HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Contents

Topic Page
Task 1 - Produce a Presentation & Notes Sheets 2
Task 2 – Research and describe the listed Non 2
Conventional Machining Techniques
Task 3 – Select a component and Answer the 10
Questions on the Front Sheet
Bibliography 13
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Non Conventional Machining Assignment

Task 1

Produce a presentation with your design unit team on your given technique to
present to the group.

Produce a set of summarising notes on your non conventional technique for

issue to all class members.

See Appendix

Task 2

Describe the techniques and principles of the following Non-Conventional

Machining Processes:

• Chemical Machining
• Electro-Discharge Machining
• Wire Erosion
• Laser Beam Machining
• Ultrasonic Machining
• Plasma Jet Machining
• Chemical Etching

Chemical Machining

Principle Of Operation

During Electrochemical Machining, a direct current

with high density and low voltage is passed between a
work piece (the anode) and a pre-shaped tool (the
cathode). At the anodic work piece surface, metal is
dissolved into metallic ions by the depleting reaction,
and thus the tool shape is copied into the work piece

Various industrial techniques have been developed on the basis of this ECM principle such
as:

• Electrochemical cuttin
g
• Electrochemical ECM
• Electrochemical
broaching
• Electrochemical
drilling

• Electrochemical
deburring

Electrochemical machining is used for the manufacture of dies, press and glass-making
molds, turbine and compressor blades for gas-turbine engine, the generation of passages,
cavities, holes and slots in parts. ECM deburring is used for deburring of gears, hydraulic
and fuel-system parts, small electronic components and engine parts.
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Advantages of Electrochemical Machining

• Electrochemical Machining has many advantages when compared to conventional

machining.

• The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress

• There is no tool wear during Electrochemical machining

• Non-rigid and open work pieces can be machined easily as there is no contact
between the tool and work piece

• Complex geometrical shapes can be machined repeatedly and accurately

• Electrochemical machining is a time saving process when compared with

conventional machining

• During drilling, deep holes can be made or several holes at once.

• ECM deburring can debur difficult to access areas of parts.

• Fragile parts which cannot take more loads and also brittle material which tend to
develop cracks during machining can be machined easily through Electrochemical
machining

• Surface finishes of 25 μ in. can be achieved during Electrochemical machining

• Material that can be cut with Electrochemical Machining

• All types of conducting materials and alloys can be machined using Electrochemical
machining.

Turbine Nozzles

The converging-diverging nozzles (pictured right) were

electrochemically machined in Inconel® 625. Due to tight
tolerances and extremely flat approach angles (usually 16º or
less) electrochemical machining is often the most effective
method for machining turbine nozzles blocks. Because no forces
exist between the workpiece and tool, holes at virtually any angle
can be machined into extremely hard materials. BNI's two
electrochemical nozzle block machines have a maximum tool
travel of 30.5 cm (12 inches) and a maximum total workpiece
diameter of 76.2 cm (30 inches).

Turbine Blading

The tight tolerance turbine blades (pictured left)

were machined using ECM. BNI operates five ECM centers;
three are designed for producing turbine blisks with a
maximum diameter of 73.7 cm (29 inches). ECM provides a
high-quality, efficient method for producing turbine wheels
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

with intricate blades. Optimized leading edge shape and improved gas flow path
consistency can be obtained due to superior control and repeatability. Additionally,
Electrochemically Machined turbine blades can be placed closer together and as a result
the turbine is more efficient.
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Electro-Discharge Machining

EDM is a machining method primarily used for hard metals or those that would be
impossible to machine with traditional techniques. One critical limitation, however, is that
EDM only works with materials that are electrically conductive. EDM or Electrical Discharge
Machining is especially well-suited for cutting intricate contours or delicate cavities that
would be difficult to produce with a grinder, an end mill or other cutting tools. Metals that
can be machined with EDM include hastalloy, hardened tool-steel, titanium, carbide,
inconel and kovar.
EDM is sometimes called "spark machining" because it removes metal by producing a
rapid series of repetitive electrical discharges. These electrical discharges are passed
between an electrode and the piece of metal being machined. The small amount of
material that is removed from the work piece is flushed away with a continuously flowing
fluid. The repetitive discharges create a set of successively deeper craters in the work
piece until the final shape is produced.

