Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002.

ASS 2: Essay

This essay explores language acquisition, comparing and contrasting different theories of language development. Language learning is not really something that the child does; it happens to the child when placed in an appropriate predetermined and stimulating environment (Chomsky, 1993). The four theories of language and development are Vygotskys sociocultural theory, Piagets cognitivist theory, Chomskys nativist theory and Skinners behaviourist theory, which can be applied to how children develop language. Language is used to communicate and comprised of arbitrary sounds that are hierarchically organised through the production and perceptions through auditory, visual and tactile modalities that is unique to humans who are genetically endowed for language acquisition (Dechaine et al. (2012). Implications of theoretical perspectives influence educators engagement with children in the learning environment. There are several components surrounding language involving phonetics, morphology, semantics and the use of syntax. These components enable children to form the foundations for language involving sounds, sentence structure, meanings and word combinations that are directly influenced by relationships, interactions, resources, communication, cultural and societal knowledge. Infants acquire language from their time in the womb and once born through complex processes and brain development that can be affected by many factors. According to Baker and Hengeveld (2012), in order for children to find their way into a language, children are required to know the names of things, persons and objects; practice sounds and combinations in order to build their vocabulary; learn to combine things, persons and objects with each other through language. During the pre-linguistic stage children are not yet competent in the use of language although, they are beginning to understand the basic concepts of communication through their environments. Around the age of eight months children begin babbling; by one year to two and a half they will progress to one word and later two word stages,

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay

where sentences begin to contain mostly necessary words; two and a half to five years they reach the differentiation stage, where longer sentences are composed and various word categories; five years and beyond see the stage of completion, with no clear end point as the acquisition of language is a continual process (Baker and Hengeveld, 2012). The speed of individual childrens acquisition of language can vary greatly, but the broad sequence of acquisition phases and processes involving babbling, omission and substitution, overextensions and overgeneralizations are still the same. Where sufficient stimulation is evident within the environment, the majority of children will become excellent at language learning (Baker and Hengeveld (2012). Bilingual development and acquisition is also an important component of language as half of the worlds population use two or more languages everyday as societies have become increasingly multicultural and due to the contributing factor of rising migration levels (Baker and Hengeveld, 2012). Key factors for foreign language and second language learning, involves the first language being similar to the English or mother tongue. The age of the individual as the critical period for language learning is in children under five years; contact with the target language, motivation, attitude, language aptitude and through the structured and directive approaches of teaching and learning (Baker and Hengeveld, 2012). The cognitivist theory of Piaget, refers to the child as an active learner, through exploration of their environment, the importance to cognitive development of learning about relationships such as cause and effect and discovery learning, as a child plays with objects becomes an essential part of language learning (Gillen, 2012). Piaget believed that children were only able to talk and communicate about things and ideas as long as they were capable of thinking about those things and ideas as the development of language was a key factor essentially connected to the development of cognition. Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay activities of humans and language acquisition and are both a mental and emotional process (Honey, 2010). Cognitive development within a child is a pre-requisite for language acquisition, as language is a way of reflecting though processes and according to Piaget, language does not contribute to the development of thinking (Honey, 2010). The cognitivist theory involves four universal fundamental stages of cognitive development. The first stage, sensorimotory stage (02years), children begin to learn about physical objects and are concerned with motor skills and begin babbling and cooing. The second stage, preoperational stage (2-6/7 years), is the stage where language acquisition begins and continues to develop as symbols and formation of words becomes evident. The third stage, concrete operations (6/7-11/12 years), begins to see children grouping things in logical orders and development of a more logical and reasonable language

system. The final stage, the formal operations stage (11/12-15years), children are able to provide reasons logically through communicating and thinking in a more adult like manner as language systems have developed completely and children are competent in the use of language completely by the end of this stage which can be also referred to the linguistic maturation stage (Honey, 2010). According to this theory, children learn language through active participation and involvement in the learning processes surrounding language and development. Progressing through the four stages of cognitive development is essential as children reason and think differently throughout the different stages in their lives. The language acquisition theory based on the work of Vygotsky views language as a system of symbolic representation as language is a tool that enables thinking to become a possibility (Honey, 2010). This sociocultural theory surrounding language is based on the belief that all of the functions and activities that a child is able to perform and perfect is only able, with

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay the assistance of another person. Vygotskys theory explores the role of the Zone of Proximal Development that is the difference between the childs capacity to solve problems on their own and to solve problems with assistance (Honey, 2010). The ZPD denotes the distance between actual knowledge obtained by the child and what the child is able to learn under guidance, instruction and supervision.

