamic loads imposed by the rudders. In singlerudder ships, a stern post or frame is fitted at the aft end of the keel. It is generally constructed of castings and forgings arranged to allow for the propeller shaft and rudder stock bosses. The upper part of the stern which extends past the rudder post is supported by a special arrangement of framing. This framing is carried by the transom consisting of a deep, heavy transom floor in conjunction with a transverse transom frame and beam. In counter sterns (also called ordinary, overhanging, or elliptical sterns), which may be found in older merchant vessels, a system of cant framing radiates from the center of the transom like the spokes of a wheel. Cruiser sterns have a system of transverse frames and longitudinal girders with a number of cant frames fitted abaft the aftermost transverse frame. Transom sterns are similar to cruiser sterns, but end in a flat plate, called the transom, and have no cant frames. In twin-rudder vessels, the stern post is omitted and the reinforced stern structure extends forward of the rudder posts.
STERN CANT FRAMES
SIDE GIRDER
TRANSOM FLOOR
FLOORS STERN FRAME CRUISER STERN RUDDER TRUNK CENTER GIRDER
TRANSOM PLATE FRAME
CRUTCH STIFFENERS
A double bottom may be fitted to increase FLOOR strength and resistance to underwater damage. The inner bottom plating is laid over the grillage of floors and longitudinals, forming spaces often used as tankage for TRANSOM STERN bunker fuel or other liquids. The outer strake of the inner bottom is called the margin plate, which may extend in a Figure 1-43. Stern Assemblies. horizontal line to the side plating, or be inclined downward near the turn of the bilge to form the side of the double bottom. The double bottom may or may not be continuous over the length of the ship. Large combatants such as aircraft carriers and battleships may have more than one inner bottom. Stanchions or pillars are used to support decks, distribute vertical loads, and stiffen the hull structure between bulkheads.
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1-10.8 Superstructures and Deckhouses. The term superstructure is applied to a portion of a ships structure above the main or upper deck extending the width of the ship and forming an integral part of the main hull. A deckhouse is a lighter structure, usually not extending the width of the ship, that is placed on the hull rather than forming a part of it. In practice, the two terms are often confused or used interchangeably. In naval combatants and passenger liners, deckhouses or superstructures may extend for most of the vessels length; in most other types, they occupy a small portion of the ships length. These structures generally house accommodation, communications, navigational, or control spaces. They may house workshops or specialized machinery; in warships, weapons control spaces and weapons mounts are often located on or in the superstructure or deckhouse. Deckhouses are not normally designed to contribute to overall hull girder strength, but being rigidly attached to the hull, they carry some stresses. Superstructures, as an integral part of the hull, are normally designed to carry hull stresses. 1-10.9 Damage-resistant Features of Ships. While the entire structure of a ship is designed to resist some damage, certain features are incorporated into ships specifically to prevent loss of the ship when damaged. Loss may result from flooding or structural failure of the hull girder. Features enhancing a ships ability to resist damage are described in the following paragraphs. 1-10.9.1 Subdivision. Subdivision, or compartmentation, is a ships primary means of resisting damage. A system of watertight decks, bulkheads, and an inner bottom limits the spread of flooding, fire, blast effects, weapon fragments, and fumes or gases. Extensive subdivision is an inconvenience to everyone; production cost is increased, cargo storage is complicated, access and movement around the ship is hampered. The degree of subdivision is therefore a compromise between safety and other requirements. Factors considered include the following:
Ability to resist battle damage. Ability to survive underwater damage. Ability to resist bow collision damage. Ability to resist damage from stranding. Protection of vital spaces against flooding. Ability to resist spread of fire, smoke, and airborne contaminants. Interference of subdivision with arrangements. Interference of subdivision with access and systems. Provisions for carrying liquids.
Tankers between 492 and 738 ft in length Tankers less than 492 ft in length
Table 1-13. Standards of Subdivision.

Type Ship Standard of Subdivision
Navy Ships (without side protection systems)1 Seagoing craft under 100 ft in length Ships 100-300 ft in length Ships over 300 ft in length: Combatants and Personnel Carriers, such as Hospital Ships and Troop Transports All other ships Withstand rapid flooding from a shell opening equal to 15% of length between perpendiculars at any point fore or aft Withstand flooding from an opening equal to 12.5% of the length between perpendiculars Coast Guard Standards for Commercial Vessels2 Tankers over 738 ft in length Withstand solid flooding from a shell opening with length equal to the lesser of 0.495L2/3 or 47.6 ft, width equal to the lesser of B/5 or 37.74 ft, from the keel upwards without limit, at any point between perpendiculars Withstand flooding from damage described above at any point except at an aft machinery room bulkhead Withstand flooding from damage described above at any point between main transverse bulkheads, except to an aft machinery room Withstand solid flooding from a shell opening with length equal to the lesser of 0.495L2/3 or 47.6 ft, width of 4.2 ft, from the keel upwards without limit, between any two main transverse bulkheads Withstand flooding from damage with length of 6 ft, width of 30 in, from the keel upwards without limit, at any point, including the intersection of a transverse and longitudinal bulkhead 1 compartment 2 compartments
1-10.9.2 Flooding. A principal concern in many casualty situations is limiting flooding. Floodwater may be admitted to the ship by collision, grounding, weapons strike, firefighting, or other means. However flooding occurs, it is necessary to limit its extent to minimize the following:
Loss of transverse and longitudinal stability. Loss of reserve buoyancy.
Great Lakes dry bulk carriers
Barges carrying very hazardous materials
Damage to cargo and ship systems.
Ideally, a ship should be able to sustain increasing amounts of flooding until it founders from loss of reserve buoyancy. Barges carrying moderately hazardous Withstand flooding from damage described above at materials any point, except on a transverse watertight bulkhead Loss of transverse or longitudinal stability can cause a ship 1 to capsize or plunge, even when a sizable reserve buoyancy Naval Ship Engineering Center Design Data Sheet, DDS079-1, Stability and Buoyancy of U.S. Naval Surface Ships, 1 Aug 75 remains. Offcenter flooding and its serious effects on 2 Title 46, US Code of Federal Regulations (46 CFR), Subchapter S. Requirements have transverse stability can be avoided by using transverse been simplified. Additional definitions and exceptions apply. Subdivision requirements subdivision only. Complete avoidance of longitudinal for passenger ships are especially diverse. watertight boundaries is not always possible or advisable, but most modern ships follow a general pattern of transverse watertight subdivision, at the expense of admitting a larger volume of floodwater. Some longitudinal subdivision is necessary to reduce free surface effect, especially in tanks. This subdivision normally takes the form of a centerline bulkhead dividing the inner bottom into port and starboard tanks, or use of wing tanks smaller than the adjacent centerline tanks. Sills, seen in Figure 1-44, or baffle plates are sometimes used to reduce the free surface effects of rolling or shallow flooding but are ineffective against unchecked flooding. Transverse watertight bulkheads near the extremities of the ship limit flooding, and prevent the large and dangerous trims that large amounts of floodwater at the ends of the ship would produce. Additional transverse watertight bulkheads are spaced to permit the ship to remain afloat after a specific number of adjacent compartments, usually 1, 2, or 3, are flooded. The number of compartments that can be flooded without causing foundering is the ships standard of subdivision or standard of flooding. For example, the FFG-7 Class frigate shown in Figure 1-45 can remain afloat if any 3 of its 13 major watertight compartments are floodedit is said to be a 3-compartment ship. Progressive flooding is defeated by carrying each watertight bulkhead intact from the bottom plating to a height above the expected flooding water level. Watertight bulkheads are normally carried watertight to a specified deck, called the bulkhead deck. The bulkhead deck on most designs is the main or weather deck and may be either a continuous or stepped deck. For the FFG-7 Class ship shown in Figure 1-45, the main deck is the bulkhead deck. Standards of subdivision for Navy and commercial ships are given in Table 1-13.
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Ships are assigned a minimum freeboard based on the reserve buoyancy required to sustain flooding to their standard of subdivision without foundering. This freeboard is measured from a margin line that represents the highest allowable waterline in a damaged condition. The margin line is usually established near the bulkhead deck or a designated freeboard deck. Load lines for cargo ships and tankers or limiting draft marks for warships are marked at a distance below the margin line corresponding to the required freeboard. If the load line or limiting draft mark is not immersed before damage, and flooding is equal to or less than the standard of subdivision, the ship will remain afloat at a waterline at or below the margin line after damage. Salvors may not be able to restore a ships required minimum freeboard; reduced freeboard must be recognized as a loss of reserve buoyancy and damage resistance. This is particularly important if the casualty is to be towed some distance to safe haven. In such a case, a salvage engineer may wish to calculate the standard of subdivision for the ship in its actual condition. 1-10.9.3 Likely Damage. Certain features are incorporated into ships to isolate common or likely forms of damage. Because the ends of the ship are more vulnerable to damage from collision or grounding, a collision bulkhead is required at about five percent of the ships length from the bow, along with an afterpeak bulkhead near the stern, enclosing the propeller shaft penetration into the hull. A second collision bulkhead may be required in large ships. Watertight double bottoms are required in some classes of vessels to provide protection against grounding and limited protection against underwater weapons. Machinery spaces are segregated from the rest of the ship by watertight bulkheads that (1) protect the ship from intense machinery space fires, and (2) protect vital equipment located in the machinery spaces from flooding in other parts of the ship. Sheer can prevent or delay progressive flooding through deck openings when trim is extreme, as shown in Figure 1-46. Wing tanks, common in tankers, ore carriers, and large combatants, limit flooding from damage to the sides. The effect of offcenter flooding can be mitigated by constructing the wing tanks with volumes that are small compared to the center tanks or holds, or by keeping wing tanks filled at least to the waterline. A system of wing tanks combined with a double bottom produces, in effect, a double hull. 1-10.9.4 Structural Damage. Structural failure is resisted by the use of materials of consistent and known strength, and by building in reserve strength. Ships scantlings are selected to result in bending stresses on the order of 15,000 to 22,000 pounds per square inch, considerably less than the yield stress of shipbuilding steels (32,000 psi or greater). This stress level is often contingent on specified loading sequences and conditions, particularly in very large tankers or bulk carriers. Hull strength is addressed in greater detail in Paragraph 1-11.
Figure 1-44. Effects of a Sill.
MAIN DECK (BULKHEAD DECK)
SECOND DECK (DC dk)
AP
368
328
292
250 212 180
140
100 84 64
32 20
FP
Figure 1-45. FFG-7 Transverse Subdivision.
SHIP WITHOUT SHEER
SHIP WITH SHEER TRIMMED TO SAME DEGREE
Figure 1-46. Sheer Defeating Progressive Flooding.
1-10.9.5 Additional Features of Naval Ships. Both naval and merchant ships use the damage-resistant features previously described. Naval ships, intended to go "in harms way," incorporate additional damage-resistant features in their construction. Naval ships will usually have more extensive subdivision than merchant vessels, although some naval auxiliaries are built to classification society standards. Combatants are built with a much greater degree of subdivision and greater reserve of strength than auxiliaries or merchant ships of the same size. Naval vessels often have multiple machinery spaces segregated by watertight bulkheads, as well as auxiliary machinery spaces located remotely from the main machinery rooms. Additional vital spaces, such as ship control stations or weapons spaces, are designated and protected by watertight subdivision. In all commissioned vessels of the U.S. Navy, a damage control (DC) deck is designated. The DC deck, on which damage control equipment and stations are located, is considered a vital space and is made watertight where feasible. Remote operators for certain vital piping and electrical systems are located on the DC deck. The damage control deck is located high in the ship and is usually covered; fore and aft access is provided through watertight openings in the main transverse bulkheads. Doors and nonwatertight fittings in main transverse bulkheads are not permitted below the DC deck. Doors through transverse bulkheads into shaft alleys are not allowed; no penetrations are allowed through the collision bulkhead. In addition to armored decks and side armor, large combatants, such as aircraft carriers and battleships, are fitted with underwater defense systems (also called side protective or torpedo protection systems) consisting of layered wing and bottom tanks. These are alternately empty or liquid-filled to absorb the shock of underwater explosions. The tank boundaries form a series of barriers that must be breached before major spaces are flooded.
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1-11
SHIP STRENGTH
1-11.1 Stresses in Ships. Ships, like all structures, are subject to load-induced stress and the resulting strains. Simple beam theory is employed to predict ship responses to various conditions of loading by treating assuming the ships structure as a built-up box girder bearing an distributed load (weight of the ship and contents) and supported by a distributed reaction (buoyancy). Of principal concern are the compound bending and shear stresses resulting from the ships loading and wave action. Torsional stresses are also important, and can be severely aggravated by grounding in large ships. Stresses may be divided into three groups:
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
Primary or Structural Affecting the hull girder.
TERTIARY
Secondary or Local Affecting major substructures or definable areas of the hull, such as a hold or bulkhead. Tertiary Very localized, affecting small areas of plating or single stiffeners.
Figure 1-47. Deflections from Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Stresses.
BUOYANCY
The distinctions among primary, secondary, and tertiary stresses are illustrated by the character of the accompanying structural deflections, as shown in Figure 1-47. The total stress on any portion of structure is the sum of primary, secondary and tertiary stresses that may tend to either reinforce or cancel one another. 1-11.1.1 Structural Stresses. The principal structural stresses are caused by the following conditions:
HOGGING
WEIGHT
WEIGHT Weight and Buoyancy Distribution. Differences in buoyBUOYANCY ancy and weight distribution cause longitudinal bending stresses and accompanying shear stresses. An excess of buoyancy in the midships region with an excess of weight near the ends of the ship places the deck in tension and the keel in compression. The resulting convex deflection is called hog or SAGGING hogging. An excess of weight in the midships region and excess buoyancy near the Figure 1-48. Hull Girder Bending. ends places the deck in compression and the keel in tension. The concave deflection is called sag, or sagging. Long waves can impose hogging or sagging conditions as shown in Figure 1-48. Bending stresses are resisted by the longitudinal strength members, particularly those of the strength deck, sheer strake and bottom. Bending stresses are normally greatest in the midships region of an intact ship, while maximum shear stresses occur in the quarter length regions.
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Water Pressure. The distributed force of buoyancy, as water pressure, is resisted by the side and bottom plating stiffened by a network of frames, floors, longitudinals, etc. All weight loads are ultimately transmitted through the ship structure to be borne by water pressure. The differences in weight and water pressure distribution produce varying loads as shown in Figure 1-49. Racking. Transverse waves alter the water pressure distribution around the ship, as shown in Figure 1-50. The unequal pressure distribution tends to bend side plating and transverse frames about a horizontal longitudinal axis. The transverse distortion is called racking and is resisted by shear stresses in the ships structure. Racking stresses are highest on the corners of a ships cross section. Racking is resisted by transverse bulkheads and frame ring, particularly the corner brackets. Drydocking. Ships supported by a single line of drydock keel blocks will hog transversely. A cellular double bottom stiffens the hull against such hog, but additional lines of side blocks are more effective. Stranding. Stranding changes the bending stress distribution in the hull girder by altering the buoyancy distribution and introducing concentrated loading along the bottom. Point loads similar to those caused by docking blocks, but naturally much less predictable, result if the ship strands on uneven or rocky ground. Large ships may sag transversely if stranded over a narrow width near the centerline.
WATER PRESSURE
WEIGHT LOADS
DEFLECTION (EXAGGERATED)
Figure 1-49. Water Pressure.
DEFLECTION (EXAGGERATED) WATER PRESSURE WAVE PROFILE
Figure 1-50. Racking.
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1-11.1.2 Local Stresses. Secondary and tertiary stresses result from localized loads such as the following:
Panting. Panting is an oscillatory motion of the shell plating, principally near the bow and stern of a ship, caused by uneven water pressure as the ship passes through waves. The fore-end (and sometimes the after) structure is reinforced with a system of panting beams, panting stringers, panting frames, breasthooks, and deep floors to withstand panting loads. Pounding or slamming. Pounding occurs when the bows of a pitching ship clear the water and come down heavily. Pounding is most severe in full-bowed ships in the bottom structure in the forward quarter length of the ship. In this pounding region, plating and bottom stiffeners are often heavier and/or more closely spaced than in the rest of the ship. Local Loads. Local strengthening enables the ship structure to carry loads caused by large local weights, such as machinery or cargo. Similar measures are used to strengthen structure in way of fittings that transmit high loads, such as padeyes, winch mounts, and kingpost foundations. The geometry of portions of the hull or fittings may cause stress raisers, requiring local reinforcement to increase load-carrying capacity. Figure 1-51 shows some forms of local reinforcement. Vibration. Vibration from engines, propellers, etc., causes stresses in various parts of the ship. Vibration-induced stresses are resisted by local stiffening of areas in way of vibration sources.
1-11.1.3 Weapons Effects. Impact and shock effects of airborne, underwater, and contact explosions can cause severe and not wholly predictable loads on ship structure. Warships are constructed with this kind of loading in mind, and are therefore strengthened to withstand blast and impact loads over much of their structure. The exact nature of this strengthening varies from ship to ship but generally consists of closer stiffener and bulkhead spacing than would be found in an equivalent-sized merchant ship or auxiliary. Weapons effects are discussed in greater detail in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 3 (S0300A6-MAN-030). 1-11.2 Longitudinal Bending Stress. The magnitude of the longitudinal bending stresses in the hull girder is a function of the total bending moment, cross-sectional area distribution. The bending moment is a function of the shear force distribution along the ships length, which is in turn a function of the ships load distribution. The hull is assumed to be a statically loaded beam that behaves in accordance with the theory of flexure (see Paragraph 2-3). The downward loads on the beam are the weights of the component parts of the ship and any weights carried on the ship. Upward loads are the forces of buoyancy (and ground reaction or block reaction for stranded, beached, or dry docked ships). Bending moment is calculated by a double integration of the static load curve. The steps in the longitudinal stress calculation are:
FREE-EDGE STIFFENING
FACE STRAP
PLATE STIFFENING
TRIPPING BRACKETS
GUSSET
DOUBLER PLATE MACHINERY FOUNDATION DEEP FRAME BILGE KEEL

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Determine longitudinal weight and buoyancy distributions. Statically balance the ship on still water or a wave. Develop the longitudinal load distribution or curve. Integrate the load curve to give shear forces. Integrate the shear curve to give bending moments. Determine which structure in sections of interest is effective. Determine moment of inertia, section modulus and location of the neutral axis for sections of interest. Calculate bending and shear stresses in sections of interest.
Figure 1-51. Local Strengthening.
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These steps are examined separately in the following paragraphs. Amplifying information can be found in the Naval Ship Engineering Center Design Data Sheet DDS 100-6, or any good naval architecture text. Examples 1-5, F-3, and F-5 demonstrate longitudinal strength calculations. 1-11.2.1 Load Curve. The load on the hull girder at any point is the difference between the buoyant force and weight at that point. This is graphically represented by superimposing buoyancy and weight curves. The areas under the curves represent total buoyancy and total weight. For a floating ship, the two areas must be equal, with their geometric centers in vertical line. Figure 1-61 shows the load curve developed for Example 1-5. For the shear and bending moment integrations to close properly, the ship must be statically balanced; that is, weight and buoyancy, as calculated by integration of the respective curves, should be within 0.5 percent, and LCB and LCG should be within one foot of each other. It is important to adopt sign conventions for the directions of forces and distances, and carry them through subsequent calculations. The calculations in this handbook follow the intuitive convention that downward forces (weight) are negative and upward forces (buoyancy) are positive, resulting in load curves that are predominantly positive over the middle portion for hogging hulls, and predominantly positive at the ends for sagging hulls. 1-11.2.2 Buoyancy Curve. The magnitude of the buoyant force at any point is a function of the cross-sectional area below the water line and the water density. The buoyancy curve will therefore follow the curve of areas. Areas of sections are most easily obtained from Bonjeans Curves, shown in Figure FO-3 and described in Paragraph 1-3.11. Lines drawings, offsets, or general plans can also be used to determine sectional areas by numerical integration. The still water buoyancy curve is developed by dividing sectional areas by 35 (cubic feet per long ton of seawater) to convert to unit buoyancy (tons per foot) and plotting these values as ordinates. A buoyancy curve based on ordinates taken from Bonjeans Curves will not include appendage buoyancy. If known, appendage buoyancies can be added to the basic curve as rectangles or trapezoids. When appendage buoyancy is unknown, a simpler and generally adequate solution is to assume that an appropriate appendage allowance (a fraction of full-load displacement) is distributed over the length of the ship. Final buoyancy ordinates are determined by an appendage allowance adjusted for the ships condition, i.e., the appendage allowance divided by actual displacement. Buoyancy ordinates multiplied by the adjusted appendage allowance plus one give adjusted buoyancy ordinates. Integrating the adjusted buoyancy ordinates should give a correct total buoyancy equal to total weight. Appendage allowances are discussed in Paragraph 1-4.10.2. As part of the regression analysis described in Paragraph 1-7, Porricelli, Boyd, and Schlieffer developed a method of approximating the buoyancy curve for merchant and auxiliary hulls with a series of trapezoids. The method is reasonably accurate for full-bodied ships (CB > 0.6). The ship is first divided into three segments: the parallel midbody (pmb), the forebody (fb), and the afterbody (ab). The forebody and afterbody are then divided into two sections each. A uniform buoyancy distribution is assumed for the parallel midbody and represented by a rectangle. Ordinates are plotted at the forward and after perpendiculars and the boundaries of the sections of the hull and connected by straight lines to form the buoyancy curve. Buoyancy of the parallel midbody (Bpmb), lengths of sections (Ln, bn) and heights of ordinates (yn) are calculated as shown in Figure 1-52.
y3 y4 y5
y3
y2 y1 b5 b4 Lab b3 L pmb b1 = (0.61 - 0.615 CB)L b2 = Lfb - b1 b3 = Lpmb b4 = Lab - b5 b = 0.2L

5
b2 Lfb
b1 FP
AP
L pmb = (1.74CB - 1.002)L Lfb Lab = (1.186 - 1.17CB)L
y1 = 0.04y3 y2 = CB y3 y3 = Bpmb /Lpmb y4 = CB y3 y5 = 0.08y3
= L - Lpmb - Lfb Lpmb B Tm Cm B pmb = 35
To facilitate summing weight and buoyancy Figure 1-52. Approximate Buoyancy Curve for Full-Bodied Ship. curves to develop the load curve, the buoyancy curve is often stepped, that is, approximated by a series of horizontal segments at a height corresponding to the mean buoyancy ordinate for that segment. The procedure for stepping a curve is described in Paragraph 1-4.9. It is not necessary for the buoyancy curve to have the same number of segments as the weight curve, although it is convenient for all of the bounding stations for the curve with fewer segments to coincide with stations on the other curve. The load curve resulting when the two curves are summed will have the same number of segments as the curve with the most segments. 1-11.2.3 Weight Curve. Weight distribution tables or curves are often difficult to obtain, even though they are developed during the design of the hull girder. For U.S. Navy ships, a Longitudinal Strength and Inertia Sections drawing is prepared, showing weight distribution, usually for full load. A portion of the longitudinal strength drawing for FFG-7 Class ships is reproduced in Figure FO-4. The complete drawing includes section scantlings, similar to Figure 1-58, for a number of stations along the ships length. Format and content of longitudinal strength drawings for Navy ships are more completely described in Appendix B.
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Weight distributions for Navy ships are tabulated or drawn for 20 standard ship segments between perpendiculars, plus one segment forward of the forward perpendicular and one aft of the after perpendicular (22 segments). The segments forward and aft of the perpendiculars extend from the perpendiculars to the ends of the ship and are not necessarily the same length as the segments between perpendiculars. Segments are identified by the stations that bound them, numbered from 0 at the forward perpendicular to 20 at the after perpendicular. Weight distribution is assumed to be uniform within each segment, producing a stepped curve. For cargo ships, tankers, etc., where loading may vary by compartment, it may be more convenient to segment the ship by compartments. Weight distributions for a number of Navy ships are given in Appendix B. The weight curve from a longitudinal strength drawing or other source must be corrected for the ships actual weight distribution, including any major alterations (SHIPALTS). Often this information is not available and weight change estimates must be made until the weight distribution sums to the known ship displacement. If detailed weight curves are not available, weight distribution can be estimated by one of the methods described in Paragraph 1-11.13. 1-11.2.4 Shear and Bending Moment Curves. A fundamental principle of beam theory is that at any point in an elastic beam: P = dS dx = d 2M dx 2
S = Pdx and M = Sdx = Pdx where: P S M = = = load shear bending moment

W >B SAGGING SHIP B >W S = 0, M AT LOCAL MAX B >W LOAD, P
Vertical shear at any section is the sum of the vertical forces to one side of the section; the shear curve is therefore developed by integrating the load curve (the sum of the weight and buoyancy curves) along its length, starting from either end of the ship. The total positive area under the shear curve should equal the total negative area for static equilibrium. Shear is zero at the ends of the ship; for most ships, shear will be maximum near the quarter-lengths and change signs near midships. Bending moment at any section is the sum of force moments about the section. The bending moment curve is developed by integrating the shear curve along its length. Bending moment is zero at the ends of the ship, and is maximum where shear changes sign. The load and shear curves cannot be defined mathematically, so graphical or numerical methods are used to perform the integrations, as shown in Paragraph 1-4 and Appendix F. Several important relationships between the load, shear and bending moment curves, illustrated in Figure 1-53, act as checks on the completed curves:
AP
FP
SHEAR, S P AT MAX, S AT INFLECTION MOMENT, M P = 0, S = LOCAL MAX/MIN, M AT INFLECTION
AP
FP
B >W HOGGING SHIP W >B
B >W

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When P is 0, S is a maximum or minimum and M is at an inflection point. When P is a maximum, S is at an inflection point.
Figure 1-53. Load, Shear, Bending Moment Curve Relations and Conventions.
When S is 0, M is a maximum or minimum.
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The load and shear curves can be integrated from either end. Each integration should close to zero at the end opposite the beginning. Small errors in closing are unavoidable if the areas under the weight and buoyancy curve are not precisely equal, and LCG and LCB are not coincident. It is sometimes useful to integrate each curve twice, once in each direction, and compare the results. If the integrations close to zero, integrating in the opposite direction will reverse the sign of the ordinate at each station, but will not change the magnitude. If the integrations do not close precisely, integrating in the opposite direction will change the magnitude of the shear and moment ordinates at each station, and is a means of estimating the error range of the calculated values. If the shear curve does not close, the sections of maximum shear and bending moment will also shift somewhat when integrating in the opposite direction. For small errors in closing, the magnitude of the shear and bending moment ordinates in the middle portion of the curve will be fairly reliable, but the ordinates near the ends of the ship should not be trusted. A useful convention is to integrate the load curve from left to right (from aft forward) to develop the shear curve, and the shear curve from right to left (from forward aft) to develop the moment curve. Following this convention, along with taking downward forces as negative, will result in shear and moment curves with the features shown in Figure 1-53:
For sagging hulls: (1) Positive shear on the left side of the plot (aft). (2) Negative shear on the right side of the plot (forward). (3) Negative (convex downwards) bending moment.
For hogging hulls: (1) Negative shear on the left side of the plot (aft). (2) Positive shear on the right side of the plot (forward). (3) Positive (convex upwards) bending moment.
This convention is useful because the bending moment curves superficially resemble a sagging or hogging hull, as appropriate. Other conventions may be encountered in ship design data. Shear curves that are the mirror image of the convention described above are common and result when both shear and moment integrations are run in the same direction. U.S. Navy longitudinal strength drawings disregard the sign of bending moments and shear forces and show all curves above the axis to save space. Example 1-5 calculates still water bending moment and shear curves for an FFG-7 hull; the curves are illustrated in Figures 1-62. 1-11.3 Variations in Loading. Any change in weight or buoyancy distribution will alter the load curve. 1-11.3.1 Changes in Weight Distribution. Changes in weight distribution generally result from deliberate actions, such as taking on or discharging cargo, ballasting, launching or recovering aircraft and boats, use of fuels or other consumables, or shifting weights. Weight distribution can also be changed in a casualty by:
Flooding. Major fires which consume flammable materials. Spilled cargo. Loss of structure or fittings.
Weight additions or removals change total weight, and therefore affect total buoyancy and buoyancy distribution. Weight shifts that significantly alter trim also affect the buoyancy distribution. Buoyancy distribution can change without an accompanying change in weight distribution. Such changes result from:
Waves. Grounding. Drydocking.
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1-11.3.2 Wave-induced Buoyancy Distribution. In all but the stillest water, buoyancy distribution changes constantly in proportion to the variations in draft along the ships length as successive wave trains pass. A wave-induced buoyancy curve is developed by superimposing a wave profile, or series of profiles, on the ship profile, instead of using a horizontal waterline, to determine drafts at stations. An infinite number of waves are possible; in practice, it is usually sufficient to examine only worst-case situations. Maximum midships bending moments result from the two situations shown in Figure 1-48. Ships are designed to carry the stresses imposed by these conditions, based on a trochoidal or sinusoidal wave form with length equal to the ships length (L). Standard wave heights were formerly taken as L/20, and then 1.1 L as ship size increased, but with steady increases in ship length, these formulae yield unrealistically large waves. More recent ABS construction rules specify different formulae for different ranges of length, although Navy design practice still uses the 1.1 L wave. Although artificial, these assumed conditions have proven adequate for design work; they are used here to illustrate the procedures for analyzing wave-induced stresses in ships. The salvage engineer who finds it necessary to evaluate the strength of a casualty exposed to wave action should base his worst cases on observed or expected waves and the actual loading and structural condition of the casualty. Total bending moment is sometimes spoken of as the sum of a still water bending moment and a wave-induced bending moment. The total bending moment is simply the bending moment resulting from the load distribution at that instant. The bending moment can be evaluated by adding to or subtracting from the still water buoyancy curve or by starting from scratch by superimposing a wave profile over the Bonjeans curves to develop the buoyancy curve, as shown in Figure 1-54. As before, the area under the buoyancy curve must equal the area under the weight curve.
STILL WATERLINE
DECREASED BUOYANCY INCREASED BUOYANCY
WAVE PROFILE
SECTIONAL AREAS BONJEANS CURVES
WAVE PROFILE
Figure 1-54. Wave-Induced Buoyancy.
R h r
L r2 2R EQUAL AREAS
LINE OF CENTERS r2 2R
STILL WATERLINE INITIAL PLACEMENT OF WAVE ON HULL PROFILE
Figure 1-55. Trochoidial Wave Form.
To ensure that shear and bending moment integrations close, the ship must be statically balanced on the wave; that is, the waterline must be adjusted until weight equals buoyancy and the center of buoyancy is in vertical line with the center of gravity. When using Bonjeans Curves in the profile format, this is most easily accomplished by plotting the wave profile to the same vertical and horizontal scales as the Bonjeans Curves on a piece of tracing paper. The wave profile is laid over the Bonjeans Curves, with either the crest or trough at the midship station, as appropriate. Section areas are picked off as ordinates to a trial buoyancy curve, which is integrated to determine buoyancy and LCB. If the first guess does not match buoyancy and weight within limits, successive calculations are made, moving the wave up and down and trimming it until a position is found where buoyancy is within one percent of weight, and LCB is within one foot of LCG. When the final position of the ship on the wave is determined, the section areas are converted to unit buoyancies to plot a precise buoyancy curve that is used to determine the mean unit buoyancy over each segment of the ships length. Buoyancy and weight curves are then summed to calculate the load curve; shear and bending moment integrations are conducted as for the still water condition. When the rosette format Bonjeans Curves are used, drafts at each station must be determined by interpolation so the section areas can be read from the curves. Alternatively, rosette format curves can be traced onto a profile of the ship. The horizontal scale of the ship profile (not the same as the Bonjeans Curve area scale) is not critical, but should not be more than twice the vertical scale; if the horizontal scale is too great, portions of the wave profile will be steep enough that small errors in plotting will cause significant errors in reading sectional areas.
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A trochoid is the curve traced by a point inside a circle as the circle rolls along a horizontal line, as shown in Figure 1-55. Coordinates for the trochoidal wave form are developed from the relationships: x = L sin + h 360 2 1 cos 2
y = h
The relationships are not linear, so there is no fixed interval that will match the x interval to station spacing; x and y coordinates are determined for values of from 0 to 360 at convenient increments, such as 30 degrees. Because the ordinates to the trochoidal wave do not fall on Bonjeans stations, it is important to plot the curve carefully to minimize error. The area under a sagging trochoid is less than the length multiplied by half the height, so the line of centers (see Figure 1-55) must be placed above the still water line for buoyancy to equal ships weight (for a hogging wave, the line is placed below the still waterline). The area under a trochoid is equal to that of a rectangle with the same length and an upper boundary formed by a line r2/2R below the line of centers. Since the circle describing the trochoid makes one revolution in the ships length, L = 2R, and 2R = L/. For an L/20 wave, r = L/40, and:
2
r 2R
L 2 40 L
L2 1,600 L
L 1,600
= 0.00196 L
L wave 20
As an initial estimate, the line of centers of the trochoidal wave should be placed 0.00196L above the still waterline. If r is expressed as 0.55 L, L will cancel out of the ratio, giving no solution. For a 1.1 L wave, r is expressed as h/2, and:
2
r 2R
h 2 2 L
h 2 4L
0.785 h 2 L
1.1 L wave
For manual calculations, it is often simpler to use sinusoidal waves (y = Lsin), as they are not horizontal-scale dependent. The full wave form is developed in 180 degrees, and ordinates calculated at even increments of are plotted at evenly spaced stations. If increments of are set equal to 180 divided by the number of segments, the wave ordinate stations correspond to the Bonjeans curve stations, simplifying determination of section areas. Sinusoidal waves are somewhat steeper than trochoidal waves. For fine-lined ships, maximum hogging moments will be lower and maximum sagging moments higher than moments based on trochoidal waves of the same length and height. For full-bodied ships, both hogging and sagging moments will be higher when based on sinusoidal waves. For a ship with block coefficient of 0.46, the standard 1.1 L sine wave bending moment is 6 percent less than trochoidal for hogging and 2 percent higher for sagging. For a block coefficient of 1.0, the standard sine wave bending moment is 11 percent higher for hogging and 9 percent higher for sagging. 1-11.4 Curve Scales. It is sometimes convenient to draw the load, shear, and bending moment curves on the same plan. To standardize drawing size and simplify manual integration, the U. S. Navy has adopted the following scaling criteria for longitudinal strength drawings like that shown in Figure FO-4.
Base length for all curves is 20 units. Base length corresponds to the length between perpendiculars, so the horizontal scale is one unit = L/20 feet. The mean heights of the weight and buoyancy curves are three units for the full load condition. Vertical scale for weight, buoyancy, and load curves is one unit = W/3L tons per foot of length. One square unit of area under the weight, buoyancy, or load curves represents L/20 W/3L = W/60 tons. The shear curve is drawn so that one unit of ordinate represents two square units of area under the load curve; the vertical shear scale is one unit = W/30 tons. One square unit of area under the shear curve represents L/20 W/30 = WL/600 foot-tons. The bending moment curve is drawn so that one unit of ordinate represents three square units under the shear curve; the vertical moment scale is one unit = WL/200 foot-tons.
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Navy drawings use one inch as the base unit, but any convenient unit or multiple can be used. When there is no requirement to plot curves on the same plan, it is more convenient to make all the integration calculations in the base units without scale conversions. 1-11.5 Section Modulus. From beam theory, the bending stress () at any point is given by: My = I where:
1:4 SLOPE
LONGITUDINAL BULKHEAD BELOW DECK OPENING
M y
= =
bending moment at the section in question vertical distance from the neutral axis to the fiber (element) in question moment of inertia of the section in question about the neutral axis
TRANSVERSE BULKHEAD BELOW PLAN VIEW SHADOW IN DECK DECK OPENING SHADOW IN DECK
This relationship shows that the maximum tensile and compressive stresses will occur in the beam elements furthest from the neutral axis. The distance from the neutral axis to the outer fibers is designated c. The term I/c is sometimes calculated separately and called the section modulus (Z or SM). Substituting: max = Mc M = I Z
EFFECTIVE BULKHEAD
SHADOW IN BULKHEAD
STRENGTH DECKS
1:4 SLOPE
BRACKET NONSTRENGTH DECK
TRANSVERSE BULKHEAD
If, as is common, bending moment is exSECTION A-A pressed in foot-tons, moment of inertia in in2-ft2, and distances from the neutral axis Figure 1-56. Ineffective Shadow Zones at Discontinuities. in feet, the calculation yields bending stress in long tons per square inch. It is best to convert tons per square inch to pounds per square inch for comparison with material strengths (normally tabulated in psi) and to avoid confusion between long, short, and metric tons. 1-11.5.1 Effective Structure. Calculating the moment of inertia for a simple girder is straightforward; the relatively complex cross section of a ship is another matter. Judgement must be used to determine which elements of the ships structure effectively contribute to longitudinal strength. Elements that are subject to buckling, tripping and other forms of load shirking, or that are inadequately joined to the overall structure, cannot be assumed to contribute to longitudinal strength. As load shirking by panels with a width-to-thickness ratio greater than 70 is likely, contribution of unsupported plating panels should be limited to 70 times the thickness. Material not structurally continuous for at least 40 percent of the length of the ship about the section being examined is assumed to be ineffective. Only the net cross-sectional area of longitudinally continuous components of longitudinal strength members, excluding openings and ineffective shadow areas forward and aft of openings or other discontinuities, are included when calculating the moment of inertia. The shadow area of an opening is the area forward and aft of the opening between converging lines drawn tangent to the radiused corners at a slope of one transverse unit to four longitudinal units, as shown in Figure 1-56. All structures, including longitudinal framing and other connected structures within this area, are considered ineffective. For openings caused by damage or with sharp corners, lines bounding shadow areas should be drawn tangent to points outside the area of wrinkled or upset plating, or at a distance equal to 30 times the plating thickness from the edge of the opening, whichever is greater. Shadow areas adjacent to discontinuities such as the ends of longitudinal bulkheads, strength decks, and inner bottoms, are bounded by lines with a 1:4 slope, as shown in Figure 1-56.
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1-11.5.2 Calculating Section Modulus. After the elements to be included have been selected, moment of inertia, I, is calculated by summing second moments of area (ay2) of individual elements about an arbitrary axis. It is most convenient to sum moments about the keel (some authorities prefer to use an assumed neutral axis). Moments of inertia (i) of elements with significant vertical dimensions are added to the summed second moments of elemental areas. Moment of inertia about the keel (IK) is then: IK = where: IK a y ay2 i = = = = = moment of inertia of section about the keel, in2-ft2 area of individual section element, in2 height of centroid of section element above the keel, ft second moment of area of individual section element, in2-ft moment of inertia of individual section elements, in2-ft2 (ay 2) (i)
Measuring areas in square inches and vertical distances from the axis in feet gives second moments of area (moments of inertia) in in2-ft2, rather than the in4, ft4, cm4, etc., customarily used in other branches of engineering. Moment of inertia of a rectangle is equal to bh3/12, where h is the height and b the breadth of the rectangle: i = If area is given in square inches, and height in feet, the units of moments of inertia of individual elements are consistent with the units of ay2. Individual moments of inertia for inclined or curved plates with significant vertical dimensions are determined by calculating the square of the radius of gyration (k) as shown in Figure 1-57. Moment of inertia can then be calculated from the definition of radius of gyration. i = ak2
y y h g
bh 3 (bh) h 2 = 12 12
ah 2 12
REFERENCE AXIS
To obtain i in in2-ft2, a must be given in square inches, and k in feet. If the inclined flat-plate section shown in Figure 1-58 is 5 8-inch thick, 54 inches wide, and inclined so that h is 40 inches, then: k2 = = h2 12 = 402 12 = 133.33 in2
h k2 = 12
h2
i = ak2
Figure 1-57. Moment of Inertia for Inclined Plates.
133.33 144
= 0.926 ft2
5 i = a k 2 = 54 (0.926) = 31.25 in2 ft2 8 Since the neutral axis of the ships section passes through the centroid of the section, height of the neutral axis above the keel is found by dividing the first moment of areas by the sum of areas of the section. The moment of inertia about the neutral axis is found by the parallel axis theorem: INA = IK Ad 2 where: INA IK A d = = = = moment of inertia about the neutral axis, in2-ft2 moment of inertia about the keel, in2-ft2 = (ay2) + (i) total area of individual section elements, in2 = (a) height of the neutral axis above the keel, ft = (ay2)/(a)
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Once INA and height of the neutral axis are known, section modulus (INA/c) is easily calculated. The neutral axis is not usually equidistant from the top and bottom flanges of the hull girder (strength deck and keel), so each flange has its own value for c and therefore Z. The summations required to find height of the neutral axis and moment of inertia can be methodically performed in a tabular format. Table 1-14 is a sample section modulus calculation for the ship section shown in Figure 1-58. In an intact ship of uniform cross section, maximum bending stress occurs at the location of maximum bending moment. A vessels cross section is not normally uniform throughout its length, but the scantlings at each section are selected by the designer to keep bending stresses within acceptable limits based on the anticipated bending moment.
5 x 4 x 6.00#T 5 x 5 3/4 x 13.0#T 20.5 5.75 15.3# 30 SHADOW 25.5# 30.0 ABV BL 6 x 6 1/2 x 13.0#T 25 5 x 4 x 6.00#T 4 x 4 x 5.00#T 20 21.0 ABV BL 6 x 4 x 7#T
FEET
C L
2 7-1/2" x .500 P L HY-80 SHELL DOUBLER
2 6"x0.75" P L HY-80 SHELL DOUBLER
L P
HY-80
L 20 L 19 L 18 L 17 "E"-20.4 P L HY-80#
7.65#
SHADOW
SHADOW
10.2# P L
L 16 L 15 L 14
15
6 x 4 x 8.00#T 6 x 6 1/2 x 13.0#T
L 13 L 12 L 11
"D"-12.75# P L
10
7 x 6 3/4 x 15#T L 10 18 x 7 1/2 x 50#I-T 8 x 7 x 22.5#T L9 L8 L7 L6 L5 L3 L1 35.7# L2 "A"-38.25# P L HY80 NOTE: I - T SHAPES ARE FORMED FROM W SHAPES BY CUTTING LOWER FLANGE FROM WEB, USUALLY WITH TWO VERTICAL CUTS L4 "B"-20.4# P L 2 9" x 0.75 P L M.S. SHELL DOUBLER "C"-15.3# P L HY-80
5 9 x 7 1/2 x 25#T 25 x 13 x 162# I-T CVK 0
B L
P L F.K.
CUTS
Figure 1-58. Frigate Hull Section at Station 10.
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Table 1-14. Section Modulus for FFG-7, Station 10.
Component
Dimensions
a (in2)
12.39 15.24 14.80 64.13 52.50 25.31 12.75 29.06 50.63 31.50 46.63 72.00 15.75 22.50 24.75 3.82 3.82 1.77 1.77 2.08 2.08 2.36 2.36 3.82 3.82 3.82 3.82 3.82 4.42 4.42 10.60 6.63 6.63 7.33 7.33 16.38 6.13 598.95
y (ft)
29.613 26.613 20.746 30.000 30.000 21.000 21.000 17.875 16.500 7.000 3.000 0.875 28.000 26.500 0.500 28.000 26.500 24.500 22.750 19.250 17.500 16.000 14.750 12.500 11.750 9.000 7.500 6.250 5.500 4.500 4.25 2.750 2.000 1.500 1.000 1.500 0.073
ay (in2 ft)
366.91 405.58 307.04 1923.75 1575.00 531.56 267.75 519.49 835.31 220.50 139.88 63.00 441.00 596.25 12.38 106.96 101.25 43.37 40.27 40.04 36.40 37.76 34.81 47.75 44.89 34.38 28.65 23.88 24.31 19.89 45.05 18.23 13.26 11.00 7.33 24.57 0.45 8989.85
ay2 (in2 ft2)

10865.16 10793.76 6369.87 57712.50 47250.00 11162.81 5622.00 9285.92 13782.66 1543.50 419.63 55.13 12348.00 15800.63 6.19 2994.88 2682.60 1062.44 916.09 790.77 637.00 604.16 513.45 596.88 527.40 309.42 214.88 149.22 133.70 89.51 191.46 50.14 26.52 16.49 7.33 36.85 0.03 215549.69
h or k* (ft)
i = ah2/12 or ak2* (in2 ft2)
Mn Dk Girders, Inbd (7) - T Mn Dk Grdrs, Outbd (4) - T 2nd Dk Girders, (10) - T Mn Dk Plating, Inbd, less shadow zones Mn Dk Plating, Outbd 2nd Dk Plating, Inbd, less shadow zones 2nd Dk Pltg, Outbd "E" Strake "D" Strake "C" Strake "B" Strake "A" Strake "E" Doubler, upper "E" Doubler, lower "A" Doubler Side Stringers L20 - T L19 - T L18 - T L17 - T L16 - T L15 - T L14 - T L13 - T L12 - T L11 - T L10 - T L9 - T L8 - T Bottom Longitudinals L7 - T L6 - T L5 - I - T L4 - T L3 - T L2 - T L1 - T CVK (1/2) I - T Flat Keel (1/2) Totals
5 4 6# 5 5.75 13# 4 4 5# (246 - 75) 0.375 84 .625 (225 - 90) .25 51 .25 93 .3125 162 .3125 84 .375 93.25 .5 96 .75 31.5 .5 30 .75 33 .75 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 13# 6 13# 4 6# 4 6# 4 7# 4 7# 4 8# 4 8# 6.5 13# 6.5 13# 6.5 13# 6.5 13# 6.5 13#
7.75 12.50 1.88* 0.42* 0.26* 2.63 2.50
145.45 659.18 111.33* 8.23* 4.87* 9.04 11.72
7 6.75 15# 7 6.75 15# 18 7.5 50# 8 7 22.5# 8 7 22.5# 9 7.5 25# 9 7.5 25# 25 13 162# 14 .875
1.33*
18.75*
2.08
3.18 971.75
(ay)/a (ay 2) + i IK - Ad 2 2INA for half-section Depth - d INA/c t d INA/c b
= = = = = = = =
8,985.85/598.95
15.01 ft 216,521.44 in2 ft2 81,577.95 in2 ft2 163,155.90 in2 ft2 14.99 ft 10,884.32 in2 ft 10,869.81 in2 ft
IK for half-section = INA for half-section = INA for full section = cDK ZDK cK ZK
= = = =
215,549.69 + 971.75 = 216,521.44 - (598.95 15.012) = 2(81,577.95) 30 - 15.01 163,155.90/14.99 15.01 ft 163,155.90/15.01 = = = =
Notes: Areas and centroids for T-shapes taken from AISC Manual for Steel Construction, 8th Edition. i of vertical web only
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Q = FIRST MOMENT OF AREA OF STRUCTURE OUTSIDE AXIS WHERE STRESS IS DESIRED
B B MAX NEUTRAL AXIS
VERTICAL SHEAR
HORIZONTAL SHEAR
b = TOTAL THICKNESS OF HULL PLATING AND EFFECTIVE LONGITUDINAL BULKHEADS I NA = MOMENT OF INERTIA ABOUT NEUTRAL AXIS S = SHEAR ON SECTION
CROSS-SECTION SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION
= ISQb NA
MAX = I MAX NAb
SQ
Figure 1-59. Shear Stress in the Hull Girder.
1-11.6 Shear Stress. Shear stresses result from vertical shear, caused by the uneven force distribution along the ships length, and horizontal shear, caused by longitudinal bending and racking, as shown in Figure 1-59. The shear force is distributed over the section, each element contributing to the total. Shear stress distribution can be modeled by the theory of thin-walled sections, as explained in the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Principles of Naval Architecture, but this method requires the evaluation of indefinite line integrals, and may be too tedious for field calculations. For salvage calculations, shear stress, , along any horizontal axis BB can be adequately approximated by the expression: SQ = INA b where: S Q a y INA b = = = = = = = = shear stress shear at the section in question first moment of area about the neutral axis of the area of effective structure above axis BB ay area of individual structural element vertical distance of individual structural elements from neutral axis moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis total width of material resisting shear along axis BB, in
Moment of inertia is obtained as part of the section modulus calculation. The first moment of area, Q, is determined by summing the products of areas and their distances from the neutral axis in the same manner that ay about the keel is determined in the section modulus calculation. The material width, b, is normally twice the shell-plating thickness (to account for both sides), plus the thickness of effective longitudinal bulkheads, i.e., those that extend from the strength deck to the bottom of the ship and are firmly anchored at both top and bottom. Consistent units must be used, along with appropriate conversion factors. If moment of inertia and first moment of area are in the customary units of in2-ft2 and in2-ft, a conversion factor of 12 must be applied to obtain stress in units of force per square inch: = SQ 12 INA b
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SHEAR STRESSES SHEAR ELEMENT
TRANSVERSE FRAMES
SHEAR FORCE, S
LONGITUDINALS
SHEAR STRESSES
SHEAR WRINKLES IN PLATE PANELS
Figure 1-60. Shear Stress.
Shear is normally determined in long tons, giving shear stress in long tons per square inch; shear stress, like bending stress, is converted to pounds per square inch by multiplying by 2,240 pounds per long ton. Shear stresses act in pairs, are equal on all four faces of a plane element, and are maximum on planes parallel and perpendicular to the shear force, as shown in Figure 1-60. Because the paired stresses tend to change the angle between faces of an element and lengthen the diagonal, shear yield in plating panels is evidenced by diagonal wrinkles. The form of the expression implies that shear stress in any section is zero at the deck and keel and maximum at the neutral axis, where Q is maximum: SQmax max = 12INAb where: Qmax = first moment of the area above neutral axis about the neutral axis Although shear stress in the deck is very low, and may approach zero near the centerline, shear stress is not usually zero at the deck edge; the expression does estimate shear stress in the middle portion of the side shell (where it is normally of greatest concern) accurately.
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EXAMPLE 1-5 STILL WATER BENDING MOMENT CALCULATION
This example illustrates the detailed still water strength calculations for an FFG-7 Class ship, including steps to reconcile inconsistent data, and to balance weight and buoyancy. Examples 4-5 through 4-12 in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) illustrate simplified calculations for a simple barge. For an FFG-7 Class ship in the 1/3 Consumed Stores loading condition, calculate: Deck and keel bending stresses for stations 3 through 17 Maximum shear stress From the Damage Control Book (DC Book) loading summary (Appendix F): 1/3 Consumed Stores, Sequence 6 Fuel/Ballast:
Tank
Weight tons
lcg fm Comments midships ft

161.8 80.0 -141.1 -141.1 Saltwater ballast tanks listed as empty for full load
Clean Ballast: 5-34-0-W 5-116-0-W 5-328-1-W 5-328-2-W
32.04 53.56 19.62 19.62
Oily Ballast: 5-100-3-F 5-100-4-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-2-F
9.47 9.47 9.9 9.9
92.3 92.3 -59.8 -59.8
Fuel/ballast tanks, filled with fuel for departure full load. Listed weights are differences between weights of equal volumes of fuel and seawater
Tf Ta TLCF W LCG LCB MT1
= = = = = = =
14' 8" 15' 8" 15.23' (LCF 23.79 ft abaft midships) 3748.15 tons 5.53 ft abaft midships 3.06 ft abaft midships 769.01 ft-tons
Miscellaneous Holding Tanks: 5-132-0-F 5-164-0-F 5-170-0-F 4-170-0-W 19.21 44.00 16.31 11.84 68.4 36.9 29.0 29.7 Contaminated Oil Settling Tank Waste Oil Retention Tank Oily Waste Water Holding Tank Sewage Collection, Holding and Transfer (CHT) Tank
Full-load Displacement = 3,951.79 tons From Curves of Form (FO-2) for TLCF = 15.23':
Total
254.94 tons
W = 4,224.83 - 254.94 = 3,969.89

The difference between the corrected longitudinal strength drawing displacement and the full-load departure displacement from the DC Book is: 3,969.89 - 3,951.79 = 18.1 tons or 4.6 percent. The discrepancy cannot be resolved further without additional data. It is not necessary to constuct a corrected full-load curve that would then be corrected for the actual loading condition. The two corrections can be made simultaneously. b. Initial Weight Curve for 1/3 Consumed Stores condition (3,748.15 tons)
W LCB LCF MT1"
= = = =
3,750 tons 3.1 ft abaft midships 23.8 ft abaft midships 770 ft-tons
From Longitudinal Strength and Inertia Sections Drawing (FO-4):
W = 4,224.83 tons
Scale Factors: Length 1 in. Weight Ordinates 1 in. Weight Area 1 in2 Shear Ordinates 1 in. Shear Area 1 in2 Moment Ordinates 1 in. a. = = = = = = 408/20 4,224.83/3L 4,224.83/60 4,224.83/30 4,224.83(408)/600 4,224.83(408)/200 = = = = = = 20.4 ft 3.45 tons/ft 70.41 tons 140.83 tons 2,872.88 ft-tons 8,618.65 ft-tons
The weight curve is created by deducting the weight differences between the full-load condition and the actual condition from the full-load curve at their locations. The corrections to the full-load curve described in Paragraph a. above are deducted at the same time. Examination of the DC Book loading summaries for the full load and 1/3 consumed stores conditions reveals the following weight differences: Item Full Load Weight tons 1/3 Consumed Weight tons Difference tons lcg from Midships ft
Resolution of discrepancies in raw data
The data from the DC Book and Curves of Form are in good agreement. However, at equilibrium, LCB and LCG must be aligned vertically. The Curves of Form give LCB for the ship with 0 trim. Assuming the same to be true for the DC Book, the initial trim arm (BGL) is 2.47 feet (5.53 - 3.06). The resulting trim would be:
Provisions and Stores Dry provisions Frozen Chill Clothing, Small Stores Ship Stores General Stores Deck Gear Flammable Liq & Paints Bosun Storeroom Medical Stores Misc Storerooms Potable Water 5-292-3-W 5-308-1-W 5-308-2-W 8.73 7.88 7.88 8.71 2.37 2.37 0.02 5.51 5.51 -94.4 aft 115.8 fwd 115.8 fwd 13.95 4.84 4.79 0.31 3.49 9.29 3.23 3.19 0.21 2.33 4.66 1.61 1.60 0.10 1.16 9.0 fwd 20.0 fwd 20.0 fwd 145.5 fwd 4.0 fwd
t = W(BGL)/MT1 = 3,748.15(2.47)/769.01 = 12.04 in by the stern

This is consistent with the tabulated drafts. In constructing the weight and buoyancy curves, it will be assumed that the actual centers of gravity and buoyancy are on a vertical line 5.53 feet aft of midships. There is a discrepancy of 273 tons between the full-load weights as given by the DC Book (3,951.79 tons) and the longitudinal strength drawing (4,224.83 tons). This discrepancy must be resolved as completely as possible before proceeding. The longitudinal strength drawing is prepared for the most extreme loading conditions. It is therefore likely that items of weight were included that are not included in the operating full-load departure condition described in the DC Book. The most probable items that would be included for the longitudinal strength drawing but deleted from the operational full load are saltwater ballast and waste-holding tanks that would be presumed empty for the departure condition. An examination of the full-load condition and tank capacity tables from the DC Book reveals the following potential weights.
2.37 3.77 4.13 1.00 7.46
1.58 2.51 2.75 0.67 4.98
0.79 1.26 1.38 0.33 2.48
81.3 fwd 115.5 fwd 137.1 fwd -176.0 aft -68.5 aft
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Segment Item Full Load Weight tons 1/3 Consumed Difference Weight tons tons lcg from Midships ft -1.4-0 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 20-20.6 Totals
Ordinate y in. 0.15 0.62 1.37 1.59 2.93 3.12 3.11 3.56 2.86 2.01 3.76 3.76 3.49 1.99 4.21 3.55 2.57 2.40 1.88 2.35 1.95 0.49
Length l in. 1.40 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.60
Area yl in2 0.21 0.62 1.37 1.59 2.93 3.12 3.11 3.56 2.86 2.01 3.76 3.76 3.49 1.99 4.21 3.55 2.57 2.40 1.88 2.35 1.95 0.29 53.58
lcg from FP Moment at midordinate lcg area in. in2

-0.70 0.50 1.50 2.50 3.50 4.50 5.50 6.50 7.50 8.50 9.50 10.50 11.50 12.50 13.50 14.50 15.50 16.50 17.50 18.50 19.50 20.30 -0.15 0.31 2.06 3.98 10.26 14.04 17.11 23.14 21.45 17.08 35.72 39.48 40.14 24.88 56.84 51.48 39.84 39.60 32.90 43.48 38.03 5.97 557.59
Lubricating Oil 3-272-2-F 3-278-2-F 3-286-2-F 3-208-4-F 3-236-1-F 3-236-2-F 3-292-8-F Fuel Oil, Storage 5-100-3-F 5-100-4-F 5-116-1-F 5-140-1-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-1-F Fuel Oil, Service 5-204-2-F 3-240-2-F 3-292-6-F 5-201-3-F JP-5 5-344-0-J 29.81 8.54 21.27 -150.9 aft 46.47 2.54 1.21 1.33 23.18 0.53 0.25 0.28 23.29 2.01 0.96 1.05 -4.0 aft -40.9 aft -89.3 aft 1.7 fwd 32.12 32.12 65.69 28.43 33.60 33.60 0.00 0.00 63.60 22.21 0.00 0.00 32.12 32.12 2.09 6.22 33.60 33.60 92.3 fwd 92.3 fwd 75.5 fwd 51.8 fwd -59.8 aft -59.8 aft 3.50 4.00 2.75 0.95 1.05 1.05 0.92 2.35 2.68 1.84 0.63 0.70 0.70 0.61 1.15 1.32 0.91 0.32 0.35 0.35 0.31 -70.7 aft -77.9 aft -85.0 aft -6.0 aft -33.9 aft -33.9 aft -89.3 aft
W = area scale factor = 53.58(70.41) = 3772.85 tons centroid = moment/area = 557.59/53.58 = 10.41 in fm FP LCG = centroid scale factor = 10.41(20.4) = 212.28 ft fm FP = 212.28 - 204 = 8.28 ft aft of midships LCG of the curve is more than one foot from the known LCG (5.53 ft aft of midships), so the curve must be adjusted to move the LCG forward. The initial buoyancy curve is developed for comparison before correcting the weight curve.
c. Initial Buoyancy Curve for 1/3 Consumed Stores condition (3,748.15 tons) The buoyancy curve ordinates are calculated by determining section areas for each station from the Bonjeans Curves (FO-3), dividing the area by 35 to convert to unit buoyancy (tons per foot), and dividing the unit buoyancy by the scale factor (3.45). Drafts at each station are calculated assuming no hog or sag. Before calculating ordinates from the section areas, the area curve is integrated to compare total buoyancy and LCB with total weight and LCG from the weight curve. The integration is performed by Simpsons rule on 21 stations: Station Draft T ft 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Sums 14.67 14.72 14.77 14.82 14.87 14.92 14.97 15.02 15.07 15.12 15.17 15.22 15.27 15.32 15.37 15.42 15.47 15.52 15.57 15.62 15.67 Ordinate Multiplier (Section Area) y m ft2 2 55 131 205 270 326 379 428 471 499 515 519 500 470 418 357 285 215 153 95 41 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 18,963
Miscellaneous Tanks 5-132-0-F 5-170-0-F 5-164-0-F Total: 0.00 0.00 0.00 203.64 9.61 4.08 2.12 -9.61 -4.08 -2.12 68.4 fwd 29.0 fwd 37.0 fwd
W1/3 = 3,951.79 - 203.64 = 3,748.15

The ordinates for the weight curve are calculated by consolidating the differences by weight segments, distributing the weight difference over the length of the segment, and dividing the distributed weight difference by the scale factor (3.45). The new weight curve ordinates are calculated in the following table: Segment Old Weight Dist Load Ordinate New Ordinate Ordinate Difference wt diff/20.4 Difference Old ord - diff dl/3.45 in. tons tons/ft in. in. 0.15 0.62 1.37 2.05 2.95 3.29 4.29 4.50 2.95 2.95 3.90 4.10 3.50 3.25 4.28 3.58 2.57 2.96 2.18 2.35 1.95 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 -32.14 -1.38 -12.28 -83.18 -66.04 -6.22 -65.95 -10.08 -23.61 -0.70 -89.01 -4.95 -2.20 0.00 -39.24 -21.27 -0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -1.58 -0.07 -0.60 -4.08 -3.24 -0.30 -3.23 -0.49 -1.16 -0.03 -4.36 -0.24 -0.11 0.00 -1.92 -1.04 -0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.46 -0.02 -0.17 -1.18 -0.94 -0.09 -0.94 -0.14 -0.34 -0.01 -1.26 -0.07 -0.03 0.00 -0.56 -0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.62 1.37 1.59 2.93 3.12 3.11 3.56 2.86 2.01 3.76 3.76 3.49 1.99 4.21 3.55 2.57 2.40 1.88 2.35 1.95 0.49
f(V) ym ft3
2 220 262 820 540 1,304 758 1,712 942 1,996 1,030 2,076 1,000 1,880 836 1,428 570 860 306 380 41
Lever
f(M) s (V) ft4

0 220 524 2,460 2,160 6,520 4,548 1,1984 7,536 1,7964 10,300 22,836 12,000 24,440 11,704 21,420 9,120 14,620 5,508 7,220 820 193,904
s ft
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-1.4-0 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 20-20.6
The weight curve is integrated on these ordinates to determine total area (weight) and longitudinal position of the centroid (center of gravity). The integration is carried out in a tabular format:
h V W LCB
= = = = =
20.4 (h/3) (V) = (20.4/3)(18,963) = 128,948.4 ft3 V/35 = 128,948.4/35 = 3684.24 tons h(M)/(V) = 20.4(193,904)/(18,963) = 208.6 ft fm FP 208.6 - 204 = 4.6 ft aft of midships
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d. Adjusting Weight and Buoyancy Curves The weight and buoyancy curves disagree by 88.61 tons on total area. This error is undesirable, but probably tolerable. The 3.68-foot separation between the centers of gravity and buoyancy is excessive and must be corrected. The ordinates of both curves must be adjusted to bring the centers of gravity and buoyancy to within one foot of each other and within one foot of the point 5.53 feet abaft midships. Total buoyancy is corrected first by gradually increasing the area curve ordinates until the buoyancy (area under the curve divided by 35) equals total weight. There is a greater probability of error in reading the section areas for the middle stations because the Bonjeans Curves for the middle stations slope more gently than those near the ends. The corrections are therefore weighted towards the center of the curve. LCB is then moved aft by transferring a strip of uniform thickness from the forward half of the curve to the aft half. The thickness of the strip is determined by trial and error. After several iterations, the following section areas were determined: Station Ordinate Multiplier (Section Area) y m ft2 0 54 134 204 274 329 379 430 475 510 524 524 509 479 429 369 299 229 167 109 59 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1
LCG of the initial weight curve is moved forward by transferring strips of uniform thickness from segments in the after half of the curve to the corresponding segments in the forward half, and by reducing some ordinates in the after half to lower total weight slightly. The thickness of the strips are determined by trial and error. After several iterations, ordinates were determined and integrated as follows:
Segment Ordinate y in. -1.4-0 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 20-20.6 Totals 0.15 0.66 1.41 1.63 2.97 3.16 3.15 3.60 2.90 2.05 3.80 3.72 3.45 1.95 4.17 3.51 2.53 2.36 1.82 2.29 1.86 0.49 Length l in. 1.40 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.60 Area yl in2 0.21 0.66 1.41 1.63 2.97 3.16 3.15 3.60 2.90 2.05 3.80 3.72 3.45 1.95 4.17 3.51 2.53 2.36 1.82 2.29 1.86 0.29 53.49 lcg from FP Moment at lcg Area Midordinate in. in2 -0.70 0.50 1.50 2.50 3.50 4.50 5.50 6.50 7.50 8.50 9.50 10.50 11.50 12.50 13.50 14.50 15.50 16.50 17.50 18.50 19.50 20.30 -0.15 0.33 2.12 4.08 10.40 14.22 17.33 23.40 21.75 17.42 36.10 39.06 39.68 24.38 56.30 50.90 39.22 38.94 31.85 42.37 36.27 5.97 551.90
f(V) ym ft3
0 216 268 816 548 1,316 758 1,720 950 2,040 1,048 2,096 1,018 1,916 858 1,476 598 916 334 436 59 19,387
Lever
f(M) s (V) ft4

0 216 536 2,448 2,192 6,580 4,548 12,040 7,600 18,360 10,480 23,056 12,216 24,908 12,012 22,140 9,568 15,572 6,012 8,284 1,180 199,948
s ft
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Sums
W = area scale factor = 53.49(70.41) = 3766.51 tons centroid = moment/area = 551.90/53.49 = 10.32 in fm FP LCG = centroid scale factor = 10.32(20.4) = 210.53 ft fm FP = 210.53 - 204 = 6.53 ft aft of midships
The adjusted weight and buoyancy curves are shown in Figure 1-61. e. Shear and Bending Moment Curves Ordinates to the load shear and bending moment curves are determined by a continuous tabular calculation. Curve segments are identified by the bounding stations in the first column. The weight ordinates are written in the second column. The mean buoyancy ordinates for each segment are written in the third column. The load ordinate in the fourth column is found by subtracting the weight ordinate (column 2) from the mean buoyancy ordinate (column 3). The load curve is integrated along its length by keeping a running total of the area under the load curve in the fifth column. In keeping with the convention of integrating the load curve from left to right, the area total is run from bottom to top in this table. The area for each segment is the ordinate multiplied by the segment length (1 inch for all but the two end segments). The area total is the area up to the forward station of the segment. The shear ordinates in the sixth column are determined by dividing the areas in column 5 by two. The shear curve defined by these ordinates is shown in Figure 1-62. The shear ordinates are carried into the following table and written in the second column, next to the appropriate station (column 1). It is necessary to interpolate the x intercept (station 10.41) to properly integrate the curve and to determine the section of maximum bending moment. The mean shear ordinate for each segment is written in the third column. The shear curve is integrated along its length from forward aft (top to bottom); the running total is written in the fourth column. The shear areas are divided by 3 and written in the fifth column as the moment ordinates. The resulting bending moment curve is shown in Figure 1-62. Bending moments for use in the bending stress calculations are determined by multiplying the moment ordinate by the scale factor, 8,618.65 ft-tons/in.
h V W LCB
= = = = =
20.4 (h/3) (V) = (20.4/3)(19,387) = 131,831.6 ft3 V/35 = 131,831.6/35 = 3,766.62 tons h(M)/(V) = 20.4(199,948)/(19,387) = 210.4 ft fm FP 210.4 - 204 = 6.4 ft abaft midships
Now that the total buoyancy and location of LCB are both acceptably near the known values, the buoyancy curve ordinates are calculated: Station 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Section Area ft2 0 54 134 204 274 329 379 430 475 510 524 524 509 479 429 369 299 229 167 109 59 Unit Buoyancy B = A/35 tons/ft 0.00 1.54 3.83 5.83 7.83 9.40 10.83 12.29 13.57 14.57 14.97 14.97 14.54 13.69 12.26 10.54 8.54 6.54 4.77 3.11 1.69 Ordinate B/3.45 in. 0.00 0.45 1.11 1.69 2.27 2.72 3.14 3.56 3.93 4.22 4.34 4.34 4.22 3.97 3.55 3.06 2.48 1.90 1.38 0.90 0.49
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Segment Weight Mean Load Cum. Area Shear Ordinate Buoyancy Ordinate under Ordinate w Ordinate b - w Load Area/2 in. b in. Curve in. in. in2 -1.4-0 0.15 0.00 -0.15 -0.02 -0.012 0-1 0.66 0.23 -0.43 0.19 0.093 1-2 1.41 0.78 -0.63 0.62 0.308 2-3 1.63 1.40 -0.23 1.25 0.623 3-4 2.97 1.98 -0.99 1.48 0.738 4-5 3.16 2.49 -0.67 2.47 1.233 5-6 3.15 2.93 -0.22 3.14 1.568 6-7 3.60 3.35 -0.25 3.36 1.678 7-8 2.90 3.75 0.85 3.61 1.803 8-9 2.05 4.07 2.02 2.76 1.378 9-10 3.80 4.28 0.48 0.74 0.368 10-11 3.72 4.34 0.62 0.26 0.128 11-12 3.45 4.28 0.83 -0.36 -0.182 12-13 1.95 4.09 2.14 -1.19 -0.597 13-14 4.17 3.76 -0.41 -3.33 -1.667 14-15 3.51 3.31 -0.20 -2.92 -1.462 15-16 2.53 2.77 0.24 -2.72 -1.362 16-17 2.36 2.19 -0.17 -2.96 -1.482 17-18 1.82 1.64 -0.18 -2.79 -1.397 18-19 2.29 1.14 -1.15 -2.61 -1.307 19-20 1.86 0.69 -1.17 -1.46 -0.732 20-20.6 0.49 0.00 -0.49 -0.29 -0.147 2 3 4 Shear Mean Area Station Ordinate Shear under Ordinate Shear Curve in. in. in2 -1.4 -0.120 0 0.41 0 0.093 0.57 0.62 1 0.308 1.19 0.47 2 0.623 1.65 0.68 3 0.738 2.33 0.99 4 1.233 3.32 1.40 5 1.568 4.72 1.62 6 1.678 6.34 1.74 7 1.803 8.08 1.59 8 1.378 9.67 0.87 9 0.368 10.55 0.18 10 0.128 10.73 0.06 10.4 0.000 10.76 -0.09 11 -0.182 10.70 -0.39 12 -0.597 10.31 -1.13 13 -1.667 9.18 -1.56 14 -1.462 7.62 -1.41 15 -1.362 6.20 -1.42 16 -1.482 4.78 -1.44 17 -1.397 3.34 -1.35 18 -1.307 1.99 -1.02 19 -0.732 0.97 -0.44 20 -0.147 0.53 -0.07 20.6 0.000 0.46 f. Bending Stresses 1 5 6 Moment Moment Ordinate Mom. Ord Shear x 8618.65 Area/3 in. ft-tons 0.00 0 0.19 0.40 0.55 0.78 1.11 1.57 2.11 2.69 3.22 3.52 3.58 3.59 3.57 3.44 3.06 2.54 2.07 1.59 1.11 0.66 0.32 0.18 0.15 1,629 3,407 4,745 6,700 9,531 13,554 18,217 23,217 27,787 30,295 30,823 30,899 30,744 29,625 26,373 21,879 17,822 13,737 9,601 5,717 2,788 1,526 1,314
5 4 3
SCALE IN INCHES
BUOYANCY
5 4 3 2
2 1 0 WEIGHT
1 0
2 1 0 -1 AP 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 STATIONS 8 7
LOAD
2 1 0 -1
1 FP
Figure 1-61. Buoyancy, Weight, and Load Curves for FFG-7.
10.4 5 4 3
SCALE IN INCHES
MOMENT SHEAR
5 4 3 2 1 0 LOAD -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 AP 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 STATIONS 8 7 6 5 4 3
1 FP
Figure 1-62. Still Water Load, Shear, and Bending Moment Curves for FFG-7.
Bending stresses are calculated using the tabulated moments of inertia from the Longitudinal Strength and Inertia Sections Drawing (FO-4): Station Moment M ft-tons 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10.4 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 6,700 9,531 13,554 18,217 23,217 27,787 30,295 30,823 30,899 30,744 29,625 26,373 21,879 17,822 13,737 9,601
INA
in -ft
2 2
cdeck
ft 15.09 15.68 14.18 15.32 15.37 15.53 15.36 14.62 14.90 14.16 14.27 15.00 12.87 11.70 10.12 9.46
deck Mc/I tons/in2 0.91 1.32 1.88 2.04 2.74 3.12 2.92 2.64 2.85 2.60 2.70 2.92 2.56 2.33 2.01 1.59
ckeel
ft 20.58 18.84 19.27 17.23 16.38 15.59 15.21 15.45 15.02 15.51 15.10 14.27 15.29 14.83 14.32 13.07
keel Mc/I tons/in2 1.25 1.59 2.55 2.29 2.92 3.13 2.89 2.79 2.88 2.85 2.86 2.78 3.04 2.95 2.85 2.19
Since the ship is hogging, the deck is in tension and the keel in compression. All weight and buoyancy forces were given in long tons, so the stresses are in long tons per square inch. Stresses are converted to psi by multiplying by 2,240. Deck and keel bending stresses are plotted in Figure 1-63 (Page 1-94). Note that the maximum bending stresses do not occur at the section of maximum bending moment. g. Maximum Shear Stress
110,681 112,994 102,384 136,770 130,123 138,267 159,477 170,416 161,280 167,165 156,553 135,444 110,066 89,467 69,084 57,188
S(Q) 12 INA b
Shear stress is a function of shear force (S), moment of inertia (I), and plating thickness (b), and is maximum at the neutral axis for any section. Maximum shear occurs at station 7. Moments of inertia for adjacent stations and other stations of high shear are equal to or greater than that for station 7. Side-plating thickness at the neutral axis is constant between stations 3 and 17 (information taken from the section drawings of the Longitudinal Strength and Inertia Sections drawing - not reproduced in this handbook). Maximum shear stress can therefore be assumed to occur at or near station 7 at the neutral axis. The first moment of area about the neutral axis and shear stress for station 7 are calculated in a tabular format as shown on the following page.
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Component
Dimensions in.
a in2
y ft
ay in2ft
Mn Dk Girders 5 x 4 x 6# (12) 2nd Dk 4 x 4 x 5# Girders (11) Mn Dk Plating, 192 x .25 Inbd Mn Dk Plating, 84 x .375 Outbd 2nd Dk 202.5 x .1875 Plating, Inbd 2nd Dk Pltg, 52.5 x .25 Outbd "D" Strake 105 x .375 "C" Strake above N.A. 84 x .3125 (16.33') "D" Doubler 30 x .75 Side Stringers L20 6 x 4 x 7# L19 6 x 4 x 7# L18 5 x 4 x 6# L17 5 x 4 x 6# L16 6 x 4 x 7# L15 6 x 4 x 7# L14 6 x 4 x 8# Totals
15.93 15.100 240.54 10.66 6.062 64.61 48.00 15.370 737.76 31.50 15.370 484.16 37.97 6.312 239.66 13.13 6.312 82.85 39.38 10.995 432.93 26.25 3.500 91.88 22.50 11.750 264.38 1.67 1.67 1.33 1.33 1.67 1.67 1.96 270.5 13.625 11.750 9.875 8.125 4.625 2.875 1.250 22.77 19.64 13.11 10.79 7.73 4.80 2.45 2856.2
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 17 16 15 14 13 12
10.4
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3
STRESS, TONS/IN2
11 10 9 STATIONS MAIN DECK 10.4
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 17 16 15 14 13 12
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3
STRESS, TONS/IN2
Qhalf-section = Qwhole section = INA b S
ay = 2,856.2 in2-ft 2(2,856.2) = 5,712.4 in2-ft = 130,123 (from Longitudinal Strength and Inertia Sections drawing) = 2 plate thickness @ NA = 0.625 in. = 1.803 x 140.83 = 255.61 tons = S(Q)/12INAb = 1.5 tons/in2 = 1.5 2,240 = 3,360 psi
11 10 9 STATIONS KEEL
Figure 1-63. Still Water Bending Stresses for FFG-7.
1-11.7 Bending Stress in Inclined Ships. If a ship is inclined, as shown in Figure 164, the depth of sections is increased and bending stresses at the "corners" may be increased. For a ship heeled to an angle , the new axis of bending is parallel to the water line. The bending moment, M, can be resolved into Mcos about the old (horizontal) neutral axis and Msin about the centerline of the ship. Each component produces stress as if it acted independently, and the total stress at some point P, with coordinates (x,y), is: t = where: t y x = = = total bending stress at (x,y) distance from the old neutral axis to the point in question distance from the centerline to the point in question moment of inertia about the old neutral axis moment of inertia about the centerline My cos INA Mx sin ICL
Y X
Y N
NEU T AXI RAL S HORIZONTAL
O 0
D OL RAL T U NE AXIS
C L
Figure 1-64. Stresses in Inclined Ships.
INA = ICL =
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Since the section is not symmetrical about its new bending axis, the neutral axis is not parallel to the waterline (horizontal) but is inclined to it by some angle , as shown in Figure 1-64. The angle, , between the new neutral axis and the horizontal can be found from: INA ICL tan = tan
If the point farthest from the neutral axis has coordinates (x1, y1) referenced to the centerline and the old neutral (horizontal) axis, maximum bending stress in the section is: max = My1 cos INA Mx1 sin ICL
Tabulated section moments of inertia about the centerline are not normally available to the salvage engineer, and must be calculated. Calculating ICL is somewhat simpler and shorter than calculating INA because the incremental second moments are taken about a known axis (the centerline). There is therefore no need to sum first moments about an arbitrary axis to locate the neutral axis. For intact sections, only the incremental second moments of area for one side need be summed; the moment of inertia is twice the sum for one side. Distances from the centerline are scaled from section drawings. Maximum bending stresses in an inclined ship may be 20 percent greater than when the ship is upright. 1-11.8 Combined Stresses. The bending (tensile or compressive) and shear stresses in a ship or other beam combine to form the principal stress at any point. It can be shown that: s (s ) = 2 where: s = = = principal stress at any point simple tensile or compressive stress at the point in question shear stress at the point in question
This relationship does not solve for s so iterative or trial and error methods are used to determine principal stress. The presence of shear in the hull girder distorts the sections so that the conditions on which simple beam theory are based are not strictly fulfilled (see Chapter 2 for an explanation of basic beam theory). This alters bending stress distribution across the section from that predicted by beam theory. Analysis of this problem is beyond the scope of this book, but the general effect is to increase bending stress at the corners of the section, i.e., the deck edges and the bilge, and reduce bending stresses at the center of the deck and bottom. This effect is appreciable only when the ratio of length to depth is small. 1-11.9 Acceptable Stress Levels. The stress that any material can withstand without failure is a function of the properties of that material and the definition of failure. Fracture is an obvious and final form of failure. Permanent or plastic deformation, or unacceptable extents of deflection or elastic deformation can also be considered failure. 1-11.9.1 Failure Definition. In many engineered systems, deflection or deformation of a component in excess of certain limits interferes with the operation of the mechanism and is considered failure. Plastic deformation is often considered failure because of the discontinuous behavior of the material as it yields. Plastic behavior may be acceptable in components subjected to in-line, tensile loading where elongation will not cause interference with any other components. The deformation may render the component unsuitable for continued use, but many salvage evolutions are one-time events. Plastic behavior or excessive deflection/deformation should be carefully examined, as such deformation in components can alter stress levels in other components in unforeseen or unpredictable ways. Plastic failure in ship hulls is unacceptable because it unpredictably alters load responses. Failure of a given component must be defined accurately, so that limiting stress values for that component can be set. The limiting stress values define limiting loads for components; the degree of load sharing among components will define system load limits. 1-11.9.2 Factors of Safety. Use of an appropriate factor of safety keeps stresses well below the failure point and allows for manufacturing defects and inconsistencies in loading. Safety factors are specified by various regulatory agencies, depending on intended use of systems and components. In salvage it is not always possible to use a standard safety factor, so reduced factors of safety must often be accepted. This does not mean that salvors can disregard safety factors. Each situation must be examined to determine acceptable stresses and loads. A reduced safety factor represents an increased chance of failure. The consequences of failure must be considered and precautions taken.
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1-11.9.3 Common Materials. The most commonly used shipbuilding materials are:
Steel and Iron. Aluminum. Wood. Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP). Copper and Copper Alloys.
In addition to encountering these as components of a ship, the salvor may use any of them in on-site repairs or fabrication of salvage systems, along with concrete or other materials. The ultimate or yield stresses of many materials vary depending on whether tensile, compressive or shear stress is experienced. This is an important factor in salvage operations, where components may be loaded in ways other than those anticipated by the designer. The mechanical properties of commonly used materials are given in Appendix E. Steel, in the form of rolled plate, rolled or forged structural shapes, or complex castings, is the most commonly used shipbuilding material. Shipbuilding steel meeting ABS and Navy specifications has a yield stress of not less than 32,000 psi and an ultimate stress of 58,000 -70,000 psi. In the United States, structural shapes and plates for general use are usually manufactured to American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) Standard A36, requiring a tensile yield strength of not less than 36,000 psi. Unless otherwise specified, mild steel can be assumed to have a yield strength of about 30,000 psi, although some alloys have yield strengths as low as 20,000 psi. Plating thickness is often specified by weight per square foot. Steel weighs approximately 490 pounds per cubic foot, so a 40.8-pound plate is approximately 1-inch thick. Iron weighs 480 pounds per cubic foot, so 1-inch iron plate weighs exactly 40 pounds per square foot. In common usage, the decimal fraction is often dropped when naming steel plate; 1-inch steel plate is called 40-pound plate, quarter-inch steel plate is called 10-pound plate, etc. This practice can sometimes lead to confusionsteel plate and shapes are sometimes fabricated to dimensions specified by weight per area or linear dimension. The thickness of plate so manufactured will be slightly less than assumed by dividing the weight by 40. Table E-15 correlates steel-plate thickness to weight per square foot. Major load-bearing members, such as sheer and garboard strakes, main deck stringers and bottom girders, etc., and submarine pressure hulls are frequently fabricated of high-stength steels. High-strength steels are designated by an "HY" (high yield), "HSLA" (high-strength, low-alloy) or number, i.e., HY80, HSLA80, HY100, HY140, etc.; the number specifying the nominal yield stress in thousands of pounds per square inch. High-strength steels are difficult to weld and cut. Intermediate-strength steels, with yield stresses in the 35,000 - 45,000 psi range, are often used for the major strength members of larger merchant hulls to provide the required strength with lighter scantlings. These steels have been called high-tensile (HTS) or higher strength steels by classification societies to avoid confusion with truly high-strength steels. Corrosion-resistant steels (CRES), sometimes called stainless steels, are used extensively where corrosion or appearance are important factors. Strength and other properties vary widely, depending on composition. Because of their resistance to oxidation, corrosion-resistant steels are considered nonferrous metals, and are difficult to cut with oxygen-fuel or oxygen-arc cutting equipment. Low magnetic signature alloys are sometimes used on mine countermeasures ships. Cast iron is used occasionally for complex shapes not subject to tensile loads. Wrought iron is more malleable and corrosion-resistant than mild steel, and nearly as strong. Wrought iron is no longer produced in the United States, but was formerly used in place of steel in ship construction, and may be encountered in older ships. Wrought iron stud-link chain is found occasionally. Aluminum is used extensively in small ships, boats, and landing craft. The yield stress of pure aluminum is about 5,000 psi, but some alloys have yield stresses as high as 78,000 psi. Aluminum alloys used in shipbuilding have yield stresses in the range of 12,000 - 20,000 psi. Because of aluminums low density, aluminum alloy members are lighter, but bulkier, than steel members of the same strength; aluminum is often used in superstructures to reduce topside weight. Wood is used in the construction of mine countermeasures ships and small craft. The hardness and density of wood vary with species and water content. Green wood contains varying amounts of water as sap; wood absorbs water in humid climates or when immersed. The strength characteristics of wood vary with species and type of stress; all species are much stronger against normal stresses than against shear; most are stronger in tension than in compression. Glass Reinforced Plastic is used in the hulls of small craft and some mine countermeasures ships, in piping systems, as sheathing over wooden hulls and in joiner bulkheads. It is also frequently used as a patching material for other materials. Strength varies depending on the orientation of the glass fibers and plastic resins used. Copper and its alloys, such as brass, bronze, monel, and copper-nickels, are used in piping systems, propellers, and fittings where corrosion resistance or low magnetic signature are required. Although certain copper alloys are very strong, they are seldom used as structural members or fittings, except on mine countermeasures ships, because of their high cost.
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1-11.10 Hull Girder Deflection. Hull girder deflection is a function of the fourth integral of the load curve with respect to ship length, and girder stiffness, indicated by the product of moment of inertia (I) and modulus of elasticity (E). Deflection is determined by double integration of the curve of bending moment divided by EI. Since I, and sometimes E vary along a ships length, M/EI is calculated at several stations to construct an M/EI curve. The curve is integrated from left to right to determine the ordinates to the first integral curve, which is again integrated from left to right to determine ordinates to the second integral curve. A straight line is drawn between the ends of the second integral curve, as shown in Figure 1-65. The vertical separation between the straight line and the second integral curve at any station is the deflection at that station. As shown in Figure 1-65, the straight line in the deflection plot corresponds to a straight line connecting forward and after drafts in a floating ship, i.e., deflection is assumed zero at the fore and after perpendiculars. The hull deflection of a stranded or damaged casualty is readily observable; a salvage engineer does not usually calculate hull deflection unless unusually extreme loadings are contemplated and the degree of hull deflection may affect salvage work or conditions. Observed deflection is a rough indicator of hull stress; a first estimate of stress can be obtained by comparing a casualtys deflection with the stress corresponding to similar deflections in ships of similar form and size. Table 1-15 gives stresses and deflections calculated for four different ships in various conditions. 1-11.11 Approximate Strength Calculations. Lack of detailed ship data or time for rigorous calculations may necessitate the approximation of all or part of the strength calculations. The following paragraphs describe methods to estimate weight distribution, section properties, and still water or wave bending moment. 1-11.12 Weight Curve Approximations. There are a number of empirically derived approximations for weight distribution, none of which is equally applicable to all ship types. The station coefficient method, presented below, is probably the most accurate, but is applicable to only three ship types at present. Less accurate, but more generally applicable methods are presented in the following paragraphs.
SECOND INTEGRAL
DEFLECTION AT B FIRST INTEGRAL
AP
xB
__ M EI
FP
DEFLECTION AT B
Figure 1-65. Hull Girder Deflection Determination.
Table 1-15. Hull Deflection.

CONTAINER SHIP (1400 TEU)
Ship Type:
FFG-7
T-AO 187
VLCC
Characteristics:
CB
LBP, ft Beam, ft Depth, ft Deflection conditions: Full Load Maximum stress, ksi Maximum deflection, in. Ballast Maximum stress, ksi Maximum deflection, in. Full load w/hogging wave Maximum stress, ksi Maximum deflection, in. Stranded on one pinnacle (hogging) deflection at 34 ksi Stranded on two pinnacles (sagging) deflection at 34 ksi
046 408 47 30
0.56 650 97.5 50
0.87 1050 175.9 90.5
0.49 673 105.7 66.5
Stresses and Deflections:
5.6 2.4
-3.4 2.5
15.6 6.2
-4.3 -1.1
5.5 2.3
-11.1 5.9
13.0 5.3
10.3 8.1
17.8 7.2 10.6 -20.3
-18.7 10.6 14.0 -27.2
29.3 17.7 17.7 -42.3
23.4 11.2 11.0 -20.4
Note: Positive stresses indicate tension, negative stresses compression From Hull Deflection Versus Bending Moment Study for Supervisor of Salvage, U.S. Navy, Herbert Engineering Corporation, 5 March 1991
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1-11.12.1 Station Coefficient Method. This method was developed as part of the Pouricelli-Boyd-Schleiffer regression analysis discussed in Paragraph 1-7 and provides a means to approximate lightship weight distribution of three types of merchant hulls:
Table 1-16. Station Coefficients, CSN.

Station A AFT 20.5-21 20-20.615 20-20.5 19.5-20 19-19.5 18.5-19 18-18.5 17.5-18 17-17.5 16.5-17 16-16.5 15.5-16 15-15.5 14.5-15 14-14.5 13.5-14 13-13.5 12.5-13 12-12.5 11.5-12 11-11.5 10.5-11 0.006303 0.015807
CSN
B C AFT
Station A
CSN
B 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.022542 0.021834 0.021352 0.022349 0.021834 0.021352 0.020387 0.017493 0.016496 C 0.024942 0.024942 0.024942 0.024942 0.024942 0.024942 0.024942 0.024942 0.024942 0.024942 0.024942 0.023199 0.022668 0.021606 0.021114 0.020052 0.019522 0.018991 0.01793 0.017399 0.016338
Breakbulk (general) cargo ship with engine room and accommodations three-quarters aft of the forward perpendicular. Container ship with forward and aft accommodations. Tanker with engine room and accommodations aft.
The length between perpendiculars (LBP) is divided into 20 basic segments. The breakbulk cargo ship has a segment forward of the forward perpendicular and the tanker and container ship each have segments aft of the aft perpendicular. Station coefficients (CSN) from Table 1-16 for the appropriate ship type are used to determine the weight ordinate (OSN) for each half segment: OSN = CSN W1s where: Wls = lightship weight The weight ordinates are plotted as shown in Figure 1-66 to develop the lightship weight curve. Variable weights (cargo, flooding, etc.) are added as rectangles or trapezoids at the appropriate station for the ships actual load condition. 1-11.12.2 Bare Hull Estimates. For ship types other than the three mentioned above, the lightship weight curve is approximated in three steps:
10-10.5 0.023068 9.5-10 0.023068 0.012377 0.010676 9-9.5 0.023068 0.014333 0.015049 0.01793 8.5-9 0.023068 0.022157 0.017975 0.021114 8-8.5 0.023068 0.020875 0.020387 0.034267 7.5-8 0.023068 0.020875 0.022831 0.038513 7-7.5 0.023068 0.020875 0.02476 0.039536 6.5-7 0.023068 0.021516 0.028169 0.034267 6-6.5 0.022157 0.022157 0.029616 0.025321 5.5-6 0.021516 0.023472 0.025243 0.025321 5-5.5 0.020875 0.032612 0.025243 0.025321 4.5-5 0.020201 0.033252 0.038845 0.024942 4-4.5 0.019560 0.041076 0.038845 0.024942 3.5-4 0.018919 0.053453 0.040774 0.024942 3-3.5 0.018245 0.055409 0.042736 0.024942 2.5-3 0.017604 0.052172 0.043701 0.024942 2-2.5 0.016963 0.028025 0.022542 0.024942 1.5-2 0.016289 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942 1-1.5 0.015142 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942 0.5-1 0.014333 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942 0-0.5 0.013692 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942 -0.55-0 0.013051 FWD FWD Ship A Breakbulk cargo ship - engine room and accommodations three-quarters aft from Ship B Container ship with forward and aft accommodations Ship C Tanker with engineroom aft
FP
Osn
AP
FP
BREAK-BULK CARGO SHIP-ENGINE ROOM AND ACCOMMODATIONS THREE-QUARTERS AFT FROM FP
The hull steel weight is calculated or estimated by deducting weights of machinery, propellers, and superstructure from the lightship weight, or by the methods described below. The bare hull weight distribution is estimated by one of the methods described in the following paragraphs. The deducted items are added at their locations to complete the lightship weight curve.
Osn
AP
FP
CONTAINERSHIP WITH FORWARD AND AFTER ACCOMMODATIONS
Osn
AP
FP
TANKER WITH AFT ENGINEROOM Figure 1-66. Station Coefficient Weight Curves.
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After the distribution of the hull weight of the ship has been estimated, the variable weights of fuel, stores, cargo, boats, aircraft, ballast, ammunition, crew and effects, etc., are added by superimposing rectangles or trapezoids on the curve at their locations. Hull steel weight for commercial vessels can be estimated by the two relationships shown below: W H L B D k 1, WH L (B where: WH = L = B D k1 = = = = = hull weight, ltons length between perpendiculars, feet molded beam, feet molded depth, feet weight coefficient 0.0027 for welded construction 0.0030 for riveted construction weight coefficient 0.0433 for welded construction 0.0558 for riveted construction or,
POWER DENSITY LB/SHP
280 260 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 DIRECT DRIVE DIESEL NUCLEAR STEAM TURBINE REHEAT STEAM TURBINE GEARED DIESEL COMBINED DIESEL AND GAS TURBINE GAS TURBINE REGENERATIVE
2D) k2
k2
= = =
20 4 6 8 10 12 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 SHP RATING OF PROPULSION PLANT (THOUSANDS)

COMPILED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES, INCLUDING SHIPS AND SHIPBUILDING OF TOMORROW, SCHNKNECKT, LSCH, SCHELZEL & OBENHAUS, 1983; SHIP DESIGN AND CONSTUCTION, TAGGART, 1980; MARINE ENGINEERING, HARRINGTON, 1955 AND MANUFACTURERS DATA
Weights of machinery and outfits can sometimes be obtained from the ships information book (SIB), operating and Figure 1-67. Machinery Weight. technical manuals, or manufacturers data. Machinery weight for commercial vessels can be estimated very approximately by use of the "power density" factors taken from Figure 1-67.
There is no standard definition of what is included in the term machinery weight, so figures given in ships data must be investigated to determine what items are included. Values taken from the curves in Figure 1-67 include the weight of main propulsion units, shafting, bearings, propellers, boilers, stacks, condensers, generators, switchboards, and pumps; all piping, floors, ladders and gratings in the machinery spaces; water in boilers, engines, and piping; and refrigerating and steam heating systems for a normal vessel. Weights of steering gear, deck machinery, and piping outside the machinery spaces are not included. Machinery weights are subject to variation, depending on the ship type and service. In ship types that require particularly rugged or reliable machinery, machinery weight will be about 10 percent higher than the values from Figure 1-67. Different makes of diesel engine of the same horsepower will vary in weight by as much as 50 percent. Total machinery weight in Table 1-17. Machinery Weights for Combatants. specialized vessels will include items not fitted on ordinary ships, or larger numbers of common items. Examples are the refrigeration plant on a refrigerated cargo ship, additional pumps and generators on salvage and service vessels, dredge machinery, etc. BB, CV 50-60 pounds/SHP Because of their high speed and correspondingly powerful machinery, the weight of machinery of naval combatants is a large portion of the total weight of the ship. Emphasis on machinery weight savings during design results in lower weight per horsepower than in the average commercial vessel. Machinery dry weight for different types of combatants can be taken from Table 1-17.
CG, CL, CA DD, FF DD, FF, CG (gas turbine) 35-40 pounds/SHP 27-30 pounds/SHP 20-25 pounds/SHP
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Table 1-18 gives weights of bronze propellers as a function of shaft horsepower and rpm. Table 1-19 gives summarized weight lists for different types of ships to illustrate general trends in weight distribution. Additional weight summaries are included in Appendix B.
Table 1-18. Weights of Bronze Propellers (lbs).
Shaft RPM 160 2,030 3,880 7,140 10,360 14,545 24,245 32,400 40,115
SHP 500 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
100 3,415 6,545 12,080 17,410 24,905 55,100 62,155
120 2,775 5,270 9,830 14,105 20,495 35,705 50,030
140 2,315 4,475 8,265 11,680 17,190 29,315 40,335 50,910
180 1,785 3,460 6,350
200 1,585 3,150 5,730
250 1,255 2,445 4,630
300 970 1,915 3,670
350 750 1,520 2,975
From Ships and Marine Engineers, Volume IV, The Design of Merchant Ships, Schokker, Newerburg, Bossnack, and Burghgracf, The Technical Publishing Company H. Stam, 1953
Table 1-19. Lightship Weight Summaries.

Ship Type Mariner With Added General Features, Cargo Ship1 1962 5,115 2,586 1,039 --8,746 5,011 2,230 867 --8,108 Combination Passenger/ Reefer Container Ship2 5,482 3,959 982 --10,4235 BargeBargecarrying carrying ship Ship (LASH)4 (SEABEE)5 9,588 2,937 1,105 --13,630 12,983 2,979 1,421 --17,383
Item Steel Outfit Machinery10 Fixed Ballast Lightship
Container Ship3 10,282 2,525 1,911 --14,718
Tanker6 11,519 1,844 831 --14,194
Ore Carrier7 12,137 1,600 980 --14,717
Small Freighter8 2,248 574 398 --3,220
Passenger Container Ship Vessel9 11,850 6,875 2,525 --21,250 4,557 1,739 837 3,329 10,452
Weights in Long Tons
From Ship Design and Construction, Amelio M. DArcangelo; Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1969 and Princples of Naval Architecture, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Second Edition, 1967 and Third Edition, 1988 Notes: 1 573 LOA, machinery and house 3 4 aft, 6 holds, 2 tween decks, 24,000 SHP, 23 Kts. 2 574 LOA, machinery and house midships, 19,800 SHP, 20 Kts. 3 752 LOA, machinery 3 4 aft, house forward, 1,920 TEU, 60,000 SHP, twin screw, 27 Kts. 4 820 LOA, machinery 3 4 aft, house forward, 79 LASH barges, 32,000 SHP, 27.5 Kts. 5 824 LOA, machinery 3 4 aft, house forward, 38 SEABEE barges, 36,000 SHP, 20 Kts. 6 810 LOA, machinery and house aft, single bottom, 5 center and 8 wing tanks, 19,000 SHP, 17 Kts. 7 765 LOA, machinery and house aft, 7 holds, 19,000 SHP, 16.5 Kts. 8 390 LPB, two deck, three-island design, 3,150 SHP, 13 Kts. 9 661 LPB, ten deck, 1,200 passenger, 650 crew, 30,000 SHP, 20 Kts. 10 Steam turbine plants in all cases, single screw unless otherwise noted.
Table 1-20. Prohashas Ordinates for the Coffin Diagram.
Type of Ship Tanker Full-bodied cargo ships w/o erections Fine-lined cargo ships w/o erections Full-bodied cargo ships with erections
Prohaskas ordinates a&c b 0.75WH / L 1.125WH / L 0.65WH / L 1.175WH / L 0.60WH / L 1.20WH / L 0.55WH / L 1.225WH / L
Type of Ship Fine-lined cargo ships with erections Small passenger ships Large passenger ships
Prohaskas ordinates a&c b 0.45WH / L 1.275WH / L 0.40WH / L 1.30WH / L 0.30WH / L 1.35WH / L
where: WH = Hull weight, ltons (less propelling machinery) L = Length overall, ft
Reproduced from Applied Naval Architecture, R. Munro, 1967
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1-11.12.3 Coffin Diagram. Bare hull weight distribution for ships with parallel midbody can be approximated by a line diagram, commonly called a coffin diagram, consisting of a rectangle over the length of the midbody and trapezoids at the bow and stern. Three hull weight distribution methods are based on the coffin diagram. The Biles and Prohaska methods each divide the length overall into three equal segments as shown in Figure 1-68. A third method, that may be termed the general parallel midbody method, divides the length into three segments based on the observed length of the parallel midbody. Biles method ordinates for ordinary cargo and passenger vessels are shown in the Figure 1-68, Prohaska method ordinates for different ship types are given in Table 1-20. The centroid of the Biles diagram is 0.0056L abaft midships. Small adjustments can be made to the end ordinates so that the centroid of the diagram corresponds to the longitudinal position of the center of gravity of the hull. LCG of the bare hull is not at the same location as the light ship LCG. The position of the centroid of the coffin diagram must be chosen so that LCG will shift to a known or estimated position as weights are added, corresponding to the condition where LCG is known. By shortening one end ordinate and lengthening the other by an equal amount, a triangle is transferred from one trapezoid to the other, as shown by the dotted lines in Figure 1-69. The centroid of each triangle lies one-third of its length from its base: 1 L = 3 3 L 9
L/3 AP
L/3 BILES METHOD ORDINATES WH a = 0.566 __ L WH b = 1.195 __ L
L/3 FP
WH c = 0.653 __ L WHERE WH = HULL WEIGHT (LESS MACHINERY)

FROM APPLIED NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, R. MUNRO-SMITH, 1967.
Figure 1-68. Coffin Diagram.
__ 7 L 9
x G G1
L/3 AP
L/3 54(WH )GG1 x = ____________ 7L2
L/3 FP
where L is the length of the diagram, corresponding to length overall (LOA) of the ship. The shift of the centroid of the total area is therefore (7/9)L. If the base of the triangle is taken as x, and its height as L/3, then,
Figure 1-69. Adjusting LCG of the Coffin Diagram.
1 L Area of triangle = x = 2 3 xL 7L Moment of the shift = = 6 9 The shift of the centroid of the diagram, representing the LCG of the hull is thus: L2 7 Shift of LCG = ( x ) WH 54
xL 6 7xL 2 54
where WH is the bare hull weight. The triangle base, x, required to give the desired shift of LCG is: x = 54 (WH) (desired shift of LCG) 7L 2
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In the general parallel midbody method, the beginning and end points and length of the parallel midbody are determined by inspection. The middle ordinate (b) is defined as shown in Figure 1-70. The end ordinates are chosen so that the centroid of the entire diagram corresponds to the bare hull LCG. Figure 1-71 shows how to select end ordinates for a trapezoid to place the center of the trapezoid in a desired location. 1-11.12.4 Ships Without Parallel Midbody. An approximate weight curve for ships without parallel midbody can be constructed as a parabola over a rectangle, with the area under each representing half the bare hull weight (Cole, reproduced in Applied Naval Architecture, R. MunroSmith, 1967). The ordinate for the rectangle is WH/2L; the maximum (midships) ordinate for the parabola is 3WH/4L, as shown in Figure 1-72. LCG of this figure is amidships. Correction for LCG lying forward or aft of midships is made by swinging the parabola. A line parallel to the base is drawn through the centroid of the area under the parabolic curve. A second line is drawn from the base of the parabola at its midlength to intersect the first line at a distance from the midships ordinate equal to twice the desired shift in LCG. This line is extended beyond the contour of the parabola. The intersection of this line with a horizontal line drawn from the center of the parabolic curve defines one point on the new curve. Parallel lines drawn at other ordinates define other points on the new curve, as shown in Figure 1-72. For ships without parallel midbody, a bare hull weight curve can also be generated by assuming that two-thirds of the hull weight follows the still water buoyancy curve and distributing the remaining one-third in the form of a trapezoid so arranged that the center of gravity lies above the center of buoyancy, as shown in Figure 1-73. This method has been found to yield close approximations to the hull weight distribution for large warships.
1.4 b l 1.3 W __ H L W = Hull Weight b = b1 x l = LENGTH OF TANK SECTIONS OR PARALLEL MIDDLE BODY
b1
1.2
L = LENGTH OF SHIP OVERALL
1.1
1.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 l __ L

FROM PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, SNAME, 2ND EDITION, 1967.
0.5
0.6
0.7
Figure 1-70. General Parallel Midbody Weight Curve.
l = LENGTH OVER WHICH THE WEIGHT IS DISTRIBUTED x = LONGITUDINAL DISTANCE FROM THE SMALLER END OF THE TRAPEZOID TO ITS CENTER OF GRAVITY a = AREA OF THE TRAPEZOID = TONS FOR WEIGHT AND LOAD CURVES b1, b2 = END ORDINATES
b2
b1
1-11.13 Wave Bending Moment with Nonstandard Waves. The salvage engineer must often assess the ability of a damaged casualty to withstand wave l bending loads, either during the salvage operation or during transit to a repair __ ( 3x __ -1) __ ); b = 2a __ (2 - 3x b1 = 2a 2 l l l l facility. Because of the tedious nature of the calculations, the usual first task is to determine the stresses imposed by a Figure 1-71. Centroid of a Trapezoid. standard L/20 or 1.1 L wave with length equal to ships length. If the ship can carry loads imposed by a standard wave, no further calculations need be performed in most cases. If, however, the stresses imposed by the standard wave are excessive, calculations must be performed for trial wave heights and lengths until the maximum acceptable wave is determined, unless bending moment caused by waves with differing length and height can be correlated to those caused by the standard wave.
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A 1991 analysis by Herbert Engineering Corporation of five hull forms with block coefficients ranging from 0.46 to 1.0 developed factors that relate nonstandard wave bending moments to normalized standard bending moment. The factors are functions of block coefficient, wavelength, and wave height. The analysis revealed that for fine-lined ships, maximum wave bending moment occurs at wavelengths slightly less than the ships length (approximately 0.75L), and may be as much as 15 percent higher than bending moment for the standard wave. Figure 1-74 shows the relationship between wavelength and bending moment for an FFG-7 Class ship (CB = 0.46) for a 1.1 L wave height. Figure 1-75 (Page 1-104) shows the relationship between standard wave bending moment and maximum wave bending moment as a function of block coefficient. Figure 1-76 (Page 1-104) shows normalized maximum and standard hogging and sagging moments as a function of block coefficient. All curves are based on 1.1 L trochoidal waves. The normalized bending moment is given by: NBM = WBM 35 L 2Bh
ORIGINAL CURVE CORRECTED CURVE

2X
a + b = 1.25
WH L b= 3WH 4L
2 b 5 BASE LINE
X
a=
WH 2L
X = DESIRED SHIFT OF LCG

FROM APPLIED NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, R. MUNRO-SMITH, 1967.
Figure 1-72. Parabolic Weight Curve.
PARALLEL TO STILL WATER BUOYANCY CURVE 2/ W 3 H
1/ W 3 H AP FP
FROM BASIC SHIP THEORY, RAWSON AND TUPPER 3RD EDITION, 1983.
Figure 1-73. Alternate Weight Distribution for Ships Without Parallel Midbody.
NORMALIZED MOMENT VS. WAVELENGTH (Cb = 0.46)
0.015 0.01
HOG
where: NBM = normalized wave bending moment, dimensionless wave bending moment, ft-lton standard seawater specific gravity, ft3/lton length between perpendiculars, ft beam, ft wave height, ft = 1.1 L
0.005 0 -0.005
WBM = 35 L B h = = = =
SAG
-0.01 -0.015 -0.02 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 LOCATION FROM FP (X/LBP) 0.3 0.2 0.1
Figure 1-76 (Page 1-104) can be entered with block coefficient to get an estimate of the standard bending moment (waveheight = 1.1 L, wavelength = L).
L = 1.0 LBP L = .75 LBP
L = .50 LBP L = .25 LBP
L = 1.0 LBP L = .75 LBP
L = .50 LBP L = .25 LBP
L = LENGTH OF TROCHOIDAL WAVE

FROM WAVEHEIGHT AND WAVELENGTH VERSUS BENDING MOMENT STUDY FOR SUPERVISOR OF SALVAGE U.S. NAVY, HERBERT ENGINEERING CORP., 20 FEBRUARY 1991
Figure 1-74. FFG-7 Bending Moment with Varying Wavelength.
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The plots in Figures 1-77 and 1-78 are entered with wavelength expressed as a function of ship length to determine the ratio between wave bending moment for the wavelength and the standard wave bending moment. The ratio is then applied to wave bending moment determined from Figure 176 or by rigorous calculation to estimate wave bending moment for the nonstandard wavelength. Figure 1-79 (Page 1-106) gives normalized bending moments for wavelengths equal to L with nonstandard waveheight. 1-11.14 Murrays Method for Approximating Maximum Bending Moment. An approximation of determining maximum bending moment has been developed by J. M. Murray, former Chief Ship Surveyor to Lloyds Register of Shipping. Murrays method computes still water bending moment by taking moments of weight and buoyancy about midships. Wave bending moment is calculated by use of empirical coefficients. The sum of the two gives total bending moment at midships, which can be taken as the maximum bending moment in most cases. The method is reasonably accurate for ships floating at a trim of less than one percent of their length. 1-11.14.1 Still Water Bending Moment. Still water bending moment (SWBM) is given by: SWBM = MW where: MW = MB
1.16 1.14 1.12

MOMENT RATIO
1.1 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1 0.4 HOG 0.5 0.6 0.7 BLOCK COEFFICIENT 0.8 0.9 1 SAG
Figure 1-75. Ratio of Maximum to Standard Wave Bending Moment as a Function of Block Coefficient.
0.025 0.02
NORMALIZED BENDING MOMENT
0.015 0.01 0.005 0 -0.005 -0.01 -0.015
mean moment of weight -0.02 Mwf + Mwa -0.025 = __________ 0.8 0.9 1 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 2 BLOCK COEFFICIENT MAX. HOG MAX. SAG Mwf = moment of weight STD. HOG STD. SAG forward of midships, ft-lton or m-tonne FROM WAVEHEIGHT AND WAVELENGTH VERSUS BENDING MOMENT STUDY FOR SUPERVISOR OF SALVAGE U.S. NAVY, HERBERT ENGINEERING CORP., 20 FEBRUARY 1991 = Wf(LCGf) Mwa = moment of weight aft of midships, ft-lton or mFigure 1-76. Normalized Wave Bending Moment as a Function of Block Coefficient. tonne = Wf, a(LCGfa) Wf, a = weight of the forebody or afterbody, lton or m-tonne LCGf, a = LCG of the forebody or afterbody, measured from midships, ft or m Mbf + Mba MB = mean moment of buoyancy = _________ 2 Mbf = moment of buoyancy forward of midships, ft-lton or m-tonne = B f (LCBf ) Mba = moment of buoyancy aft of midships, ft-lton or m-tonne = Ba(LCBa) Bf,a = buoyancy of the forebody or afterbody, lton or m-tonne LCBf, a = LCB of the forebody or afterbody, measured from midships, ft or m
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WAVE MOMENT / STANDARD WAVE MOMENT
1.25 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0 0.25 SAG 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 WAVELENGTH / LBP HOG
Figure 1-77. Ratio of Wave Bending Moment to Standard Bending Moment, CB = 0.46.
WAVE MOMENT / STANDARD WAVE MOMENT
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 HOG 0.2 0 0.2 SAG 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 WAVELENGTH / LBP
Figure 1-78. Ratio of Wave Bending Moment to Standard Bending Moment, CB = 1.0.
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Since total weight and buoyancy moments are mean moments, they are numerically equal to the product of the mean weight or buoyancy and the mean lever arm: MW = Mwf + Mwa 2 Mbf + Mba 2 W + Wa = f LCGm 2 B + Ba = f LCBm 2
MB = where: LCGm = mean distance from midships of the centers of gravity of the fore and after bodies = mean distance from midships of the centers of buoyancy of the fore and after bodies
0.025 0.02
NORMALIZED BENDING MOMENT
0.015 0.01 0.005 HOG 0 SAG -0.005 -0.01 -0.015 -0.02 -0.025 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 WAVE HEIGHT / STANDARD WAVE HEIGHT Cb = 0.46 Cb = 0.58 Cb = 0.78 Cb = 0.84 Cb = 1.0
LCBm
Since the sum of the weights of the fore and after bodies is equal to the total weight, which is equal to displacement, which is similarly equal to the sum of the buoyancies of the fore and after bodies, still water bending moment can be expressed: SWBM = (LCGm 2 LCBm)
If the mean of the centers of gravity is greater than the mean of the centers of buoyancy, the weight levers are longer than the buoyancy levers, and the net moment is hogging, as shown in Figure 1-80. If the mean of buoyancy centers is greater, the net moment is negative, and sagging. Forward and after weight moments are determined by summing the moments of individual weights. Weights and centers of variable weights can be obtained from ships officers or estimated with reasonable accuracy. Machinery weight can be approximated from the factors given in Paragraph 1-11.12.2; machinery lcg is determined by inspection. Hull weight can be estimated as described in Paragraph 1-11.12.2. The mean distance from midships of the centers of gravity of the forward and after bodies of the hull can be expressed as a portion of length between perpendiculars: mean lcg = aL where: a = = an empirical coefficient 0.223 for a cargo ship with forecastle and poop; deckhouse and machinery amidships 0.24 for a tanker with forecastle, bridge, and poop 0.233 for a cargo ship with machinery aft
Figure 1-79. Normalized Wave Bending Moment as a Function of Wave Height.
LCGm
GF
BA
BF
GF
LCBm MEAN DISTANCE TO FORE AND AFT LCGs GREATER THAN MEAN DISTANCE TO LCBs - HOGGING
BA
GA
GF
BF
MEAN DISTANCE TO FORE AND AFT LCBs GREATER THAN DISTANCE TO LCGs - SAGGING Figure 1-80. Determination of Still Water Bending Moment by Murrays Method.
= =
Values of a for different configurations can be estimated from those given above. For example, 0.225 might be used for a cargo ship with machinery slightly aft of midships.
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Mean buoyancy moment can be estimated as: MB = where: cL L c = = = = total buoyancy (displacement), lton or tonne mean position of LCB, ft or m length between perpendiculars, ft or m empirical coefficient based on block coefficient and draft from Table 1-21 cL 2
Table 1-21. Coefficient c for Mean LCB in Murrays Method.
Draft 0.06L 0.05L 0.04L 0.03L
c 0.179CB + 0.063 0.189CB + 0.052 0.199CB + 0.041 0.209CB + 0.030
L = length between perpendiculars, block coefficient, CB is taken at draft equal to 0.06L
EXAMPLE 1-6 CALCULATION OF STILL WATER BENDING MOMENT BY MURRAYS METHOD
Calculate the still water bending moment for a cargo ship with machinery and accommodations three-quarters aft with the following characteristics: length between perpendiculars 570 feet beam 80 feet molded depth 55 feet full load draft 35 feet block coefficient 0.71 displacement 32,400 lton deadweight 23,800 lton hull weight 6,250 lton weight of propulsion machinery 1,200 lton center of machinery room 145 ft aft of midships Variable Weight Distribution: item Cargo: Hold 1 Hold 2 Hold 3 Hold 4 Hold 5 Oil fuel in deep tank Oil fuel in double bottom tanks Feed water Potable water Crew & effects, stores Calculation: Mean distance from midships of centers of buoyancy The load draft of 35 ft is approximately 0.06L, CB = 0.71, Weight lton 3000 4200 6100 6800 3700 370 435 20 250 75 lcg from midships ft 231 F 142 F 60 F 95 A 250 A 200 F 85 A 170 A 122 A 165 A
Weight moments, after body: item Weight lton Hold 4 Hold 5 O.F. (double bottom) Feed water Potable water Machinery Crew & effects, stores Total: 6,800 3,700 435 20 250 1,200 75 12,480
lcg from midships ft 95 A 250 A 85 A 170 A 122 A 147 A 165 A
Moment ft-lton 646,000 925,000 36,975 3,400 30,500 176,400 12,370 1,830,645
Weight moments, fore body: item weight lton Hold 1 3,000 Hold 2 4,200 Hold 3 6,100 O.F. (deep tank) 370 Total: 13,670 Total weight moments: item hull after body fore body Total:
lcg from midships ft 231 F 142 F 60 F 200 F
moment ft-lton 693,000 596,400 366,000 74,000 1,729,400
weight lton 6,250 12,480 13,670 32,400
moment ft-lton 819,375 1,830,645 1,729,400 4,379,420
Mean distance from midships of centers of gravity:
LCGm
= Total moment/total weight = 4,379,420/32,400 = 135.2 ft
= 0.179CB + 0.063 = 0.190 Still water bending moment:
cL = 0.19(570) = 108.3 ft = LCBm

Hull weight moment = WHaL (take a to be 0.23) = 6,250(0.23)(570) = 819,375 ft-lton
SWBM = /2 (LCGm - LCBm)

= (32,400/2)(135.2 - 108.3) = 435,780 ft-lton
LCGm is greater than LCBm; the net moment is positive, or hogging
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1-11.14.2 Wave Bending Moment. Wave bending moment, for a standard wave with length equal to the ships length, can be estimated as: WBM = bL 3B 1,000,000 2.2 b L 2.5 B 100,000 for wave height = L 20
Table 1-22. Wave Bending Coefficient for Murrays Method.
Wave bending coefficient b Block Coefficient CB Hogging (wave crest at midships) Sagging (wave trough at midships)
= where: WBM L B b
for wave height = 1.1 L
= = = =
wave bending moment, ft-lton length between perpendiculars, ft beam, ft empirical coefficient based on block coefficient and wave position, from Table 1-22
1-11.15 Section Property Design Rules. In the absence of better information, empirical relationships and construction standards can be used to estimate section modulus or moment of inertia. The following design rules are taken from Applied Naval Architecture, R. Munro-Smith, 1967. A first approximation of the midships section moment of inertia can be made from: I = where: I B D c = = = = moment of inertia, ft4 or m4 molded beam, ft or m depth to strength deck, ft or m empirical coefficient, ranging from 0.14 to 0.16 0.18 for cargo ships 0.22 for large tankers 0.175 to 0.21 for small tankers cBD3
0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
25.00 24.25 23.55 22.85 22.10 21.35 20.65 19.90 19.20 18.45 17.75
28.00 27.25 26.50 25.70 24.90 24.10 23.35 22.60 21.80 21.05 20.30
CB taken at draft = 0.06L
An estimate for section modulus and/or moment of inertia can be made by reference to preliminary design expressions for maximum shear force and bending moment, and assuming the ship was built to withstand that force and moment. 12 Smax 9
Mmax
L C
LBTCD 35
L C
L 2BTCB 35C
where: Smax = maximum shear, lton = displacement, lton Mmax = maximum bending moment, ft-lton L = length between perpendiculars, ft = block coefficient CB C = a constant, generally ranging from 20 to 40 35 for most auxiliaries, merchant ships, and vessels with large longitudinal prismatic coefficient Mmax = LBT/1600 (CB taken as 0.75) 20 for destroyers, and vessels with small longitudinal prismatic coefficient Mmax = LBT/1490 (CB taken as 0.47) These relationships give a good approximation for the full-load condition on a standard hogging wave. For most merchant ships, hogging moments are greater than sagging moments.
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1-11.16 By Rule Section Modulus. Classification society rules set minimum standards for midships section modulus. Midships section modulus of an in class ship will not be lower than the minimum standard, and is unlikely to be much higher. Bending stresses in the midships region can be roughly estimated without determining section modulus rigorously, provided the following are true:
The ship was built to classification society standards or other specifications requiring minimum section modulus, and is currently in class. The minimum section modulus standards are known. The ship has not suffered damage that will reduce section modulus in the sections where stresses are to be determined.
A summary of section modulus requirements established by the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) is given in Appendic C. 1-11.17 Strength Considerations in Salvage Operations. A ship is designed and constructed to withstand expected shear forces and bending moments. In an intact floating ship, maximum bending moment occurs in the midships region and maximum shear near the quarter-length points. These sections are designed to ensure that stresses remain below acceptable limits. Three conditions common to salvage operations may require that the stress levels be examined at other points:
The ship may be loaded in ways not foreseen by the designer. Because of flooding, grounding or other unusual conditions of loading, maximum bending moment can occur at some section other than midships. Similarly, maximum shear may be at some point other than at the quarters. Damage can alter the stress distribution at a section so that maximum stress can occur in some section other than where maximum bending moment or shear occurs. Damage, even over a short distance, disrupts the continuity of longitudinal members and reduces the section modulus for some distance on either side of the damaged section. Local damage or distortion can render plating and stiffeners more susceptible to tripping, buckling, or other forms of load shirking, thereby reducing effective moment of inertia.
The load, shear, and bending moment curves of a casualty must be carefully examined:
MAXIMUM MOMENT, DECK
Stresses should be determined wherever shear or bending moment are maximum or the effective moment of inertia is reduced. The effects of salvage actions on load, shear and bending moment should be examined before taking the action. Accesses should not be cut in locations that will reduce the section modulus or strength member continuity.
BENDING MOMENT, FOOT-POUNDS x 10
2 MAXIMUM MOMENT, KEEL
A useful salvage technique is to calculate and plot the maximum acceptable shear and bending moments along the length of the ship. The bending moments and shear resulting from planned actions can be compared with the allowable limits to determine if the planned action is safe. Figure 1-81 shows maximum acceptable bending moments for an FFG-7 Class ship.
17
16
15
14
13
13
12
11
10
STATIONS MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS BASED ON ASSUMED MATERIAL YIELD OF 32,000 PSI WITHOUT SAFETY FACTOR
Figure 1-81. Maximum Bending Moment for FFG-7.
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CHAPTER 2 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

2-1 INTRODUCTION A salvage engineer performs structural analysis to evaluate casualty strength and to design structural elements of salvage systems. Casualty strength analysis addresses both hull girder and local loading. The salvage engineer must be able to:
Evaluate the ability of the casualtys primary structure to carry loads expected during salvage and the subsequent tow or transit to a repair or disposal site. Determine whether structures can carry high local loads, such as those experienced by pulling points, winch foundations, heavily loaded decks, etc. Design reinforcements to existing structures. Design field repairs and patches. Estimate residual strength of damaged structure.
The salvage engineer is also concerned with local structural analysis of the casualty hull and/or field-built structures. Local structure loading concerns salvors when:

1 2 3 4
Hull girder and local stresses are superimposed. Deck loading is incurred by equipment, stores, flooding, or weight additions. Damaged structure is loaded. There are tensile, shear, and bending loads on lifting or pulling system attachment points. Bulkheads and decks are loaded hydrostatically during dewatering. Jacking, parbuckling, shoring, or pushing induce compressive loads. Fittings or members are loaded in other than the design mode. Part of the casualtys structure is designed into a salvage system.
Equations of statics or deflection relationships can be employed to determine component loads if certain restrictions are met: The structural units can be isolated realistically. Valid assumptions concerning end and side constraints are made. Forces and moments applied by adjacent units can represent reasonable boundary conditions on the isolated unit.
Local strength analysis has four steps: Draw a free body diagram to isolate the member and determine force and moment loads. Determine principal and combined stresses resulting from the applied forces. Compare the stress levels to limiting stress levels of an appropriate failure theory. If the results of step 3 indicate failure or an unacceptable safety factor, strengthen or reinforce the member, or reduce the load.
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2-2 HULL STRENGTH IN SALVAGE Ships are designed and constructed to withstand the shear forces and bending moments expected in their normal service. In an intact floating ship, maximum bending moment occurs at or near the midships section. Maximum shear force occurs near the quarter-length points. Ships have heavier scantlings in high-load areas to keep stresses within acceptable levels. Two conditions common in salvage operations cause unusual hull stress distribution:
The ship is loaded in ways the designer has not foreseen. Due to flooding, grounding, or other unusual conditions of loading, maximum bending moment occurs at a section other than midships, and maximum shear is at points other than the quarters. Damage alters the geometry of the ship sections so that maximum stress is in a section other than that of maximum bending moment or shear. Damage, even over a short distance, disrupts the continuity of longitudinal members and reduces the loadcarrying ability of the structure for some distance on either side of the damaged section.
Casualty hull girder stresses should be monitored carefully throughout the salvage operation. The salvage engineer takes three actions with regard to hull girder strength:
Analyzes the casualtys initial condition. Determines the casualtys ability to carry loads imposed by environmental conditions and planned salvage actions. Determines methods to reduce excessive hull stresses by altering load distribution or reinforcing critical sections.
Initial determination of strength deck and keel bending stresses, including the effects of damage and altered loading, sets a baseline for analysis. As a minimum, stress levels should be determined at damaged sections, where shear force or bending moment is maximum, and where the salvage engineers judgement indicates there may be problems. Paragraph 1-11 describes hull girder stress calculations. Chapters 5 and 6 address changes to the load, shear, and bending moment curves resulting from grounding and other casualties. The potential effects of major weight changes on load, shear, and bending moment should be examined before making the changes. Curves of maximum acceptable (limiting) shear forces and bending moments, based on actual section geometry, should be developed. Plotting bending shear force and bending moment curves and comparing them with allowable limits determines if planned actions will result in acceptable conditions. If the shear and bending moment curves lie under the limiting curves, the planned action will not overstress the hull. Hull girder failure in bending usually starts with compressive failure of the top or bottom of the girder. Compressive failure of longitudinally stiffened deck and single-bottom structures in warship hulls almost always takes the form of local inelastic buckling of longitudinals and attached plating. Hull girder failure may not be visible; the failure area may be obscured by other structures or the ship contents. Tensile failure is characterized by athwartships fractures in the outer flange of the structure. The fracture is accompanied by a loud report. 2-2.1 Damaged Strength. The hulls structural design keeps longitudinal bending stresses at acceptable levels under expected loads. Longitudinal bending stresses are highest in the sheer strake, strength deck, keel, bottom longitudinals, and bottom plating. In salvage operations, strength members should be inspected carefully for damage. Salvors should avoid intentional damage to members subject to high stress. Damage to members close to the neutral axis in the midships region, such as holing near the design or service waterline, has much less impact on longitudinal strength than damage to the strength deck and upper side strakes or bottom. Damage in the vicinity of the neutral axis near the quarter-length points can result in very high shear stresses. A serious consequence of damage is the loss of structural continuity in critical strength members. The application of simple beam theory to ship girders is predicated on the assumption that the ship responds to shear forces and bending moments essentially as a single continuous beam. Loss of continuity in longitudinal members reduces the ability of the structure to spread shear loads across adjacent sectionsboth shear and bending stresses are increased. Loss of continuity in transverse members reduces the rigidity of the structure and allows longitudinal members to act independently, reducing longitudinal strength. Loss of transverse continuity in regions subject to shear or torsional loading increases shear stress and deformation. Increased shear stress and/or deformation in a section alters the bending stress distribution in that section. In addition, discontinuities in load-bearing members always act as stress raisers or concentration points. These effects, singly or in combination, can raise stresses in the hull girder to unacceptable levels. When subjected to high-enough stress, the hull will fail catastrophically. Usually, total hull failure begins with compressive failure of the extreme fibers:
Buckled plating and stiffener flanges and tripped stiffener webs are evidence of compressive failure. Load shirking by the buckled members and hull deformation cause increased stress in other structural members that may then fail sequentially. Shear failure is characterized by wrinkles or cracks in side plating at a 45-degree angle to the line of stress. While not causing immediate failure, cyclic stressing of the hull to levels near the yield limit will reduce the endurance limit greatly, causing fatigue failure at tensile stresses below the ultimate stress. Casualties exposed to severe cyclic loading from wave or tidal action may fail in days or even hours.
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Structural members cut or torn away by battle damage, collision, or grounding cannot contribute to a sections ability to carry loads. Other types of damage reduce load-carrying capacity:
Buckled members that have lost essentially all of their ability to carry compressive loads, but keep a large portion of their original tensile strength. Large areas of heavily indented or dished plate that cannot carry compressive loads as high as undamaged plating. The tensile strength remains about the same. Cracks may appear around the edges of other damage or in otherwise undamaged structure. The great danger of cracks is that they will propagate under tensile loads perpendicular to the crack axis. Structural members exposed to high heat or fire suffer a loss of material from wastage due to accelerated corrosion, melting, or burning. Metal strength properties are altered unpredictably by the heating and cooling process, but strength and hardness are always taken as lowered. Fire-damaged members may have very little residual strength in either tension or compression. Holes, cuts, or tears act as stress raisers in tensioned members and induce buckling or tripping in members under compression. Accesses should not be cut where the loss of material will reduce the section modulus unacceptably or interrupt strength member continuity. If holes are cut in decks or shell plating, the effects of reduced plating area and stress concentration on hull girder strength must be determined, or the openings reinforced to compensate for the lost material.
When stresses are within the elastic range, deleting damaged and missing structural members from the moment of inertia and shear area calculations gives a conservative estimate of a damaged hulls ability to carry shear and bending loads. Damaged structural members have residual strength, which is important in salvage because the salvage engineer may have to rely on that strength. Residual strength is estimated more by art and common sense than by analysisthere are no hard-and-fast rules for accurate determination of residual strength. Permanently deformed members have been stressed beyond the elastic limit. When a load causing plastic deformation in part of a structure is removed, stresses in the structure do not return to their original levels because of the uneven deformation. The plastic design methods described in Paragraph 2-2.4 estimate the contribution of bent or buckled structural members to hull girder strength. Plastic analysis assumes the entire structural cross section has yielded. Yield across an entire section is an extreme assumption that is seldom fulfilled in ship girdersplastic analysis is therefore conservative for damaged hulls. Plastic design methods presume, however, that loads are controlled and accurately quantified, a condition that rarely applies to salvage. Thoughtful consideration of the type and extent of damage and nature of expected loading is necessary to determine the residual strength of damaged structure. Holes, wrinkles, cracks, torn plating, and similar damage is obvious; other damage may be less obvious or may be hidden. Explosions, particularly underwater explosions, cause violent responses throughout the hull girdernot just in the vicinity of the explosion. The ship whips or vibrates near its fundamental two-node vertical frequency. The ship may complete a hog-sag cycle in one second or less, with deflection amplitudes of several feet. In addition to damage in the areas nearest the explosion, there may be significant damage near the quarter-length points, caused by rapid flexure and stress reversal. Signs of hidden damage include:
Recent rust and scale flaking or paint cracking and flaking on structural members, indicating large deformations. Double-bottom plating set up or with the lines or position of internals very obvious. Severe dishing of plating between stiffeners. Dishing may be caused by impact or may indicate plastic hinging. Plastic hinging will usually extend across several adjacent plate panels, with each dished, and the plating will pant if a heavy sea is running. If possible, the thickness of the plating should be measured. A significant reduction in thickness shows that plastic hinging has been going on for some time, and was probably not an effect of the casualty. Changes in the alignment of masts and other fixed topside installations. Long shallow indentations of plating. Indentations are best seen by placing the eye close to the structure and looking along it, or by shining a flashlight beam across the plating so the deformations form shadows. Cracked welds. Cracked deck coating. Misaligned machinery. Jammed or misaligned doors, hatches, etc. Failed bolted or riveted connections or machinery foundations. Evidence of abnormal range of movement of boiler sliding feet. Changes in any of the above.
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2-2.2 Stiffened Plating. Strength of small sections of shell or deck plating between frames can be analyzed by the flatplate formulas presented in Paragraph 2-5. Large areas of hull structure that include stiffening frames or longitudinals, or crossstiffening, require a different approach. Simple beam theory can be applied to stiffened plating if two conditions are met:
Adjacent units exert no influence on the edges of the isolated unit, and
= EFFECTIVE BREADTH OF PLATING
Figure 2-1. Stress Distribution in Stiffened Plating.
The deflection of the supporting structure is negligible compared with the deflection of the isolated beam.
These assumptions are likely to be valid if the end supports are bulkheads or shell plating, and less likely if they are orthogonal beams. Simple beam theory is not completely applicable to wide-flanged beams, box girders, and stiffened plating because of the way shear diffuses from the webs into and across the flanges. Direct stresses in flanges and plating differ from those predicted with simple beam theory because sections do not remain plane. The wavy line in Figure 2-1 shows the distribution of stress across stiffened plating under bending load. This effect is known as shear lag. Maximum stress is found by assuming that part of the plating is wholly effective and applying simple beam theory to the effective part. The effective breadth of plating () is used to calculate the effective moment of inertia of the cross section. Table 2-1 gives effective breadths for various configurations. If there is appreciable panel dishing, the /B values from Table 2-1 are no longer applicable, and is assumed to be B/2.
Table 2-1. Effective Breadths. Single girder, effective breadth = /B
L/B
0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Concentrated load Uniform load 0.191 0.362 0.665 0.885 0.943 0.969 0.982 = 0.01 0.092 0.152 0.312 0.467 0.554 0.611 0.653 = 0.10 0.133 0.242 0.414 0.592 0.687 0.748 0.792 = 1.00 0.150 0.288 0.518 0.720 0.802 0.850 0.878
B L
t h=1/2 DEPTH WEB tW
Stiffened plating, effective breadth = /B
L/B
0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Uniform load 0.196 0.369 0.737 0.989 1.045 1.069 1.080
= 0.01 0.092 0.156 0.328 0.501 0.596 0.661 0.701
Concentrated load = 0.10 0.136 0.256 0.438 0.638 0.744 0.814 0.855
= 1.00 0.154 0.313 0.580 0.795 0.881 0.934 0.960
L B WEB t tW h=1/2 DEPTH
L = Span of simply supported beam or distance between points of zero bending moment for fixed ends (0.58 span for uniformly distributed load)
1 htw = _ __ for double identical flanges 6 Bt 1 htw = _ __ for single flanges or stiffened plating 4 Bt From The Effective Breadth Concept in Ship Structure Design, H.A. Schade; TSNAME, 1953 and 1951
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2-2.3 Grillages. Crossing stiffeners will complicate evaluation of bending loads on panels of stiffened plate. Figure 2-2 shows a concentrated load P on the intersection of two perpendicular, simply supported beams. The beams, designated by subscripts 1 and 2, cross at their midpoints and form the simplest type of grillage. Examining each beam separately, as shown in Figure 2-2: y1 = P1l1
3
48E1I1
P1 BEAM 1
P2 BEAM 2
and: y2 = P2l2
3
l1
l2
48E2I2
Figure 2-2. Grillage.
where: y P l E I = = = = = vertical deflection at beam midpoint, [length] load at the beam midpoint, [force] beam length, [length] modulus of elasticity, [force/length2] cross-sectional moment of inertia of the beam, [length4]
If the beams do not separate, y1 = y2, and

3 3
P1l1
P2l2
E1I1
E 2I 2
P1 + P2 = P; if both beams are constructed of the same material, E1 = E2 and:

3
y=
Pl1
1 +
1 I2l1 I1l2
3 3
48EI1
Maximum bending moments in the two beams are: M1max = P1l1 4 M2max = p2l2 4
Plating contribution is accounted for with effective breadths, as discussed in the previous section. This problem involved the simplest form of grillage, under the simplest form of loading. Determining moments and loads for complex grillages is difficult, however, satisfactory estimates can be made using the design curves described in the following paragraph.
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2-2.3.1 Design Curves. Figures 2-5 through 2-13 are design curves for predicting axial stresses, shear stresses, and deflection of stiffened plate panels under uniform bending loads. A complete presentation of the derivation and use of the curves can be found in Design Curves for Cross-Stiffened Plating Under Uniform Bending Load, H.A. Schade, TSNAME, 1941. The curves apply to rectangles with the stiffener patterns shown in Figure 2-3:
Type A Cross-stiffened grillage. The middle stiffener of either or both sets of stiffeners may be stiffer than the others of the set. Type B A set of repeating stiffeners in one direction and a single central stiffener at right angles. The central stiffener of the repeating set may be stiffer than the others. Type C Repeating stiffeners in one direction only. Type D Plating without stiffeners.
TYPE A CROSS-STIFFENING I I -I ia = na + 2 ( a na ) sa b Inb Ib - Inb +2( ) ib = a sb = a b = a b
4
TYPE B - MODIFIED TYPE C - SINGLE TYPE D CROSS-STIFFENING DIRECTION STIFFENING UNSTIFFENED PLATE I ia = 2 a b Inb I -I ib = + 2 ( b nb ) a sb = a b Ii Ii I2pb b IaInb sb ia = 0 I ib = nb sb = = indeterminate ia = ib = = a b = 1.0 t3 12(1 - 2)
Ii Ii Ipa Ipb Ina Inb
= 0.124
Figure 2-3. Types of Stiffening, with Applicable Formulas for Parameters.
The curves are applied to interlocking stiffeners without plating (grids), stiffeners with plating on one side, or stiffeners with plating on both sides, such as a ships double bottom. In the titles of Figures 2-5 through 2-8, the term field indicates stress within the rectangle, as distinguished from stress at the edges. The curves provide values for a dimensionless coefficient, K, that is substituted into the relationships shown on the graphs to find the axial stress, shear stress, or deflection. The K curves are plotted as functions of the virtual side ratio, , and the torsion coefficient, for different edge constraints. The parameters and for different stiffener patterns are defined in Figure 2-3. The four cases of edge constraint considered are:
Case 1 All four edges rigidly supported, but not fixed.

b
a = LONG DIMENSION b = SHORT DIMENSION PLATE sa rb sb a N A
Case 2 Both short edges fixed, both long edges rigidly supported. Case 3 Both long edges fixed, both short edges rigidly supported. Case 4 All four edges fixed.
STIFFENER
Figure 2-4. Stiffened Plate Nomenclature.
Additional parameters, some of which are illustrated in Figures 2-3 and 2-4, are used with the curves: P a b sa sb Ina = = = = = = uniform bending load length of rectangle width of rectangle spacing of long stiffeners spacing of short stiffeners moment of inertia of repeating long stiffeners, including effective breadth of plating moment of inertia of repeating short stiffeners, including effective breadth of plating moment of inertia of effective breadth of plating only, working with repeating long stiffeners moment of inertia of effective breadth of plating only, working with repeating short stiffeners Ia = Ib = Aa Ab ra rb ia ib = = = = = = = moment of inertia of central long stiffener, including effective breadth of plating moment of inertia of central short stiffener, including effective breadth of plating web area of central long stiffener web area of central short stiffener bending lever arm of central long stiffener bending lever arm of central short stiffener unit stiffness in the long direction unit stiffness in the short direction Poissons ratio
Inb = Ipa = Ipb =
2-6
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The parameters ia and ib, the unit stiffness in the long and short directions, are the moment of inertia of the stiffeners per unit width. The torsion coefficient () accounts for horizontal shear stress in the plating, and is defined roughly as the ratio of the inertia of the material subject to horizontal shear stress to the inertia of the material subject to bending. In a grid without plating, no material is subject to horizontal shear and = 0. In an unstiffened plate, all material is subject to both horizontal shear and bending and = 1. In stiffened plate structures, only the plating is subject to horizontal shear, but both plating and stiffeners are subject to bending, so 0 < < 1. If there are stiffeners in only one direction, the expression for becomes indeterminate because either Ina or Inb is zero. For this case: = 0.124 Ipb2b IaInbsb
The virtual side ratio, , always equal to or greater than 1, is the actual side ratio, a/b, modified by the ratio of the unit stiffness in the two directions. Material yield strength (y), modulus of elasticity (E), plate breadth between stiffeners to thickness ratio (b/t), stiffener dimensions, initial deformations, and residual stresses influence the strength of a welded grillage under end loading. There are four failure modes: 1 Plate failure. 2 Inter-frame flexural buckling of stiffeners and plating. 3 Inter-frame tripping of stiffeners and plating. 4 Overall grillage instability.
0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10
FIXED
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
ALL EDGES FREELY SUPPORTED a b CASE 1 SUPPORTED a b CASE 2 SUPPORTED
GENERAL FORMULA: = K
Pb2ra ib ia
SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION OF STRESS ASSUMED 0.3 FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES (TYPE "D"), THE PLATE FORMLA: = 5.46 KP ( b )2 APPLIES t
0.09 0.08
K VALUES
0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01

= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
SUPPORTED
FIXED a b CASE 3 FIXED
SUPPORTED
FIXED
0.0412 FIXED a b CASE 4 FIXED
FIXED
FIXED
0.0137
0.00 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 VALUES OF
Figure 2-5. Field Bending Stress in Plating Long Direction.
NOTE: = a b
ib ia
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0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06

FIXED
FORMULA: = K
Pb2ra ib ia
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
ALL EDGES FREELY SUPPORTED a b CASE 1 SUPPORTED a b CASE 2 SUPPORTED

FIXED
SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION OF STRESS ASSUMED 0.00
K VALUES
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 -0.01

= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
SUPPORTED
SUPPORTED
0.0000
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
-0.02 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 VALUES OF
Figure 2-6. Field Bending Stress in Free Flanges in Long Direction.
NOTE: = ab
ib ia
0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11

K VALUES
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
a b CASE 1
ALL EDGES FREELY SUPPORTED
0.1374
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00

FIXED
0.10 0.09
SUPPORTED
SUPPORTED a b CASE 2 SUPPORTED
FIXED
Pb2ra ib
SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION OF STRESS ASSUMED 0.3 FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES (TYPE "D"), THE PLATE FORMULA: = 5.46 KP ( b )2 APPLIES t
0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04
SUPPORTED
FIXED
b CASE 4 FIXED
FIXED
FIXED a
0.0458
0.03 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 VALUES OF
Figure 2-7. Field Bending Stress in Plating in Short Direction.
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
NOTE: = ab
ib ia
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0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
a b CASE 1
0.1250
FIXED
K VALUES
0.09 0.08
SUPPORTED
= 1.00 = 0.50 = 0.00 FIXED a b CASE 3 FIXED

SUPPORTED
FIXED
0.10
FORMULA: = K
0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03

= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
Pb2rb ib ia
0.0417
0.02 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 VALUES OF
Figure 2-8. Field Bending Stress in Free Flanges in Short Direction.
NOTE: = ab
ib ia
0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
a b CASE 1
=K
Pb2ra ib ia
0.1374
FIXED
FIXED
0.12 0.11 0.10
=K
Pb2rb ib
0.0916
K VALUES
0.09
SUPPORTED
0.08 0.07 0.06
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
FIXED a b CASE 3 FIXED FIXED a b CASE 4 FIXED
SUPPORTED
=K
Pb2rb ib
0.0627
GENERAL FORMULAE AS SHOWN
FIXED
FIXED
0.05 0.04 0.03
=K
Pb2ra
ib ia
SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION OF STRESS ASSUMED 0.3 FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES (TYPE "D"), THE PLATE FORMULA: = 5.46 KP ( b )2 APPLIES t
0.02 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 VALUES OF
Figure 2-9. Support Bending Stress in Plating.
NOTE: = ab
ib ia
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0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12

SUPPORTED
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
FIXED
FIXED
=K
Pb2ra ib ia
0.1250
0.11 0.10
K VALUES
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
SUPPORTED
=K
Pb2rb ib
0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03
0.0833
FORMULAE AS SHOWN
0.02 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 VALUES OF
Figure 2-10. Support Bending Stress in Free Flanges.
NOTE: = ab
ib ia
0.7426 0.70 0.6431 0.60

= 1.00 = 0.50 = 0.00
FIXED
FIXED
FIXED
0.5251
0.50
FIXED
K VALUES
0.40
= = = =
1.00 0.00 0.50 1.00
a b CASE 1
0.3712 0.3215
0.30 0.2625 GENERAL FORMULA: = K

SUPPORTED
PbI
Aa 4 i L3 b a
0.20
FIXED a
SUPPORTED
0.10
b CASE 3 FIXED 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 VALUES OF
= 1.00 = 0.50 = 0.00
SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION OF STRESS FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES (TYPE "D"), THE SHEAR LOAD PER UNIT WIDTH = KPb
NOTE: = ab
ib ia
Figure 2-11. Shear Stress in Long Webs.
2-10
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SUPPORTED
0.70
SUPPORTED
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
0.60
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
0.50
0.5000
FIXED
K VALUES
b CASE 4 FIXED b
0.30
a CASE 1
FIXED
FIXED
0.40
FIXED a
0.10
= 1.00 = 0.50 = 0.00
FIXED
0.20
Abia SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION OF STRESS

FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES (TYPE "D"), THE SHEAR LOAD PER UNIT WIDTH = KPb
PbIb
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 VALUES OF
Figure 2-12. Shear Stress in Short Webs.
NOTE: = ab
ib ia
0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
0.0130
a b CASE 1 ALL EDGES FREELY SUPPORTED
FIXED
0.10 0.09
K VALUES
Pb2ra ib ia SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION OF STRESS
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00 SUPPORTED a b CASE 2 SUPPORTED FIXED a b CASE 3 FIXED
FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES (TYPE "D"), THE PLATE FORMULA:
0.08 0.07 0.06

SUPPORTED
W = 10.91 K
Pb4 APPLIES Et3
SUPPORTED
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02
FIXED
b CASE 4 FIXED
FIXED
= 0.00 = 0.50 = 1.00
FIXED
FIXED a
0.0130
0.01 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 VALUES OF
Figure 2-13. Deflection at Center.
NOTE: = ab
ib ia
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2-2.3.2 Plate Failure. Plate panels rupture before stiffeners yield. The difference in ultimate loads for grillages whose edges are held straight and those free to deflect is negligible for b/t < 60. For b/t = 80, the difference in collapse loads is less than 5 percent. Lateral pressure (e.g., hydrostatic head) is unlikely to cause significant loss of plating compressive strength. When yield strength of the stiffeners is much greater than that of the plating, plate failure is the most likely form of collapse. In grillages with substantial weld-induced distortions and residual stress, and in grillages with b/t < 45, little if any load reduction occurs in plating. The ultimate stress of the plating is not normally reached until the average compressive stress is well beyond yield. At this stage, extensive yielding and elasto-plastic buckling of stiffeners usually has occurred. 2-2.3.3 Inter-frame Flexural Buckling. Failure is column-like flexural buckling of stiffeners and plating between transverse frames. External lateral load forces buckle away from the plating, although initial distortion towards the plating may overcome the effect of external load and force buckling towards the plating. Panting, hinging, or damage reduces plating stiffness and increases the likelihood of this mode of failure. 2-2.3.4 Inter-frame Tripping. Inter-frame tripping is particularly likely in short, stiff girders and in stiffeners without lateral or torsional rigidity, such as flat bars and bulb angles. Tripping may take place in association with flexure of stiffeners where buckling is towards the plating. 2-2.3.5 Grillage Instability. Collapse is by buckling of the grillage over its entire length into one or more half waves with bending of transverse and longitudinal stiffeners. Collapse is influenced strongly by reduced plating stiffness, as in inter-frame buckling. Local stiffener tripping where bending occurs towards the plating causes failure at lower loads. 2-2.3.6 Residual Stresses. Residual stresses, introduced during construction and by damage, can cause large reductions in column strength of stiffened panels. Residual stresses induced in stiffeners by fully plastic cold bending, followed by welding to a plate, can cause loss of up to 35 percent of the column strength of stiffened plate. The curvature required to induce fully plastic bending of rolled stiffeners is small and occurs from straightening of distorted stiffeners during construction, or as a result of collision, grounding, battle damage, or expedient repairs. The alternating tensile and compressive loads of wave-induced bending slightly relax bending stresses. Effective residual stress is usually taken as 75 percent of the as-built stresses. 2-2.3.7 Herzog Formula for Stiffened Panels under Uniaxial Compression. A formula developed by Herzog (Simplified Design of Unstiffened and Stiffened Plates, M.A.M. Herzog; Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol 113, No 10, ASCE Structural Division, October 1987) provides a simple, semi-empirical prediction of the ultimate strength of a stiffened panel under compressive load, expressed as a ratio of ultimate stress to material yield strength: ult = 0.86 R 0.5 2 y 5% where: ult = y 5% R2 1 = = = = ultimate strength in uniaxial compression of longitudinally stiffened plate panels with average imperfections and residual welding stresses, expressed as a simple compressive stress steel yield stress indicates the fifth percentile, i.e., all but 5 percent of test panels fail at or above the predicted stress reduction factor for plate slenderness effect reduction factor for relative column slenderness 0.5 1 2 1 2
The reduction factors R2 and 1 are determined by: R2 = 1 = 1 1 = where: b t a k E = = = = = maximum spacing between stiffeners plate thickness transverse stiffener spacing radius of gyration modulus of elasticity a r y E b 0.007 t 45 for b > 45 t b < 45 for t
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Choice of units is immaterial, as long as top and bottom terms in each ratio are expressed in the same units. Although the formula does not indicate failure mode, it is useful for predicting the collapse load for axially loaded flanges in complex girdersfor example, the compression flange of a hull girder. 2-2.4 Plastic Stress and Residual Strength. Because stresses are highest in the outer fibers of a beam in bending, the fibers farthest from the neutral axis yield first. As load increases, stress remains constant in the yielded fibers until all fibers in the section reach the yield limit. Stress remains constant because at stresses just above the elastic limit, strain increases without an increase in stress, allowing the material to flow plastically and shirk load. When all the fibers have reached the yield limit, stress distribution is uniform on each side of the neutral axis; the moment of resistance is constant and the beam has formed a plastic hinge. The plastic moment is: Mp = yS S is the sum of the first moments of area about each side of the neutral axis and is called the plastic modulus. The ratio S/Z is the shape factor and is equal to 1.5 for rectangle and about 1.3 for stiffened plating. A plastic hinge resists the plastic moment but rotates freely for a slightly greater moment. Before collapse, a structure will develop enough hinges to become statically determinate, since each plastic hinge becomes a point of known bending moment. Table 2-2 is the tabular calculation of the plastic modulus for station 10 of an FFG-7 Class ship. The section moduli for this station were calculated in Table 1-12 as 10,870 inches2 feet (ZK) and 10,884 inches2 feet (ZDK). The shape factor is the plastic modulus divided by the larger of the two section moduli: Shape factor = S 12,998 = 1.19 = ZDK 10,884
Table 2-2. Plastic Modulus, S, for FFG-7, Station 10. Neutral Axis 15.01 ft above baseline (see Table 1-12 for calculation) First Moment of Area above Neutral Axis: Component Mn Dk Girders, Inbd (7) Mn Dk Girders, Outbd (4) 2nd Dk Girders, (10) Mn Dk Plating, Inbd Mn Dk Plating, Outbd 2nd Dk Plating, Inbd 2nd Dk Pltg, Outbd "E" Strake "D" Strake, above NA "E" Doubler, upper "E" Doubler, lower Side Stringers L20 L19 L18 L17 L16 L15 L14 6 x 6 x 13# 6 x 6 x 13# 5 x 4 x 6# 5 x 4 x 6# 6 x 4 x 7# 6 x 4 x 7# 6 x 4 x 8# 3.82 3.82 1.77 1.77 2.08 2.08 2.36 12.990 11.490 9.490 7.740 4.240 2.490 0.990 ayabove NA = 49.62 43.89 16.80 13.70 8.82 5.18 2.34 3249.58 dimensions in. 5 x 4 x 6# 5 x 5.75 x 13# 4 x 4 x 5# (246 - 75) x .375 84 x .625 (225 - 90) x .1875 51 x .25 93 x .3125 86.88 x .3125 31.5 x .5 30 x .75
a in2
12.39 15.24 14.80 64.13 52.50 25.31 12.75 29.06 27.15 15.75 22.50
y ft
14.603 14.603 5.736 14.990 14.990 5.990 5.990 2.865 3.620 12.990 11.490
ay in2-ft
180.93 222.55 84.89 961.23 786.98 151.62 76.37 83.26 98.28 204.59 258.53
S
ayabove NA
= ayabove NA + aybelow NA = aybelow NA, S = 2 ayabove NA = 2 3,249.58 = 6,499.16 in2-ft = 2 Shalf section = 2 6,499.16 = 12,998.32 in2-ftx 12,998 in2-ft
a = cross-sectional area y = height above Neutral Axis ay = moment of area about Neutral Axis
Shalf section Swhole section
The moment that will cause the entire section to yield is only about 19 percent higher than the moment that first causes plastic deformation. The flange of the hull girder in compression almost always buckles before the entire section yields. 2-2.5 Ultimate Strength Computer Programs. A number of computer programs have been developed to analyze the ultimate strength of ship hulls under various loadings. Because of the tedious nature of hull girder ultimate strength calculations, computer programs should be used when salvage operations must depend on the casualtys ultimate rather than yield strength. Access to ultimate strength computer programs and or operators can be sought from the David Taylor Research Center, the Naval Ship Engineering Center, the American Bureau of Shipping, or private companies, through the Supervisor of Salvage.
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2-3 BEAMS The theory of flexure is the basis for beam strength analysis; the relationships developed by flexure theory are based on certain assumptions and subject to constraints that may not always apply to situations in damaged ships. A summary of the theory and its assumptions is presented prior to addressing specific beam applications. A beam is a structural member subjected principally to lateral loading and restrained at one or both ends, or at points along its length. The distance between supports or restraints is the span. Four types of restraint are shown in Figure 2-14:
FIXED
PINNED
SIMPLE END RESTRAINTS
CONSTRAINED
SIMPLE BEAM
PROPPED BEAM
CANTILEVER BEAM
Fixed prevents both rotation and translation. Pinned permits rotation but not translation. Simply supported permits rotation and prevents translation in one direction. Constrained permits translation in one direction only and prevents rotation.
CONTINUALLY SUPPORTED BEAM OVERHANGING BEAM BUILT-IN OR RESTRAINED BEAM
BEAMS
F1 F2
CONCENTRATED LOADS
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
NONUNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
PURE MOMENT
There are various combinations of support.
BEAM LOADINGS
Loads are concentrated or distributed forces and couples acting on the beam. Reactions Figure 2-14. Beam End Restraints and Loadings. are the forces and/or couples acting at the supports and holding the beam in place. In statically determinate beams, distributed loads can be replaced by their resultant acting through the center of gravity of the load. The sum of the vertical forces on one side of a section of a beam, the one-way shear, is resisted by an internal stress force, equal to the sum of the transverse shear stresses acting on the section, S = dA. Similarly, the algebraic sum of the external moments acting on a beam on one side of a section, the one-way moment, is resisted by an internal moment of resistance, equal to the moment of the internal axial stresses at the section, M = dA y. Shear force is the first integral of load with respect to distance along the beam; the one-way moment is the integral of shear force: S = P dx where: P S M = = = load shear force bending moment and M = S dx = P dx
A shear diagram or curve is a plot of the one-way shear with respect to distance along the beam. The following conventions are used:

2-14
Upward forces (loads and reactions) are positive; downward forces are negative. Shear force at any point is equal to the sum of the loads and reactions from one end (usually the left) to the point in question. Concentrated loads produce straight horizontal lines on the diagram. Uniformly distributed loads produce straight sloping lines on the diagram. The shear force at any point is equal to the slope of the moment curve at that point.
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Plotting the one-way moment with respect to distance along the beam produces a moment diagram. The following conventions apply:
Moments can be taken from either end of the beam to any point, but must be consistently taken from the same end; the normal procedure is to take moments from the left end. When upward forces are taken as positive, and distances measured from left to right as positive, clockwise moments are positive and counterclockwise moments negative. Concentrated loads produce straight lines on the diagram. Uniformly distributed loads produce parabolic lines on the diagram. Maximum and minimum moments occur where shear force is zero. Moment at any point is equal to the area under the shear curve up to that point. Moment is zero at a free end or hinge.
Table 2-3 shows shear and moment diagrams, and gives relationships for support reactions, shear force, and bending moment for common beam loadings and geometries. Computer programs for calculating reactions, shear, and moment for many beam loadings are available in the public domain. A number of beam loadings have been incorporated into the NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE). 2-3.1 Theory of Flexure. The fibers of a beam flexed under an external load will experience tension on the convex side and compression on the concave side, as shown in Figure 2-15. The zones of tensile and compressive stress are separated by a neutral plane of zero stress. The intersection of the neutral plane with the cross section forms a neutral axis. The conclusions of the theory of flexure are based on seven assumptions: 1 The beam is prismatic (uniform cross section). Beam length (l) is at least ten times the depth (h). External forces act at right angles to the beam and in a plane of symmetry. Flexure is slight and stresses are within the elastic limit. The beam is constructed of homogeneous material that obeys Hookes law and whose tensile and compressive moduli are equal. Every layer of material is free to expand and contract laterally and longitudinally as if separate from other layers. Plane sections remain plane after flexure.
TENSION Figure 2-15. Flexural (Bending) Stress. NEUTRAL LINE LOA DS COMPRESSION
NEUTRAL AXIS
TENSION COMPRESSION
4 5
6 7
From the preceding assumptions it follows that:
Internal forces (stresses) are in horizontal balance. The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross section if there is no resultant axial stress (no end loading). Stress intensity varies directly with the distance from the neutral plane.
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Table 2-3A. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 1. Simple Beam - Uniformly Distributed Load.
wl R = S = ----2 l S x = w -- x 2 wl - (at center) M max = ------8 wx M x = -----2 (l x) 5 wl y max = -------------384EI

4 2
(at center)
wx 3 2 3 y x = ----------24EI ( l 2 lx + x )
2. Simple Beam - Load Increasing Uniformly to One End.
W R 1 = S 1 = ---3 2W R 2 = S 2 max = ------3 2 W Wx S x = ---23- --------l 2 Wl - = .1283 Wl M max = --------9 3 Wx 2 2 -(l x ) M x = ------2 3l Wl y max = .01304 -------EI
3
1 at x = ------ = .5774 l 3
at x =
8 1 ----- = .5193 l 15
Wx 4 2 2 4 - ( 3 x 10 l x + 7 l ) y x = -------------------2 180EI l
3. Simple Beam - Load Increasing Uniformly to Center.
W R = S = ---2W 2 2 - ( l 4x ) S x = -----2 2l Wl M max = -----6 (at center) 2 1 2x M x = Wx -- ------- 2 2 3l

3
l x < -2
l x < -2
Wl y max = ----------60EI (at center) Wx 2 2 2 - ( 5l 4x ) y x = -------------------2 480EI l
l when x < -2
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Table 2-3B. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 4. Simple Beam - Uniform Load Partially Distributed.
wb - ( 2 c + b ) ( max when a < c ) R1 = S 1 = -----2l wb - ( 2 a + b ) ( max when a > c ) R 2 = S 2 = -----2l S x = R1 w ( x a ) ( a < x < ( a + b ) ) R1 R1 M max = R1 a + -----at x = a + ----- 2w w (x < a) w 2 - (x a) M x = R1 x --2 Mx = R1 x Mx = R2 ( l x ) (a < x < (a + b))
(x > (a + b) )
5. Simple Beam - Uniform Load Partially Distributed at One End.
wa - ( 2l a ) R 1 = S 1 max = -----2l 2 wa R2 = s 2 = -------2l S x = R1 wx ( x < a ) R1 M max = ------2W

2
R1 at x = ---- w
2
wx - (x < a) M x = R 1 x -------2 Mx = R2 ( l x ) ( x > a ) wx 2 2 2 3 - ( a ( 2 l a ) 2 ax ( 2 l a ) + lx ) y x = -------------24EI l wa ( l x ) 2 2 - ( 4 xl 2 x a ) y x = -----------------------24EI l

2
(x < a)
(x > a)
6. Simple Beam - Uniform Load Partially Distributed at Each End.
w1 a ( 2 l a ) + w2 c R1 = S 1 = --------------------------------------------2l 2 w2 c ( 2 l c ) + w1 a R2 = S 1 = --------------------------------------------2l Sx = R 1 w1 x ( x < a ) Sx= R1 w1 x ( a < x < ( a + b ) ) Sx = R2 w2 ( l x ) ( x > ( a + b ) ) 2 R1 R1 - at x = ----- when R 1 < w1 a M max = ------- 2 w1 w1
2
R2 at x = l ----- when R2 < w 2 c w2 2 w1 x - (x < a) M x = R 1 x ---------2 w1 a - (2x a) (a < x < ( a + b) ) M x = R 1 x -------2 2 w2 ( l x ) - (x > (a + b)) M x = R2 ( l x ) ----------------------2
R2 M max = -------2w2
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Table 2-3C. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 7. Simple Beam - Concentrated Load at Center.
P R = S = -2 Pl M max = ---4 Px M x = ----2 Pl y max = ----------48EI

3
( at P ) x < 1 -- 2 ( at P ) l x < - 2
Px 2 2 - (3l 4x ) y x = ----------48EI
8. Simple Beam - Concentrated Load at any Point.
Pb - ( max. when a b at x = --------------------------y max = ------------------------------------------------------------- 27EI l 3 Pa b y a = -------------3EI l
2 2
( at P ) (x < a)
Pbx 2 2 2 -(l b x ) y x = ----------6EI l
9. Simple Beam - Two Equal Concentrated Loads Symmetrically Placed.
R= S= P M max = Pa M x = Px ( between loads ) (x < a) ( at center ) (x < a) (a < x < (l a))
Pa 2 2 - ( 3l 4a ) y max = ----------24EI
Px 2 2 - ( 3 la 3 a x ) y x = -------6EI Pa 2 2 - ( 3 lx 3 x a ) y x = -------6EI
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Table 2-3D. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 10. Simple Beam - Two Equal Concentrated Loads Unsymmetrically Placed.
P R 1 = S 1 = -l- ( l a + b ) ( max when a b ) P S x = -l- ( b a ) ( a < x < ( l b ) ) M 1 = R1 a ( max when a > b ) M2 = R2 b Mx = R1 x ( max when a < b ) (x < a) (a < x < (l b ) )
Mx = R1 x P ( x a )
11. Simple Beam - Two Unequal Concentrated Loads Unsymmetrically Placed.
P1 ( l a ) + P 2 b R 1 = S 1 = -----------------------------------l P 1 a + P2 ( l b ) R2 = S 2 = -----------------------------------l sx = R 1 P1 M1 = R1 a M2 = R2 b M x = R1 x (a < x < l b) ( max when R1 < P1 ) ( max when R 2 < P 2 ) ( when x < a ) (a < x(l b )
Mx = R1 x P1 ( x a )
12. Simple Beam - Load Increasing Uniformly from Center.
W - ( at x = 0, x = l ) R1 = R 2 = S max = ---2 2 1 x 2x M x = Wx -xl2 + ------2 2 l 3 l - when Wl M max = -----12 l at x = -- 2

2
1 2x 2x S x = W -- ----2 - when x l 2 2 l- + ------l W 3l - -------y max = ---EI 320

3
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Table 2-3E. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 13. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Concentrated Load at Center.
5P R 1 = S 1 = -----16 11 P R 2 = S 2 max = --------16 3 Pl - ( at fixed end ) M max = -------16 5 Pl - ( at P ) M 1 = -------32 5 Px l x < -M x = -------- 16 2 l l 11 x M x = P -- -------x > - 2 16 2 Pl Pl - = .009317 ------y max = -------------------EI 48 EI 5 7 Pl - ( at P ) y x = --------------768 EI Px 2 2 - (3l 5x ) y x = -----------96 EI
3 3 3
at x = l 1 -- = .4472 l 5
l x < - 2 l x > - 2
P 3 - ( x l ) ( 11 x 2 l ) y x = -----------96 EI
14. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Concentrated Load at Any Point.
Pb R 1 = S 1 = -------3 (a + 2l) 2l Pa 2 3 R 2 = S 2 = -----3 ( 3l a ) 2l M 1 = R 1 a ( at P ) Pab M 2 = --------( at fixed end ) 2 (a + l) 2l Mx= R1x ( x < a ) Mx = R1 x P ( x a ) Pa ( l a ) - -----------------------y max = -------3EI ( 3 l2 a 2 ) 2
2 2 2 3
(x > a) l +a when a < .414l at x = l ----------------2 2 3l a

2 2
Pab a a - ------------y max = ----------- when a > .414l at x = l ------------6EI 2 l + a 2 l + a 2 3 Pa b - ( 3 l + a ) ( at P ) y a = --------------3 12EI l 2 Pb x 2 3 3 y x = --------------(x < a) 3 ( 3 al 2 lx ax ) 12EI l Pa 2 2 2 2 (x > a) y x = --------------3 ( l x ) ( 3l x a x 2a l ) 12EI l
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Table 2-3F. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 15. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Uniformly Distributed Load.
3 wl R 1 = S 1 = -------8 5 wl R2 = S 2 max = -------8 S x = R 1 wx 3 wl M max = ------8 9 2 at x = 3 -- M 1 = -------128 wl 8 l 2 wx M x = R 1 x -------2 4 wl y max = -------------185EI ( at x = 0.4215 l ) wx 3 2 3 y x = ----------48EI ( l 3 lx + 2 x )
16. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Load Increasing Uniformly to Fixed End.
W R 1 = ---5,
4W R2 = ------5
2
1 x M x = Wx -- -----2 5 3l 2 M max = ----15 Wl ( at fixed end ) 2 x 1 Sx= W ----2 5 l 4W - ( at fixed end ) S max = ------5 3 3 16 Wl 0.00477 Wl -= = ---------------------------y x = -----------------EI 1500EI 5
17. Beam Fixed at Both Ends - Uniformly Distributed Loads.
wl R = S = ----2 l S x = w -- x 2 2 wl - ( at ends ) M max = ------12 2 wl - ( at center ) M 1 = ------24 w 2 2 - ( 6 lx l 6 x ) M x = ----12 wl y max = -------------384EI

2 4
( at center )
wx 2 -(l x) y x = ----------24EI
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Table 2-3G. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 18. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Uniformly Distributed Load and Concentrated Load.
c1 ( 3 c + 2 c1 ) 3 - + -R 1 = P -------------------------------3 8 wl 2l 2 2 (2 c + 6 cc 1 + 3 c 1 ) c 5 - + -R 2 = P ----------------------------------------------3 8 wl 2l cc 1 (2 c + c 1 ) wl 2 - + ------M 2 = P ----------------------------2 82l

2
( 3 c1 c ) c cc 1 ( 3 c + 2 c 1 ) - + W -----------------------M p = P ----------------------------------2l 8l
2 3 2 R1 R1l P l 5 c 3 c1 at x = ------ for -----------< l M c max = ------2 --------------------W 4c 3 c + 2 c 1 , M c max > M c 1 max 2W W 1 2
( R1 W ) R1 P l ( 3 c1 5 c ) P - l max at x = -------------- < ----------------------------------------------------M c 1 max = Pc + ------------------------2 2W - l for ---W 2W 4 c ( 2 c + 6 cc 1 + 3 c 1 )

2
1 2
P c c 1 (4 c+3 c 1 ) W cc 1 ( 3 c + c 1 ) - ------------------------------- -------------------------------- + ---y p = ---3 EI EI 48 l 12 l

2 3 2
( at P )
19. Beam Fixed at Both Ends - Concentrated Load at Any Point.
Pb R 1 = S 1 = -------3 - ( 3 a + b ) ( max when a b ) l 2 Pab M 1 = ----------2 - ( max when a b ) l 2 2 2 Pa b M 2 = ----------------3 - ( at P ) l 2 Pab (x < a) M x = R1 x ----------2 l 2 Pa b 2 al Y max = -------------------------------2 at x = -------------3 a + b when a > b 3EI ( 3 a + b ) Pa b - ( at P ) y a = ------------3 3EI l Pb x y x = ------------3 ( 3 al 3 ax bx ) ( x < a ) 6EI l
2 2 3 3 3 2
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Table 2-3H. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 20. Beam Fixed at Both Ends - Concentrated Load at Center.
P P = S = -2 Pl M max = ---8 ( at center and ends ) l P --Mx x < 2 = 8 ( 4 x l ) 3 Pl y max = -------------192EI ( at center ) l Px -----------yx x < 2 = 48EI ( 3 l 4 x )
2
21. Beam Fixed at Both Ends - Uniformly Distributed Load and Concentrated Load.
c < c 1,
W = wl 2 (3 c + c 1 ) c 1 W - + ---R 1 = P ---------------------------l3 2 ( c + 3 c1 ) c W - + ---R2 = P -------------------------3 2 l 2 cc 1 Wl M 1 = M max = P --------2 - + -----12 l

2
c c1 1 c c1 - P ---------y = ---3- + W ----------EI 24 l 3l
( at P )
22. Cantilever Beam - Load Increasing Uniformly to Fixed End.
wl R = S = W = ----2 2 x S x = W ---2 l Wl M max = -----3 ( at fixed end ) Wx M x = --------23l

3 3
Wl y max = ----------15EI
( at free end )
W 5 4 5 y x = --------------2 (x 5l x + 4l ) 60EI l
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Table 2-3I. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 23. Cantilever Beam - Uniformly Distributed Load.
R = S = W = wl S x = wx wl - ( at fixed end ) M max = ------2 2 wx M x = -------2 4 wl - ( at free end ) y max = -------8EI w 4 3 4 - (x 4l x + 3l ) y x = ----------24EI
2
24. Cantilever Beam - Concentrated Load at Any Point.
R= S= P M max = Pb ( at fixed end ) Mx = P ( x a ) ( x > a ) Pb - ( 3 l b ) ( at free end ) y max = -------6EI 3 Pb - ( at P ) y a = -------3EI 2 Pb - ( 3b 3x b ) ( x < a ) y x = -------6EI 2 P(l x) - (3b l + x) (x > a) y x = -------------------6EI
2
25. Cantilever Beam - Concentrated Load at Free End.
R= S= P M max = Pb ( at fixed end ) M x = Px Pl - ( at free end ) y max = -------3EI P 3 2 3 - (2l 3l x + x ) y x = -------6EI

3
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Table 2-3J. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 26. Beam Fixed at One End, Free to Deflect Vertically But Not Rotate at Other - Concentrated Load at Deflected End.
R= S= P Pl - ( at both ends ) M max = ---2 l - x M x = P -2 Pl - ( at deflected end ) y max = ----------12EI 2 P(l x) - (l + 2x) y x = -------------------12EI
3
27. Beam Fixed at One End, Free to Deflect Vertically But Rotate at Other - Uniformly Distributed Load.
R = S = wl S x = wx wl - ( at fixed end ) M max = ------3 2 wl - ( at deflected end ) M 1 = ------6 w 2 2 - ( l 3x ) M x = --6 4 wl - ( at deflected end ) y max = ----------24EI 2 2 2 w(l x ) y x = ------------------------24EI
2
28. Beam Overhanging Two Supports - Equal Concentrated Loads at Both Ends.
R1= P R2= P M x = Pc = const. S= P S= 0 S= +P 2 Pcl y 1 = ---------EI8 2 Pc 3 l y 2 = -------- c + ---EI3 2 [ P to R 1 ] [ R 1 to R2 ] [ R 2 to P ] [ max ] [ max ]
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Table 2-3K. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 29. Beam Overhanging One Support - Uniformly Distributed Load.
w 2 2 -(l a ) R1 = S 1 = ---2l w 2 -(l + a) R 2 = S 2 + S 3 = ---2l S 2 = wa w 2 2 -(l + a ) S 3 = ---2l S x = R 1 wx ( between supports ) S x1 = w ( a x 1 ) ( for overhang ) w l a 2 2 -M 1 = -----2 ( l + a ) ( l a ) at x = 2 1 ---2 8l l wa - ( at R2 ) M 2 = -------2 wx 2 2 - ( l a xl ) ( between supports ) M x = -----2l w 2 - ( a x 1 ) ( for overhang ) M x1 = --2 wx 4 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 - ( l 2 l x + lx 2 a l + 2 a x ) ( between supports ) y x = ------------24EI l 1 wx 2 3 2 2 3 - ( 4 a l l + 6 a x 1 4 ax 1 + x 1 ) ( for overhang ) y x1 = ----------24EI
30. Beam Overhanging One Support - Uniformly Distributed Load On Overhang.
2 2
wa -( 2l + a) R 2 = S 1 + S 2 = -----2l S 2 = wa S x1 = w ( a x 1 ) ( for overhang ) wa - ( at R 2 ) M max = -------2 2 wa x - ( between supports ) M x = ----------2l w 2 - ( a x 1 ) ( for overhang ) M x1 = --2 2 2 2 2 wa l wa l l y max = ------------= .03208 ------------- at x = -----EI 18 3 EI 3 wa - ( 4 l + 3 a ) ( at x 1 = a ) y max = ----------24EI wa x 2 2 - ( l x ) ( between supports ) y x = ------------12EI l wx 1 2 2 2 2 - ( 4 a l + 6 a x 1 4 ax 1 = x 1 ) ( for overhang ) y x1 = ----------24EI
2 3 2
wa R1 = S 1 = -------2l
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Table 2-3L. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 31. Beam Overhanging One Support - Concentrated Load at End of Overhang.
Pa R1 = S 1 = -----l P -(l + a) R 2 = S 1 + S 2 = -l S2 = P M max ( at R 2 ) = Pa Pax - ( between supports ) M x = --------l M x1 = P ( a x 1 ) ( for overhang ) Pal Pal l - at x = ------ = .06415 ---------y max = --------- EI 9 3 EI 3 2 Pa y max = -----------------------( at x 1 = a ) 3EI ( l + a ) Pax 2 2 -(l x ) ( between supports ) y x = ---------6EI l Px 1 1 2 - ( 2 al + 3 ax x 1 ) ( for overhang ) y x1 = -------6EI
32. Beam Overhanging One Support - Uniformly Distributed Load Between Supports.
2 2
wl R = S = ----2 l - x S x = w -2 2 wl M max = ------( at center ) 8 wx -(l x) M x = -----2 4 5 wl y max = -------------( at center ) 384EI wx 2 2 3 - ( l 2 lx + x ) Y x = ----------24EI 3 wl x 1 Y x1 = -----------24EI
33. Beam Overhanging One Support - Concentrated Load at Any Point Between Supports.
8 Pab Total Equiv. Uniform Load = -----------2 l Pb - ( max when a b ) R 2 = S 2 = -----l Pab - ( at P ) M max = --------l Pbx - (x < a) M x = --------l Pab ( a + 2 b ) 3 a ( a + 2 b ) a(a + 2b) - when a > b at x = --------------------------y max = ------------------------------------------------------------- 27EI l 3 2 2 Pa b y a = -------------- ( at P ) 3EI l Pbx 2 2 2 -(l b x ) (x < a) y x = ---------6EI l Pa ( l x ) 2 2 - ( 2 lx x a ) ( x > a ) y x = --------------------6EI l Pabx 1 -(l + a) y x1 = -------------6EI l
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Table 2-3M. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section. 34. Beam - Uniformly Distributed Load and Variable End Moments.
wl M 1 M 2 R1 = S 1 = ----- + ------------------l 2 wl M 1 M 2 R 2 = S 2 = ----- ------------------l 2 M1 M2 l S x = w -- x + ------------------2 l 2 2 wl M 1 + M 2 ( M 1 M 2 ) l M 1 M 2 at x = -- -------------------- + -------------------------M 1 = ------- + ------------------2 2 wl 8 2 2 wl M 1 M 2 wx - x M1 - ( l x ) + ------------------M x = ----- l 2 4 M 1 4 M 2 2 12 M 1 8 M1 l 4 M 2 l wx 3 - x + l 3 ----------- x 2 l + --------- ----------- --------- x + -----------y x = ---------- w 24EI w w wl wl to locate inflection points: b=
2 2 l M 1 + M 2 M 1 M 2 --- -------------------- + ------------------4 w wl
35. Beam - Concentrated Load at Center and Variable End Moments.
P M1 M2 - + ------------------R1 = s 1 = -2 l P M1 M2 - - ------------------R 2 = S 2 = -l 2 Pl M 1 + M 2 M 1 = ---- -------------------2 4 ( at center ) l x < - 2 l x > - 2 l x < - 2
P M 1 M 2 Mx = - x M 1 - + ------------------ -l 2
( M1 M2 ) x P - ( l x ) + --------------------------- M1 M x = -2 l
8(l x) Px 2 2 - [ M 1 ( 2 l x ) + M 2 ( l + x ) ] - 3 l 4 x ----------------y = ---------- Pl 48EI
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The moment at any point along the beam resulting from the application of the load P is resisted by an opposite and equal internal stress moment, or moment of resistance, M = I/y, where is the elastic unit stress at the outer fibers, a distance y from the neutral axis, and I is the moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis. The strength of a beam in bending is its ability to carry external moment, i.e., the maximum moment of resistance it can develop. Beam strength is limited by material strength (allowable stress) and cross-sectional geometry (moment of inertia). For a beam of rectangular cross section with depth h and breadth b, the strength formula reduces to M = (bh2)/6. Beam strength can be seen to vary as follows:
For constant breadth, as the square of the depth. For constant depth, directly with the breadth. For constant cross section, directly with material strength.
Although beam strength, as measured by maximum internal moment, is independent of length, load capacity decreases with length, as maximum external moment increases with length for virtually all loadings. Few beams satisfy all of the flexure theory assumptions precisely. The assumption that cross sections remain plane is true only if shear is constant or zero over the cross section and along the length of the beam, layers of the beam are not normally free to expand or contract, etc. The validity of the flexure theory stress-moment relationship is a function of how closely the actual beam approximates the ideal beam described by the assumptions. In general, greater latitude can be taken with assumptions one, five and seven than with two, three, and four. For example, flexure theory predicts hull girder stresses with acceptable accuracy. 2-3.2 Deflection. When a beam is bent, the fibers on one side elongate, while the fibers on the other side shorten, causing the beam to deflect. The elastic curve or neutral line is the curve formed by the intersection of the neutral plane and the beam face or side. The radius of curvature at any point is: rc = where: E I M = = = modulus of elasticity moment of inertia of beam section bending moment EI M
A beam bent to a circular curve of constant radius has a constant bending moment along its length. If y is beam deflection, then dy/dx is the slope of a tangent to the elastic curve; the reciprocal of the radius of curvature is approximately equal to the derivative of the slope of the curve: d 2y 1 M 1 y = Mdx = rc EI EI dx 2
In general, deflection can be expressed in the form: y = Pl 3 mEI
where: P l m = = = total load on the beam beam length deflection coefficient
Table 2-3 gives deflection relationships for common beam loadings and configurations.
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Beam deflection can be related to bending stress. The strength formula, M = I/c, can be expressed as M = Pl/n, where P is the load, l is the span, and n is a constant. Solving for Pl = In/c, and substituting into the relationship y = Pl3/mEI: y = Cy l In l nl = = m EIc mEc Ec
2 2 2
Table 2-4. Beam Deflection Coefficients.
Beam Cantilever Cantilever Simple Simple Fixed ends Fixed ends One end fixed, one end supported
Load Concentrated at end Uniform Concentrated at center Uniform Concentrated at center Uniform Concentrated at center
n
1 2 4 8 8 12
16
m
3 8 48
384
Cy
1
3 4
12 48 24 32
where Cy is a deflection coefficient equal to n/m. Values for n, m, and Cy are given in Table 2-4. The relationship illustrates that deflection varies directly as stress and the square of span length, and inversely as modulus of elasticity and beam depth.
192 384
768
2-3.3 Superposition. It is always possible to en1 13 128 counter combinations of loading and support for One end fixed, one end supported Uniform 9 185 which no tabulated solution can be found. In such 1 10 Simple Uniformly varying, maximum at center 6 60 cases, moment and deflection diagrams can be drawn in parts. If the loading for the beam can be taken as the sum of two or more load cases for which moment solutions are known, moment or deflection diagrams can be drawn for each load as if it acted independently. The superposition, or sum, of the independent diagrams is equivalent to the applicable diagram for the combined loads. Table 2-5 gives moment distributions and properties of the resulting areas for the four basic loadings as applied to cantilever beams. Figure 2-16A illustrates two simple applications of the superposition principle. Ingenuity plays an important role in the application of superposition, as shown by the examples in Figure 2-16B. Figure 2-16B(a) shows how judicious selection of the reference point for calculating moments can simplify drawing moment diagrams by parts. All three moment diagrams by parts sum to the same composite diagram. In Figure 2-16B(b), the point load P is equivalent to Case 7 from Table 2-3. Maximum (midspan) deflection for the load distributed over the half span can be deduced from Case 1 of Table 2-3. Two identical beams, supporting identical distributed loads over opposite half spans, are equivalent to Case 1 if superposed. Since the "half beams" are connected, midspan deflection for each must be equal and half of that given for Case 1. Total deflection is calculated simply, as shown.
144
Table 2-5. Moment Diagrams for Basic Beam Loadings. Loading Maximum Moment Moment Distribution Shape Area Centroid x
M
M
x h b l
rectangle
bh = Ml
b 2
P
Pl
x h b x
triangle
bh = 2
Pl 2
b 3
w l wmax
wl 6 wl 2
h b x
parabola
bh = 3
wl 3 6
b 4
h b
cubic parabola
bh = 4
wl 3 24
b 5
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P1
LOADING
P2
P3 A l3 l2 l1 P1l1 P2 l1 P3l3
l 2
l 2
MOMENT DIAGRAM BY PARTS
Pl wl 2 8
COMPOSITE MOMENT DIAGRAM
P1l1+P2l2+P3l3
Pl + wl 8
Figure 2-16A. Moment Diagrams by Parts.
P l1 l2 l R1 R2 l
MOMENTS SUMMED ABOUT SUPPORT 1
R2
Pl1
R1l
MOMENTS SUMMED ABOUT SUPPORT 2
Pl2 R1l1 R2l2
MOMENTS SUMMED ABOUT POINT OF LOAD APPLICATION
(a) MOMENTS BY SUPERPOSITION
P w
DEFLECTION DUE TO P:
3 Ymax = Pl (AT CENTER) 48EI
w
DEFLECTION DUE TO DISTRIBUTED LOAD: Ymax FOR EACH HALF BEAM OCCURS AT CENTER, Ymax, right = Ymax, left = 1/2 (Ymax for load distributed over l)
4 4 Ymax = 1/2 ( 5wl ) = 5wl 384EI 768EI
l 2
l 2
w
TOTAL DEFLECTION:
l 2
l 2
3 4 Ymax = Pl + 5wl 48EI 768EI
(b) DEFLECTION BY SUPERPOSITION
Figure 2-16B. Moment Diagrams by Parts.
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2-3.4 Oblique Loading. If an upright beam subject to oblique loads, as shown in Figure 2-17, is restrained laterally as well as vertically, beam strength can be evaluated by resolving the loads into vertical and horizontal components. The moments and stresses resulting from the loads in the vertical and horizontal planes are handled separately. Total stress at any point is found by superposition of the stresses due to the horizontal and vertical components. The expressions for vertical and horizontal stress can be combined. For a point with coordinates x and y, bending stress is: My cos = Ix where: M y x Mcos Msin Ix Iy = = = = = = = = Mx sin Iy
PLANE OF BENDING MOMENT X
PRINCIPAL AXIS Y
OBLIQUE LOADING
ASYMETRIC SECTION
Figure 2-17. Oblique Loading and Asymmetric Beam Sections.
bending moment, [length-force] distance from the X-axis, [length] distance from the Y-axis, [length] angle between the plane of bending moment (plane of loads) and the Y-axis, as shown in Figure 2-17 component of bending moment causing bending about the Y-axis, [length-force] component of bending moment causing bending about the X-axis, [length-force] moment of inertia about the X-axis, [length4] moment of inertia about the Y-axis, [length4]
w
CONTINUOUS BEAM
2-3.5 Asymmetrical Sections. Every section of a beam has two principal axes passing through the centroid at right angles to each other. A beam is considered upright when one of its principal axes is aligned with the vertical. Moments of inertia taken about the principal axes are either maximum or minimum compared to moments of inertia taken about other axes. For symmetrical sections, axes of symmetry are always principal axes. For asymmetrical sections, such as angles and bulb stiffeners, the inclination of one of the principal axes from the X-axis () can be found from: tan 2 = 2Ixy Iy Ix
l 2 R1 R2
l 2 R3
y wl 2 P 2 wl 2 P 2 y P
EQUIVALENT SUPERPOSED 2 SUPPORT LOADING
where: Ixy = product of inertia with respect to the X and Y axes = xy dy dx (see Appendix C for discussion and table) moment of inertia about the Y-axis moment of inertia about the X-axis
SUPPORT REACTIONS
wl - P = wl 2 2 4
P = wl 2
wl - P = wl 2 2 4
Iy Ix
= =
Figure 2-18. Continuous Beam Solution by Super Position.
The second principal axis is at right angles to the first. Strength of beams with asymmetrical cross section is evaluated as for oblique loading, by using moments of inertia about the principal axes, and resolving the load into components perpendicular to the principal axes. 2-3.6 Continuous Beams. Continuous beams rest on multiple supports and are stronger and stiffer than simple beams. The shear force, bending moment, and deflection relationships presented for simple beams also hold true for continuous beams. Continuous beams have more supports than are necessary to maintain equilibrium, making them statically indeterminate. One method of determining reactions for various loading conditions is by the superposition of deflections (see Paragraph 2-3.3).
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For example, middle support reaction of the uniformly loaded, continuous beam in Figure 2-18 can be treated as an opposing concentrated load. Assuming rigid support, the midspan deflections caused the uniform loading and the concentrated load must be opposite and equal. Case 17 of Table 2-3 gives midspan deflection as wl 4/384EI for the distributed load. The midspan deflection of the concentrated load at center is given in Case 20 of Table 2-3 as Pl3/192EI. Setting the two expressions equal and solving for P: wl 4 = 384 EI P = Pl 3 192 EI wl 2 = R2
SHEAR
MOMENT
Figure 2-19. Equal-Span, Uniformly Loaded Continuous Beam.
The end reactions are equal to the algebraic sums of the end reactions for the two cases, as shown. Shear and moment diagrams are drawn by the usual method. If the center support is not in the same plane as the two end supports, the procedure is modified slightly. The deflection caused by the upward reaction is set equal to the deflection caused by the uniform load less the vertical distance from the plane of the end supports to the top of the center support. Figure 2-19 shows the general form of shear and moment diagrams for uniformly loaded, equal-span continuous beams with all supports in the same plane. Table 2-6 gives values for reactions, shear force, and bending moment at supports, and position and magnitude of maximum bending moment between supports. Reactions, shear forces, and bending moments will vary significantly from these values if all supports are not in the same plane. 2-3.7 Curved Beams. Curved beams are either concentric, where inner and outer surfaces have the same center of curvature, or eccentric, where inner and outer surfaces have different centers and/or radii of curvature. The straight beam flexure formula, = My/I, is not accurate for curved beams. Different stress formulae are used for concentric and eccentric curved beams.
Table 2-6. Continuous Beams.
Number Notation Shear on each side of Moment Max Distance to point Distance to point of of support.L=left,R=right.Reaction over each moment of max moment, of inflection, supports support support in each measured to right measured to right at any support is L+R of span span from support from support
L 2 3 4 5 1 or 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Values apply to 0 0 5/8 0 6/10 0 17/28 13/28 0 23/38 18/38 0 63/104 49/104 53/104 0 86/142 67/142 72/142
R 1/2 3/8 5/8 4/10 5/10 11/28 15/28 13/28 15/38 20/38 19/38 41/104 55/104 51/104 53/104 56/142 75/142 70/142 71/142 0 0 1/8 0 1/10 0 3/28 2/28 0 4/38 3/38 0 11/104 8/104 9/104 0 15/142 11/142 12/142 0.125 0.0703 0.0703 0.080 0.025 0.0772 0.0364 0.0364 0.0779 0.0332 0.0461 0.0777 0.0340 0.0433 0.0433 0.0778 0.0338 0.0440 0.0405 0.500 0.375 0.625 0.400 0.500 0.393 0.536 0.464 0.395 0.526 0.500 0.394 0.533 0.490 0.510 0.394 0.528 0.493 0.500 None 0.750 0.250 0.800 0.276,0.724 0.786 0.226,0.806 0.194,0.734 0.789 0.268,0.783 0.196,0.804 0.788 0.268,0.790 0.196,0.785 0.215,0.804 0.789 0.268,0.788 0.196,0.790 0.215,0.785
wl
wl
wl 2
wl 2
Uniform load per unit length = w; length of equal span = l
Note: The numerical values given are coefficients of the expressions at the foot of each column. From Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition; Avallone and Baumeister; McGraw Hill, 1987
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For beams of rectangular section, the stress formula reduces to: where: b h = = beam width beam depth 6KM bh 2
Bending stresses are maximum at the center section in arch beams. In crescent beams, maximum bending stress may occur in offcenter sections. Stress at the center section is multiplied by a position factor, k, from Table 2-9 to determine the magnitude and section of maximum stress.
Table 2-9. Crescent Beam Position Stress Factors, k. Angle , degrees Inner 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Note: 1.521 1.756 2.070 2.531 1 0.055 H/h 1 0.164 H/h 1 0.365 H/h 1 0.567 H/h (0.5171 1.382 H/h)1/2 1.382 (0.2416 0.6506 H/h)1/2 0.6506 (0.4817 1.298 H/h)1/2 0.6492 (0.2939 0.7084 H/h)1/2 0.3542
k
Outer 1 + 0.03 H/h 1 + 0.10 H/h 1 + 0.25 H/h 1 + 0.467 H/h 1 + 0.733 H/h 1 + 1.123 H/h 1 + 1.70 H/h 1 + 2.383 H/h 1 + 3.933 H/h
All formulas are valid for 0 < H/h < 0.325. Formulas for the inner boundary, except for 40 deg., may be used to H/h < 0.36. H = distance between centers.
From Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition; Avallone and Baumeister; McGraw Hill, 1987
2-4 STRUTS AND COLUMNS Struts are structural members that are subjected primarily to axial loading; columns are struts that are generally loaded only in compression. Stanchions, pillars, and some types of temporary shores are columns. Columns are grouped into three classes by failure mode and approximate slenderness ratiounsupported length (l) divided by least radius of gyration of the cross section (k):
Compression Blocks members with slenderness ratios less than 30 so that bending is unlikely and strength is limited by ultimate compressive stress. Long Columns very slender members that usually fail by buckling when a critical load is reached. Short Columns members that are neither long columns nor compression blocks.
2-4.1 Compression Blocks. The load-carrying ability of a compression block through its cross-sectional centroid is the permissible compressive stress multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the block: P = c A where: P c A = = = ultimate (failure) compressive load, [force] compressive ultimate (brittle materials) or yield (ductile materials) stress, [force/length2] cross-sectional area, [length2]
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2-4.2 Long and Short Columns. Allowable load for long columns is limited by buckling, while strength is limiting for short columns. The slenderness ratio that separates long and short columns depends on material properties, geometry, and end constraints and ranges from 120 to 150. Critical loads for long columns are given by Eulers formula: Pcr = n()2EI n()2EA = 2 l l2 k
where: P E I A l = = = = = end load, [force] modulus of elasticity, [force/length2] moment of inertia about the buckling axis, [length4] column cross-sectional area, [length2] unsupported column length, [length] k n = = least radius of gyration of column cross section, [length] 1 for a column pivoted at both ends 2 for one end fixed and one rounded 4 for both ends fixed 1 4 for one end fixed and one free
When Eulers formula results in a critical load such that Pcr/A is greater than the column materials compressive yield stress, allowable load is limited by strength rather than buckling, and the column is short. The stress in short columns is partly due to compression and partly due to bending. There is no theoretical relationship; various empirical expressions for the allowable working stress (sw), and the theoretical maximum allowable, or critical stress (scr) are given in Table 2-10. These expressions assume that permissible stress is caused by compression only. Each expression is valid only for a specified range of slenderness ratios.
Table 2-10. Short Column Formulas.
Formula
Material Carbon Steels
Code AISC
sw = 17,000
l2 0.485 k 70
Slenderness ratio l < 120 k
sw = 16,000 sw = 15,000 sw = 19,000
l k l k l k
Carbon Steels
Chicago
l < 120 k l < 150 k

60 <
50
Carbon Steels
AREA
100
Carbon Steels
Am. Br. Co.
l < 120 k
< 65
scr = 135,000 sw = 9,000
2 15.9 l c k
l
Alloy-steel tubing ANC
ck l < 70 k l
< 94
40
l k
Cast iron
NYC
scr = 34,500
245 l k c 0.5 l c k
2
2017ST Aluminum
ANC
ck l
< 72
scr = 5,000
scr = sy 1
Spruce
ANC
ck l < k
2n 2E sy
l 2 4n2E k
sy
Steels
Johnson
scr =
1
sy
l ec sec 2 k k P 4AE Steels Secant
l < critical k
scr c e
= theoretical maximum critical stress, psi;sw = allowable working stress, psi = end finity coefficient: c = 2, both ends pivoted, c = 2.86, one pivoted, other fixed, c = 4, both ends fixed, c = 1 one fixed, one free. = initial eccentricity at which load is applied to center of column cross section.
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2-4.3 Eccentric Loads. A strut loaded eccentrically in compression or tension is subject to both axial and bending stresses. In Figure 2-21, a load P acts at a distance e from the center of the column. If the load is eccentric with respect to only one of the principal axes (in this case, the X-axis), the stress in any fiber is the sum of the axial (in this case, compressive) and bending stresses: = c and since I = k 2A (where k is radius of gyration), = P A 1 ey = 1 ey c k 2 k 2 b = P My P Pey = A I A I
On the side of the central axis towards the point of load application, bending stresses reinforce the axial stresses; on the opposite side, the stresses cancel one another. For a rectangular cross section of width b, maximum stress is: max = (1 6e ) b
If the load is eccentric with respect to both principal axes, the expressions for total stress become: = M xy Myx P A Iy Ix Pexy Peyx P A Ix Iy P A Mx Zx My Zy
max =
For the rectangular section shown in Figure 2-21, Zx = Zy = max = bh 2 6 b 2h 6 P A = Ah 6
C L P
Ab 6 6Pey Ah
AREA A c e h h/3 h/3 h/3 KERN

b/3 b/3 b/3
6Pex Ab
Loads with sufficient eccentricity will cause stress sign reversal; that is, an eccentric compressive load will cause tensile stresses C L P on the opposite side of the strut and vice versa. This is particularly important when applying compressive loads to struts weak Figure 2-21. Eccentrically Loaded Strut. in tension (concrete, stone, partially severed framing) or tensile loads to struts weak in compression (buckled or bent framing). Permissible eccentricity (to avoid stress reversal) can be found by equating the direct (compressive) stress to the maximum opposing (tensile) stress induced by bending: 6Pex 6Pey P = A Ab Ah 1 = 6ex 6ey b h (rectangular section)
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Setting ex to 0, permissible ey is h/6. Similarly, permissible ex is b/6 when ey is 0. Joining the points of greatest permissible eccentricity in each coordinate direction defines a neutral axis where bending and direct stresses exactly cancel. By symmetry, four such neutral axes exist in a rectangular cross section, bounding a diamond-shaped core or kern. Forces acting within the kern will cause stresses of only one sign throughout the section. A characteristic kern can be defined for any geometric section. Figure 2-22 shows kerns and simplified expressions for maximum stress for various cross sections. Practical structures are often unintentionally manufactured with an initial bow. The deflection of an initially bowed, end-loaded strut is given by: y = PE PE P
SOLID SHAPES: h/3 h/3 h h/3
h/3
2h/3 h/4
b b/4
b/3
b/3
b (a)
b/3
h/6 h/12 h (b)
d/4
h/3 h/6 h h/6 h/3 h (d) R (e) .226R R
y0
(c)
where: PE = Euler collapse load, 2EI/l2 (l is effective length) y = total deflection, including initial deflection, y0 Maximum bending moment in a member whose end rotation is not constrained is given by: Mbmax = Pymax 2-5 FLAT PLATES
HOLLOW SHAPES: D H Ro r Ri
2r 2r
d _ 2 d r = D[1+( D ) ] 8 (f)
_ )2 ] h r = H [1+( H 6 2
r = 0.2256Ro [1+( Ri )2 ]
Ro
(g)
(h)
Analysis of flat plates under lateral load is Figure 2-22. Kerns. difficult because plates deflect vertically in response to all loads. There are strict mathematical relationships for only a few cases. Most stress or deflection relationships are empirical to some degree, although finite element methods can give rigorous solutions. Because of the large number of elements that must be examined, finite element analysis is not practical without high-speed computer programs, and is not discussed here. Plates may be grouped into four categories, without exact lines of demarkation:
Thick plates Plates so thick that transverse shear is an important factor in load carrying capacity. Medium- or average-thickness plates Plates with thickness or rigidity such that flexural stresses are the predominate factor affecting strength. Thin plates Plates that depend, in part, on direct tension to carry lateral loads. Membranes Plates so thin that deflection under lateral load subjects them to direct tension only.
The flat plate formulae given here apply to medium thickness plates subject to the following constraints: Plate thickness is constant and less than one-fourth the minimum width. Maximum deflection is less than one-half the plate thickness. The plates are constructed of isentropic, elastic material, and the elastic limit is not exceeded under the applied loading.
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In developing these formulae, allowance for stress redistribution, caused by slight local yielding, was usually not made. Since the redistribution is beneficial, especially in ductile materials, the formulae are on the safe side. Certain cases of symmetrically loaded circular and rectangular plates are shown in Figure 2-23. Maximum stress (smax) and deflection (ymax) for the loading indicated are given by the relationships as shown to the right:
The coefficients k and k1 depend on the edge constraint and length-to-breadth ratio for rectangular or elliptical plates or ratio of inner to outer diameter for annular plates. Table 2-11 gives values of k and k1 for materials with Poissons ratio () of 0.3 for the cases shown in Figure 2-23. Combinations of the loadings shown can be analyzed by superposition. For circular plates with 0.3 under uniform pressure, smax and ymax can be found from the relationships as shown to the right:
{ {
W
Stress pr 2 k t2 P k t2 C k t2 Stress
Deflection pr 4 k1 Et 3 Pr 2 k1 Et 3 Cr 2 k1 Et 3 Deflection 3 pr 4(1 ) (5 ) 16 Et 3 3 pr 4 (1 2) 16 Et 3
Loading Uniform pressure, p Concentrated load, P, at center Couple, C, per unit length
Edge contraints Simply supported
3 pr 2(3 ) 8 t2 3 pr 2 4 t2
Built in
W W R (1). (2). W R (3). W W r R (7). W C r R (11). (12). r R (13). C r R (14). (8). r R (9). R (4). C r
W r
R (5). W W r R (10). P P P r W R (15).
P r
P R (6).
P r
P R
r W R
CIRCULAR PLATES. CASES (4)., (5)., (6)., (7)., (8)., AND (13)., HAVE CENTRAL HOLE OF RADIUS r; CASES (9)., (10)., (11)., (12)., (14)., AND (15)., HAVE A CENTRAL PISTON OF RADIUS r TO WHICH THE PLATE IS FIXED. W r (16). RECT., SUPPORTED SIMPLY ON ALL EDGES. (21). SAME AS (20). BUT r>R. r (22). RECT., SUPPORTED SIMPLY ON ALL EDGES. W r (17). RECT., FIXED ON ALL EDGES. W r (18). RECT., SUPPORTED SIMPLY ALONG THREE EDGES. (23). SAME AS (22). BUT r>R. W R (19). RECT., FIXED ON ONE EDGE, SUPPORTED SIMPLY ON OTHER THREE EDGES. (24). ELLIPTICAL, 2R MAJOR AXIS, UNIFORMALY LOADED, SIMPLY SUPPORTED ALONG EDGE. W R (20). RECT., FIXED ON TWO OPPOSITE EDGES AND SUPPORTED SIMPLY ON OTHER TWO. (25). SAME AS (24). BUT FIXED ALONG EDGE.
RECTANGULAR AND ELLIPTICAL PLATES. [R IS THE LONGER DIMENSION EXCEPT IN CASES (21). AND (23).]
Figure 2-23. Flat Plate Loading and Edge Restraint Case.
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Table 2-11. Coefficients k and k1 for Flat Plates.
Circular Plates
( = 0.3)
Case
1 2 3
k
1.24 0.75 6.0
k1
0.696 0.171 4.2
R/r
Case
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1.25
k k1 k
1.5
k1 k
2.0
k1 k
3.0
k1 k
4.0
k1 k
5.0
k1
0.592 0.105 1.10 0.195 0.660 0.135 0.122 0.072 6.865 6.0 0.115 0.090
0.184 0.0025 0.341 0.0036 0.202 0.0023 0.00343 0.00068 0.2323 0.196 0.00129 0.00077
0.976 0.259 1.26 0.320 1.19 0.410 0.336 0.1825 7.448 6.0 0.220 0.273
0.414 0.0129 0.519 0.024 0.491 0.0183 0.0313 0.005 0.6613 0.485 0.0064 0.0062
1.440 0.481 1.48 0.455 2.04 1.04 0.740 0.361 8.136 6.0 0.405 0.710
0.664 0.057 0.672 0.081 0.902 0.0938 0.1250 0.023 1.493 0.847 0.0237 0.0329
1.880 0.654 1.88 0.670 3.34 2.15 1.21 0.546 8.71 6.0 0.703 1.54
0.824 0.130 0.734 0.171 1.220 0.293 0.291 0.064 2.555 0.940 0.062 0.110
2.08 0.708 2.17 1.00 4.30 2.99 1.45 0.627 8.930 6.0 0.933 2.23
0.830 0.163 0.724 0.218 1.300 0.448 0.417 0.092 3.105 0.810 0.092 0.179
2.19 0.730 2.34 1.30 5.10 3.96 1.59 0.668 9.036 6.0 1.13 2.80
0.813 0.176 0.704 0.238 1.310 0.564 0.492 0.112 3.418 0.658 0.114 0.234
Rectangular and Elliptical Plates
( = 0.3)
R/r
Case
16 17 18 19 20 21* 22 23* 24 25
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
k
0.287 0.308 0.672 0.500 0.418 0.418 0.160 0.160 1.24 0.75
k1
0.0443 0.0138 0.140 0.030 0.0209 0.0216 0.0221 0.0220 0.70 0.171
k
0.487 0.454 0.768 0.670 0.626 0.490 0.260 0.260 1.92 1.34
k1
0.0843 0.0240 0.160 0.070 0.0582 0.0270 0.0421 0.0436 1.26 0.304
k
0.610 0.497 0.792 0.730 0.715 0.497 0.320 0.340 2.26 1.63
k1
0.1106 0.0277 0.165 0.101 0.0987 0.0284 0.0553 0.0592 1.58 0.379
k
0.173 0.500 0.798 0.750 0.750 0.500 0.370 0.430 2.60 1.84
k1
0.1336 0.028 0.166 0.132 0.1276 0.0284 0.0668 0.0772 1.88 0.419
k
0.741 0.500 0.800 0.750 0.750 0.500 0.380 0.490 2.78 1.90
yk1
0.1400 0.028 0.166 0.139 0.0284 0.0700 0.0908 2.02 0.431
Length ratio is r/R in cases 21 and 23
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2-6 CYLINDERS AND SPHERES Cylinders and spheres often form portions of salvage systems. Their strength must be analyzed when they are used outside their design mode or nonstandard components form part of a system. 2-6.1 Thin-walled Cylinders and Spheres. Cylinders with wall thicknesses such that the assumption of constant stress across the wall results in negligible error are called thin-walled cylinders. Cylinders having internal diameter to thickness ratios (D/t) greater than 10 are considered thinwalled. Boilers, drums, tanks, pipes, and many pressure flasks can be treated as thinwalled cylinders. 2-6.1.1 Internal Pressure. The walls of a closed cylinder under internal pressure are subject to a circumferential or hoop stress, and a longitudinal stress: h = l = pD 2t pD 4t = = pr t pr 2t
D (a) DERIVATION OF LONGITUDINAL STRESS, (c) DERIVATION OF HOOP STRESS, h (b)
D2 Pi = p4
T = Dt
t Th = htW W Ph = pDW Th = htW
p = PRESSURE P = PRESSURE FORCE T = TENSILE FORCE IN CYLINDER WALL Figure 2-24. Stresses in the Thin-Walled Cylinder Under Internal Pressure.
where: h l p D r t = = = = = = hoop stress, [force/area] longitudinal stress, [force/area] pressure, [force/area] cylinder diameter, [length] cylinder radius, [length] wall thickness, [length]
The expressions for hoop and longitudinal stress are derived from free-body diagrams shown in Figure 2-24. The hoop and longitudinal stresses are principal stresses and do not combine into larger stresses. Because the hoop stress is twice the longitudinal stress, thin-walled cylinders normally fail by splitting lengthwise. The tensile stress in a thin-walled sphere or spherical shell caused by internal pressure is also pr/2t. 2-6.1.2 External Pressure. There is no simple means to evaluate stresses in a thin-walled cylinder under external pressure because failure is by collapse rather than elongation. If it is assumed that: a. The shell is perfectly round and of uniform thickness, b. The material obeys Hookes law, c. Radial stress is negligible, and d. Normal stress distribution is linear; an expression for collapse pressure (pc, psi) can be derived from the theory of elasticity: t 3 pc = KE D The coefficient K depends on the length-to-diameter (L/D) and diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratios, the kind of end support, and whether pressure is applied radially only or radially and at the ends. The curves in Figure 2-25 give K values for material with Poissons ratio () of 0.3. For infinitely long cylinders, K approaches 2/(1-2). N on the graphs indicates the number of lobes into which the shell collapses.
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200 100 60 _= 40 D t 20 K 10 6 4 20 50 100
N = 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 K
200 100 60 _= 40 D t 20 10 6 4 2 2 1 0.4 20 50
N = 12 11 10 9
8 7 6 5 4 3
100 200 500 1000
200 500 1000
2 1 0.4
0.8
8 _ L R
20
40
80
200
0.8
8 _ L R
20
40
80
200
RADIAL EXTERNAL PRESSURE WITH SIMPLY SUPPORTED EDGES 200 N =10 9 8 7 6 5 4 20 50 100 200 500 1000 1 2 4 8 _ L R RADIAL EXTERNAL PRESSURE WITH FIXED EDGES 20 40 80 200 2 3 K 200
RADIAL AND END EXTERNAL PRESSURE WITH SIMPLY SUPPORTED EDGES
100 80 60 40 _ D 20 t = 10 6 4 2 1
100 80 60 40 _ D 20 t = 10 6 4 2 1 1 2 20 50
N =10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
100 200 500 1000 4 8 _ L R RADIAL AND END EXTERNAL PRESSURE WITH FIXED EDGES 20 40 80 200 2
FROM UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ENGINEERING STATION BULLETIN NO. 12, 11 NOV, 1941
Figure 2-25. Cylinder Buckling Factors, K.
2-6.2 Ring-stiffened Cylinders. A thin-walled cylinder stiffened with circumferential rings can be treated as a series of shorter shells, with length equal to the ring spacing. Collapse pressure is determined by the relationship for collapse of a simple cylinder. The flexural rigidity (EIc) required of the combined stiffener and shell to withstand the pressure (p) is found from the following relationship: EIc = where: Ls Ic = = shell length (length between rings) combined moment of inertia of the ring and portion of the shell that is assumed to act with the ring pD 3Ls 24
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For thick, hollow spheres subject to an internal pressure, p, such that p < T/0.65, (T 0.4p) 1/3 r2 = r1 (T 0.65p) where T is the true stress, that is, the stress based on the instantaneous cross section. Solving for T: T 0.65pr 32 0.4pr 31 r 32 r 31
The maximum tensile stress is on the inner surface, in the direction of the circumference. For external pressure on a thick, hollow sphere with p < T/1.05, r2 T 1/3 r1 T 1.05p 1.05pr 32 r 32 r 31
2-7 CONNECTIONS Welded, riveted, and bolted connections join metal structures; nailed, screwed, and bolted connections join wooden structures. The type and construction of the connection is important to the overall strength of the structure. Connections are a discontinuity in the structure that must be analyzed independently of the overall structure. 2-7.1 Welds. Arc- or gas-welded joints are strong, efficient, and quickly made. Typical welding applications are the fabrication and installation of patches, cofferdams, lifting derricks, parbuckling shears, padeyes, etc. Figure 2-27 illustrates some common welded joints. American Welding Society (AWS) standard weld symbology and terminology are given in Appendix C. Most welds require the addition of weld metalwelding rod, filler wire, etc.to form the joint. The strength of the connection depends on the properties of the parent metal, the weld metal, and the geometry of the weld. In general, the permissible load (P) on a welded joint is the product of the allowable stress (S) multiplied by the minimum cross-sectional area (a) through which failure occurs: P = Sa Allowable stress is yieldor ultimatestress of the weld metal or adjacent parent metal, whichever is less, divided by a safety factor. Loading and weld geometry determine whether shear or tensile stress limits weld strength. A butt weld connecting two axially loaded plates or bars is under simple axial stress. The minimum cross-sectional area is assumed to be the length of the joint times the thickness of the thinner plate and: Pbutt weld = maxlt where: max = maximum allowable tensile or compressive stress l = length of weld t = thickness of thinner plate
EDGE WELD
FILLET WELD PLUG WELD BUTT WELD DOUBLE BUTT WELD
CORNER WELD SEAM WELD
Figure 2-27. Welded Joints.
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Practically all other weld types and geometries are subject to shear or combined stresses. Fillet welds are probably the most common weld type. As shown in Figure 2-28, the end section of a fillet weld approximates a right isosceles triangle. Fillet leg size specifies fillet weld size. The minimum weld thickness, or throat, is the product of the fillet leg (h) and the sine of 45 degrees. Minimum cross-sectional (shearing) area is the length of the weld (l) multiplied by the throat width. Permissible weld load is: Pfillet weld = s (sin 45) h l where s is the allowable stress in the weld. With a safety factor of 1.5, the allowable shear stress for mild steel is about 14,000 psi. With this factor of safety, the strength per linear inch of a fillet weld is 10,000 times the decimal weld size.
CONCAVE FILLET WELD
CONVEX FILLET WELD
LEG THROAT
THROAT = 0.707 x LEG
LENGTH
FACE MINIMUM SHEAR AREA TOE THROAT TOE
The strength of joints made in controlled environments by certified welders commonly equals or exceeds the strength of the parent metal. Environmental factors MINIMUM SHEAR AREA = THROAT x (LENGTH) = 0.707 x LEG x LENGTH such as salt spray and corroded surfaces degrade quality of a weld. The strength of an underwater weld can exceed that of the Figure 2-28. Fillet Weld Geometry. parent metal and may approach the strength of dry welds, depending primarily on the skill of the welder. Ductility of underwater welds will always be less than that of surface welds because of rapid quenching and hydrogen embrittlement from the surrounding water, increased oxygen uptake because of the higher oxygen pressure, and the characteristics of the welding arc under pressure. Less ductile welds have lower resistance to shock, impact, and fatigue. The strength assigned to any weld is largely a matter of judgement, based on the welding conditions, equipment, and the skill the SHEAR AREA SHEAR FAILURE welder has demonstrated on test coupons. t Welds of doubtful strength may be Psb proofloaded, if practicable and if the time Psb for testing does not delay the salvage operation. Welds in small components can BEARING FAILURE be tested by suspending an appropriate weight from a crane with the component as BEARING a link in the lifting rig. P P
AREA
b b
2-7.2 Bolts and Rivets. Bolted and riveted connections are analyzed identically. These connections fail in one of the four ways illustrated in Figure 2-29:
Shear failure of bolts. Bearing or crushing failure of the connected plates. Tensile failure connected plates. of the
TENSION AREA Pt
TENSILE FAILURE DIA = d

b
Pt
SHEAR AREA x 2 Psp
PLATE SHEAR
Double shear of one of the connected plates if the bolt is near the edge of the plate.
Psp
Figure 2-29. Bolted Joints.
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The strength of the joint is the minimum load that will cause one of the four modes of failure. For a single bolt or rivet, permissible loads for each failure mechanism are: d 2 Psb = y Ay = y 4 Pb = b Ab = b t d Pt = y At = y (b d) t Psp = y 2 As = ty 2 t L where: P A y b y b d t = = = = = = = = allowable load, with subscript sb, b, t, and sp indicating bolt shear, bearing, tension, and plate shear, respectively area subject to shear, bearing, tension as denoted by subscripts s, b, and t allowable shear stress = plate or fastener shear yield stress/safety factor allowable bearing stress = 1.5 times the bolts ultimate tensile strength/safety factor allowable tensile stress = plate tensile yield stress/safety factor plate width bolt or rivet diameter plate thickness (bolt shear) (plate bearing) (plate tension) (plate shear)
For ductile materials in static loading, stress concentration near round bolt holes is usually neglected. Appendix E includes tables of ultimate and yield stresses for various materials and standard bolts. It has been shown that a bolt will not tear through the free edge of a connected plate if the distance L, measured from the bolt to the free edge in the direction of force, is greater than the diameter of the bolt multiplied by the ratio of bearing stress to tensile strength of the connected member: b L d u where: L b u d = = = = distance to free edge of connected member bearing stress = 1.5 times the bolt ultimate tensile strength plate tensile strength (ultimate stress) bolt diameter
2 1 1 CENTROID OF RIVETS OR BOLTS P P
P 2
2 3P
P/3
2 (a) Figure 2-30. Multiple Fastener Joint. (b)
An allowable working stress in bearing can be expressed as: b = Lu FS d 1.5y
where FS is a safety factor. The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) recommends a safety factor of 2.0. When the line of action of the load passes through the centroid of multiple fasteners, as shown in Figure 2-30, the fasteners are assumed to deform equally and carry an equal share of the load. Shear and bearing stresses under an axial load, P, are distributed so: = b = P nAs P nAb
where n is the number of fasteners. Tensile stress in the plate varies with fastener pattern. As shown in the free-body diagram of Figure 2-30, the plate at section 1 carries the full load, while the plate at section 2 carries two-thirds of the load.
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If the line of action of the applied load does not pass through the centroid of the fasteners, such as in the eccentrically loaded bracket in Figure 2-31, the connection is subject to torsion as well as direct shear. Shear stress in the fasteners resists the rotation of the connected members about one another. The eccentric loading is statically equivalent to a direct load and a moment. The load carried by any bolt is the vector sum of the direct force and the moment force as shown in Figure 2-31. The critical fastener is the fastener for which the vector sum of direct and torsional shear stresses is P greatest. Stresses in the fastener group are evaluated by the shaft torsion equation ( = e T = Pe Tr/IP), modified by:
The moment Pe, where P is the applied load and e is the distance from the point of load application to the centroid of the fastener group, replaces torque, T. The distance to the fastener in question (usually the critical fastener) replaces the radius, r. The polar moment of inertia, IP, is the moment of the entire fastener group, based on the parallel axis theorem: IP = ri2Ai where: r = A =
(a) Pd Pt
R
(b)
+
P P
DIRECT LOAD (c)
TORSIONAL LOAD (d)
COMBINED LOAD (e)
Figure 2-31. Eccentrically Loaded Connections.
radius of the fastener from the centroid of the fastener group cross-sectional area of each fastener
The total shear stress on any fastener is the vector sum of the shear stresses due to direct load, D, and torsion, T: = T + D , T = Per PA A , D = Ip i
Keeping the eccentricity small and locating fasteners carefully reduces the torsion effect. Eccentrically loaded connections are not desirable design features and should be avoided. 2-7.3 Connections in Wooden Structures. Nailed or screwed connections fail when forces in line with the fasteners pull them out of the wood, or lateral loads cause the fasteners to tear through and pull out of the wood. Joint design is a matter of ensuring that enough fasteners are used to carry the expected pullout and lateral loads, but not so many that the wood splits, or the load area is reduced unacceptably. Wooden pieces should be fit together smoothly and the fasteners spaced evenly over the joint area so the load is shared evenly. 2-7.3.1 Nails and Spikes. The resistance of wire nails to withdrawal is proportional to the length of embedment, the diameter of the nail, and to 2.5, where is the oven-dry specific gravity of the wood. Specific gravities for various wood species are given in Appendix E. The safe withdrawal resistance of common wire nails is given in Table 2-12. Design of the structure should be such that nails are not subject to withdrawal loads from end grain.
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Table 2-12. Allowable Loads for Common Nails in Side Grain of Seasoned Wood. All loads in pounds Size
d
Length, in. Type of load Withdrawal load per in. penetration Specific gravity, 0.31 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.51 0.55 0.67 Lateral load 0.60-0.75 0.50-0.55 0.42-0.50 0.31-0.41
Note: 1 in.= 2.54 cm; 1 lb = 4.45 N.
6 2 0.113 9 16 20 24 29 34 57 78 63 51 41
8 21 2 0.131 10 18 23 27 34 39 66 97 78 64 51
10 3 0.148 12 20 26 31 38 44 75 116 94 77 62
12 3 4 0.148 12 20 26 31 38 44 75 116 94 77 62
1
16 3 2 0.162 13 22 29 34 42 49 82 132 107 88 70

1
20 4 0.192 15 27 34 40 49 57 97 171 139 113 91
30 4 2 0.207 16 28 37 43 53 61 105 191 154 126 101

1
40 5 0.225 18 31 40 47 58 67 114 218 176 144 116
50 5 2 0.244 20 33 43 51 63 73 124 249 202 165 132

1
60 6 0.263 21 35 46 55 68 79 133 276 223 182 146
Diam, in.
The allowable lateral load for nails driven in end grain is two-thirds the values shown above. The minimum penetration for full lateral resistance for the four groups listed is 10. 11, 13, and 14 diameter from higher to lower specific gravities, respectively. Reduce by interpolation for lesser penetration; minimum penetration is one-third the above.
The safe lateral resistance of common wire nails driven in side grain is given in Table 2-12, and is proportional to D1.5, where D is nail diameter. The values in Table 2-12 are for seasoned wood, and should be reduced by 25 percent for wood that is wet or loaded before seasoning. Values should be reduced by one-third for nails driven into end grain. Common wire spikes have larger diameters for their lengths than nails. Lateral and withdrawal resistance are the same as for nails. Greater precautions to avoid splittingsuch as drilling lead holesare necessary. 2-7.3.2 Screws. The resistance of wood screws and lag bolts to withdrawal from side grain of seasoned wood is given by: P = 2,8502D for ordinary wood screws
P = 1,8003/2D3/4 for lag screws and bolts where: P D = = = allowable withdrawal load, lb/inch penetration of threaded portion specific gravity of oven-dry wood screw diameter, in.
Structural design should be such that screws are not loaded in withdrawal from end grain. Allowable withdrawal load for lag screws from end grain is 75 percent of that given by the above formula.
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Allowable lateral resistance of wood screws embedded seven diameters into the side grain of seasoned wood is given by: P = KD2 where: P D K = = = = = = allowable lateral load, lbs screw diameter, in. species specific factor 4,800 for oak 3,960 for southern pine and coastal Douglas fir 3,240 for cypress and inland Douglas fir
Lead holes should be about 0.7D for softwoods, 0.9D for hardwoods. Lateral resistance for lag screws and bolts depends on species and type of side member. Allowable lateral loads for selected bolt/screw sizes are given in Table 2-13.
Table 2-13. Allowable Loads for Lag Bolts or Lag Screws.
All loads in pounds Side member Length of Diameter of bolt, in. bolt at shank, in. Oven-dry specific gravity of species 0.60 0.75 0.51 0.55 0.42 0.50 0.31 0.41
11 2" wood
4 4 6 6 6 6 8 8 3 3 6 6 10 12 16
4 2 3 8 5 8
1
200 390 480 860 620 1,040 1,430 1,800 240 550 1,100 1,970 3,420 4,520 7,120
190 250 370 510 410 520 790 900 185 285 570 865 1,420 1,810 2,850
170 290 420 710 470 790 1,080 1,360 210 415 945 1,480 2,960 3,900 6,150
170 190 320 430 310 390 600 680 160 215 490 650 1,230 1,560 2,460
130 210 360 510 340 560 780 970 155 295 770 1,060 2,340 3,290 5,500
120 140 280 310 220 280 430 490 120 155 400 460 970 1,320 2,200
100 170 290 410 270 450 620 780 125 240 615 850 1,890 2,630 4,520
100 110 220 250 180 230 340 390 100 125 320 370 785 1,050 1,810
21 2" wood
2 1 3 4 1 4 2 1 2 3 4 7 8 1 11 4
1 1
11 2" metal
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2-7.3.3 Bolted Joints in Wood. Compression is transmitted by butting the timbers, with splice pieces bolted to the sides to maintain alignment and resist incidental bending and shear. In a tension joint, like that shown in Figure 2-32, stress is transmitted through the bolts and splice pieces. The width of splice pieces should equal that of the connected timbers; the thickness of wooden splice pieces should be one-half their width. Table 2-14 gives allowable loads per bolt for tension splices with two wooden splice pieces (bolts loaded in double shear). Tabulated loads for parallel-to-grain loading can be increased by 25 percent when metal splice pieces are used. When a joint consists of two membersbolts in single shearthe strength of the joint is one-half the tabulated value for a piece twice the thickness of the thinner member. The safe load for bolts loaded at an angle to the grain is given by: N = Psin2 PQ Qcos2
h
Figure 2-32. Bolted Splice for Timber Framing.
where: N P Q = = = allowable load per bolt and inclination to grain, lbs allowable load per bolt in compression parallel to grain, from Table 2-14, lbs allowable load per bolt in compression perpendicular to grain, from Table 2-14, lbs
The size, spacing, and arrangement of bolts should be such that tension on the net section area and shear along the grain do not exceed the values given in Appendix E. Bolts should be spaced at least four diameters apart, and at least seven diameters from the end of softwood timbers and five diameters from the end of hardwood timbers to prevent splitting. These relationships solve for two angles that are substituted in the equations for and to determine which planes correspond to the maximum and the minimum stresses.
Table 2-14. Allowable Loads per Bolt Loaded at Both Ends (Double Shear).
Loads in Pounds Douglas fir-larch, southern pine, (dense) Length of bolt in main member, in. Diameter of bolt, in. Parallel to grain Perpendicular to grain Douglas fir-larch, southern pine (med. grain), California redwood (close grain), southern cypress Parallel to grain Perpendicular to grain Oak, red and white Western hemlock, California redwood (open grain), eastern hemlock Parallel to grain Perpendicular to grain
Parallel to grain
Perpendicular to grain
11 2
1 3
2 4 2 4 2 4 4
1,120 1,700 2,270 1,510 2,780 3,770 1,530 3,360 5,120 3,430 6,080 9,160
500 630 760 840 1,060 1,270 1,140 1,480 1,770 2,220 2,790 3,260
960 1,460 1,940 1,290 2,370 3,230 1,310 2,870 4,380 2,930 5,200 7,830
430 540 650 720 900 1,080 980 1,260 1,520 1,880 2,380 2,790
830 1,260 1,690 1,120 2,060 2,800 1,130 2,440 3,800 2,540 4,510 6,800
650 820 980 1,080 1,360 1,640 1,130 1,910 2,290 2,490 3,560 4,210
810 1,210 1,610 1,190 2,010 2,690 1,220 2,600 3,740 2,750 4,860 7,000
280 350 420 460 580 690 640 810 970 1,270 1,520 1,780
1 2 2
1 1 3
1 31 2
1 3
1 51 2
3
1 11 4
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2-8 STRESSES
A large part of any structural analysis is determining stress levels. A general discussion of the nature of stresses and material properties is included in Appendix C. The stress in composite structures, combined stresses, and stress concentrations are discussed here. 2-8.1 Stresses in Composite Structures. A composite structure has two or more materials, each carrying part of the load. Unless all the materials have the same modulus of elasticity, stress levels vary in the materials. If the materials are bound so that deformations in adjacent layers are the same, composite structures can be analyzed by the transformation method: a. Select one of the materials (usually the material forming largest part of the structure) as the standard material. b. For each material other than the standard, calculate an elastic ratio (n = E/Estd). c. For each material other than the standard material, calculate a transformed area equal to the actual area multiplied by the elastic ratio, i.e., AT = A(E/Estd). Consider the transformed area to have the same properties as the standard material. d. For compression or tension members, the total cross-sectional area is the sum of the standard material area plus all the transformed areas. Stress in each material is: = nF AT
e. For beams in bending, the transformed areas must be distributed by changing width so that the dimension parallel to the applied load is not changed. The centroidal moment of inertia based on the transformed area (IT) is used to calculate bending stress in any fiber: = Shear and bending moment are determined in the usual manner. The elastic ratio for wood/mild steel is about 1 16 in compression, and 1 25 in tension; for aluminum alloy/steel, n is about 1 3. For glass-reinforced plastic/steel, n varies from 1 15 to 1 30. The figures vary with the precise alloys or mixtures. 2-8.2 Combined Stresses. Simple stresses, such as those determined by flexure or torsion theories, lie in planes perpendicular or parallel to the lines of action of the forces causing the stresses. Normal (axial) and shear stresses may act in other directions. Most practical cases of combined stresses have known normal stresses on two perpendicular planes and a known shear stress parallel to these planes, as shown on the element in Figure 2-33. A sign convention must be followed. Tensile stresses are positive, compressive stresses negative. Shear stresses are positive when directed as shown in Figure 2-33, i.e., shear stress is positive when the stresses on the vertical planes of the element form a clockwise couple.
y xy A x xy C x xy B y y x xy C
nMY IT
A xy
xy
Based on the known stresses, shear and Figure 2-33. Combined Stresses. normal stresses on all other planes can be found from conditions of equilibrium. Under any condition of stress, a plane can be found where shear stress is zero. The normal stresses on this plane are the principal stresses; the principal stresses are the maximum and minimum normal stresses at the point.
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If the element is "cut" along plane AC as shown, conditions of equilibrium show that, in general, both normal and shear stresses act on the plane: = = where: = angle between the vertical side of the element to the plane in question, as shown, clockwise if negative, and counterclockwise if positive 1 ( 2 x 1 ( 2 x y) 1 ( 2 x y) cos 2 cos 2 sin 2
y) sin 2
The maximum and minimum normal and shear stresses are given by: (max, min) = x 2 y max
max =
(x
y )2 2
4 xy
2
The principal planes, containing the principal stresses, are defined by the angles (max, min): tan 2 (max, min) = 2 xy (x y) (max, min) = 2 1 xy tan 1 ( 2 ) x y
The planes of maximum shear stress are defined by the angles (max, min): tan 2 (max, min) = (x y) (max, min) = ( y) 1 x tan 1 2 2 xy
2xy
2-8.3 Stress Concentration. Stress concentrations are abrupt increases in stress, usually caused by discontinuities, or P P stress raisersholes, grooves, notches, etc.in the member. Maximum stress occurs at the boundary of the discontinuity. Stress level falls with distance from the P P discontinuity. At distances greater than six times the maximum dimension of the discontinuity, the stress field is undisturbed. Figure 2-34 shows typical concentrated P P stress patterns. Concentrated stresses greater than the material ultimate stress ARROWS INDICATE RELATIVE STRESS LEVEL cause rupture in brittle materials. In statically loaded ductile materials, Figure 2-34. Stress Concentration. concentrated stresses higher than the yield stress cause local plastic deformation and redistribution of stress to form a more uniform stress pattern, although the redistribution is not 100-percent effective. The mitigating effects of yield are much less effective in structures subject to shock and cyclic loading. Stress concentrations are probable initiation sites for fatigue failure in cyclicly loaded structures.
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The ratio of maximum stress (max) to average stress in the surrounding material (avg) is the stress concentration factor, k. Maximum stress is then: max = kavg Stress concentration factors for certain discontinuities are calculated directly. For an elliptical hole across a uniform stress field in an infinite plate, the stress concentration factors at points A and B shown in Figure 2-35 are: kA = 1 kB = 1 + where: 2a 2b = = major axis of the ellipse minor axis of the ellipse
Figure 2-35. Stress Concentration for Elliptical Opening in Infinite Plate. UNIFORM STRESS
A 2b B 2a
kA = kB =
A = -1 B 2a =1+ b
2a b
Cracks are modeled as long, thin ellipses to determine stress concentration factors, which increase rapidly as the ratio of length to width increases. The stress concentration factor for a hairline crack quickly becomes very large as the crack propagates; the crack continues to propagate until it reaches a region of very low stress, or the end of the structure. For a circular hole, a = b, and kB = 3. Stress at the sides of the hole is three times the general stress and there is compressive stress equal to the general tensile stress at the top and bottom of the hole. A square hole with sides parallel and perpendicular to the stress field can be treated as two ellipses oriented as shown in Figure 2-36. Maximum stress concentration factor (at the corners) is approximately: b 1 r 2r r
UNIFORM STRESS
2b
1 b + (2b + 2r) k= 2 { r {1 b- r
d
Figure 2-36. Stress Concentration for Square Opening in Infinite Plate.
1 k = 2 where: 2b r = =
2b b
length of diagonal of square hole corner radius
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Figure 2-37 shows the variation in stress concentration factor for square holes in infinite plates with sides parallel to and at 45 degrees to the stress field. The curves show that:
Square holes with sides parallel to the stress field cause lower concentrated stresses than holes with sides at an angle to the stress field. Stress concentration factor is constant for r/b ratios greater than 1 2.
k
10
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
r r
Holes with corner radii less than 1 20 of the side length cause very high concentrated stresses.
r Figure 2-38 shows a rectangular hole with 1 radiused corners in a finite plate under 0 uniform tension. This condition is similar 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 to a large hatch or a large hole in side or r b shell plating with dressed edges. An empirical relationship (Maximum Stress Concentration at Rectangular Openings Figure 2-37. Stress Concentration for Square Openings in Infinite Plates. with Rounded Corners in Plates of Finite Dimensions, M. Gibzstein, European Shipbuilding, 1965) gives the stress concentration factor:
k =
1 0.4B/b 0.926 b 2 1 0.577 ( 0.24) B 1.348 0.82620r/B 2 0.4l/B
where: B b l r width of plate width of rectangular hole length of rectangular hole corner radius maximum local stress k = mean stress at AA = = = =
The stress concentration factor is referred to the stress at the reduced section, not the stress in the clear plate. Maximum stress occurs about 5 to 10 degrees around the corner from the side parallel to the stress field, zero stress 50 to 70 degrees around. A rectangular hole oriented with the long sides parallel to the stress field causes stress concentrations 40 to 50 percent lower than the same hole with its long sides perpendicular to the stress field.
MAX. STRESS
A
ZERO STRESS
b l A
Figure 2-38. Stress Concentration for Rectangular Opening in Finite Plate.
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Experimentally determined stress concentration factors for other types of discontinuities are shown in the curves in Figure 2-39. The k factors are referred to stress at the reduced sections. A useful field expedient is to use a variety of large, empty food and beverage cans as templates for radiusing hole and plate corners. Patches have no effect on the stress concentration caused by plate openings unless they are made an integral part of the structure.
4.0 D 3.6 k 3.2 2.8 2.4 T c 16
T d B A
3.0 r 2.6 D d
3.0
r
2.6 2.2
J = D3 - dD2 (approx) 6 k, A k, B k
2.2 1.8 1.4 1.0
D/h = 1.50 1.10
k 1.8 1.4
D/h = 1.02 1.05 1.1 1.3 3
0.05
0.10
0.15 d/D
0.20
0.25
0.30
1.05 1.02 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 r/D 0.25 0.30

