Chapter 2 Foundations of Geology

2.2 Earthquakes Objectives:

-List several safety measures to employ during an earthquake -Describe how earthquakes are measured and recorded -Explain how modern structures are designed to withstand the impact of earthquakes

Earthquakes and Tremors

Tectonic earthquakes
Huge amounts of energy released by the cracking of a fault Can bring down bridges, buildings, landslides Generally last no more than a minute

Tremors
Weak earthquakes Can knock pictures off walls or rattle dishes

Tsunamis are sometimes results of underwater earthquakes

 Aftershocks small earthquakes or tremors recurring for days or months after a major earthquake What causes earthquakes?
Once thought to be of superstitious origins Seismology shows that earthquakes follow scientific laws Faulting, or sudden movement of tectonic plates, causes most earthquakes Elastic rebound theory states that the ground has a springiness like a stick when it breaks

 San Andreas Fault, CA

Moving NW two inches per year Site of many devastating earthquakes

1906 San Francisco Earthquake

 Focus and epicenter

Focus: the point along a fault below the surface of the land where the earthquake originates Epicenter: the point directly above the focus where surface effects are most severe

Earthquake Waves
Energetic waves.
Primary waves (P Waves)
Fast traveling Cause little to no damage to buildings Occur directly above the focus

Secondary waves (S waves)

Occur after p waves Side to side motion of the ground

Surface waves
Similarly shaped to ocean waves Cause the most damage to buildings

 Recording earthquakes.
Seismograph the tool for measuring earthquakes Seismogram the paper record produced by the seismograph

Determining distance.
A formula exists for counting the seconds between P and S waves to determine distance Multiple seismographs must be used to determine location

Earthquake Zones
Circum-Pacific belt (aka Ring of Fire)
Most active earthquake region (80%) Borders the Pacific Ocean

Alpide belt
Stretches from central Europe into Asia 15% of earthquakes occur here 5% earthquakes occur underwater

Earthquake Strength
Earthquake intensity.
Measured on a non-mathematical scale called the Modified Mercali Scale Rates quake intensity from 1-12

Mathematical magnitudes.
Richter magnitude scale measures rates seismograph fluctuations from 0-9 0-3 (Barely noticeable); 6-9 (Buildings collapse)

A better magnitude scale. Modified moment scale is more accurate Some earthquake records have been converted from Richter to the MM scale

Studying Earthquakes
Helpful earthquakes?
Earthquake waves can provide us with info about the earths interior Various waves can only travel through certain mediums (solids/liquids/gases) Oil companies use seismic waves to locate oil Nations study waves to spy on whether other nations are testing nuclear bombs

 Analyzing a fault.
SAFOD (San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth) Scientists study San Andreas fault underground through bore holes

Reducing Earthquake Damage

Exact earthquake prediction is impossible Most deaths occur from structural collapse Design to reduce hazards:
Fixed-base systems buildings built on bedrock Base-isolated systems building rests on energy-absorbing isolators Energy-dissipating devices added to structures after initial construction

Review
Identify
P-waves, S-waves, Surface waves Energy-dissipating devices Earthquake scales