Vygotsky emphasizes that children are born with certain capabilities that predispose them to communicate, eventually using language, with those around them, drawing upon resources and discourses of their society and culture through active participation and organization of their own learning (Gillen, 2012). Vygotsky also believed that young children speak to themselves when they are engaged in different activities as the most important stage in the development of reasoning and speech is the transition from external to internal speech (Vygotsky, 1994). The Vygotskian framework has four basic principles. The first principle identifies language as playing a central role in mental development through the development of private speech, enabling children to explore ideas of social skills, accomplish tasks and changing with age (Keritis, 2007). The second principle indicates that development cannot be separated from its social context as social interaction leads to changes in childrens thoughts and behaviour that are vastly different throughout different cultures. The three ways that a cultural tool such as language can be passed from one individual to another involve imitative learning, instructed learning and self-regulated learning (Keritis, 2007). The third principle suggests that learning can lead development as any pedagogy creates learning processes that enable the development and sequences of the ZPD. The final principles key is that children construct their knowledge through the integration of socially and culturally constructed forms of mediation into human activity. These four principles are fundamental to underpinning the sociocultural theory

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay surrounded by activity theory, output, input, inner speech, internalization, mediation and the ZPD (Keritis, 2007). The work of Chomsky contributed to the Nativists theory, where it was considered that the different grammatical structures of different languages are only superficial differences and believed that children are born with brains that are attuned to this universal grammar (Gillen, 2012). The concept that human brains have evolved to hold the language capacity for rules and representations that Chomsky identified (Pinker, 1994). The nativist views language as being

learned by children everywhere despite the level of the language that is heard as they develop an underlying knowledge of the grammatical functions of language. The referral to universal grammar as language is an innate faculty, that the understanding surrounding language and the rules about language are applied as children grow and exposure to language increases. Chomsky believes that children are born with a set of rules about language in their heads, despite childrens exposure to very little correctly formed language and the extraction of rules from hearing language they are able to acquire their mother tongue (Nativist Theory, n.d.). According to Chomsky, the language acquisition process is only possible if a child is born with some sort of fundamental knowledge regarding language and general principles to which any language in the world has to conform (Baker and Hengeveld, 2012). According to Demirezen (1998), children develop a natural affinity to learn the language of their social surroundings whose importance both over language learning and teaching must never be underestimated. The principles surrounding the Behaviourist theory dwells on spoken language through stimulation, habit formation, reinforcement, rewards and equality of learning conditions (Demirezen, 1998). The view that children begin to speak before they write and read indicates that language is primarily spoken and secondarily written and controlled by the

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay consequences of behaviour. Through the concept of operant conditioning involving the

possibility of verbal behaviour being repeated is increased if it is reinforced keeping in mind that positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment (McLeod, 2007). According to Skinner, there is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals. Therefore research can be carried out on animals as well as humans (McLeod, 2007). Behaviourism is concerned with observable verbal behaviour opposed to internal thinking capabilities, therefore verbal behaviours are determined by the environment as a result of responses to stimulants. The behaviourist approach enables simple explanations from a scientific view focusing on externalized behaviour (verbal). New verbal behaviour is learnt through classical or operant conditioning as when a child is born they are perceived to be a blank slate in which the environment is a key contributor to language development and acquisition (McLeod, 2007). The four theoretical perspectives regarding language acquisition and language development can be compared and contrasted to one another based on the theorists viewpoints. The similarities between Piagets cognitivist theory and Vygotskys sociocultural theory are evident with the environment and societal constructs playing an integral role in language development. Through discovery learning, Piaget believes that children are required to play with an object as a component of essentiality to language learning (Gillen, 2012). Vygotsky also believes that children use resources and discourses of their society and culture through active participation in their environment indicating that language development cannot be separated from its social context/environment (Keritis, 2007). The difference between the cognitivist theory, sociocultural theory and the nativist theory is that Chomsky believes that children are born with a set of rules about language in their heads (Nativist theory, n.d.); in contrast to the

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay

cognitivist and sociocultural theory where the environment is a key factor in supporting language acquisition and development, the nativist theory emphasizes that language acquisition is only possible if a child is born with some sort of fundamental knowledge regarding language and its principles (Baker and Hengeveld, 2012). The behaviourist theory indicates that children are blank slates and verbal behaviours are learned through operant conditioning in which the environment is a key contributor (McLeod, 2007). Therefore the behaviourist theory may be seen to undermine the nativists perception of children are born with brains attuned to universal grammar. The majority of Skinners behaviourist theory was based on work with animals as he referred to his research showing that there is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals (McLeod, 2007). Despite Skinners animal research, Piaget, Vygotsky and Chomsky all observed children for the development of their research of language acquisition and development. In contrast to Piagets theory that language does not contribute to the development of thinking, Vygotskys theory indicates that language is a tool that enables thinking. These are two extremely contrasting views of the possibility of language contributing to or rather not contributing to the development of thinking. The manners in which children are viewed and defined are influenced by theoretical perspectives and educational philosophies that are developed and implemented within the context of language development. Educators should consider a variety of perspectives and multiple ways of how children learn, develop and play keeping in mind that theories change as do the implications for practice (Arthur et al, 2012). Childhood is an important time for development as it occurs rapidly and stimulation is required to foster language development and skills. Providing opportunity for language development through implementation of theoretical