1.0 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 r/d
(c) RECTANGULAR FILLETED BAR IN BENDING
(a) ROUND SHAFT IN TORSION WITH TRANSVERSE HOLE
0.20
0.25
0.30
(b) RECTANGULAR FILLETED BAR IN TENSION OR SIMPLE COMPRESSION

2.6 2.2 k 1.8 1.4 1.0
r d D/d = 1.50 1.10 1.05 1.02
3.0
3.0
T
2.6 2.2 k 1.8 1.4 1.0
r D d
r M D d M
T
2.6 2.2
D/d = 2 1.33 1.20 1.09
k 1.8 1.4 1.0
D/d = 3 1.5 1.10 1.05 1.02
0.05
0.10
0.15 r/d
0.20
0.25
0.30
(d) ROUND SHAFT WITH SHOULDER FILLET IN TENSION.
0.05
0.10
0.15 r/d
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.05
0.10
0.15
d/D
0.20
0.25
0.30
(e) ROUND SHAFT WITH SHOULDER FILLET IN TORSION
(f) ROUND SHAFT IN TORSION WITH TRANSVERSE HOLE
3.0
3.0
2.6
r
2.6 2.2 k 1.8 1.4 1.0 k 1.8
r d
2.6 2.2
T d M
2.2 k 1.8 1.4
r D d
D/d = 1.30 1.05 1.02
D/d = 1.50 1.15 1.05 1.02

0 0.05 0.10 0.15 r/d 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.4 1.0
D/d = 1.50 1.05 1.02

0 0.05 0.10 0.15 r/d 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
0.05
0.10
0.15 r/d
0.20
0.25
0.30
(i) GROOVED ROUND BAR IN TORSION
(g) GROOVED ROUND BAR IN TENSION
(h) GROOVED ROUND BAR IN BENDING
Figure 2-39A. Theoretical Stress Concentration Factors.
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3.0 2.8 2.6 k 2.4 2.2 2.0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 d/w 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 k
w d
3.0 2.6 2.2 1.8 1.4 1.0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 d/w 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
d/h = 0.2 0 5 0.5 1.0 2.0
w M h
d M
3.0 2.6 2.2 k 1.8 1.4 1.0

w/d = 3 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.05 w
r d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 r/d
(j) BAR IN TENSION OR SIMPLE COMPRESSION 3.0 2.6 2.2 k 1.8 1.4 1.0
1.05 1.02 M w r d M w/d = 1.5 1.10
3.0
(k) RECTANGULAR BAR WITH A TRANSVERSE HOLE IN BENDING
(l) NOTCHED RECTANGULAR BAR IN TENSION OR SIMPLE COMPRESSION
11
d
2.6
h/w = 0.35
w
d t
M
2.2
k
1.8 1.4 1.0
M
7
k
5 3
h/w = 0.50 h/w > = 1.0 0.2 0.3
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 r/d (m) NOTCHED RECTANGULAR BAR IN BENDING
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 d/D
0.1
0.4 d/w
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
(n) ROUND SHAFT IN BENDING WITH A TRANSVERSE HOLE
(o) PLATE LOADED IN TENSION BY A PIN THROUGH A HOLE. WHEN CLEARANCE EXISTS, INCREASE kt 35 TO 50 PERCENT. (M. M. FROCHT AND H. N. HILL, "STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS AROUND A CENTRAL CIRCULAR HOLE IN A PLATE LOADED THROUGH A PIN IN HOLE," J. APPL. MECHANICS, VOL 7, NO. 1, MARCH 1940)
NOTE: UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED, THESE FACTORS ARE FROM, "DESIGN FACTORS FOR STRESS CONCENTRATION," BY R. E. PETERSON, MACHINE DESIGN, VOL. 23, NO. 2 FEBRUARY 1951, NO. 3, MARCH 1951 NO. 5, MAY 1951.
Figure 2-39B. Theoretical Stress Concentration Factors.
2-9 TORSION Shafts or bars subjected to torsional moment develop internal resisting moments through shear stress. For circular shafts, cross sections are assumed to remain plane sections and torsional shear stress varies directly with radius; shear stress at radius, r, is: = Tr Ip
where: T r = = = torsional shear stress, [force/length2] torque, [force-length] shaft radius, [length] IP = d = polar moment of inertia, [length4] = d4/32 shaft diameter, [length]
A cross section of the shaft will be rotated through some angle, : = Tl GIp
where: l G = = = angle of rotation, radians length of the shaft from the fixed end to the section in question, [length] material shear modulus (ratio of shear stress to shear strain), [force/length2]
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For a circular shaft subjected to both torsion and static bending, stress at any point is a combined stress consisting of torsional shear and flexural stress. Maximum shearing stress (max) is: max = where: = = flexural stress torsional shear stress
2 4
1/2
In shafts of noncircular cross section subjected to torsion, cross sections are warped and stress does not vary directly with distance from the centroid. Maximum stress usually occurs at a point on the perimeter of the cross section nearest the axis of twist. There is no stress at the corners of square and rectangular sections. For rectangular sections, Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition, gives approximate expressions for the maximum internal resisting moment and angle of rotation: TR =
2 9
b 2h
Tl Gb 3h
where: TR T b h = = = = = internal resisting moment, [force-length] allowable shear stress, [force/length2] torque, [force-length] width of rectangular section, [length] height of rectangular section, with h greater than b, [length] l = = angle of rotation, radians length of the shaft from the fixed end to the section in question, [length] material shear modulus, [force/length2] twisting factor, a function of h/b, taken from Table 2-15
G = =
Table 2-15. Twisting Factors for Rectangular Shafts.
h/b 1.00
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
8.00 10.00
0.141 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.291 0.299 0.307 0.312 0.333
For composite sectionsangles, T-shapes, etc.the maximum resisting moment is: TR = G h b 3 where is the maximum acceptable twist angle, and the summation is applied to each of the component rectangles of the section. Relationships for torsional resisting moment and angle of twist for other cross sections are given in Table 2-16.
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Table 2-16. Torsion Relationships for Shafts of Various Cross Section. Angular twist,1 (length = 1 in., radius = 1 in.) In terms of torsional moment In terms of max shear
Cross Section
Torsional resisting moment, Mt
d 3Sv 16
Mt GIp
32 Mt d 4 G
Sv
max
1 d
D d D B h b A
b 2hSv 16 (h > b) 16 b 2 h 2 Mt b 3h 3 G D4 d4 Sv D 16
Mt 32 (D 4 d 4 ) G
Sv
max
1 D
Sv
max
b2 h2 bh 2
h b
2/9 b 2hSv (h > b)
3.6
b 2 h 2 Mt G b 3h 3
0.8
Sv
max
b2 h2 bh 2
h b
2/9 h 3Sv
7.2
1 Mt h4 G
1.6
Sv
max
1 h
b b b
b3 Sv 20
46.2 1 Mt b4 G 2.31
Sv
max
1 b
b b
b3 Sv 1.09
0.967
1 Mt b4 G
0.9
Sv
max
1 b
*When h/b = Coefficient 3.6 becomes = Coefficient 0.8 becomes = Notes: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 3.56 0.79
2 3.50 0.78
4 3.35 0.74
8 3.21 0.71
Svmax Svmax Svmax Svmax Svmax
at at at at at
circumference. outer circumference. A; SvB = 16Mt/bh 2. middle of side h; in middle of b, S = 9M t/2bh2. middle of side.
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2-10 IMPACT
A load is suddenly applied if the duration of load application is less than one-half the fundamental natural period of vibration of the load-bearing member. Under impact, a compression wave propagates through the member, producing a maximum stress that is many times larger than for a statically applied load. An exact determination of the stress is difficult, but impact stress can be approximated by applying conservation of kinetic and strain energy: W 3W Wb 3W + Wb
si = s
where: si s = = = impact stress, [force/ length2] static stress, [force/length2] W/A for an axial load, My/I for a beam in bending, Tr/IP for a circular shaft in torsion, etc. weight of the impacting mass, [force] weight of the impacted object, [force]
SHELL DAMAGE
BROKEN LONGITUDINALS SEVERELY DAMAGED LONGITUDINALS
HOLE SURROUNDED BY UPSET AND BUCKLED PLATING
Wb =
The following relationship provides a better estimate of impact stress when the ratio W/Wb is small: si = s + s W 2 + Wb 3
LIGHTLY DAMAGED LONGITUDINALS
A more complete discussion of impact stress can be found in Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition; Avallone and Baumeister; McGraw Hill, 1987.
NEW STIFFENERS TIED INTO EXISTING BY STRUCTURALLY CONTINUOUS WELDS STRUCTURAL REPAIR
2-11 STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND REINFORCEMENT

BUCKLED AND TORN PLATING CUT AWAY Structural repair and reinforcement is one TO SMOOTH CONTOUR of the most difficult tasks undertaken by a AND REPLACED WITH WELDED PATCH salvage engineer. Properly designed and DEFORMED STIFFENERS installed structural repairs can save very CUT AWAY AND badly damaged ships; improperly designed REPLACED installed repairs may worsen the situation caused by the damage and may lead to the Figure 2-40. Rigid Bridge. loss of the ship. When ships, particularly lightly constructed ships, are subjected to extreme shock-loading from underwater explosions or collision, the hull can whip violently and subsequent damage can occur, remote from the major damage. Ships that have suffered shock must be inspected throughout for hull damage.
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Flexible bridges can carry only tensile loads. The type and size load are controlled by weight and buoyancy distribution in the ship. It is extremely difficult t o control loads on flexible bridges and ensure that flexible members share the load equitably. In salvage, flexible bridges are used only as a last resort when it is impossible to install rigid patches or bridges. Flexible bridges would appear to be an excellent solution to a difficult problem. In practice, however, they are difficult, unpredictable, unreliable, and dangerous; they should be avoided. Although flexible bridges can be installed very quickly and can be used for temporary stabilizing during emergencies or damage control efforts, they should be replaced with rigid bridges as soon as possible. Flexible bridges may also be used to hold separated, plating stationary long enough for the welding required to install rigid bridges. 2-11.1.2 Cracks. Cracks, particularly in HOLE DRILLED AT EACH END high-stress areas, are dangerous. Cracks OF THE CRACK TO STOP may propagate and lead to serious failure. PROPAGATION OF CRACK Athwartships and vertical cracks are the most dangerous because they lie across the general bending stress field. Oblique cracks in shell or deck structures are also B dangerous because they have an athwartA ships or vertical component. Because of the extreme stress concentrations at their ends, cracks propagate to areas of low stress before stopping. Cracks starting in highyield steels grow to great lengths in the surrounding lower yield plating. Drilling crack A AND B - 6" MINIMUM ends stops propagation in steel. Continuity CORNER RADIUS 3" OR 1/8 WIDTH OF PLATE is restored to the member by using a doubler, as shown in Figure 2-42. Doublers should not be placed over cracks without Figure 2-42. Welding Repair to Crack. drilling the ends, as the crack will grow past the doubler. Cracks in areas that will not be highly stressed at any time during the operation are less dangerous than those in high-stress areas, and may be repaired or left alone, depending upon their size, location, orientation, and stress levels. Each crack should be evaluated individually and monitored for growth during the operation. Drilling cannot dead-end cracks in aluminum. Cracks in aluminum must be completely ground out and welded from both sides, or the cracked plating cut out and replaced with an insert plate. Doubler plates on aluminum do not provide resistance to crack propagation and add stress concentrations where new cracks can begin. 2-11.2 Buckled Structure. Buckled structure may carry almost its entire design tensile load but has essentially no ability to carry compressive loads. Ideally, all buckled plating and stiffeners should be cut away and replaced. If the stiffeners have buckled or tripped, but the plating is not deformed seriously, the damaged portions of the stiffeners may be cut out and replaced. Reinforcing stiffeners are laid in the plane of the tripped stiffeners and tied into undamaged sections at the ends, or placed externally and terminated as described in Paragraph 2-11.1.1. The reinforcing stiffener should extend into the sound portion of the existing stiffener by a length not less than six times the web depth. The flange should be cut off at an angle as shown in Figure 2-43. Reinforcement of deformed plating against shear and compression is limited by the effective attachment of doubler plates and stiffeners. When stiffening buckled structure, the salvage engineer must be aware of the contribution of the plating to the strength of the plating-stiffener combination. A one-to-one replacement of stiffeners does not restore the strength of the section adequately. Sufficient material must be provided in the stiffeners to restore the sectional area of the ineffective plate. This material may be provided in one of three ways:
Large stiffeners, carried well past the damage and clear of high-stress areas, and tied in to sound structure effectively. Closely spaced intermediate stiffenersspaced as closely as the amount of sectional area required and welding access permitplaced between the primary stiffeners. Intermediate stiffeners must be carried well beyond damaged structure and terminated as described in Paragraph 2-11.1.1. A combination of large stiffeners and intermediate stiffeners.
To reduce the stress concentrations that occur at the lower edges of tees in way of wrinkled plate, stiffeners should have lower flanges provided by the shape itself or by strips of plating under the longitudinals. The maximum contact between damaged structure and reinforcement is desirable.
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2-11.3 Openings. Holes are cut in a ships structure for access, cargo handling, ventilation, engineering systems, etc. Salvors cut temporary openings to provide access for pump suctions or discharges, electrical leads, hydraulic hoses, etc. While it is preferable to restore the structural integrity of damage openings as described in Paragraph 2-11.1; in some situations it may be preferable to simply reinforce the opening. Design criteria for the geometry, orientation, and placement of openings are used as guidelines when making openings, and when reinforcing structures surrounding openings. Holes are potential sources of structural failure; they reduce the amount of material available to carry load and introduce stress concentrations. Structure is guarded against undue weakening by:
FULL PENETRATION FILLET WELDS
TRIPPED STIFFENER
HEAVY ANGLE TIED INTO UNTRIPPED PORTION OF STIFFENER FLANGE CUT AT 6:1 SLOPE
Eliminating and consolidating openings where possible. Avoiding openings in highly stressed areas. Adopting geometry and orientation that reduce stress concentration. Limiting opening size. Compensating for removed material with doubler or insert plates.
FULL PENETRATION FILLET WELDS (BOTH SIDES) WEB AND FLANGE CUT AT 45 ANGLE AND BUTT WELDED TO MATCHING CUTS IN SOUND STIFFENER DAMAGED PORTION OF STIFFENER CUT OUT AND REPLACED
Figure 2-43. Repairing Tripped and Buckled Stiffeners.
Compensating for reduced rigidity with free-edge stiffening.
The location and size of damage openings is beyond the control of salvors, but their adverse effect can be mitigated. Damage holes must be enlarged to radius corners, or otherwise modify their geometry. Methods to predict and reduce stress concentration are discussed in Paragraph 2-8.3. Compensation and the effects of cuts in stiffeners are discussed in the following paragraphs. 2-11.3.1 Compensation. Compensation is used if the presence of an opening will cause unacceptable stresses in the remaining plate. Three forms of compensation are commonly used in ships:
Free-edge stiffening. Doubling. Heavy insert plates.
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Free edges are stiffened with flat bar or tubing rings (face bars) welded around the periphery of the cut, as shown in Figure 2-44. Flat bar or tubing rings are easier to install than insert plates, and generally more efficient than doublers. In some locations, flat bar reinforcements may be trip hazards or unwanted obstructions. Reinforcing ring dimensions are specified in terms of cross-sectional area, A, as shown in Figure 2-44. Minimum cross-sectional area of the reinforcing ring is given by: Ar = A + tT where:
REINFORCEMENT A PLATE INTERCEPT AREA = tT CLEAR OPENING
h PLATE t
(b) FLAT BAR A

T
PLATE
Ar A
= =
tT T t
= = =
total cross-sectional area of the reinforcing ring, in2 cross-sectional area of the reinforcement (shaded area in Figure 2-44), in2 "plate intercept area," in2 reinforcing bar thickness, in. thickness of reinforced plate, in.
tT (a) FACE BAR WELDED AROUND PERIPHERY OF OPENING (c) TUBULAR
Figure 2-44. Free-Edge Stiffening.
Values for A can be taken from the design rules in Table 2-17. The depth of the ring should be less than 16 times the plate thickness, preferably less than 8 times the plate thickness. The face bar should be as thick as the plating if possible, but at least 1 4-inch thick. Good practice is make the ring depth approximately equal to plate thickness plus 11 4 inches, using a bar thickness that will make up the required area. Reinforcing rings should be of the same material as the plating and be attached with 100-percent-effective welds.
Table 2-17. Design Rules for Edge Stiffening.
For openings in the strength envelope (outside plating, strength decks, inner bottom, longitudinal framing):
A = A = A =
b b b
30 bt 100 18 bt 100 30 bt 100
for b 2a for b for
a 2
a b 2a 2
For openings in transverse framing and bulkheads:
A = A = A =
12 dt d + 100 16.8 wt 1.4w + 100 12 (0.4w + l ) t 0.4w + l + 100
for circular openings for square openings with rounded corners for rectangular openings with rounded corners
where:
A= t = b = a = d = w= l =
cross-sectional area of the reinforcement (shaded area in Figure 2-44), in2 thickness of reinforced plate, in. transverse dimension of opening, in. longitudinal dimension of opening, in. diameter of circular opening, in. width of rectangular or square opening, in. length of rectangular opening, in.
From U.S. Navy Design Data Sheet DDS 100-1, Reinforcement of Openings in Structure of Surface Ships, Other than in Protective Plating
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Doubler plates are welded to the plate around the periphery of an opening, as shown in Figure 2-45, to compensate for the material removed. Doubler plates should be of the same material as the plating, and can be installed on one or both sides of the plating. The thickness of doubler plates should be approximately equal to that of the cut plating. The width of the doubler plate is dictated by the cross-sectional area that must be added to reduce stress to acceptable levels. A good rule of thumb is to make the doubler wide enough that the cross-sectional area of the doubler plate along the sides of the opening equals that of the removed plate. It is common practice to surround the opening with the doubler plate, although the middle portion of the sides of the opening perpendicular to the stress field do not require reinforcement, because these areas are largely relieved of stress by the presence of the opening. Heavy insert plates, in the plane of the plating, compensate for the material removed by the opening. Insert plates are more efficient structurally than edge stiffening or doublers, but are more difficult to install and require an oversize opening to be cut. Insert plates are the preferred method of compensation in ship construction, but are seldom used in salvage. 2-11.3.2 Cuts in Stiffeners. Indiscriminate cuts in shell and deck stiffeners are a serious source of weakness. The following rules apply to stiffeners carrying distributed loads:
DOUBLER SEAM BASIC DOUBLER DECK OPENING
DOUBLER PLATE COMPENSATES FOR MATERIAL REMOVED
DOUBLER
FILLET WELDS PLATE
DOUBLERS CAN BE PLACED ON BOTH SIDES IF WIDTH OBSTRUCTED ON ONE SIDE
STANCHION
STIFFNER PARTIAL DOUBLERS ON BOTH SIDES OF PLATING TO AVOID OBSTRUCTIONS Figure 2-45. Doublers.
Stiffener webs should not be cut within the high-shear stress regions shown in Figure 2-46 (bounded by a distance from a support equal to oneeighth the span), with the exception that round holes with diameter less than one-eighth the web depth are acceptable. Unreinforced cuts and openings with lateral dimension not exceeding one-third the depth of the web are usually permissible in the middle three-quarters of the span. Length of openings should not exceed twice their depth to avoid secondary bending of the small beams formed by the portions of the stiffener remaining above and below the opening (see Figure 2-46). Openings should be separated longitudinally by a distance equal to or greater than twothirds the depth of the web.
1/8 SPAN SUPPORTED PLATE
3/4 SPAN NO CUTS EXCEPT ROUND HOLES NOT EXCEEDING 1/8 D NOT OVER 1/3 D WITHOUT COMPENSATION NOT OVER 1/2 D IN ANY CASE 1/3 D OR LESS
D 2/3 D SUPPORT CUTS USUALLY PERMISSIBLE WITHOUT COMPENSATION 2/3 D SUPPORT
FAILURE IN "SECONDARY BENDING" AT HOLE
Figure 2-46. Cuts in Stiffeners.
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Openings should be located close to the supported plating, because the neutral axis of the stiffener-plating combination lies near the plating; loss of material at the neutral axis causes little reduction in stiffener bending strength. Stiffener flanges should not be cut without compensation, unless it is determined that the flange has excess strength in way of the cut.
Large concentrated loads can change shear distribution in the stiffener significantly. The effect of openings is determined on a case-by-case basis. 2-11.3.3 Compensation for Cuts in Stiffeners. Openings in stiffener webs deeper than the limits recommended above should be reinforced with a doubler plate on the web, as shown in Figure 2-47, to restore the shear strength of the web. A face bar around the periphery of the opening does not restore web shear strength. Face bars around openings that exceed the recommended length reinforce the remaining portion of stiffener against secondary bending. To permit effective reinforcement, openings should not be deeper than one-half the depth of the web, or longer than one and one-half times the depth of the web. For larger openings, the depth of the beam should be increased locally, as shown. 2-11.3.4 Damage Openings. Location and size determine if damage openings require structural patches, reinforcement, or compensation. If the material remaining around a hole can carry anticipated loads, after accounting for stress concentration, no structural repairs are necessary. Dressing the edges of the hole to leave smooth contours and radiused corners reduces stress concentration. Dimensions (as dressed) and locations of damage openings should be compared to the criteria described above to determine the requirement for compensation or reinforcement.
DOUBLER TO RESTORE WEB AREA IN SHEAR
INCREASED DEPTH IN WAY OF UNAVOIDABLE LARGE CUT
FLAT BAR RING OR ANGLE IRONS TO RESTORE STRENGTH IN SECONDARY BENDING
2-11.3.5 Existing Openings. Hatches, doors, and other openings in the ship are Figure 2-47. Compensation for Oversize Cuts in Stiffeners. usually compensated for design stresses, or located in low-stress areas, without reinforcement. The same is generally true for openings created by later planned modifications. Unusual loading or damage can alter stress patterns and levelsopenings that were adequately designed for normal service may require reinforcement under salvage conditions. It is not practical to re-evaluate every opening on the ship, but openings in areas subject to unusually high loading should be examined and reinforced as required. 2-11.4 Reinforcing Undamaged Structure. Undeformed plating and stiffeners are usually reinforced adequately with simple doubler plates and shapes. Tripping brackets, or gussets, are used to increase the ability of stiffeners and stiffener-plating combinations to carry compressive loads. Free-edge stiffening, similar to that used to reinforce openings, increases compressive and lateral load bearing ability of plating. 2-11.5 Increased Stresses Caused by Reinforcement. Reinforcing only one flange of a girder may increase stress to unacceptable levels as the neutral axis migrates towards the reinforced flange, increasing the distance to the outer fibers of the unreinforced flange. Excessive reinforcement should be avoided and the changes in section properties resulting from reinforcement examined carefully. When it is not possible to reinforce both flanges of a hull girder (as when the ships bottom is not accessible), it may be better to leave the accessible (upper) flange unreinforced and limit stresses by careful load management.
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Allowable stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29, 2-45, 2-46 Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-30, 2-52, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-65, 2-66 Asymmetrical sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 Attachment points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 Baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13 Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-60, 2-66 Beam Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-4 Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-5, 2-14, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-52, 2-65 Bearing stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-47 Bending . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-37, 2-38, 2-39, 2-51, 2-52, 2-58, 2-60, 2-62, 2-65, 2-66 Bending loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-3, 2-5, 2-6 Bending stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-30, 2-32, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-52, 2-62 Bending stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-12, 2-36, 2-38 Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 Bolted connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45 Bolted joints in wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51 Bolts and rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46 Bottom plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3 Bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48 Bridging discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61 Brittle materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-53 Broken or missing structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61 Buckled structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62 Butt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45, 2-61 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-13 Cantilever beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30 Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63 Casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14, 2-32 Centroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15, 2-30, 2-36, 2-47, 2-48, 2-58 Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61 Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30, 2-33, 2-40, 2-41 Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-37 Combined stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-46, 2-52 Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63, 2-65, 2-66 Compensation for cuts in stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66 Compression blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 Compressive stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-15, 2-36, 2-45, 2-54 Concentric beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-45, 2-46, 2-48 Connections in wooden structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-45, 2-47, 2-65 Continuous beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32, 2-33 Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 Couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52 Crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-54, 2-62 Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-54, 2-62 Cross-stiffened grillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 Curved beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33 Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-5, 2-6, 2-42, 2-55, 2-56 Cuts in stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63, 2-65, 2-66 Cyclic loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-53 Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-43, 2-44 Cylinders and spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44
2-67
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-12, 2-60, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-66 Damage openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63, 2-66 Damaged strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 Deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-62, 2-65 Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-39, 2-40 Design curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5, 2-6 cross-stiffened grillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 repeating stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-13, 2-55, 2-64, 2-66 Distributed loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14, 2-15, 2-30, 2-65 Doubler plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62, 2-65, 2-66 Ductile materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-40, 2-47, 2-53 Eccentric loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48 Eccentric loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38 Effective breadth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-6 Effective length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39 Elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-13, 2-15, 2-29, 2-39, 2-52 Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5, 2-7, 2-12, 2-29, 2-30, 2-37, 2-42, 2-52 Endurance limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-46 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32, 2-44, 2-52, 2-53 Existing openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66 External pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 2-45 Face bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64, 2-66 Factor of safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-46, 2-53 Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13, 2-15, 2-29 Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13, 2-62, 2-66 Flat plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39, 2-41 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-12, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-33, 2-35, 2-52 Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-12, 2-14, 2-15, 2-32, 2-33, 2-47, 2-48 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-3 Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12, 2-61 Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38, 2-64 Free-body diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42 Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-13, 2-29, 2-61 Grillage instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12 Grillages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5, 2-12 Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 Hatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-55 Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 Herzog formula for stiffened panels under uniaxial compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 Hog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32, 2-62 Hookes Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15, 2-42 Hull girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-13, 2-29, 2-61 Hull strength in salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 Hull structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 I-beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-46, 2-60 Inter-frame flexural buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12 Inter-frame tripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12 Internal pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 2-45 Keel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 Kern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39 Length . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-5, 2-6, 2-12, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-33, 2-36, 2-37, 2-39, 2-40, 2-41, 2-42, 2-43, 2-45, 2-46, 2-48, 2-49, 2-50, 2-51, 2-54, 2-55, 2-57, 2-58, 2-59, 2-61, 2-62, 2-64, 2-65, 2-66
2-68
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-45, 2-46 Loads . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-5, 2-6, 2-12, 2-14, 2-15, 2-30, 2-32, 2-37, 2-38, 2-39, 2-47, 2-48, 2-49, 2-50, 2-51, 2-61, 2-62, 2-65, 2-66 Long and short columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37 Longitudinal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-12, 2-42, 2-44, 2-61, 2-64 Longitudinal strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 Longitudinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-4, 2-62 Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-40, 2-47, 2-52, 2-53 Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-5, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-29, 2-30, 2-37, 2-52, 2-57, 2-58 Moment . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-37, 2-39, 2-43, 2-48, 2-52, 2-57, 2-58, 2-59 Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-29, 2-32, 2-35, 2-37, 2-43, 2-48, 2-52, 2-57 Nails and spikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48 neutral axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13, 2-15, 2-29, 2-39, 2-66 Oblique loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-55, 2-56, 2-61, 2-63, 2-64, 2-65, 2-66 Padeyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45 Panting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 Parbuckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-45 Patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61 Plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-13, 2-53 Plastic stress and residual strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-39, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-54, 2-55, 2-56, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-64, 2-65, 2-66 Plate failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12 Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-55, 2-61, 2-62, 2-64, 2-65, 2-66 Poissons ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6, 2-40, 2-42 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-40, 2-42, 2-43, 2-44, 2-45, 2-46 Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-30, 2-37, 2-45, 2-52 Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-29, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-37, 2-38, 2-42, 2-44, 2-48, 2-54, 2-57, 2-59, 2-63 Reinforcing undamaged structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66 Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-12, 2-60, 2-61, 2-66 Repeating stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 Residual stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12 Residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12 Ring-stiffened cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43 Riveted connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-46 Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47 Sag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-13, 2-15, 2-42, 2-46, 2-60, 2-61, 2-62, 2-65, 2-66 Salvage operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13 Salvors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-63 Scantlings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-49, 2-50 Section Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-4, 2-15, 2-29, 2-32, 2-36, 2-39, 2-56, 2-57, 2-58, 2-62 Shear . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-7, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-32, 2-33, 2-39, 2-44, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-48, 2-51, 2-52, 2-53, 2-57, 2-58, 2-59, 2-61, 2-62, 2-65, 2-66 Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-57, 2-58 Shear strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66 Shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-6, 2-7, 2-46, 2-47, 2-48, 2-52, 2-53, 2-57, 2-58, 2-65 Sheer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 Sheer strake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 Shell plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-4, 2-55 Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-14, 2-60, 2-63, 2-64 Shoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 Side plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 slenderness ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-37 Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-14, 2-30, 2-33, 2-65 Specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48, 2-49, 2-50
2-69
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 2-45 Statically determinate beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-37, 2-46, 2-47, 2-52, 2-62 Stiffened plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-6, 2-13 Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-32, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-65, 2-66 Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13, 2-44, 2-57, 2-60 Strake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13 Strength . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-36, 2-37, 2-39, 2-42, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-51, 2-62, 2-64, 2-66 Stress . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-37, 2-38, 2-39, 2-40, 2-42, 2-44, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-48, 2-51, 2-52, 2-53, 2-54, 2-55, 2-56, 2-57, 2-58, 2-60, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-65, 2-66 Stress concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-47, 2-53, 2-54, 2-55, 2-56, 2-61, 2-63, 2-66 Stresses 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-32, 2-36, 2-38, 2-39, 2-42, 2-44, 2-46, 2-47, 2-48, 2-51, 2-52, 2-53, 2-55, 2-61, 2-63, 2-66 Stresses in composite structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52 Structural repair and reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60 Strut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38, 2-39 Struts and columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30, 2-32, 2-40 Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42 Tensile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-12, 2-15, 2-38, 2-42, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-52, 2-54, 2-61, 2-62 Theory of flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14, 2-15 Thick-walled cylinders and spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-44 Thin-walled cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42 Thin-walled cylinders and spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42 Tidal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6, 2-7, 2-48, 2-52, 2-57, 2-58, 2-59, 2-60 Ultimate strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-13 Ultimate strength computer programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63 Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-12, 2-60 Web frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61 Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-46, 2-60, 2-62 Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-45, 2-46, 2-64 Whip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60 Wire rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61 Working stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37, 2-47 Yield strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12, 2-13
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CHAPTER 3 ENVIRONMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES

3-1 INTRODUCTION
Because salvage operations occur at sea, in coastal regions, estuaries, and harbors, they are affected and sometimes controlled by environmental forces. Meteorology, oceanography, and environmentally related sciences are highly specialized, and like engineering, these disciplines require training, study, and practice to develop sufficient expertise to be useful in the eld. Salvage engineers cannot expect to be expert meteorologists or oceanographers, nor can they be expected to know local conditions at all the places where salvage operations may take place. They can, however, be expected to have a basic knowledge of environmental forces, and which of those forces have the greatest impact on salvage. Perhaps more importantly, they must know when they have reached their limits and should call for assistance. More detailed discussions of environmental processes and the forces they generate are found in the NAVFAC Design Manual Coastal Protection (NAVFAC DM 26-2), the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center Shore Protection Manual, and the NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering. Environmental forces include effects of the seaoor and uid forces of the surrounding water and wind. Fluid forces result from the tide, currents, waves, swells, and surf. Wind can be a signicant factor, especially during and after reoating. Environmental forces are generally independent of one another. Forces may be steady, cyclic, or irregular and may vary seasonally or over short periods in response to local weather. Environmental forces and inuences can be related to observed or measured characteristics, e.g., wind speed and direction, wave height, current speed, soil physical properties, etc. The ability to predict how these parameters change with forecast changes in weather, tide, etc., makes it possible to predict environmental forces and prepare for their effects.
3-2 WAVES, SURF, AND SWELLS
Any rhythmic disturbance on a water surface is a wave. Swells are long-period waves that do not break. Waves between the shore and the outer line of breakers are surf. 3-2.1 Deep Water Waves. Particles of water in a wave move in essentially circular paths. Although the wave form advances along a horizontal path, the overall motion of the water is oscillation rather than translation. The paths decrease in size as depth increases. At a depth equal to one-half the wave length, water motion is minimal; waves in water deeper than one-half their wave length are deep water waves. Period and wavelength of two-dimensional harmonic deep water waves are related as follows: L = where: L T g = = = wavelength, feet wave period, seconds gravitational acceleration constant, 32.2 ft/sec2 gT 2 = 5.12T 2 2
Ocean waves result from wind pressure on the water surface. Waves of a given height can result from various combinations of wind velocity and duration. A high wind velocity acting for a short time results in waves of the same height but shorter period than a longer duration wind of lower velocity. Ocean waves are not uniform; a broad spectrum of wave characteristics exist in any wave eld. Two sets of statistically dened wave parameters are important when calculating wave forces and other effects: maximum and signicant wave height, period, and frequency. Maximum wave height is the height of the highest wave in the wave eld and is used to calculate the maximum short-duration wave force a ship or structure might experience. Signicant wave height, or the average height of the highest one-third of the wave spectrum, is used to calculate quasi-steady effects, such as wave setup and longshore current velocity.
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Wave height (H), and speed (Vc) or period (T), are functions of wind velocity (Vw), duration of the wind (td), the unbroken distance or fetch (F) over which the wind acts (to a maximum of 1,000 miles), and gravitational acceleration (g). H, Vc or T = (f Vw, F, td, g) Several empirical relationships can be used to predict wave height: Hmax = 0.03Vw H1/3 = Hmax 1.87 for steady winds in excess of 30 knots
2
fully developed waves
Hmax = 1.5 F
where: Hmax = maximum wave height, feet Vw = wind speed, knots H1/3 = signicant wave height, feet F = fetch, nautical miles
100
22
90
14
12
11
20
18
16 C SE
C SE
C SE
C SE
C SE
80
8
10 C SE
70
7 C SE
40 F
50
FT
60 F
80 F
C SE
C SE
9 C SE C SE
60 50
WIND SPEED, KNOTS
30
25 F
FT
6 C SE
5 C SE
20 F
40
4 C SE
12 F
1H R
14 F
T
16 F
30 26 22 20 18 16 14 12
3 C SE
10 FT 8F T
2H R
4H R
6F
T
10 HR
5F
4F
40 HR
30 HR
3F
20 HR
50 HR
60 HR
2F
10 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 FETCH LENGTH, NM
600 800 1,000
ADAPTED FROM WAVE FORECASTING, C. L. BRETSCHNEIDER, IN THE HANDBOOK OF OCEAN AND UNDERWATER ENGINEERING, 1969
Figure 3-1. Deep Water Wave Forecasting Curves as a Function of Wind Speed, Fetch Length, and Wind Duration.
3-2
80 HR
2 C SE
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A number of wave forecasting methods have been developed from various wave generation theories and empirical data. The simplest and most consistently accurate method is the signicant wave method, whose empirical relationships between deep water signicant wave characteristics and generating conditions are shown in Figure 3-1. The plot is entered from the left with wind velocity, proceeding to the right until the known fetch or wind duration is reached. Signicant wave height and period are read from the curves at that point. Take, for example, a 30-knot wind blowing for 10 hours over a fetch of 200 nautical miles. The 10-hour duration curve is reached at a fetch of 100 nautical miles on the 30-knot line. Wave generation is thus duration limited. Signicant wave height is approximately 11.5 feet with a period of approximately 8.5 seconds. By visually interpolating between the 10-hour and 20-hour duration curves, it can be seen that a duration curve for 18 hours would pass near the intersection of the 30-knot and 200 nautical mile lines, indicating that after 18 hours of steady 30-knot winds, wave generation becomes fetchlimited, i.e., the sea is fully arisen; signicant wave height will be about 14.5 feet, with a period of about 10.2 seconds. Waves generated by strong winds, such as storms or prevailing wind systems, are relatively steep, with wavelengths 10 to 20 times wave height. Waves or seas retain their initial form while in the wavegenerating area. Once the wind ceases to act on the water surface, internal friction will cause the wave form to decay gradually. Wave height decreases, period and length increase, and the waves become long-period swells with wavelengths 30 to 500+ times wave height. The empirically derived curves in Figure 3-2 plot the decreased signicant height (HD) and the decreased signicant period (TD) as functions of the height and period at the end of the fetch (HF, TF). Fmin is the actual fetch if wave generation is fetch-limited, and is taken from Figure 3-1 as a function of wind speed and direction if wave generation is duration-limited. For the previously discussed 30-knot wind with a duration of 10 hours, Fmin of 100 nautical miles is read from Figure 3-1. Entering Figure 3-2 with HF = 11.5 and TF = 8.5, HD/HF = 0.19 and TD/TF = 1.4 for a decay distance of 1,000 nautical miles, and: HD = 0.19(11.5) = 2.2 feet TT = 1.4(8.5) = 11.9 seconds
TF - SEC. 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1.0 1.2 1.4 TD/TF 1.6
Fm
1.8
2.0
EXAMPLE
80 40 0 10 0 60 00 0 3 20 00 0 10 0
in
) ES IL M T. U A (N
1,000 600 400 300 200 100 50
D - NAUT. MILES
10,000 4,000 3,000 2,000
50 100 200 400
D - NAUT. MILES
EXAMPLE
600 1,000 1,500 2,000 4,000 10,000
m in
(N A U T. M IL ES )
TD/TF VERSUS DECAY DISTANCE AND MINIMUM FETCH HD/HF VERSUS DECAY DISTANCE AND MINIMUM FETCH
50
10
30 20 HF - FEET
40
50
1.0
0.8
ADAPTED FROM WAVE FORECASTING, C. L. BRETSCHNEIDER, IN THE HANDBOOK OF OCEAN AND UNDERWATER ENGINEERING, 1969
Figure 3-2. Decayed Wave Prediction Curves.
As most salvage operations take place in shallow water, deep water waves are of interest principally to predict the characteristics of the shallow water waves (breakers) that they generate. Deep water wave characteristics are of interest in deep ocean recovery operations. Waves induce ship motions that cause surge and drag loads on handling systems lifting objects through the water column. Ship motions can cause particularly severe surge loads when bringing objects through the air-water interface.
00 0 50 1 0 30 0 000 0 1 20 0 6 40 00 8
0.6
0.4 HD/HF
0.2
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3-2.2 Shallow Water Waves. As a deep water wave enters water depth less than onehalf its wave length, several changes occur:
2.2 2.0 1.8

SURGING TRANSITION BETWEEN SURGING AND PLUNGING m m m m = = = = 0.100(1:10) 0.050(1:20) 0.033(1:30) 0.020(1:50) TRANSITION BETWEEN PLUNGING AND SPILLING
Wave velocity and length decrease. Wave height initially decreases, then increases. Bottom friction decreases water particle velocity. The decrease in velocity is greatest near the bottom and least at the surface, causing the wave to pile up. The circular paths of the water particles become elliptical, converting the oscillatory motion of the deep water wave to translation motion. The vertical velocity gradient and decrease in wave length cause the wave to steepen and grow until it collapses or breaks. Water depth where the wave breaks and height attained before breaking vary with the deep water characteristics of the wave and beach slope (m). Breaker height (Hb) can be predicted from Figure 3-3(a). Depth where the waves break (Db) is predicted from Figure 33(b). Waves can be expected to break when they reach water depths equal to 1.3 times their height. After the wave has broken, the wave height rapidly decreases and the water reaches a velocity usually higher than the velocity of the wave before breaking.
Hb __ H
1.6 1.4 PLUNGING 1.2 1.0 0.8
SPILLING
0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 H WAVE STEEPNESS - _ L (a) BREAKER HEIGHT AND CLASS AS A FUNCTION OF BEACH SLOPE (m), DEEP WATER HEIGHT, AND WAVE STEEPNESS 0.01 0.02
0.03
1.8 1.6 1.4 Db __ Hb 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 m = 0.07(1:14) 0.10(1:10) 0.15(1:6.7) 0.020(1:5) AND STEEPER m = 0.000(1: ) 0.010(1:10) 0.020(1:50) 0.030(1:33) 0.050(1:20)
0.002 0.006 0.004 0.008
0.010 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.020 Hb WAVE STEEPNESS - __ 2 gT
(b) BREAKER DEPTH AS A FUNCTION OF SLOPE, BREAKER HEIGHT, AND WAVE STEEPNESS AFTER GODA, A SYNTHESIS OF BREAKER INDICES, TRANSACTIONS OF THE JAPANESE SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, VOL 2, 1970.
Figure 3-3. Breaker Height and Water Depth.
3-2.3 Wave Forces. The exact characteristics of shallow water waves are of little interest in salvage, although surf can impose severe limitations on salvage operations. It is usually a matter of "can work" or "cant work." In some instances, however, it may be necessary to place structures in or near the surf zone, or to determine if expected surf conditions can move or damage a casualty. A wave striking or passing a xed object, such as a stranded or partially sunken ship, generates forces that act individually and collectively:
A horizontal force from impact and hydrostatic pressure. Net pressure is maximum when the wave crest strikes, and minimum between waves. In way of ooded spaces or tanks, a net outward pressure can develop. An attenuated force strikes inner bulkheads of compartments with free communication to the sea. Parallel to the wave travel, external hydrostatic pressure varies locally as the waves pass. A deected vertical force acts upward. A vertical downward force results from the collapse of the wave. Downward kinetic and static pressures result from the mass of water thrown onto the decks. Suction from the backwash causes negative pressures in spaces with free communication to the sea.
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The forces exerted by blocked waves:
Make working on deck dangerous or impossible. Tend to overturn or slide a ship or other object by horizontal force. Alter distribution and relative magnitudes of buoyancy and ground reaction. Induce vibrations that weaken the structure. Transmit forces to internal members and can overload bulkheads by alternate compression and expansion of air in holed spaces and cavities. Shear off projections. Propel oating objects with great force. Cause local and hull girder fatigue failure by cyclic loading. May repeatedly raise and drop a stranded ship on the bottom as waves pass. Vary uplift forces on buoyant objects alternately exposed to wave crests and troughs.
d b
STANDING WAVE (CLAPOTIS) (1+x )Hi 2 (1+x )Hi 2 ho
HW = (1 + x) Hi INCIDENT WAVE SWL SWL Hi
TROUGH OF CLAPOTIS yt yc d
MEAN LEVEL (ORBIT CENTER OF CLAPOTIS) d
AT WALL CREST OF CLAPOTIS AT WALL
ONE WAVELENGTH TO SEAWARD TROUGH OF CLAPOTIS AT WALL
ho
SWL HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
SWL
ACTUAL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION F A d p1 A F
ACTUAL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
d Because of their translatory motion and height, shallow water waves strike with great impact. Short, steep waves cause Figure 3-4. Pressure Distributions for Nonbreaking Waves. sharp local variations in hydrostatic pressure and buoyancy as they pass down the side of a ship. Forces caused by nonbreaking waves are primarily hydrostatic. Breaking and broken waves exert additional dynamic forces caused by water turbulence and the compression of entrapped air pockets. The dynamic forces may be 15 to 18 times greater than the hydrostatic forces.
p1
3-2.3.1 Nonbreaking Wave Forces. Wave conditions at and to seaward of a structure approximating a rigid vertical wall are shown in Figure 3-4. Pressure on the vertical face of the structure is the sum of hydrostatic pressure and dynamic wave effects and varies as the water level rises and falls. Because the structure prevents the dissipation of wave energy by forward motion, the wave height at the structure is greater than the incident wave height (Hi). Waves reected from the structure combine with incident waves to form a standing wave, or clapotis. A wave reection coefficient x is dened as Hr / Hi. Standing wave height at the structure is the sum of the incident wave height and the height of the wave reected by the structure (Hr): Hw = Hi + Hr = (1 x) H i For complete reection, Hr = Hi, x = 1, and Hw = 2Hi. The reection coefficient depends on geometry and roughness of the reecting wall, wave steepness, and wave height to water depth ratio; typical values for immobile structures range from 0.9 to very near 1. Structural elements that increase surface roughness or otherwise retard vertical motion of the water, such as rubble footings, or rough rocky ground immediately to seaward of the reecting wall, lower the reection coefficient. Pressure distributions with the crest and trough of the clapotis at the vertical wall are shown in Figure 3-4. Hydrostatic pressure is equal to d where d is the instantaneous water depth, and is the weight density of the water. Dynamic wave pressure at the foot of the wall (p 1) is given by: 1 x H i p1 = 2 cosh 2 d = H w 2 cosh
2d L L
(when based on observed wave height at wall)
where L is the wavelength of the incident wave. The approximate wave force can be found by assuming total pressure increases linearly from zero at the water surface to d + p 1 (crest at the wall) or d - p 1 (trough at the wall). This estimate will be conservative by as much as 50 percent for steep waves near the point of breaking.
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3-2.3.2 Breaking Wave Forces. Waves breaking against vertical-faced structures exert high, short-duration, dynamic pressures against the region where the wave crests strike the structure. Wave tank experiments indicate that the impact pressures occur at the instant that a vertical front face of a breaking wave hits the structure and only when a plunging wave traps a cushion of air against the structure. Because of the critical dependence on wave geometry, high-impact pressures are infrequent, but ships and other structures in a surf zone may be struck by thousands of breakers daily. The highest impact pressures are of very short duration, typically on the order of hundredths of seconds, and are more likely to damage than to slide or overturn heavy structures, such as breakwaters or solidly grounded ships. However, lower dynamic pressures with longer durations, which may cause signicant sliding or overturning forces, also result from breaking waves. The Minikin Formula, based on observations of full-scale breakwaters and theoretical studies, is commonly used for design of coastal structures that must withstand breaking waves. Although adequate for design, the formula probably overestimates dynamic pressures somewhat, and gives only an approximate evaluation of the survivability of a ship stranded in the surf zone. The maximum pressure (pm), is given by: pm = 101 Hb ds LD D (D + ds )
where: pm Hb ds D LD = maximum dynamic pressure, assumed to act at the still water level = weight density of water = breaker height = water depth at the foot of the vertical face of the structure = water depth one wavelength in front of the vertical face = wavelength in water of depth D
Dynamic pressure decreases parabolically from pm at the still water level to zero at one-half the breaker height above and below the still water level as shown in Figure 3-5. The force (Fm) and overturning moment (Mm) per unit length resulting from the dynamic pressure distribution is: Fm = pm Hb 3 pm Hb ds 3
pm
Hb 2 SWL Hb 2 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE DYNAMIC PRESSURE COMBINED TOTAL
Mm = Fm ds =
The hydrostatic contribution to force and overturning moment must be added to these values to determine total force and moment per unit length.
(ds +
Hb ) 2
Figure 3-5. Minikin Wave Pressure Distribution.
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3-3 WATER LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS
Water level uctuations can be divided into nine classes:
Astronomical tides. Wave setup. Storm surge (including wind setup and barometric tide). Waves. Coriolis setup. Tsunamis. Seasonal variations. Climatological variations. Articial (man-caused) variations.
Of these, the rst four commonly inuence salvage operations. Seasonal and articial water level uctuations may impact salvage operations in certain locations and situations. Tides, wave setup, and storm surge can be predicted well in advance of their arrival. Salvors may therefore be able to use them to advantage or guard against their effects. The regular water level uctuations, known as astronomical tides, result from the passage of extremely long-period gravity waves, known as tidal waves (not to confused with tsunamis), and the connement of the wave-induced water motion by coastal topography. Tide heights are predicted from tide tables published by various agencies in maritime nations. English language tide tables for large parts of the world are published in the United States by the National Ocean Service (NOS). Heights and times of high and low tides are tabulated for primary reference stations; tides at secondary stations are tabulated by time and height differences relative to a primary station. Tide heights are referenced to a chart datum that is below most tide levels, although some countries publish tide data referenced to mean tide level. The tide tables are published with instructions for their use. Tide tables published outside the United States give tide heights in meters, including those for U.S. ports. In certain estuaries, the incoming tide takes the form of a steep-faced tidal bore, or wave. In some locations, tidal bores may exceed ten feet in height and travel inland for many miles up rivers and inlets. Predictions for storm surge, wave setup, and other water level uctuations may be available from civil defense organizations, the NOS or Coast and Geodetic Survey of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers district offices, or military or civilian weather services. Climatological variations have periods of several years or more and are therefore not signicant to salvage operations. Seasonal variations on enclosed waters, such as the Great Lakes, may cause signicant changes in water level over a few weeks or months. Water level in rivers may rise swiftly in response to local or upstream rainfall. Predictions for lake, river, and estuary water level uctuations can be obtained from Army Corps of Engineers District offices or state and local water management agencies. Dams have been constructed on many navigable rivers to control ooding and store water for agricultural or industrial use. In these water management systems, ow past dams may be closely controlled. Water ow past specic dams may vary at regular intervals, or in response to upstream rainfall and runoff, creating temporary downstream rises in water level. Water management policies of upstream dams may dictate a schedule for certain types of salvage work. In some instances, it may be possible for water management officials to alter water release schedules to accommodate salvors needs for higher or lower water levels, or to provide notication when water ow is altered, giving salvors advance warning of hours, or even days, of impending water level changes. In the U.S., the Army Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Reclamation, or regional or state management agencies can advise salvors of water regulation policies.
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3-4 CURRENT
Currents are broadly classed as tidal or nontidal; the latter includes littoral, river, hydraulic, wind, beach, and permanent ocean currents. 3-4.1 Tidal Currents. The periodic rise and fall of the tide causes two types of current:
Rotary currents Offshore, where the direction of tidal ow is not restricted by any barriers, the current is rotary (current ows continuously with direction changing through all points of the compass during the tidal period). The change is clockwise in the northern hemisphere, counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Current speed usually varies throughout the tidal cycle, having two maximums in approximately opposite directions and two minimums about midway between the maximums in time and direction. Reversing or rectilinear currents Where water ow is restricted, such as in rivers, straits, or deep channels surrounded by shallow water, currents run alternately in approximately opposite directions. There is a period of little or no current, or slack water, at each reversal. Current speed varies from zero at slack to maximum ebb or ood about midway between the times of slack water.
The relation of tidal current to tide rise varies from place to place. The time of slack water generally does not coincide with the extreme tide, and the time of maximum current does not correspond to the most rapid change in the height of the tide. Tidal currents are superimposed on river and other nontidal currents. There may be ood currents or a reduction in the river current velocity. Tidal currents, like tide heights, are best obtained from tidal current tables, or local information. The times of tidal currents often vary from predicted values by as much as 30 minutes at well-documented locations because of wind and other disturbances. Variations are frequently greater at less well-documented locations. When tidal currents are important to operations, the salvor should determine the local tidal current conditions as well as the height of the tide. Current meters and simple current measuring devices are described in Paragraph 3-4.4. Tidal current velocities are plotted as shown in Figure 36 and compared with tide heights to determine the relationship between tidal current and height. Once the local tidal current conditions have been established, operations that are restricted by strong currents can be planned for periods of slack water or weak currents. In extreme conditions, it may be necessary to build current deectors.
OBSERVED TIDE HEIGHT 3 PREDICTED TIDE HEIGHT
2
TIDAL CURRENT (KTS) TIDE HEIGHT (FEET)
TIDAL CURRENT 1
2
0000 11 JUN 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 0000 12 JUN
TIME
0000 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 0000
HEIGHT (FT) OBS 0 2.6 1.9 -2.1 0.4 2.2 -1.8 PRED 1.2 2.0 -2.1 .2 1.8 .2 0
CURRENT (KTS)
-1.1
3-4.1.1 Circulation Patterns Around 0 +0.9 Tidal Inlets. The nature of tidal currents -.06 in and around a tidal basin are strongly -1.4 +0.2 inuenced by the topography of the entrance +.06 to the basin. Estuaries are characterized by funnel shapes with wide openings to the sea, such as might be formed by the mouth of a river. The wide opening prevents the Figure 3-6. Typical Tide and Current Plot. development of signicant hydraulic head differences between the ocean and the estuary, and permits the entrance of tidal waves. Tidal currents tend to slow, except where current ow is narrowed by shoreline or bottom topography. Inlets, on the other hand, generally have roughly parallel banks, and are narrow with respect to the interior basin. The narrow opening reects long ocean waves; tidal currents through the inlet result from hydraulic head differences between the ocean and the basin, rather than from tidal wave propagation. High current velocities and sediment transport are not uncommon.
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Typical geomorphology of a tidal inlet is shown in Figure 3-7. The bulge of sand that accumulates just seaward of the inlet is the ebb-tidal delta. In areas of low wave energy, the ebb-tidal delta may extend several miles offshore. Segregation of ebb and ood ow is a common feature of ebbtidal deltas. The ebb current maintains a deep central channel, often anked by linear bars. Marginal ood channels separate the channel margin linear bars from the adjacent beaches. A ood-tidal delta develops within the basin. Flood-tidal deltas show more variation in shoaling patterns than ebb-tidal deltas because of variations in physiography on the landward side of tidal inlets. A large middle-ground shoal often develops just inside the landward end of the inlet in the slow moving divergence area of the ood tide. Figure 3-8 shows ebb and ood current patterns on the seaward side of a tidal inlet. An important aspect of this general circulation pattern is that currents always ow toward the inlet near the shoreline (in the ood channels). This constancy of ow is caused by longshore currents and wavedriven currents caused by wave refraction around the outer bar. The topography of tidal deltas can change signicantly in a short period. Heavy storms can push large quantities of sediment into inlet channels, reducing channel depth by as much as seven feet, signicantly altering the hydraulics of the inlet system, which in turn changes current patterns and the resulting scour and sedimentation patterns. Tidal deltas can form swiftly when new inlets are opened in barrier beaches or islands by storms or human intervention, sometimes in two months or less.
CHANNEL MARGIN LINEAR BAR
LAND
EL ANN D CH O O L F MARGINAL
MA IN
EB B
CH AN NE L
AR
S
LAND
AL MIN TER
Figure 3-7. Typical Ebb-Tidal Delta Morphology.
BASIN
BOTTOM CONTOURS OCEAN FLOOD CURRENT PATTERN OCEAN EBB CURRENT PATTERN
Figure 3-8. General Current Circulation Outside a Tidal Inlet.
LO B
SH S WA
BASIN
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3-4.1.2 Hydraulic Currents in Tidal Inlets. Figure 3-9 shows an idealized sea-inlet-basin system. Flow in the system is driven by a sea tide with period T and amplitude as. Basin level response has the same period, a damped amplitude ab, and lags behind sea level by a phase lag. If the basin surface area at mean water level is Ab, the tidal prism (P)the volume of water that ows into and then out of the basin during a tidal cyclecan be estimated as 2Abab if the sides of the basin over the tidal range have an approximately constant slope, i.e., there are no extensive tidal ats. Various authorities have solved the basic equations of motion SEA LAND for an inlet-basin system. One solution (D.B. King, The Dynamics of Inlets and Bays, Technical Report No. 2, University of L Florida Coastal and Oceanographic Engineering Laboratory, March 1974, BASIN reproduced in the U.S. Army Corps of Ab JETTIES B Engineers Shore Protection Manual) is presented here. The solution is given in the Ac form of curves for a dimensionless channel (CROSS velocity V m and the ratio of basin-to-sea SECTION OF INLET) tidal amplitude ab/as, as functions of a friction coefficient K1, and a frequency PLAN VIEW coefficient K2. V m, K1, and K2 are dened as follows: Vm = Ac T Vm 2 as ab as Ab F 2 L Ac 2 T L Ab g Ac
PROFILE VIEW Figure 3-9. Sea-Inlet-Basin System. SEA 2as (SEA RANGE) MSL d LAND V BASIN 2ab (BASIN RANGE)
K1 =
K2 =
where: Ac T Vm L F = = = = = = ken kex f rH = = = = = cross-sectional area of the inlet below mean sea level tidal period maximum inlet velocity inlet channel length, including jetties or extending bars friction loss coefficient fL ken + kex + 4rH entrance loss coefficient, normally taken as 1.0 exit loss coefficient, ranging from 0 to 0.2, normally taken as 0.2 friction factor, ranging from 0.01 to 0.07, increasing with channel roughness, normally taken as 0.03 for natural channels hydraulic radius of the inlet channel Ac divided by underwater channel perimeter
The curves in Figure 3-10 are entered with values for K1 and K2 to return values for V m and ab/as. Vm is calculated from V m by the relationship given above. The tidal amplitude ratio can be used to estimate tide range and tide heights when tide tables exist for locations on one side of the inlet but not the other. 3-4.2 Nontidal Currents. Nontidal currents result from the effects of wind, waves, and differences in water levels.
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3-4.2.1 Beach Currents. Convergences of wave energy in wave fronts approaching a beach act as barriers to the normal backwash or undertow. The backwash is deected to areas of lesser resistance where it turns seaward, forming rip currents. Rip currents are accelerated by large water accumulations, gaps in offshore bars or reefs, or depressions in the seabed. Rip currents often transport large volumes of bottom material, and have a muddied, opaque appearance. A rip current may scour out its own channel, and therefore tend to remain in one location. In some cases, the return ow is completely subsurface, as a concentrated undertow, or scour current. Rip currents ow through wave front divergence zones where the breakers have less energy than in surrounding areas. The breakers are further retarded by the rip current. Rip and scour currents can therefore be located either by their muddied appearance or by the presence of lower, slower breakers that do not travel as far up the beach as adjacent breakers. A casualty in or immediately adjacent to a rip current will be subject to very serious scouring. The casualty may also create a rip current by deecting a longshore current. Rip currents can be hazards to divers, swimmers, and small craft. 3-4.2.2 Littoral Currents. In locations where waves strike the shore at an angle, the returning water forms a littoral, or longshore, current that ows parallel to the shore. Littoral current velocity varies directly with certain surf and beach properties:
1.0
0.8
1 =
K
3, 00 0
1 =
1, 00 0
1 =
K
30 0
1 =
10 0
1 =
K1
30
1 =
10
= 3
0.6 V" m 0.4
0.2
0 0.01 0.1 K2 1.0
1.2
1.0
0.8
K1
K1
K1
K1
K1
K1
K1
ab as 0.6
= 0 00 3,
= 0 00 1,
30
0 10
0 30
10
0.4
0.2
0 0.01 0.1 K2 1.0
Angle of attack between waves and beach. Breaker height. Wave frequency (inversely with wave period). Steepness of beach slope.
Figure 3-10. Dimensionless Solutions for Sea-Inlet-Basin Flow.
Littoral currents can reach 1.5 knots, sufficient velocity to move sand and shingle along the shore or scour around a stranded vessel. Only very approximate predictions can be made for longshore current velocities because of the uncertainties in variables, such as surf zone hydrography. A theoretical relationship (Longuet-Higgins formula) gives current velocity at the breaker line: ub = 0.9 sin2 (m) gHb where: ub m Hb = = = = current velocity at the breaker line, [length/time] angle between breaker crest and shoreline beach slope breaker height, [length]
Current velocities nearshore average about 2.3 times the velocity at the breaker line.
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3-4.2.3 Wind Currents. The friction of steady winds over deep water will induce a current moving in the same direction as the wind. Steady winds persisting for more than 3 to 5 days can cause current velocities of 1.5 to 2 percent of the wind velocity. Permanent ocean currents, such as the Gulf Stream, result from the steady pressure of prevailing wind systems. Seasonal variations in wind patterns can cause changes in current strength, path, and direction. In some areas, semi-permanent currents exist only during certain seasons. Nearshore strandings and sinkings are not usually exposed to the direct force of permanent currents, but these currents affect local weather patterns and may inuence inshore currents. 3-4.2.4 Hydraulic Currents. Hydraulic currents ow in channels connecting two bodies of water of unequal water level. Hydraulic currents are classed as tidal currents when driven by differing heights of tide in the bodies of water. Hydraulic currents caused by tidal differences are regular and predictable; they may vary in strength or reverse themselves. Differing water levels can be caused by steady winds or by differences in barometric pressure, or river ow into the two bodies of water. Hydraulic current speeds may reach 10 knots or more; speeds of 6 to 7 knots are not uncommon. Current strength is a function of channel size and the difference in water level, or head. If the channel is short and very narrow compared to the bodies of water it separates, current velocity can be estimated by assuming the system is equivalent to ow from a tank through an orice: u = k 2gh where: u h k = = = current velocity difference in water level (or barometric pressure expressed as water head) between the two ends of the channel an estimated constant, equal to 1 for short, narrow channels and less than 1 for broader channels
Current velocity through longer channels can be estimated by a modication of the Chezy-Manning formula for open channel ow: 1.49 2/3 u = rH n where: u rH A P h = = = = = n = current velocity = hydraulic radius, ft/sec = A/P = channel cross-sectional area, ft2 = channel cross-section perimeter, ft = difference in water level (or barometric pressure expressed as water head) between the two ends of the = channel = channel length = Manning roughness constant 0.012 0.018 for concrete- or masonry-lined channels 0.018 0.033 for smooth earth channels 0.020 0.025 for rm gravel channels 0.025 0.035 for smooth, clear natural channels, smooth rock cuts, or rubble-lined channels 0.035 0.050 for irregular, jagged rock cuts or winding channels 0.035 0.080 for sluggish channels with stones and weeds 0.075 0.150 for very highly obstructed natural channels h L
The Chezy formula is empirical and not dimensionally correct; current velocity is returned in feet per second so long as the ratio h/L is expressed in consistent units, and all other dimensions are expressed in feet. The formula is reasonably accurate for current velocities up to 10 feet per second (about 6 knots). 3-4.2.5 River Currents. The strength of a river current is a function of the steepness, or drop, of the water course and volume ow. Volume ow in rivers uctuates in response to upstream rainfall and runoff, on both a seasonal and short-term basis. Many rivers are subject to tidal currents and water level uctuations, sometimes many miles from shore. Current is the sum of the approximately constant river current and variable tidal currents. If the volume ow and channel cross-sectional area are known, average current velocity can be calculated by: u = Q A
where: u Q A = = = current velocity volume ow rate channel cross-sectional area
The above relationship provides only average current velocity. Local current velocity may vary signicantly from the average. Cross-sectional current variations are discussed in Paragraph 3-4.3. River channel cross-sectional areas may vary widely along the river, and volume ow varies with season. In narrow channels, the presence of a stranded or sunken ship may signicantly reduce the channel area. Channel area will change with time where there is scouring or sediment buildup around the casualty. The casualty itself will cause local current velocity variations. It is important to use the most up-to-date ow data available as well as the channel area at the point where current velocity is desired.
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Information on river ow rates and channel dimensions may be available from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers district offices or other government agencies. Flow rates are recorded in a variety of units; appropriate conversion factors must be applied to yield answers in the desired velocity units. 3-4.3 Cross-sectional Current Variations. Currents exhibit horizontal and vertical velocity variation caused by boundary and shear layer friction, coriolis force, and density gradients. 3-4.3.1 Friction. Because of friction and uid shear, current velocity is lower along the bottom and sides of a current channel. Current velocity is lowest in shallow water and highest in the center of the deepest part of the moving mass of water. Slack water between reversing tidal currents tends to come later in the center of a channel because of the momentum of the water mass. In river bends, current velocity increases with distance from the inner bank; the maximum current velocity is usually found near the center of the outer third of the bend. 3-4.3.2 Coriolis Force. Coriolis force deects currents moving in a generally north or south direction clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Steady winds blowing over the water surface generate a boundary layer ow in which the effects of turbulent viscosity and Coriolis force are balanced. Wind stress acting on the water surface starts a thin layer of water moving parallel to the wind direction, but Coriolis forces deect the current. Viscous shear stress at the lower boundary of the moving layer of surface water induces movement in a lower water layer, which is deected still further by Coriolis force. This process continues downward until the bottom is reached or current strength is negligible. The current prole produced is called an Ekman spiral. The Ekman layer depth in deep water is arbitrarily taken as the depth where current direction is opposite to that of the surface water. At this depth, the current speed has dropped to about four percent of the surface speed. Ekman layer depth and current prole depend on wind speed, latitude, viscous mixing, and other factors. For a surface wind speed of 20 knots, Ekman layer depth ranges from 330 feet at 10 degrees latitude to 150 feet at 80 degrees. Coriolis force also deects surface currents 40 to 45 degrees to the right of the wind in the northern hemisphere in open waters at the mid latitudes. Nearshore, the deection is reduced to as little as 20 degrees by the effects of the landmass and shallow water. 3-4.3.3 Water Layers. Variations of tidal current velocity across a vertical cross section can result from differences in specic gravity of saltwater and fresh water. A layer of heavier saltwater advances along the bottom as the tide begins to ood, while the lighter fresh water is still ebbing on the surface. This effect is accentuated by strong river currents. 3-4.4 Current Observations. If current data or predictions are not available, current characteristics can be determined by direct observation. Current meters can be used to measure current at various depths. Fleet weather centers, naval oceanographic centers, and naval undersea warefare centers (NUWC) may be able to support salvage operations with personnel and current measuring devices. In the absence of other methods, surface current speed can be measured by timing the passage of a chip or oat along a known distance. Because current strength and direction can vary with depth, knowledge of surface current speed alone may not be adequate to calculate current forces on objects with signicant vertical dimensions. A pole oat can be used to determine average current speed and direction over shallow depth ranges. The pole oat is a wooden rod, weighted to oat vertically with its lower end at the desired depth, as shown in Figure 3-11. A light line is attached to the pole oat, with small oats or markers spaced along the line at intervals of 10 feet 2 inches, with the rst marker being 100 feet or so from the pole oat. The pole oat is released from a stationary platform, such as an anchored boat, at the desired reference point. For an observation period of one minute, starting when the rst marker passes a reference line (such as the boat gunwale), each marker represents an average current velocity of 0.1 knot. The pole oat is exposed to the current along its entire length, integrating the effects of current over the entire depth range and giving a fairly accurate indication of average current strength and direction. Average current direction can be determined by a compass bearing on the pole oat at the end of the observation period.
4 x 4 OR SIMILAR TIMBER
KNOTTED LINE
WEIGHTS ADDED TO ADJUST IMMERSED LENGTH TO DEPTH
Figure 3-11. Pole Float.
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3-4.5 Current Effects. The direct effects of current result from the force the current exerts and its ability to carry suspended bottom sediment are:
CURRENT ANGLE OF ATTACK
0 90
180
Strong currents can change a stranded ships heading or drive it further ashore. Weak currents can cause casualties to work on the bottom or cause cyclic movement of appendages or damaged plating, resulting in increased damage. Current (and wind) forces dictate the strength required for salvage vessel moorings. Depending on the casualtys orientation and position relative to the current, sediment may either be scoured away from or built up around the casualty. Either condition can cause excessive hull stresses or complicate reoating.
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4 C d 0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 ANGLE OF ATTACK Figure 3-12. Current Drag Coefficient.
Currents can limit diving, complicate ship and boat movements, and otherwise delay and disrupt salvage operations. 3-4.5.1 Current Force. The force exerted by a current on ship hulls and similar shapes can be determined from the following empirical relationship: Fc = where:
K 4 7
A u 2 Cd K 2
Fc g gc A u Cd K
= = = = = = = = =
current force, lbs water mass density, slugs/ft3 = gc / g 3 weight density lbf/ft acceleration of gravity 2 32.174 ft/sec gravitational acceleration constant = 1 slug-ft/lbf-sec2 projected underwater area length draft current velocity, ft/sec drag coefficient depth correction factor
1 1
DEPTH/DRAFT RATIO
Figure 3-13. Current Force Depth Correction Factor.
Values for Cd and K are empirically derived as reported in the British Ship Research Association Report NS 179 (1967), Research Investigation for the Improvement of Ship Mooring Methods. Cd is given in Figure 3-12 as a function of the angle of attack between the ships head and the current direction. K, a function of the water depth-to-draft ratio (d/T), is shown in Figure 3-13. For d/T > 7, K is 1. Water depths and drafts usually vary along the length of a stranded ship. Total current force can be calculated by using a value for K based on an average d/T ratio, or by numerical integration. Example 3-1 demonstrates calculation of current force on a stranded FFG-7 Class ship.
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EXAMPLE 3-1 CALCULATION OF CURRENT FORCE

AP 10 STATIONS 4 5 FP 0
WL
GROUND
14.5
14.4
14.3
14.2
14.1
14
13.9
13.8
13.7
13.6
13.5
KEEL DRAFTS 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 13.8 13.7 13.6 13.5
WATER DEPTHS Figure 3-14. FFG-7 Class Ship Stranded Broadside to Current.
Calculate the current force and turning moment for an FFG-7 Class ship stranded as shown in Figure 3-14 and described below. The drafts after stranding are 13' 6" forward and 14' 6" aft. The ship is aground from the forefoot to approximately 120 feet aft of the forward perpendicular. Water depths along the ship are as shown in Figure 3-14. A six-knot current strikes the ship at an angle of attack of 110.
Station
sm
TK(sm)
moment TK(sm)(stn)
Cd u
= 0.52 (from Figure 3-12) = 64 lb/ft3 = 1.988 slug/ft3 = 6 kts = 10.1 feet/second
By dividing the ships length into a convenient number of stations (in this case 10 equally spaced stations), variations in water depth and draft can be tabulated and analyzed. Inspection of the prole plan shows that the afterbody rakes upward sharply from the end of the skeg (about 330 feet abaft the forward perpendicular) to the transom, and the bow rakes upward from the forefoot to the waterline (forward perpendicular). Actual drafts rather than keel drafts should be used in these regions to determine K and projected area. By assuming that incremental current forces dF act on vertical strips of area dA, total current force is determined by integrating with respect to x along the ships length: d A u 2 Cd K dF = 2
2 L dAu CdK F = 0 2
0 0.0 1.0 1 0.0 0 1 13.6 7.0 4 380.8 380.8 2 13.7 7.0 2 191.8 383.6 3 13.8 7.0 4 386.4 1159.2 4 13.9 4.1 2 114.0 456.0 5 14.0 3.2 4 .2 896.0 6 14.1 2.5 2 70.5 423.0 7 14.2 2.1 4 119.3 835.1 8 14.3 1.8 2 51.5 412.0 9 4.0 1.0 4 16.0 144.0 10 1.5 1.0 1 1.5 15.0 __________________________________________ Sums 1,511.0 5104.7
Fc =
=
u 2 Cd 2
h
3
TK sm
1.988 10.12 0.52 40.8 1,511 2 3 = 1,083,517 lbs
lcp =
TK (sm)(stn) TK(sm)
h =
5,104.7 40.8 1,511
= 137.8 140 feet abaft FP
u 2Cd L u 2Cd L KdA = TKdx 0 0 2 2 u 2 Cd 2
Using Simpsons rule of numerical integration:
Assuming center of ground reaction is at the middle of the grounded length (60 feet abaft FP), the moment arm for rotation about the center of ground reaction is 140 - 60 = 80 feet, and the turning moment is:
Fc =
where:
h
3
TK sm
M = 80 1,083,517 = 86,681,360 ft lbs =

= 86,681,360 ft lbs 2,240 lb/ton = 38,697 ft tons
h = station spacing = 408/10 = 40.8 feet sm = Simpson multiplier
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3-4.5.2 Scour . A ship or other large obstruction on a beach or shoal will alter current ow patterns and velocities. The amount of sediment or silt carried in suspension is a function of current velocity. An increase in velocity enables the current to pick up more material, scouring sediments from under the casualty; an abrupt decrease in velocity causes the current to drop part of its load of suspended sediments, silting up the casualty. Silt clogs sea suctions, increases friction and suction, covers shell areas requiring repairs, and increases total weight. Scouring alters ground reaction distribution and can cause severe hogging stresses. Strandings in way of strong currents are very susceptible to scouring. Scouring processes are discussed in greater detail in Paragraph 3-7.4.
3-5 WIND FORCE
Assuming nonviscous ow, wind pressure on a surface can be expressed by a simple relationship: V2 W Pw = C 2 g where: Pw C g VW = wind pressure = dimensionless shape coefficient = weight density of air = gravitational constant = wind velocity
At ordinary temperatures, wind velocity, and pressure, air can be modelled as a nonviscous uid. Air density ranges from 0.064 lb/ft3 at a temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit and pressure of 27 inches of mercury to 0.098 lb/ft3 at -40 degrees Fahrenheit and 31 inches of mercury. At normal atmospheric pressure (29.92 inches of mercury) and 60 degrees Fahrenheit, air density is about 0.076 lb/ft3. If wind speed is expressed 2 in knots, a conversion factor of (6,080/3,600)2 must be applied. Substituting these values and g = 32.174 ft/sec into the above equation: Pw = 0.0034CVW2 where: Pw = 0.0034 = VW = wind pressure, lb/ft2 a constant, lb/(ft2kt2) wind velocity, kts
The wind force is the summation of the products of wind pressure and area for all component shapes of the ship or structure: Fw = PA = 0.0034CAVW2 = 0.0034CAVW2 where: Fw = A = wind force, lbs total vertical projected area of all surfaces exposed to the wind, ft2
The value of C for surface ships and other complex shapes is uncertain. Wind velocity varies with height in a roughly parabolic fashion due to boundary shear at the earths surface. Wind force can be expressed as a function of empirically derived shape coefficients, and height coefficients that describe a parabolic velocity gradient: Fw = 0.0034CsChAVW2 where: Cs Ch = = shape coefficient, dimensionless, Table 3-1 height coefficient, dimensionless, Table 3-2
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The projected area includes the hull and all houses, superstructures, masts, cranes, booms and other topside structure. The blocked-in projected area of all deck houses may be used instead of calculating each separately. If this is done, a shape coefficient of 1.10 isused. Open truss work such as lattice masts may be approximated by 60 percent of the projected area of one face. Appendix B gives frontal and broadside wind areas for Navy ships and craft. For winds blowing at an angle to the surface, force is proportional to the component of the wind perpendicular to the surface: F = 0.0034(CsChA)(VWcos)2 where: = angle between the wind direction and a perpendicular to the surface
Table 3-1. Shape Coefficient.
Exposed Area Shape Cylindrical Hull above water Deck house Isolated structures Trusswork-exposed beams
Cs 0.50 1.00 1.00 1.50 1.30
Adaped from Analysis of Spread Mooring Systems for Flating Drilling Units, API Recommended Practice 2P of 1 May 1987
Wind forces exert heeling moments on oating ships and overturning moments on shore or bottom-sitting structures. The wind overturning moment, or initial heeling moment, is: Mw = FwH = 0.0034(CsChAVW2)H where: Mw = H = wind heeling moment, ft-lbs lever arm from center of lateral resistance to center of sail area, ft
Height of Center of Area Above Water (Feet) 0 to 50 50 to 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 200 to 250 250 to 300 300 to 350 350 to 400 400 to 450 450 to 500 500 to 550 550 to 600 600 to 650 650 to 700 700 to 750 750 to 800 800 to 850 > 850 Table 3-2. Height Coefficient.
Ch
1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.37 1.43 1.48 1.52 1.56 1.60 1.63 1.67 1.70 1.72 1.75 1.77 1.79 1.80
The center of lateral resistance can be assumed to be at half-draft for oating ships, and at ground or seaoor level for bottom-sitting structures. As a ship heels, the sail area surfaces form an angle with the incident wind, and wind heeling moment becomes: M = FwHcos2 = 0.0034(CsChAVW2)Hcos2 where: M = = wind heeling moment at angle , ft-tons angle of inclination, degrees
At large heel angles, use of cos2 is not entirely accurate, because the exposed area varies with heel. The expression is accurate enough for salvage work.
3-6 WEATHER
Weather is a major factor in any salvage operation. include:
Important considerations
From API Recommended Practice 2P, 1 May 1987, and 46 CFR, Subchapter 5 of 1 October 1991
Prevailing weather. Seasonal weather. Local weather effects. Offshore storms that can affect swell and surf at the salvage site. Available forecasts.
Storm surge and other water level uctuations that precede and accompany storms can provide enough buoyancy to free a casualty. If the casualty is not to be reoated before the storm, it must be secured to prevent it from moving or pounding during the storm. Electrical storms can disrupt radio communications and provide an ignition source for ammable vapors.
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Ice buildup in freezing temperatures adds weight to and usually reduces stability of the casualty and assisting vessels. Ice weighs about 57 pounds per cubic foot; weight of accumulated ice can be estimated as 4.75 pounds per square foot per inch thickness. Sea ice and icebergs hazard and hamper vessel movement. Wind- and current-driven pack ice can severely damage or move the casualty. Heavy precipitation can cause signicant downooding through large topside openings. Accumulated snow adds topside weight unless physically removed; snow loads range from about 6 pounds per square foot per foot of depth for dry, powdery snow to 12 pounds per square foot per foot of depth for wet snow. In some cases, it is practical to construct barriers or breakwaters to protect the casualty and salvage forces from environmental effects. In most cases, the only viable option is to complete the salvage operation as quickly as possible to limit the casualtys exposure. Fleet weather centers, the National Weather Service, local television and radio stations, and private weather services can provide regular and specially structured weather forecasts. Wave, surf, and current forecasts are also available in some areas.
3-7 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Soils, including seabed sediments, are classed as cohesive (clay) or cohesionless (sand, gravel, silt), based on their behavior under load. Load responses, such as friction forces, bearing strength, resistance to lateral ow, etc., develop differently in cohesive and cohesionless soils. The following discussion is intended to provide a basic understanding of the behavior of nearshore soils under the kinds of loading characteristic to salvage operations. The simplicity and brevity of the presentation does not imply that soil responses are simple or easily denable. Soils engineering, marine geotechnics, hydrology, and related elds are imprecise sciences that attempt to predict the effects of complex interactions, often involving several poorly dened variables. Only after extensive eld and laboratory experience does a soils engineer develop a feel for soil responses to given situations. The assistance of experienced personnel from the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (NCEL) or other competent agencies should be enlisted in salvage operations where soil responses are an important factor. Calculations by nonsoils engineers based solely on the material presented here should be considered order-of-magnitude estimates at best. Several geotechnical, soils engineering, and civil engineering references are listed in the bibliography for those who desire a more extensive treatment of the subject. 3-7.1 Soil Properties. Soils do not always consist of a single constituent; mixed soils will exhibit a combination of cohesive and cohesionless properties. Properties are tabulated for various types of soil. Field identication of soils is necessary to determine soil properties for engineering calculations. Soil identication and simple eld analysis are discussed in Paragraph 3-7.6. The basic soil properties of importance to salvage calculations are permeability, shear strength, underwater weight, and internal friction angle. Table 3-3 lists typical values for common soils. A more extensive discussion of soil properties, site surveys, and tests can be found in the NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering. Soil indexing is the process of classifying a soil by its engineering properties. Soil index properties are of two types: grain properties and aggregate properties.
Table 3-3. Soil Characteristics.
Soil Type
Consistency
Cohesion psf
Dry Weight pcf 140 120 90 130 110 90 130 100 85 130 100 85 136 110 85 135 60 112 50 106 13 140 84 100 30 110 40 148 100 135 60
Underwater Weight pcf 40 - 60 103 76 48 93 73 52 93 73 52 93 79 54 99 73 51 84 37 85 38 71 31 66 8 89 53 62 18 69 25 94 62 101 45
Friction Angle 20 45 37 32 40 34 30 34 30 28 32 30 28 30 28 26 25 20 15 20 10 15 0 10 0 28 27
Quicksand Coarse sand or sand and gravel Medium sand
loose compact firm loose compact firm loose compact firm loose compact firm loose compact firm loose medium soft medium soft medium soft very soft dense loose dense loose dense loose dense loose dense loose dense loose
400 420 160 190 420 460 100 400 200 < 100 270 300 230
Fine sand
Fine silty sand or sandy silt Fine, uniform silt
Clayey silt Silty clay Clay (30 50% clay sizes) Colloidal clay
Clay with stone or rock fragments Organic clay Organic silt Sand, silt, clay, gravel mixture Sand and clay
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3-7.1.1 Grain Properties. Grain properties are the properties of the individual soil particles and include size, size distribution, density, and mineral composition. Particle density is determined by hydrometer test. Soils are described as gravel, sand, silt, or clay. Most soils consist of a mixture of two or more of these types and may contain organic material in a partly or fully decomposed state. The mixture is given the name of the constituent that appears to have the greatest inuence on the soil behavior. For example, a silty clay has most of the properties of a clay, but a signicant amount of silt. Sands and gravels are considered coarse-grained soils, silts and clays ne-grained, based on whether the individual grains can be distinguished by the naked eye. Coarse-grained soils consist of mineral fragments that can be identied on the basis of grain size, as shown in Table 3-4. Inorganic silts consist of microscopic particles and have little or no plasticity or cohesion. Clay is an aggregate of microscopic ake-shaped crystalline minerals that exhibits typical colloidal properties of plasticity and cohesion. The distinction between silt and clay cannot be based on grain size alone, because the signicant properties of these materials are related only indirectly to particle size, and the microscopic particles are not easily measured in the eld.
Table 3-4. PIANC* Soil Classication.

Soil Type Particle Size Identication Range of Size Sieve
Identication
Strength and Structural Characteristics
GRANULAR (noncohesive) Boulders Cobbles Gravels Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine Larger than 200 mm Not applicable. Visual examination and measurement. 200-60 mm 60-20 mm 20-6 mm 6-2 mm 2-0.6 mm 0.6-0.2 mm 0.2-0.06 mm Not applicable. Visual examination and measurement. 3"-3 4" 3 4"-1 4" 1 4"-No. 7 7-25 25-72 72-200 Easily identiable by visual examination. Not applicable. Not applicable. Possible to nd cemented beds of gravel which resemble weak conglomerate rock. Hardpacked gravels may exist intermixed with sand. Deposits will vary in strength (packing between loose, compact and cemented). Structure may be homogeneous or stratied. Intermixture with silt or clay may produce hardpacked sands.
Sands
All particles visible to the naked eye. Very little cohesion when dry. COHESIVE Generally, particles are invisible and only grains of a coarse silt may just be seen with the naked eye. Best determination is to test for dilatency. Material may have some plasticity, but silt can easily be dusted off ngers after drying and dry lumps powdered by nger pressure.
Silts
Coarse Medium Fine
0.06-0.02 mm 0.02-0.006 mm 0.006-0.002 mm
Passing No. 200
Essentially nonplastic, characteristics may be similar to sands if predominantly coarse or sandy in nature. Fine silts can exhibit plastic, clay-like behavior. Very often intermixed or interleaved with ne sands or clays. May be homogeneous or stratied. Consistency can vary from uid silt through stiff silt to "siltstone."
Strength
Shear Strength (psf) <350 350-1000 1000-2000 2000-3000 3000-5000 >5000
V. Soft . . . . . . . May be squeezed easily between ngers . . . . . . . . . . . . Below 0.02 mm. Distinction between silt and clay should not be based on particle size alone, since the more important physical properties of silt and clay are only related indirectly to particle size. Clay exhibits strong cohesion and plasticity, without dilatency. Moist sample sticks to ngers and has a smooth, Not applicable. greasy touch. Dry lumps do not powder, shrink, or crack during drying process with high dry strength. Soft . . . . . . . . . Easily molded by ngers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Firm . . . . . . . . . Requires strong pressure to mold by ngers . . . . . . . . . Stiff . . . . . . . . . Cannot be molded by ngers, indented by thumb . . . . . . Very Stiff . . . . . Readily indented by thumbnail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hard . . . . . . . . Tough, indented with difficulty by thumbnail . . . . . . . . . . Structure may be ssured, intact, homogeneous, stratied, or weathered. ORGANIC Peats and Organic Soils
*
Clays
Not applicable
Not applicable
Generally identied by black or brown color, often with strong organic smell, presence of brous or woody material.
May be rm or spongy in nature. Strength may vary considerably in horizontal and vertical directions.
Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses.
Size distribution, or grading, can be determined precisely by sieve analysis for coarse soils, or by a dispersion test for ne soils. Soils with a wide range of particle size are well graded, those with a narrow range of sizes or several widely separated size ranges are poorly graded, those with a very narrow size range are uniformly graded. Grading is not usually critical to salvage calculations, but is a subjective indicator of other engineering properties. Visual estimates of grading are sufficient in most cases.
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3-7.1.2 Aggregate Properties. Aggregate properties are essentially weight and volume relationships. A soil mass consists of a skeleton of soil particles enclosing pores containing water or air or both. Porosity (n) is the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume of a soil sample: n = Vv Vt = Va + Vw Va + Vw + Vs
where: Vv Vt Va Vw Vs = = = = = volume of pores (voids) in sample total sample volume volume of air-lled spaces in sample volume water in sample volume of solids (soil particles) in sample
The voids ratio (e) is the ratio of the pore volume to the volume of the soil particles (1 - n): e = Vv Vs = Va + Vw Vs = n 1 n
For a hypothetical soil consisting of spherical grains, the maximum and minimum porosities (n) are 0.476 and 0.26, corresponding to voids ratios of 0.908 and 0.35, respectively. The average porosity of coarse to medium sands is about 0.33 (e = 0.49). Fine sands are often looser than coarse sands, with greater voids ratios. Uniform pebbles have a porosity of about 0.45 when loose, and about 0.36 when compacted (wet). Underconsolidated silty and clayey sediments have very high porosities and voids ratios, because of their slow settling velocities. Clay particles accumulating on a slope do not roll to the bottom as sands will, but stay close to the point of contact because inter-particle attraction (cohesion) overcomes the force of gravity. Very loose, spongy soils result, with typical porosities of 0.5 to 0.8. Water content (w) is the ratio of weight of water (Ww) to the weight of soil particles (Ws): w = Ww Ws
The degree of saturation (s) is the water content expressed as a fraction of the maximum possible content, or the ratio of water volume to total pore volume: s = Vw Vv = Vw Va + Vw
Submarine soils are always 100-percent saturated; s is 1, Va is 0, and Vw is equal to Vv. The soil dry density, or bulk density ( d) is the ratio of solids weight to total volume, as opposed to soil density () which is the simple ratio of wet weight to volume: d = Ws Vt = Ws Vv + Vs = Wt (1 w) Vt = 1 + w
Soils engineers often use the term unit weight rather than density, and the term buoyant weight to indicate the underwater unit weight of a soil. b Buoyant weight is soil dry density less water density.
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The relative density, or density index (Dr), is a measure of the ability of the soil to compact under load: Dr = emax emax e emin
Where emax and emin are the voids ratios for the soils loosest and densest states, respectively. Relative density is 1 for a soil in its densest state and 0 in its loosest state. Aggregate properties for submarine soils are readily determined because soil (saturated) density can be measured by weighing a sample of known volume. The sample should be taken and transported without disturbing the soil mass, and weighed as soon as possible after it is taken, so the water content will approximate that of the soil in-situ. The weight of the same sample after oven drying gives bulk density; the difference between the two is water content. With water density known, water content can be converted to a voids volume, giving porosity and voids ratio. For terrestrial soils, the volume of air adds an additional variable that requires more sophisticated testing to determine. Table 35 gives typical soil index properties. 3-7.1.3 Permeability. The relative ease with which water ows through a soil, or its permeability, is a function of the extent and continuity of the pores in the soil mass. Soil permeability is quantied by a coefficient of permeability (k) the ow velocity for a hydraulic gradient of one; typical values are shown in Table 3-6. Soils with permeabilities less than 10-6 feet per second are essentially impermeable; soils with permeabilities greater than 10-4 feet per second are considered permeable. Actual ow velocities and rates are not normally calculated in salvage, but the relative permeability of a soil is a strong indicator of its probable behavior under loads imposed by stranded or sunken ships, anchors, or foundations.
Table 3-5. Typical Soil Index Properties. Description Porosity n Voids Ratio e Water Content at Saturation wsat 0.32 0.19 0.25 0.16 0.45 0.22 Bulk Density d lb/ft3 Saturated Soil Density sat lb/ft3 118 130 124 135 110 129
Loose, uniform sand Dense uniform sand Loose mixed sand Dense mixed sand Soft glacial clay Stiff glacial clay
0.46 0.34 0.40 0.30 0.55 0.37
0.85 0.51 0.67 0.43 1.20 0.60
90 109 99 116 76 106
Table 3-6. Permeability Coefficients.
Soil Type
Permeability, k ft/sec 1 10-2 3 10-3 3 10-4 1 10-4 1 10-5 2 10-6
Soil Type
Permeability, k ft/sec 3 10-8 3 10-8 3 10-9 3 10-10 3 10-11
Uniform Coarse Sand Uniform Medium Sand Well-graded Sand Uniform Fine Sand Well-graded Silty Sand Uniform Silt
Silty Clay Low Plasticity Clay Medium Plasticity Clay High Plasticity Clay Very High Plasticity Clay
3-7.1.4 Shear Strength. A soils resistance to shearing results from friction between soil particles, a function of the internal friction angle; cohesion, or attraction between particles; and permeability. Soils are classed as cohesive or cohesionless by the relative importance of these factors. Ultimate shear strength can be expressed as a function of cohesion and friction angle: sus = c + (tan ) where: sus c = = = = ultimate shear strength, psi or psf cohesion, psi or psf normal stress, psi or psf internal friction angle
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Cohesionless soils are very permeable and have little adhesion between particles. The undrained condition is attained only for very rapidly applied, short-duration loads (10 seconds or less). With c taken as zero, soil strength depends on friction between soil particles. Since friction is a function of normal force, shear strength depends on the unit pressure, which in turn depends on overburden depth and underwater weight of the soil, and on internal friction angle: sus = (tan ) = b d tan where: sus b d = = = soil shear strength, lb/ft2 underwater unit weight, lb/ft3 depth below soil surface, ft
40
AL PIC TY
50
THE CURVE IS BASED ON TESTS OF ABOUT 20 CORES RANGING TO 10m IN LENGTH FROM THE SANTA BARBARA CHANNEL. DATA TO GREATER SUBBOTTOM DEPTHS ARE FROM TRIAXIAL TEST EXTRAPOLATION.
12 14 16 18 20
60
70
= 37 deg b = 20 lb/ft 3 AT 0 ft 3 40 lb/ft AT 100 ft 22 24 26
80
90
28 30 0 5 su (PSI) 10
100
FROM THE HANDBOOK FOR MARITIME GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, NAVAL CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY, 1985
Friction angle for cohesionless soils can be Figure 3-15. Typical Strength Profile for Near-Shore Silty Clay. estimated by measuring the angle of repose of a dry sample of the soil. The dry sand is poured through a funnel onto a horizontal surface from such a height that the particles strike with little impact. The funnel is kept out of contact with the developing cone of sand. The angle between the natural slopes of the cone and the horizontal is the angle of repose. The internal friction angle is slightly greater than the angle of repose. Typical friction angles are given in Table 3-3. For cohesionless soils, friction angle is virtually the same whether the soil is dry or wet, although angle of repose will vary. A soils existing state is described as overconsolidated, normally consolidated, or underconsolidated. Overconsolidated soils have been subjected to a greater load (overburden) in the past than presently exists. They have been compressed and become stronger. Overconsolidation can also result from many chemical or physical processes. Normally consolidated soils have never been loaded by overlying material more than they are at present. Underconsolidated soils have not reached equilibrium with the weight of overlying materials and are weaker than they will be when equilibrium is reached. The degree of consolidation is important because it dictates soil strength. Strength of normally consolidated and overconsolidated soils generally increases with depth, in proportion to the weight of the overlying sediments. Strength of underconsolidated soils increases very slowly with depth, if at all. Pelagic (offshore) sediments are usually normally consolidated. Nearshore sediments, on the other hand, are often overconsolidated, especially sediments that were exposed when sea level was signicantly lower than at present. There is no consistent rule for locating overconsolidated sediments, except for the generalization that exposed locations, such as the tops of rises and passages, are more likely to be overconsolidated than protected areas such as basins. Underconsolidated soils are found where ne-grained sediments are being deposited at a high rate, such as river deltas, harbors, and estuaries fed by muddy rivers. Soil sensitivity (St) is the ratio of the shear strength of an undisturbed soil to that of the same soil immediately following disruption, or remolding. Cohesive soils are more sensitive than cohesionless soils.
3-22
SUBBOTTOM DEPTH - METERS
SUBBOTTOM DEPTH - FEET
Cohesive soil particles adhere to each other and to surfaces in contact with the soil. They are relatively impermeable. The cohesion and ability to trap water in the voids between soil particles give the soil mass an inherent shear strength. When a cohesive soil is rst loaded, nearly all of the load is borne by the incompressible water trapped in the pores of the soil. In other words, the load is carried by pore water pressure. As time passes, water drains out of the loaded soil mass into the surrounding soil. The initial shear strength of the soil is therefore called the undrained shear strength (su). For the drained case, the internal friction angle () su (kPa) is taken as zero for most clays, and shear 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 strength is equal to cohesion (c). Shear 0 strength is increased to some extent by 2 consolidation (settling) and overburden (pressure exerted by weight of soil on 10 NOTE: HEMIPELAGIC AND TERRIGENOUS 4 lower soil layers) because the soil becomes MATERIAL IS HIGHLY VARIABLE. more impermeable as it compacts. Shear RANGE OF VALUES GIVEN WILL APPLY 6 TO MOST STRONGER SOILS (SAND 20 strength is decreased temporarily (24 hours LAYERS OR BEDS ARE COMMON). WEAKER (POSSIBLY MUCH WEAKER) or more) when a consolidated cohesive soil 8 PROFILES MAY BE FOUND NEAR is disturbed. Figure 3-15 is a typical soil ACTIVE RIVER DELTAS. 30 strength prole for a nearshore, silty clay. 10
FT SO
L RIA TE MA SIN BA
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3-7.2 Soil Bearing Capacity. The ability of a soil to resist penetration is its bearing capacity. Soil bearing capacity must be known to:
Determine whether the sea bottom will support the load of a ship rotating about its bilge during parbuckling. Calculate the depth to which sunken ships and other objects will penetrate the seaoor. Determine bottom breakout (suction) forces. Calculate the load bearing capacity or required surface area of footings to support jacks, platforms, or other structures.
A more thorough treatment of soil bearing capacity and object penetration can be found in the NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, the Civil Engineering Reference Manual (Michael Lindeburg, Professional Publications, Inc., 1986), or any good soil mechanics text. 3-7.2.1 Unit Bearing Strength. Unit bearing strength of a soil loaded by a nonbuoyant object is a function of the soil shear strength, density, and internal friction angle, and the object dimensions as expressed by a form of the Tezaghi-Meyerhoff equation: qu = Ncsukc + where: qu su b Nc, N B kc, k = = = = = = unit bearing strength, lb/ft2 soil undrained shear strength, lb/ft2 underwater unit weight of soil, lb/ft3 dimensionless coefficients that depend on the angle of internal friction () taken from Table 3-7 breadth, or minimum base dimension, ft correction factors for object geometry, taken from Table 3-8.
1 2
Table 3-7 Soil Bearing Coefficients.
Nb B k
0 5 10 15 20
Nc
5.1 6.4 8.3 11.0 14.8
N
0 0.5 1.2 2.7 5.4
25 30 35 40 45
Nc
20.7 30.1 46.1 75.3 133.9
N
10.9 22.4 48.0 109.4 217.7
Table 3-8 Bearing Capacity Correction Factors.
In cohesionless soils, sliding friction between soil particles creates only weak forces. Shear strength at the soil surface can therefore be assumed to be zero for cohesionless soils. The unit bearing strength relationship reduces to: qu =
1 2
B/L
1.0 (square) 1.0 (round) 0.5 0.2 0.0
kc
1.25 1.20 1.12 1.05 1.00
k
0.85 0.70 0.90 0.95 1.00
Nb B
Because values for N, b, and B are typically large, initial bearing strengths of truly cohesionless soils are very high; for example, bearing strength of a sandy soil with = 30, b, = 60 under a 30-foot wide barge is: qu =
1 1 N B = (22.4)(60)(30) 2 b 2 = 20,160 psf = 140 psi
On cohesive soils, virtually all of the load is borne by water trapped in the soil mass (pore water). Internal friction angle can therefore be assumed to be zero; from Table 3-7, N is 0, Nc is 5.1, and the relationship simplies to: qu = Ncsukc = 5.1sukc
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If the soil can drain, unit bearing strength will eventually fall to the soil shear strength. A rough estimate of a clayey soils bearing strength can be obtained by a manual penetration test as outlined in Table 3-9. Typical bearing strengths for a variety of seaoors are given in Table 3-10.
Table 3-9. Field Estimates of Clay Bearing Strength.
Consistency Very Soft Soft Firm Stiff Very Stiff Hard
Field Identification Easily penetrated several inches by fist Easily penetrated several inches by thumb Penetrated several inches by thumb with moderate effort Readily indented by thumb but penetrated only with great effort Readily indented by thumbnail Indented with difficulty by thumbnail
Approximate Bearing Strength (qu), lb/ft2 < 2,000 2,000 - 4,000 4,000 8,000 8,000 12,000 12,000 20,000 > 20,000
Table 3-10. Approximate Soil Bearing Strengths. Bearing Strength, qu psf psi
Soil Type
Identication
Quicksand
1,000
Sand oversaturated with water, friction between grains lost, soil assumes liquid properties
Wet sand Firm dry sand Drained quicksand Very rm ne sand Gravel or dense sand in thick layer Fine loose sand Compact sand and gravel Very soft clay Soft clay Soft clayey sand, loam or silt Soft clay and sand Soft clay, conned Firm clay Stiff clay
4,000 4,000 - 6,000 6,000 6,000 - 12,000 8,000 - 10,000 2,000 - 4,000 8,000 - 12,000 2,000 2,000 - 4,000 2,000 2,000 - 3,000 4,000 3,000 4,000 - 8,000
28 28 - 42 42 42 - 84 56 - 70 14 - 28 56 - 84 14 14 - 28 14 14 - 21 28 21 28 - 56 Molded with strong nger pressure Cannot be molded with ngers, can be indented with thumb or spaded Indented with difficulty by thumbnail, requires picking for removal Requires picking for removal Squeezed easily between ngers Easily molded by ngers
Hard clay
8,000 - 10,000
56 - 70
Very dry hard clay Solid ledge of hard rock, granite, basalt, etc. Coral Sound shale and other medium hardness rock Hardpan, cemented sand, and gravel Soft rock, disintegrated ledge
8,000 - 12,000 50,000 - 200,000 20,000 - 170,000 20,000 - 30,000 16,000 - 20,000 10,000 - 20,000
56 - 84 350 - 1,400 140 - 1,190 140 - 210 110 - 140 70 - 140 Requires blasting for removal Difficult to remove by picking Difficult to remove by picking
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3-7.2.2 Bearing Capacity. Bearing capacity, or total force resisting penetration, is: Fq = Aqu = A Ncsu + where: Fq A = = bearing capacity, lbs contact or bearing area, ft2
1 2
Nb B
3-7.2.3 Seaoor Penetration. At equilibrium, the bearing capacity must equal the bearing weight: Fq = Wb - Ws where: Wb = Ws = = b = Vs = objects submerged weight buoyant weight of displaced sediment bVs underwater unit weight of sediment volume of displaced sediment
The soil strength prole must be known or estimated to determine equilibrium penetration depth. Equilibrium penetration depth is determined by trial-and-error calculation. A trial depth is selected and the bearing weight and bearing capacity are calculated for that depth. If the bearing weight is greater than the bearing capacity, a deeper depth is selected and the calculations repeated. As a rst estimate, a ship or other object lying on a cohesive seaoor will settle until it reaches a depth where the soil shear strength is approximately one-fth the initial bearing pressure. When objects have gradually settled into the seaoor (fall velocity to seaoor < 6 ft/sec), soil bearing capacity (Fq) and shear strength can be related empirically to observed embedment depth: D Fq = 5Asu 1 + 0.2 B Wb D 5A 1 + 0.2 B 1 + 0.2 B = W b L Ws
su =
Ws 1 + 0.2 B L
where: A su D B L Wb Ws = = = = = = = horizontal area at the mudline = BL soil undrained shear strength, averaged from the seaoor surface to depth D + B embedment depth equivalent breadth equivalent length underwater weight of embedded object underwater weight of displaced sediment
For penetration and breakout force calculations, equivalent rather than actual dimensions should be used. The cross-sectional area at the mudline (A)for a ship, the waterplane area at the mudlineis determined. This area is represented by a rectangle of the same area, and an equivalent length (L) and breadth (B) as best ts the situation. Vessel length along the mudline, or the longest dimension for other shapes, should normally be used for L. B, always less than or equal to L, is A/L. Equivalent embedment depth (D) is calculated by dividing the estimated embedded volume by A. 3-7.3 Bottom Breakout Force. Vessels on cohesive soils are subject to suction that increases the lift force. Skin friction increases lift force for vessels deeply embedded in cohesionless soils. The breakout force varies with the seaoor soil and the time the object has rested on the bottom, and increases with depth of embedment for both cohesive and cohesionless soils. Breakout force is the force in excess of submerged weight required to lift a ship or object off the seaoor. Time, as well as force, is a factor in breaking an object out of the seaoor. An object may be broken free by a small force applied over a long period or a large force applied over a short period. Immediate breakout force (FIB) is the uplift force required to dislodge an object within a few minutes. Long-term breakout force (FLB) is a force less than the immediate breakout force applied to an object to lift it off the seaoor in some amount of time. The breakout force calculations described in the following paragraphs are excerpted from Chapter 9 of the NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering.
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An object cannot be removed from the seaoor unless either water or sediment moves into the space occupied by the object. Whether water or sediment ows into the space depends on the time allowed and the overall permeability of the seaoor sediment. An uplift in excess of the underwater weight of the object will change the soil pore water pressure around the object. With time, water will ow within the soil mass to equalize the pore pressure and allow the object to move upward. Immediate breakout force is estimated from the following empirical relationship: FIB = Fq 1.0 The total force required for immediate breakout is: TOTAL REQUIRED LIFT where: Fq D B = = = soil bearing capacity embedment depth object equivalent breadth (described in Paragraph 3-7.2.3)
2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 10 0 10 2 10 4 10 6 10 8 10 10 BREAKOUT TIME PARAMETER, T
0.97e
2.75
D B
FIB + Fq = FIB + Wb
Ws
There is a particular danger in applying large forces in excess of those needed to raise the object; if internal buoyant force equals the vessels submerged weight plus immediate breakout force, there will be an excess upward force when the suction breaks, and the ship will rise suddenly and out of control. Steady application of a long-term breakout force slightly greater than the ships submerged weight will overcome suction force over a period of time and allow the ship to rise under control. Long-term breakout force is not a specic value, but can be any force less than the immediate breakout force. The unknown quantity is the time required for a given breakout force to dislodge an object from the seaoor. Breakout time (tb) is given empirically by: tb = where: tb p = = = = = breakout time in minutes average breakout pressure applied to the sediment in psf FLB/A embedment depth in feet equivalent breadth in feet TD 4 B 2p
AFTER H. J. LEE, BREAK OUT OF PARTIALLY EMBEDDED FROM COHESIVE SEAFLOOR SOILS, NCEL TECHNICAL REPORT R-755, FEBRUARY 1972, REPRODUCED IN THE NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, 1985
Figure 3-16. Normalized Long-Term Breakout Force as a Function of Breakout Time Parameter.
D B
T is a dimensionless breakout time parameter. T as a function of FLB/FIB is given in Figure 3-16. Because of the uncertainty of the variables involved, breakout time calculations are very approximate.
3-26
RELATIVE FORCE, FLB/FIB
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In cohesionless soils such as sand or gravel, water ow is rapid and suction effects are negligible. Shallowly embedded objects break out in a few minutes with forces only slightly greater than the objects underwater weight. Frictional resistance of large objects deeply embedded in cohesionless seaoors is predicted by: Ff = Afs where: Ff A fs and fs = 0.5potan ( where: po b = = = bD average overburden pressure, lb/ft2 = _____ 2 angle of internal friction 35o for dense sand sediment buoyant weight 64 lb/ft3 for sand
UPLAND DUNE CREST BEACH BACKSHORE BERM BEACH SCARP BEACH FACE M.H.W. NORMAL WAVE ACTION ORIGINAL PROFILE ACCRETION EROSION M.H.W. INITIAL ATTACK OF STORM WAVES ORIGINAL PROFILE M.L.W. BAR M.L.W. BAR FORESHORE NEARSHORE (LITTORAL) ZONE
= = =
frictional force resisting uplift area of embedded vertical or nearly vertical surfaces skin friction coefficient
5)
3-7.4 Littoral Processes. Nearshore negrained soils are moved by waves and currents that carry the soil particles in suspension. Beach topography may change signicantly on a seasonal or even daily basis in response to weather patterns. Sediments may build up and recede from casualties, breakwaters, moorings, and other obstructions. In one common pattern, the combined effects of steep, high waves, storm surge, and wind setup during heavy weather erode the beach face and berm, transporting the material offshore to form or enlarge an offshore bar. Long low swells between storms transport sediments from the offshore bar to the beach. The beach rebuilding process typically takes much longer than short-duration, stormcaused erosion. Figure 3-17 shows a typical beach erosion pattern. Severe storms, with very high waves and storm surge, may erode the backshore and barrier dunes as well as the foreshore. Massive quantities of beach material may be transported offshoreit is not unusual for 60- to 100-foot wide dunes to disappear in a few hours. In another independent pattern, sand waves with signicant crests and hollows may move up and down the beach, causing beach material to build up around and recede from stranded or sunken ships. Movement of material into and away from the beach can be monitored by the placement of graduated stakes, or by observing the level of the seaoor alongside the ship. The movement of sand in waves along the beach can be determined by placing stakes at successive crests, marking the height of the crests, and observing the heights and position of the crests relative to the initial position.
STORM SURGE ACCRETION
EROSION
M.H.W. M.L.W.
BAR
STORM WAVE ATTACK OF FOREDUNE CREST RECESSION CREST LOWERING ORIGINAL PROFILE EROSION ACCRETION
M.H.W. AFTER STORM WAVE ATTACK, NORMAL WAVE ACTION Figure 3-17. Storm Wave Attack on Beach and Dune. M.L.W.
BAR
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OFFSHORE
In practice, breakout forces are seldom as large as calculated. Bottom suction and friction forces can be reduced or disrupted by the methods described in Chapter 5.
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3-7.4.1 Scouring, Sedimentation, and Littoral Transport. The ease with which a soil is scoured from its bed depends on particle size and consistency of the soil mass. Cohesionless soils (ne-grained sand, silt) are most susceptible to current scour and transport, but ne cohesive soils, especially underconsolidated soils will also entrain. Fine, loose particles are entrained by water moving at almost any speed. As particle size and soil consistency or adhesion increase, the ow velocity required to initiate particle movement increases. If the ow is turbulent, and the velocity in upward owing regions of the ow eld is greater than the particle-settling velocity, the particles are lifted above the seabed. The particles will be carried to a part of the ow eld where movement is at some angle to the seabed; as the particles settle through the water column, they are transported laterally for some distance before falling to the sediment bed. If the ow is sufficiently fast and turbulent, the process is repeated and the particles move continually downstream. If upward ow velocities are high enough, the particles are kept in suspension and transported by the current until a ow region with velocities low enough to permit sedimentation is reached. Particle-settling velocity is a function of particle size, shape, and specic gravity, and viscosity of the entraining uid. A buoyancy index (BI) can be dened: s 1 gd 3 s o
BI =
where: s = = = = = = = specic gravity of the solid particle 2.65 for most soil particles (see also Table E-19) 2.65 for quartz sand 2.72 for calcite sand 2.87 (commonly 2.87-3.33) for heavy minerals specic gravity of the entraining uid 1.0 for fresh water 1.025 for seawater acceleration due to gravity particle diameter kinematic viscosity of water 1.087 105 ft2/sec
104
o g ds
Fall velocity (Vf) can be expressed in the form of a general, nonlinear curve relating Reynolds number (Vfd/) to the buoyancy index, as shown in Figure 3-18. For common nearshore grains, fall velocity for the indicated regions of the curves in Figure 3-18 are given by:
s
103
Vf = Vf =
0.7 1 g d 1.1 for 39 104 0.91
VFds
Vf =
1 gd 2 18v for B < 39

R=
102 SPHERE NATURAL GRAIN 101
s o
100
where d is taken as the median grain diameter. Vf is the fall velocity of a single grain in an ideal situation. Actual fall velocity is reduced somewhat by turbulence and especially by proximity to other particles, which may reduce fall velocity by two orders of magnitude. Fall velocity in a concentrated suspension (Vfc) is related to Vf : Vfc Vf (1 c)n
10-1 100 101 102 103 104 s 3 - 1 gds BI = o 2 105 106 107
Figure 3-18. Fall Velocity of an Isolated Particle.
where c is the volumetric particle concentrationthe volume of particles divided by the volume of waterand the exponent n is an empirical function of the buoyancy index as shown in Figure 3-19.
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It is difficult to determine upward ow 5.0 velocities in a turbulent ow eld, or the percentage of time that a particle spends in upward ow. In practice, lateral current 4.5 velocities more than two to three feet per second greater than particle-settling velocity will carry sediments in a continuous 4.0 suspension. At lower velocities, the SPHERES suspended sediments will be temporarily or NATURAL GRAINS 3.5 permanently redeposited. Soils usually do not consist of particles of uniform size; the current-borne soil suspension will include a 3.0 range of particle sizes. The size of the particles that remain in suspension varies approximately as the fourth or higher power 2.5 of the velocity. If velocity of a sedimentladen current falls, a portion of the 2.0 suspended sediments will be deposited. 102 101 103 104 105 106 Once started, sedimentation may continue s 3 1 gd ( ( s at an increasing rate as the accumulating BI = o sediment mass alters current ow. 2 Experience with ow in ditches has shown that scouring is likely for current velocities Figure 3-19. Particle Fall Velocity Correction Exponent. greater than those shown for the various soil types in Table 3-11. A number of empirical relationships have been developed to predict the onset of particle suspension by shallow water waves. Two such relationships are shown below; wave scouring is predicted when the formulas yield values greater than those indicated:
n
1
umax 8 (s 1) g d T umax (s 1) g d T
3 5 3 5 2 5 1 5 7 9 7 9 1 3 1 2
0.034
(Sylvester and Mogridge)
0.69
(Rance and Warren)
where umax is maximum wave induced current velocity at the seaoor: umax = H 2d T sinh L
Table 3-11. Maximum Nonscouring Current Velocities.
where: H T L d v = = = = = wave height, [length] wave period, [time-1] wavelength, [length] particle diameter, [length] kinematic viscosity of the water, [length2/time]
Soil Type Very light, loose sand Average sandy soil Average loam or alluvial soil Stiff clay or ordinary gravel Coarse gravel or cobbles Conglomerate, cemented gravel
Current Velocity, ft/sec 1.0 - 1.5 2.0 - 2.5 2.75 - 3.0 4.0 - 5.0 5.0 - 6.0 6.0 - 8.0
From Mining Engineers Handbook, Fourth Edition, Peele and Church, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1945.
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3-7.4.2 Prediction of Beach Erosion or Accretion. The dynamic response of beach to storm attack is to sacrice foreshore, berm, and dune to provide material for an offshore bar that protects the shoreline from further erosion. A berm thus indicates recent periods of beach accretion or stability, while a substantial bar indicates recent periods of erosion. This oversimplication is not always accurate; there may be no berm on an accreted beach if the top of the foreshore reaches a dune or cliff line; nearshore bars can be formed by processes other than beach erosion; and a bar and a berm may both be present on the same beach. Laboratory experiments coupled with quantitative eld observations (see Chapter 4 of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Shore Protection Manual) indicate that wave-formed beach prole depends on deep water wave steepness and can be related to sediment fall velocity: Fo = where: Fo Ho Vf T = = = = dimensionless fall-time parameter deep water signicant wave height, [length] fall velocity of particles in the water column, [length/time] wave period, [time-1] Ho Vf T
Beach erosion usually occurs for Fo > 1; beach accretion usually occurs for Fo < 1. A beach erosion prediction can also be based on the nearshore beach slope, wave characteristics, and particle size: Go = Ho d m 0.27 L Lo o
0.67
where: Go Ho Lo d m = = = = = dimensionless erosion parameter deep water wave height, [length] deep water wave length, [length] median particle size, [length] nearshore beach slope = rise/run
Beach erosion usually occurs for Go < 1/18; beach accretion usually occurs for Go > 1/9. 3-7.5 Retaining Walls. Salvage work may require the construction of earth-lled dams, backlled sheet-pile-faced structures, or other structures that resemble and behave as retaining walls. Forces exerted on ship bulkheads by bulk cargoes or loose solid ballast can be calculated in the same manner as forces on retaining walls. Pressures exerted on a wall by the backll depend on the physical characteristics of the soil particles, the degree of soil compaction and saturation, the geometry of the soil mass, movements of the wall caused by the backll, and foundation deformation. Because of the complexity of the interaction of these factors, soil pressures and pressure distributions are typically indeterminate; resulting forces on retaining walls must be approximated. Three independent, concurrent forces must be considered:
Active earth force. Passive earch force. Hydrostatic forces in saturated or submerged backll that develop as if no backll was present, i.e., hydrostatic pressure depends only on the depth below water level.
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3-7.5.1 Active Earth Force. A soil mass held back by a retaining wall or structure exerts a force on the structure called the active earth force. If the force is not effectively resisted, the soil mass will fail and a portion of it will move sideways and downward. The active earth force is reduced if the retaining wall is allowed to rotate slightly. The Coulomb equation gives an estimate of the active earth force for the general conditions shown in Figure 3-20: Pa = b h 2 2 sin ( csc sin ( ) sin ( ) ) sin ( sin ( ) 2 )
where: Pa b h = = = = = = = active earth force per unit length unit weight of soil height of ll at wall angle between the backslope of the wall and the horizontal angle between the backll surface and the horizontal internal friction angle of the soil wall friction angle
+ P a h h 3 + P p h
FA SU ILU RF RE AC E
P a 2 h 3
= 45 +
The line of action of the active earth force is inclined above the perpendicular to the backslope of the wall by the wall friction angle , as shown. Values for wall friction angle are given in Table 3-12 but should not exceed the soil internal friction angle . Values for soil friction angle can be taken from Table 3-3. For walls with vertical backslope ( = 90), is equal to . If the backll surface is level, = = 0, and the active earth force acts horizontally. For these special conditions, the Coulomb equation is reduced to the Rankine equation: Pa = b h 2 2 tan2 45 2
GENERAL (COULOMB) EARTH FORCE CONDITIONS
RANKINE EARTH FORCE CONDITIONS
Figure 3-20. Earth Forces on Retaining Walls.
Table 3-12. Coefficients of Friction and Wall Friction Angles. Wall friction angle, 26.7 18.3 21.8 31.0
Stone, brick, or concrete on: dry clay moist or wet clay sand gravel
Coefficient of friction, 0.50 0.33 0.40 0.60
3-7.5.2 Passive Earth Force. If a retaining wall resists forces that tend to compress the soil behind it, the soil must have enough internal resistance to transmit these forces, or the soil mass will rupture (a portion of the soil will move upwards and sideways away from the wall). This internal resistance against outside forces is manifested as a passive earth force acting against the wall. The general (Coulomb) equation for passive earth force is: Pp = b h 2 2 sin ( csc sin ( ) sin ( ) ) sin ( sin ( ) 2 )
The line of action of the passive earth force is inclined below the perpendicular to the backslope of the wall by the wall friction angle . For the Rankine conditions described in Paragraph 3-7.5.1, the general equation reduces to: Pp = b h 2 2 tan2 45 2
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3-7.6 Soil Identication. The following tests, combined with sieve analysis or visual estimates of grain size, can be used in conjunction with the Trilineal Classication Plot shown in Figure 3-21 for preliminary soil classication.
PE RC EN TS AN SA D 50 ND SIZ E
0 10
CLAY
20
80
AY CL TY SIL
20 IZE YS T LA SIL TC EY EN AY 50 RC CL PE
3-7.6.1 Dry Strength. A small briquette of soil is molded and allowed to dry in air. The briquette is broken, and a fragment about 1 8-inch in diameter is pressed between the thumb and forenger. Silt will crush easily, while a clay fragment can be broken only with great effort.
SA ND YC LA Y
SANDY SILTY CLAY
SILTY 3-7.6.2 Dilatency. Dilatency is the CLAYEY CLAYEY SILT property exhibited by moist silt when SAND shaken. To test for dilatency, a small moist sample of soil (at a very soft consistency) SILT SAND SILTY SAND SANDY SILT is placed in the palm of the hand and shaken by tapping the back of the hand. 50 0 20 80 100 Water will rise quickly through the PERCENT SILT SIZE permeable silts and give the surface of the soil a shiny or glistening appearance. If the Figure 3-21. Trilineal Soil Classification Plot. pat is then deformed by slight stretching or squeezing, the water will be drawn back into the soil, leaving the surface dull and livery. The passage of water is restricted in clays, so their appearance will not change in a shaking test. The relative proportions of silt and clay in an unknown mixture can be estimated by noting whether the appearance changes slowly or rapidly.
10 0 80
CL AY EY
SANDY
3-7.6.3 Plasticity. Within a certain range of moisture contents, a soil with a signicant amount of clay can be deformed and remolded without disintegrating. If a sample of moist soil can be rolled out into a long thin rope, the soil contains a signicant proportion of clay. As moisture is lost during continued manipulation, the soil approaches a nonplastic state and starts to crumble. Just before crumbling, a highly plastic clay can be rolled into a rope of approximately 1 8-inch diameter that can support its own weight when a foot long. A silt can seldom be rolled to a diameter as small as 1 8-inch without severe cracking; the rope has no tensile strength unless some clay is present. 3-7.6.4 Dispersion. If a small amount of soil is dispersed in water by shaking or stirring, the coarser particles will settle rst and the nest particles will remain in suspension the longest. Usually, sand grains settle in 30 to 60 seconds; silt particles in 15 to 60 minutes; while clay particles will stay in suspension for at least several hours and usually for several days unless the particles combine in groups, or occules. If the test is performed in a straight-sided transparent container, the proportions of sand, silt, and clay in the soil can be determined by measuring the thickness of the respective layers. 3-7.6.5 Organic Soils. Soils containing organic materials are generally weaker and more compressible than soils with the same mineral composition but lacking organic matter. Appreciable quantities of organic matter can be identied by a dark grey or brown-to-black color and the odor of decaying vegetation. In highly organic soils, such as peat or muck, brous vegetable matter in varying states of decay may be distinguishable. 3-7.6.6 Soil Property Tests. The Supervisor of Salvage can arrange for the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (NCEL) or another competent laboratory to perform soil property tests in support of salvage operations. On-site tests can be performed to determine soil shear strength, internal friction angle, and underwater soil weight. NCEL maintains eld testing equipment (vane shear testers, penetrometers, core samplers, etc.) that can be lent to Navy salvage forces. The equipment is relatively simple to use and is supplied with operating instructions. Underwater Construction Team (UCT) personnel are trained in the use of eld soil testing apparatus. Chapter 2 of the NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering describes the operation of eld testing and sampling equipment and the determination of soil index properties. Soil property data for some locations has been tabulated and may be available from NCEL. In the absence of better information, the soil strength prole shown in Figure 3-15 or the values given in Table 3-3 can be used.
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3-8 ICE Ice can affect ships and structures in many ways. The effects of ice accumulation during freezing weather on ship stability are discussed in Paragraph 1-9.3. In the polar regions, the Great Lakes, and some subpolar navigable rivers, such as the St. Lawrence, ice formed on the water surface and icebergs present particular hazards. Ice forms are generally classied by terms that indicate the manner of formation, effects produced, or appearance. 3-8.1 Ice Formation and Behavior. Ice met at sea is of either land or sea origin. Sea ice is formed by the freezing of seawater and probably accounts for 99 percent of the ice on the arctic seas. Land ice includes icebergs calved from glaciers or ice shelves, and small amounts of freshwater ice carried into the sea from rivers and estuaries. 3-8.1.1 Ice Formation. As it cools, water contracts until the temperature of maximum density is reached, after which it expands. The temperature of maximum density for fresh water is 39.2 degrees Fahrenheit. The addition of salt lowers both the temperature of maximum density and the freezing point. The two temperatures coincide at 29.6 degrees Fahrenheit for a salinity of 24.7 parts per thousand. At greater salinities, water reaches its maximum density immediately before freezing and expanding as ice. Average seawater, with a salinity of 35 parts per thousand, freezes at 28.6 degrees Fahrenheit. As a body of water loses heat at the surface, the cooled surface water increases in density and sinks to be replaced by warmer, less dense water from below. If the water salinity is less than 24.7 parts per thousand, this process continues until the water is cooled to the temperature of maximum density. With continued heat loss at the surface, the cooled water remains at the surface, and begins to freeze. If salinity is greater than 24.7 parts per thousand, freezing is delayed until the entire water mass (or a surface layer bounded by a density gradient) reaches the freezing point. One might therefore expect the entire water mass to freeze, but as ice forms, most of the dissolved solids are excluded to remain in the water beneath the ice. The increased concentration of dissolved solids (salt) increases density and lowers freezing point, retarding ice formation. As ice is a poor heat conductor, the surface layer of ice insulates the water below from the colder air, further retarding ice formation. Ice normally forms at the surface, but may form at the interface between layers of water of different density. In shallow water and streams, particularly where there is sufficient motion for thorough mixing, freezing temperatures may extend downwards from the surface to the bottom. Ice crystals may form at any depth. Because the density of the forming ice is less than that of the surrounding water, the ice crystals rise to the surface, unless they form at and adhere to the bottom. This bottom ice (or anchor ice) continues to grow as additional ice freezes to that already formed. In some cases, the growing mass of bottom ice may attain enough buoyancy to break free of the bottom; large masses of ice may appear suddenly at the surface. 3-8.1.2 Sea Ice. The cycle of ice formation begins in the fall. Ice forms rst in shallow water, particularly in sheltered waters and waters of reduced salinity, such as areas near the mouths of rivers, and spreads outward from these areas. Ice broken up and carried seaward by winds or current acts as a nucleus for ice formation in deeper water, as does ice already at sea that has not melted during the preceding summer. The presence of some ice on the sea surface initially facilitates ice formation by cooling the surface water and by damping wave action which hinders freezing by mixing the upper water layers. As seawater begins to freeze, it takes on an oily appearance, with a grey or leaden tint. Individual ice particles, or spicules, become visible, and may coalesce into thin plates called frazil ice. As freezing progresses, the mixture of ice crystals and water at the surface becomes mushy and resembles wet snow or slush. The slush coagulates to form grease ice, which reects little light and gives the sea a matte appearance. Shuga, an accumulation of spongy white ice clumps one or two inches across, may form from slush, grease ice, or ice formed at depth rising to the surface. Slush, frazil, shuga, and grease ice will not damage ship hulls or solid structures, but may clog sea chests or freeze solid in strainers, cutting off cooling water to operating machinery. As the slush, shuga, or grease ice coalesces, a thin layer of highly plastic ice, called nilas, forms. The nilas bends easily and moves with the waves. In sheltered waters, the ice sheet remains intact as the ice thickens to black ice. When ice forms in the presence of wind or choppy seas, the slush breaks up into separate masses as it thickens, often forming approximately circular ice cakes several feet in diameter, called pancakes, rather than a large sheet of ice. Pancake ice sometimes forms at the interface between layers of water with different densities, and rises to the surface, quickly covering a large area. Any appreciable wind, wave, or current will cause the cakes to rotate and collide constantly, creating the upturned edges often associated with pancake ice. With further freezing, individual cakes unite into oes. Ice oes and cakes are categorized by horizontal dimension as follows:
Small ice cake less than 6 feet across. Ice cake 6 to 60 feet. Small oe 60 to 300 feet. Medium oe 300 to 1500 feet. Big oe 1,500 feet to 1 mile. Vast oe 1 to 5 miles. Giant oe more than 5 miles.
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Floes and cakes may consolidate into ice elds that extend for many miles. The term ice pack or pack ice is applied in a general sense to any accumulation of sea ice not grounded or frozen to shore as fast ice. Ice concentration is measured in tenths or eighths (oktas) of the sea surface covered by ice and is categorized by the descriptive terms listed in Table 3-13. Other important ice terms include:
Table 3-13. Ice Concentration. Concentration Description tenths oktas Ice Free Open Water Very Open Pack Open Pack Close Pack Very Close Pack Compact Pack Consolidated Pack 0 <1 1-3 4-6 7-8 9 10 10 0 <1 1 - 2 Sometimes called drift ice 3-5 6 7 8 8 No water visible Floes frozen together Floes not generally in contact, with many leads and polynyas Floes mostly in contact No sea ice present, although icebergs may be Remarks
Floating Ice. Ice, of any origin, oating on water. The principal forms are sea ice, river ice, and lake ice, formed by the in situ freezing of water, and glacier ice, formed by the compaction of snow on land or on an ice shelf. Hummock. A hillock of broken ice forced upward by lateral pressure on an ice oe. The weight of a hummock is supported by a submerged volume of ice, called a bummock, that extends downward 3 to 5 times the height of the hummock.
Rafting. A pressure process where one piece of ice overrides another. Rafting occurs most commonly in young ice. Pressure Ridge. A line or wall of broken ice forced upward by pressure. The submerged volume of broken ice forced downward under the ridge is called an ice keel. Pressure ridges may rise 50 feet above the sea surface where grounded against the coast, but in deep water the maximum height is seldom more than 30 feet, with 10 to 15 feet more common. Fast Ice. Sea ice which forms and remains along the coast frozen to shore or the seaward extension of a glacier or ice shelf. Fast ice consists of a band-like ice foot extending to and frozen to the seabed in shallow water along the shore and a seaward expanse of oating ice that rises and falls with the tide. The seaward boundary of the fast ice is formed by a line of grounded pressure ridges and hummocks, called stamukha, formed when the ice pack is forced into the edge of the fast ice. The stamukhi buttress the oating fast ice against the action of wind, sea, and ice pack, and prevent the fast ice from breaking free. The seaward extent of fast ice is thus dened by the maximum depth of pressure ridge ice keels, approximately 80 to 120 feet. In some areas, fast ice may survive for more than ten years and attain thicknesses of over 30 feet, after which it is called sikussak,. Where the coastline is very irregular, offshore islands lie close to shore, or water depth increases gradually, fast ice may extend seaward for many miles. Fast ice may be formed in situ from seawater or by the freezing of pack ice to the shore. If oating fast ice extends more than about 6 feet above sea level, it is called an ice shelf. In the Alaskan and Canadian arctic regions, the winter extent of fast ice to seaward typically varies from 2 to 50 miles, although exposed, abrupt coasts bordered by deep water may have only a narrow ice foot, or no fast ice at all. Lead. A navigable fracture or passage through sea ice. A similar, nonlinear opening is termed a polynya. Narrow expanses of open water between the ice pack and shore or fast ice are shore leads or shore polynyas. Iceberg. A massive piece of ice of varying shape, extending more than 25 feet above sea level. Icebergs consist of land ice, formed by the compaction of snow in glaciers and ice caps, calved from the seaward edges of glaciers or ice shelves. Icebergs calved from glaciers are irregular, while those from ice shelves tend to be large and at-topped. Such icebergs are called ice islands in the arctic and tabular icebergs in the antarctic. Because of their deep draft (5 to 7 times their height above water), large icebergs ground far offshore and do not hazard stranded ships. They may, however, hazard assisting vessels, drag moorings or beach gear ground legs, or hazard the casualty during or after reoating. Floeberg. A massive piece of hummocked or rafted ice, separated from surrounding ice. Floebergs may extend more than 15 feet above sealevel. Storis. A Danish word meaning "big ice" applied to unconsolidated ice pack that includes large amounts of heavy, hummocked ice, icebergs, and oebergs. Ram. An underwater projection of ice from an iceberg, oe, or fast ice, usually formed by more intensive melting of the unsubmerged part. New Ice. A general term for recently formed ice that includes frazil, grease ice, slush, and shuga. These types of ice are composed of ice crystals that are only weakly frozen together and have a denite form only when aoat. Young Ice. Ice less than one year old. Old Ice. Sea ice that has survived at least one summers melt. May be subdivided into second year ice and multi-year, or polar, ice. Brash. Accumulations of the wreckage of other forms of ice, made up of fragments less than 6 feet across.

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A more complete ice glossary and discussion of ice behavior can be found in the Pilot of Arctic Canada, Bowditchs American Practical Navigator, or the Admiralty Manual of Seamanship, Volume III (complete references listed in the bibliography). As seawater freezes, the fresh water ice spicules form a network that traps pockets of seawater. The crystals grow at the expense of the enclosed seawater, which steadily becomes saltier and therefore denser. At lower temperatures, ice forms more rapidly, and traps more seawater. Young ice formed at 14 degrees Fahrenheit has a salt content of 4 to 6 percent, while ice formed at -40 degrees Fahrenheit may include 10 to 15 percent salt. Because of the enclosed brine and relatively loose crystalline structure, young sea ice is much weaker than ice formed on fresh water. Two inches of ice on a lake or pond is enough to support a heavy person, while the same thickness of newly formed sea ice will rarely support more than 20 pounds. As the ice thickens, it provides more insulation to water below, and the freezing rate decreases appreciably after the rst 4 to 6 inches of ice have formed. The upper layers are therefore saltier than the lower, more slowly formed ice. The enclosed brine is seldom frozen, and tends to sink through the network of ice crystals. At low temperatures, this brine drainage proceeds very slowly; during its rst winter, sea ice loses very little salt. With warmer summer temperatures, brine drainage proceeds at a much higher rate, and the previous winters ice may lose nearly all of its salt. Sea ice may attain a thickness of 3 to 4 inches in the rst 24 hours after forming, and an additional 2 to 3 inches in the second 24 hours. Ice that has grown steadily through the winter rarely exceeds 4 to 6 feet of thickness before the following summer. During the summer, much of the sea ice melts completely. Temperatures are often high enough to melt snow cover and the top layers of oating ice. Some of the melt water runs off, covering the sea around the ows with a thin layer of fresh water. The fresh water runs under the oes, and freezes onto the underside as its freezing point is higher than that of the surrounding seawater. As temperatures fall in the autumn, ice formation is temporarily halted as the supply of fresh meltwater is exhausted before temperatures fall enough to freeze seawater. During the second winter, ice thickness increases by continued freezing. If ice remains level and undisturbed for two winters, it may attain a thickness of 7 to 8 feet. More commonly, the ice is broken up by wind, current, or swell, or by the vertical movement of tide in narrow waters. Except for fast ice, oating ice is in constant motion. Adjacent ice masses travel at different speeds and in different directions because of differences in area and thickness. In its motion, the ice pack opens and closes like an accordion; areas of open water or leads are always present. In summer, the leads remain open until the ice is forced together; in winter, they are quickly covered by young ice. In tidal waters, leads tend to open during high tide and close during low tide. As the moving oes are pressed together or against fast ice, the ice sheet may raft, hummock, or form pressure ridges. The release of pressure by hummocking and rafting results in lines of weakness in ice elds in the form of cracks and leads, which often but not always parallel pressure ridges. Any wind will tend to regroup scattered ice. As the wind rises, separated oes line up at right angles to the wind direction. The chains break up and realign as the wind direction changes. If the wind persists long enough, the oes may be forced together. When the wind blows offshore, a lead opens between the pack ice and coast or fast ice. An onshore wind tends to close the lead. When scattered ice is regrouped in subfreezing temperatures, individual oes may freeze together so that they are not so easily broken up if the wind changes. The drift of pack ice is controlled by wind and current, with wind dominating. As a general rule, sea ice drifts at about 28 degrees to the right of the wind direction in the Arctic (to the left in the Antarctic), or roughly parallel to the isobars on a weather map. There is, however, wide variation in the deviation between drift and wind direction. Drift speed is about one-fortieth of the wind speed, As ice ages, it thickens, loses brine, and becomes stronger and harder as its structure becomes more homogeneous. Ice that has survived more than two winters is called polar or multi-year ice. The oes may be 12 to 15 feet thick, are very hard, and have a specic gravity of about 0.916, as compared to 0.925 for young ice. Ice hardness is a function of both temperature and age, with temperature dominating. Young ice is more plastic and softer than old ice. At 32 degrees Fahrenheit, old ice has a hardness of 2 on the Mohs scale, increasing to 4 at -50 degrees Fahrenheit and 6 at -80 degrees Fahrenheit. Mild steel has a hardness of about 5.5 on the same scale. 3-8.1.3 Inland Ice. Winter ice on navigable rivers and lakes in arctic and sub-arctic regions may attain thicknesses of 6 feet or more before spring. Fresh water ice is both stronger and harder than young sea ice. Ice formation and behavior is similar to that described for sea ice, with obvious differences resulting from topography. Fast ice may extend from shore to shore on rivers and narrow lakes. The spring breakup and melt of lake and river ice is much faster than for sea ice. Rafting, hummocking, and ridging are less common and less pronounced, except on very large lakes or during the spring breakup on rivers. Ice thickness on the upper Great Lakes often reaches 6 feet during the winter. Fast ice extends for some distance, and a shore lead opens and closes as wind and current move the offshore ice pack. Floebergs with heights of 5 to 10 feet above water level are common. The spring breakup of river ice is enhanced by the river current, and portions of an icebound river may clear themselves of ice in only a few days once the breakup begins. Large ice blocks and ows are carried downriver, often rafted and jumbled together. The ice mass may hazard downstream shipping or salvage work, by impacting directly on the casualty, assisting vessels, in-water structures, moorings, etc., or by forming ice jams that temporarily restrict water ow, raising water level and ooding low lying areas.
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3-8.2 Ice Forces. Ice forces on stationary structures result from the expansion of water freezing in conned spaces, the transmission of wind, current and expansion forces acting on oating ice in contact with the structure, and impact of wind or current driven ice. Water expands about 9.05 percent in the process of freezing, creating large outward pressure forces if frozen in a conned space. The probable maximum pressure that can be produced by water freezing in a conned space is about 30,000 psi. Ice melts if subjected to pressures greater than 30,000 psi at temperatures above -8 degrees Fahrenheit. Pressures above 30,000 psi at temperatures less than -8 degrees Fahrenheit cause the ice structure to change to a denser form, which relieves the pressure. To avoid damage, ooded spaces should be dewatered or prevented from freezing solid. Lateral forces in an ice eld arise from:
Expansion of water freezing in open leads. Expansion of ice warmed from temperatures below freezing without melting. Wind and current forces on large expanses of sheet or pack ice. Lateral displacement of ice oes by icebreaking vessels.
Force per unit area is less on a large structure than on a small one. Pressure ridges can apparently increase the load on small structures by acting as a beam which transmits the wind or current force from a large ice area to the relatively small cross-sectional area of the structure. Forces exerted by pack ice are limited not by the forces driving the ice, however, but by mechanical failure of the ice. Stresses imposed by the expansion of freezing surface water, or by the action of winds and currents on ice elds, cause the ice formation to fail internally with the formation of pressure ridges. The crushing strength of ice is about 400 psi. This equates to potential maximum forces within the ice eld and on structures or shoreline in contact with the ice of nearly 60,000 pounds per foot of ice thickness per linear foot. 3-8.3 Ice Protection. Stationary structures are very susceptible to damage by moving pack ice. Unable to avoid the ice pack or to move with it once beset, the structures are subjected to heavy crushing and shearing loads in the vicinity of the waterline, as well as to severe abrasion. Stranded ships, even if ice-strengthened, are particularly vulnerable, as no ship is designed to withstand ice forces while immobile or otherwise unable to move through or with the pack. The fate of the 180-foot Coast Guard buoy tender MESQUITE (WLB-305) is a case in point. Following her stranding in December of 1989 in Lake Superior near Michigans Keweenaw Peninsula, salvage work was suspended for the winter. Although ruggedly built and designed for work in ice, the ship was damaged to the point of total loss by ice oes sweeping the ledge on which she was stranded. In most areas of heavy pack ice formation, winter weather is too severe to permit effective salvage work, quite apart from the effects of the pack ice. If salvage work must be conducted in the presence of pack ice, vessels and equipment must be capable of avoiding the pack or withstanding its forces. Salvage vessels and tugs are generally ruggedly built, often specically ice-strengthened, and usually capable of operating in open pack. More severe ice conditions will require icebreaker support. Moorings and beach gear ground legs must be rigged so buoys and cable in the upper portion of the water column can be removed or lowered beneath the ice. Even this precaution may not protect against dragging by ice; pressure ridges can scrape the seaoor in water 100 feet deep, while icebergs reach much greater depths. Casualties exposed to the effects of pack ice must be removed before the ice pack reaches them or effectively shielded from the ice. It may be possible to build massive concrete or steel barriers, or earth-ll islands to shield a casualty from impingement by pack ice, but such structures would be very expensive, especially in remote locations. In remote areas, the casualty might be destroyed before the necessary equipment and materials could be marshalled at the scene and the barrier completed. Islands, shallow reefs, and grounded icebergs or ice islands are effective barriers against pack ice, but are seldom in the right place to shelter the casualty. It may be feasible for icebreakers or tugs to drive small icebergs, ice islands, or hummocked ice aground in some instances. In subfreezing weather, articial ice ridges or islands can be constructed by adding ice over an area of stationary oating ice until it sinks to the bottom. Ice addition is continued until a sufficient area is well grounded and has attained enough height above water to provide the mass to hold the ice mass in place and to protect against waves and ice rafting. 3-8.3.1 Articial Ice Islands. Articial ice islands and ridges have been utilized by the oil industry and other operators in arctic waters as drill platforms and barriers. The Mobil Research and Development Corporation and others have examined the problems of articial ice island construction. Some of their conclusions are presented in the following discussion. A right cylindrical shape provides a at top surface and minimizes the surface area to volume ratio and enhances stability against overturning and sliding because total force exerted by the pack ice is proportional to the bearing area, and the islands ability to resist this force is proportional to its weight. A right cylinder is an appropriate shape for an ice island that will be used as a work platform, but is not usually the optimum shape for an ice barrier. Linear, ring-shaped, and horseshoe-shaped barriersessentially articial grounded pressure ridgeshave been successfully constructed. Figure 3-22 illustrates the dynamics of an ice pack moving around an ice island. Three possible failure modes for the ice island are internal shear, sliding at the bottom, and overturning.
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3-8.3.2 Construction. Ice is built up on the surface of oating ice by repeatedly ooding an area with a shallow layer of SHEAR ICE ZONE water and allowing it to freeze, or by ISLAND ICE FORCE F applying water continuously as spray. A cylindrical shape is attained by adding ice ICE PACK ICE ICE-PACK POTENTIAL over a circular area. Ice addition by water WAKE ISLAND MOTION SHEAR ZONE spraying or sprinkling has several h WATER W-B advantages over ooding. The maximum SEAFLOOR rate of ice accumulation by ooding is about 6 inches per day. Dispersing the ZONE OF water into droplets greatly increases the r CRASHING exposed surface area, and the motion of the AND RIDGING droplets through the air increases the ICE MOVING AROUND SHEAR STRESS AND TILTING encounter rate between the water surface A FIXED STRUCTURE FORCES ON THE ISLAND and cold air. These two factors result in much faster freezing than for ooding. In Figure 3-22. Ice Forces on a Fixed Structure. cold weather, the water droplets freeze as they fall or shortly after landing on the accumulating ice surface; it is not necessary to contain the water while it freezes. Ice accumulation rates of one to three feet per day over a level surface are possible. The major disadvantages of spray freezing are the uffy nature and lower shear strength of the spray-produced ice. The open structure of the frozen spray enhances brine drainage, and rapid compaction and strengthening of the lower layers of the ice mass can be expected as additional layers of ice are added. The simplest application method is to use reghting fog (spray) nozzles. The nozzles and associated equipment should be portable so the spray can be directed from upwind of the chosen accumulation site. Some initial ice cover is required as a base for ice accumulation. To ensure proper location, the ice island should be built up on fast ice, although in areas where the movement of the ice pack is predictable or reverses regularly, it may be possible to adjust ice accumulation to ground the island at the desired location. Ice islands or jetties can be extended into areas without fast ice by accumulating ice at the perimeter. The construction of ice islands requires the commitment of considerable resources, manpower, and time. Ice accumulation by spraying is not practical when air temperatures exceed -10 degrees Fahrenheit for seawater and 0 degrees Fahrenheit for fresh water, and work may be interrupted by "warm" weather, as well as by inclement weather or equipment malfunction. Large islands and barriers constructed by the oil industry in the arctic typically take 40 to 60 days to complete (including nonproductive days) at a cost of about one million dollars. The temperature limit for spray ice production with seawater can be increased to about 10 degrees Fahrenheit by employing articial snowmaking nozzles of the kind used by ski resorts. Ice production by snowmaking nozzles is more expensive than with straight spray nozzles as they require compressed air as well as pressurized water for operation. 3-8.3.3 Internal Shear Strength. The impinging ice pack imposes a maximum load of 400 pounds per inch of contact with the island. The total load is the product of this value and the area loaded, i.e., the product of the thickness of the impinging oes or other ice masses and the islands diameter or width. This load, distributed over the islands horizontal cross-sectional area, gives average shear stress. The shear strength of compacted lower layers of ice produced by spraying is about 3 psi. Shear strength of ice produced by ooding approaches that of sea iceabout 30 psibut ood-produced ice may include brine layers with very little resistance to shear. Horizontal shear strength of both sprayand ood-produced ice can be increased by embedding vertical steel piles in the ice as it is built up. 3-8.3.4 Sliding at the Bottom. The distributed shear stress imposed by the impinging ice pack must also be carried by the ice-seaoor interface. If it can be assumed that the lower ice surface is not lubricated and the soil adheres to the ice, failure will occur within the soil. For cohesive soils, resistance to shear loading is the soils undrained shear strength, as described in Paragraph 3-7.1.4. For sand, soil resistance to shear loading is given by: sshear = p tan where: p = = overburden pressure on soil internal friction angle 30
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For a 60-foot-high ice island in 30-foot water, the ice load at the soil surface is 10 psi, giving a resistance to sliding of about 5.8 psi. Sliding resistance can be increased by:
Taking advantage of bottom topography by siting the island on rocky outcroppings, in local depressions, on an upslope, or next to a sandbar or rock ledge that can brace the island against sliding. Increasing the diameter of the island; the imposed load increases as a function of radius, while shear stress for a given load decreases as a function of radius squared. Increasing the height of the island to increase vertical load on the seaoor. Pinning the island to the seaoor with pilings. Freezing the island to the seaoor by pumping cold air through pipes placed through the ice into the seaoor.
3-8.3.5 Overturning. The horizontal thrust of the ice pack creates an overturning moment (Fh) about the foot of the island, as shown in Figure 3-22. Assuming homogeneous ice and a symmetric cross section, the islands weight acts through the center of the island, i.e., half the islands width from the foot, and the moment resisting overturning is Wr. The island is stable against overturning so long as Wr is greater than Fh by an appropriate safety margin.
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Active earth force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Articial ice islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ballast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beach currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beach gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bearing capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bilge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Booms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bottom breakout force . . . . . . . . . . . Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Breaking wave forces . . . . . . . . . . . . Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Center of ground reaction . . . . . . . . . Chezy formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circulation patterns around tidal inlets Clapotis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cohesionless soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cohesive soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compressed air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coriolis force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cross-sectional current variations . . . . Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current observations . . . . . . . . . . . . Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cyclic loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deep water waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . two-dimensional harmonic . . . . Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dilatency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Divers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30, 3-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33 . . . . . . . . . . 3-9, 3-11, 3-12, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 3-23, 3-33, 3-34, 3-35, 3-36, 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-9, 3-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-8, 3-11, 3-16, 3-27, 3-30, 3-34, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-34, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23, 3-24, 3-25, 3-26* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-3, 3-6, 3-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5, 3-17, 3-28, 3-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-19, 3-25, 3-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14, 3-27, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-19, 3-20, 3-21, 3-22, 3-24, 3-29, 3-31, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16, 3-21, 3-23, 3-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-22, 3-23, 3-24, 3-25, 3-27, 3-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12, 3-31, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30, 3-32, 3-36, 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12, 3-13 3-1, 3-8, 3-9, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 3-18, 3-28, 3-29, 3-33, 3-35, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14, 3-15, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3, 3-10, 3-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-6, 3-14, 3-18, 3-33, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5, 3-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12, 3-13, 3-23, 3-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14, 3-15, 3-17, 3-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3, 3-14, 3-34
3-39
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Dry strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ebb-tidal delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . embedment depth . . . . . . . . . . . Entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environmental effects . . . . . . . . Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fetch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fireghting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flood-tidal delta . . . . . . . . . . . Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluid forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forefoot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forward perpendicular . . . . . . . Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Free communication . . . . . . . . . Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Great Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ground reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . Gunwale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hull girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydraulic currents . . . . . . . . . . Hydraulic currents in tidal inlets Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ice forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ice formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ice formation and behavior . . . . Ice protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inland ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal shear strength . . . . . . . Jacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kinematic viscosity . . . . . . . . . Knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lighter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Littoral currents . . . . . . . . . . . . Littoral processes . . . . . . . . . . . Littoral transport . . . . . . . . . . . Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minikin Formula . . . . . . . . . . . Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nearshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonbreaking wave forces . . . . . Nontidal currents . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5, 3-6, 3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25, 3-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23, 3-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2, 3-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7, 3-35, 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3-1, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 3-17, 3-20, 3-22, 3-24, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27, 3-30, 3-31, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3, 3-4, 3-10, 3-12, 3-13, 3-16, 3-18, 3-21, 3-22, 3-23, 3-24, 3-25, 3-27, 3-31, 3-32, 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7, 3-33, 3-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5, 3-15, 3-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24, 3-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-12, 3-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10, 3-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-33, 3-34, 3-35, 3-36, 3-37, 3-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33, 3-35, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33, 3-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-22, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15, 3-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28, 3-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-3, 3-4, 3-6, 3-10, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-25, 3-30, 3-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3, 3-18, 3-21, 3-22, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9, 3-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-23, 3-32, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6, 3-15, 3-17, 3-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-18, 3-22, 3-23, 3-27, 3-28, 3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-10
3-40
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organic material . . . . . . . . Organic soils . . . . . . . . . . . Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . Parbuckling . . . . . . . . . . . . Passive earth force . . . . . . . Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physical properties . . . . . . . pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prediction of beach erosion . Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reoating . . . . . . . . . . . . . Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retaining walls . . . . . . . . . Reynolds number . . . . . . . . River currents . . . . . . . . . . Roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Salvage operations . . . . . . . Salvors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scour current . . . . . . . . . . . Scouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scouring, sedimentation, and Sea ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seaoor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seaoor penetration . . . . . . Sectional areas . . . . . . . . . Shallow water waves . . . . . Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shear strength . . . . . . . . . . Shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Signicant wave height . . . Signicant wave method . . . Silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Skeg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sliding at the bottom . . . . . Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil bearing capacity . . . . . Soil characteristics . . . . . . . Soil identication . . . . . . . . Soil property tests . . . . . . . Specic gravity . . . . . . . . . Specic volume . . . . . . . . . Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... . . . . . . 3-1, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-12, 3-16, 3-19, 3-22, 3-24, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27, 3-30, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-11, 3-18, 3-19, ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-3, 3-4, 3-7, 3-13, 3-14, 3-17, 3-18, 3-19, 3-21, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-3, 3-4, 3-7, ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11, ......................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-17, 3-23, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27, ......................................................... ......................................................... ......................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5, 3-13, 3-16, 3-18, 3-19, 3-21, 3-22, 3-23, 3-24, 3-25, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-19, 3-21, 3-22, 3-23, ......................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6, 3-16, 3-17, 3-21, 3-23, ......................................................... ......................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16, 3-18, 3-19, ......................................................... ......................................................... 3-1, 3-18, 3-19, 3-20, 3-21, 3-22, 3-23, 3-24, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27, 3-28, 3-29, 3-30, .......................................................... .......................................................... .......................................................... .......................................................... .......................................................... .......................................................... ......................................................... .......................................................... ..........................................................
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. . . . . . . 3-36, 3-37 . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-18 . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19 . . . . . . . 3-19, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3-6, 3-17, 3-36, 3-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31 . . . . 3-18, 3-21, 3-26 . . . . 3-13, 3-18, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-19 . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-30 . . . . 3-19, 3-21, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 . . . . . . . . 3-20, 3-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 3-34, 3-35, 3-36, 3-37 3-20, 3-21, 3-24, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-38 . . . . 3-10, 3-12, 3-38 . . . . 3-1, 3-14, 3-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28 . . . . . . . . 3-12, 3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32 . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-38 3-30, 3-32, 3-35, 3-36 3-13, 3-14, 3-18, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 3-9, 3-11, 3-16, 3-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 3-12, 3-16, 3-28, 3-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28 3-33, 3-34, 3-35, 3-37 3-29, 3-36, 3-37, 3-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 . . 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-29 3-32, 3-36, 3-37, 3-38 3-24, 3-25, 3-32, 3-37 . . . . 3-13, 3-37, 3-38 3-27, 3-33, 3-34, 3-36 . . 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 3-21, 3-24, 3-28, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15 . . . . . . . . 3-36, 3-37 3-31, 3-32, 3-37, 3-38 . . . . 3-23, 3-25, 3-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 . . . . . . . . 3-18, 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32 . . . . 3-13, 3-28, 3-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 3-18, 3-30, 3-33, 3-36 . . . . 3-7, 3-15, 3-18 . . . . 3-35, 3-36, 3-37
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Stranding . . . . . . . . . . Strength . . . . . . . . . . . Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . Surf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surface area . . . . . . . . Surface roughness . . . . Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . Swell . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . Television . . . . . . . . . . Temperature . . . . . . . . Tensile . . . . . . . . . . . . Tidal . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tidal currents . . . . . . . Tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Turbulent ow . . . . . . . Turning . . . . . . . . . . . Unit bearing strength . . Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . Voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . Water depth . . . . . . . . Water layers . . . . . . . . Water level uctuations Waterplane . . . . . . . . . Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wave forces. . . . . . . . . Wave velocity . . . . . . . Wavelength . . . . . . . . . Weather . . . . . . . . . . . Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . Wind currents . . . . . . . Wind force . . . . . . . . . Wind pressure . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-18, 3-19, 3-21, 3-22, 3-23, 3-24, 3-25, 3-32, 3-36, 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13, 3-21, 3-37, 3-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14, 3-16, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-16, 3-23, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-4, 3-6, 3-11, 3-17, 3-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10, 3-23, 3-36, 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3, 3-7, 3-17, 3-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17, 3-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16, 3-33, 3-35, 3-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7, 3-8, 3-9, 3-10, 3-12, 3-13, 3-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8, 3-12, 3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-7, 3-8, 3-9, 3-10, 3-12, 3-13, 3-34, 3-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23, 3-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13, 3-28, 3-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20, 3-21, 3-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10, 3-12, 3-14, 3-20, 3-21, 3-25, 3-28, 3-34, 3-35, 3-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-14, 3-15, 3-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13, 3-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7, 3-12, 3-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-9, 3-11, 3-18, 3-29, 3-30, 3-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4, 3-5, 3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-5, 3-6, 3-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-7, 3-12, 3-13, 3-17, 3-18, 3-27, 3-33, 3-35, 3-36, 3-37 3-5, 3-6, 3-14, 3-16, 3-18, 3-20, 3-21, 3-22, 3-23, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27, 3-31, 3-32, 3-34, 3-36, 3-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1, 3-16
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CHAPTER 4 SURVEYS AND PLANNING

4-1 INTRODUCTION There are no "standard" procedures or set plans in salvage, however salvage operations are carefully planned. A good salvage plan will not ensure success, but an operation that is not well thought-out and organized has little chance of success. Adequate planning is impossible without a thorough and detailed survey of the casualty and the salvage site. The salvor must approach each casualty armed with a knowledge of the general principles and the best information available. To develop a workable salvage plan, salvors must evaluate the position and condition of the ship, understand her difficulties, and conceptualize the work and methods to accomplish the aims of the operation. Salvage is conducted to recover useable or valuable objects from the sea. A ship is salvaged because there is reason for its recovery or removalnot simply because it is wrecked. The goals of a salvage operation influence virtually every decision throughout the operation. Military salvage is constrained by economy, yet cost is only one of several factors affecting the decision to undertake a given salvage operation. Tactical, strategic, political, environmental, and other factors also affect the decision. Although salvage engineers seldom decide whether a salvage operation will be undertaken, their evaluation of the technical requirements, difficulties, and probable cost strongly influence those decisions. 4-1.1 Salvage Operations. A number of authorities have attempted to expound definitive categorizations of salvage and related work, variously based on location, operational environment, or the type of casualty; no classification system can adequately describe all aspects of marine salvage. A brief examination of the different types of salvage work, however, can illustrate how varying conditions can constrain or facilitate operations. Constraints and requirements specific to strandings and sinkings are addressed in Chapters 5 and 6. 4-1.1.1 Offshore Salvage. Offshore, or coastwise salvage, is the refloating of ships stranded or sunk in exposed coastal waters. Casualties exposed to surf, swell, currents, and weather deteriorate with time, often rapidly. Windows of opportunity created by abnormally high tides or fair weather may close abruptly and not reopen for weeks or months, while the casualty deteriorates. Salvage assistance must be prompt and effective to preserve the value of ship and cargo, making offshore salvage perhaps the most difficult type of salvage. Offshore salvage is undertaken from specially constructed and outfitted salvage vessels and tugs. Portable equipment must be relatively compact and lightweight, as it often must be transported by helicopter or small boat, and positioned by manual labor. Conditions are often not suitable for the employment of floating cranes, construction tenders, dredges, and similar floating plant which are usually designed for operation in sheltered waters. Furthermore, such equipment may not be immediately available, because of prior commitments or long transit time from the nearest port. Swift, but accurate and thorough surveys are required to ascertain the casualtys condition and provide input for an engineering analysis to support a timely salvage plan. 4-1.1.2 Harbor Salvage. Salvage of ships stranded or sunk in sheltered waters is termed harbor salvage. Casualties in harbors or other sheltered waters are not usually subject to the rapid deterioration characteristic of offshore salvage; unless they obstruct important channels or facilities, time is not a driving factor. There is usually time for thorough surveys and planning, and to arrange for equipment and services from port facilities, widely dispersed salvage units, or contractors. As floating cranes can generally be employed, portable equipment is not as constrained by size and weight as in offshore salvage. Carpenters, stevedores, and general labor can be obtained from local labor pools. 4-1.1.3 Cargo and Equipment Salvage. In some cases, a casualty may not be worth saving, but her cargo or equipment may have a high priority for salvage, such as high-value cargos, critical war materials, sensitive military items, machinery, weapons mounts, etc. For example, the battleships ARIZONA and UTAH, sunk at Pearl Harbor, were never raised, but most of their guns were removed for use ashore or on newconstruction combatants. 4-1.1.4 Wreck Removal. Salvage forces may be called upon to remove hazardous or unsightly wrecks that have little salvage value. Wrecks are refloated or removed by the most feasible or suitable methods available to the salvors, without regard for the salvage value of the wreck. All that is desired is for the wreck to be removed; salvors may cut the wreck into easily handled sections or refloat and remove the hulk in one piece, based only on their evaluation of which technique is easier. If the wreck is to be sunk in deep water, however, cast-in-place foam would be a poor choice as a refloating method. 4-1.1.5 Clearance. Harbor and waterway clearance involves the coordinated removal or salvage of a number of wrecks. Obstructions may include vessels of all sizes and descriptions that have stranded or sunk with varying degrees of damage as a result of storm, collision, fire, combat, sabotage, or intentional wrecking by retreating enemy forces. In addition, vehicles, rail cars, port equipment, collapsed bridges and piers, and other materials may also require removal. The U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) discusses harbor clearance in detail. Clearance work is similar to wreck removal in that concerns over the preservation of the value of obstructing vessels or hardware generally give way to the requirement to restore the waterway to useful operation. Harbor clearance is often part of a larger port rehabilitation effort that may involve elements of the Army, Navy, or Marine Corps engineer branches; the Army Transportation Corps; the Coast Guard; Army and Navy Supply organizations; or civilian contractors. Mine, ordnance, or boobytrap clearance may be necessary in military harbors, combat-obstructed waterways, or ports intentionally wrecked by enemy forces. Various Federal, state, and local agencies will be involved in peacetime clearance operations.
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4-1.1.6 Afloat Salvage. A vessel damaged but still afloat may require many different services. The most useful service may be to assist the ships own damage control effort. Measures taken to assist a damage control effort are, for the most part, planned responses to likely situations; any engineering or specific planning must be quick and extemporaneous. After the situation has stabilized, the salvage effort enters a phase where more detailed planning and engineering may be required. A careful survey of the casualty provides data required for overall assessment and determining specific corrective actions. Materials required must be available on the assisting vessel, the casualty, other ships in company, or be helicopter-transportable. The U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 3 (S0300-A6-MAN-030) discusses methods for stabilizing and assisting afloat casualties, while details of patch construction are addressed in the U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) and Chapter 8 of this handbook. 4-1.2 Planning Factors. Salvage operations are influenced by four major interrelated factors:
The type of casualty, Salvage objectives, Location, and Characteristics of the casualty and cargo.
These four factors define problems and tasks associated with the following areas:
Logistics. Tactical situation. Political concerns. Environmental concerns. Forces acting on the casualty. Cost.
4-1.3 Initial Recommendations. In their initial evaluation of a casualty, salvors must recommend whether or not salvage should be attempted. The recommendation is influenced by the estimated cost and technical feasibility of salvage, the probability of a successful return to port for repairs, and the feasibility and cost of repairs. Salvors must realize that the decision to attempt the salvage will be made by higher authority. The decision-making authority may be influenced by financial, strategic, or political considerations unknown to salvors in the field.
4-2 INFORMATION DEVELOPMENT
The conditions at a salvage site are seldom fully defined in the beginning and often are not ever fully defined during a salvage operation. Conditions change with time and weather. Information gathering can and should begin before salvors arrive on scene, and should continue until the operation is complete. Relevant information includes the ships:
Condition and cargo before the casualty. Attitude. Location.
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Intact ship information is available in the documents described in Appendix B. If ships documents are not available, the information must be estimated or calculated from on-scene observations. Postcasualty information is gathered from inspections, surveys, and interviews with casualty crewmembers. Information from the casualtys crew can be valuable but must be verified. Most crew reports lack sufficient detail and require a follow-up survey. The chief value of crew reports is to call attention to items that might be overlooked by salvage personnel unfamiliar with the casualty. Responsible members of the casualtys crew should be asked about changes or unusual conditions noted after the incident. Logs and operating records can also help to determine precasualty conditions. The many factors influencing a salvage operation vary in relative importancenot all apply to every case. Information required and its significance depends on the type of casualty. Salvors must understand the factors influencing the salvage operation. They must evaluate the relative priority and influence of each factor on the choice of salvage methods. Demands for additional information arise as the salvage plan develops and situations change. It is imperative that salvors be intimately familiar with the vessels condition, particularly whether the locations of cargo and liquids aboard the casualty are a result of damage or normal stowage. Many salvage operations are time-criticalparticularly strandings and afloat casualties. There is not always time to wait until conditions are optimum, or until all information has been gathered. Salvors must obtain the best information they can in the time available, estimate information they cannot obtain, formulate the salvage plan, and proceed with a plan that is sufficiently flexible to change as more information is acquired. 4-2.1 Salvage Surveys. A salvage survey gathers information about a casualty by inspecting the ship and the surrounding area. The primary purpose of the survey is to gather information for development of the salvage plan. Information gathering is a dynamic process that is never truly complete. It begins when the first salvor arriving at the salvage site takes stock of the situation. If communications can be established with the casualtys crew or other observers, or documentary information about the ship or area is available, information gathering should begin before salvors arrive on scene, and continue throughout the operation. Full or partial surveys should be repeated as often as necessary for salvors to stay abreast of changing conditions. The keys to a good survey are verification of observations and the organization and presentation of the information collected. A well-designed salvage survey form can serve as a memory aid to help organize the information and aid the salvor in assessing the situation and identifying areas where more information is required. There is no perfect survey form; the forms presented in Volumes 1 and 2 of the U. S. Navy Salvage Manual (S0300-A6-MAN-010/-020) are the result of many years of experience and are very comprehensive. The forms should be modified, as applicable, for each casualty. A survey will report only observations. It is the salvors task to interpret the conditions observed to determine their relevance to the condition of the ship. Like the survey, the interpretation of the results must be an ongoing process that continues throughout the operation and is constantly revised as the survey is refined. 4-2.2 Survey Breakdown. The salvage survey breaks down into several interdependent surveys (preliminary, detailed hull, topside, interior, diving, hydrographic, site, safety, and other surveys). How these surveys interrelate, and the extent and importance of each, depends on the type of casualty. Since stranding salvage is the most familiar and possibly most frequent type of salvage, surveys are first presented as they pertain to strandings. Differences between stranding surveys and those for other types of casualties will be discussed afterwards. 4-2.2.1 Preliminary Survey. The preliminary survey verifies information received from the casualty, ships in company, owners, or other observers. All reports should be checked because preliminary observations may no longer pertain, or information important to salvors may have been overlooked. A "desktop survey" should be conducted to assemble as much documented information as possible about the vessel, its contents, and the salvage site. The documented information aids initial evaluation of the situation and provides starting points for detailed surveys. At a minimum, the preliminary survey should:
Verify the casualtys position and attitude. Verify drafts for stranded and partially sunken casualties; verify water depth over completely sunken ships. Determine if the ship is moving or sinking into the bottom. Determine areas requiring more extensive investigation. Set priorities for the detailed survey. Locate as many of the sources of information described in Appendix B as possible.
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The preliminary survey should begin before salvage forces arrive. Intact ship information for naval ships may be obtained from squadron maintenance officers, ships of the same class, the planning shipyard, or Naval Sea Systems Command. Merchant ship information can be obtained from the owners or their agents. Information on many merchant vessels is also available through the U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters, the National Cargo Bureau, and classification society registers. Aerial or satellite reconnaissance of the stranding site can also provide basic information about the casualty. The casualty or ships in company can provide a great deal of information about the casualty and site. Salvors can transmit portions of the standard survey form for completion. Poststranding drafts should be taken as soon as possible after the incident. Early information forms a basis for preliminary planning and initial estimates of the effort, time, and assets required for the salvage. The salvage assets dispatched to the scene are determined by the information available at mobilization. Whether or not the salvage forces have means to stabilize the casualty immediately can make the ultimate difference between success and failure. The casualty may deteriorate beyond the point of salvage, or fair weather windows may be lost while waiting for additional equipment or forces. It is better to arrive with too much equipment than too little, but salvage forces and assets are not unlimitedespecially in wartime. Information obtained before salvors arrive on scene can identify items requiring further investigation so surveys can be focused for maximum return. Information to be requested from the salvage site includes:
An accurate position of the stranding site giving latitude and longitude, along with applicable chart numbers, and means of fixing the position. Date and time of stranding. Drafts on sailing from the last port and estimated at time of stranding. Fuel, water, ammunition, and other weights expended or transferred since sailing. Poststranding drafts forward, amidships, and aft, with the state of tide and the time taken. Soundings along the entire length of the ship, corrected to the datum of the chart of the area. Course and speed at time of stranding and ships heading after stranding, with details of changes. Liveliness of the ship. Weather conditions, including wind direction and velocity, current weather, and forecast weather at the site. Sea and current conditions, including direction and height of seas and swells; state of tide, weather, and sea conditions at time of stranding. Tide range and reference station. Extent and type of damage to the ship. Location of grounding points and estimated ground reaction. Type of seafloor at the site. Status of ships machinery. Status of liquid loading (cargo, fuel, fresh water, ballast). Ships cargo list or manifest, including amount and location of known hazardous materials. Assistance available on scene.
4-2.2.2 Detailed Survey. The detailed survey refines the preliminary survey and collects the specific information listed in the salvage survey form. The detailed survey consists of five surveys:
Topside. Interior hull (including machinery). Diving and exterior hull. Hydrographic. Safety.
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4-2.2.3 Topside Survey. The topside survey gathers information about the exterior of the ship above the weather decks. Particular items of concern are:
Type, location, safe working load, and operating condition of all deck machinery and cargo gear. Location and estimated safe working load of tug and beach gear attachment points, including working space for pulling devices. Location and estimated weight of top hamper and superstructure if it appears that topside weight must be removed. Operating condition of the ships boats.
4-2.2.4 Interior Hull Survey. The interior hull survey gathers information about the interior of the ship and its contents. The interior survey includes:
Examining in detail the condition and contents of every space below the main deck. Taking soundings or ullages of all spaces containing liquids. Determining the condition of installed drainage system piping, valves, pumps, and other associated equipment. Determining the location and operating condition of all cargo and ballast pumps and the arrangement of associated piping and manifolds. Determining the location and condition of all cargo and stores and obvious hazards such as flammables and chemicals. Determining the location, weight, volume, and class of all ammunition magazines and the operating status of the magazine sprinkler systems and location of their controls. Determining the location of all structural damage, i.e., holes, tears, cracks, weeping seams, panting bulkheads, etc. Determining the location, type, and estimated weight of loose or displaced cargo, equipment, or permanent/solid ballast that could be removed. Investigating items of special interest, such as open decks where beach gear can be rigged, or identifying locations for necessary openings. Determining the availability and location of material that may be useful in salvage. Determining the location and size of any cross-connections for liquid tanks that could be closed or left open.
4-2.2.5 Machinery. Machinery status and condition are of great interest to the salvor. The availability of electrical power, compressed air, deck machinery, pumps and other equipment can greatly simplify the salvors task. Operational propulsion machinery can assist the refloating effort and control the casualty once free of the beach. The value of the machinery plant may be a significant portion of the casualtys total value for either commercial or military considerations. Specialized cargos, such as refrigerated goods, may require certain equipment to prevent degradation or hazard formation. Proper operation of ventilation systems can prevent accumulation of dangerous gases. In some cases, the machinery plant and other equipment may be the object of the salvage operations, with salvage of the hull conducted only to provide a convenient barge for transporting the machinery. Flooding can damage machinery severely, especially if the water level rises and falls, exposing saltwater-drenched machinery to air, or if adequate water damage protection measures are not taken when the space is dewatered. Casualty machinery should not be operated without the concurrence of the ships officers. Machinery to be operated should be inspected for proper alignment and to ensure cooling water, fuel, and lubrication systems are operational. Hull damage can disrupt machinery alignment, Undamaged machinery in dry spaces can be rendered inoperative if sea chests are blocked or later silted up. Machinery can be severely damaged if operated without cooling water (It is often possible to use portable salvage pumps to supply cooling water through direct connections or deck fittings.). Boiler, gas turbine, and diesel engine fuel supplies may be lost or contaminated on stranding. Improvised fuel systems may be required to restore operations.
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4-2.2.6 Diving and Exterior Hull Survey. The diving survey examines the underwater portions of the ships hull and the exterior portion of the hull below the main deck. The latter is not necessarily underwater but is included in the same survey for continuity and convenience. Underwater surveys may not be strictly required for all strandings; in some cases, the hull condition can be adequately determined from internal surveys. Diving surveys provide more accurate information concerning the hull and bottom conditions and should be conducted unless time constraints, lack of divers, or sea conditions prevent them. If a diving survey is not conducted or is severely limited, for whatever reasons, the interior survey must be unusually comprehensive to compensate for the lack of detailed hull and bottom condition information; conclusions about the bottom may have to be drawn from topside observations alone. The diving survey determines or checks for the following:
Amount of the hull in contact with the seafloor and a description of the points of contact. Existence and location of pinnacles. Existence and location of impalements. Location and size of all cracks, tears, holes, and indentations in the underwater portion of the hull and in the portion between the waterline and the weather deck. Condition of all sea suctions, valves, and fittings, and whether or not they are clear. Condition and operability of all underwater appendages, including bilge keels, sonar domes, sensors, stabilizers, rudders, shafting and bearings, and propellers. Signs of leaks or escaping fuels, pollutants, or liquids. Type of seafloor soil and the presence, location, and extent of scouring or buildup.
4-2.2.7 Hydrographic Survey. The hydrographic survey determines the condition of the sea and seafloor in the area where operations will be taking place. Included in the hydrographic survey are:
Comparison of the observed tides with the predicted tidal information. Determination of the strength, period, and times of local currents, and the durations of high and low water slack and their relationship to the times of high and low tide. Periodic observations of the sea and swell height, period and direction of seas, and their impact on the salvage operation. Soundings all around the ship, in areas where beach gear or moorings will be laid, or where salvage ships or other vessels will operate. A seafloor profile chart of the beach gear area to assist in design of the beach gear legs.
Some information concerning the salvage site is usually available in published documents such as charts, tide tables, sailing directions, etc. More detailed information is sometimes available from universities, research institutions, and government agencies such as the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, National Ocean Service, etc., but usually, this information must be obtained through on-site surveys. Published information, if available, should be verified by on-site examination. Local watermen, fishermen, or divers can provide valuable site information. The services of meteorologists, marine geotechnical engineers, and other specialists can be arranged through the chain of command or by the Supervisor of Salvage. 4-2.2.8 Safety Survey. A site safety survey should be conducted by the first team to arrive at the salvage site. A designated safety officer should determine applicable safety requirements and provide them to the salvage officer for incorporation into the salvage plan. Guidance for conducting safety surveys and evaluating hazards is given in the U.S. Navy Safety Salvage Manual (S0400-AA-SAF-010). 4-2.3 Survey Teams. Rapid, accurate gathering of information requires organized and trained survey teams. Information must be prioritized so that the most important information is obtained first. In surveying, as in all aspects of salvage, the skills of individual members of the salvage team should be used to the best advantage. Survey teams should consist of personnel familiar with the portion of the ship that they will be surveying. Personnel familiar with hull and machinery systems should make the interior survey. Machinery to be operated should be examined by appropriate engineering ratings and operators from the casualty crew, if available. The topside survey team should include experienced riggers, seamen, and shipfitters. The diving team makes the underwater survey and inspects the exterior portion of the hull between the waterline and the main deck. Because of the difficulty in obtaining accurate information underwater, the diving team should be led by an especially experienced salvor.
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A presurvey orientation walk-through of the stranded ship with its crew, if available, is essential on large ships and valuable on all ships. If possible, members of the casualtys crew should be integrated into the survey and salvage teams. The salvors awareness of the factors that can influence salvage operations, coupled with the crews familiarity with the casualty, will help ensure that significant details are noted. The salvage engineer should make a complete walk-through of the stranded ship with the salvage officer, experienced members of the salvage crew, and the stranded ships officers. Firsthand knowledge is necessary to fit survey reports together. 4-2.4 Survey Techniques. There is no single correct way to make a survey, nor is there any single bit of information that is always critical. Numerous ideas and techniques for conducting surveys have proven useful through the years. Some of these are described in the following paragraphs, but the list is not all-inclusive and not all techniques apply to every situation. Salvors should consider this section a starting point from which to develop their own methods as their experience grows. 4-2.4.1 Draft Readings. Accurate stranded drafts are often difficult to obtain, but are essential because they form the basis for many salvage calculations. For instance, the ground reaction calculation is dependent on drafts; ground reaction influences much of the operation. Efforts to obtain accurate grounded drafts are well spent. The mean-of-quarter-means method, described in Chapter 8 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010), is the most accurate method of determining a casualtys draft. In swells, draft readings taken from a boat are the most accurate. When the hull girder is significantly deflected, it may be necessary to obtain drafts at several locations along the ships length to accurately determine buoyancy distribution for strength and ground reaction calculations. If drafts at stations between draft marks are required (or the draft marks are obliterated), freeboard to the main deck or other convenient deck can be measured with a weighted line or chain. The freeboard is then subtracted from the height of the deck above the keel, as taken from a profile plan or tabulated data. As the sea surface is seldom calm, drafts should be determined by averaging at least three readings at each location. Whenever drafts are taken, the time, date, and state of the tide are recorded and drafts are reduced to the tide datum; normally that datum is the same as that of charts of the local area. Reduction to the tide datum is required because the draft readings of a stranded ship vary with the tide. When ground reaction at the tide datum is known, the effect of tide on ground reaction can be determined. 4-2.4.2 Determining Casualty Movement. Early in the salvage operation, it should be determined if the ship is moving. Observation of widely separated navigation rangespreferably one in line with the casualty and one on the beamis the fastest way to detect casualty movement. Navigational ranges can be established on natural landmarks, or, if the depth of water permits, range poles can be set up and observed to see if the ship falls off the range. Alternatively, bearings to fixed, easily identifiable objects should be recorded at regular short intervals. When no movement is observed for some time, the interval between readings may be increased. Ranges taken with radar or stadimeter are generally too coarse to reveal the relatively slow movement of a stranded ship. A large pendulum-type clinometer should be set up on the casualty in an easily observed location to show changes in list (or roll, if the ship is lively). 4-2.4.3 Hull Deflection. Hull deflection can be related to hull stress and bending moment. Deflection can be determined by plotting drafts as shown in Figure 5-11. Deflection can also be determined by measuring heights relative to a horizontal datum with a surveyors transit, theodolite, or siting level, or from a taut wire stretched between fore and aft points. The line or curve of deck or other measured surface plotted from the measurements is compared to ships drawings to determine the amount and direction of hull deflection. 4-2.4.4 Hull Strain Readings. If the hull is lifting to the rising tide or swells, the hull deflection should be checked. Dial indicators installed between frames measure strain in adjacent longitudinal hull members. Increases in hull strain indicate an increase in hull stresses. Sudden increases in bending stresses may indicate that hull failure is possible, and that changes in loading must be made quickly to reduce stresses. Dial indicators can also show if the hull girder is suffering permanent strain. In many instances, the hull will flex measurably in response to water level fluctuations or the passage of waves. The flexing will alternately increase and decrease longitudinal strain. In extreme cases, the flexing will cause strain reversals, from elongation to compression and back again. If the strain is elastic, the range of dial indicator readings will remain fairly constant and an approximate midrange point can be determined after a few cycles. A steady shift in the midrange point in either the positive or negative direction that cannot be tied to observed water level fluctuations indicates a change in the overall hull girder deflection. The change may be either increased or decreased elastic deflection resulting from changes in total bending moment, or permanent deformation, indicating that stresses have exceeded the yield limit in that part of the hull girder. If stresses have exceeded the yield limit, the hull is in danger of catastrophic failure. Hull members should be examined for signs of yielding; changes in hull girder loading should be carefully reviewed to determine the cause of the shift in deflection levels. In the same way, dial indicators can be set up between side-shell longitudinals to indicate vertical shear stresses and between deck girders to show horizontal shear. 4-2.4.5 Damage Reports. Damage reports prepared by the ship can assist in prioritizing areas to be surveyed. Particular attention should be paid to secondary damage such as abnormal bulkhead flexing, cracked seams, hatches and doors that no longer close, cracking or flaking paint, or other signs of stress or hull distortion. As these conditions may indicate more serious damage, their causes should be determined. The diving team should be briefed on the location and type of all damage found inside the hull so they can check for underwater damage in those areas. Frame numbers, spray-painted on the hull, help divers and boat crews to orient themselves along the length of the ship. Weighted lines, hung over the side and into the water at specified locations (frame numbers) help divers orient themselves underwater and locate damage relative to known points. Spreading damage, such as lengthening or widening cracks, increasing or decreasing dimensions of openings and clearances, increasing areas of deformation, or areas of paint cracking and flaking, is especially important because it indicates progressive weakening of the hull or increasing stress.
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4-2.4.6 Verifying Compartment Designation. During the internal survey, all compartment names and numbers should be verified against the ships general arrangement plans. An adhesive sticker or spray of paint next to the label plate will indicate that the space has been examined. Ships plans should be marked with the locations of all sounding tubes, access hatches, watertight fittings, fire stations, electrical control boxes, deck drains, and other items of interest. Damage control compartment checkoff sheets in naval ships are excellent sources of information. The checkoff lists must be validated against observed configurations. 4-2.4.7 Tank Soundings. All tanks should be sounded frequently and the soundings compared to those taken before and since the stranding. On most tankers, the contents of cargo tanks are tabulated against ullages (the height of the empty space above the liquid, usually measured from the lip of the expansion trunk or ullage port), rather than soundings (liquid depth). Fuel and other oil tanks should be checked for the presence of water with indicator paste, thief samples, or by opening the tanks. Some tankers are equipped with ultrasonic sounding devices that can locate the oil surface as well as the oil-water interface. Use of the casualtys tank capacity tables will be greatly simplified if survey crews measure liquid surfaces and interfaces from the same datum used in the tables, i.e., soundings or ullages. It may be necessary to brief survey crews used to taking soundings on the correct method of measuring ullages. 4-2.4.8 Underwater Video. Whenever possible, video should be used for underwater surveys. Videoparticularly low-light-level videohas greater sensitivity and can record more detail than the divers eye. Videotapes can be reviewed repeatedly at the convenience of the viewers; tapes from earlier surveys can be compared with the most recent versions to measure changes. Technical personnel who are not divers can observe underwater conditions through video. Videotapes of areas of the hull in contact with the seafloor, underwater damage, and hull appendages and openings are particularly valuable. Black-and-white video generally provides better detail resolution and low-light performance, but color video may be preferable for general surveys because many seafloor features and damage to hull areas are highlighted by color contrasts, such as coral heads, rock formations, scraped paint, marine growth, etc. 4-2.4.9 Tides. Tides may vary, both in height and time, from those predicted in the tide tables. A tide gage, like the one shown in Figure 5-5 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010), should be set up, and regular readings taken and compared to predicted tides. Local mariners can often provide the best information about tides and currents at the stranding site. 4-2.4.10 Hydrographic Data. Hydrographic surveys will take far less time if depth finders, rather than the traditional sounding lead, are used. Portable and hand-held depth finders are available for use in small boats or by swimmers. The depth finders accuracy should be confirmed periodically with a sounding lead. Soundings are reduced to the chart datum and plotted on a large-scale chart or plotting sheet. All pinnacles, coral heads, reef edges, shoals, and other underwater hazards are marked with a buoy or highly visible pole. If barges or ships are to be brought alongside the stranded ship, salvors should make an especially thorough depth survey of the area to ensure there is sufficient water to approach, lie alongside without bottoming, and depart after loading. Areas can be swept by wire drag (or bar drag) to ensure that a minimum water depth exists. The wire drag is a long bar suspended between two boats at the designated dragging depth. The bar may also be suspended in the middle to prevent sagging. The boats pass slowly back and forth over the area to be swept; when an obstruction is encountered, the drag is lifted over the obstruction and the location marked for investigation. Wire sweeping requires coordinated boat handling and precise navigation to be effective. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (USCGS), or the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) may be able to support salvage operations with craft equipped for hydrographic survey work. Hydrographic survey vessels, such as those operated by the Navy and NOAA, and icebreakers typically carry depth-sounder-equipped survey launches. Observation of swell and surf from an elevated vantage point can give clues about bottom topography and water conditions that can be verified by closer investigation. Lines of breakers may indicate the seaward edge of a bar or reef. Shallowly submerged rocks or coral heads will give the water surface a roiling appearance. An area of higher-than-normal or breaking waves may indicate either a current flowing opposite the direction of wave travel or the presence of a submarine ridge. Lower-than-normal waves may show the location of a current flowing with the waves or a seafloor canyon. Currents may also be shown by plumes of muddied water. Changes in water color can give rough estimates of water depth, with bluer, darker water indicating greater depth. The significance of various hydrographic features is discussed in Chapter 3. 4-2.4.11 Repeat Surveys. Checks and rechecks on the initial survey will result in several visits to the same areas. Uniform observations will result if the same team repeats the surveys and each member is responsible for specific items. 4-2.4.12 Aerial Observations. It may be extremely useful for key salvage personnel to fly over the salvage site to observe changes in color and other indications of shoal water. Because of its ability to move slowly or hover, a helicopter is the best platform for this type of aerial survey. Aerial observation provides a view of the overall site (including the shore). Potential beach gear locations, mooring sites, locations ashore for deadmen or highlines, lightering arrangements, retraction channels, etc., can be selected from the air. The suitability of these sites can then be confirmed by a detailed survey.
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4-2.5 Correlation of Survey Information. The survey will produce a great deal of data that must be assembled, analyzed, and presented in a way that expedites information retrieval. Graphic methods are particularly appropriate for assembling and presenting survey information. Some successful methods are described in the following paragraphs. 4-2.5.1 Status Boards. A master status board should be maintained and displayed where all salvage personnel can readily see it. This status board should display the most significant information and be updated to reflect those changes that may impact on the operation. Such information may include tank soundings, deck machinery status, ballast condition, cargo offload, etc. Major tasks and the target dates for their completion and a daily schedule of activities should also be included. 4-2.5.2 Ships Plans. Profile and plan views of the ship should be marked up showing damage, flooded spaces, patches, repairs, work-arounds, etc. These should be kept up-to-date as the operation progresses. Damage control plates on naval ships give three-dimensional views and are well suited to this use. Chapter 2 of the U.S. Navy Underwater Ship Husbandry Manual (S0600-AA-PRO-020) includes underwater hull profiles of most U.S Navy ships. 4-2.5.3 Computers. Properly programmed computers and programmable calculators make it possible to perform salvage calculations in a fraction of the time required for manual computations. Computer programs also provide excellent means to store, retrieve, and manipulate data from the surveys and to convert it into a useful format. Microcomputers and software are powerful enough now to provide a significant on-site calculative and database management capability. Most Navy salvage ships have several microcomputers onboard. Lightweight portable microcomputers, capable of operating for several hours on batteries, are readily available and in use by Navy Mobile Diving and Salvage Units and other commands. Mainframe computers may be available to a shore staff supporting salvage operations, or may be near-site on operations in developed ports. Several computer programs have been developed specifically for salvage calculations and planning; others are under development. Programs for general hydrostatics and other naval architecture and engineering calculations, such as the NAVSEA Ship Hull Characteristics Program (SHCP) can perform many of the calculations required to support salvage operations. The NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE), can perform both detailed and rough-estimate hydrostatic, stability, longitudinal strength, and ground reaction calculations. The program is designed to run on MS/DOS-based computers. Data can be entered in a variety of formats. The U. S. Navy Salvage Engineers Handbook, Volume 2 (S0300-A8-HBK-020) describes the capabilities and operation of POSSE. Standard spreadsheet, database, and planning programs can also be helpful. Most spreadsheet programs can perform very complex calculations; many are able to construct automated worksheets, providing a limited programming capability. Spreadsheet programs are especially well-suited for numerical integration, weight and moment summaries, section modulus calculations, and other tabular calculations. The tabular calculations in the examples in this book were performed with a standard spreadsheet program on a portable microcomputer. Database and spreadsheet programs can sort and retrieve bits of information by keyword or other coding. Even word processing programs can be used to organize, correlate, and retrieve data because of their ability to search for keywords. Various planning and management programs can be used to establish operation milestones and monitor progress. Shipboard computers are now widely used in the marine industry as well as the Navy. In addition to general administrative, financial, and word processing programs that have no particular salvage application, computer programs are routinely used to track cargo loading and discharge, and to perform stability and hull strength calculations. Most tankers, many dry bulk carriers, and certain large naval auxiliaries are equipped with stability, trim, and load computers. These are dedicated analog or digital computers programmed with the vessels hydrostatic characteristics, tank and hold capacities and centers, and other pertinent data. Inputs are tank ullages or descriptions of bulk cargo quantity and stowage factor by hold; outputs usually include drafts, tonnages, stress numbers (bending moment expressed as a percentage of allowable bending moment), and overall stability values. The computer can be used only for the ship on which it is installed, and within defined parameters. Few load calculators can account for ground reaction, and none can account for reduction of section area and moment of inertia caused by damage. Many tankers, as well as bulk carriers, container ships, and general (break-bulk) cargo ships use microcomputer- or minicomputer-based programs to supplement or replace loadmaster computers. Programs for tankers provide outputs such as drafts, stability "numbers" for vessels of unusual configuration, stress numbers, displacement, discharge rates by tank or tank group, and estimated time to finish (ETF) the current cargo operation based on discharge rate, cargo on board, and previous inputs. Large container ships carry 3,000 or more containers; computer programs are used to catalog container location, contents, weight, and other data to support voyage planning and stability calculations. Inputs are received from shore via floppy disk or data link, or are manually entered. Several companies have fully interactive systems that track containers from booking to stowage on the vessel. All of these programs have limitations and should be examined for applicability before they are used in conjunction with salvage planning.
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Computer programs will not do the work of the salvage engineer or salvage officer. They cannot develop plans or make operational decisions. Like any tool, the utility of a computer program varies with the skill of the operator. Like all calculations, the accuracy of computer-performed calculations is limited by the accuracy of the input data, and the validity of the relationships and assumptions on which the calculations are based. Computer programs do not perform any functions that could not be performed manually; they simply perform these functions faster. Increased calculation speed means an initial assessment of a casualtys condition is made sooner and the final analysis can be more thorough. More proposed actions can be evaluated than would be possible if the calculations were made by hand. The repetitive process of devising, evaluating, modifying, and re-evaluating a plan can go through more repetitions in the same amount of time. The rapid search speed of database or word processing programs helps to avoid overlooking important bits of data when developing or evaluating plans. Even the seemingly mundane ability of a word processing program to shorten the time required for reports and recordkeeping assists the salvage effort by freeing time for more important tasks. 4-2.6 Sunken Ship Surveys. The principles for conducting surveys for stranded ships also apply to surveys of sunken ships. However, there are several major differences from the stranded ship surveys:
There is far less preliminary verifiable information from the salvage site. Preliminary information is usually limited to observable items such as: (1) Date and approximate time of sinking. (2) Sinking attitude, i.e., stern up, bow up, capsized to x degrees, on an even keel, etc. (3) Whether the ship sank slowly or swiftly. (4) A rough estimate of damage suffered before sinking. (5) Location and approximate heading on sinking. (6) Appearance of portions of the casualty above water, if any.
The exterior and interior surveys may have to be conducted principally by divers. These surveys will therefore take longer than for a stranded ship; more time is required as depth increases. It may be impossible to sound tanks or verify the status of liquid stores or cargo. For ships partially supported by their buoyancy or with more than about 30 feet of water over their main deck, current variation with depth may be a significant parameter.
Collected information will be somewhat different for sunken ships than for stranded ships as shown by the sinking salvage survey form in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). Like the stranding survey form, this form should be modified to fit the circumstances. In surveying sunken ships, survey teams cannot make an orientation walk-through of the ship because some or all of the spaces will be flooded. Crews of sunken ships will usually have been dispersed or sent home by the time salvors arrive, although a skeleton crew may remain in the area or may be on board part of the time if part of the ship remains above water. Any dry spaces and exteriors above the waterline can be surveyed as described for stranded ships. If available, ships personnel should be engaged to assist in surveys of dry spaces. Flooded spaces and immersed exterior spaces must be inspected by divers or remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). Survey teams should be led by experienced salvors who are knowledgeable in ship construction and can develop a picture of the condition of the ship based on the information that the survey team derives. 4-2.7 Harbor Clearance Surveys. Harbor clearance surveys gather information about the clearance operation as a whole and about each ship. Overall harbor clearance surveys should:
Inventory the ships to be salvaged or cleared. Categorize the ships by condition. Determine the general technique and type of equipment to be employed. Establish priority for their clearance.
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This survey should be conducted personally by the senior salvage officer. Figure 4-1 is a sample form for summarizing the results of overall harbor clearance surveys.
HARBOR CLEARANCE SUMMARY SHEET PROJECT NUMBER 1 2
DATE: 8/3 3 4
AT: BLOCKED HARBOR 5 6
TYPE
MINE CLEARANCE
ORDNANCE CLEARANCE
TANKER
CARGO
BARGE
DUMPED VEHICLES
SIZE
SECTOR I
SECTOR II
100,000 TONS SUNK, MAIN DECK 4 UNDER WATER

BLOW WITH COMPRESSED AIR
300
100 x 40
CONDITION
MOORED MINES
DUMPED ORDNANCE
SUNK AT PIER 7, SECTOR II
SUNK IN MAIN CHANNEL
OBSTRUCTING PIER 5/6

LIFT & REMOVE, CUT AS NECESSARY, SAVE CRANE
CLEARANCE TECHNIQUE
SWEEP
REMOVE
WRECK IN PLACE
EQUIPMENT
MSBS
U/W TORCHES 100-TON CRANE (ARMY)
TEAM
MSB 102, 127
PRIORITY
COMMENT
COMPLETE
IN PROGRESS
IN PROGRESS
PENDING ORDNANCE CLEARANCE
COMPLETE
IN PROGRESS
Figure 4-1. Harbor Clearance Summary Sheet.
While the senior salvage officer and immediate staff are conducting the overall survey and preparing the harbor clearance plan, survey teams commence surveys of the individual vessels. In addition to ship surveys, harbor clearance surveys often must gather information about a variety of other objects that may be obstructing the harbor or connecting waterways, such as:
Vehicles. Railway cars and locomotives. Cranes, floating drydocks, marine railway carriages, and other port facility equipment. Wrecked bridges and piers. Piles of stone rubble, riprap, building stone, scrap metal, etc. Large numbers of small craft in small areas, particularly in storm-damaged ports.
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Ordnance surveys are necessary in harbors that have seen combat, especially if ships were sunk by hostile action. In intentionally blocked ports, surveys must be conducted to locate and render safe mines and booby traps before other work can commence. Surveys to locate mines and live ordnance must be directed by mine clearance or EOD specialists. 4-2.8 Retention of Information. An accurate historical file must be maintained of all surveys, salvage plans, actions taken, and equipment and material used during the operation. Photographs or videotapes are included in the file. The information is used to prepare the final salvage report and request reimbursement for out-of-pocket costs in accordance with Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command Instruction 4740.8 (series).
4-3 THE SALVAGE PLAN
Analysis of the data gathered by the surveys is not of full value until it is used to formulate a salvage plan. The salvage plan lists the work to be done, matches it with the resources available, schedules it, sets forth the responsibilities of individuals and organizations, and provides a vehicle for coordination of all salvage efforts to meet target dates and times. Development of the salvage plan begins when the initial information about the casualty is received and continues throughout the operation. The salvage plan:
Is essentially time- and tide-dependent. Target times and dates, often dictated by tide cycles, control task assignments. Is a dynamic document that may be amended or abandoned as circumstances change. Is the responsibility of, and is approved by, the senior salvage officer. Varies in complexity with the circumstances of the casualty and the difficulty of the salvage operation.
A good salvage plan: Is thorough and complete, but only as detailed as necessary. Is technically feasible and realistic. Balances work and techniques against available assets. Includes both primary and alternate methods. Is flexible. Organizes and schedules tasks required to accomplish overall objectives. Identifies all areas of weakness.
4-3.1 The Planning Process. The steps in the planning process are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Selecting techniques to be employed. Dividing the techniques into logical steps or tasks. Correlating information from the surveys with individual tasks. Estimating the time to complete each task. Organizing the tasks into a schedule. Tasks that must be completed in sequence are scheduled in order, then tasks that can start or finish independently or in parallel with other tasks are scheduled. Matching personnel and equipment to tasks to obtain the most efficient combination. Balancing the tasks with resources may require rearranging the schedule. Selecting a target date that balances preparations with predicted environmental forces. Revising the completion date after re-evaluating the plan and amending the organization and allocation of resources. Balancing the salvors desires with factors beyond their control. Drydock availability, pollution control and abatement requirements, permission to enter a safe haven, and similar matters may influence the target date.
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4-3.2 Salvage Plan Development. A preliminary salvage plan develops during the early portion of the stabilization phase and evolves into a detailed salvage plan. Developing a plan for a specific salvage operation is a matter of matching task requirements to available resources. After stabilizing the situation, a salvage plan is developed by:
Gathering necessary and desirable information, as permitted by time constraints, and estimating unknown or unverified parameters. Selecting the methods to accomplish the operations objectives. Determining feasibility of the objectives. Deciding whether to modify the operation objectives, obtain more assets, or abandon the operation, should the original aims prove infeasible. Re-examining information and gathering additional data in light of the modified objectives. Repeating the foregoing as necessary to develop a final salvage plan.
When selecting salvage methods, salvors should remember that no salvage technique or method is correct in every circumstance. Salvors are limited only by their knowledge and imagination. The fact that a proposed method has not been used does not make it inappropriate for a particular salvage operation. Likewise, an often-used method may be wholly inappropriate in the existing circumstances. All plans and ideas must be evaluated on the basis of merit by someone familiar with the governing conditions and proposed methods. A seemingly simple and straightforward plan may have fatal flaws overlooked by those not familiar with the particular technique; conversely, an unorthodox and seemingly outlandish scheme may be perfectly feasible, both economically and technically. Cable laying, seabed mining, offshore oil production, and other marine technologies operate in environments similar to those of ship salvage; equipment and procedures developed for these fields can often be applied directly to salvage with little modification. Related technologies should be examined for applicability to difficult salvage problems, or when their assets are nearby. A determination must be made whether tasks are to be accomplished in parallel or sequentially. The choice is influenced by the experience and composition of the salvage crew. The number of tasks to be done in parallel should be limited to the number that can be accomplished with adequate supervision and without mutual interference or degradation of safety. Salvage operations have been delayed because more tasks than could be coordinated were undertaken simultaneously. The number of tasks undertaken simultaneously should be minimized during critical portions of the operation. Rehearsals of key events and procedures help to identify problems and possible solutions, improve timing, ensure that equipment is operating, and sharpen teamwork. Tests can be used to ensure that attachment points have adequate strength and stiffness, anchor holding power is sufficient, the rig will behave as anticipated under load, pumps will perform as predicted, compartments hold air, and that, in general, things work as planned. Rehearsals should be scheduled as early as possible in the operation to identify problems while there is time to implement solutions. Available assets and final disposition of the casualty may limit the choice of techniques. A salvage plan should address the following:
The ships condition and pertinent environmental conditions. Overall objectives of the salvage operation and means to accomplish those objectives. Sequence of events. Repair work, modifications, weight changes, and other preparations prior to the final refloating effort. Measures to be taken to control the casualty before, during, and after refloating. Work to prepare the casualty for tow to a repair facility, and when and where the work is to be done. Location or placement of salvage equipment to be used, such as compressors, generators, pumps, beach gear, tugs, salvage vessels, etc. Diving operations. Movement of tugs, salvage craft, lightering vessels, and workboats around the salvage site. Contingencies for foul weather and unexpected developments. Communications. Safety. Recovery of salvage equipment.
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A major goal of salvage planning is to ensure that events happen when desired, but not before all is ready. There are no convenient textbook solutions to salvage planning. Salvage planning is based on an intelligent assessment of the facts obtained during the surveys, the availability of personnel and equipment, and guidance provided by supporting organizations. Improper data analysis, missing information, or changing situations may render a salvage plan ineffective. A salvage plan must be capable of rapid modification (even after work has started) to adjust for changes in casualty conditions, weather, equipment availability, tactical situation, or available information. If a plan does not work, salvors must re-analyze the situation. Failure of all or part of a plan that should work may indicate that important data are lacking or have not been taken into account. These data must be found or estimated before proceeding with a modified plan. Not all salvage operations are successful. When defeat should be accepted is difficult to determine. There is a fine line between walking away too soon and "flogging a dead horse." A decision must be made whether a little more effort and expense are likely to achieve the operation objective, or simply increase the cost of failure. This decision is not generally made by forces in the field, but their technical assessment and recommendations carry great weight. In wartime, effective employment of salvage forces contributes to the overall war effort. Progress of salvage should be evaluated regularly to ensure that the forces are most usefully employed. The decision to cut losses and get out is never taken lightly, and is based on estimates of technical feasibility, time required, probability of success, and total cost, as well as evaluation of the time, effort, and money already invested, number of assets committed, and relative priority of the job. 4-3.3 Salvage Plan Organization. The salvage plan has two major parts: the main body and supporting annexes. For a stranding, the main body contains the following parts:
Basic information to identify the ship and the condition of the stranding, such as the ships name, dimensions, hydrostatic data, location of stranding, cargo type and weight, etc. An engineering estimate that includes calculations for: (1) Ground reaction. (2) Freeing force. (3) Location of the neutral loading point, if applicable. (4) Stabilityaground and afloat. (5) Strength of the hull girder, damaged areas, attachment points, and rigging. (6) A summary of the rationale for selection of specific retraction and refloating techniques.
Hydrographic data. Potential sources of pollution, specific pollution control techniques and response resources, and the impact of pollution control on the salvage operation. Results of the safety survey and the safety officers recommendations, with specific hazards identified and precautions listed. A comprehensive communications plan. A description of working relationships and chain of command. This is particularly important if assets from more than one armed service, government agency, or civilian contractors are employed at one time. Procedures for tasking various elements of the salvage force should be described. A description of Notices to Mariners and security messages to be broadcast and dayshapes, lights, and flags to be shown during the operations. Public relations guidance.
The supporting annexes are detailed plans for each refloating technique used. These annexes may be subdivided into appendices or additional annexes if the scope of the task warrants. The more complex the operation, the greater the number of supporting annexes. The annexes should contain a list of all tasks, the order in which they will be accomplished, resources assigned to each task, a schedule, and assignment of responsibilities by name or job title. Integration with and interfaces between techniques described by other annexes should be identified. When the size and complexity of the operation requires an intense management effort, a separate coordination annex is prepared. A task list showing start times, duration and completion times, and a supporting resource list showing equipment and personnel assigned to each task is included, along with the task sequence and a task-versus-time chart. As the salvage plan and its supporting annexes are being developed, the salvage teams commence work. Often, the work will begin before the annex is complete. Close supervision of work started before the completion of planning is necessary to ensure the work remains in conformance with the plan and its intent, so that effort is not wasted.
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4-3.4 Harbor Clearance Planning. Harbor clearance may involve the removal, dispersal, or salvage of many wrecked vessels and other obstructions. The work for each wreck or object must be planned, and these plans must be coordinated in an overall clearance plan. For large waterways or harbors, there may be separate plans for different sectors or areas. Clearance work must be coordinated with construction and rehabilitation of port facilities, dredging operations, mine and ordnance clearance, and above all, with the movement of ships and cargo through the port. Regardless of other work that may be in progress, harbor clearance work will require liaison with the military or civilian port authority, Army Corps of Engineers, and the Coast Guard. Obstructed channels may be cleared by removing wrecks, but this is not always necessary; the obstruction can sometimes be sufficiently removed by flattening, dispersing, or burying the wreck. In some cases, only part of a wreck need be removed; for example, an end protruding into a channel, or the deck house and masts of a ship whose main deck is deep enough not to hazard traffic. Clearing a harbor can involve a number of separate operations. The coordinated clearance plan should assign priority to each obstruction. Removal priority is influenced by a number of factors:
Relative importance of obstructed facilities and waterways. Difficulty of removal or dispersal. If assets are limited initially, it may be best to tackle easier tasks while waiting for additional forces. The ability of on-scene forces to conduct simultaneous operations in light of the urgency for the return of the waterway to full operation. Potential use of obstructing craft for subsequent salvage or harbor operations. Possible beneficial effects of leaving some wrecks in place as temporary or permanent breakwaters or current deflectors. Effect of wrecks or other obstructions on scouring and sedimentation patterns in the obstructed and adjacent waterways. Interference by the wreck or salvage craft with planned harbor restoration work, such as pier repairs or channel dredging.
Wartime harbor clearance is conducted primarily to permit the traffic of critical war materials through the port at a rate sufficient to support land campaigns and area defense. Salvage of certain cargoes may therefore be nearly as important as clearing obstructions. It is often desirable to restore waterway or port operations in stages. For example, a main entrance channel and piers closest to the entrance could be cleared first, with the rest of the harbor cleared in successive sections. Alternatively, portions of wrecks could be removed to clear narrow, shallow draft channels, allowing passage of barge and harbor traffic. Follow-on work would gradually deepen and widen the minimally cleared channels, restoring the port to full operation. 4-3.5 Planning for Afloat Casualties. Detailed planning for assistance to afloat casualties takes place after the initial situation has stabilized with the casualty still afloat. Factors important to planning are:
Nature and extent of the casualtys damage. Size and character of the casualty. Distance to the nearest port and/or repair facility. Distance to sheltered waters or beaching ground. Capability and assets of ships in company, if any. Whether the casualty is within helicopter range of sources of needed materials. Sea and weather conditions.
Plans for afloat salvage operations are usually brief. In developing the plan, the following decisions must first be addressed: Whether the casualty can be repaired on site with available assets, or must be taken to a repair facility. Whether the casualty can be returned to immediate duty. What repairs must be made immediately and which should wait until sheltered waters are reached. Whether to proceed directly to port, or to nearby sheltered waters to make repairs before continuing. Whether the casualty should be towed or proceed under her own power. Whether or not the casualtys personnel should remain onboard.
These considerations, along with a realistic assessment of the probability of success, and a priority listing of necessary repairs, determine what actions will be taken and when.
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4-4 LIAISON WITH REPAIR ORGANIZATION When a casualty is to be returned to service, salvors should liaise with the cognizant repair organization whenever possible. Salvage is only one phase of the repair and logistics effort that will eventually return the ship to duty. Actions taken during salvage may either speed or hinder subsequent repair work. Damage to a ship during salvage is practically unavoidable, but the nature and location of the damage can often be controlled by salvors. For example, given the choice, salvors may be able to cut necessary access holes in damaged plating that will be removed and replaced in the shipyard, rather than in adjacent undamaged plating. In some cases, permanent or semi-permanent repairs can be made during salvage. It may be possible for mobile repair teams to perform some repair work without interfering with the salvage. Parallel and coordinated work of this nature will reduce the casualtys time out of service. Conversely, if lengthy repairs will be required, repair activities may wish to strip short-supply items from the casualty to speed repairs on more lightly damaged ships. Fleet Battle Damage Assessment Teams (BDAT) can help evaluate a casualtys required repairs. In the same way, liaison with cargo owners or transportation commands (Military Sealift Command, Military Transportation Management System, Army Transportation Corps, Navy Supply Corps, etc.) should be conducted to determine the most effective disposition of large quantities of cargo offloaded during salvage. 4-5 COSTS On all but those operations driven purely by military emergency, costs are a major factor that may dictate choice of methods or whether the work is done at all. Developing cost estimates for a salvage effort is not an exact science. The cost of the work is dependent upon the techniques employed, the location of the work, who performs the work, the season of the year, and numerous other factors. The work can seldom be defined precisely, so the fairly comprehensive technical plan and schedule developed before costing begins may have many areas of uncertainty. It is usual in estimating the costs for a salvage operation to allow a large margin for contingencies. 4-5.1 Operational Bases. There are three general operational bases for developing costs. They are operations by:
Military and government personnel with government-owned equipment. Contractors under existing contracts with the government. Contractors operating under contracts let for the specific operation.
In the first case, daily rates are established and published for both the personnel and equipment. When they are provided by a government industrial activity, the activity can provide personnel cost and equipment rental costs. Contractors operating under the contracts maintained by the Supervisor of Salvage have rates scheduled in the contract. These rates can be obtained by contacting the Supervisor of Salvage directly. The contracts cover all areas of the world and are available to all agencies of the U.S. Government. On occasion, there may be overriding reasons that dictate a government-responsible operation be performed under a contract let for the specific operation. In these cases, the type of contract and basis of the evaluation of proposals are critical to obtaining a suitable contract. 4-5.1.1 Contract Types. The type of contract can have a significant effect on both the success and cost of the operation. The contract must be a fair exchange in which the contractor is reasonably compensated for the services provided. Contrary to folklore, salvors are not pirates, and salvage contracts are not licenses to steal. Salvage and wreck removal operations invariably carry a degree of risk to the contractor. If the degree of risk is high, the contractor will reasonably expect to be compensated more handsomely than he would if the government bears a portion of the risk. The best contract is one that balances the risk and compensation among the parties. There are several types of contracts used for salvage and wreck removal:
Open Form Contracts. There are several open form contracts used in commercial salvage. These contracts are an agreement that the salvor will undertake the salvage operation using his best endeavors with the compensation being settled by arbitration if the salvor is successful. If the salvors are not successful, they receive no compensation, thus the common term No CureNo Pay for these types of contracts. The thorny legal question of sovereign immunity makes this type of contract unsuitable for use in U.S. Government contracting. Fixed Price No Cure-No Pay Contracts. This type of contract is frequently seen in salvage, particularly in wreck removals. Because of questions of legality of the U.S. Government contracting on a No Cure-No Pay basis, this kind of contract is not used in government contracting. Fixed Price Contracts. Fixed price contracts are sometimes used in salvage and wreck removal. In this type of contract, the risk to the contractor is high, and it can be expected that a "risk factor" of up to 100 percent will be applied to the bid price. Time and Materials. The time and materials contract is particularly applicable where there are a large number of unknowns that cannot be accounted for or estimated accurately in salvage planning. The time and materials contract lends itself to careful and accurate monitoring by the contracting office and protects against uncontrolled growth and excessive costs. The time and materials contract has the disadvantage of not presenting much incentive to the contractor to finish his work expeditiously and cheaply. Cost Plus Fee. Like time and materials contracts, costs plus fee contracts are useful when the salvors costs are difficult to predict. Also like time and materials contracts, cost plus contracts lend themselves to careful monitoring by the contracting agency. Fees that are based on a percentage of the costs encourage the contractor to run his costs up, but incentive fees based on performance give the contractor an inducement to reduce costs and maximize his profitsadvantageous to all.
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4-5.1.2 Evaluation Factors. The success of salvage and wreck removal work is largely dependent on the technical skill and experience of the salvor. Salvage work can seldom be awarded to the low bidder on a simple invitation for bid. A solicitation for salvage work should be a Request for Proposals (RFP), should contain as much technical detail as is known, and should require a complete description of the technical approach and of the contractors experience in similar operations. In the evaluation of the proposals, the contractors technical approach and experience should bear at least twice the weight of cost. 4-5.2 Cost Factors. The price of marine equipment varies with the demand; it is not feasible to include equipment price schedules in this type of publication. The same is true of rates for personnel. The following are considered in preparing cost estimates:
Daily rate personnel costs. Hourly rate personnel costs. Personnel transportation. Berthing and messing. Subcontractor and consultant costs. Rental of floating plant and other equipment. Equipment transportation. General and Administrative costs (G & A) that include such things as insurance, special licenses, fees and taxes, financing costs, and other costs of doing business. Special local requirements and restrictions. Profit. Contract administration costs.
4-5.3 Costing Notes. Equipment is normally hired on a day rate that applies portal-to-portal. In the event that equipment such as sheer legs or derricks must be towed to the scene, the tugs represent an additional piece of floating equipment that must be paid for portal-to-portal. Equipment utilization should be planned so that equipment is not standing idle waiting for things to happen. The concept of recovering salvage costs by selling the scrap from the wreck appears attractive. In wreck removals in remote areas, the cost of shipping the scrap considerably reduces the perceived value. The world scrap market is quite volatile; scrap sales cannot be depended upon to offset wreck removal costs. Established contracts specify rates and guaranteed hours, as well as rental rates for equipment. These contracts generally require travel in compliance with the Joint Travel Regulations. With contracts for specific operations, local labor rates may vary from those in established contracts. Local labor rates vary greatly throughout the world. The overall costs that must be considered in undertaking a salvage operation include not only the costs of the salvage operation itself but also the cost of getting the salvaged vessel to a repair port and the costs of repair. A technically and economically feasible salvage operation may become impracticable when the total costs of returning the vessel to service are calculated. 4-6 PERSONNEL Ship salvage is not performed by individuals. The salvage officer, salvage engineer, their assistants, the salvors and the divers must work together in a cohesive team that takes advantage of the strengths of each. Fitting the team together and getting the most out of each member requires skill on the part of the leadership, and maturity and cooperation from all the team members. The notes in this section are not directly concerned with the technical aspects of engineering; they are concerned with the real world of salvage, and are the result of hard years in the field. 4-6.1 Engineers and Practical People. Engineers bring to a salvage operation a deep technical background, often not balanced by a commensurate amount of experience. Other members of the team may have considerable experience and knowledge of what actions worked on other jobs, but may not have the technical depth to understand why what they did worked, how close they were to disaster, or how much overkill they had built in. Self-styled practical people with extensive experience, inherent common sense, and knowledge of how to do things, and theoretical engineers make a powerful team. They must take the time to listen to one another, understand one anothers reasoning, and develop mutual respect. Engineers should take the time and make the effort to seek the advice and ideas of the people who will build and install their designs. Minor design changes that do not affect the function of a design may make its construction and installation considerably more effective. Engineers who take the time to listen to and discuss the salvage crews ideas, will find the crew coming to them freely with valuable suggestions. A very real hazard exists when engineers and practical people develop a dichotomy and fail to communicate. Salvage operations have been severely disrupted when practical people have modified engineers designs, unintentionally destroying their integrity. Engineers must get out on deck and down in the holds, observe what is going on, see where the trouble spots are, and make an effort to understand the practical people. They serve themselves well, increase their value to the operation, and learn thereby.
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4-6.2 Salvage Crew. Salvage engineers usually are senior technical advisors to the salvage officer and are seldom in direct charge of working a salvage crew. They should, however, understand some of the principles of working a salvage crew effectively. Salvage operations work around the clock when it is practical to do so. There are several factors that should be taken into account in determining the number and length of shifts. There must be sufficient people with the right skills to make multiple shifts effective. There must also be enough supervisors to supervise multiple shifts effectively. All necessary servicesfood service, emergency medical, etc.should be provided for each shift. In general, two 10-hour shifts are more efficient than either three 8-hour or two 12-hour shifts. With three shifts, the swing shift (afternoon and evening) is less effective than the day shift and the graveyard (midnight) shift less effective than the swing shift. There must be strong supervision on all shifts. The strongest supervisors should be assigned to the night shifts. Supervisors are usually spread thin on three shifts and have no on-the-job contact with one another. With two shifts, a healthy spirit of competition develops between supervisors and workers. Ten hours are about as long as people can be expected to work under salvage conditions. Experience has shown that efficiency and safety drop after ten hours to the point that two hours of each shift are, at best, unproductive. Working around the clock solely for a show of effort is poor management. Proper berthing, messing, laundry, and shower facilities should be provided for salvage crews. Crews that are excessively tired, hungry, and dirty do not work well and become accident-prone. Particular attention should be paid to crews that must subsist on the casualty, as they may be exposed to living conditions that are quite foreign to them. Supervisors should insist that crews have hot showers, clean clothes, and hot food waiting when they come off shift. When multiple shifts are working, galley and meal hours should be arranged for the convenience of the salvage crew. The salvage officer and salvage engineer should not become so involved in the job that they neglect their own rest and proper nourishment. It is vitally important that their thinking be clear and focused on the work. Environmental conditions have a significant effect on work output of labor crews and equipment operators. In hot, humid conditions, the bodys cardio-pulmonary efficiency is reduced and people cannot sustain as high an activity rate as they can in cooler atmospheres. Heat stress is further aggravated when respirators or other protective clothing must be worn. Heat stress effects can be mitigated by providing cooling ventilation, rotating personnel through cooler work or rest spaces, and by providing an ample supply of drinking water and other liquids. In extreme conditions, "cold vests" that hold frozen gel packs can be worn to assist the bodys cooling mechanisms. Extreme cold increases metabolic load on the body. Personnel fatigue more rapidly and have higher caloric requirements in cold environments than at ordinary temperatures. Surprisingly, the body loses water at an increased rate in cold weather; personnel easily become dangerously dehydrated in extremely cold weather. These factors combine to reduce work output and may lead to personnel casualties. Cold atmospheres also reduce manual dexterity, either because of the numbing of the hands or because of the gloves or mittens that must be worn. Tasks that must be performed in exposed locations should be designed to require minimum dexterity. Tasks requiring a high degree of manual dexterity should be performed indoors, or within temporary shelters. Cold stress is mitigated by performing all possible work within warmed shelters, providing adequate cold weather clothing, and providing warm food and drink. Even under the best of conditions, salvage crews cannot maintain a grueling work schedule without an occasional break. A day to make and mend should be provided every 10 to 14 days. More frequent breaks are needed if living, working, or environmental conditions are unusually harsh. Salvage crews are enthusiastic and proud. It may be necessary to look beyond what they think they can do and limit them to what it is reasonable and safe for them to do. 4-6.3 Divers. Divers are an integral and very special part of almost every salvage crew. They carry out a wide variety of mechanical work requiring fine judgement underwateran environment that is hostile and hazardous. Because of the medium in which they work and the constraints it places on them, divers require much more time to carry out a task than surface workers require for the same task. A good salvage diver requires a high degree of patience, persistence, and a desire to see the job through. The salvage officer and salvage engineer, if not divers themselves, should have a working knowledge of diving safety, the diving environment, environmental limitations on divers, and decompression practices. Accidents often occur when topside supervisors and crew do not understand the conditions the divers are working under and the safety measures that are necessary. Divers by nature are "can do" people. They are reluctant to admit there is anything they cannot do and will often undertake tasks they should not. Salvage officers and engineers must keep the divers safety paramount; diving safety must never be compromised. Work performed by divers ranges from observation and inspection to complicated tasks such as clearing wreckage, installing patches, and rigging hoses, cables, or chain slings. Work should be planned to minimize underwater work. No task that can be done on the surface should be done underwater. Engineers should design underwater installations and systems for maximum topside assembly. Underwater tasks should be kept as simple as possible; the governing philosophy should be to strive to eliminate the need for a diver entirely, and to design those tasks that must be performed by divers as if they were for a blind person wearing mittens. Above all, the advice of the diving supervisor and divers should be sought on the practicability and safety of any but the most routine diving job. Even relatively slow currents greatly reduce a divers effectiveness, because part of his effort and concentration is expended in holding himself in place, working against the current, and keeping his hoses from fouling. For surface-supplied divers in deep water, mid-depth currents are also fatiguing, even if there is no current on the bottom, because of the current drag on the divers umbilical. Divers must have priority in slack water periods; other activities must be planned around the diving. Divers should not be rushed. The waste haste makes on the surface is compounded underwater where visibility is limited and the diver is probably cold and poorly anchored.
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4-7 ADDITIONAL PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS The influence of the following factors on salvage operations ranges from potentially work-stopping to nonexistent. The presence of these factors, and their potential influence should be identified early in the planning process. 4-7.1 Water Damage Protection. When mechanical or electrical machinery is immersed in water then exposed to air, serious corrosion damage will occur unless the components are properly cleaned, dried, and lubricated. Significant damage can occur in less than 48 hours after exposure to the atmosphere. Rotary machinery with dissimilar metals and fine tolerances, such as turbines, diesel engines, and electrical equipment, is most at risk from corrosion damage. Boilers, control systems, and hydraulic equipment can also suffer corrosion damage from prolonged exposure to air after immersion in saltwater. Machinery and cargo preservation following immersion is called water damage protection (WDP). Failure to provide WDP services can greatly increase the time and cost required to return a ship to service, because of the requirement to replace or rehabilitate corroded, seized, or deteriorated machinery. In the same manner, strategically or economically valuable cargos can be unnecessarily lost. Water damage protection is an important aspect of aircraft recovery work, because the aluminum and titanium alloys used in aircraft construction are very susceptible to saltwater attack. Wreckage recovered for mishap investigations should be protected to facilitate the investigation. In simple terms, WDP involves cleaning away all saltwater residue, oil films and other debris, thoroughly drying all surfaces, and in most cases, applying protective or lubricant films. For complex machinery installations or large cargos, this is a monumental task. Large quantities of fresh water, chemicals, specialized tools, and skilled labor are required to complete the task in a reasonable time. For WDP to be effective, equipment must be cleaned and protected inside and out by personnel working in dirty, wet, frequently uncomfortable, and occasionally hazardous conditions. The labor force must be familiar with the equipment to ensure that all critical surfaces are protected. In addition to fresh water, pumps, hoses, tools, detergents, and chemicals actually required for WDP, provision must be made for lighting, ventilation, and gas-freeing in the pumped-out space. Special tools may be required to open or dismantle machinery and breathing apparatus may be necessary for workers, either because of the solvents used or inability to gas-free a space. For these reasons, WDP requirements should be carefully reviewed, particularly to ensure that manpower levels can be sustained without delaying other phases of the salvage. If strength, stability and buoyancy allow, it is better to leave a machinery space or hold flooded, even for a long voyage, than provide inadequate WDP. For large jobs, it is usually best to engage WDP specialists, either contractors or Navy personnel. These specialists will normally require the assistance of salvage mechanics and riggers. If WDP assets are not adequate for all immersed equipment, it is best to concentrate on a few items that can be properly protected than to attempt partial protection of the whole space, as this may only aggravate the potential for damage. 4-7.2 Pollution Prevention and Control. Despite the time-critical nature of many salvage operations, in all but cases of military emergency the salvors attention must be given to the prevention and control of pollution from the casualty. Commercial salvage agreements contractually bind the salvor to use his best endeavors to prevent the escape of pollutants. Military salvors are expected to exercise similar care. Because severe spills often result from ship casualties, major spill response has become a highly specialized adjunct to salvage. Salvage and pollution control efforts overlap, may task the same resources, and may have either conflicting or complimentary goals and requirements. Pollution control and abatement efforts may delay the commencement of salvage work or limit the methods available to the salvor; in some cases, pollution control or environmental restoration may be the reason for the salvage operation. The salvage engineer must be familiar with the applicable regional and local oil and hazardous substance (OHS) spill contingency plans; salvage plans must address control and cleanup of spills that have already occurred, as well as prevention of further pollution. Navy salvage forces become involved with pollution control in one of four situations:
Prevention and control of pollution during salvage operations. This includes action to stop or limit spills in progress when salvage forces arrive, to prevent spills during subsequent operations, and to contain and clean up any spills that do occur. In military operations, a Navy On-Scene Commander (NOSCDR) and Navy On-Scene Coordinator (NOSC) will be designated by the applicable Navy Regional Contingency Plan. The NOSC may or may not be involved in the salvage operations. The senior salvage officer or officer in tactical command (OTC) is charged with complying with Navy and local pollution control regulations during the salvage operations. Containment and recovery of major Navy-originated spills. Navy salvage units may be designated as Fleet NOSCDRs under fleet contingency plans designed to deal with offshore spills. The Supervisor of Salvage maintains a large inventory of oil spill response equipment to deal with salvage related and offshore spills. Response to spills originating with other Government agencies, including salvage of publicly owned vessels. Federalized oil spill response operations. Responsibility for spill cleanup rests with the owner or operator of the offending vessel. The Navy may be requested to provide assets and services to assist in response to spills from civilian sources if the owner or operator is unable or unwilling to handle the incident in a timely manner. The Navy may conduct salvage work to secure or remove the spill source at the request of the Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC). A U.S. Navy-U.S. Coast Guard interagency agreement specifically binds the Navy to provide salvage assets and expertise to assist the Coast Guard in responding to major oil spills.
The Supervisor of Salvage provides containment and recovery services for spills from Navy and other publicly owned vessels or facilities. The Navy can also be requested to provide pollution control services for spills from civilian sources under national and regional contingency plans if the owner or operator is unable or unwilling to handle the incident in a timely manner. In most cases, cleanup work will be performed by specialist contractors with ESSM-based equipment supported by fleet assets. More detailed information is available in U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 5 (POL Offloading), Volume 6 (POL Spill Response) (S0300-A6MAN-050/060) and NSTM Chapter 593, Pollution Control. In addition to petroleum products, other potential liquid, solid, and gaseous pollutants are carried on ships as cargo or stores. Many of these products are highly toxic or hazardous to humans in other ways, complicating cleanup and containment. Handling and dealing with hazardous materials is addressed in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Safety Manual (S0300-AA-SAF-010).
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4-7.3 Hazardous Materials. Hazardous materials (HAZMAT) are an increasingly important part of any marine salvage operation. Heightened public awareness, environmental regulation, and occupational safety considerations have complicated the salvage scenario in a way unimagined by the past generation of salvors. Increasing amounts of hazardous materials are transported to treatment/disposal sites, leading directly to more HAZMAT salvage situations. Also, hazardous materials encountered in the salvage operation can stop or delay work for fear of hazarding workers or the environment. The presence of recognized hazardous materials may prohibit open ocean wreck disposal or scrap sale. In many cases, proper precautions by the salvage team can minimize the impact on the salvage effort. In extreme cases, HAZMAT removal contractors must be incorporated into the salvage plan. 4-7.3.1 Hazardous Material Definition. A hazardous material is defined as a substance that can cause the deterioration of other materials or injury to living things because of its chemical properties . Hazardous materials may be grouped into four major classes:
Flammable or explosive. Corrosive. Reactive. Toxic or poisonous.
Many hazardous materials fit into more than one class. Uncontained toxic, corrosive, and reactive materials are often the most difficult to deal with, as they are hazardous on contact. The salvor can expect to encounter hazardous materials aboard a casualty as ships stores, cargo, or as components in machinery, weapons, or ship systems. Examples of typical HAZMAT obstacles include handling and disposal of asbestos insulation throughout the ship, asbestos in gasket material, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (present in electrical transformer oil and, in older ships, constituting 30 percent by weight of the gasket material used in ventilation systems), and beryllium compounds (present in various electronic devices). Planning for the handling and disposal of these hazardous materials must be addressed in the salvage plan. If open ocean disposal of any hazardous material is considered, the salvor should review Section 229 of 40 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations) to ensure full compliance. For the most part, undisturbed components containing hazardous materials present no hazard so long as they remain properly installed in intact systems. However, work performed in and around equipment or structures containing hazardous materials can cause the release of these materials into the environment in a hazardous form. For example, welding, thermal cutting, grinding, and similar work can release heavy metal fumes and airborne particulates from galvanized steel, hull structures coated with lead based paints, exotic alloys, etc. Hazardous materials and atmospheres may also be generated on site by fire, leakage, chemical reactions, biological decay, and chemical decomposition:
Rusting steel in voids or other closed spaces removes oxygen from the atmosphere. Heated plastics and other synthetic compounds may continue to release toxic gases for days or weeks after a fire. Biological decay of natural fiber lines, foodstuffs, clothing, etc., produces methane and hydrogen sulfide gases. Water-reactive compounds reached by flooding or firefighting water can produce hazardous byproducts. Dense gases from leaking refrigeration systems, exposed hydrocarbon liquids, carbon dioxide firefighting systems, welding operations, etc., may accumulate in low spaces. Other situations too numerous to list.
4-7.3.2 Hazard Awareness. A comprehensive discussion of the hazardous materials that may be present on naval and merchant vessels is beyond the scope of this handbook. The U.S. Navy Salvage Safety Manual, S0400-AA-SAF-010, describes common shipboard hazards and hazardous material marking systems at some length. Hazardous materials will be present to some extent on any casualty, particularly toxic, oxygen-deficient, and explosive atmospheres. U.S. Navy salvage forces are well equipped to deal with common shipboard gas hazards. Safety Precautions for Forces Afloat, OPNAVINST 5100.19 (series), provides guidance for shipboard hazardous material and hazardous waste programs, as well as specific precautions for common shipboard hazardous materials. Salvors should be aware that other hazardous materials requiring extensive precautions may be present, and be prepared to take appropriate action. If hazardous atmospheres or environments are suspected or known to exist on the casualty, survey teams must use appropriate protective equipment until the hazards can be removed or contained. During the site survey, the presence of any hazardous material and its state of containment should be noted. Before the team enters the salvage site, as much information as possible should be collected concerning the types of hazards, degree of hazards, and the risks that may exist. Shipping manifests, transportation placards, container labels, etc., can help to identify potential hazards and rule out others. Shipboard Hazardous Material Lists (SHML) are developed for U.S. Navy vessels, listing hazardous materials carried onboard for maintenance and cleaning use. An instrumented survey is always required prior to personnel entry or hot work in closed or poorly ventilated spaces, as well as spaces or areas containing known or suspected hazards. The instrumented survey may be a simple gas-free engineers check for combustible and toxic gases and oxygen deficiency, following established shipboard procedures, or a detailed investigation conducted by hazardous material specialists and industrial hygienists, as warranted by the suspected hazard. Following the initial survey, periodic or continuous surveys may be required to monitor conditions and changes. Hazard areas should be clearly marked and cordoned off. Specific procedures for dealing with identified hazards must be developed and promulgated as part of the salvage plan. When the casualtys crew remains onboard, the ships gas-free engineer or marine chemist can be enlisted for assistance and advice in performing required instrumented surveys.
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4-7.4 Helicopters in Salvage. The helicopter is an almost indispensable tool in salvage. Many operations would not be successful without them. Intelligent use of these machines greatly reduces mobilization and response times and facilitates a number of salvage functions detailed in the following paragraphs. The decision to employ helicopters must be based on an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of helicopters compared to more conventional methods. A number of factors should be considered:
The physical situation on board the casualty. The work required of the salvors. The weather and surf conditions. Alternative working methods. The relative time required by helicopters and alternative methods. The availability of suitable helicopters. The logistics requirements of helicopter support. Economics.
Helicopters can be advantageous in almost every salvage situation, but the greatest advantage occurs when the casualty lies in or inside the surf zone. In these cases, helicopters can eliminate the difficulties and hazards of working through the surf. 4-7.4.1 Planning and Coordination. Helicopter operations must be planned and coordinated thoroughly to be effective. Salvors and helicopter pilots should meet and discuss all aspects of the helicopters contribution to the operation. Both parties must be aware of the capabilities and limitations of the other. The following points should be discussed at the first coordination meeting and as often as necessary thereafter:
Mobilization. Work to be done. Flying conditions. Helicopter lift capacity. Flight paths to avoid overflying inhabited areas while carrying external loads. Helicopter safety. Support facilities. Fuel supplies. Flying hours remaining. Aircrew support.
Salvage and helicopter crews must be fully briefed on general operating procedures and specific operational procedures and sequences of events. Safety must be emphasized throughout all helicopter operations. In every case, the helicopter pilot has the final decision on undertaking a task. Operating rules for commercial helicopters are usually less restrictive than those for military machines. When more than one helicopter is being operated, a helicopter pilot should be familiarized with the salvage operation and designated as coordinator for scheduling, aircraft control, and liaison. The coordinator gives helicopter pilots working in an unfamiliar situation a high level of confidence and ensures that the helicopters low-productivity trips are minimized. Because helicopters are costly, they must be used judiciously. An operation should not be done with helicopters solely because it is possible; helicopters must offer advantages over other alternatives.
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4-7.4.2 Observation and Survey. The helicopter provides a unique birds-eye view of a casualty and its environs, and with it an ability to judge the overall situation, read drafts, evaluate paths of approach and retraction, and locate isolated hazards. In operations with more than one salvage ship, a helicopter is a suitable command post during retraction operations; alternatively, an observer aloft may guide a retracted ship through obstructions to clear water. 4-7.4.3 Personnel Transfer. The helicopter is advantageous for transferring personnel between the salvage ship and the casualty when seas make boating dangerous or the casualty lies in or inside the surf zone. Unnecessary trips should be avoided. 4-7.4.4 Equipment Transfer. Helicopters are effective for placing salvage machinery and equipment from salvage vessels on casualties. Many hours have been saved by transferring equipment by helicopter rather than waiting on weather for boating. Equipment should be packaged for helicopter transfer with a generous margin between the weight to be lifted and the lift capacity of the helicopter, and should be secured so that bits and pieces cannot be lost during transfer. On ships such as tankers that have few masts, derricks and other high fittings on their decks, helicopters may be used to move equipment about the ship and to hoist it in and out of holds. It is usually more economically feasible to leave equipment aboard casualties upon the successful completion of a job and to remove it later than to expend helicopter time for its removal. 4-7.4.5 Line Handling. Lines may be passed from seaward to the casualty by helicopters. The normal method is for the helicopter to carry a messenger line on her quick release hook and drop it over the casualty so that it may be retrieved by the salvage crew on board. The messenger line must be free to run and should be long enough to accommodate the large horizontal belly that will develop in flight. If large helicopters with great lifting capacity are available, tow or ground tackle wires may be passed directly without messengers. In all cases, salvage crews on the ground or on vessels should have the line in hand before it is tripped free of the helicopter. Lines carried by helicopters should never be belayed. 4-7.4.6 Cargo Offload. Cargo offload is one of the most complex tasks undertaken by helicopters in salvage. The ability of helicopters to shift large cargoes has been demonstratedcontainers, vehicles, aircraft, and almost any type of palletized cargo can be offloaded by helicopter. Although sometimes difficult, it is vital to ensure that helicopters are not overloaded, and that the flight crews are provided an accurate weight estimate for each lift. Accurate weight estimates are often difficult because packaging is not included in the tare weight of palletized and containerized cargo, and containers may be stuffed beyond their manifested weight or loaded so that the weight is not well distributed for handling by helicopter. All proposed loads should be examined and approved by the helicopter loadmaster before lifting is attempted. In general, helicopters are not the best means for discharging dry bulk cargoes; although underslung hopper buckets, like those used for applying chemicals to forest fires, can be used. Because of the cost of helicopter operations, it may be more economical to jettison low-value cargo rather than to offload it with helicopters. 4-7.4.7 Medical Evacuation and Rescue. Medical evacuation and rescue are classic uses of helicopters at seawell-established procedures exist. In salvage, special evacuation of the stricken vessel may be required in an emergency. If this is the case, standard procedures should be followed insofar as possible. 4-7.5 Channel and Fairway Obstructions. Casualties and/or attending salvage vessels, moorings, beach gear legs, etc., often obstruct or crowd shipping channels. Salvors must be alert to the potential for collision and the hazard from passing vessel wakes, especially where operations take place in heavily traveled waterways. Notices to Mariners (NOTMARs) should be issued and harbormasters, port captains, Coast Guard Marine Safety Offices (MSO), and Army Corps of Engineer district offices should be appraised of the situation as it changes. The casualty and all salvage vessels should be lighted; moorings, beach gear legs, and underwater obstructions should be marked with lighted buoys. In some cases, it may be advisable to request the cognizant authority to close or limit traffic in the affected area. Outside territorial waters, NOTMARs give no statutory authoritythey only request that vessels keep clear. Salvors should also remember that NOTMARs and lights and marks warn only reasonable, alert mariners; bridge-to-bridge radio, sirens, bullhorns, spotlights, and chase boats should be kept at the disposal of an alert watch to warn off the occasional blundering idiot. Local Naval, Coast Guard, or Army activities may be able to assist with the installation of temporary buoys and marks, and/or provide patrol craft and personnel.
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4-8 SALVAGE REPORTS
Following the salvage operations, reports are prepared and submitted via the chain of command in compliance with Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command Instruction 4740.8 (series) and other current directives. 4-8.1 The Post-Salvage Operations Report. The Post-Salvage Operations Report is a letter report submitted to Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command following each salvage operation. The report may be used outside the Navy and should be complete, accurate, and explicit in detail. The purposes of this report are to:
Provide a basis for reimbursement to the Navy for salvage costs or for a salvage claim by the Navy against the owner when ships other than Navy ships are salvaged. Provide a basis for reimbursement of participating units for equipment losses and out-of-pocket expenses. Document salvage efforts that may be used in litigation. Document the operational costs for fiscal support. Document the operation for historical and training purposes.
4-8.2 The Salvage Technical Report. The Salvage Technical Report is an optional letter report prepared in accordance with Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command Instruction 4740.8 (series) following each salvage operation or at any other time. This report is intended for the internal use of naval activities. The purposes of this report are to:
Provide information on the performance of salvage equipment to the Supervisor of Salvage. Provide information on both effective and ineffective salvage techniques and procedures. Provide information on safety problems and solutions. Provide recommendations based on field experience which will improve the effectiveness of salvage equipment and procedures.
Salvage reports are important documents that should be prepared carefully with close attention to detail. Good salvage reports are as much the mark of the professional salvor as is a well-executed salvage operation.
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CHAPTER 5 STRANDED SHIPS