There are two primary EDM methods: ram EDM and wire EDM. The primary difference
between the two involves the electrode that is used to perform the machining. In a typical
ram EDM application, a graphite electrode is machined with traditional tools. The now
specially-shaped electrode is connected to the power source, attached to a ram, and
slowly fed into the work piece. The entire machining operation is usually performed while
submerged in a fluid bath. The fluid serves the following three purposes:

• Flushes material away

• Serves as a coolant to minimize the heat affected zone (thereby preventing
potential damage to the work piece)
• Acts as a conductor for the current to pass between the electrode and the work
piece.

In wire EDM a very thin wire serves as the electrode. Special brass wires are typically
used; the wire is slowly fed through the material and the electrical discharges actually cut
the work piece. Wire EDM is usually performed in a bath of water.
If you were to observe the wire EDM process under a microscope, you would discover that
the wire itself does not actually touch the metal to be cut; the electrical discharges
actually remove small amounts of material and allow the wire to be moved through the
work piece. The path of the wire is typically controlled by a computer, which allows
extremely complex shapes to be produced.
Perhaps the best way to explain wire EDM is to use an analogy. Imagine stretching a thin
metal wire between your hands and sliding it though a block of cheese cutting any shape
you want. You can alter the positions of your hands on either side of the cheese to define
complex and curved shapes. Wire EDM works in a similar fashion, except electrical
discharge machining can handle some of the hardest materials used in industry. Also note,
that in dragging a wire through cheese, the wire is actually displacing the cheese as it
cuts, but in EDM a thin kerf is created by removing tiny particles of metal.
Electrical discharge machining is frequently used to make dies and molds. It has recently
become a standard method of producing prototypes and some production parts,
particularly in low volume applications. For more details regarding a typical application,
you can read about a custom bronze branding-iron that was made with EDM.
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Wire Erosion

While many forms of erosion are considered to be detrimental, wire erosion is actually very
different. As a machine process that is used to cut through various substances in order to
form parts for a number of different machines and devices, wire erosion is used daily as
part of the production of essential goods. Here is some information about the process of
wire erosion, as well as a couple of examples of how wire erosion can be used to best
advantage.

The concept of wire erosion has to do with the gradual breakdown of the wire during the
cutting process. Wires that are carrying an electrical charge are uses as the medium to cut
through such metal and other hard substances during the manufacturing process. As the
wires are used to cut through substances, they begin to wear down and eventually have to
be replaced. This wire eroder effect ensures that during the course of a project, more
charged wires will be required in order to continue the hole burning and wire cutting.

Closely related to wire erosion is the concept of spark erosion. Sparking involves
immersion of the tool and the substance into a tank, with the surrounding medium
electronically charged. As the tool and substance are brought into close proximity, sparks
erupt and jump from the tool to the substance. Gradually, the spark eroding begins to
shape and cut the substance, leaving a product that is ready to move on to the next
portion of the manufacturing process.

Both wire and spark eroding are commonly used in manufacturing environments that work
with metals. The auto industry is a great example of an environment where both wire
erosion and spark erosion are employed. Construction materials are also often shaped and
created with the use of both wire erosion and sparking. Heavier building materials, such as
larger columns, sections of granite and marble and other types of stone can also be
shaped with the use of wire erosion.

Typically, wire erosion procedures employ either a two axis position or a four axis position.
The two axis position requires that the wire be held vertically in relation to the substance.
This means only one set of location coordinates is required to identify where the wire
erosion is to take place. With the four axis positioning, each end of the wire will move
independently on the same side or surface of the substance being used in the process.
Generally, two ends will run parallel to the other two ends, so that the job is accomplished
with a uniform result
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Laser Beam Machining

Like electron beam welding (EBW), laser beam welding has high power density (on the
order of 1 Megawatt/cm²(MW)) resulting in small heat-affected zones and high heating and
cooling rates. The spot size of the laser can vary between 0.2 mm and 13 mm, though only
smaller sizes are used for welding. The depth of penetration is proportional to the amount
of power supplied, but is also dependent on the location of the focal point: penetration is
maximized when the focal point is slightly below the surface of the work piece.
A continuous or pulsed laser beam may be used depending upon the application.
Milliseconds long pulses are used to weld thin materials such as razor blades while
continuous laser systems are employed for deep welds.
LBW is a versatile process, capable of welding carbon steels, HSLA steels, stainless steel,
aluminum, and titanium. Due to high cooling rates, cracking is a concern when welding
high-carbon steels. The weld quality is high, similar to that of electron beam welding. The
speed of welding is proportional to the amount of power supplied but also depends on the
type and thickness of the work pieces. The high power capability of gas lasers make them
especially suitable for high volume applications. LBW is particularly dominant in the
automotive industry.
Some of the advantages of LBW in comparison to EBW are as follows: the laser beam can
be transmitted through air rather than requiring a vacuum, the process is easily
automated with robotic machinery, x-rays are not generated, and LBW result in higher
quality welds.
A derivative of LBW, laser-hybrid welding, combines the laser of LBW with an arc welding
method such as gas metal arc welding. This combination allows for greater positioning
flexibility, since GMAW supplies molten metal to fill the joint, and due to the use of a laser,
increases the welding speed over what is normally possible with GMAW. Weld quality tends
to be higher as well, since the potential for undercutting is reduced.