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay

perspectives, combined with educational pedagogy that motivate and support learning to achieve specific outcomes. Theoretical perspectives are important for two reasons; first, they provide organizing frameworks for observations of children and second, theories that are verified by research serve as a sound basis for practical action (Berk, 2009). Support for young childrens development and learning must be holistic, taking into consideration all aspects of a childs growth, social and cultural circumstances as to the extent to which young children share in the lives of adults, contain consequences for their processes of learning and development (Brooker and Woodhead, 2010). Individual educators perspectives will differ depending on their beliefs and attitudes surrounding theorists such as Piaget, Vygotsky, Chomsky and Skinner. Enabling educators to understand the reasoning behind these theorists viewpoints enables them to overlap and intertwine relevant parts of theories that are relevant and appropriate to develop pedagogies within the classroom. These theoretical perspectives can be implemented in the classroom through teaching and learning strategies that can be found in the Early Years Learning Framework (2009) and the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (2013). The EYLF (2009), learning outcome five: Children are effective communicators, relates directly to outcomes that are achievable by children through teaching strategies. This learning outcome recognizes that children interact both verbally and non-verbally with others, engage in a range of texts, gain meaning from texts, expression of ideas and use communication technologies to access information and to investigate and express their ideas. This can be achieved by providing a learning environment that fosters the individual learning needs of the children through a positive, interactive and diverse environment. This can be achieved through modelled teaching involving

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay demonstration and discussion and through guided teaching, involving talking and listening. Oral language development includes critical skills that enable children to communicate, understand meanings and concepts, learn new information and express their thoughts and ideas through

language (The National Institute for Literacy, 2009). The way that educators talk with children is important. Educators should use rich abstract vocabulary, complex sentences, words to express ideas and ask questions and also to answer questions; turn taking, one to one conversations, narration, stories, play, open ended opportunities for learning language and modelling language enables infants, toddlers and preschoolers to be supported in their language learning and development journeys (TNIL, 2009). The foundation to 10 curriculum (ACARA, 2013), incorporates English into three interrelated strands that support students growing understanding and use of English. The three strands focus on developing the knowledge, listening skills, verbal skills, together with reading and writing in accordance with language, literature and listening. Language involves the development of a coherent, dynamic and evolving body of knowledge about the English language and how it works (ACARA, 2013). Through literature and literacy students are able to interpret, evaluate, create and apply their language skills and knowledge to communicate. The development of language acquisition is an integral part of childrens development throughout their learning years. Theories regarding language development have been researched and evidentially have a significant impact on the pedagogies and strategies that are implemented by educators to foster the development and acquisition of language in children. Theorists such as Piaget, Vygotsky, Chomsky and Skinner have all contributed immensely to the knowledge and understanding of development of childrens language and will continue to influence practices. Children progress through different stages that allow them to obtain the knowledge and

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay development of language in various social and environmental contexts. Interactions between

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children, the environment, adults, families and educators enable exposure to children of diverse language learning opportunities. Components of language and their systems provide opportunities for educators to explore and use specific teaching strategies in the classroom to foster the development of language with the support of theories and perspectives of language development.

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay References

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Arthur L., Beecher, B., Death, E., Dockett, S. & Farmer, S. (2012). Programming and Planning in Early Childhood Settings. (5th ed.). South Melbourne, VIC: Cengage Learning Australia. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. (2013). Retrieved from: http://www.acara.edu.au/curriculum/learning_areas/english.html Baker, A. & Hengeveld, K. (2012). Linguistics. Wiley. Berk, L. (2009). Child Development. (8th ed.). USA: Pearson Brooker, L., & Woodhead, M. (2010). Culture and Learning. Eary Childhood in focus Series 7. UK: The Open University Chomsky, N. (1993). Language and Thought. Wakefield,RI: Moyer Bell. Dechaine, R., Burton, S. and Vatikiotis-Bateson, E. (2012). Knowing a Language Versus Knowing What language Is. In Linguistics for Dummies. (pp. 9-15). Wiley Demrezen, M. (1988). Behaviorist theory and language learning. Hacettepe niversitesi Eitim Fakltesi Dergisi, (3), 135-140. Early Years Learning Framework. (2009). Australian Government Department of Education,

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay Employment and Workplace Relations for the Council of Australian Governments. Retrieved from: http://www.coag.gov.au/sites/default/files/early_years_learning_framework.pdf Gillen, J. (2012). The Language of Children. Taylor and Francis Honey, H. (2010). Cognitive language acquisition theories presentation [Online presentation].

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Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/honeyravian1/cognitive-language-acquisitiontheories-presentation. Keritsis, N. (2007). Lev Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory [Online presentation]. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/KNatalia/lev-vygotsky-and-socioculturaltheory McLeod, S. (2007). Behaviourist Approach. Retrieved from: http://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html National Institute for Literacy. (2009). Learning to Talk and Listen. An oral Language Resource for Early Childhood Caregivers Retrieved from https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/LearningtoTalkandListen.pdf Nativist Theory: Noam Chomsky and language learning. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/Ludescher/LAcquisition/Nativist/nativist%20theory.htm Pinker, S. (1994) as cited in Gillen, J. (2012). The Language of Children. Taylor and Francis

Running head: Kristy Snell EDU10002. ASS 2: Essay Vygotsky (1994) as cited in Gillen, J. (2012). The Language of Children. Taylor and Francis

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