5-1 INTRODUCTION
A stranded ship is in a position not intended by her designers, builders, or operators, and is subject to very different forces and conditions than when in normal service; she is more like a poorly designed, inadequately protected, and usually inappropriately placed breakwater than a ship at sea. Like a ship being drydocked, part of a stranded ships weight is supported by the surrounding water, part by the ground. The portion of the ships weight supported by the ground is ground reaction (R), or tons aground; it is equal to the lost buoyancy. The ground reaction distribution is uneven and unpredictable. There are four major effects of ground reaction:
The loss of buoyancy alters hydrostatic characteristics and hull girder loading. The upward force of ground reaction at the keel causes a virtual rise in the center of gravity. Extremely high local loading with damage or penetration of the hull can occur, particularly on rocky bottoms. Ground reaction holds the ship stationary; she cannot respond to or fall away from disturbing forces, such as waves, as she does when aoat.
The conditions of a stranding are seldom fully dened in the beginning and often are not completely dened during the salvage operation. The stranding condition and the environment are the principal sources of forces on a stranded ship. Stranding salvage is time-critical; environmental conditions may improve or worsen with time, but the condition of a stranded ship steadily deteriorates.
5-2 THE STRANDING CONDITION
The way the ship lies on the ground and her position relative to the seaoor and coastline inuence the casualty in two ways:
The way the ship lies on, and is supported by, the ground is a principal indicator of the effort required to free her. Distribution of the ships weight between residual buoyancy and ground reaction affects stability and strength.
The ships position relative to the shore and underwater features can either intensify or mitigate environmental effects. Specic considerations are:
Magnitude and distribution of ground reaction. Changes in list and trim caused by the stranding. The area of the ship in contact with the bottom. Depth of water under and around the ship. Channel depthdepth of water between the ship and unobstructed deep water. Position and attitude of the ship relative to the ground and the shore.
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5-3 GROUND REACTION Ground reaction varies; any changes to the buoyancy or weight of the ship change the ground reaction. The salvor will attempt to reduce the ground reaction enough to oat the ship (R = 0) or to allow the available horizontal force to pull the ship off her strand. The salvor may also increase the ground reaction temporarily to prevent the ship from being driven farther ashore. 5-3.1 Distribution and Center of Ground Reaction. Denition of ground reaction distribution is useful because:
The ground reaction must be added to the load to evaluate the effect of stranding on local and hull girder stresses. Location of the center of ground reaction must be estimated to determine the effect of weight changes on the ground reaction. The ship will pivot about the center of ground reaction when acted upon by lateral forces.
5-3.1.1 Center of Ground Reaction. The forces on a grounded ship are diagramed in Figure 5-1. If the ship is aground over only one segment of its length, the center of ground reaction can be found by summing moments about a convenient point, for example, LCG: Bd1 = Rd2 d2 = where: d1 d2 = = distance from LCB to LCG distance from LCG to the center of ground reaction Bd1 R
W
G B WL
B
d1
d2
Figure 5-1. Forces on a Stranded Ship.
The centers of gravity and buoyancy are in vertical line in a oating ship. LCG can therefore be determined from LCB. LCB can be taken from hydrostatic curves or tables if the prestranding drafts are known. If the casualty was trimmed prior to grounding, LCB from hydrostatic data must be corrected, as described in Paragraph 1-6.6: BB1 = where: BB1 BML t L = = = = movement of LCB because of trim longitudinal metacentric radius trim length between perpendiculars BML(t) L
With the prestranding LCG established, LCG movement caused by subsequent weight changes can be determined. LCB aground can be found from the buoyancy curve or taken from hydrostatic data for the grounded drafts and corrected for trim. If hydrostatic data are not available, but LCF and MT1 can be estimated (see Paragraphs 1-6.2.3 and 1-6.4), the center of ground reaction can be estimated by assuming the ship trims about the LCF: Bd1 = Rd2 d2 = where: d2 d1 = = distance from LCF to the center of ground reaction distance from LCB to LCF Bd1 R
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5-3.1.2 Ground Reaction Distribution. The exact distribution of ground reaction depends on seaoor composition and topography, hull deformation, and weight and buoyancy distribution of the ship. Because these cannot be quantied, ground reaction distribution cannot be determined accurately. The simplest assumption is a uniform distribution of ground reaction along the grounded length: R r = lg This assumption is probably valid for the situations shown in Figure 5-2. On a uniformly sloping seaoor, as illustrated in Figure 5-3, the ship should bear most heavily on the upslope end. Grounding pressure (Pr) increases from zero at the point of last contact to a maximum at the point of rst contact. A reasonable estimate for the grounding pressure distribution in this case would be a right triangle with height (Pmax) equal to: Pmax = where: Pmax = R lg bavg maximum grounding pressure, lton/ft2 = ground reaction, lton = grounded length, feet = average breadth of contact area over grounded length, feet 2R lgbavg
WL
r= r
R __ lg
lg
WL
r= r
R __ lg
lg
L Figure 5-2 Uniform Ground Reaction Distribution.
WL
Unit ground reaction (r) at any point is then: r = Pr b where: b = breadth of contact area, feet
Pr L P r=0
R
lg 2R __ b lg
Figure 5-3. Asymmetric Ground Reaction Distribution.
If the center of ground reaction is at or near the center of the grounded length, ground reaction may be assumed to be distributed symmetrically about this point. The form of the distribution can only be estimated. The prudent assumption is the distribution that gives the largest bending moment. If the center of ground reaction lies towards one end of the grounded length, the ground reaction distribution is weighted towards that end in an asymmetrical shape. Salvors must be alert to ship responses that do not match expected responses closely. Analysis of these responses can lead to a more accurate approximation of ground reaction distribution and the location of the center of pressure.
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5-3.2 Determining Ground Reaction. The magnitude of ground reaction is needed to determine the amount of work and methods to reoat the ship and to evaluate casualty stability and strength. Ground reaction is determined by comparing the attitudes and positions of the ship before and after stranding. The ground reaction acting at the keel causes the ship to rise bodily and to trim. Ground reaction is determined by one of the ve methods described in the following paragraphs. Most methods of calculating ground reaction require knowledge of the ships drafts before stranding. These drafts are often not readily available. Drafts at the time of departure from the last port are found in the ships log. From these draftsand known weight changes between the time of sailing and the time of strandingdrafts immediately before stranding can be estimated. Poststranding drafts should be measured as accurately as possible. All drafts and hydrostatic functions must be on the same basis, i.e., fresh water or saltwater. It is usually simplest to base all calculations on the type of water in which the ship is stranded. 5-3.2.1 Residual Buoyancy Distribution Method. Analysis of as-grounded weight and buoyancy distribution can determine ground reaction and help to determine its distribution and center of pressure. The area between the weight curve and the buoyancy curve for the stranded waterline is the total ground reaction. While the area between the weight and buoyancy curves is equal to the ground reaction, the shape of this area does not dene the ground reaction distribution precisely. The load curve formed by the sum of weight, buoyancy, and ground reaction curves is not zero at every point, even though overall equilibrium exists. For equilibrium to exist, ground reaction must be distributed so that the combined center of buoyancy and ground reaction is in vertical line with the center of gravity. By distributing ground reaction increments over the grounded length so that the combined center of buoyancy and ground reaction is in line with the center of gravity, and applying the principles discussed in Paragraph 5-3.1, the ground reaction distribution may be described with reasonable accuracy. This method is well suited for use with computers and automated hull form databases. The buoyancy curve is developed from section areas taken from Bonjeans Curves or calculated from offsets. For most strandings, entering drafts can be determined by linear interpolation between forward and after drafts by either calculative or graphical means. If the ship is noticeably hogged or sagged, the buoyancy curve should be developed from drafts taken at several stations. 5-3.2.2 Change of Displacement Method. Ground reaction can be estimated by entering the Curves of Form or Hydrostatic Table with the drafts before and after grounding and reading the displacements for the two conditions: R = b where: R b g = = = ground reaction displacement immediately before stranding displacement after stranding g
If the stranded ship is trimmed, a correction to displacement for trim should be made by the method described in Appendix B. The change of displacement method is the simplest means of determining ground reaction and is very accurate for most strandings. If there is no signicant hull deection or trim, ground reaction determined by change of displacement method should agree closely with the residual buoyancy curve method.
df dr
FP
WL2 WL1 L
LCF
STf R
St
5-3.2.3 Change of Draft Forward Method. The change of draft forward Figure 5-4. Change of Draft Forward Method. method considers the ground reaction as equivalent to a weight removal that causes both parallel rise and change of trim. The center of ground reaction must be known or estimated with reasonable accuracy to determine the trimming lever. The distances used in the following derivation are shown in Figure 5-4: Change of draft forward = change because of bodily rise + change forward because of trim
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Tbodily rise =
R TPI Rdr MT1 , Tforward, trim = Rdr df MT1 L R(dr)(df) MT1(L) R(dr)(df (TPI) R (L)(MT1) (dr)(df)(TPI) df L t
t =
T f =
R TPI R TPI
R(L)(MT1)
TPI(MT1)(L) Tf (TPI)(MT1)(L) (L)(MT1) (dr)(df)(TPI)
TPI(MT1)(L)
R = where: t Tf df dr R MT1 TPI = = = = = = =
total change of trim, in. change of draft forward = Tfb - Tfa distance from the center of otation to the forward perpendicular distance from the center of otation to the center of ground reaction ground reaction, tons moment to trim one inch tons per inch immersion 1 Tf (MT 1) (TPI) L dr = L (MT 1) TPI (df ) R
The basic relationship can also be solved for dr:
If R can be calculated by other methods, dr can be calculated and compared with values obtained by the methods described in Paragraph 5-3.1.1. 5-3.2.4 Tons per Inch Immersion Method. A simple, but often satisfactory estimate of ground reaction can be made by multiplying the change in mean draft on stranding by the tons per inch immersion (TPI): R = Tmbs Tmas TPI where: Tmbs Tmas = = mean draft before stranding mean draft after stranding
The TPI method is often used because mean drafts and TPI can be estimated in the absence of detailed information. This method considers only the bodily rise of the ship and is suitable for a rst estimate of ground reaction when trim has not been changed greatly by the stranding. If the stranding causes a signicant change of trim, the accuracy of the method can be improved by correcting the mean draft for trim by the method described in Appendix B. 5-3.2.5 Change of Trim Method. The change of trim method is most useful when the total trim exceeds one percent of the ships length, the center of pressure of the ground reaction is known or can be estimated with reasonable accuracy, and change of trim is the dominant effect of the stranding. Ground reaction is treated as a force that causes only a change of trim. MT1(t) R = dr where: t = total change of trim, inches
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EXAMPLE 5-1 CALCULATION OF GROUND REACTION
This example compares ground reaction calculated by the residual buoyancy method for two identical ships stranded under different conditions with results obtained by the four approximate methods. Ground reaction for the two conditions is calculated by the approximate methods in Example 5-3 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010). The initial conditions and results are summarized here. For both cases, drafts before stranding are 14' 6" forward and aft; prestranding displacement from the Curves of Form is 3,475 ltons. This value accounts for the molded volume, plus the volumes of appendages such as the shell plating, sonar dome, bilge keels, propeller, rudder, n stabilizers, etc. Displacement volumes determined by integrating section areas from the FFG-7 Bonjeans Curves include the volume of the shell plating, but do not include volumes of other appendages. Deducting the poststranding displacement, determined by integration, from the displacement given by the curves of form will therefore give an erroneous value for ground reaction. Actual buoyancy while aground is calculated by adding to the integrated buoyancy an estimate for appendage displacement determined by multiplying full load displacement by an appendage allowance. full load = 3,951 lton (from DC Book, see Appendix H) Appendage allowance = 0.017 (from Table 1-3, Paragraph 1-5.9.1) appendages = 3,951(0.017) = 67.2 lton a. The previously described FFG-7 Class ship strands on a gently sloping beach for much of its length. Calculate ground reaction by the residual buoyancy method and compare results with those obtained by the approximate methods (FFG-7 Bonjeans Curves are given in Figure FO-3). The drafts after stranding are 13' 10" forward and 14' 0" aft. Ground reactions as calculated by the indicated method (Example 5-3, Salvage Manual, Volume 1): (1) Change in displacement (2) Change in draft forward (3) Tons per inch immersion (4) Change of trim 225 tons 93.8 tons 227.5 tons 20.4 tons Displacement volume at the stranded drafts is calculated below by numerical integration (Simpsons Rule), using section areas taken from the Bonjeans Curves as ordinates. Drafts for each station are determined by linear interpolation between forward and after drafts, assuming no signicant hull deection. The results obtained by the change of displacement method and the tons per inch immersion method are slightly lower, but agree closely with that of the residual buoyancy method, as would be expected in this case. The results obtained by the change in draft method and the change of trim method are very low and obviously inaccurate, because the center of pressure is not clearly dened and small errors in estimating its position cause large errors in the nal answer. The change of trim method is doubly inappropriate; the center of ground reaction is poorly dened, and bodily rise rather than trim is the dominant effect of the stranding. A reasonable estimate of ground reaction is 230 long tons 10 tons.
FFG-7 Displacement Integration on 21 ordinates (Simpsons Rule) Station Draft Ordinate (Section Area) A 0 49 118 184 243 294 340 384 421 445 461 458 436 409 358 294 225 158 99 49 6 Simpsons Multiplier m 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 (V) = Functions of Volume (V) 0 196 236 736 486 1176 680 1536 842 1780 922 1832 872 1636 716 1176 450 632 198 196 6 16304
T
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 13.83 13.84 13.85 13.86 13.87 13.87 13.88 13.89 13.90 13.91 13.92 13.92 13.93 13.94 13.95 13.96 13.97 13.97 13.98 13.99 14.00
h = 20.4 ft
= h/3(V) = 20.4/3(16,304) = 110,867.2 ft3
D = /35 + app = 110,867.2/35 + 67.2 = 3,234.8 3,235 lton
R = before - after = 3,475 - 3,235 = 240 lton
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b.
The previously described FFG-7 Class ship strands on a pinnacle. Drafts after stranding are 11' 6" forward and 15' 10" aft (at draft marks). Calculate ground reaction by the residual buoyancy method and compare results with those obtained by the approximate methods. Ground reactions as calculated by the indicated method (Example 5-3, Salvage Manual, Volume 1): (1) Change in displacement (2) Change in draft forward (3) Tons per inch immersion (4) Change of trim 200 tons 221.4 tons 165.8 tons 220 tons
Tf tbetween marks TFP TFP TAP TAP tbetween perpendiculars

where:
= 11' 6" = 11.5',Ta = 15' 10" = 15.83' = 15.83 - 11.5 = 4.33 = 4' 4" = Tf - [(dFP/dM) tbetween marks] = 11.5 ft - (8.5/392)4.33 ft = 11.41' = Ta + [(dAP/dM) tbetween marks] = 15.83 ft + (7.5/392)4.33 ft = 15.91' = TAP - TFP = 15.91 - 11.41 = 4.5' = 4' 6" draft at forward perpendicular distance from forward perpendicular to forward marks distance between draft marks draft at after perpendicular distance from after perpendicular to after draft marks
TFP dFP dM TAP dAP
= = = = =
Because of the extreme trim of the stranded ship, drafts observed at the draft marks differ signicantly from those at the perpendiculars. The damage control book (see Appendix H for excerpts from the DC Book) shows that the forward draft marks are 8.5 feet abaft the forward perpendicular and the after marks are 7.5 feet forward of the after perpendicular. Drafts at the perpendiculars are calculated from observed drafts:
Displacement volume at the stranded drafts is calculated by numerical integration (Simpsons Rule), using section areas taken from the Bonjeans Curves as ordinates. Drafts for each station are determined by linear interpolation between forward and after drafts, assuming no signicant hull deection.
FFG-7 Displacement Integration on 21 ordinates (Simpsons Rule) Station Draft Ordinate (Section Area) A 0 35 95 153 205 257 303 350 392 423 450 455 445 425 383 330 265 203 151 95 49 Simpsons Multiplier m 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 Functions of Volume (V) 0 140 190 612 410 1028 606 1400 784 1692 900 1820 890 1700 766 1320 530 812 302 380 49 16,331
T
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11.41 11.64 11.86 12.09 12.31 12.54 12.76 12.99 13.21 13.44 13.66 13.89 14.11 14.37 14.56 14.79 15.01 15.24 15.46 15.69 15.91
(V) =
h
D D
= 20.4 ft = h/3(V) = 20.4/3(16,331) = 111,050.8 ft3 = /35 = 111,050.8/35 = 3,172.88 3,173 lton = /35 + app = 111,050.8/35 + 67.2 = 3,240.1 lton = before - after = 3,475 - 3,240.5 = 234.5 lton
Because of the extreme trim, the results obtained by the ve methods vary considerably. The tons per inch immersion method especially gives results with questionable accuracy. The change in trim method and change in draft forward method are well suited to this stranding condition and are in good agreement with the residual buoyancy method. A reasonable working estimate of ground reaction would be 230 lton, 10 tons. The wide range of results obtained in this example emphasizes four important points about ground reaction calculations:
All ground reaction calculations are approximate and are subject to error. All calculations should be checked by another method. Salvors must evaluate the casualty and the conditions of the stranding to select acceptably accurate methods to calculate ground reaction. Unless there is signicant hull deection, the appropriate approximate methods are nearly as accurate as the residual buoyancy method.
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5-3.2.6 Summary of Ground Reaction Calculations. The residual buoyancy distribution method is the only truly accurate method of determining ground reaction when the hull is signicantly deected, although the change of displacement method can give results nearly as accurate if the corrections for trim and hull deections described in Paragraph B-2.1 are applied. Only the residual buoyancy method gives a reliable estimate of LCB, which is the key to locating LCR. Given accurate drafts at stations and Bonjeans Curves or automated hull data, residual buoyancy and ground reaction can be calculated in a reasonably short time. If the buoyancy curve must be developed manually from offsets, the marginally superior accuracy of the residual buoyancy distribution method over the approximate methods does not warrant the extra work. The work can be greatly reduced by using computers and automated hull form databases. When weight and buoyancy curves are drawn for strength analysis, ground reaction should be determined by the residual buoyancy distribution method. The approximate methods of calculating ground reaction are used to provide quick initial estimates, when the data required for the residual buoyancy distribution method is not available, or when the stranding condition is such that one of the approximate methods gives sufficiently accurate ground reaction estimates and additional work is not justied. For example, the change in displacement method will give very accurate ground reaction estimates for ships stranded on an even keel, with little trim, and without noticeable hull deection. The four approximate methods are not equally applicable to all strandings. Two methods of calculationthe change of displacement and change of draft forward methodstake both bodily rise and trim into consideration. Their use is appropriate in all strandings, however, the change in draft forward method may not give accurate results if the center of ground reaction cannot be estimated accurately. The tons per inch immersion method considers only bodily rise, and the change in trim method considers only trim. Their use is appropriate when either bodily rise or trim is the dominant effect. The following factors are important when calculating ground reaction:
The residual buoyancy distribution method using Bonjeans Curves gives the most accurate results. All methods of calculation other than the residual buoyancy curve method give approximate results. Curves of Form or tabulated information are preferred over nomograms from Navy Damage Control Books as sources of hydrostatic data. The accuracy of draft readings may be only 6 inches and the center of ground reaction poorly dened. The results can be no more accurate than the basic data. Ground reaction should always be calculated by two appropriate methods and the results compared. The results may not be the same, but should be reasonably close. A correction to displacement for trim should be used with the change in displacement method. The change of draft forward and change of trim methods require that the center of ground reaction be known or estimated with some accuracy. The tons per inch immersion method requires a minimum of data and may be used for a rough rst estimate. A correction for trim improves accuracy. Accurate results should be expected only when there is little trim. The most accurate results should be expected from the change in trim method when trim is greater than one percent of the ships length.
5-3.2.7 Stranding on Multiple Points. When a ship is aground on two widely separated points, such as two pinnacles or sandbars, total ground reaction can be resolved into two reactions by summing moments about one of the grounding points. To sum weight and buoyancy moments, the locations of LCG and LCB must be known with fair accuracy. Ships stranded on more than two points can be treated as continuous beams under a distributed load (weight minus buoyancy), but this is difficult as the three points seldom lie in the same plane. If hull deection can be calculated, it may be possible to solve for the individual reactions by superposition, as described in Paragraph 2-3.6.
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5-3.3 Weight Changes and Ground Reaction. A grounded ship is restrained and cannot sink, rise, or trim in response to weight changes as she would when aoat. Floodwater or other weights added after grounding alter ground reaction and its distribution, affecting stability and hull strength. Draft will not be affected unless the ship lies on a bottom that will compact under increased weight. The inability of the ship to respond masks the fact that weight changes made while aground will affect oating drafts, trim, stability, and strength. It is important to evaluate the attitude, stability, and hull loading the ship will have when reoated, as well as to analyze the effects of weight changes on strength and stability of the grounded ship. In all cases, the sum of the buoyancy and ground reaction exactly equals the weight: W = B R
CASE 1 - SHIP SUPPORTED ALONG ITS ENTIRE LENGTH.
R CASE 2 - SHIP SUPPORTED AT SINGLE POINT.
Changes in weight must be matched by equivalent changes in the sum of the ground reaction and buoyancy. If the ship cannot change her position to change buoyancy, all the change must be in the ground reaction. If, however, the ship can trim and change buoyancy, ground reaction may increase, decrease, or remain the same depending upon where the weight change occurs and the way the bottom supports the ship.
P1
R CASE 3 - SHIP SUPPORTED ALONG A PORTION OF ITS LENGTH.
Figure 5-5. Ground Restraints on a Stranded Ship.
In Case 1 of Figure 5-5, the ship is supported along its entire length. The ship is completely restrained from gaining buoyancy by either sinking or trimming. The change in ground reaction must be the same as any change in weight. In Case 2 of Figure 5-5, the ship is aground at a single point. Draft cannot increase at point P. The ship cannot trim about its center of otation but is constrained to rotate about P. The effect of weight additions on buoyancy and ground reaction depends on the location of the weight change:
Weight added between the center of otation and P will increase draft aft and decrease draft forward as the ship rotates about P. Because the ship is rotating about a point other than its center of otation, both total buoyant force and buoyancy distribution change. As buoyancy changes, there is a corresponding change in ground reaction. Weight can be added at a point such that at P the decrease in draft because of rotation is greater than the increase in draft caused by parallel sinkage ground reaction is reduced. For weight added farther forward, the decrease in draft at P because of trim is less than the increase because of parallel sinkage. As the ship is constrained to rotate about P, the added weight is borne by increases in both buoyancy and ground reaction. Weight added or removed at P causes no rotation, and thus no change in buoyancythe change in ground reaction will equal the weight change.
Stranded ships are usually supported by the bottom along some portion of their length, as in Case 3 of Figure 5-5. In this case, the point P about which the ship can rotate shifts to the end of the area supported by the ground. It can be seen from the illustration that the location of the point about which the ship rotates depends on the direction of rotation. The ship is restrained so that it cannot increase draft by the bow, only by the stern. If the ship does not rotate, the change in ground reaction will be the same as the weight change. If the ship rotates, it will gain or lose buoyancy, but the sum of buoyancy and ground reaction will always equal the ships total weight. The preceding discussion assumes that the ship and supporting ground are perfectly rigid bodies. In reality, both ships and seaoors are subject to elastic and plastic deformation. Loss or gain of buoyancy resulting from elastic deection of the hull girder may be of the same order of magnitude as buoyancy changes resulting from weight additions or removals. On easily compactible seaoors, added weight may initially cause an increase in ground reaction that is mitigated as the ship settles into a depression and regains some of the lost buoyancy over a period of days or weeks. The seaoor may behave as a very dense uid, changing consistency and behavior in response to the loading applied by the ships weight and to environmental forces. In actual strandings, the support is seldom as clearly dened as shown in Figure 5-5. The point at which support ends may not be readily identied. The point about which the ship rotates will probably lie somewhere between the center of pressure of the ground reaction and the end of support, depending on the type of soil and the grounding conditions, but may move as the operation progresses. The point of rotation can sometimes be located by carefully observing drafts along the grounded length as the tide rises and falls. If the ship is pivoting about a hard point, the change in draft at the pivot point will be equal to the change of tide.
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5-3.3.1 Neutral Loading Point. When a weight is added to a oating ship at a point other than the LCF, there is a point on the opposite side of the LCF where the opposing changes in draft caused by trim and parallel sinkage are exactly equal and draft remains constant. By applying this principal to a stranded ship, a neutral loading point (NP), where weight can be added or removed without changing the ground reaction, can be dened. There is no tendency for the hull to move at the point of ground reaction, so ground reaction remains unchanged. The location of the neutral loading point is found by the following analysis. The referenced dimensions are shown in Figure 5-6.
dn
dr
NP
LCF
R CENTER OF GROUND REACTION
Figure 5-6. Neutral Loading Point.
T at R from parallel sinkage = T at R from change of trim Tparallel sinkage = w TPI wdn dr MT1 L
T =
wdn MT1
, Ttrim =
= solving for dn : dn = where: dn MT1 L TPI dr w = = = = = =
wdndr w = TPI MT1(L)
( MT1 )( L ) ( TPI )( dr )
distance from LCF to NP moment to change trim one inch length between perpendiculars tons per inch immersion distance from the center of ground reaction to LCF (location of LCF should be based on stranded drafts) weight added or removed
The neutral loading point is a datum which helps predict the effect of weight changes at other locations. Weights added aft of the neutral loading point will decrease ground reaction; weights added forward will increase ground reaction. The opposite is true for weight removed. As weight is added or removed, the ship will trim; if trim is sufficient to alter MT1, TPI, or the position of LCF, the location of the neutral loading point must be recalculated. As grounded length relative to length between perpendiculars increases, the neutral loading point analysis becomes less applicable. As grounded length increases, dr decreases, driving NP away from LCF; in general, if the center of ground reaction is less than L/8 from the center of otation, the NP will be off the ship. The ship will have little tendency to trim, and the change in ground reaction will equal the change in weight.
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5-3.3.2 Changes in Ground Reaction from Weight Changes. Any change in weight must result in an equal change in the sum of buoyancy and ground reaction. If a stranded ship does not rotate in response to a weight change, the buoyancy is unchanged. The entire weight change is taken up by a change in ground reaction (R = w). If the ship rotates about a point other than the center of otation, buoyancy will change. Part of the weight change is reected in the change in buoyancy and the remainder in a change of ground reaction. Because the pivot point can change and is often difficult to dene, determination of the change in ground reaction from weight changes is a complex and inexact calculation. Approximate predictions of change in ground reaction caused by weight change can be made if it is assumed that the ship pivots about a stationary center of ground reaction. The following relationships can then be established:
NEUTRAL LOADING POINT
CHANGE IN GROUND REACTION
+W
WEIGHT ADDITION
-W -d W NLP d W
CHANGE IN GROUND REACTION
Weights added or removed at the pivot point (center of ground reaction) cause a change in ground reaction equal to the weight change, with no change in buoyancy (trim). Weights added or removed at the neutral loading point cause a change in buoyancy equal to the weight change, with no change in ground reaction. The proportion of the weight change taken up by change in ground reaction can be assumed to vary linearly from 0 at the neutral loading point to 100 percent at the center of ground reaction, as shown in Figure 5-7.
R dnr +W
WEIGHT REMOVAL
-W
Figure 5-7. Effects of Weight Changes on Ground Reaction.
The change in ground reaction (R) resulting from a weight change at any point along the length of the ship can thus be predicted by the following relationship: d R = w d nr where: w d dnr = = = = weight added or removed distance from the added or removed weight to the neutral loading point distance from the neutral loading point to the center of ground reaction dn + dr
Although this relationship and the plot in Figure 5-7 imply that removing weights forward of the center of ground reaction will reduce ground reaction by an amount greater than the weight removed, this is true only for a ship grounded on a pinnacle with a signicant portion of the ship forward of the pinnacle. Even in this case, the relation between weight removed forward of the center of ground reaction and the change in ground reaction is not linear. For points aft of the center of ground reaction, the linear relationship will give reasonable estimates of change in ground reaction if the ship is able to trim. There is no empirical data to show the actual effect of weight changes on ground reaction. Predictions of change in ground reaction and casualty response to weight changes must be based on best estimates of the relative effects of seaoor consistency, hull deection, grounded length, etc.
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Figure 5-8 compares idealized weight change curves with probable actual curves. The sense of impending motion and the location of the pivot point must be known to predict changes in ground reaction resulting from weight changes. Assuming rigid body behavior for Case 1, weight added aft of P1 will tend to induce rotation about P1. Weight added forward of P1 can cause neither sinkage nor rotation. The point (P1, w) is thus located on the R curve; the solid straight line drawn through this point and the X axis at the neutral loading point denes the curve in the region between P1 and the after perpendicular. Between P1 and P2, the curve is at and equal to w. The dotted line on this plot shows the probable actual R curve, as inuenced by hull deection and hull and bottom deformation.
NLP
LCF P1
P2
IDEALIZED R +W PROBABLE ACTUAL R R 0
-W
CASE 1. WEIGHT ADDITION AFT OF P1 CAUSING ROTATION ABOUT P1, WEIGHT ADDITION FORWARD OF P1 CAUSING NO ROTATION
In Case 2, removing weight aft of LCF will tend to induce rotation about P2. The point (P2, -w) rather than (P1, -w), and 0 at the +W neutral loading point, dene the R curve for weight removal aft. When weight is removed forward, parallel rise tends to cause rotation about P2, while the trimming R 0 moment tends to cause rotation about LCF. WEIGHT REMOVAL CAUSING ROTATION The effect of ground reaction can force ABOUT P2 rotation about P1, P2, or possibly LCF, depending on the relative magnitude of draft -W changes from parallel rise/sinkage and trim. Weight removals that would decrease draft CASE 2. WEIGHT REMOVAL AFT CAUSING ROTATION at P2 to less than the water depth, but leave ABOUT P2 , WEIGHT REMOVAL FORWARD CAUSING ROTATION ABOUT P1 OR P2 draft at P1 greater than the water depth, will WEIGHT REMOVAL cause rotation about P1. Weight removals FORWARD CAUSING ROTATION ABOUT P1 that would reduce draft at P2 to less than the water depth and leave draft at P1 only Figure 5-8. Effects of Weight Changes on Ground Reaction. slightly greater than the water depth may cause rotation about LCF or a point between LCF and P1. Weight removed from the forward portion of ships stranded with extreme trim may cause rotation about P2 if the parallel rise "outweighs" the trimming moment. An indication of the sense of rotation can be obtained by summing moments about the center of ground reaction.
The changes in forward and after drafts are predicted by relating the change in buoyancy to a corresponding change in mean draft: B Tm = TPI d + dr Ta = Tm a dr Tf = Tm where: B Tm = Ta da = change in buoyancy = w - R dr change in mean draft Tf = = change in draft aft df = distance from LCF to after perpendicular = distance from LCF to pivot point (center of ground reaction) change in draft forward = distance from center of ground reaction to forward perpendicular df dr
When the center of ground reaction is well forward, Ta is nearly twice Tm, and Tf is negligible.
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Changes in drafts should be checked after weight changes and while major weight changes are in progress. If, after accounting for differences because of tide, draft changes are not as predicted, the ship is not pivoting about the center of ground reaction and actual change in ground reaction is different from predicted. For a ship grounded forward:
Change in draft aft less than expected indicates a greater-than-predicted change in ground reaction. Change in draft aft greater than expected indicates a less-than-predicted change in ground reaction. No change in forward and after drafts indicates that entire weight change was taken up by change in ground reaction; the ship is unable to trim, or the moment induced by the weight change was not great enough to actually trim the ship.
Ground reaction after a major weight change should be determined by calculating the drafts the ship would have aoat. Ground reaction can then be recalculated by the methods described in Paragraph 5-3.2 based on these drafts and the drafts observed following the weight change. Estimates of ground reaction distribution and center can be rened by comparing predicted ground reaction with that calculated following a weight change. Both ship and seaoor are deformed to some extent, so rigid body analysis is not exact. For ships stranded on rm seaoors, the error introduced is small and the method gives satisfactorily accurate predictions of change in ground reaction. In soft seaoors, increased ground reaction will be less than predicted because of bottom deformation. 5-3.3.3 Use of Weight and Buoyancy Curves. The sum of the areas under the buoyancy and ground reaction curves must equal the area under the weight curve (adjusted for weight changes). The combined center of the two areas must be under the center of gravity. Analysis of weight and buoyancy can help determine how close the actual change in ground reaction is to the idealized relationship. A buoyancy curve corresponding to the drafts predicted by the linear relationship should be drawn. If the resulting ground reaction is not equal to that predicted by the neutral loading point relationship, iterative adjustments of the predicted drafts and location of center of ground reaction can bring the two quantities closer. 5-4 ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES ON STRANDINGS Environmental forces on a stranding include effects of the sea bottom and uid forces of the surrounding water. Fluid forces on a stranded casualty result from the tide, currents, waves, swells, and surf. Wind can be a signicant factor, especially during and after reoating. Environmental forces are generally independent of one another. Forces may be steady, cyclic, or irregular and may vary seasonally or over short periods in response to local weather. 5-4.1 Seaoor Effects. Ships strand on rock, coral, hardpan, sand, mud, or combinations of these. Seaoor characteristics affect the nature of the stranding and the work required for reoating. The following features are particularly important:
Composition of the seaoor under the ship. Slope of the seaoor under and to seaward of the ship. Movement of the seaoor in the vicinity of the casualty.
Soils are classed as cohesive (clay) or cohesionless (sand, gravel, silt), based on their behavior under load. Load responses, such as friction forces, bearing strength, resistance to lateral ow, etc., develop differently in cohesive and cohesionless soils. The general characteristics of soils and means of identifying soil types are discussed in Paragraph 3-7. 5-4.1.1 Friction and Freeing Force. Friction between the seaoor and the casualtys hull must be overcome to pull the ship free. On rock, coral, and cohesionless soils, the frictional force resisting movement of a stranded ship is a function of the ground reaction component normal to the bottom and a coefficient of friction (). For the shallow bottom slopes encountered in most strandings, the normal component of ground reaction is essentially equal to the ground reaction (R) and: Ff = R
Table 5-1. Coefficients of Friction for Strandings.
where: Ff = friction force Exact coefficients of friction for seaoor and shore soils are unavailable. The coefficients of static friction for strandings given in Table 51 are based on the operational experience of salvors over many years.
Seafloor Type Coefficient of Static Friction, Remarks
The high coefficients for rock are for the commonly encountered rough, Densely consolidated sand and uneven rock that may impale the hull. Rock protrusions of all sizes are clay, may include gravel invariably sheared as the ship is retracted, leading to high resistance to Coral 0.5 to 0.8 Lower values for dead or movement. In rare cases of stranding on relative at, even, massive pulverized coral formations, lower coefficients may be justied. Under industrial conRock 0.8 to 1.5 See accompanying text ditions similar to ship strandings, coefficients of iron and steel against stone range from 0.3 to 1.0, depending on the texture of the stone. Heavy mats of algae or other vegetation, or thick coatings of heavy oils and other lubricants may reduce friction signicantly. Because of the uncertainty in determining coefficient of friction, coefficients outside the ranges given in Table 5-1 should be applied with caution.
Silt or mud Sand Gravel or pebble Hardpan
0.2 to 0.3 0.25 to 0.4 0.4 to 0.5 0.5 to 0.8
Suction effects not included increases with grain size
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For cohesive soils, friction is a function of contact area and soil shear strength: Ff = sA where: s A = = soil shear strength area of hull in contact with the seaoor
The relationships for frictional force apply strictly only if soil properties are constant along the grounded portion of the ship. Because soil properties and bearing pressures are not uniform under stranded ships, total frictional force is the sum of the frictional forces on each incremental area. Soil properties and bearing pressures can be affected by characteristics of the stranding. It is virtually impossible to quantify the effect of these variables in the eld. Friction estimates based on rigid body analysis and average values for or s may differ from actual friction by 20 percent. In most strandings, friction will increase slightly with time as the thin water lm that initially lies between the ship and the seaoor is gradually squeezed out. The water lm dissipates more rapidly on cohesionless soils and rock than on cohesive, impermeable soils; in any event, coefficient of friction is essentially constant after a day or two. There is thus some justication for making an immediate retraction attempt shortly after stranding if the ship is not impaled, or seriously damaged, if there is sufficient water depth to seaward, and if there are sufficient assets available to retract the casualty and control her so that she does not restrand, perhaps in a less favorable condition. If stranded on sand or similar loose sediments, a ship should make only a brief attempt to back off under her own power. When backing, the propeller stream impinges on the vessels after hull and quickly loses velocity. Sediments carried by the water drawn into the propeller are deposited under the stern and forced under the ship and along its sides. If there is any doubt that a casualty could control herself while backing off an exposed shore, she is better off securing her position by ballasting down and carrying anchors to GROUNDED LENGTHS AP FP seaward than attempting to back herself off and possibly broaching. Paragraph 5-7 and the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) describe methods used to reoat stranded ships; the Salvage Manual includes a detailed discussion of the advantages and disadATHWARTSHIPS COMPONENT OF vantages of immediate retraction attempts.
TURNING PULL
5-4.1.2 Turning Pull. It is sometimes necessary to turn or slew a stranded vessel before retracting so that she can be pulled towards fair water. As the force required to turn a casualty is often much less than that required to drag it, turning or wrenching may be coordinated with a direct pull to induce motion that will reduce friction from static to dynamic levels. If the ground reaction distribution or coefficient of friction is not uniform, the equilibrium equations take the general form:
TURNING AXIS l1 l2 l3 FP d1 d0 Figure 5-9. Turning Pull. d2 d3
AP H
F = 0 = H M = 0 = H dH
1 r1 l1
2 r2 l2
3 r3 l3 3 r3 l3 d3
1 r1 l1 d1
2 r2 l2 d2
where H is the turning pull, dH is the distance from the turning axis to the point of application of the turning pull, and i, li, and di are the coefficient of friction, length, and distance from the center of ground reaction to the turning axis for the indicated grounded lengths, as shown in Figure 5-9. To obtain a solution, all unknown distances must be expressed in terms of a single variable. If certain assumptions can be made, turning pull can be estimated by the simultaneous solution of equations derived by summing equilibrium forces and moments about the turning axis, as demonstrated in the following example.
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EXAMPLE 5-2 CALCULATION OF TURNING PULL
LBP = 408 FRAME SPACING = 1 173 AP FR 235
GROUNDED LENGTH 155 FR 80 80 FP
TURNING AXIS FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE TO TURNING = r(155-x)2 2
AP H 155 - x x FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE TO TURNING = rx2 2 Figure 5-10. Stranding Case for Example 5-2.
FP
Calculate the required turning pull for the stranded FFG-7 shown in Figure 5-10. Assume the turning pull H is applied at right angles to the ships centerline and that ground reaction is uniformly distributed over the grounded length. Unit ground reaction:
From the summation of forces, H can be expressed in terms of x:
H = 155 r
2rx
Substituting this expression into the summation of moments:
R / 155
0 = 2 ( 155 r = r ( 77655 2 r x ) ( 328 1312 x
Friction forces are expressed as the product of the coefficient of friction (), unit ground reaction (r), and an appropriate grounded length. For the stranding shown, the unknown distance from the turning axis to one end of the grounded length is designated x. With turning pull (H) and location of the turning axis (x) unknown, a system of two equations with two unknowns is developed:
x)
24025 r
310 r x
2rx 2
= 101680 r 1312 r x 310 r x + 4 r x 2 24025 r 310 r x 2 r x 2 2x 2)
The resulting quadratic equation is solved for x:
F = 0 = H
= H 155 r
rx
r (155
x)
2rx r (155
x =
b b2 2a
4ac
1312
13122 4
4 ( 2 ) ( 77655)
= 590.2 , 65.78
M = 0 = H (173
= 2 H (328 = 2 H (328 = 2 H (328
[155 r (155
x ]) x)2
x) x 2)
155 2 rx 2
x rx 2
x) x) x)
rx 2 310 x 2rx 2
r (24,025 24,025 r
The value 590.2 is obviously an extraneous root as it places the turning axis outside the grounded length. Substituting 65.78 66 into the expression for H and recalling that r = R/155:
310 r x
H = 155 r
=
2 r ( 66 ) = 23 r
23 R = 0.148 R 0.15 R 155
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Experience has shown that turning pull varies from about 0.3R when ground reaction is evenly distributed along the entire length of the ships bottom to 0.125R or less when one end of the ship is aoat (Yang Gin-Lang, The Theory and Practice of the Reoating Project of M/V DAMODAR GANGO and The Reoating of M/V AMERICAN SOUIX, MTS Journal, Second Quarter, 1984). External restraints, such as rock outcroppings, accumulated settlements, or ground tackle can force the casualty to turn about a known axis. The system of simultaneous equations is then solved for the turning pull and the force on the restraint. The resulting turning pull is not necessarily the minimum pull that would turn the ship if the external restraints were removed. Casualties lying parallel to the shore or a channel may be worked into deep water in a series of steps by slewing about alternate ends with the opposite end held fast. If bow and stern are successively slewed through the same angle , the ship will move a distance of approximately Lsin for each set of turnings, where L is the ships length or the distance between pivot points. 5-4.1.3 Mud Bottoms. Muds or silts are often found in harbors and estuaries, but seldom offshore, because the small particles are kept in suspension by the slightest water movements. Muds consist of very ne silt particles and often include a high percentage of clay particles. The particles are small enough to be inuenced by electrostatic and intermolecular attraction. As the particles are deposited in still water, they bond weakly to one another, forming a porous, unconsolidated mass. The weight of a stranded vessel both consolidates and induces lateral ow in the mud. The lateral ow is resisted by adjacent soil; in highly plastic muds, the lateral pressure is relieved in a bulging of the seaoor a few feet away from the casualty, called a mud wave. The height of the mud wave and the speed with which it forms indicate the ease with which lateral ow can be induced as a means to reoat the ship, and its tendency to settle into the mud as time passes. Noticeable settlement may continue on some muds for six months or more. Ships stranded on clay-bearing soils may be subject to suction effects. The weight of the ship squeezes water out of the porous mud structure to form a denser, less permeable structure. Under extreme pressures, clay and silt may separate. The clay forms impermeable layers that restrict the movement of water and prevent the hydrostatic pressure under the ship from changing. If the pressure under the ship is lower than in the surrounding water, the ship is held to the bottom. Suction most commonly affects full-bodied or at-bottomed hulls. Fine-lined ships, especially those with low metacentric height, are seldom held by suction because even very slight rolling is enough to allow water to ow between the hull and mud. Suction can be overcome by disrupting the clay layers; methods to break suction are discussed in Paragraph 5-7. 5-4.1.4 Damage and Impalement. Bottom damage resists sliding by acting as a scoop or blade anchor embedded in the seaoor. These effects are more pronounced on rm sand, gravel, stiff clay, coral, hardpan, or uneven rock than on soft mud or quicksand. To account for the increase in sliding resistance, the effective coefficient of friction is taken as 1.5 or + 0.5, whichever is larger. It is usually necessary to remove damaged plating to free the ship. If the ship is impaled, it must be trimmed or lightened enough to clear the impalement, or the obstruction must be removed. Otherwise, it is rarely possible to generate enough force to free the ship. Rudders, sternposts, and skegs on ships aground over their whole length can dig in and resist retraction (similar to the way damaged plating or impalements resist retraction). On hard seaoors, the rudder or other structure may be damaged during retraction unless the obstructions are removed or the stern raised before retracting. 5-4.2 Tides. Salvage operations are both aggravated and simplied by tidal effects. A large rise of tide adds signicantly to the buoyancy of an intact hull. The amount of weight that must be removed, or pulling force employed, is less if a large tidal range can be used to advantage. However, such ranges may restrict the time available for lightering and salvage vessels to come alongside. Strong tidal currents make it difficult for vessels to maneuver, and hamper diving. The times of slack water and extreme tides usually do not coincide. Knowledge of local tides allows salvors to reduce the unfavorable effects and take advantage of favorable effects. 5-4.2.1 Tide and Ground Reaction. The waterline of a stranded ship rises and falls with the tide. When the tide is highest, the buoyancy of the ship is greatest, and the ground reaction is decreased by the amount of buoyancy gained. When the tide falls, buoyancy decreases and ground reaction increases. For a ship that cannot trim, the change in ground reaction caused by the tide is nearly equal to the change in height of the tide multiplied by TPI. For a ship that can trim with tide changes, the change in ground reaction can be estimated by relating change of ground reaction to change in draft at LCF. For a change of trim, draft is constant at the center of ground reaction. Change of draft at LCF from trim is then given by: d TLCF, trim = t r L where: t dr L = = = change of trim, in. distance from the center of ground reaction, or assumed pivot point, to the center of otation length between perpendiculars
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The total change in draft at LCF is the sum of the changes caused by trim and rise or fall of tide. The change in draft because of tide is simply the change in tide height. The two changes are opposed; a falling tide tends to decrease draft, but the rotation of the ship about the pivot point tends to increase draft at LCF. A rising tide has the opposite effect. Total change in draft at LCF is then: d TLCF = h - r L where: h = tide change, in. Change in ground reaction can be estimated by multiplying change in draft at LCF by TPI: d R = h t r L If change of trim, t, is expressed as Rdr/MT1, then: R = h (TPI)
2
TPI = h (TPI)
d t r TPI L
Rdr dr TPI MT1 L = R 1 = 2 dr (TPI) L (MT1)
h (TPI) = R R =
dr (TPI) R L (MT1) h (TPI) 2 dr (TPI) L (MT1)
1
2
h (TPI) 2 (dr ) (TPI) (L) (MT1) L (MT1)
R =
h (TPI) (L) (MT1) (dr ) (TPI) + (L) (MT1)
Expressing t as Rdr /MT1 implies an assumption that the ship is trimming about its center of otation; it is not. This assumption introduces errors into ground reaction predictions for different heights of tide. As salvage operations progress, drafts should be taken regularly and ground reaction estimated for the height of tide at that time. Plots of ground reaction as a function of height of tide can be used to predict ground reaction. The relationship between ground reaction and state of tide will not remain constant. The working of the casualty on the bottom will deform both the hull and seaoor, shifting the pivot point and altering the response to tidal uctuations. The degree to which the vessel response is altered depends on the degree of motion of the casualty, range of tide, effects of currents and waves, and strength of the supporting seaoor. Analysis of ground reaction versus tide plots will show trends that can be used to rene predictions of ground reaction. 5-4.3 Wave Effects. General wave characteristics and prediction methods are discussed in Paragraph 3-2. The signicance of wave effects on a stranding depends upon:
The casualtys position relative to the breaker line. The casualtys orientation relative to the shore and approaching wave fronts. The size and period of waves and swell. How rmly the casualty rests on the ground and the nature of the bottom. Exposure to large swells, surf, and storm waves.
Waves move buoyant or partially buoyant objects with their cumulative effects. Near the crest, buoyancy of a stranded ship is increased and ground reaction is reduced. Ground reaction distribution and location of the center of pressure are changed; the levering action of the ship disrupts suction and may reduce friction. The combined effects make the ship easier to move. This effect is useful when the ship is being reoated, but dangerous at other times, as the ship may be driven farther ashore or broached.
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A stranding just within the breaker line will be battered by short-period, shallow water waves. On reoating, it may be difficult to bring the casualty back through the breakers. A casualty well outside the breaker line suffers less impact loading but is exposed to long-period swells and commensurately greater variations in buoyancy over a greater percentage of length. Wave lengths nearly equal to the ships length cause severe hogging or sagging loads. Heavy surf or swell is particularly dangerous to a casualty stranded at one end with the other end oating:
The casualty is easily broached. Large waves striking the seaward end of the ship at even small angles tend to swing the ship because the ungrounded length of the ship acts as a lever arm. Longshore currents can add to this effect. The rotating moment is determined by integrating the wave and current forces over the ships length. The oating end is subject to vertical forces as the buoyancy is alternately increased and decreased by the passing waves. If the oating end is free to oscillate, it may pound on the sea bottom, while its levering action works and grinds the grounded end on the bottom. The cyclic buoyancy changes can cause high hull stresses or fatigue failure.
A broached ship is susceptible to serious damage from the effects of waves. On rock, a broached ship will bear hard on the rock under its inshore bilge. The swell impacting against the offshore bilge pushes the ship farther onto the rock, causing it to roll and grind heavily. Currents from incoming waves scour loose sediment seaoors and can cause a broached ship to break, as discussed in Paragraph 5-4.4.1. A broached ship should be swung perpendicular to the beach or reoated as soon as possible. It may be necessary to reinforce hull plating in critical areas, such as the inshore bilge and seaward side plating. Water depth may vary considerably around a stranding. The casualty may be exposed to different wave effects at different points. It is likely the waves on the port and starboard sides of the ship will be out of phase. Variations in hydrostatic and dynamic pressures will place transverse shear forces on the hull. Out-of-phase long waves on either side of the casualty will cause hull torsion and twisting and racking stresses that may aggravate stresses caused by grounding, damage, and hull loading. 5-4.4 Current. The direct effects of current on a stranding result from the force the current exerts and its ability to carry suspended bottom sediment:
If strong enough, current force may change the stranded ships head, or drive it farther ashore. Weaker currents can cause the ship to work on the bottom, or cause cyclic movement of appendages or damaged plating, resulting in increased damage. Depending on the stranded ships position relative to the current, sediment may either be scoured away from or built up around the casualty. Either condition can cause excessive hull stresses or complicate reoating.
Currents can limit diving, complicate ship and boat movements, and otherwise delay and disrupt salvage operations. Current force and moment calculations are described in Paragraph 3-4.5.1. 5-4.4.1 Scour. A ship or other large obstruction on a beach or shoal will alter current ow patterns and velocities; sediments may be scoured away from or built up around the casualty. Silt clogs sea suctions, increases friction and suction, and covers shell areas requiring repairs. Sediments are typically scoured away from the ends of the ship. When a ship lies across a current and blocks part of the ow area, current velocity is increased in the remaining ow area, adjacent to one or both ends of the ship. Current velocity is further increased near the bottom because the hull form near the bow and stern of most ships tends to deect the current downward. Scour currents often sweep around the ends of the ship through nearly 180 degrees as they are drawn towards the area of relative low pressure in the lee of the ship. Scour alters ground reaction distribution and can cause severe hogging stresses. Strandings in way of strong currents are very susceptible to scouring, although ships stranded at or near right angles to the beach are endangered more by swells driving them farther ashore or broaching them than by scouring. A casualty broached in strong surf or swell is in a very dangerous position. The ship obstructs the translatory motion of the wave crests traveling towards shore and creates a low pressure zone in its lee. The obstructed water is deected sideways along the ships hull. These currents are deected around the ends of the casualty, and accelerated by the hydraulic pressure difference, the refraction of waves around the ends of the ship, and the form of the ship at bow and stern. The swift currents scour ne-grained sediments from under the ends of the ship and deposit them as current velocities drop in the lee of the ship, developing a spit reaching towards the casualty. The loss of support under the ends of the ship produces severe hogging moments. Broached ships may break up within hours or days of stranding. Scour, sedimentation, and other littoral processes are discussed in greater detail in Paragraph 3-7.4. 5-4.5 Wind Force. A heavily stranded ship is not likely to be moved or swung, even by very strong winds. As a casualty is reoated, she becomes subject to wind drift and heel like any other oating vessel. If a stranding must be reoated during high winds, she must be controlled by tugs or ground tackle to prevent her from restranding or colliding with salvage vessels. The high seas that accompany strong winds are a threat to a stranded casualty. Storm surge, heavy surf, heavy swells, or other water level uctuations that increase a casualtys buoyancy may reduce ground reaction enough for strong winds to move or swing her. Salvage and lightering vessels alongside a casualty may work heavily in strong winds and damage themselves or the casualty if not adequately fendered. Vessels in multi-point moors, or in beach gear harness, cannot swing to present minimum drag area to the wind as can a vessel riding to a single anchor. Moorings for salvage vessels must be strong enough to hold them in anticipated winds. Stranded or moored vessels often suffer more extensive topside damage than vessels free to ride with the wind. Wind force calculations are described in Paragraph 3-5.
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5-5 STABILITY OF STRANDED SHIPS The stability of stranded ships is inuenced by the way the ship rests on the ground. If a ship is stranded on a fairly at bottom, there is little danger of capsizing. A ship stranded on a pinnacle and free to incline is in a dangerous situation. The apparent stability of a ship supported by the ground masks changes to the ships stability aoat. If stability is not calculated, serious reductions in aoat stability may not be evident until the ship is reoated. 5-5.1 Effect of Grounding on Center of Gravity. Ground reaction is equivalent to removing an equal weight from the keel, and causes a virtual rise in the center of gravity similar to that caused by the block reaction on a ship in drydock: GG1 = R(KG) (W R)
The effective height of the center of gravity can be calculated directly: KG1 = where: GG1 KG1 KG = = = virtual rise of the center of gravity effective height of the center of gravity when the ship is aground original height of the center of gravity above the keel W R = = weight of the ship ground reaction (KG)(W) (W R)
5-5.2 Effect of Grounding on the Metacenter. KM for a stranding is based on the residual buoyancy of the ship, and can be found from the Curves of Form with poststranding drafts. With a large range of tide, the movement of the metacenter is signicant and large negative metacentric heights may develop.
0
C L
A stranded ship with a negative metacentric height will tend to list. The angle of the list will depend on the restraint of the seaoor. If a large portion of the ships bottom is in contact with the seaoor, there is no danger of capsizing. Soft seaoors will assume the shape of the bottom of the ship and assist in preventing capsizing. On hard seaoors, the ship is restrained from capsizing because the bilge cannot penetrate into harder soils. Ships stranded on pinnacles and ne-lined ships aground only at the bow are not restrained from inclining, and may capsize if their metacentric height is negative. Weight movements on such casualties should be controlled to keep the center of gravity low. Liquid free surfaces and free communication should be eliminated.
W G Z B
R s t
Figure 5-11. Grounding Off Centerline.
5-5.3 Grounding Off Centerline. A stranding with the center of ground reaction off the centerline experiences both a loss of displacement and an upsetting moment. If free to incline, the ship will assume a list. The upsetting moment can be calculated by multiplying the distance off center of the effective point of ground reaction by the magnitude of the ground reaction as shown in Figure 5-11. Summing moments about the effective point of grounding: Rs = Bt = WGZ = WGMeffsin (at equilibrium) where: R s B t W GZ GMeff = = = = = = = = ground reaction distance off centerline of effective point of ground reaction buoyant force (displacement aground, W - R) lateral distance from effective point of ground reaction to center of buoyancy gross weight of the ship (displacement before stranding weight changes after stranding) righting arm, taken from the stability curve metacentric height, as stranded (corrected for free surface and virtual rise of G) angle of list
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The ship will incline until the moments are balanced or until it slides off the bank or rock. Unless restrained from sliding off the pinnacle, there is little probability of capsize in still water. In order to capsize, the ship must lift off of the pinnacle; ground reaction and upsetting moment will fail to zero and the ship will settle back onto the pinnacle. Offcenter ground reaction may reduce righting energy to the point where external forces (wind, waves, towline pull) or internal weight shifts (free surface, cross-ooding, intentional weight movements, sliding objects) can capsize the ship. Fine-lined ships aground on rocky shores with large tidal ranges are most at risk. 5-5.4 Stability During and After Reoating. During reoating, the ground reaction reduces to zero and the effect on stability, draft, and trim is that of an equal weight added at the keel. If the ship was stable before reoating, it will become more stable during the reoating process and will be stable when aoat. If the ship has a negative metacentric height while aground, she may either:
Become more stable as the ground reaction is reduced and reoat in a stable condition, or Reoat in an unstable condition.
In the rst case, the ship must be reoated quickly to pass from the unstable to the stable condition as rapidly as possible. Conditions that decrease stability, such as free surface and high weight, should be eliminated before reoating. Unstable ships should not be reoated except in cases of extreme emergency, because there is a high risk of losing the ship or creating a much more difficult salvage problem. 5-5.5 Summary of Stranded Stability. Stability aground is not usually a problem. It is unlikely that a stranded ship will capsize unless the range of stability is severely reduced. The angle of inclination at which the ship would overcome friction and slide along the bottom is generally much less than the range of stability. Fine-lined ships with signicant deadrise are prevented from capsizing by their residual buoyancy, or by settling into a soft bottom. A ne-lined ship stranded on hard or uneven ground, or near the bows, with a large range of tide is in a precarious situation that will grow worse as the tide falls. Stability of the ship during reoating or tide changes can be evaluated in the same manner as for a ship being drydocked, discussed in Paragraph 1-10.4. 5-6 STRENGTH OF STRANDED SHIPS The bending moment of a grounded ship depends on the form and weight distribution of the ship. A ship with loading that produces high bending moments aoat is likely to develop a dangerously high bending moment when grounded. The situations shown in Figure 5-12 are typical of those where large bending moments are likely. Hull girder stresses for strandings are analyzed by the methods described in Paragraph 1-11. Ground reaction, a distributed upward force, is added to the buoyancy curve. The altered buoyancy curve in turn alters the load curve. Shear, bending moment, and hull girder stresses are changed. Relative magnitude and distribution of ground reaction and buoyancy vary with the tide and passage of swells. Different states of tide and swell must be examined to fully evaluate a casualtys strength. The expression for maximum bending moment for a simple beam under uniform load (M = Wl/8) can be modied by empirically derived factors to give a rst estimate of maximum bending moment for casualties stranded on pinnacles: Mmax = where: Mmax R l k = = = = = = maximum bending moment, [length-force] ground reaction, [force] length of span = length between perpendiculars or distance between pinnacles, [length] factor to account for nonuniformity of force distribution 6 for casualty supported at both ends 7 for casualty supported near midships Rl k
(a) ONE END AGROUND, OTHER END IN DEEP WATER
(b) AGROUND AMIDSHIPS, NO SUPPORT UNDER BOW AND STERN
(c) AGROUND AT ENDS, NO SUPPORT AMIDSHIPS
Figure 5-12. Potentially High-Bending-Moment Strandings.
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Evaluation of wave-induced bending moments is less certain for stranded ships than for oating ships; the accuracy of the waveinduced buoyancy curve cannot be checked by ensuring that the area under it is equal to the area under the weight curve because of a third variableground reaction. The sum of residual buoyancy and ground reaction must equal the ships weight, but the relative proportions change as waves pass along the hull.
AP 17 16 15 14 17 16 SAGGING SHIP 15 14 SHIP WITHOUT HOG OR SAG
FP 17 16 15 14
13 13 13 Large hull deections indicate high bending moments. As a rule of thumb, hog or sag HOGGING SHIP 12 12 12 greater than 0.001LBP is potentially dangerous and justies detailed strength EXTREME HULL analysis. Extremely long, limber ships, such 11 11 GIRDER DEFLECTION 11 HOG AT MIDSHIPS as VLCCs, can safely accommodate somewhat larger deections, perhaps as great as 10 10 10 0.003LPB. Hog and sag may be determined by establishing a level line with a transit or Figure 5-13. Measuring Hull Girder Deflection with Draft Plot. a leveled length of small stuff and measuring the distance between the line and the deck. In calm water, accurate draft readings at three or more locations can be plotted as shown in Figure 5-13. Hull deection should be measured periodically and recorded with the time and state of the tide so that the gross effects of weight changes on hull stresses can be monitored. Weight movements should be planned to prevent excessive hull stresses and deections; unexpected changes in hull deection should be investigated to determine their cause.
5-7 REFLOATING STRANDED SHIPS Stranded ships are reoated by the following actions:
Moving the ship to water deep enough to oat it at the draft corresponding to its weight (displacement). Deepening the water around the casualty. Reducing the required draft at the grounded portion by removing weight, lifting, or altering trim.
In practice, a combination of methods is normally used. In most cases, the stranded ship is lightened until the required freeing force is less than the available tractive forces, then pulled into deeper water. It is often necessary to remove many tons of cargo, stores, or oodwater. Methods and equipment used to reoat stranded ships are discussed in detail in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010). Some amplifying information is provided in the following paragraphs. 5-7.1 Moving Stranded Ships. The force required to move a casualty over its strand is the sum of the forces required to:
Overcome friction between the ship and seaoor. Move loose seaoor material that may be pushed ahead of the ship. Break or crush obstructions or impalements, such as rock outcroppings, coral heads, etc. Overcome suction on soft bottoms.
Friction is a function of ground reaction as modied by other factors, such as the coefficient of friction of the bottom, the area of the hull in contact with the bottom, and the casualtys list and trim. Freeing force is reduced by decreasing the effects of these factors, as well as by decreasing ground reaction. 5-7.1.1 Reducing Ground Reaction. Ground reaction is reduced chiey by removing weight, although external lifting may be employed. In situations where the casualty is aground over only a short length at one end, trimming moments induced by weight shifts or additions can reduce ground reaction.
Weight Removal. Removal of oodwater and other weights is one of the principal means of reducing ground reaction. In some instances, it is possible to remove enough weight to reoat the ship by this means alone. The ship must be controlled by ground tackle, tugs, or her own propulsion to prevent being driven further ashore as she reoats. Weight should be removed so that the ship will lift off her strand with her keel approximately parallel to the beach slope, or so that the bow remains in contact after the stern lifts. The affects of weight removal on casualty strength and stability should be considered. Dewatering and weight removal are discussed in Chapters 8 and 9. Lifting. Lifting is a means of spreading the casualtys weight over additional vessels or buoyancy devices in order to reduce its draft enough to oat free, or to reduce ground reaction. Pontoons of any description may be placed alongside the stranded ship and rigged to the hull or to slings under the hull to provide lift and reduce ground reaction. Where space and water depths permit, cranes and sheer legs may be brought alongside and rigged to lift the stranded ship to reduce the ground reaction. When sheer legs and cranes are used, the reoating should be slow and controlled to prevent sudden high loading of lifting gear or side loading of cranes as the ship comes aoat and the center of buoyancy moves forward. Salvage lifting is addressed in detail in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020).
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5-7.1.2 Reducing Friction. Methods used to reduce friction depend on the type of seaoor. Cohesive and cohesionless soils develop friction forces in different ways; actions that effectively reduce friction on one type of soil may have little or no effect on another type. The following general guidelines apply:
Hard seaoors (rock, coral, hardpan, very stiff clay). Friction is essentially a function of ground reaction and is independent of contact area. Hull contact is generally not continuous. Reducing ground reaction is the only way to reduce frictionreducing contact area and attempts to induce vibration are generally ineffective. Friction-reducing water lms cannot be maintained between the small areas of hull-to-seaoor contact because of the high unit pressure. Cohesionless soils (sand, gravel, crushed coral, nonplastic silts). Friction is a essentially a function of ground reaction and is independent of contact area. Reducing ground reaction reduces friction. Sands and gravels have good resistance to lateral ow under distributed vertical loads, so increasing pressure alone is not effective. Heavy vertical loads on wedge shapes, such as a narrow forefoot, may cause lateral ow in loose soils. Low-frequency vibrations can cause sand to assume uid properties. Highvolume water ow through a sand bed can create quicksand, with uid behavior. It is possible to maintain short-duration water lms between the soil and the hull with high-volume water ow. Cohesive soils (clay, plastic silts). Friction is a function of soil shear strength and contact area. Soil strength and adhesion depend on its ability to inhibit water ow. These soils have low resistance to lateral ow under vertical pressure. Decreasing contact area and increasing unit pressure are effective means of reducing friction. Vibration has little effect, but active disturbance and other measures to open water ow paths to the hull effectively decrease friction. Disturbing adjacent soil masses is also helpful; it reduces the distance water must ow through the essentially impermeable, undisturbed soil.
If some motion, however small, between the casualty and the bottom can be induced, the freeing force will be based on the smaller dynamic coefficient of friction. Initial motion may also allow a lm of water to develop between the hull and bottom, further reducing friction. Specic actions to reduce friction include the following:
Wrenching. Wrenching uses the length of the casualty as a lever arm to multiply pulling force and rotate the casualty about the center of ground reaction. The induced motion reduces friction to dynamic levels and opens water ow paths in cohesive soils. Sallying. Ships with signicant deadrise can sometimes be sallied by shifting weights back and forth athwartships. Contact area is decreased and unit pressure increased momentarily on each cycle as the ship rolls across its keel. Vibration. Inducing vibration in the hull causes very small movements between the casualty and the bottom, and may reduce the coefficient of friction. Vibration transmitted into the seaoor can uidize cohesionless soils and may improve water ow through cohesive soils very slightly. Vibration can be induced by operating the casualtys machinery, moving heavy vehicles within the ship or on deck, veering anchor chain, etc. Casualty machinery should be operated only if all support systems (cooling water, lubrication, etc.) are operational. Reducing Contact Area. Measures taken to reduce ground reaction often reduce contact area by altering trim or removing ground from under the casualty. Weight shifted or added forward may reduce contact area and increase pressure under a narrow forefoot. Generating a strong trimming moment uses the ships length as a lever arm to break suction; the increased pressure under the forefoot can reduce friction and cause lateral ow in soft soils. If the casualty is to plow through the bottom, it will take less force to plow a narrower furrow. Disrupting Soil Continuity. Water or air jets can be directed under the casualty to disturb the soil. On mud bottoms, hogging lines can be dropped over the bow and drawn along the hull. Disturbing cohesive soils reduces their shear strength and opens water ow paths. Similar disturbances may uidize cohesionless soils and induce quicksand-like behavior. Increasing Pressure or Ground Reaction Forward. Experience has shown that trimming ships with a narrow forefoot or very ne lines forward stranded on sand or gravel bottoms hard by the bow often reduces resistance to sliding. The reasons for this reduction in sliding friction are not clear. The extreme pressure may cause a reduction in coefficient of friction, or be sufficient to cause lateral ow in the soil. The high bearing pressure may actually increase friction to the point that the underlying soil fails in shear before sliding is initiated between the hull and soil. If this occurs over a reduced area, the total force required may be less than that required to overcome friction between the hull and seaoor over a larger area. If the ships form is narrow enough, the ship may penetrate into the seaoor, gaining buoyancy as it settles. Drainage Tubes. Perforated pipes inserted into the soil in contact with the casualtys hull will allow water to ow between the hull and the soil. Slipways. If a casualty or portions of it can be lifted by jacks or other means, slipways can be built underneath, allowing the ship to be moved across a lower friction surface. Effective slipways are arranged so that the ground reaction is shared equally by the ways. The slipways and underlying soil or rock must be strong enough to support the ship without deforming, so the ship can slide smoothly. Jacks consisting of modied aircraft landing gear, complete with tires, arranged so that the tires could roll as the casualty was pulled across them, have been used successfully on at-bottomed hulls.
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5-7.2 Increasing Water Depth. Water depth under and around a casualty can be increased to:
Obtain sufficient water depth to reoat the vessel. Reduce ground reaction by increasing buoyancy. Free one end of a vessel to allow it to be pivoted by other methods.
Water depth inside small coves or estuaries can be increased by closing the entrance with sheet-steel piles or cofferdams. In some navigable rivers and canals, water level can be controlled to some extent by lock gates and damsit may be possible to raise water level by increasing ow past upstream dams. On very soft soils, it may be possible to increase the ships weight, by ooding or other means, so that she settles more deeply into the seaoor. After she has settled, the excess weight can be removed to allow her to oat free. More commonly, water depth around a casualty is increased by removing ground from under it. Ground removal is accomplished by scouring or dredging soft bottoms, or by blasting hard bottoms. These methods can also be used to cut channels to deep water through bars or behind vessels stranded high and dry. Underwater excavation methods are described in Paragraph 5-9. 5-7.3 Temporary Reduction. Dynamic friction is almost always less than the static friction between two objects. If freeing force can be reduced long enough for the pulling system to start the ship moving, it can usually be kept moving.
Swells increase the buoyancy of the stranded ship and decrease the ground reaction as they pass. High seas or heavy swells running during a retraction decrease the pulling force required to reoat the ship. If the pulling force is enough to start the ship moving at the top of a swell when ground reaction is lowest, the coefficient of friction is lowered instantly to the dynamic level. The dynamic coefficient of friction may be low enough that freeing force stays less than pulling force after ground reaction increases again, and the ship keeps moving. When there are no natural swells, ships passing parallel to the beach at high speed create swells that act like the natural swell. Destroyers running a long racetrack pattern as close to the reoating operation as safety permits are ideal for this purpose. Jacking reduces freeing force by changing the nature of the ground reaction, rather than reducing it. Hydraulic jacks of 60 tons capacity or greater are employed to temporarily lift the ship. By taking up part of the ships weight on the jacks, the amount of weight bearing on the high friction interface between the ships bottom and seabed is decreased. The jacks are rigged on long spuds that can pivot at their bases, allowing the casualty to be moved when the friction force is sufficiently reduced. Jacks are placed symmetrically about the estimated position of the center of ground reaction and are secured with a retrieving line led to the deck. The jacks are raised to their maximum lift at the beginning of a pull. When the ship moves, the jacks will topple and must be reset for the next operation. Once the stranded ship is moving, it is often possible to keep it moving against the lower dynamic coefficient of friction, even if the ground reaction increases when the jacks trip. If not, the casualty is reoated by moving it seaward in a series of short steps. For jacking to be successful, the seaoor must be hard enough, or must be reinforced, to support the jacking forces. On rock seaoors, concrete rubble-lled beds or heavy timbers topped by steel plate are adequate foundations. On sediment seaoors, plate or timber mats are used to spread the load until the unit pressure is less than the bearing capacity of the soil. Crushed coral, stone, shell, or gravel can be laid in to increase soil bearing strength. Similarly, the hull of the ship must be protected from the jacking forces. If these forces are not spread out along the hull, they will cause local damage at the point of application and may even rupture the hull. Steel weldments or heavy steel angles welded to the hull and padded with timbers are suitable jacking pads. The load is transmitted to the ship structure by shear stress in the welds and side plating.
5-7.4 Explosives. Explosive measures to reduce freeing force include:
Judicious use of small charges to deepen the water around the casualty and cut channels through hard bottoms (explosive dredging). Explosively cutting or pulverizing coral or rock outcroppings that are impaling the casualty or blocking its retraction. Using small charges along the length of the casualty to cause vibration and uid behavior in the seaoor under the casualty. Detonating moderate charges several hundred feet from the casualty to generate articial swells to momentarily increase buoyancy. Explosives use is discussed in Chapter 10.
Use of explosives requires skill and experience to avoid damaging the casualty.
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5-8 APPLYING FORCES Forces are applied to a stranded casualty to achieve the following effects:
Move the casualty directly off the beach. Swing the casualty into a more favorable position. Induce wrenching motion to break suction or reduce friction. Hold the casualty in position. Control the casualtys motion during reoating/retraction.
BEACH GEAR ON CASUALTY GROUND LEGS TENSIONED BY LINEAR PULLERS, PURCHASES, OR WINCHES TO RETRACT, OR WRENCH CASUALTY
PURCHASES WINCH
WRENCHING/ ROTATING LEG
WRENCHING LEG DEADMAN ON SHORE
RETRACTING LEGS
WRENCHING LEG
PULLING VESSELS PULLING VESSELS DEVELOP HORIZONTAL FORCE BY TENSIONING TOWING/ PULLING WIRES AND/OR ANCHOR GROUND LEGS WITH WINCHES, PULLERS, OR MULTI-PART PURCHASES.
Pulling systems are combinations of mechanical components that work together to apply a controlled, essentially horizontal force to a stranded ship. Pulling systems include, but are not limited to, the following:
Tugs. Tugs can pull directly on the casualty, or power purchases for beach gear systems. Tu g s a r e particularly useful for applying wrenching forces, and can be placed in action quickly to restrain a casualty. Ground tackle. Heaving systems located on the casualty, on salvage vessels, barges, or on shore can tension ground tackle to move or restrain the casualty. Winch pulling systems. Heavy winches mounted on barges, salvage vessels, or ashore can pull directly on the casualty.
1. TOW WIRE(S) HELD FAST, GROUND LEG(S) TENSIONED
2. PULLING WIRE(S) TENSIONED, GROUND LEG(S) HELD FAST.
3. BOTH PULLING WIRE(S) AND GROUND LEG(S) TENSIONED.
Figure 5-14. Typical Pulling Arrangements.
Tugs and ground tackle are the pulling systems used most frequently in salvage. Tugs attached to the stranded ship with a towline develop pulling forces with their engines. Salvage ground tackle is a system of anchors, ground leg, and hauling gear rigged to pullers, purchases, or winches on a platform. The platform may be the stranded ship, an assisting ship, a barge, or the shore. In many salvage operations, the total pulling force is developed by a combination of systems. Pulling systems are tailored to the particular stranding to gain maximum effect and minimize interference. In rare circumstances, shallow draft tugs, jacks, heavy vehicles, or barges rigged with ground tackle can be used to push a casualty off the beach. Figure 5-14 shows typical pulling arrangements. Figure 5-15 shows two examples of innovative pulling systems tailored to particular situations 5-8.1 Tug Bollard Pull. Bollard pull is the pulling force or tow wire tension generated by a tug. Bollard pull is essentially the propeller thrust at zero speed and is related to engine power and propeller characteristics. Propellers in shrouds (Kort nozzles) and controllable-pitch propellers produce greater thrust than xed-pitch propellers for the same amount of horsepower. Bollard pull is measured by a standardized trial conducted when the tug is new and after major modications. Bollard pull tests have been conducted for some Navy salvage ships and tugs; results of these tests are documented in Appendix J of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010). Commercial tugs that have completed bollard pull trials carry a bollard pull certicate. There is no requirement that tugs undergo such trials or carry a certicate; many do not have them.
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If there is no bollard pull certicate, static bollard (BP) can be expressed as a function of brake horsepower (BHP) and propeller design: BP BP BP BP where: BP BHP = = bollard pull in short tons brake horsepower of the tugs main engines = = = = 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.016 BHP BHP BHP BHP for for for for open xed-pitch propeller open controllable-pitch propeller shrouded xed-pitch propeller shrouded controllable-pitch propeller
Brake horsepower can be estimated from shaft horsepower SHP (power at the propeller): BHP = SHP 1.05 When estimating bollard pull, the continuous-duty brake or shaft horsepower is used. Commercial tugs often advertise engine-indicated horsepower, installed horsepower (both abbreviated IHP), or maximum overload horsepower. These quantities do not reliably indicate bollard pull:
TUG OR SALVAGE VESSEL
TOWLINE
PURCHASE OR PULLER
BITTS OR HEAVY CHOCK
GROUND LEG TENSIONED FROM CASUALTY ANCHOR REEF FACE 1. WATER DEPTH ASTERN OF CASUALTY TOO DEEP FOR BEACH GEAR ANCHORS TO BE EFFECTIVE
The ratio of brake horsepower to indicated horsepower is the mechanical efficiency of the engine, and may vary widely. For most diesel engines, brake horsepower varies from 65 to 85 percent of indicated horsepower. Installed horsepower includes horsepower that does not contribute to bollard pull, such as that of engines for generators and other auxiliaries.
DEEP WATER
REEF SHELF
BRACING TO PREVENT CRUSHING
Engine manufacturers maximum BARGE OR FLOATING HEAVY overload horsepower ratings range ABUTMENT PURCHASES from 110 percent of, to more than LINEAR BULLDOZERS twice the continuous-duty horsePULLERS WINCHES PUSHING AGAINST power. Maximum overload power BARGE SHORELINE can usually be sustained for only a very short time, often ve minutes or less, followed by immediate shutdown. Intermittent power rat2. SHALLOWS IN SHORE AND STEEP SHELF NEAR SHORE FAVOR "PUSHING" ings, i.e., power output that can be sustained for brief periods separated by periods of less than conFigure 5-15. Pulling Arrangements for Unusual Circumstances. tinuous duty output, are generally about 120 percent of continuous duty rating. As reoating efforts generally require a tug to maintain steady bollard pull for much longer than ve minutes, bollard pull should be based on the continuous duty or intermittent duty power rating.
Static bollard pull is the force developed by a tug pulling against a stationary object and is the maximum force the tug can develop under any conditions. Effective bollard pull may be reduced to as little as 50 percent of the static bollard pull if sea conditions prevent the tug from maintaining a steady towline tension, reduce engine or propeller efficiency, or force the constant use of rudder to maintain heading. If the towing hawser does not lead directly astern, bollard pull is resolved into components in line with and perpendicular to the hawser; only the in-line component is transmitted to the casualty. Propeller efficiency is reduced by shallow water effects and rough seas, reducing propeller thrust. Water temperature and fuel grade affect engine performance and thereby brake horsepower and bollard pull.
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5-8.2 High-capacity Winches. Heavy winches can heave directly on the casualty from a rmly anchored barge or vessel, stationary platform, or location ashore. Barges or ships may be specically designed or modied for pulling, often with winches of 100-ton line pull or greater. Some special-purpose ships, such as icebreakers, cable layers, net tenders, landing ships, oceangoing tugs, etc., have installed heavy winches that may be used to retract a casualty. Winch pulling systems on purpose-built craft can be deployed quickly for an immediate pull or to stabilize a lively casualty because little rigging is involved. Some time is required to lay and set a sufficiently strong moor, however. Difficulties in slipping or recovering multiple mooring legs can prevent the pulling vessel from moving out of the way of the casualty when retracted. Large winches can be mounted on barges or ashore to power beach gear systems. Mounting large winches on the casualty is not usually practical, but installed heavy winches can be used to tension beach gear ground legs. 5-8.3 Ground Tackle Notes. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) includes detailed descriptions of salvage ground tackle composition, arrangement, and use. The following paragraphs supplement the Salvage Manuals guidance. 5-8.3.1 Required Ground Leg Scope and Length. Anchor embedment depth for very soft soils should be taken from Table G-3 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010). High-performance anchors, such as the NAVMOOR, penetrate more deeply than the 10 feet given in Paragraph 6-3.3.3 of the Salvage Manual, Volume 1. 5-8.3.2 Linear Pullers. A disadvantage of linear pullers is that the ground leg cannot be released quickly. If quick release is desired, a 15 8inch wire pendant with a carpenter stopper can be used to pull on the ground leg. 5-8.3.3 Beach Gear Purchases. The principal advantage of purchase systems is the light weight and portability of individual components, compared to other heaving systems. The components of the 5 8-inch fourfold purchase of the standard beach gear set are man-carriable and can be transported in small boats. The purchase can be rigged and operated on any platform that has operating winches or capstans with ve tons line pull or greater, sufficient deck space for the purchase, and suitable attachment points. Purchase systems enable relatively low-powered line-handling equipment to exert high forces against the ground leg anchors. The standard set purchase requires a ve- to eight-ton line pull, for example. By using luff-on-luff purchases, chain hoists, or grip hoists to increase mechanical advantage, manual labor or draft animals can power the purchase, albeit at a very slow speed. Lightweight hydraulic winches (a ve-ton unit is man-carriable) can be used to power the purchase, because the hydraulic power unit need not be brought on board. Boats alongside or heavy vehicles ashore or on deck can provide the line pull to power purchase systems, with some loss of ne control. 5-8.3.4 Heaving System Location. Heaving systems can be sited on the casualty, on salvage vessels or tugs, on barges, and occasionally ashore.
On the Casualty. The preferred placement for beach gear is on board the stranded ship. Beach gear is usually more effective when tensioned from the casualty. The salvage officer can observe heaving operations and their effect on the stranded ship directly, and has maximum control over the operation. It is often advantageous to heave on the beach gear when a heavy swell or surf is running, because the lift of the passing waves momentarily reduces ground reaction. A salvage ship in harness with taut ground legs over the bow is effectively in a multi-point moor. In rough weather, the restrained ship motion can create excessive loads in the towline or ground legs. On steeply shelving beaches, ground legs must be laid close to shore in shallow water to keep the pull roughly horizontal; placing the salvage ship between the casualty and the anchors may not permit enough scope for the ground legs to hold.
On a Salvage Vessel. When heaving systems are located on the salvage vessel, a towline from the salvage vessel transmits the ground leg tension to the casualty. The salvage vessel pulls itself towards the ground leg anchors, pulling the casualty along with it. If deck ttings are of sufficient strength, the pulling vessel can be made up alongside the casualty. Beach gear heaving systems are rigged routinely on salvage vessels when it is impossible or inconvenient to rig them on the casualty, or additional beach gear legs are required. Conditions that may preclude heaving from the casualty are: (1) Weather, surf, location, or other conditions prevent the transfer of necessary equipment to the casualty. (2) The casualty does not have sufficient deck space, operating winches, or attachment points for purchase systems. (3) An immediate heavy pull is warranted; heaving systems can be rigged on the salvage tug while en route to the casualty, ready for use as soon as the ground legs are laid. Heaving systems can be rigged on the salvage vessel in sheltered waters before moving to the salvage site.
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On a Barge. Barges are used as heaving system platforms in the same manner as salvage vessels. Typical situations where heaving systems are rigged on barges include the following conditions: (1) Operations require more legs of beach gear than can be operated from the casualty and salvage ships. (2) Neither the casualty nor the assisting vessels have adequate deck space or ttings to operate beach gear. (3) It is undesirable to foul the deck of either the casualty or the assisting vessels. (4) A beach gear leg leading across shallow water cannot be tensioned from the casualty. If the towline and heaving system are connected directly to the barge, the ground leg tension is transmitted through the barge structure. Ordinary at-topped barges are not built for this kind of loading and may be severely damaged if not properly reinforced. Padeyes should be installed as described in Paragraph 5-8.3.5. Alternatively, a length of plate strong enough to carry the pulling loads can be tack-welded to the deck. The winch and padeyes for the holding stopper and block are then welded to the plate. If the heaving system is arranged as shown in Figure 5-16, it "oats" above the bargepulling force is transmitted directly from the ground leg to the pulling wire, and the barge need not be strengthened. Floating beach gear is a simple concept that can be very difficult to put into practice. Because of their close proximity, the hauling and holding pendants are easily fouled. The tendency of the barge to move under the beach gear can be very difficult to control, especially if there are strong currents, winds, or seas. Floating beach gear is essentially a method of last resort. Floating a linear puller or direct pull winch system is simpler than oating a purchase system because there is no requirement for a holding pendant.
GOB LINE(S) TO KEEP BARGE FROM ROTATING FROM UNDER GROUND LEG(S)
GROUND LEG
LINEAR PULLER
PULLING WIRES MADE UP TO LINEAR PULLER OR WINCH FOUNDATION
REINFORCED WINCH FOUNDATION WELDED TO DECK
CASUALTY
HOLDING STOPPER ON PENDANT TO WINCH FOUNDATION
BEACH GEAR PURCHASE
Figure 5-16. Floating Beach Gear.
Ashore. Heaving systems and ground legs located ashore can be used to wrench or turn a casualty. Winches or heavy vehicles located ashore can power purchases on the casualtys deck. Winches, standing blocks, and stoppers can be secured to concrete footings, deadmen, or natural rock outcroppings. Advantages of locating heaving systems ashore normally include accessibility and large working area. The most obvious disadvantage is that the heaving system cannot follow the casualty as it is retracted. Lines led to vehicles must be attached so they can be quickly released to avoid pulling the vehicle into the water; winches must be able to spool their wire off as the ship retracts. In polar and subpolar waters, winches and purchases can be rigged on natural or articial ice islands or fast ice (see Paragraph 3-8).
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5-8.3.5 Foundations. Anchoring points for purchase systems, pullers or winches, and attachment points for pulling wires must be strong enough to carry anticipated loads. Salvage ships will have deck padeyes and other ttings designed and installed specically to anchor pulling systems. On platforms of opportunity, barges, and casualties, pulling systems are modied to use existing ttings or structures of adequate strength. Pulling wires are often secured to gun, winch, or mast foundations when there are no suitable deck ttings. If existing ttings and structure are not strong enough, they must be strengthened, or stronger ttings installed. Paragraph 7-8 gives guidance for evaluating the strength of deck ttings and designing padeyes. Figure 5-17 shows four typical eld installed padeyes: 1 Padeye welded to doubler plate welded to deck. Installation depends on deck strength and the continuity of deck to framing connections to spread load through the hull structure. Doubler plates will be required for most installations because the deck will be too thin to carry the load in the length of weld obtained by welding the padeye directly to the deck. 2 Padeye inserted through deck and welded to underlying girder/ beam, as well as deck. Installation is more time-consuming but stronger than 1, above. 3 Padeye welded to doubler plate welded to deck in way of underlying girders/beams. Installation is relatively fast and generally as strong as or stronger than 2, especially if deck-togirder welds are of good quality. 4 Padeye(s) inserted through deck and welded to bulkhead and deck; doubler plate may be added. Installation is very timeconsuming, but anchoring point is very strong and distributes load well.
4 DOUBLER PLATE DIRECTION OF PULL PLATE PADEYE DOUBLER PLATE DECK
DECK
PADEYE
BULKHEAD
BULKHEAD SINGLE PADEYE FILLET WELDS
SPACER DOUBLER PLATE
DOUBLE PADEYE
Figure 5-17. Pulling Padeyes.
REBAR OR ROUND STOCK, SAME SIZE AS WIRE
WIRE ROPE CLIPS WELDED IN PLACE. NUMBER AND SPACING APPROPRIATE TO WIRE ROPE SIZE
Figure 5-18. Improvised Wire Rope Stoppers.
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5-8.3.6 Improvised Beach Gear. Beach gear systems can be made up from items available on the casualty, other ships in company, attending tugs and salvage craft, or in nearby ports. The capacity of an improvised system will be limited by its weakest component. Other components should be sized to have only slightly higher capacity to reduce weight and handling requirements. In all cases, the weak link must be identied, limiting load determined, and provision made to avoid overloading. Overload can be prevented by close monitoring and control of tension by using a dynamometer or a power source that cannot overload the system. Sources of improvised beach gear components are described Paragraph 7-4.1 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) and amplied in the following paragraphs.
Improvised wire rope stoppers can be constructed as shown in Figure 5-18. Beach gear capacity will be reduced when using improvised stoppers. Carpenter stoppers are designed to carry loads up to 90 percent of the wire ropes breaking strength without damage to the rope. Improvised stoppers may slip or damage the wire at lower tensions; toggles (see Figure 7-14 of U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010)) will damage the rope under heavy strain. The casualtys bower anchors are usually the only ones available for an improvised ground leg. Some ships are equipped with stern anchors or carry a stream anchor stowed aft. Moving these anchors seaward is difficult but possible even when tugs or workboats are not on scene. Cargo booms or deck winches can be used to yard-and-stay bower anchors to the casualtys stern. The ground leg will not exceed the length of the ship but could have enough scope to hold the ship from further grounding or aid in retraction, depending on the length and weight of the ship. Anchors in this position may prevent the ship from broaching. Construction, power, and displacement render most lifeboats and small combatant ships boats unsuitable for handling the ships anchors. Some ships carry heavy workboats that are suitable for carrying anchors or other salvage work. Some examples are heavy landing craft on amphibious warfare ships, large utility boats on tenders and repair ships, net skiffs on large purse seiners, and workboats on industrial vessels. Shipboard cranes, booms, and weight-handling systems are sometimes equipped with dynamometers of large enough capacity to be used as beach gear tensiometers. Dynamometers can also be obtained from shipyards and other weight testing facilities. Smaller dynamometers can be used on the purchase wire; the dynamometer reading must be multiplied by the mechanical advantage of the purchase to obtain the ground leg tension.
When using made up or improvised beach gear, appropriate safety factors must be used. Components with unknown design or breaking strengths should not be used. An improvised system does not have the advantage of many years of use and testing like a standard system, and should be used with caution. Personnel should be kept well clear of the gear when it is under tension. Components should be inspected after each loading. The following conditions should be taken as indications of insufficient component strength; the system should be redesigned or operated at reduced load after the damaged components are replaced:
Elongated shackles and deck padeyes. Bent shackle and sheave pins. Sheaves no longer parallel in multiple-sheave blocks. Flattened wire rope. Broken strands in the wire rope. Deformed or cracked chain links.
5-8.3.7 Tensioning Purchases with Vehicles. Conditions sometimes exist where heavy tracked or wheeled vehicles, or more rarely, railroad locomotives, can tension beach gear purchases. Heavy equipment and rail operators should be able to estimate the tractive effort, or drawbar pull, of their equipment. In the absence of better information, drawbar pull for vehicles designed to tow can be estimated as: 0.90W 0.70W 0.25W where W is vehicle weight. The values given are for horizontal pulls on dry, rm, level ground. Drawbar pull will be less on upslopes, on wet ground, or on loose soil. The value for locomotives is the average value for dry, level rails. Drawbar pull may be as low as 0.15W for oily rails, or as high as 0.3W on sanded rails. for tracked vehicles for wheeled vehicles for railroad locomotives
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5-9 UNDERWATER EXCAVATION

Table 5-2. Comparison of Underwater Excavation Methods.
Underwater and semi-submerged excavation and earth-moving are conducted in support of several types of salvage operations:
Excavation Factor Type of Seafloor
Scouring loose sediments less than 30 feet below scouring vessels propeller(s) short negligible not required but can be beneficial (or detrimental) Tug or powerful workboat large
Removal of seaoor material from under stranded ships to reduce friction and/or ground reaction. Removal of accumulated sediments from sunken ships to reduce weight. Dredging channels for the retraction of stranded ships. Digging trenches into which stranded ships can slide or be pulled. Tunneling under sunken ships to pass messenger wires. Disturbing cohesive soils under and around sunken or stranded ships to reduce suction effects. Cutting new channels or widening/deepening existing channels in harbor clearance operations. Digging holes to topple wrecks into, or drawing seaoor material from under a wreck, during wreck burial operations. Removing sediments as they build up around a stranded casualty to prevent severe hull stresses and keep machinery sea suctions clear. Removing accumulated sediments to gain access to objects or portions of a casualty.
Air Lifting loose sediment, cobbles 25 - 75 ft
Excavation Method Jetting loose sediments
Water depth Horizontal spoil transport Vertical spoil transport Current dependence Ancillary Equipment1 Relative shipping space/weight
unlimited
short up to 70 ft
short short
Dredging all except rock and coral depends on dredge type; unlimited for depths encountered in salvage short to long, depending on dredge type depends on dredge type not required, may affect dredge maneuvering HP pump small to medium
Blasting rock, coral, hardpan, stiff or hard clay unlimited
short short not required but beneficial so long as charges are not disturbed Rock drill for most efficient blasting large (if drilling equipment shipped)
not required, may be required for most detrimental efficient operation LP air compressor large (can be reduced if lift pipe shipped in sections) HP pump small to medium
NOTES: 1In addition to work platform
INITIAL WORK AREA
SCOURING TUG
CASUALTY
SECOND WORK AREA
SCOURING TUG IN NEW POSITION
CASUALTY
There are ve general methods of excavating and/or moving seaoor material available to the salvor:
CASUALTY
Scouring, Air lifting, Jetting, Dredging, and Blasting.

THIRD WORK AREA SCOURING TUG REPOSITIONED
Figure 5-19. Salvage Tug Scouring Away Soft Material.
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Seaoor blasting is discussed in Chapter 10; the other four excavation methods are discussed in the following paragraphs. The choice of excavation method depends on a number of factors:
Nature of the seaoor material: soft or hard, ne or coarse grained; maximum particle size. Water depth. Horizontal and vertical distance the excavated material must be moved. Quantity of material to be moved and nature of the excavation. Strength and direction of local currents and wave-caused surge. Available topside equipment and work platform. Weight and volume shipping limitations for excavation equipment.
Table 5-2 compares the relative advantages of various excavation methods for different circumstances. 5-9.1 Scouring. Water currents can scour loose soils from around a ship or out of a channel. Paragraph 3-7.4 discusses the current velocities necessary to scour and carry sediments in suspension. Scouring currents can be produced by the propeller wash of tugs or workboats, a stranded ships propeller wash, by pumps, or by channeling natural currents. Breakwaters or groynes built perpendicular to the beach can set up currents that will prevent sediment buildup around the ship or will scour away the ground. Scouring is most effective on loose, ne-grained sediments, such as sand or silt. Scouring is usually less efficient than dredging. The method of scouring chosen depends upon the assets available, the conditions at the site, and the amount of ground to be moved:
Tugs or workboats, trimmed by the stern to direct the propeller wash downward, can be moored alongside a stranded casualty with their sterns directed towards the area from which ground is to be removed. The tug lies alongside the ship at an angle of 40 to 50 degrees to her heading, then builds up to full power and gradually works her way aft. Lines from the stranded ship and the tugs towline may be slacked or hove taut to change the direction of the wash. The wash from the tugs propeller scours against the stranded ships bilge, carrying seaoor material down the side and clear of the casualty. Tugs can also work from amidships forward and scour both sides simultaneously. Twin-screw vessels with outward turning propellers produce more effective scouring streams than single-screw vessels. The swirling propeller streams are angled towards each other at the bottom of the propeller circle, where they merge into a nearly straight stream directed aft at the level of the vessels keel. Twin-screw vessels of less than 500 shaft horsepower and single-screw vessels of less than 1,000 horsepower are generally ineffective scouring platforms. Scouring by tugs can move moderate amounts of material from under specic areas of the ship. Tugs with controllable-pitch propellers should not be used for scouring because sand and other abrasive material stirred up may damage the pitch-control mechanism. Figure 5-19 shows scouring by a tug. Some salvage vessels have been tted with propeller nozzles or propwash deectors to better direct the propwash against the seaoor. If there is a possibility of the casualty working free from her strand while a scouring vessel is working alongside, the casualty should be restrained by ground tackle. This method of scouring can also be used to cut channels in sand, gravel, or mud. If an appropriate vessel can be trimmed by the stern enough that her propwash strikes the bottom, she can scour material away from a series of areas while held in place by anchors. A stranded ships propeller may be run ahead to wash ground away from the after section of the ship. The effect will be limited to the area immediately forward and for some distance aft of the propeller. When the ships propeller is used for scouring, machinery cooling water intake should be shifted to high sea suctions to minimize the infusion of seaoor material into the ships machinery, or pumps rigged to provide machinery cooling water. As an alternative, the sea suction(s) can be blocked with a plate tted with a large-diameter pipe or noncollapsible hose tting, with the pipe led to an area of clear water. The ship must be restrained by ground tackle to prevent her from driving herself further aground. Scouring should not be attempted when the ship has controllable-pitch propellers or other underwater installations that may be damaged by grit. This method of scouring can be used to open a channel in an obstructing bar behind the ship as she is drawn off her strand by tugs and/or beach gear. Stranded ships have worked themselves across miles of mud ats in this manner. Jetting pumps or other high-pressure pumps may be used to scour limited areas. Pumps may be operated from the stranded ship, but it is usually better to locate them on tugs or barges that are closer to the water and more mobile. Many small water jets are often more effective than one large jet. High-volume ow through perforated pipes or hoses rigged alongside the ship can scour seaoor material away and/or effectively prevent sediment buildup.
Scouring should be coordinated to make maximum use of tidal and other currents. Scouring stirs up the seaoor material that can then be carried away by favorable currents. Scouring during slack water, or when the current is owing into or is stagnated against the casualty, may simply redistribute the sediments around the ship.
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5-9.2 Air Lifting. Air lifts can effectively remove loose materials at moderate depths (25 to 75 feet). The amount of material lifted depends on the size of the air lift, submerged depth of the pipe, air pressure and volume, and discharge head or lift. Air lift operating principles and design are described in Paragraph 8-2.5.2. Typical air lifts are shown in Figure 5-20. Detailed air lift designs are given in Appendix D of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). Air lifting is started by opening the air supply valve and submerging the intake end of the air lift into the seaoor material. Air lifts are usually operated by divers, although it is sometimes possible to control an air lift from the surface in shallow water. Usually, some experimentation is required to determine the air ow for maximum efficiency. Air pressure is relatively unimportant so long as it is greater than hydrostatic pressure at the excavation depth. Air lifts may be from 10 to 70 feet, but are relatively inefcient when lengths are less than 30 feet long. In shallow water, eductors or improvised dredges are generally more effective. The horizontal transport of lifted materials is determined by the inclination of the air lift. A principal disadvantage of air lifting is that excavated materials are discharged relatively near the excavation. This disadvantage can be mitigated by inclining the pipe less steeply, positioning the discharge downstream so prevailing currents can carry the material away, or by discharging the air lift into a spoil barge. Lifting material above the water surface will reduce the efficiency of an airlift.
3/4" AIR LINE
4"
(a)
(b)
SIMPLE FIELD-MADE AIRLIFTS
DROP PIPE TO THE SURFACE

FLUID MIXTURE DRILLED HOLES ANNULAR COLLAR WATER MUD, SAND, GRAVEL, ETC. AIR HOSE
3/4" AIR LINE
3" PIPE 5" PIPE
(c)
WELL-DESIGNED AIRLIFTS
5-9.3 Jetting. In its simplest form, jetting Figure 5-20. Typical Air Lifts. moves quantities of mud, silt, or sand by directing a high-velocity water stream at the material to be moved. This process is normally performed by a diver with a nozzle and a high-pressure water hose. It can be performed from the surface in shallow water with lances improvised from 10- and 12-foot reghting applicators or lengths of pipe. A ow rate of about 100 gpm and a discharge pressure between 50 and 150 psi over bottom pressure is adequate for most jetting. Jetting is most efficient when there is a strong current to carry the disturbed material away from the work area (see Paragraph 3-7.4). Work should commence on the up-current side. Ordinary nozzles develop a heavy reaction thrust that must be resisted by the diver. Special jetting nozzles, like the one shown in Figure 5-21, have balancing jets that reduce or eliminate nozzle reaction. When the nozzle is used for tunneling, the balancing jets also help carry material out of the tunnel. A balanced nozzle can be improvised from a pipe "T," as shown in Figure 5-21. 5-9.4 Dredging. Dredges can remove large quantities of seaoor material from around and under a casualty and dig channels to deep water. Dredges are most effective in soft soils, but some can dig coral, hardpan, stiff clay, and some kinds of soft rock (limestone, shale, etc.). The equipment used for dredging depends on the casualty location and attitude, seaoor type, and water depth. A dredges production rate is its rate of removing seaoor material, or spoil. Production rate depends on the dredge type, size, digging depthdepth to the bottom of the cutand seaoor type. Dredges are operated by the Army Corps of Engineers and commercial dredging, underwater construction, and seabed mining companies. If dredging appears to be a viable technique for a salvage operation, the nearest Army Corps of Engineers district office should be consulted for advice concerning the best type and size of dredge to use, and probable production rate. The two basic types of dredges are mechanical (bucket dredge) and hydraulic. 5-9.4.1 Mechanical Dredges. Mechanical dredges are classied as grab, dipper, and ladder dredges. Mechanical dredges move spoil by physically picking it up and depositing it elsewhere. A grab dredge is a grab bucket operated from a derrick mounted on a barge. Either clamshell or orange peel buckets are used, depending on the consistency of the spoil. Digging action depends on the weight of the bucket, so grab dredges work best in soft soils. Production rate for a dredge with a one cubic yard bucket is 45 to 55 cubic yards of mud per hour in 15 to 20 feet of water. Production rate in clay is about half as much. Digging depth is limited only by the length of the lift wires, although production rate decreases rapidly with increasing depth. A dipper dredge is simply a power shovel operating from a barge. It is most effective in hard seaoors, such as gravel, broken rock, or shale. Bucket capacities vary from one to ve cubic yards. A dredge with a one cubic yard bucket may move 50 to 250 cubic yards of mud per hour; about half as much clay per hour. Digging depth is limited by the length of the boom; 65 feet is about maximum. Dipper dredges are uncommon outside the United States.
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A ladder dredge moves spoil with an endless chain of buckets running on an inclined ladder, like a department store escalator, that is lowered to the bottom. Bucket sizes vary from 5 to 55 cubic feet. The bucket cycle will average 20 to 30 buckets per minute in silts and muds, 18 to 24 in medium soils, and 9 to 12 in stiff clay, with an average 85-percent bucket ll. Maximum digging depth is usually about 40 feet, but may be as deep as 75 feet. 5-9.4.2 Hydraulic Dredges. Hydraulic dredges move spoil with high-capacity centrifugal or jet pumps. Plain suction dredges draw seaoor material through a suction pipe into a pump in the hull. The pump discharges into hoppers within the hull or into barges alongside. Some suction dredges have water jets at the lower end of the suction pipe to break up the seaoor material. A draghead dredge is a plain suction dredge with a special suction head, or draghead, attached to the suction pipe. The heavy draghead breaks up the seaoor material as it is dragged along. Since the dredge must be in motion to operate, draghead dredges are self-propelled. The cutterhead dredge is the most versatile of hydraulic dredges. A rotating cutterhead at the end of the suction pipe breaks up seaoor materials, including hardpan, coral, and soft limestone. The spoil is drawn into the pipe and is removed by a centrifugal pump. Cutterhead dredges vary in size from a small barge-mounted unit, drawing three feet with a 6-inch pump, to large self-propelled ships capable of moving 2,000 cubic yards of spoil per hour. Amphibious and remote-operated underwater dredges have been developed.
1" 3/4"
6" LENGTHS OF 3/4" OR 1" PIPE
REDUCING OR REGULAR "T" 1" NIPPLE
4" TO 6" LENGTH OF 2" PIPE
1/4" DRILL 4 HOLES
2 1/2" FIRE HOSE TO 2" PIPE ADAPTER COUPLES TO 2 1/2" FIRE HOSE CUSTOM (CAST AND MACHINED) JETTING NOZZLE IMPROVISED JETTING NOZZLE
Figure 5-21. Jetting Nozzle.
WL
WORK BARGE
Table 5-3. Improvised Dredge Design Guide.

Suction Pipe Diameter, in. 2 3 4 6 8 Jet Pipe Diameter, in. 1 1 11 2 11 2 3 Minimum Pump Output, gpm 55 100 125 300 500
DIVER UMBILICAL
INTAKE
JET PIPE SUCTION PIPE
5-9.4.3 Improvised Dredges. Figure 5-22 shows a simple underwater dredge that can be fabricated on a salvage site. It consists of a tube or pipe with 30-degree bend near the intake end. A water jet is connected at the Figure 5-22. Improvised Dredge. center of the bend, aimed along the centerline of the main pipe towards the discharge. The water jet creates a suction at the intake, drawing sediments into the pipe. Maximum lift depends on the size of pipe and pump output. A 200gpm pump with a 6-inch dredge pipe will lift spoil 60 feet above the seaoor. Keeping the dredge pipe only a few feet above the seaoor, the same system can move 10 cubic yards of spoil per hour. The suction end of the dredge is controlled by divers, so the pipe should be constructed of lightweight materials, such as aluminum, plastic, or noncollapsible salvage hose. Reaction forces are low. Table 5-3 is a design guide for sizing dredge pipe, water jet, and pump capacity. A similar dredge can be improvised by connecting a Peri-jet eductor to a length of pipe or noncollapsible hose.
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5-9.4.4 Salvage Dredging. The principal dredging operations in salvage are:
Digging retraction channels for stranded ships, Trenching, and Ponding.
When dredges cut trenches close alongside casualties in soft or uid soils, soil from under the ship will ow into the hole, and the ship will settle, increasing buoyancy and decreasing ground reaction. Because of the currents set up at the suction head, hydraulic dredges can draw material from under the ship. It may be possible to dig deep enough to reoat the ship. Ships can be pulled or heeled into trenches dug alongside when the soil is too rm to ow. In a similar manner, dredges can trench alongside wrecks to be buried, allowing them to settle as sediments are drawn from under them. If a ship is high and dry, a basin can be dug by earth-moving equipment, leaving columns or ridges of seaoor material under the ship to support her as blocks do on a drydock. A channel from the sea is opened into the basin with a dredge. The inrushing water, assisted as necessary by high-pressure water jets, washes the supports from under the ship, allowing it to reoat. Salvage dredging is a complicated operation requiring time, work, planning, and careful coordination with other work.
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CHAPTER 6 SUNKEN AND CAPSIZED SHIPS

6-1 INTRODUCTION Ships sink or capsize because they lose their buoyancy or stability through battle and weather damage, collision, intentional flooding, and other means. The damage makes their salvage more difficult than it would be for an intact ship in the same location. Beyond this, and the fact that the ships are supported largely or totally by the ground, common circumstances of stranded ships do not apply to sunken ships. Usually, ships are salvaged only if sunk in relatively shallow water. While it is technically possible to recover ships and other large objects from great depths, the cost is usually prohibitive. The difficulties and cost increase rapidly with depth; ships sunk with more than 100 feet of water over their decks usually are considered beyond economic salvage, although high-value or sensitive cargo may justify their recovery. Submarines, because of their construction, can be recovered from somewhat greater depths; high replacement cost and strategic value may justify salvage. Salvage of sunken vessels is not usually as time-critical as salvage of strandings. A vessel sunk in protected waters, or in water deep enough to protect it from surface conditions, is unlikely to deteriorate unless severe storms develop. More time can be taken to plan and marshal forces for the salvage effort. A ship partially sunk on an exposed coast, however, is in a situation similar to that of a strandingthe casualtys condition deteriorates over time. Wreck removal and harbor clearance operations involving sunken ships are often urgent because of the necessity to open obstructed waterways and port facilities. All marine salvage work is a combination of seamanship and engineering. In stranding salvage, seamanship predominates; salvage or clearance of sunken ships requires a greater proportion of engineering. The salvage engineer has four principal tasks:
Predict the behavior of sunken and capsized ships by applying the principles of buoyancy and stability discussed in Chapter 1. Determine required lifting and/or righting forces. Determine effects of environmental forces on the casualty and salvage systems. Devise methods of applying forces to right or lift the casualty in a controlled manner.
The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) discusses righting and raising sunken ships in detail. This chapter provides amplifying information on factors influencing methods of salvaging sunken ships, such as sinking conditions and the environment. 6-2 SINKING CONDITION A sunken ships attitude relative to both the seafloor and water surface is a principal indicator of the complexity of her salvage. The magnitude and distribution of ground reaction are the most important elements of a ships stranding condition. Analogous elements for sunken ships are the required lifting and parbuckling forces. The relative degree of submergence is equally important, because of its effect on stability during raising. Degree of submergence and distribution of the ships weight between ground reaction and buoyancy profoundly influence a sunken ships behavior. The position, attitude, and orientation of a sunken ship can either mitigate or intensify environmental effects. Important factors of the sinking condition include:
Whether the ship is capsized. How deeply the ship has penetrated or settled into the bottom. Depth of water around and above the ship. Damage suffered before, during, and after sinking. Vessel attitude, i.e., list, trim, contact with the bottom, etc. Distance to protected shallow waters. Degree of submergence.
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Sinking often results from flooding following hull damage; additional damage may result when the ship strikes or settles on the bottom. A diving survey can provide an accurate picture of the ships condition, but indications of some conditions may be visible from the surface. If the casualtys masts either converge or diverge, the ship may have broken in sinking. If one end of a ship sank rapidly while the other end remained afloat for several hours, it is likely that little or no damage occurred to the slowly sinking end, and that the vessel lost buoyancy through slow seepage. Differences between water levels inside and outside of a partially sunken ship, and between compartments within the ship (as the tide rises or falls), may indicate the extent of damage to shell and bulkheads.
6-3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Environmental effects on sunken ships include responses of the seafloor to loading by the casualty and fluid forces of the surrounding water. In a sinking, much of the casualty is exposed to hydrostatic pressure, current forces, and current-induced scour or silting. Work on the casualty must be accomplished through the water column. Wind and weather affect salvors and salvage vessels alike. 6-3.1 Seafloor Effects. Effects of the seafloor on a sunken casualty include:
Gradual sinkage into the seafloor. Suction on cohesive seafloors. Hull girder stresses caused by uneven support. Obstructions presented by the bottom topography. Scour. Silting.
Composition and consistency of the seafloor under the ship, and slope of the seafloor near the casualty, are the two most important characteristics influencing seafloor effects. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) discusses the general effects of the seafloor on sunken vessels and lifting operations. Paragraph3-7.3 describes calculation of bottom breakout forces required to break seafloor suction. Silt and mud that settle in the ship constitute weight that must be either removed or overcome during the refloating. Removing silt and mud lightens the ship and makes her behavior more predictable. Chapter 5 discusses the use of air lifts and other underwater excavation methods suitable for removing accumulated silt from sunken ships. The weight of mud varies with the type of soil. Table 3-3 lists some typical values for underwater weightthe weight of the soil less the weight of the displaced water. Because of internal voids, one cubic foot of soil displaces less than one cubic foot of water. The actual volume of water displaced by a volume of soil depends on the compactness, or porosity (ratio of volume of voids to volume of soil particles) of the soil. Porosity ranges from 0.3 for dense, settled sand to 0.6 for recently deposited, loose silt. Mud removed from a casualty is sometimes deposited on a barge or ashore. The weight of spoil can be estimated from the change in barge draft. This weight is greater than the weight removed from the casualty because it includes weight of water trapped in the soil. The weight removed can be estimated by multiplying spoil weight by the solids proportion (1 porosity). Wet weight can be determined simply by weighing a bucket of mud brought up from the wreck; if time permits, the weight of solids for a given volume of mud can be determined by drying the mud before weighing. A microwave oven is convenient for drying soil samples. 6-3.2 Fluid Forces. Fluid forces on a sunken ship derive from the depth of water in which the ship lies and the effects of tide, waves, swell, and current. 6-3.2.1 Water Depth. Because hydrostatic pressure increases with depth, water depth determines the hydrostatic pressures on the casualty both as it sits and as it is raised. The fact that pressure complicates the salvage of sunken ships is a major reason why deeply sunken ships are seldom salvaged. Pressure varies with depth according to the following relationship: ph = wd where: ph d = = = hydrostatic pressure weight density of water = g/gc (seeParagraphD-4.1) water depth
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If depth is measured in feet, density in pounds per cubic foot, and pressure is desired in pounds per square inch, the relationship can be simplified: ph = d 144 = 0.445d = 0.433d where: ph d = = = hydrostatic pressure, lb/in2 water density, lb/ft3 water depth, feet (seawater) (fresh water)
I I I II II II 1 2 3 1 2 3
Table 6-1. Shipboard Manhole Cover Specifications (ASTM Standards F1142, F1143, and F1144). Bolted, Semi-flush, Oiltight and Watertight Manhole Cover Assembly Type Grade Plate Thickness, in. 1 4 3 8 1 2 1 4 3 8 1 2 Deck Cut Overall Size, in. 15 23 15 23 15 23 18 24 18 24 18 24 Cover Overall Size, in. 21 29 21 29 21 29 24 30 24 30 24 30 Number of Bolts or Studs 22 22 22 24 24 24 Design Pressure psi 12.0 27.0 47.9 8.9 20.0 35.6
Rectangular, Raised, Oiltight and Watertight Manhole Cover Assembly Type Grade Plate Thickness in. 1 4 3 8 1 2 1 4 3 8 1 2 Deck Cut Cover Overall Overall Size, Size, in. in. 15 23 213 4 293 4 15 23 213 4 293 4 15 23 213 4 293 4 18 24 243 4 303 4 18 24 243 4 303 4 18 24 243 4 303 4 Number of Bolts or Studs 30 30 30 34 34 34 Design Pressure psi 7.5 17.0 30.3 6.7 15.1 27.0
Pressure acts equally on all surfaces of a sunken ship filled with water. Pressure differentials across structures resulting from dewatering of spaces can be sufficient to cause failure. Ship decks and bulkheads are designed to withstand a pressure differential of four to six feet of water head greater than the depth of the bulkhead. If the ship is old, has been sunk for a long time, is damaged, or the bulkhead is otherwise in poor condition, this pressure differential may be excessive. If the pressure differential is greater than six feet of seawater or the strength is questionable, bulkheads should be reinforced by shoring or by building false bulkheads adjacent to them and placing concrete between the real and false bulkheads. If concrete is not available, dense bulk material, such as loose stone, sand, coal, ore, etc., can be placed between the bulkheads to provide shoring weight.
I I I II II II
1 2 3 1 2 3
Raised, Oiltight and Watertight Manhole Cover Assembly Type I I I II II II Grade 1 2 3 1 2 3 Plate Thickness, in. 1 4 3 8 1 2 1 4 3 8 1 2 Deck Cut Overall Size, in. 15 23 15 23 15 23 18 24 18 24 18 24 Cover Overall Size, in. 22 30 22 30 22 30 25 31 25 31 25 31 Number of Bolts or Studs 24 24 24 28 28 28 Design Pressure psi 12.0 27.0 47.9 8.9 20.0 35.6
Strength of stiffened and cross-stiffened bulkheads can be estimated by the methods described in Paragraphs 2-2.2 and 2-2.3. Unstiffened bulkhead strength is given by the flat plate formulae described in Paragraph 2-5. The following guidelines can be used to estimate strength of miscellaneous structures and fittings under distributed loads:
A rule of thumb for commercial vessels is that a main deck submerged more than 6 feet must be shored. Steel and aluminum watertight doors built to U.S. commercial standards are designed for a uniform pressure of 9 psig; glassreinforced plastic (GRP) watertight doors are designed for a uniform pressure of 5 psig. Design pressures and dimensions for watertight and oiltight manhole covers built to ASTM standards are given in Table 6-1.
For ships built to U.S. Navy specifications (GENSPECs): Shell and weather deck plating is designed for a hydrostatic load of 500 pounds per square foot (approximately 3.5 psi or 7.8 feet of seawater). Vertical stiffeners on structural bulkheads are designed as pin-ended columns. Watertight bulkheads are designed to withstand flooding to the damage control deck. Due to their load-bearing requirements, structural watertight bulkheads may be able to carry a higher hydrostatic head. An air test schedule indicates test pressure for certain watertight compartments. Although they are usually stronger, compartment boundaries can carry at least the specified pressure. The air test schedule for the casualty or for sister ships may be obtained from the planning yard, squadron maintenance officer, or a sister ship.
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6-3.2.2 Tide. Tide is important when salvaging sunken ships for five reasons:
Depth of water over the deck varies with tide. In partially exposed ships, downflooding through hatches, doors, and other openings can occur as the tide rises. As the tide falls, larger portions of the ship are exposed, permitting work to be performed without diving. The buoyancy in partially exposed watertight spaces increases as tide rises. The amount of tidal lift is directly related to the height of the tide. Water level in partially exposed holds or compartments relative to that outside the ship can give important clues about hull damage. An appreciable time lag between the rise or fall of the water level inside a compartment and that outside the ship indicates slow leakage and relatively small openings in the hull or piping. Little or no lag indicates one or more large openings or many small openings.
Patches, cofferdams, and other structures affected by either hydrostatic pressure or water depth should be designed for the highest tide likely to occur during the salvage operation. A generous margin should be allowed, but not so generous that the freeboard of a full cofferdam inhibits handling materials from boats into the cofferdam. 6-3.2.3 Waves and Swells. Waves entering a casualty through large openings can be channeled into narrow passages; the wave energy is concentrated, and the waves strike obstructing bulkheads or patches with great force. There may be a strong and violent surge inside a vessel, while only a moderate swell is running outside. High internal pressures can occur if waves enter the hull, or the water inside the casualty is excited by the waves. The rapidly varying water level alternately compresses and expands the air in the space, subjecting space boundaries and patches to high cyclic loading. Even small swells, when confined, can dislodge sturdy patches, especially those fitted externally. Patches on deck openings may be struck and damaged by the rising water surface. A partially sunken ship on an exposed coast can be severely battered. A sunken ship may retain sufficient buoyancy for one end to float while the other end rests on the bottom. In this condition, the casualty is moved about easily by wind and seas; loss of buoyancy because of progressive flooding or venting of trapped air may allow the floating end to sink, endangering nearby personnel and craft. 6-3.2.4 Current. Current forces push and rotate sunken ships. The effective center of pressure of current force may be high enough to cause a heeling moment. Paragraph 3-4.5.1 describes the calculation of the force exerted by a current against a sunken ships hull. To find the depth correction factor (K) from Figure 3-13, total height of the immersed ship should be substituted for draft in the water depth to draft ratio (d/T). If water depths and degree of immersion vary along the length of the casualty, total current force can be calculated with a value for K based on average d/T ratio, or by numerical integration. If there is a significant vertical current gradient, it is necessary to integrate vertically as well as horizontally to determine the center of pressure for heeling moment calculations. Varying currents, coupled with other effects, may cause instability as the casualty is raised. Current drag on the casualty tends to move both it and any attached lifting vessels laterally. Current intensity and direction may vary with depth. When current direction varies with depth, current force vectors on the suspended vessel and the lift craft may come from different directions, resulting in increased lift force. When lifting a sunken vessel clear of the bottom, enough tugs and moorings must be available to control the ship in the maximum current expected during the lift. When the vessel is moved to a new site, moors must be ready to receive her and be capable of holding her securely in the conditions prevalent at that site. Current is a major factor limiting diver work. Divers should be given priority use of slack water periods.
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6-4 STABILITY OF SUNKEN SHIPS
Sunken ships are grouped into four categories by stability characteristics:
Completely submerged. Partially submerged, with a substantial portion of the watertight envelope above the surface. Partially supported by their buoyancy. Dewatered with cofferdams.
Sunken ships refloat before all of the buoyancy lost in sinking has been recovered. Water remaining on board can cause dangerous free surface and problems with stability, list, and local and overall hull strength. Salvage of a sunken ship requires not only recovering enough buoyancy to refloat the ship, but also distributing buoyancy to obtain suitable conditions of stability, trim, and strength. Capsized ships are sometimes refloated upside down. This technique is particularly suitable when the:
Ship is capsized to more than 90 degrees. Ships bottom is relatively intact or can easily be made airtight. The ship is sunk in deep water or top hamper, superstructure, and other objects that increase the navigational draft of the inverted ship can be removed easily. Channel to the ultimate destination is sufficiently deep to accommodate the inverted ship. Ship is to be sunk in deep water or scrapped.
Capsized ships have been refloated successfully on their sides or upside down. Experience has shown that ships floated upside down are usually quite stable when raised to a freeboard roughly equivalent to, or only slightly greater than, the height of the double bottom. Similarly, fullbodied ships refloated at heel angles of 130 to 150 degrees with the turn of the bilge a few feet out of the water are generally quite stable. 6-4.1 Completely Submerged Vessels. Completely submerged vessels have no metacentric radius because there is no waterplane; IWP, and consequently BM, is zero. Both transverse and longitudinal stability depend solely on the relative positions of the centers of buoyancy and gravity. A submerged vessel free of external restraints assumes trim and list that bring W L W L UPSETTING MOMENT the centers of buoyancy and gravity into vertical line. Stability of a completely submerged ship is not a concern while the ship G is restrained from capsizing by the seafloor. However, it is of major concern between B B the time the ship leaves the bottom and G when it establishes positive stability on the surface. The vertical separation of the centers of gravity and buoyancy (BG), after accounting for the effects of free surface, is the measure of stability for a sunken ship. As shown in Figure 6-1, if:
SHIP UPRIGHT, CLEAR OF BOTTOM B IS ABOVE G - SHIP IS STABLE
G IS ABOVE B, SHIP IS UNSTABLE.
B is above G, the ship is stable. B and G coincide, the ship has neutral stability. G is above B, the ship is unstable.
Figure 6-1. Stability of Completely Sunken Ship.
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6-4.1.1 Free Surface in Submerged Vessels. Free surface reduces righting arm in submerged vessels in the same manner as in surface vessels. The opposing shifts of liquid and air can be considered to cause a shift in the center of gravity (added weight method) or center of buoyancy (lost buoyancy method). In the added weight method of calculations, reduction in righting arms is calculated by determining an equivalent rise of the center of gravity: GG1 = i GG1
BGeff = BG where: BGeff i GG1 = = = =
effective (virtual) separation of the centers of buoyancy and gravity, after accounting for free surface effect moment of inertia of the liquid surface in the compartment volume of displacement of the vessel vertical distance from the old center of gravity G to the new center of gravity G1
When a large free surface is in W L W L N communication with the sea, as when K K capsized ships are raised with compressed B1 D1 air, the lost buoyancy method of calculation F B0 F B0 F2 D sometimes gives a more enlightening E O F O F H1 1 picture of submerged vessel stability. The 1 H1 R S free surface is the lower boundary of the G O N M1 ships intact buoyancy. For cargo ships M0 H H floated upside down without hatch covers, or ships with large hull openings, the free surface can be viewed as an internal (a) WITHOUT LONGITUDINAL SUBDIVISION (b) WITH LONGITUDINAL SUBDIVISION waterline. For a ship either upright or capsized to 180 degrees, the internal waterline is perpendicular to the Figure 6-2. Submerged Ship With Large Free Surface. centerplane. If the ship is heeled, as shown in Figure 6-2(a), the internal waterline (free surface) is no longer perpendicular to the centerplane. A wedge of buoyancy (HOH1) is transferred from one side of the ship to the other (FOF1), causing an attendant shift of the center of buoyancy from B0 to B1. For the ship shown, the centers of buoyancy and gravity are located so that the opposing forces of weight and buoyancy form an upsetting couplethe ship is initially unstable. A submerged metacenter (M0), can be defined in terms of the initial waterline FH and center of buoyancy B0: B 0 M0 = I0
where I0 is the moment of inertia of the internal waterplane FH (free surface) and is the volume of displacement (buoyancy). If the center of gravity lies below the metacenter, the line of action of the downward force of buoyancy will be outboard the line of action of the upward force of buoyancy for small angles of heel, creating a righting couple. A longitudinal bulkhead NN, as shown in Figure 6-2(b), prevents the formation of the buoyancy wedges HOH1 and FOF1. Instead, wedges of buoyancy are transferred within the compartments formed by the bulkhead (DED1 to FEF2, SOH to DOR). Metacentric radius is no longer based on I0, the moment of inertia of the waterplane FH, but on the sum of the moments of inertia of the component surfaces FD and DH. If the surface FD is small compared to FH, then O and O can be assumed to correspond, and the combined moment of inertia can be approximated by: I = I0 Ad 2
where A is the area of the surface FD and d is the distance from the center of area FD to the ships centerplane (EO). If longitudinal subdivision is symmetric about the centerline, O and O correspond, and the sum of the moment of inertia of the component surfaces can be closely approximated by deducting Ad2 for all the component surfaces, except the center surface, from I0. If the internal waterline FH corresponds to a watertight deck or bulkhead, i.e., the compartment is completely dewatered and there is no free surface, there is no transfer of buoyancy from one side of the ship to the other with heel; the center of buoyancy does not move. The ship is stable so long as the center of gravity lies below the center of buoyancy.
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6-4.1.2 Transition from Submerged to Surfaced Stability. As the ship begins to surface and develop a waterplane, a metacentric radius is formed and surface (form) stability becomes applicable. The metacentric radius is quite small at first; the metacentric height often is negative and the ship unstableespecially if there is appreciable free surface. A partially submerged ship with a large free surface has both external and internal waterlines, as shown in Figure 6-3. The volume between the external and internal waterlines, represented in the figure by FF1LL1, is approximately equal to the volume of displacement (). As the ship inclines, the external waterline becomes HH1 and the internal waterline becomes SS1. Since both the external and internal waterplanes change as the ship inclines, both a surface stability metacenter (M1) and a submerged metacenter (M0) can be defined. M1 is defined in the usual manner by the waterplane FF1: B 0 M1 = IFF
1
F W L H B1 B3 M1 B0 B2 S O M2 M0 L1 F1 S1 H1 L
Figure 6-3. Refloated Ship With Low Freeboard and Extensive Free Surface.
(a)
(b)
(c)
M
W G M B G B
G B
M0 is similarly defined by the internal waterplane LL1: B 0 M0 = ILL

1
SHIP COMPLETELY SUBMERGED. SHIP HAS NO WATERPLANE OR METACENTRIC RADIUS. B IS BELOW G. SHIP IS UNSTABLE.
PART OF SHIP EMERGES AND FORMS WATERPLANE. SUBMERGED VOLUME IS STILL VERY LARGE. METACENTRIC RADIUS IS SMALL. METACENTRIC HEIGHT IS NEGATIVE.
SHIP RAISED FURTHER, SUBMERGED VOLUME DECREASES. METACENTRIC RADIUS INCREASES. METACENTRIC HEIGHT BECOMES POSITIVE. SHIP BECOMES STABLE.
It can be seen from Figure 6-3 that the wedge of buoyancy at the external waterFigure 6-4. Development of Stability in Raising a Completely Sunken Ship. line is transferred from the high side to the low side, shifting B0 to B1, while at the internal waterline, the wedge is transferred from the low side to the high side, shifting B0 to B2. The effects of the transference of buoyancy at the two waterlines tend to cancel, leaving the center of buoyancy at B3. The effective metacenter (M2) is determined by the final position of the center of buoyancy (B3). The governing metacentric radius can be defined in terms of the initial center of buoyancy (B0): B 0 M2 = B 0 M0 To be stable, the ships center of gravity must lie below M2. As the ship is raised further out of the water, the external waterplane area increases, with an attendant increase in moment of inertia while the volume of displacement decreases simultaneously, increasing B0M1. If the free surface (internal waterline) is eliminated, B0M0 becomes zero, and B0M2 = -B0M1, i.e., M1 and M2 coincide and surface (form) stability considerations apply. The period between the time the ship begins to develop a waterplane and the time it attains positive form stability is critical. During this period, the ship must be stabilized to prevent capsizing. Figure 6-4 illustrates the stability of a ship being raised from a completely submerged condition. Sunken ships are seldom, if ever, raised without restraint. Ships floated keel up should not be raised high out of the water, especially when a large free surface exists. As can be seen from Figure 6-3, a waterline slightly below the double bottom will maximize the area and moment of inertia of the external waterplane. On the other hand, little reduction in the area of the internal waterline will occur until the compartment(s) are virtually emptied. Increasing freeboard will lower the center of buoyancy relative to the center of gravity without reducing free surface, and very likely lead to an unstable condition. B 0 M1
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6-4.1.3 Attitude When Freely Floating. A sunken ships center of buoyancy cannot be assumed to lie directly above the center of gravity. There is nearly always some longitudinal separation. The salvage engineer must determine how much vertical lift force must be applied, and how it should be distributed, to bring the centers of buoyancy and gravity into a vertical line. Buoyancy of a sunken and flooded hull consists of pockets of buoyancy distributed throughout the ship. The center of buoyancy is not simply the center of the enclosed volume of the ship, but is derived by dividing the sum of individual buoyancy moments by the total buoyancy in the same way that the center of gravity is calculated. External lifting forces are treated as vertical forces applied where lift wires or slings are attached. With the centers of buoyancy and gravity located, the attitude of the vessel when clear of the bottom can be calculated by simple geometry as shown in Figure 6-5. = tan
1
B BG V BG L G
B G
BGL BGV
= tan
BGT BGV
where: = angle of trim = angle of heel BGL = longitudinal separation of Figure 6-5. Submerged Equilibrium Attitude. centers of buoyancy and gravity BGV = vertical separation of centers of buoyancy and gravity BGT = transverse separation of centers of buoyancy and gravity To determine a submerged vessels response to external forces, a righting arm (GZ) curve can be constructed with the relationship: GZ = BGVtan The same relationship is used to construct longitudinal and transverse stability curves. If there is free surface, effective or virtual BG is used to develop the stability curves. In wholly submerged ships (no waterplane), effective longitudinal BG is nearly always less than effective transverse BG because tanks and compartments in most ships are longer than they are wide, and have greater moments of inertia about a transverse, rather than longitudinal, axis. Free surface is more detrimental to longitudinal stability than to transverse stability. Sunken ships are normally raised from depths less than their length. Longitudinal inclinations are therefore limited by the low end of the ship striking bottom, the high end reaching the surface, or both. The ship is supported partially by its buoyancy and partially by the ground, as described in Paragraph 6-4.3. The maximum longitudinal inclination a rising ship can attain is limited by the ratio of water depth to length: sin where: L D = = = ships length water depth angle of inclination D L
Longitudinal inclination (trim angle) should be kept to less than 15 degrees.
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6-4.2 Partially Submerged Vessels. If the ship lies with part of her watertight volume above the surface, a metacentric radius can be calculated from the moment of inertia of the partial waterplane. Because of the relatively small moment of inertia of the waterplane and the large underwater volume, the metacentric radius may be quite small. Depending on the location of the center of gravity and extent of free surface, the metacentric height may be positive, negative, orrarelyzero. As buoyancy is restored, the external waterplane area increases, causing the moment of inertia to increase. The underwater volume decreases simultaneously. The overall result is that the metacentric radius increases and the ship becomes potentially more stable. The overall stability of the ship depends upon the position of the center of gravity and the free surface in partially flooded spaces. Figure 6-6 illustrates the stability of a ship being raised with the main deck initially partially above water. If the bulk of the main deck is above the surface, there is a substantial waterplane and the metacentric radius (BM) and metacentric height (GM) can be calculated or estimated. Normally, G lies above B, and ordinary stability considerations pertain.
l
W L
b
W L
M B G
ONLY THE PORTION OF THE WATERPLANE ABOVE THE WATER -THE SHADED SECTION- CONTRIBUTES TO THE METACENTRIC RADIUS
If B lies above G, the ship is stable, as Figure 6-6. Sunken Ship Stability. Main Deck Above Water. shown in Figure 6-7. If the ship is refloated by restoring buoyancy, the center of buoyancy moves down in the hull, crosses the position of the center of gravity, and eventually reaches a position B1. As M the ship refloats, BM increases because the W L W L moment of inertia of the waterplane (IT) M remains approximately constant as draft G decreases, while the displacement volume B B1 () decreases. Until B moves below G, G stability is a function of the distance BG; K the metacenter has no significance. If a positive metacentric height is developed by K the time the center of buoyancy crosses the position of the center of gravity, the ship remains positively stable throughout the AS BUOYANCY IS RESTORED: refloating. However, if there is zero or B MOVES DOWN negative metacentric height at the time B G REMAINS AT THE SAME POSITION reaches G, the ship loses her stability and I REMAINS THE SAME develops a list. If there is a small positive V DECREASES GM, the effective GM may be negative I ) INCREASES BM = ( _ when corrected for the free surface that V always exists as the ship is dewatered. If the ship was unstable in her afloat Figure 6-7. Sunken Ship Stability. Main Deck Above Water. condition, she will be unstable as she is refloated, unless the conditions causing her instability have been corrected. Addition of high weight or removal of low weight during the salvage operation can cause an unstable afloat condition. Far more common is a loss of stability caused by free surface. It is possible that the free surface effect will be so great that the ship cannot be stabilized by shifting internal weights. When this occurs, the ship must be stabilized by use of external forces. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) discusses methods for stabilizing sunken ships during refloating.
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6-4.3 Ships Partially Supported by Their Buoyancy. A ship can sink so that one end lies in contact with the ground and the other end remains afloat, as shown in Figure 6-8. Although unlikely, it is also possible for a ship to be completely submerged with one end off the ground, supported by buoyancy, as shown in Figure 69. As in the case of a stranded ship, the sum of ground reaction and buoyancy must equal the total weight of the ship. By the added weight method, a ships total buoyancy is the volume of its immersed portion plus the volume of all topside appendages, multiplied by water density. The total weight is the presinking displacement plus the weight of floodwater. By the lost buoyancy method, weight remains equal to the presinking displacement, while buoyancy is proportional to the volume of immersed structure, cargo, stores, etc. The amount of buoyancy lost is therefore equal to the weight of floodwater. If permeability of the flooded spaces is known or can be estimated, weight of floodwater can be calculated as described in Chapter 1. The volume of immersed topside appendages adds some buoyancy. By summing moments about the center of gravity as shown in Figure 6-9, ground reaction at the equilibrium inclination can be determined: B BGH = R RGH R = where: B BGH R RGH = = = = = = B BGH RGH
W 5 A PEAK FLOODED SPACES Figure 6-8. Sunken Ship Partially Supported by Buoyancy. 4
D/TK
L
E/R
F PEAK
B
B G
BG H
RG H
Figure 6-9. Ground Reaction for Partially Buoyant (Submerged) Ship.
total buoyancy horizontal separation between B and G (LCG - LCB)sin ground reaction horizontal separation between R and G LCGsin (aground at the bow) (L - LCG)sin (aground at the stern) angle of inclination
The relationship is simple, but centers of gravity and buoyancy may be difficult to determine accurately. A ship supported partially by its buoyancy is in a precarious situation. Loss of additional buoyancy by progressive flooding or damage can cause the ship to sink completely, sometimes rapidly and with little warning. Intact spaces must be examined thoroughly, and secured against progressive flooding early in the salvage operation. A ship partially afloat is affected by current, wind, and waves. Lateral forces tend to cause both translation and rotation around the grounded end. Because current strength and direction both may vary with depth, the resultant current force is the vector sum of current forces at different levels. Trapped air can hold a completely submerged casualty at an angle of list. If the air vents, the casualty may settle into either an upright or capsized position. A sunken ship protruding over the edge of a reef or ridge may be partially supported by her buoyancy. Loss of buoyancy may cause the casualty to drop over the edge into deeper water. A sunken ship in a potentially unstable position can be stabilized by taking an upward strain on the vessel with pontoons, lift craft, or sheer legs capable of holding the vessel in position. The floating end of a partially sunken vessel might be held up with pontoons or lift craft made up alongside. In some cases, it may be necessary to vent trapped air from the casualty to allow it to settle to a stable position, at the expense of incurring extra work to raise it from that position.
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6-4.4 Ships Dewatered with Cofferdams. A ship with main deck submerged that is raised by dewatering with a complete cofferdam exhibits stability characteristics similar to those of a ship with main deck initially above the water. The waterplane area and moment of inertia of the cofferdam are nearly as large as those of the hull, although the displacement volume is much larger from the time the ship leaves the bottom until it is floating at a normal draft. The cofferdam is a large, high weight that raises the center of gravity and reduces metacentric height. Construction and application of salvage cofferdams are discussed in the U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). A ship raised by dewatering through partial cofferdams is similar to a ship with a partial waterplane. As the ship begins to float, metacentric radius is determined initially by the relatively small waterplane of the cofferdams. The plan area of partial cofferdams is usually smaller than that of the spaces over which they are placed. When the internal water level has been pumped down past the main deck, the free surface area is larger than the waterplane area. The free surface is almost always at least as wide as the cofferdam, and usually is wider. Thus, the moment of inertia of the free surface (i) is greater than that of the waterplane (I), and metacentric height is negative: BM = BMeff = I I FS = I i I i =
since i is greater than I, BMeff is negative, and unless KG is greater than KB, GMeff is also negative. If there is free communication within the hull so that the water level falls simultaneously in several compartments, free surface effect may be much larger than metacentric height. As the main deck breaks the water surface, waterplane area increases, and depending on the relative sizes of the waterplane and free surface moments of inertia, GM may either become positive or remain negative until free surface is suppressed by dewatering. 6-4.5 Buoyancy and Free Surface. Sunken ships are raised by one of three methods:
Internal (buoyant) lift. External lift. Combined internal and external lift.
How and where the buoyant and lift forces are applied affect stability of the casualty. Buoyant forces can be grouped into four types, based on their effects on stability:
Fixed buoyancy without free surface. Fixed buoyancy with free surface. Variable buoyancy with free surface. Variable buoyancy without free surface.
Each type of buoyancy behaves differently as the ship ascends. 6-4.5.1 Fixed Buoyancy without Free Surface. Fixed buoyancy without free surface can be provided by:
Compartments vented at the bottom and blown dry by compressed air. Completely dry tanks or spaces capable of withstanding ambient pressure, such as submarine hard tanks. Blocks of buoyant solid, such as cast-in-place foam, or buoyant cargo held firmly in place. Lifting forces from submerged lift bags, pontoons, etc.
Buoyancy remains constant and stationary relative to the ship. Center of buoyancy and total buoyancy remain unchanged as the ship ascends. Pontoons rigged above a casualty on lifting pendants provide constant buoyancy until they reach the surface, where the volume of the emerged portions of the pontoon no longer provides buoyancy. Pontoons are often rigged this way to arrest the ascent of the ship or object being raised at a specified depth. 6-4.5.2 Fixed Buoyancy with Free Surface. Fixed buoyancy with free surface exists in partially dewatered compartments not exposed to ambient pressure, e.g., submarine internal compartments. The buoyancy of loose masses of objects that can be considered incompressible, such as rigid buoys, floats, and some types of cargo, remains constant as the ship ascends. Unless the objects completely fill the space, a free surface exists and the center of buoyancy can shift as the objects move to one side or to the end of the space.
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As soon as the ship leaves the bottom, the buoyancy in each compartment shifts, causing the center of buoyancy to move. This is the equivalent of the free surface effect in surface stability. The effect of free surface on stability of a sunken ship is discussed in Paragraph 6-4.1. 6-4.5.3 Variable Buoyancy with Free Surface. Compressed air in a ships hull expands while hydrostatic pressure decreases as the ship rises. Air in partially dewatered compartments exposed to ambient pressure, partially filled lift bags, or any other space where the water level is above the vent opening, expands as the ship rises. In addition to the free surface effects discussed above, buoyancy increases rapidly as the ship rises, causing rapid and probably uncontrolled ascent. A ship raised from a shallow depth will be on the surface before it can assume an extreme trim. A ship raised from a significant depth may develop extreme trim, which can cause air to spill from vent holes low in air-filled compartments. If this happens, buoyancy is lost as the compartments flood, and the ship may sink again. The casualty may be damaged in its second sinking. Topside rigging can be overstressed and parted by the sudden weight increase as the casualty floods, or by the uneven loads caused by extreme trim. In addition, subsurface rigging can become hopelessly tangled. 6-4.5.4 Variable Buoyancy without Free Surface. Lift craft and surface pontoons can be rigged to provide a submerged vessel a form of reserve buoyancy and waterplane. If slings are made up to solid attachment points on opposite sides (or ends) of the sunken vessel, inclination increases tension on slings on one side. If the slings are made up to pontoons or lift craft on the surface, the lift craft sinks to gain buoyancy equivalent to the increased tension and restore equilibrium. 6-4.6 Longitudinal Stability. Because of the effect of length on a waterplanes moment of inertia, ships with any significant length of waterplane are inherently longitudinally stable. In ships with limited or no internal transverse subdivision, free surface may overcome longitudinal stability while the ship is being raised. It is impractical to keep a ship perfectly horizontal while it is raised; free water shifts to the low end, causing trimming moments. Because the ship trims as the water shifts, large trim angles can be reached before the mass of water reaches the low end. The mass of water rushing to the low end of compartments can have enough momentum to cause significant impact loads on patches and internal structures. Impact loads and extreme trim can have several detrimental effects:
Downflooding can occur through topside openings or over the tops of cofferdams, with subsequent loss of buoyancy and plunging. The casualty may rise out of lifting slings on one end and overload and part slings at the other end. Impact loads can damage patches, internal structure, or shell plating. Impact forces may be transmitted to lifting slings, overloading them. Impact forces on bulkheads and shell plating can cause longitudinal surging, while downward components momentarily increase trimming moment, causing pitching. Uncontrolled motions can allow the casualty to slip out of lifting slings, or to overload them.
A ship with no waterplane has only the longitudinal righting moment provided by the relative positions of the centers of gravity and buoyancy. The ship must be raised without trim or must be kept in contact with the bottom as she is moved into water shallow enough for a waterplane and adequate longitudinal metacentric radius to develop. 6-4.7 Keeping the Ship Upright. As the ship is raised, various methods can prevent capsizing while it passes through unstable phases:
Refloating one end of the vessel, while keeping the other end firmly in contact with the bottom. Compartments in the raised end can be dried out completely, topside weight removed, or double-bottom tanks flooded to improve stability before raising the other end. Keeping the vessel in contact with the bottom by pulling it into shallower water as it is raised. Keeping full-bodied vessels in water shallow enough that the bilge strikes bottom and prevents the ship from capsizing. Dewatering holds or major subdivisions one at a time to limit free surface. Breaking up large free surfaces by repairing damaged bulkheads and building temporary bulkheads in the flooded spaces. Applying external forces to produce righting moments that counter upsetting moments: (1) Lifting on the deck edges with sheer legs or cranes to prevent excessive list. (2) Holding the vessel upright by tensioning a line led from a mast or kingpost to a deadman.
Rigging barges, pontoons, or lift craft tightly alongside to provide added buoyancy and waterplane.
It is not always advisable to bring a sunken ship directly to the surface, particularly from great depths. A single long lift involves greater pressure changes of air in the casualty and pontoons, with greater possibility of losing control. Hydrodynamic drag or currents can cause instability as the casualty rises through the water column. While a casualty is submerged, work on it must be performed by divers, whose effectiveness is reduced with depth. These factors may dictate raising the casualty in a series of short lifts, and moving it to shallower water after each lift to re-rig for the next one. With the casualty resting in shallower water, divers can make preparations for raising it to the surface with greater efficiency and safety. It may be advisable to keep some cargoes or munitions submerged until specialized facilities for handling and receiving them are available. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) discusses these methods in greater detail.
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6-5 STRENGTH OF SUNKEN SHIPS Local, longitudinal bending and shear strength of sunken ships are often impaired by the damage that led to their sinking. The strength of the sunken ship can have a major influence on the salvage methods selected. Bending and shear stresses in sunken ships are determined by the same methods used for intact ships. These methods are described in Paragraph 1-11. If an evaluation of the longitudinal and shear strength reveals adequate strength, the salvage may proceed. There must be an adequate margin of strength at each stage of the salvage to allow for unknown conditions. If the survey or initial strength evaluation shows that the hull girder has failed, or that failure is probable during the salvage, the hull must be reinforced or extraordinary measures must be adopted to prevent catastrophic failure and to allow completion of the operation. Even in ships destined for disposal, structural failure must be prevented, as it may occur at the worst possible time and may create a situation worse than the initial sinking. When the hull girder has failed or can be expected to fail during salvage, the hull may be reinforced by providing additional material in way of incipient failure to restore the section modulus or increase the shear area. Structural reinforcement and repair are addressed in Paragraph 2-11. In cases where there is massive failure of the hull and it is impractical to restore any hull strength, zero-shear/zero-stress methods are appropriate. These methods load the hull so that zero shear or zero bending moment occurs at the point where the hull has failed and plastic hinges have formed. They require the parts of the ship between hinges or badly damaged sections to be treated as independent hulls, coupled with rigorous and accurate weight and buoyancy analysis to determine proper loading. 6-6 RIGHTING CAPSIZED SHIPS When ships are capsized, their salvage or removal usually requires a detailed engineering analysis and plan. Most capsized ships are righted first and then raised. In this approach, the work is done in two distinct phases. The first phase brings the ship upright, then the second raises her like any other upright sunken ship. When righting and refloating are done by stages, refloating work may start as soon as the ship is sufficiently upright that men can work aboard her. Ships are righted by creating a moment with buoyancy or externally applied force that acts around a pivot point to overcome the moment of weight acting through the center of gravity holding the ship in a capsized position. When a ship is being righted, the ground under the pivot point must have enough bearing strength to support the ship during the righting operation. If the ground is too soft, the ship may either sink into or slide along the bottom, inhibiting the righting process. During rotation, if only the pivoting axis (usually the bilge) is in contact with the ground, bearing pressure (PB), equals the bearing force (FB), divided by the minimum contact area (A): PB = FB A
If the casualty is being righted by internal buoyancy moments, the bearing force is the ground reaction, and is equal to the total weight less the total buoyancy of the casualty: FB = W - B If externally applied forces generate righting moments, the bearing force is the total weight of the casualty, less the buoyancy, plus the downward component of the righting forces (FRz): FB = W - B + FRz Bearing force must be calculated using the minimum buoyancy that exists as the vessel is rotated. Soil bearing strength is determined by the methods described in Paragraph 3-7. Table 3-6 gives approximate bearing strengths for different types of soil. If the ground under the ship is not sufficiently firm, it may be stabilized by laying in gravel, crushed rock or coral, or shell.
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CHAPTER 7 RIGGING SYSTEMS

7-1 INTRODUCTION In virtually all salvage operations, wire rope, chain, and ber-line systems transmit pulling and lifting forces. Engineered systems, such as beach gear, salvage ship bow lift gear, and shipboard cranes and booms, are designed for specic operating conditions. Operating the systems outside of their design conditions reduces safe working capacity. Often, systems are designed or modied for a particular salvage operation. Parbuckling systems, for example, are almost always designed for a specic operation. Typical rigging engineering tasks include:
Ensuring that engineered systems are safe and effective. Calculating the capacity of systems which are employed outside their nominal design parameters. Designing systems or modify existing systems to suit a particular operation.
The following paragraphs address general considerations for rigging systems on salvage operations. 7-2 WIRE ROPE Wire rope is a highly specialized, complex machine. It consists of wires twisted together to form strands, which are wound helically around a core. Different types and constructions of rope have been developed to meet specic applications. Wire ropes are classied by size and construction. A full rope description includes length, size (diameter), type of core, construction, whether the wire is preformed, direction and type of lay, and grade of wire. In the United States, wire rope size is specied in inches by its largest diameter. In the United Kingdom, wire rope size is specied in millimeters by circumference. In most other countries, wire rope size is given in millimeters as diameter. The following paragraphs discuss wire rope characteristics and their effect on strength, exibility, and other performance factors. The information presented is drawn from a number of sources, including the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) Wire Rope Users Manual (see Bibliography for additional references). 7-2.1 Core. Strands of a wire rope are laid up around ber or metal cores that support the rope strands under normal bending and loading. Fiber cores consist of either hard vegetable or synthetic bers. A metal core is either an additional wire strand (WSC) or an independent wire rope (IWRC). A lubricated ber core provides lubrication to rope and increases exibility, but adds no real strength and is sensitive to high temperatures. A metal-cored rope is 7 to 10 percent stronger, with greater resistance to crushing than an equivalent ber-cored rope. When running, metal-cored rope wears more quickly than ber-cored rope. 7-2.2 Construction. Construction is the arrangement of wires and strands in the rope, described rst by the number of strands, then by the number of wires in a strand, such as 6 7, 6 19, 8 91, etc. When the strands contain wires of different sizes, names as well as numbers describe construction. Four primary constructions are illustrated in Figure 7-1:
WIRE STRAND
CORE
ORDINARY CONSTRUCTION
7-WIRE STRAND
19-WIRE WARRINGTON
19-WIRE SEALE
25-WIRE FILLER WIRE
BASIC STRAND PATTERNS Figure 7-1. Wire Rope Construction.
Basic Construction Each strand has a center wire wound helically, with one or more layers of wire of the same diameter. Seale (S) Each strand has a center wire surrounded by two layers of wire. The wires of the rst layer have a smaller diameter than the center and outer layer wires. Warrington (W) Each strand has two layers of wire around a center wire. The outer layer has alternating large and small wires. Filler Wire (FW) Small-diameter wires ll the voids between the large wires in the strand.
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When strands have many wires (6 26, 6 31, etc.), there are more than two layers of wire around the center wire of each strand. Combination constructions, where there are different basic constructions in successive layers, are common. Typical combination constructions are Warrington Seale (WS), Seale ller wire (SFW), ller wire Seale (FWS), and Seale Warrington Seale (SWS). 7-2.2.1 Construction Classes. The number of strands and the nominal number of wires in each strand are the basis of wire rope construction classes:
6 7 6 strands of 3 to 14 wires, with no more than 9 outside wires. 6 19 6 strands of 15 to 26 wires, with no more than 12 outside wires. 6 37 6 strands of 27 to 49 wires, with no more than 18 outside wires. 6 61 6 strands of 50 to 74 wires, with no more than 24 outside wires. 6 91 6 strands of 75 to 109 wires, with no more than 30 outside wires. 6 127 6 strands of 110 or more wires, with no more than 36 outside wires. 8 19 8 strands of 15 to 26 wires, with no more than 12 outside wires. 19 7 19 strands of 7 wires, made by covering an inner 7 7 wire strand core, left lang lay rope with 12 strands in right regular lay, producing a torque-balanced, rotation-resistant rope. 18 7 Same as 19 7, but with a ber core.
Class and construction are different. A supplier may assume an order for 6 19 rope refers to class, and provide any of the constructions within the 6 19 class. Six by nineteen and 6 37 class ropes are very commonly used for general-purpose running rigging. Six by seven rope is used principally for standing rigging. Six by sixty-one and higher classes are used in applications requiring extreme exibility; 6 61 and 6 91 ropes are commonly used in heavy salvage lifting. 7-2.2.2 Special Constructions. There are many specialized constructions, including:
3 19 slusher, 6 12 running rope, 5 19 and 6 19 marlin clad, 6 24 and 6 30 hawsers, 6 42 (6 6 7) tiller rope, 6 25B, 6 27H, and 6 30G attened strand, 6 3 19 spring lay, and 8 19 Seale and 8 25 ller wire, rotation-resistant.
The most important of these constructions for salvage and marine use are spring lay, slusher, and rotation-resistant ropes. Spring lay has six main strands around a ber core. Each strand has three preformed wire strands and three ber strands laid alternately around a ber center. The ber parts provide cushioning for the wire and increase exibility and elasticity. Spring lay is more exible than wire rope of the same strength, and much stronger and more abrasion-resistant than ber line of the same size. The three-strand construction of slusher rope makes it more exible than other constructions, but the rope tends to rotate. Rotation-resistant ropes are often used in deep ocean operations where torque generated by ordinary ropes is undesirable.
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7-2.3 Effects of Construction on Rope Properties. Construction affects a wire ropes strength, handling characteristics, and relative resistance to abrasion or bending fatigue. In general, increasing the number of strands or wires, or use of a ber core, inceases exibility. High exibility and abrasion resistance results from forming the strands of cable-laid rope with individual wire ropes. Usually, exibility is gained at the expense of strength. Running, tiller, and hawser constructions are the most exible, but make the weakest ropes. Ropes clad with marline or steel combine good exibility with wear resistance. Flattened strand construction gives a large bearing surface and more even wear distribution when ropes are run over sheaves. Ropes for severe corrosion conditions have galvanized wires; however, the constant exing of running rigging causes the zinc coating to ake off galvanized wire ropes. Teon, vinyl, and other materials are used to coat wires for special service. Flexibility does not always mean a rope has high bending fatigue resistance, although it may have both. Fiber core ropes are more exible than ropes with independent wire rope cores (IWRC). However, an IWRC rope performs better when bent over undersize sheaves at high loads because the rmer core allows the IWRC rope to keep its roundness and freedom of internal movement. There is an inverse relationship between a wire ropes resistance to bending fatigue and to abrasion. The X-chart in Figure 7-2 illustrates this relationship for the most widely used wire ropes. 7-2.4 Type of Lay. The type of lay describes the direction of twist of wires and strands. Figure 7-3 illustrates several rope lays. When viewed lengthwise, the strands of right-laid rope are wound helically away from the observer clockwise. In left-laid rope, the strands are wound helically away from the observer counterclockwise. Ropes and strands may be either right- or left-laid. In regular lay ropes, the wires in the strands and the strands in the rope are laid in opposite directions. In lang lay ropes, the wires and strands are laid in the same direction. Alternate lay ropes consist of alternate regular and lang lay strands. The six possible lay combinations are:
6
NUMBER OF OUTSIDE WIRES PER STRAND
6x7
LE A ST R ES IS TA N C E
10 10 12
G R EA TE ST
6x19S 6x21 FW 6x26 WS 6x25 FW 6x31 WS 6x36 WS
TO
14
LE A ST
ES IS TA N C E
12
B EN D IN G
TO
A B R A SI O N
FA TI G U E G R EA TE ST
16
6x41 SFW
18
6x46 SFW
Figure 7-2. Wire Rope "X" Chart.
RIGHT REGULAR LAY
RIGHT LANG LAY
Right regular lay (RRL), Left regular lay (LRL), Right lang lay (RLL),
LEFT REGULAR LAY
LEFT LANG LAY
RIGHT ALTERNATE LAY
Left lang lay (LLL), Right alternate lay (R-ALT), and

Figure 7-3. Wire Rope Lays.
Left alternate lay (L-ALT).
Regular lay ropes resist kinking and untwisting, and handle easily. Lang lay ropes are more exible and resistant to abrasion and bending fatigue than regular lay ropes. Right regular lay is the most common wire rope lay, although right lang lay is also common. Left lay and alternate lay ropes are used only for specic applications.
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7-2.5 Pitch or Length of Lay. The pitch or length of a rope lay is the distance, measured parallel to the rope axis, in which a strand makes one complete turn around the rope, as shown in Figure 7-4. The length of a strand lay is dened in the same manner, although strand lay length is more difficult to determine because it is not always possible to determine the WIRE ROPE number of outside wires in a strand. LAY LENGTH 7-2.6 Preforming. Preformed strands and wires are shaped to the helix they will have in the nished rope before the rope is laid up. Preforming eliminates residual stress, prevents the rope from unlaying when cut or broken, resists kinking, and reduces the tendency of a rope to rotate about its own axis.
STRAND LAY LENGTH WITH 7 OUTER WIRES
Figure 7-4. Lay Length, Six-Strand Rope.
7-2.7 Type or Grade of Metal. The ve principal wire rope steel grades, listed from weakest to strongest, are: traction steel (TS), mild plow steel (MPS), plow steel (PS), improved plow steel (IPS), and extra-improved plow steel (EIPS). The grade names date to the early days of wire rope development, and remain as descriptions of the relative strength of sizes and grades of wire rope. They do not specify particular materials or strengths. The strength of plow steel is the basis for calculating the strength of all steel rope wires. The tensile strength of any steel wire grade is not constant, but varies with the diameter. Tensile strength is highest in the smallest wires. American manufacturers show grade by color coding. Improved plow steel and extra improved plow steel are the most common grades. Bronze rope nds limited use as lifelines and tow wires for minesweeping gear. Old equipment is occasionally tted with iron rope. Any of the steel grades may be galvanized to inhibit corrosion. Ungalvanized ropes are referred to as bright or black to distinguish them from galvanized ropes. Ropes are galvanized by electroplating or hot dipping individual wires in zinc before making up the strands. The hot dipping anneals the wires and reduces the nal rope strength by about 10 percent. If the wires are galvanized before their nal cold drawing series, the cold drawing rehardens the wires and there is no reduction in strength. Galvanized wire rope is assumed to have 90 percent of the strength of bright wire rope of the same size, unless it is can be determined that the wire was galvanized by electroplating or before the nal drawing. Galvanized wire is not normally used for running rigging because the zinc coating quickly wears or akes offstrength is not degraded, but the expense of galvanizing is wasted. 7-2.8 Wire Rope Strength. Wire rope strength is a function of both material grade and rope construction. Increasing the number of wires per strand increases the metal area in the rope cross section. Factors other than metal cross section affect rope strength. In general, 6 19 class ropes are stronger than 6 7 or 6 37 ropes. The Seale, Warrington, and ller wire constructions were developed to increase total metal cross section, and therefore strength for a given rope diameter. The average increase in strength for these constructions over simpler constructions is about 10 percent. Seale construction loses some exibility. Breaking strength is the ultimate load carried by a wire rope sample during a tension test. Manufacturers design wire rope to nominal strengths, which are calculated by standardized, industry-accepted procedures. Nominal strength calculations assume static loading, i.e., a load applied at less than one inch per minute. Tables 7-1 and 7-2 (Page 7-6) give nominal strength and unit weight for some of the more common wire rope sizes and constructions. Minimum acceptance strength21 2 percent less than the published nominal strengthis the industry tolerance used to offset variables in the preparation of samples and physical testing of wire rope. The 21 2-percent tolerance is also applied to government specications. Empirical relationships for wire rope strength are based on diameter or circumference only. Because of the effect of construction and other variables on rope strength, manufacturers rated strength (usually nominal strength) is a more reliable indicator of a ropes load capacity, and should be used whenever available. Strength of improved plow steel (IPS), metal-cored (WSC, IWRC) wire ropes is estimated as: BS = 3.6C 2 long tons = 8,000C 2 pounds where: BS = C = breaking strength, lton or lbs circumference, in.
EIPS and some CRES ropes are stronger than calculated by this relationship. Fiber-cored ropes and lower grade steel ropes are weaker.
7-4
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Table 7-1. Wire Rope Breaking Strength (Pounds).

Rope Classication
1
Rope Diameter, inches 4

3
11 4
11 2
15 8
-----
13 4
-----
2
-----
21 4
-----
21 2
-----
23 4
-----
3
---------
31 4
---------
31 2
---------
33 4
---------
4
---------
41 2
---------
5
---------
51 2
---------
6
---------
67 IPS/FC 67 IPS/IWRC 619 IPS/FC 619 IPS/WSC or IWRC
5,280 11,720 20,600 31,800 45,400 79,400 122,000 172,400 5,680 12,600 22,200 34,200 48,800 85,400 131,200 185,400
5,480 12,200 21,400 33,400 47,600 83,600 129,200 184,000 214,000 248,000 320,000 400,000 488,000 584,000 5,880 13,120 23,000 35,800 51,200 89,800 138,800 197,800 230,000 266,000 344,000 430,000 524,000 628,000
619 EIPS/WSC 6,800 15,100 26,600 41,200 58,800 103,400 159,800 228,000 264,000 306,000 396,000 494,000 604,000 722,000 or IWRC 619 CRS/ IWRC2 637 IPS/FC2 637 IPS/FC, coml ----22,800 35,000 49,600 85,400 129,400 180,500 -------------
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
20,400 31,600 45,200 79,600 123,000 175,800 214,000 238,000 308,000 386,000 472,000 568,000 670,000
---
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
5,480 12,200 21,400 33,400 47,600 83,600 129,200 184,000 214,000 248,000 320,000 400,000 488,000 584,000 688,000 798,000
637 IPS/IWRC, 5,880 13,120 23,000 35,800 51,200 89,800 138,800 197,800 230,000 266,000 344,000 430,000 524,000 628,000 740,000 858,000 coml
982,000
1,114,000
---
---
---
---
---
637 EIPS/IWRC 6,800 15,100 26,600 41,200 58,800 103,400 159,800 228,000 264,000 306,000 396,000 494,000 604,000 722,000 850,000 984,000 1,128,000 1,282,000 637 & 661 IPS/ WSC or IWRC2 637 CRS/ IWRC2 661 IPS/FC 661 IPS/IWRC ----22,000 34,000 48,600 85,600 132,200 189,000 230,000 256,000 330,000 414,000 508,000 610,000 720,000 -------
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
---
---
20,400 31,300 44,400 77,300 118,300 166,000
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
-----
---------
-------
-------
-------
76,600 123,000 175,800 206,000 238,000 308,000 286,000 472,000 564,000 670,000 780,000 85,600 132,200 189,000 222,000 256,000 330,000 414,000 508,000 610,000 720,000 838,000
898,000 966,000
1,022,000 1,154,000 1,438,000 1,744,000 1,098,000 1,240,000 1,544,000 1,874,000
---------
---------
661 EIPS/IWRC --637 & 661 EIPS/ WSC or IWRC2 691 IPS/FC 691 IPS/IWRC ---
98,200 152,200 218,000 254,000 292,000 380,000 478,000 584,000 700,000 428,000 966,000 1,110,000 1,264,000 1,426,000 1,776,000 2,156,000 -------------------------
25,200 39,200 55,800 98,200 152,200 216,000 264,000
-----
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
---------------
---------------
292,000 366,000 450,000 540,000 636,000 742,000 314,000 394,000 484,000 580,000 684,000 798,000
852,000 916,000
---
---
---
---
---
---
1,044,000 1,178,000 1,468,000 1,782,000 2,120,000 2,480,000
691 EIPS/IWRC --819 IPS/FC 819 IPS/IWRC
362,000 454,000 554,000 666,000 786,000 916,000 1,054,000 1,200,000 1,354,000 1,688,000 2,048,000 2,438,000 2,852,000 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4,700 10,480 18,460 28,600 41,000 72,000 111,400 158,800 --------20,200 31,400 43,000 79,200 122,600 174,600 23,200 36,200 51,800 91,000 141,000 200,000 19,700 30,600 43,600 76,600 118,400 168,800
819 EIPS/IWRC --187 IPS/FC & 197 IPS/IWRC ---
187 EIPS/FC & --197 EIPS/IWRC 637 & 6319 --Spring Lay
1
---
21,600 33,600 48,000 84,400 130,200 185,600
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
5,060
8,940 13,900 19,920 35,000
54,400
77,800
91,200
105,400 137,000 172,600 212,000
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
11 4
11 2
15 8
13 4
21 4
21 2
23 4
31 4
31 2
33 4
41 2
51 2
1. Breaking strengths from AISI standards unless otherwise stated 2. MIL-STD-R-W-410D 3. Reduce breaking strength by 10% for galvanized rope
7-5
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Table 7-2. Wire Rope Linear Weight (Weights in lb/ft).
Rope Type
1
Rope Diameter, inches 4

3
1 1.50 1.65 1.68 1.85 1.68 1.85 1.68 1.85 ----1.57 1.88 1.73 1.82 0.88
11 4 2.34 2.57 2.63 2.89 2.63 2.89 2.63 2.89 ----2.45 2.94 2.70 2.84 1.36
11 2 3.38 3.72 3.78 4.16 3.78 4.16 3.78 4.16 ----3.53 4.24 3.89 4.08 1.97
15 8 ----4.44 4.88 4.44 4.88 4.44 4.88 ------------2.28
13 4 ----5.15 5.67 5.15 5.67 5.15 5.67 ------------2.67
2 ----6.72 7.39 6.72 7.39 6.77 7.39 6.77 7.39 --------3.53
21 4 ----8.51 9.36 8.51 9.36 8.51 9.36 8.51 9.36 --------4.56
67 FC 67 IWRC 619 FC 619 WSC or IWRC 637 FC 637 IWRC 661 FC 661 IWRC 691 FC 691 IWRC 819 FC 819 IWRC 187 FC 197 IWRC 637 & 6319 Spring Lay Rope Type
0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.12 --------0.10 ---------
0.21 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.24 0.26 --------0.22 ------0.12
0.38 0.42 0.42 0.46 0.42 0.46 --------0.39 0.47 0.43 0.45 0.22
0.59 0.65 0.66 0.72 0.66 0.72 --------0.61 0.73 0.68 0.71 0.34
0.84 0.92 0.95 1.04 0.95 1.04 --------0.88 1.06 0.97 1.02 0.49
Rope Diameter, inches 21 2 23 4 ----12.7 14.0 12.7 14.0 12.7 14.0 12.7 14.0 ----------3 --------15.1 16.6 15.1 16.6 15.1 16.6 ----------31 4 --------17.7 19.5 17.7 19.5 17.7 19.5 ----------31 2 ----------22.7 20.6 22.7 20.6 22.7 ----------33 4 ----------26.0 23.6 26.0 --26.0 ----------4 ------------26.9 29.6 --29.6 ----------41 2 ------------34.0 37.4 --37.4 ----------5 ------------42.0 46.2 --46.2 ----------51 2 ------------------54.5 ----------6 ------------------65.0 -----------
67 FC 67 IWRC 619 FC 619 WSC or IWRC 637 FC 637 IWRC 661 FC 661 IWRC 691 FC 691 IWRC 819 FC 819 IWRC 187 FC 197 IWRC 637 & 6319 Spring Lay
----10.5 11.6 10.5 11.6 10.5 11.6 10.5 11.6 --------5.44
7-6
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7-2.9 Reserve Strength. The reserve strength of a wire rope is the combined strength of all but the outside wires, and is a measure of an externally damaged ropes resistance to sudden failure. Table 7-3 gives reserve strengtha percentage of the wire rope nominal strengthas a function of the number of outside wires in each strand. 7-2.10 Stretch. Wire rope elongation under load is the sum of constructional and elastic stretch. The adjustment of wires and seating of strands on the core under load causes a permanent constructional stretch. The amount of constructional stretch varies with rope construction and loading from about one-fourth to one percent of the length of the rope. Constructional stretch is smallest for IWRC ropes and largest for ropes with a ber core and ber strand centers. Most of the constructional stretch occurs in the rst few days or weeks of operation. Elastic stretch is the temporary elongation of the wire while under load. The rope will return to its preload lengthincluding constructional stretchif the rope has not exceeded its elastic limit. For most ropes, the elastic limit is about 60 percent of the breaking Table 7-4. Wire Rope Modulus of Elasticity. strength. Elastic stretch is calculated by:
Class Approximate Modulus of Elasticity (E), lb/in2 0 to 20% loading 6 7, fiber core 6 19, fiber core 6 37, fiber core 6 19, IWRC 6 37, IWRC 8 19, fiber core 11,700,000 10,800,000 9,900,000 13,500,000 12,600,000 8,100,000 21 to 65% loading 13,000,000 12,000,000 11,000,000 15,000,000 14,000,000 9,000,000
Table 7-3. Wire Rope Reserve Strength.
Number of Outside Wires 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18
Reserve Strength, % 0 5 13 18 22 27 32 36 43 49 54 58
L = where: P L Am E and: = = = =
PL EAm
load, lbs length of rope, in. metal cross-section area, in2 modulus of elasticity of the rope, lb/in2
The metal cross-section area (Am) is equal to d2f, where d is diameter and f is a compactness factor. E, the modulus of elasticity of the wire rope, is always less than the modulus of the parent metal, because the helical form of the wires has greater elasticity than a straight bar of the same material. Tables 7-4 and 7-5 give values of E and f for various constructions.
A rope that has been in service for some time may show a sudden and signicant increase in stretch, usually accompanied by a reduction in diameter. The increase in stretch indicates a serious loss of rope strength due to wear or wire breakage, or because the core has ceased to support the strands. Operations should be suspended until the rope is replaced.
Table 7-5. Approximate Compactness Factor of Wire Ropes.

Compactness Factor (f) Construction Fiber Core 57 66 67 6 12 6 19 12/7 6 19 S 6 19 W 6 21 FW 6 21 S 6 24 15/9 6 25 FW 6 26 WS 6 29 FW 6 31 12/19 6 31 WS 6 33 FW 6 36 WS 6 37 18/19 W 0.390 0.320 0.384 0.232 0.376 0.404 0.416 0.412 0.411 0.329 0.417 0.409 0.420 0.385 0.414 0.423 0.419 0.393 0.483 0.476 0.486 0.452 0.481 0.490 0.485 0.459 0.442 0.470 0.482 0.478 0.471 IWRC WSC 0.457 0.386 0.451 6 37 FW 6 41 SFW 6 41 WS 6 42 Tiller 6 43 FWS 6 46 SFW 6 46 WS 6 61 FWS 77 7 19 12/7 7 19 W 87 8 19 12/7 8 19 S 8 19 W 8 25 W 18 7 19 7 0.343 0.333 0.359 0.366 0.368 0.422 0.453 Construction Fiber Core 0.427 0.425 0.424 0.231 0.392 0.425 0.426 0.408 0.458 0.492 0.492 0.474 0.471 0.466 0.505 0.474 0.464 0.472 0.497 0.499 IWRC WSC 0.493 0.491 0.490 Compactness Factor (f)
7-7
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7-2.11 Wire Rope Terminal Fittings. Terminal ttings connect lengths of wire rope conveniently to loads, hauling systems, or to each other. Terminations are hard eyes with thimbles, soft eyes without thimbles, or specialized ttings. Eyes are made by splicing, with wire rope clips, or with swaged or pressed ttings. Not all terminations will develop full strength. Improperly applied end ttings cause uneven load distribution that may cause short service life or failure at less than breaking strength. Figure 7-5 shows common terminations, with their strength ratings as a percentage of the rope strength. Temporary terminations are commonly made up with wire rope clips and wedge sockets, because they can be installed and removed quickly without special equipment. If wire rope clips and wedge sockets are applied improperly, as shown in Figure 7-6, they will not develop full strength, and can damage the rope, causing it to fail at less than rated strength. Only properly trained and experienced personnel should make terminations and splices. End preparations, or beckets, shown in Figure 77, are not terminal ttings. Beckets allow ropes to be pulled, or fairled, into position, and are designed to carry only a fraction of the ropes strength. 7-2.12 Bending Stresses. A tensioned wire rope bent over a surface, such as a sheave, roller, chock, etc., is subject to bending stresses in addition to the axial stress created by the load. For a single wire, the following relationships of solid mechanics hold: EI I and, M = M = r c where: M E I r c = = = = = = bending moment modulus of elasticity, from Table 7-4 moment of inertia of the wire bending radius maximum bending stress in the wire distance from the neutral axis of the wire to its extreme ber
WIRE ROPE SOCKET POURED SPELTER OR RESIN 100%
WIRE ROPE SOCKET SWAGED 100%
MECHANICAL SPLICE SWAGED LOOP OR THIMBLE 90-95%
WEDGE SOCKET 75-90%
CLIPS 80% NUMBER OF CLIPS VARIES WITH ROPE SIZE AND CONSTRUCTION (SEE NSTM 613)
LOOP OR THIMBLE SPLICE HAND-TUCKED 80-90%
Figure 7-5. Wire Rope Terminal Fittings.
CORRECT U-BOLTS ON DEAD-END CORRECT 6-9 DIAMS. DEAD END NOT LONG ENOUGH LIVE END
INCORRECT U-BOLTS ON ALTERNATE SIDES
Equating the two relationships and solving for gives: Ec = r

INCORRECT
ENTERING WRONG SIDE INCORRECT U-BOLTS ON LIVE END Figure 7-6. Correct & Incorrect Application of Temporary Wire Rope Terminations.
Substituting the sheave radius, D/2, for r and one-half the wire diameter, dw/2, for c: Edw = D where: D dw = = sheave diameter wire diameter
7-8
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Table 7-6. Wire Rope Wire Diameter. Diameter of outer wires related to rope diameter, d
Class
67 6 19 6 37 8 19
d/9 d/13 - d/16 d/22 d/15 - d/19
Table 7-6 gives values for average wire diameters for various constructions. The increased stress due to bending is equivalent to an added tensile load. The equivalent load is determined by the following: Pbending = Am where:
PADEYE
LINK BECKET
TAPERED AND WELDED END
TAPERED END WITH LOOP
Figure 7-7. Wire Rope Beckets.
.50
BENDING FACTOR, Kb
Am =
metal cross-section area = d2f (f is compactness factor from Table 7-5)
GENERALLY UNACCEPTABLE
.60 .70 .80 .90 1.00
TRANSITION (ACCEPTABILITY VARIES WITH CONSTRUCTION)
ACCEPTABLE
The bending load, in pounds, is estimated from the following empirical relationship: Pbending where: d N R = = = wire rope diameter, in. number of wires in the wire rope (e.g., 114 for a 6 19, ber-core rope) bending radius, in. 2.8 109 d 3 = N 2R
10
14
18 D/d
22
26
30
34
38
STRENGTH vs SHEAVE DIAMETER
10
An alternative to the above calculation for 6 19 and 6 37 class ropes is to estimate the total load, including bending load, by a bending factor (Kb) from the upper curve in Figure 7-8: Ptotal = Pstatic Kb
20
D/d
30 40 50
The lower curve in Figure 7-8 shows the 60 reduction in service life caused by bending. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Bending stress exists only in the bent portion SERVICE LIFE, % of the rope. For any bending radius, SERVICE LIFE vs SHEAVE DIAMETER maximum rope bending stress occurs when the length of contact is equal to one lay length, because every wire experiences the Figure 7-8. Effect of Sheave Diameter on 6x19 and 6x37 Class Ropes. maximum stress simultaneously. Increasing contact length without increasing bending radius does not reduce bending stress. The increased contact subjects a greater length of the rope to stress. Maximum bending stress in a wire rope is the stress caused by the smallest bending radius in the system. Stress is independent of the number of sheaves or drums.
7-9
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The cyclic stresses resulting from bending will shorten a wire ropes service life because of fatigue. Fatigue resistance (service life) increases as the ratio of drum diameter to wire diameter (D/d) increases. Individual wires move relative to one another and to the bearing surface as the rope bends, causing abrasion. Abrasive wear increases as D/d decreases. Under heavy loads, the rope attens against the bearing surface, increasing relative motion between strands and wires. Lubrication and large D/d ratios mitigate the adverse affects of bending. More exible ropes tolerate smaller drum diameters. Table 7-7 gives suggested and minimum D/d ratios for various constructions (as recommended by the U.S. Navy and AISI). The absolute minimum D/d ratios correspond to rope efficiencies of approximately 90 percent (Kb = 0.9). 7-2.13 Drums and Sheaves. A drum is a anged cylinder on which wire rope is wound for storage or operation. The surface of the drum barrel may be grooved to guide the rope for uniform winding and to support the rope without crushing it when tensioned. Sheaves are grooved pulleys (see Figure 7-11) used to support or fairlead ropes. Rollers are relatively small-diameter cylinders or wide-faced sheaves used to support ropes. Rope running over a sheave bends going on and straightens coming off the sheave, i.e., the rope exes twice. Rope going onto or coming off a drum exes only once. Since rope service life depends onto some extentthe number of times the rope exes, theoretical considerations call for sheaves to be larger than drums. Practical considerations, and recognition that in most naval usage, wire ropes wear out from causes other than bending, result in sheaves often being smaller than drums. A drum should be large enough to wind the rope onto it in one layer; overwinding of layers of wire should be avoided, although this is often not possible. The drum diameter should be at least 20 times the rope diameter for a reasonable life for drum and rope, and 45 to 60 times the rope diameter for long life.
Table 7-7. Sheave and Drum Diameter Ratios for Wire Rope.
Suggested Minimum D/d D/d 72 42 51 34 45 30 39 26 45 30 45 30 45 30 45 30 39 26 35 23 39 26 32 21 32 21 21 14 35 23 28 18 28 18 28 18 32 21 41 27 32 21 51 34 51 34 Absolute Minimum D/d 20 28 14 20 14 16 16 14
Construction 67 6 19 S 6 21 FW 6 25 FW 6 26 WS 6 25B Flattened Strand 6 27H Flattened Strand 6 30G Flattened Strand 6 31 WS 6 36 WS 6 37 SFW 6 41 SFW 6 41 WS 6 42 Tiller 6 43 FWS 6 43 FW 6 46 SFW 6 46 WS 6 49 SWS 8 19 S 8 25 FW 18 7 19 7 Class 5 19 67 6 12 6 19 6 24 6 31 6 33 6 37
The approximate capacity of a drum or reel for a uniformly wound rope can be derived as follows: If the depth of rope on the drum is A, the drum barrel diameter is B, and drum width between anges C as shown in Figure 7-9, then the length of a single turn of rope is B. The number of turns in one layer on the drum is X = C/d, where d is the rope diameter, and X is the integer portion of the result of the division C/d. The length of rope on one layer is thus BX. As shown in Figure 7-9, the center-to-center distance between adjacent rope layers is 0.866d; discounting the 0.5d height to the center of the rst layer, the number of layers required to make up the depth of rope on the drum is Y = A/0.866d, where Y is the integer portion of the result of the division. The effective drum diameter for succeeding rope layers increases. The effective drum diameter for the last layer is (B + A - d); to simplify calculations, the nal diameter can be approximated as B + A. The average drum diameter is thus [B + (B + A)]/2. The length of rope in an average turn on the drum is therefore (2B + A)/2, the length on the average layer X(2B + A)/2, and the total length of rope to give a depth of A is: L = XY 2B 2
A H
where L = drum capacity for evenly wound rope. The above derivation assumes the same number of turns on each layer. As the number of turns per layer will differ no more than two, the error resulting from this assumption is insignicant unless the drum is very narrow. New ropes, usually oversize by 1 32-inch per inch of nominal diameter, take more space on a drum, as do randomly wound ropes. Drum capacity is approximately 0.94L for new ropes and 0.92L for randomly wound ropes.
2r = d _ r=d 2 60
30
C H = FLANGE DEPTH M = DESIRED CLEARANCE A = ROPE DEPTH =H-M DRUM DIMENSIONS CROSS SECTION OF ROPE LAYERS ON DRUM
60
FOR EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE h = d sin 60 = 0.866 d
Fleet angle is the horizontal angle from Figure 7-9. Dimensions for Drum Capacity. which the wire approaches the drum. To avoid chang and undue bending, the eet angle should not exceed 11 2 degrees. This equates to about 40 feet of lead for each foot of traverse, as shown in Figure 7-9. Because of the close quarters on salvage ships and casualties, it is not always possible to provide adequate leads for winches. If wire leads to a winch from a point where a stationary fairlead creates an excessive lead angle, a moving fairlead can be rigged as shown in Figure 7-10. A large shackle can be substituted for the snatch block for low line tensions and small angles, but sheave blocks are preferred. Winches equipped with level wind mechanisms can operate with larger eet angles. Operating guides normally specify the maximum eet angle.
7-10
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Sheaves and rollers should be grooved for the specic rope size to prevent attening under heavy loads. Because the diameter of a new rope is up to 5 percent greater than its nominal diameter, grooves must have the clearances shown in Figure 7-11. Table 7-8 gives required groove dimensions. Sheaves should be in balance and aligned to prevent swaying of the rope and abrasion against the sheave anges. Sheaves and drums should be as large as practical to increase rope life, but factors such as machinery weight, headroom restrictions, and high-speed operation call for small sheaves. Overall economy and practicality often require sacricing rope life. Reverse bending places severe stresses on a rope because stresses in the wire bers alternate between tension and compression. Reverse bends near one another have the most adverse effect. Rope life in reverse bending is only 40 to 50 percent of that in continuous bending. For equal service life of the rope, sheaves causing reverse bends should be one-third to one-half larger than other sheaves in the system.
FAIRLEAD SHEAVE
60 LEFT FLEET ANGLE

1/2 1/2 MIN MIN 1 1/2 1 1/2 MAX MAX
(LEAD)
SNATCH BLOCK POSITIONED BY PURCHASE OR WINCH AS WIRE TRACKS ACROSS DRUM.
RIGHT FLEET ANGLE
SMOOTH FACE DRUM 1 1/2 (TRAVERSE)
Table 7-8. Sheave and Drum Groove Dimensions.

Nominal Rope Diameter (in.) 4 16 3 8 7 16
1 1
Figure 7-10. Fleet Angle.
Minimum Groove Radius (in.) New Worn 0.135 0.167 0.201 0.234 0.271 0.334 0.401 0.468 0.543 0.605 0.669 0.803 0.876 0.939 1.003 1.085 1.210 1.338 1.481 1.607 1.731 1.869 1.997 2.139 2.264 2.396 2.534 2.663 2.804 2.929 3.074 3.198 0.129 0.160 0.190 0.220 0.256 0.320 0.380 0.440 0.513 0.577 0.639 0.759 0.833 0.897 0.959 1.025 1.153 1.279 1.409 1.538 1.658 1.794 1.918 2.050 2.178 2.298 2.434 2.557 2.691 2.817 2.947 3.075
GROOVE DIA. THROAT WIDTH TREAD DIAMETER PITCH DIAMETER

OUTSIDE DIAMETER
GROOVE DIAMETER TOLERANCES NOM. WIRE ROPE DIAMETER 1/4 - 5/16 3/8 - 3/4 1 3/16 - 1-1/8 1 3/16 - 1-1/2 1 9/16 - 2-1/4 2 5/16 AND LARGER
3/4 DIA. + 5%
GROOVE GAGE
2 5 8 3 4 7 8 1 11 8 11 4 11 2 15 8 13 4 17 8 2 21 4 21 2 23 4 3 31 4 31 2 33 4 4 41 4 41 2 43 4 5 51 4 51 2 53 4 6
GROOVE DIAMETER TOLERANCES + 1/64 MIN TO 1/32 MAX +1/32 MIN TO 1/16 MAX +3/64 MIN TO 3/32 MAX +1/16 MIN TO 1/8 MAX +3/32 MIN TO 1/4 MAX +1/8 MIN TO 1/4 MAX
GROOVE DIA.
GROOVE DIA.
ORIGINAL GROOVE DIA.
ORIGINAL GROOVE DIA.
ROPE
WORN GROOVE DIA. (d) NEW ROPE OF NOMINAL DIA. IN GROOVE WORN BY PREVIOUS ROPE OF DECREASED DIA.
(a) GROOVE TOO (b) CORRECT FIT (c) CORRECTLY DESIGNED LARGE, INSUFGROOVE DIA. SHEAVE WITH GROOVE FICIENT SUPPORT SLIGHTLY LARGER WORN TO DECREASED FOR ROPE THAN ROPE DIA. DIA. OF ROPE
Figure 7-11. Sheave Groove Nomenclature, Proportions, and Tolerances.
7-11
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Table 7-9. Allowable Bearing Pressures on Sheaves.

Allowable Pressure for Rope Class, psi Regular Lay Rope Lang Lay Rope 6 19 6 37 8 19 6 7 6 19 6 37 8 19 250 300 350 165 275 330 400 480 585 680 350 550 660 800 900 1,075 1,260 600 1,000 1,180 1,450 1,100 1,325 1,550 715 1,210 1,450 1,780 2,400 3,000 3,500 1,650 2,750 3,300 4,000
Table 7-10. Knuckle Block Allowable Radial Pressure Exponents.

Radial Pressure Exponent (c) for Rope Class: Sheave Material Regular Lay Rope 67 Wood Cast Iron Cast Steel Manganese Steel 1.565 1.825 2.1145 2.88 6 19 1.745 2.0585 2.43 3.525 6 37 1.835 2.19 2.615 3.98 67 1.60 1.885 2.16 2.98 Lang Lay Rope 6 19 6 37 1.78 2.11 2.50 3.68 1.875 2.35 2.7 4.185
Sheave Material Wood Cast Iron2 Cast Steel3 Chilled Cast Iron4 Manganese Steel
Notes: 1 2 3 4
1
67 150 300 550 650 1,470
On end grain of beech, hickory, gum Based on Brinell hardness of 125 Based on 30-40 carbon steel with Brinell hardness of 160 Not advised unless surface is of uniform hardness
7-2.14 Radial Pressure. Tension on a wire rope led over a curved surface causes a radial pressure on the surface. For ordinary sheaves, where the arc of contact is greater than one lay length: 2T p = Dd where: p T D d = = = = radial pressure, psi rope load, lbd tread diameter of drum/ sheave, in. nominal rope diameter, in.
ROPE TENSION (T)
ROPE PRESSURE (P) = T
SIN = 2T SIN 2 SIN (90 - ) 2
Figure 7-12. Knuckle or Fairlead Sheave.
Table 7-9 gives allowable bearing pressures for different bearing surfaces, from the standpoint of sheave design only. If the sheave material is too soft, rapid wear reduces both sheave and rope life. A badly worn groove causes pinching, grinding, and increased abrasion. A hard material causes only light surface abrasion. If the arc of contact is less than one lay length, the sheave is a knuckle or fairlead sheave, or curve sheave (multiple sheaves), illustrated in Figures 7-12 and 7-13. For knuckle sheaves: sin p = T = 2Tsin 2 ) sin(90 2 where: p T = = = rope pressure, lbs rope tension, lbs contact angle = angle of departure, degrees
= .01746R ARC LENGTH L = 2 R 360 L N-1
TOTAL ANGLE OF DEPARTURE ()
TENSION (T)
RADIUS (R) (FEET)
N = NUMBER OF SHEAVES N - 1 = NUMBER OF SPACES
PRESSURE PER SHEAVE =
TL = T x SPACING BETWEEN SHEAVES (FEET) R(N - 1) R
The allowable pressure is Dc, where the exponent c depends upon construction and sheave material. Table 7-10 gives values of c.
Figure 7-13. Curve Sheaves.
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For curve sheaves: L = 2R = 0.01746R 360 p = TL T = spacing between sheaves (R(N 1)) R
where:
SHEAVE DIAMETER IN TERMS OF ROPE DIAMETER (D)
6 x 7 ROPES 120D 108D 96D PROPER SHEAVES 84D 72D 60D 34D 48D CURVE OR 42D KNUCKLE 36D SHEAVES 28D MINIMUM TREAD DIAMETER ROLLER 0 SUPPORTING ROLLERS 84D 72D 120D 108D 96D
6 x 19 AND 6 x 37 ROPES
L R p N T
= = = = = =
contact arc length, ft arc radius, ft total contact angle = total angle of departure, degrees rope pressure per sheave, lbs number of sheaves rope tension, lbs
PROPER SHEAVES
The curves in Figure 7-14 show the zones that x the character of the sheaves or rollers. Ropes should not be bent around rollers, as the smaller bending radius will result in very high rope stresses and radial pressures. 7-2.15 Wire Rope Selection. Breaking strength, fatigue resistance, crushing resistance, etc., and availability establish the base for conventional wire rope selection. An approximate selection formula is written as: DSL = (NS)Kb Ks
60D 34D 48D CURVE 42D OR 36D KNUCKLE 30D SHEAVES 24D 16D 6D 0 MINIMUM TREAD DIAMETER ROLLER SUPPORTING ROLLERS
7D
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 ARC OF CONTACT OR ANGLE OF ROPE DEPARTURE OVER SHEAVE
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 ARC OF CONTACT OR ANGLE OF ROPE DEPARTURE OVER SHEAVE
Figure 7-14. Sheave Categories.
where: DSL NS Kb Ks = = = = demanded static load = known or dead load plus additional loads caused by sudden starts and stops, shocks, bearing friction, etc. nominal strength = published test strength bending factor from the curves in Figure 7-8 safety factor, chosen as discussed below
In salvage, the selection of wire rope may be limited to those ropes already on site. Handling capabilities can limit the weight and size of rope that can be brought to or employed at the site (Table 7-2 gives weight per unit length for common wire ropes). In some situations, rigging systems are made up entirely by hand, or some connections are made by divers. In other cases, drum space limitations may force the use of a smaller diameter wire to gain length. When wire rope selection is limited, the selection formula may be modied to: SL = where: SL = L = (NS Ks permissible static load additional loads caused by sudden starts and stops, shocks, bearing friction, weight of wire rope and ttings, etc. L)Kb
Paragraph 7-7 discusses loads and stresses due to shock loads, friction, platform list and motion, etc. A safety factor is selected after careful consideration of loads, accelerations, shocks, rope speeds, rope attachments, sheave arrangements and sizes, environment, etc. For standard Navy practice, safety factors are 31 2 for standing rigging, 5 for running rigging, and 8 to 12 for situations with danger to life. The safety factors are higher than those required for structural components under similar loading because:
There is uncertainty about the failure mode of wire rope. Loads due to shock, platform motion, wind, etc., are difficult to quantify. The effects of corrosion, abrasion, fatigue, damage to individual wires, etc., reduce the strength of wire rope over time. There is serious hazard to life and property from unexpected failure of hoisting and hauling ropes. Keeping stress levels well below breaking strength extends service life.
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Table 7-11. Diagnostic Guide to Common Wire Rope Degradation.
Mode Fatigue
Symptoms Wire breaks are transverseeither straight across or Z shape. Broken ends appear grainy. See Figures 7-17 and 7-18.
Possible Causes Rope bent around too small a radius; vibration or whipping; wobbly sheaves; rollers too small; reverse bends; bent shafts; tight grooves; corrosion; small drums and sheaves; incorrect rope construction; improper installation; poor end terminations. (In the absence of other modes of degradation, all rope will eventually fail in fatigue.) Overloads; sticky, grabby clutches; jerky conditions; loose bearing on drum; fast starts, fast stops, broken sheave ange; wrong rope size and grade; poor end terminations. Excessive strain on rope degraded by other factors. Change in rope or sheave size; change in load; overburden change; frozen or stuck sheaves; soft rollers, sheaves or drums; excessive eet angle; misalignment of sheaves; kinks; improperly attached ttings; grit and sand; objects imbedded in rope; improper grooving. A long-term condition normal to the operating process. A long-term condition normal to the operating process. Any of the above conditions; abnormal or accidental forces during installation.
Tension
Wire breaks show a mix cup and cone fracture and shear breaks. See Figures 7-16 and 7-17.
Abrasion
Outer wires worn smooth to knife edge thinness. Wire broken by abrasion in combination with another factor will show a combination break. See Figure 7-21.
Abrasion plus Fatigue Abrasion plus Tension Cut or Gouged or Rough Wire Torsion or Twisting Mashing Corrosion
Reduced cross section is broken off square producing a chisel shape. Reduced cross section is necked down as in a cup and cone conguration. Tensile break produces a chisel shape. Wire ends are pinched down, mashed and/or cut in a rough diagonal shear-like manner. Wire ends show evidence of twist and/or cork-screw effect. Wires are attened and spread at broken ends. Wire surfaces are pitted with breaks showing evidence of fatigue, tension, or abrasion.
Any of the above conditions; abnormal or accidental forces during installation. (A common occurrence on the drum.) Improper lubrication or storage; corrosive environment.
See also Paragraph 7-2.16 and Figures 7-15 through 7-22.
7-2.16 Wire Rope Inspection. Salvors should recognize strength-degrading damage to wire ropes and remove damaged ropes from service. Ropes in service should receive almost constant visual inspection and should be examined thoroughly before and after use. The nature and recurrence of wire rope damage can indicate improperly functioning sheaves, rollers, or other components of the system. The following is a fairly comprehensive listing of critical inspection factors, presented as a users guide to accepted standards of wire rope inspection. An inspectors ability to detect damage or critically degrading conditions depends chiey on his experience with similar ropes. Table 7-11 is a quick reference for diagnosing wire rope degradation.
Abrasion. Rope abrades in normal service as it moves over drums and sheaves. Abrasion is increased by operation in abrasive environments. Most standards require rope replacement when the outer wires have been reduced to two-thirds of their original diameter. Elongation. The causes and consequences of wire rope elongation are discussed in Paragraph 7-2.10. Ropes with permanent elongations greater than one percent of the original length should be removed from service. Elongation is impossible to determine if the original rope length is not known. Reduced Rope Diameter. Reduced diameter indicates degradation. Reduced diameter may result from excessive abrasion of outside wires, collapse of core support, corrosion, loosening or tightening of rope lay, inner wire breakage, rope stretch, or ironing of strands. Many standards (including the Navys) require replacement when a ropes diameter is less than published minimum diameters. However, published minimum diameters do not account for the actual diameter of the rope or differences in compressibility between IWRC and ber-core ropes. All ropes will show a signicant reduction in diameter when loaded. A rope whose original diameter is only slightly larger than its nominal diameter may be reduced to a diameter smaller than its published minimum on initial loading, even though the rope is not degraded. A more dangerous situation occurs when a ropes original diameter is near the upper allowable limits. Such a rope may be dangerously degraded even though its diameter is greater than the published minimum. A wire ropes continued service should therefore not be based solely on its diameter being greater than a published minimum. Evaluation of rope diameter should be based on comparison with the ropes diameter when new, and under conditions similar to those at the time of the inspection. Core Deterioration. Core deterioration or collapse can be indicated by a reduction in diameter that is more rapid than from other causes, and is cause for removing the rope from service, regardless of its diameter. Loss of core support causes strand nicking, small depressions or nicks in individual wires caused by the wires bearing heavily on one another as the rope works under load. Typical strand nicks are shown in Figure 7-15.
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Corrosion. Corrosion is a serious cause of degradation, and is difficult to evaluate. It reduces cross-sectional area of the individual wires and prevents the ropes component parts from moving smoothly over each other as the rope exes. Corrosion usually results from insufficient lubrication and/or operation in harsh environments. Severe rusting leads to premature fatigue failure. Ropes with corrosion that reduces diameter of outer wires by one-half or causes deep pits should be removed from service. In most cases, a slight discoloration due to rusting only indicates the need for lubrication.
Broken Wires. The number of broken wires on the outside of a wire rope is an index of its general condition. The number and distribution of broken wires provide criteria for removing ropes from service: (1) Running ropes six or more randomly broken wires in one rope lay, or three or more broken wires in one strand in one rope lay. (2) Standing ropes three or more broken wires in one rope lay. Where there are any broken wires within one rope lay of an attached end tting, the end of the rope should be cut off and a new termination installed.
Figure 7-15. Strand Nicking.
Once broken wires begin to appear in a rope in service, many more will follow in a short periodthe rope is nearing the end of its useful life. Broken wires on the outer surface of the strands are called crown breaks, and those in wires between strands are called valley breaks. Valley breaks are more serious than crown breaks because they are symptoms of core failure and subsequent strand nicking. One valley break near a termination or two valley breaks elsewhere is reason to replace the rope.
Figure 7-16. Typical Tension Break.
(a) TENSION
(b) SHEAR-TENSILE
Figure 7-16 shows a wire rope that has failed in tension. Individual wires that have failed in tension show a characteristic cup and cone fracture, illustrated in Figure 7-17(a). Wires that have failed in shear, or combined shear and tension, will break on an angle, as shown in Figure 7-17(b).
(c) FATIGUE Figure 7-17. Wire Breakage.
(d) FATIGUE
Figure 7-18. Fatigue Failure.
Fatigue. Wires broken with square ends and little surface wear have usually failed as a result of fatigue. Typical fatigue breaks are shown in Figure 7-17(c) and (d). It is common for a number of wires to fail in fatigue over a short period of time, as shown in Figure 7-18. In almost all cases, fatigue breaks are caused by bending stresses or vibration. Fatigue is reduced by using larger drums, sheaves, and rollers, or by using more exible rope
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Kinks. Kinks are permanent distortions that result when loops are pulled too tightly. An open kink opens the rope lay, while a closed kink twists the lay more tightly, as shown in Figure 7-19. The rope is seriously weakened in the vicinity of the kink. Bird Caging. Bird cages, like that shown in Figure 7-20, result from torsional imbalance in the rope caused by sudden release of tension, pulling the rope through tight sheaves or over small drums, or sudden stops that cause the load to bounce and slack the rope.
OPEN KINK
CLOSED KINK Figure 7-19. Open and Closed Kinks.
Peening. Like abrasion, peening reduces rope diameter and attens the outer wires. Peening does not remove as much metal as abrasion, but work hardens the affected wires. These wires are then more susceptible to bending fatigue. Peening is distinguished from abrasion by careful examination of the wires. The outer surface of peened wires have a hammered appearance and have been attened by spreading to the sidesthe wire is deformed from its original circular cross section and may be wider than its original diameter. Cracks or breaks, caused by work hardening, may be present. The surfaces of abraded wires have a ground or polished appearance, and the inner sides retain their circular perimeters. Figure 7-21 compares the cross section of peened and abraded wires. Peening results from one of two causes: (1) Continuous pounding, as when the rope beats against a hard object, roller, or itself. (2) Continuous working under high loads over a drum or sheave. Peening can be prevented by placing chang gear or other protectors between the rope and the object it is striking.
Figure 7-20. Bird Cage.
WIRE FLATTENED AND SPREAD BY POUNDING
METAL ABRADED AWAY
Scrubbing. Scrubbing is the displacement of wires and strands as the rope rubs against itself or other objects. This, in turn, causes uneven wear along one side of the rope. Obvious Damage. Improper or malfunctioning sheaves, rollers, etc., cause serious deformations. Rope with crushed, jammed, or attened strands, high-stranded or unlaid lengths, kinks, bulges, gaps or excessive clearance between strands, popped cores (Figure 722), broken strands, torch burns, electric arc strikes, or serious strand nicking should be removed from service. Sections with localized damage can be cut out and the good portions of the rope used. End Fittings. Cracked, corroded, bent, worn, or improperly installed ttings should be replaced.
FATIGUE CRACKS MAY BE PRESENT ABRASION PEENING Figure 7-21. Peening and Abrasion.
Figure 7-22. Popped Core.
The Navys Preventive Maintenance System (PMS) species inspection and replacement criteria for various wire ropes, including beach gear and heavy-lift wires. PMS standards should be followed except in cases of emergency or operational necessity.
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7-3.4 Anchor/Mooring Chain. There are three types of heavy chain produced for use in anchoring or mooring systems and similar applications:
Table 7-12. ASTM Specifications for Alloy Steel Chain.
Grades 63 and 80
Stud-link chain (welded studlink, cast stud-link, and DiLok chain). Large-diameter, specialpurpose open link chain (such as buoy chain and marine railway hauling chain). Square section (open or studlink) chain.
Nominal Diameter (in.) 32 32 5 16 3 8 1 2 5 8 3 4 7 8 1 11 4

9 7
Minimum Breaking Strength (lbs) Grade 63 Grade 80 6,900 11,400 14,000 20,200 35,900 56,100 80,800 110,000 143,600 224,400 8,700 14,400 17,800 25,600 45,600 71,200 102,600 139,600 182,400 285,000
Weight per 100 ft
Length per 100 links (max) (in.) 76 98 110 134 160 200 235 270 280 371
Stud-link chain is preferable for virtually all salvage applications. Special-purpose open link and square link chains are discussed briey, however, as circumstances may force their use. Different types of chain are manufactured to government (MILSPEC) or commercial standards, which specify geometry, dimensions, breaking strength, proof load, and metallurgical qualities. Figure 7-24 shows standard chain dimensions and nomenclature. Classication societies and the American Petroleum Institute (API) set commercial standards. Some manufacturers produce special-purpose chain for which there are no industry standards. Tables 713 through 7-18 take chain characteristics from MILSPEC, ABS, API, or manufacturers standards. Mooring chain is commonly made up in standard shots (shackles in the United Kingdom) of 15 fathoms (90 feet or 27.5 meters). Most manufacturers produce both half-shots and long continuous lengths. Pendants, or short shots, are made up as required. Three or four extra links for proof, Charpy impact, and other tests are usually included in manufactured lengths. Normally, chain is 100 percent proof-tested; Navy specications require proof-testing. 7-3.5 Stud-Link Chain. Chain links with center studs are stud-links. The stud prevents the links from turning sideways or kinking, and prevents adjacent links from pounding on one another when the chain is dropped or alternately slacked and tensioned. The stud resists the tendency of the sides to deform under load, increasing the proof load relative to open link chain of the same size and metallurgical quality, but does not increase breaking strength. Studlink chain has a higher load rating than open-link chain because safe working loads are based on proof load. Proof load for stud-link chain is about 65 to 78 percent of breaking strength, and can be taken as twothirds of breaking strength.
50 84 120 176 300 453 655 910 1,170 1,765
Proof Coil Steel Chain (NACM Grade 28) Nominal inside link dimensions (in.) Length 0.95 1.00 1.10 1.23 1.37 1.50 1.87 2.12 2.50 2.75 Width 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.62 0.75 0.81 1.00 1.12 1.37 1.50 Max length, Weight per Working100 links 100 ft (lbs) load limit (in.) (lbs) 99 42 750 104 76 1,250 114 115 1,875 128 166 2,625 142 225 3,450 156 286 4,500 194 425 6,800 220 605 9,500 260 811 11,375 286 1,045 13,950
Trade size Actual size (in.) (in.) 16 1 4 5 16 3 8 7 16 1 2 5 8 3 4 7 8 1

3
32 9 32 11 32 13 32 15 32 17 32 21 32 25 32 29 32 11 32
Min. Min. proof break-test load (lbs) (lbs) 1,500 3,000 2,500 5,000 3,750 7,500 5,250 10,500 6,900 13,800 9,000 18,000 13,600 27,200 19,000 38,000 22,750 45,500 27,900 55,800
High-Test Steel Chain (NACM Grade 43) Nominal inside link dimensions (in.) Length 0.82 1.01 1.15 1.29 1.43 1.79 1.96 2.25 2.63 Width 0.39 0.48 0.56 0.65 0.75 0.90 1.06 1.09 1.25 Max length, Weight per Working100 links 100 ft (lbs) load limit (in.) (lbs) 86 80 2,500 105 123 4,000 121 175 5,100 135 235 6,600 150 300 8,200 186 450 11,500 205 655 16,200 234 814 22,500 273 1,064 26,500
Trade size Actual size (in.) (in.) 16 3 8 7 16 1 2 5 8 3 4 7 8 1

5
32 11 32 13 32 15 32 17 32 21 32 25 32 29 32 113 32
Min. Min. proof break-test load (lbs) (lbs) 4,100 7,750 6,700 11,500 8,500 16,200 11,200 20,700 13,700 26,000 19,500 36,900 27,000 50,400 45,000 90,000 53,000 106,000
High-Strength Binding Chain (NACM Grade 28) Trade size (in.)

1 4 5 16 3 8 7 16 1 2
Max weight, 100 ft (lbs) 84 123 176 235 300
Working-load limit (lbs) 3,150 4,700 6,600 8,750 11,300
Min. proof load (lbs) 6,300 9,400 13,200 17,500 22,600
Min. break-test (lbs) 12,600 18,800 26,400 35,000 42,200
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Figure 7-25 shows three types of stud-link chain:
LINK d CHAIN DIAMETER
Welded Stud-Link, Forged Integral Stud (DiLok), and
PITCH
GRIP
3.6d
Cast Stud-Link.
STUD
7-3.6 Welded Stud-Link Chain. Six standard grades of welded stud-link chain are manufactured in the United States:
6.0d
USN stud-link chain (MIL-C24633 and MIL-C-78096A), ABS grade 1, 2, 3, and 4 chain, and API Oil Rig Quality (ORQ) chain.
Figure 7-24. General Features of Stud-Link Chain.
In the most common manufacturing process, a steel rod is forged into a link shape with the ends of the rod meeting on the side of the link. The ends of the rod are joined by ash butt-welding. The stud is inserted before the link cools and the link is pressed together on the stud. To prevent stud loss in USN, ORQ, and ABS grade 4 chain, one end of the stud is welded to the side wire. Both ends of the stud are sometimes welded to the side wires to prevent crevice corrosion between the stud and side wires. The double weld does not increase strength. Some manufacturers seal weld the studs on grade 1, 2, or 3 chain when specied by the customer.
WELD LINK WITH PRESSED-IN STUD
WELD DOUBLE STUD-WELD
FLASH BUTT-WELDED STUD LINKS
DI-LOK LINK
CAST CHAIN LINK
Figure 7-25. Stud-Link Chain. Tables 7-13 and 7-14 (Pages 7-20 and 7-21) list characteristics of USN and commercial stud-link chain (Table 3-11 in the Salvors Handbook, S0300-A7-HBK-010, gives some of the same information for a more limited size range). ORQ chain is slightly stronger than ABS grade 3 chain. For 17 8-inch chain diameter and smaller, USN chain is slightly stronger than ABS grade 3 chain; 2-inch and larger USN chain has the same strength as grade 3 chain. ABS grade 3 or better chain is an acceptable substitute for USN chain for most applications. Most anchor chain in commercial service is Grade 2.
Stud-link chain is used widely for permanent moorings, towing bridles, anchor chain on Navy and merchant ships, and in other marine applications. Large quantities of chain are held at Naval Facilities Engineering (NAVFAC) commands, Naval shipyards, and in the ESSM system.
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Table 7-13. Navy Stud-Link Chain (MIL-C-24633).
L A
TYPE I AND TYPE II Minimum breaking strength (pounds) 75,000 98,000 129,000 161,000 198,000 235,000 280,000 325,000 380,000 432,000 454,000 510,000 570,000 628,000 692,000 758,000 826,000 897,000 970,000 1,046,000 1,124,000 1,204,000 1,285,000 1,369,000 1,455,000 1,543,000 1,632,000 2,550,000
Length of six consecutive links, L (inches) Size, A (in.) Number of links per shot Minimum 193 8 22 8 257 8 29 16 32 16 35 16 3813 16 42 45 4 48 2 5111 16 54 16 58 16 61 16 6411 16 67 8 71 8 74 8 775 8 80 16 84 16 87 16 909 16 9313 16 97 16 100 4 1031 2 122 16
15 1 1 5 1 13 3 1 7 7 3 15 1 1 9 5 1 5
Nominal 191 2 22 4 26 29 4 32 2 35 4 39 42 4 45 2 48 4 52 55 4 58 2 61 4 65 68 4 71 2 74 4 78 81 4 84 2 87 4 91 941 4 97 2 100 4 104 123 2

1 3 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3
Maximum 1913 16 23 16 263 8 29 8 32 16 36 4 391 2 42 8 46 8 49 2 523 4 56 8 59 8 62 4 66 69 4 72 16 75 8 793 16 82 2 85 4 89 925 16 955 8 98 8 102 16 1051 2 125 16
5 3 7 3 1 7 9 1 3 3 1 1 1 7 1 15 5 1
Proof load (pounds)
Weight per shot (pounds) 480 660 860 1,080 1,350 1,630 1,940 2,240 2,590 2,980 3,360 3,790 4,250 4,730 5,270 5,820 6,410 7,020 7,650 8,320 9,010 9,730 10,500 11,300 12,000 12,900 13,700 18,900
3 7
4 8
359 305 267
48,000 64,400 84,000 106,000 130,000 157,000 185,000 216,000 249,000 285,000 318,000 357,000 396,000 440,000 484,000 530,000 578,000 628,000 679,000 732,000 787,000 843,000 900,000 958,000 1,019,000 1,080,000 1,143,000 1,700,000
1 1 8 1 4 1 8 11 2 1 8 1 4 1 8 2 2 8 2 4 2 8 21 2 2 8 2 4 2 8 3 3 8 3 4 3 8 31 2 35 8 3 4 3 8 4 4 4
3 7 3 3 1 1 7 3 5 3 1 1 7 3 5 3 1 1
237 213 193 177 165 153 143 135 125 119 113 107 101 97 93 89 87 83 79 77 73 71 69 67 57
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Table 7-14. Commercial Stud-Link Chain (ABS) (All Loads in Pounds).
L A
Chain Length of Diameter, A Five Links, L inches inches

1 9
2 16 5 8 11 16 3 4 13 16 7 8 15 16 1 11 16 11 8 13 16 11 4 15 16 13 8 17 16 11 2 19 16 15 8 111 16 13 4 113 16 17 8 115 16 2 21 16 21 8 23 16 21 4 25 16 23 8 27 16 21 2 29 16 25 8 211 16 23 4 213 16 27 8 215 16 3 31 16 31 8 33 16 31 4 35 16 33 8 37 16 31 2 39 16 35 8 33 4 37 8 315 16 4

1
11 123 8 133 4 151 8 161 2 177 8 191 4 205 8 22 233 8 243 4 261 8 271 2 287 8 301 4 315 8 33 343 8 353 4 371 8 381 2 397 8 411 4 425 8 44 453 8 463 4 481 8 491 2 507 8 521 4 535 8 55 563 8 573 4 591 8 601 2 617 8 631 4 645 8 66 673 8 683 4 701 8 711 2 727 8 741 4 755 8 77 783 8 793 4 821 2 851 4 865 8 88
Grade 1 Proof Breaking Load Load 10700 15300 13500 19300 16600 23700 20100 28600 23800 34000 27800 39800 32200 46000 36800 52600 41800 59700 47000 67200 52600 75000 58400 83400 64500 92200 70900 101500 77500 111000 84500 120500 91700 131000 99200 142000 108000 153000 115000 166500 123500 176000 132000 188500 140500 201000 149500 214000 159000 227000 168500 241000 178500 255000 188500 269000 198500 284000 209000 299000 212000 314000 231000 330000 242000 346000 254000 363000 265000 379000 277000 396000 289000 413000 301000 431000 314000 449000 327000 467000 340000 485000 353000 504000 366000 523000 380000 542000 393000 562000 407000 582000 421000 602000 435000 622000 450000 643000 465000 664000 479000 685000 509000 728000 540000 772000 556000 794000 571000 816000
Grade 2 Proof Breaking Load Load 15300 21400 19300 27000 23700 33200 28600 40100 34000 47600 39800 55700 46000 64400 52600 73700 59700 83600 67200 94100 75000 105000 83400 116500 92200 129000 101500 142000 111000 155000 120500 169000 131000 183500 142000 198500 153000 214000 166500 229000 176000 247000 188500 264000 201000 281000 214000 299000 227000 318000 241000 337000 255000 357000 269000 377000 284000 396000 299000 418000 314000 440000 330000 462000 346000 484000 363000 507000 379000 530000 396000 554000 413000 578000 431000 603000 449000 628000 467000 654000 485000 679000 504000 705000 523000 732000 542000 759000 562000 787000 582000 814000 602000 843000 622000 871000 643000 900000 664000 929000 685000 958000 728000 1019000 772000 1080000 794000 1111000 816000 1143000
Grade 3 Grade 4 Proof Breaking Proof Breaking Load Load Load Load 21400 30600 27000 38600 33200 47500 40100 57300 47600 68000 55700 79500 64400 91800 73700 105000 83600 119500 94100 135000 105000 150000 116500 167000 129000 184000 142000 203000 155000 222000 169000 241000 183500 262000 198500 284000 214000 306000 229000 327000 247000 352000 264000 377000 281000 402000 299000 427000 318000 454000 485600 616000 337000 482000 523700 665400 357000 510000 562000 712600 377000 538000 602400 764300 396000 570000 622600 790100 418000 598000 642900 816000 440000 628000 685600 870000 462000 660000 728300 926200 484000 692000 773300 982400 507000 726000 818300 1040800 530000 758000 865500 1099300 554000 792000 889100 1129600 578000 826000 912700 1159900 603000 861000 949800 1207200 628000 897000 986900 1254400 654000 934000 1025100 1302700 679000 970000 1063300 1351000 705000 1008000 1115000 1416200 732000 1046000 1155500 1466800 759000 1084000 1195900 1517400 787000 1124000 1236400 1570200 814000 1163000 843000 1204000 871000 1244000 900000 1285000 929000 1327000 958000 1369000 1019000 1455000 1080000 1543000 1111000 1587000 1143000 1632000
Weight in Pounds per 15 Fathoms 230 290 370 410 480 570 660 760 860 970 1080 1220 1350 1490 1630 1780 1940 2090 2240 2410 2590 2790 2980 3180 3360 3570 3790 4020 4250 4490 4730 4960 5270 5540 5820 6110 6410 6710 7020 7330 7650 7980 8320 8660 9010 9360 9730 10100 10500 10900 11300 12000 12900 13300 13700
Oil Rig Quality1 Proof Load Breaking Load
84000 106000 130000 157000 185000 216000 249000 285000 322000 342000 362000 382500 403000 425000 447000 469500 492000 516000 540000 565000 590000 615000 640000 666500 693000 720500 748000 776050 804100 833150 862200 892100 922000 1021000 1120000 1205000 1298000
129000 161000 198000 235000 280000 325000 380000 432000 488000 518000 548000 579100 610000 642500 675000 709500 744000 778500 813000 849000 885000 925000 965000 1005000 1045000 1086500 1128000 1169000 1210000 1253000 1296000 1339550 1383100 1566000 1750000 1863000 1996500
Oil rig quality information from commercial vendor.
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7-3.7 Di-Lok Chain. Di-Lok is a trade name for a high-quality forged chain formerly manufactured by Baldt. Each DiLok link has a male and female part as shown in Figure 7-25. The female part is made with an integral stud. The link is formed by inserting the cold male end into the heated female end and hammering the female end down over the male end. Forging produces a link of relatively uniform strength. The stud cannot be lost because it is an integral part of the link. The stud is faired into the side wires, increasing the links cross-sectional area and section modulus in lateral bending. The increased section modulus enables DiLok chain to carry higher bending loads than equivalent-sized stud-link chain. Figure 7-26 compares bending strength (as indicated by deection under load) of standard Di-Lok and grades 1, 2, and 3 welded stud-link chain.
80,000
LOAD
70,000
60,000
LOAD, POUNDS
4"
1" DIA.
STD. USN DI-LOK
50,000
ELASTIC LIMIT
40,000
ELASTIC LIMIT ABS GRADE 3
30,000
ELASTIC LIMIT
20,000
ABS GRADE 2 WELDED ABS GRADE 1 ESTIMATED
10,000 ELASTIC LIMIT 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060
Di-Lok chain is no longer manufactured, DEFLECTION, INCHES but large quantities remain in service. The Navy used Di-Lok chain in various sizes as ships anchor chain, and large quantities of Figure 7-26. Deflection of 1-Inch Stud-Link Chain Under Lateral Load. 21 4-inch Di-Lok chain were procured for beach gear ground legs and ARS/ATS bow lift slings. The Supervisor of Salvage reserves Di-Lok chain for applications where chain must be bent while under load because this type of chain has superior bending performance and limited availability. Welded stud-link chain should be used for beach gear and other applications that do not require resistance to bending. Navy Di-Lok chain was produced in three grades: type I (standard), type II (heavy duty), and type III (high-strength). Table 7-15 lists strength and other characteristics for Navy Di-Lok chain. Standard Di-Lok (type I) chain of 17 8-inch diameter and smaller has the same strength as USN stud-link chain. Two-inch and larger standard Di-Lok chain has lower strength than USN or ABS grade 3 chain. Types II and III Di-Lok chain are stronger but were produced in only in a limited range of sizes. Commercial Di-Lok chain was produced in two grades: standard and super-strength. Strength of standard Di-Lok chain is identical to Navy type I Di-Lok chain up to 17 8-inch size. Larger size standard Di-Lok is strong than Navy type I chain and all but 31 2-inch Navy type II chain. Standard Di-Lok was produced in a greater variety of sizes than Navy Di-Lok, as shown in Table 7-16 (Page 7-24). Proof strength of superstrength Di-Lok chain is the same as standard chain, but breaking strength is higher. Commercial Di-Lok chain is somewhat heavier than the same size Navy chain. There is some evidence that Di-Lok chain is more susceptible to failure under long-term service in tidal or splash zones. Water seeps into the locking area and causes crevice corrosion that is not visually detectable because of the way the links are formed. For this reason, Di-Lok chain is not normally a part of permanent eet moorings, nor is it stockpiled by NAVFACENGCOM. Di-Lok chain is held by:
0.070
0.080
0.090 0.100
Naval shipyards as ships anchor chain and for making up towing bridles. Naval supply activities for eet issue. The ESSM system for heavy lift rigging.
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Table 7-15. Navy Di-Lok Chain (MIL-C-19444).
L (LENGTH OVER 6 LINKS) A
Type I Standard Length of six consecutive links, L (inches) Size, A (in.)