Equipment

The two types of lasers commonly used in are solid-state lasers and gas lasers (especially
carbon dioxide lasers and Nd:YAG lasers). The first type uses one of several solid media,
including synthetic ruby and chromium in aluminum oxide, neodymium in glass (Nd:glass),
and the most common type, crystal composed of yttrium aluminum garnet doped with
neodymium (Nd:YAG). Gas lasers use mixtures of gases like helium, nitrogen, and carbon
dioxide (CO2 laser) as a medium. Regardless of type, however, when the medium is
excited, it emits photons and forms the laser beam.

Solid state laser

Solid-state lasers operate at wavelengths on the order of 1 micrometer, much shorter than
gas lasers, and as a result require that operators wear special eyewear or use special
screens to prevent retina damage. Nd:YAG lasers can operate in both pulsed and
continuous mode, but the other types are limited to pulsed mode. The original and still
popular solid-state design is a single crystal shaped as a rod approximately 20 mm in
diameter and 200 mm long, and the ends are ground flat. This rod is surrounded by a flash
tube containing xenon or krypton. When flashed, a pulse of light lasting about two
milliseconds is emitted by the laser. Disk shaped crystals are growing in popularity in the
industry, and flash lamps are giving way to diodes due to their high efficiency. Typical
power output for ruby lasers is 10–20 W, while the Nd:YAG laser outputs between 0.04–
6,000 W. To deliver the laser beam to the weld area, fiber optics are usually employed.

Gas laser
Gas lasers use high-voltage, low-current power sources to supply the energy needed to
excite the gas mixture used as a lasing medium. These lasers can operate in both
continuous and pulsed mode, and the wavelength of the laser beam is 10.6 μm. Fiber optic
cable absorbs and is destroyed by this wavelength, so a rigid lens and mirror delivery
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

system is used. Power outputs for gas lasers can be much higher than solid-state lasers,
reaching 25 kW.

Ultrasonic Machining

Ultrasonic machining, also known as ultrasonic impact

grinding, is the use of ultrasonically-induced vibrations
delivered to a tool.

When combined with an abrasive slurry, ultrasonic

SEM of a 0.64mm hole ultrasonically machined
machining allows the tool to create accurate cavities of in
virtually any shape in hard, brittle materials. an alumina substrate

This machining process is nonthermal, nonchemical, and nonelectrical. It does not change
the metallurgical, chemical or physical properties of the workpiece.

The cutting vibration which Bullen uses

in the ultrasonic machining process
begins with converting a high-frequency
electrical signal into an oscillatory
mechanical motion. This motion is
acoustically transmitted through a metal
tool holder and cutting tool assembly.
This linear oscillation is typically at a
rate of 20,000 times per second, and,
when used with an abrasive slurry
flowing around the cutting tool,
microscopic grinding occurs.

The machined area becomes counterpart of the cutting tool used. Using this technology,
Bullen can offer you an almost limitless assortment of types and shapes of cuts to meet
any design requirements you may have.
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Plasma Jet Machining

Plasma cutting is by far the simplest and most economical

way to cut a variety of metal shapes accurately. Plasma
cutters can cut much finer, faster and more automatically
than oxy-acetylene torches.

Because of their effectiveness, plasma cutters especially

CNC Plasma Cutters threaten to obsolete a large number of
conventional metal working tools.
A Plasma cutter works like a lightning bolt. Direct current,
high voltage electricity arcs from a negative potential (the
electrode inside the torch) to a positive potential (the
workpiece) through a jet of ionized gas.
Plasma cutting system requires two basic elements, gas and electricity. It is a thermal
cutting process that uses a high temperature plasma jet to melt metal.

This plasma jet is form by the combination of gas and electricity from a power source.
Plasma cutting cut faster than oxy-acetylene cutting or mechanical cutting processes such
as milling, circular cut off wheel and saw.
It did not require a pre-heat cycle and able to cut any metal that conducted electricity. It
cut metal that oxy-fuel cannot cut for example stainless steel and aluminium.