3 7
Number of links per shot 359 305 267 237 213 193 177 165 153 143 135 125 119 113 107 101 97 93 89 87 83 79 77 71 57
Minimum 1913 32 22 64 257 8 29 64 3211 32 3537 64 38 16 423 64 459 32 48 64 513 4 54 64 587 32 6129 64 64 16 6759 64 71 32 7425 64 775 8 80 64 843 32 87 64 909 16 971 32 121 32
29 21 55 5 11 63 33 13 7 41
Nominal 191 2 22 4 26 29 4 321 2 353 4 39 421 4 451 2 48 4 52 55 4 581 2 613 4 65 681 4 71 2 743 4 78 81 4 841 2 87 4 91 971 2 122 2
1 3 1 1 1 3 1 3
Maximum 1925 32 23 64 263 8 29 64 3231 32 3617 64 39 16 4255 64 465 32 49 64 523 4 56 64 5911 32 6241 64 65 16 6915 64 72 32 7553 64 791 8 82 64 8523 32 89 64 925 16 9829 32 124 32 Type II Heavy Duty
9 1 27 17 15 3 29 9 43 5
Proof load (pounds) 48,000 64,000 84,000 106,000 130,000 157,000 185,000 216,000 249,000 285,000 289,800 325,800 362,700 402,300 442,800 486,000 531,000 576,000 623,700 673,200 723,700 776,000 829,800 1,008,000 1,700,000
Minimum breaking strength (pounds) 75,000 98,000 129,000 161,000 198,000 235,000 280,000 325,000 380,000 432,000 439,200 493,200 549,000 607,500 669,600 731,700 796,500 868,500 940,500 1,015,200 1,089,000 1,166,400 1,244,800 1,575,000 2,550,000
Weight per shot (pounds) 490 680 890 1,130 1,400 1,690 2,010 2,325 2,695 3,095 3,490 3,935 4,415 4,915 5,475 6,050 6,660 7,295 7,955 8,700 9,410 10,112 10,900 12,500 20,500
4 8
1 1 8 11 4 13 8 1 2 15 8 13 4 1 8 2 2 8 21 4 23 8 2 2 25 8 2 4 27 8 3 3 8 31 4 3 8 31 2 33 4 4 4
3 3 1 3 1 1 7 1 1
23 4 3 3 2
1
97 89 77
715 32 775 8 90 16
9
711 2 78 91
7217 32 791 8 92 16 Type III High Strength

5
584,100 685,800 972,000
882,900 1,035,000 1,530,000
7,000 8,100 12,000
359 267 237 193 177 165
1913 32 257 8 297 64 35 64 3813 16 42 64

3 37
191 2 26 291 4 35 4 39 42 4
1 3
1925 32 263 8 2943 64 3617 64 399 16 42 64

55
67,500 116,100 145,000 211,500 252,000 292,500
91,100 156,700 195,000 285,500 340,200 395,000
550 1,000 1,270 1,900 2,260 2,620
1 11 8 1 8 11 2 1 8
5 3
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Table 7-16. Commercial Di-Lok Chain.
L A
Chain Size (in.) A

3
Number of links per 15-fathom shot 357 329 305 285 267 251 237 225 213 203 195 187 179 171 165 159 153 147 143 139 133 129 125 123 119 117 113 111 107 105 103 99 97 95 93 91 89 87 85 85 83 81 79 77 77 73 71
4 16 16 8
Standard Length of ve consecutive links (inches) L 161 2 177 8 191 4 205 8 22 233 8 243 4 261 8 271 2 287 8 301 4 315 8 33 343 8 353 4 371 8 381 2 397 8 411 4 425 8 44 453 8 463 4 481 8 491 2 507 8 521 4 535 8 55 563 8 573 4 591 8 601 2 617 8 631 4 645 8 66 673 8 683 4 701 8 711 2 727 8 741 4 755 8 77 793 4 821 2
Super Strength Proof test (pounds) 48,000 56,000 64,000 74,000 84,000 95,000 106,000 118,000 130,000 143,500 157,000 171,000 185,000 200,500 216,000 232,500 249,000 267,000 285,000 303,500 322,000 342,000 362,000 382,500 403,000 425,000 447,000 469,500 492,000 516,000 540,000 565,000 590,000 615,000 640,000 666,500 693,000 720,500 748,000 776,050 804,100 833,150 862,200 892,100 922,000 1,021,000 1,120,000 Breaking test (pounds) 75,000 86,500 98,000 113,500 129,000 145,000 161,000 179,000 198,000 216,500 235,000 257,500 280,000 302,500 325,000 352,500 380,000 406,000 432,000 460,000 488,000 518,000 548,000 579,100 610,000 642,500 675,000 709,500 744,000 778,500 813,000 849,000 885,000 925,000 965,000 1,005,000 1,045,000 1,086,500 1,128,000 1,169,000 1,210,000 1,253,000 1,296,000 1,339,550 1,383,100 1,566,000 1,750,000 Weight per 15-fathom shot (pounds) 505 600 700 795 900 1,020 1,140 1,275 1,415 1,560 1,705 1,865 2,035 2,195 2,345 2,530 2,720 2,925 3,125 3,335 3,525 3,750 3,975 4,215 4,460 4,710 4,960 5,210 5,528 5,810 6,105 6,410 6,725 7,040 7,365 7,696 8,035 8,379 8,736 9,093 9,460 9,828 10,210 10,599 10,998 11,607 12,626 922,000 1,021,000 1,120,000 1,205,000 1,687,300 1,910,500 2,135,000 2,273,300 13,700 14,500 15,800 16,400 862,200 1,581,000 12,750 804,100 1,476,200 11,825 640,000 693,000 748,000 1,177,300 1,274,900 1,376,000 9,200 10,050 10,900 590,000 1,079,700 8,400 540,000 991,800 7,650 492,000 907,600 6,900 447,000 823,500 6,200 403,000 744,000 5,560 285,000 322,000 362,000 527,000 595,000 668,500 3,900 4,400 4,960 249,000 463,600 3,400 216,000 396,500 2,925 185,000 341,600 2,505 157,000 286,700 2,125 130,000 241,500 1,770 64,000 84,000 106,000 119,500 157,300 196,400 860 1,125 1,425 Proof test (pounds) 48,000 Breaking test (pounds) 91,500 Weight per 15-fathom shot (pounds) 630
13 7
15
1 11 16 11 8 13 16 11 4 1 16 13 8 17 16 11 2 19 16 15 8 1 16 13 4 113 16 17 8 115 16 2 21 16 21 8 23 16 21 4 25 16 23 8 2 16 21 2 29 16 25 8 211 16 23 4 2 16 27 8 215 16 3 31 16 31 8 3 16 31 4 35 16 33 8 37 16 31 2 35 8 33 4 37 8

3 13 7 11 5
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7-3.8 Cast Stud-Link Chain. Large quantities of cast chain were manufactured during World War II by the National Chain Company (NACO), especially in the 21 16inch size. The stud is cast as an integral part of the link and cannot be lost. Because of internal defects, poor grain structure and surface quality inherent in casting, cast chain generally has lower strength than either welded stud-link or DiLok chain, although one manufacturers chain is nearly as strong as ABS grade 2 chain, as shown in Table 7-17. Cast steel is more vulnerable to corrosion than are forged or rolled steel. If used, remaining NACO cast chain should be inspected carefully for wastage and considered equivalent to ABS grade 1 chain. 7-3.9 Square-section Chain. In the United Kingdom and certain other countries of the British Commonwealth, the term mooring chain is applied only to Admiralty pattern, long-link, square-section chain, like that shown in Figure 7-27. Other heavy chain used for moorings or ships anchor chain is called chain cable. Admiralty mooring chain was formerly manufactured in 10-fathom shots consisting of 60 links, regardless of chain size, although the chain is now manufactured in 121 2- and 15fathom shots, usually of cast steel. Squaresection chain is used extensively in permanent mooring ground legs because its high drag resistance increases the holding power of the mooring. It is inferior to welded stud-link or Di-Lok chain for virtually any other salvage applicationwithin the British commonwealth, salvors should ensure that procurement requests for stud-link chain are not interpreted as requests for squaresection mooring chain. Strength and weight data for square section chain is provided in Table 7-18.
Table 7-17. BLaCO and BLeCO "Special Steel" Cast Chain. Chain size in. 13 4 2 21 4 21 2 23 4 3 31 4 31 2 33 4 4 Manufacturers data Proof Load lbs 172,800 225,800 285,600 352,800 405,440 457,184 506,688 553,056 595,168 632,128 Breaking Strength lbs 214,920 316,064 399,840 493,920 567,616 639,968 709,408 774,368 833,280 885,024 Approx Weight per Fathom lbs 172 224 283 351 427 511 600 698 796 872
CROWN THICKNESS (ZONE OF WEAR)
INSIDE WIDTH = 2(CHAIN SIZE) CHAIN SIZE INSIDE WIDTH
EXTERNAL WIDTH 4.2(CHAIN SIZE)
SIZE EXTERNAL LENGTH = 36" + 2(CROWN THICKNESS)
END DEPTH
Figure 7-27. Admiralty Pattern Square Section Mooring Chain.
Table 7-18. Admiralty Pattern Square Section Mooring Chain.

Square Stud-Link Chain size in. Crown Thickness in. End Depth in. Proof Load lbs 316,730 376,320 442,170 514,300 586,430 667,960 Approx Weight per Fathom lbs 508 629 699 874 1,017 1,214 Square Open Link Proof Load lbs 226,240 268,800 315,840 367,360 418,880 477,120 Approx Weight per Fathom lbs 491 607 672 840 977 1,165
2 3 4 3 3 1 4 3 1 2 3 3 4 4
3 7 8 4 1 8 45 16 5 5 1 4 5 5 8
3 3 8 3 5 8 3 7 8 4 1 4 4 1 2 4 5 8
Chain size is depth of link at side with link lying flat see Figure 7-27 Internal length for all links is 36 inches, internal width is twice chain size Wear limit - crown thickness should not be less than crown thickness of next lower size
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7-3.10 Special-purpose Chains. Various manufacturers make special-purpose stud-link and open link mooring chains. There are military and commercial specications for some of these chains, while others are made to manufacturers standards. The principal special-purpose chains are:
Open link Coast Guard buoy chain. Open link marine railway hauling chain. Abrasion resistant stud-link chain (ARC).
Coast Guard buoy chain is manufactured to a MILSPEC that requires the same material quality as ABS grade 1 chain. Breaking strength, as shown in Table 7-19, is about the same as grade 1 chain, but proof load is about half the breaking strength, or 70 percent of the grade 1 proof load. The chain has oversize end links and is proof-tested before government acceptance.
Table 7-19. Characteristics of Coast Guard Buoy Chain (MIL-C-22521A).
C A D LENGTH OVER SIX LINKS
Common Links Length Over Six Links D 13 16 4 19 2 22 4 26 29 4 32 2 39 42 4 451 2 483 4

1 1 1 3 1 1
End Links Weight per 15Fathom Shot (approx.) 210 323 442 608 780 990 1245 1762 2040 2370 2640
Wire Diameter A
1 5 3 7
Length B 3 3 4 4 2 5 4 6
1 1 3
Width C 17 8 2 4 2 8 3 8 3 2
1 7 3 1 1 5 1
Wire Diameter E
3 3 7
Length F 41 4 4 2 5 4 6 4 7 2 7 2 9 11 4 11 4 12 12
1 1 1 1 3 1 1
Width G 25 8 2 8 3 8 3 8 4 8 4 8 5 4 6 2 6 2 73 16 73 16
1 1 1 3 3 7 1 5
Proof Test 7500 11500 16000 22000 29000 38500 45500 65500 76500 86500 100000
Break Test 15000 23000 32000 44000 58000 77000 91000 131000 153000 173000 200000
2 8 4 8
4 4 8
1 8 1 4 1 4 1 2 1 8 1 8 21 8 21 8
7 7 1 1 1
1 1 8 1 4 1 2 1 8 13 4 17 8
5 1 1 1
6 4 7 2 9 9 4 101 2 111 4
3 1
3 8 4 8 5 4 5 16 61 16 61 2
11
All specications in pounds and inches, unless otherwise stated.
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Marine railway hauling chain is made to strict dimensional specications to mesh smoothly in the marine railway sprocket fairleads and wildcat. As shown in Table 7-20, some sizes of marine railway chain have breaking strengths slightly higher and proof loads slightly lower than ABS grade 3 chain.
Table 7-20. Characteristics of Typical Marine Railway Hauling Chain.
D LENGTH OVER FIVE GRIPS A B
Chain Size
7
Length A 21 2 4
Width B 19 16 111 16
Grip Radius C
9
Length Over Five Grips D 121 2 20 22 2 25 27 2 30 321 2 35 37 2 40 421 2 45 47 2 50 52 2 55 571 2 60

1 1 1 1 1
Weight per Link 1.4 2.9 4.0 5.5 7.2 9.3 11.7 14.7 18.6 21.8 26.7 31.4 36.6 42.6 49.0 56.3 65.3 74.2
Weight per Foot 6.6 8.7 10.7 13.1 15.6 18.5 21.6 25.3 29.7 32.8 37.8 41.9 46.1 51.1 56.0 61.3 68.2 74.2
Proof Test 35236 46000 57800 71875 86968 103500 121468 140875 161718 184000 207718 232875 259468 287500 316968 347875 380218 414000
Break Test 62310 81070 102000 126562 153139 182250 213889 248063 365764 324000 365764 410063 456889 506250 558139 612563 669514 729000
16 8
1 1 8 1 4 1 8 11 2 15 8 1 4 1 8 2 21 8 21 4 2 8 2 2 2 8 23 4 27 8 3
5 1 3 7 3 3 1 1
4 2 5 5 2 6 61 2 7 7 2 8 81 2 9 9 2 10 10 2 11 111 2 12
1 1 1 1
1 16 1 16 2 16 23 16 25 16 2 16 2 16 2 16 213 16 215 16 3 16 3 16 3 16 37 16 39 16 311 16

5 3 1 11 9 7 1 15
13
11
16 32 32
29
31
11 32 13 32 1 8 1 16 1 4 15 16 111 32 1 32 1 32 1 32 119 32 121 32 1 32

23 17 15 13 1 3 1
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Abrasion-resistant chain is produced for high-wear marine and industrial applications. There is one grade with strength equal to ABS grade 3 chain, and one slightly stronger grade. Abrasion-resistant chain is much harder and is advertised to wear three times as long as standard chain. Table 7-21 shows some characteristics of abrasion resistant chain.
Table 7-21. Characteristics of Typical Abrasion-resistant Chain.
C Length Over Five Links Inches 44 463 4 49 2 52 4 55

1 1
Strength* Approx. Weight Per 15Fathom Shot 3360 3790 4250 4730 5270 Proof Test lbs 324000 364000 405000 449000 494000 541000 590000 640000 693000 Break Test lbs 489000 548000 611000 676000 744000 815000 889000 965000 1044000
Chain Size Inches 2 21 8 2 4 2 8 2 2 2 8 2 4 2 8 3

7 3 5 1 3 1
Link Length, Inches 12 123 4 13 2 14 4 15 15 4 16 2 17 4 18

1 1 3 1 1
Link Length, Inches 73 16 75 8 8 8 8 16 9 9 16 9 8 10 8 10 16

13 3 7 7 9 1
57 4 60 2 63 4 66
1 1
5820 6410 7020 7650
*Loads shown are for ARC-15 physical properties. ARC-30 loads are the same as Grade 3 Stud-Link Chain.
WEIGHT AND STRENGTH COMPARISONS 25 16" ARC-15 Hardness Brinell Rockwell C Strength Break Test, lbs Proof Test, lbs Wear Factor (standard = 1.0) 500 52 642500 425000 3.0 25 16" ARC-30 560 55 598000 418000 3.0 25 16" GRADE 4 340 35 816000 642900 1.5 25 16" ORQ 225 20 643500 427000 1.0
7-3.11 Chain Bending. Chain is designed and constructed to be loaded in pure tension. Tensioning chain that is bent over a surface introduces bending stresses that reduce load-carrying capability. Figure 7-28 shows three general cases of chain tensioned over a curved surface. Analysis of chain stresses in such cases is a complex problem. There is no simple relationship for stress resulting from the bending, and results of analyses do not agree. Figure 7-29 shows experimentally determined breaking loads for chain as a function of D/d. Based on these results, chain should not be tensioned over surfaces with diameters less than seven times the chain wire diameter. Sharp bends and corners should be avoided.
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(a) UNGROOVED SURFACE. ALL LINKS SUBJECT TO BENDING = 90
(b) SHALLOW-GROOVED SURFACE. FLAT LINKS CLEAR OF SURFACE AND IN TENSION--VERTICAL LINKS ONLY IN BENDING
= 0
(c) DEEP-GROOVED SURFACE VERTICAL LINKS CLEAR OF BOTTOM OF GROOVE AND IN TENSION--FLAT LINKS ONLY IN BENDING.
Figure 7-28. Chain Bent Over a Curved Surface.
1.0
MINIMUM BREAKING STRENGTH/ STRAIGHT BREAKING STRENGTH
0.8
0.6
FIRST CHAIN SECOND CHAIN
0.4
0.2
0 0 5 10 15 SURFACE-TO-CHAIN DIAMETER RATIO D/d
Figure 7-29. Results of Chain Bending Tests.
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7-3.12 Chain Links and Connectors. Chains are made up of common links, or A-links, with a standard length of 6d and width of 3.6d, where d is the wire diameter as shown in Figure 7-24. Enlarged and modied links join chain to different-sized chain as well as to anchors, buoys, wire rope, or other ttings. The various links and ttings are described in Tables 7-22 and 7-23 and illustrated in Figure 7-30.
Table 7-22. Chain Links.
6.5 d
1.1 d 4d A-LINK (COMMON) B-LINK (ENLARGED) d IS WIRE DIAMETER OF A-LINK d w r C-LINK (OFFCENTER STUD)
Preferred Name Other Names Functional Description Common Link Enlarged link A-link B-link The common link that makes the chain An adaptor link between common links and an end link or shackle Enlarged link with offset stud to accept the pin of a standard joining or bending shackle through the larger opening. Enlarged studless link that accepts the pin of a standard mooring or bending shackle. Commercially, the end link on a shot. An adapter between larger and smaller chains and fittings
E-LINK (OPEN) E-LINK IS SIMILAR TO C-LINK, WITHOUT STUD.
l PEAR-SHAPED LINK l = 8.17d w = 4.25d r = 0.75d
Offset stud-link
C-link
A-LINK B-LINK NOT DRAWN TO SCALE
C-LINK
End link
E-link
USE OF A-, B- AND C-LINKS
Pear-shaped link Pear-shaped end link
Figure 7-30. Typical Links.
Table 7-23. Chain Fittings and Connectors.

Preferred Name Other Names Functional Description Joining shackle D-link D-shackle Anchor joining shackle Connects two end links together
F-link Connects an end link to F-shackle an anchor shank or other End shackle structure Anchor shackle
7-3.12.1 Detachable Links. Detachable links (joining links, lugless shackles) have approximately the same dimensions and prole as common links. They connect chain that passes over a wildcat or a grooved chain roller. Figure 7-31 shows several types of detachable links. The links are designed to t the common link (A-link) of a specic size chain. Pear-shaped detachable links join different-sized chains, or connect common links to ttings too large for a standard detachable link or shackle. Detachable links are rated for the same breaking strength as the size and grade of chain they connect. Most chain failures result from failure of a detachable link. A common industry practice is to use the next larger size or next higher grade detachable link.
Detachable link Detachable Connects common, Ajoining shackle links Lugless joining shackle Pear-shaped detachable link Buoy shackle Sinker shackle Anchor joining Connects common links link to larger chain and fittings End joining shackle Connects end links to mooring buoy tension bar Connects sinkers into mooring chain; does not carry anchor load Allows the chain to rotate Connects several chains to a single riser or sling Spider Joins two or more chain legs to a single riser or sling
DETACHABLE LINK
KENTER SHACKLE
Swivel Ground ring Spider plate
PEAR-SHAPED DETACHABLE LINK
LOK-A-LOY
Figure 7-31. Detachable Links.
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7-3.12.2 Shackles. There are four standard types of shackles for mooring chains: joining (or D-) shackles, bending (or F-) shackles, buoy shackles, and sinker shackles. Chain must have enlarged end links (B-, C-, or E-links) to t joining, bending, and buoy shackles. Sinker shackles t common links and have an elongated shank to fasten around the width of a common link to connect a sinker into the chain, as shown in Figure 7-32. In addition to the four standard mooring shackles, plate shackles and ordinary safety shackles are used for salvage and improvised systems. Components are bent into chain without breaking it, and bights engaged when hoisting or moving chain, with sinker and plate shackles. Plate shackles, described in Paragraph 7-5, are common in salvage because of their versatility, and because they can be made in the eld. 7-3.12.3 Swivels. Swivels and swivel shackles, shown in Figure 7-33, prevent twists in chain legs. Twisted chain can transmit enough torque to rotate an anchor and cause it to break out of the bottom. Swivels are not used in systems that include tensioned wire rope, such as beach gear or towing rigs, for two reasons:
BENDING SHACKLE (F-SHACKLE) (D-SHACKLE IS LIKE F-SHACKLE, BUT SMALLER) A-LINK OF MOORING CHAIN
SINKER SHACKLE
A-LINK
HAIRPIN SINKER
If one end of a tensioned rope is free to rotate, the rope will unlay to some extent because of the natural tendency of the strands to unwind under tension. If tension is suddenly lowered or released, the rope will bird cage or hockle before it can rewind itself. Chain swivels are not designed for a high number of cycles.
NOT DRAWN TO SCALE
SINKER SHACKLE ATTACHED TO MOORING CHAIN
Figure 7-32. Chain Shackles.
BUTTON
MALE b REGULAR SWIVEL SWIVELS SWIVEL SHACKLE b = 5.3d GROUND RING SPIDER PLATE
Figure 7-33. Swivels, Ground Ring, and Spider Plate.
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7-3.12.4 Equalizers. Equalizers distribute load evenly among several pulling points or anchors. Figure 7-34 shows a typical sliding-type equalizer. To equalize the load between two chain legs, the legs are connected together and passed through the equalizer as shown in Figure 7-34. Uneven tension causes the chain to slip over the curved plate and equalize the leg loads. 7-3.12.5 Chain Stoppers. Chain stoppers grip chain at points other than the ends and hold against a load. Figure 7-35 shows three principal types of chain stoppers:
SLIDING-TYPE EQUALIZER
EQUALIZER
Pelican hook, Dog or pawl-type stopper, and Devils claw.

ANCHOR GROUND LEG LOAD EQUALIZER
EQUALIZERS IN GROUND LEGS
Navy ships have pelican hook chain stoppers, while most merchant ships have dog, pawl-type, or devils claw stoppers. Large pelican hook and devils claw stoppers are not usually as strong as the chain for which they are sized. It may be necessary to have two or more stoppers to equal the strength of the chain. With multiple chain stoppers, the load must be equalized. Turnbuckles adjust the tension until all stoppers carry the same load. Pelican hooks are more versatile than other stoppers, and are used to connect chain, wire rope, or ber line pendants so that they can be released quickly or under tension. Pelican hooks engage bights of chain for hoisting or hauling.
ANCHOR LOAD EQUALIZER
ANCHOR
EQUALIZER
7-3.13 Chain Identication and Inspection. Di-Lok chain is identied by the thickness of the sides of the link, pearFigure 7-34. Equalizer. shaped openings, and split in the stud, as shown in Figure 7-25. The wire diameter of the male end of the link is slightly smaller than that of the female end, and the joint where the female end was hammered down may be distinguishable. An integral stud distinguishes cast chain from welded stud-link chain. Cast chain links may also have the raised letters "NACO" on the stud. The separation line or seal weld between the pressed-in stud and side wires of a welded stud-link is easily seen. A manufacturers mark, grading society mark and grading numbers or letters are stamped on end links. In the absence of the end links, there is no way to determine the grade without prooftesting. Seal-welded studs do not indicate grade because manufacturers seal-weld studs on lower grade chain and omit welds on higher grade chain at customer request. Chain of unknown grade should be treated as grade 1. Knocking or cutting studs from links weakens the links. Connections to chain should be made with the connectors and ttings described in Paragraph 7-3.12. In the eld, there is often no choice other than to remove studs. When studs are removed, the chain is considered to be one grade lower than its markings. Chain and chain ttings should not be welded in the eld because metallurgical properties will be altered and strength reduced. Heat-affected zones are susceptible to cold cracking. Moisture absorption during welding may lead to hydrogen embrittlement. Before use, chain and ttings should be inspected visually for missing studs and obvious wear, deformation, or serious corrosion. The following are common types of chain wear and damage:
Missing studs Proof load is signicantly reduced when a link loses a stud. A studless link is subject to higher bending stress, has lower fatigue resistance, and is more likely to kink than a studded link. Links without studs should be discarded. Bent links Bent links have been plastically deformed and may have been permanently weakened or have locked-in residual stresses. Links bent more than 3 degrees out of plane should be discarded.
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Wear Wear reduces chain diameter, which in turn reduces strength. The grip area of the links wears most quickly. Links should be discarded if the average of two diameters is less than 95 percent of the nominal diameter, or any diameter is less than 90 percent of the nominal diameter. Corrosion Evenly distributed light surface corrosion is not damaging, but excessive corrosion reduces strength by reducing cross-sectional area and can induce fatigue failure. Corrosion pits cause stress concentration. Fretting corrosion proceeds rapidly in the grip area where the protective oxide layer is continually worn away, exposing the metal to oxidation. Corrosion-pitted links and links with diameter reduced by more than 10 percent should be discarded. Deep gouges Physical damage to chain surfaces, such as cuts or gouges, causes stress concentration that can lead to fatigue failure. Links need not be discarded if damage can be ground out without reducing diameter by more than 10 percent. Loose studs Loose studs cause increased bending stress in the chain. Links with studs that can move more than 1 8-inch axially, more than 3 16-inch laterally, or welded studs with more than 1 8-inch clearance between the side wire and the end of the stud opposite the weld should be discarded.
PELICAN HOOK
BAIL
CHAIN
PELICAN HOOK
SIDE OF DOCK OR TOP OF DECK
DOG
LOAD
DOG TYPE DEVILS CLAW
DEVILS CLAW
Figure 7-35.
Chain Stoppers.
Cracks Cracks propagate under cyclic loading and cause premature failure. Links with the following conditions should be discarded: (1) Crack at the toe of the stud weld extending into the base material. (2) Surface cracks that cannot be ground out without reducing diameter by more than 10 percent (8 percent for detachable links). (3) Internal cracks discovered by nondestructive testing (NDT).
When chain is proof-tested, the overall length and number of links of each shot of chain are recorded. Measurement of elongation determines a chains wear and deformation. Completeness of the shot is assured by counting the links. The chain is hoisted so that it hangs free. The overall length is measured and compared to MILSPEC or manufacturers limits. If the length exceeds the upper limit, then the chain is worn or stretched, and may not meet required strength standards. Local wear or deformation is detected by gaging the entire length of chain with calipers set to a six- (or ve-) link length. If a segment is longer than the manufacturers specications, shown in Tables 7-13 through 7-21, some or all of the six (ve) links are excessively worn or stretched. Chain links can be nondestructively tested. On long-term salvage operations, such as major sinkings and wreck removals, there is time for chain testing during mobilization and preparation for different phases of the operation. There is seldom time or facilities for elongation tests at a stranding site, however. Navy beach gear and ship anchor chain is periodically tested and returned to service only if it meets specications. Sounding the chain with a heavy hammer will reveal cracked or internally corroded links or ttings. Each link is struck solidly with the hammer. A sound link returns a clear, ringing tone; a bad link has a dull, at tone. Bad links should be cut out of the chain and replaced with detachable links or shackles.
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7-4 FIBER LINE Synthetic or natural bers twisted together to form plies or yarns make up ropes of braided, plaited, or twisted construction. U.S. maritime practice is to specify ber line size by circumference in inches. Other countries and industries may specify line size by diameter. Fiber lines are lighter, more exible, and more easily secured and handled than wire rope or chain, but have lower strength and are more susceptible to damage. 7-4.1 Fibers. Manila, hemp, sisal, jute, and cotton are the most common natural rope bers. Nylon, polyester (Dacron), polyethylene, and polypropylene are the most common synthetic bers. Polyaramid (Kevlar) is common in deep ocean research and recovery operations because of its extremely high strength-to-weight ratio. Polyaramid lines are uncommon in surface and shallow water work because of their high cost and low abrasion resistance. A kraft paper marker is inserted in the center of one strand of large new rope as identication. The marker shows the year of manufacture, type of ber, and name of manufacturer. Natural bers are distinguished from synthetics by their harsh, dry feel and the length of ber. Natural ber lengths range from 24 to 36 inches, while synthetic bers are usually continuous throughout the length of the line and are very ne and soft. Polypropylene has stiff, coarse bers with a smooth, waxy surface. Manila and sisal can be identied by pulling a few bers from the center of a strand. The manila bers are light yellow to cream, with occasional reddish or brown areas; sisal bers are a lustrous white. Polyester and nylon will sink in water, polypropylene oats. New polyester has a fuzzier appearance and drier feel than nylon. Nylon sometimes attains a fuzzy appearance in service. For most applications, synthetics have replaced natural ber lines. Natural ber lines nd application primarily where light weight and low elongation are required. Heavy manila, sisal, or hemp hawsers are occasionally found in service. Table 7-24 compares the characteristics of natural and synthetic ber ropes. 7-4.2 Twisted Fiber Lines (3-Strand). Fibers are twisted together to form yarns for lines. Bundles of natural ber yarns are twisted into strands. To keep the yarns from untwisting, synthetic yarns are plied in groups of three before being twisted into strands. The line is formed by twisting together three or more strands. In plain lay construction, each component is twisted in the opposite direction. That is, for a right lay natural ber line, the bers have a right (Z) twist to form the yarns, the yarns have a left (S) twist to form strands, and the strands have a right twist to form the line, for a ZSZ twist pattern. A left lay natural ber line would have an SZS pattern. Right lay synthetic lines with plied yarns have an SZSZ twist pattern. A cable-laid rope has individual ropes twisted together and may be either right lay, made up of left lay lines, or left lay, made up of right lay lines. All Navy twisted ber lines larger than 13 4-inch are right lay to avoid the possibility of connecting right lay and left lay lines end to end. Under tension, a right-left combination would cause both ropes to unlay and fail at less than their safe working load.
Table 7-24. Comparison of Physical Characteristics Natural and Synthetic Fiber Ropes1.
Polypropylene Monolament 3-Strand Propane Polypropylene Multilament 3-Strand Propane
Rope Material: Manufactured or derived from:
Manila 3-Strand Abaca plant 3 to 6 leaf bers
Sisal 3-Strand Agave Sisalana plant 2 to 4 leaf bers
Kevlar 12-Strand Generic name aramidHexamethalene aromatic polyamide diamine and adipic acid bers
Nylon 3-Strand
Polyester 3-Strand Ethylene Glycol & Terephthalic acid
Polyethylene 3-Strand Ethylene Polymers
STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS: Tensile strength, lbs (1" diameter rope) Recommended factor of safety2 Wet strength versus dry strength (percent) Strength per unit of weight (tensile strength/lbs per foot) Shock load absorption ability Repeat loading performance 8,100 2 Up to 120% 30,000 Poor Poor 6,480 2 Up to 120% 24,000 Poor Poor 22,500 2 90-95% 86,500 Excellent Very good 63,000 2 95% 210,000 Poor Very good 19,800 2 100% 66,000 Good Excellent 12,600 2 102-105% 70,000 Very good Very good 11,470 2 102-105% 58,800 Very good Very good 11,470 2 102-105% 62,000 Fair Fair
WEIGHT AND DENSITY CHARACTERISTICS: Pounds per 100 feet (1") Specic gravity of ber Floats ELASTICITY - STRETCH: Permanent elongation at working loads (break-in) Elasticity at working load (recoverable stretch under load) Elongation at 100% load (at break), used rope Creep (elongation under sustained load) 5% 5% 13% Very low 5% 5% 13% Very low 8% 16% 35% Moderate -14% (includes permanent elongation) over 21% Very low 6% 6% 20% Low 4% 9% 24% High 7.5% 10.5% 36% High 6% 6% 22% High 27 1.5 No 27 1.4 No 26 1.14 No 30 1.44 No 30 1.38 No 18 0.91 Yes 19.5 0.91 Yes 18.5 0.95 Yes
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Table 7-24 (Continued). Comparison of Physical Characteristics Natural and Synthetic Fiber Ropes1.
Polypropylene Monolament 3-Strand Propane Polypropylene Multilament 3-Strand Propane
Rope Material: Manufactured or derived from: SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS:
Manila 3-Strand Abaca plant 3 to 6 leaf bers
Sisal 3-Strand Agave Sisalana plant 2 to 4 leaf bers
Kevlar 12-Strand Generic name aramidHexamethalene aromatic polyamide diamine and adipic acid bers
Nylon 3-Strand
Polyester 3-Strand Ethylene Glycol & Terephthalic acid
Polyethylene 3-Strand Ethylene Polymers
Rope feeling to touch
Some harshness due to hairs. After use considerable harshness due to broken ber ends. Excellent
Same as Manila.
Smooth. After use becomes fuzzy with a softer feel.
Smooth and somewhat Smooth but not Smooth and hard, not Smooth and soft sticky but not slippery. slippery. After use slippery. After use with some natural After use becomes becomes harsh due becomes fuzzy with a fuzziness. Remains fuzzier than nylon or to broken ber softer feel. same after use. polyester. ends. Very poor Good Poor Fair
Smooth and very slippery. After use becomes slightly harsh due to broken ber ends. Good, but requires extra wraps. Zero
Rendering qualities (ability of rope to ease out smoothly under load around bitts or capstan heads Water absorption: (some water will be held between bers of all ropes) FLEXURE: Dry Wet WEAR: Resistance to surface abrasion Resistance to internal wear from exing Resistance to cutting (toughness)
Good
Fair
Up to 100%
Up to 100%
Up to 9%
Less than 1%
Less than 1%
Zero
Zero
Good Good
Good Good
Superior Excellent
Excellent Excellent
Excellent Superior
Very good Excellent
Very good Excellent
Very good Very good
Good Good Good
Fair Very good Poor
Very good Excellent Excellent
Poor Poor to fair Excellent
Excellent Very good to excellent Very good to exellent
Good Very good Good
Good Very good Very good
Good Very good Good
HIGH AND LOW TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES: Does not melt, progressive strength loss above 180F, chars at 275F. 200F -100F Burns like wood Poor 480F, progressive strength loss above 300F 300F -70F Burns with difficulty Excellent Does not melt. Carbonizes at about 800F. 400F -320F Does not burn Excellent 482F. Progressive strength loss above 300F. 300F -70F Burns with difficulty Excellent 330F. Softens above 300F. 200F -20F 330F. Softens above 300F. 200F -20F 280F. Softens above 250F. 150F -100F Burns with difficulty Excellent
Melting point High temperature working limit Low temperature working limit Flammability Resistance to Rot, Mildew, and Attack by Marine Organisms: DETERIORATION: Due to aging (properly stored ropes) Due to exposure to sunlight (ultraviolet rays) CHEMICAL RESISTANCE:
Same as Manila. 200F -100F Burns like wood Very poor
Burns with difficulty Burns with difficulty Excellent Excellent
About 1% per year Slight
About 1% per year Slight
Zero Slight
Zero Poor
Zero Almost none
Zero Some
Zero Some
Zero Some
To acids
Very poor
Very poor
To alkalis
Very poor Good, but hydrocarbons will remove protective rope lubricants.
Very poor
Very good to excellent, Fair, except to Fair, except to except for concentrated sulphuric concentrated sulphuric concentrated sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. and nitric acids. acid. Very good, except to Very good to excellent. concentrated sodium Excellent Slight deterioration hydroxide at high from sodium hydroxide. temperature. Good. Soluble in some phenolic compounds and in 90% formic acid. Excellent Very good to excellent. Soluble in some phenolic compounds.
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent, except for concentrated sulphuric acid.
Excellent Fair. Soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons at 160F.
Excellent
Excellent
To organic solvents
Same as Manila.
Same as polypropylene monolament.
Same as polypropylene monolament.
Notes:
1 2
Data provided by Wall, Columbian, American, Tubbs/Jackson, and Samson Rope Companies and E.I. Dupont. As recommended by the Cordage Institute and from manufacturers minimum catalog breaking strength values. These values are based on normal service conditions and do not cover exceptional conditions such as shock loads, sustained loads, etc., nor do they cover conditions where life, limb, or valuable property are involved. In these cases, a lower working load or higher factor of safety may be advisable. A higher working load or lower factor of safety should be used only with an expert knowledge of conditions or professional estimates of risk. The factors of safety given are for 3 4- inch-diameter rope and larger. Smaller ropes should have larger safety factors; up to 12 for nylon and Kevlar and up to 10 for the other bers.
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7-4.3 Braided Fiber Lines. The chief advantage of braided lines is their reduced tendency to kink or rotate under load, compared to right and left lay twisted lines. Several braiding patterns exist, with double-braid and eight-strand plaited being the most important for heavy loads. Table 7-25 compares characteristics of three-strand and braided ber lines. 7-4.4 Fiber Line Strength. Tables 7-26 and 7-27 (Pages 7-37 through 7-30) list breaking strength and unit weight for various size and construction ber lines. A rule of thumb gives ber line strength: BS = 900C2k where: BS = C = k = breaking strength, pounds circumference, inches comparison factor: manila 1.0 nylon 2.5 polyester 2.1 polypropylene 1.6 polyethylene 1.4 sisal 0.8
Table 7-25. Relative Characteristics of Line Constructions for the Same Fibers. Abrasion Strength Resistance Low High Medium Best Worst Medium Rotates Under Load Yes No No
Construction Three Strand Double Braid Plaited
Stretch High Low
Cost Low High
Highest Medium
This is an empirical approximation that does not account for variations in strength between constructions. 7-4.5 Stretch. All ber lines stretch under load. In natural ber lines, the stretch is permanent and similar to the constructional stretch of wire ropes. A ber line transmits load by friction between overlapping bers. Each overlap extends for only a short portion of the lines length. Elongation results from the bers slipping relative to one another under an applied load. With each successive increasing load, additional elongation occurs. The rope will fail when stretch reaches about 20 percent of the original length. Stretch of synthetic lines is partly permanent and partly elastic. If the rope has not exceeded its safe working load, the permanent stretch is not progressive and usually amounts to about seven percent of the ropes length. Permanent stretch is usually complete by the fth loading. Thereafter, the rope stretches elastically under load without serious damage. Nylon ropes will stretch up to 33 percent under their safe working load, polyester and polypropylene about 20 percent. 7-4.6 Bending. Bending under loads causes internal abrasion and increased stress in the rope. There are no methods for predicting loss of strength due to bending as there are for wire rope. Sharp corners, small bending radii, and reverse bends should be avoided. The radius of faying surfaces and fairleads for ber line should be at least one-half the circumference of the line. 7-4.7 Terminations and Connections. Because ber lines are exible, they can be secured to loads, ttings, or to each other with knots and bends. Knots or bends are not recommended where sudden or heavy loads may be applied. Most knots will reduce rope strength by 40 percent or more due to the high stresses and abrasion of the sharp turns in the knot. In comparison, well-made splices retain 80 to 90 percent of the rope strength. Splices are used to connect two lines to make up a longer line, form eyes in the ends of lines, or connect lines to special terminations, such as sockets or rings. Terminal eyes allow connections by shackles or other hardware. An eye tted snugly around a metal liner, or thimble, is a hard eye, while soft eyes have no thimbles and are usually of large diameter. Because of the differences in line strength and stretch characteristics, thimbles designed for natural ber lines cannot be used with synthetic ber lines. Fiber lines should be secured to deck ttings by passing eyes over the ttings or by taking round turns, rather than gure-eight turns. Simple round turns on bitts, bollards, or other curved surfaces will retain 90 percent of the rope strength. Figure-eight bends on cleats or H-bitts will reduce effective rope strength by 50 to 60 percent. On double bitts, gure-eight turns reduce strength by only 25 percent, but present other problems. The gure-eight bends lock up under heavy loads and prevent proper load-sharing between successive gure-eights. The rope can thin down under the load and slip suddenly. Applying half-hitches to snub the load reduces the effective rope strength by 40 percent because of shearing in the rope. 7-4.8 Damage. Fiber lines are susceptible to damage from physical abuse, chemical attack, aging, heat and prolonged exposure to sunlight. Fiber lines are physically damaged by:
Excessive loading or too-rapid rate of loading. Surface abrasion chang over rough, hard surfaces. Cutting on sharp edges. Bending over a radius too small. Shearing when pinched or crushed. Kinking and hockling.
Chang gear and blocks protect ropes from abrasion and cutting. Fairlead blocks, padding, specially built large-radius guards, or redesign of the line lead should be used to prevent contact with sharp edges such as hatch coamings and deck edges. Gritty substances, such as sand, graphite, ice, or sand-blasting grit cut rope internally. The greatest damage occurs when these materials become lodged between bers in a relaxed rope. As the line is tensioned, the grit works progressively outward, cutting the inner bers.
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7-4.9 Deterioration. Natural cellulose-based bers are subject to deterioration with age. The bers darken and become brittle under even the best storage conditions, losing about two percent strength per year. Of more signicance is the stiffening that occurs, causing the rope bers to break easily when bent, even under light loads. Strength in bending decreases by 5 to 10 percent per year. Natural ber lines more than ve years old are suitable only for lashings and light work. Acids, alkalies, paints, soaps, vegetable oils, heat, sunlight, mildew, and rot all damage natural bers. Contact with rusting iron in salty, wet environments can reduce the strength of a manila or sisal line by one-third in as little as six days. Thirty days contact will destroy the rope. Synthetic lines do not deteriorate appreciably with age, but suffer from exposure to the elements, particularly sunlight. White nylons are fairly resistant to exposure, but will stiffen slightly when stored in warm, humid areas. Gold and green nylons, and white polyethylenes and polypropylenes are very susceptible to degradation from exposure, losing as much as 40 percent of their strength within three months. Acids damage nylons, alkalies damage polyesters. Contact with rusting iron can cause a 40 percent loss in strength in one month in nylon lines. The wet strength of nylon line is about 85 percent of its dry strength.
Table 7-26. Natural and Synthetic Fiber Rope Strength.

Rope Circumference, in.: Nominal Diameter, in.: Manila, 3- & 4-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited1 Nylon, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited2 Nylon, double braid3 Polyester, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited4 Polyester/DURON double braid3 Polypropylene monofilament 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited4 Polypropylene multifilament 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited Polypropylene multifilament double braid3 Polypropylene monofilament 12-strand single braid3 Polyethylene 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited5 Kevlar 12-strand single braid3 LST MOORING, polyester cover, polypropylene core, 3-strand5 LST WORKBOAT, polyester/polyethylene cover, polypropylene core, 3-strand5 P/D 10, polyester cover, polypropylene core, 3- & 8-strand
6 4 5
1 16 900 2,300 3,060 2,300 3,060 1,710 1,560 ----1,560 8,400 ----1,710 -----
11 2
1
2
5
21 2
13
3 1 8,100 22,500 30,240 19,800 28,300 12,600 11,470 ----11,470 63,000 ----13,100 12,600 13,500 12,600 --22,500 20,700 46,800 25,260 22,680 ---
31 2 11 8 10,800 29,700 40,500 26,600 38,500 16,500 15,020 24,750 --15,020 83,000 ----17,400 18,900 17,370 18,900 --30,150 27,900 61,200 34,200 30,150 ---
4 15 16 13,500 38,750 53,100 33,800 49,000 21,200 19,290 31,680 --19,290
41 2 11 2 16,650 47,700 66,600 42,100 61,200 26,700 24,300 39,420 --24,300
5 15 8 20,200 58,500 81,900 51,300 75,400 32,400 29,480 47,880 40,230 29,480
51 2 13 4 23,850 70,200 99,000 61,000 90,200 38,700 35,220 57,150 47,880 35,220
6 2 27,900
7 21 4 36,900
8 25 8 46,800
9 3 57,600
10 31 4 69,300 225,000 289,800 189,000 252,000 123,000 111,930 169,200 143,100 111,930 --166,500 144,000 123,000 132,000 129,600 146,700 129,150 219,600 207,000 370,800 248,400 219,600 318,600 -------
16
2,385 5,750 7,650 5,750 7,650 3,780 3,440 ----3,440 20,000 ----3,960 3,780 4,050 ----6,030 5,580 14,400 6,840 6,030 --10,000 10,000 20,000
3,960 9,350 13,680 9,000 13,100 5,580 5,080 ----5,80 32,400 ----5,760 6,030 5,760 ----10,440 9,900 23,400 11,700 10,440 --16,000 16,000 32,000
5,830 15,300 21,150 14,000 20,300 8,910 8,110 ----8,110 45,000 ----9,180 --9,180 --------34,200 18,000 15,930 ---------
82,800 113,000 146,000 180,000 117,900 159,300 207,000 256,500 72,000 96,300 123,000 157,000 106,000 141,300 180,000 225,000 46,800 45,590 67,140 56,160 45,590 62,100 56,510 89,280 74,430 56,510 81,000 73,710 94,500 73,710 --103,000 93,730 117,000 93,730 ---
114,300 140,400
104,000 129,000 156,000 184,000 214,000 282,000 ----21,200 24,300 22,500 24,300 --38,880 36,000 77,400 44,100 38,880 ------26,700 30,600 28,170 30,600 --48,600 45,000 94,500 55,170 48,600 ------32,400 37,800 34,470 37,800 --59,400 54,900 54,900 48,600 38,700 45,000 41,850 45,000 --71,200 66,600 65,700 58,500 46,800 54,000 50,850 54,000 49,950 84,000 78,300 90,000 75,600 62,100 64,800 66,600 72,000 66,150
108,000 137,700 95,400 81,000 85,100 86,400 94,500 85,050 117,000 103,000 105,000 109,800 117,000 108,000
P/D 100, polyester/polypropylene cover, polyethylene core, 3- & 8-strand6 POLY-PLUS, polypropylene/polyester/polyethylene core and single cover5 POLY-CRON, polyester/polyethylene core and double cover PRODOK, polyolefin core, polyester jacket each strand, 3- strand7 DURA-PLEX, polyolefin core, polyester jacket each strand, 12- strand3 BLUE STREAK, polypropylene core, polyester jacket each strand, 12-strand3 KEVLAR core, polyester cover, double braid
3 5
----2,340 2,160 -----
112,500 144,000 180,000 105,000 135,000 171,000
113,400 133,200 154,800 201,600 252,900 309,600 67,500 59,400 90,000 81,000 71,190 95,400 84,000 127,800 164,700 204,300 112,500 144,000 180,000
POWER BRAID, polypropylene core, nylon cover, double braid3 NYDAC, polyester core, nylon cover, double braid UNILINE, parallel fiber core with braided cover5 Nylon core and cover Nylon core, polyester cover KEVLAR core, nylon cover
3
2,340 ---------
NYSTRON SPM BRAID, nylon/polyester double braid3
108,900 129,600 175,000 227,700 282,100 -------------------
40,900 51,800 77,400 92,200 108,000 125,000 164,000 40,900 51,800 77,400 92,200 108,000 125,000 164,000 81,800 103,600 154,800 184,400 216,000 250,000 328,000
Notes: 1. Data provided by Wall Rope Works and Columbian Rope Company 2. Data provided by Columbian Rope Company and Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company 3. Data provided by Samson Ocean Systems Company 4. Data provided by Wall Rope Works, Columbian Rope Company, and Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company 5. Data provided by Wall Rope Works 6. Data provided by Columbian Rope Company 7. Data provided by Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company
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Table 7-26 (Continued). Natural and Synthetic Rope Strength.

Rope Circumference, in.: Nom Diameter, in.: Manila, 3- & 4-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited1 Nylon, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited2 Nylon, double braid3 Polyester, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited4 Polyester/DURON double braid3 Polypropylene monofilament 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited4 Polypropylene multifilament 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited4 Polypropylene multifilament double braid Polypropylene monofilament 12-strand single braid3 Polyethylene 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited5 LST MOORING, polyester cover, polypropylene core, 3-strand5 LST WORKBOAT, polyester/polyethylene cover, polypropylene core, 3-strand5 P/D 10, polyester cover, polypropylene core, 3- & 8-strand6 POLY-PLUS, polypropylene/polyester/ polyethylene core and single cover5 POLY-CRON, polyester/polyethylene core and double cover5 PRODOK, polyolefin core, polyester jacket each strand, 3-strand7 DURA-PLEX, polyolefin core, polyester jacket each strand, 12-strand3 BLUE STREAK, polypropylene core, polyester jacket each strand, 12-strand3 KEVLAR core, polyester cover, double braid3 POWER BRAID, polypropylene core, nylon cover, double braid3 NYDAC, polyester core, nylon cover, double braid3 NYSTRON SPM BRAID, nylon/polyester double braid3
3
11 31 2 81,900 270,000 345,600 229,000 302,400 146,000 132,860 200,700 169,200 132,860 202,500 175,500 146,000 153,000 --153,000 261,000 252,000 436,500 296,100 261,000 379,800
12 4 94,500 324,000 405,900 270,000 356,400 171,000 155,610 234,000 198,000 155,610 238,500 207,000 171,000 180,000 --180,000 303,000 297,000 506,700 348,300 303,000 446,400
13 41 4 --376,000 470,700 314,000 414,900 205,200 186,730 270,000 --8,110 --------------342,000 581,400 ----517,500
14 45 8 --437,000 539,100 365,000 477,900 238,200 216,760 307,800 --11,470 --------------396,000 659,700 ----592,200
15 5 --501,000 612,000 419,000 545,400 273,600 248,980 347,400 --15,020 --------------450,000 742,500 ----673,200
16 51 4 ----689,400 --616,500 ----389,700 --------------------------758,200
17 51 2 -----
18 6 -----
19 61 4 ----945,400 --854,000 ----528,000 ---------------------------
20 61 2 -----
21 7 -----
24 8 -----
26 81 2 -----
28 91 4 -----
30 10 -----
770,400 855,400 -----
1,037,000 1,134,000 1,282,000 1,482,000 1,696,000 1,920,000 --945,000 ----579,000 -------------------------------------
691,200 771,000 ---------
1,035,000 1,125,000 1,296,000 1,476,000 1,665,000 ----630,000 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
433,800 480,000 -----------------------------------------------------
847,300 940,500 1,039,500 1,140,300 1,247,400
Notes: 1. Data provided by Wall Rope Works and Columbian Rope Company 2. Data provided by Columbian Rope Company and Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company 3. Data provided by Samson Ocean Systems Company 4. Data provided by Wall Rope Works, Columbian Rope Company, and Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company 5. Data provided by Wall Rope Works 6. Data provided by Columbian Rope Company 7. Data provided by Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company
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Table 7-27. Natural and Synthetic Rope Linear Weight.

Rope Circumference, in.: Nominal Diameter, in.: Rope fiber and construction Manila, 3- & 4-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited Nylon, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited Nylon, double braid Polyester, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited Polyester/DURON double braid Polypropylene monofilament 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited Polypropylene multifilament 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited Polypropylene multifilament double braid Polypropylene monofilament 12-strand single braid Polyethylene 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited Kevlar 12-strand single braid LST MOORING, polyester cover, polypropylene core, 3-strand LST WORKBOAT, polyester/ polyethylene cover, polypropylene core, 3-strand P/D 10, polyester cover, polypropylene core, 3- & 8-strand P/D 100, polyester/ polypropylene cover, polyethylene core, 3- & 8-strand POLY-PLUS, polypropylene/ polyester/polyethylene core and single cover POLY-CRON, polyester/ polyethylene core and double cover PRODOK, polyolefin core, polyester jacket each strand, 3-strand DURA-PLEX, polyolefin core, polyester jacket each strand, 12-strand 3 7.5 13 20 27 26 26 30 32 36 34 36 40 43 48 45 47 52 56 60 55 60 67 71 74 68 74 82
5
1 16
11 2
1
2
5
21 2
13
3 1
31 2
41 2
51 2
6 2
9 3
10
11
12 4
13
14
15 5
16 51 4
17 51 2
18 6
19 61 4
20 61 2
21 7
24 8
26 81 2
28 91 4
30 10
16
11 8 15 16 11 2 15 8 13 4
21 4 25 8
31 4 31 2
41 4 45 8
Linear weight, lb/100 ft 90 108 146 191 242 299 367 436 83 -----------------------------------------------
2.5 6.5 10.5 17 2.5 6.5 3 3 2 8 8 5 12 13 14 18 21 22
95 129 168 210 263 316 379 445 520 590
89 106 144 188 238 294 356 423 497 576 662 753 850 98 118 157 205 258 318 384 460 540 630 720 -----
953 1,061 1,176 1,297 1,693 1,987 2,305 2,646 -----------------
88 100 126 172 224 284 350 424 504 592 686 788 896 1,012 1,134 1,264 1,400 1,544 2,016 2,366 2,744 3,150 69 92 120 153 190 232 275 325 375 430 ---------------------
7.5 12.5 18 23.5 30.5 38.5 47.5 57
2 ----2 3 ---
5.5 ----5 8 ---
8 ----8 14 ---
13.5 19.5 25 32.5 41 -----
51
61
74
98 128 164 203 248 294 348 401 460
---
---
--758 ---------
--845 ---------
---
---
-------------
-------------
-------------
-------------
--- 28.5 37.5 48 58.5 71 --------- 47.5 57
84 115 150 190 234 283 337 395 459 526 599 676 68 72 93 122 154 190 230 274 96 125 159 198 241 286 ---------------------------------------------------
936 1,032 -----------------
13 18.5 24.5 31.5 40 49.5 59 20 --30 --40 --52 --66 --82 ---
99 118 160 65
80 110 140 175 210 245 295
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
66
84 113 143 185 220 255 310
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
2.5 6.5 9.5
15
22
29 35.5 45 54.5 63
78 105 138 174 210 255 300
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
6.5 10.5 --- 26.5 34
44
55
67
80
95 127 165 208 253
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
6.5 9.5 14.5 21.5 27
38
46
55
65
83 108 138 179 210 248 290
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
--- 26.5 34
44
55
67
80
95 127 165 208 253
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
82 106 138 178 211 258 299
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
2.5
10.5
24 32.5 42.5 54
67
81
96 130 170 215 265 321 382
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
BLUE STREAK, polypropylene 2.5 6.5 core, polyester jacket each strand, 12-strand KEVLAR core, polyester cover, double braid POWER BRAID, polypropylene core, nylon cover, double braid NYDAC, polyester core, nylon cover, double braid NYSTRON SPM BRAID, nylon/polyester double braid UNILINE, parallel fiber core with braided cover Nylon core and cover Nylon core, polyester cover KEVLAR core, nylon cover ----3 --8 6 7 ---
11 15
23
25 34.5 45 33 45 59 42
57 75 53
70
85 101 137 179 227 280 339 403 473 549 630
---------
---------
---------
---------
---------
---------
-----------
-----------
-----------
-----------
92 112 132 180 235 297 368 443 527 619 718 820 65 79 94 127 166 211 260 315 374 -------------
10.5 16 23.5 32 13.5 21 ----30 ---
41 53.5 67.5 83 101 120 163 213 270 333 403 480 ------80
97 115 157 205 259 320 387 461 541 627 720 819 925 1,040 1,160 1,280 1,410
-------
9 10 10
13 15 15
--- 26 42.5 64 76 89 103 135 --- 29.5 49 73 87 102 118 155 --- 30 49 73.5 87.5 103 119 156
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
7-39
S0300-A8-HBK-010
7-5 RIGGING HARDWARE Rigging hardware or jewelry includes shackles, hooks, and miscellaneous pieces of rigging systems. The items shown in Figure 7-36, along with the chain ttings described in Paragraph 7-3.12, are common rigging hardware. Tables 7-28 through 740 (Pages 7-41 through 7-48) list working loads for various pieces of rigging hardware. These tables are based on U.S. G overn m e n t a n d man u fa c tu rers specications. There may be some variation between the characteristics listed and those of items produced under other specications. Most manufacturers provide technical documentation and/or advice with their products. U-shaped shackles are probably the most widely used piece of rigging hardware. Shackles are manufactured in two basic body stylesbow and straight-sided. Chain shackles (designed to connect lengths of chain) are straight-sided to approximate the prole of a chain link and minimize the chance of fouling. Anchor shackles are often bowed, although straight-sided anchor shackles are commonly used to prevent fouling in the hawse pipe. Shackles are further differentiated by the way the shackle pin is retained in the body of the shackle:
SCREW-PIN SHACKLE
SAFETY SHACKLE W/KEY
PLATE SHACKLE
OFFSET PLATE SHACKLE
PIN-TYPE SHACKLES
UPSET PLATE SHACKLE
BENT PLATE SHACKLE
BAXTER BOLT (REVERSIBLE DECK BOLT)
EYE BOLT
Figure 7-36. Rigging Hardware.
Round pins have an enlarged section, or head, at one end to prevent passage through the holes in the body. The other end of the pin has a hole to accept a cotter key or keeper pin, or is threaded to accept a hex nut. Screw-pins have an eye on one end and threads that engage matching threads on one side of the shackle body. Pins for safety shackles are shaped like large hex-head bolts. After the pin is passed through the holes on the shackle body, a nut is placed on the threaded end. The threaded end often has a hole for a cotter key or small bolt. Some types of heavy shackles have pins with oval or teardrop cross sections to increase strength against the normal unidirectional lateral loading. These pins are otherwise similar to round pins and are secured with keeper pins.
P P
A P P P
B P
A BEARING AREA Ab TENSION AREA At SECT. A-A SHEAR AREA As SECT. B-B STRESSES P C C SHEAR AREA As1 SECT. C-C P PLATE t = P/A t b = P/A b = P/2A s PIN = P/2A s1
Figure 7-37. Plate Shackle.
7-40
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Safety shackles are preferred for salvage and towing work because their pins are less likely to come loose or jam, although other types of shackles can be used safely. Round pins and screw-pins can be secured or moused with safety wire to prevent their coming loose. It may be impossible to turn a screw-pin that has deformed under load, whereas the nut of a safety shackle can be removed and deformed pin forced out. Navy general-purpose shackles are provided in two grades: grade A (ordinary strength) and grade B (high-strength). Shackles conforming to Navy specications are marked with their safe working load (based on a safety factor of ve on breaking strength). Unmarked shackles are treated as grade A. Table 3-15 in the Salvors Handbook (S0300-A7-HBK-010) gives strength of Navy shackles. Plate shackles, shown in Figure 7-36, are versatile and can be made in the eld. Plate shackles can connect chain, wire rope, ber line, padeyes, etc. Strength analysis of a plate shackle is similar to that for bolted connections, as shown by the free-body diagrams in Figure 7-37.
Table 7-28. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Shackles.
F N D SCREW PIN CHAIN SHACKLES

TEST REQUIREMENTS WEIGHT (LBS) 0.75 1.47 2.52 3.83 5.55 7.60 10.81 14.26 19.03 31.40 45.00 83.59 178.00 265.00 PROOF TEST (LBS) 8,800 14,300 20,900 28,600 37,400 41,800 52,800 59,400 74,800 110,000 154,000 242,000 374,000 528,000 BREAK TEST (LBS) 24,000 39,000 57,000 78,000 102,000 114,000 144,000 162,000 204,000 300,000 420,000 660,000 1,020,000 1,440,000
ROUND PIN CHAIN SHACKLES

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES CHAIN SIZE A
1
D 15 16 1 16 1 8 2 8 23 8 25 8 3 3 16 35 8 4 16 5 6 61 2
5 5 1 7 9
F
5
M 15 8 2 2 8 2 16 33 16 39 16 31 16 4 16 47 8 5 4 6 4 8 81 2 10 2
1 3 3 7 5 13 3
N 13 16 1 16 1 4 1 16 111 16 113 16 2 32 2 4 23 8 2 8 3 4 41 8 5 5 4
3 1 7 1 1 7 1 1
2 8 4 8
8 4 8
1 11 8 11 4 1 8 1 2 15 8 2 2 4 23 4 31 4 3 4
3 1 1 3
1 11 8 1 4 1 8 11 2 1 4 2 21 2 *3 *3 2
1 3 3 1
*Furnished in round pin only.

1
Data provided by Baldt, Inc. and The Crosby Group. These shackles conform to Fed. Spec. RR-C-271B.
7-41
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table 7-29. Dimensions and Strength, Anchor Shackles.
F N D SCREW PIN ANCHOR SHACKLES

TEST REQUIREMENTS PROOF TEST BREAK TEST (LBS) (LBS) 8,800 24,000 14,300 39,000 20,900 57,000 28,600 78,000 37,400 102,000 41,800 114,000 52,800 144,000 59,400 162,000 74,800 204,000 110,000 300,000 154,000 420,000 242,000 660,000 374,000 1,020,000
ROUND PIN ANCHOR SHACKLES

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES CHAIN SIZE A 2 8 3 4 7 8 1 1 1 8 11 4 13 8 11 2 13 4 2 21 2 *3
5 1
D 13 16 19 16 17 8 21 8 23 8 25 8 3 35 16 35 8 45 16 5 6 61 2
5 3
F 8 4 7 8 1 11 8 11 4 13 8 11 2 15 8 2 21 4 23 4 31 4
M 17 8 23 8 213 16 35 16 33 4 41 4 411 16 51 4 53 4 7 73 4 101 2 13
N
13 16 11 16 1 1 4 17 16 111 16 113 16 21 32 21 4 23 8 27 8 31 4 41 8 5
P 15 16 111 16 2 29 32 211 16 229 32 31 4 35 8 37 8 5 53 4 71 4 77 8
WEIGHT (LBS) 0.79 1.60 2.72 3.95 6.12 8.27 11.71 15.83 20.80 33.91 51.75 101.59 178.00
*Furnished in round pin only. 1 Data provided by Baldt, Inc. and The Crosby Group.
Table 7-30. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Shackles.
A S
R L M B
F Q D TYPE "A"
TYPE "A" SHACKLE CHAIN SIZE A 11 2 13 4 2 21 2 3 31 2 4 SHACK NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 A 41 2 41 2 5 6 71 2 81 2 B 291 4 35 351 4 401 4 44 53 D 35 8 41 8 5 6 61 2 8 9 C 21 241 2 25 26 28 31 D 101 2 12 12 14 15 17 DIMENSIONS IN INCHES F 15 8 2 21 4 23 4 31 4 33 4 41 4 E 33 4 33 4 43 4 61 2 61 8 61 2 F 43 4 5 6 7 71 2 81 4 K 143 4 16 18 241 4 207 8 221 4 N 23 8 27 8 31 4 41 8 5 51 4 51 2 TYPE "B" SHACKLE DIMENSIONS IN INCHES L M N Q 18 151 2 71 4 6 1 1 22 2 20 8 2 63 4 1 1 1 22 2 19 2 8 2 71 2 26 221 2 81 4 93 4 29 251 4 85 8 93 4 36 317 8 91 4 121 2 M 53 4 7 73 4 101 2 13 145 8 141 2 WEIGHT (LBS) 20.8 33.9 51.7 101.5 178.0 265.0 338.0 R 51 2 61 2 61 2 61 2 61 2 7 S 6 61 2 63 4 71 4 71 2 81 2 T 51 2 53 4 7 8 8 9 V 1 1 1 1 11 2 11 2 TEST REQUIREMENTS PROOF TEST (LBS) BREAK TEST (LBS) 132,000 360,000 176,000 480,000 220,000 600,000 352,000 960,000 484,000 1,320,000 616,000 1,680,000 770,000 2,100,000 W 2 2 2 2 2 3 WEIGHT (LBS) 450 600 775 1100 1550 1900 PROOF TEST BREAK TEST (LBS) (LBS) 880,000 1,600,000 1,100,000 2,000,000 1,320,000 2,400,000 1,760,000 3,200,000 2,200,000 4,000,000 2,640,000 4,800,000
N K
TYPE "B"
7-42
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table 7-31. Dimensions and Strength, Heavy Duty Anchor Shackles.
F N
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES SHACK NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
TEST REQUIREMENTS N 61 2 6 8 77 8 77 8 87 8 97 8 1013 16 1113 16

7
CHAIN SIZE A 41 8 4 4 5 53 8 61 2 7 73 4 8
3
F 41 2 5 8 51 2 6 7 71 4 8 81 2
1
M 153 4 19 16 211 4 235 8 255 8 279 16 291 2 255 8

11
P 1013 16 117 16 12 12 1213 16 133 4 143 4 153 4
WEIGHT (LBS) 319 451 638 1157 1549 1844 2156 2464
PROOF TEST (LBS) 441,000 588,000 735,000 883,000 1,176,000 1,471,000 1,764,000 2,059,000
BREAK TEST (LBS) 1,655,000 2,205,000 2,755,000 3,310,000 4,410,000 5,515,000 6,615,000 7,720,000
Data provided by D. van Beest en Zonen B.V.
Table 7-32. Dimensions and Strength, Regular Swivels.
C M F A L G Z A A B H D
M C REGULAR TYPE
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES CHAIN SIZE A

1 5 3 7
B 6.44 7.81 8.69 10.13 11.63 12.63 13.63 20.13
C 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.63 7.00
D 1.31 1.50 1.88 2.13 2.38 2.56 3.00 4.00
F 1.31 1.56 1.75 2.06 2.31 2.38 2.69 4.19
G 2.00 2.38 2.63 3.06 3.50 3.75 3.69 4.19
H 3.19 3.88 4.31 5.00 5.75 6.25 6.75 10.00
L 5.44 6.56 7.19 8.38 9.63 10.38 11.13 17.13
M 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.13 4.00
Z .63 .75 .88 1.00 1.13 1.25 1.38 2.25
WEIGHT (LBS) 1.25 2.25 3.5 5.4 8.8 12.0 16.0 49.0
BREAK TEST (LBS) 18,000 26,000 36,000 50,000 62,500 76,000 90,000 226,000
2 8 4 8
1 11 8 11 4 11 2
7-43
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table 7-33. Dimensions and Strength, Jaw One End Swivels.
C M F A D B K G E
N P JAW ONE END TYPE

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES CHAIN SIZE A 1 2 5 8 3 4 7 8 1 11 8 11 4 11 2
1
B 6.06 7.31 8.31 9.53 11.69 12.19 13.13 20.84
C 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.63 7.00
D 1.31 1.50 1.88 2.13 2.38 2.56 3.00 4.00
E .50 .63 .75 .88 1.13 1.13 1.38 2.25
F 1.31 1.56 1.75 2.06 2.31 2.38 2.69 4.19
G 1.31 1.50 1.75 2.06 2.81 2.81 2.81 4.44
H 3.19 3.88 4.31 5.00 5.75 6.25 6.75 10.00
K 2.88 3.44 4.00 4.53 5.94 5.94 6.38 10.84
L 4.50 5.31 6.06 7.00 8.56 8.94 9.44 14.74
M 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.13 4.00
N .75 .94 1.13 1.19 1.75 1.75 2.06 2.88
P 1.75 2.06 2.53 2.75 3.72 3.72 4.31 6.00
T 1.31 1.63 1.88 2.13 2.63 2.63 3.13 5.63
Z .63 .75 .88 1.00 1.13 1.25 1.50 2.25
WEIGHT (LBS) BREAK TEST (LBS) 1.25 2.13 3.5 5.3 9.8 14.0 17.0 49.0 18,000 26,000 36,000 50,000 62,500 76,000 90,000 226,000
Data provided by The Crosby Group.
Table 7-34. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Swivels.
D SEE NOTE (*)
P M
U A
R C
16 16 15 16 13 16 19 16 115 16 21 4 *27 16 *211 16 *215 16 *33 16 *37 16 *311 16 *315 16

13
1
11
CHAIN SIZE - 3 4 - 7 8 - 11 8 - 11 2 - 17 8 - 23 16 - 23 8 - 25 8 - 27 8 - 31 8 - 33 8 - 35 8 - 37 8 - 4
A 4 7 8 1 11 2 2 21 4 23 8 33 16 37 16 33 4 41 16 43 8 411 16 413 16
3
B 6 32 13 7 16 103 16 141 4 1515 16 191 8 2111 16 231 8 255 16 271 2 293 4 3115 16 341 8 351 4
25
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES C D 3 3 1 3 2 3 1 2 4 4 73 8 63 4 77 8 77 8 97 16 97 16 1013 32 91 4 125 16 87 16 131 2 93 16 1411 16 10 1513 16 103 4 1 17 16 115 8 181 4 127 16 1813 16 127 8
M 11 16 13 16 13 4 21 2 25 8 31 8 4 35 16 35 8 315 16 41 4 49 16 47 8 5
P 2 16 15 2 16 311 16 51 2 63 8 75 8 83 4 91 16 915 16 1013 16 1111 16 129 16 133 8 1313 16

9
R 4 7 8 1 11 8 11 4 13 8 11 2 13 4 115 16 21 8 21 4 27 16 25 8 23 4
3
U 4 7 8 13 16 11 2 2 21 4 27 16 33 16 37 16 33 4 41 16 43 8 411 16 413 16
3
TEST REQUIREMENTS WEIGHT (LBS) PROOF TEST (LBS) BREAK TEST (LBS) 5 48,000 75,000 7 64,000 98,000 14 106,000 161,000 47 185,000 280,000 78 285,000 432,000 126 382,000 579,000 172 447,000 675,000 527 540,000 813,000 590 640,000 965,000 656 748,000 1,128,000 722 862,200 1,296,000 798 1,021,000 1,566,000 884 1,205,000 1,863,000 938 1,298,000 1,996,000
*Manufactured with one common link each end. Weights given include weight of two common links. Data provided by Baldt, Inc.; similar swivels that are stocked for use in the standard free-swinging, eet-type moorings have different dimensions and strengths.
7-44
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table 7-35. Dimensions and Strength, Swivel Shackles.
CHAIN END M A
KEY OR WELDED WASHER
E N ANCHOR END
CHAIN SIZE (IN.) 2 2 21 8 21 4 25 8 23 4 23 4 3 3 31 4

1
ANCHOR SIZE (LBS) 20,000 LWT 9,000 STOCK 15,000 LWT 18,000 STOCK L 12,150 SNUG STOW 50,000 MOORFAST 21 4" WIRE THIMBLE 30,000 LWT 30,000 LWT 30,000 MOORFAST A 2 8 5 2 8 3 27 8 3 31 2 33 8 35 8 35 8 4
5
C 161 2 151 2 161 2 161 2 161 2 19 123 16 29 19 19
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES D E J 15 41 2 313 4 1 1 15 2 3 2 313 4 161 2 57 8 30 15 41 2 313 4 15 4 313 4 211 2 51 2 30 1113 16 41 8 253 8 1 1 21 2 7 2 301 4 211 2 5 301 4 211 2 51 2 301 4
M 2 8 3 2 8 33 4 27 8 3 31 2 33 8 6 6 41 4
3
N 7 4 1 5 2 71 4 63 4 51 4 10 4 10 81 8 10
1
TEST REQUIREMENTS PROOF LOAD (LBS) BREAK LOAD (LBS) 318,000 454,000 318,000 454,000 357,000 538,000 396,000 570,000 530,000 758,000 500,000 1,800,000 590,000 885,000 500,000 1,800,000 500,000 1,800,000 500,000 1,800,000
WEIGHT (LBS) 1600 1700 1700 1600 1600 1200 850 1200 1200 1200
Data provided by Baldt, Inc.
Table 7-36. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Stopper (Pelican Hook).
CHAIN-CONNECTING LINK E TURNBUCKLE C D A B
STOPPER
CHAIN SIZE (INCHES)

3 7
A (MIN)
B (MIN)
1
B (MAX)
1
C 1 17 32 17 1 32 117 32 13 4 2 27 16 9 2 16 31 8 31 8 33 4 37 8 41 2
D 11 11 13 13 16 16 16 16 20 20 24 24 271 2
E 8 1 1 1 8 11 4 11 2 11 2 11 2 15 8 17 8 17 8 23 8 25 8 3
7
4 16 33 4 40 2 8 171 4 387 16 459 16 1 1 7 1 - 1 8 19 2 46 8 551 2 11 4 195 8 48 565 8 11 4HS - 11 2 233 4 553 16 6511 16 13 8HS - 15 8 233 4 553 16 6511 16 15 8HS - 2 241 8 593 16 6911 16 21 8 - 23 8 261 4 655 8 761 8 21 2 - 25 8 293 4 743 8 871 2 23 4 - 23 4HD 293 4 865 8 893 4 3HD - 31 4 36 903 4 1061 2 33 8 - 31 2 385 8 977 16 1133 16 31 2HD - 33 4 443 8 110 1281 8 All specications in pounds and inches, unless otherwise stated. One ton equals 2,000 pounds. NOTE: Keeper plates available for turnbuckle eyes to prevent rotation while towing. Data provided by Baldt, Inc.
DET. LINK SIZE 3 4 7 8 1 1 8 11 4 13 8 13 8 11 2 11 2 15 8 13 4 21 4 21 2 3
PROOF TEST LBS 67,500 88,200 145,000 178,200 211,500 211,500 252,000 252,000 292,500 352,000 403,000 492,000 706,000
BREAK TEST LBS 91,100 119,000 195,000 240,600 285,500 285,500 340,200 340,200 395,000 476,000 610,000 744,000 1,068,000
SAFE WORKING LOADS (TONS) 16.9 22 36.2 44.5 52.8 52.8 63 63 73 88 100.7 123 176.5
7-45
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table 7-37. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Stoppers (Devils Claw).

B C
CHAIN-CONNECTING LINK
A (MIN.) (MAX.)
BALDT SPEC CHAIN SIZE (INCHES)
3
A (MIN) 341 2 46 16 53 571 4 69 4 901 2 106 8

1 1 11
A (MAX) 42 55 16 631 2 673 4 89 4 1061 2 124 8

1 1 11
B (MIN) 171 4 19 8 233 4 241 8 29 4 383 8 44 8

3 3 5
C 11 13 16 16 20 24 27 2
1
D 63 4 9 121 4 155 8 18 23 28
E 1 1 4 11 2 15 8 1 8 25 8 2 8
7 7 1
F 19 16 1 8 21 4 21 4 3 8 31 2 4 4
1 3 7
G 11 8 1 4 21 4 31 8 3 8 45 8 5 4
1 5 3
DET LINK SIZE

7
PROOF LOAD 64,400 129,000 183,500 183,500 247,000 484,000 679,000
BREAK LOAD 91,800 184,000 262,000 262,000 352,000 692,000 970,000
PROD. WT. LBS 33 73 145 181 403 872 1,216
4 - 7 8
1
1 16 - 1 4 15 16 - 15 8 111 16 - 23 8 2 16 - 2 4 213 16 - 31 2 3 16 - 4
9 7 3
11 4 11 2 11 2 13 4 21 2 3
Specications in pounds and inches unless otherwise stated.
Table 7-38. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Stoppers (Dog or Ulster Type).
C M
A
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES CHAIN SIZE 1 - 1 2 19 16 - 17 8 115 16 - 23 16 2 4 - 2 2 29 16 - 213 16 27 8 - 33 16 31 4 - 37 16 3 2 - 3 4 313 16 - 4 4 16 - 4 4
1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1
B
TEST REQURIEMENTS C 13 2 171 8 22 27 8 301 2 369 16 34 43 8 46 49
1 3 1
A 20 25 30 39 427 8 531 2 463 4 62 2 661 2 70 4

3 1
B 11 141 4 181 8 21 2 243 4 295 8 27 34 8 37 39 4

1 5 1
D 7 4 93 4 12 15 161 4 201 2 173 4 24 251 2 30

3
APPROX. WEIGHT (LBS) 215 470 1,300 1,670 2,230 4,550 3,800 4,000 4,500 4,700
PROOF TEST (LBS) 183,500 281,000 337,000 484,000 603,000 759,000 871,000 1,019,000 1,143,000 1,272,000
BREAK TEST (LBS) 262,000 408,000 482,000 692,000 861,000 1,084,000 1,244,000 1,455,000 1,632,000 1,817,000
Data provided by Baldt, Inc.
7-46
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table 7-39. Dimensions and Strength, End Links.
CHAIN SIZE (INCHES)
WEIGHT
PROOF TEST
11
16 - 3 4 16 - 1
11
13
16
55 8 71 2 93 8 11 4 13 15 16 8 183 4 201 2 22 2 251 4 28 30

1 7 1
27 8 33 4 47 8 5 4 65 8 75 8 8 4 93 4 103 4 11 8 13 141 2 15 4
1 5 3 3
1.8 4.0 8.0 14.2 21.6 34.2 45.4 62.0 81.0 105.0 148.0 202.0 258.0
48,000 84,000 130,000 185,000 249,000 322,000 403,000 492,000 590,000 693,000 862,200 1,120,000 1,298,000
13
11 16 13 8 1 8 17 8 21 8 2 2 23 4 3 3 4 35 8 4 4 4
1 1 1 5
11 16 5
1 16 - 1 2 19 16 - 13 4 113 16 - 2 2 16 - 2 4 25 16 - 21 2 29 16 - 23 4 2 16 - 3 31 16 - 33 8 37 16 - 33 4 3 16 - 4
13 13 1 1
7-47
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table 7-40. Strength of Turnbuckles from ASTM STD F 1145.
Minimum Breaking Strength, lbf Size, Nominal Outside Diameter of Thread, in.
1 5
4 8 2 8 4 8
Type I, Grade 1 Jaw, Eye, or Stub End Hook End Pulls Pulls 2,500 1,500 3,500 5,200 9,000 13,500 20,000 29,000 38,000 60,000 72,000 85,000 115,000 150,000 197,000 242,000 304,000 350,000 400,000 475,000 550,000 635,000 2,500 3,500 5,200 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,500 23,000 29,000 36,000 Recommended Working Loads, lbf
All Others Jaw, Eye, Hook End Pulls or Stub End Pulls 1,550 1,050 2,700 4,100 7,550 12,100 18,100 18,100 33,100 53,600 63,400 77,700 105,000 138,000 181,000 223,000 277,000 337,000 400,000 475,000 550,000 635,000 1,650 2,300 3,700 5,400 7,500 7,500 12,800 20,600 24,300 29,300 -
16
3 1 5 3 7
1 11 4 13 8 11 2 13 4 2 21 4 21 2 23 4 3 31 4 31 2 33 4 4
1 5
4 8 2 8 4 8
500 700 1,040 1,800 2,700 4,000 5,800 7,600 12,000 14,400 17,000 23,000 30,000 39,400 48,400 60,800 70,000 80,000 95,000 110,000 127,000
300 500 700 1,400 1,600 2,000 2,400 2,900 4,600 5,800 7,200 -
310 540 820 1,500 2,400 3,600 5,000 6,600 10,700 12,600 15,500 21,000 27,600 36,200 44,600 55,400 67,400 80,000 95,000 110,000 127,000
210 330 460 740 1,080 1,500 2,000 2,560 4,120 4,860 5,860 -
16
3 1 5 3 7
1 11 4 13 8 11 2 13 4 2 21 4 21 2 23 4 3 31 4 31 2 33 4 4
Note: Type and grades of turnbuckles are illustrated in Figure 7-38.
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BODY
END PULL
HEADS
END PULL
CLASS A - BODY ONLY, HEADS NOT DRILLED CLASS B - BODY ONLY, HEADS DRILLED AND THREADED
CLEAR OPENING BETWEEN HEADS

GRADE GRADE GRADE GRADE 1 2 3 4 FORGED SPREAD RESISTANCE-WELDED ARC- OR GAS-WELDED
CLASS C - STUB AND STUB
CLASS F - HOOK AND EYE
TYPE I, OPEN TURNBUCKLE BODY
D CLEAR OPENING BETWEEN HEADS TYPE II, PIPE TURNBUCKLE BODY JAM NUT D CLEAR OPENING BETWEEN HEADS TYPE III, RIGGING TURNBUCKLE BODY TURNBUCKLE TYPES AND GRADES TURNBUCKLE CLASSES CLASS E - HOOK AND HOOK CLASS H - JAW AND EYE
CLASS D - EYE AND EYE
CLASS G - JAW AND JAW
Figure 7-38. Turnbuckles.
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7-6 WEIGHT-HANDLING AND LIFTING SYSTEMS

Usually, shipboard weight- and cargohandling gear is subdivided as follows:
GUY ROPES
LUFFING ROPES
Rotating cranes, with either topping or nontopping booms, Nonrotating cranes, Boom-and-kingpost arrangements, and Sheer legs and gin poles.
A-FRAME
HOIST ROPES
A-FRAME
BREAST
TO HOISTING DRUM
Figure 7-39 shows some typical types of derricks, cranes, booms, and davits. Cranes, booms, derricks, etc., should be used in compliance with the manufacturers recommendations. The capacities of installed cranes, booms, and davits on U.S. Navy ships are in the Ships Information Book (SIB), in the booklet of general plans, and on label plates on the equipment. When planning lifts with installed cranes or booms, riggers, operators, and appropriate technical manuals should be consulted for the operating requirements and limitations of the equipment. NSTM Chapters 573 (Booms), and 589 (Cranes), and the Boatswains Mate Rate Training Manuals provide more complete guidance for boom and crane operation. 7-6.1 Booms. Boom-and-kingpost weighthandling systems have wide application because of their versatility and reliability. The capacities of cargo booms range from less than 5 tons to more than 500 tons. Cargo gear designs for a ship are found in the Rigging Diagram (Navy) or Cargo Gear Register (Merchant). Figure 7-40 illustrates boom terminology. When designing a boom-and-kingpost system, or when assessing the ability of existing gear to handle an oversized lift, load on individual components and foundations must be determined and matched against the strength of the structure. The following loads are important:
GUYS
GUYS MAST
GIN POLE
GIN POLE
GUYED
MAST RIGID GUYS
COUNTERWEIGHT AND MACHINERY HOUSE BOOM WHEELS PIVOT
STIFF-LEG
COMBINED STIFF-LEG AND A-FRAME WITH ROTATING TABLE (360)
Figure 7-39. Derricks.
SWIVEL FITTING FOR TOPPING LIFT SWIVEL PAD TOPPING LIFT BLOCKS MAST OR KINGPOST BOOM HEAD VANG EAR ON BODY HEAD FITTING BODY HEAD FITTING SWIVEL EYE HOIST BLOCK UPPER VANG PENDANT UPPER VANG BLOCK LOWER VANG BLOCK
Compression in the boom (boom thrust). Tension in the stays. Vertical and horizontal forces at the stay anchors. Compression on the mast above the boom step. Compression on the mast below the boom step. Horizontal shear on the mast foundation.
TOPPING WINCH
BOOM HEEL FITTING GOOSENECK BOOM STEP BRACKET BOOM HEEL SWIVEL FITTING MAST STEP
CA RG O (A HO LS IS O T CA LE LL AD ED LI N CA E RG OR O HA RU U NN LIN ER G P ) AR T
TOPPING LIFT TOPPING LIFT LEADLINE OR HAULING PART BOOM SWAGED JOINT (WELDED)
Tension in the topping lift.
BOOM HEEL SWIVEL PAD
Maximum bending moment on the mast. Component loads in a cargo boom or other weight-handling system are determined by vector diagrams, as shown in Figure 7-41 and the following example.
TO HOIST WINCH DRUM
BOOM HEAD BLOCK
VANG OR GUY TACKLE VANG PAD
SWIVEL FITTING CARGO HOOK
Figure 7-40. Nomenclature for Cargo Boom and Kingpost.
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TOPPING LIFT OR SPAN

STAY TENSION
D E TOPPING LIFT 25
25
30
25
STAY BOOM (25) F 50 MAST (30)
TOPPING LIFT TENSION
50
LIFTING BLOCK
C BOOM THRUST 5 TONS B
LOAD (5 TONS)
BOOM AND MAST ARRANGEMENT Figure 7-41. Forces on Cargo Rig.
FORCE DIAGRAM
EXAMPLE 7-1 BOOM LOADS

For the mast and boom shown in Figure 7-41 with a ve-ton load, calculate the following: Tension in the topping lift and backstay Boom thrust Compression on the mast above the boom step Vertical and horizontal forces on the backstay anchoring padeye Horizontal shear on the mast step Compression on the mast below the mast step (neglecting weight of the mast and gear) Maximum bending moment on the mast Starting at the head of the boom, the force triangle ABC is constructed by drawing the ve-ton weight vector AB, the vector BC parallel to the boom, and the vector CA so that it is parallel to the topping lift and closes the triangle, as shown in Figure 7-41. The magnitude of the forces in the boom and topping lift can be found by the law of sines: If there were more than one stay, the "backstay tension" would be resolved into component tensions for each stay. At the padeye, backstay tension is resolved into horizontal and vertical components by multiplying by the sine or cosine of the backstay angle (25o):
FH = 7.56sin25 = 3.19 tons FV = 7.56cos25 = 6.85 tons

Horizontal shear results from back thrust (the horizontal component of boom thrust), and is equal to the product of boom thrust and the sine of the boomto-mast angle, : Mast step shear = Back thrust = Boom thrust sin = 4.17sin50 = 3.19 tons Lower mast compression (below the boom step) is the sum of the upper mast compression and the vertical component of boom thrust: Boom thrustvert = Boom thrust cos = 4.17cos50 = 2.68 tons so: Lower mast compression = 9.17 + 2.68 = 11.85 tons The mast is equivalent to a beam xed at one end and supported at the other with an off-center concentrated load (boom thrust). From Case 14 of Table 2-3: Fab 3.19(30)(5) = 13.6 ft-tons M1 = = L 35 2 Fb 3.19(52) (80 70) = 2.79 ft tons, at the boom step M1 = a 3 (2 2L) = 30 3 2 (35 ) 2L
SinA SinB SinC = = BC CA AB

From geometry, the angles A, B, and C are determined:
A = 54o B = 50o C = 76o

and:
ABsinB 5sin50 = = 3.95 tons sin76 sinC ABsinA 5sin54 = = 4.17 tons Boom compression = BC = sin76 sinC
Topping lift tension = CA = A force triangle DEF is drawn from the top of the mast, starting with the 3.95-ton tension in the topping lift. From geometry:
M2 =
where:
Fab
2L 2
(a L) =
D = 54o E = 101o C = 25o

and:
3.19(30)(5) (5 35) = 12.69 ft tons at the mast step 2 (352)
DEsinD 3.95sin54 = = 7.56 tons sin25 sinF DEsinE 3.95sin101 = = 9.17 tons Upper mast compression = FD = sin25 sinF
Backstay tension = EF =
F a b L
= = = =
lateral force on the boom = back thrust distance from boom step to topping lift/back stay attachment distance from boom step to mast step distance from mast step to topping lift/backstay attachment
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In addition to loads caused by suspended weights, boom parts are subject to loads resulting from their own weight. The mast is subject to varying compression due to its weight and the weight of the boom and gear, which is at its maximum at the foot of the mast. The boom is subject to a bending moment caused by its weight: wL sin M = 8 where: M w = = bending moment, ft-tons weight of the boom, tons L = = length of the boom, ft boom angle
Booms are subject to additional bending because the cargo whip or purchase block and the topping lift block are not attached at the same point. As boom angle increases, component loads increase for the same suspended weight. Since boom angle determines outreach, operating capacity for booms is a function of outreach or swing radius. In the example, the topping lift is attached directly opposite a single backstay, so the horizontal components of the topping lift and backstay tensions did not cause shear or bending in the mast. Only boom thrust caused shear and bending in the mast. Two conditions cause additional stresses:
When the boom swings, the topping lift is no longer in the same plane as the backstay. The mast resists horizontal forces perpendicular to the backstay at the masthead by developing internal shear forces and bending moments. The mast is subject to bending in two planes. The unopposed horizontal force is determined by resolving the topping lift tension into components in line with and perpendicular to the backstay. If the topping lift sheave and backstay attachment are not at the same height, the mast is equivalent to a simply supported beam with two point loads.
If there are two or more stays, the resultant of the tension in the stays will be in the same plane as the topping lift, so the opposing forces are directly opposite and will not cause shear and bending in the mast. Tension in the multiple stays is found by determining the resultant tension as for a single backstay then resolving it into components in line with the stays. Bending in a stayed mast can be avoided altogether if the boom is stepped at the foot of the mast. Masts for light cargo booms are sometimes unstayed and always subject to bending. Stress at any section of the mast or boom is the sum of bending, axial (compressive), and torsional stresses. To nd bending stress, the bending moment at the section in question is divided by the section modulus. Bending stress is compressive on the boom side of the mast and tensile on the opposite side. To nd axial stress, the axial compression is divided by the section area. To nd torsional shear, the torque (if any) on the section is divided by the torsional section modulus. The torsional section modulus of a circular section is one-half the bending section modulus. The maximum combined stress is compressive, and is given by: St 2 2 St 2
Sc = where: Sc St Ss = = =
Ss2
combined stress, psi total compressive stress, psi = axial stress + bending stress torsional stress, psi
J. Burton Davies of the Royal Institute of Naval Architects has given a relationship for the crippling stress in compression members with slenderness ratios (length to radius of gyration) greater than 80: Scr = where: Scr y l/k l k = = = = = crippling stress = total stress at collapse material yield stress, ton/in2 (15 for mild steel) slenderness ratio boom length radius of gyration E = = E = Euler crippling stress 2E
l 2
(0.003 l 2
1) E
(0.003 l
1) E
4yE
modulus of elasticity, tons/in2 (13,000 for mild steel)
Tables 7-41 and 7-42 provide crippling axial loads for mild steel tubes used as booms. The effective height of the mastthat is, the height above the boom stepinuences the loads in the boom, topping lift, stays, and mast itself. Effective mast heights less than two-thirds of the boom length will cause very high component loads relative to the weight lifted. Cargo booms are rigged in various congurations, depending on the amount and location of material handled and speed of handling. In a single swinging boom rig (Figure 7-40), the boom is swung by tending the vangs and is topped with the topping lift to spot the suspended load. Cargo transfer by a single swinging boom is relatively slow and tedious. Variations of the of the single swinging boom rig, such as the wing lead, backweight, or Liverpool rigs, or multi-boom rigs, such as the yard-and-stay or housefall rigs, can move cargo at a higher rate than a swinging boom or most cranes. Experienced salvage riggers or cargo handlers should be consulted when setting up rigs for offloading large quantities of cargo.
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Table 7-41. Limiting Axial Loads for Mild Steel Tubes (S.W.L. over 10 tons) Factor of Safety = 4 All Loads in Short Tons (2,000 lbs).
Length, ft Outside Diameter, in.
1
Table 7-42. Limiting Axial Loads for Mild Steel Tubes (S.W.L. 10 tons or less) Factor of Safety = 5 All Loads in Short Tons (2,000 lbs).
Length, ft Outside Diameter, in.
1
Thickness 4
5
Thickness 4
5
16
16
16
8 20 6.5 7 7 8 9 10 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 14 15 16 17 18 19 15 16 17 18 19
16
16
16
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 14 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 15 16 17 18 19 20
11.2 14.6 18.3 11.7 15.0 18.3 21.8 25.3 12.1 15.4 18.7 22.2
12.7 15.7 19.1
13.7 17.9 22.2 14.3 18.4 22.7 27.2 31.5 14.9 18.9 23.0 27.3 31.7 12.2 15.6 19.5 23.5 27.8 32.3 36.3
26.5 21.7 26.8 32.0 37.2 17.7 22.3 27.4 32.6 37.9 14.4 18.4 23.0 28.1 32.9 38.3 43.4 48.6 54.0 59.2 11.8 15.3 19.5 23.8 28.6 33.7 38.6 43.9 49.0 54.4 12.8 16.4 20.4 24.8 29.2 34.0 39.2 44.5 49.7 13.9 17.4 21.3 25.4 30.2 34.9 39.7 44.9 12.0 15.1 18.6 22.3 26.5 31.0 35.2 40.5 16.1 19.5 23.3 27.2 31.7 36.4 17.3 20.6 24.2 28.2 32.3
25
37.1 43.2
30
31.5 37.4 43.5
6.3 7.4 5.5 7.7 9.9 12.3 4.1 5.9 7.9 10.2
49.5 35
26.7 32.2 38.2 44.3 50.5 56.5 62.8 68.8
43.4 49.9 56.9 64.3 70.8 78.4
3.2 4.6 6.3 8.3
71.3 79.3 87.1
7.2 8.6 6.4 9.0 11.6 14.7 4.8 6.9 9.3 12.0 14.6 17.5 20.2 3.7 5.4 7.4 9.7 12.3 15.0 17.7 4.3 5.9 7.9 10.2 12.6 15.3
11.0 14.3 17.8 8.5 11.4 14.7 18.2 21.7 25.2 6.6 9.0 11.9 15.1 18.4 21.8 25.4 5.2 7.3 9.7 12.5 15.6 18.8 22.3 25.8 5.9 8.0 10.4 15.0 16.1 19.1 22.6 26.1 7.9 10.3 13.1 16.3 19.8 23.5 27.2 8.7 11.1 13.9 17.0 20.3 24.1 27.9 9.6 12.1 14.9 17.8 21.2 24.8 28.2 12.9 15.6 18.6 21.8 25.3 29.1 13.8 16.5 19.4 22.5 25.8
21.2
17.3 21.5 25.6 29.8
29.7 34.6
96.4 40
14.2 17.8 21.9 26.1 30.3
25.2 29.9 34.8
10.6 13.3 16.2
13.0 16.3 20.2 23.9 28.2 32.6
22.3 27.3 32.8 38.7 44.8 51.0 57.0 63.3 69.2 18.8 23.4 28.2 34.0 39.5 45.6 51.2 57.8 63.4 16.1 20.0 24.4 29.5 34.6 40.1 46.1 51.7 58.3 13.8 17.3 21.3 25.6 30.4 35.6 41.0 46.5 52.6 18.5 22.6 26.8 31.6 36.4 41.8 47.3 19.9 23.7 28.2 32.7 37.6 43.0
3.7 5.1 6.7
44.0 51.0 57.4 64.9 71.3 78.9
64.3 72.0 80.0 87.6
11.5 14.7 18.4 22.5 26.3 30.5 9.4 12.2 15.6 19.0 22.9 27.0 30.9
21.3 25.8 30.5 35.5
88.6 97.0
45
4.2 5.6
11.3 13.9
10.9 13.9 17.1 20.7 24.5 28.8
4.8 6.5 8.5 10.6 13.0
32.0 38.2 44.9 51.3 58.3 65.1 72.3
17.9 21.8 26.2 31.0 35.9
29.9 35.2
57.5 65.3 73.0 81.1
50 80.8 88.9
12.0
11.8 14.7 18.0 21.5 25.2
5.4 7.1 9.0 11.1
27.8 33.1 39.4 45.6 51.9 58.8 65.7
55 50.5 58.2 66.0 73.6
6.0 7.7 9.6
72.2 81.5
10.3
10.2 12.8 15.5 18.7 22.1
6.7 8.7 11.1 13.7 16.6 19.6 23.0 7.4 9.4 11.8 14.4 17.2 20.2 8.1 10.2 12.4 14.9 17.1
15.1 18.7 22.7 27.2 31.6 12.9 16.0 19.5 23.6 27.7 32.0 11.1 13.9 17.1 20.5 24.3 28.5 32.8 14.8 18.1 21.4 25.3 29.1 33.4 15.9 18.9 22.5 26.2 30.1
25.6 30.6 36.0
13.6 16.5 19.5
14.5 17.4
24.0 29.1 34.6 40.5 46.7 53.0 59.9 21.1 25.5 30.5 35.6 41.4 47.6 53.9 22.4 27.0 31.7 36.9 42.8 48.4
22.2 26.5 31.5 36.5
60 44.8 51.7 59.4 66.4
6.6 8.2
65.0 73.6 65
19.2 23.3 27.7 32.4 16.9 20.4 24.4 28.5 33.1 17.9 21.6 25.4 29.5 34.2
39.9 46.4 52.7 60.4
10.9 13.2 15.6
31.9
58.4 66.1 70
35.5 41.3 47.4 54.3
11.6 13.9
52.5 59.4
28.4 33.1
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The rated load for a boom is its safe working load when rigged as a single swinging boom. Safe working load of yard-and-stay and housefall rigs is one-half of the rated load. Cargo booms on U.S. Navy ships have 10-ton working loads unless otherwise specied. Kingposts, booms, and running rigging are designed with the safety factors shown in Table 7-43. Many ships have heavy lift booms or derricks for making lifts greater than the 5to 10-ton lifts associated with ordinary cargo loading. Navy LKA-116 Class ships have 78-ton Stuelken-type booms, shown in Figure 7-42. Special-purpose heavy lift ships may have boom capacities of up to 500 tons. Rigging for modern heavy lift booms swings the boom by altering the length of two topping lifts rather than by using vangs. The topping lifts are slaved together so that the boom is controlled from a single point. 7-6.2 Cranes and Davits. Cranes offer greater speed and ease in handling loads than single swinging booms. Cranes are rotating or nonrotating. Rotating cranes are topping or nontopping. Figures 7-43 and 744 illustrate four types of rotating cranes:
Table 7-43. U.S. Navy Cargo Boom Design Safety Factors.
Kingposts Booms
5 on ultimate strength 5 on ultimate strength, 6 on critical column load 5 on breaking strength
Running rigging
BOOM IN ALTERNATE POSITION OVER ADJACENT HATCH
BOOM IN WORKING POSITION OVER ONE HATCH
Topping cranes: (1) Kingpost. (2) Pedestal.

SECTION LOOKING FORWARD ELEVATION LOOKING INBOARD
Nontopping cranes: (1) Jib. (2) Pillar.
Nonrotating crane types include:
Gantry. Overhead. Raised runway. Traveling supports.

Figure 7-42. Stuelken or Newport News Heavy Lift Boom.
BOOM SHOWN IN WORKING POSITION OVER SIDE OF SHIP PLAN VIEW
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MAIN HOIST ASSEMBLY (DRUM)

JIB CRANE HOUSE
WIRE ROPE
TELESCOPING BOOM
MAIN BLOCK/ HOOK

SPOTTING GEAR FOR ACCURATE LOAD POSITIONING
PEDESTAL
TOPPING LIFT CYLINDER
AUXILIARY HOOK ("HEADACHE BALL")
PEDESTAL
KINGPOST CRANE (SIMILAR TO CARGO SHIP DECK CRANES)
PEDESTAL CRANE WITH TELESCOPING BOOM (SIMILAR TO AS 18 CRANE)
Figure 7-43. Rotating Cranes.
RIGID SUPPORT
COLUMN
FIXED TENSION MEMBER MAIN HOIST AUXILIARY HOIST (WHIP HOIST) MAIN HOOK/ BLOCK AUXILIARY HOOK
BOOM (FIXED REACH) PILLAR
JIB BOOM RIGID SUPPORT

TROLLEY HOIST
JIB CRANE (SIMILAR TO LHA CRANE)
PILLAR CRANE (SIMILAR TO CVN 65 CRANE)
Figure 7-44. Rotating Nontopping Cranes.
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Typical gantry and overhead cranes are shown in Figure 7-45. Raised runway and traveling support cranes are similar in concept and operation. Port facilities have numerous types of cranes in permanent, temporary, or mobile installations. Navy ships have kingpost, pedestal, jib, and pillar cranes. Stores-handling davits (J-bar davits) are essentially simple pillar cranes. Most shipboard cargo cranes are kingpost or pedestal cranes. Some large special-purpose vessels, such as oating drydocks, have portal cranes. A portal crane consists of a large pedestal or kingpost crane with legs forming a portal for traffic. Large oating cranes are usually kingpost cranes. Mobile cranes are usually pedestal or kingpost type cranes mounted on truck or crawler chassis. Large Navy vesselsaircraft carriers, amphibious warfare vessels, and repair shipscarry truck cranes. Mobile cranes are extremely useful in certain conditions:
TROLLEY END TRUCK HOIST BRIDGE BRIDGE DRIVE RUNWAY
OVERHEAD TRAVELING CRANE (SIMILAR TO LSD 41 WELL DECK CRANE) HOOK/BLOCK
TROLLEY
Working from piers in harbor operations. Placed on casualties lacking cargo gear or power.
BRIDGE HOOK/BLOCK
Placed on barges or large landing craft to form imGANTRY LEGS promptu oating cranes. TRUCKS Loads on crane components are determined RAILS by force and free-body diagramsthe same GANTRY CRANE way as they are determined for boom (SIMILAR TO ASR CRANE) systems. Because cranes are unstayed, the pivoting mechanism of a rotating crane is always subject to bending. Counterweights Figure 7-45. Nonrotating Cranes. on many cranes reduce the moment on the crane base. Inertia loads caused by rolling or pitching increase the moment at the base. Cranes, unless specically designed for heavy weather operation, cannot be used in as high a sea state as booms or sheer legs. Because they have no topping lifts, the booms of pedestal, pillar, and jib cranes are cantilever beams and are subject to shear forces and bending moments caused by both the suspended load and their own weight. Cranes are designed to carry loads in the same vertical plane as the boom axis. Side-loading should be avoided because the crane structures are not designed to resist athwartships thrust. Side-loading occurs when the crane rotates or travels with a swaying load or when it drags loads. Ships are equipped with portable J-bar davits for handling stores, ammunition, and miscellaneous weights. Stores davits on Navy ships normally have 1,000-pound working loads (500-pound on destroyers and smaller ships). Ammunition davits have working loads equal to the weight of the heaviest piece of ammunition in the magazine served. U.S. Navy shipboard cranes have a 5-long-ton safe working load unless otherwise specied. 7-6.3 Floating Cranes. Floating cranes perform a variety of lifts in salvage work. Light- to medium-capacity cranes can be moored alongside casualties without operating cargo gear to offload cargo, remove other weights, or position salvage gear. Large cranes with capacities as high as several thousand tons may be used to:
Prevent unstable or marginally stable sunken ships from capsizing during raising by maintaining upward tension on the deck edges. Floating cranes are typically either rotating cranes or sheer legs mounted on appropriately sized and equipped barges or pontoons. Sheer legs are suitable for hoisting heavy weights because of the inherent stability and rigidity of the triangle formed by the two legs. Since sheer legs do not rotate, the barge must be maneuvered, by tugs or ground tackle, to move the lifted object. Rotating cranes, also called ringers or whirley cranes, usually have greater outreach than sheer legs, and can reposition lifts more conveniently, but have less inherent stability. For all cranes, lift capacity decreases with outreach; as a boom or A-frame is lowered, bending loads increase dramatically. A crane can lift its rated capacity at only a limited outreach. Figure 7-46 shows the rigging diagrams and capacity curves for a high-capacity salvage sheer legs.
Lift sunken or stranded wrecks. Lift large sections of wrecks that have been cut up in place. Incline or lift stranded ships to reduce ground reaction. Parbuckle capsized ships. Operate wreck grabs or punches.
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DECK TACKLES
1,000 TONS LIFT 2 X 250 TONS 2 X 250 TONS
MAIN BLOCK
SHEER LEGS
WRECK
WRECK SECTION
SEA FLOOR
300
50
300 300 300 300 280 255 210 180 150 125 95 70 45
MAXIMUM CAPACITY AT EACH OUTREACH
JIB STRETCHED
40
500 500 500 500 430 340 270 2 x 10T
20
210
160
2 x 150T
20
110 2 x 5T
WEIGHT IN A-FRAME JIB REMOVED

2 x 250T
10
DECK TACKLES
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
2 x 250t
OUTREACH (m)
Figure 7-46. Salvage Sheer Legs.
HEIGHT OF HOOK (m)
30
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Figure 7-47 shows similar diagrams for a large rotating crane. The Navy and Army maintain oating cranes in the 50- to 300-ton range at various facilities around the world. Large commercial oating cranes are generally built to customer specications and change location and ownership frequently. As such, there are no catalogs of available cranes and capabilities. If commercial oating plant must be hired, local shipping agents, underwater construction contractors, or salvage companies should be contacted.
650"
300"
350"
WHIP
AUX. AUX. MAX. HOOK HEIGHT
2700
MAIN
2500
240
2350"
2300 2100
MAIN MAX. HOOK HEIGHT
220 200
NET HOOK CAPACITIES IN TONS (2000#)
1900
180
1700 1500 1300 1100 900
MAIN LIFTING CAPACITY (OVER THE STERN) MAIN LIFTING CAPACITY (FULL REVOLVING)
160 140 120 100 80

LIFTING HEIGHT IN FEET (ABOVE WATERLINE)
700 500
AUXILIARY
60 40
300 100
HEEL PIN
40 6"
WHIP
20
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 300 320 340
LIFTING RADIUS IN FEET 64 0" 64 0"

AMERICAN HOIST AND DERRICK CO. MODEL NO. M2500 SERIAL NO. R1170
MCDERMOTT DERRICK BARGE 29
Figure 7-47. Typical Offshore Floating Crane Lift Curves.
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7-6.4 Improvised Systems. Sheer legs, gin poles, stiff leg derricks, etc., can be improvised on salvage operations. Figures 7-48 through 7-54 show some examples of improvised systems and supporting load diagrams and calculations.
_ (W) TENSION IN GUY = a b WHERE: W = WEIGHT TO BE LIFTED a = DRIFT b = DISTANCE FROM BASE OF POLE TO GUY
7-6.4.1 Gin Pole. A gin pole or standing L derrick is a boom without a mast or topping lift. It has a single spar with its butt resting W GIN securely in a shoe so that it can pivot and 90 POLE AFTER rotate. The head of the spar is held in GUY b place by guys or stays. A guy is a stay that includes a tackle or is rigged to a winch to permit adjustment of its length. Two guys, spaced 60 to 90 degrees apart, are a SPACE DIAGRAM nominally sufficient to support the gin pole, because the weight of the load compresses the gin pole and holds its head against the Figure 7-48. Gin Pole Forces. guys. At least one additional guy or stay should be rigged to prevent the pole from falling over backwards if the load jerks or is released suddenly. Gin poles are rigged with three to six guys.
FORCE DIAGRAM
Figure 7-39 shows a basic gin pole; Figure 7-48 diagrams the forces acting on a gin pole. The after guy or backstay can be subject to high tensions. The tension on the guy is found by solving the force polygon. If side W of the force triangle represents the suspended load, side P is the backstay tension. From the law of sines:
sin w sin P W sin = P sin Wsin sin
P =
A perpendicular, b, is extended from the foot of the gin pole to the backstay, and a is dened as the horizontal distance from the plumb line of the weight to the foot of the gin pole.
sin = , and sin = L L
where: L = length of the gin pole From this, a simple relationship for the backstay tension is derived:
Wsin = P = sin W a L b L = W a b
where: P a b W = = = = tension on the after guy distance from the foot of the pole to the plumb line of the load perpendicular distance from the guy to the foot of the pole load
As the gin pole is slacked outward, b decreases and a increases. As the pole approaches the horizontal, the ratio a/b becomes large and P approaches innity. The compression in the gin pole is determined by the force diagram shown in Figure 7-48. Like the back guy, load in the pole approaches innity as the pole approaches the horizontal. Increasing the distance between the after guy anchor and the foot of the gin pole reduces tension in the guy, but increases compression in the pole. When lifting weights of more than about 1,000 pounds, a large shoe or doubler plate is tted under the foot of the gin pole and the deck shored to spread the load. Attachments for the stays or guys are also reinforced.
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Gin poles erected on rm foundations may have lengths of 250 feet or more, with lift capacities to about 300 tons. Heavy gin poles do not swing under load but lift loads vertically at xed radius. High-capacity gin poles lean only 5 to 10 degrees from the vertical. Because of the small angle with the vertical, the gin pole must be signicantly taller than the height of the lift when bulky loads are lifted. The guys should be heavily preloaded to minimize the increase in pole angle when the guys stretch as heavy loads are lifted. The guy preloading must not be so great that the compressive load on the pole resulting from the combination of guy tension and the suspended load exceeds the capacity of the pole. Lighter poles can lean to greater angles and are sometimes rigged with adjustable guys so the load can be moved horizontally by topping the pole. Gin poles can be erected in pairs to increase lifting capacity and clearance between the poles and the load, as shown in Figure 7-49. Two poles assembled with a horizontal beam across the pole heads form a gallows frame. If both poles are rigged to the same angle and guy arrangement, and the hoist tackle connected to the center of the beam, the loads in both poles will be equal. Gallows frames have higher capacities than twin gin poles. Shorebased gallows frames typically have lift heights of up to 200 feet, and capacities to 600 tons; shorter frames can lift up to 1,200 tons. 7-6.4.2 Swinging Derrick. Figure 7-50 shows an improvised swinging derrick, or cargo boom. The foot of the boom is either stepped to the foot of the mast by heavy lashings or set in a shoe against the mast. The boom can also be set in a shoe at some distance from the foot of the mast. The shoe carries the horizontal and vertical boom thrust. Shoes can be built up against hatch coamings or machinery foundations. It is best to use a mast, kingpost, or other structure that is in place as the derrick mast. A jury mast can be set up by inserting a steel or wooden spar through a hole cut in the deck and resting the foot of the spar on the deck below. The mast is secured by welding, angle clips, or wedges at its foot and the deck penetration. Alternatively, the jury mast is inserted through a hatch and braced rmly against one side or corner. There should be two or more stays.
TWIN GIN POLES
GALLOWS FRAME
PROFILE VIEWS
OBLIQUE PLAN VIEWS NOTE: SOME GUYS DELETED IN PROFILE VIEWS FOR CLARITY
Figure 7-49. Modified Gin Poles.
SHOE
SHORING
Figure 7-50. Improvised Swinging Derrick
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A type of swinging derrick, called a Chicago boom, can be installed on an existing mast, kingpost or deckhouse as shown in Figure 7-51. The lower end of the boom is attached to a vertical or horizontal surface by a combination hinge and swivel pin, or goose neck. Topping lifts and hoist tackles are rigged as shown. Swing guys, running from each side of the boom head to convenient anchorages, swing the boom and load. Typically, a double drum winch powers the topping and hoisting lifts. If the boom is used only for lifting and swinging, the topping lift is replaced by a xed stay. Chicago boom lengths typically range from 10 to 25 feet, with lift capacities from 500 pounds to about 35 tons. 7-6.4.3 Sheer Legs. Sheer legs are built from steel or wooden spars as shown in Figure 7-52. The butts of the legs are separated by a distance equal to one-third of their length or less. Cross-members or stays prevent the sheer legs from spreading under load. A hoisting tackle rigged to the apex of the legs lifts the loads. Guys attached to the sheer head allow moving the load horizontally by increasing or decreasing the angle of sheer legs off the vertical. Slacking the load sharply increases loading on the legs and guys. Guy tension and leg compression are determined by viewing the rig edge-on and determining backstay tension and leg compression as if the rig were a gin pole with a single stay. Resultant guy tension and leg compression are resolved into their components by solving force polygons.
TOPPING LEAD LOAD LEAD
BOTTOM PIVOT
LOAD
Figure 7-51. Chicago Boom.
BACK GUYS WELDED STEEL SHEER LEGS
SHEER HEAD LASHING
STEEL TUBE, WELDED BOX GIRDER, STRUCTURAL SHAPES, ETC.
GUYS GUYS
MAIN PURCHASE
PADEYES WELDED TO DECK
LASHED WOODEN SPARS
Figure 7-52. Field-Built Sheer Legs.
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7-6.4.4 Tripod. Tripods, like the one shown in Figure 7-53, are inherently strong, but cannot move a load horizontally. Tripods are of welded steel shapes or lashed wooden spars. The compression on any leg of the tripod is:
Compression W 3sin
where: W = = angle between a tripod leg and the horizontal load
7-6.4.5 Other Improvised Systems. Almost any type of crane or derrick can be improvised if structural plate, tubing, or shapes and basic metal fabrication equipment and skills are available. Some examples of simple weight handling systems are shown in Figure 7-54. Dimensions are selected to carry loads determined by vector analysis described above.
PURCHASE STROP CHEEKS PRYPOLE THUMB PIECE
HEAD LASHING
SPLAY TACKLE
SHOE
IMPROVISED TIMBER TRIPOD
COME-ALONG OR CHAIN FALL
PREFABRICATED, COLLAPSABLE, ADJUSTABLE HEIGHT TRIPOD
Figure 7-53. Tripods.
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MANUALLY SLEWED JIB CRANE MILD STEEL TUBE I-BEAM
FIELD BUILT SWIVEL-PIVOT FITTING MILLED OR GROUND FLATS LATHE TURNED STEEL BAR PIVOT BASE - HEAVY ROUND STOCK, CENTER HOLE DRILLED OR TURNED, FLAT MILLED OR SAW-CUT PRESS FIT BRONZE/BRASS BUSHING
FLAT BAR, ANGLE, PIPE, ETC.
PADEYES FOR TENDING LINES
PIVOT/ SUPPORT WELDED TO BULKHEAD
GUYS (3 - 4) BOOM FOOT BELOW STAY ANCHORAGES
PADEYE
FIXED STAYS (4 - 6)
WELDED PADEYE
I-BEAM
STEEL TUBE OR I-BEAM WITH TUBE BASE TO FIT SOCKET FIXED BASE OR SOCKET
FIELD BUILT DAVIT
BASKET DERRICK
Figure 7-54. Improvised Weight-Handling Systems.
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7-6.5 Purchases. A purchase is a device that multiplies the force exerted by a tensioned rope. Purchases consist of three basic parts:
Standing or xed block or blocks. Moving or traveling block or blocks attached to the load. Fiber line or wire rope rove between the sheaves of the xed and moving blocks. The rope is tensioned by hand (light tackle) or by a line-handling device. Figure 7-55 illustrates basic purchases. The purchase multiplies force (gains an advantage) because each part of the rope at the traveling block exerts the same tension on the block. The total force on the traveling block is the sum of the forces exerted by the individual parts of rope. The mechanical advantage of a purchase is the ratio of force generated by the purchase to the tension on the purchase rope. The theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) is the number of parts of rope led to the moving block. For example, a purchase rove with 3 parts at the traveling block has a theoretical mechanical advantage of 3, and develops 15 tons of force when the rope is tensioned to 5 tons. Theoretical advantage equals the ratio of the line speed to the load speed.
The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) is less than the TMA because of friction in the system. AMA must be known to determine the actual tension required on the purchase rope and can be calculated from:
AMA = W TMA = P 1 (kN)
where: W P N k = = = = weight lifted or load moved rope tension required to generate the force W number of sheaves in the system friction factor
The friction loss in the system depends on the number and condition of the sheaves and the amount of rope in contact with the sheaves. In general, friction factors are:
0.10 for ordinary sheaves in good condition, with the rope bending 180 degrees on the sheave. 0.06 for low friction blocks, such as those in heavy lift purchases. 0.15 to 0.25 for poorly lubricated or nonstandard blocks.
The reciprocal of the AMA is the lead line factor, a measure of the required line or winch pull as a proportion of the system load. The power put into a system equals the power expended by the system plus losses. Power is work done per unit time. Work is the product of force and distance, so power is the product of force and distance moved per unit time (velocity). For a purchase, power input is the product of rope tension and line velocity (Vr); power output is the product of force on the traveling block and its velocity (Vb). Setting the power input equal to power output:
PVr = WVb Vb = PVr W = Vr AMA
As the purchase is hauled, a point on the purchase rope travels a distance equal to the distance that the traveling block moves, multiplied by the number of parts led to the block (TMA). The length of purchase rope required is the desired block travel multiplied by the TMA plus the length required to engage the line tensioning gear (winch, capstan, etc.).
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SINGLE WHIP
RUNNER
LUFF
LUFF-ON-LUFF
GUN TACKLE
TWOFOLD
THREEFOLD
Figure 7-55.
Purchases.
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Very elaborate and powerful purchases, such as those shown in Figure 7-56, can be rigged with low-friction blocks.
BALANCING BLOCK 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13
STANDING BLOCK
11
10
WINCH
WINCH
10
11
12
RIGGING HEAVY TACKLES - SPANISH BURTON PRINCIPLE
HAULING PURCHASE 6 6
A WINCH
5 1 2 3 4 5
LIFTING PURCHASE 1 2 3 4 5 6
EQUALIZING SHEAVE
WINCH D 6 6
1250-TON TACKLE RIGGED FOR BOW LIFTING
Figure 7-56.
Heavy Purchases.
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7-6.6 Line-handling Equipment. Line-handling devices such as winches and capstans provide tractive force to lift and move weights and operate purchases. Figure 7-57 shows various line- handling and tensioning devices.
CAPSTAN
WILDCAT
FRICTION BRAKE LOCKING HANDWHEEL
DRIVE MOTOR
WINCH WITH GYPSY HEAD
WINDLASS WITH CAPSTAN
FLUSH DECK CAPSTAN
HAND-POWERED CHAIN HOIST
(LINEAR) HYDRAULIC PULLER
Figure 7-57. Line-Handling Equipment.
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7-7 ACCELERATION LOADS The basic load on a boom or crane is the weight lifted, including the weight of the hook, fall, slings, etc. Acceleration forces added to the static load determine the total load. Acceleration forces result from:
Platform motions, such as rolling. Initial acceleration of the load. Sudden impacts or snap loading.
Acceleration loads are found by application of Newtons second law of motion: w Fa = ma = a g c where: Fa a w gc = = = = force due to acceleration, lbf acceleration, ft/sec2 weight of suspended load, lbm constant = 32.2, lbm-ft/lbf-sec2
In most cases, a precise value for acceleration cannot be determined. Acceleration loads caused by changing hoisting speed are usually less than those caused by platform motions, and very small compared to loads resulting from sudden application of the brake. High-acceleration loads can result if the falls go slack and are suddenly re-tensioned, as when a load strikes the water or deck. Drag on suspended submerged objects can cause very high loads on hoisting gear as a ship rises to the seas. Permissible static load is determined by deducting from the permissible system load all known acceleration loads, or an assumed acceleration load of 10 percent of the static load, whichever is larger. If the line speed is known, acceleration caused by brake application can be approximated by assuming constant acceleration and estimating the time required for the brake to stop the winch drum: a = V t
where: V t = = line speed, ft/sec time required for brake to stop winch, sec
Tangential acceleration caused by rolling or pitching can be calculated from: a = 43d 180T 2
where: d T = = = radial distance from the axis of oscillation (pitch or roll) to the point of load application, ft angle of pitch or roll, degrees pitch or roll period, seconds
Loads resulting from fall slackening are very difficult to predict, but can be severe. Impact theories apply if the speed of the load relative to the boom head is known. Table 7-44 shows the results of series of hoisting tests made with varying amounts of slack in the fall. As the test results show, total load under snap-loading conditions can be more than three times the static load. Lifting systems must be operated to reduce acceleration loads.
Table 7-44. Snap Loading.

Hoisting Conditions Dynamometer reading, lbs Static Weight 3,670 11,300 Lifted Gently, With 5 Inches No Slack Slack 4,030 11,525 5,600 19,025 With 6 Inches Slack 8,960 25,750 With 12 Inches Slack 12,500 28,950
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7-8 DECK FITTINGS Lifting and pulling wires often are attached to existing deck ttings. Strength analysis shows limiting loads for the ttings and underlying foundations. 7-8.1 Bitts and Similar Fittings. Bitts, cleats, and bollards are analyzed as cantilever beams. Bending stresses in the tting itself, direct shear on the foundation and welds, and tensile stresses in the foundation and welds resulting from the bending moment on the tting are possible causes of failure. Bitts, cleats, and chocks for U.S. Navy ships are designed with a factor of safety of three on the materials ultimate tensile strength. The design load is the breaking strength of the largest ber line or wire rope used on the tting, applied where it creates the largest moment. The design line of the tting is determined by inspection. The belaying surfaces of bitts and cleats and the riding surfaces of chocks have a minimum radius of one-half the circumference of the largest ber line, or ve times the diameter of the largest wire rope used on the tting. Openings in chocks are sized to pass a thimbled eye splice and two parts of the largest line used with the tting. Table 7-45 lists safe working loads for various sizes of Navy bitts. The strength of deck ttings on merchant ships is similar to those on Navy ships. Tables 7-46 and 7-47 give ASTM standards for bitts and cleats. Deck ttings on older ships may be designed for the breaking strength of manila, rather than nylon, lines. Because the design safety factor is taken on the ultimate strength, increasing load above designed load and reducing the safety factor may result in deformation. Deformation of a tting is dangerous because ropes or lines may slip off, even if the tting does not fail. 7-8.2 Padeyes. A padeye is a device fastened to a larger structure to provide a point to attach loads. There are three basic types of padeyes:
Table 7-45. Safe Working Loads for Navy Bitts (MIL-B-17397D).

Bitt Size (Barrel Diameter) in. 4 8 10 12 14 18 Safe Working Load lbs 23,000 60,000 100,000 164,000 265,000 375,000
Table 7-46. ASTM Standards for Steel Double Barrel Bitts.

Bitt Size (Barrel Diameter) in. 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Notes: 1. From ASTM STD 938-85, based on safety factor of 2 and material yield of 36 ksi (AISI grade 1030) 2. From ASTM STD 915-85, based on safety factor of 2 and material yield of 30 ksi (AISI grade 6030) Working Load at 1 2 Height, pounds Welded1 30,130 47,530 92,590 121,070 180,350 236,300 299,360 320,840 390,820 476,610 Cast2 29,450 47,210 86,650 114,020 159,120 210,970 271,380 313,390 355,560 430,020
Table 7-47. Steel Welded Horn-Type Cleat (ASTM STD F1074-87).

Rope Circumference in. Manila 1 4 3 5 6
3
Cleat size (distance across horns) in. 10 16 24 30
Rope Diameter in. Polypropelene 11 2 21 2 4 5

5
Nylon 1 2 3 31 2
Dacron 1 2 3 4
6 37 fiber core wire rope 16 2 8
Test Load lbs 4,100 9,000 23,000 36,000
1 5
Heavy deck-mounted padeyes, also called deck pads, for towing, ground tackle, or cargo handling,
Free-standing padeyes on decks, bulkheads, overheads, and external shell plating as tie-down points for moving weights, and Replenishment at sea (RAS) padeyes.
Padeyes installed on Navy ships have a label plate stating safe working load and last test date. Strength and dimensions of special-purpose padeyes and those that are part of operating systems are in the Ships Information Book (SIB).
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7-8.2.1 Deck Pads. There are three different types of deck mounted padeyes:
TENSION
Vertical, padeye,
free-standing
FULL PENETRATION WELDS
Horizontal padeye, and Towing bracket.

STIFFENER LONGITUDINAL DIPPED-SHACKLE TYPE DECK PLATE
Figure 7-58 shows two basic types of vertical free-standing padeye. The eye of the shackle pin-type padeye is a simple round hole designed to accept the pin of a connecting shackle. The eye of the dipped shackle-type padeye is elongated to permit passing the mortise of the shackle through and presenting the shackle pin to the terminal tting of the line to be attached. The bearing surface of the eye is rounded so the bow of the shackle bears evenly against it. If the pin of a shackle is put through the eye of a dipped shackle type padeye, the shackle pin and eye experience a large concentrated load because the contact area between the straight pin and rounded bearing surface of the padeye is very small. Padeyes carry tensile loads in the plane parallel to the plate. The line attached to a vertical padeye can swing freely through a vertical arc and without side-loading the padeye. Side-loaded padeyes are subject to bending and transverse shear, and fail by tripping, or lateral bending. Padeyes may be gusseted as shown in Figure 7-58 to resist side-loads. Side-loads on shackle pin-type padeyes are also undesirable because the shackle is racked laterally against the padeye, creating forces that tend to open the jaw of the shackle. Padeye thickness should be 75 to 80 percent of the shackle jaw opening to reduce racking loads. Shackles in dipped-shackle type padeyes are free to rotate under side-loads and avoid racking stresses.
TENSION GUSSET
FULL PENETRATION WELDS
STIFFENER
LONGITUDINAL SHACKLE-PIN TYPE
DECK PLATE
Figure 7-58. Vertical Free-Standing Padeye.
INTEGRALPIN PADEYE
CHAINSTOPPER PADEYE
Figure 7-59. Horizontal Padeyes.
Figure 7-59 shows two types of horizontal padeye. Horizontal padeyes allow the load to have horizontal freedom of motion. Vertical load components cause problems in horizontal padeyes similar to those caused by side-loading in vertical padeyes. The chain-stopper or shackle mating style accepts the pin of a screw-pin or safety shackle. This style of padeye is found on the forecastle of most Navy ships as the chain stopper padeye. The integral pin-style padeye has a screw-pin that threads into a recess in the base plate. Chain end links and wire rope or ber line hard eyes attach to the padeye without an intermediate connector. Removing the pin converts the padeye to a shackle mating style padeye. Towing padeyes may be either vertical or horizontal. Except for tugs, Navy ships have towing padeyes on the fantail (and sometimes on the forecastle). Navy towing padeyes are designed with a factor of safety of three on ultimate strength of material, based on breaking strength of the ships towing hawser. The type and size of the towing hawser is specied in the Ships Information Book (SIB). U.S. submarine towing padeyes are designed for an 80,000-pound applied load.
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7-8.2.2 Towing Bracket. The Smit Towing Bracket, shown in Figure 7-60, or a similar towing bracket, is installed on many merchant ships. The bracket consists of two vertical plates, similar to freestanding padeyes, with an elliptical pin tted between them. The pin ts the end link of the towing chain chang pendant. The brackets pin has a locking pin and striking bar. Releasing the locking pin and driving the striking bar with a sledge, to drive the pin out of the chain link, releases the chain without bringing it on deck. Like vertical padeyes, the towing bracket is sensitive to side-loading. 7-8.2.3 General-purpose Padeyes. Freestanding padeyes are installed on Navy ships in the number, location, and capacity necessary for convenient and rapid handling of stores and ammunition. Padeyes are installed over machinery and on outer shell plating for unshipping rudders and propellers.
TOP VIEW CONNECTING LINK AS APPROPRIATE PIN STRIKING BAR
SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW Figure 7-60. Smit Towing Bracket.
PIN IN OPEN POSITION
7-8.2.4 Replenishment at Sea (RAS) Padeyes. Replenishment at sea (RAS) padeyes are installed on bulkheads, masts, or kingposts on Navy and MSC ships to provide attachment points for replenishment rigs. The padeyes design loads are shown in Table 7-48. The Ships Information Book or Operations Handbook will specify the type of rig and safe working load for RAS padeyes.
Table 7-48. RAS/FAS Padeyes. Type of Rig Fueling at Sea (FAS) Rigs Close-in Spanwire Messenger Messenger fairlead Hose connecting Riding line Stream Spanwire Messenger Messenger fairlead Riding line Replenishment at Sea (RAS) Rigs Stream Burton Housefall Fiber highline All All All Highline inhaul/outhaul inhaul/outhaul 50,000 50,000 50,000 30,000 30,000 9,000 powered hand-tended tension in spanwire and inhaul/outhaul lines tension in whips tension in whips 30,000 8,000 8,000 5,000 6,500 36,000 8,000 8,000 15,000 tension in messenger, not necessarily direct load on pad padeyes and cleats padeyes and cleats tension in messenger, not necessarily direct load on pad to the long link Padeye Design Load, lbs Remarks
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7-8.2.5 Padeye Design. As shown in Figure 7-61, padeyes fail in tension, bearing, or shear. The eye opening must be large enough to accept the pin of a shackle of strength equal to that of the padeye. There must be enough metal around the eye to prevent failure in bearing or tension. Padeyes should be installed so that loads are in their own plane. Doubler plates and/or underdeck reinforcements spread the padeye loads through the ships structure. Padeyes should be located to take advantage of existing stiffeners. Example 7-2 illustrates design of a padeye.
As = 2Lt
L 80,000 lbs d t
t t L d _ >L t L
Ab = td BEARING (CRUSHING) SHEAR
_ 2Lt At >
TENSION
Figure 7-61. Padeye Design.
EXAMPLE 7-2 DESIGN OF A VERTICAL FREE-STANDING PADEYE
The vertical free-standing padeye shown in Figure 7-61 carries an 80,000pound horizontal load. Determine: Eye diameter, d Minimum padeye length, l Plate thickness, t Minimum weld length, l1, for weld thickness, T Minimum edge clearance, L Assume that the padeye, deck, and weld ller rod are mild steel with the following properties: Tensile yield strength, y = 32,000 psi Shear yield strength, y 0.65y 21,000 psi = 50,000 psi Bearing strength, b = 3 for plate tension, shear, and bearing Factor of safety (Fs) = 1.5 for weld shear Hole diameter, d, must be large enough to accept the pin of a shackle rated for 80,000 pounds. From Table 7-27, a 2-inch shackle has a breaking strength of 420,000 poundswith a safety factor of 5, the safe working load is 84,000 pounds. Pin diameter of the 2-inch shackle is 21 4 inches. Selecting 21 2 inches for d allows enough clearance to connect shackles easily. The free-body diagrams in Figure 7-61 show that plate thickness and hole diameter determine bearing area (Ab), and plate thickness and edge clearance determine tension, and shear areas (At, As). With hole diameter specied as 21 2 inches, minimum plate thickness is:
With t and d specied, the minimum edge clearance for failure in shear and tension are determined. The largest minimum edge clearance governs the padeye design. If the required edge clearance is too large for the shackle, a thicker or stronger plate is selected and edge clearances recalculated. (1) Failure in tension: Pt = yAt (Fs) = y2Lt (Fs) L = Pt (Fs) 2yt
L =
3(80,000) = 1.875 in 2(32,000)(2) yAs (Fs) = y2Lt (Fs) L =
(2) Failure in double shear: Ps =
Ps(Fs)
2yt
L =
3(80,000) = 2.857 in 2.9 in. 2(21,000)(2)
L is therefore 2.9 inches, or 3 inches for simpler fabrication. From Table 7-27, depth of a 2-inch shackle is 73 4 inches, leaving a 43 4-inch clearance with L = 3 inches.
The minimum weld length must be long enough to provide enough shear area for a weld of thickness T to carry the applied load. One-quarter-inch llet welds can be made quickly and reliably in the eld. The working load (Fs = 1.5) per linear inch of 1 4-inch mild steel llet weld is 2,500 pounds (see Paragraph 2-7.1). Minimum weld length is the applied load divided by strength per inch:
Pb = bAb = btd t =
Pb(Fs)
bd
3(80,000) t = = 1.92in use 2-inch plate (50,000)(2.5) Plate thickness must be less than the jaw opening of the design shackle. From Table 7-27, the jaw opening of a 2-inch shackle is 31 4 inches, so t = 2 inches is acceptable. Thickness should be about 21 2 inches to prevent racking of the shackle. Doughnut-shaped bearing plates are tack-welded to the padeye to increase thickness around the eye, or washers are used with the shackles.
I1 =
80,000 = 32 inches 2,500
The padeye must be long enough to provide enough contact area for a 32-inch weld. Total available weld length is:
I1 = 2I
2t I =
(I1 2
2t )
(32 2
4)
= 14 inches
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CHAPTER 8 RECOVERING BUOYANCY

8-1 INTRODUCTION
Removing floodwater, or dewatering, recovers buoyancy lost by flooding, as opposed to increasing buoyancy by removing cargo, stores, or other weights that were in the ship before the casualty. Floodwater is removed by pumping, compressed air, or by induced buoyancy methods that displace water with buoyancy objects. Leakage into spaces to be pumped must be reduced to less than available pumping capacity by patching and/or securing open valves and fittings. Submerged compartments can be pumped through cofferdams that extend the boundaries of the space above the waterline. The tops and sides of spaces to be dewatered with compressed air must be made airtight. Spaces dewatered with induced buoyancy need not be made watertight, but other preparations may be necessary. Each dewatering method has advantages and disadvantages; the general principles of each dewatering method are discussed in this chapter. Specific applications of buoyancy recovery methods are discussed in Chapter 5 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). 8-1.1 Selection of Spaces to be Dewatered. Factors in selecting spaces to be dewatered include:
Amount of buoyancy that can be recovered. Location. Effect on stability and trim. Effect on strength. Work and time required. Contamination of floodwater. Possible deterioration of machinery and cargo following dewatering.
8-1.1.1 Stability. Dewatering sequences must be chosen to ensure adequate stability after refloating. For ships stranded so that they can freely incline, it is important to maintain positive metacentric height (GM) and to avoid offcenter weight during dewatering. Removing all floodwater restores the ship to its precasualty condition, provided other weight changes are not made. If the ship was stable before flooding, it will be stable after dewatering. It may not have positive stability during dewatering or after partial dewatering. 8-1.1.2 Strength. As the casualty is dewatered, weight distribution and hull girder bending stresses will change. Dewatering a large space while an adjacent space remains flooded can create large shear forces at the compartment boundary. The ability of the bulkhead to withstand the hydrostatic pressure from one side only must also be determined. This is particularly important when dewatering sunken ships through cofferdams or pumping plates, where the hydrostatic head may be greater than the height of the compartment.
8-2 PATCHING NOTES
Patch construction and installation are discussed at length in Chapter 4 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). The following notes supplement the Salvage Manual discussion. 8-2.1 Patch Strength. distributed loads. Strength analysis for patches is based on relationships for strength of flat plates, beams, and stiffened plating under
Patches for minor leaks at depths less than 50 feet do not require strength analysis because the stiffness and toughness necessary for normal handling provides more than enough strength to withstand hydrostatic pressure. If the patch cannot be broken or torn by hand, it is strong enough.
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8-2.1.1 Unstiffened Patches. For strength analysis, unstiffened plate, plywood, or crossed-planking patches are equivalent to flat plates under uniform pressure. Two sets of boundary conditions apply:
FULL PENETRATION OR DOUBLE-BUTT WELDS
1/4" RUBBER OR LEAD GASKET STUDS OR THROUGH BOLTS
PATCH
Fixed edges Edges are attached to a ship structure in a manner that prevents rotation in planes perpendicular to the plate. The structure supporting the edges is rigid enough that deflection is negligible compared to patch deflection. Patches attached to heavy plating or near solid stiffeners, as shown in Figure 8-1, have fixed edges. Simply supported edges Edges are attached to ship structures in a manner that permits rotation in planes perpendicular to the plate, or to structures with deflection of the same order of magnitude as patch deflection. Patches attached by toggle bolts, or J-, L-, or T-bolts, with strongbacks, or with narrow overlap have simply supported edges.
6" MINIMUM FILLET WELD PATCH PATCH
6" MINIMUM
Figure 8-1. Patch Connections - Fixed Edge.
Table 8-1. Rectangular Plate Coefficient.
R/r
4 fixed edges 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 0.308 0.348 0.384 0.410 0.436 0.454 0.468 0.480 0.487 0.493 0.497 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 4 simply supported edges 0.287 0.332 0.376 0.416 0.450 0.487 0.517 0.545 0.570 0.590 0.610 0.713 0.741 0.748 0.750
k
1 fixed edge 0.500 2 short edges fixed 0.418 2 long edges fixed 0.418
0.670
0.490
0.626
It is possible for patches to have all fixed edges, all simply supported edges, or some simply supported and some fixed edges. Paragraph 2-5 gives strength relationships for flat plates under uniform loading for various boundary conditions: = kpr 2 t2 t = kpr 2 allow
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.730 0.750 0.750 0.750 0.750
0.497 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500
0.715 0.750 0.750 0.750 0.750
where: t p r k allow = = = = = = maximum stress in. patch, psi patch thickness, in. uniform pressure, psi length of short side, in. empirical coefficient, from Table 8-1 maximum allowable stress in patch material, psi
R = length of long side of plate r = length of short side of plate k = strength coefficient
Adapted from Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition, Avallone & Baumeister, 1987 and Mechanical Engineering Review Manual, Seventh Edition, Lindeburg, 1986
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Patch thickness in inches may be determined for specified depths by noting that pressure in psi is equal to 0.445D, where D is seawater depth in feet. Substituting 0.445D for p in the flat-plate stress equation and solving for t: t = where: D r allow = = = k(0.445)Dr 2(144in2/ft2) allow = 64kDr 2 allow
water depth, ft patch width, ft allowable stress in patch material, psi
Substituting the limiting values of k gives general-purpose relationships for the thickness of unstiffened patches for various end constraints: t = 32Dr 2 allow 48Dr 2 allow 4 fixed edges or 2 short edges fixed
t =
3 or 4 simply supported edges, or 2 long edges fixed
Allowable stress is the material yield stress divided by a factor of safety. For short-term use, a factor of safety of 1.5 is adequate, giving the following allowable stresses for the most common patching materials: Structural lumber Aluminum (shipbuilding) Mild steel GRP panels 30% fiber 65% fiber 1,500 psi 8,000 psi 24,000 psi 20,000 psi 33,000 psi
Yield stresses for specific material grades are tabulated in Appendix E. Patches for long-term service, including ocean tows, should be designed with a factor of safety of 2 (allowable stresses approximately 70 percent of the above values), and/or reinforced with concrete after dewatering. Patch material should be the next greatest standard size of lumber or plate available. Both wooden and steel patches may be doubled. Steel plates are doubled by plug-welding at close, regular intervals so the two plates act as a unit. Wooden planks are nailed, screwed, or bolted together. 8-2.1.2 Stiffened Patches. Stiffened patches can be treated as panels of stiffened plating or grillages under distributed lateral loading by the methods presented in Paragraph 2-5. The simplest solution is to assume simply supported edges and calculate the plating thickness by substituting trial stiffener spacing (l) for r in the plating thickness equation: t = 48Dl 2 allow
The patch strength curves in Chapter 4 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) are based on this relationship. The relationship assumes rigid-edge support, i.e., stiffener deflection is negligible compared to plate deflection. As a rule, stiffeners with deflection less than L/124 (where L is span length) meet the criterion for rigid support. In general, stiffener deflection is not governing in nonmarginal design, that is, where the safety factor is 3 or greater. After an acceptable stiffener spacing and plating thickness are determined, stiffener cross section is determined; either beam strength or deflection may govern. From Table 2-3, for end-supported beams under uniform loading: wL 2 plL 2 = Mmax = 12 12 Mmax = where: Mmax = w = = p = l = L = maximum beam bending moment, in-lbs uniform load per unit length, lb/in. pl hydrostatic pressure, psi stiffener spacing, in. beam length, in. wL 2 plL 2 = 8 8
(fixed ends)
(simply supported)
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Required section modulus determined from the beam strength formula: Mc M M = Z = = I Z allow where: M I c Z = = = = = = beam bending moment, in-lbs bending stress, psi moment of inertia, in4 distance from neutral axis to outer fibers, in. section modulus, in3 I/c
Moment of inertia for required stiffness is calculated from beam deflection relationships by setting deflection equal to L/124 and solving for I: wL 4 PlL 4 = (fixed ends) ymax = 384EI 384EI ymax = L 31plL 3 , I = 124 96E 5wL 4 PlL 4 = 5 384EI 384EI (simply supported)
ymax =
ymax = where:
L 155plL 3 , I = 96E 124
ymax = maximum beam bending moment, in-lbs w = uniform load per unit length, lb/in. = pl p = hydrostatic pressure, psi l = stiffener spacing, in. L = beam length, in. E = modulus of elasticity, psi I = moment of inertia, in4 Stiffener cross section is selected to meet the required section modulus or moment of inertia. If standard rolled steel shapes are being used, a matching value of I or Z can be selected from the tables in Appendix E, or the AISC Steel Construction Handbook. 8-2.1.3 Planks. Planks in built-up patches will act independently unless extensively stiffened. Plank dimensions are determined from the beam strength theory: M = where: M I b t c = = = = = = = = maximum beam bending moment, in-lbs bending stress, psi moment of inertia, in4 bt3/12 plank width, in. plank thickness, in. distance from neutral axis to outer fibers, in. 0.5t I bt 2 = c 6 t = 6M b allow
Excessive deflection makes it difficult to seal the edges of the patch. Planks should be dimensioned to limit deflection to less than L/124, as described in the previous paragraph.
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EXAMPLE 8-1 PATCH THICKNESS
a.
What is the required thickness of a 2-foot square, unstiffened, wooden patch installed at 33 feet with hook bolts? The patch is to be reinforced with concrete for ocean tow.
t =
48Dr 2 allow
where: D = 33 feet r = 2 feet allow = 24,000 psi
t =
where: D = 33 feet r = 2 feet allow = 1,500 psi
32(33)(2)2 24,000
= 0.420 inches
The patch should be built of plating thicker than 0.420 inch, e.g., 7 16-inch (0.4375) or 1 2-inch plate. c. = 2.06 inches If the only size plate available is 1 4-inch, what stiffener spacing is required for the patch in part b? The problem is solved by trial and error; try a single central stiffener (l = 1) for first estimate.
t =
48(33)(2)2 1,500
The patch thickness should exceed 2.05 inches. Select 3-inch (nominal) planking, with an actual thickness of 25 8 inches. b. What is the required thickness of a 2-foot-square, unstiffened, steel patch welded to solid hull structure at 33 feet? The patch is to be reinforced with concrete for ocean tow.
t =
32(33)(1)2 24,000
= 0.210 inches
t =
32Dr allow
0.210 < 0.25, so a single stiffener with 1 4-inch plate is acceptable.
8-2.2 Built-up Patches. If both shell plating and framing are torn away, a framework of steel angles or channels can be constructed to bridge the gap and tie into existing framing with welded or bolted connector plates. Plate panels are then attached in strakes to cover the hole and connect with the surrounding plating. The plates can be joined by welds or by gasketed, bolted lap joints. It is not necessary to recreate the hull contour precisely. When a damaged vessel must make a long transit to a repair yard, or is to return to service for some time before receiving permanent repairs, the time and effort required to install built-up plate or plank patches may be justified by their inherent strength and low drag. 8-2.3 Large Prefabricated Steel Patches. Simple steel patches can be prefabricated at the salvage site without industrial facilities. A jig, like the one shown in Figure 8-2, is built of steel structural shapes to match the contours of a window box or template. Narrow strips of light plating can be hammered into shape on the jig and welded together to form a developed surface, or smaller pieces of heavier plating laid over the jig and welded together to form a hydroconic shape.
INTERMEDIATE FRAMES APPROXIMATE HULL CONTOURS
8-2.4 Concrete. Concrete is a mixture of EDGE CONTOURS TO MATCH cement, aggregate (hard inert particles of WINDOW TEMPLATE varying size), and water. The cement-water mixture forms a paste that binds the Figure 8-2. Jig for Shaping Contoured Plate Patches. aggregate into a cohesive mass in a chemical process called hydration that takes place as the concrete sets. Hydration generates heat that may be considerable in large concrete masses. Strength develops as the concrete cures. The rate of strength development varies with concrete mix and environmental conditions. Setting and curing are retarded at temperatures below 50 degrees Fahrenheit, and accelerated at temperatures above 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Concrete surfaces should be kept moist for proper curing and development of full strength.
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8-2.4.1 Cement. There are several kinds of cement, but portland cement is preferred for underwater applications. There are five basic types and several special types of portland cement. Normal portland cement is the standard of comparison for portland cement. Concretes made with normal portland cement develop full strength in about 28 days and continue to strengthen for many years thereafter. Strength and curing times for other cements are described by comparing their 28-day strength to that of normal portland cement, or by specifying the curing time required to develop strength equal to normal portlands full strength. For all concretes, strength developed at less than 28 days is early strength. Although any of the portland cements can be used in salvage, three types are particularly well suited for salvage work:
Normal Portland Cement (Type I) For general use where special properties are not required. Generally available worldwide in developed areas. High-early-strength Portland Cement (Type III) Develops full strength in about seven days. The most suitable cement for most salvage work. Regulated-set Cements Special portland cements formulated to set and produce usable concrete strengths in times as short as one hour or less; well suited to salvage and repair work, but not always available.
Cement can be procured in bulk or in various packaging. Cement is most commonly packaged in 94-pound bags. 8-2.4.2 Aggregate. Concrete mixes include both fine and coarse aggregate. Fine aggregate consists of particles less than 1 4 inch across. Sand is generally used for fine aggregate, although ground rock and coral (from quarries, stone mills, etc) are acceptable. Coarse aggregate may be broken stone, gravel, slag, crushed coral, cinders, or similar hard, inert material. For best concrete workability and strength, fine aggregate should be well-gradedthat is, it should have relatively even proportions of a range of particle sizes, from very fine up to 1 4 inch. Sand for concrete should be sharp, clean, and free from organic matter, salt, silt, alkali, clay, and other impurities. If the individual particles are too smooth or rounded, the cement paste will not adhere to them strongly, producing a weak concrete. Fine dust, silt, or clay will coat the coarse aggregate and prevent the cement paste from adhering. Organic impurities, including coal, interfere with hydration and reduce concrete strength. Strength is also decreased by fine aggregate that exceeds the amount required to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate. The volume of fine aggregate should not exceed 60 percent of that of the coarse aggregate. Bagged sand for concrete mixing can be procured through various suppliers, or sand can be obtained from local sand and gravel pits. Unwashed beach sand is a poor aggregate because it is usually poorly graded, always salt-contaminated, often contains organic material, and the particles may be smooth and almost spherical. For most work, coarse aggregate particles should have a maximum diameter of 1 to 11 2 inches. Smaller particles increase strength, workability, and ability to flow. For large jobs, 3-inch or larger particles may be acceptable. Aggregate particle size should be limited to not more than onefifth the narrowest width between forms, one-third the thickness of slabs, or three-fourths the minimum clear spacing between reinforcing steel. Crushed stone or gravel provide a better bonding surface for the cement paste, and are better aggregates than smooth, rounded pit run gravel. Unit weight of the concrete is affected most by the weight and size of the coarse aggregate. Depending on the use and location of the concrete in the casualty, the salvor may desire to adjust the density of the concrete. Heavy aggregates include metal mill punchings, ferrophosphate, hematite, magnetite, barite, limenite, and other dense stones. Lightweight aggregatesthose with densities less than 70 pounds per cubic foot (pcf)include pumice, coral, lava, slag, burned clay or shale, and cinders. For a given aggregate, decreasing aggregate size decreases concrete unit weight. Table 8-2 gives typical densities for concrete using common aggregates. Table 8-2. Concrete Densities. 8-2.4.3 Water. Water for concrete should be free from oil, acid, alkali, organic matter, and similar contaminants. Water fit for drinking is satisfactory for mixing concrete, although considerably less pure water is also suitable. Water with less than 2,000 ppm dissolved solids will not significantly affect concrete properties. Seawater can be used in plain concrete, but will reduce 28-day strength by about 12 percent. Steel reinforcements, ferrous aggregates, and steel surfaces in contact with the concrete will corrode rapidly if seawater is used in the mixture. The expansion accompanying corrosion will introduce tensile stresses that crack and weaken the concrete. 8-2.4.4 Admixtures. Admixtures are substances added to concrete to alter normal properties to suit a particular purpose. Admixtures are used to increase workability, accelerate or retard setting, reduce shrinkage, or increase strength. Treated cements have had admixtures added during production. The principal admixtures are described below:
Aggregate Sand-cinder Burned clay or shale Gravel Limestone Sandstone Traprock Density pcf 112 105 148 148 143 155
Air entraining agents entrain air in small, closely spaced, separated bubbles in the concrete. The quantity of air entrained is expressed as a percentage of the volume of the concrete. Cements treated with air entraining agents are designated by the letter A following the type; for example, type IA. Air entrainment is employed chiefly to improve resistance of the finished concrete to freezing and thawing, but workability of the wet concrete is markedly improved. However, density and strength are also reduced; each percent of air entrainment reduces concrete strength by three to four percent.
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Accelerators decrease setting time and increase early strength, allowing the patch or other structure to be loaded sooner. Accelerators can compensate for the retarding effects of low temperature or of another admixture. Calcium chloride (commonly available as road salt) is the most commonly used accelerator, and can be used routinely in amounts of up to two percent of the weight of cement. In a two-percent concentration, calcium chloride reduces setting time by one-half, and increases workability; early strength is dramatically increased. In freezing weather, amounts of up to four percent of the weight of cement can be used. The calcium chloride is proportioned by dry weight, but is added to the concrete mix in solution with warm water. Ordinary bicarbonate of soda (one cup per bag of cement) can also be used as an accelerator. Retarders increase setting time. They are used in hot weather or where delays are likely between mixing and placing the concrete. Water reducers, or plasticizers, increase workability without increasing water content, which would reduce strength. When used as recommended by their manufacturers, water reducers increase concrete strength by about 15 percent. Fly ash, from coal-fired power plants, increases workability and strength. 8-2.4.5 Concrete Delivery. The relative merits of placing concrete by hand, tremie, concrete gun, and grouting pump are discussed in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). The pressurized concrete grouting pump, shown in Figure 8-3, is typical of those used by Navy Underwater Construction Teams (UCT). Pumped concrete requires a high proportion of fine aggregate, and has slightly less strength than tremie concrete. HOPPER SCREEN Coarse aggregate for pumped concrete should be rounded rather than angular, and less than 3 8 inch across. Tremie pipes are usually steel, but hard rubber hose or plastic pipe can be used. Aluminum alloy pipes should not be used because they may react with and weaken the concrete. Concrete setting time increases as temperature decreases. Concrete should be protected from freezing; the water will separate from the cement paste as it crystallizes, preventing proper setting and bonding.
Figure 8-3. Concrete Pump.
8-2.4.6 Concrete Consistency. Concrete consistency is defined by descriptive terms and the parameter slump. Slump is determined by filling a form shaped as a frustrum of a cone with the concrete. The form is upended and immediately removed. The slump is the subsidence of the mass below its height in the cone. The form has a base of 8-inch diameter, a top of 4-inch diameter, and a height of 12 inches. For the standard slump test, it is filled in three 4-inch layers; each layer is rodded by 25 strokes of a 5 8-inch, bullet-pointed rod. Table 8-3 gives descriptive terms for concrete consistencies adopted by the American Concrete Institute. For underwater placement, the mix should be as stiff as possible to obtain maximum strength and mitigate the weakening effects of water dilution. The concrete must be workable enough to flow into all parts and completely fill the form, and to be compatible with the selected delivery method, however. Workability and strength are to some extent conflicting requirementsincreasing water content increases workability but decreases strength. Concrete placed by tremie or pump should be of a medium to wet consistency to avoid clogging the pump or pipe. Medium or wet mixes are used to ease placement and ensure good bonding to complex surfaces. Plasticizers can be used to obtain workability without adding water.
Table 8-3. Concrete Consistency.

Slump in.
Consistency
Remarks
Dry
0-1
Crumbles and falls apart unless carefully handled; can be consolidated into solid mass under vigorous ramming, heavy pressure, or vibration, but will contain voids unless special care is used. Pile tends to stand upright when dumped; holds together well, but crumbles if chuted; can be tamped into solid mass with care and effort. Easily molded, but some care required to achieve complete consolidation; also called plastic, mushy, or quaking. Pile flattens readily when dumped; can be poured into place. Grout or mortar tends to run out of pile, leaving coarser material behind.
Stiff
2 - 2 1 2
Medium
2 - 5 1 2
Wet Sloppy
5-8 7 - 10
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8-2.4.7 Concrete Proportioning. Optimum proportions of cement, aggregate, and water in a concrete mixture depend on the desired strength and workability of the concrete. Other factors include coarse aggregate size, and the general rule that concrete placed through water should contain at least 7 bags of cement per cubic yard of concrete, and 11 2 to 2 times as much coarse aggregate as fine aggregate (pumped mixes do not follow this rule). For a given aggregate and cement type, concrete strength is controlled primarily by the water-cement ratio. Decreasing water content increases concrete density and strength so long as the concrete remains workable enough to be placed. Increasing water content increases workability, but decreases both strength and the rate at which strength develops. Table 8-4 gives 28-day compressive strength for various water-cement ratios, as determined by the American Concrete Institute (ACI). Table 8-5 shows the effect of increasing watercement ratio on early strength. As a general rule, water-cement ratio should be less than about 0.45 by weight. The effects of aggregate size are described in Paragraph 8-2.4.2 above, but aggregate size is often dictated by availability. Once the maximum aggregate size has been determined, the water content needed to produce the desired slump can be estimated from Table 8-6. Once water content has been determined, cement content is calculated from the desired water-cement ratio. The volume of coarse aggregate per cubic yard of concrete is estimated from Table 8-7. The volume of sand per cubic yard can be estimated by summing the weights determined for water, cement, and coarse aggregate, and deducting the sum from 4,000 pounds, the approximate dry weight of a cubic yard of concrete. For ordinary aggregates (coarse aggregate less than 11 2-inch, well-graded sand) the concrete mixes listed in Table 8-8 are adequate for salvage patching. 8-2.4.8 Concrete Strength. Table 8-4 gives the basic compressive strength of concrete as a function of the water-cement ratio. Tensile strength is about 8 percent of the compressive strength, and shear strength (direct shear) is about 20 percent.
Table 8-4. Concrete Compressive Strength.

Water-cement ratio Gal per sack 4 5 6 7 8 9 Average 28-day Compressive Strength, psi By weight 0.35 0.44 0.53 0.62 0.71 0.80 Nonair-entrained 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,200 2,500 2,000 Air-entrained 4,800 4,000 3,200 2,600 2,000 1,600
Table 8-5. Variation of Concrete Compressive Strength with Age.

Water-cement ratio Gal per sack 5 7 9 Compressive Strength, percent of 28-day strength 3 days 40 30 25 7 days 75 65 50 28 days 100 100 100 3 months 125 135 145 1 year 145 155 165
From American Concrete Institute, Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for Concrete, ACI 613-54
Table 8-6. Water Content.

Slump in:
3
2
3
1 1 2
Water, lb/yd for indicated nominal aggregate size, in. Nonair-entrained concrete 1-2 3-4 6-7 350 385 410 335 365 385 315 340 360 300 325 340 275 300 315 260 285 300 220 245 270 190 210 --
Air-entrained concrete 1-2 3-4 6-7 305 340 365 295 325 345 280 305 325 270 295 310 250 275 290 240 265 280 205 225 260 180 200 --
Table 8-7. Aggregate Volume.

Nominal aggregate size, in. 3 8 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 2 2 3 6 Volume of dry coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete 0.47 0.56 0.63 0.68 0.72 0.75 0.79 0.84
Table 8-8. Concrete Mixes.

Placement Method Item Portland cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate Water Slump Compressive Strength 2 parts 3 parts 3 - 5 parts 4 to 6 gal/bag of cement varies varies, see Table 8-4 By Hand Concrete Pump 2 parts 6 parts 1 part 5 gal/bag of cement 6 in 3,000 psi Tremie or Gun 4 parts 7 parts 10 parts 5 gal/bag of cement 6 in 4,000 psi
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8-2.4.9 Dimensioning Concrete Patches. Because of concretes low tensile strength, unreinforced patches should be dimensioned so that hydrostatic loads are borne in direct shear; in other words, thickness should be significant compared to length and width. Direct shear stresses are calculated by: S = A where: = shear stress, [force/area] S = shear force acting on the section in question, [force] A = cross-sectional area, [length2]
The cross section of most concrete patches is roughly rectangular, so A = bt, where b is width and t thickness. Width is determined by the size of the damage. Solving for t: S t = b allow where: allow = allowable shear stress = 0.2c, [force/area] c = compressive strength, [force/area]
To ensure that flexural stresses are within acceptable limits, the beam strength formula can also be solved for t: Mc bt 3 t , Irectangle = , c = height of neutral axis = max = I 12 2 6M b allow
t = where: max = M
maximum bending stress, [force/area] = bending moment, [force-length]
I allow =
= moment of inertia, [length4] allowable tensile stress = 0.08c, [force/area]
For patches placed on bottom plating, the weight of the concrete acts opposite the hydrostatic force, reducing the net load on the patch. An iterative solution is required to find the optimum patch thickness; shear force and bending moment vary with patch thickness and weight, but conservation of concrete is seldom critical. Patches can be reinforced with steel reinforcing bar, wire mesh, structural shapes, or strips of plate. Reinforcing steel is placed near the inside surface of the patch (the tension side of the beam), or near both inside and outside surfaces. The steel is assumed to carry 100 percent of the tensile load. Reinforcing members should be covered by at least 11 2 to 2 inches of concrete and should run the length of the patch. Holes or deep scorings should be cut along the length of plating and structural shapes used for reinforcing steel to ensure the concrete bonds to the relatively smooth surface. Section moment of inertia and height of the neutral axis calculations are based on the transformed area, as described in Paragraph 2-8.1. The modulus of elasticity of concrete varies from two to five million psi. For the concrete mixes used in salvage, modulus of elasticity can be taken conservatively as three million psi, giving a concrete-to-steel elastic ratio of about 0.10. The nominal moment carrying capacity of a reinforced beam is: Mn = Td = Cd where: Mn T y C = = = = = = = nominal maximum allowable bending moment, [force-length] maximum allowable tension, [force] Asteely yield stress of the steel, [force/area] maximum allowable compression, [force] 0.85(assumed compression area)c 0.85bcc b = c = d = = s = patch width, [length] distance from neutral axis to compression side of patch, [length] distance from reinforcing steel to center of assumed compression area s - 0.5(0.85c) = s - 0.475c distance from reinforcing steel to compression side of patch, [length]
8-2.5 Fiber Composites. Glass-reinforced plastic (commonly called fiberglass or GRP) patches are fabricated from preformed, flat panels or are laid up on site from the base ingredients (glass fiber and resin). Other high-strength fibers, such as polyaramid (Kevlar) and graphite, are becoming more available, both as prefabricated panels and as fibers in forms suitable for field fabrication. Fiber-reinforced patches offer the following advantages:
High strength-to-weight ratio. Nearly neutrally buoyancy (metal or wooden stiffeners will make the patch either heavy or light). Patches can be matched to complex shapes in the absence of industrial facilities.
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8-2.5.1 Composite Panels. Fibercomposite panels offer an alternative to wood and steel as patching material. GRP panels can be drilled, filed, sawn, and ground. They are difficult to punch or shear without cracking and cannot be hammered or permanently bent. Thin sheets can be bent and held to large radius, smooth curves. Fiber-composite panels are used in essentially the same manner as plywood panels. Flat and corrugated solid composite panels can be ordered in various sizes in thicknesses up to one inch or more. Sandwich panels, consisting of a wood, urethane foam, honeycomb, or fluted core, covered by two composite layers are also available. Sandwich panels are stiffer than flat panels of comparable strength. Solid and sandwich panels can be obtained with bonded wood, steel, aluminum, or preformed composite stiffeners. Stiffeners can be attached on site by bolting or bonding with epoxy resin. Honeycomb panels with cores made of paper or cardboard should be avoided. If they are to be used, the edges and inside surfaces of any holes must be well sealed to prevent the core from softening and collapsing when immersed.
HOLE IN PLATING PLATING CLEANED TO BARE METAL 2" FOR EACH GRP LAYER
FIRST LAYER OF RESIN IMPREGNATED WOVEN ROVING
8-2.5.2 GRP Lay-up. GRP patches can SUBSEQUENT be laid up to the desired size or shape on RESIN/ROVING site. The resin-fiber lay-up process yields LAYERS best results when performed in environment-controlled shops, but can achieve acceptable results in very primitive surroundings. Some epoxy resins will bond and cure underwater, but there is no reliable method of ensuring proper resin Figure 8-4. GRP Patch Lay-Up. impregnation of immersed fibers. Some manufacturers produce small panels of fabric pre-impregnated with a resin that can cure underwater, primarily intended as pipe-patching medium. These two factors limit the use of large fiber-reinforced, composite patches to situations where the fiber lay-up process can be performed dry:
Direct lay-up of patches over openings above the waterline and in piping systems where liquid flow can be temporarily secured. Topside fabrication of patches or panels to cover submerged openings.
Other uses include sheathing of prefabricated wooden patches to add strength and ensure watertightness and edge-sealing of mechanically fastened patches. The raw components of GRP are fine glass fibers and an impregnating resin. The resins are normally supplied in two partsa resin base and a catalyst, or hardener. Some resins have been formulated that use water as a hardening agent. Fibers are produced in various forms for resin lay-up, but heavyweight cloth or woven roving are best for salvage patches. Both polyester and epoxy resins are used. Epoxies are stronger than polyester resins but more expensive and harder to use because they are more affected by temperature differences. Either resin type can be applied over the other but only after the basic layer has set hard. Most resins require an ambient temperature of 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit to cure properly. Fabric (woven roving or cloth) lay-up is a relatively straightforward process. For prefabricated panels or shapes, a layer of woven roving is laid down over a mold. Twenty-four ounce or heavier woven roving is best for most salvage patches. For flat panels, the "mold" is any flat, reasonably smooth surface of sufficient size, covered with a sheet of plastic to prevent the patch from bonding to the surface. For complex shapes, a lightweight jig of wooden lathes can be built. If industrial services are available, patches can be built to order.
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The layer of woven roving is impregnated with the resin. The resin should be daubed on rather than brushed to avoid disturbing the fabric. A plastic squeegee or paint roller is used to smooth the fabric, remove trapped air, and work the resin into the fabric. The fabric should have a thoroughly wet appearance. Just enough resin to completely impregnate the fabric is used; too much resin will reduce the strength of the lay-up. After the resin has set for the time specified by the manufacturer, an additional layer of fabric is laid up in the same manner. The process is repeated until the desired thickness is reached. GRP panels laid up in this manner will have 30to 50-percent fiber. A patch laid up directly over an opening must be properly bonded to the edges. The bonding area must be absolutely clean for the resin to bond properly. All paint, oil, rust, etc., must be removed down to bare metal. The bonding area should be roughened with coarse sandpaper and washed with acetone. Resin is applied to the bonding area before the woven roving is laid over the opening. The first layer of woven roving should overlap the edge of the hole by two inches or more. Subsequent layers should extend two inches beyond the previous layer on all sides. Figure 8-4 illustrates this process. Stiffeners can be added to fiber composite patches to prevent excessive deflection under water pressure or during handling. Stiffeners may consist of wooden timbers, steel or aluminum structural shapes, or preformed fiber composite top hat sections, as shown in Figure 8-5. The stiffeners can be embedded in the panel as it is laid up, bonded to the surface by resin adhesive and or resin-fiber fillet angles, bolted to the panel, or secured to the panel by resin-fiber layers laid up over the stiffeners and panel. Stiffener surfaces must be clean and prewetted with resin to properly bond to the panel. 8-2.6 Salvage and Collision Mats. Mats placed outside the hull can be effective in restricting flooding through small, moderate, or fairly large holes until sturdier patches can be installed. Collision mats are large pieces of heavy fabric that can be held over a hole by means of working lines, as shown in Figure 8-6. The working lines should be led to capstans or turnbuckles, so the mat can be hogged tightly against the hull. Water pressure will help to seal a collision mat as the space is pumped down. Collision mats can be constructed and installed quickly and will conform to the contours of the hull.
SANDWICH PANELS
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PLYWOOD CORE
FOAM CORE (WITH COATED EDGES)
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HONEYCOMB CORE
LAMINATED FLUTED CORE EMBEDDED STIFFENERS
FLAT BAR
PIPE
TIMBER
TOP HAT
BONDED/BOLTED STIFFENERS
TOP HAT
"T"
ANGLE
FLAT BAR CHANNEL ETC.
FIBER-COMPOSITE LAID-UP OVER TIMBER STIFFENERS
2x4s
4x4 GRP FILLET ANGLE
2x6s
ETC.
SURFACE TO BE BONDED
RESIN PUTTY OR MAT LAY UP GRP PANEL
Figure 8-5. Fiberglass Panels and Reinforcement.
GROMMETS
WIRE ROPE OR FIBER LINES TO TOPSIDE FITTINGS
FOAM RUBBER OR OAKUM QUILTED BETWEEN 2 OR MORE LAYERS OF HEAVY CANVAS
WELDED PADEYE
BILGE KEEL GROMMETS CHAIN THROUGH FAIRLEAD TO TOPSIDE OR UNDER HULL TO OPPOSITE SIDE
Figure 8-6. Collision Mat.
LARGE "C" CLAMP
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A salvage mat is essentially a reinforced collision mat. A typical salvage mat is shown in Figure 8-7. The timbers add longitudinal strength and stiffness to the mat, while allowing it to conform to transverse bends. The thick padding aids in sealing small deformations. Salvage mats are used when it is impossible or undesirable for divers to work near the hull to install built-up patches, and it is not practical to construct or install a prefabricated patch. 8-2.7 Handling Moderate-to-large Patches. Patches are either built on site or built at a better equipped facility and transported to the salvage site. Wherever the patch is built, it must be installed at the salvage site, under existing conditions, with the manpower and equipment available. Salvage site conditions, particularly the availability of material handling equipment, may severely limit the weight and bulk that can be handled. It may be necessary to design large, complex patches in sections that are within the limits that can be handled and assembled on site. Major problems and delays may be created if patch handling and installation are not considered from the outset. Patches should always be handled by gear on board the casualty. Handling the patch from a vessel alongside will result in relative motion between the patch and the vessel, making patch-fitting more difficult, hazarding divers, or damaging the patch. Small- and moderate-sized steel or aluminum patches can be made neutrally buoyant to ease handling by divers. The easiest way to adjust the patches buoyancy is by gluing on strips of closed-cell rubber foam. The amount of foam necessary is determined by trial and error.
1 1/2" DIAMETER ROPE
2 - 3" SPACING
STAPLES
3 x 12" PLANKS
MAT - CANVAS FILLED WITH FOAM, OAKUM, BATTING, ETC. 8" THICK SPIKES
Figure 8-7. Salvage Mat.
Chainfalls or purchases rigged to padeyes or other points around the perimeter of the patch greatly simplify the problem of positioning the patch. With three or more chainfalls, divers can precisely position the patch and bring it in parallel to the hull surface. This is the only practical method to place large buoyant patches, or to match studs and bolt holes on large patches. 8-2.8 Structural Patches. If a patch is to restore structural as well as watertight integrity, it should be a butt-welded insert plate, or should overlap sound plating by at last 30 times the plating thickness (30t). An overlapping plate patch should be fillet-welded from both sides (it is usually permissible to wait until the space is dewatered to weld the inside fillet). External stiffeners should be positioned directly opposite frames or longitudinals, and fillet-welded to the hull plating. As described in Paragraph 2-11, the ends of the stiffeners are cut off at a slope of 6:1 or shallower to minimize stress concentration. Internal stiffeners should be arranged and tied into intact framing. Plating and stiffener dimensions are based on hull girder loads, as well as hydrostatic pressure. Properly made, bolted lap or strapped butt joints are very strong and rigid, but it is very difficult to attach large patches with structurally effective bolted connections:
The bolts must be nearly body-bound and torqued firmly and uniformly so they share loads evenly. The patch contours must be matched very closely to those of the surrounding shell plating. A thick gasket will allow the patch to work and shirk load, so watertightness must be attained by caulking (upsetting the lap edge with a chisel or caulking iron), by sealing with an epoxy or polymer compound, or with a very thin gasket.
If underwater welding is not feasible, and hull girder loading will permit, it is better to close the space with a temporary, nonstructural box patch, and fit a structural plate and stiffener repair from inside the dewatered space.
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8-3 PUMPS AND PUMPING The primary use of pumps in salvage is to move large quantities of water without regard to the discharge pressure. Pumping is preferred over other dewatering methods for the following reasons:
Pumps are relatively easy to use. Pumps can be rigged rapidly. Large volumes of water can be moved with a high degree of efficiency using compact, portable equipment. Water levels and dewatering rates can be controlled with relative precision. Pumping requires less preparation and set-up time than other dewatering methods.
Pumps are also used for ballasting, deballasting, and removing or shifting liquid and slurried materials. The following paragraphs discuss characteristics of various types of pumps and their application to salvage pumping. 8-3.1 Pump Theory and Terminology. Pump terminology is based on the concept of head. Head is a measure of the energy possessed by the liquid because of its pressure (pressure head), velocity (velocity head), or elevation above a datum (static head). Head is most commonly expressed in units of distance (height) or pressure. The sum of pressure, velocity, and static heads is constant throughout an ideal (frictionless) system, as stated by Bernoullis modification of the general energy equation for incompressible flow: P1 where: P = pressure head, [length] = Hp V1
2
2g
z1 =
P2
V2
2g
z2
V = 2g z P V g = = = = =
velocity head, [length] = Hv elevation above datum, or static head, [length] fluid pressure, [force/ length2] fluid velocity, [length/time] acceleration due to gravity, [length/time2] weight density of the fluid, [force/length3]
FRICTION HEAD (APPROX. 20% TOTAL HOSE LENGTH) TOTAL HEAD STATIC DISCHARGE HEAD DISCHARGE STATIC DISCHARGE HEAD PUMP STATIC SUCTION LIFT WATER LEVEL WATER LEVEL
In the English system, pressure is usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi) and density in pounds per cubic foot. A conversion factor of 144 in2/ft2 must be used to obtain pressure head in feet: 144P Hp = where: H P = = = head, feet of liquid pressure, psi fluid density, lb/ft3
SUCTION
(POSITIVE) SUCTION HEAD
PUMP
Figure 8-8. Pumping Heads.
Densities of various liquids and variation of water density with temperature and pressure are tabulated Appendix E. Additional head terms are used to describe work done by the pump or energy available to the pump (because of the system configuration), and pump operating characteristics and requirements. These terms are described in the following paragraphs and illustrated in Figure 8-8.
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8-3.1.1 Atmospheric Head (Ha). Atmospheric head is the atmospheric pressure expressed as feet of the pumped liquid: Ha = 144 Pa
Water Ethyl Alcohol Turpentine Diesel Fuel (typical) Heavy Oils
Table 8-9. Vapor Pressures at 68 oF. Liquid Vapor Pressure, psi 0.34 0.85 0.0077 0.041 0.042 0.030
For seawater at normal atmospheric pressure: Ha = (144 in 2/ft 2)(14.7 lb/in 2) = 33 ft (64 lb/ft 3)
8-3.1.2 Vapor Pressure Head (Hvp). Vapor pressure head is the fluid vapor pressure expressed as feet of the pumped liquid: Hvp = 144 Pvp
Vegetable Oil
Table 8-10. Friction Factors. Type of Hose or Pipe 10" Navy salvage hose 6" Navy salvage hose 3" Navy salvage hose 10" smooth pipe 6" smooth pipe 3" smooth pipe Rough pipe Darcy-Weisbach factor (f) 0.025 0.026 0.018 0.015 0.017 0.013 0.06
For seawater at 68 degrees Fahrenheit, Pvp = 0.34 psi, and: Hvp = 144 (0.34) 64 = 0.765 ft
Vapor pressures for some common liquids at 68 degrees Fahrenheit are given in Table 8-9. An expanded list is included in Appendix E. 8-3.1.3 Static Suction Head (Hs). Static suction head is the vertical distance between the liquid surface and the pump inlet. If the pump is above the liquid surface, suction head is negative. When working against negative suction head, or suction lift, a pump must create a vacuum so that the pressure differential between the liquid surface and the suction side of the pump is sufficient to lift the liquid, overcome vapor pressure in the pump casing and friction in the suction line, and accelerate the liquid. Maximum suction lift is equal to the atmospheric head (Ha) less vapor pressure head (Hvp), and friction head in the suction line (Hfs): Max Suction Lift = Ha - Hvp - Hfs Actual suction lifts will be slightly less because of work required to accelerate the liquid and losses due to pump inefficiencies. The maximum practical suction lift for seawater at atmospheric pressure is about 25 feet for most centrifugal pumps; positive-displacement pumps can achieve slightly higher lifts. For efficient pump performance, suction lift should be minimized; below 15 feet if possible. Most centrifugal pumps must be primed to achieve any suction lift.
Table 8-11. Obstruction Factors. Fitting Globe valve, wide open Angle valve, wide open Gate valve, wide open half open Strainer Smooth bend Short radius elbow Long radius elbow Obstruction factor (K) 10 5
0.19 5.6 2 0.3 0.9 0.6
Adapted from Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe, Crane Co. Technical Paper 409, 20 May 1942
8-3.1.4 Static Discharge Head (Hd). Static discharge head is the vertical distance from the pump to the point of free discharge, and represents the energy the pump must impart to the liquid to raise it to that height in an ideal system. If the discharge is submerged, static discharge head is measured to the liquid surface.
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8-3.1.5 Friction Head (Hf). Friction loss in a real system is equivalent to lifting the liquid an additional height in a frictionless system. Head required to overcome friction in pipes, hoses, valves, fittings, etc., is sometimes given as pressure drop, or head loss, as a function of flow rate and length for specific types of hose, pipe, or fittings. Friction head can also be calculated as a function of velocity head, as in the DarcyWeisbach formula: Hf = where: f L D V g = = = = = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, dimensionless length, ft diameter, ft flow velocity, ft/sec acceleration due to gravity, ft/sec2 32.2 ft/sec2 fLV 2 2Dg
For laminar flow (Re 2000), = 64/Re, where Re is the dimensionless Reynolds () number: Re = DV = DV
with kinematic viscosity (), fluid density (), and absolute viscosity (), expressed in units consistent with the units of velocity and diameter. Friction head is a function of fluid velocity, flow area, and surface roughness; for a given flow diameter, friction head increases with flow rate. Friction factors can be taken from Figure 8-9; factors for some common hoses and pipes are given in Table 8-10. The values given assume turbulent flow at a velocity corresponding to the capacity of the same sized Navy salvage pump. Friction loss in valves, fittings, and other obstructions is normally expressed as a function of velocity head: Hf = K
FRICTION FACTOR (f)
0.070 0.060 0.050 0.045 0.040 0.035 0.030 0.025

5 3 5 10 20 3 1 EX TR EM EL YR OU GH
PIP ES
V2 2g
where K is an obstruction loss factor taken from Table 8-11. More extensive lists of friction factors or friction loss tables can be found in pipefitter or civil engineering handbooks. Friction loss, or head, can also be calculated by the Hazen-Williams or Manning formulas. If unknown, friction head can be taken as not more than 20 percent of the total length of suction and discharge piping or hose for most salvage applications. 8-3.1.6 Total Dynamic Head Required (TDHR). Total dynamic head required is a measure of the energy necessary to move the liquid through the system to the desired discharge. This measure is equal to discharge head, plus friction head, less suction head: TDHR = Hd + Hf - Hs
0.020 0.018 0.016 0.014 0.012 0.010 0.009 0.008 0.007

1/ 2
10
20 FT PE RS EC
1 5 RO VE 20 UG LO HP CIT IPE YF S TP ER SE C 3 5 FA 10 SM IRL O Y 1 PIP OTH 20 ES EX TR 3 EM EL 5 SM Y OO 10 TH 20 PIP ES
4
INCHES
12
24
DIAMETER OF CIRCULAR, OR SIDE OF SQUARE, PIPE
Figure 8-9. Friction Factors for Pipe Flow.
As negative suction head (suction lift) increases, TDHR is increased. Power used to overcome suction lift is not available to impart energy to the pumped liquid; discharge capacity and/or head are reduced.
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If the pump is below the surface of the liquid to be pumped, there is a positive hydrostatic pressure on the inlet side of the pump; no work is required to raise the liquid to the pump. The positive suction head represents increased pump capacity as reflected by the reduced TDHR. Figure 810 shows the effect of positive suction head on a typical centrifugal pump. 8-3.1.7 Total Dynamic Head Available (TDHA). Total dynamic head available is a measure of the total energy imparted to the fluid by the pump, and is equal to the sum of pressure and velocity head at the pump outlet: TDHA = Hp + Hv 8-3.1.8 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH). Net positive suction head is the absolute suction pressure, less vapor pressure at the pump inlet, under actual pumping conditions. It is the sum of atmospheric head and static suction head, less vapor pressure head and friction head in the suction lines: NPSHA = Ha + Hs - Hvp - Hfs
DISCHARGE HEAD
POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD
WITH 0 SUCTION HEAD
CAPACITY Figure 8-10. Effect of Positive Suction Head.
Net positive suction head required (NPSHR) is a measure of the minimum fluid energy necessary for satisfactory pump operation and is usually specified by the pump manufacturer. NPSHR is a means of quantifying the work required to accelerate the liquid and other losses. Some pump manufacturers prefer to define net inlet pressure required (NIPR); NPSH multiplied by fluid density gives net inlet pressure (NIP). If NPSHA is less than NPSHR, the pump will lose suction; before losing suction, centrifugal pumps may cavitate, causing noise, vibration, and possible pump damage. In the absence of manufacturers data, NPSHR can be estimated from Thomas cavitation parameter: NPSHR = H where: H = = Thomas cavitation parameter, dimensionless (first stage) discharge head, in the same units as NPSHR
Thomas parameter is estimated from:

4
K NS 106
NS =
N Q
3
where: K = = NS = 6.3 for a single-suction pump 4.0 for a double-suction pump pump specific speed, rpm H Q N = = = first stage discharge head, ft first stage volumetric discharge rate, gpm pump speed at which H and Q are measured, rpm
8-3.2 Pump Classification. Pumps are classified by their design and operating features:

8-16
Movement that causes the pumping action. Submersible or nonsubmersible. Characteristics of the fluid pumped. Flow characteristics. Self-priming or nonself-priming. Constant or variable speed. Variable or constant capacity.
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Table 8-12. Pump Characteristics.

Characteristic Flow rate Pressure rise per stage Constant variable over operating range Self-priming Outlet stream Works with highviscosity fluids Displace- Centrifugal ment and Axial low high flow rate yes pulsing yes high low pressure rise no steady no Jet high low -yes steady yes
Table 8-13. Advantages and Disadvantages of Pump Power Sources.

Drivers Advantages Pump and driver form compact unit. No requirement to string power leads or hoses. Disadvantages Higher weight-to-capacity ratio than nonself-contained pumps. Toxic engine exhaust and intake air requirements must be dealt with when placed below decks. Hot engine surfaces and spark sources are hazard in flammable atmospheres. Higher weight-to-power ratio than other types of engines.
Self-contained drivers
Diesel engine
Reliable. Variable speed. Self-contained High flash point fuel.
Major pump types are:
Dynamic pumps, including centrifugal, axial-flow, and mixed-flow pumps. Positive-displacement pumps, including diaphragm, rotary, and reciprocating pumps. Jet pumps and air lifts.
Gasoline engine Lighter than diesel pumps. Variable speed. Better cold weather starting than diesel engines. Gas turbine High power-to- weight ratio.
Spark-producing. Low flash point/explosive fuel. Very high temperature exhaust. Not all gas turbines are suitable for use in marine environment.
Nonself-contained drivers
Higher capacity-to-weight ratio than self-contained Power leads and hoses are trip hazard and pumps. may interfere with closures. No exhaust; no intake air requirement. Power source not always available on Power unit (compressor, HPU, generator, etc.) can casualty. be centrally located on casualty or left on vessel alongside. Higher capacity-to-weight ratio than electric pumps. Hazards of high-pressure hydraulic oil. Intrinsically safe. Hydraulic power not available on most ships; fittings may not be compatible. Power units bulky and heavy. Power available on casualty if plant is operational; available on most assisting vessels. Electrical shock hazard. May not be intrinsically safe. Lower capacity-to-weight ratio than hydraulic pumps. Hazards of high-pressure air. Drive air exhausting into closed space can cause overpressure. Exhaust steam may cause static discharge.
Hydraulic
Table 8-12 gives general characteristics of each type of pump. 8-3.3 Prime Movers. Most pumps can be driven by any type of power source. The most common power sources are:
Electric
Diesel or gasoline engines. Electric motors. Hydraulic motors. Steam. Fluid flow (jet pumps and air lifts). Gas turbines. or pneumatic
Pneumatic
Intrinsically safe. Power source available on most ships. Many are intrinsically safe. Can be operated on compressed air. Available power source on steam ships and many tankers.
Steam
POSITIVEDISPLACEMENT PUMP
8-3.4 Positive-displacement Pumps. Positive-displacement pumps discharge a specific volume for each stroke or revolution; at a constant speed, capacity is essentially the same for any pressure within the capability of the driver and strength of the pump. At some discharge heads (pressure), the power required to maintain pump speed will exceed the capacity of the prime mover; as the pump slows and eventually stalls, capacity falls off rapidly, as shown in Figure 8-11. In practice, some component of the pump or piping system will fail before the prime mover is overloaded. To avoid failure, a relief valve may be installed in the discharge line.
DISCHARGE HEAD
Table 8-13 gives advantages and disadvantages of each type of prime mover for salvage use.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
CAPACITY Figure 8-11. Discharge Head and Pump Capacity.
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8-3.5 Dynamic Pumps. Dynamic and jet pumps operate by imparting the kinetic energy of a rotating impeller (centrifugal, axial-flow, and mixed-flow pumps) or fluid stream (jet pumps) to the pumped liquid; the energy imparted to a liquid is converted to velocity and pressure. To some extent velocity of the moving fluid can be converted to pressure and vice versa. Velocity head is related to capacity: Q = A 2 g Hv where: Q A Hv = = = capacity, ft3/sec area of pump discharge, ft2 velocity head, ft Hv = Q2 2gA 2
The basic relationship between discharge head and capacity is shown in Figure 8-11. TDHA , the sum of velocity and pressure heads, indicates the maximum height to which the pump can raise the liquid in a frictionless system. At this height, all of the energy imparted to the liquid by the pump is converted to static or pressure head. For a given TDHA , there is an inverse relationship between velocity and pressure head. TDHA = Hp + Hv Hv2 = Hp1 Since capacity is related to velocity head: Q 2 A 2g Hp + Hv
1
Hp + Hv
Hp2 + Hv1
Hv =
Capacity (Q2) at the new discharge head can be determined from Hv2. The new capacity is based on the energy imparted to the liquid at some point, and may not represent all the prime movers available power. It may be possible to increase capacity at the new head by varying prime mover speed or power setting. Increased system pressure or height of discharge above the pump (TDHR ) is obtained at the expense of capacity. Manufacturers normally rate pump capacity for a specified head or provide tables or curves of capacity versus total dynamic head. The reduction in available discharge head due to suction lift is often accounted for by using separate head versus capacity curves for different suction lifts. Varying the speed of a centrifugal pump changes the amount of energy imparted to the fluid stream, or TDHA . Both capacity and discharge head are affected. The relative effect on capacity and discharge head is determined from the pump performance curves. A typical centrifugal pump performance curve is shown in Figure 8-12. In general, capacity is directly proportional to pump speed, discharge head is proportional to the square of pump speed, and power required is proportional to the cube of pump speed. An empirical approximation of the capacity of a centrifugal pump operating at its maximum suction head is: Q = 5D2 where: Q D = = pump capacity, long tons/hour suction diameter, in.
HIG HS PEE D
OPT IMU MS PEE D
DISCHARGE HEAD
LOW SPE ED
25 LIFT
20 LIFT
15 LIFT
10 LIFT
CAPACITY Figure 8-12. Typical Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves.
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Potentially damaging cavitation results when a centrifugal pump is operated at higher capacities or suction lifts than the pumps rating. Specifically, cavitation can be caused by any of the following conditions:
Discharge heads far below the pumps calibrated head at peak efficiency. Suction lift higher or suction head lower than the manufacturers recommendation. Speeds higher than the manufacturers recommendation. Vapor pressures higher than those for which the pump was designed.
Recirculating flow at the impeller inlet and pump outlet results when a pump is operated at a flow rate lower than its designed capacity range. Recirculation causes vibration, noise, and potentially damaging heat buildup. A centrifugal pump operated at zero capacity, such as when the discharge valve is closed, will overheat rapidly because all of the pumps power must be absorbed by a limited volume of liquid in the pump casing. This is potentially dangerous when pumping a flammable liquid. Centrifugal dewatering pumps are characteristically high-flow pumps with maximum heads in the 100-foot (50 psi) range. It is occasionally necessary to use salvage pumps to provide high-pressure water for jetting or firefighting. By restricting the outlet flow of a centrifugal pump, some of the velocity head is converted to pressure head. Flow rate is reduced and can be estimated as described above; friction head is also increased. Simple reducers or reducing manifolds, like the one shown in Figure 8-13, have been used successfully. A reduction of outlet area by 20 to 35 percent should produce discharge pressure sufficient for jetting or firefighting (100 to 150 psi) without causing recirculation. Care must be taken to ensure that flow rate is not reduced below the recirculation point, as can happen easily if several hoses from a manifold are shut down at the nozzle at one time.
21/2 -INCH HOSE COUPLINGS
8-3.5.1 Jet Pumps. Jet pumps use the low pressure created by the passage of a working fluid through a restricting nozzle to draw the pumped fluid into a mixing chamber, where it is entrained with the working fluid and carried out of the TO DISCHARGE SIDE eductor. Jet pumps using a liquid as a OF 6-INCH PUMP working fluid are called eductors; those using a gas (such as steam or compressed air) are called ejectors. Eductors used in Figure 8-13. 6-Inch Pump, Four-Way Fire Hose Connection Manifold. salvage are almost always water-driven. Head and volume capacity depend on nozzle and mixing chamber geometry, pressure and flow rate of the working fluid (supply flow), suction lift, and discharge head. For most eductors designed for damage control or salvage dewatering, discharge flow (including the supply flow) is about 11 2 to 2 times the supply flow, with a maximum working head of about 70 feet of water. All eductors have minimum supply pressure and flow requirements below which they will not operate. If the supply pressure and flow are inadequate, the supply water may dump through the eductor suction, flooding the space. Because they have no moving parts, eductors are extremely rugged and reliable. They are particularly suited for pumping slurries and contaminated water. The annular ring-type ("Peri-jet") eductor uses several nozzles arranged around the lower periphery of the mixing chamber rather, than a single nozzle directly below the mixing chamber. This arrangement results in a straightline fluid path through the eductor that is clear of obstructions. A 4-inch Peri-jet eductor can pass 2-inch contaminants, although large quantities of solid contaminants may clog long discharge hoses. Large eductors are often installed as bilge and ballast pumps. Some tankers use eductors as cargo pumps. The working fluid is cargo, delivered under pressure by other types of cargo pumps.
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8-3.5.2 Air Lifts. An air lift operates by introducing compressed air into the lower end of a submerged or partially submerged pipe. The airliquid mixture inside the pipe is less dense than the liquid outside the pipe. The mixture rises and creates a low pressure at the bottom of the pipe that draws liquid and loose solids up the pipe. Air lifts can handle all kinds of slurries, including those consisting of relatively large particles, such as coal, gravel, ore, canned goods, or other odd-shaped objects. Air lifts are frequently used to clear mud and loose sediments from diver working areas and to remove sediments from inside wrecks. The efficiency of an air lift depends on air pressure and flow rate, ratio of immersed to emerged pipe length, water depth, position of the air inlet on the pipe, and the nature of the material being lifted. Air lifts will normally lift loose material only in the immediate vicinity of the lower end. Disturbing heavy or hard-packed material with water jets or other means will improve air lift efficiency. Clay, paper pulp, and similar materials tend to choke air lifts. Although air lifts are not particularly efficient as pumps, they are easy to build in the field and can move slurries, semi-solid materials, and contaminants that would clog or damage other pumps.
Table 8-14. Air Lift Constants, C.
Submergence Percent 75 65 55 45 35
C
Outside Air Line 366 348 318 272 216 Inside Air Line 330 306 262 214 162
Air lifts differ from other pumps in that the energy (air pressure) Adapted from Mining Engineers Handbook, Peele and Church, required to lift the liquid is governed by submergence, h, rather than Third Edition, 1948, John Wiley and Sons by total head, H. For most efficient operation, air lifts should be submerged for at least two-thirds of their length, although they can operate with as little as 35-percent submerged. Air pressure at the air line outlet at the bottom of the lift only slightly greater than hydrostatic pressure is sufficient for operation. An empirical formula, based on experience with air lifts in mining applications, estimates required air flow: Qair = where: Qair H C ATM = = = = = h g = = air flow, standard cubic feet per minute per gallon of liquid per minute lifted total vertical lift, ft empirical factor, based on ratio of submergence to lift, from Table 8-14 submergence, expressed as equivalent atmospheres h + 33 h + 34 (h + 34)g for seawater, for freshwater, for other liquids 33 34 34g submergence (depth to foot of air lift), ft liquid specific gravity H C log (ATM)
Pipe size is determined from the initial estimates for air and liquid flow: d = 13.54 where: d Q V = = = air lift (discharge) pipe diameter, in. air-liquid mixture flow rate, ft3/min velocity of the mixture in the pipe, ft/min Q V
For pipes of uniform diameter and lifts of 40 to 200 feet, best discharge velocity of the air-liquid mixture ranges from 2,000 feet per minute at 70-percent submergence to 700 feet per minute at 35-percent submergence. Maximum velocity at the bottom of the pipe ranges from 450 feet per minute at 70 percent submergence to 800 feet per minute at 35-percent submergence. Air lifts cannot completely dewater a space because they cannot operate with more than about two-thirds of the pipe out of the water. When depth allows 25-percent submergence, a compound lift can be employed. Water and solids are lifted half way in one lift and allowed to run to the closed bottom of a large-diameter pipe at the same depth as the first lift. A second air lift can operate in the large pipe with 50-percent submergence. In deep mine shafts, water has been raised as much as 1,385 feet by a series of air lifts in series using air at 60 to 80 psi. Air lifts are useful for removing sediments, bulk cargo, and other materials from the bottoms of spaces before dewatering with other pumps. Use of air lifts for underwater excavation is discussed in Chapter 5. Detailed air lift designs are included in Appendix D of the U. S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020).
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8-3.6 Salvage Pumps. Special-purpose pumps are used in salvage to meet particular requirements; salvage pumps are usually portable, generalpurpose dewatering pumps, adapted for marine use. A good salvage pump must have the following features:
Rugged construction and protective framework or packaging to reduce the risk of accidental damage. High pumping-capacity-to-pump-weight ratio. Discharge head greater than 60 feet. Ability to pump a variety of contaminated liquids. Comparatively simple construction for rapid routine maintenance and repair.
Submersibility or a low NPSHR, and the ability to self-prime as well as to handle a wide range of fluid viscosities and specific gravities are also desirable. Experience has shown the following pumps to have the widest application to salvage:
Electric- or hydraulic-motor-driven submersible pumps (centrifugal or axial flow). Self-contained, heavy-duty, diesel- or gasoline-engine-driven centrifugal pumps. Pneumatic diaphragm and centrifugal pumps. Eductors and air lifts.
Table 8-15 compares the advantages and disadvantages of commonly used salvage pumps.
Table 8-15. Pump Characteristics. Suitability to pump: Entrained Solids Fair Poor Fair Slurries Viscous Liquids Good Good Good Typical Installations General marine use with steam propulsion plants. Slurry pumps. Oilfield mud pumps. Marine and industrial fuel, cargo, lube oil systems. General-purpose. Metering. General use for nonviscous liquids, F/F systems. Water pumps for agricultural, construction, mine, industrial, salvage use. General use for nonviscous liquids, F/F systems. Water pumps for agricultural, construction, mine, industrial, salvage use. General use where high discharge head not required. Submersible pumps. Distilling plant air ejectors. Bilge dewatering/drainage. Portable dewatering. F/F foam proportioning systems.
Pump Type
Discharge Head
SelfPriming
Suction Lift
Reciprocating Rotary Diaphragm
High High High Medium Note 1 Low Note 1 Very Low Note 1
Yes Yes Yes No Note 2
High High High
Good Poor Good
Centrifugal
Low
Note 3
Note 3
Poor
Mixed Flow
No
Very Low
Note 3
Note 3
Note 4
Axial Flow
No
Very Low
Note 3
Note 3
Note 4
Jet Pumps
Low
Yes
Medium
Good
Good
Fair
Notes: 1. 2. 3. 4. Head can be increased by series multi-staging or operating pumps in series. Some centrifugal pumps are self-priming at low (<12 ft) suction lift. Pumps designed as trash or salvage pumps. Impeller must be designed for specific viscosity range.
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Salvage pumps are specified by type and discharge outlet diameter. Navy salvage ships and units and the ESSM system maintain the following salvage and damage control pumps:
Table 8-16. Navy Salvage Pump Characteristics.

ENGINE-DRIVEN, CLOSE-COUPLED PUMPS Weight LBS 3" Salvage 3" Trash 6" Salvage 10" Salvage 21 2" Jetting P-250 MOD 1 670 180 2,360 3,200 4,400 158 54 83 282 6 65 30 48 83 33 52 120 83 49 21 20 24 Cube ft3 15 L W H in. 36 22 32 Rated GPM/Head 350/40 feet 360/40 feet Diesel engine Diesel engine; not in ESSM system, limited distribution to selected units Remarks
Self-contained, diesel-engine-driven, high-capacity, low-head centrifugal pumps with open, trash-type impellers in 10-inch, 6-inch, and 3-inch sizes. Electric submersible pumps in 4-inch and 11 2-inch sizes. Pneumatically driven 21 2-inch trash pumps. Hydraulic submersible pumps in 6inch, 5-inch, and 11 2-inch sizes. 4-inch water-driven eductors. 21 2-inch self-contained, diesel-enginedriven, high-pressure centrifugal jetting pumps. 21 2-inch self-contained, gasolinee n g i n e - d r i v en , h ig h -p re s s u re centrifugal fire pumps (P-250).
1540/40 feet Diesel engine 3040/40 feet Diesel engine 500/150 psi 250/125 psi Diesel engine Gasoline engine, see Note 1
SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS Weight LBS 21 2" Hydraulic 4" HYD Trash 30 85 Cube ft3 0.9 3 L DIA in. 14 12 19 19 Rated GPM/Head 400/40 feet Remarks Part of hydraulic tool package
1,000/40 feet 25 gpm/2180 psi hydraulic flow 700/40 feet 20 gpm/1400 psi hydraulic flow 500/25 feet 15 gpm/785 psi hydraulic flow Water, 50 gpm hydraulic flow 1,823/40 feet required 950/40 feet Warm #6 fuel (7177 SSU) 203/40 feet Cold #6 fuel (71770 SSU) Same performance as 6" POL pump, see also Note 2
6" HYD POL
279
2.7
41 12
6" HYD LWT 21 2" Pneumatic 11 2" Electric 21 2" Electric
179 80 10 1.2 0.2 1.1 18 12 13 6 30 9 180/50 feet
90 psi air pressure required at pump; limited number available in ESSM system See Notes 1, 3 #1 Impeller, water (9 SSU) #2 Impeller, Light oil (460 SSU) #3 Impeller, Med wt oil (1800 SSU) #4 Impeller, Heavy oil (2020 SSU) #4 Impeller, Heavy oil (4600 SSU) Not all pumps have been modified to pump POL; power required: 3PH 60 Hz 440 VAC/38-amp or 220 VAC/76amp See Note 1
The basic characteristics of Navy salvage and damage control pumps are given in Table 8-16. Performance curves or tables are given in the U. S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020), the Salvors Handbook (S0300-A7-HBK-010), and the ESSM Catalog (NAVSEA 0994-LP-017-3010). 8-3.6.1 Alternative Pumps. Pumps designed for agricultural, mining, heavy construction, marine, or general service may be used as salvage pumps. Ideally, pumps should be designed for the material being pumped, but this is not always possible in salvage. Paragraph 8-3.11 discusses measures to be taken when pumps must be used in service for which they were not designed.
4" Electric
289
5.6
38 1
800/40 650/40 600/40 275/40 175/40
feet feet feet feet feet
4" Eductor (Peri-jet)
12
2.7
30 1
451/40 feet
Notes: 1. Damage control equipment, not in ESSM system, but carried by fleet units and in Federal Supply System. 2. ARS-50 Class only. 3. 9" diameter with star strainer; 61 2" without.
8-3.6.2 Installed Pumps. Several advantages are gained by using a casualtys installed pumps:
Work necessary to transport and rig portable pumps is reduced or avoided. Dewatering can be controlled by installed manifolds and piping. Pump rooms are located to minimize suction lift or maximize positive suction head; priming systems are installed where necessary. Installed bilge, ballast, and cargo pumps are sized to pump down the spaces served in a relatively short time. Cargo pumps are designed for the product carried.
The casualtys fuel, lube oil, and fresh water transfer pumps are usually of small capacity and do not contribute greatly to a dewatering plan. The prime considerations for using installed pumps are whether the necessary portions of the piping system are intact or repairable and the condition, power requirements, and capacity of the pump(s). Installed pumps can sometimes be dismantled and relocated on the casualty for salvage use. Pumps installed below the waterline often require very high net positive suction heads and are not suitable for use where suction lift is required. Installed pumping systems are generally used in conjunction with portable salvage pumps. Major pumping operations are seldom greatly expedited by using the casualtys pumps, but installed manifold and piping systems are very useful for emptying small tanks and compartments. For example, a major combatant flooded to the main deck throughout her length can be dewatered by pumping out the main and auxiliary machinery spaces and other large, accessible compartments with portable salvage pumps. Fuel oil service and settling tanks, bulk lube oil, and hydraulic oil tanks could be pumped out through pneumatic diaphragm pumps connected to the piping manifolds serving each group of tanks. Small or inaccessible compartments throughout the length of the ship can be dewatered by connecting a salvage pump to the secondary drainage manifold. This approach reduces the risk of oil spillage while dewatering and takes advantage of installed piping systems without requiring repair of or access to the vessels pumps and power distribution system. In some ships, the main and secondary drainage systems are served by high-capacity eductors that can be driven by water supplied by portable pumps or from the firemains of assisting vessels.
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8-3.7 Pump Selection. Pump selection results from two major decisions:
Whether to use the casualtys installed pumps. The number and type of portable pumps to use.
The overriding factor influencing the selection of pumps is what types of pumps are available and in what quantity. Additional factors are listed in the following paragraphs. 8-3.7.1 Capacity. The greater the pumping capacity, the less time required for dewatering. Time to dewater is critical in some salvage operations. Dewatering of a stranded ship must begin during a period when there is no danger that the lightened ship will be driven ashore or broached, and must be completed before the maximum pull on retracting systems is reached. In harbor clearance, it may be necessary to complete dewatering in a single tide cycle to avoid immersion of deck openings during pumping or to preclude development of negative stability. Pumping capacity must be tailored to the job. There must be sufficient pumping capacity on the casualty to overcome leakage with a margin for safety and redundancy. Pump size and quantity should be such that if one or more pumps fail during the operation, the remaining capacity is sufficient to complete the pumping operation in the required time. Backup pumps must be aboard the casualty, ready to be deployed to spaces being pumped. The amount of extra pumping capacity required results from a subjective assessment of the likelihood of prime mover or pump casualties, pump clogging, etc. A 100-percent backup capacity is not excessive. Before the casualty is dewatered, a pumping test should be made to ensure the pumps can lower the water in the ship at the desired or predicted rate (see Paragraph 8-3.10). 8-3.7.2 Size. Size and weight affect placement of the pump and time required to place it in operation. Where there is insufficient space for large pumps, it may be necessary to use smaller pumps and accept a lower pumping rate, or use many small pumps to attain the same pumping rate. In an effort to control flooding in progress, it is better to rig and start several small-capacity pumps that can be manhandled into place, each of which reduces the flooding rate, than to spend time rigging a large-capacity pump which makes no reduction in flooding rate until completely rigged. However, a small pump is more susceptible to clogging by rags, bags, line, or other materials that can be entwined about the impeller than a large pump of the same design. In general, submersible pumps are preferred for dewatering cramped, confined spaces, or spaces that are difficult to access; i.e, machinery rooms, magazines, shaft alleys, storerooms, etc. If power sources (electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic) are already set up, it is faster and easier to rig submersible pumps than engine-driven pumps of the same capacity. 8-3.7.3 Space Contents. Water in flooded spaces is usually contaminated with solids of various size. Cargo pumping involves moving liquids and slurries with a wide range of properties. The characteristics of the solid contaminants in the liquid or slurry influences pump selection. When pumping contaminated water, trash pumps, eductors, or air lifts capable of passing the solid contaminants should be used and strainers should be fitted on the suctions of other type pumps. Standard Navy salvage pumps will tolerate some exposure to slurries and abrasives, but are not suitable for prolonged pumping of such materials. Many slurries are abrasive and reduce pump service life, sometimes to the point that impeller life is measured in hours. Purpose-built trash, sand, slurry, or gravel pumps will have somewhat longer service life when pumping abrasive slurries. High-viscosity liquids should be moved with pumps designed for the viscosity range of the liquid, if possible. Pumps designed for water or low-viscosity liquids will operate at reduced capacity and higher wear rates, and may overload the prime mover when pumping high-viscosity liquids. Corrosive or reactive liquids should be moved using pumps constructed of materials resistant to the particular liquid. Some hydrocarbon and petrochemical cargos require specialized pumps, hoses, and fittings that are not usually available in the Navy salvage inventory. The Supervisor of Salvage should be contacted for assistance in acquiring specialized pumps and fittings. 8-3.7.4 Required Head. When spaces must be pumped against a very high head, capacity may have to be sacrificed to attain the head. Suction and discharge heads change as dewatering progresses; the pumps selected must be able to operate against the heads at the beginning and end of the operation. 8-3.7.5 Operating Requirements. The suitability of the power source for the operating environment influences pump selection. Close-coupledengine- and gas-turbine-driven pumps are larger and heavier than hydraulic, pneumatic, electric, or steam pumps of the same capacity. If used below decks, ventilation must be adequate to provide sufficient air for the engine and personnel in the space; the exhaust must be led to the open atmosphere. Spark-producing internal combustion engines and gas turbines are not to be used in the vicinity of open fuel or flammable cargo tanks where flammable atmospheres are present or likely. Hydraulic or pneumatic submersible pumps or pneumatic diaphragm pumps are suitable for use in a flammable atmosphere because the spark-producing prime mover can be located at a safe distance from the tank opening. Availability of hydraulic power systems, electric power, LP air, steam, or high-pressure water on the casualty or vessels alongside predisposes toward the use of nonself-contained pumps. Pump power requirements (voltage/current, hydraulic oil pressure/flow rate, etc.) must match those available from installed or portable power sources. Adapters must be provided if power lead or hose end fittings are not compatible. Power leads and hoses clutter working space and interfere with closing doors and hatches.
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8-3.8 Slurries. Bulk cargoes in flooded holds and accumulated sediments in stranded or sunken ships are sometimes best removed by pumping them out as a slurry. Trial and error application of centrifugal salvage pumps or eductors and careful arrangement of discharge lines to minimize lift and bends is adequate for most salvage work. Situations may arise, however, where repeated trial and error solutions prove inadequate and a careful, analytical consideration of the problem may show that relatively minor changes to a pump-pipeline system may prevent salvors from abandoning a potentially economical and efficient method. Pipeline transport of solids is widely applied to a number of industrial transport problems, particularly in the dredging and mining fields, giving rise to a fair body of literature. Bibliography of Solid-Liquid Transport in Pipelines, by Mih, Chen, and Orsborn, and Herbichs Coastal and Deep Ocean Dredging (see Bibliography for complete references) include brief theoretical analyses of slurry flow for the interested reader. The composition of a solid-liquid mixture is expressed as a concentration, or ratio by weight or volume, of the amount of solids to the total quantity of the mixture. Specific gravity of the mixture is the concentration weighted average of specific gravities of the liquid and the solid. Einstein (A. Einstein, Ann. der Physik, Volume 19, 1906 and Volume 35, 1911) found that the viscosity of a solid-liquid mixture (m) can be expressed as a function of the liquid viscosity () and the volume concentration 100 of the solids (CV): m = (1 2.5 CV)
DRAG COEFFICIENT, CD
Solids in a flowing liquid are subject to gravity, buoyancy, and fluid drag. Particles are held in suspension by turbulent mixing and lift forces. The ability of any flow regime to carry solids is fundamentally related to the settling velocity of the solid particles. Settling velocity in still water is determined by: s 2gD f 1
10 INTERMEDIATE LAW STOKES LAW 1
Vs = CD where: CD = g D s f = = = =
NEWTONS LAW 0.1 1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
drag coefficient, a function of Reynolds number, from Figure 8-14 acceleration due to gravity 32.2 ft/sec2 particle diameter, ft solid (particle) density liquid density
REYNOLDS NUMBER, R = Dv D = PARTICLE DIAMETER, FT v = FLOW VELOCITY, FT/SEC = KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, FT2/SEC CD = 24 FOR R < 2 R 18.5 INTERMEDIATE LAW: CD = 0.6 FOR 2 < R < 500 R STOKES LAW: NEWTONS LAW: CD = 0.44 FOR 500 < R < 200,000
When water is used as the entraining liquid, the ratio s/f is simply the specific gravity of the solid. Drag coefficient can be estimated by different empirical laws in three different ranges of Reynolds number, as shown in Figure 8-14.
Figure 8-14. Drag Coefficients for Spheres, after Prandtl.
There are four regimes for solid-liquid flow in pipelines:
Homogeneous suspension flow Particle fall velocity is small compared to liquid flow velocity and turbulent eddy velocity, giving a nearly uniform vertical distribution of solids. Lift forces on particles are insignificant relative to the effects of turbulent mixing. Heterogeneous suspension flow Particle fall velocity is significant relative to liquid velocities; both lift force and turbulent mixing are significant in keeping solids in suspension. All particles are in suspension, but vertical distribution is nonuniform. If the solids are denser than the liquid, there is a greater concentration of solids at the bottom of the pipe than at the top. For buoyant solids, the vertical distribution is reversed. Saltation flow with a moving bed Moving bed flow may occur with or without suspension. Sediment transport at the bottom of the pipe takes the form of advancing ripples or dunes. A suspension or clear liquid flows above the moving bed at a substantially greater velocity. Flow with a stationary bed Transport takes place only above the stationary bed which forms a new bottom boundary for suspension flow.
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SALTATION 0.14
HEAD LOSS IN TERMS OF CLEAR WATER
HETEROGENEOUS SUSPENSION
HOMOGENEOUS SUSPENSION
FLOW WITH A STATIONARY BED
0.12 CV = 0.15 0.10 CV = 0.10 0.08
LIMIT DEPOSIT VELOCITY
SALTATION FLOW WITH A MOVING BED (WITH AND WITHOUT SUSPENSION)
PARTICLE SIZE
HETEROGENEOUS FLOW WITH ALL SOLIDS IN SUSPENSION
CLEAR WATER CV = 0.05 0.06 FINE SAND (0.44MM IN 0.15M PIPE)
FLOW AS A HOMOGENEOUS SUSPENSION
0.05 2.4 3 4 5 MEAN VELOCITY, METER/SEC. 6
MEAN FLOW VELOCITY

FLOW REGIMES FOR A GIVEN FLUID, SEDIMENT AND PIPE SIZE
FROM H. W. SHEN AND THE COMMITTEE ON SEDIMENTATION, HYDRAULICS DIVISION, SEDIMENT TRANSPORTATION MECHANICS, JORNAL OF THE HYDRAULICS DIVISION, ASCE, JULY 1970
TYPICAL HEAD LOSS VERSUS MEAN VELOCITY OF A TWO-PHASE PIPE FLOW ON LOG-LOG SCALES
FROM R. DURAND, BASIC RELATIONSHIP OF THE TRANSPORTATION OF SOLIDS IN PIPES, PROCEEDINGS, INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR HYDRAULIC RESEARCH CONFERENCE, SEPTEMBER 1953
Figure 8-15. Solid Transport Flow Regimes.
The boundary between suspension flow and saltation flow is well defined, both in terms of power requirements and material transport. Experiments with sand-water mixtures have shown that for a constant solids concentration, a pronounced minimum head loss occurs at a welldefined point in the low flow region, as shown in Figure 8-15. Figure 8-15 further illustrates that the lines between heterogeneous and homogeneous suspension flow, and between stationary and moving bed flow are not well defined. All other aspects equal, minimum head loss means minimum power requirements, so the mean velocity at minimum head loss is sometimes called the economica l velocit. Minimum y head loss occurs at the velocity that marks the division between saltation and suspension flow, so the velocity is also called the limi t deposi t velocit . y Slurry transport systems are designed to operate in the heterogeneous suspension flow regime because the lower head loss results in the most economical operation, with minimal chance of discharge line clogging. Productio n rat the e solids flow rateis about one-third the total volume flow rate. Homogeneous suspension flow is acceptable for salvage pumpingless efficient operation can usually be accommodatedand is desirable when high-discharge lifts are required. Saltation flow should be avoided in field-built systems because of the difficulty in controlling flow precisely enough to prevent discharge line clogging. Limit deposit velocity has been defined empirically: s Vc = FL 2 g d f where: Vc d s f FL = = = = = limit deposit velocity, [length/time] flow path (pipe, hose) diameter, [length] density of the solids, [mass/length3] density of the entraining liquid, [mass/length3] an experimentally derived dimensionless constant, a function of solids concentration and grain diameter. For particles larger than 2 mm (0.007 inch), FL is essentially unaffected by either grain size or solids concentration, and is approximately 1.34 1
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Table 8-17. Limit Deposit Velocity for Particles Greater Than 1 mm in Diameter.
Limiting Deposit Velocity Pipe Diameter d m 150 250 440 900 ft .49 .82 1.44 2.95 m/sec 2.95 3.75 5.00 7.15 Sand 2.65 ft/sec 9.68 12.30 16.41 23.46 m/sec 1.65 2.15 2.85 4.00 Coal 1.5 ft/sec 5.41 7.05 9.35 13.12 4-inch 6-inch 3-inch 21 2-inch Pump Size 11 2-inch
Table 8-18. Pumps Rigged in Parallel.

Hose or Pipe Size 21 2-inch 3-inch 4-inch 6-inch 4-inch 6-inch 10-inch 4-inch 6-inch 10-inch 6-inch 10-inch 10-inch Maximum Number of Pumps 2 3 6 15 2 5 15 1 3 10 2 5 2
From Basic Relationship of the Transportation of Solids in Pipes, R. Durand, Proceedings, International Association for Hydraulic Research, University of Minnesota, Sep 1953
Limit deposit velocities for two representative solids are shown in Table 8-17. Discharge piping must be carefully arranged to keep fluid velocity high enough to transport the solids. Flow velocities above the limit deposit velocity will produce heterogeneous or homogeneous suspension flow. Velocities between the limit deposit velocity and the particle settling velocity are likely to result in saltation flow. Fluid velocity in the discharge line is calculated by solving the velocity head relationship for velocity: V = Hv 2g Velocity head at any point in the discharge piping can be determined from total dynamic head available (TDHA) as described in Paragraph 8-3.1. Purpose-built slurry pumps, eductors, or air lifts should be used to pump slurries whenever possible. Most slurry pumps are reciprocating or piston pumps, although centrifugal pumps are also used. Centrifugal salvage or trash pumps can be used for slurries if the viscosity of the mixture is within the pumps rated range. Entrained solids in the gravel- to golf-ballsize range are handled well by trash pumps. Air lifts and eductors effectively move slurries and solid-liquid mixtures, including odd-shaped objects six inches across and larger. When long discharge lines are required, dredge pump and discharge pipe systems are the best alternative. Porous materials will absorb water, changing the density of the suspended particles in the slurry. Organic materials such as grain will ferment or spoil when immersed, especially in warm climates. The high-vapor-pressure alcohol and entrained gases (methane, hydrogen sulfide) resulting from fermentation/spoilage can significantly reduce pump capacity and suction lift. These factors are very difficult to predict and usually must be dealt with by trial and error.
SHIPS BOOM BOOM USED FOR ELECTRIC SALVAGE PUMP
1 A STARTING LEVEL B 2ND LEVEL C 3RD LEVEL a 2 b UPPER TWEEN DECK LOWER TWEEN DECK
TANK TOP DOUBLE BOTTOM
3 SHAFT TUNNEL
NOTES: 1. DIESEL PUMP RIGGED AT "A" MUST BE RE-RIGGED AT "B" AND "C" AS WATER LEVEL FALLS - TIME CONSUMING AND LABORIOUS. 2. DIESEL PUMP CAN BE RIGGED ON PLATFORM SUSPENDED BY SHIPS BOOM OR IMPROVISED SHEER LEGS. PUMP IS LOWERED AND ADDITIONAL DISCHARGE HOSE CONNECTED AS WATER LEVEL FALLS. 3. SUBMERSIBLE PUMP LOWERED TO TANK TOP AND LEFT IN PLACE UNTIL SPACE DEWATERED. DISCHARGE HOSE LASHED TO LIFTING WIRE AT "a" AND "b" TO SUPPORT HOSE WHEN FILLED WITH WATER. Figure 8-16. Pump Rigging.
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8-3.9 Pumping Operations. Pump capacity, operation, and safety are affected by pump rigging and location, as discussed in the following paragraphs. 8-3.9.1 Limiting Total Head. Limiting head increases pump capacity. Suction lift reduces capacity more than discharge head. Wherever possible, pumps should be operated under positive suction head. Suction lift can be reduced by placing pumps as near as possible to the liquid to be pumped. When pumping from deep holds, it may be necessary to suspend the pump over the hold and lower it as the water level falls, as shown in Figure 8-16. Engine-driven machinery should be kept level at all times during operation. When the casualtys list or trim changes significantly during refloating, it may be necessary to place pumps and other machinery on special levelling platforms. Suction hoses should not be led over obstructions higher than the pump inlet; an air pocket can form at the high point and cause the pump to lose suction. Accesses for suction lines can be cut into the sides of flooded compartments. Discharge hoses should be run over the lowest possible deck and under life lines. Below-decks overboard discharges should be used if available; discharge openings can be cut if necessary. When pumping deep spaces, it may be necessary to accept large discharge heads that reduce the capacity of dynamic pumps. Pump effectiveness can be increased by leading the discharge of one pump to the suction of another pump at a higher level. This is called staging, pumping in series, or pumping in tandem. The pumps should be of near-equal capacity to prevent damage. If the lower pumps capacity is much greater or lower than the upper pump, the upper pump may cavitate. Pumping in parallel is used to reduce friction loss in discharge lines by combining the discharge of two or more pumps in a single discharge line. A large-diameter hose or pipe has the same cross-sectional area as several smaller hoses, but less internal surface area, and therefore less friction. Combining discharge lines also reduces the work required to rig discharge hoses or pipe. The single discharge line must have a crosssectional area larger than the combined areas of the pump discharges; if not, the pressure caused by the flow restriction will increase the head the pumps work against, decreasing capacity. Table 8-18 lists the maximum number of pumps that can be rigged in parallel with standard Navy hose and pipe sizes. 8-3.9.2 Drainage. Bulk or bagged cargoes, dry stores, textiles, and other materials that can mat together will inhibit the passage of floodwater. To pump out holds or spaces filled with such materials, it is necessary to open a suction well that surrounds the pump suction. The rate of water flow into the well is a function of the size of the well, permeability of the space contents, and pore water pressure. If water flow into the well equals or exceeds pump capacity, the pump can be run continuously. If water flows into the well more slowly than the pump draws it out, the pump must be operated intermittently to allow time for the well to fill. If the bilge drainage suction of a cargo hold is clear or is separated from the cargo by battens or screen, the hold can be dewatered through the bilge drainage manifold in the machinery space, by the installed bilge pump, or by a portable pump connected to the manifold. This eliminates the effort of clearing and maintaining a suction access through the accumulated contents of the space. The pump operates at a reduced suction lift or positive suction head. Holds abaft a machinery space can be drained into the shaft tunnel through holes cut in the shaft alley side plating. The flooded spaces will drain into the shaft alley where portable salvage pumps or the installed bilge drainage system can remove the relatively clear water. 8-3.9.3 Flammable Liquids. Hoses and pumps used with flammable liquids or in explosive atmospheres must be properly grounded and intrinsically safe for use in explosive atmospheres. Hydraulic or pneumatic submersible pumps or pneumatic diaphragm pumps are the best choice for pumping petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL) or other flammable liquids. Oil cargoes are removed from ruptured tanks by keeping the pump suction just below the liquid surface. As the oil is drawn off, water enters through the hull opening and water level in the tank rises. By pumping until the pump draws water, all but a few inches of the oil can be removed. If electric submersible pumps are used, their motors should remain submerged at all times to prevent spark ignition of flammable vapors. This may require the last two or three feet of liquid to be removed by other means or left in place. The hazard in an open tank increases as the liquid level falls; as air is drawn into the space, the rich concentration of flammable vapors is progressively diluted and may form an explosive mixture. A tanker inerting system should be employed, or an inerting system improvised, even when intrinsically safe pumps are used. The U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 5 (S0300A6-MAN-050) describes tanker inerting systems and their use. POL products create fumes that are generally heavier than air. These fumes lie close to the decks and can cause explosions if they reach hot surfaces or other ignition sources. Engine-driven pumps must never be used on tankers or where large quantities of POL are handled. Only pumps designated as intrinsically safe by the U.S. Coast Guard should pump POL. Engine-driven hydraulic power units, compressors, or generators, powering submersible or diaphragm pumps, should be located in well-ventilated areas as far as possible from areas where explosive fumes are produced or can collect. Engine-driven equipment should not be operated on or adjacent to the tank deck of tankers carrying volatile fuels.
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8-3.10 Pumping Calculations. Salvage pumping calculations are usually undertaken to answer one of three questions:
What pumping capacity (and number of pumps) will be required to dewater a flooded space in a given time? How much time will be required to dewater a space with a specified pump capacity? At what rate will the water surface be lowered?
Performance data for the pumps used, volume of water to be pumped, system head requirements, and geometry of the flooded compartment must be known to make the calculations. Suction and discharge heads do not remain constant, but change as pumping proceeds. For a fixed position pump, suction lift increases as the water level drops. If the pump is lowered to limit suction lift, discharge head will increase. Discharge head of a submersible pump remains constant, but positive suction head decreases as the water level drops. The means of accounting for friction and vapor pressure heads depends on the format of the pump performance data. Friction head for assumed lengths of discharge and suction piping is sometimes accounted for in performance curves or tables. Vapor pressure head is not factored into the performance curves of most pumps. Increasing fluid vapor pressure decreases a net positive suction head, so vapor pressure head can be taken into account for by adding it to the actual suction lift to determine an effective suction lift (negative suction head). The entering arguments to the performance curves or tables are thus: Hs eff = Hs actual + Hvp TDHR = Hs eff + Hd + Hf where: Hs eff = effective suction lift Hs actual = actual suction lift, measured from liquid surface Hvp = vapor pressure head TDHR = total dynamic head required Hd = static discharge head Hf = friction head of hose or piping not accounted for in performance data Required pumping capacity is the volume of water to be removed, divided by the time allowed for pumping. The salvage engineer must then determine the number and types of pumps to use to make up the required capacity with sufficient reserve. Pumping capacity of the selected pumps should be based on the average suction and discharge heads. Dewatering time with the selected pumps should be calculated as described above to ensure adequate pumping capacity. Dewatering time for a given pumping capacity is the volume of water to be removed, divided by the pumping capacity. Since pumping capacity will vary as suction and discharge heads change through the pumping operation, an incremental solution is required. The time required to pump out layers of convenient thickness (10 feet, for example) of the flooded space are calculated based on the pump capacities corresponding to the average suction and discharge heads for each layer. The total dewatering time is the sum of the dewatering times for all the layers. To determine the rate of fall of the water surface, the volume of one unit (inch, foot, centimeter, etc.) is first calculated or estimated. The volume of the unit layer divided by the pumping capacity is the rate of fall of the water surface. Detailed examples of pump calculations are given in Paragraph 5-2.7 of the U. S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). 8-3.11 Pumps in Unusual Service. Pumps are designed to operate with a specific set or range of fluid properties. If fluid properties of the pumped liquid vary significantly from those for which the pump was designed, pump performance and service life will be affected. There are five fluid properties to be considered:

8-28
Specific gravity. Viscosity. Vapor pressure. Abrasiveness. Corrosivity.
S0300-A8-HBK-010
8-3.11.1 Pump Power Requirements. Pump power requirements vary directly with flow rate and discharge head or pressure: HPw = where: HPw Q Pd Ps 1714 = = = = = water power, i.e., the power actually imparted to the water, reflected as an increase in energy (pressure or height), horsepower discharge flow, gpm discharge pressure, psi suction pressure, psi factor to convert gpm to ft3/sec, psi to lb/ft 2, and the resulting ft-lb/sec to horsepower Q(Pd - Ps) 1714
Brake horsepower required to drive the pump is found by dividing water horsepower by pump efficiency: BHP = where: = pump efficiency, usually about 60% Q (Pd Ps) 1,714
Since pressure in psi is equal to H/144, with head (H) in feet: Q HPW = where: HT = = total dynamic head, feet fluid weight density, lb/ft3
HT 144
Q (HT) 246,840
1,714
8-3.11.2 Specific Gravity. Most field pumps are designed for use with fresh water. For water weight density of approximately 62.4 lb/ft3, the power equation reduces to: HPW = where Q is given in gpm and HT in feet. Specific gravity (g) of any substance is the density of the substance divided by the density of fresh water (i.e., the specific gravity of water is 1), so for liquids other than water: HPW = Q H T g 3,956 Q HT 3,956
For a given pump, maximum horsepower cannot change; a significant increase in specific gravity of the pumped liquid will reduce pump discharge head and capacity: (Q HT)2 = (Q HT)1 g1 g2
Pump capacity for a liquid of known specific gravity can be estimated as the capacity (from capacity curves or tables) for an equivalent head (Heq) of the liquid for which the pump was calibrated. Equivalent head is determined by multiplying total dynamic head required (TDHR ) by the ratio of specific gravities: Heq = TDHR g actual g cal
Since most salvage pumps are calibrated for water (g 1), equivalent water head (HW) is obtained by multiplying TDHR by the fluid specific gravity: HW = (TDHR )g Suction lift, net positive suction head (NPS H ), and other head terms can be converted to equivalent heads in the same manner to evaluate pump performance with the new liquid.
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8-3.11.3 Viscosity. Fluid viscosity affects pump performance in a complex manner. Figure 8-17 shows the effect of viscosity on pump capacity and discharge head. The chart is entered on the bottom horizontal scale with the pumps rated capacity (water). A vertical line is followed from the capacity until it intersects the corresponding head on the diagonal head scales. A horizontal line is then followed to the left until it intersects the viscosity of the liquid being pumped. A vertical line from this intersection intersects the correction factor curves; correction factors are read from the scale on the left. The example (dotted line) shows that a pump rated for 55 gpm at a 100-foot discharge head has a capacity of 45 gpm (0.82 55) against a 103-foot discharge head (1.03 100) when pumping a liquid with a viscosity of 400 SSU (Saybolt Seconds, Universal). Approximate viscosity limits of basic types of pumps are: Centrifugal Axial flow Reciprocating Rotary 3,000 8,000 10,000 2,000,000 SSU SSU SSU SSU
Table 8-19. Viscosities.
Viscosity Liquid SSU Water @ 32F Water @ 70F Water @ 212F Ethyl Alcohol @ 68F Freon 12 @ 70F No. 1 Fuel Oil @ 70F No. 2 Fuel Oil @ 70F No. 3 Fuel Oil @ 70F No. 5 Fuel Oil @ 70F No. 5 Fuel Oil @ 100F No. 6 Fuel Oil @ 122F No. 6 Fuel Oil @ 160F Jet Fuel @ -30F 33.0 30.9 29.3 31.7 0.27 34 - 40 36 - 50 33 - 40 50 - 125 42 - 72 450 - 3,000 175 - 780 52.0 Centistokes 1.79 0.98 0.29 1.52 21.1 2.39 - 4.28 3.0 - 7.4 2.69 - 5.84 7.4 - 26.4 4.9 - 13.7 97 - 660 37 - 172 7.9
Lubricating Oils As a rule, pump speed must be reduced 25 to 35 percent for each tenfold increase in SAE-5W @ 0F 6,000 max 1,295 max viscosity above 1,000 SSU to avoid overloading the pump prime mover. This SAE-10W @ 0F 6,000 - 12,000 1,295 - 2,590 results in a 10-percent reduction in efficiency. The suction requirements of the SAE-20W @ 0F 12,000 - 48,000 2,590 - 10,350 pump also vary with viscosity and are SAE-20 @ 210F 45 - 58 5.7 - 9.6 referred to by viscous liquid pump manufacturers as net inlet pressure required SAE-30 @ 210F 58 - 70 9.6 - 12.9 (NIPR). Viscosity varies with temperature and extreme pressure. The pressures SAE-40 @ 210F 70 - 85 12.9 - 16.8 encountered in dewatering and weight SAE-50 @ 210F 85 - 110 16.8 - 22.7 removal operations will have no significant effect on fluid viscosity. Table 8-19 gives viscosities for some common liquids. Appendix E contains a more extensive list that gives viscosities as a function of temperature. Viscosities for crude oils and other petroleum products are given in Appendix F of the U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 6 (S0300-A6-MAN-060). Viscosity of a liquid can be determined on site by use of a viscosimeter. Several types of viscosimeters can be obtained commercially; a Saybolt Universal viscosimeter, constructed as shown in Appendix D, will provide results accurate enough for salvage work. Viscosity in SSU is the time in seconds required for a gravity flow of 60 ml of the liquid through the orifice. Conversion factors and formulae for various viscosity units are included in Paragraph D-4.2.
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10 5 1.10 1.00
CORRECTION FACTORS
10 4
10 3
.90 .80 .70 .60 .50 .40 .30 .20 .10 0 CENTISTOKES
HE AD
(C
H)
CA
EF FI CI EN C
PA C
IT Y
(C
Q)
(C
E)
0 2,20 0 1,76 0 1,32
660
880
440 330
220 176 132
7.4
4.3
400 300 200 150
HEAD IN FEET
400 300 200 150 100 80 60 40 30 20 15 10 8 6
66
88
43
32
20 15
10
00 10,0 0 8,00
100 80 60 40 30 20 15 10 8 6 10
0 6,00 0 4,00 0 3,00
0 2,00 0 1,50
0 1,00 800 600
300
400
200 150
100 80
60
50
40
VISCOSITY - SSU 15 20 25 30
40
50
60
70
80 90 100
CAPACITY - GALLONS PER MINUTE

FROM HYDRAULIC INSTITUTE STARDARDS, 14TH EDITION, 1983, REPRINTED IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW MANUAL, 7TH EDITION, 1986
Figure 8-17. Pump Performance Correction Factor Chart.
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8-3.11.4 Vapor Pressure. Vapor pressure limits suction head. If the pressure in the pump casing or suction line drops below the liquid vapor pressure, some of the liquid vaporizes. This causes centrifugal pumps to lose prime or cavitate; positive-displacement pumps can handle vapors and are self-priming, but may suffer damage if allowed to run dry. Volume occupied by vapor reduces the pumps output capacity. In the same manner, entrained air can expand at lowsuction pressures, reducing output. Since vapor pressure head is one of the components of NPSH, increased vapor pressure limits maximum suction lift: HS max = Ha - NPSHR - Hvp - HFS If suction lift cannot be reduced, it may be possible to reduce or eliminate cavitation by decreasing pump speed. Reducing pump speed lessens pressure drop on the face of the impeller. Lowering pump speed also lowers capacity; a reduction in capacity decreases NPSHR, allowing a higher suction lift: NPSHR 2 NPSHR 1 Q 2 2 = Q 1
Table 8-20. Permissible Materials for Pumps.

Liquid Fatty acids Fruit acids Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Sulfuric acid (to 65%) Sulfuric acid (10%) Tannic acid Alcohol Aqua ammonia Ammonium chloride Asphaltum Beer Benzene (benzol) Calcium chloride brine Sodium chloride brine Seawater brine Cane juice Creosote Diphenyl Ethyl acetate Ethylene chloride Fruit juices Gasoline Permissible materials A,8,9,10,11 A,8,9,10,11,14 11,12 5,6,7,8,9,10,12 10,11,12 A,10,11,12,14 A,8,9,10,11,14 A,B C 9,10,11,12,14 C,5 A,8 B,C C A,C,8 A,B,C A,B,13 B,C C,3 C,9,10 A,8,9,10,11,14 A,8,9,10,11,14 B,C Glue Glycerol (glycerin) Lard Limewater (milk of lime) Magnesium chloride Milk Molasses Naphtha Fuel oil Vegetable oil Turpentine oil Potassium carbonate Potassium chloride Soap liquor Soda ash (sodium carbonate) Sugar Syrup Tanning liquors (veg.) Tar Toluene (toluol) Varnish Vinegar Wood pulp Liquid Permissible Materials B,C A,B,C B,C C A,8,9,10,11,12 8 A,B B,C B,C A,B,C,8,9,10,11,14 B,C C A,8,9,10,11,14 C C A,8,9,10,11,13 A,8,9,10,11,13 A,8,9,10,11,12 C,3 B,C A,B,C,8,14 A,8,9,10,11,12 A,B,C
8-3.11.5 Abrasiveness and Corrosivity. Fluid abrasiveness and corrosivity influence the selection of materials from which the pump is constructed. Pump wear rates relative to fluid velocity and abrasiveness are not well established; slurry pump manufacturers data should be consulted. High wear rates should be anticipated when using improvised slurry pumps, especially with ore and mineral slurries, where impeller life may be 1,000 hours or less. In general, wear rate varies as the square or cube of the velocity. If purpose-built pumps are not available, Table 8-20 should be used as a guide for selecting pump materials. If pumps constructed of unacceptable materials must be used, a high wear rate should be anticipated. Depending on the severity of wear, it may be necessary to stock an ample supply of backup pumps and spare parts, particularly impellers and wearing rings.
NOTE: The letters and numbers indicate materials as follows: A B C 1 2 3 all bronze bronze-fitted all iron gray iron tin bronze carbon steel 4 - 10 11 12 13 14 stainless steels with compositions as given below a series of nickel-base alloys high-silicon cast iron austenitic cast iron Monel
Stainless Steel Numbers: Approximate composition, percent Type No 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C, max 0.20 0.15 0.30 0.50 0.08 0.08 0.07 Cr 5.00 13.00 20.00 28.00 18.0 - 21.0 18.0 - 21.0 18.0 - 22.0 Ni 2.00 2.00 8.0 - 11.0 9.0 - 12.0 20.0 - 30.0 Mo 0.50 2.0 - 3.0 3.5 max Cu, max 4.5 Mn, max 1.50 1.50 1.50 Si, max 2.00 2.00 4.00
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8-4 COMPRESSED AIR DEWATERING Buoyancy can be recovered by forcing water out of flooded spaces with compressed air. Compressed air dewatering is used when pumping is not practical or the construction of the casualty particularly suits it to use of compressed air:
Dewatering large tanks, holds, or machinery spaces that have bottom damage. Dewatering double-bottom or deep tanks. Dewatering cargo tanks in tankers and bulk liquid tanks in other ships. Dewatering holds filled with cargo that prevents placing of pump suctions or lowering of pumps to reduce suction lift. Dewatering sunken ships submerged too deeply for practical use of cofferdams and pumps. Regaining sufficient buoyancy to refloat capsized vessels upside down or on their side. Recovering buoyancy in flooded submarine compartments and ballast tanks.
Tankers and submarines are particularly suited to dewatering by compressed air. Tanker decks have fewer perforations than other types of ships, requiring less preparatory work; tank decks and bulkheads are capable of holding moderate air pressure. The same considerations apply to fuel and water tanks in other ships, or to floating drydocks. Tanker inert gas system piping provides an installed air distribution system; tanks set up for inerting are equipped with pressure gages. Submarines have very few bulkhead penetrations, all of which can be made airtight. Submarine hulls, hatches, and fittings can generally hold greater air pressure than those in surface ships. Some submarines classes are equipped with salvage air fittings. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 4 (S0300-A6-MAN-040) discusses submarine salvage in greater detail. Because the tops and sidesas well as the bottomsof liquid tanks are watertight and airtight, buoyancy can be recovered from flooded doublebottom or deep tanks without patching and little other preparation, so long as damage is confined to the bottom and lower side plating. Buoyancy quickly recovered from flooded tanks may be sufficient to refloat stranded ships, or prevent damaged ships from sinking. Despite its advantages, compressed air dewatering has a number of disadvantages:
The preliminary work to prepare most types of ships for blowing with compressed air is much greater than for pumping. Extensive patching and/or diving work may be required to obtain a sufficient degree of airtightness. An accepted rule of thumb is that compressed air will escape four to six times faster than water through a given opening. Considerable strengthening of decks and hatches may be required before dewatering with compressed air. Compressed air exerts its upward force on the tops of compartments, from the inside. A ships structure is, in general, designed to withstand sea pressure from below and outside the hull. Compartments can be overpressurized if vents are not properly sized or become obstructed, or blowing operations are not carefully monitored. Ships raised on compressed air leave the bottom suddenly and can be difficult to control during ascent as the compressed air expands. Stability and control of sunken vessels during ascent is discussed in Chapter 6. Because of the inefficiencies of pumping compressible fluids, the dewatering capacity of a compressor is much less than that of a pump of equal weight.
Compressed air dewatering methods have long been used, but have greatly improved in recent years. More efficient underwater welding procedures allow salvors to obtain more complete airtightness in preparation for compressed air dewatering; modern compressors have greater capacity, are more reliable, and are lighter than their predecessors. 8-4.1 Compressed Air Basics. Air compressors are rated in terms of their discharge pressure and flow rate, e.g., a 500 psi/900 cfm compressor. Flow rate is given in terms of air at a standard condition. The following standard conditions are used in the U.S. Navy:
Pressure one atmosphere (14.7 psi). Temperature 68 degrees Fahrenheit. Relative humidity 36 percent. Density 0.0750 lbm/ft3.
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In English units, flow rates are expressed in standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM). The actual volume occupied by the air delivered by a compressor depends on the pressure of the system or receiving vessel (volume tank, ships compartment, etc.). The volume of air (V) at standard conditions required to fill a space at a given pressure is found by application of the Boyles and Charles Laws: P1 V1 T1 = P2 V2 T2
Volumes of air at standard conditions are expressed in standard units, e.g., standard cubic feet (SCF). The quantity of standard air required to fill an actual volume, under nonstandard conditions, measured in actual units (actual cubic feet, ACF) can be found by a modification of the gas law: P Vs = P atm where: Vs = standard air volume, [length3] P = pressure in the space where air is required, absolute, [force/length2] Patm = atmospheric pressure, absolute, [force/length2] Va = actual (water) volume = space volume permeability, [length3] Tw = water temperature at depth, absolute = TFahrenheit + 460 = TCentigrade + 273 Ta = air temperature, absolute = TFahrenheit + 460 = TCentigrade + 273 Pressure can be expressed in feet of seawater (FSW): 1 FSW = 0.445 psi 33 FSW = 14.7 psi = 1 atmosphere When pressures are expressed as feet of seawater (FSW), standard volume is given by: Vs = (D 33 33) T a Va T w T a V T a w
8-4.2 Compressors. Compressors and compressed air systems are classified by their pressure rating:
Low pressure (LP) 150 psig or less. Medium pressure (MP) 150 to 1,000 psig. High pressure (HP) 1,000 psig or higher.
Compressors, like pumps, are classified by their design and operating features. There are two principal compressor types: Positive-displacement (reciprocating and rotary) compressors. Dynamic (centrifugal and axial) compressors.
Positive-displacement compressors collect a fixed volume of air within a chamber and compress it by reducing the chamber volume. Dynamic compressors operate by transferring momentum to the air via a high-speed rotor. Blowers operate on the same principles as compressors, but at lower pressures. Thirty-five psig is the commonly used arbitrary dividing line between compressors and blowers. Compressor displacement is the actual swept volume of the air chamber. Capacity is the quantity of air delivered by the compressor, in SCFM. Efficiency () is the ratio of capacity to displacement swept per minute: = where: SCFM = Displ = RPM = compressor capacity, standard cubic feet per minute compressor displacement, ft3 compressor speed, rotations per minute SCFM (Displ)(RPM)
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If compressor displacement is given without capacity or efficiency, capacity can be estimated by assuming 80-percent efficiency. Pressure in a compressed air system rises as a compressor or other air source forces more and more air into a confined space. Pressure is regulated by relief valves or by securing the compressor. When dewatering a compartment by forcing water out through openings in the bottom, the water acts as a relief valve. When the pressure in the compartment is high enough to force the water level down to the hull opening, additional air delivered by the compressor escapes through the opening, and the pressure ceases rising. In a closed system, such as a manifold or pipe with all outlet valves secured, pressure will continue to rise until the compressor reaches its maximum rating. Positive-displacement compressors can reach very high pressures. Unless a relief valve is installed, damage to the compressor, prime mover, or system is very likely. Dynamic compressors will reach a maximum pressure where the momentum imparted to intake air is insufficient to overcome the back pressure on the outlet; flow is zero at this pressure. All dynamic compressors have a minimum flow point, called the surge limit, below which the operation of the machine is unstable. Operation at or below the surge limit must be avoided. For a given compressor speed, positive-displacement compressors are essentially constant-volume, variable-pressure machines. Capacity is varied by changing compressor speed. Centrifugal compressors are essentially constant-pressure, variablecapacity machines; axial compressors are constant-capacity, variable-pressure machines over significant pressure ranges. Figure 8-18 shows pressure/volume relationships for different types of compressors. The time required to dewater a space depends on the delivery rate of compressed air. If only low-capacity compressors are available, delivery rate can be increased by storing compressed air in volume tanks or HP storage flasks until it is needed.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
OIL-FLOODED SCREW COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE
SURGE LIMIT
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR VOLUME FLOW Figure 8-18. Pressure Capacity Cures for Different Compressor Types.
Table 8-21. Navy Salvage (Diesel-Driven) Compressor Characteristics.

Weight lbs 2,650 Cube ft3 88 LWH in. 853551
Compressor 125 CFM LPAC
Remarks Rotary-vane type, 125 SCFM @ 100 psi compressor Two-stage, rotary-vane, 600 SCFM @ 100-psi compressor Two 4-cylinder reciprocating compressors on single shaft, 420 SCFM @ 500 psi each unit
600 CFM LPAC
6,680
717
1757792
900 CFM MPAC
15,640
966
242 67103
Table 8-22. Navy Salvage Ship Air System Capacities.

Ship Type Compressed Air Storage SCFM 10,460 @ 3,000 psig approx 10,000 @ 3,000 psig 147,000 @ 5,000 psig Air Compressors 2 200 SCFM @ 300 psi 2 200 SCFM @ 150 psi 2 100 SCFM @ 5,000 psi
ARS-50 ARS-38 ATS-1
8-4.3 Salvage Compressors and Air Sources. Compressed air for dewatering can be obtained from three principal sources:
Portable air compressors and/or storage flasks. Salvage-ship-installed compressors and air systems. Casualtys installed compressors and air systems.
Navy salvage ships carry 125 cfm/100 psi portable air compressors. The ESSM system stocks these compressors along with 900 cfm/500 psi and 600 cfm/100 psi portable compressors. Performance characteristics of these compressors are given in Table 8-21. Salvage ship air systems can also be used to provide salvage air. ASR and ATS Class ships have large capacity air systems to support submarine salvage and other compressed air dewatering operations; ARS Class ships have more limited air system capacities. Air system capacities for Navy salvage ships are summarized in Table 8-22.
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Portable compressors suitable for salvage use are also maintained by naval construction forces, ship repair facilities, public works centers, and various Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force support units. Most ships will have one or more installed compressed air systems. LP air systems are installed on virtually all ships to provide air for ships services. MP air systems are installed on warships to provide air for gun recoil and gas ejection systems. Submarines and some other types of ships are equipped with HP air systems for torpedo launching, etc. Diesel engine starting systems typically use MP or HP air. High-capacity, low-pressure rotary, axial, or centrifugal blowers may be installed in ventilation or combustion air systems. Diesel engine superchargers and boilercombustion-air-forced draft blowers typically operate in the 10 to 30 psi range, with capacity depending on plant size. Refrigeration compressors can also be modified to provide compressed air for salvage use. Inert gas generating systems supply gas at very low pressures, normally less than 10 psi; they can therefore be used for complete dewatering or cargo offloading only in water depths up to about 20 feet. They can also be used to provide a positive pressure over a liquid being pumped, as described in Paragraph 8-5. 8-4.4 Compressed Air Dewatering. The basic requirements for compressed air dewatering are a blowing connection to which an air hose is attached, a gage to monitor compartment pressure, and a route for the water to escape. The blowing connection can consist of an air fitting attached to a vent pipe or sounding tube, or permanently installed in the deck above the compartment to be dewatered. The diameter of the air fitting should equal or exceed the air hose diameter. An air fitting can also be mounted on a plate sized to fit a manhole, scuttle, or butterworth fitting. Figure 8-19 shows a typical salvage blowing fitting. As an alternative, air hoses can be led through hull openings below the waterline. A valve to control air pressure can be installed on the air fitting or in the supply hose if a relief or dump valve is installed upstream in the system. The pressure gage should be installed on the air fitting plate or other direct access to the space. If the gage is installed in the air supply line, air flow must be secured to get an accurate reading of the pressure inside the space (this means the gage must be downstream of the supply valve).
HOSE
COUPLING
GAGE
VALVE
FLANGE GASKET
SPOOL PIECE
Figure 8-19. Blowing Fitting.
AIR DISTRIBUTION MANIFOLD AIR SUPPLY (OFFSHIP)
BLOWING FITTING AND VALVE GAGE ORIGINAL LEVEL OF WATER SEA LEVEL AIR PUMPED INTO FLOODED TANK FLOODWATER EXPELLED THROUGH HULL DAMAGE
(a) DEWATERING THROUGH HULL DAMAGE
WATER ESCAPE STAND PIPE INSERTED THROUGH TANK LID OR MANHOLE COVER AIR PRESSURE FLOODWATER FLOODWATER DISPLACED
AIR SUPPLY WITH VALVE AND GAGE (ON SURFACE) BLOWING FITTING
ALTERNATIVELY: DIVERS CUT SUITABLE HOLE IN TURN OF BILGE TO PERMIT WATER ESCAPE
(b) DEWATERING A CLOSED COMPARTMENT
Figure 8-20. Compressed Air Dewatering.
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8-4.4.1 Recoverable Buoyancy. The buoyancy that can be recovered from any compartment is directly proportional to the volume of the compartment that can be blown down without air leaking from the compartment. If a compartment has damage only at the bottom, nearly all the buoyancy can be recovered. If damage extends up the side of the compartment, only the volume above the highest extent of the damage represents recoverable buoyancy. 8-4.4.2 Vents and Standpipes. In a compartment with holed bottom plating, water is forced out through the openings in the bottom of the space as compressed air fills the compartment from the top down. A space flooded without free communication to the sea can be dewatered by use of a standpipe, or by cutting openings in the hull as shown in Figure 820. The volume of water expelled, and thus the buoyancy regained, can be varied by adjusting the length of the standpipe or height of the hull openings. Compressed air volume, and therefore added buoyancy, can also be limited by securing blowing before the water level reaches the vent holes or standpipe. This method is acceptable for strandings, afloat casualties, and ships sunk to shallow depths. By controlling the amount of buoyancy recovered in different spaces, trim, list, and draft can be controlled as desired.
AIR LINE WEDGES SHORE AIRHOSE WOODEN PLUG AIR VENT STANDPIPE (VENT PIPE REMOVED) SPILLPIPE AIR SUPPLY HOSE LEAD THROUGH SPILLPIPE PIPE FITTING FLANGE
DECK
VENT TO TANK
EPOXY SEAL
COMPRESSOR
INFLATABLE BUOY COMPRESSED AIR HOSES HELD BY SMALL FLOATS OR TIED OFF TO DAMAGED PLATE/INTERNALS
Figure 8-21. Emergency Compressed Air Fittings. For deeply submerged ships or objects, partly dewatering a space with compressed air is very hazardous and should not be attempted; as the casualty rises, the air expands, adding buoyancy in a rapid and uncontrolled manner. The resulting instability can cause the casualty to assume extreme trim or list; other components of the lifting system can be overloaded or fail. Buoyancy should be recovered in small increments in deeply sunken ships to avoid instability.
8-4.4.3 Expedient Blowing Fittings. It is occasionally necessary to restore buoyancy to flooded spaces rapidly to prevent sinking or capsize. Tanks and similar spaces that can be made airtight easily can be dewatered quickly with compressed air. Tanks are made airtight by removing the gooseneck standpipes from the tank vents and hammering DC plugs into the vent pipes. A positive seal is ensured by coating the plugs with an epoxy compound; air pressure will force the epoxy into small gaps between the plug and pipe. Compressed air can be introduced into the space through the most appropriate of the expedient fittings shown in Figure 8-21. After the situation has stabilized, the fittings can be systematically replaced by steel blowing plates with valves, gages, and hose couplings. In many cases, introducing compressed air through vent pipes is the fastest way to regain buoyancy in damaged double-bottom tanks. Ships damaged by grounding or underwater weapons can be kept from sinking in this manner. 8-4.4.4 Removing Liquids Other than Floodwater. Compressed air can be used to remove fuel or other liquids from submerged tanks by leading a discharge hose from the standpipe to a receiving ship or barge. It is preferable to use pressurized inert gas rather than compressed air to move a flammable liquid. Blowing with compressed air increases the partial pressure of oxygen in the space, possibly creating an explosive atmosphere, even if the tank was previously inerted. Inert gas systems often use main engine flue gas that is inherently oxygen deficient. These gases are themselves flammable when mixed with sufficient oxygen. Inert gas generating systems can create high enough pressures to be used for shallow depths; for higher pressures, it may be possible to discharge an inert gas generator into a volume tank, which in turn is led to the inlet of an air compressor. Carbon dioxide or nitrogen from high pressure flasks can be used, but large quantities are required.
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8-4.4.5 Blowing and Differential Pressures. The pressure required to dewater a space is a function of water depth at the opening or bottom of the standpipe through which the water will be forced: Pb = 0.445D + PL where: Pb = D = 0.445 = PL = blowing pressure, psig water depth, feet pressure increase per foot of seawater pressure required to overcome air line losses and standpipe friction, normally taken to be 2 psi
COMPRESSOR
AIR PRESSURE
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE OPPOSING HYDROSTATIC AND AIR PRESSURES
Since there is no appreciable vertical pressure gradient in an air-filled space, pressure throughout the dewatered space will be equal to the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the standpipe. Because of the hydrostatic pressure gradient outside the dewatered compartment, the bulkheads and top of the compartment are subject to a differential pressure that varies with depth, as shown in Figure 8-22. Differential pressure (Pd) is greatest at the top of the compartment and can be calculated at any point by: Pd = Pb - 0.445D where: D = depth at the point in question, ft
RESULTING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
Figure 8-22. Differential Pressure.
In deep compartments, the differential pressure required to completely dewater a space may be greater than the bulkheads and top of the compartment can withstand. If so, it will be necessary to reinforce the ships structure or limit the differential pressure by varying the length of the standpipe or the height of the vents: l = where: l Pd PL = = = length of the standpipe or distance of vent from top of compartment maximum acceptable differential pressure, psig pressure required to overcome air line losses and standpipe friction, normally taken to be 2 psi (Pd PL) 0.445
8-4.4.6 Air Flow Requirements. The standard volume of air (Vs) required to completely dewater a space is based on the pressure at the opening or bottom of the standpipe: Vs = (D 33 33) T a (Va) T w
where: D Va Tw Ta = = = = depth to the vent or bottom of the standpipe, feet water volume, actual cubic feet = space volume permeability water temperature at depth, absolute air temperature, absolute
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Time to dewater is therefore Vs divided by the air delivery rate (Qs), assuming delivery piping and hoses are large enough not to restrict flow: Time = Vs Qs
Unless significant temperature differences are involved, the temperature correction can be omitted for salvage calculations. Because temperature rises when air is compressed, it may be necessary to top off spaces after the air cools to ambient temperature. If the standpipe or hull openings are too small, water will flow out of the compartment at a slower rate than air flows in, creating a hydraulic block that can cause pressure to build up. To avoid damage to the space or air system, it will be necessary to secure blowing periodically until sufficient water has been forced out of the space to lower the pressure. If compartment pressure is not carefully monitored, the space can be easily overpressurized, causing damage or injury. To avoid overpressurization, the water flow rate out of the compartment must equal the actual air flow rate (Qa) into the compartment. To find Qa: Qa = where: ATA = absolute pressure in atmospheres = D + 33 ______ 33 Qs ATA
By transposing the equation for flow through a hole or orifice, required outlet area can be found: Q = CdA 2gheq , A = Q Cd 2gheq where: Q Cd A g heq = = = = = water flow rate, ft3/sec = Qa discharge coefficient, from Figure 8-23 area of outlet, ft2 acceleration due to gravity 32.2 ft/sec2 blowing pressure, expressed as an equivalent head of seawater, feet = Pb/0.445
Cd ~ 1.0
The air pressure in the compartment will equal the hydrostatic pressure at the depth of the water level in the compartment; as blowing progresses, the water level falls, air pressure increases, and flow rates (water and actual air) decrease. The standpipe or opening should be sized to accommodate the maximum flow ratethe flow corresponding to the depth at the top of the compartment. The variation in flow rate and pressure through the dewatering may give the impression that higher driving pressure shortens dewatering time. While raising the driving pressure increases initial water flow rate, total dewatering time depends on the volume flow of the compressed air system; the compartment will not be dewatered until the air system has delivered sufficient actual cubic feet of air to fill the required volume. Flow rates of centrifugal compressors are related to delivery pressure and the higher flow rate accompanying the increased pressure will in fact shorten dewatering time.
Cd = 0.6 d
C = 0.97
Cd = 0.82
2 TO 3d SHARP EDGE ROUND EDGE SHORT TUBE CONICAL DIVERGING TUBE Cd = 0.97 Cd = 0.54
Cd = 0.72
Cd = 0.85
2 TO 3d RE-ENTRANT TUBE CONICAL CONVERGING TUBE SHORT TUBE WITH ROUNDED ENTRANCE
1/2d RE-ENTRANT TUBE
Figure 8-23. Discharge Coefficients.
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8-4.4.7 Compressed Air Distribution. Compressed air delivery systems must be carefully arranged to prevent confusion and blowing of spaces at the wrong time or in the wrong order. Delivery via one or more control manifolds is an excellent method of organizing the air distribution system. Installed piping systems of sufficient size and pressure rating can be modified for use as air distribution systems. Auxiliary steam systems, with the boiler modified to serve as a volume tank, and tanker inert gas systems are particularly suitable for this use. Some submarine classes are built with salvage air fittings and standpipes (high and low salvage air fittings) installed on internal compartments and hard ballast tanks. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) describes and illustrates typical submarine salvage air systems. Compressed air can be admitted to the external ballast tanks through the installed main ballast blow air system or by inserting air hoses through the tank bottom vents. Hoses rigged to underwater connections should be individually tagged with plastic or metal identification tags matching a tag placed on the connection. By running each hose individually and having divers compare the air hose and connection tags, the air supply to each connection is positively identified. 8-4.5 Operational Notes. Compressed air pressure acts equally throughout a space. Compressed air has the disturbing characteristic of migrating to the high side of the casualty. Air migrating through small holes or breaches may transfer to compartments where it is not wanted, increasing buoyancy at unwanted points and losing buoyancy at the desired point. Ships with only a slight list can quickly develop serious lists as air migrates through longitudinal bulkheads. When vent holes are cut into the side or bottom of a ship, preformed patches should be ready for installation when the ship is raised. Patching allows recovery of additional buoyancy and makes the casualty more secure for towing. If patches are not placed, the compressed air system must remain rigged and ready to maintain the bubble on which the ship is floating. Air will be continuously lost through leakage and will spill through the side/bottom holes as the ship moves in a seaway. The appearance of numerous bubbles that approximate the outline of the vessel indicates the ship is about to rise. A sunken ship raised on compressed air tends to leave the bottom quickly and accelerate as it rises. The rising ship is a danger to surface craft. All salvage ships and craft should be pulled back as far as practical before blowing to prevent collision with the rising ship. Compressed air expands as the ship rises and can cause major structural damage or loss by catastrophic shell or bulkhead failure. When a sunken ship is raised from a significant depth, hull openings, standpipes, or relief valves must be large enough to vent the expanding air. 8-5 COMBINED USE OF AIR AND PUMPING The most common use of combined pumping and blowing is to keep the pressure differential across bulkheads or shell plating within acceptable limits. Excessive pressure differentials can result from either of two conditions:
When a compartment is dewatered by pumping, the inner sides of the bulkheads, shell, and decks are subjected to atmospheric pressure. The outer sides are subjected to an opposing hydrostatic pressure that varies with depth. If the water depth is great enough, hydrostatic pressure will be excessive. To completely dewater a compartment with compressed air, air pressure in the compartment must be greater than the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the space. When blowing deep compartments, such as tanks or holds, the high blowing pressure can cause an excessive outward pressure near the top of the compartment.
Combined pumping and blowing is advantageous in those situations where the work and time required to seal the compartment is less than that to shore or strengthen the casualtys structure against excessive pressures. Combined pumping and blowing is a difficult technique because all the problems of both methods are present:
Compartments must be sealed for blowing with special attention paid to boundary penetrations for pump suctions, discharges, power lines, hydraulic hoses, etc. Pressure on each compartment must be monitored carefully to ensure that the maximum blowing pressure is not exceeded. Air flow rate must be matched to water outflow rate (total pumping capacity) to avoid overpressurization. Holes must be double-patched.
Air flow must be controlled to ensure that internal pressure does not rise so high that the compartment cannot contain it or fall so low that hydrostatic pressure collapses the structure. Air flow rate is controlled by throttling air inlet lines or varying compressor speed. Correct matching of air and water flow will be verified by relatively constant compartment pressure. If it is not possible to vary air flow, compartment pressure can be maintained between upper and lower limits by intermittently admitting compressed air. Under some conditions it may be desirable to use air pressure to increase net positive suction head (NPSH) to improve pump performance. When pumping flammable liquids, pressurizing the tank with an inert gas both improves pump performance and reduces the danger of ignition. Many tanker cargo pumps are designed for optimum operation with a 5 to 10 psi inert gas pressure. When some compartments are best dewatered by pumping and others by compressed air, each may be handled independently by the most suitable method. Care must be taken to ensure that pressure differential across bulkheads separating compartments to be blown from those to be pumped does not exceed the design pressure of the bulkhead.
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8-5.1 Excessive External Pressure. Internal air pressure decreases the pressure differential across compartment boundaries and reduces the load on structural members. The increased air pressure above the liquid surface also holds constant the positive suction head, improving pump performance. The sense or direction of the net pressure is very important; decks and side shell can normally withstand higher pressures from outside than from inside; bulkheads are sometimes designed to carry higher pressures from one side than the other. When blowing, there is a net internal pressure, since blowing pressure is always greater than hydrostatic pressure; when pumping, there is a net external pressure because the pressure outside the hull or compartment is never less than atmospheric. Depending on the relative magnitude of blowing pressure and hydrostatic pressure at the top and bottom of the compartment, either of the two conditions shown in Figure 8-24 can exist. Blowing pressure is selected to satisfy the following conditions: Case I Top of the compartment: Bottom of the compartment: where:
(1) OPPOSING PRESSURES: AIR PRESSURE (INTERNAL)
Case II Ph - Pb Pext Ph - Pb Pext
Pb - Ph Pint Ph - Pb Pext
Pb = Ph = Pint = Pext =
blowing pressure hydrostatic pressure maximum allowable internal pressure maximum allowable external pressure
From the above it follows that: Ph2 Pext Pb Ph1 + Pint Pb max = Ph1 + Pint Pb min = Ph2 where: Ph1 = Ph2 = hydrostatic pressure at top (or high end) of compartment hydrostatic pressure at bottom (or low end) of compartment the the the the Pext
(2) RESULTING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURES: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
8-5.2 Excessive Internal Pressure. Blowing pressure must be limited if the pressure required to dewater a space would cause excessive net internal pressure. The CASE 1 CASE 2 reduced pressure can force only part of the REVERSING PRESSURE REDUCED HYDROSTATIC liquid from the space; pumping is required GRADIENT GRADIENT to remove the remaining liquid. If the compartment is intact and can withstand full hydrostatic pressure, water can be Figure 8-24. Limiting Differential Pressure with Compressed Air. blown out through a standpipe down to the minimum level attainable. The compartment can then be vented to atmospheric pressure, opened, and pumped out. A more efficient method is to fit the compartment with both standpipe and pumps. Initial flow rate is relatively high as liquid is simultaneously forced out the standpipe and drawn out by the pumps. After flow through the standpipe ceases, the pumps continue to operate under the increased NPSHA. When the liquid level reaches the bottom of the standpipe, the compartment vents to atmospheric pressure. For this reason, an open standpipe cannot be used if the compartment bulkheads cannot withstand full hydrostatic pressure.
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8-6 INDUCED BUOYANCY
Although pumping and compressed air dewatering induce buoyancy, the term induced buoyancy is specifically applied to methods where water is removed from a space and replaced with a buoyant medium other than air. Two general methods are used:
Buoyant Objects Buoyant objects are introduced into a flooded space. By displacing water and reducing the spaces permeability, a portion of the lost buoyancy is regained. Both purpose-built and improvised systems have been used. Cast-in-place Foam A buoyant foam is used to displace water and fill all or part of the space with a homogeneous, continuous mass. The system is also called Foam-in-Salvage.
The principal advantage of using induced buoyancy methods instead of compressed air or pumping is that it is not necessary to make the spaces to be dewatered completely air or watertight. However, these methods recover less buoyancy than compressed air, and cast-in-place foam and purpose-designed buoyant object systems are generally more expensive to use than compressed air. 8-6.1 Expedient Buoyancy Recovery. Virtually any buoyant object that is available in sufficient quantity can regain buoyancy by being injected, inserted, or placed in the spaces to be dewatered. Some examples include:
Lifejackets, empty oil drums, small spheres, or other buoyant objects placed by divers or special-purpose equipment. Lift bags or collapsible pontoons placed inside flooded spaces, then inflated. Rigid pontoons placed in cargo holds so they lodge under overhanging deck edges, as shown in Figure 8-25.
Figure 8-25. Pontoons Placed Inside Holds.
Wood chips, cork floats, etc., pumped into spaces as a slurry.
A buoyant cargo that has not lost its buoyancy through leakage, rupture, or waterlogging may carry a significant portion of the casualtys weight. The buoyancy of the cargo reduces the lift required and should not be neglected in the salvage calculations. 8-6.2 Cast-in-place Foam. In this technique, liquid chemicals are mixed on the surface or in a submerged mixing gun and pumped or blown into interior spaces of the casualty. There, the mixture undergoes a chemical transformation into polyurethane foam. The foam consists of a matrix of tiny gas-filled cells. The gas, usually a fluorocarbon, is blown into the liquid urethane as it is injected into the space and causes the expansion necessary to displace water; the cell walls, after hardening and curing, are strong enough to resist further expansion of the gas as water pressure changes as the vessel refloats. The foam hardens very quicklywithin a minute or so of being injectedand forms a rigid, buoyant mass. The foam collects in the top of the compartment, displacing the water. Figure 8-26 shows a schematic diagram of the cast-in-place foam system and methods of injecting the foam. Foam density, strength, and curing time depend on a number of factors, including water depth and temperature, and should be determined by on-site experimentation. Theoretically, cast-in-place foam could be used at very great depths, but foam density increases with water depth, so less buoyancy is recovered. It is unlikely that cast-in-place foam would be practical or economical for water depths greater than 200 feet. At present, there is no Navy cast-in-place foam system, although the Supervisor of Salvage (NAVSEA 00C) is developing a system for use to depths of 90 feet of seawater. Arrangements for the use of cast-in-place foam are made through the Supervisor of Salvage.
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Cast-in-place foam has the following advantages:
METHOD ONE DIVER MUST KEEP FOAM NOZZLE EMBEDDED IN FRESH FOAM DURING ENTIRE OPERATION. URETHANE FOAM
METHOD TWO FOAM GUN SPILL PIPE DECK SEAL
The required equipment and chemicals are transportable by air and small craft. The expanding foam blocks and seals small holes, cracks, and splits. Buoyancy is recovered without creating free surface. The rigid foam possesses shear strength and adheres to internal structural members. The buoyant force is distributed through the casualty; less deck stiffening is required than when using compressed air or other water displacement methods. The hardened foam has some compressive strength and contributes to the overall hull girder compressive strength. The foam also inhibits buckling in shell and bulkhead plating. The contribution of foam to overall strength varies with foam quality and thoroughness of application, and is difficult to quantify. Foam installed in the hull may justify use of a reduced factor of safety for compressive hull loading.
FOAM FOAM GUN DIVER FOAM LINE SPILL PIPE FLOODED SPACE DISPLACED WATER
DIVER GAINS ACCESS THROUGH DAMAGE TO HULL AND FOAMS COMPARTMENT FROM THE TOP DOWNWARDS, FINAL FOAMING DONE FROM OUTSIDE.
PRESSURIZED LIQUID ISOCYANATE PRESSURIZED LIQUID FLOUROCARBON
PUMP
BLENDER
PRESSURIZED ISOCYANATE AND FLUOROCARBON
LIQUID PRESSURE IS REDUCED AT GUN, FLOUROCARBON TURNS TO GAS TO CREATE VOIDS
PUMP FINAL PRODUCT
FLOUROCARBON TURNS TO GAS WHEN PRESSURE IS REDUCED
METHYLENE CHLORIDE SOLVENT FOR FLUSHING GUN AND MIXER ON COMPLETION OF WORK PRESSURIZED POLYOL AND FLUOROCARBON
FOAM GUN
MIXING
PRESSURIZED LIQUID FLOUROCARBON PRESSURIZED LIQUID POLYOL
URETHANE FOAM
PUMP
PUMP
BLENDER
ISOCYANATE AND POLYOL MIX TOGETHER AND REACT TO FORM THE CELL WALLS, FLUOROCARBON EXPANDS IN CELLS
Figure 8-26. Typical Cast-in-Place Foam System.
The center of gravity of the system, once cast in place, is fixed and predictable. The same is true for the center of buoyancy so long as the entire foam block is submerged. The volume and shape of the foam mass are not subject to change as the vessel rises. Foam can be selectively distributed throughout large, undivided spaces, optimizing effects on trim and stability.
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Use of cast-in-place foam has several disadvantages:
The chemicals used to create the foam are toxic, flammable, and vapor-producing. Blending foam components gives off highly toxic vapors, and the foam may create irritating and toxic vapors while curing after the space is dewatered. When the foam is cut or crushed for removal, fluorocarbon gas (freon) is liberated from the foam cells that may displace oxygen in confined spaces, and is considered an environmental pollutant (damaging to upper atmosphere ozone layer). Urethane foam is very flammable. Foam is relatively expensive; consumables (urethane component chemicals and freon) to produce a long ton of buoyancy at 60 feet of seawater cost about 250 dollars (1990). Specially trained personnel and sensitive pumping and proportioning controls are required to reliably produce foam of consistent quality. The chemical reaction that creates the urethane will produce enough heat to self-ignite if laid down in air in thick layers that cannot dissipate the heat rapidly. The heat can ignite other flammables and induce undesirable chemical reactions. The hardened foam is very difficult to remove, especially from cluttered spaces such as machinery rooms. Foam components must be batched exactly to suit water and air temperatures, especially in very cold conditions. A foam mass in the top of a compartment, as high weight, may cause instability when the vessel is refloated, as shown in Figure 8-27.
FOAMING IN PROGRESS HOLD FLOODED
PARTIALLY PUMPED
HOLD PATCHED
FREE SURFACE EFFECT IS WORSENED BY WEIGHT OF FOAM
(a) VESSEL SUNK
(b) VESSEL AFLOAT
(c) VESSEL AFLOAT PUMPED OUT PARTIALLY
Figure 8-27. Cast-in-Place Foam Stability Problems.
The apparent simplicity of foam-in-salvage is deceiving. It is difficult to produce good quality foam consistently in the field. Foaming is a major operation involving serious safety and fire hazards. Foam should be used only when it is clearly the best alternative. 8-6.3 Other Water Displacement Methods. Small buoyant objects can be placed inside a sunken casualty, recovering buoyancy by displacing water and reducing permeability. Two principal systems have been developed:
The Karl Kroyer A/S (Denmark) system uses polystyrene granules which are expanded by steam into spheres of 3 8- to 1 2-inch in diameter. The expanded spheres must be stored for drying and air diffusion (about 24 hours) before being pumped into the casualty as a slurry. The U.S.-originated pressurized sphere injection (PSI) system uses 53 4-inch spheres molded from a petrochemical material. The spheres are pressurized to withstand the hydrostatic pressure at depth and equipped with relief valves to allow the internal pressure to equalize with ambient pressure during ascent.
In both systems, the spheres are injected at the bottom of the space to be dewatered. The spheres rise to the top of the space and form a large block, which gradually displaces water and adds buoyancy to the casualty. The volume of floating spheres remains constant as the ship refloats. In other respects, the free floating buoyancy medium behaves much like a similar volume of compressed air. The floating mass has virtually no inherent shear strength; decks and hatches must be strengthened to prevent the upward buoyancy forces from causing structural damage and to hold the spheres in place. Because the mass of spheres is free to move and change shape, the center of buoyancy can move as the ship refloats. The movement of the center of buoyancy and upward forces on decks and hatches are less than when using compressed air because the spheres are constrained to some extent by internal structural members and each other. At present, there is not enough field data to allow accurate predictions of the reduction in upward forces or movement of the center of buoyancy when compared with an air bubble of equal buoyancy. These or similar systems may or may not be available. If they appear attractive for a specific application, the Supervisor of Salvage may be able to arrange for their use.
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CHAPTER 9 WEIGHT
9-1 INTRODUCTION The ability to alter the amount and disposition of a damaged vessels weight is one of the salvors most important tools. Weight can be removed, shifted, or added to a damaged vessel to accomplish any of the following:
Change ground reaction magnitude or distribution. Reduce weight of a sunken vessel before lifting. Change trim or list. Reduce hull girder stresses. Improve stability.
Removal of cargo, stores, equipage, and equipment is sometimes necessary to prevent further damage, or may be the sole object of the salvage operation. Local authorities may require removal of hazardous materials and potential environmental pollutants before permitting salvage operations to begin. Weights in the form of salvage machinery, patches, and structural reinforcements may be added to or moved about the vessel in the course of the salvage operation. Whenever there is a weight movement or change, there will be concomitant effects on stability, trim, and strength. 9-2 REMOVABLE WEIGHTS Shipboard weights available to the salvor for shifting or removal include:
Flooding water. Ballast. Cargo. Fuel, fresh water, and other liquids. Stores and provisions. Ammunition and weapons. Boats. Aircraft. Portable equipment and utility vehicles. Portions of the ships structure and ttings. Anchors, chain, mooring wires, ropes, and associated ttings, particularly spares. Crew or passengers and effects.
In salvage, relatively large quantities of weights must be moved. Liquid weights and bulk cargoes are usually easier to handle than packaged goods.
9-1
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9-2.1 Floodwater. The removal of oodwater reduces ground reaction and improves stability by returning the ship to its original condition. The removal of unconataminated oodwater is relatively simple because the water can be discharged directly overboard; pollutant-contaminated oodwater may require special lightering and handling arrangements. 9-2.2 Ballast. Some ships have dedicated ballast tanks. Water ballast in these tanks is clean ballast and can be discharged directly overboard, often using the casualtys pumps. Ballast water in fuel or cargo tanks is contaminated, or dirty ballast (unless the tanks were cleaned immediately before ballasting) and may be an environmental pollutant. Permanent solid ballast, if any, may be a considerable weight, but is usually inaccessible and difficult to remove. Solid ballast may be stone, concrete, lead or iron pigs, drilling mud, or mud dredged from harbor or river bottoms. Decaying organic matter in mud ballast is a potential source of toxic and explosive gases. Ships carry ballast to adjust trim, increase propeller immersion, improve the vessels ride in a seaway, or improve stability. Because of their large deadweight, merchant vessels and auxiliaries operate through a broad range of displacements. Removal of cargo in accordance with the vessels loading instructions will generally maintain positive stability and avoid excessive hull stresses. Removing ballast without adding cargo may have detrimental effects on stability or longitudinal strength. 9-2.3 Cargo. The weight of the cargo in a laden merchant ship or auxiliary is a signicant portion of the total weight of the ship. In large, solidly grounded cargo ships and auxiliaries, it is almost always necessary to remove a portion of the cargo for reoating. Cargo removal may be desirable or necessary for several reasons:
Table 9-1. Boat and Craft Weights1.
WEIGHT (POUNDS UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED) Boat/Craft SHIPS BOATS: 26 Motor Whale 26 Personnel Boat, 33 Personnel Boat, 40 Personnel Boat, 40 Personnel Boat, 33 Utility Boat, MK 3 40 Utility Boat, MK 50 Utility Boat, MK 35 Work Boat LANDING CRAFT: LCM(6) LCM(8) MOD 1 LCM(8) MOD 2 LCPL, MK 4 LCPL, MK 11 LCPL, MK 12 LCU (1610 Class) LCU (501 Class) LCAC LCAV (Army) AMPHIBIOUS TRACTORS: LVTP 7 LVTC 7 LVTR 7 LVTE 7 LCA LARC V LARC XV LARC LX (Army) Light Maximum Load Hoisting 5,300 8,675 14,900 17,700 19,600 10,500 15,600 21,700 13,300 60,700 128,000 72,980 17,200 15,000 17,150 198 TONS 140 TONS 115,000 38,451 40,181 47,304 45,620 85,800 19,000 75,000 197,000 5,800 9,675 16,000 19,200 22,500 12,200 17,000 24,000 15,800 67,600 137,000 83,560 18,500 17,500 19,300 N/A N/A N/A N/A Applicable Ship Types2 Small combatants Combatants Large combatants/aux " " " " " ARS/ATS/ATF Amphib Warfare Ships " " " " " LSD/LPD/LHA/LHD (well deck) " LSD/LHA/LHD (well deck) LSD/LHA/LHD
N/A LST/LPD/LSD/LHA/LHD N/A " N/A " N/A " N/A " N/A " N/A " N/A "
It may lighten a stranded ship enough to reoat. Conventional cargo holds and tanks are designed to facilitate loading and offloading. Depending on the attitude of the casualty, environment, and damage suffered, cargo may be readily accessible. It may be necessary to remove cargo to prevent further damage, prevent environmental pollution, or reduce hazards on the casualty. Some examples are cargo spilling or leaking from ruptured tanks and holds, packaged cargo above the water line in ooded holds, and perishable materials in unrefrigerated holds. The economic or military value of the cargo may be higher than that of the casualty. Liquid and bulk cargoes can be removed quickly if suitable pumps or handling equipment and lightering vessels are available.
COASTAL AND RIVERINE COMBATANTS: 36 Sea Fox 21,900 28,000 Vessels supporting spec ops 32 PBR, MK 2 15,050 17,500 " 36 ATC 20,560 23,670 " 24 LASSE (River 6,200 8,000 " 65 PB, MK 3 65,500 83,000 Deck or well deck cargo 50 ASPB, MK 1 66,500 85,000 " 56 ATC, MK 1 125,000 125,000 " 60 CCB, MK 1 134,000 134,000 " 60 Monitor, MK 1 134,000 134,000 " MISCELLANEOUS: 40 PPRB 50 Work Boat 56 Target Drone 18 Target Drone NOTES:
1
23,800 52,500 30,870 2,600
28,100 Deck or well deck cargo 56,400 " 36,000 " 2,800 Cargo
Refer to Data Book for Boats and Craft of the United States Navy (NAVSEA 0900-LP-077-7710) for more complete information. In addition to listed ships, any boat may be carried as deck or well-deck cargo on amphibious warfare ships, auxiliaries, or MSC or commercial ships. Smaller boats may be carried as stowed cargo.
Before any cargo is removed during salvage, the quantity of cargo to be removed and the sequence of removal must be determined by calculating the effects of the removal on strength and stability. Tailored trim, stability, and load computers or programs common on large tankers and bulk carriers may be helpful if the ship has not suffered extensive damage (see Paragraph 4-2.5.3). How the cargo will be removed and what will be done with it are also important. Arrangements must be made for the security of the cargo while it is in the salvors possession and for its nal disposition. Lack of adequate handling and receiving facilities may predispose against cargo removal:

9-2
Ships designed to load or discharge cargo with specialized equipment or facilities can be very difficult to offload under salvage conditions. Some liquid cargoes, such as heavy oils, solidify or gel at normal temperatures and require heating before they can be pumped.
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The variety of cargoes carried by ships is almost innite, as are the arrangements for handling cargoes in ports around the world. In a salvage situation, it is nearly always necessary to improvise cargo-handling methods and equipment. The relative merit of removing any cargo depends upon the nature and specic properties of the cargo, and the design, condition, and attitude of the casualty. These factors inuence improvisation in handling methods and all other facets of the discharging operation. Assistance in identifying the cargo, its characteristics, and special handling requirements can usually be provided by the ships cargo officer or chief officer, the ship operators, and port authorities in the ports where the ship or similar ships load and discharge. Equipment, either available on board the ship or capable of being brought to the scene, will have a profound effect on the discharge plan. Paragraph 9-6 discusses weight-handling methods and the advantages and disadvantages of offloading general types of cargoes and vessels under salvage conditions. 9-2.4 Fuel and Other Liquids. Removal of fuel and liquid stores, such as potable water, feed water, diesel oil, and lube oil, has the same advantages and disadvantages as removing liquid cargo, but on a smaller scale. These liquids are normally stowed low in the ship; their removal may be detrimental to stability, and it may be necessary to remove some high weight as compensation. Potable and untreated feed water can usually be discharged overboard without hazarding the environment. Quantities of feed water, potable water, and fuel needed during the salvage operation should be determined before these liquids are removed. 9-2.5 Stores and Provisions. On merchant vessels and auxiliaries, the weight of ships stores and provisions is insignicant compared to the weight of cargo; in warships, stores may be a signicant weight. Provisions are normally stowed in relatively inaccessible storerooms and must be emptied by manual labor. Perishable foodstuffs should be removed if refrigeration plants are not operable to reduce potential health and gas hazards. 9-2.6 Ammunition and Weapons. A warships munitions load is a signicant weight. Gun ammunition has high unit weight and is usually stowed low in the ship, whereas missiles are less dense and stowed higher. Munitions require special handling and stowage procedures. Ordnance specialists, preferably from the casualtys weapons or gunnery department, should be employed to direct ammunition handling. Ordnance that has been damaged or subjected to shock, extreme temperatures, or immersion should be examined by EOD personnel prior to handling and rendered safe if necessary. Similar precautions apply to ordnance cargoes carried by auxiliaries or merchantmen.
Table 9-2. Navy and Marine Corps Aircraft Weights.

Aircraft Basic Weight (lbs) Fixed-wing Aircraft A-3 TA-4 A-6/EA-6A A-7E AV-8B TAV-8B C-2 E-2C EA-6B F-4 F-14 F/A-18 OV-10A OV-10D S-3 T-2B T-2C 40,000 11,000 29,000 17,500 13,700 14,057 37,970 36,000 34,300 31,000 42,000 25,000 8,360 9,812 27,200 8,220 8,115 Helicopters AH-1T AH-1W UH-1 UH-1N H-2 H-3 H-46 RH-53D CH-53D MH-53E CH-53E TH-57 SH-60B 9,000 10,200 5,240 6,300 8,618 13,100-16,475 14,000 25,600 22,900 36,475 33,226 2,061 14,193 14,000 14,750 9,500 10,500 6,500 20,000 18,000 32,000 32,000 50,000 50,000 3,200 21,700 45,900 16,000 41,500 39,300 29,750 29,750 44,150 48,000 51,853 42,000 62,620 37,400 14,400 15,000 42,398 14,048 14,048 Max Hoisting Weight (lbs)
From NATOPS U.S. Navy Aircraft Crash and Salvage Operations
Manual (Afloat), NAVAIR 00-8OR-19 of 1 April 1989 9-2.7 Boats. Amphibious warfare ships carry large numbers of heavy landing craft. Removal or launching of these craft removes signicant weight; the craft can also be used as lighters or work boats. Weights of boats can be found in the Ships Information Book (SIB), inclining experiment report, or obtained from the rst lieutenant. Typical weights for Navy boats are given in Table 9-1.
9-2.8 Aircraft. Individual aircraft are large unit weights, normally carried high in the ship. Aircraft carriers (CV) and helicopter carriers (LHD, LHA, LPH) carry large numbers of aircraft; aircraft are also embarked on many smaller combatants, auxiliaries, amphibious warfare ships, Coast Guard cutters, and various civilian vessels. Fixed-wing aircraft may be very difficult to remove, but an attack carriers air wing can weigh 1,400 tons. Helicopters can be own off if they can be brought to the ight deck, if list and trim are not extreme, and if there is an acceptable landing zone within their ight range. It may be possible to use these helicopters to support salvage operations. Assistance from the casualtys ight deck crew or aircraft-handling specialists should be obtained when removing aircraft. Table 9-2 gives weights for Navy carrier-based aircraft and helicopters. 9-2.9 Portable Equipment and Utility Vehicles. Large auxiliaries, amphibious warfare ships, and aircraft carriers are equipped with a number of utility vehicles such as forklifts, aircraft tractors, mobile cranes, and other portable equipment. Such equipment can be very useful for shifting or removing weight; they can be removed when no longer useful. 9-2.10 Structure and Fittings. Heavy items of the casualtys equipage, such as special vans, are large unit weights and usually can be easily removed. Portions of the ships structure or ttings can also be removed to reduce weight. Weapons mounts, launchers, and directors on warships are readily removed, provided adequate lifting gear is available. Masts, kingposts, booms, and cranes may be removed from merchant ships and auxiliaries. Removal of ships structure increases repair time and cost for casualties intended for return to duty; if possible, only the most easily replaceable items should be removed. 9-2.11 Anchors and Chain. In most cases, anchors and chain not in use can be simply dropped from the hawse. Removal of anchors is especially benecial for ships grounded forward. Anchors and chains should be buoyed for recovery before letting go. 9-2.12 Crew and Effects. The weight of crew (or passengers) and their effects is easily removable and can be estimated at 200 pounds per individual.
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9-3 WEIGHT ADDITION
Weight can be added to hold a ship hard aground to prevent or minimize damage until she can be reoated, or to reduce ground reaction by counterooding. Weight removal is often a slow process; it is often necessary to add quickly removable weight to keep the ship hard aground on her strand while other weight is removed. Added weight is most commonly seawater. If stability allows, the water ballast should be located above the waterline, allowing discharge by gravity draining through large gates or orices. On ships rmly aground and restrained from inclining, high weight will not adversely affect stability if it is removed before reoating. If the ship is free to incline and the weight is to be placed low in the ship to maintain positive stability, tanks served by high-capacity installed pumps or accessible to large-capacity salvage pumps should be used. Possible locations for added water ballast include:
Undamaged cargo, ballast, or fuel tanks. Bladders or portable tanks. Temporary steel tanks. Ships compartments converted to tanks.
9-3.1 Bladders. ESSM system oil storage bladders, rubber fuel bladders, or portable tanks can be used to hold water ballast. The bladders or tanks can be located on deck and drained over the side. If ballast must be located below decks, smaller bladders or tanks can be located in appropriate spaces. The bladders can drain through holes cut into the ships sides. Table 9-3 lists characteristics and stocking points for portable bladders and tanks.
Table 9-3. Liquid Storage Tanks and Bladders. Capacity Tank or Bladder ft Dracone type L oil storage bladder/barge Trellcone 50 oil storage bladder/barge Fuel storage bladder Tank containers* 40-foot 30-foot 20-foot Mini-tanks Trailer-mounted eld tanks (tactical)
3
Stocking Points gal 137,000 13,000 140 ESSM Bases and Complexes ESSM Bases and Complexes Army and Marine Corps combat support units Naval Supply Centers, Military Shipping Terminals, shipping companies, commercial container terminals, manufacturers, and leasing agencies Army and Marine Corps combat support units
18,315 1,738 18.6
775 - 2,119 699 - 1,473 297 - 1,041 89 27 - 67
5,800 - 15,900 5,231 - 11,016 2,221 - 7,789 664 200 - 500
* Tank container capacity varies with type and manufacturer
9-3.2 Temporary Tanks. Temporary steel tanks can be fabricated on the weather decks to receive the replacement liquids. Scantlings for the tank walls can be determined in the same manner as for patches (see Paragraph 8-2.1). The deck must be strong enough to support the weight of water. For most ships, this limits the water depth to six feet, unless the decks are shored or reinforced. The tank walls can be joined to the deck by welding, or simply set on deck and sealed with a caulking compound. Commercial marine sealant-type adhesives provide a strong enough bond to keep the tank walls from spreading for water depths less than two feet. If not welded to the deck, walls for deeper tanks must be restrained from spreading by angle clips welded or bolted to the deck. Tank walls can be constructed with lighter scantlings if opposite walls are connected with tension members to prevent the walls from spreading outward and separating at the corners.
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Temporary tanks should be tted with large valves or spill gates that can be opened to allow rapid gravity draining. The required orice size can be determined from: 2V t = Q where: t = time to ow volume V (volume of liquid above the bottom of the discharge opening)
Initial ow rate Q is given by: Q = C a 2gh where: Q a C g h = = = = = initial ow rate (ft3/sec or m3/sec if g is in ft/sec2 or m/sec2) area of opening(s) discharge coefficient, from Figure 8-23 gravitational acceleration = 32.2 ft/sec2 = 9.81 m/sec2 head = depth of water above the top of the discharge opening
Solving for a: a = 2V C t 2gh where t is the desired discharge time, in seconds. For wall-sided tanks, where V = Ah, the relationship reduces to: 2Ah 2A h = C t 2gh C t 2g 9-3.3 Compartments. Watertight compartments can be used to store ballast water. Watertight bulkheads on Navy ships can withstand solid ooding on either side without failure, but can be expected to bulge. Bulkheads should be shored to prevent damage. Nonwatertight compartments will require sealing and strengthening or shoring before ooding. a =
9-4 WEIGHT SELECTION
The following criteria affect the selection of shipboard weights for removal, locations for added weight, or weight shifts:
Usefulness of items to salvage operations. Availability of weight-handling equipment and suitable lightering craft. Work and time required for removal in light of potential weight reduction and rate of deterioration of the casualty. Effects on aoat and grounded stability. Effects on hull girder stresses. Need to protect removable items from further damage. Potential reduction in salvage value.
When offloading items other than liquids, some damage or loss is inevitable. A good practice is to offload only the least valued or least damageprone cargo when there is a good chance for successful salvage, and cargo remaining aboard is not likely to be damaged. If successful salvage is unlikely, or the items are subject to continuing damage, high-value items should be removed for safekeeping. If possible, deck cargo should be discharged rst; deck cargo is generally lumber, containers, machinery, large vehicles, boats, or other heavy single lifts that give good tonnage for effort. Deck cargoes obstruct working space and are particularly susceptible to damage during salvage; removing deck cargo clears working space on the casualty. Deck cargoes are high weight; their removal improves stability. The amount of weight that can be removed, and time required for its removal are often governed by the weight-handling equipment that can be applied to the taskeither from the casualty or from vessels alongside.
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9-5 DISPOSITION
Table 9-4. Military Craft for Lightering.
Where items of value or potential reuse are to be removed, removal methods should be chosen that will safeguard their value. Handling the material involves not only removing it from the casualty, but providing suitable lighterage, transportation, and possibly stowage. Jettisoning is much simpler, but should be employed only as a last resort. 9-5.1 Lightering. Selection of lightering craft is often a matter of local availability. The optimum size for lightering craft depends on the weight of cargo to be transferred, water depth, maneuvering room, fendering capacity, sea conditions, etc.; to simplify operations, the largest craft appropriate for the conditions should be used. Various amphibious, yard, and logistics support vessels can be used as cargo lighters. If other craft are not available, ESSM oil storage bladders can be used as towed barges for lightering liquids, although they can be difficult to handle and offload. Table 9-4 lists cargo capacities and other characteristics for selected Navy and Army craft. Landing craft, particularly LCUs, and Army Logistics Support Vessels (LSV) are good small-to-medium lighters. Liquids can be carried in fuel bladders or portable tanks in the well decks. The LSV and LCU-1610 Class have both bow and stern ramps and can be used as causeways or interconnecting barges to offload wheeled cargo. Naval bases, shipyards, Assault Craft Units (ACU), Amphibious Warfare Groups, or Army Transportation Corps units may be able to provide lighters.
Craft
Cargo Capacity
Length Beam Full Load Draft
Range (NM) at maximum speed (kts) and full load
Notes
LANDING CRAFT LCM(6) LCM(8) MOD 1 LCM(8) MOD 2 LCU-501 LCU-1466 LCU-1610 LCU-2000 Logistics Supply Vessel (LSV) LARC V LARC XV LARC LX (BARC) LCAC LCAV (Army) YARD, SERVICE & COASTAL CRAFT YFU-71 Army 210' dry cargo vessel, FS design 7013 Army 176' special-purpose, FS design 427 Army 210' liquid cargo vessel, Y design 7014 BARGES Fuel oil barge, YON
68,000 lbs 130,000 lbs 130,000 lbs 125 lton 150 lton 184 lton 350 lton 1,800 lton (cargo) 2,650 lton (SW ballast) 10,000 lbs 30,000 lbs 120,000 lbs 60 lton (estimated) 30 lton (max)
56' 14' 4' 3" 74' 21' 4' 7" 78' 21' 4' 6" 119' 33' 5' 5" 115' 34' 6' 8" 135' 30' 6' 10" 174' 42' 9' 223' 60' 12' 35 10 N/A 45 15 N/A 63 27 N/A
115 @ 11 140 @ 9 150 @ 12 500 @ 9 850 @ 12 1,200 @ 11 4,500 @ 11.5 6,560 @ 11 35 @ 9 (water) 200 @ 30 (land) 104 @ 8 (water) 180 @ 30 (land) 75 @ 7 (water) 150 @ 14 (land) 500 @ 35 100 @ 50
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 1 2
77 36 NA 7' 5" 223' 38' 14' 6" 180' 33' 11' 3" 223' 38' 17' 0"
140 lton 1,000 lton 56,400 ft3 21,462 ft3 11,000 bbl in 9 tanks 3,382 ft3 in 1 hold
6,750 @ 13 4,500 @ 12 7,700 @ 13
1 2 2 2
Open lighter, YC Ships waste offloading barge, SWOB Covered lighter, YFN Large covered lighter, YFNB Army deck cargo barge, BC design 7005 Army deck cargo barge, BC design 231A Army sectionalized, nesting, deck cargo barge, BK design 7001 Army deck or liquid cargo barge, BG design 231B Army deck or liquid cargo, barge, BK design 218E Army refrigerated barge, BR design 7016 Army refrigerated barge, BR design 7016 7010 LST Causeways BOATS 50' Work Boat 50' Utility Boat 40' Utility Boat 33' Utility Boat 35' Work Boat
8,400 bbl in 8 tanks 1,240 lton (heavy fuel) 165' 40' 9' 1,100 lton (diesel/JP-5) 8' 900 lton (gasoline) 7' 550 lton 110' 32' 7' 4" 294 lton 106' 26' 6' 2" 110' 32' 7' 8" 120' 33' 8' 0" 81' 22' 4' 9" 120' 33' 8' 6" 45' 18' 1' 8" 120' 33' 5' 10" 210' 40' 8' 5" 173' 29' 8' 8" 50' 14' 34' 50' 15' 4' 4" 40' 12' 3' 9" 34' 11' 3' 36' 11' 3'
protected waters
570 lton 585 lton 150 ltons (hold), or 130 ltons (deck) 578 lton or 4,160 bbl 30 lton 9,450 gal 46,476 ft3 14,200 ft3 100 lton
coastal protected waters coastal ocean coastal ocean protected waters coastal ocean at drafts < 8' protected waters coastal ocean coastal
4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 5
Replenishment oilers and stores ships, amphibious warfare ships, and logistics support ships of the Navy, Army, and Military Sealift Command (MSC) can lighter large vessels where there is good depth of water alongside. These ships are congured with multiple holds or tanks to segregate different cargoes, and have large crews that can provide a salvage work force. LKAs, with large holds and highcapacity cargo gear, and LSTs, with large cargo capacity and the ability to beach, are especially suited for lighterage. Table 9-5 lists dimensions and cargo capacity of large Army, Navy, and MSC logistics support ships. If government-owned vessels are not available or suitable, commercial tankers, freighters, barges, offshore supply boats, or other suitable vessels must be hired.
38,700 lbs 24,110 lbs 19,800 lbs 7,400 lbs 6,500 lbs
130 @ 9 150 @ 9.8 120 @ 10.3 140 @ 9.7 85 @ 11
6 7 7 7 8
Notes: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Amphibious warfare ships (LSD/LHA/LHD/LST/LKA), Assault Craft Units (ACU), Navy shore stations, Army Transportation Corps Army Transportation Corps (see Appendix B for Army craft designations) Assault Craft Units (ACU), Beachmaster Units (BMU), Naval Mobile Construction Battalions (NMCB) Major shore stations/facilities, Military Sealift Command (MSC), Army Transportation Corps NEWPORT Class LSTs (may carry up to 4 causeways) Tenders (AS/AD/AR), shore stations Large ships, shore stations Salvage ships and units
Refer to the Data Book for Boats and Craft of the United States Navy, NAVSEA 0900-LP-077-7710, or Marine Equipment Characteristics and Data, U.S. Army TM 55-500 for more complete information.
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Table 9-5 Logistics Support Ship Capacities.
Ship Type
Liquid Cargo
Dry Cargo
Dimensions, feet Length x Beam x Draft 581 x 79 x 24
Remarks
AO-177 AO-51 T-AO-187 T-AO-143 T-AO-105 T-AOT (MARAD T-5 design) T-AOT-168 T-AOT-1203 T-AOT-1208 AOE-6 AOE-1 AOR-1 AFS-1 T-AFS-8 LKA-113 T-AK-286 (MARAD C3-S-33a design) T-AK-280 T-AK-1010 (MARAD C4-S-69b) T-AK (MARAD C4-S-66a) T-AK-3000 T-AK-3005
120,000 bbl 180,000 bbl (jumboized) 184,524 bbl 180,000 bbl 180,000 bbl 150,000 bbl 238,400 bbl 225,154 bbl 38,421 tons deadweight1 38,542 tons deadweight1 156,000 bbl 177,00 bbl 160,000 bbl 1,800 tons munitions, 400 tons refrigerated, 250 tons break-bulk 2,150 tons munitions, 250 tons refrigerated, 500 tons break-bulk 600 tons munitions, 200 tons refrigerated, 200 tons break-bulk 6,800 tons deadweight1 7,782 tons deadweight1, 12,359 gross tons 9,000 tons deadweight1 6,590 gross tons 4,000 tons deadweight1 9,749 tons deadweight1 14,897 tons deadweight1 17,128 gal JP5, 10,642 gal DF2, 3,865 gal MOGAS, 2,022 gal Pot Water 20,290 gal JP5, 12,355 gal DF2, 3,717 gal MOGAS, 2,189 gal Pot Water 20,776 gal JP5, 13,334 gal DF2, 4,880 gal MOGAS, 2,357 gal Pot Water 121,595 ft RO/RO, 92,831 ft break-bulk 152,236 ft2 RO/RO
2 3
175 tons munitions, 100 tons refrigerated
644 x 75 x 35 678 x 98 x 35 655 x 86 x 35 644 x 75 x 36 615 x 90 x 34 587 x 84 x 35 660 x 90 x 37 668 x 84 x 36 591 x 89 x 36 793 x 107 x 39 659 x 96 x 33 581 x 79 x 24 524 x 72 x 22 576 x 62 x 26 483 x 68 x 42 455 x 62 x 22 579 x 82 x 30 606 x 76 x 33 755 x 90 x 37.1 821 x 106 x 32 APF2 APF2 Maritime Prepositioning Force (MPF)2 3 twin 30-ton cranes MPF2 2 twin 50-ton cranes 130-ton gantry crane MPF2 2 twin 39-ton cranes single 39-ton crane APF2 APF2 APF2 oat-on/oat-off heavy lift ship MPF2 twin 35-ton cranes mid twin 50-ton cranes aft P/S vehicle ramps 1 unit only (see Table 9-6 for lift capacity) 9 LCM, see Table 9-6 for cargo gear 10-ton booms (8), 5-ton booms (4), 75-ton boom Aoat Prepositioning Force (APF)2 APF2
T-AK-3008
152,185 ft2 RO/RO
821 x 106 x 32
T-AKB-2046 (LASH) T-AKB-1015 (LASH) T-AKF T-AKR (MARAD SL-7)
30,298 tons deadweight1 46,152 tons deadweight

1
820 x 100 x 35 893 x 100 x 60 738 x 130 x 946 x 106 x 35
47,230 tons deadweight1 131,000 ft2 RO/RO & hangar 35,500 ft2 ight deck 18,500 ft2 light vehicle stowage 3,000 tons deadweight1, 120,000 ft3 600,000 gal diesel fuel storage for vehicles 500 tons/19,000 ft2 vehicle storage 5,000 ft3/12,500 ft2 vehicle storage; cargo variant: 40,000 ft3/13,333 ft2 vehicle storage 5,000-ton deadweight1 5,000-ton deadweight1
AHL RO/RO (USAV James McHenry) LST-1179 LSD-41
300 x 55 x 17 562 x 70 x 18 609 x 84 x 21
4 LCAC (2 for cargo variant) or 21 LCM(6) in well deck. Vehicle stowage includes preloaded LCAC 3 LCU + 1 LCM or 4 LCAC 1 LCU + 3 LCM(6), or 4 LCM(8), or 1 LCAC, or 20 LVT in well deck, + 2 LCM(6) or 4 LCPL on boat deck. Up to 6 CH-46 helicopters
LSD-36 LPD-4
553 x 84 x 20 570 x 100 x 23
Notes:
1 2
Includes consumables (fuel, lube oil, fresh water, stores) and liquid cargo. Maritime (MPF) and Aoat Prepositioning Force (APF) ships are loaded and manned by caretaker crews for rapid deployment in support of expeditionary forces. During peacetime they would be unavailable for all but the highest priority salvage operations. Following initial deployment after the outbreak of hostilities, they may be available to support salvage operations for limited times, especially if the salvage is conducted to recover critical war materials.
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The nature of the weight to be removed will inuence the selection of lightering craft. If the value or utility of removed items is to be retained, the receiving vessel must be clean and t to receive its consignment. Different bulk cargoes should not be mixed. Items susceptible to water damage must be protected from weather and spray. Open barges and landing craft can be used to transport general cargo short distances in good weather; tarpaulins should be used to provide spray protection. Bulk carriers or hopper barges should be used for bulk cargo, but open barges can be modied to carry bulk cargo as shown in Figure 9-1. To simplify cargo transfer, receiving vessels should be brought alongside. To make maximum use of lighterage capacity, the cargo must be handled in the holds or on the decks of receiving vessels, since booms or cranes can rarely plumb all parts of a barge or ship alongside. Where water depth or sea state prevents lightering craft from coming alongside, receiving vessels must moor some distance from the casualty and transfer cargo by highline or other replenishment rig or by helicopter. Liquids are transferred by hose or temporary pipeline. Some commercial operators can install stand-off lightering systems consisting of a 4-inch temporary pipeline or hose, a buoy terminal, and a dynamic positioning system in as little as 14 hours. Figures 9-2 and 9-3 show some lightering arrangements that have been successful. It may be necessary for salvage forces to provide moorings for lightering vessels, as they may not carry sufficient spare anchors and mooring gear for all conditions. Replenishment ships and amphibious warfare ships are the most suitable vessels for stand-off lightering; their underway replenishment stations can be used to receive liquid or packaged cargo from a casualty with little or no modication, and their crews are trained for large-scale cargo transfers. These ships are also equipped and trained to coordinate helicopter operations. It is sometimes possible to rig pipelines, hoses, or cargo highlines to a temporary receiving facility ashore. Cargo or stores can be discharged directly into wheeled or tracked vehicles if the casualty is dried out or surrounded by very shallow water at some stage of the tide, or if conditions are suitable for constructing a temporary causeway or pier.
TEMPORARY STEEL OR TIMBER BULKHEADS BUILT ON DECK
BULK CARGO LOADED BETWEEN CONTAINERS POSITIONED ON DECK AS SIDEWALLS
Figure 9-1. Flat-Topped Barge Modified to Carry Bulk Cargo.
120 - 200 FT FOR HIGHLINE
60 - 90 FT FOR HOUSE FALL, BURTON RIGS
TRANSPORT BY HELICOPTER TO RECEIVING POINT, SHIP OR LIGHTER
LOW TIDE
HIGH TIDE
DISCHARGE INTO VEHICLES AT LOW TIDE
HIGHLINE TO SHORE
Figure 9-2. Stand-off Lightering - Packaged Cargo.
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YDS 500 E-1 C 12" FLOATING N STA HOSE(S) M DI U M I MAX
VESSELS BOW ANCHORS
PORTABLE MANIFOLD BOOSTER PUMPS LIGHTERING VESSEL MANIFOLD
DISABLED (GROUNDED) VESSEL SALVAGE PUMPS
MOORING LEGS
REEF STERN-TO-STERN LIGHTERING
REEF
SALVAGE PUMPS IN BUTTERWORTH OPENINGS
GROUNDED VESSEL HOSE SUPPORT LINE BOOSTER PUMP FLOATING HOSE MOORING WINCH LIGHTERING VESSEL
SHIPS ANCHORS
STAND-OFF LIGHTERING
Figure 9-3. Stand-Off Lightering - Liquid Cargo.
9-5.2 Jettisoning. Jettisoning removes weight from the casualty, but jettisoned items are lost. Items of value or potential use should be jettisoned only if there is no other alternative. It is better to jettison low-value, environmentally safe materials than to expend time and effort in their recovery. However, it is extremely difficult to get permission to jettison hazardous materials. Many materials that were previously considered benign are now viewed as potentially hazardous to humans or to the environment. Even potable water may be considered to have an adverse effect on conned waters by altering the salinity. In order to jettison cargo in coastal waters, it is usually necessary to convince not one, but several agencies that environmental impact is negligible; in peacetime, jettisoning is, for all practical purposes, a measure of last resort.
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9-6 HANDLING METHODS

Table 9-6. Lift Capacities for Navy, MSC, Coast Guard, and Army Ships.
Handling methods vary depending on type, quantity, ultimate disposition of weights or cargo to be moved, and the location of lighters. The size, design, type, and condition of the casualty inuence the availability of weight-handling equipment onboard. Many Navy and MSC eet replenishment and amphibious warfare ships are equipped with installed and mobile weight-handling equipment. Table 9-6 lists weight-handling capabilities of selected Navy, MSC, Coast Guard, and Army ships. Use and design of booms and cranes is discussed in Chapter 7. 9-6.1 Liquids. Liquids are usually handled by installed pumps or salvage pumps, although it is often possible to drain wing, peak, and deep cargo tanks directly overboard or into lighters by cutting holes in the hull or using siphons. Liquid cargoes and ballast should be discharged with the casualtys pumps, as they are designed for the product carried and sized for the tanks. Cargo tanks on tankers can be accessed from the main deck through tank cleaning (Butterworth) openings or cargo tank hatch openings, but manhole covers on tanks located low in other types of ships may be difficult to reach. Compressed air can be used to force liquids out of tanks, though with less control than can be maintained when pumping. Pumping and compressed air dewatering are discussed in Chapter 8. POL offload during salvage is described in detail in U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 5 (S0300-A6-MAN-050). Liquids with specic gravities less than that of water can be removed from submerged tanks by using hydrostatic pressure as a driving force. A hose is connected to a vent or other opening at the top of the tank and seawater is admitted to the bottom through an opening or standpipe. Because of its greater density, the seawater will exert a higher pressure than the lighter liquid, forcing the liquid up the hose. The liquid will rise in the hose to a height such that the liquid head equals the hydrostatic head. This height is equal to the difference between the water depth and the liquid head; water depth can be converted to an equivalent liquid head by dividing by liquid specic gravity: D and, Heq D = h Heq = where: Heq = D h = =
SHIP TYPE ARS-50
INSTALLED BOOMS AND CRANES 40-ton cargo boom aft 5-ton cargo boom fwd 5,000-lb rotating, nontopping cranes P/S aft (diver stage handling) 20-ton cargo boom fwd 10-ton cargo boom aft 20-ton cargo boom fwd 8-ton cargo boom aft 20-ton rotating crane aft 10-ton rotating crane fwd 5,000-lb rotating nontopping cranes P/S aft (diver stage handling) 10-ton telescoping crane stbd, aft of deckhouse 5-ton boom aft 78.4-ton Stuelken-type heavy lift booms fwd and aft, centerline 40-ton booms forward and aft of midships house, centerline 8- x 15-ton booms on 4 kingposts serving 4 hatches 2 x 50-ton pedestal cranes 30-ton boom forward of deck house, serving well deck Commercial freighters fitted with up to 3 twin swinging cranes in the 20- to 50-ton range 216-mton kingpost booms portside fwd and aft for starboard side lifts. Booms can be married for 432-mton lift. 12-ton booms fwd and aft. MARAD C1-MT-123A design, formerly PAUL BUNYAN, now operated by U.S. Army Transportation School. Sister JOHN HENRY in Maritime Reserve Fleet. Crane barge, 60 lton at 73-foot radius Crane barge, 89 lton at 80-foot radius, 79 lton at 104-foot radius
ARS-38 ARS-8 ATS-1
T-ATF-166 ATF-96 LKA-116
LSD-41/-36 WLB T-ACS AHL RO/R (USAV JAMES MCHENRY)
BD, Design 413D BD, Design 264B
CRAWLER CRANE WITH CLAMSHELL GRAB A DUMP CHUTE HATCH BELT CONVEYOR B TO LIGHTER OR OVERBOARD
BOB-CAT OR CALFDOZER CARGO
A CRAWLER CRANE - PLACED ON BOARD BY A LARGE FLOATING CRANE B ORE-STACKER OR BELT-CONVEYER OPERATING DIRECTLY IN HOLD AND FED BY SMALL BULLDOZER OR BOB-CAT LOADERS.
hydrostatic head, expressed as Figure 9-4. Removing Bulk Cargo From a Gearless Carrier. an equivalent head of liquid of specic gravity, water depth, ft height above still water level the liquid can be lifted by hydrostatic head
If the hose discharge is kept below the limiting height (h) above water level, virtually all of the tanks contents can be removed by hydrostatic pressure alone.
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9-6.2 Bulk Cargo. Bulk cargoes are discharged most quickly using conveyors or suction lifts. Clam-shell buckets can also be effective. Most ocean-going bulk carriers are not equipped with cargo gear, although many Great Lakes bulk carriers are tted with highly efficient unloading systems. Figure 9-4 illustrates methods of removing bulk cargo. Bulk cargo that will not be damaged by saltwater or is to be jettisoned can be slurried and removed by airlifts, eductors, or trash pumps as shown in Figures 9-5 and 9-6. Slurry pumping is discussed in Paragraph 8-3.8. 9-6.3 Breakbulk Cargo. Bagged, packaged, and palletized cargo must be moved under the hatch by skid line, forklift, or manual labor, then swung with booms or cranes to the receiving barge or ship, where similar handling methods must be used for optimum space utilization. Individual pallet weights may be marked, or can be obtained from the cargo officer or chief mate. Pallet construction provides a rough indicator of the combined weight of pallet and cargo. Wooden pallets designed for heavy loading are constructed with heavier scantlings, and/or of hardwoods (oak, maple) rather than softwoods. Heavyduty pallets may also be constructed of metal. Ordinary pallets are built for 1,000to 2,000-pound loads. Completely decked, heavy wooden pallets with sled-like runners are designed for 3,000-pound loads.Breakbulk cargo-handling time can be greatly reduced by the use of appropriate slings and appliances for cargo runners and/or specialized attachments for forklifts. Some typical devices are shown in Figures 9-7, 9-8A, and 9-8B (Pages 9-12 and 9-13). 9-6.4 Containers. Containers can be handled like any oversized cargo, provided that cranes or booms of adequate capacity are available and the containers are not jammed in their guides. Most container ships do not have self-unloading capability, so the containers must be handled with cranes or booms from vessels alongside or by helicopters. If the containers cannot be handled as units, it is necessary to open them and remove the bagged, packaged, or loose cargo by manual labor to the weather decks where other handling methods may be available. The containers themselves have value and can be used for temporary storage of removed cargo aboard a barge or at a shore site. Containers can also be converted to improvised workshops, shelters, or berthing. It may be possible to oat empty containers away from the casualty after sealing them or placing improvised buoyancy devices, such as buoys or empty oil drums, inside.
90 ELBOW FLEXIBLE DISCHARGE HOSE
AIR LIFT
AIR RECEIVER AIR SUPPLY HOSES
GRAIN CARGO FLOODED
FLEXIBLE END HOSE HOLD OPEN TO SEA
AIRLIFTING GRAIN ELBOW AT HATCH COAMING SALVAGE ALTERNATOR DISCHARGE HOSE
SLURRY PUMP
PUMP FLOODED HOLD OPEN TO SEA
JETTING PUMP
SLURRY WATER REMOVAL PUMP
SLURRY PUMP
HOLD OPEN TO SEA
SLURRYING ORE Figure 9-5. Removing Bulk Cargoes From Flooded Holds.
PUMP AND HOSE GANTRY BUILT BY SALVORS CASUALTY
RETURN HOSE
DISCHARGE HOSE
RETURN FLOODED HOLD OPEN TO SEA SLURRY PUMP
RECEIVING VESSEL
CONCENTRATE
DAMAGE SLURRY WATER RETURN PUMP
Figure 9-6. Unloading Pollutant Bulk Cargo and Returning Slurry Water to Casualty.
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BRIDLE SLINGS
LOAD LOAD
LOAD
STRAIGHT CHOKER BASKET NITCH STRAIGHT SLING OR SNOTTER
FOURLEGGED SLING PALLET LIFTING BAR TIMBER DOGS PALLET SLING TWO SLINGS ADJUSTABLE SPREADER ENDLESS SLING BALE TONGS
PLATFORM SLING
DOGS PLATE CLAMPS CAN HOOKS PLATE DOGS CARGO NET
Figure 9-7. Cargo Slings.
CARTON CLAMP
HYDRAULIC CRATE CLAMP
GRIPPING FORKS FOR BRICKS AND BLOCKS
HORIZONTAL DRUM HANDLER
BARTEL DEVICE FOR NEWSPRINT
Figure 9-8A. Forklift Attachments.
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SHOVEL SCOOP
GOOSENECK BOOM
ROLL CLAMP
DUMP HOPPER
DRUM HANDLER
BARREL HANDLER
CAR WHEEL HANDLER
HYDRAULIC PUSHER
VERTICAL DRUM HANDLER
Figure 9-8B. Forklift Attachments.
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Container construction and shipboard stowage are described in Appendix B. Table 9-7 gives internal volume and weight capacity for the most common dry cargo container sizes. 9-6.5 Vehicles. Offloading vehicles and RO/RO cargo over the deck is a timeconsuming and difficult task at best. If the stern ramp is useable, it is possible to discharge cargo onto a barge or heavy landing craft. Water depth permitting, another RO/RO vessel can be moored astern of the casualty, as shown in Figure 9-9. With both vessels ramps lowered onto a barge inserted between the two, vehicles and trailers can be discharged from the casualty, across the barge, and into the relief vessel. Vehicle carriers and ferries can be offloaded in the same manner. A stranded LST may be able to discharge her vehicles over her bow ramp directly to shore or to a barge. NEWPORT (LST1179) Class LSTs carry four 90- by 24-foot pontoon causeways hung from the deck edge; their tank deck opens to a stern ramp similar to that of a RO/RO ship. These features can be used to advantage, whether the LST is a casualty or relief vessel. Amphibious warfare craft equipped with well decks (LSD, LPD, LHA, LHD) can offload vehicles and other cargo to landing craft or barges in the well deck. 9-6.6 Boats. Boats in gravity davits can be launched without power as long as the casualtys list is within certain limits (usually 15 degrees). Cranes or booms will be required to remove boats carried in skids. Occasionally, landing craft or other robust boats are carried in slipways along the deck edge; the boats are launched by releasing gripes or blocks and allowing them to fall into the water.
Table 9-7. Dry Cargo Container Capacities. Exterior Dimensions WHL ft, in. 8 820 8 820 8 86"20 8 86"24 8 86"35 8 840 8 86"40 8 96"40 63"6101 2"86" 63"610 2"43"
1
Internal Volume
Weight Capacity
Remarks
ft2 1,065 1,065 1,138 1,411 2,054 2,216 2,342 3,035 293 140
lbs 40,000 41,300 40,000 45,900 50,000 50,000 55,000 64,300 9,000 9,000 CONEX, Type 2 (standard), empty wt 1,500 lbs CONEX, Type 1 (half-size), empty wt 900 lbs Most common commercial container Second most common commercial container MILVAN, empty wt 3,500 lbs
CASUALTY
FLAT-TOP BARGE USED AS TRANSFER PLATFORM BETWEEN TWO VESSELS
BARGE
BARGE ALIGNED TO SUIT VEHICLE RAMPS ON EACH VESSEL
RELIEF VESSEL
RELIEF VESSEL LYING TO BOTH ANCHORS OFF THE CASUALTY
9-6.7 Weight-handling Equipment. If possible, a casualtys own cranes, booms, or other weight-handling gear should be used. If the casualty is not equipped with cranes or booms, or if they are inoperative, Figure 9-9. Offloading Vehicles or RO/RO Cargo. weight will have to be handled by cranes or booms on vessels alongside, or with portable, mobile, or improvised gear onboard. Portable, articulated, hydraulic cranes are carried in the ESSM system (ESSM Number CR0040). Capacity is 16,500 pounds at a 9-foot outreach and 1,600 pound at a 40-foot outreach. The ESSM crane is bolted to a base that is welded to the deck of a host ship. A hydraulic oil ow of 16 gpm at 2,500 psi is required to operate the crane. Navy salvage ships have booms or cranes in the 8- to 40-ton range. Floating cranes, suitable for use in sheltered waters, are maintained at naval shipyards and by Army water transportation units. MSC Crane Ships (T-ACS) are equipped with up to six high-capacity cranes. Mobile cranes in the 5- to 300-ton range, forklifts with capacities up to 15,000 pounds, and other weight-handling equipment of various capacities are operated by Mobile Diving and Salvage Units (MDSU), Naval Mobile Construction Battalions (NMCB), supply centers, shipyards, Army and Marine Corps engineer and transportation units, base public works or maintenance facilities, and military contractors.
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9-6.8 Helicopters. Helicopters are an effective but relatively slow and expensive means of removing weight from a casualty. Where lighters cannot be brought alongside or within highline range, helicopters may be the only workable option for cargo removal. The rate at which weight is removed depends on the number and capacities of helicopters in use. The distance own and reserve fuel required to return to base will limit the cargo transfer rate and effective ying time. Cargo receiving points, aoat or ashore, should be located as close as practical to the casualty; if possible, helicopters should be operated from a vessel or landing zone close to the salvage site. Paragraph 4-8.3 discusses uses of helicopters in salvage. 9-6.9 Work Force. Large-scale weight removal operations may require a larger work force than can be made up from a salvage ships crew. In most cases, some or all of a naval casualtys crew can be expected to support the salvage effort. Area or group commanders may form special units to assist. Assistance may also be sought from Naval Mobile Construction Battalions (NMCB), Cargo Handling Battalions (CHB), Army Corps of Engineer or Transportation Corps units, or Army/Marine Corps eld commands. Merchant crews may be made available to the salvage force. In some cases, professional stevedores or other local labor can be hired. 9-6.10 Discharge Rates. The time required to offload cargo or other weight from a damaged ship depends on several factors:
Ship type. Nature of cargo (or other weights). Casualty condition and attitude. Material-handling equipment and methods. Quantity and size of lighters. Lighter or helicopter travel distance. Skill, size, and physical condition of workforce. Prevailing weather and water conditions.
Because of the variable nature and interaction of these factors, it is impossible to establish rm rules for estimating discharge rates for salvage operations. Discharge rates for salvage can be estimated from discharge rates for similar ships in ports by judging how different the actual condition and methods in use are from normal port practice. Estimated discharge rates should be veried at the beginning of the operation, and the salvage plan adjusted as necessary. The following notes may be useful. The time required to bring a draft (slung load of cargo) from hold to lighter depends on the cargo rig in use, which in turn depends on the weight of the draft. For palletized cargo, a draft consists of a single pallet load. Bagged and packaged cargoes are manually loaded into cargo nets or skip boxes, to the weight capacity of the cargo gear or volume capacity of the net. Crates, pipes, logs, and the like are lifted by slings, individually or in convenient bundles. For competent crews discharging to a pier, barge, or open lighter from a lower hold, the following times are assumed:
5 minutes per draft for single-rigged yard and stay. 10 minutes per draft for doubled yard and stay or swinging boom rig. 15 minutes per draft for jumbo boom or heavy lift rig. 2-3 minutes per draft for swinging crane. 25 minutes to open a weather deck cargo hatch, 10 minutes for a tween decks hatch (assuming hatches and surrounding deck are undamaged). About 30 minutes to shift cargo rigs under normal conditions.
The times given are for fairly large general cargo ships with 5- or 10-ton cargo booms serving each hatch, one or more jumbo booms, and hold depths of about 60 feet discharging to a pier about 25 feet below the main deck. Discharge rates will be slower for deeper holds and lower discharge platforms, higher for shallower holds or when discharging from the tween decks. Practiced crews in ideal situations can achieve much faster discharge rates, on the order of one minute per draft for single-rigged yard and stay gear from an average general cargo ship. It is likely that the discharge rate will increase as the operation progresses, unless difficulties are encountered. Discharge rate will decrease if the drafts must be lowered into a deep hold.
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Table 9-8 gives times to unload various type ships in developed ports, based on 20-hour (2-shift) workdays. It is often necessary to handload bagged or boxed cargo, stone, lump coal, or similar commodities into cargo nets, skip boxes, conveyors, etc. One man in good health can load 2 to 20 cubic yards (loose measure) of rock in 10 hours depending on working conditions and the size of individual pieces. Loading rates are highest when the laborer can lift and place or toss his load onto the handling conveyance without moving from his position. Loading rates are dramatically decreased in extremes of heat, cold, or poor ventilation. Labor crews loading drafts for cargo gear should be sized so that cargo nets, slings, or skip boxes can be completely loaded and rigged before the hook returns from the previous draft. If the crew can load fast enough to rest for a few moments while waiting for the hook (or is large enough that the men can rest on a rotating basis without delaying the cargo runner), cargo discharge can continue without interruption throughout the shift. Bulk cargo, such as crushed stone, ore, grain, etc., can be shoveled from piles or loose surfaces at about 22 cubic yards (loose measure) per man per 10-hour shift. The rate is greatly reduced when shoveling from small cubicles, spaces between web frames, etc., or when the laborer must shovel into a container above knee height.
Table 9-8. Improved Port Unloading Times.
Ship Type RO/RO RO/RO (SL-7) Seatrain Breakbulk Ammunition Unit equipment General Cargo Container
Unloading Time, Days 0.75 1.0 2.0
4.0 2.0 4.0 1-4*
*1 day per 900 containers, assuming at least 2 gantry cranes available.
Discharge rates and travel times for lighters affect overall discharge rate, and the number of lighters required. Ideally, there should be enough lighters so that there is a lighter alongside for each working weight-handling appliance, and a returning empty lighter arriving just as a full lighter is leaving. An operation this smooth can seldom be attained in practice, but it is desirable to minimize wait times for lighters, cargo gear, and stevedores to speed the operation and reduce costs. Overall discharge rate will be less than the discharge rates of the various methods used, because of the time required to shift rigs, shift lighters, open hatches, etc. Each point in the cargo ow pattern where handling method changes is a potential bottleneck. Overall discharge rate can be no greater than the slowest leg of the path, even if downstream paths are faster. Discharge rate for a liquid cargo is the maximum ow rate that can be sustained by the pumps, discharge piping, or receiving ships manifold and piping. Pump ow rates and friction losses are calculated as described in Chapter 8. Cargo discharge and storage are sometimes the responsibility of salvors. An average of 8 to 10 square feet of storage space is required for each ton of cargo, although this gure may vary greatly for some types of cargo.
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CHAPTER 10 EXPLOSIVES
10-1 INTRODUCTION Explosives are valuable tools for salvage, clearance, and related work when used properly, but are inherently dangerous and expensive. However, explosives can accomplish certain salvage tasks with less effort, in less time, or in greater safety than alternative methods. Explosives entail a risk of damage or injury to the casualty, nearby structures, the environment, salvors, and noninvolved personnel. There are advantages and disadvantages to using explosives for any task; they are not a formula for instant salvage. Explosives techniques are often more time-consuming than other methods because of the thorough preparation required for their effective use. The signicant advantages of explosives are the ability to:
Make multiple cuts or long, continuous cuts simultaneously. Perform cutting or breaking operations remotely.
Explosives are suitable when machinery and equipment for other effective methods are not available, or cannot be transported to a remote site. Although regulated and restricted, explosives are transportable. When large quantities of explosives are required, several small shipments can be made. Explosives are used in salvage to:
Cut portions of ship structure: (1) Section wrecks for piecemeal removal. (2) Open spaces to the sea to weigh down stranded ships. (3) Sink removed wrecks. (4) Trim ragged plating, open accesses into spaces, remove tophamper, and make other routine cuts when alternative methods are more difficult, less economical, or more dangerous.
Excavate rm seaoors, especially rock, coral, hardpan, etc.: (1) Cut channels for retracting stranded ships. (2) Remove impaling or obstructing coral heads, rock outcroppings, etc. (3) Cut temporary or alternate channels, or deepen, widen, or straighten existing channels in harbor clearance. (4) Blast holes for deadmen, anchorages, or footings in coral, rock, or other hard soils on shore or underwater. (5) Dig trenches alongside or tunnels under casualties.
Countermine potentially explosive casualties or work areas before starting work. Disperse, atten, or bury wrecks or other debris. Set drag embedment anchors. Remove or demolish manmade structures, such as piers, seawalls, pilings, platforms, etc. Induce vibration to uidize soils to reduce friction or suction. Create articial swells to help reoat stranded ships.
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Detailed guidance concerning blasting practice, techniques, and safety is beyond the scope of this manual. The Navy Technical Manual for Use of Explosives in Underwater Salvage (NAVSEA-SW061-AA-MMA-010) and Army eld manual Explosives and Demolitions (FM 5-25) provide specic instructions for eld use of explosives. The following discussion is general in nature and does not provide performance data for specic explosives, nor detailed descriptions of complex procedures. Some basic information is presented to enable the salvage engineer to:
Weigh the advantages and disadvantages of explosive methods as compared to other techniques for specic applications. Make preliminary estimates of time, effort, precautions, type and quantities of explosives, and other supplies required for the job. Evaluate the probable impact explosives use will have on the environment, casualty, area structures, and nearby inhabited areas. Obtain necessary permits.
10-2 EXPLOSIVES SAFETY
Because of the inherent destructive power of explosives, strict safety procedures must be an integral part of any explosives operation. Two basic precautions are of utmost importance:
Explosives are to be handled and employed only by properly trained and qualied personnel. All personnel on site must be aware that explosives are in use, and be briefed about the impact this has on salvage operations, and necessary safety precautions.
Explosives impact salvage operations in several ways:
Gaseous products of detonations, explosive residue, and packaging are toxic. Explosives can be detonated inadvertently by heat, impact, or electrical discharge. To reduce risk of damage or injury from accidental detonation, explosives storage, use, and transportation are governed by strict regulations that may be difficult or impossible to satisfy at the salvage site: (1) Explosives must be stored in shipboard, permanent, or portable magazines approved by the Navy and/or the Department of Transportation, Bureau of Mine Safety, and state and local agencies. (2) Minimum safe distances must be maintained between sources of electromagnetic radiation and electro-explosive devices (electric blasting caps, etc.). (3) Blasting cannot be conducted during storms that produce atmospheric electrical discharges, or when such a storm is within ve miles of the blasting site. (4) Minimum safe distances between explosive storage and work or living sites are required. (5) Blasting caps and main charge explosives cannot be transported or stored together. (6) FAA regulations prohibit transport of primary explosives (blasting caps and initiators) on commercial aircraft.
It may be difficult or impossible to gain permission to use, store, and transport explosives. Atmospheric conditions can intensify blast effects, causing undesirable damage and/or preventing blasting altogether until the weather changes. Explosives must be used in strict conformance with the regulations of local governments.
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10-3 EXPLOSIVES THEORY
An explosive is a compound or intimate mixture that, under certain initiating conditions, undergoes extremely rapid chemical transformation, generating large quantities of gas and heat. The intense heat causes rapid expansion of the gases, that in turn causes almost instantaneous generation of extremely high pressures. 10-3.1 Explosions. High explosives detonate; that is, the chemical reaction moves through the mass of explosive at a velocity faster than the speed of sound in the material3,000 to 4,000 feet per second for most explosives. The advancing supersonic shock wave initiates detonation in the material; the detonation supports and intensies the shock wave. The advancing shock (detonation) wave sweeps through the explosive until it reaches the side walls of the charge where it passes into the surrounding media. In an elongated explosive charge initiated at one end, the expanding detonation wave forms an approximately planar shock front, as shown in Figure 10-1. The primary reaction zone is bounded by the shock front and the Chapman-Jouquet (C-J) plane. The thickness of the primary reaction zone varies inversely with the speed of advance, or detonation velocity, of the shock wave through the explosive. Detonation velocity is independent of charge weight, but is affected by charge geometry, particularly charge diameter. Figure 10-2 shows the effect of charge diameter on detonation velocity of some commercial explosives. The expansion of the high-pressure, heated gases behind the C-J plane causes a compressive strain pulse, or wave, that is transmitted into the surrounding media. At interfaces between media, such as the far side of a target object, part of the compression wave is transmitted and part is reected as a tension pulse or wave. The reected tension wave is an important part of the fracture mechanism in rock blasting and some types of cutting charges.
SHOCK AND STRESS WAVE IN THE SURROUNDING MEDIA EXPANDING GASES PRIMARY REACTION ZONE STABLE PRODUCTS, MAINLY GASES
C-J PLANE
UNDISTURBED EXPLOSIVE
SHOCK FRONT
PATH OF DETONATION
Figure 10-1. Detonation Advance.
25,000 CAST 50/50 PENTOLITE 20,000

VELOCITY, Ve , fps
STRAIGHT GELATIN 60% HIGH EXPLOSIVE SEMIGELATIN 45% BULKSTRENGTH HIGH EXPLOSIVE
15,000
SLURRY (WATER GEL) BLASTING AGENT PREMIXED AMMONIUM NITRATE/FUEL OIL BLASTING AGENT
10,000
5,000
10
CHARGE DIAMETER, De , IN
Figure 10-2. Effects of Charge Diameter on Detonation Velocity.
Low explosives deagrate; the reaction moves through the material at less than sonic speed as a rapid burning. No signicant shock wave is formed. High explosives will burn or deagrate if small amounts are ignited. Quantities of high explosive that exceed the critical mass for the particular explosive will deagrate with progressively increasing intensity until detonation occurs. High explosive charges are initiated by small initiating charges, or detonators, of very sensitive explosives. Detonators are thermally ignited by safety fuses or electrical impulses. Explosive coupling is a subjective term for the efficiency with which the energy of the explosive is transferred to the intended target. Coupling is affected by charge geometry and placement. Except in the case of shaped charges, coupling is improved by ensuring intimate contact between the charge and target, with no intervening air or water-lled spaces.
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10-3.2 Properties of Explosives. Various properties of an explosive affect its handling, employment, and ability to perform specic tasks. Detonation velocity is the major property determining an explosives performance characteristics. 10-3.2.1 Brisance. Brisance indicates the relative rate of energy release of an explosive. A very brisant explosive produces a rapid pressure rise and a strong impact. Explosives with higher rates of detonation are usually more brisant than slower detonating explosives. Steel, brittle rock, concrete, and other brittle or elastic materials are cut with brisant explosives. Less brisant explosives produce less impact; can move objects without shattering them; move soft substances, such as earth; and break plastic materials, such as some types of rock. 10-3.2.2 Relative Effectiveness. Relative effectiveness is the ability of an explosive to perform work compared to a standard explosive. TNT is the normal comparison standard. The effectiveness of an explosive is referenced to that of TNT by a relative effectiveness (RE) factor (RETNT = 1). Formulas for determining charge weight for specic applications are normally referenced to TNT. The amount of another explosive required for the same task is found by dividing the weight of TNT required by the RE factor. Blast effect calculations are also based on weights of TNT. An equivalent TNT weight for any explosive is found by multiplying the actual charge weight by the RE factor. 10-3.2.3 Sensitivity. Sensitivity is a measure of the amount of energy required to initiate detonation. Primary explosives are very sensitive. Secondary explosives are much less sensitive and usually require the explosion of a small amount of primary explosive to initiate detonation. Sensitivity is not an indication of an explosives power or effectiveness. 10-3.2.4 Sensitiveness. Sensitiveness is the tendency of an explosive to detonate from the impact of a shock wave from another explosion (sympathetic explosion). It is measured by the maximum distance that an unprimed charge can be detonated by a nearby explosion. 10-3.2.5 Water Resistance. Water resistance is the measure of an explosives resistance to degradation from wetting or immersion. No explosive is completely water-resistant. Most military explosives have good water resistance or are packaged to prevent water from contacting the explosive. 10-3.3 Underwater Explosions. Approximately 40 percent of the energy of an underwater explosion creates an expanding gas bubble; the remainder is transmitted to the surrounding water as a shock wave. 10-3.3.1 Shock Wave. An explosive shock wave is characterized by a steep pressure rise with an exponential decay, as shown in Figure 10-3. The shock wave initially propagates at extremely high speed, but after a few feet, speed of propagation drops to essentially the speed of sound in waterabout 5,000 feet per second. The peak pressure (Po) and the initial decay time constant () at range R are given by the following formulae: W Po = 21,600 R
1/3 1.13
EXPLOSIVE
PRESSURE
INCREASING DISTANCE FROM EXPLOSION
W 1/3 = 58 W 1/3 R where: Po R W = = = =
0.22
peak pressure, psi range from charge center, ft weight of TNT in pounds initial decay time constant, milliseconds
0 TIME
Figure 10-3. Pressure-Time History Versus Distance.
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At range R, the shock-wave pressure signature is: P = Poe where: P t = = pressure at time t after initial pressure rise Po, psi time, milliseconds
t/
Peak overpressures in the vicinity of explosions are very high, but of very short duration. At greater distances from the explosion, overpressures are much lower, but of longer duration. The total effect of the shock wave is a function of both the peak overpressure and impulse. The area under the pressure decay-time curve, in psi-milliseconds, is the normal measure of explosive impulse. When a shock wave strikes a solid object, part of its energy is transmitted, part is absorbed, and part is reected. For air-backed membranes, like ship hulls, very little of the shock-wave energy is transmitted. Pressure loading from the reected shock wave causes deection of the hull. The shock-wave pressure soon decreases to zero and cavitation occurs adjacent to the hull. Reloading, caused by the closing of the cavitation reinforced by the waterow around the expanding and rising gas bubble, causes additional deection. Reloading may be many times as severe as the shock-wave effect alone. Reloading is a function of charge depth and slant range, and is generally zero for charges at ranges greater than twice the charge depth. Most of the shock-wave energy is transmitted through water-backed hulls with only a small amount absorbed and as little as 25 percent of the deection of air-backed hulls. 10-3.3.2 Scaled Distance. A principle of similarity applies to shock wave phenomena which permits extrapolation of pressure-time history for a given charge weight and distance to another charge weight. Given a pressure-time plot at a distance d for a charge W, a charge W1 will produce the same plot at a distance kd, if the time scale is also multiplied by k, where k is the ratio of linear dimensions of the two charges. For example, if a 3-pound charge produces a peak pressure of 620 psi at a distance of 47 feet, with a time decay curve extending over 2 milliseconds, the distance at which a 1-pound charge will produce the same peak pressure, and the associated decay time can be calculated. Since weight is a constant function of volume, the volume ratio of the two charges is equal to the weight ratio. The volume ratio is the cube of the linear dimension ratio, so:
3
k =
W1 W
1 3
= 0.69336
The 1-pound charge will produce a peak pressure of 620 psi at a range of 0.69336 47 = 32.6 feet. The pressure decay curve will extend over 0.69336 2 = 1.4 milliseconds. To estimate peak pressures for varying distances and charge weights, a constant scaled distance can be dened: r = R
3
With the constant r determined for a charge weight yielding a known peak pressure at a specied range, the charge weight to give the same peak pressure at different range, or the range at which a different charge weight will give the same peak pressure can be calculated. The scaled distance concept is valid for systems unaffected by outside forces, such as gravity. Shock waves are essentially unaffected by gravity, but bubble behavior is greatly affected by gravity (buoyancy). Scaled distances cannot be applied to bubble pulses and similar phenomena. 10-3.3.3 Bubble Pulse. The gaseous products of combustion expand to form an approximately spherical bubble. The maximum radius of the gas bubble for charges detonated in free water is given by: 1/3 W Rmax = 12.6 D 33 where: Rmax = maximum gas bubble radius, ft D = charge depth, ft
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The expanding bubble radiates a pressure pulse that is less intense than the initial shock wave, but is still signicant. The expanding gases cause a rapid outow of water that continues temporarily after the gas pressure and water pressure equalize because of the waters momentum. The continued expansion causes pressure in the bubble to drop below ambient hydrostatic pressure. The inward pressure differential soon causes a reverse ow and the bubble is recompressed. The bubble collapses away from the region of greatest pressure as shown in Figure 10-4. The momentum of the moving water compresses the bubble beyond equilibriumthe bubble will expand again, creating a second, weaker, bubble pulse. The cyclic expansion and contraction of the gas bubble, with attendant pressure pulses, continues through several oscillations or until the bubble vents at the surface. Usually only the rst pulse is signicant. At the end of the rst bubble contraction, 84 percent of the energy released by the explosion has been transmitted to the surrounding water. By the end of the second contraction, the bubble has lost 92 percent of the original energy. Water depth and the proximity of boundary surfaces inuence the form and movement of the bubble. Buoyancy causes the bubble to rise, but hydrodynamic forces drive it toward rigid surfaces and away from the water surface. The time required for the expansion-contraction cycle varies with charge weight and explosive type, ranging from 0.02 to 0.7 seconds. Bubble pulses are likely for detonations at depths greater than 25 feet. For small charges (less than 2 3-pound), two bubble pulses have been observed for charges in as little as four feet of water.
WATER SURFACE
(a) EXPLOSIVE CHARGE IN WATER
(b) ON DETONATION, GASES EXPAND TO FORM AN APPROXIMATELY SPHERICAL BUBBLE
(c) BUBBLE COLLAPES FROM REGION OF GREATEST PRESSURE (ARROW LENGTHS INDICATE WATER VELOCITY)
(d) BUBBLE EXPANDS PRINCIPALLY IN ONE DIRECTION
Figure 10-4. Gas Bubble Expansion.
SHOCK WAVE 1770 LB/IN 2
PRESSURE
APPROX. 100 SEC

2
Po TIME O SEC
80 LB/IN
FIRST BUBBLE PULSE
O.69 SEC
Figure 10-5. Pressure-Time Signature 60 Feet from 300-Pound TNT Charge Detonated in Deep Water.
Peak pressure from the rst bubble pulse is less than 20 percent of that of the shock wave, but duration is much greater; areas under the two pressure-time curves are comparable. Figure 10-5 shows pressure-time signature at a distance of 60 feet from a 300-pound TNT charge red 50 feet below the surface in deep water. The bubble pulse strikes after the initial shock wave and may cause reloading and additional damage. Bubble pulse reloading is somewhat mitigated when charges are detonated alongside a hull. The effects can be further mitigated by selecting a charge weight that produces a maximum bubble radius signicantly less than the minimum distance between the charge and the hull. The maximum charge weight for a given bubble radius is found by solving the bubble radius formula for charge weight: W = where: W D = = charge weight, lbs TNT, to create a bubble of radius R, ft charge depth, ft R3 D 12.6 33
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Gas bubbles from charges under or near a ship may collapse adjacent to the hull plating as they rise. Pressure pulses from bubbles collapsing near the hull may cause damage more severe than the initial shock wave and reloading. If the bubble rises to a position very close to the hull, it may collapse and impact the hull with a water hammer. These bubble effects are of special concern because hydrodynamic forces cause bubbles to migrate toward hard surfaces.
CHARGE
HARD BOTTOM
For charges on the seaoor or in shallow water, the pressure wave and energy transmitted through the water may increase over the free water values. The increase depends on the rigidity of the seaoor. Very hard seaoors reect a large percentage of Figure 10-6. Seafloor Geometry Likely to Focus Explosive Energy. the energy of incident shock wavesthe energy available for damage may be increased 50 percent. Very irregular seaoors can focus the shock waves, causing very high local overpressures. Figure 10-6 shows a geometry where shock-wave focusing is likely. In addition to hull damage, the sudden velocity imparted to the hull by the shock wave may cause shock damage to machinery, electronics, and other shipboard equipment. Equipment may be exposed to accelerations of several hundred to a thousand gravities (gs) even when hull damage is not serious. Shock load intensity is indicated by a shock factor, dened in Paragraph 10-3.4.1. 10-3.4 Blast Effects of Underwater Explosions. Effects on structures, personnel, and marine life depend on peak overpressure and impulse. Overpressure and impulse at a distance from the blast have been related to charge weight, distance from the charge, water depth, depth to the charge, and depth to the target. Empirical relations, based on charge weight and other factors, predict blast effects. Blast effects can be estimated with fair accuracy in deep water where pressure waves reected from the bottom do not affect pressure levels signicantly. In shallow water, bottom-reected waves alter blast effects in an unpredictable manner because of variations in seaoor topography. Ridges and other features can cause shadow zones of low overpressures. Reection from hard seaoors, or hard strata under thin soft layers, will generally increase overpressures, and can focus shock waves to produce exceptionally high local pressures. Hard, dense materials reect shock waves and transmit ground vibrations more efficiently than soft seaoors. These effects are not readily quantied and must be estimated subjectively. 10-3.4.1 Structural Effects. The hull damage to a ship is a function of an empirically derived damage factor, dened as the square root of W/R, the damage factor, where W is the charge weight (in equivalent pounds of TNT) divided by the slant rangethe straight line distance between the hull and the charge. Figure 10-7 (Page 10-8) shows curves of the damage factor ( W/R) as a function of the charge depth to range ratio (D/R) for three nominal hull thicknesses and two categories of damage. Light damage is 1 2-inch to 1-inch deection between stiffeners, little if any buckling of stiffeners, and no damage to main bulkheads (i.e., damage that would not require repair). Moderate damage is 1-inch to 2-inch permanent deection between stiffeners with minor buckling of stiffeners and bulkheads. To nd charge weight, the appropriate curves are entered with the charge depth to range ratio, D/R, to nd the square root of W/R corresponding to the hull thickness. The equivalent TNT charge weight W can then be found. The curves are generally applicable only for charge weights greater than 10 pounds at distances greater than 10 feet from the ship. If a charge weight of less than 10 pounds or the slant range is less than 10 feet, the small charge formula below applies. For small charges detonated at close range, the charge weight that will rupture curved, stiffened plating is an empirical function of range, material strength, plating thickness, and stiffener spacing: (6.8 10 6)( t 3 ) 1 2 2R 1 + l 2R l
W =
where: W t R l = = = = = charge weight to initiate rupture, lbs of TNT plating yield strength, psi plating thickness, in. slant range, center of charge to outer plating surface, in. stiffener spacing, in.
The small charge formula was developed from tests on submarine hull mockups in deep water; it should be applicable to any stiffened plate structure, but there is no supporting data.
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The ships critical machinery and cargo near the detonation area may be damaged by shock-induced motions. For charges less than 20 pounds, only small hullmounted equipment in the immediate area of the detonation is likely to suffer damage. The degree of shock damage to be expected is estimated from the shock factor. The shock factor at the point on the hull nearest the charge is computed from: Shock Factor (SF) = W 1 + sin R 2
0.5
0.4
0.3 W R 0.2 3/4" PLATE 1/2" PLATE 1/4" PLATE 0.1
where
0 0.5 0.6
R W
= = =
slant range, ft equivalent TNT charge weight, lbs = charge weight RE factor angle between the shortest line from the hull to the charge and a tangent to the hull at the point nearest to the hull, as shown in Figure 10-8
W R
0.8 0.9 D/R (a) LIGHT DAMAGE
0.7
1.0
1.1
1.2
0.6 0.5
0.4
To determine the allowable charge weight, an appropriate shock factor is selected from Table 10-1 to solve for W: W = 4 (SF)2 R 2 (1 + sin )2
0.3
3/4" PLATE 1/2" PLATE
0.2
1/4" PLATE
0.1
10-3.4.2 Linear Charges. Linear demolition charges are frequently used in salvage. Line charges produce a complex pressure eld. In a horizontal plane around a freely suspended, straight line charge, maximum peak pressures occur about 120 degrees from the detonation end of the charge. Pressure decay time is about the same for a given range, regardless of orientation relative to the charge axis. Pressure-time histories on a vertical plane perpendicular to the line charge are quite similar to those for a compact charge of same weight, with slightly higher peak pressures (2000 psi at 35 feet from a compact 50 pound charge as opposed to 2400 psi at 35 feet from a 25 foot linear charge with 50 pounds of explosive). Table 10-2 shows the horizontal distribution of peak pressure at distance of 20 feet from the midlength of a Navy Mk 8 Mod 2 hose charge (25-foot rubber hose lled with 50 pounds of a 70/30 mixture of composition A-3 and aluminum powder) detonated while freely suspended 10 feet below the water surface in approximately 40 feet of water.
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8 D/R
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
(b) MODERATE DAMAGE W R w R D
= DAMAGE FACTOR = CHANGE WEIGHT, lbs TNT = SLANT RANGE = CHARGE DEPTH
Figure 10-7. Damage Factors.
Table 10-1. Degree of Damage for Various Shock Factors.

Shock Factor <0.1 0.1 - 0.15 Damage Insignificant nuisance damage only: light bulbs, fuses, etc. Tube, relay, fuse, and light bulb failures; general electronic failures; piping leaks and possibly a pipe rupture Increase in above damage; piping ruptures likely; machinery misalignments likely General machinery damage
0.15 - 0.20 0.20
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In An Exploratory Investigation of the Effects of Underwater Line Charges on Ship Plating, Naval Ship Research and Development Center, December 1967, J.K. Fleming and R.E. Oliver report that the deection of hull plating between stiffeners caused by Navy Mk 8 Mod 2 hose charges can predicted approximately by: a 2 W L Ro d = 37 Ro t 4 Ro2 L 2 where R, t, W, and are as previously dened and: d L a = = = plating set deection, in. charge length, ft effective plating size (between stiffeners), in.
R
CHARGE
Figure 10-8. Geometry for Calculating Shock Factor.
For rectangular plates, effective plating size is determined from: a = 1 16 1 2 90 x 1 y 2
Table 10-2. Pressure Distribution Around Mk 8 Mod 2 Hose Charge.

Gage position (angle between line from gage to midlength and charge axis, with detonation end at 0 degrees) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 All pressures measured 20 feet from midlength of charge. Peak Pressure psi 1300 1500 1730 2100 2600 3300 3730 3900 4220 4620 5000 4000 3960 2390 2250 2400 3050
where: x y = = plate width, in. plate length, in.
10-3.4.3 Multiple Charges. Multiple charges detonated simultaneously are treated as a single large chargethe total weight of all charges in the array must be less than the maximum acceptable charge weight determined as described in Paragraph 10-3.4.1 for a single charge. For multiple charges detonated individually with delays between detonations, the maximum acceptable single charge weight is determined. Charge weights should be one-third the single charge weight or less to prevent progressive hull damage. A minimum delay time between detonations is necessary to allow the energy from the previous detonation to dissipate so structure blast loading is not cumulative. Minimum delay times are taken from Figure 10-9. 10-3.4.4 Ballasting. Water-backed hulls are more resistant to shock damage than air-backed hulls. When internal water damage is not a problem, and the ship can contain the water, spaces in the vicinity of explosive charges may be ballasted. However, the rst air-backed bulkhead exposed to the explosive loading can incur damage if it is in close proximity to the charge.
3.0 2.5
DELAY TIME, SECONDS
2.0 1.5 1.0 55 LBS TNT 35 LBS TNT 20 LBS TNT 10 LBS TNT 5 LBS TNT
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 It is not necessary to ood exactly to the CHARGE DEPTH, FEET waterline to increase shock resistance, but there should be several feet of water in any ballasted space and six inches to one foot of Figure 10-9. Minimum Delay Between Detonations in Charge Array. air between the water surface and the next deck. No reliable data are available for predicting how much the charge weight may be increased if the ship is ballasted. A large bubble collapsing near the hull can cause considerable damage even to water-backed plating.
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10-3.5 Effects on Marine Life. Environmental protection agencies may require salvors to estimate blast effects on local marine life. Lethal ranges may be specied that will limit charge weight. Lethal range seldom exceeds 650 feet and is estimated by: HMAX = KW where: HMAX K, W = = = maximum horizontal range of lethal overpressures, feet coefficients from Table 10-3 charge weight, pounds
Fish Weight 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 lb 1 lb 1 lb 30 lbs 30 lbs 30 lbs Table 10-3. Fish Kill Range Constants.
Depth of Blast, ft 10 50 200 10 50 200 10 50 200
K
328 385 475 174 235 272 86 131 139
0.220 0.256 0.262 0.264 0.275 0.299 0.284 0.314 0.342
Although sh kill range can be estimated, it is very difficult to keep sh out of a specied area. Bubble screens have been used with some success. 10-3.6 Safe Distances for Above-water Blasts. The minimum distances to protect personnel against shock wave and overpressure are: SD = 300 W SD = 350 W
1/3
Bare charges on or in ground Charges in rock where:
1/3
SD = W =
safe distance, ft charge weight, lbs TNT = W RE factor
Fragments and debris may be thrown greater distances and hazard personnel in the open. The projectile hazard can be reduced by:
Greater separation distances. Connement of the explosion at the source. Barricades between personnel and the blast site. Evacuation of nonessential personnel. Overhead cover.
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10-4 EXPLOSIVES WORK

TAMPING
The high instantaneous pressure, shock wave, intense heat, and expansion of the gas volume perform the useful work of an explosive charge. A fundamental characteristic of explosions is that they initially exert force equally in all directions. This characteristic is an advantage when the desired effect is to demolish structure, disperse wrecks, or lift and move large quantities of seaoor material. It is a marked disadvantage when structures or objects that are not to be damaged are close to the member to be cut or demolished, as when removing impalements, trimming ragged plating, removing obstructing coral heads, etc. Explosive forces can be directed, either to concentrate forces in the work area, or to deect them away from things to be protected. Methods to control and channel explosive forces include those shown in Figure 10-10:
SAND BAGS
RIBBON CHARGE
CHARGES PLACED IN BORE HOLES OR OPPORTUNE OPENINGS
CHARGE PLACEMENT AND GEOMETRY
INTERNAL CHARGES
SHEARING CHARGES OFFSET ON OPPOSITE SIDES
Tamping or Stemming Tamping is pressing or CHARGE GEOMETRY otherwise forcing explosives into close contact with the target surface, such as the SADDLE CHARGE walls of a borehole, or CHARGE covering an external charge CONFINED with a heavy material. BY WOODEN BLOCKS AND Stemming is placing dense, PLANK plastic material in a bore hole above a charge to conne the explosion. Intimate contact between the explosive and target improves coupling and charge effectiveness. Figure 10-10. Charge Configurations to Channel Explosive Forces. Increasing the resistance to expansion on the sides of the charge away from the work causes more energy to be absorbed by the work than if the explosive was unconned. Because more energy is absorbed by the work object, blast effects in the area are reduced to a limited extent. Dense, plastic materials, such as clayey soil, mud, water, etc., are the best stemming or tamping agents. Internal charges The shock and expansive forces of conned charges break and shatter more effectively than those of unconned charges. Blast effects outside the object are reduced. Charge geometry Various geometries, placements, and initiation sequences can channel shock- and pressure-wave fronts so that they converge and reinforce one another in the explosive or the work. External connement A solid, reecting surface against the charge and away from the work reects part of the shock wave toward the work, increasing cutting and shearing effects, even though the surface remains in place for only milliseconds following detonation. Shock and pressure rise in the surrounding area are reduced, but the conning surface is shattered and may create dangerous ying fragments. The subtle difference between external connement and tamping/stemming is that stemming uses plastic materialconnement uses hard surfaces. Barricades Log, earth, or sandbag barricades and specially designed blast curtains absorb blast and deect shock waves away from areas to be protected. Bubble screens can deect underwater shock waves.
EXTERNAL CONFINEMENT
Reduction of blast effects by the methods described above for any charge weight is partially effective; reduction in charge weight gives the greatest reduction in blast effect. Methods that use explosive forces effectively allow small charges and reduce unwanted blast effects. Thorough preparation is required for small charges to be effective. The method chosen usually is a compromise between conicting requirements.
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10-4.1 Charge Weight. Charge weight selection is based on two criteria:
The charge must be large enough to perform the task. The charge must not be so large that it causes unacceptable damage to the casualty, nearby structures, or the environment.
The minimum charge weight that will accomplish the task (in one shot) may be greater than the maximum charge weight what will not cause damage. It is usually possible to perform the task in a series of steps, each using charge weights smaller than the maximum acceptable weight. 10-4.2 Underwater Blasting. Water pressure on the side of an object opposite the explosive blast opposes the impact and expansion of the explosive. When the work involves moving large surface areas, resistance to movement caused by water pressure and hydrodynamic drag is signicant and explosive effectiveness is reduced. For example, it takes about one pound of explosive to break up and move a cubic yard of rock in dry air. Two to six pounds of explosive per cubic yard are required to break and move the same rock underwater. Explosive effectiveness is further reduced as depth increases. Steel cutting by ribbon charges, shaped charges, etc., where little surface movement is required, is not signicantly affected by immersion in water. Shaped charge effectiveness is reduced if water cannot be displaced or evacuated from the cavity and stand-off (shaped charges are discussed in Paragraph 10-4.2.1).
INITIATOR EXPLOSIVE CHARGE CONTAINER LINER
STAND-OFF
CAVITY (a) SHAPED CHARGE
(b) DETONATION WAVE APPROACHES CAVITY LINER
(c) SHOCK WAVE COLLAPSES LINER INDUCING JET FORMATION
(d) CUTTING JET APPROACHES TARGET SURFACE
(e) PLASTIC FLOW IS INDUCED IN THE TARGET MATERIAL AND THE JET STARTS TO PENETRATE
(f) JET PASSES THROUGH THE TARGET CUT IS COMPLETE
Most explosives detonate satisfactorily under water. Some explosives contain water-soluble ingredients, and are Figure 10-11. Shared Charge Cutting Sequence. desensitized with time when immersed unless sealed in waterproof containers. Certain explosives depend on dispersed microscopic air or gas bubbles for ease of initiation. Immersion in deep water compresses the bubbles and renders them ineffective, so they can be used only in shallow water or if specially formulated for deep water use. Explosives depending on dispersed bubbles for initiation include those based on or sensitized by nitroglycerine and nitroglycerol, such as gelignites and blasting gelatins, and those containing aqueous solutions of ammonium nitrate, such as water gels and emulsions. Most military high explosives, and commercial explosives based on PETN, RDX, and TNT, can be used reliably in deep water because they are not are not signicantly water-soluble and do not depend on gas bubbles for initiation. Overlying water is an effective tamping agent, but if the charge is not in intimate contact with the target, the intervening water layer will largely negate the tamping effect. Even a thin water layer between the charge and target will dissipate some of the explosive energy before it reaches the target. The shock and compression waves pass through two media interfacesexplosive to water and water to target; energy is reected away from the target at each interface. If charges cannot be placed in intimate contact with the work, additional tamping in the form of sandbags, clay, or soil should be used to overcome the dissipation of energy by the intervening water. Potential water tamping lends a slight theoretical advantage to blasting from the wet side of a hull, but offsetting advantages accrue when explosives are placed in the dry:
Explosives, fuses, and initiators are not subject to the desensitizing effects of water immersion, or to disturbing forces of current and surge. Charges can be placed more effectivelyit is easier to secure charges and intimate contact with the target surface can be attained. Charges and ring circuits can be inspected immediately before ring. There is greater control over the personnel placing explosives, and their work can be monitored and inspected with less effort.
Immersion time prior to ring should be minimized to reduce the desensitization of the explosives and the possibility that current or surge will dislodge charges or initiating circuits.
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10-4.3 Cutting and Fracturing Charges. A principal use of explosives in salvage is cutting hull plating and structure in ships. High-velocity, brisant explosives, such as TNT and plastic explosives, are best for cutting steel or aluminum. Structural members are cut by a variety of charges:
Shaped charges A lined or unlined cavity in the explosive produces a high-energy cutting jet. Fracturing charges Specialized charge geometry causes convergence of strain waves in the target. Simple contact charges Breakage is accomplished by the combined but uncoordinated effects of shock waves, strain pulses, and gas expansion.
Shaped and fracturing charges are far more efficient than contact charges, and should be used when available and when suited to working conditions. Because of their relatively small charge weights, shaped and fracturing charges must be placed precisely, and must be held in position against current or surge to be effective. If charges cannot be placed precisely, better results may be obtained with less efficient contact charges. 10-4.3.1 Shaped Charges. A hollowedout or shaped charge detonated against a hard surface produces a crater that is approximately a mirror image of the charge cavity. The shaped charge is initiated at a point behind the cavity; the detonation wave expands omnidirectionally from the initiation point or axis. Reaching the cavity, the detonation wave converges on a plane (for linear charges) or axis (in cylindrical charges) perpendicular to the target surface. The convergence of the shock wave concentrates the explosive energy in a small area. The resultant cratering is called the Munro Effect. If the charge is lined with metal or other dense material, the explosion collapses the liner and carries it in the shock wave to the target surface as a slug (or blade) of metal and hot gas that acts as a cutting jet. The jet heats and erodes the target surface. Shock-wave pressure and jet effects combine to induce plastic ow in the target and cut through the material. Figure 10-11 illustrates the cutting sequence for a lined shaped charge. For optimum effect, shaped charges are positioned at a stand-off distance from the target surface to allow the penetration jet to form completely before it reaches the target surface. Optimum stand-off varies with the cavity angle and charge size; stand-off is determined from technical or manufacturers data for the charge used.
CASE EXPLOSIVE METAL LINER ENCLOSED STAND-OFF SPACE TARGET
BOX TYPE LINEAR CHARGE
CYLINDRICAL CHARGE
WOODEN SPOOL
Various-sized cylindrical shaped charges are made for hole cutting. Linear charges are used for long cuts. Linear charges are EXPLOSIVE usually made in the form of a box with the CORE cavity liner set across the inside of the box, FLEXIBLE LINEAR DENSE, as shown in Figure 10-12. Flexible linear SHAPED CHARGE FLEXIBLE shaped charges can conform to irregular SHEATH surfaces and cut lines. Well-designed linear cutting charges obtain good results with relatively small charge weights. Figure 10-12. Typical Shaped Charges for Salvage Work. Individual charge weight and explosives consumption are based on data published for the particular explosives used. Data for military shaped charges is given in the Technical Manual for the Use of Explosives in Underwater Salvage (NAVSEA SW061-AA-MMA-010). Typical manufacturers data for linear shaped charges are shown in Figure 10-13 (Page 10-14).
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t = to
THICKNESS CUT, INCHES
STAND-OFF INCHES
Shaped charges can be improvised as shown in Figure 10-14. When performance data for a particular material is not available, cutting ability can be estimated from the following:
1000
5 10 20 30 40 50 100
500
2000
200
STAND-OFF FOR OPTIMUM PERFORMANCE (RDX OR PETN EXPLOSIVE) 3.0 2.0 TH EA TH 1.0 SH HEA UM S 0.5 IN ER UM PP TH L A CO 0.2 EA SH 0.1 AD LE JETCORD .05 STANDOFF .02 TARGET .01 EXPLOSIVE CORELOAD, GRAINS/FOOT
MINIMUM CUTTING PERFORMANCE AT OPTIMUM STAND-OFF 1.5 ET RG 1.0 A T L EE T S 8 0.5 01 C1 0.2 COPPER-SHEATHED JETCORD (RDX OR PETN EXPLOSIVE)
where: t = unknown cutting capacity (thickness) in material of density known cutting capacity in material of density o, from manufacturers data
0.1 100 200 500 1000 2000 EXPLOSIVE CORELOAD, GRAINS/FOOT
to
Water in the stand-off and cavity prevents the formation of the cutting jet. The enclosed stand-off of box-type shaped charges excludes water, but boxes can withstand hydrostatic pressures only to shallow depths that vary with the particular unit. For depths of 30 to 60 feet, the standoff can be lled with closed-cell plastic foam. The foam inhibits jet formation slightly, so that performance is decreased. For deeper immersion, the stand-off and cavity must be constructed to withstand hydrostatic pressure, or made free ooding and then evacuated with compressed air or gas at depth. For underwater use, exible linear charges can be enclosed in exible tubes lled with foam or evacuated by compressed gas. One manufacturer markets a line of circular cutters prefabricated with compressed gas ttings.
MINIMUM CUTTING PERFORMANCE AT OPTIMUM STAND-OFF 1.0 2024-T351 0.5 ALUMINUM TARGET 0.2 C10118 0.1 STEEL TARGET .05 LEAD-SHEATHED JETCORD (RDX OR .02 PETN EXPLOSIVE) .01 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 EXPLOSIVE CORELOAD, GRAINS/FOOT
MINIMUM CUTTING PERFORMANCE AT OPTIMUM STAND-OFF CUT 7075-T6 ALUMINUM 0.2 TARGET 0.1 .05 OPTIMUM STAND-OFF SILVERSHEATHED JETCORD (DIPAM EXPLOSIVE)
MINIMUM CUTTING PERFORMANCE AT OPTIMUM STAND-OFF 2.0 1.0 0.5 2024-T351 ALUMINUM TARGET C10118 STEEL TARGET
.02
5 10 20 50 100 EXPLOSIVE CORELOAD, GRAINS/FOOT NOTE: CUTS AT 7 AND 10 GR/FT MADE AT ZERO STAND-OFF
ALUMINUM-SHEATHED JETCORD (RDX OR PETN EXPLOSIVE) 0.1 50 100 200 500 1000 EXPLOSIVE CORELOAD, GRAINS/FOOT Figure 10-13. Typical Manufacturers Data for Linear Shaped Charges.
0.2
10-4.3.2 Fracturing Charges. A diamond-shaped sheet of plastic explosive, laid on a steel plate and detonated simultaneously from two opposite corners, will fracture the metal along a line between the two uninitiated corners. This effect is shown in Figure 10-15(a). The fracture mechanism depends on the pressure rise as the shock waves from the two detonating points collide, followed by the relaxation as the waves pass through one another, and the combined effect of two tension waves rebounding from the far side of the target. This arrangement is a diamond charge and is suitable for cutting bars and pipes, but has limited application for plate cutting because the fracture extends only slightly beyond the charge. The diamond charge principle was rst applied to extended plate cutting in fracture tape. Fracture tape, shown in Figure 10-15(b), consists of a series of diamond charges connected by continuous strips of explosive along the edges of the charges. Fracture tape has seen only limited use because it was not manufactured in a exible form. The charge may fail to cut if bilateral asymmetry develops between the two initiation trains. Fracture tape can be improvised by cutting explosive sheet to the appropriate shape. Shock-wave refraction tape (SRT) is a recently developed explosive charge that works on the principle of shock-wave collision within metal targets. In this charge, a continuous strip of explosive is molded to the back of an inert wave-shaping element, as shown in Figure 10-15(c). One manufacturer uses magnetic rubber as the wave-shaping element, providing both exibility as well as an attachment method (provided the surfaces are clean and smooth). The performance of shock-wave refraction tape is comparable to that of shaped charges when cutting ordinary steels; very high strength, fracture-resistant steels may not be cut as easily. There is no cavity or stand-off to ood, so SRT is more adaptable to underwater use than linear shaped charges.
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PLASTIC EXPLOSIVE
FUSE CAP FOOD CAN WITH BOTH ENDS CUT OUT CAP PLASTIC EXPLOSIVE
PLASTIC EXPLOSIVE
STEEL OR ALUMINUM ANGLE
80 - 90 RIVET SIDES OF CAN FORM STAND-OFF SHEET METAL OR LEAD SHEET CONE
STAND-OFF DISTANCE
CONE WINE BOTTLE STICKS TAPED TO SIDE AS STAND-OFF
SHEET EXPLOSIVE
Figure 10-14. Improvised Shaped Charges.
A A
A EXPLOSIVE
A
EXPLOSIVE SHOCK-WAVE FRONTS REFLECTED TENSION WAVE
FRACTURE (a) DIAMOND CHARGE (INITIATED AT POINTS A AND A).
EXPLOSIVE
EXPLOSIVE WAVE-SHAPING ELEMENT

SHOCK WAVE
FRACTURES
TENSION WAVE
INITIATION POINT
INERT BARRIERS (c) SHOCK-WAVE REFRACTION TAPE (SRT)
(b) FRACTURE TAPE.
Figure 10-15. Fracturing Charges.
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10-4.3.3 Contact Charges. Simple contact charges require much heavier charges than shaped or fracturing charges. Explosive performance can be increased and charge weight reduced by careful charge placement, connement, tamping, and by scoring cut lines with cutting torches or mechanical cutters. Some effective charge placements and geometry are shown in Figure 10-16. Charge weights can be estimated from the following relationships: W = 3 A Structural steel 8 High carbon or alloy steel
EXPLOSIVE SHEET OR PLASTIC EXPLOSIVE SECURING STRAP STUD
STEEL CHANNEL
PLATE
W = D2 where:
DETONATING CORD EXPLOSIVE WELDS
W A D
= = =
charge weight, lbs TNT cross-sectional area of section to be cut, in2 diameter or thickness of section to be cut, in.
STEEL PLATE
To determine charge weights for explosives other than TNT, the TNT charge weight is divided by the relative effectiveness (RE) factor.
Figure 10-16. Steel Cutting Contact Charges.
10-4.3.4 Charge Placement. Cutting charges are most effective when the cut line is adjacent to, but not on, a rigid portion of the target surface. The target must be restrained from moving away from shaped and fracturing charges so the explosive energy is expended in cutting or fracturing the target, rather than pushing it away. Contact charges create a strong shearing action along the line between the movable and rigid surface. Hull cutting charges are most effective when slightly offset from frames:
If placed in the middle of the span, a large portion of the explosive energy is expended in deecting the plate. If placed directly over a stiffener, both the stiffener and the plate must be cut.
For efficient cutting, charges must be placed in intimate contact with the target surface. Charges must be secured to all vertical, steeply angled, and overhead surfaces, and to horizontal surfaces where current, wind, vibration, or target movement may dislodge them. Where no tie-down points exist, the following securing methods can be used:
Light metal straps bolted to studs explosively set or friction welded along each side of the cut line. Tie-down wires, lines, or bongee cords inserted through holes cut, drilled, or burned through the plating (tie-downs can also be led to studs or magnetic clamps). Sandbags or similar weights placed on charges on horizontal surfaces. Backing charges with magnetic strips, adhesive strips, or small suction pads (these methods have had limited success). Hose charges can be stretched between tie-down points over at or smoothly convex surfaces.
10-4.3.5 Ship Sectioning. Explosives are commonly used to section wrecks for piecemeal removal, or to separate a casualty into two pieces so that one part can be salvaged. Ship sectioning, including explosive methods, is discussed in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). The following notes supplement that discussion.
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When cutting a ship transversely, the internal structure must be cut as well as the more accessible hull plate and stiffeners. It is very difficult to obtain complete separation in a single shot. Salvors should plan to make cuts in several shots, or have thermal or mechanical cutting gear available to sever stubborn structure. In a landmark operation in 1973, the salvageable aft section of a 960-foot laden ore carrier was explosively separated from the forward part of the ship, which was abandoned. The ship had sunk by the bow in 130 feet of water. With holds 7, 8, 9, and 10, their associated wing and double-bottom tanks, and the machinery spaces dry, the after section was buoyant and aoat. The hull was cut in way of number 7 hold by more than 1,800 feet of custom engineered and fabricated high speed explosive cutters. All cutters were placed in the dry number 7 wing and bottom tanks. Instantaneous separation (necessary to prevent capsize of or damage to the aft section) was attained by:
Placing cutters against all bulkheads, shell plating, stringers, void tank sections, and pipes extending through the transverse bulkhead separating holds 7 and 8, Taking advantage of the vertical shear on the hull resulting from the weight of the forward section, laden with 90,000 tons of ore, and the buoyancy of the after section, and Maintaining a 300-ton horizontal astern pull on the after section as the cutters were detonated.
Blast curtains were rigged in the number 7 tanks and hold and the number 8 wing and bottom tanks were pressurized with compressed air to protect the separating bulkhead. A divers survey after the successful separation revealed no damage to the bulkhead. The operation was made possible by the salvors employment of specialist explosives engineers who custom designed the explosive cutters, taking into account permissible blast effects on the aft number 7 bulkhead, gas generation and dispersion requirements, mutual interference between charges, and the strength of hull structural members. See "The Cutting of the Igara" in Reeds Commercial Salvage Practice, for a more detailed discussion of the operation. The order in which the different members are to be cutas well as the methods to be usedmust be considered carefully. Preliminary cuts should not weaken the structure to the point that it is in danger of collapsing and injuring personnel placing charges for subsequent cuts. Cutting methods are frequently combined. A hull can be opened up with explosives to permit access to internal structure to be cut by mechanical or thermal methods. In some cases, preparatory, weakening cuts are made by divers with oxy-arc or exothermic torches, with the nal cuts made explosively. Simple types of ships are better candidates for explosive sectioning than more complex types. The following ship types lend themselves to explosive sectioning:
Transversely framed ships, because there are fewer longitudinal stiffeners to cut. Freighters and bulk carriers, because most do not have centerline longitudinal bulkheads (some bulk carriers have wing tanks whose inner bulkheads must be cut). Small ships often do not have double bottoms. Small, single-product tankers, because they do not have wing tanks or double bottoms.
The following ship types are not good candidates for explosive sectioning:
Longitudinally framed ships, because of the large number of longitudinal stiffeners. Passenger ships and warships, because of their extensive joiner work, internal subdivision, wireways, piping, and ventilation systems. Large tankers and product carriers, because they are constructed with two or more longitudinal bulkheads. Freighters with insulated holds.
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10-4.4 Seaoor Blasting. Seaoor blasting moves large amounts of seaoor material by channeling, trenching, etc., or removes isolated obstructions, such as pinnacles, coral heads, and boulders. The basic techniques are:
Contact Blasting Charges are placed on the formation to be blasted, either individually, or in line or checkerboard patterns. The detonating explosive imparts a violent blow to the seaoor material. The efficiency of contact blasting depends on maintaining intimate contact with the material to be blasted. Contact blasting is the least efficient blasting method in terms of explosive consumption, but requires the least time and effort to prepare and set charges. Boreholes Internal charges are placed in boreholes drilled or augured into the object or strata to be blasted.
CONTACT BLASTING
MUDCAPPING
STEMMING
STEMMING CHARGE
CHARGE SNAKEHOLING BLOCKHOLING
Figure 10-17. Obstruction Blasting.
10-4.4.1 Rock Blasting. The choice of explosive for a particular rock-blasting job depends on the hardness and density of the rock and the type of breakage desired. Fast, brisant explosives such as TNT or composition C-4 are required to break most kinds of rock, although slower explosives are effective on soft rock, such as limestone. Rock is weakest in tension, so internal charges are most effective. Contact blasting depends on the tamping effect of overlying water to conne the explosion momentarily, and is effective only on soft rock and coral, where the material is broken by crushing rather than shattering. The rock fragments are moved by the expanding gases, so high gas production is required to move dense rock. If the object is to break up rock for removal by nonexplosive means, gas production of the explosive is less important. Individual boulders are broken by one of the methods discussed below. The methods are illustrated in Figure 10-17.
Mudcapping A contact charge is covered with 10 to 12 inches of mud, clay, or moist soil tamping. Plastic clay is the most effective tamping. Loose sand should not be used, but sandbags are effective. Snakeholing The charge is placed in a hole jetted, bored, or otherwise excavated under an object lying on, or partially buried in, a soft seaoor. Snakeholing is more effective than mudcapping under all conditions, and requires about one-half as much explosive as contact blasting. Blockholing The charge or charges are placed in one or more boreholes. Explosive effect can be altered by changing charge weights and placement; rock formations, boulders, concrete structures, etc., can be completely demolished, be broken into fragments of varying size, or have portions broken off. Blockholing requires about one-third as much explosive as contact blasting.
Table 10-4 gives approximate explosive requirements in pounds per cubic yard, or powder factor, for different rock-blasting methods. A range of powder factors for each method is given. The actual powder factor for any project will depend on:
Table 10-4. Powder Factors (lb/yd3) for Rock Blasting.

Blasting Method Contact Blasting Mudcapping Air Blasting Not effective 1-2 1 - 1 1 2 Underwater Blasting 6 - 20 4 - 15 3 - 10

10-18
The relative density and toughness of the rock. Whether individual boulders or massive rock formations are being blasted. Water depth.
Snakeholing
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The lower values in Table 10-4 are based on blasting massive limestone at depths of 30 to 60 feet. Values high in the range are used with tougher or denser rocks and greater depth. Lower values are used when blasting individual boulders or outcroppings. Table 10-5 compares densities and toughness of common rocks. Rock blasting by internal charges is most effective when there is a free face approximately parallel to the borehole. The detonation of the explosive creates a high gas pressure in the charge hole, generating a compressive strain pulse in the surrounding rock. The compressive pulse travels outward in all directions. Near the hole, the amplitude of the strain pulse is sufficient to crush the rock. Amplitude decays rapidly as the pulse travels outward until it can no longer crush the rock. The pulse travels outward until it is reected from a free surface as a tensile strain pulse. As rock is much weaker in tension than compression, the tensile pulse is able to break the rock, progressing from the free face back towards the charge hole. The expanding gases in the charge hole are not directly responsible for much of the rock breakage; to some extent, the rock is pulled apart rather than pushed apart. Blasting massive seaoor rock formations is subject to constraints similar to those encountered in quarry blasting and similar methods are employed. Detailed information on rock blasting is found in publications on mining and quarrying. For effective blasting, it is necessary to establish a breaking or working face at an angle to the drilling face. The drilling face is most often the horizontal seaoor; the working face is vertical or inclined from the vertical by an angle of 45 degrees or less. The working face is broken back in steps by detonating charges in rows of holes behind the face. For cuts deeper than the maximum practical drilling depth, the working face is broken back in stages by establishing intermediate oor levels, or benches, as shown in Figure 10-18. A working face can be established in a ush surface by blasting out a crater with a single charged hole, cluster of holes, or line of holes. Empty relief holes between and around charged holes provide free faces to reect strain pulses and space for displaced rock to move into. The excavation oor and work face can be squared up by subsequent blasting. Boreholes can be drilled by diver-operated jackhammers or rock drills for small operations. For extensive drilling operations, a spud-moored drill barge or a submersible, crawler-mounted rock drill should be used.
Table 10-5. Rock Density and Toughness.

Type of Rock Andesite Basalt Conglomerate Dioritic Felsite Gabbro Granite Gneiss Limestone Marble Quartzite Sandstone Schist Shale Slate Density lb/ft3 150 - 175 150 - 200 125 - 162 156 - 200 150 - 200 169 - 200 156 - 194 150 - 181 160 - 187 131 - 181 125 - 200 124 - 194 150 - 175 112 - 194 156 - 194 Relative Toughness (Limestone = 1) 1.1 1.7 - 2.3 N/A 1.9 - 2.1 N/A N/A 1.5 - 2.1 1.0 - 1.9 1.0 N/A 1.9 - 2.7 1.5 - 2.6 1.0 - 2.1 N/A 1.2
DRILLING FACE WORKING OR FREE FACE L B<L B BOREHOLE
BENCH
EXCAVATION FLOOR (PROJECT DEPTH)
MAIN FRACTURE LINES
45
REFLECTED TENSION WAVE
TOE
B
UNREFLECTED COMPRESSION WAVE
COLUMN LOADED HOLE
STRESS PATTERN FOR A CONCENTRATED CHARGE IN BOTTOM OF HOLE
INSUFFICIENT EXPLOSIVE ENERGY RELEASE AT BOTTOM OF HOLE
Figure 10-18. Excavation Rock Blasting.
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DEPTH IN FEET
10-4.4.2 Coral Blasting. Coral is difficult to blast because of its porosity. Highvelocity explosives have been successful, but slow-detonating explosives are more effective. Coral will clog rock drills, so internal charges are set in powder points (pipes driven into the formation). Powder factors for coral are about ve pounds per cubic foot for mushroom-shaped coral heads, and higher for solid heads. Demolition of an above-water coral formation requires about three times as much explosive as an equivalent underwater formation, unless a well-placed, thoroughly tamped internal charge is used. Line charges can be used to cut trenches or channels in coral. Figure 10-19 shows typical results of coral blasting. 10-4.4.3 Blasting Impalements. Removing an impaling rock or coral head is a slow and tedious process. The charges must be large enough to break the rock or coral, but light enough that they do not damage the ship or drive the impalement further into the ship. The only feasible procedure is to begin with very small charges and check the results after each shot. Charge size can be increased incrementally if there is no hull damage, or the same charge can be repeated until the impalement is gradually severed or broken away. A large internal concrete patch over the impalement and surrounding plating strengthens the hull against shock loading so that larger charges can be used. The impalement should be cut off about two feet below the hull.
CRATER WIDTH IN FEET 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
DEPTH IN FEET
1 2 3 4 5
DEPTH AND WIDTH OF CUTS MADE IN CORAL WHEN BLASTING WITH CAVITY CHARGES CRATER WIDTH IN FEET 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4 5 DEPTH AND WIDTH OF CUTS MADE IN CORAL BY STANDARD U.S. MARK 8 DEMOLITION CHARGES 110
VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
When external access to the impalement is NUMBER OF PACKS dangerous or impossible, the impalement is VOLUME OF CORAL REMOVED USING 9-KG (20 POUND) CHARGES attacked from the inside. The best procedure is to use small charges in shallow boreholes with interspersed relief Figure 10-19. Coral Blasting. holes to progressively shatter the impalement and lower it sufficiently to clear the hull. Doors and hatches should be open during blasting to prevent the hull from being pressurized internally by the explosive gases. It may be necessary to build a trunk around the impalement to provide a watertight enclosure and to vent explosive gases to the atmosphere. 10-4.4.4 Setting Anchors. Anchors can be set in hard pan, coral, clay, or mud bottoms with explosives. Small charges are set near the anchor as shown in Figure 10-20 and detonated. The anchor is lifted and dropped into the blast crater. At the same time, a quantity of loose or broken seaoor is lifted out of the crater and some of this material will settle on the anchor. Anchors can be explosively settled into seaoors subject to liquecation under high-frequency cyclic loading, such as clean, medium- or low-density cohesionless soils. A number of small charges detonated sequentially, on short delay, in the vicinity of the anchor can liquefy the soil, allowing the anchor to settle into the seaoor under its own weight. 10-4.4.5 Channeling in Soft Bottoms. Military dynamite, or other low-velocity, low-brisance explosives are best for moving soft, plastic material. Powder points, contact charges, charges in augured or excavated holes, or hose charges in checkerboard or linear patterns are used. Contact blasting will normally dig a channel or crater four to ve feet deep. Deeper cuts can be attained by driving powder points to the desired channel depth, plus the distance between points. Powder factors are three to ve pounds of explosive per cubic yard of soil. Alternate points should contain charges of different weights so that the detonation waves do not cancel one another. Soft seaoors are almost always excavated more effectively by nonexplosive means, such as dredging or scouring.
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10-4.5 Concrete and Masonry Blasting. Concrete and masonry are blasted by the same methods as rock. Simple concrete dispersal requires about one pound of explosive per cubic foot. Breaching charges for concrete and masonry structures are estimated by: W = R3KC where: W R = = = = K C = = charge weight, lbs TNT breaking radius, ft thickness for external charges distance to outside surface for internal charges material factor from Table 10-6 tamping factor from Figure 10-21 (Page 10-22)
FIRING SYSTEM
BLASTING CAP BUOY
DETONATING CORD MADE UP TO WORKING LINE LIGHT LINE TO KEEP STRAIN OFF DETONATING CORD
ANCHOR
CHARGES
10-4.6 Timber and Pile Cutting. For cutting timber, high-velocity, brisant explosives work best, but low-velocity explosives are effective when applied properly. Charge weights vary as the square of the diameter of the timber. Empirical relationships for determining charge weights are given below: W = D2 4 D2 250 Untamped external charges
Figure 10-20. Setting Anchors with Explosive Charges.
W = where: W D
Tamped internal charges

Table 10-6. Material Factor, K, for Concrete Breaching Charges.
= =
charge weight, lbs TNT diameter of round or least dimension of dressed timber, in.
Material Poor masonry, shale, and hardpan All values Less than 3 ft 3 to 5 ft 5 to 7 ft More than 7 ft Less than 3 ft 3 to 5 ft 5 to 7 ft More than 7 ft Less than 3 ft 3 to 5 ft 5 to 7 ft More than 7 ft
K
0.225 0.35 0.275 0.25 0.225 0.45 0.375 0.325 0.275 0.70 0.55 0.50 0.425
For explosives other than TNT, charge weight is determined by dividing the TNT charge weight by the relative effectiveness (RE) factor. 10-4.7 Reducing Underwater Shock Wave Pressure and Impulse. Shock waves damage structures by two different mechanisms:
Good masonry, ordinary concrete, rock
Dense concrete, first-class masonry
Reinforced concrete (concrete, only; will not cut reinforcing steel)
The peak shock wave pressure exceeds the compressive strength of the material.
The impulse causes structural elements to vibrate with their natural frequency. The deection may be great enough to cause damage. Impulse caused vibrations can cause damage even when the peak pressure does not exceed the compressive strength of the material.
Shock wave pressure or impulse at a structure can be reduced by charge placement, bubble screens, and, in the case of multiple charges, ring sequence.
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10-4.7.1 Charge Placement. Observations of underwater rock blasting operations have shown that peak pressures for explosives well packed in bore holes is much less than that of charges in the water. Figure 10-22 compares time pressure curves 33 feet from a one pound charge in free water and the same sized charge in submerged rock. The great difference in peak pressures and total impulse indicates that a principal means of reducing underwater shock wave effects is to ensure that charges are not detonated while exposed to free water. In seaoor or obstruction blasting, internal charges should be used. The top portions of boreholes, for a distance of 15 times the borehole diameter, should be left uncharged. Blasting patterns should be arranged to avoid sympathetic detonation and ensure that charges to be detonated later in a ring sequence are not exposed by rock breakage from earlier detonations. Heavy sandbag or clay tamping over cutting charges can signicantly reduce shock effects in the surrounding area. 10-4.7.2 Bubble Screens. An impinging shock wave compresses the bubbles of a bubble screen over a period of some milliseconds. On their subsequent reexpansion over a period of milliseconds, the bubbles emit new compression waves with lower peak values. The part of the shock wave that passes between the bubbles is also attenuated. Increasing the number of air bubbles increases the reduction in peak pressure, but also increases the duration of the pressure on the side of the bubble screen away from the blast. Investigations by A.T. Edwards at the Hydro-electric Power Commission of Ontario showed that the peak pressure 33 feet from a one pound charge was reduced by a factor of 10 by an intervening bubble screen produced by an air ow of 0.043 cubic feet per second per foot of pipe. Doubling the air ow reduced peak pressure by a factor of 70 at the same distance with the same charge weight. At 164 feet, the corresponding reduction factors were 8 and 40. Three inch diameter pipe was used in the experiments with groups of two diametrically opposite 1 16-inch holes spaced 3 4-inch or 11 2 inches apart. Figure 10-22 shows the pressuretime history 33 feet from a one pound charge with an intervening water curtain. In reducing peak pressure while simultaneously extending the decay time, the bubble screen redistributes but does not decrease total impulse. Bubbles screens are ineffective in preventing damage in most cases where the damage mechanism is primarily impulse. 10-4.7.3 Firing Sequence. In multiplecharge, shot-delay shots, ring the charges closest to the structure to be shielded rst will reduce the impulse transmitted to the structure by the delayed charges. The impulse from the delayed charges is partly screened off by explosion gases (and broken rock when seaoor blasting) from earlier charges.
UNTAMPED CHARGES:
R R R C = 4.5 TAMPED CHARGES: C = 3.5 t 0.3t<d<t C = 2.5
C = 2.3
R R C = 2.5 STEMMED R D C = 2.0 t d>t
C = 2.0 - 2.5 FILL PLACED IN CENTER OF MASS
C = 1.5
R R C = 1.25 C = 1.25 R D
C = 1.25 - 1.0
Figure 10-21. Tamping Factor, C, for Concrete Breaching Charges.
(a) 33 FT FROM 1LB CHARGE IN FREE WATER NOTE: EXTRAPOLATED FROM DATA FOR POINT 47 FT FROM 3LB CHARGE IN FREE WATER
620 PSI
1.4 MS
(b) 33 FT FROM 1LB CHARGE IN ROCK NOTE: EXTRAPOLATED FROM DATA FOR POINT 47 FT FROM 2LB CHARGE IN 29 FT 3 OF ROCK
50 PSI
1.3 MS
(c) 33 FT FROM 1LB CHARGE IN FREE WATER, THROUGH BUBBLE SCREEN (0.043 FT3/SEC PER FT)
29 PSI
2 MS
Figure 10-22. Shock Wave Effects for Various Blasting Conditions.
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10-5 PERMITS
Authorization from the appropriate eet commander is required for all underwater explosives detonations. OPNAVINST 8530.2 lists the basic requirements to be met before using demolitions. Amplifying instructions in the 8530 series have been issued by eet commanders: Some of the additional permits required from various Federal and local agencies are described in the following paragraphs. It may take many months to obtain all the required permits. Planning for explosives operations should start well in advance and be coordinated carefully so that all permits are valid over the desired time frame, and that other salvage tasks that proceed sequentially or concurrently with the explosives operations are ready on schedule. 10-5.1 Corps of Engineers. Section 10 of the River and Harbor Act of March 3, 1899 (30 Stat. 1151; 33 U.S.C. 403) prohibits the obstruction or alteration of any navigable water of the United States without authorization from the Secretary of the Army. Requirements for and limitations of permits are described in Title 33 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (33 CFR), Article 209.120. Detailed information concerning the permits required for a specic project can be obtained from the local Corps of Engineers Office, or from the Department of the Army, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Washington D.C., 20314. 10-5.2 Environmental Impact Statement. Explosives projects that may have an adverse effect on the environment may require the ling of an Environmental Impact Statement. Information on the ling of the statement is found in OPNAVINST 5090.1 (series). 10-5.3 State and Local Agencies. The number and kind of permits required for explosives operations varies widely from location to location. A partial listing of agencies that may require permits includes:
State Fish and Game Commission. State Lands Commission. State Oil and Gas Commission. State Environmental Commission, Department of Environmental Management, Environmental Protection Agency, or similar agency. County Board of Supervisors. Local police or sheriff. Fire Marshal. City Engineer.
10-6 OPERATIONAL NOTES
10-6.1 Test Shots. Because of the imprecise nature of charge weight and blast effect calculations, test shots should always be made before, or at the beginning of an explosives job. Test shots are made to determine two quantities:
The minimum charge weight required to perform the task. The maximum charge weight that will not cause unacceptable damage to the casualty, nearby structures, or the environment.
Tests to determine minimum charge weight should be conducted well before the operation at an explosives range or remote site. The maximum acceptable charge weight is estimated by calculation and veried by on-site test shots. Test shots are usually conducted as the rst working shots. Test shots start with charges lighter than those calculated for the job, gradually increasing the charge weights until the minimum charge weight to perform the task is reached, or blast effects become unacceptable.
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10-6.2 Explosives Expertise. The importance of seeking the advice of experienced hands for explosives projects cannot be overemphasized. There is no program in the U.S. Navy to train or certify salvage demolitions specialists. Navy rst class divers and diving officers receive limited explosives demolitions training. Explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) divers and special warfare swimmers (SEAL) receive additional training in specialized procedures that are not always applicable to salvage. The particular demolitions expertise of a Navy diver is a function of on-the-job experience that may vary from extensive to none. In the absence of personnel experienced in salvage demolitions, advice may be sought from Navy Mobile Construction Battalions or the Army Corps of Engineers. Commercial explosives consultants may be retained through the Supervisor of Salvage. 10-6.3 U.S. Military Explosives. A wide variety of explosives in various types of demolition charges are maintained "in the system" for use by military forces. These explosives and charges are described in the Navy technical manuals Use of Explosives in Underwater Salvage (NAVSEA-SW061-AA-MMA-010) and Demolition Materials (NAVSEA OP 2212) and the Army eld manual Explosives and Demolitions (FM 5-25). A summary of the characteristics of U.S. Military explosives is given in Table 10-7.
Table 10-7. Characteristics of Military Explosives.
Explosive Amatol Ammonium Nitrate Black Powder Composition A-3 Composition B Composition C-3 Composition C-4 HBX-1 and HBX-3 H-6 Pentolite 50/50 PETN RDX Tetryl Tetrytol 75/25 TNT
Typical Uses Bursting Charge Cratering Charge and Composition Explosives Time Blasting Fuse Booster Charge and Bursting Charge Bursting Charge Demolition Charge Demolition Charge Demolition Charge Demolition Charge Booster Charge and Bursting Charge Detonating Cord, Blasting Cap, and Demolition Charge Blasting Caps, Composition Explosives Booster Charge and Composition Explosives Demolition Charge Demolition Charge and Composition Explosives
Rate of Detonation (Feet per Second) 16,000 fps 8,900 fps 1,300 fps 26,500 fps 25,600 fps 25,000 fps 26,500 fps 24,300 fps 24,300 fps 24,600 fps 26,000 fps 27,400 fps 23,300 fps 23,000 fps 22,500 fps
Relative Effectiveness as an External Charge (TNT = 1.00)* 1.17 0.42 0.55 1.26 1.35 1.26 1.26 Air Underwater Air Underwater 1.48 1.68 1.48 1.68 1.26 1.66 1.60 1.25 1.20 1.00
Intensity of Toxic Fumes Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous Dangerous
Water Resistance Poor None None Good Excellent Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
*TNT is used as the standard (TNT = 1.00) for comparison of the effectiveness of other explosives.
10-6.4 Commercial Explosives. A variety of commercial explosives and explosive devices are available, including highly effective custommade steel cutting charges, liquid explosives, gelatins, etc. The Supervisor of Salvage should be contacted if the use of commercial explosives is indicated.
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APPENDIX A DOCUMENTATION MATRIX
A-1 PURPOSE
The purpose of this matrix is to provide the user of this manual with a listing of additional reference documentation. This is given by reference manual and topic area.
A-2 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
The following manuals/publications are referenced on the matrix (Table A-1):
SAFETY MANUAL U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Safety Manual (S0400-AA-SAF-010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1988 SALVAGE MANUAL U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual Volume 1 Strandings (S0300-A6-MAN-010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1989 Volume 2 Harbor Clearance (S0300-A6-MAN-020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1990 Volume 3 Afloat Salvage (S0300-A6-MAN-030) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991 Volume 4 Deep Ocean (S0300-A6-MAN-040) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1992 Volume 5 POL Offloading (S0300-A6-MAN-050) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991 Volume 6 POL Spill Response (S0300-A6-MAN-060) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991
SALVORS HANDBOOK U.S. Navy Salvors Handbook (S0300-A7-HBK-010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1990 UNDERWATER CUT & WELD U.S. Navy Underwater Cutting and Welding Manual (S0300-BB-MAN-010) . . 1989 ENGINEERS HANDBOOK U.S. Navy Salvage Engineers Handbook Volume 1 Salvage Engineering (S0300-A8-HBK-010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1992 Volume 2 POSSE Users Manual (S0300-A8-HBK-020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1992
TOWING MANUAL U.S. Navy Towing Manual (SL740-AA-MAN-010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1988 ESSM MANUAL Emergency Ship Salvage Material Catalog (NAVSEA 0994-LP-017-3010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1987 EXPLOSIVES MANUAL Technical Manual for Use of Explosives in Underwater Salvage (NAVSEA SW061-AA-MMA-010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1987
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Table A-1. Salvage Documentation Matrix.
SALVAGE MANUAL
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK
TOPIC AREA DAMAGE CONTROL STABILITY SHIP STRENGTH RIGGING ANCHORS STRANDING PULLING SYSTEMS SAFETY MACHINERY EXPLOSIVES HAZMAT POL OFFSHIP FIREFIGHTING TOWING: POINT-TO-POINT RESCUE PATCHING COFFERDAMS LIFTING SYSTEMS POLLUTION CONTROL PONTOONS SALVAGE PLANNING PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS CONVERSION FACTORS COMPUTER PROGRAMMING DEEP WATER RECOVERY CUTTING WELDING CARGO OFFLOAD
D-2
SA FE VO TY M LU AN VO ME 1 UAL LU VO ME 2 LU VO ME 3 LU VO ME 4 LU VO ME 5 LU SA ME 6 LV UN ORS DE HA VO RWA NDB LU TE OO VO ME 1 R CU K LU T& WE TO ME 2 WI LD N ES G M SM AN EX MAN UAL PL OS UAL IVE SM AN UA L
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A-1 PURPOSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1 A-2 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS Afloat salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harbor clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underwater cutting and welding . . Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... A-1, ... ... A-1 A-1 A-1 A-1 A-1 A-1 A-1 A-2 A-1 A-1
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APPENDIX B INTACT SHIP INFORMATION

B-1 INTRODUCTION To be effective, the salvage engineer needs a general knowledge of ship form and construction, supplemented by information specific to a particular casualty. The characteristics of ships can be grouped by broad classes, because similar service requirements lead to similar forms. This appendix describes the sources of vessel-specific data available to the salvage engineer, including a short description of the NAVSEA drawing numbering system. Summary tables of pertinent characteristics of Navy ships are also included. B-2 SHIP-SPECIFIC DATA A great deal of information is generated and recorded during a ships design, construction, and trials. Access to tabulated ship data can greatly simplify and speed the salvage engineers work. The documents described in this paragraph are particularly useful. Naval ships generally carry a greater body of ships data than commercial ships. Documents carried onboard are normally kept in the engineering log room or technical library on naval ships. Documents for naval ships are also available from the parent squadron and repair activities; each ship class is assigned to a planning shipyard that maintains complete drawing files for assigned ships. Paragraph B-4 describes the NAVSEA ships document numbering and classification system, gives planning yard assignments for Navy ships and craft, and describes likely sources for ships documents. Commercial vessels usually carry fewer documents than naval vessels, but the information contained in them is often quite detailed, especially in regard to hydrostatic characteristics and cargo capacity and stowage. Documents for commercial vessels are obtained from the ships officers, owners or shipping company, agents, port engineer, building shipyard, or ship designer. Drawings for U.S. flag vessels can also be obtained from Chief, Naval Architecture Branch, Marine Technical and Hazardous Materials Branch, Headquarters, USCG, Washington D.C, 20593. Most current drawings are accurate and reliable. Drawings and other documents describing ships characteristics are revised to reflect changes to ship and component characteristics and to correct errors. Documents for Navy ships are normally revised during overhaul or major maintenance availabilities to reflect changes made during the overhaul/availability and previous changes or discrepancies reported by the ships force or other organizations. Salvage personnel should verify that they are using the latest revision, as listed in the Ships Drawing Index (SDI), and should be aware that the issuance of revised drawings may lag completion of the alteration by many months. Ships that have been inactive for many years are often objects of salvage or wreck removal; drawings may not reflect alterations made after the ship entered inactive status. When drawings and other data for a specific ship are not available, documents for similar ships are used. In such cases, the data should be used only as an indication of probable conditions, to be verified as the work progresses. Even drawings for ships of the same class may not be entirely accurate, especially in the particulars of component structures and systems. Design modifications are often made before a shipbuilding program is completed; only the later ships will be built with the modifications. Subsequent alterations may not be accomplished on all ships of the class; modifications cannot be made simultaneously to all ships. Shipyards are allowed some latitude in determining final detailsships built at different yards will usually have differences. The following are some typical differences between ships of the same class built at different yards:
Tanks or compartment lengths, which may vary by a foot or more with attendant differences in tank capacities. The exact routing of piping and wiring systems. Arrangement and location of machinery room auxiliaries. Relative position and arrangement of staterooms, passageways, and other minor compartments not bounded by major structural or watertight bulkheads. Precise location of doors, hatches, fireplugs, and similar fittings.
The relative importance of the differences between documented and actual characteristics depends on the nature of the salvage operation and data required. Discrepancies should be noted and compiled to give a subjective evaluation of the datas reliability. For ships that will be returned to active service, discrepancies in published data should be included in the final salvage report and/or forwarded to the cognizant authority.
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B-2.1 Curves of Form. Curves showing hydrostatic characteristics of a ships hull are prepared by the designers. These curves are normally presented in a single document called the Curves of Form, Displacement and Other (D & O) Curves, or Hydrostatics Curves. This set of curves is often the single most useful document to a salvage engineer. Curves of Form are carried aboard Navy ships, usually in the custody of the Engineer or Damage Control Assistant. Figure FO-2 is an exact copy of the Curves of Form prepared by the designers for the frigate FFG-7 and other ships of the same class. On newer ships, the Curves of Form are presented on a single drawing with the Cross Curves of Stability and the Bonjeans Curves. The following information is available from the Curves of Form for Navy ships:
Displacement in Saltwater (SW), Vertical Position of the Center of Buoyancy (VCB or KB), Longitudinal Position of the Center of Buoyancy (LCB), Longitudinal Position of the Center of Flotation (LCF), Tons per Inch Immersion (TPI), Height of the Transverse Metacenter above the Keel (KM), and Approximate Moment to Change Trim One Inch (MT1).
The Curves of Form drawing for older ships usually include the following additional curves: Displacement in Fresh Water (FW), Areas of Waterplanes (AWP), Area of the Midship Section (AM), Outline of the Midship Section, Longitudinal Metacentric Radius (BML), Area of Wetted Surface (S), and Curve of Sectional Areas.
All curves are entered from the ordinate scale with the value for mean draft. The value of the desired characteristic is read from the appropriate horizontal scale, or a factor is applied to the displacement value, as noted on the graph. All characteristics are plotted as a function of mean draft, assuming zero trim. A ship trims about its center of flotation without changing displacement. If the center of flotation is not coincident with the midlength, mean draft differs from draft at the center of flotation; the displacement corresponding to the draft at the center of flotation is the true displacement, while taking displacement based on the mean draft returns an erroneous value. Because of this disparity, entering the curves with a known displacement will give an accurate mean draft only for a ship with no trim. An additional curve is sometimes included to provide a correction to be applied to the value for displacement when the ship is trimmed. If there is no curve, displacement when trimmed is determined by entering the curve with the draft at the center of flotation. From Figure B-1, the difference between the mean draft and the draft at the center of flotation can be seen to be: TC = dt L
where: TC d t L = = = = correction to mean draft for trim, in. distance from midships to the center of flotation, ft trim, in. length between draft marks, ft
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The correction is added to or subtracted from the mean draft, as appropriate. Alternatively, the draft correction can be multiplied by TPI to calculate a displacement correction to be applied to the displacement returned by the mean draft. For the situation shown in Figure B-1, LCF is abaft midships and there is trim by the bow, so the correction is negative. It is helpful to draw a similar sketch for each situation to determine whether the correction is added or subtracted. For Navy ships, the above correction need not be made if a draft diagram is available. See Paragraph B-2.6.2 for instructions on the use of draft diagrams.
EQUIVALENT UNTRIMMED WATERLINE
TRIMMED WATERLINE
LCF
Tf t Ta d TC TM TLCF
If a ship has appreciable hog, the draft at midships is less than the mean draft. Since AFT FWD ships are fuller in the midbody than at the MARKS MARKS ends, the displacement is less than that L indicated by the mean draft. Similarly, if the ship is sagging, the draft amidships is Figure B-1. Correction to Displacement for Trim. greater than the mean draft and displacement is greater than that indicated by mean draft. When displacement is calculated by integration of sectional areas, Bonjeans Curves can be entered with the actual forward, after, and amidships drafts. Sectional areas at intermediate stations are obtained from the curves by assuming the hull deflection follows a parabolic form, either by sketching a deflected waterline on a profile arrangement of the Bonjeans Curves, or by interpolating drafts for the intermediate stations. When a displacement curve is used, a common practice is to enter the displacement curve with a corrected midships draft equal to the mean of the forward and after drafts, plus or minus a fraction of the deflection at midships. The deflection is added for sag or decreased for hogi.e., the correction brings the calculated midships draft towards the observed midships draft. For a rectangular waterplane, the correction is two-thirds the deflection, since the area under a parabola is two-thirds that of a circumscribing rectangle. For most commercial hull forms, 0.75 times deflection is a reasonable approximation. B-2.2 Offsets. Offsets are tabulated as described in Paragraph 1-2.7. They are often included in a set of drawings with the lines plans (e.g., Molded Lines and Offsets for OLIVER HAZARD PERRY). Waterline halfbreadths and deck heights/halfbreadths are tabulated for 21 stations on the FFG-7 Lines Plan (FO-1). Detailed offsets with very close station spacing are also prepared and are useful for computing volumes of compartments or groups of compartments. Similar detailed tank offsets may also be available. B-2.3 Bonjeans Curves. Bonjeans Curves or Curves of Sectional Areas are a collection of curves plotting sectional area along the X-axis against draft on the Y-axis. The curves are usually presented in one of the two formats shown in Figure FO-3. The section area curve may show area for either the whole section, or for one side only, as noted on the drawing. The areas generally do not account for appendages, but may include shell plating, as noted on the drawing. The curve of the midships section area from the curves of form is essentially the Bonjeans Curve for the midships section. The rosette arrangement (FO-3A), with all the curves drawn to a single set of axes, produces a more compact drawing and is favored by some designers because lack of fairness in the hull will show itself with the curves lying side by side. When calculating buoyancies for varying waterlines or wave profiles, it is sometimes more convenient to arrange the curves along the ships profile, with a vertical axis at each station, as shown in FO-3B, so the section areas can be picked off at each station. If the Bonjeans Curves are not available in this format, the curves and area scale can be traced from the rosette onto a hull profile drawn on tracing paper. The horizontal length scale for the hull profile is not critical, but should be consistent throughout its length if buoyancy is to be calculated on waterlines that are not horizontal.
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B-2.4 Inclining Experiment. The most important piece of information generated by an inclining experiment is the location of the center of gravity for a given condition of loading. This information is provided in a Booklet of Inclining Experiment Data or Report of Inclining Experiment, along with other information such as:
Complete stability information for certain conditions of loading, including maximum and minimum operating conditions. A detailed statement indicating weight and location of boats, aircraft, ordnance equipment, and permanent ballast. A summary of the consumable loads such as fuel, water, ammunition and stores included in each condition, including displacement, KG, GM, and drafts for each loading. A table of approximate changes in metacentric height due to added weights in specific tanks or compartments. Displacement and other curves. Curves of statical stability for specified operating conditions.
Part 1 of the report or booklet contains observations and calculations leading to the determination of displacement and location of center of gravity for the light ship condition. Part 2 contains stability information for operating conditions and is titled Stability Data for surface ships and Stability and Equilibrium Data for submarines. It is customary to perform an inclining experiment on only one or two ships of any class, applying the information obtained to all ships of the class. Inclining experiments may be performed several times in a ships life, to account for major alterations. In using inclining experiment data, it is important to ascertain the effect of any changes made since the experiment. B-2.5 Stability and Loading Data Booklet. Information formerly included in the Inclining Experiment Booklet is now provided to Navy ships in the Stability and Loading Data Booklet in addition to:
Limiting drafts, Table of tank capacities, and Cross curves of stability.
B-2.6 Damage Control (DC) Book. Damage control books issued to Navy ships contain text, tables and diagrams providing information concerning the ships damage control characteristics and systems. These books normally include the information described in the following paragraphs, and may reproduce information from tank sounding tables, stability and loading data booklets, cross curves of stability and other sources. Part II(A) of the DC Book gives stability and loading information. Copies of the damage control book are kept in damage control central, each repair locker, and on the bridge. Excerpts from an FFG-7 DC Book are included in Appendix H. B-2.6.1 Tables and Drawings. The Damage Control Book includes tables and drawings showing the locations of:
Watertight and fumetight doors, hatches and scuttles. Ventilation fittings, fans and controllers. Fire main piping valves and stations. Drainage system piping and valves. Sound-powered phone circuits and jacks.
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B-2.6.2 Draft Diagram and Functions of Form. The draft diagram in the Damage Control Book is a nomograph for determining the displacement from observed drafts. There are several forms of draft diagrams. In the simplest form, drafts are plotted on vertical scales at the forward and after draft marks, and displacement is plotted along a line describing the position of the center of flotation relative to the draft marks at any draft. Additional scales can be added to show other hydrostatic functions, as shown in Figure H-1, a copy of the draft diagram for an FFG-7 Class ship. Displacement in saltwater is read from the intersection of the displacement scale with a straight line connecting forward and after drafts. Other parameters are shown by the intersection of the appropriate scale with a horizontal line passing through the displacement (the intersection of this line with the draft scales shows the draft at LCF). A second form is similar, except that drafts are plotted on the center of flotation scale and a table gives displacements for LCF drafts. A third form reads displacement from a vertical scale at midships and gives a correction for trim on the diagram. Draft diagrams are generally less accurate than the displacement curve, are developed for saltwater only, and are not accurate when the ship has excessive trim. B-2.6.3 Damage Control Plates. The damage control plates provided with the damage control book are a series of plan and orthographic drawings of the ship at various levels showing:
Watertight, oiltight, fumetight and airtight subdivision of the ship and all fire zones. Routing of firemain and drainage piping systems. Location of all watertight and fumetight doors, hatches and scuttles. Routing of ventilation systems.
Damage control plates are drawn to scale but it is often difficult to pick dimensions off of orthographic views. The damage control plates include flooding effect and liquid load diagrams. The liquid load diagram is Plate No 1. B-2.6.4 Liquid Load Diagram. The liquid load diagram is a set of plan views of the ship showing all tanks and spaces fitted for carrying liquids. Figure B-2 shows the format in which the following information is presented for each tank.
56
1.6 42 0 15 0
Tank location and boundaries. Compartment (center). number

-2 56
5-84-2-F
+7 1.6
5-64-0-F
5-56-0-F
Tons of seawater to completely flood the compartment, allowing for permeability (upper left hand corner). List caused by completely flooding the compartment (upper right hand corner). Changes in draft forward and aft caused by completely flooding the compartment (lower corners). Additional information as noted on the plate legend.
5-84-1-F +2 56 5
-2 FRAME 100
+7 -2 84
+5 -1 64
Figure B-2. Liquid Load Diagram.
Each tank is colored to indicate its use in accordance with the color code given on the diagram. The data given for list and trim is based on a specified condition of loading and is not applicable when the ship is unusually loaded or severely damaged.
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B-2.6.5 Flooding Effect Diagram. The flooding effect diagram is a series of plan views showing all watertight, oiltight, airtight, fumetight and fire retarding subdivision. Figure B-3 shows the format of the diagram. The following information is given for each compartment:
5-180-0-E 60 686 5-204-2-F 258
810 1 5-212-0-E 5-188-2-W 5 60
Compartment (center).
number
Tons of saltwater to flood the compartment (upper left-hand corner). Transverse moment in foottons for all unsymmetrical and offcenter compartments (lower right-hand corner). Additional information as noted on the plate legend. Relative effect on stability is indicated by color code: Pink Green Yellow No color
PINK GREEN YELLOW
5-204-1-F 810
35P
Figure B-3. Flooding Effect Diagram.
Flooding impairs stability due to added high weight, free surface effect or both. Flooding improves stability even if free surface exists. Solid flooding improves stability, but flooding with free surface impairs stability. Flooding has no appreciable affect on stability.
Flooding effect diagrams provide a ready reference for the location of watertight boundaries in the intact ship and transverse moments due to flooding assuming the boundaries shown remain intact. B-2.7 Tank Sounding Tables or Curves. Tank sounding tables or curves are developed for use by the ships fuel and water king. These curves or tables correlate tank soundings (levels) to volume in gallons. Curves for newer Navy ships give the center of gravity of the liquid and moment of inertia of the free surface for any sounding. Sounding tables are generally available onboard, although the sounding curves may not be. B-2.8 Compartment Areas and Volumes. Tables showing the plan area and volumes of watertight compartments are prepared for U.S. Navy ships as part of their drawing set. These tables may be included in the damage control book or maintained separately. B-2.9 Booklet of General Plans. The Booklet of General Plans prepared for U.S. Navy ships is a complete set of arrangement plans for the ship. Plan views of each deck, inboard and outboard profiles, and a number of transverse sections are usually included. Tables of principal dimensions and heights of various decks and objects are often included. Limited scantlings are sometimes included. Dimensions may be scaled from these plans. B-2.10 Ships Information Book. U.S. Navy ships are provided a multi-volume Ships Information Book (SIB) that describes the ship and its systems. Although some of this information is duplicated in the Damage Control Book, the ships information book will also address systems and components not related to damage control. Volume 1 usually contains information of a general nature, and may be titled the General Information Book.
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B-2.11 Structural Plans. Structural plans, sometimes called scantlings plans, show dimensions of the ships framing and plating. The midships section drawing, generally available for all ships, and the shell expansion plan are particularly useful. The midships section drawing provides the data required for the midships section modulus calculation. The shell expansion plan and larger scale shell plating drawings show details of the hull plating such as the size, thickness, and material of the plating. They also show details of openings, fittings, and appendages attached to the plating. Much of the data needed for designing patches and structural repairs, and for determining the feasibility of making hull cuts can be obtained from shell drawings. For Navy ships, a longitudinal strength plan, similar to that shown in Figure FO-4, is prepared. The plan shows weight distribution for a specified loading condition (usually full load), shear and bending moment curves for the ship hogged and sagged on the standard trochoidal wave, structural drawings for several stations (usually from station 3 to station 17), and tabulated moments of inertia and heights of the neutral axis for most of the middle stations. Standard scales for Navy drawings are: Length Weight/Buoyancy Ordinates Weight/Buoyancy Area Shear Ordinates Shear Area Moment Ordinates 1 1 1 1 1 1 in. in. in2 in. in2 in. = = = = = = L/20 ft W/3L ton/ft W/60 tons W/30 tons WL/600 ft-tons WL/200 ft-tons
The derivation of the standard scales is described in Paragraph 1-12.8. B-2.12 Docking Plans and Reports. In addition to docking information, the ship docking plan shows the underwater profile of the ship, the plan view of its bottom, and locations of underwater appendages, sea suctions, and overboard discharges, with reference points and measurements to locate them. The docking plan also provides vertical measurements from the main deck and base line, the location and dimensions of the docking blocks for the three docking positions, and the critical dimensions of the ship. Docking reports provide a complete and accurate description of the ships bottom. They describe the results of inspections and work done while the ship is in dry dock. Reports for emergent or unplanned dockings do not provide a complete bottom description, but address only the work done during the docking; reports of unplanned drydockings can be considered supplements to the report of the previous regular dry docking. Docking reports are further supplemented by subsequent underwater hull inspection, hull cleaning, and repair or work reports. In addition to an overall description of the ships bottom, docking reports include two items of interest to salvors: the shaft covering, if any, and the type of paint applied to the ships bottom and appendages. Information on paint systems and coverings alerts the diving supervisor to potential toxic hazards. B-2.13 Trim and Stability Booklet. Commercial ships usually have a trim and stability booklet which may contain either curves of form or hydrostatic tables and stability and trim characteristics for various conditions of loading. U.S. registered inspected vessels and uninspected vessels over 79 feet in length are required to carry trim and stability booklets or equivalent data. Uninspected vessels under 79 feet may not have trim and stability booklets. A typical trim and stability booklet will contain the following data:
Ve sse l ch ara c te ris tic s , including principal dimensions, tonnage, location of draft marks, builder, official and registry numbers, etc. Instructions for use of the nomograms, curves, and other data in the booklet to calculate stability and trim of the vessel for given loading conditions. General operating instructions and precautions. Tabulated tank capacities. and hold
MEAN KEEL DRAFT FT
TONS TOTAL PER INCH DISPL. IMMER- TONS SION S.W.

1300
TOTAL DISPL. TONS F.W.

1200
MOMENT TO TRIM 1" FT. TONS

120
TOTAL LCB LCF DEAD- KM FEET FEET T AFT AFT WEIGHT FEET TONS S.W.
8.35 700 8.5 600 16.58 16.56 16.54 16.52 16.50 16.49 16.48 16.50 3.5
MEAN KEEL DRAFT FT-IN
MEAN KEEL DRAFT METER
HYDROSTATIC TABLE
17
17
4.5 8.57
16 15
10.5
1200 115
1100
1100 110 500
16 15 14
TON= 2240 LBS
4.0
1000
1000 10.0 105 400
8.5
14 13 12 11
9.5
900
900
100 95
300 16.60 3.0 8.0
800
800
200 90
16.70 16.80
2.5 7.0 2.0 6.0 5.0 1.5 4.0 3.0
13 12 11
9.0
700
700
85 100 0 80
17.00 17.20
8.5
600
600
75 70 65 0
17.40
LIGHT SHIP= 590 TONS
Hydrostatic properties (KM, LCB, LCF, etc.) tabulated or plotted as a function of mean draft. Figure B-4 shows a typical hydrostatic table.
Figure B-4. Typical Hydrostatics Table.
Metacentric Height (GM) diagram, showing GM for tabulated conditions of loading and minimum required GM for vessel service. Trim diagram to calculate vessel trim when weights are added at locations other than the vessel center of gravity. Weight distribution and stability information for various conditions of loading. Liquid loading diagram, showing the location, capacity, and effect on list and trim of the ships tanks.
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B-2.14 Deadweight Scale. Merchant (cargo carrying) ships often use an abbreviated hydrostatic table, or deadweight scale, that shows deadweight capacities and Tons per Inch Immersion corresponding to various drafts from below lightweight to displacement fully loaded. B-2.15 Capacity Plan. A merchant ships capacity plan will show the cubic capacities of tanks and cargo carrying spaces such as holds, tween deck and shelter decks. Tank capacity in tons of fuel, saltwater or other liquids may be included. Deadweight scales and trim diagrams are often included. Figure B-5 illustrates a typical capacity plan for a general cargo ship.
60-T BOOM CL.
10-T BOOMS P. & S.

STEER. GEAR
AFTER PEAK
10-T BOOMS P. & S. 10-T BOOMS P. & S. REFRIG. CARGO

BRIDGE HOUSE TOP DK. BOAT DK. CABIN DK. UPPER DK. CONVEYOR
CONTAINER CRANE
CONTS. ON DECK
FOCSLE DK.
MAIN DK. BOSN. STORES 2ND
GEN. CARGO
GEN. CARGO
DEEP D.T. TANKS 14P. 15S. 12P. 13S.
D.T. 8P. 9S. D.T . 8P . 9S. F.O./BALL. F.O./BALL.
POT. WATER P. & S.
F. O. SETT. P. & S.
CONTAINERS IN HOLD
GEN. CARGO GEN. CARGO F.O./BALL. GEN. CARGO F.O./BALL. D.T. 3 DEEP TANKS 1S. 2P. F.O./BALL.
CHAIN LKR.
3RD FORE PEAK
F.O./BALL.
F.O./BALL.
A.P.
204
179 HOLD NO. 6
147
134 MACHINERY
106 HOLD NO. 4
71 HOLD NO. 3
54 HOLD NO. 2
36 B
A 14 0
F.P.
HOLD NO. 7
HOLD NO. 5
HOLD NO. 1
DEADWEIGHT SCALE
MTI
DEAD WEIGHT
DRAFT
DISPLACEMENT
TPI
1250 10678
10500
1225
1200 1175 1150 1125 1100 1075
10000 9500 9000
28
15199 15000 14500
PRINCIPAL PARTICULARS 171.8m (563-7 3/4") LENGTH OVERALL GROSS TONNAGE, U.S. 161.1m (528-6") LENGTH BETW, PERPS. (ABS) NET TONNAGE, U.S. 23.2m (76-6") BREADTH, MOLDED GROSS TONNAGE, PANAMA 13.6m (44-6") DEPTH, MLD., MAIN DK AT SIDE NET TONNAGE, PANAMA DRAFT, KEEL, AT ASSIGNED FBD 9.6m (31-7 1/8") TYPICAL SUMMARY TABLES DRY CARGO GRAIN BALE VCG m3 m3 m HOLD DECK FRS. 17.3 395 MN. 17-37 425 1 13.3 741 2 ND 36-54 807 2 TOTAL, 7 HOLDS CONTAINERS 16315 15062 9.6 VCG m 17.4 8.8 10.1
13223 8008 13653 9966
51.0
27 26
50.5
14000 13500
50.0 49.5 49.0
LCG m 62.0 F 48.6 F 2.3A LCG m 14.9 F 14.9 F 14.9 F LCG m 25.1 A 23.6 A
PERMISSIBLE DECK LOADING TYPICAL FRAMES TONNES/M2 DECK 14-36 3.72 TANK TOP 75-106 7.00 TANK TOP 14-208 2.50 MAIN DK. CARGO OIL COMPT. D.T. #1, S D.T. #1, P TOTAL FRS. 14-28 14.28 TONNES 94.3 94.0 1489.0 VCG m 5.0 5.1 3.7 LCG m 65.3 F 65.3 F 3.3 F
25
8500 8000 7500 13000
24 23 22
12500 12000 11500 5500
7000 1000
48.5
44.5 44.0 43.5
HOLD DECK FRS. TIERS NO. 1 18 MN. 76-103 4 6 108 TK.TOP 76-103 4 126 TOTAL REFRIGERATED CARGO FRS. DECK HOLD 137-147 2 ND 5 26.5 FLT. 134-147 5
CAP m3 570 3419 3989
850
500
11
5000 0
825 803
10 9
NET CAP m3 196 267
VCG m 12.3 9.4
FUEL OIL AND BALLAST FUEL BALLAST VCG LCG FRS. TONNES TONNES m m COMPT. 112.5 3.6 61.8 F FOREPEAK 0-14 14-24 53.7 49.4 1.4 67.1 F 1A DB
4500
TOTAL 24.0 A 5072.0 4863.0 2.5 4.3 A 9.1 732 TOTAL NOTE: L.C.G. FORD (F) AND AFT (A) MEASURED FROM AMIDSHIPS, 81.7 m (268 FT) FORD OF A.P.
Figure B-5. Capacity Plan - Multi-Purpose Dry Cargo Ship.
B-2.16 Component Drawings. Individual component drawings are valuable planning tools and can provide dimensions required to evaluate strength of attachment points, determine clearances to prevent damage to screws, rudders, or other appendages, or to build enclosing cofferdams or patches. B-2.17 Logs and Records. Logs and operating records can help the salvor determine the ships condition shortly before the incident. For example, records showing consumption of fuel and other provisions are helpful in determining actual displacement immediately before stranding. B-2.18 Computer-generated Information. There are a number of naval architecture programs in use today. The application of computer programs and data bases to ship salvage is addressed in Volume 2 of this handbook, but the Ship Hull Characteristics Program (SHCP), the International Graphics Exchange System (IGES), and the Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE) bear brief mention here.
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The FORTRAN-based SHCP is used by Naval Sea Systems Command designers to analyze intact and damaged stability of hull forms defined by input data (offsets). The program can develop hydrostatic functions and stability data for the hull in various conditions of trim and loading. The data can be output in either tabular or graphical format. SHCP was developed to run on mainframe computers, but a modified version runs on certain microcomputers. For ships designed after SHCP became operational (ca. 1977), SHCP data files are maintained by NAVSEA Code 55W. Electronic data files or output hydrostatic and stability files can be provided. SHCP data files may also exist for ships designed before 1977, if extensive weight and moment studies have been conducted since SHCP was placed on line. The U.S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Center, Washington D.C., maintains SHCP data files for over 2,500 commercial hulls. The data files are cataloged by vessel name and builders hull numbernot by official or registry number. Hydrostatic tables or electronic data files can be provided. IGES data files are maintained for newer Navy ships at planning shipyards. The IGES files can be read by computer assisted design (CAD) programs to develop ship drawings. The NAVSEA POSSE program takes hull offsets as its basic inputs to perform salvage calculations. Providing lightship weight distribution and tank definition by offsets enables the program to rapidly calculate the effects of liquid transfers on stability and hull strength, with minimum keyboard input. NAVSEA is pursuing a program of extracting hull and tank offsets, appendage volumes, and lightship weight distribution to be provided to POSSE users in floppy disk format. The program can use SHCP files and has a rapid analysis mode based on the parametric hull characteristic determination method described in Paragraph 1-7. B-2.19 Shipping Registers. Shipping registers, compiled by classification societies, commercial firms, and regulatory agencies, provide limited but useful ship characteristics. The data from shipping registers can be used with the parametric calculation method described in Paragraph 1-7, or with the NAVSEA POSSE program. Figure B-6 shows an excerpt from Lloyds Register of Ships, illustrating the extent of data typically available.
1
Call Sign
2
Former Names
3
TONNAGE Gross Hull Net
4
CLASSIFICATION Special Survey Date of build
5
HULL Shipbuilders-Place of build Yard Number Length overall Breadth Draught (mm) extreme (m) maximum (m) Propulsion
6
SHIP TYPE/CARGO FACILITIES Ship type
7
MACHINERY Bore stroke (mm) Design Where manufactured Shelter Deck No. & Type of Engines Passengers Power Enginebuilders
LR NUMBER SHIPS NAME
Official No.
Owners
Deadwt Machinery
Length B.P.(m)
Breadth Depth Molded Holds & lengths (m)/Cargo tanks & types Molded (m) (m) Decks Grain/Liquid Bale Insulated (m3) spaces (m3) (m3) Keel Containers and lengths (ft) Alterations Hatchways & sizes (m)
Navigational Aids
Managers
*Gross
Superstructures (m)
Heating coils Boilers
Pressures Heating surface Furnaces
Port of Registry Flag
*Net Refrigerated Cargo Installation Deadwt Equipment Letter
Riveted/ Welded Bulkheads
Rise of floor (mm) Water ballast
Aux. electrical generating plant & output Special propellers Cranes/Derricks Fuel bunkers (SWL tonnes) (tonnes) Speed
Conversions Winches
(tonnes)
Fee Numeral
* Two gross and two net tonnages may be recorded for ships designed to carry either ore or oil cargoes
Figure B-6. Lloyds Register of Ships Entry.
B-3 STANDARD VESSEL DESIGNATIONS Ships are grouped into similar types, often designated by letters and/or numbers. There are four standard vessel designation systems in use in the United States:
U.S. Navy. U.S. Coast Guard. U.S. Army. Maritime Administration (MARAD).
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B-3.1 U.S. Navy Ship and Service Craft Designators. U.S. Navy ships and service craft fall into two major categories: combatant and auxiliary/support. Vessel type is indicated by a 2- to 4-letter designator from Table B-1. Ships and large craft are assigned hull numbers that follow the type designator. A letter "T" (T-ATF, T-AO, etc.) before the identifying classification and hull number of a naval vessel indicates that the vessel is assigned to the Military Sealift Command (MSC). A letter "N" after the identifying classification indicates that the vessel is nuclear-powered. The names of commissioned ships are preceded by the letters USS (United States Ship), those of MSC operated vessels by USNS (United States Naval Ship). Boats are assigned individual serial numbers, and may be assigned identifying numbers by operating activities. Boats assigned to ships, including landing craft (LCM) are identified by the parent ships hull type and number followed by unique, sequential number (LKA-116-4, ARS-52-2, etc.).
Table B-1. U.S. Navy Ship and Craft Designations. Combatant Ships miscellaneous command ship (converted LPD) battleship gun cruiser* guided missile cruiser multipurpose aircraft carrier ASW aircraft carrier* destroyer guided missile destroyer destroyer escort* (active DE redesignated FF) guided missile destroyer escort* (active DEG redesignated FFG) destroyer leader* guided missile destroyer leader* (active DLG redesignated CG/DDG) frigate guided missile frigate amphibious assault ship (general-purpose) amphibious assault ship (multipurpose) amphibious assault ship (helicopter) amphibious transport dock amphibious cargo ship amphibious transport* dock landing ship medium landing ship* barrage rocket ship* (converted LSM) tank landing ship amphibious command ship minesweeper (coastal) minesweeper (ocean) mine countermeasures ship patrol combatant* (similar to corvette) patrol combatant, minesweeping* patrol frigate* patrol gunboat* patrol gunboat (hydrofoil) patrol combatant, missile (hydrofoil) submarine chaser* attack submarine guided missile submarine* attack submarine (nuclear) ballistic missile submarine (nuclear) auxiliary submarine* Auxiliary Ships auxiliary crane ship destroyer tender ammunition ship store ship combat store ship miscellaneous deep-submergence support ship hydrofoil support ship frigate research ship missile range instrumentation ship oceanographic research ship ocean surveillance ship patrol craft tender surveying ship auxiliary research submarine hospital ship cargo ship cargo ship, barge carrying cargo ship, vehicle prepositioning ship auxiliary lighter ship net tender* oiler fast combat support ship gasoline tanker replenishment oiler transport oiler transport self-propelled barracks ship repair ship cable-repairing ship repair ship (small) salvage ship submarine tender submarine rescue ship ocean tug salvage tug aviation logistics support ship guided missile research ship auxiliary aircraft landing training ship
AGF BB CA CG CV CVS DD DDG DE DEG DL DLG FF FFG LHA LHD LPH LPD LKA LPA LSD LSM LSMR LST LCC MSC MSO MCM PC PCS PF PG PGH PHM SC SS SSG SSN SSBN SSAG
ACS AD AE AF AFS AG AGDR AGEH AGFF AGM AGOR AGOS AGP AGS AGSS AH AK AKB AKR AKX ALS AN AO AOE AOG AOR AOT AP APB AR ARC ARL ARS AS ASR ATF ATS AVB AVM AVT
* Vessel type not currently active
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Table B-1 (Continued). U.S. Navy Ship and Craft Designations. Combatant Craft amphibious assault landing craft mini-armored troop carrier craft of opportunity (minesweeping) coastal patrol and interdiction craft landing craft, air-cushion landing craft, mechanized landing craft, personnel, large landing craft, tank* landing craft, utility landing craft, vehicle, personnel light seal support craft amphibious warping tug minesweeping boat minesweeping drone minehunter minesweeper, inshore minesweeping launch minesweeper, river (converted LCM-6) minesweeper, patrol medium seal support craft patrol boat river patrol boat patrol craft (fast) patrol, torpedo boat* fast patrol craft swimmer delivery vehicle special warfare craft, light special warfare craft, medium side-loading warping tug Yard and Service Craft large auxiliary floating dry dock, (SP) YG small auxiliary floating dry dock (NSP) YGN medium auxiliary floating dry dock (NSP) YHLC auxiliary repair dry dock (NSP) YMLC medium auxiliary repair dry dock (NSP) YLLC barracks craft (NSP) YM deep-submergence rescue vehicle YN deep-submergence vehicle YNG unclassified miscellaneous YO submersible research vehicle YOG miscellaneous auxiliary (SP) YOGn bowdock YON open lighter (NSP) YOS car float (NSP) YP aircraft transportation lighter (NSP) YPD floating crane (NSP) YR diving tender (NSP) YRB yard freighter YRBM ferry (SP) YRDM yard floating dry dock (NSP) YRR covered lighter (NSP) YRST large covered lighter (NSP) YSD dry dock companion boat (NSP) YSR lighter, special-purpose (NSP) YTB floating power barge (NSP) YTL refrigerated covered lighter (SP) YTM refrigerated covered lighter (NSP) YW covered lighter (range tender) (SP) YWN harbor utility craft (SP)
AALC ATC COOP CPIC LCAC LCM LCPL LCT LCU LCVP LSSC LWT MSB MSD MSH MSI MSL MSM MSR MSSC PB PBR PCF PT PTF SDV SWCL SWCM SLWT
AFDB AFDL AFDM ARD ARDM APL DSRV DSV IX NR YAG YBD YC YCF YCV YD YDT YF YFB YFD YFN YFNB YFND YFNX YFP YFR YFRN YFRT YFU
garbage lighter (SP) garbage lighter (NSP) salvage lift craft, heavy* (NSP) salvage lift craft, medium* salvage lift craft, light* dredge (SP) net tender* (SP) gate craft (NSP) fuel oil barge (SP) gasoline barge (SP) gasoline barge (NSP) fuel oil barge (NSP) oil storage barge (NSP) patrol craft (SP) floating pile driver (NSP) floating workshop (NSP) repair and berthing barge (NSP) repair, berthing, and messing barge (NSP) floating dry dock workshop (machine) (NSP) radiological repair barge (NSP) salvage craft tender (NSP) seaplane wrecking derrick (SP) sludge removal barge (NSP) large harbor tug small harbor tug medium harbor tug water barge (SP) water barge (NSP)
* Vessel type not currently active SP Self-propelled NSP Not self-propelled
B-3.2 U.S. Coast Guard Vessel Designations. All vessels of the U.S. Coast Guard are called cutters, the vessel name is preceded by USCGC. Craft less than 65 feet in length are assigned serial numbers; the first two digits of the serial number indicate the nominal length, in feet. Larger vessels are assigned hull numbers similar to naval ships, preceded by the applicable prefix from Table B-2.
Table B-2. U.S. Coast Guard Vessel Designations. WHEC WMEC WAGB WTGB WSES WPB WIX High-endurance cutter (similar to frigate) Medium-endurance cutter (similar to small frigate or corvette) Icebreaker Icebreaking tug Surface effect craft Patrol craft, large Training cutter (sail bark Eagle) WLB WLM WLI WLR WLIC WYTM WYTL Seagoing buoy tender Coastal buoy tender Inland buoy tender River buoy tender Inland construction tender Medium harbor tug Small harbor tug
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B-3.3 U.S. Army Vessel Designations. Each vessel bears an individual serial number, preceded by the applicable prefix from Table B-3. The names of Army vessels are preceded by USAV (United States Army Vessel). Army craft are described and illustrated in the Army technical manual, TM 55-500, Marine Equipment Characteristics and Data.
Table B-3. U.S. Army Vessel Designations. BC BCDK BCL BD BDL BG BK BPL BR FB FD FMS barge, dry-cargo, nonpropelled, medium (100 through 149 feet) conversion kit, barge deck enclosure barge, dry-cargo, nonpropelled, large (150 feet and over) crane, floating lighter, beach discharge barge, liquid-cargo, nonpropelled barge, dry-cargo, nonpropelled barge, pier, nonpropelled barge, refrigerated, nonpropelled ferry dry dock, floating repair shop, floating, marine craft, nonpropelled FS HLS J LACV LARC LCM LCU LT ST T TCDF Y freight and supply vessel, large (140 feet and over) heavy lift ship boat, utility lighter, air-cushion vehicle lighter, amphibious, resupply, cargo landing craft, mechanized landing craft, utility tug, large, seagoing tug, small, harbor boat, passenger and cargo temporary crane discharge facility vessel, liquid cargo
B-3.4 Maritime Administration (MARAD) Classification System. The MARAD system classifies ships by design type. Three groups of letters and numbers indicate the characteristics of the ship: Group 1 An alpha-numeric group from Table B-4 indicating ship type and length on the load waterline (LWL). Group 2 One, two, or three letter group from Table B-5 indicating type of machinery, number of propellers, and passenger capacity. Group 3 Chronological design number and alteration letter (assigned by MARAD). For example, C4-S-1a denotes a cargo vessel of between 500 and 550 feet with steam propulsion and one propeller, carrying less than 12 passengers. The ship is version a of the first design.
Table B-4. MARAD Classification System (Group 1).

Length at Load Waterline (ft) Ship B Barge C Cargo G Great Lakes cargo H Great Lakes passenger IB Integrated tug-barge J Inland cargo K Inland passenger LG Liquid gas N Coastwise cargo OB Combination oil-bulk/ore P Passenger (100 or more) Q Coastwise passenger R Refrigerated S Special X T Tanker U Ferries V Towing vehicles
1 2
Table B-5. MARAD Classification of Ship Machinery, Propellers, and Passenger Capability (Group 2).
(7) 350 to 400 650 to 700 550 to 600 550 to 600 700 to 800 300 to 350 300 to 350 650 to 700 750 to 800 450 to 500 700 to 800 450 to 500 650 to 700 700 to 800 700 to 800 350 to 400 Remarks (1) (1) (1) (2) (1) (2) (2) (1) (1) (2) (1) (1) (2) (2) (1, 3) (1) (2) Steam Motor Steam and motor Turbo-electric Diesel-electric Gas turbine Gas turbo-electric Nuclear Steam Motor Steam and motor Turbo-electric Diesel-electric Gas turbine Gas turbo-electric Nuclear
1
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
up to 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 200 to 250 250 to 300 300 to 350 up to 400 400 to 450 450 to 500 500 to 550 550 to 600 600 to 650 up to 300 300 to 350 350 to 400 400 to 450 450 to 500 500 to 550 up to 300 300 to 350 350 to 400 400 to 450 450 to 500 500 to 550 up to 200 200 to 300 300 to 400 400 to 500 500 to 600 600 to 700 up to 50 50 to 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 200 to 250 250 to 300 up to 50 50 to 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 200 to 250 250 to 300 up to 450 450 to 500 550 to 600 600 to 650 650 to 700 700 to 750 up to 200 200 to 250 250 to 300 300 to 350 350 to 400 400 to 450 up to 450 450 to 500 500 to 550 550 to 600 600 to 650 650 to 700 up to 200 200 to 250 250 to 300 300 to 350 350 to 400 400 to 450 up to 400 400 to 450 450 to 500 500 to 550 550 to 600 600 to 650 up to 200 200 to 300 300 to 400 400 to 500 500 to 600 600 to 700 up to 450 450 to 500 500 to 550 550 to 600 600 to 650 650 to 700 up to 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 200 to 250 250 to 300 300 to 350 up to 50 50 to 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 200 over
Machinery Type
Propellers Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Twin Twin Twin Twin Twin Twin Twin Twin
Passenger Capability 12 and Over 122 Under1 S M SM SE ME G GE N ST MT SMT SET MET GT GET NT S1 M1 SM1 SE1 ME1 G1 GE1 N1 S2 M2 SM2 SE2 ME2 G2 GE2 N2
L Great Lakes tanker (ore or grain) up to 400 400 to 450 450 to 500 500 to 550 550 to 600 600 to 650
up to 500 500 to 600 600 to 700 700 to 800 800 to 900 900 to 1000 1000 to 1100
Larger vessels are designated by successive numbers in 100-foot increments (C8 for 700 through 799 ft, and so forth. Longer vessels are designated by successive numbers in 50-foot increments (H8 for 600 through 650 ft, and so forth. 3 The special designation X applies to certain Navy ships built by MARAD and other ships so specialized that they dont fit any other designation.
For triple- and quadruple-screw vessels, add TR or Q respectively to single-screw designation. For example, a triple-screw motor ship is MTR. For triple- and quadruple-screw vessels, make digit 3 or 4 respectively. For example, quadruple-screw steam is S4.
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B-4 NAVSEA DRAWING NUMBERING AND FORMAT
Ship structures and machinery are divided into functional groups by the Expanded Ship Work Breakdown Structure (ESWBS) as described in Expanded Ship Work Breakdown Structure (ESWBS) for All Ships and Ship/Combat Systems, Volumes 1 and 2 (NAVSEA S9040-AA-IDX010/SWBS 5D and S9040-AA-IDX-020/SWBS 5D). The ESWBS is a comprehensive framework that is used through the ship life cycle to organize and correlate elements for cost, weight, specifications, system function and effectiveness, design, production, and maintenance studies. Numbering systems for ships drawings and related documents, general and contract specifications, ships weight groups, and the NAVSEA Technical Manual (NSTM) are based on the ESWBS. B-4.1 Ship Work Breakdown Structure (SWBS). SWBS groups are defined by basic function. The functional segments of a ship, as represented by a ships structure, systems, machinery, armament, outfitting, etc., are classified by a system of 3-digit numeric groups. There are ten major groups, the last two of which are utilized primarily for cost estimating and progress reporting. The major functional groups are: 000 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 General Guidance and Administration Hull Structure Propulsion Plant Electric Plant Command and Surveillance Auxiliary Systems Outfit and Furnishings Armament Integration/Engineering Ship Assembly and Support Services
B-4.1.1 Subgroups and Elements. Each major SWBS group (000, 100, 200, 300, etc.) is broken down into subgroups (110, 320, 450, etc.) that are further subdivided into elements (101, 112, 215, etc.). An example of this structure is illustrated below: (Group) (Element) (Subgroup) (Element) (Element) (Subgroup) (Element) (Element) 100 - Hull Structure 101 - General Arrangement-Structural Drawings 110 - Shell and Supporting Structure 111 - Shell Plating, Surface Ship and Submarine Pressure Hull 112 - Shell Plating, Submarine Nonpressure Hull 120 - Hull Structural Bulkheads 121 - Longitudinal Structural Bulkheads 122 - Transverse Structural Bulkheads
Since the SWBS is an hierarchical system, the level of subcategorization is flexible. For example, group 100 (Hull Structure) includes a subgroup 120 (Hull Structural Bulkheads) with elements 121 (Longitudinal Structural Bulkheads) and 122 (Transverse Structural Bulkheads). In the General Specifications for Ships, however, Section 120 covers all structural bulkheads, and there is no Section 121 or 122. Elements X01 through X09 in each group are used only for numbering drawings and specifications sections of a general nature associated with the group. Thus, Booklets of General Plans for ships are in group 801, and ship specification section 503 provides general specifications for pumps for all auxiliary systems. Volume 2 of the ESWBS alphabetically lists Ship Work Breakdown Structure (SWBS) items, the SWBS element title of the items, and the SWBS element number of the items. The first digit of the SWBS element number will correspond to the first digit of the functional group. B-4.2 Drawing Numbering and Cataloging. Ships drawings are identified by titles and drawing numbers. The title is the noun name of the system or component to which the drawing applies, or the common name applied to the data provided, i.e., Curves of Form, Cross Curves of Stability, Molded Lines, etc. Many documents not normally thought of as drawings, such as inclining experiment reports, stability and loading data booklets, offset tables, etc., are numbered and handled as drawings. A complete drawing number consists of the ships type designator and hull number (FFG-7, ARS-52, etc) followed by an index number, followed by a specific drawing number. The drawing index number is the SWBS functional group of the ships component systems to which the drawing applies. Drawing numbers are assigned to specific drawings within an index group. Revisions are indicated by letters (A, B, etc.) appended to the drawing number. Table B-6 (Page B-14) lists the noun names and functional groups of drawings commonly required in salvage. The Ship Drawing Index (SDI), formerly called the Ships Plan Index (SPI), lists the drawings for a particular ship by SWBS group. Each functional group section lists drawings in numeric sequence. The SDI will indicate the most recent drawing revision. The SDI or SPI is maintained in the ships log room or technical library, or the technical libraries of repair or design activities.
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Table B-6. Functional Groups of Commonly Used Drawings.

SWBS Group, Subgroup, or Element 100 114 583, 584 801 100 120 121 122 123 124 125 573 673 801 801 562 803 320 324 331 801 101 130 131 132-134 135 140 141-145 149 611 097 430 101 202, 252 582 SWBS Group, Subgroup, or Element
Noun Name
Noun Name
Access Plates Bilge Keels Boat stowage and handling Bonjeans Curves Bow Doors Bulkheads, Structural Longitudinal Transverse Trunks Blkhds in torpedo protection systems Submarine hard tanks Cargo Handling systems Cargo stowage Cross curves of stability Curves of Form Diving Planes Docking Plan Electrical power distribution Switchboards and panels Lighting systems, general General arrangement drawings General arrangement structural drawings Hull Decks Main deck Second through fourth decks Fifth deck and below Hull Platforms First through fourth platforms Flats Hull Fittings Inclining Experiment or Trim Dive Interior communications systems Lines Plan Machinery control systems Mooring and towing systems
Nonstructural bulkheads Piping and Liquid Systems Drainage and ballast, surface ships Drainage and ballast, submarines Firemain Seawater service Fuel Gasoline/JP-5 Overflows, air escapes, sounding arrangements Freshwater service Plumbing and deck drains Compressed air and gas Steam Condensate and feedwater Prop machinery cooling water Special piping Propeller and Hydrofoil Guards Propellers Protective Plating Rudders Sea Chests Shaft Struts Shafts, Propulsion Shell and supporting structure Shell plating, surface ship/submarine pressure hull Shell plating, submarine nonpressure hull Inner bottom Shell appendages Stanchions Framing for shell and inner bottom Sonar Domes Stabilizing Fins (Surface Ships) Transducers, Hull Mounted Weight control for surface ships
621 529 563 555 521 541 542 506 532 528 551, 552 253 255 256 558 600 245 164 500 114 100 200 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 100 560 400 096
B-4.3 Drawing Format. In addition to the engineering data provided by drawings, there are standard blocks and elements common to all drawings that provide information important to identifying and using the drawings. The following paragraphs review the general information found on all drawings, but are not intended to teach drawing reading and interpretation. Detailed instruction on reading and interpreting drawings may be found in NAVSUP 0502-LP-050-3875, Blueprint Reading and Sketching. B-4.3.1 Title Block. The title block is located in the lower right hand corner of the drawing and contains all the information necessary to identify the drawing. The block designations listed below are keyed to the callouts on Figure B-7.
A D B
E F
SIZE FSCM J SCALE G
DWG NO. K
C SHEET L
REV
Figure B-7. Standard NAVSEA Drawing Title Block.
Block A. Name and address of the company or design activity for whom the drawing is prepared. Block B. Drawing title. The noun name of the component or system represented by the drawing. Block C. Drawing number. This block may be subdivided to separate the drawing index number from the specific drawing number and includes a revision square at the right. The number shown on the drawing may omit the ship type designation and hull number.
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Block D. This block provides information relative to the preparation of the drawing and includes such information as names of the draftsman, checker, and approving authority and the issue date and contract number. This block is optional for continuation sheets. Block E. This block records approval by the design activity where different from the preparing activity. Block F. This block displays any additional approval required. Blocks E and F may be absorbed into Block D if not required.
Table B-7. Standard Drawing Sheet Sizes.
Flat Sizes
Roll Sizes Length (horizontal) in. Minimum 22.5 44 55 55 Maximum 90 143 176 143
Size
Width (vertical) in.
Length (horizontal) in.
Size
Width (vertical) in.
A (Horiz) A (Vert) B C D E F
8.5 11 11 17 22 34 28
11 8.5 17 22 34 44 40
G H J K
11 28 34 40
Block G. Predominant scale of the drawing. Block H. Federal Supply Code for Manufacturers. This is a code identification of the design activity whose drawing number is assigned. NAVSEA drawings will have the number 53711 in this block. Block J. Drawing size letter designation. Drawing sizes range from A, the smallest, to K, the largest. The letter designations identify drawing dimensions as shown in Table B-7. Block K. Actual or estimated weight of the system or component described. Block L. Sheet number for multiple sheet drawings.
B-4.3.2 Revision Block. The revision block, located in the upper right corner of the drawing, is used to record revisions made after the drawing is issued. In this block, all revisions are described, dated, and identified by a letter. This letter is also added to the zone (Paragraph B-4.3.6) of the drawing affected by the change and to any note generated by the change. B-4.3.3 Reference Block. The reference block, located to the left of the title block, lists numbers for drawings of systems or components that are closely associated with the subject of the drawing, such as adjacent structures or supporting systems. B-4.3.4 List of Materials Block. The list of materials block, located above the title block, provides a list of parts and materials for the item in the drawing. The list of materials identifies the quantity needed, the specification, and the stock or manufacturers part number. B-4.3.5 General Notes. General notes provide written information that cannot be shown graphically on the drawing. This information usually explains painting, heat treating, welding, or any general data the designer wants to convey. General notes are listed in numerical sequence near the top of the drawing and to the left of the list of materials. Notes are called out on the drawing where they apply. A circled letter by the note number indicates that the note was generated by a revision. B-4.3.6 Zone Identification. Drawings are divided into zones similar to road map zones by numbers and letters on the borders.
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B-4.4 Obtaining and Using Ships Drawings. Navy ships carry an abridged drawing set, called the selected record drawings, consisting of the drawings used most often by ships force. On newer ships, the bulk of the selected record drawings are provided on aperture cards (microfilm). Before depending on use of a ships selected record drawings the salvage engineer should ensure that he has access to a working aperture card readerprinter. Lens for ordinary microfiche readers can not view an entire aperture card film. Drawings for Navy ships and craft can also be obtained from the following activities:
Planning Yards. NAVSEA Code 03H3 (Hydrodynamics Division), Code 03P2 (Structural Integrity Division). Supervisors of Shipbuilding Conversion and Repair (SUPSHIP). Planning and Engineering for Repair and Alterations Activities (PERA). Shore Intermediate Maintenance Activities (SIMA). Tenders (AD, AR, AS). Parent Squadron. Military Sealift Command Headquarters, Code N721, Naval Architect Branch, (for MSC ships). NAVSEA Supervisor of Salvage (00C).
Table B-8 gives planning yard assignments for Navy ships and craft. Planning yards maintain complete drawing files for assigned ships in addition to the SDI. Other repair activities generally maintain more limited drawing sets, commensurate with the activities maintenance capabilities and responsibilities, and the visit frequency of the ship type. For example, a shipyard in the ships homeport will usually maintain a nearly complete set of drawings, because of her ability to perform weight and moment studies and plan major alterations in addition to routine repair work. The technical library of an intermediate maintenance activity (IMA), on the other hand, would concentrate on technical manuals and system drawings for assigned ships. An IMA would have little use for Bonjeans Curves, Curves of Form, cross curves of stability, and similar documents, and probably would not maintain them for assigned ships.
Table B-8. U.S. Navy Planning Yard Assignments.

Ships Class AD 14 AD 24 AD 26 AD 37 AD 41 AE 21 AE 21 AE 23 AE 26 AFS 1 AG 153 AGM 9 AGOR 8 AGSS 469 AH (all) AGS 25 AGS 21 AGDS 2 AGF 3 2 3 37-38 41-44 21 22 23,25 24 26-35 1-7 Hull Numbers 14-19 Planning Yard CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN PUGET CHASN PUGET PUGET PUGET NORVA NORVA PHILA PHILA NORVA PTSMH PHILA MARE S-BOST Class AGF 11 AO 51 AK 237 AK 251 AK 279 AK 282 AO 105 AO 177 AOR 1 AGS 26 AGS 29 AGS 33 AGSS 555 AOE 1 AOG 1 AOG 76 AOG 81 APL 41 APL 53 APL 2 1-4 1 Hull Numbers 11 51-99 Planning Yard S-BOST S-BOST CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN S-BOST PUGET PUGET PHILA PHILA PHILA MARE PUGET PEARL PEARL PEARL PUGET PUGET PUGET Class APL 17 AR 5 ARS 6 ARS 38 ARS 50 ARVE 3 AS 11 AS 19 AS 31 AS 33 AS 36 AS 39 ASR 9 ASR 21 ATS 1 ATF 66 ATF 81 AVM 1 AVT 16 BB 61 61-64 11-18 19 31,32 33,34 36,37 39-41 7-15 21,22 1-3 38-43 50-53 5-8 Hull Numbers Planning Yard PUGET CHASN PEARL PEARL PEARL NORVA CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN PEARL CHASN PEARL PEARL PEARL LBECH NORVA LBECH CV 19 CVS (all) CV 63 63,64 66,67 CV 59 Class CA (all) CG 10 CG 16 CG 26 CG 47 CGN 9 CGN 25 CGN 35 ATF 96 T-ATF 166 CGN 36 CGN 38 CV 41 36,37 38-40 41 43 59,60,62 61 16-24 26-34 47-55 9 25 35 Hull Numbers Planning Yard PHILA S-BOST PUGET PUGET S-PASC NORVA NORVA PUGET PEARL PEARL NORVA NORVA PUGET NORVA NORVA PUGET PUGET PUGET PUGET NORVA
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Table B-8 (Continued). U.S. Navy Planning Yard Assignments.

Ships (continued) Class CVN 65 CVN 68 DD 963 DD 710 DD 825 DD 931 DD 933 DD 945 DD 948 DDG 2 DDG 31 DDG 37 DDG 51 DDG 993 FF 1037 FF 1040 FF 1052 1037, 1038 1051 1097 37-46 2-24 931 Hull Numbers 65 68,70 69 963-992,997 Planning Yard PUGET PUGET NORVA S-PASC S-BOST S-BOST S-BOST S-BOST S-BOST S-BOST PHILA PEARL CHASN NORVA S-PASC LBECH LBECH PEARL Class FF 1098 FFG 1 FFG 7 LCC 19 LCC 20 LHA 1 LHD 1 LPD 1 LPD 4 LPH 2 LSD 28 LSD 16 LST 491 LST 542 LST 1156 LST 1173 LST 1179 LSM 1 1156-1170 1177-1178 1179-1198 4-15 2-12 28-35 16-27 Hull Numbers 1098 1-6 1-54 19, 20 19 1-5 1-6 S-BOST S-BOST PHILA S-BOST NORVA NORVA NORVA NORVA NORVA S-BOST NORVA Planning Yard LBECH LBECH LBECH PHILA PHILA LBECH Class MCM 1 MSO (all) MSB (all) MSC (all) MSF (all) MSI (all) PCS 1376 PG 84 PGH (all) PHM 1 PTF (all) PT (all) SC 1023 SS 576 SS 580 SSBN 616 SSBN 627 SSBN 640 576 580-582 616-626 627-636 640-659 1-6 Hull Numbers 1-7 Planning Yard CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN LBECH PUGET S-SEATTLE LBECH NORVA MARE PEARL PEARL S-GROT S-GROT S-GROT SSN 671 SSN 685 SSN 688 SSN 637 Class SSBN 726 SSN 575 SSN 578 SSN 579 SSN 583 SSN 585 SSN 593 SSN 586 SSN 587 SSN 608 Hull Numbers 726-733 575 578-584 578 578 585 588,590 593-596, 603-607,612,621 586 587 608-611 637-670,672-682, 684,686,687 683 671 685 688-725 Planning Yard S-GROT MARE PEARL PEARL PEARL S-GROT MARE PTSMH PTSMH CHASN CHASN S-GROT PTSMH PTSMH MARE S-GROT S-GROT S-NEWS
Yard, Service, and Special Purpose Craft Type AFDB AFDL AFDM ARD ARDM ARL DSRV DSV IX 501 NR 1 YAG YC (ACTIVE) Planning Yard NORVA NORVA NORVA NORVA NORVA NORVA MARE MARE MARE S-GROT LBECH CHASN Type YL (INACTIVE) YCF YCV YDT YF YFB YFD YFN YFNB YFND YFNX YFRD Planning Yard PUGET CHASN CHASN S-BOST PUGET S-BOST NORVA CHASN CHASN CHASN CHASN PUGET Type YFRT YGN YNG YO YOG YOGN YON YOS YP YPD YR YRB Planning Yard PUGET LBECH CHASN LBECH LBECH LBECH LBECH S-BOST NORVA NORVA CHASN S-BOST Type YRBM YRDH YRDM YRR YRST YSD YSR YTB YTL YTM YW YWN Planning Yard S-BOST CHASN CHASN CHASN S-BOST CHASN S-BOST S-BOST S-BOST S-BOST LBECH LBECH
U.S. Navy Planning Yard Key S-BOST CHASN S-GROT LBECH MARE S-NEWS NORVA U.S. Navy Supervisor of Shipbuilding, Conversion, and Repair, Boston, MA Charleston Naval Shipyard U.S. Navy Supervisor of Shipbuilding, Conversion, and Repair, Groton, CT Long Beach Naval Shipyard Mare Island Naval Shipyard U.S. Navy Supervisor of Shipbuilding, Conversion, and Repair, Newport News, VA Norfolk Naval Shipyard S-PASC PEARL PHILA PTSMH PUGET S-SEATTLE U.S. Navy Supervisor of Shipbuilding, Conversion, and Repair, Pascagoula, MI Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard Philadelphia Naval Shipyard Portsmouth Naval Shipyard Puget Sound Naval Shipyard U.S. Navy Supervisor of Shipbuilding, Conversion, and Repair, Seattle, WA
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B-4.4.1 Numbering System for Older Drawings. Prior to the establishment of the current SWBS groups, a similar system of one-digit and three-digit groups was used. Like the SWBS, the first digit of each threedigit group indicates the one-digit group to which it belongs. The one-digit groups 1-9 correspond to SWBS functional groups 100 through 900, but the 3 digit group assignments do not match SWBS elements, and there is no equivalent to the SWBS subgroups. The following general guidelines were used in assigning three-digit groups:
Table B-9. Old SWBS Groups.

Group 1 - Hull Structure 100 Shell Plating and Planking 101 Longitudinal and Transverse Framing 102 Inner Bottom 103 Platforms and Flats Below Lowermost Continuous Deck 104 Fourth and Lower Continuous Decks 105 Third Deck 106 Second Deck Group 5 Auxiliary Systems 504 Gasoline, HEAF, Liquid Cargo Piping, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Aviation Lubricating Oil Systems Firemain, Flushing, Sprinkler, Washdown, and Saltwater Service Systems
505 Plumbing Installations 506
507 Fire Extinguishing Systems 508 Drainage, Ballast, Trimming, Heeling, and Stabilizer Tank System 509 Fresh Water System 510 Scuppers and Deck Drains 511 Fuel and Diesel Oil Filling, Venting, Stowage, and Transfer Systems
Within one-digit groups 1 through 7, three digit group assignments are as follows:
X45 General Arrangement ______________ Drawings , where the title of the one-digit group appears in the blank. X00 through X49 weight groups, cost estimating, progress reporting, and drawing numbers. X50 through X74 weight groups only. X70 through X99 cost estimating, progress reporting, and drawing numbers.
107 Main Deck or Hanger Deck 108 Forecastle and Poop Decks 109 Gallery Deck Flight Deck, Landing Platforms, and Special 110 Purpose Decks above Weather Deck 111 Superstructure 114 Structural Bulkheads 115 Trunks and Enclosures 116 Structural Sponsons 120 Sea Chests 121 Ballast and Buoyancy Units, Fixed or Fluid 127 Sonar Dome 145 General Arrangement - Structural Drawings Group 2 Propulsion 203 Shafting, Bearings, and Propellers 207 Main Steam System 208 Feedwater and Condensate System 209 Circulating and Cooling Water Systems 210 Fuel Oil Service System 211 Lubricating Oil System 213 Reactors 214 Reactor Coolant System 215 Reactor Coolant Service Systems 216 Reactor Plant Auxiliary Systems 217 Nuclear Power Control and Instrumentation 218 Radiation Shielding (Primary) 219 Radiation Shielding (Secondary) 245 General Arrangement - Propulsion Drawings Group 3 Electric Plant 300 Electric Power Generation 301 Power Distribution Switchboards 302 Power Distribution System (Cable) 303 Lighting System (Distribution and Fixtures) 345 General Arrangement - Electrical Drawings Group 4 Communication and Control 401 Interior Communication Systems and Equipment 412 Sonar Systems 445 General Arrangement - Communication and Control Drawings
513 Compressed Air System 514 Auxiliary Steam, Exhaust Steam, and Steam Drains 515 Buoyancy Control System (Flooding and Venting for Submarines) Mooring, Towing, Anchor and Aircraft Handling Systems and Deck Machinery Elevators, Moving Stairways, Stores Strikedown, and Stores Handling Equipment
516 Miscellaneous Piping Systems 520 521
526 Hydrofoils 527 Diving Planes and Stabilizing Fins 528 Replenishment at Sea and Cargo Handling 545 General Arrangement - Auxiliary Systems Drawings Group 6 Outfit and Furnishing 600 Hull Fittings 601 Boats, Boat Stowage, and Handling 603 Ladders and Gratings 604 Nonstructural Bulkheads and Nonstructural Doors 645 General Arrangement - Outfit and Furnishings Drawings Group 7 Armament 701 Ammunition Handling Systems 702 Ammunition Stowage 703 Special Weapons, Handling and Stowage 706 Rocket, Missile, and Components Handling Systems 707 Rocket, Missile, and Components Stowage 708 Torpedo Tubes 709 Torpedo Handling and Stowage 710 Mine Handling Systems and Stowage 711 Small Arms and Pyrotechnic Stowage 712 Air Launched Weapons Handling Systems 713 Air Launched Weapons Stowage 720 Cargo Munition Stowage 745 General Arrangement - Armament Drawings Group 8 Design and Engineering Services 800 Contract Drawings 802 Technical Manuals 803 Engineering Calculations 804 Weighing 805 Hull Standard and Type Drawings 806 Lofting 810 Mechanical Standard and Type Drawings 815 Electrical Standard and Type Drawings 820 Special Drawings for Nuclear System Valves Group 9 Construction Services 901 Launching 906 Molds and Templates, Jigs, Fixtures, and Special Tools 908 Drydocking
Groups 8 and 9 were used for cost estimating and progress reporting, never weights. Group 126 was entitled Compartment Testing and used only for cost and progress reporting, not weights.
Older drawings may be numbered by this system, rather than the current SWBS. A partial listing of the old three digit groups is given in Table B-9. B-4.4.2 Type Designator/Hull Number Changes. Type designator and hull number are sometimes changed during the ships life or planning, so the designator/hull number for a drawing may not correspond the ship type and number. For example, many FFG-7 class drawings are cataloged as PF-109 drawings because that was the designator originally assigned. Similarly, drawings for most FF1052 class ships are cataloged as DE-10XX. B-4.4.3 Scaling Dimensions from Drawings. Paper stretches and shrinks as is gains and loses moisture from and to the atmosphere. Significant changes can occur in days or hours when the humidity changes. The scale indicated in the title block should be considered approximate unless verified at the time dimensions are taken. Dimensions should normally be scaled from a scale bar on the drawing, or based on an object of known length on the drawing. The distance between one or several frames can be used as a handy scale on drawings showing frame locations.
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B-5 VESSEL CHARACTERISTICS TABLES The following tables provide class specific data for Navy and Military Sealift Command (MSC) vessels. Tables B-10, 11, and 12 give detailed hydrostatic, weight distribution, and hull structural data for 22 Navy ship classes. Tables B-13, 14 and 15 give more limited data for the remaining Navy and MSC classes. Tables B-16 through B-20 give lateral and frontal wind areas for Navy and MSC ships and craft. Characteristics for typical commercial vessels are given in Paragraph B-6.
Table B-10. General Characteristics and Full Load Hydrostatic Data for Selected Navy Hulls.
Class Name Stern Type No. Screws SVC SPD, kts LBP, ft LOA, ft B, ft D, ft Tm, ft FL, lton DWT, lton trim5, ft CWP CM CP CB LCB, ft LCG, ft LCF, ft MT1, lton/in KG, ft KM, ft FS, ft GMcorr, ft BMT, ft Class Name Stern Type No. Screws SVC SPD, kts LBP, ft LOA, ft B, ft D, ft Tm, ft FL, lton DWT, lton trim5, ft CWP CM CP Cb LCB, ft LCG, ft LCF, ft MT1, lton/in KG, ft KM, ft FS, ft GMcorr, ft BMT, ft AD 37 Gompers Transom 1 20 620 644 85 67.5 22 19627 6651 +6.03 0.7532 0.9553 0.6124 0.5925 312.93 324.71 332.30 3178 32.46 40.53 0.73 7.34 28.38 CGN 38 Virginia Cruiser 2 30+ 560 585 63 41.95 21.5 11135 968 -1.5 0.7631 0.8090 0.6377 0.5138 289.5 285.9 319.3 2146 23.58 30.06 0.34 6.14 17.4 AE 21 Suribachi Cruiser 1 20 487 512 72 74.5 26.6 15682 5770 +8.33 0.7076 0.9652 0.6078 0.5885 244.4 253.7 252.4 1411 24.91 30.24 2.6 2.73 15.43 DD 963N6 Spruance Transom 2 33 529 563.3 55 42.0 20.6 8475 2070 -1.94 0.7453 0.8297 0.5925 0.4949 272.4 270.1 307.3 1582 23.03 26.41 3.41 12.81 AE 26 Kilauea Transom 1 20 540 564 81 47.75 27.7 20130 9890 -0.69 0.7578 0.9414 0.6157 0.5814 270.2 269.2 296.2 2378 29.62 35.91 2.33 3.96 20.41 DD 963V7 Spruance Transom 2 33 529 563.3 55 42.0 21.27 8895 2376 +1.13 0.7497 0.8349 0.6017 0.5031 276.0 273.5 307.2 1601 22.97 26.27 3.3 13.65 AFS 1 Mars Transom 1 20 530 581.25 79 45.83 25.62 17382 7530 +2.54 0.7214 0.9223 0.6106 0.5671 267.2 270.6 281.8 1944 28.45 34.78 1.83 4.5 20.48 DD 993 Kidd Transom 2 33 529 563 55 42 22.7 9786 2488 -1.2 0.7571 0.8453 0.6132 0.5188 278.8 276.4 306.7 1630 23.27 26.12 2.85 12.6 AO 1771 Cimarron Transom 1 20 658 700 88 48 33.06 36798 25313 +2.21 0.7778 0.9792 0.6842 0.6728 334.97 350.43 337.83 3969 28.04 36.33 2.03 6.26 18.77 FF 1052 Knox Transom 1 27 415 438 46.4 29.4 15.61 4254 1122 +0.07 0.7417 0.8143 0.6012 0.4953 208.0 208.1 234.6 819 17.23 22.12 0.43 4.46 13.08 AOE 1 Sacramento Transom 2 26 770 793 107 56 37.3 49934 31068 -2.05 0.724 0.9874 0.5749 0.5687 390.6 387.7 426.8 5815 32.19 45.44 0.94 12.34 24.83 FFG 7 Perry Transom 1 29 408 453 46.96 30 15.87 4017 929 +1.40 0.7193 0.7350 0.6129 0.4633 208.10 211.56 227.68 786 18.82 22.56 0.42 3.32 12.75 5. 6. 7. 8. AOR 1 Wichita Transom 2 20 640 659 96 56 34.78 39387 26082 -0.08 0.7738 0.9806 0.6560 0.6451 322.5 322.4 348.2 4069 28.49 40.56 0.19 11.88 21.79 CG 16 Leahy Cruiser 2 32.7 510 533 55 38.15 20.62 8536 2369 +0.41 0.7296 0.8284 0.6203 0.5165 267.6 267.6 289.7 1382 20.2 25.2 0.68 4.32 12.91 CG 262 Belknap Cruiser 2 32.5 524 546.5 54.83 38.1 20.75 8960 2384 -1.11 0.7415 0.8316 0.6304 0.5260 272.06 269.84 296.54 1494 20.3 25.06 0.51 4.25 12.97 LPH 2 Iwa Jima Cruiser 1 23 556 597.67 84.25 47.17 27.25 18940 5883 +2.75 0.6682 0.9118 0.5636 0.5193 288.3 288.2 304.0 2082 29.32 35.78 0.68 5.78 20.44 CG 272 Belknap Cruiser 2 32.5 524 546.5 54.83 38.1 19.5 8268 2384 +0.29 0.7356 0.8236 0.6239 0.5173 270.10 270.62 297.15 1470 20.17 25.31 0.55 4.59 13.82 LSD 41 Whidbey Is Transom 2 20+ 580 609.6 84 44.5 19.6 15989 4948 -0.35 0.7825 0.9410 0.6156 0.5861 295.4 294.8 328.3 3132 32.09 43.5 0.10 11.31 32.59 CG 473 Ticonderoga Transom 2 33 529 567 55 42 23 9962 2625 -0.97 0.7575 0.8465 0.6144 0.5211 279.31 277.39 306.59 1635 23.35 26.53 0.51 2.67 12.46 LST 1179 Newport Transom 2 20 500 522.25 68.13 37 16.17 8765 3596 -0.17 0.7094 0.8818 0.5468 0.5571 265.0 264.6 282.8 1550 23.22 33.69 3.18 7.29 22.48 CG 554 Ticonderoga Transom 2 33 529 567 55 42 22.4 9636 2716 -1.08 0.7551 0.8429 0.6105 0.5173 278.37 276.18 286.86 1625 23.22 26.14 0.06 2.86 12.81 PHM 18 Pegasus Transom 0 12 118.11 146.65 27.56 7.55 6.72 245 73 -2.49 0.6687 0.5682 0.6808 0.3925 68.64 63.88 69.65 41 10.591 16.38 0.394 5.394 11.526 CGN 36 California Cruiser 2 30+ 570 596 61.1 40.9 21.68 11637 1064 -0.07 0.7534 0.8137 0.6315 0.5394 292.5 292.3 322.1 2077 23.8 28.66 0.09 4.77 15.23 T-AOT 168 Sealift Transom 1 16 560.3 587 84 45.5 34.7 34037 27437 *14.45 0.8215 0.9920 0.7325 0.7292 271.0 286.9 282.9 3131 25.45 34.58 1.51 7.63 16.42
LKA 113 Charleston Transom 1 20 550 578.5 82 47.83 25.675 18698 8563 -0.09 0.7137 0.9419 0.5988 0.5651 279.4 279.3 293.8 2063 30.11 36.57 2.34 4.12 22.29
Notes: 1. Jumboized 2. CG 26 hydrostatic data differs from rest of class (CG 27-34) because of extensive modifications 3. Without VLS 4. With VLS and class modifications, including conversion of voids G-58-1&2 to fuel tanks
+ by the stern, - by the bow Without VLS With VLS Hull Borne
B-19
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table B-11. Weight Distribution for Selected Navy Hulls.

Weight Segment, STN - STN FWD - 0 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9 - 10 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 13 - 14 14 - 15 15 - 16 16 - 17 17 - 18 18 - 19 19 - 20 20 - AFT SUM Station spacing, ft FP-FWD, ft AP-AFT, ft Weight Segment, STN - STN FWD - 0 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9 - 10 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 13 - 14 14 - 15 15 - 16 16 - 17 17 - 18 18 - 19 19 - 20 20 - AFT SUM Station spacing, ft FP-FWD, ft AP-AFT, ft Weight per segment, lton AD 37 11.06 115.86 396.75 460.64 586.54 743.43 1148.32 1212.21 1090.10 1432.99 1837.88 1653.77 1283.66 1952.05 1147.95 1087.84 1112.98 928.87 729.26 335.90 330.04 28.85 19626.95 31.0 16.0 7.83 CG 523 297.51 182.90 213.48 340.48 523.45 421.58 598.13 583.96 620.55 712.62 631.57 665.08 594.65 439.13 542.15 513.24 573.08 442.93 413.35 272.71 9582.51 26.45 AE 26 71.93 253.87 349.77 343.78 703.42 1320.80 1065.56 1395.23 1416.70 1512.61 1614.50 1560.94 1806.69 1752.75 1033.47 913.59 949.55 721.78 859.64 251.75 221.78 5.99 20126.08 27.0 14.0 10.0 DD 963V4 292.63 150.77 177.06 296.62 495.39 356.95 554.18 689.09 603.53 697.34 581.52 706.47 619.19 440.53 443.78 421.31 388.40 313.36 364.79 302.46 8895.37 26.45 AFS 1 58.85 184.52 394.75 587.41 784.07 794.64 751.36 898.75 1250.80 1471.59 1088.84 1484.16 1187.96 1248.80 1319.21 1097.41 907.32 486.86 426.02 316.91 366.18 275.73 17382.14 26.5 17.5 33.75 DD 963N5 0.00 313.95 155.11 200.28 211.84 373.80 371.98 566.12 697.38 609.35 728.05 580.02 712.60 571.36 445.46 367.78 296.79 360.19 293.75 342.27 276.95 0.00 8475.00 26.45 AO 177 55.14 118.23 243.24 385.75 1620.26 1762.89 2914.82 3284.01 2057.80 2587.77 2646.56 1712.00 3477.00 3589.82 2763.22 2581.24 1509.05 1152.36 905.23 825.75 439.16 207.18 36798.48 32.9 12.42 DDG 993 0.00 341.12 176.87 215.29 259.47 468.52 386.21 577.06 753.01 651.18 693.78 689.04 875.02 643.72 487.83 551.32 495.89 481.80 414.81 366.42 258.06 0.00 9786.42 26.45 AOE 1 128.57 788.88 1337.57 2556.15 1988.31 2229.96 3643.93 4527.54 3457.30 4424.67 4498.82 4768.38 3698.12 1706.76 1669.26 2217.95 2822.45 1919.67 1212.29 337.43 49934.01 AOR 1 278.51 343.66 969.81 1576.02 2563.18 1581.23 2953.52 3618.62 2295.89 3931.06 3091.22 1641.39 4196.56 3442.77 1505.78 1343.06 1159.15 1411.25 854.43 629.76 39386.87 CG 16 6.56 121.06 113.17 199.75 190.04 333.65 515.85 524.96 544.62 666.58 727.27 773.99 577.41 615.60 641.83 481.82 395.43 399.17 298.60 266.47 142.16 0.00 8535.99 CG 262 17.61 192.39 183.17 210.37 189.50 197.25 633.01 613.81 649.37 626.07 767.87 778.88 680.03 736.49 610.94 332.46 298.56 395.93 383.70 304.72 142.34 15.54 8960.01 26.2 19.0 4.01 LPH 2 19.61 456.07 505.59 723.47 782.90 732.90 742.80 990.40 1158.77 1355.56 1218.20 1218.20 1445.99 1485.61 1366.75 1049.83 920.69 920.69 668.14 569.10 534.43 74.28 18940 27.8 15.64 20.56 CG 272 23.88 207.87 190.53 225.03 207.26 190.31 520.41 544.74 589.45 567.88 647.17 723.22 527.21 676.50 514.47 341.71 327.64 402.49 385.47 290.94 120.21 43.16 8267.55 26.2 19.0 4.01 LSD 41 91.74 256.86 293.56 348.60 550.42 688.03 1247.67 862.32 889.85 1178.81 1357.70 1440.26 1178.81 1201.75 798.11 697.20 807.28 550.42 495.38 403.64 651.33 15989.00 29.0 29.6 CGN 36 18 263 355 178 255 286 402 468 1365 244 933 1025 1673 892 688 368 419 489 290 280 236 10 11637 28.5 21.0 5.0 LST 11796 85.25 133.79 166.59 234.50 362.16 297.84 338.48 502.29 605.85 593.86 697.19 592.61 678.79 553.59 597.92 626.26 403.85 360.35 263.98 212.05 310.35 147.31 8764.86 25.0 28.9 25.0 CGN 38 11.8 125.0 365.7 280.0 209.6 477.7 193.9 410.1 1450.0 815.0 860.2 1020.8 1515.5 930.3 484.1 298.5 424.3 423.6 210.0 352.8 275.7 11134.6 28.0 20.0 PHM 1 0.99 7.35 8.43 7.38 8.71 6.85 10.16 11.50 11.96 17.87 19.28 15.86 13.70 13.01 13.62 7.94 16.78 19.78 12.91 12.36 7.43 1.58 245.46 5.9 17.72 CG 473 338.77 182.02 218.91 315.38 500.44 445.13 606.41 625.07 642.69 804.53 637.16 691.38 655.98 527.17 603.13 558.53 539.72 386.33 408.53 275.64 9962.92 26.45 T-AOT 168 5.17 173.40 1056.73 1647.47 2495.67 1695.06 1540.06 1913.63 1567.79 1646.83 1907.05 3235.46 1822.03 1666.57 1804.86 3154.63 1869.60 1262.69 1298.60 1384.30 658.96 230.29 34036.85 28.02 CG 493 315.47 189.53 210.55 286.07 473.57 434.97 574.72 615.29 626.96 769.06 651.69 679.04 646.17 475.75 597.66 538.67 517.79 396.63 406.67 271.94 9678.20 26.45
38.0 32.0 25.5 16.0 7.0 Weight per segment, lton FF 1052 10.25 120.81 227.12 145.32 114.63 110.53 281.63 277.84 361.94 198.94 270.45 283.75 268.35 218.46 287.16 209.86 239.97 171.87 162.17 144.98 147.98 4254.01 20.76 17.5 FFG 7 19.4 41.6 84.2 108.3 201.6 217.6 266.3 273.2 190.6 189.9 268.2 273.2 246.0 220.2 302.2 250.6 184.6 207.6 101.8 162.3 120.2 25.4 3955.0 20.4 30 12.5 LKA 113 10.61 56.62 304.31 574.47 756.93 1182.41 1163.70 1398.92 1240.01 1241.33 1070.65 1181.16 1248.08 1429.37 1565.81 1328.91 927.11 953.40 495.75 366.73 197.57 1.50 18695.35 27.5 16 7.5
Notes: 1. LCG of each segment assumed to lie at midlength. 2. CG 26 weight distribution differs from rest of Class (CG 27-34) because of extensive modifications during repair of major collision/fire damage. 3. CG 47-51 without VLS (MK 26 Launchers installed), CG 49-51 distribution reflects structural modifications, CG 52-54 distribution with VLS; CG 55 voids G-58-1 and 2 converted to fuel tanks and other class modifications increase segment 2-3 to 243.13 lton, Segment 3-4 to 360.83 lton, and total weight to 9632.51 lton. 4. With VLS. 5. Without VLS. 6. Weight FWD of FP can be broken into 2 segments: 0-A (25 ft), 59.68 lton and A-B (12.5 ft), 6.94 lton.
B-20
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table B-12. Section Structural Properties for Selected Navy Hulls.

AE 261 INA in -ft
2 2
AD 37 STN Area in 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
2
AFS 1 Area
2
AO 177 (PRE-JUMBO) INA Area

2
AO 177 (JUMBO) Area INA in -ft

2 2
AOE 1 Area in
2
AOR 1 INA Area

2
CG 26 INA Area in
2
CG 47/ DD 963/DDG 993 INA Area

2
Area in
2
INA in -ft
2
INA in -ft
2 2
INA in2-ft2 289294 253896 237662 268673 390860 437978 469049 507174 530546 565247 470365 351737 273155 166202 104119
in
in -ft
in
in
in -ft
in
in -ft
in -ft
in
2935 3105 3990 4372 4792 4583 4686 4468 4553 4356 4433 3803 4109 3645 3396
1503730 1744129 2227674 2653976 2729846 2875386 2749630 2642772 2682599 2535051 2545400 2210973 2237001 1853473 1563959 1739 2670 3129 2661
501144 1244685
1848 2350 2692 2964 3036 3039 3185
532126 743426 886968 997226 1031260 1041100 1079167 1087303 1095581 1132636 983148 910917 832672 616104 509985
461799 704020 954888 1138948 1307798 1340100 1386367 1371551 1393672 1318525 1228323 1144270 1033741 753915 636728 Distance (ft) from Neutral Axis to: Deck 23.60 22.76 22.51 23.07 24.47 24.60 24.43 24.68 24.35 24.44 23.57 23.74 26.28 25.14 21.46 Keel 25.40 26.24 26.49 25.93 24.53 24.40 24.67 24.32 24.65 24.56 25.43 25.26 27.72 23.86 27.54
2692 3900 3033 7601 8477 9147 10244 10235 9956 8340 6945 6820 6842 5057 4668
1793278 2307022 3088902 4548346 3154622 5655330 5924020 6094704 5931128 5370772 4640580 4101110 3426348 2280510 1610132
1250 1312 1518 1834 1820 1785 1932 1959 1936 1873 1894 1840 1399 1192 1088
269948 269256 358855 414277 420478 396368 431596 426485 418194 379286 382034 348013 172114 112765 76734
1283 1551 1418 1494 1993 2180 2166 2285 2207 2502 2233 1812 1946 1541 1518
1436428
3141 3292 3357 2907
1478116
2812 2742 2439
175730
2154
Distance (ft) from Neutral Axis to: Deck 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 30.08 32.06 33.13 33.69 34.36 32.69 36.50 38.35 37.50 38.31 36.01 37.76 33.28 34.14 30.41 Keel 39.58 36.93 35.03 34.38 33.38 34.80 30.99 29.14 29.99 29.18 31.48 29.73 34.21 33.35 37.08
Distance (ft) from Neutral Axis to: Deck Keel
Distance (ft) from Neutral Axis to: Deck 18.84 Keel 29.24 28.46 26.69 25.52 24.01 23.00 22.46 21.83 21.18 22.35 23.21 24.82 27.70 29.48 29.98
Distance (ft) from Neutral Axis to: Deck 31.29 32.40 33.57 32.39 34.03 34.00 35.09 34.82 34.67 34.15 34.23 33.00 28.87 26.50 24.00 Keel 37.01 34.80 33.13 34.11 32.47 32.50 31.41 31.68 31.83 32.35 32.27 33.20 35.33 33.70 31.00
30.4
31.6
19.14 20.51 21.28 22.59 23.40 23.84
34.22
24.03
24.47 25.12 23.95 23.09
37.1
22.7
21.48 18.70 17.12
9.4
21.6
16.92
B-21
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table B-12 (Continued). Section Structural Properties for Selected Navy Hulls .
CGN 38 STN Area in 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
2
CV 59 Area
2
FF 1052 INA Area

2
FFG 7 Area
2
LHA 12 Area
2
LKA 113 INA Area in

2
LPH 2 Area
2
LSD 41 Area
2
LST 1179 Area

2
INA in -ft
2
INA in -ft
2
INA in -ft
2
INA in -ft
2
INA in -ft
2
INA in -ft
2
INA in2-ft2 142777 175019 226705 272382 342501 382825 432689 434270 529612 486630 424229 360794 320766 325149 230461
in
in -ft
in
in
in
in -ft
in
in
in
335645 342358 409487 510180 597448 497448 644438 671290 678003 671290 637726 449764 328932 255090 201387 Distance (ft) from Neutral Axis to: Deck Keel
12358 16591 11790 17790 19446 17352 17887 18220 18470 17892 17563 21122 18349 16763 13698
16758326 17177298 13148127 18535837 18836764 19168785 20669502 20999949 21293683 19807975 19383215 20161029 17624328 15829157 12068113
868 977 1086 1064 1068 1015 1100 1055 1054 1110 1111 1090 989 932 954
108027 127318 139464 133392 136068 136471 156278 150946 149046 154588 138854 117773 87112 62643 56332
711 745 761 936 935 1007 1125 1198 1203 1178 1055 970 922 861 809
110681 112994 102384 136770 130123 138267 159477 170416 167165 156553 135444 110066 89467 69084 57188
1874 2360 2712 3073 3303 3710 3517 4013 4291 4218 3358 3176 4406 2798 2442
675724 1160403 1052732 1162720 1230578 1200108 1328462 1495658 1520460 1512998 1272356 1198935 1157017 703870 514961
3069 3698 4101 4591 4712 5194 5252 5199 5696 5400 5108 4422 3980 3238 3227
1716649 2623881 3030117 3306753 3755656 3775892 3800192 3882010 4070689 4123254 3834913 3246058 2621274 2093116 1740634
2004 1875 1972 3192 4098 4023 3824 4279 4234 3739 3896 3202 2820 3532 2167
796874 884862 970102 1534690 1867936 1433109 1408479 1464853 1412839 987907 972030 701956 508752 416856 282624
1038 976 1096 1490 1930 2135 2323 2295 2562 2195 2275 1932 2030 2078 1711
Distance (ft) from Neutral Axis to: Deck 39.40 41.96 48.76 48.35 49.07 48.74 48.95 Keel 58.01 52.45 48.64 48.89 48.33 48.66 48.45 48.42 47.97 47.77 48.73 46.39 49.56 52.21 58.19
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 NOTES: 20.36 21.49
48.97 49.43 49.63 48.66 51.01 42.84 45.10 39.21
1. AE 26 data for Stations 4/9, 4 2/9, 10, 13 8/9, 17 7/9. 2. YDECK measured to flight deck. 3. For any intact station:
ZKEEL
INA YKEEL INA YDECK YDECK YKEEL
ZDECK DEPTH
B-22
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table B-13. Hull Characteristics, Auxiliaries.
LWL
Class ft AD 14 AD 24 AD 37 AD 41 AE 21 AE 26 AF 58 AFS 1 AG 153 AG 164 AGDS 2 AGER 2 AGF 3 AGM 8 AGM 9 AGM 19 AGM 22 AGM 23 AGOR 7 AGOR 11 AGOR 16 AGOS 1 AGS 21 AGS 26 AGS 29 AH 17 AK 237 AK 255 AK 271 AK 277 AK 280 AKR 7 AKR 9 AO 57 AO 51 AO 105 AO 143 AO 177 520 465 620 620 492 540 486 554 537 437 448 171 500 445 502 575 445 528 196 247 218 445 267 362 496 445 506 235 456 450 484 520 544 616 636 642 568
BWL
ft 73 70 85 85 72 81 72 79 76 66 72 32 84 62 72 75 62 76 39 51 75 62 48 54 72 62 72 51 66 63 78 83 75 75 75 86 88
Tm
ft 26.0 27.0 27.0 22.1 29.0 28.0 26.5 28.0 27.0 21.8 22.6 10.0 23.0 28.5 26.3 27.1 23.5 27.0 16.3 18.0 20.1 25.0 16.0 15.0 26.0 28.5 32.8 19.0 30.0 28.5 27.1 29.1 32.0 38.0 35.8 33.6 32.4
Displacement, lton full load 18400 16740 20500 19740 17450 19670 15500 18660 17960 11150 12420 945 13900 15200 17120 24710 12170 1640 3510 3420 13050 2830 3670 15400 15200 22050 3890 16730 15200 18290 21580 25450 34750 35650 36660 27500 light 9240 8800 13600 13220 9910 9450 8450 9170 14200 7350 10890 610 8000 8280 14000 13770 8850 12980 1230 2510 2870 7610 2200 2640 11400 4520 8580 2020 5740 6820 8180 9150 7470 10850 9450 11750 7240
TPI Class lton/in 67.0 58.0 89.0 95.0 61.0 71.5 56.0 67.0 67.0 47.0 61.0 9.3 85.0 49.0 60.0 80.0 48.0 63.0 12. 40.0 18.0 48.0 21.0 33.0 60.0 47.0 61.0 17.0 50.0 48.0 64.0 72.0 74.0 92.0 86.0 96.4 84.0 AOE 1 AOG 58 AOG 77 AOG 81 AOR 1 AOT 50 AOT 149 AOT 165 AOT 168 AOT 181 AOT 182 AP 110 AP 122 AP 197 APL 2 AR 5 ARC 2 ARC 3 ARC 7 ARL 24 ARS 8/38 ARS 50 AS 11 AS 19 AS 31 AS 33 AS 36 AS 39 ASR 9 ASR 21 ATA 181 ATF 76 ATS 1 AVM 1 AVT 16
LWL
ft 770 292 315 295 640 510 600 605 572 600 650 590 590 512 260 520 340 402 316 207 240 520 564 581 620 620 620 247 237 201 201 264 520 828
BWL
ft 107 49 48 61 96 68 84 80 84 84 89 76 76 73 49 73 47 58 50 43 50 73 73 83 85 85 85 42 86 34 39 50 71 103
Tm
ft 41.0 16.0 19.0 22.2 36.5 30.0 33.6 36.0 34.5 33.7 36.2 26.0 29.1 27.0 10.0 24.0 25.1 16.0 14.0 14.3 26.0 26.0 26.0 26.0 28.0 29.0 26.0 17.0 23.9 14.0 16.0 17.0 27.3 30.0
Displacement, lton full load 53600 4440 6050 6970 37700 21880 34760 32700 34500 34800 45880 20750 22570 17630 2580 17200 7810 7040 4330 1970 3100 17150 20300 19820 21530 23490 23000 2320 4910 860 1730 3060 14480 42110 light 18870 1800 2100 2370 12500 5250 7880 8400 6600 7330 8600 12600 10800 11220 1300 9320 4300 4280 2220 1470 2500 9960 14190 12100 19580 13840 13840 1790 4100 610 1240 2170 10820 29780
TPI lton/in 128.0 27.0 29.0 29.0 102.5 67.0 90.0 81.0 85.0 90.0 109.0 77.0 74.0 61.0 26.0 66.0 29.0 42.0 33.0 14.3 22.9 65.0 75.0 81.0 96.0 98.0 98.0 16.0 23.0 8.0 12.0 24.0 64.0 146.0
Notes: 1. LWL = Length on full load waterline, BWL = breadth on full load waterline, Tm = mean draft at full load 2. Displacements within the same class may vary. Values are for maximum and minimum displacements of any vessel in the class.
B-23
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table B-14. Hull Characteristics, Surface Combatants.

LWL
Class ft
BB 61 CA 134 CG 10 CG 16 CG 26 CG 47 CGN 9 CGN 25 CGN 35 CGN 36 CGN 38 CV 34 CV 41 CV 59 CV 63 CV 67 CVA 31 CVN 65 CVN 68 CVS 11 DD 743 DD 931 DD 937 DD 963 DDG 2 DDG 31
BWL
ft 860 700 664 510 524 529 690 540 540 570 560 831 914 990 990 990 820 108 75 69 54 54 55 72 57 57 60 61 103 121 130 130 130 103 133 134 103 40 44 44 55 46 44
Tm
ft 37.0 26.0 26.0 19.0 20.5 23.0 25.0 21.0 20.4 21.0 21.8 32.0 35.0 38.03 37.0 37.0 31.0 38.0 38.0 31. 15.0 16.0 16.0 21.0 16.0 16.0
Displacement, lton full load 58000 21470 19500 8750 8250 9960 17530 8590 9130 10450 10420 45110 65240 81150 81770 80940 43110 90950 91490 41900 3550 4200 4140 7810 4900 4200 15540 7800 8320 8710 8620 32520 48130 59020 58600 59180 30940 73500 70920 29600 2340 2800 2800 5770 3100 2860 light 43880 16000 13200 4650 5340
TPI Class lton/in 149.0 94.0 82.0 47.5 48.5 52.5 86.0 54.0 56.0 60.0 64.0 147.0 188.0 230.0 230.0 230.0 146.0 252.0 252.0 146.0 29.0 33.0 33.0 51.0 37.0 33.0
DDG 37 DDG 47 DD 993 FF 1037 FF 1040 FF 1052 FF 1098 FFG 1 FFG 7 LCC 19 LHA 1 LHD 1 LKA 112 LKA 113 LPA 249 LPD 1 LPD 4 LPH 2 LSD 28 LSD 36 LST 963 LST 1173 LST 1179 MCM 1 MSO 427 PG 92 PHM 1
LWL
ft 490 530 529 350 390 415 394 390 408 580 765 536 550 537 508 557 556 500 548 316 431 507 165 154 118
BWL
ft 52 55 55 41 44 47 43 44 38 82 106 76 82 76 84 84 84 84 84 50 62 70 35 22 25
Tm
ft 18.04 20.0 22.7 15.0 17.0 16.5 17.0 17.0 14.4 29.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 26.0 23.0 23.0 28.0 19.0 20.0 18.0 16.0 10.05 6.0 8.0
Displacement, lton full load 6120 8910 9788 2730 3580 4330 3660 3600 3590 18650 39400 17500 18650 17550 14670 17240 18830 12150 13700 7100 8520 930 280 210 1970 2620 2850 2760 2630 2980 11600 25330 9860 10000 10710 8000 8600 10720 6880 8100 3560 4750 620 200 160 light 4150 6570
TPI lton/in 43.0 48.5 52.4 24.0 28.5 32.5 29.0 28.5 30.0 164.0 66.0 76.0 66.0 85.0 85.0 75.0 68.0 76.0 55.0 57.0 10.0 6.0 6.0
1040 1056 820 383 407 407 529 420 407
Notes: 1, 2. See Table B-13. 3. Full load draft for CV 60 & 62 37.0 feet, for CV 61 41.0 feet.
4. 5.
DDG 37 full load draft 19.0 feet. Full load drafts vary from 10 to 12 feet.
Table B-15. Hull Characteristics, Submarines.

LWL /LOA
Class ft
AGSS 555 AGSS 569 NR 1 SS 565 SS 574 SS 576 SS 580 SSAG 567 SSBN 598 SSBN 608 SSBN 616 SSBN 726 SSN 571
BWL / BE
ft 16/18 25/27 16/16 24/27 25/30 25/27 27/29 24/27 25/33 26/33 25/33 30/42 23/28
Tm
ft 15.6 19.0 11.1 16.8 18.3 16.8 20.6 16.8 27.5 27.5 27.3 35.4 22.1
Displacement lton full load 860 1540 352 2030 2940 2030 2150 2030 6030 6950 7350 16740 3570 light 800 1240 337 1740 2560 1740 1740 1740 5420 6320 6700 14710 3230
TPI Class lton/in 3.9 7.0 1.9 12.4 16.0 12.4 10.1 12.4 14.0 17.5 17.0 32.1 10.2
SSN 575 SSN 578 SSN 585 SSN 586 SSN 587 SSN 588 SSN 594 SSN 597 SSN 603 SSN 637 SSN 671 SSN 685 SSN 688
LWL /LOA
ft 370/376 260/263 232/249 445/448 350/350 230/249 257/279 262/273 265/297 283/303 286/315 340/365 342/361
BWL / BE
ft 22/28 20/25 28/32 34/37 24/26 25/32 27/32 19/23 27/32 25/32 25/33 25/32 32/33
Tm
ft 22.3 20.8 25.1 24.0 21.0 25.2 25.5 19.4 25.5 25.8 27.7 26.4 27.2
Displacement, lton full load 4400 2580 3070 5940 3920 3080 4010 2610 4010 4270 5290 5780 6930 light 4040 2380 2850 5480 3570 2870 3750 2150 3750 3860 4950 5420 5720
TPI lton 16.1 9.1 9.0 30.0 9.6 11.3 7.0 11.3 12.0 12.5 16.4 17.0
159/165 187/205 128/136 290/293 332/334 282/283 209/219 290/293 348/382 378/411 395/421 500/559 320/324
Notes: 1. LWL = Length on full load waterline, LOA = length overall, BWL = breadth on full load waterline, BE = extreme breadth, Tm = mean draft at full load. 2. Displacements within the same class may vary. Values are for maximum and minimum displacements of any vessel in the class. 3. See Table B-13.
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Table B-16. Windage Areas1, Auxiliaries.

Broadside Wind Area, ft2 Class Full Load 26770 23890 48050 44080 18950 30750 20400 28350 21400 18800 19650 2800 29970 16150 34500 29250 21200 1/3 30730 27430 50870 45640 22300 34950 23700 32450 23050 23670 20300 3150 31900 19600 34850 33650 22850 Light 32700 29190 52280 47870 24000 37000 25350 34500 23900 26100 20650 3350 32870 21300 35000 35800 23700 Former AG 154 4750 7900 9450 5100 8200 9800 5300 8350 10000 1020 2200 4220 1090 2250 4300 1130 2300 4350 Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 4140 3810 7590 6600 4150 6900 3750 5750 4750 5200 4800 830 6830 4150 5000 5200 3800 Class 1/3 4690 4340 7960 6920 4600 7500 4250 6400 5000 5450 4900 890 7160 4650 5250 5750 4050 Light 4970 4610 8140 7080 4870 7850 4500 6700 5100 5650 4950 920 7320 4850 5350 6050 4150 AOE 1 AOG 58 AOG 77 AOG 81 AOR 1 AOT 50 AOT 149 AOT 165 AOT 168 AOT 181 AOT 182 AP 110 AP 122 AP 197 APL 2 AR 5 ARC 2 ARC 3 ARC 7 ARL 24 ARS 8/38 ARS 50 13900 9900 17100 25540 12400 16700 7180 16600 12100 23200 25050 17050 22000 17650 21850 27100 16650 10350 17700 27390 17800 22800 8660 22200 16300 27300 30000 24150 30900 28350 30850 34630 18000 10550 18000 28320 20750 25840 9340 24950 18400 29350 32500 27700 35300 33700 35350 37990 4150 2600 3500 4500 2950 5050 2170 3950 2750 5000 5400 3900 4900 3850 5050 5670 4550 2680 3600 4770 3750 5900 2490 4750 3350 5700 6200 4900 5930 5150 6300 6870 4800 2720 3650 4900 4150 6350 2650 5150 3650 6050 6600 5400 6480 6750 6900 7530 AS 11 AS 19 AS 31 AS 33 AS 36 AS 39 ASR 9 ASR 21 ATA 181 ATF 76 ATF 166 ATS 1 AVM 1 AVT 16 8150 26350 61150 9250 28050 64800 9800 28850 66700 2100 5850 9200 2200 6050 9700 2250 6150 9950 10550 5450 6480 27250 30050 36900 36750 43150 43210 6050 8800 2670 4200 11650 5800 6820 30450 32550 39900 41150 46850 45480 6500 9300 2890 4650 12200 6000 7100 32050 33850 41400 41500 48500 46620 6750 9550 3000 4850 1600 1650 2335 5500 5000 5550 6600 6550 6810 1050 4400 780 920 1750 1700 2404 5950 5300 6000 6700 7000 7120 1100 4500 840 1010 1850 1750 6200 6200 5500 6200 6750 7200 7270 1150 4550 870 1050 Broadside Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 36650 7350 6900 7800 29050 14350 17350 15700 14050 15650 15800 35050 27800 26450 10550 27080 11300 16300 1/3 48180 8900 9250 10300 37550 21100 27300 25650 24700 25850 28200 38500 32900 29400 11450 30420 14750 17800 Light 54600 9700 10450 11550 41750 24450 32300 30620 30050 30950 34400 40200 34450 30900 11900 32090 16450 18550 Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 6400 1800 2000 2400 7250 3850 4400 4300 5300 5650 5000 5850 5050 5500 2200 5050 2150 3600 1/3 8000 2070 2350 2950 8600 4750 5800 5600 6800 7050 6650 6300 5750 5950 2350 5530 2600 3800 Light 8850 2200 2550 3200 9250 5250 6500 6300 7600 7770 7500 6500 6100 6150 2450 5770 2800 3900
AD 14 AD 24 AD 37 AD 41 AE 21 AD 26 AF 58 AFS 1 AG 153 AG 164 AGDS 2 AGER 2 AGF 3 AGM 8 AGM 9 AGM 19 AGM 22 AGM 23 AGOR 7 AGOR 11 AGOR 16 AGOS 1 AGS 21 AGS 26 AGS 29 AH 17 AK 237 AK 255 AK 271 AK 277 AK 280 AKR 7 AKR 9 AO 57 AO 51 AO 105 AO 143 AO 177 Notes: 1. 2.
Windage areas measured by planimeter from profile and maximum cross section indicated in booklet of general plans for waterlines corresponding to the indicated loading condition. 10% of full load area added to account for handrails and other minor appurtenances not traced by planimeter. Displacements within the same class may vary. Full load windage areas calculated for the maximum displacement (deepest draft) of any vessel in the class, light windage areas for the minimum displacement (shallowest draft). The 1/3 condition is the ship with 1/3 fuel, stores, and cargo.
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Table B-17. Windage Areas1, Surface Combatants.

Class Broadside Wind Area, ft2 Full Load BB 61 CA 134 CG 10 CG 16 CG 26 CG 47 CGN 9 CGN 25 CGN 35 CGN 36 CGN 38 CV 34 CV 41 CV 59 CV 63 CV 67 CVA 31 CVN 65 CVN 68 CVS 11 DD 743 DD 931 DD 937 DD 963 DDG 2 DDG 31 36100 20900 22500 26050 23900 59350 64550 73850 79500 75250 59350 79000 79450 59700 8800 11750 13050 24100 14750 14450 36900 21350 22900 27000 24800 63200 69150 79100 85050 80500 63200 83050 84150 63500 9650 12750 13950 25250 15900 15400 37350 21550 23150 27450 25200 65150 71400 81750 87850 83100 65150 85050 86550 65400 10100 13200 14450 25850 16450 15850 7200 3230 3290 3700 4340 8300 8700 13500 13900 15650 8300 16950 14750 11950 1250 1850 2100 4250 2900 2120 7250 3280 3340 3800 4430 8800 9350 14200 14650 16350 8800 17450 15350 12450 1350 1950 2200 4350 3000 2220 7300 3300 3360 3850 4480 9050 9650 14550 15000 16700 9050 17750 15650 12650 1400 2000 2250 4400 3100 2270 36750 28850 38800 20050 19850 1/3 41250 31100 41650 22500 21600 Light 43550 32250 43050 23700 22500 Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 6850 3650 6500 3400 3450 1/3 7450 3900 6800 3650 3650 Light 7750 4000 6950 3800 3750 DDG 37 DDG 47 DDG 993 FF 1037 FF 1040 FF 1052 FF 1098 FFG 1 FFG 7 LCC 19 LHA 1 LHD 1 LKA 112 LKA 113 LPA 249 LPD 1 LPD 4 LPH 2 LSD 28 LSD 36 LST 963 LST 1173 LST 1179 MCM 1 MSO 427 PG 92 PHM 1 4100 2860 2320 4400 3000 2400 4550 3070 2440 1250 610 900 1310 630 920 1340 640 930 25650 30100 29150 27600 31100 36920 21150 29150 10550 15750 22950 29100 33550 32150 29800 34000 40260 23350 31350 11650 17300 24650 30800 32250 33650 30850 35450 41920 24400 32400 12200 18050 25450 4600 6850 5200 7750 7700 5970 5600 6950 1600 2700 4800 5050 7400 5600 8100 8100 6480 5950 7300 1750 2900 5050 5300 7650 5800 8300 8350 6730 6150 7450 1850 3050 5200 9850 11950 14650 11500 12500 15290 34350 71250 10450 12700 15700 12150 13200 15730 36280 74950 10750 13050 16200 12500 13600 15970 37250 76750 1800 2100 2800 1900 2100 2200 6950 10750 1870 2200 2900 1980 2200 2230 7220 11250 1900 2250 2950 2020 2250 2240 7360 11500 Class Broadside Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 19950 26700 1/3 21200 28100 Light 21800 28850 Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 2650 5500 1/3 2750 5650 Light 2850 5750
Notes: See Table B-16
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Table B-18. Windage Areas1, Submarines.
Class AGSS 555 AGSS 569 NR 1 SS 565 SS 574 SS 576 SS 580 SSAG 567 SSBN 598 SSBN 608 SSBN 616 SSBN 726 SSN 571
Broadside Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 1/3 1010 1130 1710 2160 490 570 3800 4180 4350 4800 3540 3900 2060 2540 3800 4180 2990 3830 3810 4560 4040 4870 6070 7860 3290 3850
Light 1190 2380 600 4380 5020 4080 2780 4380 4250 4940 5280 8760 4130
Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 1/3 60 66 220 290 55 60 290 320 410 450 290 320 310 340 290 320 400 460 360 410 380 430 450 570 310 350
Light 70 320 65 340 470 340 350 340 490 440 460 630 370
Class SSN 575 SSN 578 SSN 585 SSN 586 SSN 587 SSN 588 SSN 594 SSN 597 SSN 637 SSN 671 SSN 685 SSN 688
Broadside Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 1/3 4490 4920 2170 2420 1960 2250 6940 7380 4740 5210 2100 2360 1770 2080 2050 3010 2580 3090 2000 2410 2480 2870 2800 4120
Light 5130 2540 2390 7580 5440 2490 2240 3490 3340 2610 3060 4780
Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 1/3 280 310 200 220 250 280 680 720 380 410 240 270 180 210 110 180 200 250 190 230 210 240 220 330
Light 320 230 300 730 430 290 230 220 270 250 260 390
Table B-19. Windage Areas1, Service Craft.
Class YAG 61 YC 1469 YDT 14 YFB 87 YFNB 4 YFND 5 YFRT 287 YFU 71 YO 47 YO 106
Broadside Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 1/3 Light 3460 3900 4120 740 1090 1260 1880 1970 2010 2920 5260 6370 6930 1580 1860 2000 1820 2140 2300 1530 3730 5000 5630 2520 3380 3820
Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 1/3 Light 840 920 970 220 330 390 570 590 600 1460 830 1040 1140 480 580 620 610 680 720 740 1070 1270 1380 610 780 860
Class YOG 58 YP 654 YPD 32 YR 24 YRBM 1 YSR 30 YTB 752 YTM 146 YW 83
Broadside Wind Area, ft2 1/3 Light Full Load 3380 3820 2520 1160 2350 2420 2460 3700 3870 3950 3240 3300 3330 1300 1650 1820 1790 2630 2520 3380 3820
Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Full Load 1/3 Light 860 610 780 290 1890 1920 1940 880 920 940 970 990 1000 390 520 590 560 860 610 780 860
Table B-20. Windage Areas1, Floating Drydocks.
Class AFDB 1 AFDB 2 AFDB 3 AFDB 4, 5 AFDB 7 AFDL 1,2,6,8-12, 15, 16,19,21,23,25,29 AFDL 7,22,23 AFDL 37,38,40, 41,44,45 AFDL 47 AFDL 48
Broadside Wind Area, ft2 Maximum Light Submergence 4700 32800 8400 65900 7800 59600 7300 4200 800 1200 2000 4000 3100 49800 28500 4600 7800 10700 18600 14200
Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Maximum Light Submergence 2200 9500 2200 9500 2200 9500 1900 1900 150 300 900 900 830 7200 7200 800 1000 1900 2500 1560
Class AFDM 1,2 AFDM 3,5-10 ARD 5,7,8 ARD 12,30,32; ARDM 1,2 ARDM 3 ARDM 4 YFD 8 YFD 23 YFD 54 YFD 68-71 YFD 83
Broadside Wind Area, ft2 Maximum Light Submergence 4000 28000 5000 30000 430 17500 5400 5140 2800 3300 1900 2000 2900 800 18600 23050 24200 28000 19800 13000 25600 4600
Frontal Wind Area, ft2 Maximum Light Submergence 1300 3200 1400 3600 1750 3700 2000 2570 210 100 70 200 250 150 4400 5340 2500 2600 1800 1300 2450 800
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B-6 COMMERCIAL VESSEL DESCRIPTIONS Both naval and commercial vessels are broadly grouped by service, e,g., destroyer, general cargo, bulk carrier, tanker, tug, etc. Characteristics can vary widely between ships or classes within a broad grouping or type, but the requirements of similar service dictate similarities in construction, hull form, and outfit. Familiarity with the general characteristics of different ship types helps the salvage engineer perform four critical functions:
Rapidly analyze the casualtys condition and overall salvage situation; because of differences in construction and stability parameters, identical conditions may be more dangerous or entail a more difficult salvage for one type of vessel over another. Tailor surveys to examine typical vessel characteristics that may be particularly important in light of the casualty condition, or that may hinder or facilitate salvage work. Evaluate whether calculated hydrostatic, stability, or strength parameters are reasonable for the type of vessel; this is particularly important when calculations must be based on limited data. Evaluate whether empirical relationships valid for vessels of "ordinary form" can be applied to a specific casualty with reasonable accuracy.
The following paragraphs describe some of the important ship types afloat today. These descriptions provide a range of parameters and characteristics for each type and do not necessarily apply to any specific vessel. Dimensions, proportions, weights, and other characteristics of an assortment of commercial vessels are given in tables at the end of the narrative descriptions. B-6.1 General. Most seafaring nations have established classification societies which review standards for the construction of merchant vessels. Classification societies publish construction guidelines and stability and operating standards to ensure vessel safety and standardization of ship construction and other marine equipment. Most also publish registers of classed ships giving basic characteristics and capacities (see Paragraph B-2.1.9). The International Maritime Organization (IMO) of the United Nations, which evolved from the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), develops standards concerning the safety of life at sea, including restrictions on individual cargo tank size, subdivision and stability, guidelines for chemical carriers, and concepts designed to limit pollution of the sea in a casualty. The work of the IMCO, and subsequently the IMO, has also played a role in the standardization of ship and marine structure design. IMO and classification standards are often adopted by regulatory bodies of various nations. Standards and registers can be important sources of information to the salvor. Certain basic design concepts are common to all merchant ships as well as cargo carrying naval auxiliaries. The nature of merchant vessels is such that a high proportion of hull volume is devoted to cargo space in the form of holds or tanks. All merchant ships have systems designed to maintain cargo, fuel, and liquids. Work and accommodation spaces are isolated from cargo areas. Virtually all cargo ships built today have their machinery spaces aft of most or all the cargo spaces. Many cargo carriers have cabin accommodation for up to 12 passengers (most countries of registry require a special certification to carry more than 12 passengers). Most have diesel or steam turbine propulsion and auxiliary power. Naval auxiliaries differ from similar merchant vessels because of the requirements imposed by their service. Deadweight and cargo capacity for Naval auxiliaries is reduced by space and weight allocated to:
Typically larger crew sizes, with attendant increases in the requirements for accommodation spaces and outfit, and lifesaving equipment. Weapons systems and their required magazines, including local strengthening. Special outfit, equipment, and construction details to meet Navy damage control and nuclear-chemical-biological warfare requirements. Special mission required equipment, such as replenishment rigs for fleet oilers, including required local strengthening. Larger communications suites. Larger auxiliary machinery plants to support the requirements imposed by some of the above items.
Merchant ships, in the broadest sense, can be classified as either liners or tramps. Liners sail on a definite route for specific destinations, with set dates of arrival and departure at various ports. Tramps are cargo vessels whose voyages are dictated by the availability of suitable cargoes and destinations, rather than by fixed route or schedule. The term liner includes cargo ships, ocean-going passenger ships, and cross-channel ships typified by faster service speeds and finer lines than tramps. The term "Panamax" refers to design size limitations imposed by the Panama Canal locks and adopted by the international shipping community: beam must not exceed 106 feet (32.2 m), fully loaded vessels must not exceed 80,000 tons deadweight. Ships designed for service on river and canal systems may be similarly constrained by canal and lock dimensions.
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B-6.1.1 Cargo. Cargo stowage and handling requirements are a major influence on ship design. Cargo requirements may also impact salvage operations directly. There are three basic cargo classifications:
Bulk Cargo General or "Breakbulk" Cargo Unitized Cargo
Bulk cargo consists of homogeneous materials in liquid, gaseous, or solid form with relatively small particle size. General cargo includes a myriad of products packaged or un-packaged with unit size ranging from man-carriable bags and boxes to railroad locomotives. Some examples include bagged agricultural or mineral products, boxed and crated manufactured goods, liquids in cans, drums, and barrels, bundled or single pipes, logs, steel shapes, lumber, etc., and large single items such as aircraft or automobiles. Unitized cargo is shipped in containers with standard dimensions that may be carried by specialized or nonspecialized ships. Standard shipping units include pallets, intermodal containers in various sizes, several standard lighters for carriage by barge carrying ships, and motor vehicle trailers. A wide variety of bulk and breakbulk cargo, including mail, machine parts, partially assembled aircraft, motor vehicles, refrigerated foodstuffs, and some liquids are transported as unitized cargo, primarily in intermodal containers. Many ships designed to carry other types of cargo have some space and gear devoted to the handling and stowage of containers or other unitized cargo. In addition to these categories, some types of cargo may exhibit qualities of both bulk and general cargo, such as baled goods or vehicles shipped in sufficient quantity to fill an entire hold or vessel. B-6.1.2 Tanks. All ships have fuel tanks, ballast tanks, fresh water tanks, and smaller tanks for lube oil, fuel oil settling and other specific purposes. Shifting liquids in or out of these tanks is a standard salvage practice for altering stability, affecting ground reaction in strandings, or altering longitudinal bending moments. Tank size, location, and contents are of prime interest to salvors when making a weight analysis. Fuel tanks, ballast tanks, and cargo spaces usually represent the best potential weight transfer alternatives because of their large size and dedicated piping systems. Cargo pumps are usually located in dedicated pump rooms, which may also function as cofferdams separating cargo tanks from living or working spaces. Most cargo pumping systems include tank discharge and stripping systems. Most tankers employ gas inerting systems to reduce explosive hazards in tanks. Ballast and fuel pumps are usually located in and operated from the main machinery spaces. Some general observations can be made concerning typical tankage arrangements:
Tank centers of volume are usually low in the ship so that the weight of the contents contribute to overall ship stability. The transverse dimensions of most tanks are restricted in order to limit free surface effect. Limited access (for cleaning, inspection, and maintenance) to tanks low in the ship is provided by manholes. Tanks are usually located symmetrically with respect to the centerline; port and starboard tanks are often cross-connected. All tanks are equipped with vent lines to the weather decks and ullage openings or sounding tubes for gauging contents.
B-6.1.3 Cargo-handling Systems. Typical cargo-handling gear is addressed under particular ship type headings, but some general arrangements can be noted here. General cargo ships are typically fitted with derricks or deck cranes to load or discharge cargo from piers or lighters without assistance. Most tankers discharge cargo with installed pumps and generally carry sufficient cargo hose to connect to receiving terminals; many tankers have small derricks or cranes to handle the cargo hose. Many ship types are gearless, that is, they are not fitted with cargo gear. Modern container ships rarely have the ability to handle their own containers and can load and discharge cargo only with the aid of specialized port facilities. If installed, container ship cargo gear may consist of conventional derricks or rotating cranes, or traveling overhead gantry cranes. Most bulk carriers are gearless although there are some selfunloaders with installed derrick grabs or conveyor systems for discharging cargo, particularly on the Great Lakes. Roll-on/roll-off (RO/RO) ships load cargo over ramps through stern, bow, or side ports; in the case of trailers, vehicles, and train cars, part of the cargo gear is integral to the cargo itself. When installed and operable, a vessels cargo gear can be a great asset to the salvage effort. Lightering is most effective and efficient when accomplished with ships gear. The large number of derricks or cranes on general cargo ships facilitates loading salvage equipment and placing it in its required location on deck or in holds. Deck mounted gantry cranes are particularly useful for shifting weight longitudinally to adjust trim, weight distribution, or ground reaction; the cranes themselves are large weights that can be shifted.
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B-6.2 General Cargo Ship. Modern cargo vessels evolved from the classic Liberty Ship, the prototype of which first appeared in the late1800s. Because the simple design was well suited to mass production, many Liberty Ships were built during World War II to support Allied shipping requirements. Liberty ship designs featured machinery spaces and superstructure amidships, as shown in Figure B-8.
BRIDGE DK BOAT DK STEERING GEAR AFTERPEAK TANK DEEP TANK CHAIN LOCKER
UPPER DECK 2ND DECK
HOLD NO. 5
HOLD NO. 4
MACHINERY SPACE
HOLD NO. 3 FUEL OIL OR BALLAST
HOLD NO. 2 FUEL OIL OR BALLAST
HOLD NO. 1 FOREPEAK TANK DEEP TANK F P
A P
FUEL OIL OR BALLAST
LOA - 441 6", LBP = 417 8 3/4", B = 56 10 3/4", D = 37 4" TO UPPER DECK
Figure B-8. Liberty Ship (MARAD Type EC2).
Modern dry cargo ship designs maximize hold space, as shown in Figure B-9. A typical mid-size ship may have five or six holds; three or four forward of the machinery space and superstructure, and one or two aft. The machinery spaces and superstructure are usually located about threequarters aft. Older designs typically have three holds forward of the superstructure and two aft. Holds aft of the accommodation and machinery spaces improve the trim of the vessel when partially loaded, and provide the ship with sufficient draft aft for stability and propeller immersion. Small freighters often have machinery and accommodation spaces aft of all cargo holds. Deadweight of modern general cargo liners ranges from 9,000 to 25,000 tons; speeds range from 17 to 22 knots. Tramps are typically smaller and slower, with speeds ranging from 12 to 18 knots. The speed-to-length ratio is generally 0.87 or less as higher ratios are usually not economical. Laden drafts are as deep as channels to the intended terminal ports allow, typically in the 26- to 29-foot range. Hull depth is selected to provide the desired draft and satisfy statutory freeboard requirements. Depth of the double bottom is kept low to maximize cargo space. Tables B-21, B-31, B-32, and B-33 (Page B-31 and Pages B-51 through B-53) provide characteristics of a typical general cargo ship.
ACCOMMODATION
STEERING GEAR
HOLD NO. 5 TUNNEL
TWEEN DECK NO. 4 TWEEN DECK NO. 2/3
TWEEN DECK NO. 1

HOLD NO. 1 FORE PEAK
MACHY SPACE
HOLD NO. 4
HOLD NO. 3
HOLD NO. 2
AFT PEAK
DOUBLE BOTTOM
HATCH NO. 5
ENGINE CASING
HATCH NO. 4
HATCH NO. 3
HATCH NO. 2
HATCH NO. 1
Figure B-9. General Cargo Ship.
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Watertight bulkheads separate individual holds, machinery spaces, and tanks. One or more tween decks may be fitted to facilitate flexibility in cargo loading and unloading, cargo segregation, and to improve stability. There may be watertight doors in the bulkheads on the tween decks levels. Denser cargoes are carried in the lower holds with high stowage factor products normally stowed in the tween decks. Refrigerated spaces may be built into the tween decks. Tramps are designed to carry a wide variety of commodities while liners may be designed for a specific trade. Ship designs for a specific trade strive for "full and down" operation; the ships freeboard is down to her loadline with cargo cubic fully occupied. For a given trade, hold spaces are usually designed so that the ratio of bale cubic to deadweight is 10 to 15 percent greater than the overall stowage factor of the goods carried to allow for more rapid cargo handling and broken stowage the spaces between and around cargo units, including dunnage, and spaces not available for cargo stowage because of physical obstructions or ventilation and access requirements. Holds are sized and provided with cargo gear to limit the amount of cargo cubic per stevedore gang to about 60,000 cubic feet; holds in the midbody are therefore usually shorter than those nearer the ends of the ship. The conflict between the desire to shorten holds and the length required by cargo gear and hatches sometimes dictates the assignment of midships spaces to machinery or to fuel, cargo, or ballast deep tanks rather than holds. Hatches are as large as possible without compromising hull strength (the main or second deck is normally the strength deck) to reduce the requirement for horizontal movement of cargo within the holds. Hatches served by two sets of cargo gear generally measure 20 by 30 feet or larger. Hatches on older ships are generally smaller than those on newer ships. Hatches are surrounded by coamings to reduce the risk of flooding in heavy seas. Covers are usually constructed of steel (or wood on older vessels). The main deck plating between hatches is not effective in providing longitudinal strength, and is sized to carry fairly light local loads. The deck plating outboard the hatches is therefore much heavier, often exceeding five-eighths inch in thickness.
Table B-21. Typical General Cargo Ship.

Dimensions (ft) Length overall Beam Depth to main deck Design Draft Speed and Power Design sea speed, knots Shaft horsepower, approx. Deadweight and Displacement (long tons at scantling draft) Light ship Total deadweight Cargo deadweight Full load displacement Capacities General cargo, bale, ft3 Refrigerated cargo, net, ft3 Cargo oil, tons at 40 ft3/ton Dry bulk cargo (grain), ft3 Total containers (8 8 20 ft) 2-high on deck Below deck 775,000 40,000 1,000 311,000 216 96 120
579 82 46 27
22 20,000
9,790 14,250 12,000 24,040
Cargo gear is designed for speed and flexibility for handling breakbulk, palletized, or container cargo. Various combinations of derricks, winches, and deck cranes are used for the handling of cargo. Cranes are fitted on many vessels to reduce manpower requirements. Some ships have special heavy-lift derricks that may serve one or more holds. Booms are rigged for either yard and stay (burton) or swinging-boom operation. Virtually all general cargo ships use double-bottom spaces as fuel and ballast tanks. More recent designs assign several tanks exclusively to segregated saltwater ballast. Some vessels have built-in systems for handling oil cargoes in double bottom or deep tanks, and for cleaning and heating the tanks. In many designs, several holds can be specially fitted for carrying grains or other dry bulk cargos. Grain feeders may be built in and used for access trunks. Other grain fittings commonly fitted include deck and bulkhead cuts (trunk bulkheads) fitted with gratings. B-6.3 Combination Cargo-Passenger Ship. Cargo-passenger ships are essentially general cargo ships with increased accommodations for passengers. Most are designed to handle most commodities and typically operate to and from tropical ports in third world countries. They are often rigged primarily to transport agricultural products and tropical fruits on one voyage leg, and finished industrial products on the reverse leg. Typical cargoes include motor vehicles, general cargo suitable for containers and pallets, bulk liquids (lube oil, detergents, molasses, etc.), fruit, frozen shrimp, bagged coffee and cocoa beans, balsa wood, etc. Table B-31 gives general characteristics for a typical cargo-passenger ship. Cargo-passenger ship holds often include cellular-type container stowage for twenty- and/or forty-foot intermodal containers. A typical arrangement can accommodate up to 175 twenty-foot containers, or mixed loads with up to 44 forty-foot containers and 87 twenty-foot containers, handled by travelling gantry cranes. In addition to containers, the gantry cranes are designed to handle automobiles, trucks, pallets, and rough cargo through main deck hatches. Designs emphasize flexibility in handling varying amounts of breakbulk and containerized cargo and often incorporate vertical and horizontal conveyor systems for handling bananas and other fruit. B-6.4 Refrigerated Cargo Ships. Refrigerated cargo ships are basically fast general cargo ships with extensive refrigerated spaces for the transport of meat, fruit, and dairy products. They may several tween decks. Cargo may be carried frozen or chilled. Hold volume is less than an equivalent sized cargo ship because of the space taken by insulationabout 25 percent less for chilled cargo and about 35 percent less for frozen cargo. If all cargo spaces are refrigerated, the ship is called a fully refrigerated ship, or reefer. If only some of the holds are refrigerated, the ship is a partial reefer; the refrigerated holds are generally those closest to the machinery spaces. Cargo volume is an important factor since refrigerated cargo has a fairly high stowage rate: chilled beef stows at about 127 cubic feet per ton, frozen beef at about 94 cubic feet, and bananas at about 157 cubic feet. Chilled beef is hung from hooks and chains, with approximately one foot clearance between the meat and the deck for air circulation; the effective KG of the hung meat is thus at the overhead of the storeroom, rather than near mid-height. Frozen meat is usually stacked; storage height is usually less than 20 feet to avoid crushing the lower tiers. Cargo spaces may be divided into bins for the stowage of fruit; permanent uprights, slotted to accept removable battens, are fitted at about 10 foot intervals.
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B-6.5 All Hatch Ship. To reduce the requirement for horizontal movement of cargo in holds or tween decks spaces, many general cargo ships are designed with very wide hatches, sometimes extending for as much as four-fifths the width of the deck. Two or three hatches abreast are sometimes fitted, rather than a single wide hatch. A typical three-hatch design is shown in Figure B-10. Because the small deck area does not provide sufficient resistance to racking, heavy web or cantilever frames are fitted at frequent intervals, along with heavy hatch-end beams. Deep hatch coamings on the upper deck tie the frames together and provide transverse rigidity. Longitudinal strength is achieved by heavy sheer strakes and side deck stringers, often with heavy longitudinal girders. The deep hatch coamings are often made continuous throughout the length of the cargo deck. In multi-hatch designs heavy deck plating and girders between hatches provide part of the ships longitudinal strength. In some designs the deck between hatches is supported by longitudinal bulkheads rather than stanchions. The resulting segregated cargo space is well suited to carrying diverse cargoes that may require separation, and limiting athwartships shifting of bulk granular materials. All-hatch ships are sometimes converted to container ships by fitting temporary or permanent cell guides in the holds.
CRANES
CREW AND STORES
DT
DT
5/8 IN. PL (TYP) DK LONG. L 5 x 3-1/2 x 5/16 IN. 1-1/2 IN. PL 1.0 IN. PL DK LONG. 14-1/2 x 1-1/2 IN. FB L 8 x 3-1/2 x 3/8 IN. 1-1/4 IN. PL 1-3/8 IN. PL
ORDINARY FRAMES PILLAR 9 IN. DIA. SPACED 2 FT - 8 IN. EH DK LONG. L 1.0 IN. PL 5 x 3-1/2 x 5/16 IN. WEB PLATING
PILLAR 16 IN. DIA. EH DK LONG. L 5 x 3-1/2 x 5/16 IN. HOLD AND TWEEN DECKS 3/8 IN. PL WEB 8 x 1 IN. PL FLG SPACED 10 FT - 8 IN. 5/16 IN. PL
10 x 3-1/2 x 1/2 IN. FLG PL
9/16 IN. PL (TYP)
7/16 IN. PL (TYP) PILLAR 20 IN. DIA. EH 12 x 3-1/2 x 1/2 IN. FLG PL
SHELL PLATING
FLAT KEEL 7/8 IN. BOTTOM 9/16 IN. INNER BOTTOM 7/16 IN. SHEER STRAKE 1-3/8 IN. SIDE 5/8 IN. BILGE STRAKE 5/8 IN. 7/16 IN. PL FLOOR
C L
BOT LONG. 10 x 3-1/2 x 3/8 IN. FLG PL I B LONG. 8 x 3-1/2 x 3/8 IN. FLG PL
12 IN. DEADRISE IN 38 FT HB
Figure B-10. Three-Hatch Ship.
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The ships bridge is typically situated well forward and separated from the after deck house. Most of the cargo spaces lie between the bridge and the aft machinery space. Table B-22 gives general characteristics of a typical three-hatch design. B-6.6 Container ships. Before 1960, the specialized container ship was virtually unknown as a ship type. Since then there has been a rapid development of larger and faster vessels of this type. Most modern container ships are of the vertical cell type, although there is also a horizontal loading type. Container ships load and unload much faster than general cargo ships, but are not normally fitted with cargo gear. Because of this, container ships trade primarily through developed ports with appropriate terminal facilities. In addition to fully containerized ships, four other classes of ships handle containers:
Table B-22. Characteristics of a Typical Three-Hatch Ship.

Dimensions (ft) Length overall Length between perpendiculars Beam Depth to main deck Design draft Speed and Power Design sea speed, knots Shaft horsepower, approx. Deadweight and Displacement (long tons at design draft) Total deadweight Displacement Cargo Capacities General cargo (cu ft) Refrigerated cargo (cu ft) Liquid cargo (tons) 506-2 482-0 70-0 45-0 28-0 18 11,660 10,976 16,820 657,213 22,433 1,890
Partial container ships with a major portion of the cargo spaces designed for the stowage and handling of containers with the remaining capacity devoted to other forms of cargo, often loaded by roll-on/roll off means. Convertible container ships with special arrangements and outfit that enable all or part of the vessels capacity to be converted for container stowage with the remaining capacity used for general or bulk cargo.
Ships of limited container capacity that are primarily designed to carry other forms of cargo but have some container handling and securing devices. Ships without special container stowage arrangements on which containers are handled as oversize cargo and secured on deck or in holds by traditional means.
Ships designed to carry containers on deck are normally arranged to keep the upper deck as dry as possible, by use of high freeboard, flaring bows, or placing the deck house forward of deck container stowage. B-6.6.1 Containers. Intermodal dry cargo containers are essentially reinforced CORNER POST rectangular boxes. A typical container is TOP END shown in Figure B-11. The American TOP SIDE BOTTOM RAIL DOOR RAILS National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the END RAIL HEADER International Organization for ROAD CORNER SIDE Standardization (ISO) have developed FITTING standards for dimensions, strength, and BOTTOM fittings for intermodal freight containers. SIDE RAILS REAR Standard dry cargo containers are 8 feet CURB SIDE DOOR END FRONT 1 SILL FRAME wide, 20, 30, or 40 feet long, and 8, 8 2 or 9 feet high. With special fittings, shorter STRUCTURAL MEMBERS containers can be loaded in standard container cells; nonstandard containers with lengths of 6 feet 8 inches and 10 feet are therefore fairly common, as well as 24-, 35and 45-foot containers. Containers less than 30 feet long often have forklift pockets, longer containers usually do not. ROAD Containers are steel framed with sides, SIDE overhead, ends of corrugated steel, steel faced plywood (plymetal), aluminum, or REAR fiberglass reinforced plywood (FRP). CURB TYPICAL CONTAINER Floors may be hard or softwood laminate, SIDE planking, or plywood; the interior may be lined with plywood or battens. Cross members supporting the floor or top may Figure B-11. Intermodal Container. be box, C-, Z-, or I-beams welded or bolted to the side rails. The end frames are fitted with standard handling and securing corner fittings, usually steel castings that are welded to the corner posts. Doors extending the width of the container and consisting of flat panels fitted with locking hardware and weatherproof seals are fitted at one end. Containers must meet minimum strength requirements to ensure that loaded containers can be stacked six high for storage or transport. In addition to the common box-type container, a number of special containers have been developed, including half-height containers, open top and hopper containers for carrying bulk granular materials, various types of tanks enclosed in frames meeting container dimensions, and open frames for carrying vehicles. Dry cargo container capacities are given in Table 9-7.
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Cargo capacity for container ships is frequently expressed in terms of 20 or 40 foot equivalent units (TEU or FEU) i.e., the number of containers that could be carried if all were standard 20- or 40-foot containers. Although a recent development, the current trend is to adopt forty foot containers and the FEU as the industry standard. B-6.6.2 Vertical Cell Container Ships. Vertical cell container ships carry containers stacked in cells formed by angle corner guides. The containers are lowered into and lifted from the cells by gantry cranes on the pier, or more rarely, on the ship. Cargo spaces are arranged to give maximum container capacity within the minimum hull volume, with due allowance for structure, clearances, and hydrodynamic requirements for the hull form. Many container ship designs also include significant stowage space for general, dry bulk, and liquid cargo. Vertical cell container ships and cell construction are illustrated in Figure B-12 (Page B-35). Tables B-23, B-31 (Page B-51), B-32 (Page B-52), and B-34 (Pages B-54 and B-55) give characteristics of typical cellular container ships.
Table B-23. Typical Vertical Cell Container Ship Characteristics

Dimensions (ft) Length overall, approx. Length between perpendiculars Beam Depth to main deck Design draft Speed and Power Service speed, knots Shaft horsepower, approx. Deadweight and Displacement (long tons at
585-0 530-0 79-0 40-0 28-6
20.5 18,500
Container cells are arranged in athwartships groups with the long design draft) 9,650 Light ship weight axis of the containers fore and aft. The transverse width of the cell 9,900 Total deadweight groups may be 80 percent of the ships breadth, requiring large 7,100 Cargo deadweight hatches. The container cells consist of corner guide angles attached 19,550 Displacement to the ship structure. The guides are installed to fit the standard Cargo Capacity containers with fairly tight clearance to limit container movement Containers (8 8 20) while underway. Because of the small clearance between container Dry cargo 458*/ 490,000 ft3 and guide, containers can be loaded or discharged without binding Refrigerated Cargo 22 / 19,000 ft3 only with the ship within very narrow limits of list and trim. Total 480 / 509,000 ft3 General cargo (bale) 93,000 ft3 Containers are secured to each other in the cell racks by special pins Dry Bulk (bale) 90,000 ft3 and then lashed to the deck with wire and chain. The weight of the Liquid Bulk (net) 25,000 ft3 stacked containers is normally transmitted directly to the inner bottom, with the cell guide structure carrying only horizontal forces * Including 70 on deck resulting from ship motions, list, and trim. If containers are stacked more than six high, movable supports on the vertical structure support the upper containers. Hatch covers are normally of the lift-off pontoon type, with hydraulic or manual dogs. Because the covers are normally handled by a gantry crane, they are usually large and span the length of one cell and the width of several cells. Most cell-type container ships are designed to carry a large number of containers on deck, in single tiers or stacked on the hatch covers. The containers are secured by locking the lower corners to the deck or hatch covers by special fittings, tieing the upper corners together transversely, and with special diagonal lashings secured to fittings at the ends of the rows. Refrigerated containers are normally carried on deck, where ventilation required for the built-in electric powered refrigeration units is provided naturally. Electric connection boxes are installed at designated locations. Containers with hazardous cargo are usually carried on deck or at the top of a stack in a hold. The number of cell groups within a hold or bay is dictated by the requirements of structure and watertight subdivision. Transverse watertight bulkheads between holds extend to the main deck, making it the bulkhead deck. A container ships longitudinal structure consists essentially of bottom and shell without decks, longitudinal bulkheads, or stanchions. Heavy floors with web frames are fitted at intervals in the wings outboard the cell groups, or extending between cell groups in some designs, to give transverse rigidity. The inner bottom longitudinals, bilge strakes, sheer strake, and the narrow main plating outboard the cell groups are quite heavy to provide the necessary longitudinal strength. The upper portions of the wings often form a large, heavy box girder, as shown in Figure B-12 (Page B-35). The requirement for minimum interference with cargo stowage leads to common use of higher strength steels, particularly in the upper deck. Capacity (TEU or FEU) and speed distinguish different "generations" of container ships. Most container ships built before 1968 (1st generation) have capacities of 500 to 700 TEU, with service speeds of less than 22 knots. Many first-generation container ships were converted from general cargo ships or bulk carriers by the installation of container cells. Most second-generation ships, built between 1968 and 1972, have capacities of 1,200 to 1,500 TEU, with about 40 percent of the containers carried on deck and service speeds of 22 to 26 knots. Third-generation ships, built since 1972, have capacities of up to 1,800 to 2,200 TEU (60,000 tons deadweight). Service speed may be 26 knots or more. For salvage operations, lightening the ship can be problematic and tedious because containers may jam in their cell guides if the casualty has significant list or trim, and because the containers with the heaviest loads are often stowed near at the bottom of stacks near the centerline, under many lighter or empty containers. Because tankage is often limited to double bottom ballast tanks, relatively small bulk cargo tanks in some designs, and to fore and after peak tanks, selective ballasting to alter conditions may be difficult or impossible.
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10-TON MAIN DECK
BRIDGE CRANES
10-TON
10-TON
DRY CARGO BALLAST
MACHY SPACE
92 CONTR
96 CONTR
96 CONTR
DRY 34 92 CONTR CARGO CONTR LIQUID CARGO (FLUSH)
DRY CARGO BALLAST
INBOARD PROFILE
30x26 FT
30x26 FT
30x26 FT
UPPER DECK
MAIN DECK STEER FO AP
SET.
MACHY SPACE
FO
FORE PEAK FP
INBOARD PROFILE
MACHY SPACE
LOA = 752, LBP = 705, B = 100, D (MN DK) = 57
MAIN DECK
0.50 IN. PLATE
1.50 IN. PLATE 18 x 1.75 IN. FB 12 IN. x 60 LB WFT (TYP)
1.75 IN. PLATE
0.875 IN. PLATE L 7 x 4 x 1/2 IN. L 8 x 4 x 9/16 IN.
SHELL PLATING
FLAT KEEL BOTTOM INNER BOTTOM SHEER STRAKE SIDE BILGE STRAKE 1.0 0.89 0.60 1.50 0.88 1.18 IN. IN. IN. IN. IN. IN.
12 IN. FB 0.50 IN. WEB
1.50 IN. PLATE
12 x 4 x 1/2 IN. FLG PL

SPACED 10 FT
1.50 IN. PLATE
15 x 3-3/8 L IN. L x 33.9 LB L TO
FB
0.50 IN. PLATE
BOTTOM LONG. L 9 x 4 x 1/2 IN. I BOTTOM LONG. 8 x 4 x 1/2 IN. F LOA = 719, LBP = 675, B = 95, D = 54
TYPICAL MIDSHIPS SECTION
Figure B-12. Vertical Cell Container Ships.
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B-6.6.3 Horizontal Loading Container Ships. Horizontal loading container ships are less common than vertical cell container ships, and less distinct as a ship type. Containers are loaded through stern or side ports by fork lifts or straddle trucks, usually onto a single container deck that extends for most of the length of the ship. In this respect, they may be considered a type of roll-on/roll-off ship, with which they share a number of features. Containers are normally stowed with the long axis athwartships to suit the fore and aft travel of the forklift. Access to groups of containers can be attained by leaving aisles empty. Although usually designed for a specific container size, the ship can readily load cargo that meets under deck clearances and is adaptable to handling by fork lift or other rolling equipment: different sized containers, palletized cargo, vehicles, trailers, etc. The ship may carry its own forklifts. Beam is selected to equal an even multiple of container length, plus requirements for side framing, stanchions, and clearances. The container deck is free of transverse bulkheads and the number of stanchions is kept to a minimum to enhance fork lift maneuvering and flexibility in cargo stowage. Screen bulkheads with large sliding or accordion type doors are fitted at intervals to contain carbon-dioxide or other firefighting gases. The ships are designed with minimum freeboard, as the container deck is the bulkhead deck. A main structural feature is the strength of the container deck which must carry the concentrated loads of the container corners and wheels of lift trucks bearing loaded containers. Spaces below the container deck are allocated to machinery, fuel, ballast tanks, liquid cargo, and occasionally special cargo handled by rapid methods (such as refrigerated cargo handled by conveyor). The weather deck is not normally designed for loading of containers by lift truck because of the heavy structure that would be required, and the difficulties in carrying containers up ramps. The weather deck may be designed for carrying automobiles loaded by ramp, or light containers and similar bulky cargo loaded by overhead lift gear. B-6.7 Roll-On/Roll-Off Ships. The roll-on/roll-off (RO/RO) ship employs the unitized cargo concept, but preceded the purpose-built containership by nearly a decade. The designation RO/RO covers a broad category of ships designed to load and discharge cargo that can be loaded as or by rolling stock. Broadly interpreted, this includes trailer ships, vehicle carriers, train ships, and passenger/vehicle ferries. Horizontal loading container ships and pallet ships, loaded by lift trucks or tractors with trailers, are sometimes considered RO/RO ships as well. RO/RO ships of all types have a high cargo cubic to deadweight ratio, and have certain common features in the arrangement of cargo spaces:
Long clear cargo decks without transverse bulkheads with deck heights to accommodate vehicles. Side, stern, or bow ports and ramps for ship-shore cargo transfer. Ramps are sometimes part of the terminal facility, as in ferries and train ships. Many designs place side ports near the ends of the ships to take advantage of the curvature of the shell plating in the construction of the loading ramp. The curved plating forms the outer chord of a truss with the flat vehicle travel surface forming the inner chord. Decks designed to withstand concentrated vehicle wheel loads. Deck heights to match a particular range of vehicle or cargo unit heights. Clearances for stowing and turning vehicles. Single cargo deck or internal ramps or elevators for vertical distribution of the cargo. Ramps may be permanent fixtures or be designed to stow in the deck or overhead to permit additional cargo stowage.
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Most modern RO/RO ships range in length from 400 to 640 feet, with a deadweight range of 10,000 to 27,000 long tons. Machinery spaces are usually located aft, often wholly beneath the lowest RO/RO cargo deck. The requirement for clear decks and specific deck heights calls for a ship structure significantly different from that of a standard transversely framed cargo ship. The strength provided in ordinary cargo ships by transverses, which would normally be carried above the freeboard deck to the uppermost continuous deck, is provided instead by deep web frames and beams, spaced 8 to 12 feet apart. Plating between the webs at deck and side is normally reinforced by longitudinal frames, although intermediate transverse side frames may be used. Because of the deck strength required to carry vehicle wheel loads, decks are thicker, and deck longitudinals heavier and more closely spaced than in similar sized general cargo ships. The combination of heavy cargo deck structure, longitudinal framing, and great hull depth due to the height of the cargo decks, give the RO/RO ship longitudinal strength usually well in excess of statutory or classification society requirements. Typical RO/RO ships are shown in Figure B-13. Characteristics of some specific types of RO/RO ships are discussed in the following paragraphs.
HOLD NO. 4 SP HOLD NO. 5 MACHY A P SP
HOLD NO. 2 SP HOLD NO. 1
D TK
2ND DECK
HOLD NO. 3
INBOARD PROFILE
F P
WT DR RAMP UP RAMP DOWN BLR CASG WT DR TLR PORT AUTO AND TRACTOR PORT
WT DR RAMP DOWN RAMP DOWN TLR PORT SECOND DECK RAMP UP MN DK OVER
PLTF DK OVER
GENERAL-PURPOSE RO/RO
UPPER DK PIVOTED RAMPS MAIN DK 2ND DK SP DT INBOARD PROFILE TANK DK TYPICAL SECTION
TRAILER RAMP SP TRAILER
STOWAGE STOWAGE
TRAILER SHIP
MAIN DK
2ND DK SP SP 1ST PLATF 2ND PLATF TANK TOP
VEHICLE CARRIER
INBOARD PROFILE
TYPICAL SECTION
Figure B-13. Roll-On/Roll-Off Ships.
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B-6.7.1 Vehicle Carrier. Vehicle carriers can be broadly classed as vehicle/passenger ferries and straight vehicle carriers, which may be designed to carry automobiles, large commercial and military vehicles, or both. Typical large vehicle/passenger ferries can accommodate up to 320 cars and 1,200 passengers for short voyages. Straight vehicle carriers have much less passenger space, but can carry up to 3,200 vehicles. Automobiles are typically stowed low in the ship, while trucks and other commercial vehicles requiring greater stowage length and height are stowed on the longer higher decks. Carriers designed to handle large commercial and military vehicles can also operate as trailer carriers or horizontal loading container ships. In some carriers, vehicles are carried above the bulkhead deck on movable nonwatertight decks so deck height can be adjusted to accommodate particular types of vehicles. The vehicle carrier shown in Figure B-13 is designed for rapid loading and discharge of military wheeled vehicles under their own power to and from piers, lighters, and landing craft. As a secondary task, the ship is capable of transporting general cargo and vehicles loaded by conventional overhead means. Cargo is stowed in two 135 foot vehicle holds amidships and smaller holds in the bow. Vehicle holds are interconnected by fixed ramps in the center of the ship, which pass above and through the machinery space. Vehicles are driven on board and then over the ramps from one deck to another until they reach their stowage spot. All decks, including the weather deck, may be loaded from the side and stern ports. Tween deck hatch covers are flush, and designed to withstand the local loads imposed by the vehicles. Machinery spaces are located beneath the second deck closures. Characteristics of the vessel are given in Table B-24. B-6.7.2 Train Ship. Train ships are designed and constructed to carry freight cars, and sometimes locomotives or passenger cars, on short transits between railheads. They are usually longitudinally framed, with the car deck designed to provide the required structural support directly under each track. Ship beam is based on the number of tracks, the required clear width in way of the tracks (usually 11 to 12 feet), access requirements, and requirements for structure in way of pillar lines and at the side. Hull lines are selected to allow a car deck layout such that rail tracks can be arranged with radius of curvature greater than 160 feet. Deck heights are selected to accommodate the tallest cars carried, usually about 18 feet clear height for box cars, higher for flat cars with trailers. Machinery casings and access ladders are given minimum width and located in way of pillar lines or side structure. The most common type of crane ship is the single-deck, stern loading type. In a variation of this type, cars are transferred singly to a lower deck with an elevator. Multi-deck designs with connected ramps are generally impractical because of the severe grade limitations that apply to railroads (5 degrees or less). Securing fittings normally consist of jacks and hold down lashings at the corners of the cars. The jacks brace against a jack rail and take part of the cars weight off the truck springs. The cars are then secured to the jack rail by turnbuckle-tensioned lashings. This securing method renders the car springs inoperative and prevents the buildup of ship motion caused car movements which might synchronize with the natural period of the car on its springs. Securing fittings are designed for a maximum expected roll amplitude, normally about 20 degrees.
Table B-24. Typical Vehicle Carrier.

Dimensions (ft-in) Length overall Length between perpendiculars Beam Depth to main deck Design draft Maximum draft Speed and Power Design sea speed, kts. Shaft horsepower Deadweight and Displacement (lton at maximum draft) Lightship Total deadweight Cargo deadweight (fuel for 15,000 miles) Full load displacement Capacity Bale capacity of all vehicle and cargo spaces, omitting driveways, ft3 766,500
499-0 465-0 78-0 48-9 22-0 27-1
18 13,200
8,175 10,111 7,551 18,286
Table B-25. Trailer Ship Characteristics.

Dimensions (ft-in) Length overall Length between perpendiculars Beam Depth to upper deck Design draft Speed and Power Design sea speed, knots. Shaft horsepower, approx. Deadweight and Displacement (long tons at scantling draft) Lightship Total deadweight Full load displacement Cargo Capacity Trailers, (35 ft)
518-0 500-0 78-0 57-6 19-0
20-0 16,500
6,680 4,400 11,080 200
47 Crew B-6.7.3 Trailer Ship. The factors dictating the arrangement of cargo spaces in trailer ships are similar to those for train ships, but required clearances, point loads on decks, and minimum turning radii are all generally smaller, while allowable deck grade angle is much greater. In some designs, trailers are loaded in rows, following wheel tracks consisting of a guide fitting on deck that projects into the space between the dual tires on one side of the trailer. Trailers are loaded and discharged by special tractors which may be carried on board or provided at the terminal. Multi-deck designs with interconnecting ramps, like that shown in Figure B-13, are common. Trailer ships are normally designed for short runs with assorted sized trailers, as it is more economical on long voyages to separate standard (ISO) trailers from their chassis and transport them as containers. Characteristics for a typical trailer ship are shown in Table B-25.
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B-6.8 Barge Carriers. The Barge Carrier is another variation on the unitized cargo concept, employing larger containers (barges) that are lifted to and from the water instead of the dock. Barge carriers are particularly suited to traffic between ports at the entry to inland waterways and undeveloped ports. Since the barges are loaded directly to and from the water, cargo can be delivered without container handling facilities. Three types of barge carrier are described in the following paragraphs: the LASH (Lighter Aboard Ship), the SEABEE, and the BACO (Barge Container). LASH and SEABEE ships are shown in Figure B-14.
SW BALL.
HOLD NO. 6
HOLD HOLD NO. 5 NO. 4

HOLD NO. 1
MACHY SPACE AP
HOLD NO. 3
HOLD NO. 2
FO CARGO TK OIL FP
SW BALL.
BARGE STOWAGE HOLD NO. 3
INBOARD PROFILE
MAIN DECK GANTRY CRANE TYPE (LASH)
CONTAINER STOWAGE HOLD NO. 1
ELEVATOR MACHY SPACE AP BALL. ALLEY BALL. BALL. BALL. MACHY CASING FO FO FO FO FO BALL. FP BOW THRUST. BARGE WINCH ROOM
INBOARD PROFILE
ACCOMODATIONS
UPPER DECK CABIN DECK MAIN DECK LOWER DECK
ELEVATOR
MAIN DECK PLATFORM ELEVATOR TYPE (SEABEE)
Figure B-14. Barge Carriers.
B-6.8.1 LASH Ship. LASH ships are large, (up to 46,000 tons deadweight) and relatively fast (10 to 22 knots). LASH characteristics are given in Tables B-31 and B-34 (Pages B-51, B-54, and B-55). LASH lighters measure 61.5 feet long by 31 feet wide by 13 feet high, and hold up to 20,000 cubic feet or 375 long tons of cargo. The lighters are fitted for stacking with large locking (peck and hale) lugs at the corners of the deck and matching recesses on their bottoms. The barges are lifted to and from the water at the stern by an installed 455 long ton travelling gantry crane that engages the deck lugs. The vessel shown can carry up to 46 barges stacked in holds similar to the way containers are stacked, with an additional 30 stacked two deep on deck over the hatch covers. The forward hold may be fitted with cell guides for up to 180 containers, with another 164 stacked on hatch covers and along the wing walls, reducing barge capacity to 61. A stretched (893 foot) version can carry up to 89 lighters for a total cargo deadweight of 33,375 long tons. River-type towboats (see Paragraph B-6.15), specifically designed and fitted for stowage atop lighters and handling by the gantry crane, may be carried to handle the lighters in undeveloped ports. B-6.8.2 SEABEE Ship. SEABEE barges measure 97 feet long by 35 feet wide by 12.5 feet high with a 1,000 ton cargo capacity. The barge size was selected to match the dimensions of standard barges on U.S. inland waterways. The SEABEE ship is about the same size as a LASH ship. SEABEE characteristics are given in Table B-34 (Pages B-54 and B-55). With a deadweight of 38,000 tons, the SEABEE ship can carry 38 barges. Barges are loaded by an elevator located at the stern and moved forward by a winch located forward of the barge decks. Two tween decks are used to store the barges, and machinery spaces are located below them. The machinery space extends into a box-like structure outboard the barges on both sides of the ship. These spaces are largely used for accommodations and ballast tanks. In addition to the barges, SEABEE ships have a container capacity of about 950 TEU (mostly on deck) and can accept RO/RO cargo. Because of their spacious and unobstructed barge decks, SEABEE ships are particularly well suited to carrying oversize military and industrial cargo, such as aircraft, watercraft, and tracked vehicles.
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B-6.8.3 Barge Container (BACO) Ship. BACO ships are similar in arrangement to LASH and SEABEE ships, but employ a float-on/float-off loading method. The ship is ballasted, the hold is flooded, and the barges are floated in through the doors in the bow. After loading, the doors are closed, the hold is pumped out, and the ship is ready to sail. Unlike other barge carriers, BACO ships are commonly fitted with cargo gear, including cranes with a typical capacity of 800 tons. Characteristics of a the BACO barge and a typical ship are given in Table B-26. Typical cargo capacity is twelve barges and 500 to 620 container TEU. B-6.9 Tankers. Oil tankers, illustrated in Figure B-15, are unique in that the cargo rests directly on the skin of the ship. Most oil tankers are single-skinned, although recent U.S legislation will require double bottoms and/or cofferdams. Tankers are roughly grouped according to size and service: Type: Coastal Handy or small size Mid size Large Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC) Ultra Large Crude Carrier (ULCC) Deadweight, lton: less than 15,000 6,000 to 35,000 35,000 to 75,000 75,000 to 160,000 160,000 to 300,000 above 300,000
Table B-26. BACO Ship.

BACO Ship Dimensions, ft-in Length overall Beam Draft, load Deadweight, tonne (lton) Service Speed, kts 669-7 93-6 21-10 21,000 20,672 15 78-9 31-2 13-11 800 787.5 Barge
Service: crude and refined products mainly refined products crude and refined products mainly crude exclusively crude exclusively crude
FOCSLE FORE PEAK TANK
MACHINERY SPACE AFT PEAK TANK
CARGO CARGO CARGO CARGO CARGO TANK TANK TANK TANK TANK
PUMP ROOM/ COFFERDAM
COFFERDAM
DEEP TANK
TYPICAL SMALL COASTAL TANKER
a 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
(a) MAIN CARGO PUMP ROOM (b) EXTRA LARGE TANKS FOR SPECIAL PARCELS
a b b
TYPICAL PRODUCT CARRIER
(a) SADLE SLOP TANK (b) MAIN CARGO PUMP ROOM (c) PERMANENT BALLAST TANKS
c b a c
OPEN BULKHEAD FOR STRENGTH AND TO REDUCE OIL MOVEMENT
TYPICAL CRUDE CARRIER
Figure B-15. Tankers.
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Characteristics of various-sized tankers are given in Tables B-31, B-32, and B-34 (Pages B-51, B-52, B-54, and B-55). Cargo space in tankers is subdivided by a number of oil-tight bulkheads throughout the length of the tank deck. In mid-size and large tankers, cargo space is further subdivided by two longitudinal bulkheads to give several sets of three tanks abreast, numbered from forward aft (center, and port and starboard wing tanks). The wing tanks typically have one half to two thirds the capacity of the adjacent center tank. In small tankers there may be only one longitudinal bulkhead, or none at all, while very large tankers may have 5 tanks abreast. All tankers have machinery spaces aft of the cargo tanks. Some older designs have a midships bridge and accommodation unit, but all working spaces are isolated from other areas by cofferdams. To minimize the risk of leakage of oils or vapor into other compartments, a pair of bulkheads, forming a cofferdam, are fitted at each end of the tank section. In some ships, pumprooms serve as cofferdams. Ships designed to carry different products simultaneously may separate groups of tanks by cofferdams. Most tankers have a deep tank for ships fuel between the cargo tank section and the fore peak tank. Additional fuel may be carried in double-bottom tanks under, and wing tanks abreast, the machinery spaces. Some vessels have a dry cargo hold above the forward deep tank. To reduce the still water bending moment and allow lighter scantlings, large tankers are often designed with permanently empty tanks near midships. Since virtually all tankers tend to hog when empty, it is important to avoid loading cargo into the extreme bow and stern sections without first placing some weight in the center. Tankers less than 650 feet in length may be framed on either a longitudinal or combination system. Longitudinal framing is required for larger tankers by the construction rules of most classification societies and regulatory agencies. Transverse bulkheads are normally located not more than two-tenths of the ships length apart. Perforated swash bulkheads are fitted in tanks longer than one-tenth the ships length or 45 feet, to provide transverse strength and dampen fore and aft movement of the cargo. The longitudinal framing extends throughout the length of the tank section and may extend to the ends of the ship, but it is customary to employ transverse framing at the ends of the ship, including the machinery spaces. A double bottom is normally fitted under the machinery spaces. Cargo pumping arrangements in oil tankers are quite extensive, since a number of grades of oil may have to be loaded, transferred, and discharged from tank to tank through a pipe network without risk of contamination of one grade by another. Tanks for heavy oils, molasses or other viscous fluids are fitted with heating coils. Pumprooms may be placed at both ends of the tank section or between tank groups, but most modern tankers have only one pumproom, between the tank section and the machinery space. B-6.9.1 Tanker Piping Systems. Most modern tankers are fitted with a direct pipeline system for handling cargo. Tanks are divided into groups or systems, with a different pump and line for each system. Figure B-16 shows two possible pipeline arrangements for an 18 tank ship. The upper illustration incorporates three main cargo pumps, each handling two sets of tanks (two center tanks and four wing tanks). The lower illustrates another possible arrangement for the same type of ship. In this case only two pumps are fitted; one for centers, one for wings. In both cases, a separate line runs from each pump along the bottom of the tank range to the tanks in its system. Shorter sections of pipe branch off from the main lines to each individual tank. These pipelines vary in diameter from 10 to 12 inches on smaller tankers to 36 inches on VLCCs. Valves are operated by metal reach rods connecting each valve stem to a handwheel on the main deck. Chapter 2 of the U.S Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 5 (S0300-A6MAN-050) offers a detailed treatment of ship fuel and cargo oil systems.
PUMP 1
PUMP 2
PUMP 3 6 PORT SYSTEM #1 PUMP 5 4 3 CENTER SYSTEM #2 PUMP 2 1 STARBOARD SYSTEM #3 PUMP
PUMP 1 PUMP 2
6 5 4 PORT SYSTEM #1 PUMP (WING TANKS)
3 2 1 STARBOARD SYSTEM #3 PUMP (CENTER TANKS)
UPPER AND LOWER DIAGRAMS SHOW TWO POSSIBLE ARRANGEMENTS FOR AN 18-TANK. UPPER DIAGRAM USES 3 PUMPS, LOWER DIAGRAM USES 2 PUMPS
Figure B-16. Tanker Piping Systems.
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B-6.9.2 Tank Cleaning. Tanks are routinely cleaned to prevent contamination of a clean cargo or seawater ballast by residues of a previous cargo, or to render them gas-free in preparation for personnel entry for inspection, maintenance, or repair. Tank washing machines, consisting of fixed or rotating nozzles, are installed on most modern tankers. The nozzles deliver seawater in the form of a high pressure, rotating stream. Water is delivered by a special pump in the engine room, or by the cargo pumps. The piping system may include heating coils to furnish hot water. Washing temperatures pressures, which may be as high as 180 degrees Fahrenheit and 180 psi, vary with the tank coating and the type of residue being cleaned. The cleaning slops are drawn from the tank by the stripping system for transfer to slop tanks. Various tank coatings are used in many tankers to ease cleaning. Some crude oil carriers are fitted for crude oil washing (COW) of tanks. The tanks are crude washed during discharge to loosen and remove the waxy residue and sludge clinging to the tank inner structure that otherwise would not be discharged (and therefore not earn income). The washing fluid is crude oil delivered to the rotating nozzles by the cargo pumps. B-6.9.3 Coastal (Small) Tankers. Coastal tankers have simple layouts and are used to transport a variety of products. Coastal tankers are substantially smaller (15,000 deadweight tons or less) than most long-haul tankers, in order to maintain shallower drafts for entry into shallow water ports, or through inland waterways. Most coastal tankers are limited to one or a few types of cargo in normal service to reduce the need for frequent tank cleaning and multiple cargo handling systems. Many are built with shell-to-shell tanks without longitudinal bulkheads. They may have double bottoms. B-6.9.4 Mid-size Tankers. Mid-size tankers may be designed to carry either crude oil or refined products. Many product carriers are designed to carry several cargoes isolated from each other in separate parcels. The parcel carrier concept permits one ship to carry various types of incompatible products at the same time. This ship type is commonly employed in moving products between refineries, or from refineries to customers, to and from storage points, and other cabotage operations. A fore and aft catwalk is commonly built between the superstructure and the forecastle to allow safe passage when the ship is laden. The catwalk also forms a convenient support for the cargo, steam, and foamsmothering pipelines that run along the upper deck. B-6.9.5 Large Tankers. ULCCs with deadweights in excess of half a million tons have been built, although the current trend is for somewhat smaller vessels in the 100,000- to 150,000-ton deadweight range. The catwalk seen in smaller tankers is seldom found in VLCCs and ULCCs because these vessels have a railed off section running fore and aft along the main deck centerline for crew passage. B-6.9.6 Double-hull Tankers. Recent controversy surrounding double hulls and double bottom construction includes the merits of each type of construction as they apply to the salvor. Double bottoms or hulls may add an increased potential for capsizing or explosion, making the salvage operation more hazardous and thus more likely to fail. Current debate revolves around the required depth of the double hull. In spite of inherent hazards, a double hull offers certain advantages over single skin construction, provided that only the outer hull is ruptured:
The prevention of immediate pollution in the event that grounding or collision ruptures only the outer hull. Cargo piping is more likely to remain intact and operational. Lost buoyancy is restricted to the smaller double bottoms which, in turn, can be more easily pressurized with air. The smaller "bubble" is more likely to hold during refloating, and its loss would likely be less catastrophic. The ability to stabilize a casualty in the early stages to prevent further grounding or loss of structural integrity. The availability of a wider range of options in developing and implementing a salvage plan, like countering off-center weight with selective ballasting.
Additional discussion on the merits of double-hull and double-bottom construction can be found in the Report of The Committee on Tank Vessel Design, November 1990, a comprehensive study by the National Academy of Sciences.
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B-6.10 Bulk Carriers. In its broadest sense, the term bulk carrier embraces all ships designed primarily for the carriage of solid or liquid cargo in bulk form, and so would include tankers. In ordinary usage, however, the term is normally used for those vessels designed for the transport of solid bulk cargos, typically grain and similar agricultural products, and mineral products like coal, ore, stone, etc., on one or more voyage legs. Like tankers, the general arrangement of cargo spaces is dictated by the facts that the cargo is in the form of homogeneous particles of more or less uniform size, and can be transferred by blowers, conveyors, or grab buckets. Cargo spaces are divided into holds to meet structural and subdivision requirements, to restrain cargo movements and resulting upsetting moments, to permit the carrying of different cargoes simultaneously, and to provide for ballasting. Machinery is invariably aft, and the nonperishable nature of the cargoes leads to speeds in the 12- to 16-knot range, with attendant full hull forms. Bulk carrier general arrangement and size range are similar to that of tankers, as shown in Figure B-17. Single-purpose bulk carriers are generally designed as ore carriers, built to carry heavy cargoes stowing at 25 cubic feet per long ton or less, or dry bulk carriers, for grain and similar cargoes stowing at 45 to 50 cubic feet per ton. Stowage factors for various bulk cargoes are given in Appendix E of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010).
HOLD NO. 7
HOLD NO. 5
HOLD NO. 3
HOLD NO. 1
MACHINERY ROOM
HOLD NO. 6
HOLD NO. 4
HOLD NO. 2
PROFILE
WING TANK OIL HATCHWAY ORE SIDE TANK CENTER HOLD (OIL OR OIL) WATER BALLAST OILTIGHT LONGITUDINAL BULKHEAD BALLAST ORE/BULK/OIL CARGO VOID BALLAST DOUBLE DUCT KEEL BOTTOM
TOPSIDE TANK HATCHWAY
WING TANK
CARGO HOLD HOPPER SIDES DOUBLE BOTTOM
DOUBLE BOTTOM
DRY BULK
ORE
ORE/OIL
OBO
TYPICAL SECTIONS FOR DIFFERENT TYPE CARRIERS
Figure B-17. Bulk Carriers.
Relatively small volumes of dense ores and similar cargoes will settle a ship to her summer load line. Holds on ore carriers are therefore quite small, bounded by broad wing tanks and deep double bottoms, as shown in Figure B-17. The double bottom and longitudinal bulkheads are of heavy construction to carry the heavy ore load. The narrow hold breadth limits transverse weight shifts and the depth of the double bottom is sufficient to keep the center of gravity of the ore high enough to prevent stiff rolling in a seaway. Large volume wing tanks are used for ballast. Designed for low-density cargoes, dry bulk carriers require much greater hold volume than ore carriers, and therefore have much shallower inner bottoms, as shown in Figure B-17. In some designs the topside tanks are omitted or fitted with bolted plates in the sloping plating facing the hold. When very light cargoes are carried, the plates are removed and the tanks are filled along with the hold; the cargo in the tanks feeds into the hold by gravity when discharging. Larger carriers are sometimes built with an inner side shell, which eases hold cleaning and provides additional ballast space. Shallow double-bottom bulk carriers are sometimes designed to carry high-density cargo, by arranging them with alternate long and short holds. High-density cargo is loaded only in alternate holds to keep the center of gravity high enough to prevent excessive metacentric height. The double-bottom structure under the holds intended for heavy cargo is augmented. The alternating cargo distribution causes high vertical shear near the bounding bulkheads, which may require increased shell scantlings.
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With the increase in industrial demand for raw materials paralleling that for petroleum, the design of bulk carriers, like tankers, also evolved to include larger hulls. Bulk carrier deadweights range from quite small to over 200,000 tons. In order to increase the proportion of payload operation above the 50-percent level typical of most straight bulk carriers (for tankers or dry bulk carriers operating between specific ports, cargo is often carried on only one leg of the journey), a trend toward combination carriers began about 1950. At first, these were dual purpose ships (ore/oil, bulk/oil) which carried different cargos on separate legs of a voyage cycle consisting of two or more legs. This development has evolved into combination carriers known as ore/bulk/oil ships (OBO). Despite differences, bulk carriers of all types have certain features in common:
Single cargo deck, without tween decks. Machinery aft of cargo spaces so shaft tunnel does not interfere with discharging gear. Large ballast capacity. Double bottoms under bulk cargo holds.
To facilitate rapid cargo discharge and minimize cleaning requirements, holds are designed with a minimum of internal obstructions that might catch and hold cargo. Bulkhead stiffening is attained by the use of corrugated plate rather than welded stiffeners. Hold cross section, as shown in Figure B-17, is arranged so that cargo is self-trimming and self-loading:
Cargo will flow outwards from the point of discharge of bucket grabs or gravity chutes to fill the entire cargo space with a minimum of hand trimming. The narrowing width at the top of the hold limits transverse cargo shifts when the hold is not completely filled. During discharge, remaining cargo will flow to a fairly small area where it can be picked up by the discharging equipment.
Holds of different lengths may be distributed throughout the length of the ship for flexibility in cargo distribution; cargoes of varying densities can be distributed so as to keep the longitudinal bending moment within acceptable limits. Except for equipment to open or remove hatch covers, most bulk carriers are without cargo gear. Cargo is loaded by gravity chutes or derrick grabs and discharged by grabs, conveyor systems, or in the case of grain and similar light cargo, by suction. Some bulk carriers are built as self unloaders, either by the provision of derrick grabs, or by trimming the cargo spaces to belt conveyers running under the holds to a bucket conveyer which transfers the cargo to another belt conveyor on a long unloading boom. Conveyor type self-unloaders are fairly common on the Great Lakes (see Paragraph B-6.11). Combination carriers are fitted with cargo pumps and piping systems for discharging oil cargoes. B-6.10.1 Ore/Oil Carriers. Cargo spaces in ore/oil carriers are divided into center and wing tanks by two longitudinal bulkheads, as shown in Figure B-17 (Page B-43). A deep double bottom lies under the center tank, which is also the ore hold. Oil and ore are not carried simultaneously because of the danger of explosion, and only the center tanks are used for ore. Construction is similar to that of oil tankers, except for double bottom and the large oiltight hatches over the centerline holds. The main structure of the ship must meet the standards for ore carriers, while bulkheads and other appropriate parts of the structure must meet oil tanker standards. B-6.10.2 Ore/Bulk/Oil (OBO) Carriers. The cargo cross section of an OBO carrier is similar to that of general dry bulk carrier, but significantly stronger, as the bulkheads must be oiltight and the double bottom must carry the high density ore load. The typical bulk carrier self-trimming cargo hold and wing tank arrangement, together with holds of different lengths, provides the alternative distribution patterns required for utilizing the full deadweight for any of the three types of cargo (or ballast) while maintaining proper stability and trim.
Table B-27. Typical OBO Characteristics.

Dimensions (ft) Length overall Length between perpendiculars Beam, molded Draft, molded, full load (summer) Speed and Power Service speed, knots Maximum continuous Bhp (metric) at 114 rpm Normal bhp (metric) at 110 rpm Deadweight and Displacement (long tons) Light ship weight Total deadweight (maximum) Cargo deadweight (ore, oil) Cargo deadweight (coal) Cargo deadweight (grain)
3
815-0 775-0 104-6 41
15.85 18,400 16,800
15,528 63,410 61,419 53,303 60,620
Cargo Capacity (ft ) The general arrangement and basic loading conditions for a typical Cargo holds (grain) 2,727,933 OBO carrier are shown in Figure B-18 and described in Table B-27. Cargo tanks (98 percent full) 2,947,624 Only when carrying coal, grain, and similar low density cargos are all the holds used. Because of its greater density, a full ore cargo requires only the four long holds. Liquid cargos are distributed among various holds and wing tanks in accordance with the liquid density and requirements for proper stability and trim; in general, tanks are either filled or left empty. Several special features for liquid cargos are incorporated, including provisions for tank cleaning and heating, and remote control of all cargo and stripping valves. The short holds and wing tanks are filled when sailing in ballast condition.
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APT
COFFERDAM PUMP ROOM ENGINE ROOM
FO HOLD NO. 7 HOLD NO. 6 HOLD NO. 5 HOLD NO. 4 HOLD NO. 3 HOLD NO. 2 HOLD NO. 1
FPT COFF PR
INBOARD PROFILE
UPPER DECK
HOLD NO.
ORE
OIL
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COAL OR GRAIN
1 3
WATER BALLAST aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
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4 5
6 7
Figure B-18. OBO Profile, Deck Plans, and Loading Conditions.
B-6.11 Great Lakes Bulk Carriers. As the principal commodities carried on the Great Lakes are coal, ore, limestone, and grain, the majority of the cargo vessels working the lakes and the St. Lawrence River are bulk carriers, commonly called freighters. Because the corrosion rate in the cold fresh water of the Lakes and Seaway is virtually negligible, Great Lakes ships generally have a useful life of 50 to 60 years (it is not uncommon to find vessels built in the early 1900s in service on the Great Lakes and associated river systems). The long ship service life, combined with the limitations imposed by channel and lock dimensions, and well established trading routes and terminals, has discouraged drastic changes in ship form and arrangement. Ship design changes in Great Lakes vessels have mainly involved machinery plant improvements, including the general trend towards diesel powering, and measures to improve maneuverability, such as fitting controllable pitch propellers, Kort nozzles, twin rudders, and bow thrusters. Great Lakes freighters are designed to operate between the same loading and unloading docks throughout their lives, and to drydock at any of the long established facilities on the Lakes. Cargo hatches are spaced on 12- and 24-foot centers to coincide with the width of loading docks at Great Lakes ports, where cargo chutes are spaced at 12-foot centers. Cargo gear is more commonly fitted on Lake freighters than ocean going dry bulk carriers. Self-unloading gear for a typical 37,500 deadweight vessel can discharge 4,000 tons of coal per hour using a hoisting and sluing boom, controlled from a remote console in the forecastle. Remote actuators operate gate valves allowing the cargo to pass downwards from the hopper holds onto belt conveyors. These belts carry cargo to a vertical bucket conveyor and thence to a belt conveyor on a sluing boom, which may be nearly 300 feet long. Figure B-19 shows profile and cross section of a typical Great Lakes self-unloader.
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TYPICAL PROFILE
3/8 IN. PL
1 3/8 IN. WEB AND FLG PL
3/8 IN. PL
SPACED 3 FT - 0 IN.
68 x 1-3/8 IN. PL 95 x 10 IN. PL
SECTION IN WAY OF ORDINARY FRAME
SECTION IN WAY OF WEB FRAME ARCH
SPACED 12 FT - 0 IN.
ALL HOPPER PL 7/16 IN. HSS 11/16 IN. PL
90 x 0.78 IN. PL
78 x 103 IN. PL
11/16 IN. PL
LOA = 666 - 4", LBP = BM = 72 - 0" DM = 40 - 0", TD = 27 - 1 1/8", = 37,400 LTON TYPICAL SELF-UNLOADER SECTION
Figure B-19. Great Lakes Bulk Carriers.
Great Lakes cargo vessels range in size from 10,000 to 80,000 tons deadweight. Size limitations of 730 feet in length, 75-foot beam, and 27-foot draft are imposed by the St. Lawrence Seaway and the locks and channels linking the lower lakes (Erie, Ontario, and St. Clair). The Sault Ste. Marie ("Soo") locks linking Lakes Huron and Superior can accommodate vessels up to 1,000 feet in length with beams of 105 feet and drafts of 32 feet. Some newer vessels are built to these dimensions for service on only the upper lakes (Huron, Superior, Michigan). Great Lakes vessels are easily identified by their great length and arrangement; machinery aft of all cargo holds, extensive parallel midbody, pilot house usually well forward rather than on the aft deck house, and straight, nearly vertical stems. A rectangular bar stem or heavy pipe is still used to a great extent, because of the custom of windingturning a vessel into a narrow channel by going ahead with the rudder hard over and a bow line secured to the dock. As the ship comes around the stem is under heavy pressure as it rides against the dock. A vessel with a raked stem would tend to climb up on the dock or overhang the dock and foul the dockside cargo handling equipment. Stem bars of Lakes vessels also require frequent replacement, and straight bar or pipe stems can be procured more economically and with less lead time than custom castings or built up stems.
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The high length to breadth ratios (8 to 10) typical of Great Lakes vessels virtually mandates longitudinal framing. Experience has shown, however, that longitudinally framed vessels are more susceptible to lock damage than transversely framed vessels. As lock transits are a frequent occurrence, the sides of Lakes vessels are transversely framed, with the inner bottom and deck longitudinally framed. The side-framing is usually of greater strength than customary in seagoing vessels of the same size, with deep frames between hatches. In other respects, the scantling of Great Lakes ships are less than those of similar sized ocean going vessels, as they are designed for less severe wave conditions. Automatic self-tensioning mooring winches are fitted on most Lakes vessels, essential on vessels using the Seaway locks, unless special arrangements can be made for mooring winches to be operated manually. Steering gear is usually designed for an operating angle of 45 degrees with the rudder stops set at 47 or 48 degrees, as compared with 35 degrees for the most oceangoing cargo ships. The 45-degree angle is essential for maneuvering in close quarters and when winding. The steering gear of a Great Lakes vessel is more powerful than for an oceangoing cargo ship because ship specifications normally the rudder to be able to shift from hard-over to hard-over (90 degrees) in 20 seconds or less. B-6.12 Liquified Gas Carriers. Most liquified gas carriers are designed for the transportation of condensed hydrocarbon gases, although ammonia and other gases are sometimes carried in bulk liquid form. Table B-28 lists pertinent characteristics of common liquified gases.
Table B-28. Characteristics of Liquified Gases.

Gas Propane (LPG) Butane (LPG) Methane (LNG) Ammonia
There are two basic types of liquified gas carriers. Liquified Boiling Point (degrees F) -44 31 -263 -28.0 petroleum gas (LPG) tankers transport the heavy gases such as propane and butane in a semi-refrigerated, semi-pressurized Critical Temperature (degrees F) 20.6 306 -116 269.6 containment system. Liquified natural gas (LNG) carriers Specific Gravity at Boiling Point 0.59 0.60 0.42 0.62 transport natural gas, consisting primarily of methane, the lightest of the hydrocarbon gases. Because of its low critical temperature - the highest temperature at which the gas can be liquified by pressurization - cryogenic temperatures are required to liquify natural gas. This requirement presents a much greater challenge to ship design and construction than those of LPG carriers. Both LNG and LPG carriers have service speeds in the 16- to 19-knot range. A double hull in some form is universally employed. Tanks are generally individual structures supported by the hull, and their shape and design depend on the working pressure and temperature. Three basic types are in general use:
Free standing or self supporting tanks with sufficient strength to withstand cargo stresses. Tanks may be spherical, prismatic, or cylindrical in shape and fitted with a centerline wash-plate to reduce free-surface effect. Spherical and prismatic tank outlines are shown in Figure B-20. Membrane tanks fabricated from a thin stainless steel shell, or membrane, which is supported by load-bearing insulating material supported by the ships structure. In some of these tanks the membrane is double-skinned and the intervening space is filled with insulation. Semi-membrane tank, consisting of a strong, lightly stiffened outer skin, that cannot support its own weight. Rounded parts are left unsupported, so that they can flex to allow for expansion and contraction of the tank. They are similar in construction to the membrane tank but supported only at the base and sides.
The salvor called to assist an liquefied gas carrier should seek specialist advice regarding the nature of the gas being handled and, if necessary, the methods by which the cargo will be transferred. Cargo transfer must not be undertaken without due consideration of all the contingencies which can reasonably be foreseen. In the case of stranded or otherwise damaged refrigerated carriers, immediate and high priority should be given to providing power to the liquefaction plant to prevent uncontrolled boiloff. Unconfined LPG and LNG present severe fire, toxic, and cryogenic hazards. There have been a number of casualties to LPG vessels requiring salvage assistance, some are described in Safe Havens for Disabled Gas Carriers published by the Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) in November 1982. B-6.12.1 Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) Tankers. Fully pressurized LPG carriers were first designed in the late 1940s, and are still the most common type of liquefied gas carrier. Cargo is carried at ambient temperature in uninsulated spherical or cylindrical pressure vessels. The pressure vessels are supported by cradles and are independent of the hull structure. Working pressures of about 285 psia allow propane to be carried at temperatures of up to 113 degrees Fahrenheit. Cargo capacity ranges from a few hundred cubic meters to about 5,000 cubic meters (about 18,000 cubic feet). Refrigerated, semi-pressurized LPG tankers carry cargo in pressure vessels independent of hull structure. Cargo pressures are limited to 60 to 105 psig by permitting the cargo to boil and reliquefying the boil-off vapor. The tanks are insulated to minimize heat transfer from the surrounding environment. The first ships of this type, built in the early 1960s were limited to relatively high minimum cargo temperatures consistent with the designed cargo pressure range. New ships are built with tank materials and reliquefying plants capable of fully refrigerated carriage of LPG and the chemical liquefied gases at temperatures down to -58 degrees Fahrenheit. Some ships extend this capability to the fully refrigerated carriage of ethylene at -155 degrees. The lower design pressure allows larger tanks than for fully pressurized carriage; modern semipressurized ships may range up to 30,000 cubic meters (over 1,000,000 cubic feet) capacity.
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TYPICAL LNG CARRIER SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF TANKS PROTECTIVE STEEL DOME TANK SHELL PRIMARY BARRIER CLADDING SECONDARY BARRIER BULKHEAD CARGO TANK HOLD SPACE INSULATION SPRAY SHIELD WATER BALLAST STIFFENED SUPPORT SKIRT INSULATION PART WAY DOWN SKIRT INSULATION WITH SPLASH BARRIER
WATER BALLAST
INSULATION DRIP TRAY
PRISMATIC SELF-SUPPORTING TYPE A TANK FOR A FULLY REFRIGERATED LPG CARRIER
SELF-SUPPORTING SPHERICAL TYPE B TANK
NO SECONDARY BARRIER REQUIRED
WATER BALLAST INTERIOR SPACE
PRESSURE VESSEL INSULATION HOLD SPACE WATER BALLAST
INVAR MEMBRANE PRIMARY BARRIER INNER HULL INSULATION INVAR MEMBRANE SECONDARY BARRIER
TYPE C TANKS (SEMI-PRESSURIZED FULLY REFRIGERATED GAS CARRIERS)
A MEMBRANE TYPE CONTAINMENT SYSTEM (LARGER SIZED LNG CARRIERS)
Figure B-20. Liquefied Gas Carriers.
Fully refrigerated LPG tankers carry LPG and the chemical liquefied gases under fully refrigerated conditions at near atmospheric pressure. The cargo tanks are generally self supporting, independent of the ships structure, and prismatic to utilize hull space more efficiently. The tanks are often capable of working pressures of up to 11 psig, but normally operate at 3 to 5 psig. Tank materials, insulation, and liquefaction plant are designed for working temperatures down to -67 degrees Fahrenheit. Some ships are designed to carry ammonia or vinyl chloride monomer as well as the full range of liquefied petroleum gases. Capacities range from 5000 cubic meters to about 100,000 cubic meters (over 3.5 million cubic feet), or 65,000 tons deadweight.
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B-6.12.2 Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) Carrier. LNG, principally methane, is invariably carried fully refrigerated at about -260 degrees Fahrenheit and near-atmospheric pressure. The heavily insulated cargo tanks may be either self-supporting or membrane type tanks. Self-supporting spherical or prismatic tanks are fabricated of aluminum or nickel steel. Typical tank sections are shown in Figure B-20. Cargo is pumped aboard LNG carriers at its boiling temperature from a special loading facility. In this condition, volume is about 1/600 that of the gas at normal temperatures, and the stowage factor is about 85 cubic feet per long ton. Gas is discharged from the vessel by high- capacity submerged electric stainless steel pumps. In addition, three steam turbine-driven booster pumps are commonly located on deck. A common feature of LNG ships is the provision for capturing boiled-off LNG, which would otherwise be lost, and burning it as propulsion fuel. The gas can be burned directly as boiler fuel or mixed with fuel oil. Steam turbine propulsion is typically employed, although newer designs employ diesel plants. Many LNG ships feature bow thrusters, and most are fitted with dry powder fire protection and deck water spraying systems for the cargo tanks, plus a nitrogen inerting system for void tanks and spaces. Tables B-29 and B-31 list typical characteristics of LNG Ships. B-6.13 Chemical Carriers. Chemical carriers are designed to carry highly corrosive, poisonous and volatile chemicals. While most are designed for a specific chemical, parcel chemical carriers are constructed to permit simultaneous carriage of a variety of substances which require complete segregation. Parcel chemical tankers are similar in size and general layout to petroleum product tankers, but with a greater degree of cargo segregation and tank cladding. They may have separate piping/pumping systems designated to handle especially hazardous cargoes, or to segregate incompatible parcels. Because of the complex nature of the cargoes, options to shift of lighter cargo may be severely limited. Specialized lighters, pumps, and discharge lines may be required. As with petroleum products, the salvor must take care to balance the cargos salvage with the safety of salvors and the local population, and the potential for environmental pollution. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) groups chemical carriers into three types of shipstypes I, II, and III. The requirements for each ship type are intended to minimize the effects of collision or grounding. The most hazardous chemicals are allocated to type I vessels, which require a double bottom for cargo tanks, which can not be closer than B/5 from the ships sides measured at the load water line. Type II chemical carriers are similarly designed as far as the double bottom is concerned, but cargoes can be carried to 29.92 inches from the ships side, with side cofferdams absorbing the force of minor side damage.
Table B-29. Characteristics of Typical LNG Ships.
Dimensions (ft-in) Length overall Length between perpendiculars Beam Depth Design Draft
659-6 617-8 81-7 54-0 24-8
Speed and Power Design sea speed, knots Shaft horsepower
17 15,000
Total Deadweight (long tons)
13,400
Capacity, ft3
900,500
Table B-30. Artubar Integrated Tug-Barge.
Dimensions (ft) Length overall Length between perpendiculars Beam, overall Depth, molded Draft, design Draft, scantling
Tug 150.0 ft 134.5 ft 40.0 ft 24.5 ft
Barge 568.0 ft
85.0 ft 85.0 ft 12.0 ft
23.6 ft
Deadweight and Displacement Deadweight, excluding ballast Cargo deadweight and water ballast Displacement at scantling draft 1,450 tons 250 tons 6,450
12,130
Type III carriers are ordinary tankers, insofar as tank arrangement is concerned. Only a small number of chemicals are designated for such carriage. The IMO code also includes recommendations regarding the location of accommodations, ventilation of pump rooms, pumping arrangements, tank venting, tank gauging, etc, all with the intention of minimizing health hazards to the crew and the environment.
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B-6.14 Barges. Barges are a common type of hull encountered in salvage work, and both as casualties and as important assets as lighters, pulling or lifting platforms, support units, etc. Various configurations are used by commercial and military interests. Large barges may have installed cargo handling or ballasting equipment, including pumps and piping for loading, shifting, or ballasting equipment. Ballast systems may be used for correcting trim, list, and stability problems imposed by cargo loading or casualty damage. There are many different types of barges, for the same reason that there are many types of merchant ships:
Hopper barges for the transport of bulk cargo, which may be fitted with weathertight or watertight hatch covers. Bottom dump hopper barges are fitted with bottom opening doors for dumping rip-rap, dredge spoil, garbage, and the like, or for dumping coal and stone cargoes alongside piers where it is picked up by shore operated grabs or conveyers. Deck barges, which are essentially flat-topped pontoons designed for the transportation of vehicles or other heavy equipment, general cargoes, or for use as floating work platforms. Some are fitted with coamings for the transport of nonperishable cargo like scrap metal. Some deck barges are fitted with a light, shed-like structure to protect cargo or enclose work spaces. Dry cargo barges with holds and hatch covers like general cargo ships. Tank barges for carrying petroleum or other liquids. Tank barges may be quite specialized with regard to tank design and cargo handling systems. A significant amount of hazardous cargo, including liquefied and pressurized gases, is moved by barge on inland and coastal waterways. Some barges, especially those designed for the carriage of petroleum products, may have double bottom ballast tanks. Multi-deck RO/RO barges for the transport of vehicles and containers. Float-on/float-off barges for carrying smaller vessels, LASH lighters, or inland waterways craft on coastal or ocean voyages. Barges that combine some of the above features.
Despite specialization, all barges share certain features. Cargo distribution within the hull is not constrained by the requirements of propelling machinery or accommodations. Because tow speeds are quite low, barges have very full lines. Ocean barges may be 300 feet or more in length. Spoon, ship-shape, or flat rake bows may be fitted, while the stern is normally a flat transom with some cut up in the afterbody. Parallel midbody extends for as much as 80 percent of the length. Because of the low towing speeds, slamming and other ship motion induced forces are less than in a self propelled ship of the same size. Scantlings are therefore somewhat lighter than for a similarly sized ship. In general, barges for inland and harbor use are not as rugged as those designed for the open sea. The tug and barge systems developed on the rivers of the Mississippi basin and in wide use on the Gulf Intracoastal and Atlantic Intracoastal waterways, use standard square barges lashed tightly together and connected to the tug at the bow. Considerable attempts have been made to standardize barge size on the river systems to facilitate making up tows. A common size for lower river barges is 175 feet by 35 feet by 11 feet. Barges intended for use together in a regular service are sometimes constructed as units of an integrated tow, that is, there are lead barges with forward rake, a number of square ended barges for the main part of the tow, and shorter after end barges. Tugs engaged in pushing barges on U.S. inland waterways are almost universally referred to a towboats rather than tugs. U.S. inland towboats have nearly rectangular waterplanes with low freeboard. The bows are fitted with push knees, flat steel frames, faced with timber or heavy rubber pads, which provide a flush mating surface between the tug and barge. Cables used to secure the towboat to the barge are known as facewires, and are normally made up on winches located amidships or further aft on the towboat. Double push knees are preferable to a single knee as there is less strain on the facewires. Push knees are to a towboat what towing bitts are to an oceangoing tug; thrust developed by the tug is focused at this point. Barges are arranged in longitudinal rows called strings; the string directly ahead of the towboat is the push string; those outboard are drag strings. River width and turns limit the size of both tow and towboat. Tows on the rivers above Pittsburgh seldom consist of more than 6 barges, handled by 60- to 90-foot towboats of 800 to 1,500 horsepower. On the Ohio and upper Mississippi, tows may consist of 12 to 15 barges handled by 160-foot towboats of 3,000 to 4,000 horsepower. On the lower Mississippi, tows of 40 to 60 barges are handled by towboats of 8,000 to 10,000 horsepower. Integrated tug/barge units are used widely in the U.S Gulf and east coast offshore trade. The stern is notched to accept a special tug which can be rigidly connected to the barge, forming a single vessel. The barge is built in the molded form of a normal ships hull. In the most efficient systems, the tug is attached by trunion mountings protruding from the bow into sockets fitted along the inside of the barges recesses. Directional stability and control underway is far superior to that of a towed barge. No particular changes in the size or shape of the tug are required except for a higher pilot house, needed for improved visibility. Characteristics of an Artubar tug-barge are given in Table B-30. B-6.15 Vessel Characteristics Tables. The following tables provide characteristics for typical commercial vessels. As hull design is constantly evolving, the tables are arranged by year group; each table lists typical vessels in service at the indicated time.
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Table B-31. Form Characteristics of Typical Commercial Vessels, circa 1988.
General Cargo Dimensions, ft-in: LOA LBP Length for coefficients, L D (molded, to strength dk) B (molded) T (molded, for coeffs) (molded, in seawater) lton Coefficients and Proportions: Block, CB Midship, CM Prismatic, CP Waterplane, CW Vertical prismatic, CVP LCB from midship, % L Bulb area, % midship area L/B B/T Shaft horsepower, normal Sea speed, knots Number of propellers, rudders
CargoPassenger
Container Ship
Container Ship
RO/RO
Barge Carrier (Stretch LASH)
Bulk Carrier (OBO)
Great Lakes Ore Carrier
563-8 563-8 520 44-6 76 27 18,970 0.612 0.981 0.624 0.724 0.845 1.5A 4.0 6.84 2.81 17,500 20 1,1
346-8 508-6 505-5 48.3 79 27 17965 0.583 0.967 0.603 0.725 0.807 Amids 2.5 6.40 2.93 18,000 20 1,1 Products Tanker
860 810 810 66 105-9 35 49583 0.579 0.965 0.600 0.748 0.774 1.1A 8.3 7.94 2.91 43,200 25 1,1
610 581 580 54-6 78 27 22,380 0.630 0.975 0.646 0.740 0.851 1.2A 4.0 7.44 2.89 19,250 20 1,1 Off-Shore Supply Vessel
684 640 640 69-6 102 32 34,430 0.568 0.972 0.584 0.671 0.846 2.4A 9.7 6.27 3.19 37,000 23 1,1 Double-ended Ferry2
893-4 797-4 813-4 60 100 28 38,400 0.582 0.922 0.631 0.765 0.762 1.6A 5.6 8.13 3.57 32,060 22 1,1
897-6 855 855 62-6 105-9 45-10 100,500 0.836 0.996 0.839 0.898 0.931 2.5F 10.7 8.09 2.31 24,000 16.5 1,1 Arctic IceBreaker
1000 988-6 988-6 49 104-7 25-9 71,440 0.924 0.999 0.924 0.975 0.948 0.5F 0 9.45 4.06 14,000 13.9 2,2 Passenger Liner
VLCC1
LNG Tanker
Fishing Trawler
Dimensions, ft-in: LOA LBP Length for coefficients, L D (molded, to strength dk) B (molded) T (molded, for coeffs) (molded, in seawater) lton Coefficients and Proportions: Block, CB Midship, CM Prismatic, CP Waterplane, CW Vertical prismatic, CVP LCB from midship, % L Bulb area, % midship area L/B B/T Shaft horsepower, normal Sea speed, knots Number of propellers, rudders
1100 1060 1060 86 178 66-11 303,877 0.842 0.996 0.845 0.916 0.919 2.7F 0 5.96 2.66 35,000 15.2 1,1
661 630 630 45-3 90 34-1 42,772 0.772 0.986 0.784 0.854 0.904 1.9F 0 7.00 2.64 15,000 16.5 1,1
936 897 897 82 143-6 36 95,681 0.722 0.995 0.726 0.797 0.906 Amids 9.7 6.25 3.99 34,400 20.4 1,1
185-3 174-6 174-6 14 40 11 1449 0.660 0.906 0.729 0.892 0.740 0.3A 0 4.35 3.33 3,740 12 2,2
310 300-6 300-6 20-8 65 12-6 2717 0.392 0.732 0.534 0.702 0.558 Amids 0 4.62 5.20 7,000 16.1 2,0
84-2 75-7 77-11 10-11 22 8-4 219 0.538 0.833 0.646 0.872 0.617 1.7A 0 3.54 2.65 500 10.7 1,1
399 351 352 43-3 78 28 10,730 0.488 0.853 0.572 0.740 0.660 1.3F 0 4.51 2.79 18,000 18 3,1
990 905 941-6 74-3 101-6 31-8 45990 0.532 0.953 0.558 0.687 0.774 Amids 2.0 9.28 3.21 158,000 33 4,1
1 Cylinder bow. 2 Vertical axis propellers and a fixed skeg at each end. .
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Table B-32. Form Characteristics of Typical Commercial Vessels, circa 1980.
Large General Cargo Dimensions, ft-in: LOA LBP B (molded) D (molded, to main deck) T (full load) Block coefficient, CB L/B B/T Weights, lton: Lightship Passengers, crew, stores Fuel Fresh water Refrigerated cargo Liquid cargo General cargo Total deadweight Full load displacement Capacities: General cargo, bale, ft3 Refrigerated cargo, net, ft3 Total containers, TEU In hold On deck Holds Passengers Crew Shaft horsepower Sea speed, kts Number of propellers Propeller diameter, ft Machinery House, machinery location
Small General Cargo
Container Ship
Product Tanker
VLCC
Bulk Carrier
605-0 582-6 82-0 46-0 35-0 0.670 7.10 2.34 9,787 60 3596 608 218 2377 15,349 22,208 31,995 1,082,207 21,839 409 325 84 7 12 41 24,000 20.8 1 22 steam turbine 2/3 aft
295-0 274-0 45-0 22-0 14-10 0.700 6.09 3.04 1588 --286 11.5
719 677 95 54 34 0.619 7.13 2.79 14,574 350 6943 5891 ------24,126 38,700 1,300,500 --13342 1046 288 4 2 37 32,000 22.8 1 22.5 steam turbine aft3
688-6 660-0 90-0 47-0 35-0 0.796 7.33 2.57 7569 50 3624 275 --39,934 --40,760 47,281 ----------18 3 29 15,000 16 1 22 steam turbine aft
1187-64 1143-0 228-0 95-0 74-0 0.799 5.14 3.08 60,140 50 17,857 315 --372,000 --390,770 450,910 ----------36 11 27 45,000 15.9 1 31.5 steam turbine aft
611-10 584-0 93-2 50-2 32-0 --6.27 2.91 ----1943 226 ------32,100 --1,603,890 --------9 8 26 --16.9 1 --diesel aft
2062 3650 128,237 23,938 74 ----3 --11 2800 13.75 1 --diesel aft
Notes: 1 2 3 4 Additional 1,790 tons water in anti-roll tank. Actual capacity 178 forty-foot and 559 thirty-five-foot containers. Navigating bridge forward of container deck. 1,171 foot LWL.
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Table B-33. Form Characteristics of Typical Vessels, circa 1965.
Ocean Cargo
Ocean Cargo
Coastwise Passenger and Cargo Liner
Oil tanker
Great Lakes Bulk Freighter
Trans-Atlantic Passenger liner
Intermediate Passenger liner
Ocean power yacht
Harbor Tug
Dimensions, ft-in: LOA LWL LBP length for coefficients, L B (molded) D (molded, to upperdeck D (molded, to strength deck) Tm (molded) (molded, seawater), lton Speed, kts Shaft horsepower Coefficients: Block, CB Midship, CM Prismatic, CP Waterplane, CWP Vertical prismatic, CVP Ratios: L/B L/T B/T speed-length, V/ L
442-2 425 425 425 57 42 42 28 15,072 12 3200 0.775 0.992 0.782 0.848 0.946 7.46 15.18 2.04 0.582
410-11 390 385 55 30-6 38-6 24-5 10,540 13 3150 0.714 0.986 0.724 0.804 0.889 7.00 15.78 2.25 0.663
429-2 412 412 412 59-6 35 43-6 24-6 11,040 15.5 6000 0.643 0.967 0.664 0.768 0.838 6.92 16.82 2.43 0.764
501-8 497-6 485-6 485-6 68 37 37 29-8 21,200 13.8 3600 0.757 0.978 0.774 0.845 0.896 7.15 16.36 2.29 0.625
604 587-11 580 60 32 32 20 17350 10.4 2150 0.874 0.990 0.883 0.918 0.957 9.67 29 3 0.433
814-8 800-11 800-11 95-9 62-10 79-11 30-6 39998 26.25 100,000 0.597 0.956 0.625 0.725 0.823 8.38 26.25 3.14 0.928
654-3 630-0 615-0 630 81 52 70 32 31313 20 26500 0.669 0.988 0.678 0.773 0.866 7.78 19.69 2.53 0.797
247-6 206 206 34 19 19 12-6 1413 14.6 2415 0.565 0.938 0.602 0.724 0.782 6.06 16.47 2.72 1.013
105-9 100-4 100-4 100-4 24 12-9 12-9 10-9 433 8.8 600 0.585 0.892 0.655 0.800 0.732 4.18 9.33 2.23 0.875
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Table B-34A. Characteristics of Typical Merchant Ships, cira 1965.
Mariner, with Added Features (1962)

Dimensions, ft-in LOA LBP Beam (B), ft-in DS (to strength deck) Tmax (maximum molded) , seawater, lton Total Deadweight, lton Deadweight/displacement Form: Length for coefficients, L TD (design) (molded, at T), lton Coefficients Block Prismatic Maximum section Waterplane Ratios: LBP/D T/DS B/TD LBP/B Wetted surface, total, sq ft KM, ft MT1 in, ft-tons TPI Stability: GM, light ship, ft GM, loaded, ft Capacities: Passengers Crew Dry cargo, bale, ft3 Refr cargo, bale, Stores, net, ft3 Machinery *: SHP, maximum Boilers Screws Speed, kts (trial, at 80% SHP at Tmax)
General Cargo (Fig B-9)
Passenger Cargo
Container Ship (Fig B-12)
Barge Carrier (LASH) (Fig B-14)
Barge Carrier (SEABEE) (Fig B-14)
Tanker
Ore Carrier
565-0 528-0 76-0 44-6 31-7 22,630 13,735 0.607 520-0" 27-0" 18,674 0.6125 0.6246 0.9807 0.7236 11.87 0.710 2.81 6.95 50,006 31.09 1776 68.09 2.6 5.0 12 58 555,499 87,612 12,159 19,250 2 1 20
573-11 544-6 82-0 45-6 30-6 21,235 12,932 0.609 540-0" 28-5" 19,340 0.539 0.559 0.963 0.685 11.97 0.670 2.89 6.64 51,750 34.60 1860 72.2 1.8 3.6 corr 12 45 782,400 50,000 11,991 24,000 1 1 23
546-8 508-6 79-0 48-1 29-1 19,799 9,234 0.466 508-6 27-0 18,009 0.5811 0.6014 0.9663 0.7188 10.58 0.605 2.93 6.44 48,650 33.8 1745 68.74 1.4 3.2 corr 119 121 625,600 19,355 11,149 19,800 2 1 20
752-0 705-9 100-6 57-0 29-0 33,924 19,524 0.575 722-0 29-0 33,500 0.558 0.560 0.997 0.700 12.38 0.509 3.46 7.02 ... 40.15 4840 120.30 16.8 5.0 0 40 1200 TEU
820-0 724-0 100-0 60-0 28-0 32,800 18,760 0.572 740-0 28-0 32,600 0.551 0.595 0.928 0.767 12.07 0.467 3.57 7.24 80,748 48.82 5794 135.2 22.1 8.0 4 39 1,208,235
873-9 719-11 105-10 74-9 32-9 44,500 26,600 0.598 740-0 31-0 40,800 0.589 0.608 0.968 0.870 9.63 0.438 3.41 6.80 98,700 59.35 8605 162.2 20.0 7.6 4 40 1,421,000
809-10 763-0 125-0 54-6 41-2 90,400 75,600 0.836 763-0 39-10 87,130 0.802 0.804 0.997 0.874 14.00 0.755 3.134 6.104 131,850 52.67 10,222 200.2 127.8 21.0 corr 0 28 641,000 bbl
765-0 732-0 102-0 56-5 38-3 66,200 51,050 0.771 730-0 38-0 65,300 0.808 0.812 0.995 0.883 12.97 0.677 2.68 7.18 ... 42.20 7780 157.2 54.9 15.7 0 47 2,150,000
60,000 2 2 27
32,000 2 1 22.5
36,000 2 1 20.2
19,000 1 1 16.8
22,000 2 1 16.5
* Steam turbine for all ships listed
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Table B-34B. Weights and Centers for Typical Merchant Ships, circa 1965.
Mariner with Added Features (1962)
Weight groups: Net steel Outfit Machinery Margin Light ship, Total Misc. deadweight Passengers, crew, and stores Swimming pool Fuel oil Fresh water General cargo Refrigerated cargo Deep tanks, liquid cargo Deadweight, total Full load, displacement, total Selected Unit Weights: Propulsion Machinery Boilers, turbines and gears Shafting and bearings Propeller(s) Liquids in machinery Deck machinery Outfit: Hatch covers Mooring fittings Masts, booms, kingposts, Rigging and blocks Boats and boat handling Anchor and chain Weight Groups: Net steel Outfit Machinery Margin Light ship, Total Misc. deadweight Passengers, crew, and stores Fuel oil Fresh water General cargo Refrigerator cargo Deep tanks, liquid cargo Deadweight, total Full load, total Selected Unit Weights: Propulsion Machinery Boilers, turbines and gears Shafting and bearings Propeller(s) Liquids in machinery Deck machinery Outfit: Hatch covers Mooring fittings Masts, booms, kingposts, Rigging and blocks Boats and boat handling Anchor and chain 516.6 212.0 36.8 87.5 626.8 565.8 69.8 --0.8 19.8 116.4 630.2 293.7 50.4 122.0 472.7 6.9 48.9 4.9 0.7 15.5 123.4 448.8 64.8 36.6 87.6 134.2 --131.7 42.3 2.4 16.2 133.6 489.9 121.1 31.7 90.3 74.0 433.3 84.0 11.2 2.8 13.4 161.7 9,588 2,937 1,105 410 14,040 450 500 3,500 555 14,205 ... ... 18,760 32,800 519.3 167.1 25.4 88.5 190.4 351.5 68.4 107 80.4 19.7 78.1 Barge Carrier (LASH) 33.1 59.0 21.8 (+1.0) 38.8 27.3 77.0 27.8 37.3 46.5 ... ... 42.3 40.8 389.4 339.0 536.7 0 390.4 166.7 102.0 390.4 538.0 416.7 ... ... 408.7 400.8 12,983 2,979 1,421 517 17,900 600 70 2,683 630 22,617 ... ... 26,600 44,500 463.5 120.5 26.9 91.8 211.0 481.4 33.5 255.1 41.8 18.4 68.9 Barge Carrier (SEABEE) 41.9 57.9 19.9 (+1.0) 43.8 10.9 72.0 15.4 15.1 61.6 ... ... 54.7 50.3 424.6 443.2 519.5 0 435.5 426.3 211.0 294.6 439.2 416.5 ... ... 404.4 416.9 11,519 1,844 831 606 14,800 ... ... 2,500 ... ... ... ... 75,600 90,400 456.5 168.7 27.8 92.6 139.4 114.4 49.5 39.5 5.6 31.7 83.4 Tanker 29.9 46.8 30.9 (+1.0) 33.2 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 388.8 456.4 661.4 0 413.6 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 12,137 1,600 980 440 15,157 ... 100 4,157 470 46,316 ... ... 51,043 66,200 1091.5 331.3 38.2 101.4 38.3 617.7 68.6 70.8 1.0 13.9 151.5 Ore Carrier 30.5 55.0 33.0 (+0.1) 34.1 ... 65.0 46.4 24.0 22.1 ... ... 24.2 26.5 378.0 428.3 641.6 0 401.0 ... 595.0 443.2 664.3 329.7 ... ... 342.5 355.9 TONS 5,115 2,586 1,039 155 8,895 39 80 0 2,963 158 7,009 876 2,610 13,735 22,630 VCG 27.6 47.0 22.1 (+1.1) 33.8 17.9 45.1 --6.0 12.8 30.4 37.3 13.5 22.1 26.7 LCG 274.1 281.3 340.1 (+0.7) 284.8 328.9 311.8 --243.4 314.9 224.7 335.0 313.3 254.3 266.4 TONS 5,011 2,230 867 195 8,303 252 40 0 2,350 170 8,740 480 1,000 12,932 21,235 Container Ship LCG 267.8 261.7 320.7 (+0.2) 270.7 262.7 285.2 366.8 237.6 199.1 252.7 65.1 299.5 252.5 262.2 TONS 10,282 2,525 1,911 432 14,718 ... 400 0 6,000 ... 12,806 ... ... 19,206 33.924 VCG 32.6 47.7 25.7 (+1.0) 35.3 ... 36.2 0 10.0 ... 46.3 ... ... 34.8 35.0 LCG 364.2 338.0 524.0 0 380.4 ... 324.4 0 377.2 ... 373.8 ... ... 373.8 376.7
General Cargo VCG 32.2 48.1 26.0 (+1.0) 36.9 17.2 53.8 --8.8 39.8 31.4 39.3 18.2 26.7 30.7 LCG 291.0 295.6 398.4 0 303.7 45.7 332.5 --827.3 304.5 259.4 398.5 241.5 266.9 281.3 TONS
Passenger Cargo VCG 32.2 41.0 23.4 (+0.2) 35.0 41.0 62.0 53.8 3.4 17.6 30.8 53.0 8.9 24.9 30.3
5,482 3,959 982 142 10,565 145 50 68 1,100 176 5,928 276 1,491 9,234 19,799
Weights in long tons, LCG abaft FP, VCG above molded base line in decimal feet
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Table B-35A. Characteristics of Typical Merchant Ships, circa 1953. General Cargo (MARAD VC2) Dimensions, ft-in: LOA LBP B DS (to strength deck) D (to freeboard or bhd. deck) T (maximum molded) Displacement, total, lton Deadweight, total, lton Displacement/deadweight Form: Length for coefficients (L) ft-in Displacement, molded, lton Coefficients: Block (CB) Prismatic (CP) Maximum section (CM) Waterplane (CWP) Wetted surface, total, sq ft KM, ft MT1in ft-lton TPI, lton Proportions: LBP/DS LBP/D T/D B/T LBP/B Stability, ft: GM, light ship, Free surface corr. (loaded) GM, loaded Capacities: Passengers Crew Fresh water, lton Fuel oil, lton Cargo: Dry, bale, ft3 Refrigerated, net, ft3 Liquid, bbl Stores, etc, net, ft3: Dry Refrigerated Mail Baggage Machineryb: SHP, normal SHP, maximum Boilers Position Speed, kts (trial at 80% SHP at Tm) 459-3 435-0 63-0 40-6 31-6 25-9a 13,859 9,493 1.46 435-0 13,771 0.683 0.697 0.980 0.762 38,760 25.28 1171 49.7 10.74 13.81 0.817 2.45 6.90 11.92 -3.11 1.85 2 48 322 1386 457,900 32,290 20,630 1290 2268 ----General Cargo (Mariner) 563-8 528-0 76-0 44-6 35-6 29-9 21,093 13,409 1.57 520-0 20,958 0.624 0.635 0.983 0.745 53,210 31.40 1927 70.1 11.87 14.87 0.838 2.55 6.95 6.78 -0.88 4.62 2 56 257 3808 736,723 30,254 --1256 4092 ----Cargo and Passenger 491-10 465-0 69-6 42-6 33-6 26-6a 16,175 9,937 1.63 465-0 16,072 0.658 0.670 0.980 0.763 43,270 28.71 1472 58.6 10.94 13.88 0.791 2.62 6.69 7.76 -1.42 2.53 96 123 917 2769 436,000 43,200 --6200 8540 4920 3825 Passenger (twin screw) 723-0 660-7 93-3 73-7 45-5 32-6a 35,440 14,331 2.47 689-0 34,960 0.586 0.600 0.977 0.715 81,930 38.24 3923 109.4 8.98 14.53 0.715 2.87 7.08 1.90 -0.47 5.60 1202 643 4720 4938 259,980 33,510 --30,465 34,350 30,137 19,650 Tanker 565-0 535-0 75-0 40-6 40-6 31-9 25,510 19,183 1.33 535-0 25,385 0.698 0.702 0.994 0.792 59,050 30.81 2351 75.9 13.21 0.784 2.36 21.50 7.13 20.8 -1.19 6.63 2 47 147 1969 45,150 --153,419 --1920 ----Tanker 628-0 600-0 82-6 42-6 42-6 31-10 34,640 26,759 1.29 600-0 34,481 0.764 0.770 0.993 0.828 73,300 33.08 3627 97.8 14.12 0.749 2.59 22.50 7.27 39.9 -1.39 9.25 4 58 196 2679 44,590 --225,023 ---1 3300 ----Tanker 707-0 677-0 93-0 48-6 48-6 36-7 49,660 38,911 1.28 675-0 49,405 0.755 0.765 0.987 0.836 92,120 38.20 5066 125.0 13.96 0.754 2.54 25.30 7.28 45.1 -1.24 10.31 4 54 179 3830 62,430 --329,578 --3610 -----
6000 6600 2 abaft midships 15.5
17500 19250 2 midships 20
8500 9350 2 midships 17
34000 37400 2 midships 22
13,650 15,000 2 aft 18.5
12,500 13,750 2 aft 16.5
20,000 22,000 2 aft 18
a. to subdivision loadline b. steam turbine in all cases, single screw unless otherwise noted
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Table B-35B. Weight Summaries for Typical Merchant Ships, circa 1953.
General Cargo (MARAD VC2) Weight Groups: Net steel Wood and outfit Hull engineering (wet) Machinery (wet) Light ship, total Crew and stores Passengers, crew, and effects Mail, baggage, and stores Swimming pool Fuel oil Fresh water General cargo Refrigerator cargo Deep tanks, liquid cargo Deadweight, total Full load, total Selected Unit Weights: Propulsion Machinery Main boilers Main turbines and gears Shafting and bearers Propeller(s) Pumps Machry rm gratings, ladders Liquids in machinery Winches, windlass, capstans Outfit: Mooring fittings, hawse pipes Hatch covers, manholes Booms and fittings Rudder and stock Rigging and blocks Boats and boat handling Anchor and chain Net steel Wood and outfit Hull engineering (wet) Machinery (wet) Light ship, total Cargo oil Fuel oil Fresh water Crew and effects Deadweight, total Full load, total Selected Unit Weights: Propulsion Machinery Main boilers Main turbines and gears Shafting and bearers Propeller(s) Cargo pumps Other pumps Machry rm gratings, ladders Liquids in machinery Winches, windlass, capstans Outfit: Mooring fittings, hawse pipes Hatch covers, manholes Booms and fittings Rudder and stock Rigging and blocks Boats and boat handling Anchor and chain 175 109 69 26 19 31 38 75 53 27 31 9 22 6 9 76 154 112 53 21 15 37 42 19 52 33 36 10 26 1 20 92 186 155 87 30 23 35 48 89 75 36 37 11 31 7 14 107 113 95 80 14 25 29 46 47 33 93 26 19 25 7 56 565 ft Tanker 4486 540 477 824 6327 18098 880 140 65 19183 25510 280.3 291.1 310.8 451.3 305.8 244.4 409.7 432.8 452.3 254.0 266.7 26.30 47.50 28.20 23.80 27.93 20.71 21.90 42.45 37.84 21.29 22.99 5899 595 576 811 7881 25329 900 475 55 26759 34640 185 160 165 29 32 42 95 162 51 399 73 26 53 16 75 628 ft Tanker 301.4 320.2 351.9 520.6 329.1 276.8 355.2 541.1 379.5 284.3 291.1 26.73 49.12 29.57 24.30 28.38 20.94 19.62 27.58 47.33 21.06 22.44 8379 620 730 1020 10749 37896 775 165 75 38911 49660 128 123 97 22 47 36 94 62 37 50 25 23 24 20 60 707 ft Tanker 339.1 343.6 410.8 585.4 367.6 309.1 536.7 602.4 450.0 315.1 325.9 29.60 55.50 33.80 24.80 30.92 25.25 28.58 50.41 53.00 25.47 26.65 496 350 469 42 75 89 192 193 79 73 31 47 23 184 124 Tons 2857 721 210 578 4366 28 ------1386 322 4533 328 2896 9493 13859 LCG* 219.2 215.4 230.1 275.2 226.5 261.2 ------197.5 255.3 202.4 194.3 210.3 205.7 212.3 VCG* 23.71 31.83 36.33 19.33 25.08 37.00 ------3.01 4.75 25.77 30.51 13.31 18.13 20.32 General Cargo (Mariner) Tons 4695 1298 682 1009 7684 63 ------3808 257 8978 303 --13409 21093 LCG* 270.6 264.7 280.6 315.1 276.3 293.3 ------270.0 299.0 257.1 358.2 --264.0 269.0 VCG* 29.80 44.90 36.80 20.60 31.76 44.2 ------7.5 22.9 28.6 26.6 --22.52 25.9 Cargo and Passenger Tons 3807 1168 500 763 6238 --28 100 50 1520 916 6891 432 --9937 16175 LCG* 234.8 227.8 241.2 276.5 239.1 --247.0 200.7 303.5 243.1 199.6 229.3 205.4 --229.2 232.1 VCG* 27.57 38.90 40.60 15.30 29.24 --44.50 30.56 48.60 4.96 9.91 27.39 13.95 --21.95 24.76 Passenger (twin screw) Tons 11380 5260 1950 2519 21109 --150 480 110 4456 4280 1625 375 --11476 32585* LCG* 357.0 353.0 354.5 373.5 357.7 --411.5 504.5 422.6 301.3 414.4 166.8 209.8 --332.5 348.8 VCG* 39.80 54.90 45.80 21.50 41.93 --51.65 21.12 22.55 13.33 9.99 23.50 26.11 --14.85 32.46
LCG from FP, VCG above molded baseline * Typical maximum operating condition at 30-foot 4-inch molded draft
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APPENDIX C STABILITY AND CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS

C-1 INTRODUCTION Classification societies and regulatory bodies set standards for ship stability and strength criteria. A casualtys condition may be gaged against such standards; in some instances the standards may be used to estimate a ships pre-casualty condition. Standards establishing requirements for stability, minimum freeboard, and longitudinal strength are the most important to the salvor. Standards for Navy ships are established by various codes of the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA), and promulgated in General Specifications for Ships of the United States Navy (GENSPECs), S9AA0-AA-SPN-010, Naval Ship Engineering Center Design Data Sheets (DDS), and NAVSEA (Code 55Z) Ship Design Standards (SDS). The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46 (46 CFR) establishes stability, load line, and construction requirements for vessels operating in U.S. waters, with the U.S. Coast Guard designated as the enforcing agency. Standards issued by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) are advisory unless adopted by national regulatory bodies; some U.S Coast Guard stability standards are based on IMO standards. Similarly, construction and freeboard standards of the classification societies are advisory, or conditions of society classification, unless adopted by regulatory bodies. 46 CFR requires general compliance with ABS construction standards for ships of U.S. registry; ABS is also the load line assigning authority for the U.S. Coast Guard. It is not always possible to restore a damaged vessels stability, reserve buoyancy, or strength to an established standard. Navy, Coast Guard, IMO, and ABS standards are discussed in the following paragraphs to provide guidance for evaluating casualties. These standards were developed to ensure adequate stability and strength throughout a vessels service life, and therefore anticipate severe conditions that may be avoided by careful route planning and timing. Strength and stability standards should be used to estimate a casualtys suitability to steam or be towed along a proposed route to a repair facility, or for continued service. An evaluation can lead to recommendations to restrict the tow route or operating area to sheltered waters, limit offcenter weight, maximum turning speed, etc., or to estimates of the maximum wind or sea state the casualty can be expected to survive. Strength and stability standards also provide guidance for the operation and employment of barges or other craft converted for salvage useparticularly improvised lift craft, crane barges, and harbor craft used in exposed locations. C-2 STABILITY STANDARDS For safe operation, a vessel must have a certain minimum stability during normal service. Recommended or required minimum stability criteria are established by various regulatory and advisory bodies. The adequacy of a vessels stability can be gaged by metacentric height and certain characteristics of the stability curve. Stability criteria can be divided into the following groups:
GM or Initial Stability. GM is the most basic stability criterion and one of the first parameters used to quantify a ships stability. Many national, military, and international stability standards specify a minimum GM as part of their requirements. GZ or Quasi-dynamic Stability. GZ criteria generally specify minimum righting arms at specific angles of heel, a minimum positive range of stability, or minimum righting energy (area under the curve). Energy Balance. Energy balance criteria are based on the concept that the righting energy or area must be equal to or greater than the upsetting energy. Wave-adjusted Stability. Many ship forms experience a reduction of stability in following or quartering seas. Criteria to account for these effects are in various stages of development, and usually involve calculation of the righting arm curve based on a specified wave form, or corrections to the statical stability curve by use of a form factor. Dynamic Motion Stability Methods. Research indicates that static or quasi-dynamic models may not predict the complex dynamic behavior of ships in a seaway accurately enough to establish stability criteria to prevent capsize. Methods are being developed to model ship behavior in a seaway.
The intent of these standards is to ensure that vessels have sufficient righting energy to resist overturning by disturbing forces that can be reasonably expected in normal service, and that they will have residual stability after specified damage. Stability requirements vary with vessel type and conditions of service. Most maritime nations and regulatory agencies have established wind heel or weather criteria to limit heel resulting from the upsetting moment created by wind pressure on the side profile of a ship coupled with a drag force on the underwater hull. Stability criteria also exist for vessels subject to topside icing or that engage in towing, lifting heavy weights, high-speed turns, and for residual stability following specified damage. Different stability criteria may be used as the standard for similar ships and conditions by different agencies. For example, the U. S. Coast Guard weather criteria require a minimum GM for a given wind pressure and vessel profile; the U. S. Navy criteria specify minimum righting energy and upsetting-arm-to-righting-arm ratio.
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C-2.1 U.S. Navy Stability Standards. Stability standards for Navy ships are promulgated in the Naval Ship Engineering Center Design Data Sheet (DDS) 079-1 (the following standards are taken from DDS 079-1 of 1 August 1975). Criteria are established for beam winds combined with rolling, lifting heavy weights over the side, towing, crowding of personnel to one side, high-speed turning, and topside icing. C-2.1.1 Wind Heel Combined With Rolling. Criteria are based on a comparison of the ships righting arm (GZ) curve and the wind heeling arm curve as shown in Figure C-1. The wind heeling arm curve is drawn from: Lw = 0.0035V2AHcos2/ where: Lw V A H = = = = = =
ARM
OR r
WIND HEEL ARM, LW 25 A1 C
RIGHTING ARM, GZ
A2 0 10
_ 0.6GZ < MAX 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
HEEL ANGLE, , DEG
Figure C-1. USN Wind Heel Criteria.
wind heeling arm at angle , ft wind velocity, knots projected lateral sail area above the waterline, ft2 lever arm from center of underwater lateral resistance (half draft) to center of above-water sail area, ft displacement, lbs = tons 2240 angle of inclination, degrees
Stability is considered adequate if:
The heeling arm at the intersection of the righting arm and heeling arm curves (point C) is not greater than six-tenths of the maximum righting arm, and Area A1 is not less than 1.4 times area A2 where A2 extends 25 degrees (or the roll angle r, if known) to windward from point C.
A steady wind heeling arm greater than the ships righting arm would capsize the ship; the requirement that the heeling arm be no greater than six-tenths the maximum righting arm is intended to provide a margin for gusts and for the inexact nature of the heeling arm calculation. The ship is assumed to be rolling 25 degrees about the wind heel angle. Area A2 is a measure of the energy imparted to the ship by the wind and the ships righting moment in returning to point C. The margin of 40 percent in area A1 is intended to account for gusts and calculation inaccuracies. For design purposes, beam winds of 50 to 100 knots are used to develop the heeling arm curve, depending on the classification and service (ocean, coastwise, harbor). Damage Control Books for newer Navy ships include plots of standard wind heel arm and comparison to the wind heel criteria for various conditions of loading. To evaluate casualty stability, the maximum anticipated winds should be used, or several trial wind speeds should be used to determine the maximum acceptable wind. C-2.1.2 Offcenter Weight Criteria. Stability standards are prescribed for lifting heavy weights over the side and for personnel crowding to one side. The criteria are the same for both cases, although for slightly different reasons. Both are designed to ensure adequate resistance to transient rolling forces when the ship is already heeled by an offcenter weight, and are equally applicable to any offcenter weight, such as shifted cargo or flooding. To apply the criteria, the righting arm curve is corrected for the rise in KG and increased displacement caused by the weight added at the lifting point. The heeling arm is calculated by: Lh = where: Lh w d = = = = = heeling arm at angle due to offcenter weight or lift, ft weight of offcenter weight or lift, tons distance from centerline to offcenter weight, ft displacement, including weight of lift or other added weight, lton angle of inclination, degrees wd cos
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The righting arm and heeling arm curves are drawn as shown in Figure C-2. Stability is considered adequate if:
ARM C
_ 0.6GZ < MAX A1
A3
RIGHTING ARM, GZ HEEL ARM, Lh
The angle of heel (point C) does not exceed 15 degrees, The heeling arm at point C is not greater than six-tenths of the maximum righting arm, and
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
HEEL ANGLE, , DEG
The reserve of quasi-dynamic stability (shaded Area A1) is not less than four-tenths of the total area between the righting arm curve and the horizontal axis (Area A3).
Figure C-2. USN Offcenter Weight Criteria.
The margin provided by limiting heeling arm and providing a minimum reserve of quasi-dynamic stability allows for inadvertent overloading of the lifting system or unanticipated heeling disturbances. Heel angles greater than 15 degrees will interfere with shipboard operations. C-2.1.3 Towline Pull for Tugs. The U. S. Coast Guard formula for calculating heeling arm caused by towline pull on tugs is used to develop the heeling arm curve: Lt = where: Lt N SHP D s h = = = = = = = = heeling arm due to towline pull at angle , ft number of propellers shaft horsepower per shaft propeller diameter, ft fraction of propeller slip stream deflected by rudder, normally taken as 0.55 vertical distance from propeller shaft centerline at rudder to towing bitts, ft displacement, lton angle of inclination, degrees 2N (SHP D)2/3 s h cos 38
Criteria for adequate stability are the same as for offcenter weight (Paragraph C-2.1.3, Figure C-2), except that the range of the righting arm is terminated at the angle where unrestricted downflooding can occur. These criteria can be applied to a vessel subject to a lateral towline pull, such as a stranded vessel being rotated, by replacing the term 2N(SHP D)2/3s by the athwartships towline pull, in long tons. C-2.1.4 High-speed Turning. The heeling arm resulting from the centrifugal force acting on a ship in a turn is: LR = where: LR V H R g = = = = = = heeling arm due to high-speed turn, ft ship speed, ft/sec vertical distance from ships center of gravity to center of lateral resistance (half-draft), ft angle of inclination, degrees radius of turning circle, ft gravitational acceleration constant, 32.2 ft/sec2 V 2 H cos Rg
Criteria for adequate stability are the same as for offcenter weight (Paragraph C-2.1.3, Figure C-2). C-2.1.5 Topside Icing. The criterion for topside icing is less definitive than the other criteria because an upper limit for ice accumulation cannot be estimatedice will continue to form as long as conditions favor icing. Since high winds often accompany icing conditions, the best approach is to plot the stability curve corrected for the increase in KG and offcenter weight caused by ice accumulation, and then determine the maximum beam wind that meets the wind heel criterion.
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C-2.1.6 Residual (Damage) Stability. Criteria for stability after damagei.e., floodingfall into two categories; ships with side protective systems, such as aircraft carriers, and smaller ships without side protective systems. The term damage stability is adopted to denote standards, calculations, and discussions of hypothetical conditions of damage as a function of design, as opposed to a salvage assessment of an actual damaged condition. Ships without side protective systems are assumed to have suffered damage and flooding to their standard of subdivision. Limiting (before damage) drafts are assigned and marked to ensure that the margin line will not be immersed if the ship suffers damage to her standard of subdivision. The righting arm curve is drawn to account for the flooding and with an additional reduction of 0.05cos to account for unknown asymmetrical flooding or transverse shift of loose material. A wind heeling arm curve is drawn as described earlier. For design, standard wind velocities are used for various displacements. For salvage calculations, anticipated winds should be used, regardless of displacement. Damage stability is considered adequate, if after damage:
12 OR r 45 OR f
RIGHTING ARM, GZ
ARM
A1 A2
0
10
C
WIND HEEL ARM
20
30
40
50
HEEL ANGLE, , DEG
Figure C-3. USN Damage Stability Criteria.
Static heel angle without wind effects (point C) does not exceed 15 degrees, Wind heel angle (point D) does not exceed 20 degrees, and Area A1, as shown in Figure C-3, is at least 1.4 times area A2.
, ANGLE OF ROLL-DEGREES
14 12 10 8 6 4 2
Area A1 terminates at 45 degrees or at the downflooding angle, whichever is less; area A2 terminates 12 degrees or the expected roll angle (whichever is greater) to windward of the wind heel angle. Assumed roll angles are taken from the curve in Figure C-4. The curve, which plots roll angle against displacement, is not based on theoretical calculations, but represents reasonable roll angles for ships of various displacements in moderates seas (4 foot waves).
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
DISPLACEMENT (LTON x 1000)
Figure C-4. Assumed After Damage Roll Angle.
The 20-degree heel criterion is based on the following reasoning. General Specifications for Ships of the U. S. Navy (GENSPECs) require machinery and equipment to be designed and installed to operate satisfactorily and continuously without damage or excessive wear with the ship listing to 15 degrees. It can be reasonably assumed that equipment will continue to function or can be made to function for some time with a list of 20 to 25 degrees. Battle-damaged ships have been towed with lists of 20 degrees or greater; such lists did not prevent damage control and salvage efforts. Limiting drafts for ships with side protective systems are governed by freeboard requirements associated with the side protective system, rather than reserve buoyancy. Ships with side protective systems are large ships with large reserve buoyancies, but are inherently subject to offcenter flooding. These ships are designed to be able to rapidly counterballast and reduce list caused by offcenter flooding. Damage stability criteria are principally concerned with limiting heel for operational considerations rather than with the likelihood of capsize. Damage stability of ships with side protective systems is analyzed by assuming flooding due to either:
Widespread and separated damage on one side that reaches but does not penetrate the holding bulkhead (the innermost longitudinal bulkhead of the side protective system), bulkhead, or Damage that penetrates the holding bulkhead.
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Damage stability for ships with side protective systems is assessed by examining stability curves drawn for the ship with the two types of damage described above to ensure that there is sufficient righting energy to withstand wind and wave heeling moments. C-2.2 U.S. Coast Guard Stability Standards. U. S. Coast Guard stability standards for commercial ships are listed in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46, Subchapter S, Parts 170 through 174 (46 CFR S 170-174). The following standards are taken from 1 October 1991 edition of 46 CFR. A general Weather Criterion applies to all vessels, and various other criteria are applied to different classes of vessels. C-2.2.1 Weather Criteria. With some exceptions, all vessels must have a metacentric height equal to or greater than that given by the relationship below in all loading and operating conditions. GM where: P = = L A H T = = = = = = 0.005 + (L/14,200)2 lton/ft2 = 0.055 + (L/1309)2 mton/m2 for ocean service, Great Lakes winter service, or service on exposed waters 0.0033 + (L/14,200)2 lton/ft2 = 0.036 + (L/1309)2 mton/m2 for Great Lakes summer service, or service on partially protected waters (waters within 20 NM of a harbor of safe refuge) 0.0025 + (L/14,200)2 lton/ft2 = 0.028 + (L/1309)2 mton/m2 for service on protected waters (rivers, harbors, lakes, etc) length between perpendiculars, ft or m projected lateral sail area of the vessel and deck cargo above the waterline, ft2 or m2 lever arm from center of underwater lateral resistance (half draft) to center of sail area, ft or m displacement, lton or mton 14 degrees or the angle of heel at which one-half the freeboard to the deck edge is immersed, whichever is less PAH tan T
Vessels under 328 feet (100 meters) may be required to meet one of the two following criteria. Criterion A: Initial GM not less than 0.49 feet (0.15 meters), Righting arm of at least 0.66 (0.2 meters) feet at an angle of heel of 30 degrees or greater, Maximum righting arm at an angle of heel of 25 degrees or greater, Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 30 degrees not less than 10.3 foot-degrees (3.15 meter-degrees), Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 40 degrees or the downflooding angle (whichever is less) not less than 16.9 foot-degrees (5.15 meter-degrees), and Area under the righting arm curve between 30 and 40 degrees or the downflooding angle, not less than 5.6 foot-degrees (1.72 meterdegrees). Criterion B: Initial GM not less than 0.49 feet (0.15 meter-degrees), Maximum righting arm at an angle of heel not less than 15 degrees, Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 40 degrees or the downflooding angle, whichever is less, not less than 16.9 foot-degrees (5.15 meter-degrees), Area under the righting arm curve between 30 and 40 degrees or the downflooding angle not less than 5.6 foot-degrees (1.72 meterdegrees), and Area in foot-degrees under the righting arm curve up to the angle of maximum righting arm not less than: A = = 10.3 + 0.187(30 - angle of maximum righting arm) foot-degrees 3.15 + 0.057(30 - angle of maximum righting arm) meter-degrees
No additional stability criteria are established for general cargo vessels. There are special requirements, (including damage stability criteria in some cases) for passenger-carrying vessels, bulk cargo carriers, vessels engaged in lifting and towing, deck cargo barges, offshore drilling rigs, and other specialized craft. The criteria applied to passenger vessels are primarily designed to limit heel to small values to ensure the safety of passengers and allow lifeboats to be launched; these criteria have little application to salvage and will not be discussed here. Some of the other pertinent criteria are discussed below.
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C-2.2.2 Bulk Carriers. There are no intact stability criteria for tankers and ore carriers, but there are minimum GM requirements for grain carriers on ocean voyages and damage stability requirements for all bulk carriers. Required GM values for grain carriers, other than those operating solely on the Great Lakes or in U.S. inland waters, are given by: GM fL where: L f = = total length of all slack surfaces, ft factor based on vessel displacement, and length and breadth of slack surfaces, from Table C-1.
Table C-1. Factors for Calculation of Minimum GM for Grain Carriers. Displacement long tons 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000 40 0.0094 0.0047 0.0031 0.0023 0.0019 0.0016 0.0013 0.0012 0.0010 0.0009 50 0.0184 0.0092 0.0061 0.0046 0.0038 0.0031 0.0026 0.0023 0.0020 0.0018 Maximum Breadth of Slack Surfaces, ft 60 0.0317 0.0159 0.0106 0.0079 0.0063 0.0053 0.0045 0.0040 0.0035 0.0032 70 0.0504 0.0252 0.0168 0.0126 0.0101 0.0084 0.0072 0.0063 0.0056 0.0050 80 0.0752 0.0376 0.0251 0.0188 0.0150 0.0125 0.0107 0.0094 0.0084 0.0075 90 0.1070 0.0535 0.0357 0.0268 0.0214 0.0178 0.0153 0.0134 0.0119 0.0107 100 0.1468 0.0739 0.0489 0.0367 0.0294 0.0245 0.0210 0.0184 0.0163 0.0147
Note: Table has been abbreviated by deleting columns for 45-, 55-, 65-, 75-, and 85-foot breadths
If the ratio of freeboard to beam is less than 0.268, the values for f from Table C-1 are adjusted by multiplying by 0.268 and dividing by the ratio of freeboard to beam. If cargo spaces are divided by a centerline bulkhead, one-fourth the tabular values are used. The tabular values are calculated for wheat, with a stowage factor of approximately 47 cubic feet per long ton. For other grains, the tabular values are reduced by multiplying by the following factors: Corn, rye, soybeans (stowage factor 50) Barley (stowage factor 56) Oats (stowage factor 70) 0.9 0.8 0.6
For damage stability requirements, bulk carriers are assumed to have suffered solid flooding to their standard of subdivision. Stability is adequate if, after damage:
Metacentric height (GM) is not less than 2 inches, The waterline in final condition of sinkage, heel, and trim is below any opening that would permit unrestricted flooding that is not closed by a watertight fitting, Static heel angle does not exceed: (1) 25 degrees (30 degrees if there is no deck edge immersion) for tankers carrying ordinary cargoes, or (2) 15 degrees (17 degrees if there is no deck edge immersion) for tankers carrying hazardous liquids and Great Lakes dry bulk carriers,
The range of positive stability extends 20 degrees beyond the angle of static heel, and The maximum righting arm beyond the angle of static heel is at least 3.94 inches for tankers or 4 inches for Great Lakes dry bulk carriers.
C-2.2.3 Tank Barges. Quasi-dynamic stability criteria are applied to tank barges where the vertical center of gravity of the cargo is above the weather deck (cargo carried in large tanks on deck or in hoppers). The area under the righting arm curve from 0 to the angle of maximum righting arm or the downflooding angle, whichever is less, must be at least:

C-6
5 foot-degrees for river service, 10 foot-degrees for Great Lakes summer service, or service on lakes, bays, and sounds, or 15 foot-degrees for ocean or Great Lakes winter service.
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If the vertical center of gravity of the cargo is below the weather deck (conventional built-in tanks, or tanks in a deep hopper), a minimum GM is specified: GM where: K B Fe = = = = = 0.3 for river service 0.4 for Great Lakes summer service, or service on lakes, bays, and sounds 0.5 for ocean or Great Lakes winter service beam, ft effective freeboard to the deck edge or top of expansion trunks, ft KB Fe
A minimum intact longitudinal metacentric height is required for all tank barges: GML where: LOA T = = length overall, ft draft, ft
f A1 c L1
0.02 (LOA)2 T
GZ1
ARM
GZ2
Damage stability of tank barges is considered adequate, if after damage to its standard of subdivision, the barge does not heel or trim so that the deck edge is immersed, and metacentric height is not less than two inches. C-2.2.4 Deck Cargo Barges. For each condition of loading, the area under the righting arm curve from 0 to the angle of maximum righting arm, 40 degrees, or the downflooding angle, whichever is less, must be at least:
L2
A2
HEEL ANGLE
L1 = HEELING ARM WITH HOOK LOAD AND COUNTER BALLAST L2 = HEELING ARM WITH COUNTER BALLAST ONLY
GZ1 = RIGHTING ARM WITHOUT HOOK LOAD
GZ2 = RIGHTING ARM WITH HOOK LOAD
10 foot-degrees for service on protected or partially protected waters, or 15 foot-degrees for service on exposed waters.
NOTE: L1 AND GZ2 PLOTTED TO DETERMINE STATIC HEEL ANGLE c, AND DO NOT BOUND RIGHTING ENERGY AREAS.
Figure C-5. USCG Lifting Criteria.
C-2.2.5 Lifting. Criteria are applied to floating cranes and other craft designed to make heavy lifts over the side. Lifting craft not equipped with counterballasting systems must meet the same criteria as those applied to deck cargo barges. An energy balance criterion is used for lifting craft equipped with counterballasting systems, as shown in Figure C-5, to ensure that the vessel can withstand the heeling moment imposed by the counterballast in the event of sudden loss of the hook load. Righting arm curves are drawn corresponding to the vessel displacement without hook load (GZ1) and displacement with hook load (GZ2). Two heeling moment curves are drawn as shown. L1 is the heeling arm due to the combined effect of hook load and counterballast: L1 = where: wH dH wB dB H = = = = = = hook load, tons distance from centerline to head or boom or lift point, ft ballast weight, tons distance from centerline to center of gravity of ballast, ft displacement, including hook load and ballast, tons angle of inclination, degrees (wH dH wB dB ) cos H
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L2 is the heeling arm due to the weight of counterballast: L2 = where: = displacement, including ballast but excluding hook load, tons wB dB cos
Stability is adequate if: A2 > A1 + K where: A2 A1 K = = = = righting energy opposing counterballast, up to the downflooding angle (f) on the counterballast side, ft-deg righting energy opposing combined hook load and counterballast, up to the static heel angle (c) on the hook side, ft-deg 0 for operation on protected waters 7 ft-deg for operation on partially protected and exposed waters
C-2.2.6 Towing. Both minimum GM and quasi-dynamic criteria are applied to towing vessels. Tugs are required to have a minimum GM equal to one-half the maximum towline heeling arm divided by the ratio of freeboard to beam: GM where: GM N SHP D s h F B = = = = = = = = = metacentric height, ft number of propellers shaft horsepower per shaft propeller diameter, ft fraction of propeller slip stream deflected by rudder, normally taken as 0.55 vertical distance from propeller shaft centerline at rudder to towing bitts, ft displacement, lton freeboard, ft beam, ft N (SHP D)2/3 s h 38 (F/B)
Tugs must also meet the additional requirements of weather criterion A described for ships under 328 feet (Paragraph C-2.2.1), and have a positive range of stability to at least 60 degrees. In addition, the towline heeling arm curve is plotted against the righting arm curve as described under the U.S. Navy towing criterion (Paragraph C-2.1.3). Stability is adequate if:
The heel angle is less than the downflooding angle, and The residual righting energy up to the smallest of the downflooding angle, 40 degrees, or the heel angle is at least two footdegrees.
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C-2.2.7 Mobile Offshore Drilling Units. Mobile offshore drilling units are required to have a GM of at least 2 inches (50 mm), and to meet a wind heel energy balance criterion similar to the Navy criterion. The wind heel moment Hm is the sum of heeling moments Hi resulting from wind pressure on individual exposed areas on the unit: Hm = Hi = pi Ai hi
Hi = pi Ai hi = k V 2 (Cs Ch A h)i where: Hi k p A V = = = = = = = = = = = wind heel moment for an exposed surface on the unit, ft-lb or kgf-m 0.00338 lb/ft2-kt2 (0.0623 kg-sec2/m4) wind pressure acting on area A, lbs/ft2 or kgf/m2 (see Paragraph 3-5 for wind pressure calculations for unusual shapes) projected area of an exposed surface on the unit, ft2 or m2 wind velocity 70 kts (36 m/sec) for normal operating conditions 100 kts (51.5 m/sec) for severe storm conditions 50 kts (25.8 m/sec) for damage conditions shape coefficient from Table 3-1 height coefficient from Table 3-2 lever arm from center of underwater lateral resistance (half-draft) to center of wind pressure on area A, ft or m
Cs Ch h
MOMENT
Stability is adequate if area A1 is not less than 1.4 times area A2, shown in Figure C6. A1 is the area under the righting arm curve from 0 to the downflooding angle, f, or the second intercept of the righting arm and heeling arm curves, whichever is less; A2 is the area under the heeling arm curve from 0 to the downflooding angle or the second intercept of the righting arm and heeling arm curves, whichever is less. C-2.3 IMO Stability Standards. The two most important IMO stability standards are IMO Resolutions A.167 and A.562, summarized below.
WIND HEEL MOMENT CURVE FIRST INTERCEPT A1
RIGHTING MOMENT CURVE
A2
SECOND INTERCEPT
HEEL ANGLE
C-2.3.1 IMO Resolution A.167. A.167 is a set of righting arm and GM criteria adopted in 1968 for ships under 100 meters Figure C-6. USCG Criteria for Mobile Offshore Drilling Units. in length. These criteria have been used extensively by several national authorities for ships of all lengths, and are the basis for the U. S. Coast Guard criteria for ships under 100 meters. The resolution is currently being extended to ships of unrestricted length. Stability is adequate if:
SECOND INTERCEPT ANGLE
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 30 degrees is not less than 0.055 meter-radians (10.34 foot-degrees), Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 40 degrees or the downflooding angle is not less than 0.09 meter-radians (16.92 footdegrees), Area under the righting arm curve between 30 and the lesser of 40 degrees or the downflooding angle is not less than 0.03 meter radians (5.64 foot-degrees), Righting arm is at least 0.2 meters (0.66 feet) at an angle equal to or greater than 30 degrees, Maximum righting arm occurs at an angle preferably exceeding 30 degrees but not less than 25 degrees, and Initial metacentric height is not less than 0.15 meters (0.49 feet) for cargo vessels, or 0.35 meters (1.15 feet) for fishing vessels.
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C-2.3.2 IMO Resolution A.562. A.562 is an energy balance criterion similar to the U.S. Navy wind heel criterion. The criterion was approved by IMO in 1985 and is recommended for cargo and passenger vessels over 24 meters, and fishing vessels over 45 meters in length. The vessel is assumed to be heeled to an angle, 0, by a steady wind heeling arm Lw1, and to be rolling to an angle 1 to either side of the wind heel angle, as shown in Figure C-7. A gust wind heeling arm Lw2 is then applied. Unlike the Navy criterion, the wind heeling arms are assumed to be constant and independent of heel angle: 0.0514 A H
GZ
ARM
A1
A2
Lw1 2 0
HEEL ANGLE
Lw2
LW1 =
Figure C-7. IMO Wind Heel Criteria.
LW2 = 1.5 LW1 where: Lw1 Lw2 A H = = = = = steady wind heeling arm, meters gust heeling arm, meters projected lateral sail area of ship and cargo above the water, m2 lever arm from center of underwater resistance to center of sail area, m displacement, metric tons
The angle of roll, 1, is calculated by: 1 = 109k X1 X2 r s
where: 1 X1 X2 k = = = = = = = = = = = angle of roll, deg dimensionless factor based on beam to draft ratio, from Table C-2 dimensionless factor based block coefficient, from Table C-2 dimensionless factor based on bilge and keel geometry 1.0 for a round-bilged ship without bilge or bar keels 0.7 for a ship with hard bilges as shown in Table C-3 for ships with bilge keels, bar keels, or both dimensionless factor based on rolling period, TR, from Table C-3 0.73 0.6(OG)/Tm distance from center of gravity to the waterline (+ if G is above the waterline, - if G is below the waterline), length mean molded draft, length, consistent with OG
s r OG Tm
Stability is adequate if:
Steady wind heel angle, 0, is less than 16 degrees or the angle where 80 percent of the freeboard to the deck edge is immersed, whichever is less, Area A1 is greater than area A2.
Both areas are bounded by the righting arm curve and the gust wind heeling arm curve. Area A1 terminates at 2, equal to the lesser of 50 degrees or the downflooding angle f; area A2 terminates at the expected roll angle, 1, to windward of the wind heel angle.
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Table C-2. Values for Factors X1 and X2 for IMO Resolution A.562. Values for X1 Values for X2
B/Tm
2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
X1
1.00 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.80
CB
0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70
X2
0.75 0.82 0.89 0.95 0.97 1.00
B = molded beam, m Tm = molded draft, m CB = block coefficient
Table C-3. Values for Factors k, and s for IMO Resolution A.562. Values for k Values for s
Ak 100 LWL (B)

0.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
TR
1.00 0.98 0.95 0.88 0.79 0.74 0.72 0.70
6 7 8 12 14 16 18 20 2CB
0.100 0.098 0.093 0.065 0.053 0.044 0.038 0.035
TR = B Tm Ak TR GM
= = = = = molded beam, m molded draft, m total area of bilge keels and/or lateral area of bar keel, m2 rolling period, sec metacentric height, corrected for free surface, m
GM
where:
C = 0.373
0.023
B Tm
0.043
LWL 100
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C-3 LOAD LINES AND LIMITING DRAFT MARKS
The purpose of a load line or other limiting draft mark is to provide a simple visual check that a laden vessel has sufficient watertight volume above the waterline for safe operation. A certain minimum watertight volume is required for three reasons: 1 The watertight volume provides reserve buoyancy so that the ship can rise as it passes through waves. This helps to reduce the amount of water that comes on board. The amount of freeboard influences the length of the righting arm and range of stability. With too little freeboard, stability is reduced below acceptable levels. Reserve buoyancy is required to prevent or delay foundering in the event of underwater damage and/or flooding.
Standards for load line determination for commercial vessels were established by the International Load Line Convention of 1966 and are implemented by national agencies. In the United States, load line regulations are promulgated as Title 46 of the US Code of Federal Regulations, Subchapter E. The basic U.S. load line regulations are summarized in the following paragraphs. The American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) is the load line assigning authority for the U.S. Coast Guard. Limiting draft determinations for Navy ships, governed by Design Data Sheet DDS 079-1, Stability and Buoyancy of U.S. Naval Surface Ships and Ship Design Standard SDS 079-2, Minimum Freeboard, are described in Paragraph C-3.2.
DECK LINE 12"
21" TF F
DECK LINE 15"
26"
DECK LINE
12"
DECK LINE
TF
F
SS CS CW
FW A
12" 18"
A 12" 18"
B 9" 1" 9"
T S W WNA
SW FW MS B MS S S I 15" I 21" W W 9" 1" 9"
T S W
9" 1"
MS S I W
9"
9" 1"
9"
21" 21"
15" GL SS FW SW FW MS A B S S W I 15" 9" 9" W 21" 1" 9" 9" 1" 26" 21"
MIDSHIPS FORWARD MIDSHIPS
MIDSHIPS
FORWARD
MIDSHIPS
FORWARD
FORWARD
(a) INTERNATIONAL AND UNLIMITED COASTWISE LOAD LINE MARK
(b) GREAT LAKES LOAD LINE MARK
(c) COMBINED SPECIAL SERVICE AND UNLIMITED COASTWISE LOAD LINE MARK
Figure C-8. Load Line Marks.
(d) COMBINED GREAT LAKES AND SPECIAL SERVICE COASTWISE LOAD LINE MARK
(e) USN LIMITING DRAFT MARK
C-3.1 Load Lines. Minimum freeboard is measured from the freeboard deck amidships and marked with a load line, like those shown in Figure C-8. The freeboard deck is normally the highest continuous watertight deck, but may be a lower deck so long as it is continuous and watertight. On ships where the weather deck is obscured by a bulwark or a lower deck is the freeboard deck, the freeboard deck line is indicated by a short horizontal line on the side plating directly above the load line. Because maximum deadweight, and consequently the earning capacity, of a ship is directly related to the minimum allowable freeboard (maximum draft), authorities are anxious to be fair and exact in assigning load lines. The rules for load line assignment are therefore somewhat complicated and will not be described in detail here. Required freeboard depends on the form of the ship, and the calculation of minimum freeboard involves water density, length, breadth, depth, sheer, size of watertight superstructures, and other geometric features of the ship. This calculation determines the minimum summer freeboard in salt water or basic load line. This freeboard is marked amidships on both sides of the ship by an eighteen inch long horizontal line passing through the center of a twelve inch disk. Letters to either side of the disk indicate the assigning authority (AB for the American Bureau of Shipping, LR for Lloyds Register, NV for det Norske Veritas, etc). Load line assignment rules include minimum standards for watertight closures, hatch covers, freeing ports, ventilators, scuttles, light ports, and other fittings to ensure that the freeboard volume is truly watertight and effective in providing reserve buoyancy and stability. Figure C-8(a) shows a load line mark for a vessel certified for ocean and unlimited coastwise service.
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C-3.1.1 Seasonal and Regional Load Lines. More severe sea and weather conditions will require higher freeboard to provide the same margin of safety, while lower freeboard will provide sufficient safety in less severe conditions. Since sea and weather conditions can be broadly predicted for season and region, marks forward of the load line disk show minimum required freeboard for tropical (T), winter (W), and winter North Atlantic (WNA). The summer (S) line marks the same freeboard as the basic load line through the center of the disk. The lines are one inch high and nine inches wide; required freeboard is marked at the top of the line. A load line map divides the worlds oceans into zones and shows at what times of year each zone can be considered to be summer, winter, winter north atlantic, or tropical. The same information is available in narrative form in 46 CFR, Subchapter E, Subpart 42.30. Freshwater (F) and tropical fresh water (TF) marks are included for use when the ship loads in fresh water for an ocean voyage. A ship loaded to the freshwater mark in fresh water will rise to her summer load line as she transits into seawater. There is also an allowance for freeboard to be gained as fuel and other stores are consumed during the transit from port of loading to the open sea. The fresh water load marks are intended for use in transits from a fresh water port to the open sea, where reductions in reserve buoyancy, stability, and damage resistance are considered acceptable for a short transit through relatively protected waters. Vessels conducting extended operations on large bodies of fresh water should not be loaded to their fresh water load lines. Since fresh water is less dense than salt water, reserve buoyancy is already decreased with the vessel loaded to her basic load line in fresh water. Vessels operating solely on the Great Lakes are assigned special Great Lakes load lines as described in Paragraph C-3.1.4. Fresh water load lines are calculated for an assumed specific gravity of 1.000 (seawater is normally taken as 1.025). If a ship is loaded in brackish water or fresh water with specific gravity higher than 1.000 to the fresh water (or tropical fresh water) mark, the summer (or tropical) load line will be immersed when the ship reaches seawater. C-3.1.2 Subdivision Load Lines. During a vessels design, water tight bulkheads are located so that a specified number of compartments (standard of subdivision) can be flooded without submerging the margin line, located just below the freeboard deck. Standard of subdivision calculations are made assuming the ship is floating at a specific waterline called the subdivision load line. The validity of a ships standard of subdivision depends on the ships waterline being at or below the subdivision load line and on the integrity of the compartment boundaries. A subdivision load line has no meaning and is not affixed to a vessel if it lies above other load line marks. If the subdivision load line lies below other load line marks, the minimum freeboard is based on the subdivision load line mark, and other marks are not affixed. C-3.1.3 Scantling Drafts. The maximum draft amidships to which a vessel can be loaded without overstressing the hull is called the scantling draft. If the scantling draft mark lies below any other load line marks, these marks are meaningless and are not affixed. Minimum freeboard is then based on the scantling draft. C-3.1.4 Great Lakes Load Lines. Vessels assigned international or unlimited coastwise load lines may operate freely on the Great Lakes without additional load line assignment or certification. Vessels operating solely on the Great Lakes and certain portions of the St. Lawrence River are assigned Great Lakes load lines. Load lines for Great Lakes vessels are based on the same considerations as international load lines, i.e. reserve buoyancy, vessel form, water density, anticipated weather and sea conditions, standards of subdivision, and hull strength. The basic Great Lakes load line is marked by a twenty one inch line passing through the center of a fifteen inch wide diamond as shown in Figure C-8(b). The Great Lakes load line mark is affixed amidships, port and starboard like the international load line mark. Letters to either side of the diamond indicate the assigning authority. Marks forward of the diamond show summer (S), midsummer (MS), intermediate (I), and winter (W) load lines. If a vessel operates in the saltwater portion of the St. Lawrence River (downstream of the Victoria Bridge, Montreal), she must also have corresponding salt water (SW) load lines as shown. C-3.1.5 Special Service Coastwise Load Lines. Reduced freeboards are permitted for certain types of coastwise and inter-island voyages. In general, "special service, coastwise" means voyages where the vessel remains within 20 miles of shore. Special service load lines are marked port and starboard amidships by a load line disk identical to the international load line disk. Marks forward of the disk indicate summer, winter, and freshwater load lines. C-3.1.6 Combination Load Lines. Vessels certified both for limited coastwise and international voyages are marked as shown in Figure C-8(c). Marks forward of the load line disk apply to international and unlimited coastwise voyages. Marks aft of the disk apply to limited coastwise voyages. The marks aft of the disk are to be eliminated when engaged in international voyages. Vessels operating both on the Great Lakes and on limited (special service) coastwise voyages are marked with a combined disk and diamond as shown in Figure C-8(d). Marks forward of the basic mark apply to limited coastwise voyages; marks aft of the basic mark apply to Great Lakes voyages. The summer line on the ocean corresponds to the summer line on the Lakes and the winter line on the ocean corresponds to the intermediate line on the Lakes.
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C-3.1.7 Load Line Requirements and Inspections. Load line certification and inspection is required for all inspected and certain uninspected vessels. Mandatory load line assignment establishes statutory minimum freeboard that is documented by a Load Line Certificate. This document certifies the correctness of the load line marks and that the vessel is in compliance with all applicable requirements. The certificate also contains a diagram of the assigned load line marks and freeboard deck line and states any conditions, exemptions, or restriction the vessel is required to observe. Load line certificates are reviewed during annual inspections by the assigned authority and in more thorough load line surveys every 5 years. Load line regulations are U.S. Federal law. An assigned load line is an extension of that law and to load a vessel during normal operation so that the applicable load line mark is submerged is an unlawful act. C-3.2 Navy Limiting Draft Marks. The basic requirement governing limiting draft assignment, as set forth in Ship Design Standard 079-2 of 25 February 1987, is that ships "shall have freeboard sufficient to satisfy the intact and damaged stability requirements of Design Data Sheet 079-1 [outlined in Paragraph C-2.1 above] and to maintain dry decks over the expected range of operating conditions." Limiting drafts define a pre-damage condition such that following shell to shell flooding to the ships standard of subdivision, the final trimmed waterline does not immerse the margin line at the side (3 inches below the bulkhead deck). If governing, off-center flooding is assumed. The basic calculation is described in DDS 079-1 of 1 August 1975:
The ship is assumed to have suffered flooding to her standard of subdivision while loaded to trial limiting drafts. Post damage trim lines (unheeled, trimmed waterlines) are calculated for flooding in each group of compartments as shown in Figure C-9(a). The trim lines establish unheeled waterlines at each transverse watertight bulkhead, as shown in Figure C9(b). Inclined waterlines are drawn for an assumed heel of 15 degrees, plus the assumed roll angle from Figure C-4. An additional 4-foot rise of waterline is applied, as shown, to account for an assumed 4-foot sea.
DAMAGE FORWARD OF BULKHEAD A
RECIPROCAL WATER LINE INCLINED WATERLINE
INCLINED WATERLINE WITH 4FT WAVE 4 ROLL ANGLE
FLOODING
H A
15
DAMAGE AFT OF BULKHEAD A
FLOODING
BULKHEAD A POINT A CORRESPONDS TO THE INTERSECTION OF THE DEEPER TRIMMED WATERLINE OF PART (a) WITH BULKHEAD A
(a) TRIM LINES
(b) V-LINES
Figure C-9. Limiting Draft Calculations.
All penetrations below the V-lines thus defined must be watertight for the ship to survive flooding to her standard of subdivision when laden to her limiting drafts. V-lines are used by designers as a guide to locating necessary non-watertight fittings. Groups of compartments near the third- or quarter-length points of the hull establish limiting drafts for most ships. For ships without side protective systems, limiting drafts are assigned on the basis of reserve buoyancy, unless strength or speed dictate a shallower draft. In rare cases, damage stability may govern the assignment of limiting draft. Limiting drafts for ships with side protective systems are governed by the freeboard requirements of the side protective systems, rather than reserve buoyancy. Limiting forward, after, and midships drafts are indicated by asterisk-like marks on both sides of the ship, illustrated in Figure C-8(e). The limiting draft is marked at the top of the horizontal line. The three limiting drafts do not necessarily define a single waterline; if any one of the marks is submerged in any condition of trim, the vessel has exceeded its limiting draft. Limiting drafts, the basis for their assignment, and any related operating restrictions are given in section II of the ships Damage Control Book (see Appendix H for limiting draft guidelines for an FFG-7 class ship).
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C-4 SECTION MODULUS STANDARDS
In the absence of better information, construction standards or rules may be used to estimate moment of inertia or section modulus of as-built hull sections. The as-built section properties can then be used as a guide to estimating the properties of intact or damaged sections of a casualty. If the ship structure has not been maintained in class, the degree and extent of deterioration and its effect on section strength must be estimated. The NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE) includes a section modulus editor that can apply corrosion or wastage allowances to hull scantlings. The section modulus editor can also generate an approximate cross section area distribution for a given section modulus. Damaged portions of the approximated section can then be deleted to estimate post-damage properties for the section. The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) requires general compliance with ABS construction standards for ships of U.S. registry. Similar section modulus requirements are published by other classification societies and government agencies of maritime nations (see Bibliography). Hull girder strength requirements for Navy ships are given in Design Data Sheet DDS 100-6, Longitudinal Strength Calculations and Ship Design Standards SDS 100-1, Hull Girder Primary Strength and SDS 100-2, Material Application Strength Limits of Steel. Classification society rules and government regulations change from time to time; a ship may have been built to standards either more or less demanding than the current standards. C-4.1 Section Modulus Requirements for Navy Ships. Required section properties for Navy ships are based on calculated primary hull loadings resulting from shear force and bending moment calculations for the ship in still water and when statically balanced on a standard trochoidal wave (height = 1.1 L, length = L). Various loading conditions are examined to determine the most severe loading. See Design Data Sheet 100-6 or Paragraph 1-11 for a discussion of longitudinal strength calculations. With hull girder bending moment and shear force determined along the length of the ship, section scantlings are selected so that calculated primary stress (fIC) is less than the sum of the design primary stress (fID) and a stress factor for primary strength (Ms): fIC fID - Ms where: fIC fID = = = = = calculated primary stress design primary stress 8.5 long ton/in2 for ordinary steel (OS) or mild steel (MS) 9.5 long ton/in2 for higher strength steel (HS, HSS) or high tensile steel (HTS) 10.5 long ton/in2 for HY-80, HY-100, or HSLA-80 stress factor for primary strength 1.0 long ton/in2 for combatants 0.5 long ton/in2 for other ships
Ms
The design primary stress limits range from slightly more than half the yield stress for mild and ordinary steels to less than one quarter of the yield stress for HY-100. The stress factor for primary strength allows for increases in hull girder stresses resulting from weight growth or redistribution, unaccounted for openings, stress raisers, fabrication defects, and corrosion. As-built section scantlings may be heavier than called for a primary stress analysis because of local stiffening to limit vibration or deflection, or strengthening to carry secondary and tertiary loads:
Concentrated and distributed loads resulting from the stowage of provisions or cargo. Static pressures the shell, weatherdeck, lower parts of the superstructure or deckhouse, resulting from the effects of wave slap, passage of waves, heel, pitching with bow submergence, and green seas on the weather deck. Weather loads. Dynamic loads resulting from ship motions in moderate and storm seas. Docking loads. Hydrostatic loads from liquids in tanks. Static and live loads in way of gun mounts, cargo gear, and other structures. Blast and shock loads.
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C-4.2 ABS Section Modulus Standards. The 1990 and 1980 American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) section modulus standards are summarized in the following paragraphs. In the 1990 Rules, required section modulus is based on total bending moment, the sum of still water and wave bending moments. The still water bending moment is either calculated or taken as a parametrically determined standard moments; wave bending moment is determined parametrically. In the 1980 Rules, required section modulus is based on calculated still water bending moment with parametric adjustments to account for wave bending moment and other factors. The 1980 rules require that structural members included in the section modulus calculation be continuous or effectively developed within a length equal to four tenths the length between perpendiculars centered about midships and gradually tapered outside this region. Sectional areas used in the modulus calculation for the strength deck and effective lower decks are to be continued throughout the midships 0.4L, and may be gradually reduced to one-half their midships value at 0.15L from the ends. In other words, section modulus is constant over the middle 40 percent of the ships length, and decreases gradually towards the ends of the ship. The 1990 rules include a similar requirement if a bending moment curve is not developed. If a bending moment curve is developed, section scantlings may be sized to keep bending stresses below a level depending on ship length (see Paragraph C-4.3). Both the 1990 and 1980 rules require that a loading manual showing the effects of various loaded and ballasted conditions be furnished to each vessel for guidance. An approved load calculator or computer can be installed to comply with this requirement. C-4.3 1990 ABS Rules. The longitudinal strength requirements from the 1990 ABS Rules for Building and Classing Steel Ships are summarized in the following paragraphs. The requirements apply to vessels 200 feet (61 meters) or more in length intended for unrestricted ocean service. The equations are valid for vessels with depths equal to or greater than one-fifteenth of their length. C-4.3.1 Required Section Modulus. The required midships section modulus is given by: Mt SM = fp where: SM = Mt = = fp = required midships section modulus, cm2-m or in2-ft, but not less than the minimum section modulus given in Paragraph C-4.3.3 total bending moment, mton-m or ft-lton Msw + Mw (see Paragraph C-4.3.2) nominal permissible bending stress in mton/cm2 or lton/in2
Nominal permissible bending stress is based on ship length: fp = 1.663 = 1.663 where: L = classification length, ft or m LBP For general cargo ships, bulk carriers with uniform loading, and specialized carriers such as container ships or barge carriers where cargo is stowed in specific cells or locations, fp may be increased 10 percent if the strength deck and bottom structure are longitudinally framed. C-4.3.2 Bending Moment. Total bending moment is the sum of the still water bending moment, Msw, and the wave bending moment, Mw. The rules require calculation of shear force and bending moment and preparation of a loading manual based on still water conditions for ore and bulk carriers, oil carriers, container ships, barge carriers and similar vessels over 400 feet (122 meters) in length, and for liquefied gas carriers and chemical carriers over 213 feet (65 meters) in length. For other vessels, a standard still water bending moment, Ms, can be calculated: Ms = Cs t L 2.5B (CB 0.5 ) where: Cst L B CB = = = = parametric constant, from Table C-4 classification length, ft or m classification breadth, ft or m block coefficient at the summer load waterline, based on classification length, but not less than 0.64 240 L 1620 L 240 4000 mton/ cm 2 mton/ cm 2 = 10.56 = 10.56 790 L 845 L 790 2045 lton/ in 2 lton/ in 2 200 ft L 790 ft 790 ft < L 1400 ft
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Table C-4. Factor Cst for Standard Still Water Bending Moment, 1990 ABS Rules.
Length Range
Cst L in meters L in feet

0.312 360 L 0.001 2990
200 ft L 360 ft (61 m L 110 m)
0.618
110 L 0.01 462
360 ft < L 525 ft (110 m < L 160 m)
0.564
160 L 0.01 925
0.285
525 L 0.001 6100
252 ft < L 690 ft (160 m < L 210 m) 690 ft < L 820 ft (210 m < L 250 m) 820 ft < L 1400 ft (250 m < L 427 m)
0.544
210 L 0.01 2500
0.275
690 L 0.001 16,400
0.00544
0.000275
L - 250 0.01 0.544 1786
L 820 0.001 0.283 11,600
Wave induced bending moment amidships may be calculated by means of statistical analysis based on ship motion in realistic sea states or taken from the following: Mw = C2 CB + 0.088 L 2B H Kb where: C2 L B CB Kb H = = = = = = = = 0.01(2.32CB + 0.2), [metric units] 0.0001(6.45CB + 0.57), [English units] classification length, ft or m classification breadth, ft or m block coefficient at the summer load waterline, based on classification length, but not less than 0.64 1.0 for CB 0.80 1.4 - 0.5CB for CB < 0.80 wave parameter, ft or m, from Table C-5
Table C-5. Wave Parameter H for Wave Induced Bending Moment Amidships, 1990 ABS Rules.
Length Range 200 ft L 490 ft (61 m L 150 m) 490 ft < L 720 ft (150 m < L 220 m) 720 ft < L 1000 ft (220 m < L 305 m) 1000 ft < L 1400 ft (305 m < L 427 m)
Cst L in meters
0.0172L + 3.653 0.0181L + 3.516 0.01[4.50L - 0.0071L2 + 103] 8.151
L in feet
0.0172L + 11.98 0.0181L + 11.535 0.01[4.50L - 0.00216L2 + 335] 26.750
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The wave-induced bending moment distribution is determined from Mw: Mi = Mw k where: Mi = k = wave induced bending moment at the ith station bending moment distribution factor from Table C-6
AP
Table C-6. Wave Bending Moment Distribution Factor, 1990 ABS Rules. Station 0 2 4 6 8 9 MS 10 11 12 14
k
0 0.10 0.35 0.68 0.95 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.94 0.74 0.43 0.13 0
C-4.3.3 Minimum Section Modulus. For vessels with lengths of 295 to 1400 feet (90 to 427 meters), midships section modulus shall not be less than: SM = 0.001 C1 L 2 B (CB where: C1 L B CB = = = = parametric constant, from Table C-7 classification length, ft or m classification breadth, ft or m block coefficient at the summer load waterline, based on classification length, but not less than 0.60 0.70)
16 18 FP 20
Table C-7. Factor C1 for Minimum Section Modulus, 1990 ABS Rules.
C1
Length Range
L in meters
L in feet
295 ft L 984 ft (90 m L 300 m)
10.75
300 L 1.5 100
0.01441 10.75
984 L 1.5 328
984 ft L 1148 ft (300 m L 350 m) 1148 ft < L 1400 ft (350 m < L 427 m)
10.75
0.01441(10.75)
10.75
L 350 1.5 150
0.01441 10.75
L 1148 1.5 492
C-4.3.4 Required Moment of Inertia. The required midships section moment of inertia is based on required section modulus: I = L (SM ) 34.1
where I is the midships section moment of inertia, in2-ft2 or cm2-m2. C-4.3.5 Permissible Shear Stress. In general, side shell and longitudinal bulkhead scantlings are to be such that the nominal total shear stresses are not greater than 6.75 long tons per square inch (1.065 metric tons per square centimeter). Permissible shear stress in the middle eight-tenths depth of longitudinal bulkheads may be increased to 7.765 long tons per square inch (1.225 metric tons per square centimeter) if it is shown that the bulkhead has adequate resistance to buckling. Nominal total shear stress calculations are based on the maximum sum of still water shear force Fsw and wave induced shear force Fw. If cargo is carried in alternate holds, Fsw may be reduced to account for the shearing loads transmitted through the double bottom structure to transverse bulkheads.
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For vessels without continuous longitudinal bulkheads, nominal total shear stress in the side shell plating is calculated from: fs = where: fy I m = = = nominal total shear stress, lton/in2 or mton/cm2 moment of inertia of the hull section, in4 or cm4 first moment of area, about the neutral axis, of the area of effective longitudinal material between the vertical level at which the shear stress is determined and the vertical extremity of effective longitudinal material, for the section under consideration, in3 or cm3 thickness of side shell plating at the point under consideration, in or cm maximum still water shear force, lton or mton maximum wave induced shear force, lton or mton (Fs w Fw )m 2tI
t = Fsw = Fw =
For vessels with continuous longitudinal bulkheads, nominal maximum shear stress in the bulkheads and side shell plating is calculated from shear flow or other method approved by ABS. Discussions of shear flow calculations can be found in the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Principals of Naval Architecture or similar texts. C-4.3.6 Hull Girder Shear Force. Still water hull girder shear forces are calculated by direct integration for the ship types listed in Paragraph C-4.3.2. For other vessels, maximum shear force for uniform loading conditions is taken as 5Ms/L, where Ms is the standard still water bending moment (ft-lton or mton-m), and L is the classification length (ft or m). Wave induced shear forces along the ships length are given by: Fw = where: Mw = K = maximum wave induced bending moment (see Paragraph C-4.3.2), ft-lton or mton-m shear distribution coefficient, from Figure C-10 K Mw L
0.8L 0.65L 0.55L 0.4L 0.3L 0.15L FP
K = 2.5
K = 1.6
K = 2.6
L Figure C-10. Wave Induced Shear Force Distribution, 1990 ABS Rules.
When cargo is carried in alternate holds, Fsw may be reduced to Fs by deducting a factor FB: Fs = Fsw where: FS = Fsw = portion of still water shear force distributed to the side shell, lton or mton total still water shear force as obtained by conventional direct integration, lton or mton FB
The factor FB accounts for the distribution of part of the total shear force to transverse bulkheads by the double bottom structure and is taken as the lesser of: lE WE bE FB E = 0.45 0.2 b B E FB L = 0.45 where: WE, WL = lE, lL bE, bL B = = = total load (net weight or net buoyancy) in the adjacent holds with the lesser (or empty) weight designated by E and the greater weight designated by L, lton or mton length of the adjacent holds containing the weights WE and WL, ft or m breadth of the double bottom structure in holds E and L, ft or m For vessels with lower wing tanks with tops sloping at an angle of about 45 degrees, b is measured between midpoints of the sloping plating. For vessels with double skins and flat inner bottoms, b is measured between inner skins. classification breadth, ft or m molded breadth 0.2 lL WL bL bL B
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C-4.3.7 Effective Structure. The uppermost deck to which the side shell plating extends is considered the strength deck, except in way of comparatively short superstructures or in way of superstructures with reduced side shell scantlings. In general, hatchways and other openings through the deck are excluded from the section modulus. When the standard still water bending moment is used, deck sectional areas to meet the required midships section modulus are maintained throughout the midships 0.4L. Deck sectional areas may be reduced to one-half the midships deck area at points 0.15L from the ends of the ship. In way of a superstructure outside the midships 0.4L, the strength deck area may be reduced to 70 percent of the area that would be required were there no superstructure. When calculated still water bending moment curves are used to determine Mt, deck sectional areas are to be adequate to keep bending stress below the nominal permissible bending stress specified in Paragraph C-4.3.1.
l B s b C L
b C L
TRANSVERSE BULKHEAD OR DEEP BEAM TRIPLE-HATCH ARRANGEMENT
TRANSVERSE BULKHEAD OR DEEP BEAM TWIN-HATCH ARRANGEMENT
Figure C-11. Deck Structure in Way of Large Openings.
When strength deck longitudinal coamings of length greater than 0.14L are supported by longitudinal bulkheads or deep girders, the extreme fiber of the hull girder is taken to be at the top of the hatch coaming rather than the deck. When decks are constructed with two or more large openings abreast, as shown in Figure C-11, the plating and longitudinal stiffeners between the openings may be considered effective if the slenderness ratio l/r is not more than 60 and if supported by longitudinal bulkheads. Structure not supported by longitudinal bulkheads, but of substantial construction and with slenderness ratio of 60 or less may be considered partially effective. The area included in the section modulus calculation is the cross sectional area multiplied by a factor as specified in Table C-8.
Table C-8. Structural Effectiveness Factors, 1990 ABS Rules. effectiveness factor for:
s/b l/B = 1.2

0.15 (minimum) 0.30 0.50 0.80 1.20 1.80 and greater 0.32 0.38 0.48 0.60 0.72 0.82
l/B = 0.8
0.34 0.43 0.56 0.70 0.81 0.89
l/B 0.6
0.35 0.47 0.62 0.76 0.86 0.92
Dimensions s, b, l, and B are shown in Figure C-11. Intermediate values can be interpolated. If the length of the longest cargo hold exceed 0.8B, effectiveness factors should be multiplied by 0.9
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C-4.3.8 Higher Strength Materials. When the top or bottom flange of the hull girder is constructed of materials with strength greater than ordinary shipbuilding steel, section modulus may be reduced by the factor Q: SMh t s = Q (SM ) Q is given by: Q = 70,900 2U Y 3 49.92 2U Y 3 (English units)
(metric units)
where: Y U = = the specified yield point or yield strength of the higher strength material or 72 percent of the specified minimum tensile strength, whichever is less, lb/in2 or kg/mm2 the specified minimum tensile strength of the higher strength material, lb/in2 or kg/mm2
C-4.4 1980 ABS Rules. The section modulus standards from the 1980 ABS Rules for Steel Ships are summarized in Tables C-9 through C-12 (Tables C-11 and C-12 are on Page C-22). The standards for mild-steel ships are given in Table C-9. If the effective longitudinal structure of either the upper or lower flanges of the main hull girder is constructed of materials with strength higher than ordinary shipbuilding steel, the required top or bottom section modulus is reduced as detailed in Table C-11 (Page C-22).
Table C-9. ABS Section Modulus for Ships of Ordinary Steel Construction, 1980 Rules.
BASIC SECTION MODULUS:
Table C-10. Ship Length Factors, f and s, 1980 ABS Rules.
f
Length on summer load waterline, ft 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 820 830 840 850 860 870 880 890 900 910 920 930 940 950 960 970 980 990 1000 24 50 83 124 174 234 306 387 482 594 718 857 1008 1175 1245 1280 1316 1352 1388 1425 1462 1499 1536 1574 1612 1650 1688 1726 1765 1804 1843 1882 1921 General Cargo, Ore, Bulk Carriers, Liquefied Gas Carriers 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.27 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.38
s
Oil Carriers
SM
where:
cfB(CB + 0.5)
SM c
= = = = = = =
f B CB
basic section modulus at midships ship type factor 1.00 for general cargo vessels, ore carriers, bulk carriers, and liquefied gas carriers 1.03 for oil carriers ship length factor, from Table C-10 greatest molded breadth, ft block coefficient at design draft, based on length on the design waterline. For general cargo ships and liquefied gas carriers, CB is not to be taken as less than 0.68.
DECK SECTION MODULUS, SMT, in2-ft:
SM T = = =
where:
0.371 M / s + 0.82 SM M < 0.485(s)(SM) SM 0.485(s)(SM) < M < s(SM) 0.623 M / s + 0.377 SM M > (s)(SM)
M s
= =
maximum still water bending moment in the governing loaded or ballasted condition, ton-ft ship length factor, from Table C-9
BOTTOM SECTION MODULUS, SMB, in2-ft: L 700 ft 700 ft L 1,000 ft 1,000 - L ________ 10,000 1,000 - L ________ 3,000 1,000 - L ________ 4,286 +1 +1 +1 L 1,000 ft Ship Type General Cargo, Liquefied Gas Carriers Ore, Bulk Carriers
SMB = 1.03SMT
SMT
= 1.10SMT
SMT
= 1.07SMT where:
SMT
Oil Carriers
L = length on summer load line, ft
3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.79 3.80 3.80 3.81 3.82 3.82 3.83 3.83 3.84 3.84 3.85 3.86 3.86 3.87 3.88 3.88 3.89 3.90 3.90
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Table C-11. Section Modulus Standards for Ships of Higher Strength Material Construction, 1980 ABS Rules.
Ihst =
where:
KL SMT
16.67
Ihts SMT L K
= required midships hull girder moment of inertia when effective longitudinal material of upper or lower flanges of main hull girder are of materials with strength higher than ordinary shipbuilding steel, in2-ft = required deck section modulus for a mild steel vessel of the same dimensions, in2-ft2 = length on the estimated summer load line = ship type and length factor, from Table C-12
SMhts = Q SMT or B
where:
SMhts Q Y U SMT or B
= = = = =
section modulus for high-strength top or bottom hull girder flange 100,000/(Y + U + 10,000) specified minimum yield point for the higher strength material, psi specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of the higher-strength material, psi required deck or bottom section modulus for mild steel ship of same dimensions, as defined in Table C-9, in2-ft
Table C-12. Ship Type and Length Factor, K, 1980 ABS Rules.
K
Ship Type General Cargo, Liquified Gas Carriers Ore, Bulk Carriers Oil Carriers
L 700 ft
0.5074 0.5238 0.5169
L 1,000 ft
0.500 0.500 0.500
Intermediate values for K may be determined by interpolation
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APPENDIX D BASIC ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

D-1 INTRODUCTION
This appendix consists of summaries of general areas of engineering that support topics presented in the main text or have general application to field engineering practice. Many of the equations and functions discussed can be performed by preprogrammed hand-held calculators or microcomputer-based software.
D-2 MATHEMATICS
The following paragraphs review some basic algebra, trigonometry, analytical geometry, and calculus operations. See Appendix C of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) or Chapter 8 of the Salvors Handbook (S0300-A7-HBK-010) for mensuration of plane shapes and solid bodies. D-2.1 Quadratic Equations. Given a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the following relationships exist for the roots x1 and x2: x1, x2 = b b2 2a 4 ac , x1 + x2 = b , a and x1 (x2) = c a
D-2.2 Cubic Equations. Cubic and higher order equations occur infrequently in most engineering problems, but usually are difficult to factor when they do occur. Trial and error solutions can define the general region in which a root occurs, but are generally too time consuming for precise determination of roots. Graphical means can approximate roots with fair accuracy. Numerical analysis techniques yield extremely accurate solutions. The more efficient numerical analysis techniques are too complicated to present here. However, the bisection method described below is simple and usually can provide solutions with sufficient accuracy with only a few iterations. To use the method, values of the independent variable above and below a root, designated Lo and Ro, must be determined. The function has a value of zero at a root, so (Lo) and (Ro) have opposite signs. Let n be the iteration number. For n = 0, 1, 2, ... the following steps are iterated until sufficient accuracy is attained: a. Set m = 1/2 (Ln + Rn). b. Calculate (m). c. If (Ln)(m) 0, set Ln+1 = Ln and Rn+1 = m; if (Ln)(m) > 0, set Ln+1 = m and Rn+1 = Rn. (x) has at least one root in the interval (Ln+1, Rn+1), with an estimated value of: x 1 L 2 n
1
+ Rn
The maximum error is 1 2(Rn+1 - Ln+1). The bisection method does not automatically find other roots that may exist on the real number line.
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EXAMPLE D-1
Find the roots of (x) = x3 - 2x - 7 The first step is to find Lo and Ro. The approximate vicinity of the root can be determined by calculating (x) for arbitrary values of x, as shown below:
x (x)
-2 -11
-1 -6
0 -7
+1 -8
+2 -3
+3 +14
(2.5) is positive, so a root exists in the interval (2, 2.5); set L1 = 2 and R1 = 2.5. At this point, the best estimate of the root is the value m that would be used for the next iteration: 1 (2 2.5) = 2.25 m1 2 The maximum error is 1/2(2.5 - 2) = 0.25.
(x) changes sign between x = 2 and x = 3, so a root exists in the interval (2, 3); set Lo = 2 and Ro = 3
Iteration 1: f (m1) = f (2.25) = 0.1094

(m) is negative so a root exists in the interval (2.25, 2.5); set L2 = 2.25 and R2 = 2.5. The best estimate of the root is:
Iteration 0: m =
1 (2 + 3) = 2.5 2
f (2.5) = (2.5)3 - 2 (2.5) - 7 = 3.625
1 (2.25 2.5) = 2.375 2
The maximum error is 1/2(2.5 - 2.25) = 0.125. The procedure continues until the maximum error is acceptable.
D-2.3 Trigonometry. Trigonometry provides angular relationships that can be used to determine length of sides and size of included angles in triangles and polygons, and to resolve vectors into rectilinear components. D-2.3.1 Angular Measure 360 degrees = one complete circle = 2 radians radians 90 degrees = right angle = 2 180 = 57.3 degrees one radian = = 0.0175 radians one degree = 180 D-2.3.2 Right Triangles. For the right triangle shown in Figure D-1, side h is the hypotenuse, side x is adjacent to, and side y opposite of, angle . The Pythagorean Theorem states that x2 + y2 = h2, and forms the basis for the definitions of the trigonometric functions sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cotangent (cot), secant (sec), and cosecant (csc) shown below: sin = y h = 1 csc cos = x h = 1 sec tan = y sin = x cos x y = = 1 cot
x Figure D-1. Right Triangle.
h y
csc =
h 1 = y sin
sec =
h 1 = x cos
cot =
1 cos = tan sin
Figure D-2 shows the relationship of the trigonometric functions to the unit circle. The functions of the related angles are given in Table D-1. Table D-2 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) gives trigonometric functions for angles from 0 to 90 degrees.
(0,1)
cotan cos
se ca nt
tan
Table D-1. Functions of Related Angles.

Numerically equal function of theta for the indicated angle Function sin cos tan - -sin cos -tan 90 - cos sin cot 90 + cos -sin -cot 180 - sin -cos -tan 180 + -sin -cos tan
co se ca nt sin
(1,0)
Figure D-2. Unit Circle.
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D-2.3.3 Trigonometric Identities sin2 + cos2 = 1 cot2 + 1 = csc2 tan2 + 1 = sec2 sin = 2 sin cos 2 2 = tan cos
sin 2 = 2 (sin )(cos )
cos 2 = cos2
sin2 = 1
2 sin2
sin = 2
1 (1 2
cos )
tan = sin sec
cos = cot sin
sec = csc tan
cot = cos csc
csc = sec cot
D-2.3.4 Two-angle Formulae. For the two acute angles of a right triangle: + = 90o sin( + ) = [sin][cos] + [cos][sin] sin( - ) = [sin][cos] - [cos][sin] cos( + ) = [cos][cos] - [sin][sin] cos( - ) = [cos][cos] + [sin][sin] D-2.3.5 General Triangles. For any triangle, as shown in Figure D-3, the following laws apply:
c
B a C b
Law of Sines: Law of Cosines: Area:
sin A a
sin B sin C = b c 2bc (cos A)
a2 = b2 + c2 1 a b (sin C ) 2
Figure D-3. General Triangle.
D-2.3.6 Hyperbolic Functions. Hyperbolic functions are specific equations that include the terms ex and e-x. These combinations of ex and e-x appear regularly in certain types of problems. In order to simplify the equations in which they appear, hyperbolic functions are given trigonometric names and symbols: sinh x = e
x
e 2
cosh x =
+ e 2
tanh x =
ex e ex + e ex + e ex e
x x
sinh x cosh x cosh x sinh x
csch x =
2 e
x
1 sinh x
sech x =
2 + e
1 cosh x
x x
coth x =
The hyperbolic identities differ somewhat from the standard trigonometric identities. Several of the most common identities are shown here: cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1
x
coth2 x = csch2 x
tanh2 x = sech2 x
x
cosh x + sinh x = e
cosh x
sinh x = e
cosh (x + y) = ( cosh x) (cosh y) + (sinh x) (sinh y)
sinh (x + y) = ( sinh x) (cosh y) + (cosh x) (sinh y)
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D-2.6.3 Integral Tables. It is not uncommon that an integral to be evaluated is not found in the integral table in use, especially with an abbreviated table like the one above. When this occurs, there are three basic alternatives:
Seek a more extensive integral table, such as those contained in the CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, Burringtons Math Tables, Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, or various calculus texts, such as Thomas Calculus and Analytical Geometry. Apply numerical or approximate methods (see Paragraph 1-4). Attempt to transform the integral into a form that can be evaluated. Some brief guidance on transforming integrals follows. For a more complete discussion, consult a standard calculus text, such as Thomas Calculus and Analytical Geometry.
Expressions to be integrated, or integrands, are transformed by four basic methods:
2 2 2 2 Trigonometric Substitutions If an integrand contains ( a - x ), substitute asinu for x. ( a - x ) then becomes acosu. 2 2 2 2 + a), or asecu for x, and atanu for ( x - a) Similarly, substitute atanu for x, and asecu for ( x
Completing the Square Rewrite ax2 + bx + c as a[x + b/2a]2 + (4ac - b2)/4a and substitute u = x + b/2a and B = (4ac -b2)/4a. Partial Fractions For a ratio of polynomials, where the denominator has been factored into linear factors pi(x) and quadratic factors qj(x), and the degree of the numerator r(x) is less than that of the denominator, rewrite r(x)/[p1(x) . . . pn(x)q1(x) . . . qm(x)] as A1/p1(x) + . . . + An/pn(x) + (B1x + C1)/q1(x) + . . . + (Bmx + Cm)/qm(x). Integration by Parts Change the integral using the formula u dv = uv - v du, where u and dv are chosen so that v is easy to find from dv, and v du is easier to find than u dv.
D-2.6.4 Uses of Integrals. The principal uses of integration are for determining areas and volumes of shapes bounded by continuous curves. The area bounded by x = a, x = b, 1(x) above, and 2(x) below is given by:
b Area = [ f1(x) a
f2(x)] dx
The area of the surface created by rotating a function f(x) about the X-axis is: Surface area = 2 f(x) 1 + [ f (x)]2 a
b
dx
The volume of a function rotated about the X-axis is: Volume = ( f (x))2 dx a
b
The volume of a function rotated about the Y-axis is: Volume = 2 x f (x) dx a
b
The length of a curve described by (x) is:

b Length = 1 + [ f (x)]2 a
dx
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D-2.7 Miscellaneous Constants 2

3
= 1.141421
= 3.14159
e = 2.71828
2 = 1.25992
= 0.31830
1 e
= 0.36787
ln 2 = 0.69314
2 = 9.86960 ln = 1.14472 log10 = 0.49714
e 2 = 7.38905
3
3
= 1.73205
log e = 0.43429 10 ln 10 = 2.30258
3 = 1.44224
ln 3 = 1.09861
D-3 SOLID MECHANICS
Mechanics is the branch of science that deals with forces and motion. Statics deals with the action of forces on bodies at rest, while dynamics deals with forces on bodies in motion. D-3.1 Units of Mass and Force. Units of mass and force are often confused, particularly in the English gravitational (foot-pound-second) system of units. Mass is a measure of physical quantity; the mass of an object is independent of gravity or other acceleration. Force is related to mass by Newtons second law of motion: F = d dv mv = m dt dt v dm dt
where m is the mass and v the velocity of the body in question, and d/dt indicates rate of change (derivative with respect to time) of the designated property. Mass is constant for most situations, so dm/dt is zero, and change of velocity with respect to time is acceleration (a) giving Newtons second law in its familiar form: F = ma In the English system, the pound is commonly used both as a unit of force (pound-force, lbf) and as a unit of mass (pound-mass, lbm). If these units are substituted into Newtons second law, with acceleration in feet per second per second (ft/sec2), the units do not balance: lbf = ( lbm ) ( ft/sec2 ) This discrepancy is resolved by multiplying the equation by a constant with appropriate units: ft lbf sec2 C lbf = ( lbm ) 2 lbm ft sec One pound force is defined as the force exerted by a standard gravitational field on one pound mass. Standard acceleration due to gravity, go, is taken as 32.174 ft/sec2. Substituting these values and units into the force equation and solving for C: 1 lbf = ( 1 lbm ) ( 32.1739 ft/sec2 ) C lbf sec2/lbm ft C lbf sec2/lbm ft = 1 lbf 32.174 lbm ft/sec2
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The force equation can now be written: F = Cma = ma gc
where gc is the gravitational acceleration constant, numerically equal to the standard acceleration due to gravity (32.174), with units of lbm-ft/lbfsec2. The slug is defined as the mass that will be accelerated at 1 ft/sec2 by a force of 1 lbf. A slug is therefore equal to 32.174 lbm. If mass is expressed in slugs, gc is 1 slug-ft/lbf-sec2. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of force is the newton (N), defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of kilogram at one meter per second per second. Substitution into the force equation shows that with mass expressed in kilograms, gc is 1 kg-m/N-sec2. A metric gravitational system, with force units of kilograms-force (kgf), is sometimes used, although it is gradually being displaced by the more correct SI newton. Again, substitution of units into the force equation shows that to obtain forces in kilograms-force, gc must have a value of 9.80655 kg-m/kgf-sec2. The constant gc is always present in the force equation, and consequently in many equations derived from it. Deletion of gc or confusion of gc with the acceleration of gravity (g) are common errors in applying these equations. Depending on the units used, these errors may have no practical consequence. The engineer should understand the function of gc in the relationships in use, and its numerical value relative to the desired units, to avoid serious calculation errors. D-3.2 Statics. Forces tend to change the state of rest or motion of a body. A force is completely specified by its magnitude, direction, and point of application. The word sense as applied to a force refers to one of the two directions along the line of action of the force. Forces are represented graphically by vectors with direction parallel to the forces line of action and lengths proportional to the magnitude of the force. A drawing showing the lines of action of forces acting on a body or structure is a space diagram. A sketch showing vectors representing the forces is a vector diagram. In the following discussions, forces are indicated on space diagrams by two lowercase letters next to their lines of action; corresponding force vectors in the vector diagram are identified by the same uppercase letters marking the endpoints. The sequence of letters identifying a vector indicates the sense of the vector; vector BA is equal to, but with opposite sense of vector AB. A number of forces taken collectively is a system or set of forces. Force systems are classified as coplanar, with the lines of action of all forces lying in the same plane, or noncoplanar. Force systems are further classified as concurrent, nonconcurrent, or parallel, depending on whether all the forces intersect at a single point, intersect at several points, or have parallel lines of action. Two or more forces that are equivalent to a single force are components of the single force. Composition of forces is the replacing of a system of forces with a simpler system. Resolution of forces is the replacing of a single force by a system of forces, usually with lines of action parallel to coordinate system axes. The resultant of a force system is the simplest equivalent system. For concurrent, coplanar forces, the resultant is a single force. For nonconcurrent or parallel coplanar forces, the resultant may be either a force or a couple. For noncoplanar forces, the resultant may be two or more forces that are not parallel and do not intersect. D-3.2.1 Coplanar Concurrent Forces. Two concurrent forces, P and Q, acting through point O on a body, are represented by the adjacent sides OB and OA of parallelogram OACB, as shown in Figure D-5. The resultant is represented by the diagonal OC. Since side BC is equal to side OA, the force system can also be represented by triangle OBC as shown. The length of OC is determined by the law of sines or cosines, or the Pythagorean theorem if OBC is a right triangle. A force can be resolved into an infinite number of pairs of components by constructing different triangles, as shown in Figure D-6. The most common task is to resolve the force into rectangular components, parallel to the axes of the chosen coordinate system. The unresolved force vector forms the hypotenuse of a right triangle, with the component forces forming the adjacent and opposite legs as shown. Given angle , Px = Pcos and Py = Psin for the force triangle shown in Figure D-6.
A C
B C
B Figure D-5. Resultants of Coplanar Concurrent Forces.
B" B" C
P A B
b c a b
a c
C P 90 a A B
Figure D-6. Resolution of Forces.
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The resultant of multiple concurrent forces can be found graphically by constructing a force polygon, as shown in Figure D-7. The resultant can be determined algebraically by resolving each force into x and y rectangular components, with components acting upwards or to the right as positive, and those acting downwards or to the left as negative. The x and y components are summed separately, and the results recombined to form the resultant of the force system. D-3.2.2 Noncoplanar Concurrent Forces. The resultant of three rectangular noncoplanar concurrent forces P, Q, and S is determined by constructing a parallelopiped, as shown in Figure 2 2 2 D-8. The resultant is represented by the diagonal R, with magnitude (P + Q + S ). Its direction cosines with respect to the axes are given by: cos = P Q S , cos = , cos = R R R
Y 60 lb a b b G O c d e 40 lb SPACE DIAGRAM C B D A E FORCE POLYGON 0 20 40 60 lb d c X a e B 80 lb
120 lb
The resultant of any number of noncoplanar, nonrectangular concurrent forces can be determined if the forces are specified with reference to three rectangular axes passing through the point of currency. Each force is resolved into x, y, and z components that are summed and recombined into the resultant. If the component summations are designated Fx, Fy, and Fz, then:
R =
Fx 2 + Fx R
Fy 2 +
Fz 2 Fy R z = arccos Fz R
Figure D-7. Force Polygon.
x = arccos
y = arccos
D-3.2.3 Moments and Couples. The moment, or torque, of a force about a point is the product of the force magnitude and the moment arm (the distance separating the force line of action and the point). When working with moments, it is important to adopt and maintain a consistent sign convention. Generally, moments tending to produce counter-clockwise rotation are taken as positive. The moment of a force about a particular axis is determined by resolving the force into components parallel with and perpendicular to the axis. The parallel component produces no moment. The sum of the moments of any coplanar force system about any point or axis in their plane is equal to the moment of the resultant about the same point or axis.
S
Q R
Figure D-8. Resultant of Noncoplanar Force System.
Two equal and parallel forces of opposite sense form a couple. The arm of the couple is the distance between the lines of action. The moment of a couple is equal to the product of the magnitude of one of the forces and the arm of the couple; the moment is constant and independent of the origin of the moments. Couples of equal moments, in the same or parallel planes, are equivalent, and may replace one anothera couple may be rotated or moved in its own plane, or transferred to any parallel plane, without altering the resulting motion of the body on which it acts. A couple may be represented by a vector length equal to the magnitude of the couples moment. The vector is drawn perpendicular to the plane of the couple. The positive sense of the vector is the direction in which a right-hand screw would advance. The resultant of coplanar couples, or couples in parallel planes, is a couple with moment and sense equal to the algebraic sum of the component couples. The resultant of any number of couples in oblique or parallel planes is also a couple. The resultant is determined by resolving each couple vector into components parallel to a set of rectangular axes. The x, y, and z components are summed as Cx, Cy, and Cz; the magnitude and direction angles of the resultant couple vector C are given by:
C =
Cx 2 + Cx C
Cy 2 +
Cz 2 Cy C z = arccos Cz C
x = arccos
y = arccos
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D-3.2.4 Coplanar Nonconcurrent Forces. The resultant of a system of coplanar nonconcurrent forces may be either a single force or a couple. Resultants are found graphically by use of a funicular diagram, a special type of vector diagram drawn next to the space diagram. For example, to find the resultant of the four parallel forces shown in Figure D-9: a. Plot vector AB to show the sense and magnitude of force ab parallel to the line of action at a convenient location. Then plot, in succession, the vectors BC, CD, and DE to show the sense and magnitude of forces bc, cd, and de. The vectors plot on the same line, in either an upward or downward direction, as dictated by the sense of the vector force. AE, running from the beginning to the end of the vector diagram, shows the magnitude and sense of the resultant, in this case, 180 pounds, downward. b. To determine the line of action ae of vector AE, plot the pole O in any convenient position and draw the rays AO, BO, CO, DO, and EO as shown. c. From any point on the line of action ab (in the space diagram), draw strings ao and ob parallel to AO and OB. d. From the intersection of ob and bc, draw oc parallel to OC until it intersects cd; from the intersection, draw od parallel to OD to intersect de, then draw oe parallel to OE to intersect oa at K. The line of action ae passes through K, 5.3 feet to the right of ab. To solve the problem algebraically, a sign convention is adopted (upward forces positive, downward forces negative) and the magnitude and sense of the resultant is given by the sum of the forces (R = F). The line of action of the resultant is determined by summing moments. All moment arms are measured from the same point, selected to simplify calculations, and the sum of the moments divided by the resultant force gives the resultant moment arm, locating the line of action of the resultant, where resultant arm = M/R. If the summation of forces is zero, but the sum of moments is not zero, the resultant is a couple.
100 lb a b o b M o a 50 lb b c o d de P o e K 4 4 6 120 lb SPACE DIAGRAM A D 2 3 c d 150 lb
o c a e
C E 0 25
VECTOR DIAGRAM 50 75 100 lb
Figure D-9. Funicular Diagram.
D-3.2.5 Noncoplanar Nonconcurrent Forces. The resultant of a system of noncoplanar parallel forces may be either a single force or a couple. A set of three rectangular axes is established, with the Z-axis parallel to the lines of action of the forces. The intersection of the lines of action of the forces with the x-y plane is indicated by x, y coordinates. Moment arms about the X and Y axes are readily determined from the coordinates for each force. As with coplanar force systems, the magnitude and sense of the resultant are given by the summation of forces (R = F). The coordinates of the line of action of the resultant are found by dividing the sums of the moments about the X and Y axes by the resultant: My R (Fn xn) F Mx R (Fn yn) F
xR =
yR =
If F = 0, but Mx 0 or My 0, the resultant is a couple in a plane parallel to the Z-axis. The moment of the couple, and its orientation with the x-z plane, is determined by omitting one of the forces from the force and moment summations, as shown in the following example.
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EXAMPLE D-3
The lines of action of the four forces shown in the vector diagram in Figure D-10 are perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Positive and negative senses are as shown. Summing forces and moments:
20 lb
(-1, 2)
+Y
25 lb (2, 2) B 35 lb (1, 1) +X
Force lbs + 20 + 40 - 35 - 25 Sums 0
x ft
-1 -1 +1 +2
My ft-lb - 20 - 40 - 35 - 50 - 145
y ft
+2 -1 +1 +2
Mx ft-lb + 40 - 40
=2 5l b)
M AR
OF
LE UP CO
- 35 - 50 - 85
(-1, -1) 40 lb +Z O
F = 0, and Mx, My 0; the resultant is a couple. If the last force is omitted, Ro = +25 lb, My = -95 ft-lb, and Mx = -35 ft-lb. The coordinates of the line of action of Ro are:
xo =
My R
95 + 25
3.8 ft ,
yo =
Mx R
35 + 25
1.4 ft
The arm of the couple is the distance AB, from the resultant force to the most distant opposite force. AB is determined to be 6.72 feet from triangle ABC. The moment of the resultant couple is 25(6.72) = 168 ft-lb. The angle BAC is the angle between the plane of the couple and x-z plane. Angle BAC = arctan 3.4/5.8 = 30.38 degrees. The sense of the couple is seen to be counter-clockwise when viewed from the positive end of the Y-axis.
The resultant of a system of noncoplanar, nonconcurrent, nonparallel forces is generally a single force and a couple not coplanar with the force. The magnitude, sense, and angular direction of the force is the same as if the forces were concurrent:
R = Fx 2 + Fx R Fy 2 + Fz 2 Fy R z = arccos Fz R
Table D-2. Conditions of Equilibrium.

System Algebraic Conditions Coplanar Colinear F = 0. Fx = 0, Fy = 0, if the angle between x and y is not 180 degrees; or Concurrent at point O Fx = 0, Ma = 0, if the x direction is not perpendicular to Oa; or Ma = 0, Mb = 0, if aOb is not a straight line. F = 0, M = 0; or Parallel Ma = 0, Mb = 0, if line ab is not parallel to the forces. Fx = 0, Fy = 0, M = 0; or Nonparallel, nonconcurrent Fx = 0, Ma = 0, Mb = 0, if x is not perpendicular to Force and funicular polygons ab; or close. Ma = 0, Mb = 0, Mc = 0, if abc is not a straight line. Noncoplanar Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0; or Fs in every direction and Mn about every axis = 0. Fz = 0, Mx = 0, My = 0, forces parallel to Z-axis. Force polygon closes. Polygon is warped, so both plan and elevation views must close. Not used. Force polygon closes, funicular polygon closes (first and last strings coincide). Force polygon closes. Force polygon closes. Graphical Conditions
x = arccos
y = arccos
R acts through the selected reference origin. The couple is determined by summing moments about the coordinate system axes. The moment sums represent three couples which are axial components of the resultant couple. If Mx is taken as a vector along the X-axis, My as a vector along the Y-axis, and Mz along the Z-axis, then the moment of the resultant couple and the direction angles of its vector are given by:
C = Mx + Mx C
2
My +
Mz
x = arccos
y = arccos
My C
z = arccos
Mz C
R and C can be compounded into two nonintersecting forces. D-3.3 Conditions of Equilibrium. A body is in equilibrium with respect to some reference system if it does not move with respect to the reference (static equilibrium), or moves with constant velocity (dynamic equilibrium). For an object to be in equilibrium, the resultant of all external forces and moments must be zero.
Concurrent at point O
Parallel Nonparallel, nonconcurrent
The projection of Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, Mx = 0, My = 0, Mz = 0. the system on any plane is in M about every axis = 0. equilibrium.
Depending on the kind of force system involved, different tests or conditions are applied to prove that the system is in equilibrium. In most cases, a body is determined to be in equilibrium by inspection, and the applicable conditions of equilibrium are used to develop relationships that can be solved for unknown forces, moments, distances, or angles. Conditions of equilibrium for various force systems are shown in Table D-2.
(R
Figure D-10. Noncoplaner, Nonconcurrent Forces.
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If three forces are in equilibrium, they must be coplanar, and either concurrent or parallel. If concurrent, each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces. If parallel, each force is proportional to the distance between the other two. If a force system is in equilibrium, the resultant of any part must balance the resultant of the other part. This fact is the basis for the construction of free-body diagrams. A free-body diagram shows an object in equilibrium, with all external forces, moments, and support reactions. With the object in equilibrium, the resultant of all forces and moments on the free body is zero. If any part of the object is removed and replaced by the forces and moments exerted by the "cut" surface, a free-body diagram of the remaining structure is obtained, and the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied by the new free body. By dividing an object into a sufficient number of free bodies, internal forces and moments can be determined at all points of interest, provided the conditions of equilibrium are sufficient to give a static solution. D-3.4 Centroids and Centers of Gravity. The centroid of a system of parallel forces with fixed application points is the point through which their resultant always passes, no matter how the lines of action of the forces may be rotated, so long as they remain parallel. For plane surfaces, the centroid corresponds to the center of area, so long as the forces are not affected by geometry; for volumes the centroid is the center of volume. Determination of centers of areas and volumes by numerical integration is discussed in Paragraph 1-4. Relationships for locating the centroids of various plane shapes are given in Appendix C of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1, S0300-A6-MAN-010. The force of gravity acting on individual particles of a body constitutes a system of very nearly parallel forces; the centroid of these forces is the center of gravity of the body. Calculation of center of gravity is discussed in Paragraph 1-3.7. D-3.5 Moment of Inertia. Moment of inertia is a measure of the resistance of a solid or plane area to rotation about axes in the plane of the area considered, and is always positive. The moment of inertia of a solid body, sometimes called the mass moment of inertia (Im) with respect to a given axis is the sum of the products of the masses of each elemental mass of which the body is composed and the square of the distance of each element from the axis. If dm is an elemental mass, and y its distance from a reference axis, the moment of inertia of the body about the axis is Im = y2 dm. Im is measured in units of mass and length squared, such as slug-ft2. Moment of inertia can also be expressed as Im = k2m, where m is the mass of the body and k is the radius of gyration or radius of inertia. The radius of gyration is the distance from the axis to a point at which the mass of the body could be concentrated without changing the moment of inertia. k is measured in units of length, and lies between the greatest and lowest values of y. If a body is composed of a number of parts, its moment of inertia about an axis is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of the individual parts about the same axis. The moment of inertia (I) of a plane surface with respect to a given axis is the sum of the products of the incremental areas of which the surface is composed and the square of the distance of the incremental areas from the axis. If dA is an incremental area, and y its distance from a reference axis, the moment of inertia of the surface about the axis is I = y2 dA = k2A, where A is the total area, and k is the radius of gyration. The quantity y2 dA is more properly referred to as the second moment of area, as it has units of length to the fourth power and is not truly a measure of inertia. For homogeneous solids of uniform thickness, the mass moment of inertia is equal to the moment of inertia of the face of the solid, multiplied by the mass per unit volume and thickness of the solid. Moments of inertia for structural shapes are tabulated in Appendix E. Calculation of moment of inertia for ship sections is discussed in Paragraph 1-11. Relationships for moments of inertia of various plane shapes are given in Appendix C of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010). D-3.5.1 Parallel Axis Theorem. The moment of inertia of an area or mass is equal to the moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the center of gravity, plus the product of the area or mass, and the square of the distance between the two axes:
IAA = Io + Ad 2 , Im, AA = Im, o + md 2
where: IAA Io A d Im,AA = Im,o = moment of inertia (second moment) of area about some axis AA = moment of inertia (second moment) of area about an axis parallel to AA through the center of area (centroid) = total area = perpendicular distance from the center of area or gravity to axis AA moment of inertia of mass about some axis AA = moment of inertia of mass about an axis parallel to AA through the center of gravity (not necessarily the center of volume)
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D-3.5.2 Polar Moment of Inertia. The polar moment of inertia is taken about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the area and is a measure of the areas resistance to twisting in its own plane of the area. The polar moment of inertia (Ip or J) is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular axes in the plane of the area that pass through the center of area:
J = Ip = IXX + IYY
D-3.5.3 Product of Inertia. The product of inertia (Ixy), sometimes called the cross moment of inertia, is equal to xy dy dx, where x and y are the coordinates of incremental areas. Ixy may be positive or negative, depending on the location of the area with respect to the reference axes XX and YY. If IXY,O is the product of inertia of area A about the mutually perpendicular axes XoXo, YoYo through the center of area as shown in Figure D-13, and axes XX, YY are parallel to XoXo, YoYo, then:
IXY = IXY + abA
0
Y XO a
YO XO b YO X
Y Figure D-11. Product of Inertia and Parallel Axes.
where Ixy is the product of inertia of area A about axes XX and YY and a and b are shown in Figure D-11. D-3.5.4 Moments of Inertia About Inclined Axes. If Ix and Iy are moments of inertia about a set of mutually perpendicular axes XX and YY, and XX, YY are a set of mutually perpendicular axes inclined at some angle to XX and YY, then:
= Iy cos2 + Ix sin2 + Ixy sin 2 = Ix cos2 + Ix sin2 + Ixy sin 2 Ix 2 Iy sin 2 + Ixy cos 2
Iy Ix
Ixy =
where: Iy = Ix = Ixy = moment of inertia about axis YY moment of inertia about axis XX product of inertia about axes XX, YY
D-3.5.5 Principal Moments of Inertia. For any plane area, there is a set of mutually perpendicular axes such that the moment of inertia is maximum about one axis and minimum about the other. These axes are the principal axes of inertia, and the corresponding moments of inertia are the principal moments of inertia. The product of inertia about the principal axes of inertia is zero. Axes of symmetry are always principal axes of inertia.
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D-4 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER D-4.1 Density. Density () is the mass of a unit volume. Typical units are slugs per cubic foot, kilograms per cubic meter, grams per cubic centimeter, and pounds-mass per cubic foot. Many fluid flow calculations are based on density measured in pounds-mass per cubic foot. Weight density, or specific weight, is given by: = g gc
In a standard gravitational field (g = 32.174 ft/sec2), weight density in pounds-force and mass density in pounds-mass are numerically equal. Density of a liquid or solid is usually given, obtained from a table, or easily determined by weighing a sample of known volume. The density of a gas can be found from a modification of the ideal gas law: p gas = RT where: gas p R T = = = = gas density, lbm/ft3 pressure, lbf/ft2 specific gas constant, ft-lbf/lbm-oR absolute temperature, oR
Tables E-19 and E-20 give densities of common solids and liquids. More extensive tables can be found in general engineering and technical handbooks (see Bibliography). D-4.1.1 Specific Volume. Specific volume () is the volume occupied by a unit mass or weight, and is the reciprocal of density: = 1 1
D-4.1.2 Specific Gravity. Specific gravity (g), sometimes called relative density, is the ratio of a fluids density to a specified reference density. For liquids and solids, the normal reference is the density of pure water. There is some confusion about this reference since the density of water varies with temperature, and various reference temperatures have been used (e.g., 39, 60, 70 degrees Fahrenheit, etc.). Strictly speaking, specific gravity cannot be given without specifying the reference temperature at which the waters density was evaluated. However, the reference temperature is often omitted since waters density is fairly constant over the normal ambient temperature range. To three significant digits, the reference density is 62.4 lbm/ft3, and: g = 62.4 Specific gravities of petroleum products and aqueous acid solutions are routinely expressed in "degrees" corresponding to hydrometer readings. The principal hydrometer scale in current use is the API (American Petroleum Institute) scale, although the Baum scale was used widely in the past. API gravities are converted to specific gravity (ratio) by: g = Baum hydrometer readings are converted to specific gravity by: g = g = 140.0 130.0 + Baum 145.0 Baum for liquids less dense than water 141.5 131.5 + API
145.0
for liquids denser than water
Appendix B of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 5, (S0300-A6-MAN-050) includes tables converting API gravities to specific gravity and density and temperature corrections for observed API gravities.
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The reference density for the specific gravity, or vapor density, of a gas is normally the density of air at specified conditions of pressure and temperature. The most commonly used reference is air at standard temperature and pressure (STP), i.e. 70 degrees Fahrenheit and atmospheric pressure. The density of air at STP is approximately 0.075 lbm/ft3, and: gas 0.075 If the gas and air densities are evaluated at the same temperature and pressure, the specific gravity is the inverse ratio of specific gas constants: Rair 53.3 = gas Rgas Rgas D-4.2 Viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow. Viscosity is illustrated by a model consisting of two plates that are separated by a viscous fluid layer with thickness (y). The bottom plate is fixed; the top plate is kept in motion at a constant velocity (v) by a constant force (F). Experiments with Newtonian fluids have shown that the force required to maintain the velocity is proportional to the velocity and inversely proportional to the separation of the plates. That is, F dv A dy The constant of proportionality, designated by the symbol , is known as the absolute or dynamic viscosity. Noting that the quantity F/A is the fluid shear stress: dv = dy Kinematic viscosity is defined as: = gc
Table D-3. Viscosity Units.

System of Units English Metric - CGS Metric - SI Absolute Viscosity lbf-sec/ft2 slug/ft-sec dyne-sec/cm2 (poise) Pascal-sec N-sec/m2 Kinematic Viscosity ft2/sec cm2/sec (stoke) m2/sec
Viscosity is measured in a variety of units. Table D-3 lists the most commonly used units in the English and SI systems. Conversions between the two types of viscosities and between the English and various metric systems are given in Table D-4.
Table D-4. Viscosity Conversions.
To Obtain ft2/sec ft2/sec lbf-sec/ft2 lbf-sec/ft2 m2/s m2/s m2/s pascal-sec pascal-sec pascal-sec pascal-sec pascal-sec poise poise reyns stokes stokes
Multiply lbf-sec/ft2 stokes ft2/sec poise centistokes stokes ft2/sec centipoise lbm/ft-sec lbf-sec/ft2 poise slug/ft-sec lbf-sec/ft2 stokes lbf-sec/ft2 ft2/sec poise
By 32.174 1.076 10-3 density 1 1 10-6 1 10-6 9.29 10-2 1 10-3 1.488 47.88 .1 47.88 478.8 specific gravity 1 929 1
and Divide by density 1 32.2 478.8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 144 1 specific gravity
Kinematic viscosity is measured indirectly by a viscometer, a container which allows the fluid to leak out through a small orifice of precise dimensions. The more viscous the fluid, the more time will be required to leak out a given quantity. Viscosity measured in this manner has the units of seconds. The standard viscosimeters in the United States are the Saybolt Universal viscosimeter for ordinary liquids, and the Saybolt Furol viscosimeter for viscous liquids. The time required for a gravity flow of 60 cubic centimeters through the orifice is called Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU) or Saybolt Seconds Furol (SSF). Saybolt Universal viscosimeters are calibrated so that the viscosity of pure water is 30 SSU. Approximate conversion of SSU and SSF to stokes may be made by: stokes = 0.00226 SSU = 0.00220 SSU 1.95 SSU 1.35 SSU 1.84 SSF 0.60 SSF (32 < SSU < 100) (SSU > 100)
stokes = 0.0224 SSF = 0.0216 SSF
(25 < SSF < 40) (SSF > 40)
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In liquids, molecular cohesion is the dominating cause of viscosity. As the temperature of a liquid increases, these cohesive forces decrease and absolute viscosity decreases. In gases, the dominating cause of viscosity is random collisions between gas molecules. This molecular agitation increases with temperature, causing the viscosity of gases to also increase with temperature. The absolute viscosity of both gases and liquids is independent of pressure. Kinematic viscosity depends on both temperature and pressure because these variables affect density. D-4.3 Vapor Pressure. Molecular activity in a liquid tends to free some surface molecules that enter the atmosphere as vapor. This tendency toward vaporization increases with temperature. Vapor pressure is the partial pressure exerted at the surface by the free molecules. Boiling occurs when liquid vapor pressure exceeds the local ambient pressure. D-4.4 Surface Tension. The skin which seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces known as surface tension. Surface tension is the amount of work required to form a new unit of surface area. The units are ft-lbf/ft2 or lbf/ft. Surface tension can be measured as the tension between two points on the surface separated by a foot. It decreases as temperature increases and depends on the gas contacting the free surface. Surface tension values usually are quoted for air contact. Typical values are given in Table D-5. The relationship between surface tension and the pressure in a bubble surrounded by gas is given by: T = 1 r (pinside 4 poutside)
Table D-5. Typical Surface Tensions (68 oF, Air Contact). Fluid Ethyl alcohol Turpentine Water Mercury N-octane Acetone Benzene Carbon tetrachloride
T
.001527 lbf/ft .001857 .004985 .03562 .00144 .00192 .00192 .00180
where r is the radius of the bubble. The surface tension in a full spherical droplet or in a bubble in a liquid is given by: T = 1 r (pinside 2 poutside)
Surface tension is the cause of capillarity, which occurs whenever a liquid comes into contact with a vertical solid surface. In water, adhesive forces dominate. They cause water to attach itself readily to a vertical surface and climb the wall. In a thin-bore tube, water will rise above the general level as it tries to wet the interior surface. D-4.5 Compressibility. Compressibility is the percentage change in a unit volume per unit change in pressure: V V p The bulk modulus is the reciprocal of the
C =
Liquids are usually considered incompressible, but all fluids are somewhat compressible. compressibility: 1 E = C The bulk modulus of an ideal gas is given by: E = kp where p is absolute pressure and k is the ratio of specific heats; k is 1.4 for air.
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D-5 FLUID MECHANICS
Fluids are generally divided into two categories: ideal and real. Ideal fluids have zero viscosity and shearing forces, are incompressible, and have uniform velocity distributions when flowing. Real fluids are divided into Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. Both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids have finite viscosities and nonuniform velocity distributions when flowing. Viscosities of Newtonian fluids are independent of the rate of change of shear stress, while viscosities of non-Newtonian fluids vary with the rate of change of shear stress. Newtonian fluids are typified by gases, thin liquids, and most fluids having simple chemical formulas. Non-Newtonian fluids are typified by gels, emulsions, and suspensions. Most fluid problems assume Newtonian fluid characteristics. D-5.1 Fluid Statics. Pressures are measured as standard or absolute. Absolute pressures are measured from a reference datum of zero absolute pressure; there are no negative pressures. Gage pressures are measured from standard atmospheric pressure (approximately 14.7 psia). Negative gage pressures (below atmospheric pressure) are called vacuum. Maximum vacuum is therefore -14.7 psig. D-5.1.1 Manometers. Manometers measure pressure differentials. Figure D-12 shows a simple U-tube manometer whose ends are connected to two pressure vessels. If one end is open to the atmosphere, the manometer measures the difference between pressure at the other end and atmospheric pressure, i.e., gage pressure. Since the pressure at point B is the same as at point C, the height (h) of the fluid column is related to the pressure differential (p): p = p2 - p1 = mh where m is the weight density of the manometer fluid. This relationship assumes that the manometer is small and that only low-density gases fill the tubes above the measuring fluid. If a high-density fluid (such as water) is present above the measuring fluid, or if the gas columns h1 or h2 are very long, a correction is required: p = mh + 1h1 - 2h2 where 1 is the density of the fluid above the high end of the measuring fluid and 2 is the density of the fluid above the low end of the manometer fluid; h1 and h2 are the heights of the fluid columns above the measuring fluid, as shown in Figure D-13. Corrections for capillarity are seldom needed, since manometer tubes generally are large enough to preclude capillary action. D-5.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure From Incompressible Fluids. Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure which a fluid exerts on an object or container walls. Its line of action is normal to the exposed surface, regardless of the objects orientation or shape. It varies linearly with depth and is a function of depth and density only. Pressure acting on an incremental area creates an incremental pressure force; the resultant of all the incremental forces, or net hydrostatic force, is a function of pressure and area distribution and acts through the center of pressure. Pressure on a horizontal surface uniform and constitutes a system of parallel forces; the center of pressure is the centroid of the plane surface. The gage pressure and total vertical force are given by: p = h , F = pA where: p h F A = = = = = hydrostatic pressure, lb/ft2 fluid (weight) density, lb/ft3 depth of fluid of the surface, ft hydrostatic force, lbf area of the plane surface, ft2
Figure D-12. Simple Manometer.
P1 A
h P2 B C
P1 1 h1 P2 m h h2 2
Figure D-13. Manometer with Fluids Over Measuring Fluid.
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For a rectangular plate immersed in a fluid body, either vertically or inclined at some angle , as shown in Figure D-14, pressure varies linearly with depth. The pressures at the top and bottom of the plate are: p1 = h1 = s1sin p2 = h2 = s2sin where subscripts 1 and 2 denote the top and bottom of the plate, respectively, and s is the distance from the intersection of the liquid surface and the extension of the plate surface to the point in question, measured parallel to the plate surface. The average pressure occurs at the average depth (1/2)(h1 + h2) sin and is equal to: pavg = 1 (h1 + h2) = 2 1 (s + s2) sin 2 1
S2sin S1 R SR S2
Figure D-14. Immersed Rectangular Plate.
The total resultant force on the inclined plane is the product of the average pressure and total area, F = pavgA. The center of pressure is not located at the average depth but at the depth of the center of the triangular or trapezoidal pressure distribution: s1 s2 2 s1 + s2 sR = 3 s1 + s2 hR = sR sin For a nonrectangular plane surface, the average pressure depends on the location of the centroid of the surface (sc): pavg = sc sin , F = pavg A
The line of action of the resultant (hydrostatic force) is normal to the plane surface, at depth hR: sR = sc + Ic Asc , hR = sR sin
where Ic is the moment of inertia about an axis parallel to the surface through the areas centroid. D-5.1.3 Hydrostatic Pressure From Compressible Fluids. The expression p = h is a special case of the more general Fundamental Equation of Fluid Statics: 2 dp = (h2 h1) 1 p As previously defined, h is depth within the fluid, and it is assumed that h2 is greater than h1. The minus sign indicates that pressure decreases when height increases. If the fluid is a compressible layer of perfect gas, and if compression is assumed to be isothermal, the Equation of Fluid Statics becomes: p 1 h2 h1 = R T ln p 2 The pressure at height h2 in a layer of isothermally compressed gas is:
h1 h2
p2 = p1 e
RT
EXAMPLE D-4
The pressure at sea level is 14.7 psia. Assume 70 oF isothermal compression, and calculate the pressure at 5,000 feet altitude. R = 53.3 ft-lbf/lbm - oR for air. T = (70 + 460) = 530oR.
p5000 ft = 14.7 e
0 5000 (53.3)(530)
= 12.32 psia
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D-5.1.4 Fluid Masses Under Acceleration. The equations presented to this point have assumed that the fluid is subjected only to gravitational acceleration. When a fluid is subjected to other accelerations, additional forces, which change hydrostatic pressures, are imposed. If the fluid is subjected to constant accelerations in the vertical and/or horizontal directions, fluid behavior is given by: a a x ph = h 1 + y , = arctan a + g g y where ay is the vertical acceleration (negative if the acceleration is downward) and ax the horizontal acceleration. is the angle between the liquid surface and the horizontal, as shown in Figure D-15. A plane of equal pressure also is inclined in a fluid mass under horizontal acceleration.
ay
ax Figure D-15. Fluid Mass Under Constant Linear Acceleration.
D-5.2 Head. Pressure is measured in units of force per unit area (pounds per square inch, pounds per square foot, newtons per square meter, etc.). Pressure is converted to the new variable head by dividing by the fluid density. Since density itself possesses dimensional units, the units of head are not the same as the units of pressure: (p , lbf/ft2) p, lbf/ft2 (h , ft) = 3 ( , lbf/ft ) lbm/ft3 As long as the fluid density and local gravitational acceleration remain constant, there is complete numerical interchangeability between pressure and head. Head is used as a measure of specific energy: (E , ft lbf) (h , ft) = (mass, lbm) A certain amount of care in the use of these equations is required, because lbf is being canceled by lbm. The actual cancellation is: g , lbm ft p , lbf c 2 2 lbf sec ft g , ft , lbm 2 3 sec ft
h in ft =
As gc always equals 32.174, the correct numerical value for head will be returned as long as the local gravitational acceleration is 32.174 ft/sec2. D-5.3 Reynolds Number. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless ratio of the inertial flow forces to the viscous forces within the fluid: Re = where: De V = = = = = equivalent flow diameter flow velocity fluid density absolute viscosity of the fluid kinematic viscosity of the fluid D eV gc = D eV
The Reynolds number can be calculated from the unit mass flow rate (G): Re = where: De V G gc = = = = = equivalent flow diameter, ft flow velocity, ft/sec mass flow rate per unit area, lbm/sec-ft2 absolute viscosity of the fluid, lbf-sec/ft2 2 gravitational constant = 32.174 lbm-ft/lbf-sec D eG gc
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The Reynolds number is an important indicator in many types of problems. In addition to being used quantitatively in many equations, the Reynolds number also is used to determine whether fluid flow is laminar or turbulent. A Reynolds number of 2,000 or less indicates laminar flow. Fluid particles in laminar flow move in straight paths parallel to the flow direction. Viscous effects are dominant, resulting in a parabolic velocity distribution with a maximum velocity along the fluid flow centerline. If the Reynolds number is greater than 4,000, flow is turbulent. Turbulent flow is characterized by random movement of fluid particles. For Reynolds numbers between 2,000 and 4,000, the flow regime is in transition from laminar to turbulent flow. D-5.4 Equivalent Diameter. For a circular flow channel, the equivalent diameter (De) in the expressions for Reynolds number is the inside diameter. Equivalent diameters for other shaped channels are given in Table D-6.
Table D-6. Equivalent Diameters.

Conduit Cross Section Flowing Full Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D o - Di L
2L1 L2
De
Conduit Cross Section Flowing Partially Full Half-filled circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rectangle (h deep, L wide) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wide, shallow stream (h deep) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Triangle (h deep, L broad, s side) . . . . . . . . . . Trapezoid (h deep, a wide at top, b wide at bottom, s side) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
De
D
4hL L + 2h 4h
L1 + L2
hL s
2h (a + b) b + 2s
D-5.5 Hydraulic Radius. The hydraulic radius (rh) of a flow channel is the area in flow divided by the wetted perimeter, exclusive of the free liquid surface. Equivalent diameter can be found from the hydraulic radius: De = 4 rh
D-6 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS External forces acting on a body are resisted by reactions within the body, termed stresses. The maximum stress that can be sustained by a material is the measure of its strength, and is determined by the elastic and cohesive properties of the material. D-6.1 Stress. Stress is defined as force (F) per unit area (A) and thus has the same units as pressure. Conditions causing the three fundamental types of stress are illustrated in Figure D-16. Normal or axial stresses (tensile and compressive) result from forces acting at right angles to the cross section, and are indicated by the symbol , s, or f. The average normal stress created by a force (F) acting on a cross section of area (A) is: F = A In most calculations, tensile stress taken as positive and compressive stress as negative. Shear stresses result from forces acting parallel to the cross section, and are indicated by the symbol , st, or q: F = As where is the average shear stress in area As that is being sheared by force F. Bearing stress is actually a pressure, as it is the intensity of force between a body and its support. Bearing stress is indicated by the symbol b or sb, and, like normal and shear stress, is defined as a ratio of force to area.
(a) NORMAL STRESS F F (b) SHEAR STRESS F F (c) BEARING STRESS F = b Ab F = As F = A
D-6.2 Strain. Strain () is deformation expressed as a pure number or ratio. For a member Figure D-16. Stresses. in tension or compression, it is expressed as the change in length divided by original length. True strain () is the logarithm of the ratio of the length at the moment of observation to the original length. True strain () does not differ much from until above 20 percent. Elongation is accompanied by a reduction in cross-sectional area. Poissons ratio () is the ratio of strain measured at right angles to the applied stress to strain measured parallel to the applied stressessentially a statement of constancy of volume during deformation. For elastic strain, ranges from 0.283 to 0.292 for most structural steels, and from 0.330 to 0.334 for most aluminum alloys. For plastic strain, is approximately 0.5.
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D-6.3 Stress-Strain Relationships. Stress-strain relationships differ slightly for tensile and compressive stress. D-6.3.1 Tensile Stress-Strain Diagram. The commonly used engineering tensile stress-strain curve is obtained by statically loading a standard specimen; that is, by loading the specimen slowly enough that all parts of the specimen remain in static equilibrium. Figure D-17(a) shows stressstrain curves for several metals.
140,000 6 120,000 100,000 5 80,000 60,000 2 40,000 4 3

Ju YIELD POINT ELASTIC RANGE PLASTIC RANGE
STRESS, LB/IN2
= SLOPE = E Stress-strain curves for most engineering 1 materials have an initial linear elastic 20,000 region, as shown in Figure D-17, where deformation is reversible and time0 10 20 30 40 50 independent. The slope of this portion of STRAIN STRAIN, PERCENT the curve, stress divided by unit elongation, (a) COMPARATIVE STRESS-STRAIN (b) TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR STEEL is the modulus of elasticity, or Youngs DIAGRAMS. 1 SOFT BRASS; 2 LOWmodulus. In the elastic region, strain is CARBON STEEL; 3 HARD BRONZE; proportional to stress, and the material is 4 COLD-ROLLED STEEL; 5 MEDIUM CARBON STEEL, ANNEALED 6 MEDIUMsaid to follow Hookes Law. The CARBON STEEL, HEAT-TREATED. proportional limit is the point where the curve begins to deviate from a straight line, 50,000 y i.e., the point where strain ceases to be X proportional to stress. The elastic limit is 40,000 ELASTIC the maximum stress that a material will STRAIN withstand without permanent or plastic 30,000 PLASTIC PEL deformation. If the specimen is loaded STRAIN 20,000 further, the curve becomes increasingly less linear. If a specimen is loaded to point X 10,000 in Figure D-17(c), and then unloaded, the resulting unloading curve XX1 is linear and X1 0 essentially parallel to the original elastic 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.2 curve. The horizontal separation between STRAIN, PERCENT STRAIN, PERCENT the bases of the two curves is the (d) TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (c) PROPORTIONAL LIMIT permanent set or plastic strain FOR MATERIAL WITHOUT WELLDEFINED YIELD POINT (ALUMINUM) corresponding to the stress at X. The elastic limit cannot be determined without frequently unloading the specimen during Figure D-17. Stress-Strain Relationships. the test, but it is very near the proportional limit; the proportional limit is customarily taken as the elastic limit and called the proportional elastic limit (PEL). Shortly after the proportional limit, ferrous metals and certain other materials exhibit a well-defined, "sharp-kneed" yield pointa stress where there is a marked increase in strain without an increase in stress as shown in Figure D-17(b). The corresponding stress is called the yield stress or yield strength (y). For materials without well-defined yield points, and sometimes for those with yield points, an arbitrary yield strength is defined as the stress creating a specified permanent set, often 0.2 percent of original length.
STRESS, LB/IN2
STRESS
Jy
The ultimate tensile strength (u or UTS) is the maximum load sustained by the specimen (the highest point on the stress-strain curve) divided by the original cross-sectional area, and as such, is a conservative measure of the specimens strength. The reduction in area or necking down is the contraction in cross section at the fracture, expressed as a percentage of the original area. The fracture or rupture stress is the failure load divided by the reduced area. D-6.3.2 Compressive Stress-Strain Diagram. The compressive stress-strain curve is similar to the tensile curve up to the yield point. Thereafter, increasing specimen cross section (rather than decreasing, as in the tensile test) causes the curve to diverge from the tensile curve. Compressive yield strength is defined as the maximum compressive stress that a ductile material can withstand without a predefined amount of deformation. Ultimate strength is the maximum compressive stress that a material can withstand without fracture. Some ductile materials will not fail in a compression test. If a specimen is first plastically strained in tension, yield stress in compression is reduced and vice versa. D-6.3.3 Relationship Between Strength and Loading. Materials that yield more than 5 percent before fracture are classed as ductile. Relatively definite relationships exist between the strength of ductile materials in tension and their strength in compression, shear, and bearing. Compressive strength is approximately equal to tensile strength. Shear yield strength is normally taken as two-thirds tensile yield, although it may be as low as one-half to five-eighths tensile yield. Bearing yield ranges from 0.9 to 1.5 times tensile yield, depending on the application. Materials that yield less than 0.5 percent before fracture are classified as brittle. Brittle materials, such as concrete, cast iron, ceramics, polymers, etc., are usually much stronger in compression than tension and fail by fracture rather than yield.
STRESS
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TENSILE STRENGTH, 1,000 LB PER SQ. IN.
140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40
TE NS IL E
Brinell hardness is determined by forcing a hardened sphere under known load into the surface of the material, and measuring the diameter of the resulting indentation. The Brinell hardness number is the load used in kilograms, divided by the surface area of the indentation in square millimeters. Rockwell hardness is indicated by the depth of penetration of an indenter. The indenter is either a steel ball of specified diameter or a Bralea spherical-tipped diamond cone of 120 degree included angle and 0.2millimeter tip radius. A minor load of 10 kilograms is applied to initiate penetration and hold the indenter in place. A 60-, 100-, or 150-kilogram major load is then applied and released. Penetration is read from an indicator dial with the minor load still on the indenter. Hardness is expressed as a number equal to a constant less the number of gage units of penetration; harder materials will have higher hardness numbers. The dial on Rockwell hardness indicators is arranged to read hardness directly. A variety of combinations of indenter and major load are possible; the most commonly used are Rockwell B (RB) with a 1 16-inch steel ball indenter and 100kilogram major load, and Rockwell C (RC) with a Brale indenter and 150-kilogram major load.
BR IN EL L
ST RE NG TH
VS
HA RD NE SS
NOTE: TO OBTAIN TENSILE STRENGTH CORRESPONDING TO A GIVEN ROCKWELL NUMBER, USE CHART TO FIND EQUIVALENT BRINELL NUMBER, THEN READ FROM UPPER GRAPH 110 100 90 80 70 60 50
BER NUM ELL LL) N I BR N. BA VS 6I "B" D, 1/1 L A L O WE G L CK 00 K O 1 ( R
D-6.4 Hardness. Hardness is variously defined as resistance to local penetration, scratching, abrasion, or to yielding. The resistance to local penetration, or indentation hardness, is used widely as a measure of hardness, and indirectly as an indicator of other properties, including strength. Indentation hardness is measured on several scales by specialized equipment.
170 160 150
NU M BE R
BER NUM NE) ELL O N C I BR MOND VS IA "C" 120 D L L , E D W LOA CK RO 0 KG (15
40 30 20 10
75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER (3,000 KG LOAD, 10 MM BALL)
Figure D-18. Steel Tensile Strength vs Hardness.
There is a more or less definite relationship between hardness and tensile strength for any material. Once the relationship has been determined experimentally, the strength of a sample of the material can be estimated by the relatively simple Brinell or Rockwell tests. Figure D-18 shows the relationship between tensile strength and hardness for steel; ultimate tensile strength is approximately 500 times the Brinnel hardness number. D-6.5 Additional Definitions. The following terms are frequently encountered in discussions of material strength and structural applications: Carbon steel. Carbon steel owes its properties chiefly to the presence of carbon, without substantial amounts of other alloying elements. It is also termed ordinary steel, straight carbon steel, and plain carbon steel. Case hardening. A process of hardening a ferrous allow so that the surface layer, or case, is made substantially harder than the interior or core. Typical case-hardening processes are carburizing and quenching, cyaniding, carbonitriding, nitriding, induction hardening, and flame hardening. Charpy Test. A pendulum type of impact test in which a specimen, supported at both ends as a simple beam, is broken by the impact of the falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen, as determined by the decreased rise of the pendulum, is a measure of the impact strength, or toughness, of the metal. Cold work. Plastic deformation at such temperatures and rates that substantial increases occur in the strength and hardness of the metal. Visible structural changes include changes in grain shape and, in some instances, mechanical twinning or banding.
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Cooling stresses. Stresses developed by uneven contraction or external constraint of metal during cooling; also those stresses resulting from localized plastic deformation during cooling. Corrosion fatigue. The repeated cyclic stressing of a metal in a corrosive medium, resulting in more rapid deterioration of properties than would be encountered as a result of either cyclic stressing or of corrosion alone. Creep. The flow or plastic deformation of metals held for long periods of time at stresses lower than the normal yield strength. The effect is particularly important if the temperature of stressing is in the vicinity of the recrystallization temperature of the metal. Creep limit. The maximum stress that will result in creep at a rate lower than an assigned rate. Endurance limit. The maximum stress that a metal will withstand without failure during a specified large number of cycles of stress. If the term is employed without qualification, the cycles of stress are usually such as to produce complete reversal of flexural stress. Endurance ratio. The ratio of the endurance limit for cycles of reversed flexural stress to the tensile strength. Fatigue. The tendency for a metal to break under conditions of repeated cyclic stressing considerably below the ultimate tensile strength. Fatigue crack or failure. A fracture starting from a nucleus where there is an abnormal concentration of cyclic stress and propagating through the metal. The surface is smooth and frequently shows concentric (sea shell) markings with a nucleus as a center. Flow stress. The shear stress required to cause plastic deformation of metals. Hot working. Plastic deformation of metal at such a temperature and rate that strain hardening does not occur. The lower temperature limit for this process is the recrystallization temperature. Impact Test. A test to determine the energy absorbed in fracturing a test bar at high velocity. The test may be in tension or in bending. A notch test is made with a notched sample, to test resistance to multiaxial stresses and stress concentration effects. Malleability. The ease with which a metal deforms when subjected to rolling or hammering. Modulus of Rigidity. In a torsion test, the ratio of the unit shear stress to angular displacement per unit length in the elastic range. Modulus of rigidity corresponds to the modulus of elasticity in the tension test. Modulus of Rupture. The ultimate strength of the breaking load per unit area of a specimen tested in torsion or in bending (flexure). In tension, modulus of rupture is the tensile strength. Notch brittleness. Susceptibility of a material to brittleness in areas containing a groove, scratch, sharp fillet, or notch. Notch fatigue factor. The reduction caused in fatigue strength by the presence of a sharp notch in the stressed test section. Notch sensitivity. The reduction in nominal strength caused by the presence of a stress concentration, usually expressed as the ratio of the notched to the unnotched strength. Operating stress. The stress to which a structural unit is subjected during service. Plasticity. The ability of a metal to be deformed extensively without rupture. Proof load. The test load applied to anchors, chains, or other parts, fittings, or structure to demonstrate proper design and construction and satisfactory material. Proof strength. The strength of a material, part, or structure as established by a proof test. Proof stress. In a test, stress that will cause a specified permanent deformation in a material, usually 0.01 percent or less. Residual stress. Stresses set up within a metal by nonuniform plastic deformation. This deformation may be caused by cold working or by drastic gradients of temperature from quenching or welding. Resilience. The tendency of a material to return to its original shape after the removal of a stress that has produced elastic strain. Shear Modulus. Modulus of rigidity. Strain hardening. An increase in hardness and strength caused by plastic deformation at temperatures lower than the recrystallization range. Tangent modulus. The slope of the stress-strain curve of a metal at any point along the curve in the plastic region. In the elastic region, the tangent modulus is equivalent to Youngs modulus. Thermal stresses. Stresses in metal, resulting from nonuniform distribution of temperature. Toughness. The ability of a material to absorb energy before fracture; usually represented by the area under a stress-strain curve, and therefore a function of both ductility and strength. Welding stress. The stress resulting from localized heating and cooling of metal during welding. Work hardness. Hardness developed in metal as a result of cold working.
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D-6.6 Failure Modes and Safety Factors. If a structural member or part is to carry applied loads safely, a maximum permissible stress must be determined. This allowable stress, also called working stress, design stress, safe stress, etc., is used to establish minimum component dimensions or maximum component loads. Allowable stress is found by dividing the applicable material propertyyield strength, ultimate strength, fatigue strengthby an appropriate factor of safety. The factor of safety should be chosen only after all other factors contributing to or detracting from the reliability of the member have been quantified as thoroughly as possible. These factors include assumptions implicit in the structural analysis and uncertainties as to the magnitude and kind of operating loads, reliability of the materials used, operating environment, level of quality control that can be implemented during fabrication and installation, and level of knowledge about possible failure modes. An additional important consideration is the potential damage should the component or system fail, particularly when there is danger to human life. In general, the ductility of the material and type of loading specify the failure mode and the property to which the factor of safety should be applied to determine allowable stress. There are three general cases:
Brittle materials, Ductile materials in static loading, and Ductile materials in cyclic loading.
+2 Sut Suc ? SAFE Sut SAFE Suc ? +1
D-6.6.1 Brittle Materials. For brittle materials in uniaxial stress, the factor of safety (FS) is applied to ultimate strength (u) to determine allowable stress: allow = u FS For brittle materials in biaxial stress, the maximum normal stress theory predicts failure of brittle materials under static loading if the compressive principal stress is greater than the ultimate compressive strength, or the tensile principle stress is greater than the ultimate tensile strength. The principle stresses, 1, 2, are determined as described in Paragraph 28.2. By plotting compressive stresses as negative and tensile stresses as positive on 1-2 coordinates, a safe stress combination envelope can be defined as a rectangle bounded by the ultimate compressive and tensile principle stresses, as shown in Figure D-19. An allowable stress envelope is created by applying a safety factor to the ultimate compressive and tensile stresses to define a smaller rectangle. Experimental evidence shows that failures occur in the second and fourth quadrants, even though the stresses are less than the ultimate strengths. The Coulomb-Mohr theory modifies the failure line in the second and fourth quadrants, shown in Figure D-20, along with typical failure data. D-6.6.2 Ductile Materials in Static Loading. Plastic deformation is unacceptable for most applications, so yield is considered failure. Allowable stresses for ductile materials in uniaxial stress are found by applying the factor of safety (FS) to ultimate tensile strength (u): allow = u FS Compressive and tensile yield strengths are equal for ductile materials.
- 1
- 2
Figure D-19. Safe Stress Combinations for Brittle Materials (Maximum Normal Stress Theory).
Sut Suc Sut FAILURES Suc Figure D-20. Safe Stress Combinations for Brittle Materials (Coulomb-Mohr Theory).
For ductile materials in biaxial stress or pure shear, the maximum shear stress theory predicts that yield will begin when maximum shear stress equals the shear yield strength. Shear yield strength (y) is 60 to 65 percent of tensile yield strength for ductile materials, but is assumed to be one-half tensile yield strength by the theory. Maximum shear stress is equal to: max = 1 2 2
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The basic criteria is to keep maximum shear stress below one-half the tensile yield strength, producing the safe stress envelope shown in Figure D-21. The shape of the envelope is similar to that of the Coulomb-Mohr theory for brittle materials, but is based on yield strength rather than ultimate strength. The envelope is symmetrical because tensile and compressive yield strength are assumed equal for ductile materials. The factor of safety is defined as: y FS = allow = max 2max Allowable shear stress is then: allow = y 2FS
2 Syt
-Syc S yt
-Syc
The factor of safety is incorporated into the allowable stress diagram by setting the 1 and 2 intercepts equal to allow. D-6.6.3 Ductile Materials in Cyclic Loading. Fatigue failure is failure of a component subject to cyclic loading at stresses below the yield limit. The fatigue strength is the maximum completely reversing stress a material can withstand without failing. A logarithmic plot of fatigue strength against the number of load cycles (S-N curve, shown in Figure D-22) shows a linear relationship in the region between 1,000 and 1,000,000 cycles. For fewer than 1,000 cycles, fatigue strength is equal to ultimate strength; after 1,000,000 cycles there is no further strength reduction and the curve is flat. The maximum stress for an infinite life is the endurance strength (se). Endurance strengths for steel and cast iron are: Steel se = = Cast iron where: su = ultimate strength for the type stress (i.e., tensile, compressive, shear) se = 0.5su 100,000 psi 0.4su (su < 200,000 psi) (su > 200,000 psi)
Figure D-21. Safe Stress Combinations for Ductile Materials (Maximum Shear Stress Theory).
S ut Se
10 10 2 103 104 10 5 10 6 107 Figure D-22. Typical S-N Curve for Steel.
Fatigue strength of aluminum never levels off, but continues to decrease as the number of cycles increase. Endurance strength for aluminum is taken as the fatigue strength at 100,000,000 cycles and is approximately: Cast Wrought se = se = 0.3su 0.4su
An S-N curve can be used to establish limiting loads for an anticipated number of cycles, or to predict the approximate number of cycles to failure for known stress levels. Fluctuating stresses are created in a material when:
A load is intermittently applied and released in one direction only. A component is subject to both a static load and a cyclic (reversing) load that is not great enough to cancel the static load and reverse the stresses in the component. An applied load varies between upper and lower limits, but does not reverse. smax smin 2
Se
FA ILU Se S AF RE F.S. E LIN ST E RE SS L IN SAFE E
The mean stress is: smean =

alt
The alternating stress is half the stress range: s s salt = max min 2 Failure stress of a material under fluctuating stress is a function of both yield strength and endurance strength. The two criteria are related by plotting salt on a vertical scale, and smean on a horizontal scale, as shown in Figure D-23. A failure line (Soderberg line) is drawn from the endurance strength (se) on the vertical scale, and yield strength (sy) on the horizontal. The enclosed triangle defines acceptable combinations of alternating and mean stress. Factors of safety can be applied to se and sy to define a safe stress line, as shown.
mean S yt
S yt F.S.
Figure D-23. Safe Operating Stress Envelope Determined by Soderberg Line.
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APPENDIX E ENGINEERS TABLES
The following tables list physical properties of water and mechanical properties of common shipbuilding and structural materials, along with section properties of steel structural shapes. For stowage factors of common materials, see Appendix E of U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010); for trigonometric functions and roots of numbers, see Appendix D of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1.
Table E-1. Water Factors (at point of greatest density - 39.2 F).
Seawater (g = 1.025) 1 cubic foot = = = 1 cubic inch = 1 cubic meter (kiloliter) = = = = 1 U.S. gallon = = 1 English (Imperial) gallon = = 1 barrel = = 1 pound = = = = 1 long ton = = = = 1 short ton = = = = = = = = = 63.99 64 .02857 29.025 .03703 1.025 1,025 1.009 2,260 8.554 3.88 10.27 4.66 379.33 162.96 27.006 .01563 .1169 .0974 35.008 35 261.88 218.07 0.991 6.23 31.26 233.8 194.7 34.45 257.73 214.6 0.976 6.1 Fresh water (g = 1.000) 62.426 62.4 .02787 28.3 .036124 1.0 1,000 0.984 2,205 8.345 3.78 10.02 4.55 350.37 158.9 26.68 .01602 .1198 .0998 35.883 36 268.423 223.516 1.016 6.39 32.04 239.6 199.6 35.33 264.26 220.04 1.0 6.26 pounds pounds long tons kilograms pounds tonne kg long ton pounds pounds kilograms pounds kilograms pounds kilograms cubic inches cubic feet U.S. gallons English gallons cubic feet cubic feet U.S. gallons English gallons Cubic meters (kiloliters) barrels cubic feet U.S. gallons English gallons cubic feet U.S. gallons English (Imperial) gallons cubic meters barrels
Table E-2. Temperature and Pressure Effects on Water Density.
Density of Fresh Water as a Function of Temperature at Atmospheric Pressure Temperature C 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 F 32 35.6 39.2 42.8 46.4 50 53.6 57.2 60.8 64.4 68 71.6 75.2 78.8 82.4 86 89.6 93.2 96.8 100.4 Specific Gravity 0.99987 0.99997 1.00000 0.99997 0.99988 0.99973 0.99952 0.99927 0.99897 0.99862 0.99823 0.99780 0.99732 0.99681 0.99626 0.99567 0.99505 0.99440 0.99371 0.99299 Density lb/ft 62.4183 62.4246 62.4266 62.4246 62.4189 62.4096 62.3969 62.3811 62.3623 62.3407 62.3164 62.2894 62.2598 62.2278 62.1934 62.1568 62.1179 62.0770 62.0341 61.9893 Temperature C 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 F 104 107.6 111.2 114.8 118.4 122 125.6 129.2 132.8 136.4 140 143.6 147.2 150.8 154.4 158 161.6 165.2 168.8 172.4 Specific Gravity 0.99224 0.99147 0.99066 0.98982 0.98896 0.98807 0.98715 0.98621 0.98524 0.98425 0.98324 0.98220 0.98113 0.98005 0.97894 0.97781 0.97666 0.97548 0.97428 0.97307 Density lb/ft 61.9428 61.894 61.844 61.791 61.737 61.682 61.624 61.566 61.505 61.443 61.380 61.315 61.249 61.181 61.112 61.041 60.970 60.896 60.821 60.745
1 tonne
Relative Volume of Water as a Function of Pressure and Temperature Temperature C 0 20 50 80 F 32 68 122 176 0 1.0000 1.0016 1.0128 1.0287 500 0.9769 0.9804 0.9915 1.0071 Pressure in atmospheres 1,000 0.9566 0.9619 0.9732 0.9884 2,000 0.9223 0.9312 0.9428 0.9568 3,000 0.8954 0.9065 0.9183 0.9315 4,000 0.8739 0.8855 0.8974 0.9097
1 cubic foot of ice 57.2 pounds 1 pound of steam occupies 26.8 cubic feet at atmospheric pressure 1 cubic inch of water makes approximately 1 cubic foot of steam at atmospheric pressure (1 gallon makes approximately 200 cubic feet) 500 pounds of fresh water per hour 1 gallon per minute
E-1
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Table E-3. Mechanical Properties of Steel and Aluminum Alloy for Navy Ships.
Steel Designation Yield strength lb/in2 34,000 Tensile Strength lb/in2 60,000 Specification MIL-S-22698 (plate) MIL-S-20166 (shapes) MIL-S-16113 (plate) MIL-S-20116 (shapes) MIL-S-16216 (plate) MIL-S-22958 (shapes) MIL-S-16216 (plate) MIL-S-22958 (shapes)
Medium Steel (MS), Ordinary Steel (OS) High-Tensile Steel (HTS), High-Strength Steel (HS) High-Yield Steel HY-80
47,000
72,000
80,000
100,000
HY-100 Aluminum Alloy Designation Base Metal Plate: 5052-H34 5086-H32 5086-H116 5086-H117 5454-H34 5456-H111 5456-H116 5456-H117 Shapes: 5086-H111 5454-H111 5456-H111 Tubing: 5086-H32 5086-O 26,000 28,000 28,000 28,000 29,000 33,000 33,000 33,000 21,000 19,000 26,000 28,000 14,000 Yield strength lb/in2
100,000
115,000
Weld 20,000 22,000 22,000 22,000 16,000 26,000 26,000 26,000 16,000 16,000 21,000 22,000 14,000
Tensile Strength lb/in2
Specification
34,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 39,000 46,000 46,000 46,000 36,000 33,000 42,000 40,000 35,000
QQ-A-250/19 " " QQ-A-250/10 QQ-A-250/20 " " QQ-A-200/5 QQ-A-220/6 QQ-A-200/7
Table E-4. Typical Mechanical Constants of Metals.

E Elastic Modulus 1,000,000 psi
Steel: Cold-rolled Cast Stainless (18-8) All others, including high carbon and heat treated Aluminum alloys wrought cast Titanium Monel Inconel Cast iron Malleable iron Copper Brass (70-30) Phosphor bronze Tobin bronze, hard Beryllium copper Magnesium alloys
G Shear Modulus 1,000,000 psi
K Bulk Modulus 1,000,000 psi
Poissons Ratio
u Tensile Strength 1,000 psi
Fatigue limit 1,000 psi
29.5 28.5 27.6 28.6-30.0 9.9-10.3
11.5 11.3 10.6 11.0-11.9 3.7-3.9
23.1 20.2 23.6 22.6-24.0 9.9-10.2
0.287 0.265 0.305 0.283-0.292 0.330-0.334
60-150 60-80 44-200 25-70 18-40 91 70-120 20-50 50 32-50 25-75 55 65 20-45
25-75 24-32 16-80 8-18 6-11 45 20-50 6-18 24 12-17 7-20 12 21 7-17
15-16 25.0 31 13.5-21.0 23.6 15.6 15.9 15.9 13.8 17 6.3
6.5 9.5 11 5.2-8.2 9.3 5.8 6.0 5.9 5.1 7 2.5
22.5 8.4-15.5 17.2 17.9 15.7 16.3 16.3 4.8
0.34 0.315 0.27-0.38 0.211-0.299 0.271 0.355 0.331 0.359 0.359 0.281
E-2
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Table E-5. Mechanical Properties of Commercial Steels.

Yield strength lb/in2 Tensile Strength lb/in2 Yield strength lb/in2 Ultimate (Tensile) Strength lb/in2
Designation Structural steel for ships ASTM A131 (all grades) Structural Carbon Steel ASTM A36 ASTM A7 ASTM A373 ASTM A283 Grade A Grade B Grade C Grade D ASTM A284 Grade A Grade B Grade C Grade D ASTM A285 Grade A Grade B Grade C ASTM A113 Grade A Grade B Grade C
Thickness range
Designation
Thickness range
High-strength low alloy steels 34,000 58-71,000 ASTM A242 ASTM A440 to 4 in. all to 4 in. 36,000 33,000 32,000 58-80,000 60-75,000 58-75,000 ASTM A572 all all all all 24,000 27,000 30,000 33,000 45,000 50,000 55,000 60,000 Grade 42 Grade 45 Grade 50 Grade 55 Grade 60 to 12 in. to 12 in. to 12 in. to 8 in. 25,000 23,000 21,000 21,000 50,000 55,000 60,000 60,000 Grade 65 ASTM 588 SAE J410b Grade 42X Grade 945X to 2 in. " " 24,000 27,000 30,000 44-55,000 50-60,000 55-65,000 Grade 945A, C Grade 950X Grade 950A, B, C, D Grade 955X all all all 33,000 27,000 26,000 60-72,000 50-62,000 48-58,000 Grade 960X Grade 965X Grade 970X Grade 980X
1 3
to 3 4 in. to 4 in. 4 to 1 2 in. to 3 4 in. 1 2 to 4 in.

1 1 3
50,000 50,000 46,000 50,000 42,000
70,000 70,000 67,000 70,000 63,000
ASTM A441
to 4 in. to 1 2 in. to 1 2 in. to 11 2 in. to 1 in. to 2 in. to 4 in.

1 1 1
42,000 45,000 50,000 55,000 60,000 65,000 50,000
60,000 60,000 65,000 70,000 75,000 80,000 70,000
to 3 8 in. to 8 in. to 1 2 in. to 8 in. to 1 2 in. to 3 8 in. to 8 in. to 8 in. to 3 8 in. to 8 in.
3 3 3 1 3 3
42,000 45,000 45,000 50,000 50,000 55,000 60,000 65,000 70,000 80,000
60,000 60,000 65,000 65,000 70,000 70,000 75,000 80,000 85,000 95,000
Heat-treated constructional alloy ASTM A514 to 2 2 in. 2 2 to 4 in. Cold-drawn steels (average strengths) AISI 1010 AISI 1015 AISI 1020 AISI 1025 AISI 1030 AISI 1035 AISI 1040 AISI 1045 AISI 1117 AISI 1118 AISI 1137 AISI 1141 55,000 60,300 63,700 68,000 73,900 78,200 82,400 86,600 68,000 70,100 89,200 95,200 67,000 71,000 75,000 80,000 87,000 92,000 97,000 102,000 80,000 82,500 105,000 112,000
1
100,000 90,000
115-135,000 105-135,000
Stainless steels (nominal properties) AISI 302, annealed AISI 302, 1 4 hard AISI 302, cold drawn AISI 316, annealed AISI 316, cold-drawn AISI 440A, annealed AISI 440A, tempered AISI 440B, annealed AISI 440B, tempered AISI 440C, annealed AISI 440C, tempered AISI 442, annealed AISI 501, annealed AISI 502, annealed 60,000 270,000 62,000 270,000 65,000 275,000 45,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 40,000 75,000 90,000 125,000 to 350,000 80,000 to 350,000 105,000 280,000 107,000 280,000 110,000 285,000 80,000 70,000 70,000
E-3
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Steel Structural Shapes. In the United States, dimensional and material property specifications for steel plate, bar, and structural shapes are given by ASTM standard A6/A6M, Standard Specification for General Requirements for Rolled Steel Plates, Shapes, Sheet Piling and Bars for Structural Use. The shape dimensions and properties in the following tables are excerpted from ASTM Standard A6/A6M and/or the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, Eighth Edition. Structural shapes (other than angles) are identified by letter designations followed by numbers giving nominal depth and weight per linear foot. Shape cross sections are illustrated in the tables giving dimensions and properties, and described below:
"W" shapes are doubly symmetric, wide-flange shapes with inside flange surfaces essentially parallel, produced primarily for use as beams and columns. The profiles of W shapes from different manufacturers are nearly the same except for the size of the fillets between the web and flanges. A shape with dimensions and weight approximately the same as a W shape but with inside flanges not parallel can be considered a W shape if the average flange thickness is essentially the same as the flange thickness of the W shape. The larger W shapes were formerly called wide flange beams, designated by the symbol W F inserted between the nominal depth and weight per foot, (e.g., 24 W F 76), while smaller sizes were called light beams, designated by the letter "B" (14 B 26). "HP" shapes are wide-flange shapes with flanges and webs of the same nominal thickness, depth and width essentially equal, and essentially parallel flange surfaces, produced primarily for use as bearing piles. The profiles of HP shapes from different manufacturers are essentially the same. HP shapes were formerly called bearing piles, designated by the letters BP (14 BP 73). "S" shapes are doubly symmetric, flanged shapes produced to dimensional standards adopted in 1896 by the association of American Steel Manufacturers for American Standard beam shapes. The inside flange surfaces have an approximate 162 3 percent (2 inches in 12) slope. S shapes were formerly called standard I-beams, designated by the letter "I" inserted between the nominal depth and weight per foot (24 I 100). American Standard Channels are designated by the letter "C" and are produced to dimensional standards adopted in 1896 by the association of American Steel Manufacturers for American Standard channels. The inside flange surfaces have an approximate 162 3 percent (2 inches in 12) slope. Angles consist of two flanges (legs), of equal or unequal length, meeting at a right angle, and are designated by the letter "L." The profiles of angles from different manufacturers are essentially the same except for the size of the fillets between the legs and the shape of the ends of the legs. Angles are designated L shapes are designated by numbers giving length of each leg and nominal thickness of the legs in inches, as 6 6 5 8. Angles were formerly indicated by the symbol . The letter "M" designates doubly symmetric shapes that cannot be classed as W, HP, or S shapes. Similarly, "MC" designates channels that cannot be classed as Standard Channels (C shapes). Structural Tees are formed by splitting the web of W, S, or M shapes and are designated by the letter for the shape from which they are cut followed by a T (WT, ST, or MT). Although Tees can be formed by off-center or scalloped cuts, or by cutting along two lines, the tables in this handbook are for Tees with depth equal to one-half the tabulated base beam depth.
The maximum length of shapes varies with producers, but is generally on the order of 60 to 75 feet. Structural shapes and plate (to 8-inch thickness) are generally formed from ASTM A36 carbon steel, although ASTM A529, A441, A572, A242, A588, and A514 steels are also used in some sizes. To reduce bulk, the following tables reproduce only external dimensions, web and flange thicknesses, and structural section properties. Not all standard sizes are included for all shapes. Properties for shapes not included can be interpolated from the tables with fair accuracy. Given the designation (nominal depth and weight per foot) interpolated values of cross-sectional area, A, are accurate to two decimal places. Within groups of shapes with the same nominal depth, there are subgroupings with the same nominal flange width. Interpolated values of I, Z, and J within groups with the same nominal flange width are accurate to within 2 percent. Standard dimensional specifications for structural shapes (and the resulting structural properties) have changed several times in the past. Shapes used in older ships or from old stock may not match precisely the shapes given in the following tables or listed in the current edition of ASTM Standard A6/A6M or the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, although properties for the next smaller shape or a shape with approximately the same section area can be used for conservative estimates.
E-4
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Table E-6. Dimensions and Properties of W Shapes.
tf
X tw Y bf
(Nominal depth weight per linear foot)
Designation in. lbs
Flange Depth in. Web Thickness in. 0.945 0.840 0.760 0.830 0.725 0.650 0.600 0.830 0.715 0.635 0.550 0.775 0.655 0.615 0.565 0.520 0.725 0.605 0.570 0.460 0.705 0.605 0.500 0.515 0.415 0.430 0.395 0.720 0.600 0.500 0.580 0.455 0.400 0.405 0.350 0.655 0.535 0.425 0.495 0.415 0.355 0.360 0.300 Width in. 16.655 16.550 16.470 12.180 12.075 12.000 11.950 15.860 15.745 11.565 11.480 15.105 14.985 10.545 10.495 10.450 14.085 13.965 10.070 9.960 12.955 12.855 12.750 9.065 8.965 7.040 7.005 12.510 12.390 12.290 8.420 8.295 8.240 6.555 6.500 11.265 11.145 11.035 7.635 7.555 7.495 6.060 6.000 Thickness in. 1.680 1.440 1.260 1.360 1.180 1.020 0.790 1.400 1.150 1.055 0.740 1.315 1.065 1.000 0.850 0.670 1.190 0.975 0.930 0.640 1.220 0.960 0.750 0.875 0.585 0.590 0.505 1.150 0.960 0.800 0.930 0.740 0.615 0.650 0.450 1.060 0.870 0.680 0.810 0.695 0.570 0.605 0.425 Area in2
Elastic Properties Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
I in4
20300 17300 15000 13200 11300 9750 7800 14200 11500 8160 5900 10300 8200 5770 4930 3990 6990 5630 4090 2850 5170 4020 3100 2700 1830 1550 1350 3630 2960 2420 2070 1600 1330 1170 843 2190 1750 1330 1170 984 800 712 510
SM in3
1110 953 837 719 623 542 439 829 684 487 359 663 539 380 329 269 502 411 299 213 414 329 258 222 154 131 114 329 273 227 192 151 127 111 81.6 231 188 146 127 108 88.9 78.8 57.6
I in4
1300 1090 940 411 347 295 225 932 749 273 187 757 598 196 164 128 555 443 159 106 443 340 259 109 70.4 34.5 29.1 376 305 248 92.9 70.6 57.5 30.6 20.7 253 201 152 60.3 50.1 40.1 22.5 15.3
SM in3
156 132 114 67.5 57.6 49.1 37.7 118 95.2 47.2 32.6 100 79.8 37.2 31.3 24.5 78.8 63.5 31.5 21.2 68.4 53.0 40.7 24.0 15.7 9.80 8.30 60.1 49.2 40.3 22.1 17.0 13.9 9.35 6.36 44.9 36.1 27.6 15.8 13.3 10.7 7.43 5.12
Torsional Constant J in4 64.2 41.5 28.6 28.0 18.4 12.4 6.99 35.8 20.5 12.4 5.30 27.9 15.3 9.72 6.43 3.77 19.5 10.9 7.33 2.81 18.5 9.50 4.72 5.26 1.87 1.71 1.18 15.4 8.98 5.21 6.03 3.02 1.83 1.77 0.77 10.6 5.86 2.83 3.48 2.17 1.24 1.22 0.51
Plastic Moduli
ZX
in3 1260 1080 943 833 718 624 509 939 772 559 415 749 605 437 378 312 567 461 343 244 468 370 289 254 177 153 134 373 307 253 221 172 144 129 95.4 261 211 163 145 123 101 90.7 66.5
ZY
in3 241 204 176 107 90.7 77.3 59.7 182 147 73.9 51.3 154 123 58.4 49.2 38.6 122 97.5 49.3 33.2 105 81.5 62.4 37.5 24.5 15.7 13.3 92.6 75.6 61.7 34.7 26.6 21.7 14.8 10.2 69.1 55.3 42.2 24.7 20.6 16.6 11.7 8.06
36300 36260 36230 36210 36182 36160 36135
36.74 36.26 35.90 36.69 36.33 36.01 35.55 34.18 33.68 33.49 32.86 30.94 30.44 30.31 30.01 29.65 27.81 27.38 27.29 26.71 25.00 24.48 24.06 24.31 23.73 23.74 23.57 22.06 21.68 21.36 21.62 21.24 20.99 21.06 20.66 18.97 18.59 18.21 18.47 18.24 17.99 18.06 17.70
88.3 76.5 67.6 61.8 53.6 47.0 39.7 70.9 59.1 44.7 34.7 62.0 50.8 38.9 34.2 29.1 52.3 42.9 33.5 24.8 47.7 38.5 30.6 27.7 20.1 18.2 16.2 43.2 35.9 29.8 27.3 21.5 18.3 16.7 13.0 35.1 28.5 22.3 20.8 17.6 14.7 13.5 10.3
33241 33201 33152 33118
30211 30173 30132 30116 30 99
27178 27146 27114 27 84
24162 24131 24104 24 94 24 68 24 62 24 55
21147 21122 21101 21 93 21 73 21 62 21 57 21 44
18119 18 97 18 76 18 71 18 60 18 50 18 46 18 35
E-5
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Table E-6 (Continued). Dimensions and Properties of W Shapes.

Designation in. lbs Flange Depth in. 16.97 16.33 16.43 16.13 15.86 15.88 15.69 22.42 20.24 19.02 18.29 17.12 16.38 15.22 14.78 14.66 14.02 14.31 13.89 13.92 13.66 14.10 13.84 13.91 13.74 16.82 15.41 14.38 13.41 12.71 12.38 12.12 12.19 12.06 12.19 11.94 12.50 12.22 12.31 11.91 11.36 10.84 10.22 9.98 10.10 9.73 10.47 10.17 10.24 9.87 9.00 8.00 8.06 7.93 8.28 8.14 8.11 7.89 6.38 5.99 6.28 5.90 5.15 5.01 4.16 Web Thickness in. 0.585 0.395 0.430 0.345 0.295 0.275 0.250 3.070 2.380 2.015 1.770 1.410 1.175 0.830 0.680 0.645 0.440 0.510 0.375 0.370 0.305 0.310 0.270 0.255 0.230 1.775 1.395 1.060 0.790 0.550 0.470 0.390 0.360 0.345 0.370 0.295 0.300 0.230 0.260 0.200 0.755 0.605 0.420 0.340 0.350 0.290 0.300 0.240 0.250 0.190 0.570 0.285 0.285 0.245 0.250 0.230 0.245 0.170 0.320 0.230 0.260 0.170 0.270 0.240 0.280 Width in. 10.425 10.235 7.120 7.035 6.985 5.525 5.500 17.890 17.200 16.835 16.590 16.230 15.995 15.650 15.500 14.725 14.520 10.130 9.995 8.060 7.995 6.770 6.730 5.025 5.000 13.385 13.005 12.670 12.400 12.160 12.080 12.000 10.010 9.995 8.080 8.005 6.560 6.490 4.030 3.970 10.415 10.265 10.080 10.000 8.020 7.960 5.810 5.750 4.020 3.960 8.280 7.995 6.535 6.495 5.270 5.250 4.015 3.940 6.080 5.990 4.030 3.940 5.030 5.000 4.060 Thickness in. 0.985 0.665 0.715 0.565 0.430 0.440 0.345 4.910 3.820 3.210 2.845 2.260 1.890 1.310 1.090 1.030 0.710 0.855 0.645 0.660 0.530 0.515 0.385 0.420 0.335 2.955 2.250 1.735 1.250 0.900 0.735 0.605 0.640 0.575 0.640 0.515 0.520 0.380 0.425 0.225 1.250 0.990 0.680 0.560 0.620 0.435 0.510 0.360 0.395 0.210 0.935 0.435 0.465 0.400 0.400 0.330 0.315 0.205 0.455 0.260 0.405 0.215 0.430 0.360 0.345 Area in2 29.4 19.7 16.8 13.3 10.6 9.12 7.68 215.0 162.0 134.0 117.0 91.4 75.6 51.8 42.7 38.8 26.5 24.1 17.9 15.6 12.6 11.2 8.85 7.69 6.49 98.8 74.1 55.8 39.9 28.2 23.2 19.1 17.0 15.6 14.7 11.8 10.3 7.65 6.48 4.16 32.9 25.9 17.6 14.4 13.3 9.71 8.84 6.49 5.62 3.54 19.7 9.13 8.25 7.08 6.16 5.26 4.44 2.96 7.34 4.43 4.74 2.68 5.54 4.68 3.83 Elastic Properties Axis X-X Axis Y-Y Torsional Constant J in4 7.73 2.39 2.22 1.11 0.54 0.46 0.26 1450 670 395 273 136 79.1 26.5 15.2 12.3 4.06 5.08 2.20 1.94 1.05 0.80 0.38 0.36 0.21 243 108 48.8 18.5 6.86 3.84 2.18 2.10 1.58 1.78 0.95 0.74 0.30 0.29 0.07 15.1 7.53 2.48 1.39 1.51 0.58 0.62 0.24 0.23 0.06 5.06 0.54 0.54 0.35 0.28 0.17 0.14 0.04 0.46 0.10 0.22 0.04 0.31 0.19 0.15 Plastic Moduli
(Nominal Depth weight per linear foot)
ZX
in
3
ZY
in3 54.9 35.5 18.9 14.5 10.8 7.03 5.48 816 583 468 402 304 246 163 133 113 75.6 44.8 32.8 22.0 17.3 12.1 8.99 5.54 4.39 274 196 143 98 67.5 54.3 44.1 32.5 29.1 21.4 16.8 11.5 8.17 3.66 1.90 69.2 53.1 35.0 28.3 20.3 14.0 8.84 6.10 3.35 1.74 32.7 14.1 10.1 8.57 5.69 4.66 2.67 1.66 8.56 4.75 3.39 1.72 5.53 4.57 2.92
W W
16100 16 67 16 57 16 45 16 36 16 31 16 26 14730 14550 14455 14398 14311 14257 14176 14145 14132 14 90 14 82 14 61 14 53 14 43 14 38 14 30 14 26 14 22 12336 12252 12190 12136 12 96 12 79 12 65 12 58 12 53 12 50 12 40 12 35 12 26 12 22 12 14 10112 10 88 10 60 10 49 10 45 10 33 10 30 10 22 10 19 10 12 8 67 8 31 8 28 8 24 8 21 8 18 8 15 8 10 6 25 6 15 6 16 6 9 5 19 5 16 4 13
I in4 1490 954 758 586 448 375 301 14300 9430 7190 6000 4330 3400 2140 1710 1530 999 882 640 541 428 385 291 245 199 4060 2720 1890 1240 833 662 533 475 425 394 310 285 204 156 88.6 716 534 341 272 248 170 170 118 96.3 53.8 272 110 98.0 82.8 75.3 61.9 48.0 30.8 53.4 29.1 32.1 16.4 26.2 21.3 11.3
SM in3 175 117 92.2 72.7 56.5 47.2 38.4 1280 931 756 656 506 415 281 232 209 143 123 92.2 77.8 62.7 54.6 42.0 35.3 29.0 483 353 263 186 131 107 87.9 78.0 70.6 64.7 51.9 45.6 33.4 25.4 14.9 126 98.5 66.7 54.6 49.1 35.0 32.4 23.2 18.8 10.9 60.4 27.5 24.3 20.9 18.2 15.2 11.8 7.81 16.7 9.72 10.2 5.56 10.2 8.51 5.46
I in4 186 119 43.1 32.8 24.5 12.4 9.59 4720 3250 2560 2170 1610 1290 838 677 548 362 148 107 57.7 45.2 26.7 19.6 8.91 7.00 1190 828 589 398 270 216 174 107 95.8 56.3 44.1 24.5 17.3 4.66 2.36 236 179 116 93.4 53.4 36.6 16.7 11.4 4.29 2.18 88.6 37.1 21.7 18.3 9.77 7.97 3.41 2.09 17.1 9.32 4.43 2.19 9.13 7.51 3.86
SM in3 35.7 23.2 12.1 9.34 7.0 4.49 3.49 527 378 304 262 199 161 107 87.3 74.5 49.9 29.3 21.5 14.3 11.3 7.88 5.82 3.54 2.80 177 127 93 64.2 44.4 35.8 29.1 21.4 19.2 13.9 11.0 7.47 5.34 2.31 1.19 45.3 34.8 23.0 18.7 13.3 9.20 5.75 3.97 2.14 1.10 21.4 9.27 6.63 5.63 3.71 3.04 1.70 1.06 5.61 3.11 2.20 1.11 3.63 3.00 1.90
198 130 105 82.3 64.0 54.0 44.2 1660 1180 936 801 603 487 320 260 234 157 139 102 87.1 69.6 61.5 47.3 40.2 33.2 603 428 311 214 147 119 96.8 86.4 77.9 72.4 57.5 51.2 37.2 29.3 17.4 147 113 74.6 60.4 54.9 38.8 36.6 26.0 21.6 12.6 70.2 30.4 27.2 23.2 20.4 17.0 13.6 8.87 18.9 10.8 11.7 6.23 11.6 9.59 6.28
E-6
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Table E-7. Dimensions and Properties of Structural Tees Cut from W Shapes (WT).
bf tf y X tw X d Y
Designation
(Nominal Depth weight per foot)
Depth in. 18.370 18.130 17.950 18.345 18.165 18.005 17.775 17.090 16.840 16.745 16.430 15.470 15.220 15.155 15.005 14.825 13.905 13.690 13.645 13.355 12.500 12.240 12.030 12.155 11.865 11.870 11.785 11.030 10.840 10.680 10.810 10.620 10.495 10.530 10.330
Stem Thickness in. 0.945 0.840 0.760 0.830 0.725 0.650 0.600 0.830 0.715 0.635 0.550 0.775 0.655 0.615 0.565 0.520 0.725 0.605 0.570 0.460 0.705 0.605 0.500 0.515 0.415 0.430 0.395 0.720 0.600 0.500 0.580 0.455 0.400 0.405 0.3.50 Width in. 16.655 16.550 16.470 12.180 12.075 12.000 11.950 15.860 15.745 11.565 11.480 15.105 14.985 10.545 10.495 10.450 14.085 13.965 10.070 9.960 12.955 12.855 12.750 9.065 8.965 7.040 7.005 12.510 12.390 12.290 8.420 8.295 8.240 6.555 6.500
Flange Area Thickness in. 1.680 1.440 1.260 1.360 1.180 1.020 0.790 1.400 1.150 1.055 0.740 1.315 1.065 1.000 0.850 0.670 1.190 0.975 0.930 0.640 1.220 0.960 0.750 0.875 0.585 0.590 0.505 1.150 0.960 0.800 0.930 0.740 0.615 0.650 0.450 in
2
in. lbs WT
I in4
1230 1060 934 985 845 740 636 871 725 592 469 610 497 421 373 322 414 336 289 216 293 238 189 186 137 131 117 204 166 135 144 110 93.8 90.4 71.1
SM in3
86.1 75.1 67.0 73.1 63.1 55.8 49.7 65.8 55.5 47.4 39.2 50.5 41.7 37.4 33.7 30.0 38.2 31.2 28.3 21.9 29.9 24.8 20.0 20.3 15.6 15.6 14.1 23.7 19.3 15.8 17.9 13.8 11.9 11.8 9.68
y in
4.13 4.05 4.01 4.87 4.77 4.74 4.96 3.85 3.78 4.26 4.47 3.40 3.31 3.90 3.94 4.09 3.05 2.95 3.42 3.48 2.70 2.65 2.59 2.99 3.06 3.46 3.50 2.39 2.28 2.18 2.74 2.60 2.58 2.85 2.98
I in4
648 545 470 206 174 147 113 466 375 136 93.6 378 299 98.0 82.1 63.9 278 222 79.4 52.8 221 170 130 54.5 35.2 17.2 14.5 188 152 124 46.4 35.3 28.7 15.3 10.3
SM in3
77.8 65.9 57.1 33.8 28.8 24.6 18.9 58.8 47.6 23.6 16.3 50.1 39.9 18.6 15.7 12.2 39.4 31.7 15.8 10.6 34.2 26.5 20.3 12.0 7.85 4.90 4.15 30.0 24.6 20.2 11.0 8.51 6.97 4.67 3.18
18 150 18 130 18 115 18 105 18 91 18 80 18 67.5 16.5 120.5 16.5 100.5 16.5 76 16.5 59 15 105.5 15 86.5 15 66 15 58 15 49.5 13.5 89 13.5 73 13.5 57 13.5 42 12 81 12 65.5 12 52 12 47 12 34 12 31 12 27.5 10.5 73.5 10.5 61 10.5 50.5 10.5 46.5 10.5 36.5 10.5 31 10.5 28.5 10.5 22
44.1 38.2 33.8 30.9 26.8 23.5 19.9 35.4 29.5 22.4 17.3 31.0 25.4 19.4 17.1 14.5 26.1 21.5 16.8 12.4 23.9 19.3 15.3 13.8 10.0 9.11 8.10 21.6 17.9 14.9 13.7 10.7 9.13 8.37 6.49
WT
WT
WT
WT
WT
E-7
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Table E-8. Dimensions and Properties of S Shapes.
tf
X tw Y bf
Designation in. lbs
Flange Depth in. 24.50 24.50 24.00 24.00 24.00 20.30 20.30 20.00 20.00 18.00 18.00 15.00 15.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 10.00 10.00 8.00 8.00 7.00 7.00 6.00 6.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 3.00 Web Thickness in. 0.800 0.620 0.745 0.625 0.500 0.800 0.660 0.635 0.505 0.711 0.461 0.550 0.411 0.687 0.462 0.428 0.350 0.594 0.311 0.441 0.271 0.450 0.252 0.465 0.232 0.494 0.214 0.326 0.193 0.349 0.170 Width in. 8.050 7.870 7.245 7.125 7.000 7.200 7.060 6.385 6.255 6.251 6.001 5.640 5.501 5.477 5.252 5.078 5.000 4.944 4.661 4.171 4.001 3.860 3.662 3.565 3.332 3.284 3.004 2.796 2.663 2.509 2.330 Thickness in. 1.090 1.090 0.870 0.870 0.870 0.920 0.920 0.795 0.795 0.691 0.691 0.622 0.622 0.659 0.659 0.544 0.544 0.491 0.491 0.426 0.426 0.392 0.392 0.359 0.359 0.326 0.326 0.293 0.293 0.260 0.260 Area in2 35.6 31.2 29.3 26.5 23.5 28.2 25.3 22.0 19.4 20.6 16.1 14.7 12.6 14.7 12.0 10.3 9.35 10.3 7.46 6.77 5.41 5.88 4.50 5.07 3.67 4.34 2.94 2.79 2.26 2.21 1.67
I in4
3160 2940 2390 2250 2100 1670 1580 1280 1190 926 804 486 447 305 272 229 218 147 124 64.9 57.6 42.4 36.7 26.3 22.1 15.2 12.3 6.79 6.08 2.93 2.52
SM in3
258 240 199 187 175 165 155 128 119 103 89.4 64.8 59.6 50.8 45.4 38.2 36.4 29.4 24.7 16.2 14.4 12.1 10.5 8.77 7.37 6.09 4.92 3.39 3.04 1.95 1.68
I in4
83.3 77.1 47.7 44.9 42.2 50.2 46.8 29.8 27.7 24.1 20.8 15.7 14.4 15.7 13.6 9.87 9.36 8.36 6.79 4.31 3.73 3.17 2.64 2.31 1.82 1.67 1.22 0.903 0.764 0.586 0.455
SM in3
20.7 19.6 13.2 12.6 12.1 13.9 13.3 9.32 8.85 7.72 6.94 5.57 5.23 5.74 5.16 3.89 3.74 3.38 2.91 2.07 1.86 1.64 1.44 1.30 1.09 1.01 0.809 0.646 0.574 0.468 0.390
Torsional Constant J in4 12.8 10.1 7.58 6.04 4.88 8.39 6.64 4.59 3.58 4.15 2.37 2.12 1.54 2.82 1.76 1.08 0.90 1.29 0.60 0.55 0.34 0.45 0.24 0.37 0.17 0.32 0.11 0.12 0.07 0.09 0.04
Plastic Moduli
ZX
in
3
ZY
in3 36.2 33.2 23.9 22.3 20.7 24.9 23.0 16.7 15.3 14.4 12.1 9.97 9.02 10.3 8.85 6.79 6.40 6.22 4.96 3.68 3.16 2.96 2.44 2.36 1.85 1.88 1.37 1.13 0.964 0.826 0.653
S S
24 121 24 106 24 100 24 90 24 80
306 279 240 222 204 198 183 153 140 125 105 77.1 69.3 61.2 53.1 44.8 42.0 35.4 28.4 19.3 16.5 14.5 12.1 10.6 8.47 7.42 5.67 4.04 3.51 2.36 1.95
S S S S S S S S S S S S S
20 96 20 86 20 75 20 66 18 70 18 54.7 15 50 15 42.9 12 50 12 40.8 12 35 12 31.8 10 35 10 25.4 8 23 8 18.4 7 20 7 15.3 6 17.25 6 12.5 5 14.75 5 10 4 9.5 4 7.7 3 7.5 3 5.7
E-8
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Table E-9. Dimensions and Properties of Structural Tees Cut from S Shapes (ST).
bf tf y X tw X d Y
Designation in. lbs
Flange Depth in. Stem Thickness in. 0.800 0.620 0.745 0.625 0.500 0.800 0.660 0.635 0.505 0.711 0.461 0.550 0.411 0.687 0.462 0.428 0.350 0.594 0.311 0.441 0.271 0.450 0.252 0.465 0.232 0.494 0.214 0.326 0.193 0.349 0.170 Width in. 8.050 7.870 7.245 7.125 7.000 7.200 7.060 6.385 6.255 6.251 6.001 5.640 5.501 5.477 5.252 5.078 5.000 4.944 4.661 4.171 4.001 3.860 3.662 3.565 3.332 3.284 3.004 2.796 2.663 2.509 2.330 Thickness in. 1.090 1.090 0.870 0.870 0.870 0.920 0.920 0.795 0.795 0.691 0.691 0.622 0.622 0.659 0.659 0.545 0.544 0.491 0.491 0.425 0.425 0.392 0.392 0.359 0.359 0.326 0.326 0.293 0.293 0.260 0.260 Area in2
I in4
259 216 215 190 162 143 125 109 93.1 84.7 62.4 40.6 33.0 25.2 18.9 17.2 14.9 12.5 7.83 5.03 3.51 3.36 2.19 2.13 1.27 1.27 0.681 0.470 0.316 0.204 0.118
SM in3
30.1 24.1 26.3 22.6 18.7 20.3 17.2 15.8 12.9 14.0 9.61 7.73 6.00 6.05 4.28 3.95 3.31 3.63 2.06 1.77 1.15 1.36 0.816 1.02 0.552 0.740 0.353 0.325 0.203 0.191 0.101
y in.
3.63 3.28 3.84 3.60 3.29 3.13 2.91 3.07 2.81 2.94 2.50 2.25 2.01 1.84 1.58 1.64 1.51 1.56 1.20 1.15 0.941 1.04 0.817 0.914 0.691 0.789 0.569 0.553 0.448 0.432 0.329
I in4
41.7 38.5 23.8 22.5 21.1 25.1 23.4 14.9 13.8 12.1 10.4 7.85 7.19 7.85 6.78 4.94 4.68 4.18 3.39 2.15 1.86 1.59 1.32 1.15 0.911 0.833 0.608 0.451 0.382 0.293 0.227
SM in3
10.4 9.80 6.58 6.31 6.04 6.97 6.63 4.66 4.43 3.86 3.47 2.78 2.61 2.87 2.58 1.95 1.87 1.69 1.46 1.03 0.932 0.821 0.720 0.648 0.547 0.507 0.405 0.323 0.287 0.234 0.195
ST
12 60.5 12 53 12 50 12 45 12 40
12.250 12.250 12.000 12.000 12.000 10.150 10.150 10.000 10.000 9.000 9.000 7.500 7.500 6.000 6.000 6.000 6.000 5.000 5.000 4.000 4.000 3.500 3.500 3.000 3.000 2.500 2.500 2.000 2.000 1.500 1.500
17.8 15.6 14.7 13.2 11.7 14.1 12.7 11.0 9.70 10.3 8.04 7.35 6.31 7.35 6.00 5.15 4.68 5.15 3.73 3.38 2.70 2.94 2.25 2.53 1.83 2.17 1.47 1.40 1.13 1.10 0.835
ST
ST
10 48 10 43 10 37.5 10 33 9 35 9 27.35 7.5 25 7.5 21.4 6 25 6 20.4 6 17.5 6 15.9 5 17.5 5 12.7 4 11.5 4 9.2 3.5 10 3.5 7.65 3 8.625 3 6.25 2.5 7.375 2.5 5 2 4.75 2 3.85 1.5 3.75 1.5 2.85
ST
ST
ST
ST
ST
ST
ST
ST
ST
ST
ST
ST
E-9
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Table E-10. Dimensions and Properties of M Shapes.
tf
X tw Y bf
Flange
Elastic Properties Area in2 Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Designation in. lbs
Depth in.
Web Thickness in. 0.215 0.177 0.157 0.135 0.250 0.114 0.316 0.254
Width in. 4.000 3.065 2.690 2.281 5.938 1.844 5.003 3.940
Thickness in. 0.270 0.225 0.206 0.189 0.379 0.171 0.416 0.371
I in4
148 71.9 38.8 18.5 39.0 7.20 24.1 10.5
SM in3
21.1 12.0 7.76 4.62 13.0 2.40 9.63 5.24
I in4
2.64 0.980 0.609 0.343 11.6 0.165 7.86 3.36
SM in3
1.32 0.639 0.453 0.301 3.90 0.179 3.14 1.71
Torsional Constant J in4 0.11 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.30 0.01 0.34 0.19
Plastic Moduli
ZX
in
3
ZY
in3 2.20 1.09 0.765 0.502 6.25 0.296 5.02 2.74
M 14 18 M 12 11.8 M 10 9 M 8 6.5 M 6 20 M 6 4.4 M 5 18.9 M 4 13
14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 6.00 5.00 4.00
5.10 3.47 2.65 1.92 5.89 1.29 5.55 3.81
24.9 14.3 9.19 5.42 14.5 2.80 11.0 6.05
Structural Tees Cut From M Shapes (MT)

bf tf y X tw X d Y
Designation in. lbs
Flange Depth in. Stem Thickness in. 0.215 0.177 0.157 0.135 0.250 0.114 0.316 0.254 Width in. 4.000 3.065 2.690 2.281 5.938 1.844 5.003 3.940 Thickness in. 0.270 0.225 0.206 0.189 0.379 0.171 0.416 0.371 Area in2 Axis X-X
Elastic Properties Axis Y-Y
I in4
13.1 6.60 3.46 1.57 1.54 0.577 1.05 0.431
SM in3
2.69 1.60 0.997 0.556 0.624 0.267 0.527 0.271
y
2.12 1.89 1.53 1.17 0.531 0.836 0.511 0.410
I in4
1.32 0.490 0.305 0.172 5.80 0.083 3.93 1.68
SM in3
0.660 0.320 0.227 0.150 1.95 0.090 1.57 0.853
MT 7 9 MT 6 5.9 MT 5 4.5 MT 4 3.25 MT 3 10 MT 3 2.2 MT 2.5 9.45 MT 2 6.5
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.0
2.55 1.73 1.32 0.958 2.94 0.646 2.78 1.90
E-10
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table E-11. Dimensions and Properties of HP Shapes.
tf
X tw Y bf
Flange Designation
Elastic Properties Area in2 Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
in. lbs HP 14 117 14 102 14 89 14 73 HP 13 100 13 87 13 73 13 60 HP 12 84 12 74 12 63 12 53 HP 10 57 10 42 HP 8 36
Depth in.
Web Thickness in.
Width in. 14.885 14.785 14.695 14.585 13.205 13.105 13.005 12.900 12.295 12.215 12.125 12.045 10.225 10.075 8.155
Thickness in. 0.805 0.705 0.615 0.505 0.765 0.665 0.565 0.460 0.685 0.610 0.515 0.435 0.565 0.420 0.445
I in4
1220 1050 904 729 886 755 630 503 650 569 472 393 294 210 119
SM in3
172 150 131 107 135 117 98.8 80.3 106 93.8 79.1 66.8 58.8 43.4 29.8
I in4
443 380 326 261 294 250 207 165 213 186 153 127 101 71.7 40.3
SM in3
59.5 51.4 44.3 35.8 44.5 38.1 31.9 25.5 34.6 30.4 25.3 21.1 19.7 14.2 9.88
Torsional Constant J in4 8.02 5.40 3.60 2.01 6.25 4.12 2.54 1.39 4.24 2.98 1.83 1.12 1.97 0.81 0.77
Plastic Moduli
ZX in3
194 169 146 118 153 131 110 89.0 120 105 88.3 74.0 66.5 48.3 33.6
ZY in3
91.4 78.8 67.7 54.6 68.6 58.5 48.8 39.0 53.2 46.6 38.7 32.2 30.3 21.8 15.2
14.21 14.01 13.83 13.61 13.15 12.95 12.75 12.54 12.28 12.13 11.94 11.78 9.99 9.70 8.02
0.805 0.705 0.615 0.505 0.765 0.665 0.565 0.460 0.685 0.605 0.515 0.435 0.565 0.415 0.445
34.4 30.0 26.1 21.4 29.4 25.5 21.6 17.5 24.6 21.8 18.4 15.5 16.8 12.4 10.6
E-11
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table E-12. Dimensions and Properties for American Standard Channels (C-Shapes).
tf
X tw Y
bf
Designation
Flange depth (d) Nominal weight per foot
in. lbs C 15 50 15 40 15 33.9 C 12 30 12 25 12 20.7 C 10 30 10 25 10 20 10 15.3 C 9 20 9 15 9 13.4 C 8 18.75 8 13.75 8 11.5 C 7 14.75 7 12.25 7 9.8 C 6 13 6 10.5 6 8.2 C 59 5 6.7 C 4 7.25 4 5.4 C 36 35 3 4.1
Web Thickness tw in.
Flange Area Width (bf) in. 3.716 3.520 3.400 3.170 3.047 2.942 3.033 2.886 2.739 2.600 2.648 2.485 2.433 2.527 2.343 2.260 2.299 2.194 2.090 2.157 2.034 1.920 1.885 1.750 1.721 1.584 1.596 1.498 1.410 Thickness (tf) in. 0.650 0.650 0.650 0.501 0.501 0.501 0.436 0.436 0.436 0.436 0.413 0.413 0.413 0.390 0.390 0.390 0.366 0.366 0.366 0.343 0.343 0.343 0.320 0.320 0.296 0.296 0.273 0.273 0.273 in2 14.7 11.8 9.96 8.82 7.35 6.09 8.82 7.35 5.88 4.49 5.88 4.41 3.94 5.51 4.04 3.38 4.33 3.60 2.87 3.83 3.09 2.40 2.64 1.97 2.13 1.59 1.76 1.47 1.21
_ x
Axis X-X
Axis Y-Y
I in4
0.798 0.777 0.787 0.674 0.674 0.698 0.649 0.617 0.606 0.634 0.583 0.586 0.601 0.565 0.553 0.571 0.532 0.525 0.540 0.514 0.499 0.511 0.478 0.484 0.459 0.457 0.455 0.438 0.436 404 349 315 162 144 129 103 91.2 78.9 67.4 60.9 51.0 47.9 44.0 36.1 32.6 27.2 24.2 21.3 17.4 15.2 13.1 8.90 7.49 4.59 3.85 2.07 1.85 1.66
S in3
53.8 46.5 42.0 27.0 24.1 21.5 20.7 18.2 15.8 13.5 13.5 11.3 10.6 11.0 9.03 8.14 7.78 6.93 6.08 5.80 5.06 4.38 3.56 3.00 2.29 1.93 1.38 1.24 1.10
I in4
11.0 9.23 8.13 5.14 4.47 3.88 3.94 3.36 2.81 2.28 2.42 1.93 1.76 1.98 1.53 1.32 1.38 1.17 0.968 1.05 0.866 0.693 0.632 0.479 0.433 0.319 0.305 0.247 0.197
S in3
3.78 3.37 3.11 2.06 1.88 1.73 1.65 1.48 1.32 1.16 1.17 1.01 0.962 1.01 0.854 0.781 0.779 0.703 0.625 0.642 0.564 0.492 0.450 0.378 0.343 0.283 0.268 0.233 0.202
0.716 0.520 0.400 0.510 0.387 0.282 0.673 0.526 0.379 0.240 0.448 0.285 0.233 0.487 0.303 0.220 0.419 0.314 0.210 0.437 0.314 0.200 0.325 0.190 0.321 0.184 0.356 0.258 0.170
E-12
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table E-13. Dimensions and Properties of Miscellaneous (MC) Channels.
tf
X tw Y
bf
Designation
Flange depth (d) Nominal weight per foot
Web Thickness in. 0.700 0.600 0.500 0.450 0.787 0.560 0.447 0.375 0.835 0.712 0.590 0.467 0.600 0.500 0.450 0.190 0.796 0.575 0.425 0.477 0.425 0.377 0.325 0.170 0.152 0.450 0.400 0.427 0.375 0.400 0.353 0.179 0.503 0.352 0.375 0.379 0.340 0.375 0.316 0.310
Flange Width (bf) in. 4.200 4.100 4.000 3.950 4.412 4.185 4.072 4.000 4.135 4.012 3.890 3.767 3.600 3.500 3.450 1.500 4.321 4.100 3.950 3.502 3.550 3.402 3.450 1.500 1.127 3.500 3.450 3.502 3.450 3.025 2.978 1.874 3.603 3.452 3.000 3.504 3.500 3.000 2.941 2.497 Thickness (tf) in. 0.625 0.625 0.625 0.625 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.700 0.700 0.700 0.700 0.600 0.600 0.600 0.309 0.575 0.575 0.575 0.575 0.500 0.575 0.500 0.280 0.202 0.550 0.550 0.525 0.525 0.500 0.500 0.311 0.500 0.500 0.475 0.475 0.385 0.475 0.475 0.375
Area in2 17.1 15.3 13.5 12.6 14.7 11.8 10.3 9.35 14.7 13.2 11.8 10.3 10.9 9.67 9.07 3.10 12.1 9.87 8.37 8.32 7.43 7.32 6.43 2.46 1.91 7.47 7.02 6.70 6.28 5.88 5.50 2.50 6.67 5.61 5.17 5.29 4.50 4.79 4.44 3.53
Axis X-X
Axis Y-Y
in. lbs MC 18 58 18 51.9 18 45.8 18 42.7 MC 13 50 13 40 13 35 13 31.8 MC 12 50 12 45 12 40 12 35 12 37 12 32.9 12 30.9 12 10.6 12 41.1 12 33.6 12 28.5 MC 10 28.3 10 25.3 10 24.9 10 21.9 10 8.4 MC MC MC 10 6.5 9 25.4 9 23.9 8 22.8 8 21.4 8 20 8 18.7 8 8.5 MC 7 22.7 7 19.1 7 17.6 MC 6 18 6 15.3 6 16.3 6 15.1 6 12
I in4
676 627 578 554 314 273 252 239 269 252 234 216 205 191 183 55.4 158 139 127 118 107 110 98.5 32.0 22.1 88.0 85.0 63.8 61.6 54.5 52.5 23.3 47.5 43.2 37.6 29.7 25.4 26.0 25.0 18.7
S in3
75.1 69.7 64.3 61.6 48.4 42.0 38.8 36.8 44.9 42.0 39.0 36.1 34.2 31.8 30.6 9.23 31.5 27.8 25.3 23.6 21.4 22.0 19.7 6.40 4.42 19.6 18.9 16.0 15.4 13.6 13.1 5.83 13.6 12.3 10.8 9.91 8.47 8.68 8.37 6.24
_ x
I in4
17.8 16.4 15.1 14.4 16.5 13.7 12.3 11.4 17.4 15.8 14.3 12.7 9.81 8.91 8.46 0.382 15.8 13.2 11.4 8.21 7.61 7.32 6.74 0.328 0.112 7.65 7.22 7.07 6.64 4.47 4.20 0.628 7.29 6.11 4.01 5.93 4.97 3.82 3.51 1.87
S in3
5.32 5.07 4.82 4.69 4.79 4.26 3.99 3.81 5.65 5.33 5.00 4.67 3.59 3.39 3.28 0.31 4.88 4.38 4.02 3.20 2.89 2.99 2.70 0.270 0.118 3.02 2.93 2.84 2.74 2.05 1.97 0.434 2.85 2.57 1.89 2.48 2.03 1.84 1.75 1.04
0.862 0.858 0.866 0.877 0.974 0.963 0.980 1.00 1.05 1.04 1.04 1.05 0.886 0.867 0.873 0.269 1.09 1.08 1.12 0.933 0.918 0.954 0.954 0.284 0.180 0.970 0.981 1.01 1.02 0.840 0.849 0.428 1.04 1.08 0.873 1.12 1.05 0.927 0.940 0.704
E-13
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table E-14. Properties of Equal and Unequal Leg Angles (L Shapes).
Y x Z X Y
Designation Weight per Foot lbs 56.9 51.0 45.0 38.9 32.7 26.4 44.2 33.8 23.0 37.4 28.7 19.6 26.2 17.9 13.6 37.4 33.1 28.7 24.2 19.6 14.9 23.6 20.0 16.2 12.3 11.7 9.8 27.2 23.6 16.2 12.3 10.3 19.8 13.6 10.4 8.7 12.8 9.8 6.1 7.2 5.0 3.19 Area in2 16.7 15.0 13.2 11.4 9.61 7.75 13.0 9.94 6.75 11.0 8.44 5.75 7.69 5.25 3.98 11.0 9.73 8.44 7.11 5.75 4.36 6.94 5.86 4.75 3.61 3.42 2.87 7.98 6.94 4.75 3.61 3.03 5.81 4.00 3.05 2.56 3.75 2.86 1.78 2.11 1.46 0.938
y Z
Axis X-X
Axis Y-Y
Axis Z-Z
(leg width leg width thickness)
in. in. in. 1 8 1

7 3 5 1 1
I in4
98.0 89.0 79.6 69.7 59.4 48.6 80.8 63.4 44.3 69.6 54.9 38.5 37.8 26.7 20.6 35.5 31.9 28.2 24.2 19.9 15.4 24.5 21.1 17.4 13.5 12.9 10.9 17.8 15.7 11.3 8.74 7.42 13.9 9.99 7.78 6.60 9.45 4.36 2.19 1.76 0.849 0.348
S in3
17.5 15.8 14.0 12.2 10.3 8.36 15.1 11.7 8.02 14.1 10.9 7.49 8.42 5.81 4.44 8.57 7.63 6.66 5.66 4.61 3.53 6.25 5.31 4.33 3.32 3.24 2.73 5.17 4.53 3.16 2.42 2.04 4.28 2.99 2.29 1.94 2.91 1.52 0.927 0.833 0.482 0.247
y in.
2.41 2.37 2.32 2.28 2.23 2.19 2.65 2.56 2.47 3.05 2.95 2.86 2.51 2.42 2.37 1.86 1.82 1.78 1.73 1.68 1.64 2.08 2.03 1.99 1.94 2.04 2.01 1.57 1.52 1.43 1.39 1.37 1.75 1.66 1.61 1.59 1.75 1.14 1.14 0.888 0.740 0.592
I in4
98.0 89.0 79.6 69.7 59.4 48.6 38.8 30.7 21.7 11.6 9.36 6.74 9.05 6.53 5.10 35.5 31.9 28.2 24.2 19.9 15.4 8.68 7.52 6.27 4.90 3.34 2.85 17.8 15.7 11.3 8.74 7.42 5.55 4.05 3.18 2.72 2.58 4.36 0.939 1.76 0.849 0.348
S in3
17.5 15.8 14.0 12.2 10.3 8.36 8.92 6.92 4.79 3.94 3.07 2.15 3.03 2.12 1.63 8.57 7.63 6.66 5.66 4.61 3.53 2.97 2.54 2.08 1.60 1.23 1.04 5.17 4.53 3.16 2.42 2.04 2.22 1.56 1.21 1.02 1.15 1.52 0.504 0.833 0.482 0.247
x in.
2.41 2.37 2.32 2.28 2.23 2.19 1.65 1.56 1.47 1.05 0.953 0.859 1.01 0.917 0.870 1.86 1.82 1.78 1.73 1.68 1.64 1.08 1.03 0.987 0.941 0.787 0.763 1.57 1.52 1.43 1.39 1.37 0.996 0.906 0.861 0.838 0.750 1.14 0.637 0.888 0.740 0.592
r in.
1.56 1.56 1.57 1.58 1.58 1.59 1.28 1.29 1.30 0.846 0.852 0.865 0.860 0.872 0.880 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.18 1.18 1.19 0.860 0.864 0.870 0.877 0.767 0.772 0.973 0.975 0.983 0.990 0.994 0.748 0.755 0.762 0.766 0.648 0.788 0.540 0.587 0.489 0.391
tan 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.543 0.551 0.558 0.247 0.258 0.267 0.324 0.335 0.340 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.428 0.435 0.440 0.446 0.350 0.352 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.464 0.479 0.486 0.489 0.357 1.000 0.501 1.000 1.000 1.000
88
8 4 8 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 8 8 4 8 2 8 4 8 2 8 16 8 4 2 8 16 4 2 8 16 2 8 8 4
86
1
3 1
84
1
3 1
74
3 1 3
66
1
7 3 5 1 3
64
3 5 1 3
L L
6 3 1 2 55
5 7 3 1 3 5
5 3 1 2
3 1 3 5
L L L L L L
53 44 33 22
1 3
31 2 21 2 5 16
3
21 2 21 2 5 16
1
E-14
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Table E-15. Weight and Gage of Steel Plates.

U. S. Standard Gage No. Decimals Inches 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 .0120 .0149 .0179 .0239 .0299 .0359 .0478 .0598 .0747 .1046 About 3 64 About 16 About 5 64
1
Thickness Fractions Inches
Weight lb/ft2 0.500
U. S. Standard Gage No. Decimals Inches 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 .1196 .1345 .1495 .1644 .1793 .1943 .2092 .2242 .2391
Thickness Fractions Inches About 1 8
Weight lb/ft2 5.000 5.625
About 64
0.625 0.750 1.000
About 5 32
6.250 6.875 7.500
About 32
1.250 1.500 2.000 2.550 3.125 4.375
About 3 16
8.125 8.750
About 32 About 1 4
9.375 10.000
Table E-16. Weight of Steel Plate.

Thickness Decimal in. 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.0625 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.125 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.1875 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.3125 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.3750 0.38 0.40
3 5 1 3 1 1
Fractions in.
Weight lb/ft2 0.816 1.632 2.448
Thickness Decimal in. 0.42 0.4375 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.5625 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.625 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.6875 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.78 0.80
3 11 5 9 1 7
Fractions in.
Weight lb/ft2 17.14
Thickness Decimal in. 0.8125 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.875 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.9375 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00 1.0625 1.125 1.1875 1.250 1.3125 1.375 1.4375 1.5 1.625 1.75 1.875 2.00 1 11 16 1 1 8 13 16 1 1 4 15 16 1 8 17 16 1 1 2 1 5 8 1 3 4 1 8 2
7 3 15 7
Fractions in.
13
Weight lb/ft2 33.15 33.46 34.27 35.09
16
16
17.85 17.95 18.77 19.58
16
2.550 3.264 4.080 4.896
35.70 35.90 36.72 37.54
20.40 21.22 22.03 22.85
5.100 5.712 6.528 7.344
16
38.25 38.35 39.17 39.98 40.8 43.35 45.90 48.45 51.00 53.55 56.10 58.65 61.20 66.30 71.40 76.50 81.60
16
22.95 23.66 24.48 25.30
16
7.650 8.16 8.98 9.79
25.50 26.11 26.93 27.74
10.20 10.61 11.42 12.24
16
28.05 28.56 29.38 30.19
16
12.75 13.06 13.87 14.69
30.60 31.01 31.82 32.64
15.30 15.50 16.32
E-15
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Table E-17. Structural Timber Allowable Stresses.

Bending stress psi Tension in extreme fibers Horizontal shear Compressive stress psi Parallel to grain Perpendicular to grain Modulus of Elasticity psi
Species
American Standard Grade
Select Cedar, Western red Common Select Cedar, Northern and Southern White Common Select Cedar, Port Orford Common Select Cedar, Alaska Common Select Cypress, Southern Common Dense Select Douglas Fir (Western Washington and Oregon) Select Common Select Douglas Fir, Rocky Mountains Common Select Fir, Balsam Common Fir, Golden, Noble, Silver, White (Commercial White) Hemlock, West Coast Common Select Hemlock, Eastern Common Select Larch, Western Common Select Oak, Commercial White and Red Common Dense Select Pine, Southern Yellow Select Common Pine, Idaho and Northern White, California, Lodgepole, Ponderosa, Sugar, Western Yellow Pine, Norway Common Select Redwood Common Select Spruce, Red, White, Sitka Common Select Spruce, Englemann Common Select Tamarack, Eastern Common Select Common Select Select Common Select
900 720 750 600 1100 880 1100 880 1300 1040 1750 1600 1200 1100 880 900 720 1100 880 1300 1040 1100 880 1200 960 1400 1120 1750 1600 1200 900 720 1100 880 1200 960 1100 880 750 600 1200 960
80 64 70 56 90 72 90 72 100 80 105 90 72 85 68 70 56 70 56 75 60 70 56 100 80 125 100 128 110 88 85 68 85 68 70 56 85 68 70 56 95 76
700 560 550 440 900 720 800 640 1100 880 1285 1175 880 800 640 700 560 700 560 900 720 700 560 1100 880 1000 800 1285 1175 880 750 600 800 640 1000 800 800 640 600 480 1000 800
200 200 175 175 250 250 250 250 350 350 380 345 325 275 275 150 150 300 300 300 300 300 300 325 325 500 500 380 345 325 250 250 300 300 250 250 250 250 175 175 300 300
1,000,000 1,000,000 800,000 800,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,600,000 1,600,000 1,600,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,100,000 1,100,000 1,400,000 1,400,000 1,100,000 1,100,000 1,300,000 1,300,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 1,600,000 1,600,000 1,600,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 800,000 800,000 1,300,000 1,300,000
Strength of wood depends on moisture content. For wet locations, working stresses should be reduced according to conditions and timber used.
E-16
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Table E-18. Timber Sizes for Design.

Nominal Size American standard dressed size Section area Weight per foot Moment of Inertia Section Modulus Nominal Size American standard dressed size Section area Weight per foot Moment of Inertia Section Modulus
24 26 28 2 10 2 12 2 14 2 16 2 18 34 36 38 3 10 3 12 3 14 3 16 3 18 44 46 48 4 10 4 12 4 14 4 16 4 18 66 68 6 10 6 12 6 14 6 16 6 18 6 20 88 8 10 8 12 8 14 8 16 8 18 8 20 8 22 10 10 10 12 10 14 10 16 10 18 10 20 10 22 10 24
1 8 3 8
5 5
5.89 9.14 12.2 15.4 18.7 21.9 25.2 28.4 9.52 14.8 19.7 24.9 30.2 35.4 40.7 45.9 13.1 20.4 27.2 34.4 41.7 48.9 56.2 63.4 30.3 41.3 52.3 63.3 74.3 85.3 96.3 107.3 56.3 71.3 86.3 101.3 116.3 131.3 146.3 161.3 90.3 109 128 147 166 185 204 223
1.64 2.54 3.39 4.29 5.19 6.09 6.99 7.90 2.64 4.10 5.47 6.93 8.39 9.84 11.3 12.8 3.65 5.66 7.55 9.57 11.6 13.6 15.6 17.6 8.40 11.4 14.5 17.5 20.6 23.6 26.7 29.8 15.6 19.8 23.9 28.0 32.0 36.4 40.6 44.8 25.0 30.3 35.6 40.9 46.1 51.4 56.7 63.0
6.45 24.1 57.1 116 206 333 504 726 10.4 38.9 92.3 188 333 538 815 1172 14.4 53.8 127 259 459 743 1125 1619 76.3 193 330 697 1128 1707 2456 3398 264 536 951 1538 2327 3350 4634 6211 679 1204 1948 2948 4243 5870 7868 10274
3.56 8.57 15.3 24.4 35.8 49.4 65.1 82.9 5.75 13.8 24.6 39.5 57.9 79.7 105 134 7.94 19.1 34.0 54.5 79.9 110 145 185 27.7 51.6 82.7 121 167 220 281 349 70.3 113 165 228 300 383 475 578 143 209 289 380 485 602 732 874
12 12 12 14 12 16 12 18 12 20 12 22 12 24
11 2 11 2
1 1
132 155 178 201 224 247 270
36.7 43.1 49.5 55.9 62.3 68.7 75.0
1458 2358 3569 5136 7106 9524 12437
253 349 460 587 729 886 1058
1 5 8 5 5 8 1 5 8 7 1 2 1 5 8 9 1 2 15 8 111 2 15 8 131 2 15 8 151 2 15 8 171 2 2 5 8 3 5 8 2 5 8 5 5 8 2 8 7 2

5 1
111 2 131 2 111 2 151 2 111 2 171 2 111 2 191 2 111 2 211 2 111 2 231 2
14 14 14 16 14 18 14 20 14 22 14 24
131 2 131 2 131 2 151 2 131 2 171 2 131 2 191 2 131 2 211 2 131 2 231 2
182 209 236 263 290 317
50.6 58.1 65.6 73.1 80.6 88.1
2768 4189 6029 8342 11180 14600
410 541 689 856 1194 1243
2 5 8 9 1 2 25 8 111 2 25 8 131 2 25 8 151 2 2 8 17 2

5 1
3 5 8 3 5 8 3 5 8 5 5 8 3 5 8 7 1 2 3 5 8 9 1 2 35 8 111 2 35 8 131 2 35 8 151 2 35 8 141 2 5 1 2 5 1 2 5 1 2 7 1 2 5 2 9 2

1 1
16 16 16 18 16 20 16 22 16 24
151 2 151 2 151 2 171 2 151 2 191 2 151 2 211 2 151 2 231 2
240 271 302 333 364
66.7 75.3 83.9 92.5 101
4810 6923 9578 12837 16763
621 791 984 1194 1427
18 18 18 20 18 22 18 24 18 26
171 2 171 2 171 2 191 2 171 2 211 2 171 2 231 2 171 2 251 2
306 341 376 411 446
85.0 94.8 105 114 124
7816 10813 14493 18926 24181
893 1109 1348 1611 1897
51 2 111 2 51 2 131 2 51 2 151 2 51 2 171 2 51 2 191 2 7 1 2 7 1 2 7 1 2 9 1 2 7 2 11 2

1 1
20 20 20 22 20 24 20 26 20 28
191 2 191 2 191 2 211 2 191 2 231 2 191 2 251 2 191 2 271 2
380 419 458 497 536
106 116 127 138 149
12049 16150 21089 26945 33795
1236 1502 1795 2113 2458
71 2 131 2 71 2 151 2 71 2 171 2 71 2 191 2 71 2 211 2 9 1 2 9 1 2 91 2 111 2 91 2 131 2 91 2 151 2 91 2 171 2 9 2 19 2

1 1
24 24 24 26 24 28 24 30
231 2 231 2 231 2 251 2 231 2 271 2 231 2 291 2
552 599 646 693
153 166 180 193
25415 32472 40727 50275
2163 2547 2962 3408
91 2 211 2 91 2 231 2
All properties and weights are for dressed dimensions. Weight per foot based on assumed average weight of 40 lb/ft3. Moments of inertia assume timber set on edge, with max dimension perpendicular to plane of loading.
E-17
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Table E-19. Densities1.

Average Density lb/ft3 Approx. Specific volume ft3/lton Metals Aluminum, cast-hammered Aluminum alloy, 2024-T3 Aluminum alloy, 6061-T6 Aluminum alloym 7079-T6 Antimony Beryllium QMU Bismuth Brass Brass, cast-rolled Bronze, aluminum Bronze, 8-14% tin Bronze, phosphor Copper, cast-rolled German silver Gold, cast-hammered Gold coin (US) Gunmetal Irridium Iron, gray cast Iron, pig Iron, wrought Iron, ferrosilicon Lead Magnesium Magnesium alloy Manganese Mercury Monel, rolled Molybdenum, wrought Nickel Platinum, cast-hammered Plutonium Silver, cast-hammered Steel, cold-drawn Steel, cast Stainless steel, rolled Tin, cast-hammered Titanium alloy Tungsten Uranium Zinc, cast-rolled Zinc, cast alloy Notes:
1
Substance
U/W weight2 (seawater) lb/ft3
Specific3 gravity (referred to fresh water)
Substance
Average Density lb/ft3
Approx. Specific volume ft3/lton
U/W weight2 (seawater) lb/ft3
Specific3 gravity (referred to fresh water)
Ores and Minerals 13.6 12.9 13.3 13.1 4.2 19.4 3.6 4.4 4.2 4.7 4.4 4.0 4.0 4.2 1.9 2.1 4.2 1.6 5.1 5.0 4.6 5.1 3.2 20.6 20.0 4.7 2.6 4.0 3.5 4.2 1.7 1.8 3.4 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.9 101 109 105 107 470 51 556 446 470 417 445 490 492 472 1141 1009 466 1319 378 386 421 373 646 45 48 411 783 491 579 473 1266 1147 592 425 428 436 395 218 to 238 1136 1106 376 350 2.55 to 2.8 2.77 2.77 2.74 8.55 1.85 9.93 8.17 8.55 7.70 8.15 8.87 8.91 8.58 19.30 17.19 8.49 21.8 to 22.4 7.08 7.21 7.77 7.00 11.37 1.75 1.79 7.61 13.57 8.89 10.30 8.60 21.5 19.40 10.4 to 10.6 7.83 7.88 8.00 7.35 4.52 to 4.84 19.22 18.74 6.9 to 7.2 6.63 Asbestos Barytes Basalt Bauxite Bluestone Borax Chalk Clay, marl5 Coal5 anthracite bituminous lignite peat, turf, dry coke Copper ore, pyrites Dolomite Earth5 Feldspar, orthoclase Flint Gneiss Granite Graphite Greenstone, trap Gypsum, alabaster Hornblende Iron ore, hematite Iron ore, limonite Iron ore, magnetite Iron slag Lava Limestone Lead ore, galena Manganese ore, pyrolusite Magnesite Marble Mica Phosphate rock, apatite Porphyry Potash Quartz, quartzite Tin ore, cassiterite Sandstone Serpentine Slate, shale Soapstone, talc Sulphur Syenite Zinc ore, blende 97 84 78 47 75 262 181 90 to 120 162 165 175 165 135 187 159 187 325 237 315 172 110 to 170 160 465 259 187 170 170 200 172 130 170 418 143 171 162 to 205 169 125 165 253 23.1 26.7 28.7 47.7 29.9 8.5 12.4 18.7 to 24.9 13.8 13.6 12.8 13.6 16.6 12.0 14.1 12.0 6.9 9.5 7.1 13.0 13.2 to 20.4 14.0 4.8 8.6 12.0 13.2 13.2 11.2 13.0 17.2 13.2 5.4 15.7 13.1 10.9 to 13.8 13.3 17.9 13.6 8.9 33 20 14 (17) 11 198 117 26 to 56 98 101 111 86 to 126 71 123 95 123 261 173 251 108 46 to 106 96 401 195 123 106 106 136 108 66 106 354 56 to 86 107 98 to 141 105 61 101 189 1.4 to 1.8 1.2 to 1.5 1.1 to 1.4 0.65 to 0.85 1.0 to 1.4 4.1 to 4.3 2.9 1.44 to 1.92 2.5 to 2.7 2.64 2.7 to 2.9 2.40 to 3.04 2.16 2.8 to 3.2 2.3 to 2.8 3.0 5.2 3.6 to 4.0 4.9 to 5.2 2.5 to 3.0 1.76 to 2.72 2.1 to 2.86 7.3 to 7.6 3.7 to 4.6 3.0 2.56 to 2.86 2.56 to 2.88 3.2 2.6 to 2.9 2.08 2.56 to 2.72 6.4 to 7.0 1.92 to 2.46 2.7 to 2.8 2.59 to 3.28 2.6 to 2.8 2.00 2.6 to 2.7 3.9 to 4.2 153 281 184 159 159 109 143 137 14.6 8.0 12.2 14.1 14.1 20.6 15.7 16.4 89 217 120 95 95 45 79 73 2.1 to 2,8 4.5 2.4 to 3.2 2.55 2.5 to 2.6 1.7 to 1.8 1.8 to 2.8 1.8 to 2.6
165 173 169 171 534 115 620 510 534 481 509 554 556 536 1205 1073 530 1383 442 450 485 437 710 109 112 475 847 555 643 537 1330 1211 656 489 492 500 459 290 1200 1170 440 414
7.4 to 7.9 1.9 1.9 5.1 5.4
3 4
Density of many referenced substances may vary; values given are typical or average. Ranges of specific gravity are given to show density variations. In seawater with density of 64 lb/ft3. Parentheses indicate positive buoyancy. Add 1.6 lb/ft3 for weight in standard fresh water ( = 62.4 lb/ft3). Referred to fresh water at 39.2 F, p = 62.426 lb/ft3. In seawater with density of 64 lb/ft3. Deduct 1.6 lb/ft3 for buoyancy in standard fresh water ( = 62.4 lb/ft3). See also entry for loose, piled, forms under "Earth, Etc., as Excavated."
E-18
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Table E-19 (continued). Densities1.

Approx. U/W weight2 Specific (seawater) volume lb/ft3 ft3/lton Earth, etc., as Excavated 63 35.6 (1) 110 20.4 46 100 22.4 36 76 29.5 12 95 23.6 31 78 28.7 14 96 23.3 32 108 20.7 51 115 19.5 51 80 to 85 27.0 27 90 24.9 26 105 21.3 41 90 to 105 23.1 33 100 to 120 20.4 46 126 17.8 62 Average Density lb/ft3 47 40 40 20 23 10 40 to 58 to 54 to 54 to 26 to 32 to 14 to 45 94 43.0 48.7 48.7 97.4 81.5 187 52.7 23.8 23.3 23.6 27.3 24.3 20.9 38.3 Solids (12) (17) (17) (41) (36.5) (52) (21.5) 30 32 31 18 28 43 (5.5) Specific3 gravity (referred to fresh water) 1.0 1.76 1.6 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.3 to 1.4 1.4 1.7 1.4 to 1.7 1.6 to 1.9 1.89 to 2.16 0.75 0.64 0.64 0.32 0.37 0.16 to to to to to to 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.5 1.7 0.85 to 1.0 Specific3 gravity (referred to fresh water) 0.95 0.24 0.90 0.93 0.10 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.18 0.91 to 0.96 0.90 0.02 to 0.03 0.13 0.03 to 0.05 0.06 0.10 0.11 0.27 0.64 to 0.75 0.93 0.96 0.93 0.87 0.87 0.42 0.51 0.23 Approx. Buoyancy4 Specific (seawater) volume lb/ft3 ft3/lton Other Nonbuoyant Solids 90 to 130 17.2 to 24.9 26 to 66 110 to 130 17.2 to 20.4 46 to 66 Average Density lb/ft3 16 to 20 18 to 22 19 to 26 16 to 26 14.9 24.9 to 28.0 248.9 160.0 15.6 17.2 22.4 14.9 13.2 to 14.0 280.0 to 373.3 24.1 373.3 280.0 14.9 19.1 18.1 23.8 13.2 13.8 12.2 13.9 9.1 18.7 27.7 21.7 16.6 32.5 33.9 26.0 29.9 32 31.5 16.5 33.4 23.8 16.0 to 18.7 29.9 to 37.3 17.9 28.7 27.3 48 36 23 23 to 79 to 61 to 55 to 73 86 16 to 26 -55 -50 80 66 36 86 96 to 106 -56 to -58 29 -58 -56 86 53 60 30 106 98 120 97 183 56 17 39 71 5 2 22 11 6 7 72 3 30 56 to 76 (4) to 11 61 14 18 Specific3 gravity (referred to fresh water) 1.44 to 2.08 1.76 to 2.08 1.8 to 2.3 1.6 to 2.0 1.4 to 1.9 1.4 to 2.2 2.40 1.28 to 1.44 0.14 0.22 2.31 2.08 1.60 2.40 2.56 to 2.72 0.10 to 0.13 1.49 0.10 0.13 2.40 1.87 1.99 1.50 2.72 2.4 to 2.8 2.9 to 3.0 2.45 to 2.72 3.2 to 4.7 1.92 1.30 1.4 to 1.9 2.1 to 2.35 1.07 to 1.15 1.06 1.38 1.20 1.12 1.14 2.18 1.07 1.51 1.92 to 2.24 0.96 to 1.20 2.00 1.25 1.31
Substance
Substance
Clay, dry Clay, damp, plastic Clay and gravel, dry Earth, dry, loose Earth, dry, packed Earth, moist, loose Earth, moist, packed Earth, mud, flowing Earth, mud, packed Riprap, limestone Riprap, sandstone Riprap, shale Sand, gravel, dry, loose Sand, gravel, dry, packed Sand, gravel, wet Coal and coke, piled anthracite bituminous lignite peat, turf, dry coke charcoal Ashes, cinders Loose portland cement Stone, quarried and piled Basalt, granite, gneiss Limestone, marble, quartz Sandstone Shale Greenstone, hornblend Loose lime or gypsum
96 95 82 92 107 53 to 64 Buoyant Average Density lb/ft3 59 15 56 58 6.5 59 58 56 11 57 to 60 56 1.4 to 2 8 1.8 to 3.3 4 6 7 17 40 to 47 58 60
Substance
Approx. Specific volume ft3/lton 38.0 149.3 40.0 38.6 344.6 38.0 38.6 40.0 203.6 37.3 to 39.3 40.0 1120 to 1600 280.0 678.8 to 1244.4 560.0 373.3 320.0 131.8 47.7 to 56.0 38.6 37.3
Buoyancy4 (seawater) lb/ft3 5 49 8 6 57.5 5 6 8 53 4 to 7 8 62 to 62.6 56 60.7 to 62.2 60 58 57 47 17 to 24 6 4
Butter Cork Ice India rubber Latex/sponge rubber slab (furniture padding) Leather Paper Paraffin Peat Plastics Polyethylene Polypropylene Plastic Foams Rigid Urethane Semi-rigid, MDI Urethane Polystyrene PVC (Flotation)(PFDs, buoys) PVC (Insulation) PVC (shock absorbant) (athletic mats) Pumice stone Syntactic foam Tallow Wax
Asphalt Bone Brick hard 112 to 143 medium 100 to 125 soft 87 to 119 sand-lime 87 to 137 fire 150 Cement 80 to 90 Charcoal (twig, flake) 9 Charcoal (flake pressed) 14 Concrete cement w/sand, stone 144 cement w/slag 130 cement w/cinder 100 reinforced 150 Coral 160 to 170 Cork, granulated 6 to 8 Cotton, flax, hemp 93 Cowhair, washed 6 Cowhair, unwashed 8 Ferro-cement 150 Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) linear layup, 30% fiber 117 linear layup, 60% fiber 124 laminate 94 Glass 160 to 170 common 162 crystal 184 plate or crown 161 flint 247 Ivory 120 Kevlar laminate 81 Mortar, lime, set 103 Mortar, cement, set 135 Pitch 69 Plastics Polystyrene 66 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 86 Polycarbonate, 75 Plexiglass, Lucite ABS Nylon Teflon Resin, rosin Rubber goods Salt Tar Tiles Vulcanite Wool 70 71 136 67 94 120 to 140 60 to 75 125 78 82
Notes:
1
Density of many referenced substances may vary; values given are typical or average. Ranges of specific gravity are given to show density variations. In seawater with density of 64 lb/ft3. Parentheses indicate positive buoyancy. Add 1.6 lb/ft3 for weight in standard fresh water ( = 62.4 lb/ft3). 3 Referred to fresh water at 39.2 F, p = 62.426 lb/ft3. 4 In seawater with density of 64 lb/ft3. Deduct 1.6 lb/ft3 for buoyancy in standard fresh water ( = 62.4 lb/ft3). 5 See also entry for loose, piled, forms under "Earth, Etc., as Excavated."
2
E-19
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table E-19 (continued). Densities1.

Average Density lb/ft3 Approx. Specific volume ft3/lton 50.9 65.9 53.3 83.0 44.8 93.3 to 1120 89.6 112.0 86.2 49.8 52.1 74.7 101.8 64.0 83.0 74.7 101.8 80.0 77.2 70.0 89.6 32.0 to 37.3 560.0 64.0 74.7 50.9 56.0 89.6 32.9 to 36.1 80.0 77.2 70.0 44.8 47 44.8 67.9 44.8 58.9 27.0 89.6 50 74.7 60.5 65.9 to 86.2 65.9 to 93.3 83.0 Buoyancy4 (seawater) lb/ft3 Specific3 gravity (referred to fresh water) Timber, Air Dry Apple Ash, black Ash, white Aspen Australian gums Balsa Balsam fir Bamboo Basswood Beech Birch, yellow Cedar, Port Orford Cedar, white, red Cherry, black Cherry, wild red Chestnut Cottonwood, black Cottonwood, Eastern Cypress Douglas fir Eastern fir Ebony Elder pith Elm, American (white) Elm, English Elm, rock Elm, Wych
Gaboon or Gaboon Mahogany
Substance
Substance
Average Density lb/ft3
Approx. Specific volume ft3/lton 65.9 50.9 42.3 52.1 67.9 48.7 53.3 46.7 46.7 52.1 93.3 46.7 49.8 77.2 74.4 65.9 40.0 80.0 74.7 62.2 93.3 83.0 86.2 56.0 89.6 83 77.2 86.2 36.1 37.3 106.7 80.0 93.3 77.2 62.2 60.5 36.1 46.7 64.0 60.5 80.0 49.8
Buoyancy4 (seawater) lb/ft3
Specific3 gravity (referred to fresh water) 0.54 0.56 to 0.85 0.85 0.69 0.53 0.74 0.64 to 0.71 0.77 0.77 0.69 0.38 0.77 0.72 0.46 0.48 0.54 0.51 0.45 0.48 0.58 0.38 0.43 0.42 0.61 to 0.67 0.40 0.43 0.46 0.42 0.99 0.96 0.34 0.45 0.38 0.46 0.58 0.59 0.99 0.66 to 0.88 0.56 0.59 0.42 to 0.50 0.72
44 34 42 27 50 2 to 24 25 20 26 45 43 30 22 35 27 30 22 28 29 32 25 60 to 70 4 35 30 44 40 25 62 to 68 28 29 32 50 48 50 33 50 38 83 25 45 30 37 26 to 34 24 to 34 27
20 30 22 37 14 40 to 62 39 44 38 19 21 34 42 29 37 34 42 36 35 32 39 -6 to -4 60 29 34 20 24 39 -4 to -2 36 35 32 14 16 14 31 14 26 -19 39 19 34 27 30 to 38 30 to 40 37
0.66 to 0.74 0.55 0.64 to 0.71 0.43 0.80 0.03 to 0.38 0.40 0.32 0.42 0.72 0.69 to 0.72 0.48 0.35 0.56 0.35 0.48 0.35 0.45 0.45 to 0.48 0.48 to 0.55 0.40 0.96 to 1.12 0.06 0.56 0.48 0.70 0.64 0.40 0.99 to 1.09 0.45 0.46 0.51 0.80 0.74 to 0.80 0.80 0.53 0.80 0.61 1.33 0.40 0.67 to 0.77 0.48 0.59
Mahogany, Cuban Mahogany, Honduras and African Mahogany, Spanish Maple, black and sugar Maple, white Oak, chestnut Oak, red, black Oak, white Oak, English Oak, Riga Obeche Pecan Peroba Pine, lodgepole Pine, northern Pine, Norway Pine, Oregon Pine, Ponderosa Pine, red Pine, shortleaf Pine, white (eastern) Pine, white (western) Pine, white (Idaho) Pine, yellow (southern, longleaf or pitch) Pine, yellow (shortleaf) Poplar Redwood, close grain Redwood, open grain Rosewood Satinwood Sawara Spruce, white, red Spruce, Engelmann Spruce, Sitka Sweetgum Sycamore Teak, African Teak, Indian Tupelo Walnut Willow Yew
34 44 53 43 33 46 42 48 48 43 24 48 45 39 30 34 32 28 30 36 27 27 26 40 25 27 39 26 62 60 21 28 24 29 36 37 62 48 35 37 28 45
30 20 11 21 31 18 22 16 16 21 40 16 19 35 34 30 32 36 34 28 40 37 38 24 39 37 35 38 2 4 43 36 40 35 28 27 2 16 29 27 36 19
Greenheart Hemlock, eastern Hemlock, western Hemlock, mountain Hickory, shagbark Hickory Jarrah Kauri Lancewood Larch Lignum Vitae (ironwood) Lime Locust Luan (Phillipine mahogany) white red Coast Woods (US) Northern Woods Spruce-Pine-Fir
Mixed Woods, Average Properties 0.42 to 0.54 0.38 to 0.54 0.43 Hem-fir West Coast Woods White Woods (western US) 28 24 to 34 24 to 34 80.0 65.9 to 93.3 65.9 to 93.3 36 30 to 40 30 to 40 0.45 0.38 to 0.54 0.38 to 0.54
Notes: 1 Density of many referenced substances may vary; values given are typical or average. Ranges of specific gravity are given to show density variations. 2 In seawater with density of 64 lb/ft3. Parentheses indicate positive buoyancy. Add 1.6 lb/ft3 for weight in standard fresh water ( = 62.4 lb/ft3). 3 Referred to fresh water at 39.2 F, p = 62.426 lb/ft3. 4 In seawater with density of 64 lb/ft3. Deduct 1.6 lb/ft3 for buoyancy in standard fresh water ( = 62.4 lb/ft3). 5 See also entry for loose, piled, forms under "Earth, Etc., as Excavated."
E-20
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Table E-20. Liquid Densities.
Density LB/FT3 Alcohol, ethyl (100%) Alcohol, methyl (100%) Acid, muriatic (40%) Acid, nitric (91%) Acid, sulphuric (87%) Acid, hydrochloric (37%) Battery electrolyte fully charged discharged Beer Ammonia @ 32F Chloroform Diesel fuel (DFM, Nato F-76) Ether Ethylene Glycol (anti-freeze) Fuel oil, No 6 Fuel oil, No 5 Fuel oil, No 2 Fuel oil, No 1 Gasoline Jet fuel (JP-5) Kerosene Milk Linseed oil Lye, soda (66%) Oil, vegetable Oil, lubricating Olive oil Petroleum, crude Sugar-in-water solution 20% @ 68F 40% @ 68F 60% @ 68F Turpentine Vinegar Water, pure, @ 39F Water, seawater, standard Water, ice Note: 67 73 80 54 67 62.426 63.987 56 81 69 63 39 95 52 46 70 60 58 55 51 44 51 50 64 59 106 58 56 57 44 49 50 75 94 112 75
Density LB/GAL 6.6 6.7 10.0 12.6 15.0 10.0 10.8 9.2 8.4 5.2 12.7 7.0 6.2 9.4 8.1 7.8 7.3 6.8 5.9 6.9 6.7 8.6 7.8 14.2 7.8 7.5 7.6 5.8 9.0 9.8 10.7 7.2 9.0 8.3 8.6 7.5
Volume FT3/LTON 45.7 44.8 29.9 23.8 20.0 29.9 27.6 32.6 35.5 57.6 23.6 42.7 48.7 31.9 37.1 38.4 40.9 44.3 50.6 43.5 44.9 34.8 38.3 21.1 38.6 39.9 39.2 51.3 33.2 30.5 27.9 41.5 33.2 35.9 35.0 40.0
Volume GAL/TON 342 335 223 178 150 224 207 244 266 431 176 320 364 239 278 287 306 332 379 326 336 260 286 158 289 298 293 383 248 228 209 310 249 269 262 299
Specific Gravity 0.789 0.796 1.20 1.50 1.80 1.20 1.30 1.11 1.01 0.62 1.52 0.83 0.74 1.12 0.96 0.93 0.88 0.82 0.70 0.82 0.81 1.025 0.95 1.70 091 to 0.94 0.88 to 0.94 0.91 0.70 1.07 1.12 1.28 0.86 to 0.87 1.07 1.000 1.025 -.88 to 0.92
Liquids consisting of a mixture of compounds, such as petroleum products and vegetable derivatives, may vary in density from sample to sample. The densities given in this table are average or typical values. Liquid densities, especially those of petroleum products, can also vary significantly with temperature. See the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 6 (S0300-A6-MAN-060) for a more extensive list of petroleum products.
E-21 (E-22 blank)
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APPENDIX F COMPREHENSIVE EXAMPLES

F-1 INTRODUCTION
This appendix consists of a comprehensive series of examples for a heavily stranded and damaged FFG-7 Class ship. The examples attempt to approximate the sequence of calculations that would be required for the salvage, and are grouped as follows: Example F-1 Example F-2 Example F-3 Example F-4 Example F-5 Calculation of ground reaction, ground reaction distribution and effect of tide on ground reaction. Stability analysis for the stranded casualty. Longitudinal strength calculations for the stranded casualty. Calculation of freeing force and predicted attitude and stability after reoating. Evaluation of strength and stability for tow to repair facility after reoating.
F-2 CASUALTY DESCRIPTION
An FFG-7 Class ship leaves port with 95 percent fuel, full crew, approximately two-thirds stores and consumables (including lubricating oil), and full ammunition allowance. Drafts on getting underway are 15 feet, 5 inches forward and 15 feet, 11 inches aft, corresponding to a 3,930ton displacement, as calculated by the DCA from the draft diagram (see Page H-15). Three days later, the ship strands across a rock ledge as shown in Figure F-1A. The surface of the ledge is relatively at and even, but there are some hard outcroppings. The ship has apparently crossed one of these outcroppings in stranding and has suffered bottom damage and ooding. Salvage forces arrive a few hours later and note the following items in their initial survey:
AP 408 FRAMES
357
306
255
204
153
102
51
FP 0 PRESTRANDING WATERLINE
BASE LINE EXTENSION BASE LINE EXTENSION
STRANDED WATERLINE
30 174 158 234 76
Figure F-1A. FFG-7 Aground.
F-1
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SHELF FR 235 FR 90
FR 234
FR 76
AP 408 FRAMES
357
306
255
204
153
102
51
FP 0 PRESTRANDING WATERLINE
BASE LINE EXTENSION BASE LINE EXTENSION
STRANDED WATERLINE
30 174 158 234 76
Figure F-1B. FFG-7 Aground.
INITIAL SURVEY
As shown in Figure F-1B, the ship is aground over approximately 160 feet of its length, from frame 76 to frame 234 on the starboard side, and from frame 90 to frame 235 on the port side (frame spacing is one foot throughout). Drafts are taken at lower low tide by the mean-of-quarter-means method (described in Paragraph 8-2.6.3 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1, NAVSEA S0300-A6-MAN-010) and averaged as shown below. (The midships draft readings are not averaged with the mean of the forward and after drafts because of the obvious hull deection; see Paragraph 4-2.4.1 for further explanation). Mean-of-Quarter-Means Drafts (all draft readings converted to decimal feet to simplify calculations): Station Raw Drafts (average of 10 readings at top of swell and 10 readings in trough) port starboard 9.68 13.5 17.25 9.62 10.5 16.14 Average of port and starboard drafts 9.65 12.0 16.7
Forward marks Midships marks After marks
Average of forward and after average drafts = (9.65 + 16.7)/2 = 13.17 ft The difference between the observed and calculated midships draft indicates the casualty is seriously hogged as she lies. As observed, the deection appears to begin approximately amidships. Trim (between draft marks) List Tide data: Height of tide at time of draft readings: + 0.25 feet The tide tables predict no tides lower than + 0.25 feet for the next month, the highest tide predicted is + 2.25 feet. = = 7.05 (approx 7 1") by the stern 2.5 deg to port
F-2
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Damage: 1 Auxiliary Machinery Room No 1 (5-180-0-E) - Holed and ooded to waterline. AMR 1 extends from frame 180 to frame 212 and from bottom plating to rst platform (about 13 feet). 2 Auxiliary Machinery Room No 2 (5-212-0-E) - Holed and ooded to waterline. AMR 2 extends from frame 212 to frame 250 and from bottom plating to second deck (about 21 feet at frame 212, 20 feet at frame 250). 3 Sonar Dome - Severely damaged and ooded, cannot be pumped (dome extends from frame 40 to frame 63, maximum height, 7 feet). 4 Eductor Room (5-51-0-Q) - Holed and ooded solid. Compartment extends from frame 51 to frame 56, from bottom plating to second platform (about 8 feet).
5 x 4 x 6.00#T 5 x 5 3/4 x 13.0#T 20.5 5.75 15.3# 30 SHADOW 25.5# 2 6"x0.75" P L HY-80 SHELL DOUBLER HY-80 L 20 L 19 L 18 L 17 4 x 4 x 5.00#T 20 SHADOW SHADOW "E"-20.4 P L HY-80# 8 2 7-1/2" x .500 P L HY-80 SHELL DOUBLER
C L
P L
6 x 6 1/2 x 13.0#T 25 5 x 4 x 6.00#T 7.65#
10.2# P L
L 16 L 15 L 14
6 x 4 x 7#T 15 6 x 4 x 8.00#T 6 x 6 1/2 x 13.0#T 10 7 x 6 3/4 x 15#T
L 13 L 12 L 11 L 10
"D"-12.75# P L
18 x 7 1/2 x 50#I-T 8 x 7 x 22.5#T 25 x 13 x 162# I-T CVK PLATING UPSET STIFFENER (L1) CRACKED 35.7# 5 9 x 7 1/2 x 25#T L6 L5 0 L3 L1 L2 "A"-38.25# P L HY80 L4 "B"-20.4# P L 2 9" x 0.75 P L M.S. SHELL DOUBLER L7
L9 L8
PLATING AND STIFFENERS BUCKLED AND UPSET
"C"-15.3# P L HY-80 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS AND PLATING SEVERED OR MISSING
P L
F.K.
B L
Figure F-2. Damage to FFG-7, FR 204.
The hull penetrations in the eductor room are small and not structurally degrading. There is serious damage to the port side bottom structure from the keel outboard from frame 182 to frame 216. The damage at frame 204 is shown in Figure F-2 as typical. The main propulsion engines and fuel systems were secured minutes after the stranding. A single SSDG, drawing from service tank 5-292-6-F has been providing ship service power since the time of stranding. The Curves of Form, Cross Curves of Stability, Bonjeans Curves, Damage Control Book, Damage Control Plates, and Booklet of General Plans are available on the casualty. Before leaving for the casualty site, the salvage engineer obtains a copy of the lines plan, with molded offsets, and the longitudinal strength drawing. Excerpts from these documents are reproduced in Appendix H and Figures FO-1 through FO-4.
F-3
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EXAMPLE F-1 GROUND REACTION CALCULATIONS

For the stranded ship described above, estimate: a. b. c. Ground Reaction. Location of the center of ground reaction (LCR). Variation of ground reaction with rise of tide.
a. Ground reaction calculation: To determine ground reaction, the drafts and displacement immediately prior to stranding must be estimated. The effect of weight changes that have occurred since leaving port (principally fuel and water consumption) must be evaluated. Tank soundings taken by salvors accompanied by ships fuel, oil, and water kings show the following liquid load: Tank Soundings: Tank Contents gallons Potable Water @ 269.3 gal/lton: 5-292-3-W 5-292-2-W 5-308-1-W 5-308-2-W Lubricating Oil @ 291.4 gal/lton: 3-272-2-F 3-278-2-F 3-286-2-F 4-208-4-F 3-236-1-F 3-236-2-F 3-292-8-F Fuel Storage @ 322 gal/lton: 5-56-0-F 5-64-0-F 5-84-1-F 5-84-2-F 5-100-3-F 5-100-4-F 5-116-1-F 5-116-2-F 5-140-1-F 5-140-2-F 5-164-3-F 5-164-4-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-2-F Fuel Service @ 322 gal/lton: 5-204-1-F 5-204-2-F 2-276-2-J 3-240-1-F 3-240-2-F 3-292-4-F 3-292-6-F 5-201-1-F 5-201-3-F JP-5 @ 329.89 gal/lton: 3-316-1-J 3-322-1-J 5-328-0-J 3-344-0-J 2346 2346 0 290 685 781 536 184 204 204 178 4691 13302 17832 17832 0 0 20479 15261 7153 9153 3016 3207 0 0 14963 6092 343 818 171 386 96 344 322 1264 1207 8746 9834 percent 100 100 0 15 67 67 67 66 66 66 67 95 95 95 95 0 0 92 69 74 95 95 95 0 0 95 39 95 95 20 95 23 95 71 95 95 95 95 95 0 59 0 Difference from departure gallons 0 0 -2123 -1803 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -10344 -10344 -672 -5890 -2000 0 0 0 -10820 -10820 0 -8871 0 0 -647 0 -306 0 -106 0 0 0 0 +6186 0 +1390 0 -57170 long tons 0.00 0.00 -7.88 -6.7 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -32.12 -32.12 -2.09 -18.29 -6.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 -33.6 -33.6 0.00 -27.55 0.00 0.00 -2.01 0.00 -0.95 0.00 -0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 +19.21 0.00 +5.31 0.00 -178.94
Contaminated Oil Settling Tank @ 322 gal/lton: 5-132-0-F 6186 Oily Waste and Sewage Tanks @ 261.82 gal/lton: 5-170-0-F 0 5-164-0-F 1390 4-170-0-W 0 Totals
F-4
S0300-A8-HBK-010
The soundings were taken approximately 6 hours after grounding. Ships officers indicate that no liquids or objects were jettisoned; the evaporators were not operating at the time of stranding and have not been operated since. Weights of fuel, potable water, and stores consumed since stranding are negligible. The supply officer estimates that less than 1 long ton of stores have been consumed since leaving port. Interviews with other key ships force personnel indicate that other consumable and equipage quantities are essentially unchanged since leaving port. From this information, the prestranding condition can be estimated with fair accuracy. The Curves of Form and DC Book show LCF to be approximately 24 feet abaft midships for the range of drafts involved. Lever arms from LCF to individual tank and space centers are calculated from lcg values given in the DC Book. Weight changes and resulting moments are calculated and summed in a tabular format to determine prestranding drafts and trim: Weight Differences and Moments: Tank Weight Difference long tons Lever, LCF - lcg feet, + forward Moment ft-lton
Potable Water 5-308-1-W 5-308-2-W Fuel Storage 5-100-3-F 5-100-4-F 5-116-1-F 5-116-2-F 5-140-1-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-2-F Fuel Service 5-204-2-F 3-240-2-F 3-292-6-F 5-201-3-F Contaminated Oil Settling Tank 5-132-0-F Oily Waste and Sewage Tanks 5-164-0-F +5.31 60.9 +323.379 +19.21 +92.4 +1775.004 -27.55 -2.01 -0.95 -0.33 +20 -16.9 -25.74 +25.7 -551 +33.969 +24.453 -8.481 -32.12 -32.12 -2.09 -18.29 -6.22 -33.6 -33.6 +116.3 +116.3 +99.5 +99.5 +75.8 -35.8 -35.8 -3735.556 -3735.556 -207.955 -1819.855 -471.477 +1202.88 +1202.88 -7.88 -6.7 -91.8 -91.8 +723.384 +615.06
Stores
-1.0
-39
+39.0
Sums: The prestranding displacement (weight) is:
W = -179.94
MT = -4589.871
Wdeparture W
3,930 - 179.94 =
3750.06
3750 lton
TPI is 32.5 for the departure mean draft of 15.7 feet. Parallel rise to just before stranding is approximately:
Parallel rise = W 179.94 = 5.54 in = 0.46 ft = TPI 32.5
F-5
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Prestranding mean draft is approximately 15.7 - 0.5 = 15.2 feet. The Curves of Form indicate that TPI is virtually unchanged, and give MT1 for the two drafts as:
MT 115.7 = 785 MT 115.2 = 769
Average MT1 over change in displacement is (785 + 769)/2 = 777. Change of trim from departure to just before stranding is: t =
MT MT 1
4589.871 - 5.907 in. = 0.492 ft by the stern 777
Prestranding forward and after drafts are calculated: 228 228 Tf = Parallel rise + t = 0.46 ft + 0.492 ft = 0.735 ft 408 408 180 180 Ta = Parallel rise - t = 0.46 ft - 0.492 ft = 0.243 ft 408 408
Tf, prestranding = Tf, departure - Tf = 15.42 - 0.735 = 14.68 ft Ta, prestranding = Ta, departure - Ta = 15.92 - 0.243 = 15.68 ft t = 1.00 ft by stern Tm, prestranding = Ta + Tf
2 = 15.68 + 14.68 = 15.18 ft 2
distance from MS to LCF 24 TLCF = Tm + t = 15.18 + 1.00 = 15.24 ft L 408
The prestranding drafts and displacement correspond very closely to those listed for the "1/3 Consumed Stores, Sequence 6 Fuel/Ballast" condition from the DC Book. The stability and trim summary for this condition conrms the assumed value for MT1 and location of LCF. The center of ground reaction (LCR) may be initially estimated to lie at the middle of the grounded length. The center of the grounded length is calculated from Figure F-1A: center of lg = 83 + 234 = 158.5 ft abaft forward perpendicular 2
= 204 - 158.5 = 45.5 46 ft forward of midships
Initial estimates of ground reaction are made by the four approximate methods. After stranding displacement is taken from the Curves of Form for a mean draft of 12 feet, corrected for hog and trim. The approximate methods are based on drafts at the perpendiculars. Because of the extreme trim of the stranded ship, drafts observed at the draft marks differ signicantly from those at the perpendiculars. The DC Book shows that the forward draft marks are 8.5 abaft the forward perpendicular and the after marks are 7.5 feet forward of the after perpendicular. Drafts at the perpendiculars are calculated from observed drafts: d 8.5 TFP = Tf - FP t between marks = 9.65 - 7.05 ft = 9.5 ft d 392 M d 7.5 TAP = Ta + AP t between marks = 16.7 ft + 7.05 ft = 16.83 ft d 392 M where:
TFP dFP dM TAP dAP
= = = = =
draft at forward perpendicular distance from forward perpendicular to forward marks distance between draft marks draft at after perpendicular distance from after perpendicular to after draft marks
Because of the large change of draft, values for the hydrostatic functions used in the approximate ground reaction predictions should be selected carefully. Values for TPI and MT1 are averages of values given by the Curves of Form for a mean draft of 13.6 feet, midway between the before and after drafts of 15.24 and 12 feet. LCF lies 23.8 feet abaft midships at a mean draft of 15.24 feet, and 16 feet abaft for a 12-foot mean draft. Because the curve has a sharp knuckle in the region corresponding to a 14.3-foot draft, a straight average was not used. A point 21 feet abaft midships was subjectively assigned as the effective location of LCF for the draft range.
F-6
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Approximate ground reaction estimates:
R DISPL = before - after

before = 3751 lton
Tm = 12 ft
average of Tf and Ta = 13.17 ft deection (hog) at midships = 13.17 - 12 = 1.17 ft correction to Tm for hog = 2 (1.17) = - 0.78 3
t = 7.33ft = 88 in.
correction to Tm for trim = (MS - LCF ) 21(88) = 4.53 in. = 0.38 ft = 400 L
Tm , corrected for hog and trim = 13.17 - 0.78 + 0.38 = 12.77

from the Curves of Form for Tm = 12.8 ft, after = 2850 lton
R = 3751 - 2850 = 901 lton
RTPI = Tm TPI = (15 3

= 922.25 922 lton
- 12 9.25 ) 31 = 29.75 31
RMT1 =
t (MT1)
dr t before = 1 ft = 12 in. tafter = 16.83 - 9.5 = 7.33 ft = 88 in.

t = 88 - 12 = 76 in.
MT1 690 ft lton/in. dr = (MS - LCF ) + (MS - LCR ) = 21 + 46 = 67 ft R =

76 (690) = 783 lton 67
R T f =
dr (TPI ) (MT1 ) (L ) L (MT1 ) + dr (df ) (TPI ) TPI = 31 lton/in. MT1 = 690 ft lton/in. dr = FP - LCR = 158.5 ft L = 408 ft R =
67(31)(690)(408) = 957.4 lton 408(690) + 67(158.5)(31)
The wide range in results from the approximate methods was not unexpected; none of the methods is truly applicable because of the casualtys extreme trim and signicant hull deection. Ground reaction magnitude and distribution can be estimated most accurately by the residual buoyancy method.
F-7
S0300-A8-HBK-010
40 36 32 28 24 20
VERTICAL SCALE - FT
W
16
12
L
8 4 0
AP
19
18
17
16
0
15
14
400
13
800
12
11
1200
10
6
0
5
20
4
40
3
60
FP
SECTION AREA - FT 2
HORIZONTAL SCALE - FT
Figure F-3. Section Areas for Stranded FFG-7.
To determine ground reaction by the residual buoyancy method, the buoyancy while aground is determined by numerical integration. The rst step in the process is to plot the stranded waterline on the Bonjeans Curves (prole version) as shown in Figure F-3. The hull forward of midships appears to be undeected; the waterline is plotted as a straight line from the draft at the forward perpendicular (9.5 feet) to the observed midships draft (12.0 feet). Plotting the waterline for the after portion as a similar straight between midships and after perpendicular drafts is likely to introduce signicant error because of the obvious curvature of the hull. To increase accuracy, the salvage engineer elects to try to get an estimate for draft at the quarter length (frame 306). From the outboard prole of the Booklet of General Plans, height of the deck edge (the 01 level because the main deck edge is not accessible at frame 306) is determined to be 47 feet 6 inches. Freeboard from the deck edge is measured by the mean-of-quartermeans method (i.e., the average of 10 readings at wave crest and 10 at wave trough, port and starboard). The averaged freeboard reading is 33 feet 3 inches at a tide height of + 0.5 feet. Draft at station 15 is: T15 at 0.5 tide T15 at 0.25 tide = = 47 6" - 33 3" = 14 3"
T15 at 0.5 tide - tide difference = 14 3" - 3" = 14 0"
The waterline over the after portion of the ship can now be approximated by two straight line segments: from midships to frame 306, and from frame 306 to the after perpendicular. Section areas are taken from the Bonjeans Curves and integrated by Simpsons Rule to determine displacement volume and residual buoyancy. Tabulated displacements and those taken from the Curves of Form or Draft Diagram account for the molded volume, plus the volumes of appendages such as the shell plating, sonar dome, bilge keels, propeller, rudder, n stabilizer, etc. Displacement volumes determined by integrating section areas from the FFG-7 Bonjeans Curves include the volume of the shell plating, but do not include volumes of other appendages. Total buoyancy is the sum of the hull buoyancy, determined by integration, and appendage displacement. Appendage displacement is estimated with an appendage allowance, as described in Section 1-4. From Table 1-2, the fraction for single screw small combatants with keel mounted sonar domes is 0.017, and: app = 0.017full load = 0.017 3951.79 = 67.18 lton Section area integration on poststranding drafts (9.5 fwd, 16.83 aft) at low tide (+0.25 foot) to determine residual buoyancy: Station Ordinate (Section Area) A 0 73 165 245 324 379 388 343 250 157 71 Simpsons Multiplier m 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 Functions of Volume (V) 0 292 330 980 648 1516 776 1372 500 628 71 (V ) = 7113 Lever Functions of Moment (M) 0 292 660 2940 2592 7580 4656 9604 4000 5652 710 (M ) = 38686
s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
F-8
S0300-A8-HBK-010
h = 40.8 ft h 40.8 3 = f (V ) = (7,113) = 96,736.8 ft 3 3 96,736.8 = = 2,763.9 lton Bhull = 35 35 h f (M ) 38,686 LCB = = 40.8 = 221.9 ft from FP f (V) 7,113 = 221.9 - 204 = 17.9 ft abaft midships B = Bhull + app = 2,763.9 + 67.18 = 2,831.08 2,831 lton R (without ooding) = W - B = 3,751 - 2,831 = 920 lton
Flooding that occurs after stranding increases ground reaction because it increases the ships weight. Total ground reaction is total weight (ships weight plus weight of ood water) less residual buoyancy. Extent of ooding in the damaged compartments depends on drafts, determined by interpolation: Water depth/draft @: FR FR FR FR 51 (stn 2.5) 180 (stn 8.82) 212 (stn 10.39) 250 (stn 12.25) = = = = 10.12 ft 11.705 ft 12.15 ft 12.9 ft
Examination of the inboard prole from the General Plans and DC Plate 1 (Flooding Effect Diagram) shows the following: AMR 1 (5-180-0-E) - the overhead is 13 feet above the baseline at frame 180, 11 above the baseline at frame 212. The pressed full capacity is 258 tons (from the ooding effects diagram) - assume 250 tons Eductor room (5-51-0-Q) - the overhead is 9.5 feet above the baseline; the compartment is solidly ooded10 tons AMR 2 (5-212-0-E) - the overhead is 21 feet above baseline at frame 212, 20 feet above the baseline at frame 250. There is no double bottom and the compartment occupies the full width of the hull. Flood water volume can be approximated by integration on 3 evenly spaced stations with section areas interpolated from the hull Bonjeans Curves. FFG-7 AMR 2 Floodwater volume/weight integration on 3 ordinates (Simpsons rule): Frame 212 231 250 Station 10.39 11.32 12.25 Draft T 12.15 12.52 12.9 Ordinate (Section Area) A 380 388 382 Simpsons Multiplier m 1 4 1 Functions of Volume (V) 380 1552 382 (V) = 2314
V =
h 3
tank length = 38 ft 318 = 19 ft h = 2 19 2,314 = 14,655 ft3 f (V) = 3 V w = = 418.72 tons 35
The weight of oodwater given by integration is corrected by deducting the weight capacities of tanks located within the space (5-220-2-W and 5-2221-F, capacities from the ooding effect diagram), and multiplying by a permeability factor ( = 0.85 for machinery spaces):
wcorrected = w - w of tanks in space permeability

= w - w[5
220 2 W]
- w[5
222 1 F]
Rtotal
= (418.72 - 1 - 2) (0.85) = 353.37 353 lton = W + woodwater - B = (3,751 + 353 + 250 + 10) - 2,831 = 1,533 lton = R + woodwater = 920 + 353 + 250 + 10 = 1,533 lton (at tide height = 0.25 ft)
For AMR 2, in what closely approximates a parallel midbody, estimating volume by multiplying the average section area by compartment length will return nearly the same weight of oodwater, as shown below:
aavg =
380 + 388 + 382 = 383.33 ft2 3 383.33 38 - 1 - 2 (0.85) = 351.12 351 lton w = 35
The sonar dome is normally ooded, and tabulated data reects this condition, so oodwater in the damaged sonar dome is not added weight.
F-9
S0300-A8-HBK-010
b. Estimating LCR To satisfy conditions of equilibrium, ground reaction must be distributed so that the combined center of residual buoyancy and ground reaction (LCB/R) is directly under the center of gravity of the ooded casualty. LCG of the ooded casualty can be determined by integrating the weight curve or by summing the moments resulting from weight differences from a known condition. Since the observed condition corresponds closely to the "1/3 Consumed Stores, Fuel/Ballast Sequence 6," described in the DC Book, this condition is used as a point of departure. The calculated prestranding drafts are very nearly the same as those given for the 1/3 Consumed Stores Condition; trim is exactly the same (1 foot). LCG (without ooding) must therefore lie close to that given for the 1/3 Consumed Stores Condition (5.53 feet abaft midships); if not, the ship would have assumed some other trim to bring LCB under LCG. As a check on this premise, LCG is calculated from the observed differences between the casualtys actual condition and the 1/3 Consumed Stores Condition: tank/space contents gal tons 1/3 consumed stores tons difference tons
lcg from FP ft
moment
Potable Water @ 269.3 gal/lton 5-292-3-W 2346 8.71 5-292-2-W 2346 8.71 5-308-1-W 0 0 5-308-2-W 320 1.18 Fuel Oil Storage @ 322 gal/lton 5-56-0-F 4691 14.57 5-64-0-F 13302 41.31 5-84-1-F 17832 55.38 5-84-2-F 17832 55.38 5-100-3-F 0 0.00 5-100-4-F 0 0.00 5-116-1-F 20479 63.6 5-116-2-F 15261 47.39 5-140-1-F 7153 22.21 5-140-2-F 9153 28.43 5-164-3-F 3016 9.37 5-164-2-F 3207 9.96 5-250-1-F 0 0.00 5-250-1-F 0 0.00 Fuel Oil Service @ 322 gal/lton 5-204-1-F 14963 5-204-2-F 6092 2-276-2-J 343 3-240-1-F 818 3-240-2-F 171 3-292-4-F 386 3-292-6-F 96 5-201-1-F 344 5-201-3-F 322 JP-5 @ 329.89 gal/lton 3-316-1-J 1264 3-322-1-J 1207 5-328-0-J 8746 5-344-0-J 9834 Miscellaneous Tanks 5-132-0-F 6186 5-170-0-F 0 5-164-0-F 1390 Sums:
8.71 8.71 2.37 2.37
0.00 0.00 -2.37 -1.19
298.4 298.4 316 316
-748.92 -376.04
14.57 41.31 55.38 55.38 0.00 0.00 63.60 65.69 22.21 28.43 9.37 9.96 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -18.3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.1 74.4 92.2 92.2 111.7 111.7 128.5 128.5 152.2 152.2 172 172.1 263.8 263.8
-2351.55
46.47 18.92 1.04 2.54 0.53 1.20 0.30 1.07 1.00
46.47 23.18 1.04 2.54 0.53 1.20 0.25 1.07 0.28
0.00 -4.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 +0.05 0.00 +0.72
208 208 276.5 244.9 244.9 293.3 293.3 202.3 202.3
-886.08
14.665 145.656
3.83 3.66 26.51 29.81
3.83 3.66 26.51 8.54
0.00 0.00 0.00 +21.27
318.9 324.9 335.8 354.9
7548.723
19.21 0.00 5.31
9.61 4.08 2.12 differences =
+9.6 -4.08 +3.19 +4.63
135.6 175 167.1
1301.76 -714 +533.049
moments = 4467.263
There is a slight discrepancy between the ships weight calculated by observed differences from the 1/3 Consumed Stores condition (3,748.15 + 4.63 = 3,752.78) and that calculated from weight changes since leaving port (3,930 - 179.94 = 3,750.06). This discrepancy, of less than 3 tons, is less than the error range inherent in the draft diagram or Curves of Form, and is therefore of no signicance. LCG is calculated below (moment arms/LCG measured from FP):
LCG =
W1/3 LCG1/3 +
moments
W + weight difference
(3,748.15 209.53) + 4,467.263 3,752.78
= 210.46 ft from FP = 6.46 ft abaft midships The small shift of LCG corroborates the calculated prestranding drafts and trim. LCG (without ooding) can be assumed to lie 6 feet abaft midships. Ships weight will be taken as 3,752 long tons for the remainder of this example. Similarly, R is increased to 1,534 long tons to preserve the condition that W - B = R.
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Weight moments of water in the ooded spaces are summed to determine LCG of the ooded casualty. For each compartment, lcg of the ood water is assumed to lie at compartment midlength. For a tide height of 0.25 feet:
LCGooded =
(W LCG)prestrand + (w lcg)AMR 1 + (w lcg)AMR 2 + (w lcg)ED RM
W + wAMR 1 + wAMR 2 + wED RM
(3,752 210) + (250 196) + (353 231) + (10 53.5) = 3,752 + 250 + 353 + 10 = 210.54 ft from FP = 6.54 ft abaft midships
Wooded = 4,365 tons
LCR is found by moment balance because conditions of equilibrium require moments to sum to zero. Taking moments about the forward perpendicular: W(LCG) = B(LCB) + R(LCR)
Solving for LCR:
30 STN 11.47 23.51 + 3.39 = 26.9

r, LTON/FT
20
23.51
2/3 R STN 7.2
LCR = [(LCG x W) - (LCB x B)]/R = [(210.54 x 4365) - (221.9 x 2831)]/1534 = 189.58 189.6 ft from FP
10
1/3 R STN 4.07

3.39
306 234 204 147 102 83 0 FRAMES: 408 189.6 Ground reaction should be distributed along the grounded length LCR FP AP so that LCR falls at frame 189.6. STATIONS: 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 One solution is to distribute 1/3 R as rectangle over the grounded length, lg, and 2/3 R as a right triFigure F-4. Ground Reaction Distribution. angle superimposed on the rectangle as shown in Figure F-4, and dimensioned to bring LCR to frame 189.5. For ground reaction distribution, grounded length is taken to extend 151 feet from frame 83 to frame 234.
height of rectangle = 511.33 = 3.39 ton/ft 151
lcr of the rectangle is at the center of the grounded length (frame 158.5). lcr of the triangle is determined by moment balance: R (LCR) = r (lcr) rectangle + r ( lcr ) triangle lcrtriangle = R (LCR ) - [r (lcr ) ]rectangle rtriangle
(1,534) (189.6) - (511.33) (158.5) = 205.15 205 ft from FP 1,022.67
The vertical side of the triangle is at the after end of the grounded length. The length of the triangle base is 3 times the distance from the triangle base to its centroid (lcr): base length = 3(234 - 205) = 87 ft The height of the triangle (at frame 234) is determined from the formula for area of a triangle. With the base length known, area equal to rtriangle (1022.67 lton), height (h) is:
h =
2 (r ) 2 (1,022.67) = 23.51 ton/ft = 87 b
The ground reaction distribution is dened by the following points: Aft end of rectangle/apex of triangle at frame 234 = station 11.47 Toe of triangle at frame 234 - 87 = frame 147 = station 7.2 Forward end of rectangle at frame 83 = stn 4.07
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c. Estimating tidal effects Variation of ground reaction with height of tide depends on the casualtys ability to rotate about a point on the ground. This casualty, heavily aground over a signicant length, is unlikely to rotate for small increases in height of tide; change in ground reaction can therefore be accurately estimated as the change in tide height multiplied by the average TPI for the affected draft range. A two-foot rise in tide will cause a large increase in buoyancy, and it is possible that the casualty may pivot about the forward edge of the shelf. The probability of pivoting is determined by plotting weight and buoyancy moments to determine the tide height where the ship will begin to lift off her strand. The procedure is similar to that for determining draft at landing when drydocking (see Paragraph 1-9.6). It is assumed that if the ship rotates, it will pivot about a point at or near frame 76, at the forward edge of the grounded length. Buoyancy moments are calculated based on displacement and LCB as returned from Simpsons rule integrations for the high and low tide drafts. The integration for the low tide condition was performed to determine ground reaction in part a of this example. For the rst estimate high tide integration, it is assumed that the ship does not rotate, and the waterline is plotted parallel to and two feet above the waterline used for the low tide integration. Examination of the resulting weight and buoyancy moment plots will verify whether the ship rotates. Section area integration on drafts at high tide (+2.25 feet) to determine residual buoyancy and LCB: Station Ordinate (Section Area) A 0 97 210 311 404 465 476 428 325 228 129 Simpsons Multiplier m 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 Functions of Volume (V) 0 388 420 1244 808 1860 952 1712 650 912 129 f(V) = 9075 Lever Functions of Moment (M) 0 388 840 3732 3232 9300 5712 11984 5200 8208 1290 f(M) = 49886
s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
h = 40.8 ft
hull = 40.8 3 f (V) = (9,075) = 123,420 ft 3 123,420 = = 3,526.29 lton = 35 35
h 3
Bhull
LCB = h
f (M) 49,886 = 40.8 = 224.3 ft from FP f (V ) 9,075 = 224.3 - 204 = 20.3 ft abaft midships
B = Bhull + app = 3,526.29 + 67.18 = 3,593.47 3,593 lton RNew (without ooding) = W - B = 3,752 - 3,593 = 159 lton
Unlike the drydocking condition, the weight moment also varies slightly because the total weight and LCG shift as water enters damaged spaces with the rising tide. The eductor room was ooded solid at low tide and will remain so as the tide rises; weight of oodwater, from the ooding effect diagram, is 10 tons. Assuming the ship does not rotate, water depths at the bounding bulkheads for AMR 1 and AMR 2 at high tide are: Water depth/draft @: FR 180 (stn 8.82) FR 212 (stn 10.39) FR 250 (stn 12.25) = = = 13.71 ft 14.15 ft 14.9 ft
The highest point in AMR 1 is 13 feet above baseline, at frame 180; the space can be assumed to be solidly ooded at high tide, with a total weight of oodwater of 258 tons (from the ooding effect diagram). The depth of AMR 2 is greater than the water depth at high tide, so oodwater volume is determined by the average section area interpolated from the Bonjeans Curves: Station 10.39 11.32 12.25 Sum Section Area, ft2 469 475 471 1,415 Average section area = 1415 = 471.67 3
471.67 38 wAMR 2 = - 1 - 2(0.85) = 432.7 433 lton 35 With weights, buoyancy and pivot point dened for both high and low tide conditions, weight and buoyancy moments can be calculated and plotted. Floodwater lever arms are taken to the center of the ooded spaces.
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At low tide (+0.25 foot): Weight moment = Wr + wrAMR2 + wramr1 + wrEDRM = (3,752 134) + (353 155) + (250 120) + (10 22.5) = 587,258 ft ton Buoyancy moment = B1 r1 = 2,831 145.9 = 413,043 ft ton At high tide (+2.25 feet): Weight moment = Wr + wrAMR2 + wrAMR 1 + wrEDRM = (3,752 134) + 433 155) + (258 120) + (10 22.5) = 600,618 ft ton Buoyancy moment = B1r1 = 3,593 148.3 = 532,842 ft ton The weight and buoyancy moments are plotted in Figure F-5. Extending the plots to the point of intersection shows the "draft at lifting" to correspond to a tide height of approximately 3.6 feet (3.35 feet above low tide). With such a wide margin between the tide required to initiate rotation and the anticipated rise of tide, salvors can be nearly certain that the ship will not rotate. Ground reaction at high tide is ships weight less buoyancy at high tide plus the weight of ood water:
Rhigh tide = W + woodwater - B

= (3,752 + 433 + 258 10) - 3,593 = 860 lton Note that the ground reaction without ooding (W - B) of 159 long tons, is reasonably close to the value predicted by deducting the product of tide rise and average TPI:
TPI forT = 13ft = 30.25

tide = 2 ft = 24 in R = TPI( tide) = 30.25 (24) = 726 lton
Rhigh tide = Rlow tide - R = 920 - 726 = 194 lton

The TPI method can therefore predict change in ground reaction for intermediate tide levels with fair accuracy. If the ooded spaces are dewatered, the weight moment is reduced to a constant value: Weight moment = Wr = 3752 134 = 502,768 ft-ton Plotting the dewatered weight moment as shown in Figure F-5 shows the draft at lifting now corresponds to a tide height of 1.75 feet (1.5 feet above low tide), i.e., the ship will rotate and may be lively before high tide if completely dewatered.
4.25 3.75 3.25 "DRAFT" AT LIFTING
TIDE HEIGHT, FT
2.75 2.25 1.75 1.25 0.75 0.25 4.0 4.5
B1r1
Wr, DEWATERED
Wr, FLOODED
5.0
5.5
5
6.0
6.5
MOMENT, FT-LTONS x 10
Figure F-5. Draft at Lifting.
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EXAMPLE F-2 GROUNDED STABILITY ANALYSIS

Analyze the stability of the casualty in her stranded and ooded condition: a. Determination of initial stability parameters; A thorough stability analysis must start with determination of initial stability parameters, i.e., KG, KB, GM. Like LCG, prestranding KG is calculated from the observed differences between the casualtys actual condition and the 1/3 Consumed Stores Condition tabulated in the DC Book as shown in the table below (the table has been abbreviated from the one used in Example F-1 to show only those tanks with differences). Vertical centers of gravity (kg) for shallow tanks and tanks where the difference is the entire contents for the 1/3 consumed condition are taken as tabulated in the DC Book; kg for differences in deep tanks has been taken as midway between the soundings for the two conditions, as estimated from the inboard prole and the DC plates. Weight and Moment Summary: Tank/space Contents gal Potable Water @ 269.3 gal/lton: 5-308-1-W 5-308-2-W 0 320 0 1.18 2.37 2.37 -2.37 -1.19 7.24 7.24 -17.16 -8.62 tons 1/3 Consumed Stores Tons Difference Tons kg ft Moment
Fuel Oil Storage @ 322 gal/lton: 5-116-2-F Fuel Oil Service: 5-204-2-F 3-292-6-F 5-201-3-F 6092 96 322 18.92 0.30 1.00 23.18 0.25 0.28 -4.26 +0.05 +0.72 11.0 12.07 5.97 -46.86 +0.60 +4.30 15261 47.39 65.69 -18.3 11.76 -215.21
JP-5 @ 329.89 gal/lton: 5-344-0-J 9834 29.81 8.54 +21.27 10.97 +233.33
Miscellaneous Tanks: 5-132-0-F 5-170-0-F 5-164-0-F Sums: New KG = (W KG)1/3 + weight moments = 6186 0 1390 19.21 0.00 5.31 9.61 4.08 2.12 +9.6 -4.08 +3.19 +4.63 (3,748.15 19.02) + 29.55 3,748.15 + 4.63 9.13 1.14 1.2 +87.65 -4.65 -3.83 +29.55
W1/3 +
weight differences
= 19.005 ft 19.0 ft The slight discrepancy in estimating ships weight at the time of stranding was discussed in Example F-1. For the remainder of this example, prestranding weight and KG will be taken as 3,752 long tons and 19 feet. Weight moments of water in the ooded spaces are summed to determine KG of the ooded casualty. For each compartment, kg of the ood water is assumed to lie at 0.65 times water depth to account for increasing breadth with height. For a tide height of 0.25 feet: Water depth @: FR FR FR FR 51 180 212 250 = = = = 10.12 ft 11.705 ft 12.15 ft 12.9 ft AVG for EDRM = 10.12 ft 11.705 + 12.15 = 11.93 ft AVG for AMR 1 = 2 12.15 + 12.9 = 12.52 ft AVG for AMR 2 = 2 W KG + W kgAMR 2 + w kgAMR 1 + w kgEDRM KGooded = W + wAMR 2 + wAMR 1 + wEDRM 3752(19) + 353(12.52)(0.65) + 250(11.93)(0.65) + 10(10.12)(0.65) 3752 + 353 + 250 + 10 = 17.45 =
F-14
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The virtual, or effective height of the center of gravity is determined by correcting for the effects of free surface and ground reaction. Liquid free surfaces exist in the ooded AMR 1 and AMR 2 and in slack tanks. Because oodwater and liquid load are usually handled differently, the free surface effect of each is calculated separately. The free surface effect of the liquid load is obtained by summing moments of inertia of waterplanes of slack tanks as shown below. Free surface moments for 95% full tanks are included for a worst-case estimate. Tank Soundings: Tank Contents gallons percent length ft Dimensions breadth ft
i lb3/12 ft4
Potable Water @ 269.3 gal/lton: 5-292-3-W 5-292-2-W 5-308-1-W 5-308-2-W 2346 2346 0 290 100 100 0 15 16 16 20 20 11 11 9.75 9.75 N/A N/A N/A 1545
Lubricating Oil @ 291.4 gal/lton: 3-272-2-F 3-278-2-F 3-286-2-F 4-208-4-F 3-236-1-F 3-236-2-F 3-292-8-F 685 781 536 184 204 204 178 67 67 67 66 66 66 67 6.25 8 6 4 4 4 2.5 5 5 4.75 2 3.5 3.5 3.5 65 83 54 3 14 14 9
Fuel Storage @ 322 gal/lton: 5-56-0-F 5-64-0-F 5-84-1-F 5-84-2-F 5-100-3-F 5-100-4-F 5-116-1-F 5-116-2-F 5-140-1-F 5-140-2-F 5-164-3-F 5-164-4-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-2-F 4691 13302 17832 17832 0 0 20479 15261 7153 9153 3016 3207 0 0 95 95 95 95 0 0 92 69 74 95 95 95 0 0 8 20 16 16 16 16 24 24 24 24 16 16 28 28 15 18 14.5 14.5 16 16 13 13 16 16 11 11 14 14 2250 9720 4065 4065 N/A N/A 4394 4394 8192 8192 1775 1775 N/A N/A
Fuel Service @ 322 gal/lton: 5-204-1-F 5-204-2-F 2-276-2-J 3-240-1-F 3-240-2-F 3-292-4-F 3-292-6-F 5-201-1-F 5-201-3-F 14963 6092 343 818 171 386 96 344 322 95 39 95 95 20 95 23 95 71 7.75 7.75 2.5 6 6 2.5 2.5 3 3 8.25 8.25 3.5 3.25 3.25 3.5 3.5 3 3 363 363 9 17 17 9 9 7 7
JP-5 @ 329.89 gal/lton: 3-316-1-J 3-322-1-J 5-328-0-J 3-344-0-J 1264 1207 8746 9834 95 95 95 95 6.5 7 16 24 6.75 6.5 15 15 167 160 4500 6750
Contaminated Oil Settling Tank @ 322 gal/lton: 5-132-0-F 6186 95 8 11 887
Oily Waste and Sewage Tanks @ 261.82 gal/lton: 5-170-0-F 5-164-0-F 4-170-0-W 0 1390 0 0 59 0 10 6 6.25 11 11 12.75 N/A 666 N/A i = 64540
GG1,tank free surf =
i 64,540 = 0.65 ft = (2,831 35) (B 35 )
F-15
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Moment of inertia of the liquid surfaces in AMR 1 and AMR 2 must be estimated to determine oodwater free surface effect. Compartment lengths are easily taken from the inboard prole. Average water surface half-breadths are estimated from the 12-foot waterline halfbreadths from the offset table on the lines plan (Figure FO-1) as 21.4 feet for AMR 1, and 21.9 feet for AMR 2. Moments of inertia are calculated: Compartment Free Surface Dimensions length breadth ft ft 32 38 42.8 43.8
i lb3/12 ft4
209074 266088 475162
AMR 1 AMR 2 Total
GG1, ood free surf = GG1,R =
i 475,165 = 4.8 ft = (2,831 35 ) (B 35 )
(R KG) (1,534 17.45) = 9.46 ft = ( W - R) (4,365 - 1,534)
KGcorr = KG + GG1,tank free surf + GG1, ood free surf + GG1,R

= 17.45 + 0.65 + 9.46 + 4.8 = 32.36 ft Even with the casualtys extreme trim, the shape of her waterplane has not changed materiallyLCF is still about 24 feet abaft midships (near station 11), and KM should be approximately as given by the Curves of Form for observed LCF drafts. A wedge of buoyancy has been transferred from the forward part of the ship to the after partthe decreased draft forward tends to reduce KB, while the increased draft aft tends to increase KB. So long as the waterplane shape is relatively unchanged, the wedges are of approximately equal thickness and the increase and decrease of KB are roughly compensatory. The Curves of Form provide reasonably reliable estimates for KB. Draft at LCF was interpolated in Example F-1 to be 12.4 feet at low tide (+0.25 foot). For TLCF of 12.4 feet, the Curves of Form give KB as 7.65 feet and KM as 22.73 feet. GM at low tide is thus calculated as:
GM = KM - KG = 22.73 - 17.45 = 5.28 ft GMcorr = KM - KGcorr = 22.73 - 32.36 = 9.63 ft
As the tide rises, volume of displacement increases, altering KM, increasing KB, and reducing ground reaction and free surface effect. Additionally, AMR 1 oods solidly, reducing its free surface effect to zero. Free surface breadth in AMR 2 increases only slightly, moment of inertia will not change signicantly and need not be recalculated. KG at high tide is thus calculated:
Bhigh tide = 3,593 lton (From Example F 1) Rhigh tide = 860 lton GG1 ,tank free surf = GG1, ood free surf = GG1, R = i
= = (From Example F 1)
i 64,540 = 0.51 ft = (3,593 35) (B 35) i 266,088 = 2.12 ft = (3,593 35) (B 35)
(R KG) (860 17.45) = 4.18 ft = ( W - R) (4,453 - 860)
KGcorr = KG + GG1, tank free surf + GG1, ood free surf + GG1,R
= 17.45 + 0.51 + 2.12 + 4.18 = 24.26 ft
LCF draft is 14.4 feet at high tide (+2.25 feet). For TLCF of 14.4 feet, the Curves of Form give KB as 8.9 feet and KM as 22.43 feet. GM at low tide is thus calculated as: GM = KM - KG = 22.43 - 17.45 = 4.98 ft GMcorr = KM - KGcorr = 22.43 - 24.26 = 1.83 ft
The large negative GM while aground indicates that stability might be a problem while reoating, but does not of itself indicate that the casualty is in danger of capsizing while stranded. In addition to subjective assessment of the degree of restraint to inclination provided by the ground, a picture of the casualtys stability is best developed by an analysis similar to the drydocking "draft at instability" plot. As discussed in Paragraph 1-9.6.2, draft (or tide height) at instability is found by plotting vertical buoyancy moments (KM1B1) and weight moments (KG W) as functions of draft. As was done in Example F-1 to determine "draft at lifting," moments are calculated for low (+0.25 foot) and high (+2.25 feet) tide to develop the plots. Drafts, residual buoyancy, and weights for high and low tide were calculated in Example F-1, part c. KB and KM for LCF drafts of 12.4 and 14.4 feet are taken from the Curves of Form. Weight and buoyancy moments are calculated as shown below and plotted in Figure F-6. Floodwater centers of gravity are taken as 0.65 times water depth in the space.
F-16
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At low tide (+0.25 foot): Weight moment = WKG + wkgAMR2 + wkgAMR1 + wkgEDRM = (3,752 19) + (353 8.14) + (250 7.75) + (10 6.6) = 76,165 ft ton Buoyancy moment = B1KM1 = 2,831 22.73 = 64,349 ft ton At high tide (+2.25 feet): Weight moment = WKG + kgAMR2 + kgAMR1 + kgEDRM = (3,752 19) + (433 9.44) + (258 7.8) + (10 6.6) = 77,454 ft ton Buoyancy moment = B1 KM1 = 3,593 22.43 = 80,591 ft ton The point of intersection of the weight and buoyancy moment plots in Figure F-6 shows the "draft at instability" corresponds to a tide height of approximately 1.85 feet (1.6 foot above low tide). This is well below the "draft at lifting" tide height of 3.6 feet, indicating that the ship remains rmly aground throughout the tide range, and that the ship would develop positive GM before regaining enough buoyancy to oat free and incline. Because the ship rests on a relatively even seaoor, there is no upsetting arm, and there is little possibility of capsizing while stranded.
+3
TIDE HEIGHT ABOVE DATUM, FT
KM1 B 1
+2 "DRAFT" AT INSTABILITY +1 WKG
0 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5
MOMENT x 104
Figure F-6. Draft at Instability.
F-17
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EXAMPLE F-3 STRENGTH ANALYSIS
Evaluate the casualtys strength while stranded with ooding in AMR 1, AMR 2, and the eductor room. a. Stranded strength evaluation: A detailed strength evaluation requires a determination of deck and keel bending stresses along the ships length, especially at damaged sections and points of high bending moment. Stress calculation, in turn, requires calculation of shear force and bending moment along the ships length. Casualty conditions indicate the bending stress will probably govern, but the shear curve and effects of hull damage should be examined to ensure that shear stresses are within acceptable limits. To support salvage operations, the salvage engineer should develop maximum allowable bending moment curves, based on material yield strength and existing section moduli. b. Developing shear and bending moment curves: The weight curve for the 1/3 Consumed Stores Condition was developed for Example 1-5. In Example 1-5, buoyancy ordinates were converted to inches using the scale factors from the FFG-7 longitudinal strength drawing (Figure FO-4). The integrations returned shear and bending moments in inches that were subsequently converted to tons and foot-tons. Because of the addition of ground reaction ordinates in this example, it is simpler to convert weight ordinates to tons per foot and conduct all calculations in foot and ton based units. In order to simplify calculations at the expense of some accuracy, a 10-segment weight curve is developed from the standard 22-segment curve by averaging adjacent ordinates. The -1.4-to-0 ordinate is averaged into the 0-to-2 segment (weighted average), and the 20-to-20.6 ordinate is averaged into the 18-to-20 segment. To determine ordinates for the ooded casualty, the weight of oodwater in the eductor room is assumed to be distributed evenly between stations 2 and 4 (frames 40.8 and 81.6); that of AMR 1 to be distributed evenly between stations 8 and 10 (frames 163.2 and 204); and that of AMR 2 is assumed to be distributed between stations 10 and 12 (frames 204 and 244.8). The weight curve must also be adjusted for the differences between the liquid load shown by soundings from that of the 1/3 Consumed Stores Condition, summarized below. Tank/space Weight tons Potable Water @ 269.3 gal/lton 5-308-1-W 5-308-2-W 0 1.18 2.37 2.37 -2.37 -1.19 316 316 15.5 15.5 1/3 Consumed Stores tons Difference tons
lcg from FP
ft
Station
lcg/20.4
Fuel Oil Storage @ 322 gal/lton 5-116-2-F Fuel Oil Service 5-204-2-F 3-292-6-F 5-201-3-F JP-5 @ 329.89 gal/lton 5-344-0-J Miscellaneous Tanks 5-132-0-F 5-170-0-F 5-164-0-F 19.21 0.00 5.31 9.61 4.08 2.12 +9.6 -4.08 +3.19 135.6 175 167.1 6.6 8.6 8.2 29.81 8.54 +21.27 354.9 17.4 18.92 0.30 1.00 23.18 0.25 0.28 -4.26 +0.05 +0.72 208 293.3 202.3 10.2 14.4 9.9 47.39 65.69 -18.3 128.5 6.3
differences = +4.63
F-18
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The weight changes from ooding and liquid load differences are summarized by curve segments and converted to distributed loads by as shown below: Weight differences from 1/3 Consumed Stores weight curve: Segment from stn 2 6 to stn 4 8 Weight Differences space/tank Eductor room 5-116-2-F 5-132-0-F total 8 10 5-170-0-F 5-164-0-F AMR 1 5-201-3-F total 10 12 AMR 2 5-204-2-F total 14 16 3-292-6-F 5-308-1-W 5-308-2-W total 16 18 5-344-0-J tons +10.00 -18.3 +9.6 -8.7 -4.08 +3.19 +250.00 +0.72 +249.83 +353.00 -4.26 +348.74 +0.05 -2.37 -1.19 -3.51 +21.27 -0.04 +0.52 +8.55 +6.12 -0.21 Distributed Load Weight/40.8 tons/ft +0.25
The weight curve ordinates are converted from inches to tons per foot by multiplying by the scale factor (1 in = 3.45 ton/ft), and the weight differences summed in the following table: Weight ordinates, adjusted for differences from 1/3 Consumed Stores and ooding: Segment from stn 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 to stn 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 in 1.16 2.30 3.15 3.25 2.93 3.59 3.06 3.02 2.09 2.22 Old Ordinate ton/ft in 3.45 4.00 7.94 10.88 11.21 10.09 12.38 10.56 10.42 7.21 7.66 Ordinate Difference ton/ft +0.25 -0.21 +6.12 +8.55 -0.09 +0.52 New Ordinate Old ord + difference ton/ft 4.00 8.19 10.87 11.00 16.23 20.93 10.56 10.33 7.73 7.66
An integration is performed with the adjusted ordinates to verify that the area under the curve and its centroid correspond to the ships weight and LCG. Weight curve integration to verify W and LCG: Station from 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 to 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Ordinate y ton/ft 4.00 8.19 10.87 11.00 16.23 20.93 10.56 10.33 7.73 7.66 Length l ft 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 Area A yl ton 163.20 334.15 443.50 448.80 662.18 853.94 430.85 421.46 315.38 312.53 A = 4385.99
lcg (mid segment)

ft 20.4 61.2 102.0 142.8 183.6 224.4 265.2 306.0 346.8 387.6
Moment M lcg A ft-ton 3329 20450 45237 64089 121576 191624 114261 128967 109374 121137 M = 920044
centroid = M / A = 920,044/4385.99 = 209.77 ft from FP = 209.77 - 204 = 5.77 ft abaft midships Total weight given by integration differs by about 21 tons from the weight determined in Example F-1 (4,365 lton) for a error of less than 5%. LCG as determined by integration is more than one-half foot forward of the point determined by moment balance in Example F-1 (6.54 -5.77 = 0.77 foot). The weight ordinates should be adjusted to be sufficiently accurate for longitudinal strength calculations.
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LCG of the basic weight curve corresponded closely to that tabulated for the ship in the 1/3 Consumed Stores Condition, as demonstrated in Example 1-5. It is therefore logical to assume the errors in placing the weight differences have shifted LCG forward. The weights of oodwater in AMR 1 and AMR 2 are the largest added weights; their placement will have the greatest effect on LCG. Both compartments extend slightly beyond the aft boundary of the segments to which they were assigned. It is likely that the LCG of the curve will be shifted into better agreement with the "known" LCG by transferring a portion of the oodwater weight of each of the compartments to the segment immediately aft. The amount of weight to be transferred is determined as follows:
24 21.22 22 20 18 16 14.68 14 11.68 12 11.00 10.88 10.38 10 8.23 7.69 8 7.46 6 4.0 4 2 0 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 AP FP
UNIT WEIGHT LTON/FT
Figure F-7. FFG-7 10-Segment Weight Curve, With Flooding.
AMR 1 extends from frame 180 to frame 212, or 32 feet. Eight feet, or 25 percent, of this length lies aft of station 10 (frame 204). 25 percent of the oodwater weight of 250 tons should be transferred from the 8-10 segment to the 10-12 weight segment. AMR 2 extends from frame 212 to frame 250, or 38 feet. 5.2 feet, or 14 percent, of this length lies aft of station 12 (frame 244.8). 13.7 percent of the oodwater weight of 353 tons should be transferred from the 10-12 segment to the 12-14 weight segment. Weight Ordinate Differences: AMR 1: AMR 2: 250 lton 0.25 62.5 lton/40.8 ft 353 lton 0.137 48.36 lton/40.8 ft = = = = 62.5 lton 1.53 ton/ft 48.36 lton 1.19 ton/ft
New Ordinates: Segment 8-10 16.23 - 1.53 Segment 10-12 20.93 + 1.53 - 1.19 Segment 12-14 10.56 + 1.19 At the same time, ordinates are adjusted to bring total weight closer to 4,365 long tons. An integration with the adjusted ordinates returns a total weight of 4368.46 long tons and an LCG 6.19 feet abaft midships. The weight curve is now sufficiently accurate for longitudinal strength calculations. The adjusted weight curve is shown in Figure F-7. The next step is to develop mean buoyancy/ground reaction ordinates (the stepped buoyancy/ground reaction curve). As discussed in Example F-1, integration of the section areas from the Bonjeans curves leads to a without appendages displacement. The buoyancy curve must represent the actual buoyancy if the area the buoyancy/ground reaction curve is to equal the area under the weight curve, a requisite condition for the development of accurate shear and moment curves. Since the volumes of the FFG-7 appendages are not known, a reasonable rst estimate is to distribute the appendage displacements along the ships length by multiplying the section areas by the ratio of actual buoyancy to without appendages buoyancy: 2831/2764 = 1.024. = = = 14.70 ton/ft 21.27 ton/ft 11.75 ton/ft
40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 20 AP
UNIT WEIGHT LTON/FT
18
16
14
12
10
0 FP
Figure F-8. Buoyancy/Ground Reaction Curve for Stranded FFG-7.
Ground reaction distribution was estimated in Example F-1 to take the form shown in Figure F-4. The addition of ground reaction "blocks" produces discontinuities and angularities in the buoyancy/ground reaction curve, as shown by the superposition of the two curves in Figure F-8. The ordinates from which the curves are drawn are shown in the following table.
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Combined buoyancy and ground reaction ordinates (R = 1534 ltons): Stn Section Area ( Bonjeans) ft2 0 2 4
low
Adjusted Area A 1.024 ft2 0 74.75 168.96 168.96 250.88 331.78 388.10 397.62 397.31 351.23 256.00 160.77 72.70
B A/35 lton/ft 0.00 2.14 4.83 4.83 7.17 9.48 11.09 11.37 11.35 10.04 7.32 4.59 2.08
Rrectangle
Rtriangle
B+R
Notes
lton/ft
lton/ft
0 73 165 165 245 324 379 388.5 388 343 250 157 71
lton/ft 0.00 2.14 4.83 8.22 10.56 17.25 29.88 38.27 11.35 10.04 7.32 4.59 2.08 grounded length begins
4
high
3.39 3.39 3.39 3.39 3.39
6 8 10 11.5
high
4.38 15.40 23.51
grounded length ends
12 14 16 18 20
The mean ordinate for any segment is the area under the curve between the bounding stations, divided by the segment length. Where the combined curve is smooth between adjacent stations, the mean ordinate can be taken as the average of the ordinates at the bounding stations without introducing serious error. For segments including discontinuities or angularities, the area under the curve must be estimated to determine the mean ordinate. There are three discontinuities/angularities in the curve: 1 The beginning of the grounded length (the ground reaction rectangle) at frame 83 (station 4.07). This discontinuity lies so close to station 4 that it can be taken as occurring at station 4 to simplify calculations. The mean ordinate for segment 2-4 is the average of the station 2 ordinate and the low station 4 ordinate (buoyancy only, without ground reaction). The mean ordinate for segment 4-6 is the average of the station 6 ordinate and the high station 4 ordinate (buoyancy plus ground reaction). The toe of the ground reaction triangle, at frame 147 (station 7.2). Since the curve takes a sharp upward turn part way across the segment, the average of the ordinates at the bounding stations is not the mean ordinate. The area under the curve is summed in three parts: the area under the buoyancy curve, taken as the mean buoyancy ordinate multiplied by segment length; the area of the ground reaction rectangle, the height of the rectangle multiplied by the length of the segment; and the area of the part of the ground reaction triangle bounded by station 8. The height of the triangle at station 8 is determined by linear interpolation. The end of the grounded length at frame 234 (station 11.47). The mean ordinate for this segment is also determined by calculating the area under the curve. Again, the area is calculated in two parts: the area under the buoyancy curve, and the area of the ground reaction trapezoid bounded by frame 234 and station 10 (frame 204). The ground reaction ordinate at station 10 is determined by linear interpolation.
Mean buoyancy/ground reaction ordinates are calculated as shown below: Segment 0- 2 2- 4 4- 6 6- 8 Mean ordinate calculation: (0.76 + 2.14)/2 = 1.45 ton/ft (2.14 + 4.83)/2 = 3.48 ton/ft (8.22 + 10.56)/2 = 9.39 ton/ft area under buoyancy curve: 40.8 (7.17 + 9.48)/2 = 339.66 lton area of ground reaction rectangle: 3.39 40.8 = 138.31 lton area of ground reaction triangle to stn 8: base = 163.2 - 147 = 16.2 ft, height = 4.38 ton/ft by interpolation area = (16.2 4.38)/2 = 35.48 lton mean ord = area/40.8 = (339.66 + 138.31 + 35.8)/40.8 = 12.58 ton/ft (17.25 + 29.88)/2 = 23.56 ton/ft area under buoyancy curve: 40.8 (11.09 + 11.35)/2 = 457.77 lton area of ground reaction trapezoid: base = 234 - 204 = 30 ft, height at stn 10 = 3.39 + 15.4 = 18.79 ton/ft height at fr 234 = 3.39 + 23.51 = 26.9 ton/ft area = 40.8 (26.9 + 18.79)/2 = 685.35 lton mean ordinate = area/40.8 = (457.77 + 685.35)/40.8 = 28.02 ton/ft (11.35 + 10.04)/2 = 10.69 ton/ft (10.04 + 7.32)/2 = 8.68 ton/ft (7.32 + 4.6)/2 = 5.96 ton/ft (4.6 + 2.08)/2 = 3.34 ton/ft
8 - 10 10 - 12
12 14 16 18
14 16 18 20
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32 30 28.02 28 26 23.56 24 22 20 18 16 14 12.58 12 10.69 9.39 10 8.67 8 5.95 6 3.48 3.34 4 1.07 2 0 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 AP FP
UNIT WEIGHT LTON/FT
Figure F-9. Stepped Buoyancy/Ground Reaction Curve for Stranded FFG-7.
Plotting the mean buoyancy/ground reaction ordinates between stations produces the stepped curve shown in Figure F-9. With the buoyancy/ground reaction mean ordinates have been calculated, the load curve ordinates are calculated in the following table and plotted in Figure F-10. Load curve ordinates for stranded FFG-7: Segment from 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 to 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Mean Buoyancy/Ground Load Ordinate Weight Ordinate Reaction Ordinate B-W lton/ft lton/ft lton/ft 4.00 1.07 -2.93 8.23 3.48 -4.75 10.88 9.39 -1.49 11.00 12.58 +1.58 14.68 23.56 +8.88 21.22 28.02 +6.80 11.68 10.69 -0.99 10.33 8.68 -1.65 7.59 5.96 -1.63 7.46 3.34 -4.12 closure check = load ordinates: -0.30
With the load curve developed, the shear ordinates are calculated by summing areas under the load curve, from left to right, i.e., from aft forward.
Shear curve ordinates for stranded FFG-7: Shear Cumulative Area to station lton 0.00 -168.10 -234.60 -301.92 -342.31 -64.87 +297.43 +361.89 +301.10 +107.30 -12.24
Station
Load Ordinate for preceding segment ton/ft 0.00 -4.12 -1.63 -1.65 -0.99 +6.80 +8.88 +1.58 -1.49 -4.75 -2.93
Area load ordinate 40.8 lton 0.00 -168.10 -66.50 -67.32 -40.39 +277.44 +362.30 +64.46 -60.79 -193.80 -119.54
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
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12 10 8.88 8 6.80 6 4 1.58 2 0 -0.99 -1.64 -1.66 -1.49 -2 -2.93 -4.12 -4.75 -4 -6 -8 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 AP FP
UNIT WEIGHT LTON/FT
Figure F-10. Load Curve for Stranded FFG-7.
The shear curve dened by these ordinates is shown in Figure F-11. Ordinates to the moment curve are calculated by summing areas under the shear curve from right to left (forward to aft) as shown below. The area under the shear curve for each segment is taken as the mean shear ordinate multiplied by the segment length. Moment curve ordinates for stranded FFG-7: Shear Ordinate Mean Shear Ordinate for preceding segment lton/ft Area mean ord 40.8 lton Bending Moment cumulative area to station lton
Station
l ton/ft
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-12.24 +107.30 +301.10 +361.89 +297.43 -64.87 -342.31 -301.92 -234.60 -168.10 0.00
-.+47.53 +204.20 +331.05 +329.66 +111.28 -203.59 -322.11 -268.26 -201.35 -84.05
0 +1939 +8351 +13525 +13450 +4744 -8306 -13142 -10945 -8215 -3489
0 1939 10270 23795 37245 41989 33683 20541 9596 1381 -2048
400 300 200

SHEAR, LTONS
100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400 20 AP 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 FP
Figure F-11. Shear Curve for Stranded FFG-7.
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The resulting bending moment curve is shown in Figure F-12. Comparing the grounded shear and bending moment curves with the still water curves (developed in Example 1-5) shows that the net effect of the grounding and ooding has been to shift the location of maximum bending moment from station 10.4 to a point slightly forward of station 10, and to increase maximum bending moment by a factor of 1.5. The maximum bending moment is still well below the design bending moment (approximately 85,000 fttons for the midlength stations, see Figure FO-4), but section modulus in the region has been reduced by bottom damage. Maximum shear forward is still near station 7, while the section of maximum shear aft has moved forward from station 14 to the vicinity of station 12. Even so, maximum shear is approximately 362 ltons. With shear so low, shear stresses are not governing strength criteria.
50,000 45,000
BENDING MOMENT, FT-TON
40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 20 AP 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 FP
Figure F-12. Bending Moment Curve for Stranded FFG-7.
Moments of inertia and heights of neutral axis for the damaged sections must be determined to calculate bending stresses. Since area, moment of inertia, and height of the neutral axis for the midships section is available from the longitudinal strength drawing, structural properties for the midships section can be calculated by deducting the damaged elements. From the longitudinal strength drawing (Figure FO-4), for station 10:
A = 1,198.32 in2 d = 15.38 ft INA = 170,416 in2 ft2 d = ay A ay = d A
ay = 15.38 (1,198.32) = 18,430.16

where:
A d INA ay
= = = =
cross-sectional area of structural members height of neutral axis above keel moment of inertia about the neutral axis summation of rst moments of area of structural elements, taken about the neutral axis
Loss of bottom strength members will cause the neutral axis to shift upward, so it is best to convert INA to IK by the parallel axis theorem, so the neutral axis for the damage section can be located as part of the moment of inertia calculation.
IK = INA + Ad 2 = 170,416 + 1,198.32 ( 15.38 2 )

= 443,872 in 2 ft 2
Areas and moments of the damaged components are summed and deducted from the intact section totals. The resulting moment and area totals are used to calculate section properties for the damaged section. The buckled and upset structure in way of "C" strake is considered partially effective by deducting area and moment for the shell plating but not the stiffeners.
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Section Modulus for FFG-7, Midships Section, by deduction: Component "C" Strake "B" Strake "A" Strake "A" Doubler Bottom Longitudinals L7 L6 L5 L4 L3 L2 L1 Total losses deductions Intact section totals (from dwg) - deducations Damaged section totals: For the damaged section: Dimensions in. 84 .375 93.25 .5 96 .375 33 .75 7 6.75 15# 7 6.75 15# 18 7.5 50# 8 7 22.5# 8 7 22.5# 9 7.5 25# 9 7.5 25#
a in2 31.50 46.63 72.00 24.75

4.42 4.42 10.60 6.63 6.63 7.33 7.33 222.24
y ft 7.000 3.000 0.875 0.500

5.500 4.500 4.250 2.750 2.000 1.500 1.000
ay in2-ft 220.50 139.89 63.00 12.38

24.31 19.89 45.05 18.23 13.26 11.00 7.33 574.84
ay2 in2-ft2 1543.50 419.67 55.13 6.19

133.71 89.50 191.46 50.14 26.52 16.49 7.33 2539.64
1198.32 -222.24 976.08
18430.16 - 574.84 17855.32
453872.00 - 2539.64 451332.36
d =
A ay
17,855.32 = 18.29 ft above thekeel 976.08
INA = IK - Ad 2 = 451,332.36 - 976.08 (18.292) = 124,810.08 in2 ft2 Zkeel = Zdeck =

124,810 = 6,824 in2 ft 18.29
INA 124,810.08 = 10,658 in2 ft ydeck (30 - 18.29)
Stations 9 and 11 can be assumed to have similar structural properties. Bending moment for station 10 was calculated; moments for station 9 and 11 are taken from the plot in Figure 11. Deck and keel bending stresses at the damaged sections are calculated as: Station Moment ft-lton 9 10 11 41000 41989 38000 Zdk in2-ft 10658 10658 10658 Deck Stress M/Zdk lton/in2 psi 3.85 3.94 3.57 8600 8800 8000 Zkeel in2-ft 6824 6824 6824 Keel Stress M/Zkeel lton/in2 psi 6.01 6.15 5.57 13500 13800 12500
Maximum stress occurs in the damaged sections, as might be expected. The stresses are not yet dangerously high, but could easily reach dangerous levels if the casualty begins to work in a strong swell. It is likely that the casualtys ability to withstand wave-induced stresses after reoating will be signicantly degraded. Maximum acceptable deck and keel bending moments are calculated by solving the beam strength equation for M:
M = Z
Calculated acceptable bending moments for the damaged sections are shown below. Maximum acceptable stress is taken as 28,000 psi (12.5 lton/in2). Maximum keel moment = max (Zkeel) = 12.5 (6,824) = 85,300 ft lton Maximum keel moment = max (Zdeck) = 12.5 (10,658) = 133,225 ft lton
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EXAMPLE F-4 RETRACTING FORCE AND POSTREFLOATING CONDITION
A tentative salvage plan calls for dewatering the eductor room and AMR 2 and retracting on a predicted +2.25-foot tide. Hull penetrations into the eductor room are small and accessible to divers and therefore easily patched. The installed drainage system is intact so the space can be easily and quickly dewatered. It is desirable to dewater AMR 2 to reduce ground reaction and to improve stability by suppressing free surface. The space has extensive unooded volume above the hightide waterline; free communication with the sea will admit additional oodwater as the ship is pulled downslope. The additional weight may offset buoyancy gained as the ship is pulled into deeper water, tending to hold constant of possibly increase ground reaction as the ship is retracted. Once aoat, ooding in both AMR 1 and AMR 2 would settle the ship to a deep draft with little reserve buoyancy. AMR 2 is served by a large eductor with piping intact. The eductor suction, remain supply, and discharge valves are operated by remote operators from the upper level that is accessible at all stages of tide. The decision not to dewater AMR 1 is based on the relative difficulty in patching the space, and several facts that make leaving the space ooded acceptable:
The top of the compartment will be below the oating waterline so there will be no free surface. The added weight low in the ship should improve stability. The FFG-7 longitudinal weight drawing shows the ship to have a net hogging moment. Added weight in the middle body should reduce bending moment. The DC Book guidance to avoid adding weight near the ends of the ship reinforces this supposition.
In support of the described retraction plan: a. b. c. Calculate the required pulling force. Calculate the casualtys draft and trim following retraction Analyze the casualtys stability following reoating and during the transition from the stranded to oating state.
a. Calculating freeing force: Tidal effect on ground reaction was calculated in Example F-1, part c. Actual buoyancy was calculated to be 3,593 lton. Combined weight of the ship and oodwater is: 3752 + 258 = 4010 Ground reaction at a +2.25-foot tide will be 4010 - 3593 = 417 long tons, provided the ship does not rotate about the forward edge of the shelf (FR 76) on the rising tide. The weight moment is plotted against the already established buoyancy moment plot (Figure F-5) to determine whether the casualty will rotate. LCG is taken as constant at 210 feet abaft FP, with lcg of AMR 1 at the center of the space (FR 196). Moment = Wrship + wrAMR1 = (3,752 134) + (258 120) = 533,728
4.25 3.75 3.25 Wr, FLOODED B1r1 "DRAFT" AT LIFTING Wr, AMR1 FLOODED
TIDE HEIGHT, FT
2.75 2.25
Wr, DEWATERED 1.75 1.25 0.75
0.25 Plotting the weight and buoyancy 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 moments as shown in Figure F-13 shows draft at lifting to correspond 5 MOMENT, FT-LTONS x 10 to a tide height of 2.3 feet. The casualty may be just beginning to rotate at high tide. Ground Figure F-13. Draft at Lifting, Partially Dewatered. reaction will probably be slightly less than the 409 tons predicted by assuming the ship does not rotate, but 409 tons is a good working estimate.
6.5
The rock shelf is relatively smooth and the ship is not impaled. These factors justify using the lowest coefficient of friction for rock (0.8) to calculate pulling force. Pulling force required is thus:
F = 1.12 R = 1.12 (0.8) (409) = 366 tons = 732,000 lbs

The pulling arrangements used should have a combined capacity of 400 to 600 tons or more to provide a margin of safety.
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b. Postretraction attitude The casualty differs from its prestranding condition by the addition of 258 tons of ood water in AMR 1. Prestranding drafts, calculated in Example F-1, are:
Tf = 14.68 ft Ta = 15.68 ft Tm = 15.18 ft TLCF = 15.24 ft

From the Curves of Form, TPI = 32.5. Parallel sinkage from ooding is: TLCF = W 258 = 7.94 in = 0.66 ft = TPI 32.5
TLCF,reoated = TLCF,prestranding TLCF = 15.24 0.66 = 15.9 ft

The Curves of Form indicate that TPI is virtually unchanged over this range of drafts, that LCF remains about 24 feet abaft midships, and give MT1 for the two drafts as:
MT115.2 = MT115.9 =
769 790
Average MT1 over the change in LCF draft is (790 + 769)/2 = 779.5. Center of gravity of the oodwater can be taken as midlength of AMR 1, frame 196, giving a trim arm of 228 - 196 = 32 feet. Change of trim from ooding is: t =
MT MT1
(258 32) = 10.59 = 0.88 ft by the bow 779.5
Reoating forward and after drafts are calculated: 228 228 Tf = Parallel sinkage + t = 0.66 ft + 0.88 ft = 1.15 ft 408 408 180 180 Ta = Parallel sinkage - t = 0.66 ft - 0.88 ft = 0.27 ft 408 408
Tf,reoated = Tf,prestrand + Tf = 14.68 + 1.15 = 15.83 ft Ta,reoated = Ta,prestrand + Ta = 15.68 - 0.27 = 15.95 ft Ta + Tf
2 (15.95 15.83) = 15.89 ft 2
Tm,reoated =
The predicted drafts are greater than the height of the overhead of AMR 1 (13 feet), conrming that the space remains solidly ooded after reoating.
c. Stability analysis From the Curves of Form (for TLCF = 15.9 ft):
KB KM
= 9.8 ft = 22.22 ft
KG is adjusted for the weight of oodwater in AMR 1, using prestranding weight and KG (calculated in Example F-2) as the point of departure. Center of gravity of the oodwater is taken as 0.65 times the average compartment depth (12 feet).
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KGreoated =
(W KG)prestrand + (w + kg)AMR 1
W + wAMR 1
(3,752 19.005) + (258 7.8) = 3,752 + 258 = 18.28 ft
GMuncorr = KM - KG = 22.22 - 18.28 = 3.94 ft

The liquid load status has not changed, so KG and GM are subject (worst case) to the free surface correction that was calculated in Example F-2 to be 0.65 foot:
KGcorr = KG + GG1,free surf = 18.28 + 0.65 = 18.93 GMcorr = KM - KGcorr = 22.22 - 18.93 = 3.29 ft
The ship will have good initial stability when reoated with AMR 1 ooded, as shown by the large GM. There is no offcenter ooding or other weight shift, so the ship should oat with no list. To determine the stability during transition, the "drafts" at lifting and instability must be compared. Draft at lifting was calculated to correspond to a tide height 2.3 feet above datum in part a. of this example. The vertical weight moment with the eductor room and AMR 1 dewatered is: Vertical weight moment = WKGcorr = 4010 18.93 = 75,909 ft-ton
+3
TIDE HEIGHT ABOVE DATUM, FT
+2
DRAFT AT INSTABILITY = 1.4 KM1B1 WKGCORR, AMR1 FLOODED
+1
0 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5
MOMENT x 104
Figure F-14. Draft at Instability.
Plotting the weight moment against the vertical buoyancy moment in Figure F-14 shows the draft at instability to correspond to a tide height 1.4 feet above low tide datum. This is lower than the draft at lifting by nearly a foot. Slowly dragging the ship into deeper water is statically equivalent to raising water depth around her, as in a dry dock. The ship will pass from her unstable draft range through the draft at instability into the stable draft range before she begins to rise from the shelf. Large free surface, however, will cause a virtual rise in KG, increasing the effective weight moment. AMR 1 is solidly ooded with no free surface and will remain so after reoating. AMR 2, however, has a large free surface. The ship may be unstable if retracted with AMR 2 partially ooded after the eductor room has been dewatered. The prudent course is to ensure that AMR 2 is completely dewatered before attempting to retract the ship at high tide.
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EXAMPLE F-5 POSTREFLOATING SEAWORTHINESS EVALUATION
Following retraction, the casualty must be towed several hundred miles to a repair facility. Perform thorough stability and strength analyses to evaluate the casualtys seaworthiness. a. Stability analysis A thorough stability analysis consists of: Comparison of drafts, displacement, KG, KB, KM, and GM to operating guidance such as that contained in the Damage Control Book Examination of the statical stability curve Comparison of stability parameters to established standards An initial subjective analysis indicates that the ship has fairly good stability. Stability and trim data calculated in Example F-4 are summarized below: Draft forward,Tf Draft aft, Ta Mean draft, Tm Draft at LCF, TLCF Height of Center of Buoyancy, KB Height of Metacenter, KM Height of Center of Gravity, KGuncorr Metacentric height, GMuncorr Free surface correction for liquid load KG corrected for free surface, KGcorr GM corrected for free surface, GMcorr = = = = = = = = = = = 15.83 ft 15.95 ft 15.89 ft 15.9 ft 9.8 ft 22.22 ft 18.28 ft 3.94 ft 0.65 ft 18.93 ft 3.29 ft
The limiting drafts (16 2" forward and midships, 16 8" aft) have not been exceeded, nor has the limiting displacement of 4,100 long tons. KG is lower than the allowable KG of 18.67 feet (see DC Book excerpts in Appendix H for limiting parameters). The decreased trim by the stern will reduce righting arms slightly by emerging the fuller waterlines aft. The initial analysis is conrmed by constructing and examining the stability curve. The cross curves of stability were developed for an assumed KG of 19 feet, so a sine correction is required. Liquid free surface can be accounted for by using KGcorr to calculate the sine correction. The calculated free surface correction probably overestimates the free surface effect; liquid surface moments of inertia calculated by assuming rectangular form are larger than actual moments of inertia. No allowance for pocketing was taken even though all but 3 major tanks are either empty or 95 percent full (excluding 95-percent full tanks gives a free surface correction of about 0.15 feet). The high estimate for free surface correction provides a safety margin. The DC book uses a 0.3-foot free surface correction for a very similar liquid load condition. FFG-7 Righting Arms After Reoating:
W = 4010 lton, KGcorr = 18.93
GZuncorr
0.57 1.18 1.49 1.84 2.47 2.60 2.61 2.52 2.34
sin
Correction 0.07 sin 0.012 0.024 0.030 0.035 0.045 0.049 0.054 0.057 0.061
GZcorr
0.58 1.20 1.52 1.88 2.51 2.65 2.66 2.58 2.40
Righting Moment GZcorr 4,010 1889 4812 6094 7819 10185 10625 10681 10335 9626
10 20 25 30 40 45 50 55 60
0.1736 0.3420 0.4226 0.5000 0.6428 0.7071 0.7660 0.8192 0.8660
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The stability curve plotted in Figure F-15 shows the following: Approximate range of positive stability . . . . Maximum righting arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Angle of maximum righting arm . . . . . . . . . Approximate angle of deck edge immersion Stability Criteria: U.S. Navy Wind Heel A wind heel curve of 0.0035(1002)AH /W (see Paragraph C-2.1.1 for discussion) is included in the FFG7 Damage Control Book. The wind heel value for a displacement of 4,010 tons is 1.53. The standard (100 knot) wind heel arm for any angle is thus: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 deg 2.62 ft 47 deg 28 deg
4 W = 4010 LTON KG = 18.93 FT 3 GM 3.3 FT 2
Lw = 1.53cos2
The heeling arm curve is plotted with the stability curve in Figure F16, showing the following: Static heel angle: 22 deg (approx) Heel arm at intersection of righting and heeling arm curves:
GZ, H
1 57.3 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
HEEL ANGLE, DEG
Figure F-15. FFG-7 Stability Curve.

1.3 = 0.469GZmax < 0.6GZmax 2.62 Areas A1 and A2 are calculated by 5 ordinate Simpsons Rule integration.
A =
h ( y1 + 4 y2 + 2 y3 + 4 y4 + y5 ) 3
3 25
GZ, FT
RIGHTING ARM
Area A1 extendes over 51.5 degrees for a ve-ordinate Simpsons rule; ordinates are measured every 12.63 degrees, and
12.63 A1 = 0 + 4(1.15) + 2(1.95) + 4(1.8) + 0 3 = 66.1 ft deg
2 Y2 1 Y5 0 Y4 A2 Y3 Y2 Y1 = 0 Y3
A1 Y4 HEELING ARM
Y5 = 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
A2 extends over 25 degrees; ordinates are measured every 6.25 degrees, and
6.25 0 + 4(0.5) + 2(0.95) + 4(1.3) + 1.7 = 22.5 ft deg 3 66.1 = 2.94 > 1.4 22.5
HEEL ANGLE, DEG
Figure F-16. FFG-7 Stability and Wind Heel Curves.
A2 = A1 A2
=
The casualty exceeds the Navy 100-knot beam wind stability criteria, and has sufficient stability for open ocean towing. b. Strength analysis Strength analysis for the tow is primarily concerned with the casualtys ability to withstand wave induced stresses. The casualty is rst examined to determine if she can withstand the standard 1.1 L trochoidal wave with wavelength equal to ships length. Coordinates for the trochoidal wave form are developed from the relationships:
x = L y = h
sin + h 360 2
1 - cos 2 x and y coordinates are determined for values of from 0 to 360 in 30-degree increments.
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Trochoidal wave coordinates for h = 1.1 4 0 8 = 22.22 ft, = L = 408 ft: degrees 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
x ft
0.0 39.55 77.62 113.10 145.61 175.54 203.99 232.43 262.36 294.87 330.35 368.41 407.96
y ft
0.0 1.49 5.55 11.11 16.66 20.73 22.22 20.73 16.67 11.11 5.56 1.49 0.00
A hogging wave will cause the highest bending moments for this ship. The hogging condition is also the most critical because it places the damaged lower ange of the hull girder in compressionfailure by buckling is possible at stresses below the yield point. The x reference is either perpendicular. A straight baseline is established as a y reference datum. For a hogging wave, the trochoidal y values are added to the baseline height. For a sagging wave, the y values are deducted. Only the hogging condition will be examined in this example, calculations for the sagging condition are similar. For a rst estimate, the line of centers of the wave is placed r 2/2R below the still waterline (see Paragraph 1-11.3.1). For a 1.1 L wave, r 2/2R is equal to 0.785h 2 /L:
0.785 h 2 0.785 22.222 = 0.95 ft = L 408
The y reference is thus placed h/2 plus 0.95 feet (11.11 + 0.95 = 12.06 feet) below mean draft, i.e., at a draft of 15.9 - 12.06 = 3.84 feet. The y values are converted to drafts by adding 3.84. Drafts at even stations are determined either by carefully plotting the curve, or by linear interpolation. The wave dened by the coordinates is superimposed on the ship prole in Figure FO-5. Section areas taken from the Bonjeans Curves are integrated to determine buoyancy and LCB. The wave "baseline" is moved up or down and trimmed until buoyancy returned by integration equals weight and LCB coincides with LCG. As before, the integration returns a without appendages volume of displacement. The weight and weight distribution, on the other hand, include appendages. The discrepancy can be resolved either by nding the actual drafts and multiplying by a correction factor to get accurate buoyancy values, or by simply assuming a deeper draft than actually exists. The latter method involves fewer calculations and is used here. The integration for the rst estimate wave is shown below: Section area integration on trochoidal wave prole, wave height = 22.22 feet at midships, baseline = 3.84 feet forward and aft, 0 trim: Station Draft T ft 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 3.84 5.44 9.98 16.56 23.09 26.06 23.09 16.56 9.98 5.44 3.84 Ordinate (Section Area) A ft2 0 16 153 432 815 1023 860 469 90 0 0
h = 40.8 ft
= =
Simpsons multiplier
Functions of Volume (V)
Lever
Functions of Moment (M)
m
1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1
s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 64 306 1728 1630 4092 1720 1876 180 0 0 (V) = 11,596
0 64 612 5,184 6,520 20,460 10,320 13,132 1,440 0 0 (M) = 57,732
h 3
f (V ) =
40.8 (11,844) = 157,705.6 ft3 3
157,705.6 = = 4,602.24 4,506 lton 35 35
LCB = h
f (M ) 40.8 (57,732 = = 203.13 ft from FP f (V ) 11,596
= 203.13 = 0.87 ft forward of midships
Ships weight with AMR 1 ooded was determined to be 4,010 lton in Example F-4. LCG for the prestranding condition was taken to be 210 feet abaft FP, lcg of the oodwater was taken as the midlength of AMR 1 (FR 196). LCG, as reoated is: The rst integration has returned a buoyancy value considerably in excess of the ships weight, with LCB nearly 6 feet forward of LCG. The wave baseline must be lowered and trimmed by the stern until buoyancy approximates weight and LCB is within one foot of LCG. After a number of
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LCG =
(W LCG )ship + (w lcg)AMR1
W + w
(3,752 210) + (258 196) = 209.10 ft fromFP = 4,010
iterations, the following integration is returned: Section area integration on trochoidal wave prole, wave height = 22.22 feet at midships, baseline = -1.0 ft at FP, 5.5 ft at AP, trim = 6.5 ft Station Draft Ordinate (Section Area) A ft2 0 0 81 335 717 936 817 458 100 0 0
h = 40.8 ft
= =
T ft
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 -1.0 1.25 6.44 13.67 20.85 24.25 22.15 16.27 10.34 6.45 5.50
Simpsons multiplier m 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1 (V) =
Functions of Volume (V) 0 0 162 1340 1434 3744 1634 1832 200 0 0 10346
Lever s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (M)
Functions of Moment (M) 0 0 324 4020 5736 18720 9804 12824 1600 0 0 = 53028
h 3
f (V ) =
40.8 (10,346) = 140,705.6 ft 3
140,705.6 = = 4,020.16 4,020 lton 35 35
LCB = h
f (M ) 40.8(53,028) = = = 209.12 ft from FP f (V ) 10,346
= 209.12- 204 = 5.12 ft abaft midships
Ordinates to the weight curve are developed from the weight curve used in Example F-3 for the stranded condition by deducting the weight of oodwater in AMR 2 and the eductor room. The adjusted ordinates are calculated from the summarized differences as shown below. Weight ordinates, adjusted for differences from 1/3 Consumed Stores and ooding: Segment (stations) from 2 10 to 4 12 Old Ordinate ton/ft 8.23 21.22 EDRM AMR 2 Item Weights to Deduct ltons -10.00 -352.00 Distributed Load Weight/20.4 ltons/ft -0.25 -8.63 New Ordinate Old Ord Difference lton/ft 7.98 12.59
An integration is performed with the adjusted ordinates to verify that the area under the curve and its centroid correspond to the ships weight and LCG. Weight curve integration to verify W and LCG: Station from 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 to 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Ordinate y ton/ft 4.00 7.98 10.88 11.00 14.68 12.59 11.68 10.33 7.59 7.46 Length l ft 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 40.8 Area A yl ton 163.20 325.58 443.90 448.80 598.94 513.67 476.54 421.46 309.67 304.37 A = 4006.13
lcg (mid segment)

ft 20.4 61.2 102.0 142.8 183.6 224.4 265.2 306.0 346.8 387.6
Moment M lcg A ft-ton 3,329 19,925 45,278 64,089 109,965 115,268 126,378 128,967 107,394 117,974 M = 838,567
centroid = M/A = 838,567/4006.13 = 209.32 ft from FP = 209.32 - 204 = 5.32 ft abaft midships Total weight given by integration is within 4 tons of the actual weight and within 14 tons of the buoyancy calculated by integration. LCG and LCB are separated by 5.32 - 5.12 = 0.20 foot, and are within a similar distance of LCG as calculated by summing ship and oodwater weight moments. The weight and buoyancy ordinates are sufficiently accurate for longitudinal strength calculations. Ordinates to the load curve are determined
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As the section area ordinates describe a smooth, continuous curve, mean buoyancy ordinates are taken as the average of the ordinates at the bounding stations, converted to unit buoyancy. Average ordinates are determined and converted to unit buoyancy by dividing by 35 in a single operation: Segment 0- 2 2- 4 4- 6 6- 8 8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14 14 - 16 16 - 18 18 - 20 Mean ordinate calculation: (0 + 0)/2 (0 + 81/35)/2 (81 + 335)/(35 2) (335 + 717)/70 (717 + 936)/70 (936 + 817)/70 (817 + 458)/70 (458 + 100)/70 (100 + 0)/70 (0 + 0)/2 = = = = = = = = = = 0 ton/ft 1.16 ton/ft 5.94 ton/ft 15.03 ton/ft 23.61 ton/ft 25.04 ton/ft 18.21 ton/ft 7.97 ton/ft 1.43 ton/ft 0 ton/ft
28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 20 AP
UNIT WEIGHT LTON/FT
BUOYANCY WEIGHT
18
16
14
12
10
0 FP
14 12 12.45 10 8 6.93 6.53 6 4.03 4 2 LOAD 0 -2.36 -2 -4.00 -4 -4.94 -6 -7.46 -6.16 -6.82 -8 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 AP FP
UNIT WEIGHT LTON/FT
Figure F-17. Weight, Wave Buoyancy, and Load Curves for Refloated FFG-7.
Plotting the mean buoyancy ordinates produces the stepped curve shown in Figure F-17. The load curve ordinates are calculated in the following table and plotted in Figure F-17.
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Load curve ordinates for stranded FFG-7: Segment from 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 to 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Weight Ordinate lton/ft 4.00 7.98 10.88 11.00 14.68 12.59 11.68 10.33 7.59 7.46 Mean Buoyancy Ordinate Load Ordinate B-W lton/ft lton/ft 0 -4.00 1.16 -6.82 5.94 -4.94 15.03 +4.03 23.61 +8.93 25.04 +12.45 18.21 +6.53 7.97 -2.36 1.43 -6.16 0 -7.46 closure check = load ordinates: +0.20
With the load curve developed, the shear ordinates are calculated by summing areas under the load curve, from left to right, i.e., from aft forward. Shear curve ordinates for reoated FFG-7 with 1.1 L wave: Station 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Load Ordinate for preceding segment lton/ft 0.00 -7.46 -6.16 -2.36 +6.53 +12.45 +8.93 +4.03 -4.94 -6.82 -4.00 Area load ordinate 40.8 lton 0.00 -304.37 -251.33 -96.29 +266.42 +507.96 +364.34 +164.42 -201.55 -278.26 -163.20 Shear Cumulative Area to station lton 0.00 -304.37 -555.70 -651.99 -385.57 +122.39 +486.73 +651.15 +449.60 +171.34 8.14
800 700 600 500 400 300 200

SHEAR, LTONS
80,000 MOMENT SHEAR 70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 -10,000 -20,000 -30,000 -40,000 -50,000 -60,000 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 -70,000 0 FP
BENDING MOMENT, FT-TON
100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400 -500 -600 -700 20 AP
Figure F-18. Wave Shear and Bending Moment for Refloated FFG-7.
The shear curve dened by these ordinates is shown in Figure F-18. Ordinates to the moment curve are calculated by summing areas under the shear curve from right to left (forward to aft) as shown below. The area under the shear curve for each segment is taken as the mean shear ordinate multiplied by the segment length.
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Moment curve ordinates for stranded FFG-7: Station Shear Ordinate lton/ft -8.14 +171.34 +449.60 +651.15 +486.73 +122.39 -385.57 -651.99 -555.70 -304.37 0.00 Mean Shear Ordinate for preceding segment lton/ft -.+89.74 +310.47 +550.38 +568.94 +304.56 -131.59 -518.78 -603.84 -430.04 -152.19 Area mean ord 40.8 lton 0 +3661 +12667 +22455 +23213 +12426 -5369 -21166 -24637 -17546 -6209 Bending Moment cumulative area to station lton 0 3661 16328 38783 61996 74422 69053 47887 23250 5704 -505
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Both the shear and the moment curve close quite well. Bending moments are lower than those calculated for the standard wave at full load weight (4,224 tons, see Figure FO-4), probably because of the lower total weight, because the weight of oodwater amidships tends to reduce hogging, and because the redistribution of weight in a 10-segment curve tends to mitigate the effect of concentrated loads on the moment curve. Girder strength has been reduced by bottom damage, however (Example F-3). Bending moment approaches the calculated maximum acceptable value. Stresses in the damaged sections are: Station Moment
INA
cdk
DK Stress Mcdk/INA lton/in2 6.29 6.98 6.66
ckeel
Keel Stress Mckeel/INA lton/in2 9.82 10.91 10.40
9 10 11
ft-lton 67,100 74,422 71,000
in2-ft2 124,810 124,810 124,810
ft 11.71 11.71 11.71
ft 18.29 18.29 18.29
It can be seen that the 1.1 L wave places high stresses on the keel. The stresses exceed 75 percent of the hull yield stress (32,000 psi = 14.28 lton/in2), leaving little margin for cyclic stresses, undiscovered damage, and other unknowns. Stress levels that might have been marginally acceptable in the more or less benign stranding or still water environment are quite unacceptable in the constantly changing environment of the open ocean. Wave height that will result in not more than one-half the maximum acceptable bending moment should be determined and a tow route selected to avoid higher waves. Tow route planning can be accomplished by requesting Optimum Track Ship Routing (OTSR) through eet weather centers, or referring to local weather authorities. If there is low probability of avoiding excessive wave heights, the casualty should be strengthened before a long ocean tow or transported by a heavy lift transport type ship. Rather than perform another tedious set of integrations to determine acceptable wave parameters, Figures 1-79 and 1-81 are used to estimate maximum acceptable wavelength and wave height. Maximum stress from the standard wave is 10.91 lton/in2, approximately 24,500 psi, and: 24,500 32,000 = 0.766 77% of yield
Maximum acceptable stress is 50 percent of yield, so the ratio of stresses for the maximum acceptable wave is: 50% 77% = 0.649
Hull stresses vary directly as bending moment, so the ratio of stresses is also the ratio of bending moments. From Figure 1-79, wavelength corresponding to a wave moment to standard wave moment ratio of 0.65 is approximately 0.6 for both hogging and sagging. Maximum acceptable wavelength is thus sixtenths of the standard wavelength (length between perpendiculars): Max acceptable wavelength = 0.6(408) = 245 ft Figure 1-81 plots normalized wave bending moment as a function of wave height to standard wave height ratio. For a ratio of wave bending moment to standard wave moment of 0.649: Wave bending moment (WBM) = = 0.649 (Standard bending moment) 0.649 (74,422) = 48,230 ft-lton
and the normalized bending moment (NBM) is:
NBM =
WBM 35 L 2B h
(48,230) 35 = 0.0099 0.01 408 2 ( 45.92) 22.22 For a ship with CB of 0.46, NBM of 0.01 corresponds to a wave height to standard wave height ratio of 0.6. Maximum acceptable wave height is six-tenths that of the standard wave: = Max acceptable wave height = 0.6(22.22) = 13.332 The tow route should avoid areas where higher long period waves are predicted, although higher waves with wavelengths less than 245 feet should not cause dangerous stresses.
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APPENDIX G ANCHORING SYSTEMS

G-1 INTRODUCTION
This appendix discusses anchoring systems by type, performance, holding capacity, and design, as commonly used in salvage operations. An anchoring system consists of the anchor itself, the mooring line that transmits forces from moored vessels or pulling systems to the anchor, and an attachment point or tensioning system on the moored vessel or work platform. The anchor line normally consists of chain, wire rope, or some combination of the two, but may include ber line or rigid elements. The anchor provides the majority of the resistance to motion, or holding capacity, but the contribution of portions of the anchor line buried in or lying on the seaoor may be signicant, especially with chain. The portion of anchoring system outboard of the attachment point or tensioning system, including the anchor, anchor line, and other ancillary devices, is sometimes called the ground leg.
(a) DRAG-EMBEDMENT
(c) GRAPPLING
(b) DEADWEIGHT
(d) DIRECT-EMBEDMENT
(e) PILE
Figure G-1. Simplified Anchor Types.
Anchors can be roughly divided into ve types, as shown in Figure G-1:
Drag-embedment anchors, Deadweight anchors or clumps, Grappling devices, Direct-embedment anchors, and Pile anchors.
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Suitability of the ve anchor types for various conditions is given in Table G-1. Advantages and disadvantages of various anchor types are given in Table G-2. Detailed information on anchor performance, applicability, and use can be obtained from the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (Code L 42) Port Hueneme, California, telephone (805) 982-9419 or AUTOVON 3605419. Specialty anchors, such as propellantembedment or large drag-embedment anchors, can be procured through the Ocean Engineering and Construction Project Office, Chesapeake Division, Naval Facilities Command (Code FPO-1), telephone (202) 433-3881 or AUTOVON 288-3881. Determination of holding power of deadweight, direct-embedment, and pile anchors require an understanding of basic soil mechanics. The discussions of these types of anchors (Paragraphs G-3, G-5, and G-6) draws heavily on the information presented in Paragraph 3-7. The information on direct-embedment and pile anchors is presented to enable the salvage engineer to conduct preliminary evaluations of the feasibility of these anchor types for use in various salvage situations. Whenever possible, the assistance of a marine geotechnical engineer should be sought if it appears that directembedment or pile anchors may be particularly suited to a salvage requirement.
Table G-1. Comparison of Anchor Types.
Item Seafloor Material Soft clay, mud Soft clay layer (0-20 ft) over hard layer Stiff clay Sand Hard glacial till Boulders Soft rock or coral Hard, massive rock Seafloor Topography Slope < 10 degrees Slope > 10 degrees Loading Direction Omnidirectional Unidirectional Large uplift Lateral Load Range To 100,000 lbs 100,000 - 1,000,000 lbs Over 1,000,000 lbs
Deadweight Pile
DirectDragGrappling embedment embedment ++ o ++ ++ ++ o ++ + ++ + ++ ++ + o + o o o o o + ++ ++
++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
+ ++ ++ ++ ++ o ++ +
++ o
++ ++
++ ++
++ o
++ ++ ++
++ ++ ++
++ ++ ++
o ++ o
o ++ ++
++ + o
+ ++ ++
++ + o
++ ++ o
++ o o
++ Functions well + Functions well, but not normally the best choice o Does not function well
Table G-2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Anchor Types.

Drag-embedment Anchors
Advantages High capacity (> 100,000 lbs) possible. Broad range of types and sizes available. Standard, off-the-shelf equipment. Broad use experience. Continuous resistance can be provided even if maximum capacity is exceeded. Anchor is recoverable.
Deadweight Anchors
Advantages Resists uplift, allowing short mooring line scope. No setting distance is required. Anchor is reliable because most holding force is due to anchor mass. Simple, on-site construction is feasible. Size is limited only by load-handling equipment. Economical if material is readily available. Reliable on thin sediment cover over rock. Mooring line connection is easy to inspect and service.
Pile Anchors
Advantages High capacity (>100,000 lbs) possible. Resists uplift, allowing short mooring line scopes. Anchor setting is not required. Dragging is eliminated. Drilled and grouted piles are especially suited for hard coral or rock seaoors. Simple, on-site construction is feasible. Anchor does not protrude above seaoor. Driven piles are cost-competitive with other high-capacity anchors when driving equipment is available. Comes in a wide range of sizes and shapes, such as pipe and structural shapes. Field modications permit piles to be tailored to suit particular requirements. Accurate anchor placement is possible. Can be driven into layered seaoor. Disadvantages
Direct-embedment Anchors
Advantages High capacity (> 100,000 lbs) is possible. Resists uplift, allowing short mooring line scopes. Dragging is eliminated. Has higher holding capacity-to-weight ratio than any other type. Easier handling due to relatively light weight. Can function on moderate slopes and hard seaoors.1 Easier installation due to possible instant embedment on seaoor contact.1 Accurate placement is possible. Anchor does not protrude above seaoor. Can accommodate layered seaoors or seaoors with variable resistance.
Disadvantages Anchor cannot resist uplift; large line scopes are needed to cause near horizontal loading at seaoor. Does not function in hard seaoors. Behavior is erratic in layered seaoors. Penetrating/dragging anchor can damage pipelines, cables, etc.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages Susceptible to cyclic load-strength reduction when used in taut moorings in loose sand or coarse silt seaoors. For critical moorings, knowledge of soil engineering properties is required. Anchor typically is not recoverable. Special consideration is needed for ordnance.1 Anchor cable is susceptible to abrasion and fatigue.1 Gun system is not generally recoverable in deep water (> 1,000 ft) Surface vessel must maintain position during installation.
1
Lateral load resistance is low compared to Taut moorings may aggravate ship other anchor types. response to waves (low resilience).1 Usable water depth is reduced; Drilled and grouted installation is expensive deadweight can be an undesirable and requires special skills and equipment. obstruction. Costs increase rapidly in deep water or Requires large-capacity load-handling exposed locations where special installation equipment for placement. vessels are required. Special equipment (pile extractor) is required to retrieve or refurbish the mooring. More extensive site data are required than for other anchor types. Pile-driving equipment must maintain position during installation.
1
True for any taut mooring
Propellent-embedded anchor
From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
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G-2 DRAG-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS
Drag-embedment anchors (or drag anchors) are used for temporary moorings and as anchor points for beach gear, parbuckling rigs, or other pulling systems. Drag anchors are generally known by manufacturers tradenames. Drag-embedment anchor performance is discussed in detail in Appendix G and Paragraph 6-3.4 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010); Paragraph 7-2.2.1 of that manual describes and illustrates the six anchorsNAVMOOR, Stato, Eells, LWT, Danforth, and Stocklesscommonly used for Navy moorings and beach gear. The following paragraphs supplement the Salvage Manual discussion, and provide performance data for some commercial anchors not described in the manual. The underwater weight of an anchor is less than dry weight because of the difference in buoyancy, but performance criteria are usually based on dry weight. Advertised or tabulated anchor weights are nominal and may differ from actual weight by as much as 15 percent; for example, a 6,000-pound NAVMOOR anchor actually weighs about 7,200 pounds. G-2.1 Function. A properly functioning drag-embedment anchor is lowered or dropped to the seaoor and pulled along the bottom until it tripsrotates to a position where the uke or ukes are forced into the seabedpenetrates the seaoor, and embeds itself to the depth required to develop its maximum holding capacity. Successful deployment depends on several factors, including anchor geometry, anchor line length, and soil conditions. Seemingly minor features can affect anchor performance dramatically. The following paragraphs discuss the effects of various aspects of anchor geometry on anchor performance. See Paragraph 3-7 for a discussion of soil properties. G-2.1.1 Tripping. In general, anchors with heavy crowns, small or nonexistent tripping palms, or those with the shank/uke hinge far back on the uke exhibit tripping problems. Examples of anchors with these inherent features and attendant lack of tripping reliability include Stockless, LWT, and Stevx (see Figure G-8). Tripping problems occur most often in soft soils and are overcome by proper anchor selection and deployment. Two platforms are required to deploy a ground leg so that there is a high probability of trippingone platform to pay out the ground leg, and one to handle, lower, and position the anchor for digging in when the anchor line is tensioned. Paragraph G-2.1.1. of the U.S Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) describes this process in greater detail. G-2.1.2 Penetration. During penetration, the ukes dig into the soil under the action of the anchors weight, horizontal traction exerted by the anchor line on the shank, T and soil reaction on the ukes and other F surfaces, as shown in Figure G-2. W = ANCHOR WEIGHT Penetration is complete when the when the F = SOIL REACTION ON FLUKES W upper level of the ukes is ush with the T = GROUND LEG TENSION seaoor surface. The angle formed by the ukes and shank when fully opened (uke angle, ) is one of the most important Figure G-2. Forces Affecting Anchor Penetration. factors governing anchor penetration. For a given anchor geometry and soil combination, there is a critical or optimum uke angle, c. For uke angles less than the critical angle, penetration is possible, but is hindered by the formation of a rigid wedge of soil that adheres to the ukes and increases resistance to penetration. The soil is sheared along a line at the outer edge of the soil wedge on the ukes; the soil failure line forms an angle with the uke. When the uke angle varies, the sum + remains fairly constant. The practical consequence of this process is the formation of a ball of soil that retards penetration as it is pushed along ahead of the anchor. When the uke angle is approximately equal to the critical angle, penetration is accomplished by simple shearing of the soil along a surface close to and approximately parallel to the uke surface. The angle is reduced to 0, and the soil wedge to a thin boundary layer. If the uke angle is greater than the critical uke angle, the ukes rotate sharply and the rear of the anchor rises above the seaoor, and the anchor tends to break out and may overturn and drag on one side. Without stabilizers, the anchor will slide on the side of the ukes and not reset or penetrate. For most articulated, reversible anchors, critical uke angle is approximately:
30 to 35 degrees in granular soils (sand, gravel), 50 degrees in soft soils (mud, silt, soft clay), and 25 to 30 degrees in stiff clays.
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PRESENCE OF ELEMENTS LARGER THAN (IN):
Anchor penetration is also inhibited by the presence of large soil elements and the relative stiffness of cohesive soils. Figures G-3 and G-4 illustrate the probability of anchor penetration as functions of anchor weight and soil features. G-2.1.3 Burial. After initial penetration of a properly functioning anchor, the tractive force exerted by the anchor line mobilizes soil forces (drag) on various surfaces of the anchor:
0 0.01
PE N ET R AT O ION F LA HA R M G P E ER EL E EM D ENBY TS PR ES EN C E
Fluke roughness determines the inclination (B) of the soil reaction on the uke. For rough ukes (cast steel, ribbed ukes, etc.), the stress inclination is essentially the same as the soils internal friction angle. For smooth ukes (rust-free plate), the stress inclination is much smaller than the friction angle and seldom greater than 25 degrees. The smaller stress inclination makes the uke more resistant to the formation of the rigid soil wedge; critical uke angle is greater, broadening the range of soils for which the anchor is suited.
8
ANCHORS DO NOT PENETRATE
ANCHORS PENETRATE
0.1 1.0 10 ANCHOR WEIGHT, TONS
100
ADAPTED FROM THE USE OF ANCHORS IN OFFSHORE PETROLEUM OPERATIONS, ALAIN PUECH, GULF PUBLISHING CO., 1984
Figure G-3. Anchor Penetration in Coarse-Grained Soils.
Because of geometry and angle of attack, the vertical component of the soil resistance to horizontal movement on the ukes is directed downwards.
SOIL COHESION (LB/FT2)
4,000
ANCHORS DO NOT PENETRATE
3,000
The vertical component of drag forces on the shank, anchor line, stocks/stabilizers, palms, etc., is directed upwards.
2,000
The anchor will bury itself until it reaches a depth where the upward forces balance the downward forces. Resistance forces increase rapidly with depth, as soil strength increases and length of embedded anchor line increases. As burial depth increases, the anchor rotates because the shank tends to align itself with the anchor line and the downward component of the soil forces on the ukes decreases. Most reversible anchors cannot be buried in dense sands or stiff clays because soil shear strength is too high to permit penetration of the shank, anchor line, and stabilizers. Specialized anchors have been developed that are capable of burial in stiff soils.
1,000
0 0.01
0.1
PE B NE U T T R N AT O I T O G N U P A O R S A S N S TE IB ED LE
ANCHORS PENETRATE
1.0
10
100
ANCHOR WEIGHT (TONS)

Figure G-4. Anchor Penetration in Stiff Soils.
Fluke angle affects burial in much the same way that it affects penetration. Optimum burial angle is generally slightly smaller than critical penetration angle. Overall streamlining enhances anchor burial. The crown, palms, shank, and stock or stabilizers especially inhibit burial, especially if they are located forward on the anchor so as to interfere with the plastic ow of soil over the ukes. Since these features are necessary to the functioning of the anchor, they cannot be eliminated. In some anchorssuch as the Hookcrown, palms, and stabilizers are placed to the rear of the anchor, under the uke, to minimize resistance to burial. Anchors of this type are unilateral, and must be lowered to the seaoor to ensure tripping and penetration. The bearing area of the underside of the shank is the major surface resisting burial, and the rst to come into play in most anchors. The greater the bearing area of the shank, the greater the resistance to burial. In general, if the ratio of shank bearing area to uke area is greater than 0.13, burial is not possible. Minimum shank cross-sectional area is set by design holding capacity; bearing area is minimized in various anchor designs by using short shanks and/or beveling the edges of the shanks at about 45 degrees.
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EFFICIENCY e = T/W
Anchor line characteristics affect burial depth signicantly. For equal breaking strengths, the maximum cross section of chain is several times more than that of wire rope; chain will create more drag and resist burial to a greater degree than wire rope. Anchors on wire rope will achieve greater burial depth, and therefore greater holding capacity than the same anchor on chain. The increase in holding capacity of the anchor may be offset by the decrease in the holding capacity of the buried portion of the anchor line. Anchors and/or the anchor line can be tted with special burial devices that increase the area producing downward components of soil resisting forces. Typical devices include auxiliary plates tted to the forward part of the shank (making the anchor unilateral), uke extenders, and anchor line depressors. Anchor line depressors are streamlined steel castings that enhance burial of the anchor line, with an active area of about 30 percent of the anchors uke area, and weight of about 10 percent of anchor weight. One manufacturer claims that three depressors in series can double the holding power of a Bruce anchor.
RATED EFFICIENCY
ANCHOR DRAGGING AT CONSTANT DEPTH AND TENSION W F T L = = = = ANCHOR WEIGHT FLUKE LENGTH ANCHOR LINE TENSION DISTANCE DEEP BURIAL
SOFT CLAY
PENETRATION WITHOUT BURIAL
3 2 INSTABILITY 1 TRIPPING DEFECT 2 4 6 8
RELATIVE DRAG DISTANCE, L/F

Figure G-5. Holding Capacity Plots for Different Anchor Behavior.
Burial and development of holding capacity can be monitored with a tensiometer. As the ground leg is tensioned, tension is plotted against drag distance as shown in Figure G-5. If tension increases steadily (exponentially), the anchor has tripped and is penetrating. If the tension indicator uctuates or remains static, tripping and/or burial is incomplete. Dragging should be halted and the anchor reset. G-2.1.4 Stability. A stable anchor can be pulled over long distances (several times its dimensions) without lying on its site, overturning, or breaking out of the seabed. After penetration and burial, traction force is essentially constant. There are two types of instability:
Lateral instability rotation about the axis of the shank/anchor line, occurring most often during penetration, but also during dragging, causing the anchor to move upwards and possibly break out of the seabed. Vertical instability the anchor moves upward in a vertical plane dened by the shank/anchor line at the end of penetration or while dragging, either by translation or rotation about a horizontal axis through the shank attachment point.
Lateral instability is usually related to anchor geometry. Anchors with very long and narrow ukes, such as the LWT and Danforth, are basically unstable, and are tted with long stabilizers to prevent rotation. Wide uke spacing gives good stability in homogeneous soils, but anchors with tapered, closely spaced ukes are more stable in heterogeneous soils because there is greater probability that both ukes will operate in soil of the same strength and consistency. Closely spaced ukes are a disadvantage if the soil contains coarse elements large enough to jam between the ukes. Fouling by wire rope or other obstructions, especially over only one uke, will cause serious instability. Heavy crowns cause overturning during penetration, especially in heterogeneous soils. Manufacturing defects or damage, especially those causing asymmetry between ukes, cause rotational moments as the anchor is dragged, due to the difference in soil forces generated on the ukes. Twisted or bent shanks or stabilizers and asymmetrically attached pendants can also cause instability. Lateral instability is avoided or overcome by structural arrangement of the anchor, including the addition of specic components. Stocks at the forward end of the shank, or stabilizers at the rear of the ukes prevent lateral rotation, and are effective if properly dimensioned. Their effectiveness is reduced in very soft or uid soils. Stocks or stabilizers add to the bulkiness of the anchor, hamper handling and stowage, and inhibit burial. Bent, broken, or fouled stabilizers can induce instability by creating laterally unsymmetrical soil forces. Some anchors, such as the Flipper Delta, Eells, and AC-14 are constructed with plate surfaces in planes different from that of the ukes to provide stability. Certain nonarticulating anchors, such as the Bruce, are designed to be self-stabilizingwhen the anchor begins to rotate, the change in attitude increases soil force on the rising side and decreases soil forces on sinking side, returning the anchor to its upright position.
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Vertical instability is related to the point of application of the tractive force relative to the barycenter (center of soil pressure on the uke surfaces). In a freely articulating anchor (uke-to-traction-line angle not constrained) the burial path of the anchor is determined by the relative position of the articulation axis and the barycenter, as shown in Figure G-6. Free articulation achieves maximum burial depth, but is seldom used because anchor stability is very sensitive to the location of the articulation axis. Instead, tractive force is applied through a rigid shank so that articulation occurs above the barycenter and the shank can be blocked to prevent uke angle from exceeding the critical penetration/burial angle. As the shank is shortened, the articulation axis (anchor line to shank attachment) moves closer to the barycenter, and the critical angle increases. Burial depth increases, but the anchor becomes more sensitive to the soil type and local soil heterogeneities. G-2.2 Holding Capacity. Resistance to horizontal movement, or anchor holding capacity, increases with burial depth because deeper soil is generally denser and stronger, and provides increased resistance to the anchor moving through it. Holding power is primarily determined by the mass of the displaced soil. Therefore, deeply embedded anchors with a large uke area perform better because they cause the largest displacement of strongest soil. Stable anchors provide constant holding capacity once they reach maximum burial depth, even if dragged. For an anchor to develop its maximum holding capacity, it must penetrate to its optimum depth. If the anchors burial is halted by a hard layer, it will drag along the layer, providing constant resistance (holding capacity) less than maximum capacity. Until an anchor reaches its equilibrium depth, burial depth is a function of drag distance. If drag distance is to be limited (to avoid fouling submarine cables, for example), the anchor cannot be loaded to full capacity. The Power Law Method is the best technique to predict holding capacity. Holding capacity, Hm, is determined by: W a Hm = Hr 10,000 where: Hr = Wa = b =
b
BURIAL DEPTH
2 ATTACHMENT POINT/ARTICULATION AXIS: 1 BEHIND BARYCENTER 2 NEAR BARYCENTER 3 FORWARD OF BARYCENTER
DRAG DISTANCE
Figure G-6. Burial Behavior Versus Articulation.
Table G-3. Power Law Coefficients.

Soft soils, soft clays and silts Anchor typea BOSS BRUCE Cast BRUCE Twin Shank (TS) BRUCE Flat-fluke Twin Shank (FFTS) Danforth Flipper Delta G.S. (AC-14) Hook Lightweight (LWT) Moorfast NAVMOOR Offdrill II STATO STEVDIG STEVFIX STEVIN STEVMUD STEVPRIS (straight shank) Stockless (fixed fluke) Stockless (movable fluke) Hard soils, sands and stiff clays
HR (lbs 1,000)
210 32 189 250 87 139 87 189 87 87 210 87 210 139 189 139 250 189 46 24
b
0.94 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.94 0.92 0.94 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
HR (lbs 1,000)
270 250 210 -b 126 -b 126 100 126 60 100c 270 60 100c 250d 190g 290 290 165 -e 210 70 44f 70 44f
b
0.94 0.80 0.94 -b 0.80 -b 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.94 0.80 0.80 0.94 0.80 0.80 0.80 -e 0.94 0.80 0.80
See Figures G-6 and G-7 for plotted results.

a
b c
Fluke angles set for 50 degrees in soft soils and according to manufacturers specifications in hard soils, except when otherwise noted No data available For 28-degree fluke angle
d e f g
For 30-degree foot angle (STATO) Anchor not used in this seafloor condition For 48-degree fluke angle For dense sand conditions (near shore)
holding capacity of a 10,000-pound (dry weight) version of the reference anchor, from Table G-3 anchor weight for which Hm is to be determined, lbs an exponent depending on the anchor and soil type, from Table G-3
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500
ANCHOR HOLDING CAPACITY (x 1,000 POUNDS)
400
D B ST FL BR EE NA BR A R IP U O N LL VM U U C FO C PE CE S, K E O CE R R LE O T ST C TH R, FFT S D A SS O EL , H S ,A ST S, C O T (M T K C AT ST A, O LE 14 O O EV ST K, VA SS ,L ,B M EV ST B W O U (F LE E T, IN V SS D I X -F , S FI M ED LU O X T ,S O -F E K R VD T LU E) FA IG EV K ST E) PR ,O IS FF D R IL L II
BO SS ,
300
O NF DA
200
AN G LE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30
20
TS K CE O U HO BR , , LE K) AN NG H A S G KE DI HT LU IG EV LE F T A S R 8 NG , T 2 A X (S - FI ST E S II EV CA UK RI L P L I ST CE FL V R E U 5 D LE ST -3 G FF BR SS AN ,O E T L KE AS CK LU O RF F T O S O 48 M S, SLL S E E LE CK O T S
ST AT O -3 0 F LU KE
10 1
6 7 8 9 10
NA VM
1,000 900 800 700 600
T W ,L H RT
20
O O R
FLUKE ANGLES SET FOR SAND AS PER MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATION
FLUKE ANGLES SET FOR MUD AS PER MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATION
30 40 1
6 7 8 9 10
20
30
40
ANCHOR AIR WEIGHT (x 1,000 POUNDS) CAPACITY IN SAND
ANCHOR AIR WEIGHT (x 1,000 POUNDS) CAPACITY IN MUD
ADAPTED FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
Figure G-7. Anchor Holding Capacity.
This method produces a straight-line relationship between anchor holding capacity and anchor weight on a log-log plot, as shown in Figure G-7 for various commercial and Navy anchors. Holding power for a given anchor can also be calculated by multiplying the anchors weight by its efficiency (also called holding power factor). H = We where: H W e = = = holding power, lbs anchor dry weight, lbs anchor efficiency, dimensionless
Caution must be applied when determining holding power by anchor efficiency, as holding power is not a linear function of anchor weight. Anchor efficiencies are valid only for the specied weight. If the efficiency for a given anchor weight is used to predict performance of a larger anchor of the same type, holding power will be overestimated. When a single anchor will not develop the required holding capacity, it is common practice to install a second anchor on the same mooring leg in a piggyback rig. Anchors can be rigged in tandem or doubled. Paragraph 6-3.4.3 of the U.S Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6MAN-010) discusses double and tandem anchor rigs in detail. When properly rigged and deployed, tandem anchors can develop more than twice the capacity of a single anchor in the same soil. Holding capacity can also be increased by use of large weights, or sinkers, attached to anchor lines to absorb energy and ensure horizontal loading on the anchor. If the sinker-to-anchor-line connection fails, the sinker will be lost and the entire mooring may fail. Connections must allow free movement of chain links in order to avoid distortion or failure of links. Sinker shackles, shown in Figure 7-32, or appropriately dimensioned plate shackles should be used to allow free movement of chain links.
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Table G-4. Anchor Selection.

Soil Type Anchor Multipurpose Anchors Improved Stockless High-performance Stockless Stock Stevin Stockless + ++ ++ ++ + o + o + o ++ + + o + ++ + ++ o + Sands Muds Stiff Clays Heterogeneous Anchor Specific Anchors Delta Triple Doris mud Hook Stevshark Bruce Flipper Delta ++ + o Functions well Functions, but not the best choice Does not function well ++ o ++ + ++ ++ o ++ ++ o o ++ + o o ++ + o + o o ++ + o Sands Muds Soil Type Stiff Clays Heterogeneous
From The Use of Anchors in Offshore Petroleum Operations, A. Puech, 1984
G-2.3 Selection. Anchor selection is a two-step process, in which:
One or more anchor types are chosen for use based on overall performance in the expected soil, availability, and cost. The selected anchor type is sized to develop the required holding capacity.
To aid the selection process, Table G-4 lists anchor applicability by soil type. Table G-5 rates anchor types subjectively, based on eld experience and test ndings with small anchors.
Table G-5. Rating of Drag-embedment Anchor Types.

Reliability Anchor Type Stocklessb (movable uke) Stocklessb (xed uke) G.S. (AC 14) Danforth Lightweight (LWT) STATO/NAVMOORd Moorfast Offdrill II Flipper Delta STEVIN STEVFIX STEVPRIS STEVDIG STEVMUD BOSS Hook BRUCE Cast Bruce Twin-shank
a b c d e
Cohesive Soils (clays and plastic silts) Tripping/Dig-in Low High c Medium Low High Medium Medium c c Low c c High High High High High Stability Medium Medium c Low Low Medium Medium Medium c c Low c c c Medium High High High Holding Capacity Low Low Medium Medium Low High Medium Medium Medium Medium High c c High High Medium Low High
Cohesionless Soils (sands) a Tripping/Dig-in High High High High High High Medium Medium c c High High High e High Medium High c Stability Medium High Medium Medium Medium High Medium Medium c c Medium High Medium e c High High High Holding Capacity Low Low Medium Medium Medium High Medium Medium Medium Medium High High High e High Medium High High
Fluke angle set at manufacturers recommendation for sand With stabilizers (ratings not as high without stabilizers) Insufficient data available for rating Fluke angle set at 30 degrees for sand Anchor not normally used in this seaoor
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G-2.4 Drag Anchor Types. Physical characteristics of an anchor affect its tripping, penetration, stability, and overall performance. Anchors can be classed by general characteristics such as uke/shank angle (typical anchors for each class are shown in Figure G-8); the presence and geometry of stabilizers, crowns, tripping palms; and hinge function:
STEVSHARK
DELTA
FLIPPER DELTA
DEEP PENETRATION ANCHORS
Deeply penetrating anchors of unique geometry with holding power roughly proportional to the third power of penetration such as Stevshark and Delta (see Paragraphs G-2.5.1 and G-2.5.2). Anchors with elbowed shanks for deep penetration, such as Bruce, Hook, and AC-12 (see Paragraphs G-2.5.3 and G2.5.4). Anchors with large, hollow ukes, hinges near the center of gravity, and relatively short shanks and stabilizers, known generically as Stevin anchors (see Paragraph G2.5.5). High-performance stockless anchors with hinge and stabilizers at the rear and relatively long shanks and stabilizers such as Moorfast, O f f d r i l l , S TAT O , NAVMOOR, LWT, etc. (see Paragraph G-2.5.6 and the U.S. Naval Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300A6-MAN-010)). Improved stockless anchors with short, thick stabilizers, hinges at the rear and relatively short, more or less square shanks, such as the AC-14, Stokes, and similar anchors (see Paragraph G2.5.7). Standard stockless anchors, such as the Navy Stockless and similar commercial patterns (see Paragraph G-2.5.8). Stocked anchors with small uke area and stabilizers at the front of the shank such as the Stock (old-fashioned or Admiralty), Single Fluke Stock, Dredger, etc. (see Paragraph G-2.5.9).
BRUCE
BRUCE T.S.
HOOK
ADMIRALTY AC-12
ELBOWED SHANK ANCHORS

STEVDIG/ STEVIN
STEVFIX
STEVMUD
STEVIN ANCHORS
MOORFAST/ STATO/ NAVMOOR
DANFORTH
L.W.T.
BOSS
HIGH PERFORMANCE STOCKLESS ANCHORS

ADMIRALTY AC-14
STOKES
SNUGSTOW
WELDHOLD
IMPROVED STOCKLESS ANCHORS

NAVY STOCKLESS
BEIJERS
HALLS
SPECK
STANDARD STOCKLESS ANCHORS
ADMIRALTY AM-7 SINGLE-FLUKE
STOCK
DREDGER
MOORING ANCHOR
STOCKED ANCHORS Figure G-8. Drag-Embedment Anchors.
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G-2.5 Drag Anchor Notes. The following notes describe features specic to some commonly used drag anchors, such as tripping, penetration, burial, and effectiveness in various soil types. The NAVMOOR, STATO, LWT, Danforth, Eells, and Navy Stockless anchors, described in Paragraph 7-2.2.1 of the U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010), are not addressed here. G-2.5.1 Stevshark. The Stevshark is a ballastable anchor with xed twin-shank tted with teeth. It is used primarily for temporary and permanent moorings in stiff clays and heterogeneous sediments, but in practice tripping is generally incomplete in very stiff clays due to teeth hooking. Burial is impossible in very stiff soils. The anchor breaks out easily. G-2.5.2 Delta. The Delta is a compact, unilateral, pointed-uke anchor which exhibits excellent tripping and stability in all soil types. Delta anchors embed deeply in soft soils and are recommended for temporary moorings in mud and sand seaoors. A variation known as the Delta Triple consists of three Delta anchors welded together. The Delta Triple penetrates rapidly and deeply, but is very bulky and difficult to handle. Delta Triple anchors are generally used for permanent moorings in sandy soils. The Flipper Delta is a bilateral anchor with cut-out, pointed ukes in the shape of right triangles with the right angles against the shank. The crown is open and cage-like with the outboard perimeters formed by angled plates that act as stabilizing ns. Stability and tripping reliability are excellent in all types of soil; burial is deep in soft soils, but hampered by the crown in stiff or heterogeneous soils. The anchor is bulky on deck, but resists fouling as there are no projecting parts other than the shank. G-2.5.3 Bruce. The Bruce is a rugged, nonarticulating, self-stabilizing anchor, usually constructed of cast steel. Penetration is satisfactory in clays, and good for temporary moorings in sand; stability is very good. A welded steel version, with two cross-stiffened shanks is known as the Bruce TS (twin-shank). G-2.5.4 Hook. The Hook anchor is a nonreversible, large-area plate anchor with a curved shank, used primarily for permanent moorings in sand and mud. The Hook anchor trips satisfactorily, but penetration is difficult, and stability is poor in stiff soils. G-2.5.5 Stevin. Stevin anchors are distinguished by several features:
Strong streamlined shanks, hinged near the anchors barycenter, to enhance penetration. Hollow ukes to give maximum uke area for anchor weight. Stabilizers protruding from the ukes to overcome instability inherent in hinging the shank near the barycenter. Fluke-to-shank angle adjustable for different soil conditions. Crowns specially designed to enhance tripping.
The Stevin anchor family includes the basic Stevin, Stevdig, Stevx, and Stevmud anchors (the Stevshark is produced by the same manufacturer as the Stevin anchors, but is a distinct anchor type, as discussed in Paragraph G-2.5.1). Tripping is satisfactory in all soils. Penetration is very good in sandy and soft seaoors, but difficult in stiff soils. Stability is generally good. Stevin anchors are characterized by reliable holding power, minimum weight, and easy handling. The Stevx is based on the basic Stevin design, with a considerably enlarged uke area (about 64 percent). Stock stabilizers combined with the uke points prevent the anchor from sliding over the bottom on its side. Holding power in mud is about 30 times anchor weight. For very soft mud, an adapter can be tted to the anchor to increase uke area by 80 percent. The Stevmud has enlarged ukes to increase holding capacity in very soft mud. The uke area is twice that of the basic Stevin (see Figure G-8); holding power in mud is about 35 times anchor weight. G-2.5.6 Moorfast. The Moorfast is a cast version of the Stato anchor, but of heavier construction. The uke area is half that of the Stato, and holding power is about 14 times weight. Moorfast anchors are provided with wedges to set uke angle for 32 degrees in sand and 50 degrees in mud. The Moorfast crown is suitable for use in mud without modication. T-ATF-166 Class tugs carry a large Moorfast anchor hawsed in the stem. The Offdrill anchor is similar to the Moorfast, but with slightly smaller ukes. G-2.5.7 Improved Stockless Anchors. Most of the anchors in this class have holding capacities of about 8 times anchor weight in soft soils, and from 10 to 15 times anchor weight in sand or rm clay. The AC-14 is used as a ships anchor by the Royal Navy and is approved by Lloyds and ABS. Fluke angle is 34 degrees. Stabilizer ns ensure continuous penetration. The Danforth-Jackson Stokes anchor is similar.
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G-2.5.8 Standard Stockless. Stockless anchors were designed for use as ships anchors. Consequently, they are more easily recovered but less efficient than higher performance mooring anchors. Fluke angle is set at 45 to 48 degrees for most stockless types. Holding efficiency is about 4.5 times the anchor weight for U.S Navy Stockless, and 2 to 3 times the anchor weight for most commercial Stockless anchors. Performance is enhanced by tting stabilizers, and by welding or blocking ukes open at the critical angle for the soil. G-2.5.9 Stock Anchors. With the stabilizing stock forward of, and at right angles to the uke(s), burial is impossible with stock anchors; the relative orientation of uke and stock does ensure reliable tripping and penetration, however. They are capable of signicant holding capacity, often as high as 15 times anchor weight in rm clay or sand. They can resist moderate uplift because the embedded uke digs in like a pickaxe when the end of the shank is raised. Because of its grappling ability, the old-fashioned Stock and similar anchors can hold on coral or rocky ground. The single blade salvage anchor, shown in Figure G-9, is commonly used by commercial salvors and is a modication of the admiralty pattern AM-7 single uke anchor. The enlarged uke area increases holding capacity in soft soils. G-2.5.10 Doris Mud. The Doris Mud anchor shown in Figure G-9 is a unilateral, nonarticulating anchor especially designed for soft soils, and does not readily t into any of the anchor classes dened in Paragraph G-2.4. Stability is good, but penetration and burial are possible only in very soft soils where the large area of the bulldozer-like blade resists forward motion. The anchor is bulky and difficult to handle and break out.
SINGLE-BLADE SALVAGE ANCHOR
DORIS MUD ANCHOR
Figure G-9. Specialized Anchors for Soft (Mud) Seafloors.
G-3 DEADWEIGHT ANCHORS
Any heavy object that can be placed on the seaoor can be used as a deadweight anchor. Steel, concrete, and ferro-cement clumps are commonly used. Factors to consider in selection of deadweight anchors and their installation include:
Water depth. Seaoor slope. Presence and rate of soil erosion. Degree of sediment consolidation.
Signicant characteristics of common deadweight anchors are shown in Figure G-10 (Page G-12). G-3.1 Holding Capacity. Holding power of a deadweight anchor is the force required to lift or drag the large weight over the sea bottom. Resistance to uplift or vertical force is simply the submerged weight of the anchor, plus suction effects in soft bottoms. Resistance to dragging results from friction between the seaoor and the anchor. See Paragraph 3-7 for a discussion of basic soil properties and calculations. Lateral loads result from several causes:
Mooring line tension, Down-slope force of gravity on a sloping seaoor, Current drag, and Storm-wave or earthquake loading.
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(a) SINKER EFFICIENT UPLIFT EASY TO HANDLE
(b) SQUAT CLUMP LOW OVERTURNING MORE AREA CONTACTING SOIL
(c) RAILROAD RAILS OR SCRAP IRON LOW BULK, HIGH WEIGHT LOW COST
(d) CONCRETE SLAB WITH SHEAR KEYS HIGH LATERAL CAPACITY SCOUR CONTROL
(e) OPEN FRAME WITH WEIGHTED CORNERS HIGH LATERAL CAPACITY REDUCED LOWERING LINE DYNAMIC TENSIONS SHALLOW BURIAL
(f) MUSHROOM SHALLOW BURIAL
(g) WEDGE SHALLOW BURIAL LOW OVERTURNING UNI-DIRECTIONAL
(h) SLANTED SKIRT DEEPER BURIAL UNI-DIRECTIONAL
H zs Df (i) HIGH LATERAL CAPACITY, FREE FALL FREE-FALL INSTALLATION HIGH LATERAL CAPACITY (j) FREE FALL (DELCO) FREE FALL INSTALLATION EFFICIENT UPLIFT B (k) DEAD WEIGHT GEOMETRY SHEAR KEYS
Figure G-10. Deadweight Anchors.
G-3.1.1 Static Short-term and Cyclic Loading in Cohesive Soils. Static short-term loading and cyclic lateral loading on cohesive soils are treated as undrained failure problems. The maximum lateral load capacity (parallel to the seaoor), Qul, for an anchor on cohesive soil is: Qul = suzA + 2 suaDf B where: suz sua A Df B = = = = = undrained shear strength of the soil at depth Df , [force/length2] average undrained shear strength between the seaoor and depth Df, [force/length2] foundation or anchor base area, [length2] embedment depth of foundation or anchor (depth of shear key tip below the seaoor), [length] minimum foundation or anchor base dimension (usually called the foundation width), [length]
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G-3.1.2 Static Short- and Long-term Loading in Cohesionless Soils. For cohesionless soils, lateral load failure is a drained soil failure, and the maximum lateral load capacity in sliding is: Qul = Wb + b A Df where: Wb Fve Fh bADf b A Df Rp Fve cos Fh sin + Rp
= = = = = = = = = =
coefficient of friction between anchor base and soil or between soil and soil when shear keys cause deep failure (shear keys are described in Paragraph G-3.1.3) underwater (buoyant) weight of anchor, [force] design environmental loading and mooring line loading in the vertical direction (upward is positive), [force] design environmental loading and mooring line loading in the horizontal direction (down-slope is assumed positive), [force] buoyant weight of soil trapped in shear keys, [force] buoyant unit weight of soil, [force/length3] (see Table 3-3, Page 3-18) base area of the anchor, [length2] embedment depth of shear keys, below the seaoor surface, [length] seaoor slope angle passive soil resistance on leading edge of base, [force]
The coefficient of friction depends on soil type and anchor roughness. Table G-6 gives coefficients of friction for typical materials and marine cohesionless soils. In the absence of better information, the internal coefficient of friction can be estimated from the soil friction angle : = = tan ( - 5) degrees for a rough steel or concrete base without shear keys tan for a base with shear keys
Table G-6. Coefficient of Friction for Deadweight Anchors.

Internal Friction Coefficient 0.67 0.67 0.79 0.64 Smooth Steel 0.27 0.20 0.23 0.40 Rough Smooth Rough Smooth Steel Concrete Concrete PVC 0.60 0.63 0.56 0.66 0.60 0.63 0.58 0.67 0.69 0.66 0.74 --0.33 0.20 0.26 0.40
Soil Quartz Sand Coralline sand Oolitic Sand Foraminiferous Sand-Silt
Friction angle is given for various soils in Table 3-3 on Page 3-18.
When the anchor is embedded deeply or tted with shear keys, a wedge of soil in passive failure develops in front of the leading foundation edge and provides resistance to sliding. In some cases, this passive wedge can contribute about 10 percent of the total lateral resistance. Because the sediment comprising the passive wedge may be removed by current scour or by animal burrowing, the contribution of the passive wedge to sliding resistance is usually neglected. To maintain stability against sliding, a factor of safety, Fs, can be applied to the lateral load capacity, Qul, to account for uncertainties in soil data or failure mechanism: Fs = Qul (Wb b A Df Fve) sin + Fhcos
For most applications, a factor of safety of 1.5 to 2 is adequate. The minimum underwater (buoyant) weight of the anchor is derived from the maximum lateral load capacity equation, assuming Rp = 0: Wb = (Fs + tan) Fh Fs tan + Fve b A D f
For level seaoors, is 0 and anchor buoyant weight is: F F Wb = s h + Fve b A D f
Anchors with skirts but without shear keys are more likely to slide along the foundation base rather than at the depth of the skirtthe buoyant weight of soil in the skirts/keys (bADf) is neglected.
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G-3.1.3 Shear Keys. Shear keys are vertical plates added to the base of deadweight anchors to increase lateral load capacity by forcing the failure surface (the surface on which the anchor slides), deeper into the seaoor, where stronger soils resist higher lateral loads. Three possible failure modes for shallow foundations tted with shear keys are shown in Figure G-11. Shear keys should be placed close enough to each other to force sliding failure to occur at the base of the shear keys, as shown in Figure G-11(a).
SEAFLOOR
zs
B Fh
POTENTIAL FAILURE PLANES (a) SLIDING BASE FAILURE
POTENTIAL FAILURE PLANES (b) DEEP PASSIVE FAILURE
POTENTIAL FAILURE PLANES (c) PASSIVE WEDGE FAILURE
The number of shear keys, n, required in each direction is computed by comparing the design load parallel to the seaoor to the passive resistance developed per key: n Fs Fhp Wb sin Rp
Figure G-11. Soil Failure Modes for Sliding Deadweights.
where: Fhp Fs Wb = = = = resultant of applied loads in the down-slope direction, [force] safety factor buoyant weight of the anchor, [length] seaoor slope
Minimum shear key spacing should equal the shear key depth for cohesive soils and twice the shear key depth for cohesionless soils. The passive resistance developed by one shear key, Rp is: 2 zs + 2sua zs B Rp = b 2 Rp = where: zs sua b B Kp = = = = = = = shear key depth below base of the anchor, [length] average undrained soil shear strength between the foundation base and the tip of the key, [force/length2] soil buoyant unit weight, [force/length3] shear key width, [length] coefficient of passive lateral earth pressure tan2(45o + 0.5) soil internal friction angle (see Table 3-3) K p b z s B
2
(cohesive soils)
(cohesionless soil)
In cohesionless soils, a shear key depth of 0.05B is appropriate for internal shear keys. The shear key around the edge of the foundation, or the perimeter skirt, prevents undermining of the anchor by scouring and is normally deeper; a depth of 0.1B is recommended. The depth of shear keys or perimeter skirts is usually limited by the net downward force available to drive the keys. Shear keys should be designed to penetrate fully under only the submerged weight of the anchor. Penetration is assisted by installing vent holes in the base to allow water and soft surcial soils trapped by the keys to escape. Sharpening the leading edge of keys will also aid penetration. G-3.1.4 Overturning Resistance. If subjected to excessive lateral and uplift loading, a deadweight anchor on a horizontal surface may rotate about a point near the leading edge of its base. On sloping seaoors, the forces are resolved into components parallel and normal to the seaoor surface. Stability against overturning is achieved by insuring the resisting or stabilizing moment, Ms, is greater than the overturning moment, Mo. To insure full contact between the base and the supporting soil, the anchor should be designed so that the resultant normal soil reaction, Rs, acts within the middle one-third of the base. The point where Rs crosses the shear key line is then the assumed point of anchor rotation. The maximum stabilizing moment is: (Wb Fve) B Ms = 6 The soil within the shear keys is assumed to separate from the base during overturning, and does not contribute to the stabilizing moment.
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The overturning moment is: Mo = Fh H1 + zs where: H1 = zs = vertical distance from Fh to the base of the shear key depth of the shear key tip below the foundation base
To maintain stability, Ms must be greater than Mo: Wb 6 Fve B Fh H1 + zs
For preliminary sizing, the minimum width of the anchor can be calculated from: B = 6Fh H1 + zs Wb Fve
To minimize the potential for overturning, the moment arm of the lateral load component (the distance H1 + zs) should be kept as small as possible. This is most easily done by minimizing height of the deadweight; H1 should be limited to 0.25B, if possible. G-3.2 Shallow Foundations. Lateral load capacity, uplift resistance, and overturning resistance for foundations are calculated by the same equations used for deadweight anchors, with two modications:
Buoyant weight of the anchor, Wb is replaced by buoyant weight of the foundation and supported structure, Wbf + Wbst. Buoyant weight of surface-piercing structures will vary with tide, swell, and other water level uctuations. Signicant lateral loads may result from current and/or wind loads on the supported structure.
When evaluating a foundations stability against overturning, using the highest values possible for Wbf and Wbst may not give a realistic estimate of the stabilizing moment, Ms. If lower values for Wb and Wbst are possible at the same time the maximum values for Fve and Fh occur, the lower values should be used. Foundation placement should be smooth and continuous to minimize disturbance to the seaoor soil and creation of an eccentric foundation orientation. Bearing capacity (downward load), Qu is determined by: Q u = A s uN c K c + b D f K q where: A su Nc b Df Kc,Kq = = = = = = effective base area of foundation, [length2] undrained shear strength of cohesive soilaveraged over the distance B below the foundation base, [force/length2] bearing capacity factor; for undrained failure Nc = 5.14 buoyant unit weight of soil above the foundation base, [force/length3] depth of embedment of foundation correction factors which account for load inclination, foundation shape, embedment depth, and inclination of ground. For a nearly level surface, a nearly square or round shape, and a vertical load, Kc = 1.2 and Kq = 1.0.
If the load is eccentric, or includes a moment, bearing capacity is based on a reduced foundation base to soil contact area. Effective dimensions are calculated from the eccentricity, e. For a rectangular footing, effective length (L), breadth (B), and area (A), are: L = L - 2el B = B - 2eb A = B L where: el eb = = distance from center of footing to center of load, measured parallel to the long axis of footing distance measured parallel to short axis of footing
Foundation settlement due to elastic deformations and soil consolidation may pose a signicant problem, even in the absence of a bearing capacity failure, because such settlements are rarely uniform. The occurrence of differential settlement is greatly enhanced by eccentric loading.
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G-4 GRAPPLING DEVICES Grappling devices are used to engage and hold against solid massive seaoor features, such as coral heads, rock outcrops, and crevices or ledges in rock and coral bottoms. Holding power depends on the strength of the grappling device and the seaoor features. Correct pulling angle and constant tension must be maintained to prevent the anchor from losing its grip and sliding. G-5 DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS Direct-embedment anchors are installed in such a manner that the anchor is buried before the anchor line is loaded, in contrast to dragembedment anchors which bury themselves as they are loaded. Deadmen, clumps, or drag anchors placed in excavated pits and buried are crude but effective direct-embedment anchors, as are drag anchors settled into the seaoor by diver-jetting or explosive-induced vibration. Purposebuilt direct-embedment anchors are primarily plate-type anchors which are inserted vertically into the seaoor and expanded or re-oriented to increase pullout resistance. There are ve major types of direct embedment anchors:
Propellant-driven, Vibratory-driven, Impact-driven, Jetted-in, and Augured-in.
Direct-embedment anchors offer signicant advantages over other types of anchors, including a very high holding capacity/weight ratio, resistance to uplift, and the ability to support short ground leg scopes and tight moorings. Advantages and drawbacks of direct-embedment anchors are given in Table G-7.
Table G-7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct-embedment Anchors.
Anchor Type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Vibro-driven
Deep burial. High values of holding capacity/weight ratio. Accept vertical/multidirectional forces. Same as above. Penetration probable in relatively hard soils (consolidated clays, coral, and glacial tills). Rapid installation. Same advantages as for vibro-driven anchors. Used in sands which are easily liquied. Sand returns to denser condition, increasing holding power.
Emplacement cost increases rapidly with anchor size and water depth.
Propellantembedded
Possibility of misre. Shock wave, personnel safety. Frequent damage to anchor chain.
Jetted-in
Need for dual system (water injection and sediment extraction of sand by air lift. Application limited to thick, sandy beds. Not good in clay. Slow and uneconomical. 500 FSW limit due to difficulty in supplying hydraulic power to greater depths.
Augured-in
Used for anchoring pipelines to seaoor. Anchoring in tandem provides torque reaction on each anchor.
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G-5.1 Propellant-embedded Anchors. Propellant-embedded anchors are red into the seaoor by a gun barrel to achieve high holding capacities. They have been developed for both deep and shallow water use, and have the signicant advantage of near-instantaneous embedment on seaoor contact. Propellant-embedded anchors do not require a support stand during installation, can be installed without difficulty on moderate slope, and do not require deployment vessels to remain on station for an extended period, as do vibratory or impact-driven systems. After ring on touchdown, the anchor penetrates and comes to rest deep within the seaoor substrate. When a load is applied to the mooring line, the anchor keys, or rotates, into a position of maximum resistance. The installation sequence is shown in Figure G-12. Because of the limited selection of propellant-embedment anchors, design is a matter of selecting an adequately sized anchor and uke pattern appropriate to the seabed. The NCEL propellant-embedment anchor, with various uke patterns, is shown in Figure G-13 (Page G-19). Propellant-embedment anchor performance and physical characteristics are given in Tables G-8 and G-9 (Page G-18).
1. TOUCHDOWN (FIRING)
2. ANCHOR PENETRATION
3. ANCHOR KEYING
4. ANCHORAGE ESTABLISHED
FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
Figure G-12. Installation Sequence for a Propellant-Embedment Anchor.
Table G-8. Propellant-embedded Anchors (PEA).
Measured or Estimated Holding Capacity (kips) Anchor Type Nominal Capacity (lbs) x 1,000 Design Operational Water Depth, ft Sand Claya Coral
NCEL, Port Hueneme, CA Navy 10K Navy 20K Navy 100K SUPSALV 100K NAVY 300Kg U.S. Army Mobility Equipment R & D Center, Fort Belvoir, VA XM-50 A/S/ Raufoss, Ammunisjonsfabrikker, Norway REA 250TD
a b c d
10 20 100 100 300
25 - 20,000 50c - 20,000 35 - 20,000 35c - 700c 50 - 20,000
30 60 250 250 600
15 35 150 150 450
35b 35d 110e 105f
50 100
9c - 150
e f
180
70
70h
Average for soft clays found in ocean basins Average of 10 tests in coral with an unconned strength of 4,200 psi Has been used at this water depth Average of 10 tests in coral with an unconned strength of 3,400 psi
Average of 22 tests in coral with an unknown strength Average of 6 tests in coral with an unconned strength of 1,500 - 2,500 psi g Anchor is under developmentcapacities are estimated h Average of 2 tests in coral of unknown unconned strength
From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnicial Engineering, 1985
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Table G-9. PEA Characteristics and Performance. Anchor Type 10K Anchor System Characteristics Length, gun with uke, ft Diameter or width, ft Nominal weight, in air, lbs Operating water depth, ft Nominal holding capacity, lbs Fluke velocity, fps Fluke Dimensions Sand: length x width, ft bearing area, ft2 weight in air, lbs Clay: length x width, ft bearing area, ft2 weight in air, lbs Coral: length x width, ft Estimated Penetration, ft Clay Flukes Soft basin soil (silty clay) Distal turbidite (low su) Distal turbidite, (high su) Proximal turbidite Calcareous ooze (deep water) Coarse calcareous ooze (low su) Coarse calcareous ooze (high su) Siliceous ooze Pelagic clay (low su) Pelagic clay (high su) Sand Flukes Loose sand ( = 30 deg,t = 110 pcf)c Medium dense sand ( = 35 deg, t = 120 pcf) Dense sand ( = 40 deg, t = 130 pcf)c Corala
a b c c
20K
100K
SUPSALV 100K
300Ka
6.5 2.0 650 25-20,000 10,000 370-390
9.0 3.5 2,000 50-20,000 20,000 360-460
12.0 6.0 7,000 35-20,000 100,000 380-500
13.0 8.0 14,000 25-500 100,000 380-500
15.0 8.0 18,000 50-20,000 300,000 380-520
2x1 1.9 160
3x2 5.5 290
5 x 2.5 11.0 1,300
5.5 x 2.8 13.0
7x4 24.0 4,000
2x2 3.7 185
3x3 8.5 420
6x4 28.0 2,100
6.7 x 3.3 22.0 1,900
8x7 56.0 6,800
2x1
3 x 1.5
5 x 2 or 6 x 3.2
6.7 x 3.3
25.0 19.0 19.0 17.0 27.0 25.0 19.0 30.0 33.0 27.0
35.0 27.0 26.0 23.0 39.0 35.0 27.0 43.0 47.0 37.0
52.0 43.0 39.0 33.0 60.0 54.0 42.0 65.0 68.0 52.0
b
b
64.0 57.0 49.0 41.0 72.0 63.0 50.0 79.0 81.0 63.0
b b b b b b b b
12.0 11.0 10.0 2-7
17.0 16.0 15.0 3-12
25.0 23.0 21.0 10-37
b b b 8-35
30.0 27.0 25.0
Estimated parameters for anchor under development No experience t = Total unit weight From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
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TOUCHDOWN PROBE TOUCHDOWN PROBE (READY POSITION) 10K ANCHOR SHOWING SAND AND CLAY FLUKES
Fc
0.684 m v 2 2
where: Fc m v = = = holding capacity, [kips] anchor uke and piston mass, [slugs] initial uke velocity, [fps]
1 FT
This equation is completely empirical and is not dimensionally stable. Values used for m and v must be in the units described. The use of this equation is therefore limited to the range of input parameters covered by the data from which it was developed; it is valid only for anchor uke shapes similar to the NCEL plate-like coral uke and for coral with unconned compressive strengths ranging from 1,500 to 4,200 psi.
2 FT
10K CORAL FLUKE USED AT BARBERS POINT, OAHU, HAWAII
3 FT
1 FT
EXPERIMENTAL ROCK FLUKE FOR 20K SYSTEM
Figure G-13. Navy Propellant-Embedded Anchors.
G-5.1.2 Holding Capacity in Rock. Holding capacity is thought to result from high compressive stresses between the rock Table G-10. NCEL 20K Propellent-Embedded Anchor Tests in Rock. and the conical uke and from the bonding of comminuted rock to the uke surface by Rock Type Approximate Comments Penetration Peak Load the heat generated during penetration. Compressive Strength (Vertical) Model tests indicate that holding capacity psi ft lbs decreases with rock type in the following Sandstone 2,000 3 45,000 Could not extract, wire failed order: granite, basalt, limestone, shale, and Sandstone 2,000 3.6 42,000 Could not extract sandstone. The results of six test rings of Basalt 3,000 3 --Not tested an NCEl 20K anchor are shown in Table Basalt 3,000 3 65,000 Could not extract, wire failed G-10. In other tests by NCEL, propellantBasalt 3,000 3 65,000 Could not extract, wire failed embedded rock ukes have carried vertical Basalt 3,000 3 75,000 Could not extract, wire failed loads greater than 100,000 pounds and lateral loads approaching 200,000 pounds without failure. At present, these and similar test results are the only guide to expected performance of the NCEL rock uke. It is not known how these results may extrapolate to other rock types or to other size anchors. To date, efforts to develop a reliable holding-capacity equation for the propellant-embedded anchors in hard rock have not been successful. Local rock strength variations within the rock types tested are believed to be largely responsible for the lack of consistent holding capacity performance. Work is continuing in this area to better understand embedment anchor behavior and to allow development of a predictive method. NCEL should be contacted for the best estimates of holding capacity in rock, and anchors should be proof-loaded to verify adequate capacity.
2.0 FT
SAND FLUKE
FLUKE ASSEMBLY
G-5.1.1 Holding Capacity in Coral. Holding capacitythe load required to pull the anchor uke out of the seaoor in a few minutesis thought to result from the plate-like uke keying or partially keying into the coral formation under increasing anchor line load. Because the failure mode is not well understood, mechanistic models to predict holding capacity have not been developed. Holding capacity has not been related to coral strength; as coral strength increases, penetration decreases, but holding capacity remains approximately constant. Average holding capacity in coral is given in Table G-8 for various sizes of propellant-embedded anchors. Holding capacity of anchor ukes embedded by the NCEL 10K and 20K systems were evaluated by a simple regression analysis, yielding an equation for predicting holding capacity as a function of kinetic energy:
SAFE-AND-ARM DEVICE
REACTION VESSEL
CLAY FLUKE
GUN ASSEMBLY
GUN BARREL
3.3 FT
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G-5.1.3 Sediment Overburden. The energy imparted to the anchor uke by the ring system is attenuated during penetration through overlying soil layers, resulting in shallower penetration into the rock or coral layer and presumably lower holding capacity. There is insufficient data to estimate the inuence of different types or depths of sediment overburden; most tests have been conducted on bare formations. NCEL 100K anchors with coral ukes have been installed through up 10 feet of coralline sands and oozes without capacity degradation, as judged by proofloading. Smaller anchors that penetrate about half as far as the 100K anchor presumably would not be affected by similar sediment layers up to ve feet deep. The effect of sediment overburden on conical rock ukes is unknown; tentative guidance is to limit their use to sediment depths of less than 10 feet of clay or 5 feet of sand. G-5.1.4 Topography. Seaoor topography does not affect holding capacity directly, but may prevent proper installation. Flukes may ricochet off sloping or oblique surfaces. Flukes striking on top of an outcrop or near the edge of a ledge may spall the rock or coral without penetrating deeply. Areas with surfaces sloping more than 20 degrees or with vertical or near vertical faces taller than one uke length should be avoided. G-5.2 Impact-driven Anchors. Impact- or hammer-driven anchors include the Navy umbrella pile and the Menard rotating plate anchor, shown in Figure G-14. Water depth is limited by the available pile-driving and follower equipment for installation, although impact-driven anchors have been successfully installed at depths greater than 1,000 feet. Impact-driven anchors may be an attractive anchoring solution for salvage if adequate pile-driving equipment is available. G-5.3 Jetted-in Anchors. Jetted-in anchors are buried in the seaoor through water-jet disturbance of the sediment. The anchor consists of a cylindrical drum equipped with one or more injection nozzles along its periphery. The system is embedded by the dual action of pressurized water injection and pumping of uidized sediment. Figure G-15 shows typical jetted-in anchors.
DRIVING MANDREL
MUD LINE
ENLARGED PERSPECTIVE
DRIVING POSITION
IN-SERVICE POSITION
FINAL EMPLACEMENT POSITION
POSITION AFTER PULLOUT TEST
MARK IV UMBRELLA PILE-ANCHOR
MENARD ROTATING PLATE ANCHOR
Figure G-14. Impact-Driven Anchors.
PRESSURIZED WATER
AIR INJECTION SKIRT
RISER
PERIPHERAL JETS
NOZZLE
HYDROPIN ANCHOR
WATER INLET
BRIDLE LUGS
SEABED
SETTLED SAND ANCHOR LINE
UNDISTURBED SAND WATER JETS WATER INLET PLATE BOLTED TO ANCHOR WATER JETS BRIDLE LUGS
SEABED
CEMENT GROUT PULLING LINE
UNDISTURBED CLAY
ROYAL DUTCH SHELL JETTED ANCHOR FOR SAND AND CLAY SEAFLOORS Figure G-15. Jetted-In Anchors.
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Jetted-in anchors function best in sands or granular soils that are easily liquied by the jetting process. In hard clays, shell, and cobble soils, penetration by jetting is slow and uneconomical. Advantages include deep burial, high holding-capacity-to-weight ratio, and the ability to resist vertical and multi-directional pullout forces. Disadvantages include the size and complexity of the installation apparatus, and the limited number of seaoor types in which the system can be used effectively. Jetted-in anchors can sometimes be built on site and installed with available highpressure pumps and rehoses. G-5.4 Vibro-driven Anchors. Vibro-driven anchors are driven vertically into the substrate by cable traction vibro-driving units. Cable traction is exerted in an off-center direction on the plate to cause it to pivot, mobilizing the passive pressure of the soil. Hydraulic vibro-driving units are typically limited to 1,000 feet because of the problems associated with loss of hydraulic pressure at depths. NCEL has developed and successfully tested an experimental, battery powered variation of a vibro-driven anchor for water depths to 6,000 feet. Further use of this device was discontinued as propellant-driven anchors were developed. The main disadvantage of the vibro-driven anchoring system is that the installing platform must be maintained in a position directly over the anchor during the period required for proper uke deployment, typically 15 to 20 minutes. Costs increase proportionately with anchor size and water depth. Vibro-driven anchors are seldom used in salvage if adequately sized propellant-embedded or impact-driven anchors are available. G-5.5 Augured-in Anchors. Auger anchors are screwshaped shafts installed under high torque and some vertical load. The depth limit is approximately 500 feet and is imposed primarily by difficulties in supplying power through hydraulic hoses to the seaoor. Auguredin anchors are used primarily for anchoring pipelines to the seaoor and are usually installed in pairs opposite each other. They may be useful for anchoring temporary pipelines or other equipment to the seaoor during certain salvage operations. G-5.6 Site Data. In nonhomogeneous soils, sediment type and thickness must be determined. The seaoor type and approximate consistency must be known in order to select the appropriate anchor uke type (i.e., clay, sand, coral, or rock uke). Depth of sediment strata must be known to ensure that the anchor uke has sufcient sediment thickness to develop the design capacity. These data are best obtained over a wide area through acoustic sub-bottom proling and coring. In areas of large relief, such as areas of outcropping rock, erosion, or slumping features, a deep tow proling system may be necessary to obtain an accurate picture of seaoor topography and distribution of sediment in-ll between the relief features. Geotechnical properties may be estimated from soil property proles to make a rough estimate of capacity in lieu of accurate site-specic data. For direct-embedment anchors in critical moorings, where the consequences of a single mooring failure are severe, data from in-situ tests and good quality soil cores are required. Where dynamic loads are signicant, specialized tests using core samples may be necessary. If sediment consistency or type varies across the mooring site, cores should be obtained at each anchor location. Soil cores should be obtained over the full estimated penetration depth of the anchor. Small corers, which achieve penetrations of 10 feet in sands and 30 feet in clays, are often used to obtain the sediment and dene the upper portion of the geotechnical property prole. With the guidance of geophysical data, sediments below this sampled depth may be assumed to be similar, and the soil property prole would be extended to the necessary depth. Expendable penetrometers can provide additional data where longer coring is not possible.
Table G-11. Conditions Complicating Direct-embedment Anchor Use. Seafloor Condition Hard Strata Thin soil layer over rock, or thin soft clay layer over sand. Soil thickness not sufficient to develop fluke capacity, but sufficient to consume most of fluke kinetic energy before it reaches stronger layer. Damages flukes and limits penetration into underlying sands and hard clays. Same as above. Potential Complication
Glacial erratics or residual surficial gravel and cobbles. Nodule or pavement formations (usually manganese) over soil. Submarine lava flows.
Extremely irregular and complex. Anchors must be proof-tested to full load to ensure reliability.
Sloping Seafloor Soil slopes over 10 degrees. Anchor may affect slope stability, but directembedment anchors have less effect than most other anchor types. Improper embedment from deflection or ricochet of fluke. Sand waves can be large and move rapidly, removing significant overburden from shallow embedded anchors.
Hard soil or rock scarps or cliffs.
Scour
Sensitive, Soft Soils Cohesive soil with sensitivity of 6 Fluke installation can remold and weaken soil, or greater. limiting developed holding capacity. Deep ocean oozes. Weak, porous clays (shear strength to overburden pressure ratio, su /p0, 0.1 - 0.15). Same as above. Long-term capacity may be lower than shortterm.
G-5.6.1 Complicating or Hazardous Conditions. Direct-embedment anchor systems function well in a wide range of seaoor conditions. They can be adapted to function well where drag anchors and pile anchors are inefficient or nonfunctional. Extreme soil conditions, such as very hard or very soft seaoors, complicate the use of direct-embedment anchors, making special efforts necessary during site survey, positioning, design, installation, and proof-loading. Table G-11 lists complicating or hazardous conditions, and describes their impact on direct-embedment anchor performance. The approach to most of these complications is to avoid them by relocating the anchor or selecting an anchor system less sensitive to the problem (e.g., using deadweight, pile, or grappling anchors on rock).
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G-5.6.2 Specialized Survey Tools. Two specialized site survey tools have been developed that can support the siting, design, and installation of the Navys propellant-embedded anchors. The expendable Doppler penetrometer measures the undrained shear strength of the soil indirectly. Although strength is not determined to the level of accuracy as it is from in-situ measurement or coring, the device is simply employed and requires little on-site time. The Pinger probe is a 3.5-kHz battery-powered sound source that can be used with a propellant-embedded anchor system to assist positioning the anchor in complex seaoor conditions. The probe is attached to the anchor systems lowering line about 100 feet above the anchor, and provides a high quality, real-time image of sub-bottom seabed stratication. The installation vessel then maneuvers the anchor system over a seabed prole until a location is found that maximizes chances for successful installation. Doppler penetrometers and Pinger probes can be obtained through the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (NCEL). G-5.7 Fluke penetration and Keying. Estimates of propellant-embedded uke penetration are taken from Table G-9 and can be rened from existing proles of undrained soil strength. The penetration depth of jetted-in anchors is limited primarily by hard layers in the soil prole, which stop or impede the jet erosion process. Penetration depth of driven anchors depends on the capacity of the available pile-driving equipment. As the anchor uke moves upward it keys into a horizontal orientationthe position of maximum holding capacity. The keying distance, zk, is a function of uke geometry, soil type, soil sensitivity, and duration of time between penetration and keying. Experience has shown that Navy propellant-embedded anchor ukes key in about 2.0 uke lengths in cohesive soil and in about 1.5 uke lengths in cohesionless soils. Although no recommendation is made for altering the above estimate for zk, it is believed that keying distance may be greater in highly sensitive soils. Keying distance in sensitive soils can be shortened by allowing the anchor to "soak" for 24 hours or more before tensioning the anchor line. G-5.8 Static Holding Capacity. Loads on seaoor anchors are rarely completely static but often have impulse or repetitive components. Dynamic holding capacity is addressed in Paragraph G-6.4. Holding capacity depends on the soil failure mode, which in turn is dependent on relative embedment depth (the ratio of embedment depth to anchor minimum dimension, z/B) and on the soil type and strength. Shallow failure occurs when the seaoor surface is displaced by the upward motion of the anchor plate and the soil failure surface continues up to the seaoor. Deep failure occurs when the anchor plate is sufficiently deep within the seabed that the soil failure surface does not reach the seaoor. Transition from shallow-to-deep behavior occurs over a range of relative embedment depths from 2 to 5 in cohesive soil and 2 to 10 in cohesionless soil. Failure modes for direct-embedment anchors are shown in Figure G-16. G-5.8.1 Short-term Capacity in Cohesive Soils. Short-term loading conditions exist when the anchor-caused soil failure is governed by a soils undrained shear strength. Failure occurs immediately after, or within a few minutes of load application, before signicant drainage of pore water can take place. Short-term static load capacity in cohesive soils, Fst, is: Fst where: A su = = projected maximum uke area perpendicular to B = plate minimum dimension, usually width, [length] direction of pullout, [length] L = plate maximum dimension, usually length, [length] soil undrained shear strength, [force/length2] h = soil strength reduction (disturbance correction) factor (see Paragraph 3-7.1.4) short-term holding capacity factor in cohesive soil, from Figure G-17. A su h N cs 0.84 B 0.16 L
FAILURE SURFACE FLUKE WIDTH SOIL BEARING PRESSURE
FLUKE WIDTH
SHALLOW ANCHOR FAILURE
DEEP ANCHOR FAILURE
Figure G-16. Soil Failure Modes for Direct-Embedment Anchors.
Table G-12. Soil Strength Reduction Factor. Soil Type Very soft, moderately sensitive, clayey silt, su 1 psi, St 3 Soft, normally consolidated, silty clay, su 2 psi, St 3 Pelagic clay, su 1.2 psi, St 3 Foraminiferal sand-silt, 77-86% carbonate, su 2.2 psi, St 10 From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
h
0.8-0.9 0.8 0.7 0.25
Ncs =
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The disturbance correction factor, h, accounts for soil remolding during uke penetration and keying. Values for the factor, h, were determined for the four soil types listed in Table G-12 by anchor tests. Sensitivity, Stthe ratio of undisturbed to remolded shear strengthis an important indicator of the strength reduction resulting from soil disturbance. For soils with St values considerably different from those in Table G-12, an estimate must be made for the h-value. More sensitive soils will display greater strength reductions. The holding capacity factor, Ncs, from Figure G-17(a), is a function of the soils undrained shear strength and relative embedment depth. For the deep failure mode, Ncs = 16. If drainage vents allow water to ow rapidly to the underside of the plate anchor, the suction formed on the underside of the plate will be relieved; Ncs should be reduced to the long-term holding capacity value, Nc, from Figure G-17(b). G-5.8.2 Long-term Capacity in Cohesive Soils. Long-term loading exists when a static load is applied to the anchor over a time long enough to allow virtually complete dissipation of excess pore water pressures. The time duration ranges may be a day for silts, a week for silty clays, or considerably longer for clays. In cohesive soils, the long-term holding capacity is governed by the effective soil drained strength parametersthe drained cohesion intercept, c, and the drained friction angle, . The long-term static holding capacity, Flt, is: B Flt = A c N c + b z N q 0.84 + 0.16 L where: A c Nc b Nq Flt Fst z = = = = = = = = projected maximum uke area perpendicular to direction of pullout, [length] drained soil cohesion, [force/length2](from Table 3-3) long-term holding capacity factor in cohesive soil (from Figure G-17(b)) buoyant unit weight of the soil, [force/length3] (from Table 3-3) holding capacity factor for a drained soil condition (from Figure G-17(c)) long-term static holding capacity, [force] short-term static holding capacity, [force] embedment depth [length]
(a) SHORT-TERM HOLDING CAPACITY FACTOR
20
15
Ncs 10
su su su su
< < < <
0.75 PSI 1 PSI 1.5 PSI 4 PSI
0 0 2 4 6 8 RELATIVE EMBEDMENT DEPTH, z/B 10
(b) LONG-TERM HOLDING CAPACITY FACTOR
15
10
Ncs
5 su su su su 0 < < < < 0.75 PSI 1 PSI 1.5 PSI 4 PSI 10
2 4 6 8 RELATIVE EMBEDMENT DEPTH, z/B
(c) DRAINED SOIL HOLDING CAPACITY
100 80 60 40 20
= 40 * = 35 = 30 = 25 = 20
Nq 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10
12
14
RELATIVE EMBEDMENT DEPTH, z/B NOTES: Z = EMBEDMENT DEPTH B = PLATE MINIMUM DIMENSION (WIDTH) * = VALUES FOR CAN BE OBTAINED FROM TABLE 3-3
Figure G-17. Short-term Holding Capacity Factors for Cohesive Soil.
Long-term static holding capacity, Flt, must be less than short-term capacity, Fstthe applied long-term load cannot exceed the short-term load without initiating failure.
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For very soft underconsolidated sediments, such as delta mud, the shear failure mode may be different than for normally consolidated sediments. The reduced holding capacities in these very soft soils can be conservatively predicted by reducing the cohesion, c, and the drained friction angle, , values before obtaining the holding capacity factors and calculating holding capacity. The reduced values, c and , are determined by: c = 2 c 3
2 = arctan tan 3 G-5.8.3 Short- and Long-term Capacity in Cohesionless Soils. In sands and gravel, static-loading- induced excess pore water pressure dissipates rapidly as the load is applied. Soil failure is assumed to be drained for both static short- and long-term loading. Static holding capacity in cohesionless soils, F, is: F A b z Nq 0.84 B 0.16 L
where the holding capacity factor Nq is obtained from Figure G-17(b) using the relative embedment depth and the soil friction angle. When dealing with very loose sands (i.e., relative density less than 40 percent), the soil friction angle, , should be reduced in the same manner as for the drained cohesive soil case before entering the plots Figure G-17. G-5.8.4 Factors of Safety. For applications where little is known about the soil conditions at the site, a safety factor of 3 is recommended for holding capacity estimates, i.e., limit applied loads to F/3, where F is calculated holding capacity. A safety factor of 2 can be used when good site data leads to a high level of design condence. G-5.9 Dynamic Holding Capacity. Dynamic loads are applied quickly, but for short periods. Dynamic loads are considered to be applied quickly when the load development takes less than 10 minutes for clays or less than 10 seconds for sand. Dynamic loads are divided into two categories: (1) cyclic or repetitive loadings and (2) impulse loading (basically a single event). Both types can alter plate anchor holding capacity by changing the conditions in the soil surrounding the anchor. Cyclic loads typically result from wave forces on moored vessels and attendant vessel motions. Impulse loads can result from sudden changes in loading of a vessel moored on short scope (heavy lift), vessel collisions, and similar events. Wind loading is normally quasi-static, but strong gusts may impulse or on near-cyclic loads. G-5.9.1 Cyclic Loading. For design purposes, cyclic loading is separated into three categories:
Cyclic line loading of the anchor, leading to soil strength loss in the vicinity of the anchor and subsequent failure. Cyclic line loading that may cause upward anchor movement (creep), possibly moving the anchor into shallower soil; thereby lowering short-term static holding capacity. Earthquake-caused cyclic loading of the soil mass resulting in near-complete loss of strength in the entire soil mass and sudden anchor failure.
Cyclic loads are characterized by a pure cyclic double-amplitude loading component, Pc, superimposed on a static loading component, Ps. Cyclic and static load magnitudes are expressed as a percentage of static short-term anchor holding capacity. Cyclic loads with a double amplitude less than 5 percent of the static short-term holding capacity are disregarded. Two additional parameters are required to describe a cyclic loading condition: nt nc = = Total number of load cycles expected in the anchors lifetime to evaluate the potential for anchor creep. The number of cycles that occur in a limited time period required for dissipation of excess pore pressure, tcd, to evaluate soil strength loss and potential for liquefaction.
G-5.9.2 Strength Loss. Virtually all soils are subject to some strength loss from extended cyclic loading. The amount of strength loss, however, varies considerably depending on soil type, state, and the nature of the cyclic loading. The following factors reduce soil susceptibility to strength loss:

G-24
Denser soil, More plastic soil, Lower cyclic loading magnitude, Smaller number of load cycles, and Longer time period over which the cycles occur.
S0300-A8-HBK-010
106 105 104 103 102 101 100 10-3

B = FT = 2 FT
101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-10 10-11
DOUBLE-AMPLITUDE CYCLIC LOAD (% OF STATIC SHORT-TERM CAPACITY)
For other soils, the susceptibility of a given plate anchor to cyclic-load-caused strength reductions can be evaluated by estimating the maximum cyclic load that can be sustained by the anchor without pore pressure dissipation. The plots in Figure G-18 give the time required to dissipate excess pore pressure, tcd, as a function of uke length, B, and soil permeability, k. Table 3-6 gives permeabilities for typical soils, but permeability should be determined by testing undisturbed soil from the vicinity of the anchors soil mass, if possible. The maximum number of doubleamplitude cyclic loadings that can occur within the time period tcd is estimated from the known or expected loading conditions. Figure G-19 is then entered to determine the maximum cyclic load, Pc, that can be sustained without signicant loss of soil strength. G-5.9.3 Factors of Safety. Because the design approaches for cyclic loading are quite conservative, lower safety factors can be used for the cyclic loading aspects of anchor design. Safety factors of 1.75 for calculations based on limited soil data, or 1.25 for those based on detailed soil data, are appropriate.
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
SOIL PERMEABILITY, (k) ft/sec

FROM NEEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
Figure G-18. Time for Dissipation of Excess Pore Pressure.
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
LOW PLA STICIT Y AND M EDIUM D ENSITY S OILS
NOTE: DATA APPLY TO ANCHORS WITH AN AVERAGE STATIC LOAD LESS THAN 33% OF STATIC SHORT-TERM CAPACITY
HIG HLY PL
AST IC
CLA YS
G-5.9.4 Impulse Loading. An impulse 0 load, PI, is a single load applied quickly but 100 102 103 104 105 106 107 101 for a short periodless than 10 minutes for NUMBER OF LOADING CYCLES, nc clays and less than 10 seconds for sands. FROM NEEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985 These loads are considered single events only if enough time elapses between similar events to allow the soil to return to its Figure G-19. Direct-Embedment Anchor Cyclic Load Capacity (Without Soil Strength Loss). normal state without residual effect. In the absence of other dynamic loads, an anchor can resist an impulse load higher than its short-term static capacity. The procedures for predicting holding capacity under impulse loading presented below are appropriate for use with circular, square, or rectangular (L/B 2) anchor ukes only.
TIME REQUIRED FOR PORE PRESSURE DISSIPATION, tcd (days)
TIME REQUIRED FOR PORE PRESSURE DISSIPATION, tcd (sec)
Some low-density cohesionless soils are susceptible to complete liquefaction. Sediments of this type (uniform ne sands, coarse silts, and some clean deep sea oozes) can experience a near-total strength loss under cyclic loading. Plate anchors are not recommended for these soils if signicant cyclic loading is expected.
108 107
103 102
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G-5.9.5 Cohesive Soil. For cohesive soils, the maximum impulse load that can be applied to an anchor, FI, is determined by: FI = I Rc RI If Fst where: Fst = I = static short-term anchor holding capacity, [force] inuence factor for adjusting the soil strength for strain rate from Figure G-20 reduction factor for cyclic loading reduction factor for repeated impulse loading inertial factor for capacity increase under very rapid and short-duration loading (i.e., for impulse duration less than 0.01 second)
SOIL STRENGTH INFLUENCE FACTOR, I
3.4 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 OVERCONSOLIDATED OR SENSITIVE CLAYS (St > 5) NORMALLLY CONSOLIDATED, MODERATELY SENSITIVE CLAYS (St = 2 TO 5) NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED, NONSENSITIVE CLAYS (St < 2) ALL CLAYS WITH LIQUIDITY INDEX > 1
Rc RI If
= = =
LOAD DURATION (sec) NOTE: WHEN su IS ESTIMATED, USE NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED, MODERATE SENSITIVITY CURVE
INERTIAL FACTOR, If
The factor I is a strain rate used to adjust for an increase in the soil undrained shear strength during impulse loading. The factor Rc depends on the loading history prior to the impulse loading and adjusts FI for the inuence of other nonstatic loads that are occurring at about the same time. If the impulse load is the rst event, then Rc = 1.0. If cyclic loads immediately precede the impulse event, then: Rc = Pc Fst where Pc is the design vertical compressive load at the foundation pile. The factor RI adjusts FI for repeated impulse loadings. If there is only one impulse load in a four-hour period, RI = 1. If there is more than one impulse load in a four-hour period, RI 1.33 e
1.15f c
Figure G-20. Strain-Rate Factor (I) for Cohesive Soil.
3.4 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 B = 2 FT 1.0 0.001 B = 7 FT
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
LOAD DURATION (sec)

where fc is the average frequency, in impulses per hour, over a four-hour period.
Figure G-21. Inertial Factor (If).
The factor If increases FI for the inertia of the soil mass at very short duration loadings (i.e., where the loading is known to be applied for less than 0.1 second), and is determined from Figure G-21.
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G-5.9.6 Cohesionless Soils. Impulse holding capacity under impulse loading in cohesionless soils is also derived by applying a series of inuence factors to the calculated short-term static holding capacity: N FI qI Rc RI If Fst N q where: Fst NqI Nq Rc RI If = = = = = = static short-term anchor holding capacity cohesionless soil holding capacity factor adjusted for impulse loading cohesionless soil holding capacity factor (from Figure G-17). reduction factor for cyclic loading reduction factor for repeated impulse loading inertial factor for capacity increase under very rapid and short-duration loading (i.e., for impulse duration less than 0.01 second)
3.4 3.2
SOIL STRENGTH INFLUENCE FACTOR, I
The adjusted holding capacity factor (NqI) accounts for the effect of the impulse loading on the soil friction angle (). Nq from Figure G-17(b) can be used for NqI by substituting the adjusted friction angle I for , where: I sin I sin 1 1 + (I = 1) sin where I is the inuence factor for adjusting the soil strength from Figure G-22. The factor Rc is determined in the same manner as for cohesive soil. For repeated impulse loads, RI is dependent on the frequency of those impulse loads (fs). If fs is less than or equal to one impulse per 10 minutes, RI is 1.0. If fs is greater than one impulse per 10 minutes, then RI is obtained from: RI 2 e
0.116 f s
3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.01 0.1 1.0
FINE-SILTY SANDS MEDIUM-COARSE SANDS I sin I = sin-1 1 + (I - 1)sin
(UNTYPICAL, OVERCONSOLIDATED CONDITION) (TYPICAL CONDITION)
where fs is the average number of impulses per 10 minutes. The inertial factor If is taken from Figure G-23.
10.0
100.0
1000.0
LOAD DURATION (sec)

G-5.10 Holding Capacity on Slopes. Holding capacity of embedded plate anchors Figure G-22. Strain-Rate Factor (I) for Cohesionless Soil. on slopes is affected by the stability of the slope under the additional inuence of the embedment anchor, and the inuence of the inclined seaoor on the soil resistance mobilized by the loaded anchor. The inuence of an anchor on slope stability is extremely complex, involving the effects of anchor installation and anchor loading on the slope. Table G-13 lists factors that inuence submarine slope stability. All factors lead to a lower resistance to soil mass down-slope sliding and, therefore, greater slope instability. The inuence of plate anchors on slope stability depends to a high degree on the type and sensitivity of the sediment. Slope angle itself is not a clear indicator of potential problems. On inclined seaoors, a signicant portion of the soil shear strength is mobilized to support the soil slope against gravitational forces. For down-slope loading, most of the soil shear stresses developed to resist anchor pullout will be in addition to those resisting slope failure. The result is that a smaller amount of the soils shear strength is available to resist anchor pullout than in a horizontal seaoor. This is less important when the anchor is loaded in a vertical or up-slope direction. Holding capacity of a direct-embedment anchor on a specic slope can be estimated by multiplying the holding capacity calculated for a horizontal seaoor by a reduction factor, Rs: Rs Fs Fs 1
Table G-13. Direct-embedment Anchor Effects on Submarine Slope Stability.
Factor Impact Loading During Embedment Remolding or Disturbance of Soils During Installation Cyclic Loading by Anchor Local Instability After Anchor Pullout Direct Application of Anchor Load to Slope Effects Effect similar to earthquake loading but with greater local influence; more critical problem in loose soils. Effect varies significantly from one soil to another. Effect varies significantly from one soil to another. Can progress to major slope failure. Probably not more significant than a local instability problem but can progress into large slide.
where Fs is the factor of safety against a slope failure without the anchor. Rs represents the amount of soil strength remaining, or the amount not mobilized to maintain slope stability. In computing the anchor holding capacity, anchor depth and the holding capacity factors Nc and Nq are based on a depth of embedment measured perpendicular to the seaoor.
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G-6 PILE FOUNDATIONS AND ANCHORS Piles are secure, deeply embedded anchoring devices installed by driving or by drilling and grouting (pile installation methods are described in Paragraph G-6.6). High installation costs usually preclude their use in conditions for which dragembedment, deadweight, or directembedment anchors are suitable. Pile anchors are particularly suited for use when short-scope moorings are desired, and on very hard seaoors. Applications and characteristics of several types of pile anchor are listed in Table G-14. Steel pipe sections and H-piles tted with mooring line connections are the most commonly used pile types, although specially designed piles have been developed to increase lateral or uplift capacity. Typical anchor piles are shown in Figure G-23. For simple pipe and Hpiles, axial forces are resisted by soil friction developed along the pile shaft and by bearing on the pile tip (for downward loads). Lateral forces and moments are resisted by the pile shaft bearing on the near-surface soils. Lateral earth pressure and skin friction effects on a pile anchor are shown in Figure G-24. G-6.1 Holding Capacity. Pile anchors or foundations may be subjected to one or more of the following loads:
Table G-14. Pile Anchors.

Characteristics Pipe and H-piles Umbrella Piles Chain-in-holea Rock Boltsa
a
Approx. Maximum Capacity Foundations and anchors Axial: 20,000 kips Lateral: 1,500 kips Anchors 300 kips in sand 100 kips in mud Anchors 550 kips Anchors 30 kips
Applications
Installation Methods Applicable Soil Type Driven or drilled and grouted Driven Drilled and grouted Soil and rock
Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Pipe and H-piles Easy to splice, high Very high cost capacity, can penetrate through light obstructions Umbrella Piles High capacity in uplift Maximum depth limited by hammer; soils must be homogenous Chain-in-hole High capacity Installation may be difficult Rock Bolt Very low cost, no heavy Rock must be competent, mechanical equipment nonfractured (shallow necessary water only); low capacity
a
Soils without boulders and other obstructions Rock with overlying soil strata Drilled and grouted or Rock mechanically wedged Remarks Pipe piles resist bending in any direction
Resistance developed similar to plateembedment anchor Diver/hand-installed; much smaller than normal piles
Special anchor pile; may be considered a direct-embedment anchor Adapted from NCEL Handbook for Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
PADEYE
PIPE PILE FOR MULTIDIRECTIONAL LOAD PIPE PILE MOORING-LINE CONNECTION FLANGE WEB
LOAD
Axial uplift loads, Lateral loads, Bending moments, or
LOAD
Axial downward (compression).
loads
WIDE-FLANGE SECTION FOR UNIDIRECTIONAL LOAD WIDE-FLANGE (WF) SECTION WELD FINS TO IMPROVE LATERAL LOAD CAPACITY WELD WELD PADEYE
A simplied procedure for the design of uniform cross-section piles in a nonlayered seaoor consisting of sand, clay, or calcareous soils is presented in the following paragraphs. Design is a trial-and-error procedure; a pile is selected and then evaluated for its ability to resist applied loads without excessive movement and without exceeding the allowable stresses for the pile material. The pile is assumed to be a beam on an elastic foundation with an elastic modulus that increases linearly with depth. Design calculations for pile anchors and foundations are identical; lateral and uplift loads are governing for anchor piles, while downward loads are usually governing for foundation piles. Both anchor and foundation piles may be subjected to signicant moments, depending on the point of application of lateral loads; foundation piles may also be subjected to uplift loads.
BUILT-UP SECTION FOR MULTIDIRECTIONAL LOAD BUILT-UP SECTION (COMPOSED OF T-SECTIONS) Figure G-23. Anchor Piles.
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Soil properties for the installation site should be determined by in-situ or laboratory testing, or both. If site-specic soil data are not available, it may be possible to extrapolate soil properties from geologic and geophysical data from similar areas. Where soil properties vary signicantly with depth, average properties in the uppermost four pile diameters are used for lateral load analysis, and average properties over the pile length for axial load analysis.
PILE HEAD MOORING LINE
AD LO
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
SKIN FRICTION PILE
Figure G-24. Lateral Soil Pressure and Skin Friction on Pile Anchor.
G-6.1.1 Lateral Load Capacity. The lateral load capacity, Ph, is given by: Ph = ymax(EI) Ay T 3 + a By T 2
where: Pn = lateral load capacity, lbs ymax = pile head lateral deection, [in.] EI = pile stiffness, [lb in2] E = modulus of elasticity of pile material, [lb in2] I = moment of inertia of pile cross section, [in 4] Ay, By = deection coefficients, functions of the depth coefficient
Lp T
, Figure G 25 (Page G 30)
a = height of the pile load attachment point above the seaoor surface, [in] Lp = pile length, [in] T = pile-soil relative stiffness, [in] =
EI Nh 0.2
nh = coefficient of subgrade reaction, from Figure G 25 (Page G 30), [lb in3] Pile length, Lp, is assumed. A length of Lp = 3T is suggested as a minimum. For anchor piles, the ratio of maximum lateral deection to pile diameter or width (ymax/D) should be less than 0.1D. Smaller deections may be required for foundation piles. If lateral load capacity, Ph, is equal to or slightly higher than anticipated loads, the trial pile is adequate. If Ph is much greater than anticipated loads, the pile is over-designed. If cost reduction or material optimization are desired, pile stiffness should be decreased by reducing pile diameter or wall thickness, and/or the pile length shortened. If Ph is less than anticipated loads, the pile is under-designed. Holding capacity is increased by increasing:
Pile stiffness by increasing diameter and/or thickness, Pile length, unless already very long, or Design depth of pile head.
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0 20 40
LOOSE
Dr = 35% Dr = 50% 65% Dr = % 85 Dr =
SOFT CLAY
(Ay and By)
3 Ay 2 By 1
nh (lb/in3)
MEDIUM DENSE DENSE

kl
50 STIFF CLAY 100
60 80 100 120 Dr = SOIL RELATIVE DENSITY D = PILE DIAMETER OR WIDTH
150 nh = su kl D 15 20
0 2 3 4 DEPTH COEFFICIENT
200 0 2 4 6 ymax (%) D 8 10 0 5 10 ymax (%) D
6 zmax Lp = T T
(a) DEFLECTION COEFFICIENT AT SOIL SURFACE

FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER, 1985
(b) nh FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS

AFTER EVALUATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF SUBGRADE REACTION, K. TERZAGHI, GEOTECHNIQUE, 1955
(c) nh FOR COHESIVE SOILS

FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER, 1985
Figure G-25. Coefficients Ay, By, nh.
G-6.1.2 Uplift Capacity. Pile uplift resistance results from skin friction between the pile and the soil mass. Pile frictional resistance is: Qs where: As fs = = the surface area of the pile below the seaoor [L2]. average unit skin friction resistance As fs
Sand Silty sand Sandy silt Silt
Table G-15. Recommended Limiting Values for Unit Skin Friction and End Bearing for Cohesionless Soils. Soil Type (deg) Noncalcareous Soils 35 30 25 20 Calcareous Soils Uncemented calcareous sand (easily crushed) 30 20 0.3a 60 Partially cemented calcareous sands with carbonate content: 0 to 30% 30 to 45% above 45% Highly cemented calcareous soils, i.e., chalk
a
Nq
fs (max) (ksf)
2.0 1.7 1.4 1.0
qp (max) (ksf)
200 100 60 40
40 20 12 8
Axial load capacity is increased most effectively by increasing pile length, although increasing diameter may be effective. For cohesionless soils, average unit skin friction resistance, fs, is calculated from: fs = k p vo tan ( where: k pvo = = = = 5)
2.0 0.64 1.1

a
100 160 140 140
0.56a
For drilled and grouted piles, the value may approach 2,000 psf, the value for quartz sand: actual value depends upon installation technique From NCEL Handbook for marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
0.7 for compression 0.5 for uplift. effective overburden vertical stress in soil, [force/length2] drained (effective) friction angle from Table G-15 or Figure 3-3
Table G-15 gives limiting values for unit skin friction for cohesionless soils. For piles driven into calcareous soils, the tables limiting values should be used unless higher values are justied by on-site testing. For cohesive soils, unit skin friction resistance is calculated differently for normally consolidated and over-consolidated soils. The soil consolidation state is indicated by the ratio of undrained shear strength and effective overburden pressure, su/pvo. If su/pvo 0.4, the soil is overconsolidated.
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For normally consolidated soils, the average unit skin resistance, fs, is equal to: L p 0.468 0.052 ln p vo 2.0
fs
where Lp is in feet. The limiting value for skin frictional resistance is the undrained shear strength of the soil, i.e., fs su. For overconsolidated soils: fs = su 0.468 For 2.0 < Su/pvo < 4.0, fs = 0.351su. Average effective overburden soil pressure, pvo, at the pile midpoint is: b L p 2 s u 0.155 ln p vo
p vo = where: b Lp = = soil buoyant unit weight, [force/length3] pile length, [length]
If the pile is not fully buried, Lp is the buried length. If the soil unit weight varies with depth, unit weights along the buried length are averaged. G-6.1.3 Compressive Load Capacity. For foundation piles, resistance to compressive loading comes from frictional resistance along the pile and from resistance to tip or end penetration. For closed-ended piles, the soil bearing capacity for the pile tip, Qp, is: Qp = Ap qp = pvo, tip Nq = 9 su, tip where: Qp Ap qp pvo, tip Nq su, tip = = = = = = soil bearing capacity, lbs gross end area of the closed pile, ft unit soil bearing capacity at the pile tip, lb-ft limiting values from Table G-15 effective vertical stress at pile tip, lb-ft bearing capacity factor from Table G-15 soil undrained shear strength at pile tip, lb-ft for cohesionless soils for cohesive soils
Open-ended piles will develop a soil plug inside the open end when installed. The soil plug limits the value of Qp to the force required to push a soil plug up into the pile (a thin-walled pipe). This limiting value is approximately equal to the frictional capacity of the pile, Qs. Total pile capacity in compression, Qc from Paragraph G-6.1.2, is thus: Qc = Qs Qp
If pile capacity is less than the design compressive load, capacity can be increased by increasing pile diameter or, preferably, length. Qp of an open-ended pile is signicantly limited by the value of Qs. Qc may be increased by closing the pile end with a concrete plug or steel plate.
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G-6.1.4 Steel Stress Analysis. Maximum stress in the pile under tension (fmaxt) and compression (fmaxc) is calculated by: fmaxt = Pt Aps Pc Aps + Mmax S Mmax S
fmaxc = where: Pt Pc Aps S Mmax = = = = = vertical uplift at pile head, lbs horizontal load at pile head, lbs cross-sectional area of the pile, ft section modulus of the pile, ft3 maximum moment, ft-lbs
The terms Aps and S and allowable maximum stress in tension and compression are available from steel design manuals or manufacturers literature. The values for fmaxt and fmaxc are compared with the allowable steel stress in tension and compression for the pile being used. For most common structural shapes, the allowable maximum stress in tension and in bending is about 60 percent of yield, or about 22,000 psi. It is also possible to reinforce the pile over the length where high moments exist. While this is a cost-effective alternative, calculation of loads in piles of variable cross section is beyond the scope of this handbook. Total maximum moment, Mmax, in the pile is the sum of any applied (design) bending moments, Ma, and moments created by horizontal loads. Total moment, Mt, at any point along the pile is: Mt where: Am Ph T Ma Bm = = = = = nondimensional moment coefficient a function of the depth coefficient z/T, from Figure G-26 design horizontal load at the foundation pile, lbs pile-soil relative stiffness = (EI/nh)0.2, in. (see paragraph G-6.1.1) applied bending moment, in-lb nondimensional moment coefficient, from Figure G-26 Am Ph T + Ma Bm
It may be necessary to determine Mt at several locations along the pile in order to nd the maximum moment (Mmax).
DEPTH COEFFICIENT z/T
DEPTH COEFFICIENT z/T
MOMENT COEFFICIENT (Am) FOR APPLIED LATERAL FORCE (P)
MOMENT COEFFICIENT (Bm) FOR APPLIED MOMENT (M) L P /T = 2
L P /T = 2 L P /T = 3
L P /T = 3
LP/T = 4
L P /T = 4
4 0.1 0
L P /T = 5 L P /T = 10
0.2 0.4 Am 0.6 0.8 1.0
4 0.1 0
L P /T = 5 L P /T = 10
0.2 0.4 Bm 0.6 0.8 1.0
AFTER NONDIMENSIONAL SOLUTIONS FOR LATERALLY LOADED PILES..., H. MATLOCK AND L.C. REESE, PROCEEDINGS OF THE 8TH TEXAS CONFERENCE ON SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING, BUREAU OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN, 1956
Figure G-26. Moment Coefficients Am and Bm.
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G-6.2 Submerged Anchor Pile Head. For anchor piles driven below the seaoor surface, the mooring line angle at the pile is not the same as the angle at the seaoor, due to soil bearing resistance against the mooring line. The actual angle at the pile becomes higher and the force exerted on the pile becomes more of an axial uplift. The seaoor horizontal and vertical (uplift) load components, Ph and Pu, are corrected to reect the actual loads on the pile head. The force corrections are based on several simplifying assumptions, including the assumption that the changes in both vertical and horizontal force components are due to the soil resistance to horizontal anchor line movement. The correction to the horizontal force Ph (horizontal soil force) is: fcb = zc db b N q
2
for cohesionless soils for cohesive soils
fcb = 11 su db zc where: fcb zc db b Nq ssu = = = = = = =
horizontal force exerted on the mooring line by the soil, lbs depth of pile connection below seaoor, ft characteristic mooring line size, ft wire rope diameter or 3 (chain diameter) soil buoyant weight, lb-ft3 bearing capacity factor, from Table G-16 undrained shear strength, lb-ft2
Table G-16. Bearing Capacity Factors for Chain Lateral Force in Sand.
Soil Friction Angle, degrees 20 25 30 35 40 45
Nq
3 5 8 12 22 36
The corrected horizontal and uplift load components, Ph and Pu, are: Ph Pu = Ph =
2
fcb fcb
2
After G.G. Meyerhoff and J. F. Adams, The Ultimate Uplift Capacity of Foundations, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Nov 1968
Pu + 2 Ph fcb
G-6.3 Pile Anchors in Rock Seaoors. There is no rigorous design procedure for pile anchors in rock because of the difficulty in characterizing the material failure mode. Three principal rock failure modes are illustrated in Figure G-27:
ROCK SEAFLOOR
CRUSHED ROCK
FRACTURED ROCK
Failure in lateral bearing due to rock crushing under lateral load. Failure in uplift due to failure of grout-to-rock bonding or because of a rock-mass failure in fractured material. Failure in uplift due to the piles loosening and loss of resistance from repeated lateral loading.
(a) LATERAL BEARING FAILURE OF ROCK AND PILE (b) UPLIFT FAILURE OF GROUT-TO-ROCK BONDING (c) UPLIFT BLOCK FAILURE OF PILE AND ROCK-MASS
Figure G-27. Pile Anchor Failure Modes in Rock.
The mode of failure is difficult to establish or predict for a specic location. The strength of a cored sample may be misleading when applied to the prediction of pile anchor holding capacity in jointed, bedded, faulted, or weathered rock masses. G-6.3.1 Lateral Capacity. In a rock or hard cemented soil seaoor, a soil cover may be present above the rock, or the rock/cemented zone may be underlain by soil. For layered soil-rock sites, available computer programs should be used to account for the complexities introduced by these nonuniform conditions. G-6.3.2 Soil Overlying Rock. For soil overlying rock, pile capacity design approach depends on the relative depth to the rock, zs/T, where zs is the thickness of the soil layer and T is the pile relative stiffness. If zs/T is greater than 3.0, the pile can be designed to develop all support from the soil layer.
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If zs/T is less than 3.0, a conservative approach is to design the pile as if the soil were not present. That is, the pile is considered to be cantilevered out of the rock surface and to resist all forces without assistance from the soil layer. Stresses from the applied lateral load must be less than the rocks compressive strength: Ph D Le where: Ph D Le = = = lateral force applied to the pile head, lbs width or diameter of the pile, in. effective length of the pile bearing on the rock strata equal to the smaller of the rock layer thickness (zr) or the pile diameter (D), in. rock compressive strength from Table G-17, lb-in2 sc
Table G17. Compressive Strength of Rock.

Rock Type Dolerite Gabbro Gneiss Basalt Quartzite Granite Marble Slate Dolomite Limestone Sandstone Shale Compressive Strength, sc , ksi 28.4 49.8 25.6 42.7 7.1 28.4 21.3 42.7 21.3 42.7 14.2 35.6 14.2 35.6 14.2 28.4 11.4 35.6 4.3 35.6 2.8 24.1 1.4 14.2 Buoyant Unit Weight lb/ft3 123 123 117 111 101 98 98 98 92 73 61 61 Shear Strength, Ss , ksi 3.5 8.5 2.1 7.0* 2.8 8.5 2.8 8.5 2.0 6.5 3.0 6.1 2.0 10.2* 2.5 7.1 1.4 7.1 1.1 5.7 0.4 4.3
sc
G-6.3.3 Rock Layer Overlying Soil. Coal 0.7 7.1 5 When or rock or other hard layer overlies softer soil, the inuence of the rock layer may be ignored and the pile designed to After I. W. Farmer, Engineering Properties of Rocks, 1968, and Engineering Behavior of Rocks, develop all support from the underlying 1983; and Richard E. Goodman, Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 1980* soil, if the rock layer thickness, zr, is less than 0.2T, where T = (EI/nh)0.2 and nh is the coefficient of soil reaction of the underlying soil. For rock layer thickness greater than 0.5T, the inuence of the underlying soil may be ignored and the pile designed for the rock compressive strength. For intermediate values of zr, the designer must judge whether to use the soil or rock procedure; the decision depends upon pile diameter, knowledge of rock layer strength and fracturing, and the layer thickness. G-6.3.4 Uplift Capacity. Failure in uplift may occur at the grout-to-pile interface, the grout-to-rock interface, or along a rock fracture zone outside the grouted area. For failure in a fracture zone, a block of rock containing the pile is assumed to be lifted free of the surrounding rock. In massive, competent rock, uplift capacity is governed by the strength of the grout bond to the pile, by the grout shear strength, or, more rarely, by the strength of the grout bond to the drilled shaft wall. Uplift capacity, Ra, of the anchor is given by: Ra = sb Lr Cp where: sb = Lr = Cp = the lesser of the grout-pile bond strength, grout-rock bond strength, or grout shear strength, [force/length] length of pile embedded in rock, [length] minimum perimeter transmitting the uplift load, [length]
Unless higher bond strengths are veried by testing, the grout-to-steel bonding strength should be limited to 27 psi. The grout-to-rock bond strength may vary from 0.3 to 1.0 times the rock shear strength, depending on cleanliness of the drilled hole, type of rock, and grouting procedure. In fractured rock, anchor uplift capacity is determined by the weighs of the blocks of rock which move with the anchor and by the frictional force developed between the attached blocks and adjacent blocks. Because of the difficulty in estimating the normal forces acting on vertical joints and cracks, this frictional force is normally ignored, and uplift resistance taken as the weight of the rock that would be lifted with the pile.
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G-6.4 Increasing Lateral Load Capacity. As shown in Figure G-28, there are four principal means to increase lateral load capacity of a pile anchor:
TECHNIQUE
LOWERED ATTACHMENT POINT LATERAL LOAD IS REDUCED. RESISTANCE IS HIGHER
BURIED PILE HEAD
ATTACHING FINS
SHEAR COLLARS WITH ANCHOR PLATES INCREASES LATERAL AND UPLIFT RESISTANCE.
ADVANTAGES
Lower the anchor line attachment point along the pile length.
DISADVANTAGES
LATERAL LOAD REDUCED. PROVIDES FOR SCOUR.
INCREASES LATERAL RESISTANCE. LIMITS PILE HEAD DEFLECTION AND BENDING MOMENT.
Lower the pile head beneath the soil surface into stronger soils. Attach ns or shear collars near the pile head to increase lateral bearing area. Increase pile diameter near the surface.
UNIDIRECTIONAL LOADING. SOIL IN FRONT OF PILE MAY BE WEAKENED.
MORE COSTLY FABRICATION.
COMPLEX INSTALLATION. MORE COSTLY FABRICATION. LIMITED EXPERIENCE WITH SYSTEM.
ILLUSTRATION CROSS SECTION
SHEAR COLLAR ANCHOR SHAFT ANCHOR PLATE SHEAR COLLARS WITH ANCHORS PLATES
LOWERED BURIED ATTACHMENT G-6.4.1 Load Applied Below the Pile ATTACHMENT PILE HEAD FINS Head. When the anchor line is connected POINT to the side of an anchor pile at a distance FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985 of more than ve pile diameters from the head, the lateral load analysis becomes very Figure G-28. Improving Pile Anchor Lateral Capacity. complex and may require use of a computer program. When calculations must be made without access to geotechnical engineering services, the mooring line attachment should be kept less than ve pile diameters. As the connection point is lowered from the pile top to a point midway down the pile and with the same lateral loads, pile bending moments and deection are reduced signicantly. The mooring line will approach the pile at a decreasing angle as the connection point is lowered, greatly lowering lateral load and increasing uplift force.
G-6.4.2 Piles with Variable Cross Sections. Increased pile size near the seaoor will increase resistance to lateral loads and bending moments. Analysis of the response of piles with variable cross sections to lateral loads is complex and, again, best accomplished with the aid of computer programs. In general, a large increase in pile diameter over a lesser depth is more efficient in reducing deections at the seaoor than is a small increase in diameter over a greater depth. When enlarged pile sections at the pile head are used, the length of the enlarged section should be limited to three times the larger diameter. G-6.5 Special Seaoor Conditions. Steeply sloping seaoors, rock, cobbles, or cemented zones can make installation of driven piles difficult, although other installation methods may be successful. Drilled and grouted piles may be the method of choice in these environments. Scour of sediments from around the pile/seaoor interface, typically in areas with swift bottom currents, weakens resistance to lateral force. Soil type and size and conguration of pile groups inuences scour pattern and rate. Liquefaction of loose granular or sandy sediments by cyclic loading can effectively remove soil support and cause pile failure. Removal of the surface layers prior to pile installation can signicantly improve pile performance in granular soils. Slump or sub-sea landslide on slopes can subject piles to high lateral force causing failure or breakout of pilings. G-6.6 Pile Installation. Piles are installed by one or more of the following methods:
Driving, Drilling and grouting, Jacking, or Jetting.
Small piles can be installed with diver-operated equipment. Pile installation equipment and operators can be provided by Navy Underwater Construction Teams, the Army Corps of Engineers, or contractors retained through the Supervisor of Salvage. The following information is provided to give the salvage engineer an idea of the relative complexity, expense, and applicability of pile installation by various methods, but is in general insufficient for planning major pile installations.
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G-6.6.1 Driven Piles. Piles may be driven by impact hammers operated above the water surface, by underwater impact hammers, or by vibratory hammers. Piles for piers, harbor structures, bridges, and many offshore structures in shallow water are driven from above the water surface with conventional hammers like those used to drive piles on land. The pile is made long enough to extend above the water surface when driven to its design penetration depth or a pile follower is used. The piles are commonly guided by a template that rests on the seaoor, although oating templates may be used for small, shallow water installations. The pile-driving operation is conducted from a carefully moored work barge that supports the necessary cranes and auxiliary equipment. Submarine pile hammers are scaled-up versions of terrestrial hammers, and may be operated by single-acting steam, compressed air, diesel, or hydraulic power. The rated energy of these hammers varies from less than 100,000 ft-lb per blow to over 1,500,000 ft-lb per blow. Surfaceoperated pile drivers have been used in water depths in excess of 1,000 feet. The success of the surface-driven method of pile emplacement in deep water is dependent upon the presence of the template to act as a guide for the piles. Without the restraint offered by the template, most of the driving energy would be dissipated by lateral deection of the pile. For anchor piles driven from the surface without lateral restraint, a reasonable maximum water depth is about 250 feet. Terrestrial pile hammers may be modied for operation underwater. One manufacturer makes a total of 12 types of steam/compressed air hammers, with rated energies in air of 8,750 ft-lb to 60,000 ft-lb. These may be operated while submerged with little loss of efficiency. The modications consist primarily of providing exhaust hoses that extend to the water surface. Because steam cools too much when the hoses are underwater, compressed air is usually used to operate the hammers. Vibratory pile drivers are becoming more common in American practice as experience is gained with their use and as more powerful machines are developed. The machines usually use counter-rotating eccentric weights powered by electric or hydraulic motors to produce the vibratory forces. The major depth-limiting factors on present systems are the difficulty in handling long lengths of large-diameter, high-pressure hydraulic lines and the large friction losses in the line. These factors limit the maximum practical water depth of a surface-powered, hydraulic vibratory drive to about 1,000 feet. G-6.6.2 Drilling and Grouting. Drilling and grouting is essentially identical to the method used to set a casing for an oil well. A hole of somewhat larger diameter than the pile is drilled to the proper depth using rotary drilling tools and is cleaned out by pumping seawater through the drill string. The pile is placed over the drill string and lowered into the hole. Portland cement grout is pumped down the drill string and forced up outside of the pile to ll the annular void and bond the pile to the soil. The interior of the pile is lled with grout as the drill string is withdrawn. Piles up to 8 feet in diameter have been placed in water depths in excess of 600 feet by drilling and grouting. For small piles set in rock, either cement or epoxy grout can be used. Diver-operated hydraulic tools capable of drilling 3-inch diameter holes to a depth of 20 feet, along with diver-operated grout dispensers, are used by Navy Underwater Construction Teams (UCT) and NCEL. Piles tting such holes may have capacities in the 10- to 60-ton range, depending on rock strength. G-6.6.3 Jack-in Piles. Piles may be pushed or jacked into the seaoor if an adequate reaction force can be applied. For a satisfactory degree of safety against failure in bearing of foundation piles, jacking loads must be two to three times the design load. The actual jacking of the piles can be accomplished by a number of systems. A rack-and-pinion system may be used, with the rack being an integral part of the pile and running its entire length. A chain acted on by a chain jack or a cable acted on by a hydraulic cable puller may be used, with the chain or cable applying load to the top of the pile. A short-stroke hydraulic jack equipped with a means of gripping the wall of a pile may also be used. G-6.6.4 Jetted Piles. Jetting is used to place piles primarily in cohesionless soils. The piles are pushed or lowered into the soil area, which has been greatly weakened by jetting. The jetting action is generally conned to the inside of a pile or to portions of the outside of the pile several diameters above its tip. Jetting can also be used in a form of reverse circulation in which both air and water are forced down a pipe inside or outside the pile. The air-water mixture helps to lift the displaced soil materials to the surface of the soil.
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APPENDIX H FFG-7 CLASS DATA

H-1 INTRODUCTION The following pages are excerpts from an FFG-7 Class Damage Control Book, Part II(A), Stability and Loading. The data is provided to support example problems throughout the handbook, and to indicate the type of data included in typical damage control books. Original page numbers are shown in the box at the bottom of each excerpted page
INTRODUCTION This chapter will demonstrate how to apply the general instructions shown in Naval Ships Technical Manual NAVSEA 0901-LP-079-0010 Chapter 079 Volume 1, Damage Control Stability and Buoyancy, to FFG 56. Intact stability, damaged stability, reserve buoyancy, and icing are addressed in this section. Instructions are provided for corrective action to be taken in the event that FFG 56 is operating in an environment in which stability and/or reserve buoyancy becomes critical. All instructions assume that the ship will be operated in accordance with the liquid loading instructions. The sample calculations presented in this section illustrate the critical conditions of intact and damaged stability, and reserve buoyancy. The ships liquid loading instructions, presented in the Fuel and Ballast Sequence Table (page II(a)7 and II(a)8), provide FFG 56 with a method of operation that ensures that stability is adequate for the intact ship under the effects of 100 knot beam winds. The sample intact stability calculations show FFG 56 operating under loading conditions that provide the minimum stability margin. These loading conditions include consumable load items other than fuel and ballast at the normal operating quantities described on page II(a)12. Cold weather conditions have become an important operating environment for U.S. Navy ships. In order to prepare the FFG 56 for this condition, the special case of intact stability with the added weight of topside ice is discussed in this section. Diagrams have been prepared that associate ice thickness, fuel sequence, and quantity of liquid ballast with the maximum allowable wind velocity. Instructions are provided for the use of these Limiting Wind Velocity vs. Fuel Sequence diagrams. Instructions for correcting the trim, list, and vertical center of gravity after damage are presented in this section. Damaged stability calculations which formed the basis of these instructions evaluated various combinations of damaged compartments within a group of watertight subdivisions to determine the critical case of damage. II(a)1
Provided the ship is operated within the guidelines set forth in this chapter, the DCA will not be required to perform extensive calculations to assure that both intact and damaged stability are maintained for the hazards presented herein. Reserve buoyancy has been considered in the recommended corrective action for damage. Recommendations for the counterflooding of spaces within the damaged subdivision have taken into account limitations regarding the downflooding of intact spaces due to excessive counter flooding. By following these recommendations the possibility of plunging or of deck edge submergence can be avoided. Sufficient data is provided in this chapter to perform intact stability calculations at various loading conditions. This data is included in the event that a loading condition develops that does not follow liquid loading instructions or normal load item distributions while the ship encounters one of the operating conditions noted previously. Persons performing these calculations should be familiar with the stability criteria in U.S. Navy Design Data Sheet DDS-079-1 summarized on page II(a)16. If FFG 56 is to be operated in severe conditions which can be predicted well in advance of their occurrence, it is recommended that NAVSEA Code 55W41 be contacted for information and guidance. FFG 56 PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS Length Overall Length Between Perpendiculars Breadth Maximum Minimum depth to lowest point on Main Deck 453-0" 408-0" 46-11-1/2" 29-1-11/16" II(a)2
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SEQUENCE 1 2 3 4
TANKS USED 5-140-1-F 5-250-2-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-2-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-1-F 5-100-4-F 5-100-3-F 5-100-4-F 5-100-3-F 5-100-4-F 5-116-1-F 5-116-2-F
GALLONS REMOVED 2000 5500 7500 5293 2207 1086 2000 4414 7500 5919 833 748 7500
BURNABLE CAPACITY 95% 9127 10793 10793
% FUEL REMAINING IN TANK 74 47 29 0 10
BALLAST TANK
TOTAL BURNABLE FUEL IN STORAGE 154951 (95%) 147451 (91%) 139951 (86%) 132451 (82%) 124951 (77%) 117451 (72%)
10333 10333
0 77 54 8 0 0 92 61 5-32-0-W (Clean Ballast)
5 6
21090 21090
109951 (68%) 102451 (63%)
8 9
5-116-1-F 5-116-2-F
7500 7500
58 27 5-116-0-W (Clean Ballast)
94951 (59%) 87451 (54%)
10 11
5-116-1-F 5-116-2-F 5-116-1-F 5-116-1-F 5-140-1-F 5-140-1-F 5-140-2-F 5-140-2-F 5-164-3-F 5-164-3-F 5-164-2-F 5-64-0-F 5-64-0-F
7500 6090 1410 3932 3568 3559 3941 5186 2314 683 3188 3629 7500 9127
24 0 18 0 37 0 54 0 22 0 0 69 16 5-100-3&4-F (Dirty Ballast) 5-250-1&2-F (Dirty Ballast) 5-328-1&2-W (Clean Ballast)
79951 (49%) 72451 (45%) 64951 (40%) 57451 (36%) 49951 (31%) 42451 (26%) 34951 (22%)
12 13
14 15
2997 3188 13267
16
17
5-64-0-F 5-84-2-F
2138 5362
17818
0 66
FUEL BALLAST SEQUENCE TABLE (Sheet 1)
II(a)7
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SEQUENCE 18 19 20 21 22
TANKS USED 5-84-1-F 5-84-2-F 5-84-1-F 5-84-2-F 5-84-1-F 5-84-1-F 5-56-0-F
GALLONS REMOVED 7500 7500 7500 4956 2544 274 4677
BURNABLE CAPACITY 95% 17818
% FUEL REMAINING IN TANK 55 26 15 0 1
BALLAST TANK
TOTAL BURNABLE FUEL IN STORAGE 27451 (17%)
5-140-1&2-F* (Dirty Ballast)
19951 (12%) 12451 (8%) 4951 (3%) 0
4677
0 0
* Fill through sounding tube as close to 100% capacity as possible using fire hose. Use caution to prevent overflow. This is considered an extreme case as FFG 56 has 22% or less fuel on board. The Commanding Officer must approve operation which deviates from the Fuel Ballast sequence. Strong consideration should be given to avoid high velocity beam winds and high speed course change if the sequence is not strictly followed. NOTES: 1. 2.
3.
4.
Minor variations in tank capacities documented elsewhere are considered insignificant. Fuel service tank 5-204-2-F is the first to be placed in service. This tank is replenished to 95% capacity with 7500 gallons from fuel storage tanks after suction is switched to 5-204-1-F at Sequence 1. At Sequence 2, suction is returned to 5-204-2-F, and 5-204-1-F is replenished with fuel from storage. This port/starboard method of alternately replenishing and depleting fuel in service continues throughout the fuel/ballast sequence. This practice will help to minimize list. In sequences where seawater ballast is added, the ballast tanks are to be filled prior to the transfer of fuel from fuel storage to fuel service tanks. For details, see the FFG 56 Ship Information Book, Chapter 5, Fuel Transfer System, and Chapter 20, Main and Secondary Drainage and Ballast System. Clean ballast tanks 5-328-1&2-W are available to control list through Sequence 10. Each tank is alternately ballasted to 100 percent full (pressed), or emptied (never slack) as necessary. At Sequence 11 (1/2 Fuel Consumed Condition) these tanks must both be ballasted to 100 percent to satisfy stability requirements.
FUEL BALLAST SEQUENCE TABLE (Sheet 2) II(a)8
INTACT STABILITY Intact Stability Provided The KG limit curve for FFG 7 Class Ships is based on the maximum height of center of gravity that FFG 7 Class Ships can have in the Full Load Departure condition and still meet 100-knot-beamwind intact stability criteria for all loading conditions within the ships operating range. The effects of changes in the Light Ship condition on the inherent stability characteristics of the ship can be determined directly from the KG Limit curve. The weight and vertical moment of Full Load Departure load items are included on the KG Limit Curve. Adding the adjusted Light Ship displacement to the Full Load Departure load items allows a quick evaluation of the impact of the Light Ship change on ship stability. The method for finding the allowable KG and KG margin with a change in Light Ship weight is presented on the following page. Loading conditions used in KG limit curve studies were developed by consuming the fuel in storage tanks in the order shown in the fuel ballast sequence table on Pages II(a)7 through II(a)8. II(a)9
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FFG - 7 CLASS
ALLOWABLE KG.
18.90
VS
FULL LOAD DISPLACEMENT
18.80
ALLOWABLE KG - (FEET)
DISPLACEMENT LIMIT 4100-TON CAPACITY LOAD
18.70
KG LIMIT CURVE
18.60
FFG 56 WITH 10 TONS ADDED LIGHT SHIP WEIGHT FFG 56
18.50
18.40 3800 3850 3900 3950 4000 4050 4100 4150 4200 FULL LOAD DISPLACEMENT - (TONS)
II(a)11
It is important to note that the effect of using light density fuel (diesel fuel at 43.05 cu. ft./ton), which reduces the stability of the ship in a given loading condition, is incorporated in the KG limit curve. One of the features of this fuel sequence is that dirty ballast tanks are not filled until after the 1/2 Consumed condition. The most severe loading condition for intact and damaged stability occurs just prior to the fuel sequence in which fuel-ballast tanks are first scheduled to be filled with salt water. For this reason the 1/2 fuel consumed condition is the critical loading condition that governs stability. Another constraint occurs after the 2/3 Fuel Consumed condition (Sequence 16). The positive effect on stability of filling all tanks designated as ballast or fuel-ballast provides the ship with adequate stability through the 2/3 Consumed condition. Where operational conditions require FFG 56 to be operated with less than 1/3 fuel on board, stability can be maintained by filling empty fuel storage tanks with seawater to compensate for the rise in vertical center. The Fuel Ballast Sequence Table on pages II(a)7 and II(a)8 indicates an order of filling fuel storage tanks with seawater from the firemain which will provide sufficient stability in 100 knot beam winds through the Burned Out condition. It is not recommended that FFG 56 be operated past the 2/3 Fuel Consumed condition. It is undesirable to fill fuel tanks 5-140-1&2-F with salt water since these tanks are not directly connected to the ships drainage and ballast system. Intact Stability Calculations Intact stability calculations for the 1/3, 1/2, and 2/3 Consumed conditions are found on Pages II(a)50 through II(a)77. Calculations are based on satisfying the worst case of intact stability for FFG 7 Class Ships: rolling in a seaway while under the effects of 100 knot beam winds. These calculations show that for the worst case conditions, which occur just prior to the loading of liquid ballast, intact stability criteria are satisfied. II(a)13
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Steady beam winds impart a heeling moment to the ship reducing the available righting energy on the leeward side. The static stability diagram shown below plots righting arms along with the heeling arm curves for nominal wind velocities of 100 knots and 60 knots.
3 RIGHTING ARM CURVE 100 KNOTS
60 KNOTS HEELING ARM CURVES
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
At the intersection of the righting arm and heeling arm curves, the ship will attain a steady angle of heel. To the right side of this intersection is the available righting energy. The effect of reduced wind velocity is a large increase in ship stability. Wind pressure varies directly with the square of the wind velocity. This is the reason for the large order of magnitude of increase in ship stability for a 40 knot decrease in velocity. The available stability for each loading condition is a function of the ships righting arms governed by the geometry of the ship at a given displacement, the free surface moment of transference of liquids within tanks, and the vertical center of gravity of the particular loading condition. The diagram on Page II(a)15 is a comparison of the intact righting arms for II(a)14
Full Load Departure, 1/3 Consumed, 1/2 Consumed, 2/3 Consumed, and Light Ship conditions. With the exception of the Light Ship condition which has no appreciable quantity of fluid on board, all loading conditions have righting arm curves corrected for free surface. This diagram shows that the condition consisting of 1/2 Consumed load items with Fuel-Ballast Sequence 12 liquids provides the least stability when compared to conditions within the ships operating range (Full Load Departure to 2/3 Consumed). Calculations defining the loading conditions associated with these righting arms are included on Pages II(a)50 through II(a)77. In addition, a sample righting arm calculation associated with an adverse loading condition is presented on Pages II(a)89 through II(a)94. II(a)16
H-5
S0300-A8-HBK-010
LIMITING DRAFT The limiting drafts are 162" forward (Frame 8-1/2) and at midship (Frame 204), and 168" aft (Frame 400-1/2). NAVSEA has authorized the installation of distinctive marks at these waterlines as a guide against overloading. A Capacity Load condition displacement limit of 4100 tons corresponding to the above-mentioned drafts has been verified for FFG 56. Strength, stability, and reserve buoyancy requirements are satisfied at a displacement of 4100 tons. This ship is displacement critical: a weight increase above the 4100 ton displacement limit will impact ship strength and reserve buoyancy and is unacceptable.
An even keel attitude is acceptable if the 162" limiting draft marks forward and at midship are not submerged, and a corresponding draft of 162" aft is observed. Similarly, trim by the stern is acceptable if the midship mark at 162" and the aft mark at 168" are exposed. Every effort should be made to keep the quantity of non-consumable operating-space equipment down to the minimum necessary to safely operate the ship. If FFG 56 should exceed the limiting draft marks when loaded in an austere manner, steps must be taken to reduce the ships displacement. The minimum impact solution to reducing the ships displacement is to limit the fuel load to a quantity less than the Capacity Load amount. Since it is not required to add liquid ballast until Sequence 7, the ships displacement can be limited to a maximum of 75 tons less than the ships Capacity Load Displacement. Other possible methods of limiting the ships displacement are the reduction of ship ammunition and the offloading of helicopters to another helicopter capable ship deployed with FFG 56 that is not displacement critical. II(a)44
Reserve Buoyancy Forward and midships draft limits corresponding to an even keel displacement of 4100 tons were used to calculate flooding level V-Lines for forward groups of compartments. The even keel condition is considered the limit for forward trim since FFG 7 Class Ships trim by the stern in the Capacity Load Condition. The aft limiting draft is obtained by calculating the trimmed drafts corresponding to the aft most observed longitudinal centers of gravity, from Third and Fourth Flight PSA inclining reports, applied to the FFG 7 Class M series Light Ship condition corresponding to a 4100-ton Capacity Load displacement. The trimmed waterline passing through the midships and aft limiting draft marks was used to develop maximum flooding water levels defining the watertight boundaries for flooding of the aft three aftermost compartments. Operation in a loading condition in which limiting draft marks are submerged will invalidate the calculations used to determine flooding water levels that formed the basis of the ships watertight-structural design. Stability Ship stability has been evaluated for all loading conditions within the ships operating range. An increase in displacement above 4100 tons will have an adverse effect on stability only if the weight increase is located above the ships center of gravity. Icing conditions could very well cause the ship to have a displacement greater than 4100 tons. Clean and dirty ballast tanks should be filled to reduce the possibility of capsizing, the most predominant hazard, even though the weight of seawater will further increase the ships displacement. See the section entitled INTACT STABILITY WITH ICE for further operation guidelines under icing conditions. II(a)45
H-6
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Longitudinal Strength An increase in hull bending stresses usually accompanies an increase in ship displacement. Loading conditions have been investigated for the entire operating range of displacements. Results from these studies show that all normal loading conditions derived from a Capacity Load displacement of 4100 tons will not create any calculated overstresses. Adding a quantity of weight which causes a significant increase in lightship displacement which would correspond to a Capacity Load displacement greater than 4100 tons should not be attempted without NAVSEA approval. The distribution of load items is equally critical to longitudinal strength as is the total ship displacement. High concentrations of loads at the extreme forward and aft ends cause large bending stresses in the hogging condition. Strict adherence to the Fuel and Ballast sequence will ensure that longitudinal bending stresses are kept below the allowable limits. In addition to following the fuel/ballast sequence on pages II(a)7 and II(a)8, loading compartments or filling voids with ballast, such as 4-H-O-V, should be considered prohibited unless necessitated by the most extreme emergency. II(a)46
STANDARD CONDITIONS FOR LOADING The range of loading in which the ship is expected to operate is between the Full Load and Minimum Operating (2/3 Fuel Consumed) conditions. Stability considerations for FFG 56 dictate that clean salt water ballasting commence prior to consuming one-third of the fuel capacity. It is also required that fuel/dirty ballast tanks pairs 5-100-3F and 4F and 5-250-1F and 2F be the first tanks consumed to make them available for early ballasting should the operations require it. To best describe how stability criteria can be satisfied by effective use of the ships tankage. Fuel/Ballast Sequences 6 and 8 are included with 1/3 Consumed loads shown on page II(a)55 through II(a)65. Sequences 12, 49% fuel consumed, and 16, 62% fuel consumed, are added to 1/2 Consumed and 2/3 Consumed condition loads respectively. These loading conditions appear on pages II(a)66 through II(a)77. Each of the loading conditions shown occurs just before the scheduled filling of ballast tanks and therefore represents the critical intact stability condition corresponding to standard operating conditions (1/3, 1/2 and 2/3 Fuel Consumed). Free surface moments of transference were calculated for each fuel sequence shown by taking the transverse moment of inertia at the corresponding tank level and applying coefficients for moments of transference (shown in Tables 096-5 and 096-6 of NAVSEA 0901-LP-096-000 Chapter 096 Weights and Stability) for a 10 angle. Data included at the end of this section provide sufficient information to perform free surface calculations for tank capacities other than those shown in the sample calculations. Moments of transference are provided for 95 (full) and 50 (slack) percent capacities for oil tanks and 100 and 50 percent capacities for water tanks. The reference line for all vertical centers, drafts and functions of form is the bottom of keel (0.07 feet below the molded baseline)_. The midships perpendicular (MP), which is at Frame 204, is the axis for longitudinal moments. The frame spacing is 10" throughout the length of 408-0" between FP and AP. II(a) 47
H-7
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Each of the five conditions considered are based on the Light Ship Condition which includes: a. Operating Levels of Liquids in the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. b. Fuel Oil and Water Head Tanks Sump Tanks Drain Tanks Liquids in piping systems
Armament, including: 1 - 76MM/62 Cal. DP single mount, MK 75 Mod 0 1 - Missile Launcher - MK 13 Mod 0 2 - Torpedo Tubes, MK 32 Mod 5 1 - CIWS Super RBOC
c.
Boats: 1 - 26 Motor Whaleboat (MK 10) 9 - Inflatable lifeboats (MK 6)
d.
Solid Ballast: 1. 2. 3. 44 Tons of permanent ballast in Clean Ballast Tank 5-116-0-W 25 Tons in AMR 1 (HMR 759.1) 39 Tons in AMR 1 and 2 (HMR 1115) II(a)48
FULL LOAD DEPARTURE CONDITION This condition represents the ship complete and ready for service in every respect. Condition A (light ship) plus the following variable loads: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Authorized complement of crew and their effects Full allowances of ammunition and helicopters (including P.U.K) Full supply of provisions and stores for the periods specified in the design characteristics 100% capacity of fresh water tanks 95% capacity for JP-5 and lubricating oil tanks Fuel storage and service tanks 95% full It is
Contaminated Oil Settling, Waste Oil Retention, Oily Waste Water, and Contaminated Holding tanks are assumed to be empty in this condition. II(a)49
H-8
S0300-A8-HBK-010
LOADING CONDITION SUMMARY ****** FULL LOAD DEPARTURE CONDITION ****** FFG 56 DESCRIPTION LIGHT SHIP SPACE & WEIGHT ITEMS CREW AND EFFECTS SHIP AMMUNITION AVIATION AMMUNITION AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT SUPPORT PROVISIONS & STORES GENERAL STORES POTABLE WATER LUBRICATING OIL COLLECTING & HOLDING TANK SALT WATER BALLAST FUEL OIL--Storage FUEL OIL--Service JP-5 MISCELLANEOUS TANKS TOTAL WEIGHT TONS 3086.62 -4.41 24.39 43.15 9.87 15.91 9.40 27.38 18.73 33.20 14.22 0.00 0.00 505.65 103.87 63.81 0.00 3951.79
****** ****** KG FEET 20.56 57.46 22.71 34.25 34.75 34.57 29.01 17.02 23.33 7.95 13.71 0.00 0.00 7.00 12.41 10.42 0.00 18.54 VMOMENT FT-TONS 63476 -253 554 1478 343 550 273 466 437 264 195 0 0 3538 1289 665 0 73275 LCG FEET -15.1 80.3 54.2 55.1 -33.1 -96.0 -90.4 13.8 27.1 -104.6 -67.0 0.0 0.0 69.7 -8.3 -139.1 0.0 -6.1 LMOMENT FT-TONS -46586 -354 1323 2379 -327 -1527 -850 378 507 -3472 -953 0 0 35229 -866 -8874 0 -23993
II(a)53
STABILITY AND TRIM DATA ****** FULL LOAD DEPARTURE CONDITION ****** FFG 56
****** ****** STABILITY
LOADING CONDITION DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT DRAFT AT CENTER OF FLOTATION TRANSVERSE METACENTER ABOVE KEEL, KM CENTER OF GRAVITY ABOVE KEEL, KG TRANSVERSE METACENTRIC HEIGHT, GM GM, CORRECTED FOR FLUID FREE SURFACE TRIM LCB, AFT OF MIDSHIPS (Fr. 204) LCG, AFT OF MIDSHIPS (Fr. 204) TRIMMING LEVER, AFT MOMENT TO CHANGE TRIM 1 INCH, MT1" TRIM, BY STERN LCF OF WATERPLANE, AFT OF MIDSHIPS (Fr. 204) DRAFT DECREASE AT FORE PERPENDICULAR, FROM VALUE AT LCF DRAFT, FORE PERPENDICULAR DRAFT, AFTER PERPENDICULAR II(a)54
3951.79 15.75 22.24 18.54 3.70 3.40
TONS FT. FT. FT. FT. FT.
4.16 FT. 6.07 FT. 1.91 FT. 785.54 FT-TONS 0.80 FT. 23.98 FT. 0.45 FT. 15.30 FT. 16.10 FT.
H-9
S0300-A8-HBK-010
1/3 CONSUMED STORES CONDITION This condition is one which could exist when the ship has been at sea for a limited period of time prior to an engagement. Stability requirements dictate that clean ballast tank 5-32-0-W must be filled in Sequence 8. Both fuel sequences are shown with 1/3 consumed loads. The 1/3 Consumed Condition includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ship and Aircraft ammunition at 100% capacity to reflect realistic peacetime conditions. Provisions and stores, potable water, lube oil and JP-5 at 2/3 capacity. Clean Ballast Tank 5-32-0-W filled for Sequence 8 only. One tank in a pair of Fuel Service Tanks loaded to 95% capacity and the other slack. Contaminated Oil Tank at 1/2 capacity. Oily Waste Water Holding Tank at 1/4 capacity. Waste Oil Retention Tank at 1/4 capacity. Fuel Storage Tanks are filled to Fuel Sequence 6 for one condition and Fuel Sequence 8 for the other. II(a)55
6.
****** 1/3 CONSUMED STORES, SEQUENCE 6 FUEL/BALLAST ****** FFG 56 PSA 8 NOVEMBER 1986 THIS CONDITION CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING BREAKDOWN OF INDIVIDUAL LOAD ITEMS TO BE ADDED TO LIGHT SHIP. NOTE THAT A NEGATIVE LCG IMPLIES AN AFT LEVER. DESCRIPTION LIGHT SHIP Total TOTAL SPACE & WEIGHT ITEMS To Delete TOTAL CREW AND EFFECTS 19 Officers 15 CPO 183 Crew TOTAL SHIP AMMUNITION Torpedoes Missiles 76MM/62 Cal Ammo CIWS Ammo Small Arms TOTAL AVIATION AMMUNITION Torpedoes Cartridge Activated Dvc Sonobuoys Marine Mkers/Ring Buoys Signal Underwater Sound TOTAL AIRCRAFT LAMPS III Helicopters AIRCRAFT SUPPORT Equipment PROVISIONS-1/3 CONS. Dry Provisions Frozen Chill Clothing, Small Stores Ship Stores TOTAL WEIGHT TONS 3086.62 3086.62 -4.41 -4.41 3.39 2.21 18.79 24.39 1.36 24.55 11.29 4.93 1.02 43.15 4.08 0.75 4.29 0.44 0.31 9.87 15.91 15.91 TOTAL 9.40 9.40 9.29 3.23 3.19 0.21 2.33 18.25
****** ******
KG FEET 20.56 20.56 57.46 57.46 35.11 24.47 20.28 22.71 32.57 29.07 43.80 43.48 10.49 34.25 31.87 30.67 38.31 35.96 32.77 34.75 34.57 34.57 29.01 29.01 16.87 17.07 17.07 21.27 16.87 16.93
VMOMENT FT-TONS 63476 63476 -253 -253 119 54 381 554 44 714 495 214 11 1478 130 23 164 16 10 343 550 550 273 273 157 55 54 4 39 309
LCG FEET -15.1 -15.1 80.3 80.3 36.9 27.5 60.5 54.2 -8.9 130.0 -36.1 -109.5 144.0 55.1 -23.0 153.0 -73.6 -35.3 -52.2 -33.1 -96.0 -96.0 -90.4 -90.4 9.0 20.0 20.0 145.5 4.0 13.9
LMOMENT FT-TONS -46586 -46586 -354 -354 125 61 1137 1323 -12 3192 -408 -540 147 2379 -94 115 -316 -16 -16 -327 -1527 -1527 -850 -850 84 65 64 31 9 253
II(a)56
H-10
S0300-A8-HBK-010
DESCRIPTION GENERAL STORES-1/3 CONS. Deck Gear Flammable Liq. & Paints Bosun Storeroom Medical Stores Misc. Storerooms TOTAL POTABLE WATER-1/3 CONS. 5-292-3-W 5-292-2-W 5-308-1-W 5-308-2-W TOTAL LUBRICATING OIL-1/3 CONS. 3-272-2-F 3-278-2-F 3-286-2-F 4-208-4-F 3-236-1-F 3-236-2-F 3-292-8-F TOTAL COLLECTING & HOLDING TANK 4-170-0-W--assumed empty TOTAL SALT WATER BALLAST--SEQ. 6 5-32-0-W Clean 5-116-0-W Clean 5-328-1-W Clean 5-328-2-W Clean 5-250-1-F Oily 5-250-2-F Oily 5-100-3-F Oily 5-100-3-F Oily TOTAL FUEL OIL--Storage-SEQ. 6 5-56-0-F ( 95%) 5-64-0-F ( 95%) 5-84-1-F ( 95%) 5-84-2-F ( 95%) 5-100-3-F ( MT ) 5-100-4-F ( MT ) 5-116-1-F ( 92%) 5-116-2-F ( 95%)
WEIGHT TONS 1.58 2.51 2.75 0.67 4.98 12.49 8.71 8.71 2.37 2.37 22.16
KG FEET 16.06 24.60 28.90 25.57 21.55 23.22 7.24 7.24 7.37 7.37 7.22
VMOMENT FT-TONS 25 62 79 17 107 290 63 63 17 17 160
LCG FEET 81.3 115.5 137.1 -176.0 -68.5 26.9 -94.4 -94.4 -112.0 -112.0 -98.1
LMOMENT FT-TONS 128 290 377 -118 -341 336 -822 -822 -265 -265 -2174
2.35 2.68 1.84 0.63 0.70 0.70 0.61 9.51
13.27 13.35 13.42 5.66 13.89 13.89 12.88 13.04
31 36 25 4 10 10 8 124
-70.7 -77.9 -85.0 -6.0 -33.9 -33.9 -89.3 -67.0
-166 -209 -156 -4 -24 -24 -54 -637
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.57 41.31 55.38 55.38 0.00 0.00 63.60 65.69
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.68 4.51 8.96 8.96 0.00 0.00 8.86 9.02
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 68 186 496 496 0 0 564 593
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 143.9 129.6 111.8 111.8 0.0 0.0 75.6 75.5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2097 5354 6191 6191 0 0 4808 4960
II(a)57
H-11
S0300-A8-HBK-010
FUEL OIL--Storage-SEQ. 6 continued 5-140-1-F 5-140-2-F 5-164-2-F 5-164-3-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-2-F ( ( ( ( ( ( 82%) 95%) 95%) 95%) MT ) MT ) TOTAL FUEL OIL--Service 5-204-1-F (Full) 5-204-2-F (Slack) 2-276-2-J (Full) 3-240-1-F (Full) 3-240-2-F (Min. Op.) 3-292-4-F (Full) 3-292-6-F (Min. Op.) 5-201-1-F (Full) 5-201-3-F (Min. Op.) TOTAL JP-5-1/3 CONS. 3-316-1-J (Service) 3-322-1-J (Service) 5-328-0-J 5-344-0-J TOTAL MISCELLANEOUS TANKS 5-132-0-F 5-170-0-F 5-164-0-F TOTAL
WEIGHT TONS 22.21 28.43 9.96 9.37 0.00 0.00 365.90 46.47 23.18 1.04 2.54 0.53 1.20 0.25 1.07 0.28 76.56 3.83 3.66 26.51 8.54 42.54 9.61 4.08 2.12 15.81
KG FEET 3.02 3.55 3.97 4.02 0.00 0.00 7.24 12.27 8.12 23.75 14.62 12.77 13.47 12.07 7.17 5.97 11.18 14.17 14.27 9.33 8.94 10.08 3.76 1.14 1.16 2.72
VMOMENT FT-TONS 67 101 40 38 0 0 2649 570 183 25 37 7 16 3 8 2 856 54 52 247 76 429 36 5 2 43
LCG FEET 51.8 51.8 31.9 32.0 0.0 0.0 89.8 -4.0 -4.0 -72.5 -40.9 -40.9 -89.3 -89.3 1.7 1.7 -7.9 -114.9 -120.9 -131.8 -148.0 -132.6 68.4 29.0 37.0 54.0
LMOMENT FT-TONS 1150 1473 318 300 0 0 32842 -186 -93 -75 -104 -22 -107 -22 2 0 -607 -440 -442 -3494 -1264 -5640 657 118 78 853
II(a)58
LOADING CONDITION SUMMARY ****** 1/3 CONSUMED STORES, SEQUENCE 6 FUEL/BALLAST ****** FFG 56 DESCRIPTION LIGHT SHIP SPACE & WEIGHT ITEMS CREW AND EFFECTS SHIP AMMUNITION AVIATION AMMUNITION AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT SUPPORT PROVISIONS-1/3 CONS. GENERAL STORES-1/3 CONS. POTABLE WATER-1/3 CONS. LUBRICATING OIL-1/3 CONS. COLLECTING & HOLDING TANK SALT WATER BALLAST-SEQ. 6 FUEL OIL--Storage-SEQ. 6 FUEL OIL--Service JP-5-1/3 CONS. MISCELLANEOUS TANKS TOTAL WEIGHT TONS 3086.62 -4.41 24.39 43.15 9.87 15.91 9.40 18.25 12.49 22.16 9.51 0.00 0.00 365.90 76.56 42.54 15.81 3748.15 KG FEET 20.56 57.46 22.71 34.25 34.75 34.57 29.01 16.93 23.22 7.22 13.04 0.00 0.00 7.24 11.18 10.08 2.72 19.02
****** ****** VMOMENT FT-TONS 63476 -253 554 1478 343 550 273 309 290 160 124 0 0 2649 856 429 43 71281 LCG FEET -15.1 80.3 54.2 55.1 -33.1 -96.0 -90.4 13.9 26.9 -98.1 -67.0 0.0 0.0 89.8 -7.9 -132.6 54.0 -5.5 LMOMENT FT-TONS -46586 -354 1323 2379 -327 -1527 -850 253 336 -2174 -637 0 0 32842 -607 -5640 853 -20716
II(a)59
H-12
S0300-A8-HBK-010
STABILITY AND TRIM DATA ****** 1/3 CONSUMED STORES, SEQUENCE 6 FUEL/BALLAST ****** FFG 56 STABILITY LOADING CONDITION DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT DRAFT AT CENTER OF FLOTATION TRANSVERSE METACENTER ABOVE KEEL, KM CENTER OF GRAVITY ABOVE KEEL, KG TRANSVERSE METACENTRIC HEIGHT, GM GM, CORRECTED FOR FLUID FREE SURFACE TRIM LCB, AFT OF MIDSHIPS (Fr. 204) LCG, AFT OF MIDSHIPS (Fr. 204) TRIMMING LEVER, AFT MOMENT TO CHANGE TRIM 1 INCH, MT1" TRIM, BY STERN LCF OF WATERPLANE, AFT OF MIDSHIPS (Fr. 204) DRAFT DECREASE AT FORE PERPENDICULAR, FROM VALUE AT LCF DRAFT, FORE PERPENDICULAR DRAFT, AFTER PERPENDICULAR
****** ******
3748.15 15.23 22.31 19.02 3.29 2.99
TONS FT. FT. FT. FT. FT.
3.06 FT. 5.53 FT. 2.47 FT. 769.01 FT-TONS 1.00 FT. 23.79 FT. 0.56 FT. 14.67 FT. 15.67 FT.
II)a)60
TANK CAPACITY DATA Capacity Tank Potable Water at 100% Capacity 1 Ton = 36.0 Cu. Ft. = 269.30 Gals 5-292-3-W 5-292-2-W 5-308-1-W 5-308-2-W Total Lubricating Oil at 95% Capacity 1 Ton = 38.95 Cu. Ft. = 291.40 Gals. Lo Storage 3-272-2-F 3-278-2-F 3-286-2-F SSDG Storage 4-208-4-F 3-236-1-F 3-236-2-F 3-292-8-F Total Salt Water Ballast at 100% Capacity 1 Ton = 35.0 Cu. Ft. = 261.82 Gals. Clean 5-32-0-W 5-116-0-W 5-328-1-W 5-328-2-W Oily 5-100-3-F 5-100-4-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-2-F Total 8387 14023 5136 5136 10888 10888 11389 11389 77236 32.04 53.56 19.62 19.62 41.59 41.59 43.50 43.50 295.02 5.14 7.80 10.76 10.76 8.79 8.79 4.34 4.34 161.8F 80.0F 141.1A 141.1A 92.3F 92.3F 59.8A 59.8A 1027 1171 800 278 307 307 267 4157 3.50 4.00 2.75 0.95 1.05 1.05 0.92 14.22 14.17 14.22 14.22 6.45 14.59 14.59 13.67 70.7A 77.9A 85.0A 6.0A 33.9A 33.9A 89.3A 2346 2346 2123 2123 8938 8.73 8.71 7.88 7.88 33.20 7.24 7.24 8.80 8.80 94.4A 94.4A 115.8A 115.8A Gals. Tons Centers of Gravity KG LCG
NOTE: When tanks carry salt water ballast, the liquid is to be pressed up to tank top to eliminate free surface effect. II(a)78
H-13
S0300-A8-HBK-010
TANK CAPACITY DATA Capacity Tank Fuel Oil Storage Tanks at 95% Capacity 1 Ton = 43.05 Cu. Ft. = 322 Gals. 5-56-0-F 5-64-0-F 5-84-1-F 5-84-2-F 5-100-3-F 5-100-4-F 5-116-1-F 5-116-2-F 5-140-1-F 5-140-2-F 5-164-3-F 5-164-2-F 5-250-1-F 5-250-2-F Total Tank Fuel Oil Service Tanks at 95% Capacity 1 Ton = 43.05 Cu. Ft. = 322 Gals. 5-204-1-F 5-204-2-F 2-276-2-J 3-240-1-F 3-240-2-F 3-292-4-F 3-292-6-F 5-201-1-F 5-201-3-F Total 14963 14963 343 818 818 386 402 344 428 33465 II(a)79 46.47 46.47 1.04 2.54 2.54 1.20 1.21 1.07 1.33 103.87 12.27 12.27 23.75 14.62 14.62 13.57 13.57 7.17 7.84 4.0A 4.0A 72.5A 40.9A 40.9A 89.3A 89.3A 1.7F 1.7F 4691 13302 17832 17832 10344 10344 21151 21151 9153 9153 3016 3207 10820 10820 162816 14.57 41.31 55.38 55.38 32.12 32.12 65.69 65.69 28.43 28.43 9.37 9.96 33.60 33.60 505.65 4.68 4.51 8.96 8.96 8.48 8.48 9.02 9.02 3.55 3.55 4.02 3.97 4.19 4.19 143.9F 129.6F 111.8F 111.8F 92.3F 92.3F 75.5F 75.5F 51.8F 51.8F 32.0F 31.9F 59.8A 59.8A Gals. Tons Centers of Gravity KG LCG
H-14
S0300-A8-HBK-010
AFT DRAFT
MT 1"
DISPLACEMENT TRNSV KM
TPI
LCB
FWD DRAFT
825
4500 4400 4200 4000
800
775
3800 3600
5
750
3400
725 700
3200 3000 2900 LCF

30 20 10
22.13 22.14 22.15 22.17 22.20 22.22 22.25 22.28 22.32 22.36 22.41 22.46 22.52 22.55 22.59 22.62 22.65
33.70 33.50 33.25 33.00 32.75 32.50 32.25 32.00 31.75 31.50 31.25 31.00 30.60 30.20
6.3 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.9 AFT FWD
675 650
II(a)85
H-15
S0300-A8-HBK-010
II(a)94
H-16
S0300-A8-HBK-010
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SALVAGE AND TOWING Baptist, C. N. T., Salvage Operations, Stanford Maritime Ltd., 1979. Accounts of several salvage operations highlighting unique salvage problems, techniques and skills. Bartholomew, C. A., Mud, Muscles, and Miracles, Naval History Center, 1990. Comprehensive history of U.S. Navy marine salvage. Blank, John, S., 3rd, Modern Towing, Cornell Maritime Press, 1989. Brady, Edward M., Marine Salvage Operations, Cornell Maritime Press, 1960. Salvage practices pertaining to strandings and sinkings, salvage equipment and structures, and integration of naval architecture principles. Clay, John S. Salvage of Stranded Tank Vessels with Computer Assistance, Department of Ocean Engineering, University of Rhode Island, 1983. Describes modification of the Ship Hull Characteristics Program (SHCP), that assists modeling to determine probability of exceeding longitudinal hull strength of stranded ships. George, R. L., Quirk, John L., Use of Magnets in Marine Salvage, NCEL Technical Report R583, 1968. Explores the application of magnets to underwater work, concludes that magnets have uses in shallow water but are of little value in deep water salvage because of low payload/weight ratios. Hancox, David, Reeds Commercial Salvage Practice, Volumes 1 and 2, Thomas Reed Publications Ltd., 1987. Encyclopedic treatment of practical casualty salvage and wreck removal. NAVAIR 00-80R-19, NATOPS U.S. Navy Aircraft Crash and Salvage Operations Manual, 1989. Salvage procedures, lift points, weights, and other pertinent details for U.S. Navy aircraft. NAVSHIPS 250-880-5, Ship Salvage Operations, Miscellaneous Techniques, 1946. Collection of ship salvage operations notes. NAVSHIPS 250-631-2, Submarine Salvage Pontoons and Related Equipment, Boston Naval Shipyard, 1964. Description and operation of submarine salvage pontoons and other submarine salvage equipment. Reid, George H., Ship Handling with Tugs, Cornell Maritime Press, 1986. Short practical guide to tug work. Ship Salvage Notes, Parts 1 and 2, Naval Deep-Sea Diving School, Washington, D.C., 1960. Student guide formerly used in salvage officer course of instruction. TM 55-503, Marine Salvage and Hull Repair, Department of the Army, 1966. Reference and training guide to salvage and repair of marine hulls and related equipment.
Bibliography-1
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SALVAGE REPORTS Boyd, J. H., Suez Canal SALVOPS in 1974, 1974. Removal of ten large wrecks from the Suez Canal in seven months. Commander Service Group THREE/Commander Task Force SEVENTY-THREE ltr 4740, ser 70-0172, of 16 Jun, 1966, SS EXCELLENCY Salvage Operations; report of. Refloating of MSTS freighter stranded on Triton Island by pulling/wrenching with beach gear and tugs, and discharging 368 tons of cargo into an LST. "Marine Technology Society Journal," Second Quarter 1984. Issue devoted to marine salvage, with reports of several operations. Matich, M.A. J., Burial of Wreck Obstructing the St. Lawrence Channel, N.Z. Engineering, 15 February 1969. Soil Mechanics aspects of the successful disposal of a 527-foot ore carrier in the river bottom to below specified navigation clearance. NAVSEA S0300-BJ-RPT-010, Commercial Aircraft Salvage Operations, 10 February 1991. Four aircraft recovery/salvage report overviews (KAL Flight 007, Air India Flight 182, South African Airways Flight 295, and United Airlines Flight 811), illustrating the evolution of recovery/ salvage equipment and procedures. NAVSEA SL740-AC-RPT-010/SUPSALV, USCGC MESQUITE Salvage Operation Dec. 89-July 90 Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan, 19 July 1991. Removal and disposal of 180-foot buoy tender from shallow water over a rock ledge. Details construction and employment of heavy lift barge and preparations of wreck for lifting. NAVSEA Supervisor of Salvage Report, USNS Chauvenet Salvage Report, 1982. Difficult refloating of AGOR stranded on steeply shelving coral reef; addresses solutions to stability problems and lack of suitable beach gear anchorages. NAVSEA Supervisor of Salvage Report 84-06, EX-USS BLUEGILL Salvage Operations, 1984. GATO class submarine (WW II fleetboat) raised from 138 FSW on internal buoyancy with 8.4 ton salvage pontoon for added lift and control. NAVSEA SL740-AB-RPT-010/SUPSALV, Barge 45 Salvage Operations, Buffalo, N.Y. 1986, 1988. Removal and disposal of barge in heavy current in Niagara river. Calculations include hydrodynamic force prediction and ad hoc lift barge design NAVSEA T9597-AB-RPT-010/SUPSALV, EX-USS TORTUGA (LSD 26) Salvage Report, 1989. Removal and scuttling of large vessel from San Miguel Island. Details extensive topside weight removal and use of prototype Ship Salvage Engineering Program (SSEP). NAVSEA T9597-AA-RPT-010/SUPSALV, Space Shuttle "Challenger" Salvage Report, 1988. Underwater search and salvage using manned and unmanned submersibles in a logistically complex operation. NAVSEA 0994-016-7010/SUPSALV, "A. Mackenzie" Salvage Operation, 1975. Unique operation using "cut in place and lift" technique; report details solutions to difficulties encountered using explosives as a cutting technique.
Bibliography-2
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NAVSEA 0994-LP-017-4010/SUPSALV, SS "Sidney E. Smith, Jr." Salvage Operation, 1976. Removal of Great Lakes coal carrier from busy ship channel using cast-in-place foam. NAVSEA 0994-LP-016-6010 through 6060, Salvops 69-70, 6 volumes, 1970-1975. Annual summaries of significant salvage operations. NAVSHIPS 250-880-21, Salvage of the USS LAFAYETTE (EX-SS NORMANDIE), 1946. Righting and refloating of large ocean liner in New York harbor. Details removal of superstructure, shoring, and pumping operations. Petersen, Charles, C., The Soviet Port Clearing Operation in Bangladesh, March 1972-April 1973, Center For Naval Analyses Memorandum, (CNA) 1406-73, 28 August 1973. Analyses of Soviet port clearance and salvage capabilities as evidenced by operations in Bangladesh. Whitaker, F. H., Captain, USN, The Salvage of USS "Oklahoma," Transactions SNAME, Vol. 52, 1944. Righting and refloating of battleship capsized and sunk by extensive torpedo damage at Pearl Harbor, HI, 7 December 1941.
DIVING AND UNDERWATER WORK Hackman, Donald J. and Cardy, Donald W., Underwater Tools, Battelle Press, 1981. Guide to fabrication and design of underwater work systems. Larn, Richard and Whistler, Rex, Commercial Diving Manual, David and Charles, 1984 basic diving procedures and underwater work techniques for construction, inspection, and maintenance. NAVFAC P-990, Conventional Underwater Construction and Repair Techniques, not dated. Guide for underwater construction team (UCT) conventional operations - based on UCT case histories and commercial practice. NAVSEA P-991, Expedient Underwater Repair Techniques, not dated. Guide for underwater construction team (UCT) repairs in contingencies. Companion volume to NAVFAC P-990. NAVSEA 0994-LP-007-8010/8020, Underwater Inspection, Maintenance, and Repair of Naval Ships (Underwater Work Techniques Manual) Volumes 1 and 2, not dated. Shallow water ships husbandry and equipment guide. NAVSEA 0994-LP-001-9010, U.S. Navy Diving Manual, Vol. 1, AIR (REV 2), 1988. Navy air diving procedures and requirements; discussions of physics, medicine, physiology operations planning, decompression procedures and tables, and recompression therapy. Addresses SCUBA, lightweight diving apparatus, MK 12 deep-sea diving dress. NAVSEA 0994-LP-001-9020, U.S. Navy Diving Manual, Vol. 2, Mixed Gas Diving, Second Edition, 1977. Continuation of Volume 1, detailing Navy mixed gas diving procedures and requirements; includes gas properties for use in diving, saturation diving theory and practice.
Bibliography-3
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NAVSEA 50600-AA-PRO-010, Underwater Ships Husbandry Manual, 1988. Information, techniques, and procedures for underwater inspection, maintenance, and repair of hulls and appendages of surface ships, submarines, and small craft. Completed chapters include: 1 2 3 4 5 6 Index and users guide General information and safety procedures Propellers Auxiliary Propulsion Units Master emitter belts Sonar systems
NOAA Diving Manual, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Manned Undersea Science And Technology Office, 1979. Comprehensive treatment of diving and related technology as applied to scientific research. Talkington, Howard R., Undersea Work Systems, Naval Ocean Systems Center, San Diego, CA., 1981. Fabrication and design of underwater work systems, including vehicles. Tucker, Wayne C., Divers Handbook of Underwater Calculations, Cornell Maritime Press, 1980. Calculations and data commonly used in underwater work for divers and engineers.
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE Lewis, E. V. (Editor), Principles of Naval Architecture, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME), Second Revision, 1988. Standard reference of basic naval architecture calculations and methods. Taggart, R. (Editor), Ship Design and Construction, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME), Second Edition, 1980. Companion volume to PNA, addressing advanced topics. Atwood, E. L. and Pengelly, H. S., Theory of Naval Architecture, 1937. Comprehensive text and reference by a recognized master of the subject. A "standard" reference. Muckle, W., revised by Taylor, D. A., Muckles Naval Architecture, Second Edition, Butterworths, 1987. Fundamental principles and practices of naval architecture. Gillmer, Thomas C. and Johnson, Bruce, Introduction to Naval Architecture, Naval Institute Press, 1987. Fundamental text written for freshmen naval architecture students. Rawson, K. J. and Tupper, E. C., Basic Ship Theory, Volumes 1 and 2, Third Edition, Longman Inc., 1983. Introductory naval architecture, including computer application and usage. Pursey, H. J., Merchant Ship Construction, Seventh Edition, Brown, Son, and Ferguson Ltd., 1975. Illustrated discussion of construction and arrangement of ship structural components. Manning, George C., Manual of Ship Construction, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1942. Fundamentals of naval architecture, ship construction, and shipyard practice.
Bibliography-4
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White, G. W., Elementary Beam Theory and the Ship Girder, Stanford Maritime Ltd., 1979. Shipboard loading and discharging operations, strength of materials, ship girders, and problem solving by manual and automated methods. NAVFAC DM 28, Design Manual: Weight Handling Equipment and Service Craft, 1975. Design data and operating procedures for heavy lift equipment on all types of platforms. NAVSEA 0900-LP-097-4010, Structural Design Manual for Naval Surface Ships, 15 Dec 1976. Comprehensive steel and aluminum ship structure design manual. PB 171471, NAVSHIPS 250-443-1, Manual of Properties of Combined Beam and Plate, Volumes 1 and 2. Tabulated area, moment of inertia, and section modulus for various stiffener-plating combinations. NAVSHIPS 250336, Wood: A Manual for Its Use as a Shipbuilding Material, 1957. Wooden ship design and construction in four volumes.
NAVSHIPS ENGINEERING CENTER DESIGN DATA SHEETS DDS 079-1, Stability and Buoyancy of U.S. Naval Surface Ships, 1975. NAVSEA design practice for stability and buoyancy. DDS 100-1, Reinforcement of Openings in Structures of Surface Ships, Other Than In Protective Plating, 1984. DDS 100-4, Strength of Structural Members, 1982. Uniform standards for design of structural members in compression and shear. DDS 100-5, Strength of Glass Reinforced Plastic Structural Members. DDS 100-6, Longitudinal Strength Calculation, 1987. Standard practice for longitudinal hull strength calculations and drawings (traditional static balance).
SHIP CHARACTERISTICS AND DATA Classification society and regulatory body registers: Lloyds Register of Shipping: Register of Ships, annual Ship name and former names, official number, Lloyds Register number, call sign, owners, managers, port of registry, tonnages, hull type/classification, builder and date and place of build, extreme and molded dimensions, construction details, hold and hatch dimensions and/or tank capacities, number and capacity of winches and cranes/derricks, machinery type and power, speed. Updated by monthly supplements and a "Weekly List of Alterations." Register of Offshore Units, Submersibles and Diving Systems, annual Data on mobile drilling rigs able to operate in at least 50 feet of water, submersibles, diving systems classed with or certified by Lloyds Register, and selected work units (ships, barges, and platforms employed in offshore construction, pipelaying, heavy lifting, firefighting, and submersible/diving support). Sections cover units in existence and under construction. Also included is a list of owners and managers with addresses, telex, telephone, and telefax numbers. Maritime Guide, annual Data on drydocks, gazetteer, maps, telegraphic addresses and telex numbers for shipbuilders, marine engine builders and boilermakers, shipbreakers, marine insurance companies, and marine associations. U.S. Department of Transportation/U.S. Coast Guard: Merchant Vessels of the United States, annual Official U.S shipping register, including yachts, giving official number, name, call sign, hull type, tonnage, dimensions, place and year built, service, horsepower, name of owner, and home port. Updated by monthly supplements.
Bibliography-5
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Janes Publications (Janes Publishing Co. Ltd.): Sharpe, Richard (Editor), Janes Fighting Ships, annual. Descriptions of ships and major aircraft of the worlds navies with selected illustrations. Trillo, Robert J. (Editor), Janes Ocean Technology, annual. Compendium of data on manufacturers and operators of tugs, salvage vessels, submersibles, and offshore supply vessels. Includes vessel characteristics and operator addresses. Other: Polmar, Norman, Combat Fleets of the World, biennial, United States Naval Institute, 1978-79. Similar in scope to Janes Fighting Ships, with slightly less detail
ENGINEERING Ocean, Coastal, and Marine Geotechnical Engineering: Beer, Tom, Environmental Oceanography, Pergamon Press Inc., 1983 An introduction to coastal zone processes, including wave generation and decay, surf, current effects, and beach erosion/accretion. Myers, John J., Holm, Carl H., McAllister, and Raymond F. (Editors), Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1969. Guidelines for design of systems and structures for over-water construction; written for engineers without ocean-related background Rocker, Karl, Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, Naval Civil Engineering Lab, 1985. Response of seafloor materials to foundation and mooring loads. Includes very comprehensive discussion of performance factors for all types of anchors. Puech, A., The Use of Anchors in Offshore Petroleum Operations, Gulf Publishing Company, 1984. Excellent guide to drag anchor selection and employment. Descriptions and data for wide selection of commercial anchors. CRC Practical Handbook of Marine Science, Chemical Rubber Company, 1990. Reference data of physical, chemical and biological aspects of the ocean environment. Includes air-sea interactions and ocean engineering information. Shore Protection Manual, Volumes 1 and 2, Fourth Edition, U. S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1984. Volume 1 analysis and solution of coastal design problems. Volume 2 details of selected projects such as seawalls and breakwaters. TM 5-360, Port Construction and Rehabilitation, Department of the Army, 1964. Construction and rehabilitation of ship unloading and cargo handling facilities in theater of operations harbors; harbor clearance; port administration Huston, John, Hydraulic Dredging, Cornell Maritime Press, 1970. Design, hydraulics, pipe friction and pump hydraulics related to hydraulic dredging.
Bibliography-6
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Turner, Thomas M., Fundamentals of Hydraulic Dredging, Cornell Maritime Press, 1984. A noncalculus approach emphasizing hydraulic principles. Herbich, John B., Coastal and Deep Ocean Dredging, Gulf Publishing Company, 1975. Theory of centrifugal pumps, dredge pump cavitation, head losses, and pipeline transport of solids. Driscoll, Alan H. (Editor), Handbook of Oceanic Winch, Wire, and Cable Technology, Second Edition, 1989. Comprehensive handbook encompassing most aspects of usage and safety of wire rope, winches, sheaves. Includes sections on Kevlar, fiber optics, coatings, testing, and calculation tables. Vendrell, J., The Oil Rig Moorings Handbook, Brown, Son and Ferguson, Ltd., 1985. Anchoring and mooring systems for various rigs; details computer programs useful in catenary calculations. API Recommended Practice 2P (RP2P), Analysis of Spread Mooring Systems for Floating Drilling Units, Second Edition, American Petroleum Institute, 1987. Design, and evaluation of spread mooring systems for floating drilling platforms. Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) Design Manuals: DM 25.1, Waterfront Operational Facilities, 1971 Design criteria for piers and wharves DM 26.1, Harbors, (Change 1), 1984 General planning criteria including functional layout and data sources. DM 26.2, Coastal Protection, 1982 Principles of coastal structures with general planning and structural design criteria. Includes wave theory and transformations. DM 26.3, Dredging, 1968 Dredging project logistics for harbors, turning basins, and channels. DM 26.4, Fixed Moorings, 1986 Guidelines for designing and loading fixed moorings. DM 26.5, Fleet Moorings, Basic Criteria and Planning Guidelines, 1985 Criteria and planning guidelines with example calculations for design of fleet moorings. DM 26.6, Mooring Design, Physical and Empirical Data, 1986 Vessel characteristics, strength and dimensions of anchors, buoy, chain and fittings. Mechanical Engineering, Structures: Parrish, A., Mechanical Engineers Reference Book, Butterworths, 1973. General reference mechanical engineering topics, with extensive tables and charts. Karassik, Krutzsch, William C., Fraser, Warren H., and Messina, Joseph P. (Editors), Pump Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1985. In-depth treatment of pump design, application, selection, and operation. Syska, R. E. and Birk, J. R. (Editors), Pump Engineering Manual, The Duriron Company, Inc. 1983. Compact guide to pump selection, installation and operation. Mih, W. C., Chen, C. K. and Orsborn, J. F., Bibliography of Solid-Liquid Transport in Pipelines, Albrook Hydraulic Laboratory College of Engineering Research Division Washington State University, December 1971. Bibliography with brief theoretical discussion of slurry transport.
Bibliography-7
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Encyclopedia of Fluid Mechanics, Gulf Publishing Company, 1986. Volume 1 flow phenomena and measurement Volume 5 slurry flow technology Volume 6 complex flow phenomena and modeling. Avallone, Eugene A. and Baumeister, Theodore III (Editors), Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987. Encyclopedic reference of mechanical engineering and related disciplines. Lindeberg, Michael R., Mechanical Engineering Review Manual, Seventh Edition, Professional Publications, Inc., 1984. A concise comprehensive review course for the professional engineers examination. Manual of Steel Construction, Eighth Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., 1980. Detailed information on properties, design and specifications. Also math tables and other data on fabricated steel structures. Levinson, Irving J., Mechanics of Materials, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1970. Concise, noncalculus treatment of the most common strength of materials problems. Timoshenko, Stephen, Strength of Materials, Third Edition, Van Nostrand, 1956. Comprehensive text by a recognized master of the subject. A "standard" reference. Roark, R. J. and Young, W. C., Formulas for Stress and Strain, Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1975. Load response and stress, strain, and deflection relationships for common structural components, including beams, plates, cylinders, spheres, struts, etc. NAVFAC DM 3, Design Manual: Mechanical Engineering, 1972. General shore-based guide covering plumbing, ventilation, vacuum, refrigeration, and air systems. Civil Engineering, Soil and Rock Mechanics: Krynine, Dimitri P., Soil Mechanics, McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1947. Comprehensive and understandable text. NAVFAC DM 5, Design Manual: Civil Engineering, 1972. Surveying, hydrology and hydraulics, pollution control systems. NAVFAC DM 7, Design Manual: Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures, 1971. Soil classification and measurement, rock and soil stability, structure settlement analysis. Lindeberg, Michael R., Civil Engineering Reference Manual, Fourth Edition, Professional Publications, 1986. A concise comprehensive review course for the professional engineers examination. Brady, Nyle C., The Nature and Properties of Soils, Tenth Edition, MacMillan Publishing Co, 1990. Soil properties reference guide.
Bibliography-8
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Troxell, G. E., Harmer, E. D., and Kelly, J. W., Composition and Properties of Concrete, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1968 Concrete proportioning and placement, structural properties Meyers, Arnold, Current Bibliography of Offshore Technology and Offshore Literature Classifications, ASR Marketing, 1984. Chen, Andrie T. and Leidersdorf, Craig B. (Editors), Arctic Coastal Processes and Slope Protection Design, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1988. Papers addressing the civil engineering challenges of cold regions. The first six focus on arctic coastal processes including coastal geomorphology, ice processes, and other environmental ice processes. The last 5 cover slope protection design. Bowie, I. G., An Application of Flow Net Theory to Marine Salvage Operations, University of Sydney, School of Civil and Mining Engineering Research Report 490, March 1985. Theoretical examination of the feasibility of reducing ground reaction by inducing steady state water flow in the soil under a stranded ship. Marine Engineering: Osbourne, Alan and Bayne, Niel A., Modern Marine Engineers Manual, Volume 1, Second Edition, Cornell Maritime Press, 1973. Design, operation and repair of general types of marine equipment. Osbourne, Alan and Hunt, Everett, Modern Marine Engineers Manual, Volume 2, Second Edition, Cornell Maritime Press, 1991. Design, operation and repair of general types of marine equipment. Harrington, Roy L. (Editor), Marine Engineering, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME), 1971. General applications of marine engineering for readers with engineering backgrounds NAVPERS 10788-B, Principles of Naval Engineering, 1970. Overview of shipboard engineering plants and fundamentals of machinery and equipment design and operation, General Engineering References: Gieck, Kurt, Engineering Formulas, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1986. Highly recommended pocket guide to the more important technical and mathematical formulas. Translated from the German. Hicks, Tyler G. and Hicks, David S., Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations, Second Edition, McGraw Hill, 1985. Comprehensive reference encompassing all fields of engineering, including marine and nuclear. Includes over 5,000 routine and nonroutine problems. Hughes, William F. and Eber, W. Gaylord, Basic Equations of Engineering Science, 1964. Over 1,400 basic equations of continuum mechanics. Tuma, Jan J., Handbook of Numerical Calculations in Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 1989. Definitions, theorems, computer models, numerical examples, and tables with formulas and functions. CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, Chemical Rubber Co, 1989, Re-issued periodically Brief review of mathematics through integral calculus, with supporting tables.
Bibliography-9
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Computer languages and software Birnes, William J. (Editor), McGraw-Hill Personal Computer Programming - Languages and Operating Systems Encyclopedia, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1989. Single volume cross-indexed desktop reference including language applications, software, and operating systems. Thirty-seven languages addressed, including ADA, Basic, COBOL, Fortran, Pascal, RPG, Paradox, DBase II, Lotus, "C", MS-DOS, Apple, Macintosh, Commodore software. Handbook and Guide for Comparing and Selecting Computer Languages, Stuff of Research and Education Association, 1985. Intended to help programmers make the correct choice by drawing comparisons between eight languages including Basic, COBOL, "C", Fortran, and Pascal. Kernighan, Brian W. and Ritchie, Dennis M. The "C" Programming Language, Prentice-Hall, 1978. Designed for "C" novices desiring a programming guide. Purdum, Jack J., Leslie, Timothy C., and Stegenoller, Alan L., "C" Programmers Library, Que Corporation, 1984. Design and writing functions plus several methods to analyze and attack problems. Grogono, Peter, Programming in Pascal, Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1980. Assumes no prior knowledge of Pascal; suitable for an introductory course.
EXPLOSIVES Gregory, C. E., Explosives for North American Engineers, Trans Tech Publications, 1973. General guide to civil and mining engineering applications of explosive technology. Henrych, Josef, Dynamics of Explosion and Its Use, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, 1979. Analytical examination of the effects of explosion induce waves and forces on various media and interfaces, and their engineering applications. FM 5-25, Explosives and Demolitions Field Manual, Department of the Army, 1967. Guide to explosives use in destruction of military obstacles and certain construction projects. General reference for charge weight formulas, handling, safety, types, and preparation of explosives. Cole, Robert H., Underwater Explosions, Princeton University Press, 1948. Theoretical and logical exposition and compendium of the basic phenomena associated with underwater explosions. Blasterss Handbook, Fifteenth Edition, E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (Inc.), Wilmington, Delaware (1967). Handbook for the use of commercial explosives, including many particular applications, historical sketches and safety precautions. Holland, Norma O. (Editor), Explosives - Effects and Properties (U), Naval Ordnance Laboratory (White Oak) Report NOLTR 65-218, 21 Feb 1967, CONFIDENTIAL. Handbook of explosive properties, and the effects of explosives in air and water. Kennard, E. H., Underwater Explosions - A Summary of Results (U), David Taylor Model Basin Report C-334, Feb 1951, CONFIDENTIAL. Excellent introductory summary of explosive phenomena and damage mechanisms.
Bibliography-10
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Strange, J.N., Water Shock-Wave Reflection Properties of Various Bottom Materials, Summary Progress Report, Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, Miscellaneous Paper No. 1-826, Jun 1966. Data on shock reflection properties of unconsolidated clayey silt, consolidated clayey silt, sand, and concrete, with graphical results and tentative conclusions. Strange, J.N. and Miller, Louis, An Exploratory Study of the Effect of a Bubble Screen on Water Shock (U), Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, Miscellaneous Paper No. 2-285 Oct 1958, CONFIDENTIAL. A set of experiments that indicates the peak pressure and impulse are significantly reduced by an appropriate bubble screen: boundary conditions for the tests do not permit detailed predictions, however. Strange, J.N. and Miller, Louis, Shock-Wave Attenuation Properties of a Bubble Screen, Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, Technical Report No. 2-564, Apr 1961. Experimental results of shock-wave attenuation by a bubble screen 20 feet long and 0.5 to 3.0 feet thick with an airflow of 0.8 to 2.0 cubic feet per second on pressure, impulse, and energy. Thompson, W.M., Jr., The Effect of Liquid Loading on Double Bottom Response to Underwater Explosions (U), Underwater Explosions Research Division Report 1-59, Feb 1959, CONFIDENTIAL. Tests on a 3/8-scale model section of the FORRESTAL (CVA-59) bottom structure indicating that an optimum liquid loading to minimize damage does exist.
TECHNICAL MANUALS, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE GUIDES Naval Sea Systems Command, Naval Ships Technical Manual (NSTM), various dates. Administrative and technical instructions for operation and maintenance of U.S. Navy shipboard equipment. Chapter 001 is index and user guide. Chapters pertinent to salvage include: CHAPTER VOLUME TITLE 074 1 Welding and Allied processes 2 NDT of metals, qualification and certification requirements for Naval personnel 075 Threaded fasteners 079 1 Practical damage control 2 Damage Control - stability and buoyancy 096 Weights and stability 100 Hull structures 221 Boilers 223 Diesel engines 234 Marine gas turbines 503 Pumps 541 Petroleum fuel stowage, use and testing 542 Gasoline and JP-5 fuel systems 550 Industrial gases; generating, handling, and storage 555 Firefighting - ship 573 Booms 581 Anchors and anchoring 583 Boats and small craft 584 Stern gates, ramps, bow doors, turntables and water barriers 593 Pollution control 594 Salvage-submarine safety escape and rescue devices 611 Fenders 613 Wire and fiber rope and rigging 670 Stowage, handling and disposal of hazardous general use consumables 700 Shipboard ammunition handling and stowage 9180 Rigging 9200 Winches and capstans 9250 Towing gear 2980 Fiber ropes; natural and synthetic PUBLICATION # 59086-CH-STM-010/011/012 59086-CH-STM-020 59086-CJ-STM-000/001 59086-CN-STM-020 59086-CN-STM-010 59086-C6-STM-000-001 59086-DA-STM-000 59086-GY-STM-000-015 59086-HB-STM-000-004 59086-HC-STM-000/001/002 59086-RH-STM-000/001/002 59086-SN-STM-000/001/002 59086-SP-STM-000/001 59086-SX-STM-006 59086-S3-STM-010 59086-TM-STM-000 59086-TV-STM-000 59086-TX-STM-000/003 59086-TY-STM-000 59086-T8-STM-000 59086-T9-STM-000 59086-US-STM-000/001 59086-VV-STM-000 59086-WK-STM-000/006 59086-XG-STM-000/001/002 0901-LP-180-0001 0901-LP-200-0001 0901-LP-250-0001 0901-LP-280-0001
Bibliography-11
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Hiscox, Gardner Dexter (Editor), Henleys 20th Century Book of Formulas, Processes, and Trade Secrets, Norman W. Henley Publishing Co., 1944. Over 10,000 scientific formulas and chemical recipes for industrial and general use compounds. Phillips, Arthur L. (Editor), Welding Handbook - Fundamentals of Welding, Fifth Edition, American Welding Society, 1963. Welding processes and materials, techniques and metallurgy. Swanson, W.E., Modern Shipfitters Handbook, Cornell Maritime Press, 1941 Heavy construction, welding, and fabrication practices that can be adapted to field work
MATERIAL PROPERTIES Moss, John B, Properties of Engineering Materials, CRC Press, 1971. Properties and behavior of materials and their response to the environment, Shubert, P.B., Moltrecht, K.H., and Ryffel, H.R. (Editors), Machinerys Handbook, 21st edition, Industrial Press Inc., 1981. Compendium of metal properties, component standards, and standard practices for design and fabrication of machine parts.
SEAMANSHIP AND NAVIGATION General: Hayler, William B. (Editor), Merchant Marine Officers Handbook, Fifth edition, Cornell Maritime Press, 1989. Danton, Graham, The Theory and Practice of Seamanship, Ninth Edition, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985. Comprehensive commercial (British) seamanship reference. Knight, Austin M., Knights Modern Seamanship, Ninth Edition, 1941, Twelfth Edition, 1953 (D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc.), Eighteenth Edition, 1989 (Van Nostrand Reinhold). Fundamentals of basic seamanship, oriented towards Naval operations. Older editions include valuable guidance for improvising lifting, pulling, and handling rigs. Editions after the first revised by various authorities. House, D. J., Seamanship Techniques, Volumes 1 and 2, Heinemann, 1987. Volume 1 - shipboard practice and theory, rigging, lifting gear, cargo and anchors. Volume 2 - shiphandling, collision, tanker work and pollution, and watertight integrity. Vanderberghe, J. P., Chaballe, L. Y., Elseviers Nautical Dictionary, Elseviers Scientific Publishing Co., 1978. Over 18,000 nautical terms with definitions in English/American, Dutch, French, German, Italian, and Spanish. Chief of Naval Operations (CNO OP 03C2), U.S. Navy Cold Weather Handbook for Surface Ships, 1988. Operations manual describing cold weather effects on personnel, machinery, and ship handling. Macdonald, Edwin A., Polar Operations, United States Naval Institute, 1969. Comprehensive description of operational requirements particular to polar operations. Canadian Hydrographic Service Marine Sciences Branch, Pilot of Arctic Canada, Second Edition, 1970. Sailing directions for Arctic Canada, with comprehensive discussion Arctic ice formation and behavior.
Bibliography-12
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Navigation: Maloney, Elbert S., Duttons Navigation and Piloting, Thirteenth Edition, Naval Institute Press, 1978. Comprehensive piloting and navigation information covering dead reckoning, celestial, and radio navigation. Bowditch, Nathaniel, American Practical Navigator, Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic Center, 1977 (periodically updated). Recognized standard reference for celestial and terrestrial navigation. Cargo-handling and stowage: Leeming, Joseph, Modern Ship Stowage, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1942. Ship stowage standards and methods of handling cargo at ocean terminals. Ship-to-Ship Transfer Guide (Petroleum), Second Edition, International Chamber of Shipping, Oil Companies International Marine Forum, 1988. Safe transfer of petroleum products between ocean-going vessels at sea, including standard operating procedures and safety considerations. Sauerbier, Charles L., Meurn, Robert J., Marine Cargo Operations, Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 1985. Basic principles and techniques of cargo operations and stowage implications. International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals, Second Edition, International Chamber of Shipping, Oil Companies International Marine Forum, International Association of Ports and Harbors, 1984. Safety precautions and guidelines for the transport of petroleum products at sea. Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes, International Maritime Organization, 1987. Standards for safe stowage and shipment of solid bulk cargoes; includes stowage factors and hazard information for approximately 2400 items.
RIGGING Rossnagel, W. E., Higgins, J. R., and Macdonald, J. A., Handbook of Rigging for Construction and Industrial Operations, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1988. Standard reference and regulation guide for rigging operations. NAVSEA 0900-LP-008-2010, Design and Care of Wire-Rope Installations, 1946. General guidance for design and operation of wire rope systems. Toss, Brion, The Riggers Apprentice, International Marine Publishing Company, 1984. General marlinspike seamanship guide including emergency rigging. Wire Rope Users Manual, Second Edition, American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), 1985. Information on load factors, rope grade, varieties and properties, and handling, storage, and safety considerations. Tables of standard strengths of various wire rope constructions. Blandford, Percy W, Knots and Splices, Arco Publishing Company, Inc., 1978. Pocket guide to essential knots and splices
Bibliography-13
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HAZARDOUS MATERIAL HANDLING AND PRECAUTIONS CG-174, Manual for the Safe Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids and other Hazardous Products, U.S. Coast Guard, 1976. Procedures for safe handling of hazardous and combustible materials. Meyer, Eugene, Chemistry of Hazardous Materials, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1977. General properties of classes of hazardous materials.
STANDARDS Shipbuilding and Marine Safety: NAVSEA 0910-LP-007-4100, General Specifications for Ships of the U.S. Navy (GENSPECs), annual. American Bureau of Shipping: Rules for Building and Classing: Steel Vessels (annual) Mobile Offshore Drilling Units (1991) Reinforced Plastic Vessels (1978) Lloyds Register of Shipping: Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Ships (annual) Rules for Yachts and Small Craft (annual) Rules for Inland Waterways Ships (annual) General: American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards Standards on performance and characteristics of materials, products, systems and services. Volume 00.01 indexes standards by title, number, and keyword. Sections pertinent to salvage include: 1 2 4 5 Iron and steel Products Nonferrous Metal Products Construction Petroleum Products, Lubricants, and Fossil Fuels 11 15 Water and Environmental Technology General Products 15.06 Adhesives 15.08 Fasteners Rules for Floating Docks (annual) Rules for Ships for Liquefied Gases (annual) Rules for Ships for Liquid Chemicals (annual) Steel Barges (1991) Underwater Vehicles (1990) Aluminum Vessels (1975)
U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), revised annually. General and permanent rules published by executive departments and agencies of the Federal Government. Divided into 50 titles that are further subdivided into chapters and parts. Titles pertinent to salvage include: 29 40 Labor Protection of the Environment 46 49 Shipping Transportation
International Standards Organization (ISO) Vendor Directories Thomas Register, Volumes 1 through 23, Thomas Publishing Co., annual Extensive vendor listings, primarily but not exclusively firms doing business in the U.S. Divided into 3 sections: Products & Services (volumes 1 through 14) a "yellow pages" type product-to-vendor cross reference, Company Profiles (volumes 15 and 16) brief product/services descriptions, contact points, Catalog File (volumes 17 through 23) detailed product descriptions, specifications, performance data, drawings, photos, availability. Regional buying guides are also published.
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GLOSSARY
The glossary consists of two parts:
Definitions relating to or amplifying topics addressed in the text. Abbreviations and symbols commonly used on ships structural drawings.
A list of symbols and abbreviations used in the handbook is given on page xxix.
DEFINITIONS Air port. A hinged glass window, generally circular, in the ships side or deckhouse, for light and ventilation; also called porthole, portlight or side scuttle. Anchor, bower. The large anchors carried in the bow of a vessel. Weight varies with the size and service of the ship. Anchor, kedge. A small anchor used for warping or kedging. It is usually laid from a boat and the vessel hauled up toward it. Weight varies, usually from 900 to 1,200 pounds. Anchor, stream. An anchor weighing about one-fourth to one-third the weight of the main bowers and used when mooring in a narrow channel or harbor to prevent the vessels stern from swinging with the current or the tide. Anchor hawk. Grappling device used to recover lost anchors, chains, wire rope, etc. Ancillary equipment. Equipment that supports the operation of a systems principal components or assemblies. Angle collar. A collar or band made of one or more pieces of angle bar and fitted tightly around a pipe, trunk, frame, longitudinal, or stiffener intersecting or projecting through a bulkhead or deck to make a watertight or oiltight joint. Angle of Entrance (ae). The angle between the tangents to the load waterline at the fore end. Auxiliary. A vessel that maintains, supplies, or supports combatants. Auxiliary machinery, auxiliaries. Various pumps, motors, generators, etc., required on a ship, as distinguished from main propulsive machinery units. Bail. The part of a pelican hook or chain stopper that holds the hook closed. Bale cubic. The cubic capacity of a cargo hold measured to the inside of the frames or cargo battens. Ballasted condition. A condition of loading in which solid or liquid ballast is carried to obtain proper immersion, stability, and steering qualities. Barrel. The rotating drum of a capstan or winch. Basin. A naturally or artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed harbor. Batten. Long, thin strips of wood or steel used to keep tarpaulins in place over a hatch.
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Battens, cargo. Wood planks or steel shapes fitted to the inside of the frames in a hold to keep the cargo away from the shell plating; strips of wood or steel used to prevent shifting of cargo. Bay. A recess in the shore or an inlet of a sea between two capes or headlands, not as large as a gulf but larger than a cove. Beach berm. A nearly horizontal part of the beach or backshore formed by the deposit of material by wave action. Some beaches have no berms, others have one or several. Beach gear. A generic term for ground tackle and associated tensioning gear used to exert forces on grounded ships. Beam, cant. Beams supporting the deck plating in the overhanging portion of the stern. These beams radiate in fan-shaped formation from the transom beam to the cant frames. Beam, transom. A strong deck beam situated in the after end of the vessel connected at each end to the transom frame. The cant beams which support the deck plating in an overhanging stern are attached to and radiate from it. Beam ends. A vessel hove over or listed until her deck beams approach vertical is said to be on her beam ends. Beam knee. A bracket to stiffen the joint between a frame or stiffener and the end of a beam; also a beam arm or beam bracket. Beam line. A line showing the points of intersection between the top edge of the beam and the molded frame line, also called molded deck line. Bearding (bearding line). The line of intersection of the shell plating and stem or sternpost. Bearer. Foundations, particularly those having vertical web plates as principal members. The vertical web plates of foundations are also called bearers. Beaufort number or scale. A numerical scale (from 0 to 12) used for rating wind strength in order of ascending velocity. Between decks. The space between any two, not necessarily adjacent, decks. Frequently "tween decks." Bevel. The angle between the flanges of a frame or other member. (When greater than a right angle, open bevel; when less, closed or shut bevel); to chamfer. Bight. A loop or bend in a rope; strictly, any part of the rope between the two ends. Bilge. The rounded portion of a vessels shell which connects the bottom with side. To open a vessels lower body to the sea; curved section between the bottom and the side; the recess into which water drains from holds or other spaces. Bilge and ballast system. A system of piping generally located in the holds or lower compartments of a ship and connected to pumps. This system is used for pumping overboard accumulations of water in holds and compartments, and also for filling ballast tanks. Bilge bracket. A vertical transverse flat plate welded or riveted to the tank top or margin plate and to the frame in the area of the bilge. Bilge keels. Flat surfaces projecting normally or nearly normally from the hull at the turn of the bilge. Bilge keels usually run on or near the bilge diagonal. With full ships, bilge keels usually lie in one diagonal plane, but with finer forms it is sometimes necessary to lift the ends unless the keels are very short. Bilge plates. The curved shell plates that fit the bilge and form the bilge strake. Bill board. An inclined platform, fitted at the intersection of the weather deck and the shell, for stowing an anchor.
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Bitter end. The inboard end of a vessels anchor chain which is made fast in the chain locker; the inboard end of any line or rope, i.e., the end that is secured to bitts. Bitts. Short metal or wood columns extending up from a base plate secured to a deck or bulwark rail or placed on a pier for the purpose of securing and belaying ropes, hawsers, cables, etc. Bitumastic. An elastic bituminous cement used in place of paint to protect steel, especially anchor chain. Block, snatch. A single sheave block having one side of the frame hinged so that it can be opened to allow the bight of a rope to be placed on the sheave, thus avoiding the necessity of threading the end of the rope through the swallow of the block. Often employed as a fair lead around obstructions. Bollard. Single posts secured to a pier or vessel deck to which heavy hawsers are secured. Boom crutch/boom rest. A light structure built up from a deck to support the free end of a boom when it is not in use. Boom table. A small, stout platform attached to a mast to support the hinged heel bearings of booms and to provide proper working clearances when a number of booms are installed on or around one mast. Also mast table. Boot topping. An outside area on a vessels hull from bow to stern between certain waterlines to which special air, water, and grease-resisting paint is applied; also the paint applied to such areas. Bosom piece. A short piece of angle riveted inside a butt joint of two angles to form a strap. Bossing or boss. The convex curved portion of the ships shell plating that surrounds and supports the propeller shaft. Bossing plate. Steel plate covering the bulged portion of hull where the propeller shaft passes outboard. Bottom plating. That part of the shell plating which is below the water line. More specifically, the immersed shell plating from bilge to bilge. Bow thruster. A propulsive device located forward in the ship and used to control lateral movement. Bowing. Lack of flatness in sheet or strip metal in which the longitudinal or transverse section forms an arc. Bracket. A plate (usually triangular or trapezoidal) used to connect rigidly two or more structural parts, such as deck beam to frame, or bulkhead stiffener to the deck or tank top. Break. The end of a partial superstructure such as a poop, bridge or forecastle where it drops to the deck below. Breakwater. A structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage, or basin from waves; a plate or timber structure fitted on a forward weather deck to form a V-shaped shield against water that is shipped over the bow. Breast line. A mooring line from ship to pier, or ship to ship, perpendicular to the fore and aft axis, or at right angles to the ship. Buckler. A portable cover secured over the deck opening of the hawsepipes and the chain pipes to restrict the flow of water through the openings. Bulk cargo. Liquid or solid cargo made up of commodities such as oil, coal, ore, grain, etc., not shipped in bags or containers; more specifically applied to solid cargoes. Bulkhead, aft peak. The first main transverse bulkhead forward of the sternpost, forming the forward boundary of the after peak tank. Bulkhead, collision. A transverse watertight bulkhead, extending to the bulkhead deck and located 5 to 8 percent of the ships length aft of the forward perpendicular, to resist flooding caused by collision damage. The collision bulkhead often forms the aft boundary of the fore peak tank.
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Bulkhead, screen. A light nonwatertight transverse bulkhead. Bull rope. Colloquial term for a towline or large hawser. Bullnose. A closed chock at the bow of a vessel. Bulwark. Section of a ships side continued above the main deck or fore-and-aft vertical plating immediately above the upper edge of the sheer strake installed as protection against heavy weather, usually about 3 feet 6 inches high. Butt. The joint formed when two parts are placed edge to edge; the end (transverse or vertical) joint between two plates. Butt strap. A strap that overlaps the butt between two plates in a bolted or riveted strap joint. Butt welding. Joining two edges or ends by placing one against the other and welding. Calk or caulk. To fill seams in a wood deck with oakum and pay them with pitch, marine glue, etc. To drive or hammer the adjoining edges of metal together to stop or prevent leaks. Cant. An inclination of an object from a perpendicular; to turn anything so that it does not stand perpendicularly or square to a given object. Caprail. Rail on the stern of a towing vessel, over which the tow wire rides. Cargo port/side port. Opening in a ships side for loading and unloading cargo. Casing, engine and boiler. Bulkheads enclosing a large opening between the weather deck and the engine and boiler rooms that provides space for the boiler uptakes, access to these rooms, and permits installing or removing large propulsion units such as boilers or turbines. Catenary. The downward curve or sag of a rope suspended between two points. Ceiling, hold and tanktop. A covering, usually of wood, placed over the tank top for its protection. Chafing plate. Bent plate laid over a sharp edge to minimizing chafing of ropes, as at hatches. Chain locker. Compartment in forward lower portion of ship in which anchor chain is stowed. Chain pendant. A piece of chain used as a strap; chain rigged between the tow and tow hawser; chain used to create a catenary. Chain pipe. Pipe for passage of chain from windlass to chain locker. Chain riveting. Two or more rows of rivets so arranged that the rivets in one row are abreast those in the adjacent row; see also zig-zag riveting. Chamfer. To bevel, to form a smooth, round surface; to cut off the sharp edge of a 90-degree corner; to trim to an acute angle. Chine. When the shell curvature is changed abruptly at a knuckle, the points of inflection lie on a line known as a chine. Chock. A heavy, smooth-surfaced fitting usually located near the edge of the weather deck through which wire ropes or fiber hawsers may be led. Clay. Generally, fine-grained soils having particle diameters less than 0.002 millimeter and exhibiting plastic properties when wet. Cleat. A piece of wood or metal, of various shapes according to use, usually having two projecting arms or horns upon which to belay ropes; a clip on the frames to hold the cargo battens in place.
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Clinometer. An instrument that indicates the angle of roll or pitch of a vessel, by means of a pendulum or a bubble in a curved, fluid-filled tube. Coaming, hatch. A frame bounding a hatch for the purpose of stiffening the edges of the opening and forming the support for the covers. In a steel ship, it generally consists of a strake of strong vertical plating completely bounding the edges of a deck opening. Cofferdams. Empty spaces separating two or more compartments as insulation or to prevent the liquid contents of one compartment from entering another in the event of rupture or leak in the compartment bulkheads (naval architecture). Watertight enclosures built around deck openings or the entire deck of a sunken ship to permit water to be removed by pumping (salvage). Temporary dams enclosing a basin so the water level within can be lowered (civil engineering). Cordage. A comprehensive term for all ropes of whatever size or kind. Counter. That part of a ships stern which overhangs the stern post, usually that part above the water line. Cowl. A hood-shaped top or end of a natural ventilation trunk that may be rotated to cause wind to blow air into or out of the trunk. Crabbing. Moving sideways through the water. Cutwater. The stem of a ship, the forwardmost portion of the bow, which cuts the water as the ship moves. Datum planes. The three reference planes from which offset measurements are taken. Dead flat. The portion of a ships structure that has the same transverse shape as the midship section. Dead light or fixed light. A portlight that does not open. Deck, shelter. Formerly, a nonwatertight superstructure deck continuous from stem to stern and fitted with at least one tonnage opening. Deck, tonnage. The upper boundary of the internal volume of the measurable portions of the ship, as defined by the tonnage regulations. Deck height. The vertical distance between the molded lines of two adjacent decks. Deck machinery. Capstans, windlasses, winches, and miscellaneous machinery located on the decks of ship. Deck stringer. The strip of deck plating that runs along the outboard edge of a deck. Deep tanks. Tanks extending from the bottom or inner bottom of a vessel up to or higher than the lowest deck. They are often fitted with hatches so they can also be used for solid cargo. Derrick. A device for hoisting and lowering heavy weights, cargo, stores, etc. Diagonals. The intersections of diagonal planes with the molded surface. Bilge diagonals are diagonal planes intersecting the molded surface in the vicinity of the turn of the bilge. Dog. A pawl; a device applied to a winch drum to prevent rotation; a small metal fitting used to hold doors, hatch covers, manhole covers, etc., closed. Dolphin. Several piles bound together, free standing or situated at the corner of a pier and used for docking and warping vessels. Also applied to single piles and bollards on piers that are used in docking and warping. Downdrift. The direction of predominant movement of littoral materials.
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Dunnage. Cushioning, blocks, boards, paper, burlap, or loose material placed under or among cargo in the holds to prevent their motion or chafing. Dutchman. A piece of steel fitted or driven into an opening to cover up open joints or crevices usually caused by poor workmanship. Eddy. A circular movement of water formed on the side of a main current. Eddies may be created at points where the main stream passes projecting obstructions or where two adjacent currents flow counter to each other. Embankment. An artificial bank, such as a mound or dike, generally built to hold back water or to carry a roadway. Equilibrium, neutral. The state of equilibrium in which a vessel inclined from its original position of rest by an external force tends to maintain the inclined position assumed after that force has ceased to act. Equilibrium, stable. The state of equilibrium in which a vessel inclined from its original position of rest by an external force tends to return to its original position after that force has ceased to act. Equilibrium, unstable. The state of equilibrium in which a vessel inclined from its original position of rest by an external force tends to depart farther from the inclined position assumed after that force has ceased to act. Escape trunk. A vertical trunk fitted with a ladder to permit personnel to escape if trapped. Usually provided from the after end of the shaft tunnel to topside spaces in commercial vessels. Expansion trunk or tank. A trunk extending above a space which is used for the stowage of liquid cargo. The surface of the cargo liquid is kept sufficiently high in the trunk to permit expansion without risk of excessive strain on the hull or of overflowing, and to allow contraction of the liquid without increase of free surface. Face plate, face bar. Generally a narrow stiffening plate fitted along the inner edge of web frames, stringers, etc., to form the flange of the member. Fair. To smooth curves, such as a ships lines; to eliminate irregularities; to assemble the parts of a ship so that they will be fair, i.e., without kinks, bumps, or waves; to bring rivet or bolt holes into alignment. Fairings are plates, castings, etc., placed over or adjacent to projections to give a streamlined form. Fairwater. Plating or casting fitted around the ends of a shaft tube or strut barrel, and shaped to streamline the parts, thus eliminating abrupt changes in the waterflow. Also applied to any casting or plating fitted to the hull for the purpose of preserving a smooth flow of water. Fall. The entire length of rope used with blocks to make up a tackle. The end secured to the block is called the standing part, the opposite end, the hauling part. Falling off. Drifting away from a desired position or direction. Fantail. Formerly, the overhanging stern section of ships with round or elliptical after endings to uppermost decks and which extend well abaft the after perpendicular. Now commonly applied to the after end of the weather deck of any ship. Fathom. A nautical unit of length used in measuring cordage, chains, depths, etc., normally equivalent to 6 feet. Faying surface. The surface between two adjoining parts. Fidley. The top of engine and boiler room casings on the weather deck. A partially raised deck over the engine and boiler casings, usually around the smokestack. Fines. The smaller particles of a granular material, such as silt and clay in sandy soils or sand in sandy gravel. Fish hooks. Outer wires of wire rope that have broken so that short ends project from the rope.
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Flange. The part of a plate or shape bent at right angles to the main part; to bend over to form an angle. Floodable length. The length of ship that may be flooded without sinking below her safety or margin line. The floodable length of a vessel varies from point to point throughout her length and is usually greatest amidships and least near the quarter length. Floor. A vertical transverse plate in the bottom of a ship running from bilge to bilge usually on every frame to deepen it. In wood ships, the lowest frame timber or the one crossing the keel is called the floor. Flounder(s) plate. A triangular steel plate to which chain bridle legs are connected, sometimes called a "fish plate." Forefoot. The lower end of a vessels stem which is stepped on the keel. Fouling. The attachment and growth of marine plants and animals on surfaces of operational importance to man. Foundation. Structural supports for heavy machinery and equipment. Main foundations support propulsion boilers, main engines or turbines, and reduction gears; auxiliary foundations support machinery space auxiliaries. Frame, cant. A frame not square to the centerline at the counter of the ship and connected at the upper end to the cant beams. At the stern and at wide flaring bows, the inclination of the molded surface to the middle line of the ship may become so great that it is desirable to cant or incline the frames so that the standing flanges are more normal to the surface. Frame spacing. The fore-and-aft distances between frames, heel to heel. Freeboard. On a ship, the distance from the waterline to main deck or gunwale; the additional height of a coastal structure above design high water level to prevent overflow. Also, at a given time, the vertical distance between the water level and the top of the structure. Freeboard, statutory. The vertical distance between the permissible water line and a margin line established near the freeboard deck. Freeing port. An opening in the lower portion of a bulwark to allow deck water to drain overboard. Freshening the nip. Paying out or hauling in a line to move the point of contact with a chock or caprail so as to distribute wear. Fully-arisen sea. The condition when the fetch length and duration are long enough for a given wind velocity to produce the highest waves possible. This steady wave state requires a minimum fetch and duration which can be related to the wind velocity at a specific height above the sea surface. Furnaced plate. A plate that requires heating in order to shape it. Fuse pendant. A pendant of wire rope or chain specifically designed to fail at a known tension. May be used to protect the rest of the rigging arrangement. Gear. A comprehensive term in general use on shipboard signifying the total of all implements, apparatus, mechanism, machinery, etc., appertaining to and employed in the performance of any given operation, as "cleaning gear," "steering gear," "anchor gear," etc. Girth. Any expanded length, such as the length of a frame from gunwale to gunwale. Grain cubic. The cubic capacity of a hold when carrying bulk cargo, measured to the shell plating rather than to the inside of the frames or cargo battens. Grapnel/grappling hook. An implement having from four to six hooks or prongs, usually four, arranged in a circular manner around one end of a shank having a ring at its other end, used as an anchor for small boats, for recovering small articles dropped overboard, to hook on to lines, and for similar purposes. Groin/groyne. A shore protection structure built (usually perpendicular to the shoreline) to trap littoral drift or retard erosion of the shore.
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Grommet. A soft ring used under a nut or bolt head to maintain watertightness; a leather, fabric, metal, or plastic reinforcement around an opening in a sail, tarpaulin, or similar piece of fabric. Ground tackle. A general term for all anchors, cables, wire ropes, etc., used to moor or anchoring a ship to the bottom. Gudgeon. Bosses or lugs on sternpost drilled for the pins (pintles) on which the rudder hinges. Gunwale. The line where a weather deck stringer intersects the shell. Gunwale bar. See stringer bar. Gusset plate. A bracket plate lying in a horizontal, or nearly horizontal plane. Gypsy head. A cylinder-like fitting on the end of winch or windlass shafts. Fiber line or wire rope is hauled or slacked by winding a few turns around it, the free end being held taut manually as it rotates. Hamper, top hamper. Articles of outfit, especially spars, rigging, etc., above the deck, that may become in certain emergencies a source of danger or inconvenience. Harbor. Any protected water area affording a place of safety for vessels. Hardness. Defined in terms of the method of measurement: usually the resistance to indentation, but also the stiffness or temper of wrought products, or machinability characteristics. Hatch (hatchway). An opening in a deck through which cargo and stores are loaded or unloaded. Hatch battens. Flat bars that are wedged against hatch coamings to secure tarpaulins. Hatch beam. Portable beam across a hatch to support hatch covers. Hawsepipe. Heavy castings through which the anchor chain runs from the deck down and forward through the ships bow plating; stockless anchors are usually stowed in the shank in the hawsepipe. Hawser. A heavy line or wire rope used in warping, towing, and mooring; any line over 5 inches in circumference. Headland. A high steep-faced promontory extending into the sea. Heel. The corner of an angle, bulb angle or channel. The inclination of a ship to one side. Holds. Large below deck spaces where cargo is stowed; the lowermost cargo compartments; the lowest deck in combatant ships. Horsepower, brake. Engine horsepower as measured at the engine output shaft. Horsepower, delivered. Horsepower delivered to the propeller, i.e., brake horsepower less losses in reduction gearing and line shafting. Horsepower, indicated. Theoretical engine horsepower based on cylinder pressures and temperatures, piston stroke, and engine speed, that does not account for mechanical efficiency. Horsepower, shaft. Propulsion plant power measured at the propeller shaft. Intercostal. The term broadly applied, where two members intersect, to the one that is cut; the opposite of continuous; made in separate parts; between floors, frames or beams, etc.
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International Great Lakes Datum (IGLD). The common datum used in the Great Lakes area based on mean water level in the St. Lawrence River at Father Point, Quebec, established in 1955. Intertidal Zone. The land area that is alternately inundated and uncovered with the tides, usually considered to extend from mean low water to extreme high tide. Intrinsically safe. Equipment or devices that do not produce sparks, heat, or provide other ignition source. Primarily applicable to electrical and communication equipment. Jetty. On open seacoasts, a structure extending into a body of water, and designed to prevent shoaling of a channel by littoral materials, and to direct and confine the stream or tidal flow. Jetties are built at the mouth of a river or tidal inlet to help deepen and stabilize a channel. Joggle. To offset a plate or shape to avoid the use of liners in riveted construction. Keckling. Chafing gear on a cable, consisting of old rope. Keel blocks. Heavy wood or concrete blocks on which the ship rests during construction or drydocking. Keelson, side. Fore-and-aft vertical plate member located above the bottom shell on each side of the center vertical keel and some distance therefrom. Kenter shackle. A type of detachable link. Kjellam grips. A lightweight stopper useful for passing a wire rope where only low tension is exerted on the rope. Knee, beam. Bracket between a deck beam and frame. Knuckle. A sudden change of curvature; an abrupt change in direction of the plating, frames, keel, deck, or other structure of a vessel. Kort nozzle. A nozzle enclosing a ships propeller. Lagging. Insulating material on the outside of boilers, piping, bulkheads, etc. Lap. The distance that one piece of material is laid over another, the amount of overlap, as in a lapped joint. Laying off. The development of the lines of ships form on the mold-loft floor and making templates therefrom; also called laying down. Lee. Shelter, or the part or side sheltered or turned away from the wind or waves. Lightening hole. A hole cut out of a structural member, as in the web, to reduce weight. Lightening holes are located in low stress areas to minimize loss of strength. Lightening holes are commonly cut in floor plates and longitudinals in double bottoms, where they provide access as well as reduce weight. Lighter. A boat used in harbors for transporting merchandise; a full-bodied, heavily built craft, usually not self-propelled, used in bringing merchandise or cargo alongside or in transferring same from a vessel. Limber hole. A hole or slot cut into a frame or plate to prevent water from collecting. Most frequently found in floor plates just above the frame flange or shell plating and near the center line of the ship. Line shafting. Sections of the main shafting located in the shaft tunnel between the engine room and the after peak bulkhead. Liner. A flat or tapered strip placed under a plate or shape to bring it in line with another part that it overlaps; a filler.
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Littoral transport. The movement of sediments (littoral drift) in the littoral zone by waves and currents. Includes movement parallel (longshore transport) and perpendicular (on-offshore transport) to the shore. Locking pin. Keeper or device used to hold or maintain a chain stopper, shackle, or other similar devices in a designated position. Longitudinal direction. The direction in a wrought metal product parallel to direction of working (drawing, extruding, rolling). The fore and aft direction in a ship. Low Water Datum (LWD). An approximation to the plane of mean low water that has been adopted as a standard reference plane. Magazine. Spaces or compartments for the stowage of ammunition. Manhole. A round or oval access hole cut in decks, tanks, boilers, etc. Margin angle. Angle connecting margin plate to shell. Margin bracket. See bilge bracket. Margin plate. The outboard strake of the inner bottom. When the margin plate is turned down at the bilge it forms the outboard boundary of the double bottom, connecting the inner bottom to the shell plating at the bilge. Mast. A tall vertical or raked structure, normally located on the centerline of a ship and used to carry navigation lights, radio antennae, or cargo booms. Mast step. The foundation on which a mast is erected. Mast table. See boom table. Mean Sea Level (MSL). The average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide over a 19-year period, usually determined from hourly height readings. Not necessarily equal to mean tide level. Messenger. A light line used for hauling over a heavier rope or hawser. Mooring ring. A round or oval casting inserted in the bulwark plating through which the mooring lines, or hawsers, are passed. A heavy ring on the top of a mooring buoy. Mortise. The opening of a shackle or detachable link. Mud. A fluid-to-plastic mixture of finely divided particles of solid material and water. Nearshore (zone). In beach terminology an indefinite zone extending seaward from the shoreline well beyond the breaker zone. It defines the area of nearshore currents. Neutral Axis. For a beam in bending, an axis through the centroid of a beam cross section, perpendicular to the plane of the bending moment, where bending stresses are zero. Nip. A sharp bend in a line or wire. Norman pin. A steel rod or post that can be raised or lowered, and which usually is mounted toward the stern of a vessel to limit the sweep of a hawser across the rear deck. Offset shackle. A plate shackle used to connect different sized ropes and chains. Overhang. That portion of a ships bow or stern clear of the water which projects beyond the forward or after perpendiculars.
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Pacific iron. Alternate term for gooseneck (cargo boom fitting, see Figure 7-40)> Pelican hook. A hook which can be opened while under a strain by knocking away a locking ring or bale which holds it closed; used to provide an instantaneous release. Pendant. A length of wire rope, chain, or fiber line used to facilitate connecting longer lengths of the same. Percolation. The process by which water flows through the interstices of a sediment. In wave phenomena, the process by which wave action forces water through the interstices of the bottom sediment, tending to reduce wave heights. Permeability. The characteristics of a material which allow a liquid or gas to pass through. Pillar. See Stanchion. Pile, sheet. A pile with a generally slender flat cross section to be driven into the ground or seabed and meshed or interlocked with like members to form a diaphragm, wall, or bulkhead. Pintles. The pins or bolts that hinge the rudder to the gudgeons on the sternpost or rudder post. Plating, clinker. Plating laid up so the edges of the plates form lap joints so that one edge of a plate is inside, while the other is outside of the adjacent strakes. Plating, flush. Plating laid up so the edges of the plates form butt joints resulting in a flush surface. The connections between the plates are made by butt welds or by seam and butt straps in riveted construction. Plating, in and out. Plating laid up with alternate strakes lying outside the adjacent strakes; the plates are connected by lap joints with both edges of alternate strakes of plating either inside or outside of the adjacent strakes. Plating, joggled. Plating laid up with the edges of the plates joggled, or offset, to avoid the use of liners between the plating and the framing. Plunging breaker. A wave breaking on a shore, over a reef, etc., where the crest curls over an air pocket; breaking is usually with a crash. Smooth splash-up usually follows. Poop. A superstructure fitted at the after end of the upper deck. Porosity. Ratio of volume of soil voids to total volume. Preventer. Any line, wire, or chain whose general purpose is to act as a safeguard should another tension member be carried away. Propeller shaft/tail shaft. The short aftermost section of the main shafting to which the propeller is attached. Prow. The part of the bow above the waterline. Pudding. A fiber or fabric filled canvas or leather bag used as chafing gear or a fender to protect such items as a towline or spar. Rabbet. A groove, depression, or offset in a member into which the end or edge of another member is fitted, generally so that the two surfaces are flush. Reeving. The threading of a line or wire through a block, sheave, or other parts of a wire rope system. Relation coefficient (e). The ratio between the prismatic and water line coefficients. It has a more constant value than the other coefficients and is of use in the prediction of the water plane coefficient before the lines have been drawn. Rider plate. A continuous flat plate attached to the top or bottom of a girder.
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Riding chocks. The chock on deck through which the anchor chain or towing gear passes inboard. Riprap. A layer, facing, or protective mound of stones randomly placed to prevent erosion, scour, or sloughing of a structure or embankment; also the stone so used. Rockered keel. A keel curved so that it is deeper in the midships region than at the ends. Roll. To impart curvature to a plate. Also the cyclic, reversing transverse inclination of a ship in waves. Roundings. Condemned rope under 4 inches in diameter, used to wrap around a rope to prevent chafing. Rudder post. See sternpost. Rudder stock. A vertical rudder shaft that connects to the steering engine. Salvage towing. Towing undertaken to rescue or save a discarded, wrecked, or damaged ship, or to transport a refloated ship to a safe haven. Samson post. A strong vertical post that supports cargo booms. Scantlings. The dimensions of a ships frames, girders, plating, etc. Scarf. A connection made between two pieces by tapering their ends so that they fit together in a joint of the same breadth and depth as the pieces connected. It is used on bar keels, stem and stern frames, and other parts. Scow. A large, open, usually flat-bottomed boat or barge for transporting sand, gravel, mud, garbage, etc. Screen bulkhead. See bulkhead, screen. Screw stopper. A chain stopper fitted with a turnbuckle. Scuppers. Drains from decks to carry off accumulations of rainwater, condensation or seawater. Scuppers are located in the gutters or waterways, on open decks, and in corners of enclosed decks, and connect to pipes usually leading overboard when fitted below decks. Scuttle. A small circular or oval opening fitted in decks to provide access. When used as escape scuttles and fitted with dogs that permit quick opening, they are called quick-acting scuttles. Also, to intentionally open a ships hull to the sea to sink it. Sea chest. A shell opening for supplying seawater to condensers, pumps, etc., and for discharging water from the ships water systems to the sea. It is a box-like structure located in the hull below the waterline and having means for the attachment of the associated piping. Suction sea chests are fitted with strainers or gratings, and sometimes have a lip that forces water into the sea chest when under way. Seas. Waves caused by wind at the place and time of observation. Seawall. A structure separating land and water areas, primarily designed to prevent erosion and other damage due to wave action. Seam. Fore-and-aft joint of shell plating, deck and tank top plating, or a lengthwise edge joint of any plating. Seam strap. A strip of plate serving as a connecting strap between the butted edges of plating. Strap connections at the ends of plates are called butt straps. Seaway. The motion of the sea when clear of shoal water. Section modulus. A geometric property of a beam, indicating its resistance to bending, equal to the moment of inertia of the cross section divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the outer fibers of the beam, measured in the plane of the bending moment.
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Seiche. (1) A standing wave oscillation of an enclosed water body that continues after the cessation of the originating force, which may have been either seismic or atmospheric. (2) An oscillation of a fluid body in response to a disturbing force having the same frequency as the natural frequency of the fluid system. Tides are seiches induced primarily by the periodic forces caused by the sun and moon. (3) In the Great Lakes area, any sudden rise in the water of a harbor or a lake whether or not it is oscillatory. Although inaccurate in a strict sense, this usage is wellestablished in the Great Lakes area. Seize. To bind with small stuff, as one rope to another or a rope to a spar. Shaft tunnel, shaft alley. A watertight enclosure for the propeller shafting large enough to walk in, extending aft from the engine room to provide access and protection to the shafting. Shape (structural). A bar of constant cross section such as a channel, T-bar, angle bar, etc., either rolled or extruded; a rolled bar of constant cross section such as an angle, bulb angle, channel, etc.; to impart curvature to a plate or other member. Sheers, shear legs. Alternate terms for sheer legs (See Paragraphs 7-6.3 and 7-6.4.3). Shell landings. Points on the frames where the edges of shell plates are located. Shell plating. The plates forming the outerside and bottom skin of the hull, sometimes extended to include weather deck plating. Shifting boards. Portable bulkheads, generally constructed of wood planking and fitted fore and aft in cargo holds when carrying grain or other cargo that might shift to one side when the ship is rolling in a seaway. Shift of butts. The arrangement of the butts in structural plating members whereby the butts of adjacent members are located a specified distance from one another. Shore. A brace or prop used for support. Shroud. A fixed wire rope running from a mast to the ships side, to provide lateral support to the mast. See also Stays. Shut bevel. The closing together of the flanges of an angle to less than 90 degrees, the opposite of open bevel. Shut bevel makes riveting difficult and was avoided on ships of riveted construction; a "turning frame" was arranged about amidships. All frames forward of turning frame had the shell flanges of the frames on the aft side of the frame station. The aft frames had the shell flanges on the forward side so that they too "looked in" towards the midship section. Side plating. Plating above the bilge in the main body of a vessel. Also plating on the sides of deck houses, and the vertical sides of enclosed plated structures. Side port. See Cargo port. Sight edge. The visible edge of shell plating as seen from outside the hull. Significant wave height. The average height of the one-third highest waves of a given wave group. Skeg. A deep, vertical, fin-like projection on the bottom of a vessel near the stern, installed to provide directional stability, support the lower edge of the rudder, support the propeller shaft in single-screw ships, and support the vessel in dry dock. Skylight. A framework with covers with glass panels fitted over a deck opening to admit light and air to the compartment below. Sling. A length of chain or rope made fast to an object to be lifted, the other end connected to or laid over the hook of a crane or other lifting rig; the rods, chains, or ropes attached near the bow and stern of a small boat into which the davit or crane tackle is hooked; the chain or rope supporting the yard at the masthead. Slip stopper. A chain stopper hooked or shackled to the deck and fitted with a slip-hook for holding a towline.
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Small stuff. Small-circumference fiber line (generally less than 2 inches). Soffit. The underside of a structural part, as of a beam, arch, or deck. Sounding tube, sounding pipe. A pipe leading to the bottom of an oil or water tank, used to guide a sounding tape or jointed rod when measuring the depth of liquid in the tank. Span. The distance between any two similar members, as the span of the frames. The length of a member between its supports, as the span of a girder. A rope whose ends are both made fast some distance apart, the bight having attached to it a topping lift, tackle, etc. A line connecting two davit heads so that when one davit is turned the other follows. Spanish windlass. A device to exert force in bringing together two parts of a rope, e.g., shortening a pair of parallel lines by twisting them with a lever inserted between them at a right angle to their axis. Spectacle frame. A large casting extending outboard from the main hull and furnishing support for the ends of the propeller shafts in a multiscrew ship. The shell plating (bossing) encloses the shafts and is attached at its after end to the spectacle frame. Used in place of shaft struts. Spring, spring line. A mooring or docking line leading at an angle less than 45 degrees with the fore-and-aft lines of the vessel. Used to turn a vessel or prevent it from moving ahead or astern. Stanchion/pillar. A vertical member or column supporting a deck. Standing rigging. Fixed rigging, (shrouds, stays, etc.) that support masts and kingposts. Stays. Fixed wire ropes that run either forward or aft from aloft on a mast to the deck to support the mast, as opposed to shrouds that run in a generally athwartships direction. Stealer. A single wide plate that is butt-connected to two narrow plates, usually near the ends of a ship, to reduce the number of strakes of plating. Stern, cruiser. A spoon-shaped stern designed to give maximum immersed length. Stern, transom. A square-ended stern used to provide additional hull volume and deck space aft and/or to decrease resistance in some high speed ships. Sternpost. A vertical part of the stern frame to which the rudder is attached in some types of construction. Stern rollers. The horizontal and vertical rollers at the very stern of a tug used to lead, capture, and control the tow hawser. Stern tube. The watertight tube enclosing and supporting the propeller shaft. Still Water Level (SWL). The elevation that the surface of the water would assume if all wave action were absent. Stopper. A short length of rope secured at one end and lashed with rolling hitches to a line under tension to stop it from running. Strake, bilge. Course of shell plates at the bilge. Strap. A ring of wire or line, made by splicing the ends together, used for handling weight, etc. Stringer bar. The angle connecting the deck plating to the shell plating or to the inside of the frames. The strength deck stringer bar is usually called the gunwale bar. Stringer plate. The course of plating that runs along the outboard edge of a deck.
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Strut. Structural member loaded in tension or compression in line with its longitudinal axis. Outboard column-like or V-arranged supports for the propeller shaft, used on some ships with more than one propeller instead of bossings. Rarely used on merchant vessels. Surf zone. The area between the outermost breaker and the limit of wave uprush. Surge, surge load. A violent or sudden increase in load on a wire, line, winch, etc. Swell. Wind-generated waves that have traveled out of their generating area. Swells characteristically exhibit a more regular and longer period, and have flatter crests than waves within their fetch. Tackle. An arrangement of ropes and blocks to give a mechanical advantage; a purchase; any combination of ropes and blocks that multiplies power. Also applied to a single whip which does not multiply power but simply changes direction. Tail shaft. See propeller shaft. Tank, settling. Relatively deep fuel oil tanks where oil is allowed to stand for a few hours until entrained water has settled to the bottom, to be drained or pumped off. Tank, trimming. A tank located near the ends of a ship. Seawater (or fuel oil) is carried in such tanks as necessary to change trim. Tarpaulin. A pliable waterproof cloth cover secured over nonwatertight hatch covers. Template. Wood or paper full-size patterns to be placed on materials to indicate the size and location of rivet holes, plate edges, etc.; also to indicate the curvature to which frames, plate or other members are to be bent. Tidal inlet. A natural inlet maintained by tidal flow. Loosely, any inlet in which the tide ebbs and flows. Tie plate. A fore-and-aft course of plating attached to deck beams under a wood deck to increase strength. Tonnage deck. See Deck, tonnage Tonnage openings. Formerly, nonwatertight openings in the shelter deck and in the tween deck bulkheads immediately below in order to exclude spaces from tonnage measurement and thus obtain reduced gross and net tonnage; also fitted at ends of partial superstructures. The openings could be closed by nonwatertight wood shifting boards or metal covers meeting the tonnage and load line regulations. Transom frame. The aftermost transverse side frame, see also beam, transom. Tripping bracket. Flat bars or plates fitted perpendicular to the webs of girders, stiffeners, or beams to prevent their free flanges from tripping. Trunk. A vertical or inclined space or passage formed by bulkheads or casings, extending one or more deck heights, around openings in the decks, through which access can be obtained and cargo, stores, etc., handled, or ventilation provided without disturbing or interfering with the contents or arrangements of the adjoining spaces. Turbid. Of a liquid, containing suspended matter that interferes with the passage of light so that visibility through the liquid is restricted. Turning frame. See shut bevel. Tween decks. See between decks Two-blocked. When the two blocks of a tackle have been drawn together or tightened. Ullage. The void above a liquid surface in a tank, and the measurement of this void.
Glossary-15
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Uptake. A metal casing connecting the boiler smoke outlet with the inner smokestack. It conveys the smoke and hot gases from the boiler to the stack. Waterway. A narrow gutter along the edge of the deck for drainage. Wave crest. The highest part of a wave. That part of the wave above still water level. Wave height. The vertical distance between a crest and the preceding trough. Wavelength. The horizontal distance between similar points on successive waves measured perpendicularly to the crest. Wave period. The time for a wave crest to traverse a distance equal to one wavelength, i.e., the time for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point. Wave trough. The lowest part of a wave form between successive crests. That part of a wave below still water level. Web. The vertical portion of a beam; the athwartship portion of a frame; the portion of a girder between the flanges. Web frame. A built-up frame consisting of a deep web plate with flanges on its edges, placed several frame spaces apart, with the smaller, regular frames in between. Welding. A process used to join metals by the application of heat. Fusion welding, which includes gas, arc, and resistance welding, requires that the parent metals be melted. In brazing, the joining (brazing) metal is melted but the parent metal(s) are not. In pressure welding joining is accomplished by the use of heat and pressure without melting. The parts that are being welded are pressed together and heated simultaneously, so that recrystallization occurs across the interface. Well. Space in the bottom of a ship to which bilge water drains so that it may be pumped overboard; space between partial superstructures. Whip. A term loosely applied to any tackle used for hoisting light weights and designates the use to which a tackle is put rather than to the method of reeving the tackle. Wildcat. A special type of drum whose faces are so formed to fit the links of a chain of given size. Winch. An electric, hydraulic, or steam machine aboard ship used for hauling in lines, wire, or chain; a hoisting or pulling machine fitted with a horizontal single or double drum. Windlass. An apparatus in which horizontal or vertical drums or gypsies and wildcats are operated by means of an engine or motor for the purpose of handling heavy anchor chains, hawsers, etc. Yard tug. A harbor tug used in berthing operations; e.g., YTL, YTM and YTB classes of tugs. Yellow gear. Colloquial term for portable salvage machinery. Zig-Zag riveting. Two or more rows of rivets spaced so that the rivets of one row are offset; see also chain riveting.
Glossary-16

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S0300-A8-HBK-010

U.S. NAVY SALVAGE ENGINEERS HANDBOOK, VOLUME 1 (Salvage Engineering)

PUBLISHED BY DIRECTION OF COMMANDER, NAVAL SEA SYSTEMS COMMAND

LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES

TITLE AND/OR BRIEF DESCRIPTION

to C APTAIN C HARLES A. B ARTHOLOMEW ,

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

R. P. FISKE Directory of Ocean Engineering Supervisor of Salvage and Diving, USN

iii (iv blank)

C HAPTER 1 - N AVAL A RCHITECTURE FOR THE S ALVAGE E NGINEER

C HAPTER 1 - N AVAL A RCHITECTURE FOR THE S ALVAGE E NGINEER ( CONTINUED)

C HAPTER 2 - S TRUCTURAL E NGINEERING

C HAPTER 3 - E NVIRONMENTAL F ORCES

C HAPTER 4 - S URVEYS AND P LANNING

C HAPTER 5 - S TRANDED S HIPS

C HAPTER 6 - S UNKEN AND C APSIZED S HIPS

C HAPTER 7 - R IGGING S YSTEMS

C HAPTER 8 - R ECOVERING B UOYANCY

A PPENDIX A - D OCUMENTATION M ATRIX

A PPENDIX B - I NTACT S HIP I NFORMATION

APPENDIX B - INTACT SHIP INFORMATION (CONTINUED)

A PPENDIX C - S TABILITY AND C ONSTRUCTION S TANDARDS

A PPENDIX D - B ASIC E NGINEERING C ALCULATIONS

A PPENDIX E - E NGINEER S T ABLES A PPENDIX F - C OMPREHENSIVE E XAMPLES

A PPENDIX G - A NCHORING S YSTEMS

A PPENDIX H - FFG-7 C LASS D ATA

B IBLIOGRAPHY/G LOSSARY/I NDEX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATIONS

C HAPTER 1 - N AVAL A RCHITECTURE

C HAPTER 2 - S TRUCTURAL E NGINEERING

C HAPTER 3 - E NVIRONMENTAL F ORCES

C HAPTER 5 - S TRANDED S HIPS

C HAPTER 7 - R IGGING S YSTEMS

C HAPTER 8 - R ECOVERING B UOYANCY

A PPENDIX B - I NTACT S HIP I NFORMATION

C-2 C-3 C-4 C-4 C-7 C-9

A PPENDIX D - B ASIC E NGINEERING C ALCULATIONS

APPENDIX F - COMPREHENSIVE EXAMPLES

A PPENDIX G - A NCHORING S YSTEMS

XXIII (XXIV BLANK)

C HAPTER 1 - N AVAL A RCHITECTURE

C HAPTER 2 - S TRUCTURAL E NGINEERING

C HAPTER 3 - E NVIRONMENTAL F ORCES

C HAPTER 5 - S TRANDED S HIPS

TABLE NUMBER TITLE

TABLE NUMBER TITLE

C HAPTER 7 - R IGGING S YSTEMS

7-43 7-44 7-45 7-46 7-47 7-48

7-53 7-54 7-68 7-69 7-69 7-69 7-71

C HAPTER 8 - R ECOVERING B UOYANCY

TABLE NUMBER TITLE

TABLE NUMBER TITLE

A PPENDIX A - D OCUMENTATION M ATRIX

A PPENDIX B - I NTACT S HIP I NFORMATION

TABLE NUMBER TITLE

TABLE NUMBER TITLE

A PPENDIX D - B ASIC E NGINEERING C ALCULATIONS

A PPENDIX E - B ASIC E NGINEER S T ABLES

A PPENDIX G - A NCHORING S YSTEMS

xxxi (xxxii blank)

STANDARD NAVY SYNTAX SUMMARY

xxxiii (xxxiv blank)

BEAM(S) (SHIPS DIMENSION)