With a less heat affected zone and small cutting kerf width, plasma cutter is also suitable
for cutting high-gauge metal for example heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
duct work.

All plasma Cutting System's torches consist of a swirl ring,

electrode, nozzle, retaining cap and shield.
• Swirl ring is for distribute and spin plasma gas into
gas vortex. - Electrode carries negative charge from
power source through torch lead.
• Nozzle focuses the plasma jet to the material.
• Shield cap protects the nozzle from touching the
material and spatter. It also focus the shield gas jet,
assists in cut quality by blowing molten material and
cools the front end of the torch. The coaxial assist jet
is Hypertherm designed shield gas technology.

Advancements in plasma cutter technology led to improvement in smaller bevel

angles, less dross and smoother cutting surface, cutting speed and also
reducing cost per foot.
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Chemical Etching

Process Advantages

Prototype and production volumes

Non contact blanking process
Virtually any metal
Stress free manufacture
Burr free products
Metal thickness from 0.013mm to 1.5mm
Blind hole etching
Surface etching
Multi level (Step) etching
Product part marking
Controlled and rapid profiling of multiple component parts
simultaneously.

Component Manufacture

One of the key strengths of the etching process is that the chemistry is
unaware of the hardness (or type) of material that it is etching
through. This is due to the way that etchant chemistry breaks down
the materials grain structure, which only changes slightly with temper.
The component etching process was originally developed in the 1940s
to manufacture parts from materials too hard to stamp or machine.
Etching also has no detrimental effect on the properties of the material
surrounding the etched areas. Concerns of localised annealing or
embrittlement do not occur during the process. This gives etching the
advantage of being able to create component shapes in any hardness
of material from annealed to spring hard.

Equipment

The modern spray-etching machine is almost universally used in

production photo chemical machining. The workpiece, or sheet, travels
along a horizontal conveyor consisting of rubber wheels on GRP rods
which carries it through a rigid PVC chamber, where it is vigorously
sprayed with hot etchant from batteries of nozzles above and below
the track. The most productive etch rate is achieved when the etchant
is sprayed perpendicular to the workpiece. This ensures that as the cut
moves through the workpiece the main pressure is directed to the base
of the cut, therefore only attacking the side walls by diffusion.

Etch Factor

The ratio of etch depth to undercut is called etch factor and is

determined by the process chemistry and the spray pressure and
direction of its application. The differential etch rates at the floor and
sides of the spray etch cavity are responsible for the characteristic
profile of the finished edge. The profile develops as if an ellipse of
increasing size were sinking into the metal surface. As etchant is
applied under pressure then the point that receives the greatest impact of that pressure
will etch quicker. This is always intended to be the base of the cut, therefore the cut will
travel down (and up) through the material quicker than along the horizontal
The cutting action of the chemicals does create a characteristic edge profile referred to as
a bi-cuspic edge. This is the result of simultaneous etching from both sides leaving a
witness at the point of breakthrough. As the etching proceeds the bicuspid edge retreats
at a decreasing rate. The nearer to the horizontal the surface the faster it etches, therefore
the protruding cusp is reduced faster than the nearly vertical sidewalls.
As etching continues the bicuspid edge becomes progressively straighter and almost
vertical. Further etchback would result in overetching and a concave edge protruding into
the materials section by as much as 1/5th of the materials thickness. The phototool will
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

have been sized to achieve nominal dimension at straight wall. The rate of etch slows as
the edge profile becomes vertical. Consequently if the product comes to size midway
through a machine pass it will not be overetched.

Task 3

From the following list of components select one of them and answer the
questions on the assignment sheet:

• Printed circuit boards

• Turbine blade machining
• Die casting Dies
• Shear Blades

For this part of the assignment I have chosen printed circuit boards.

Select and justify your choice of a suitable non-conventional machining process

PHOTO-RESIST BOARD is a piece of glass

reinforce plastic. One of the sides is copper clad
and this copper has a photosensitive coating.
When the plastic film is peeled back this
sensitive coating is revealed.
After processing this will be the PCB.

The PCB mask (now on a transparency) is

placed underneath the photo-resist board,
touching the sensitive surface. Remember
the plastic film must be removed. PCB
mask and board are then transferred to the
UV light Box.

You must be careful to ensure that the PCB

mask is the right way up, otherwise when
the circuit is etched you will discover that
the tracks are also the wrong way round.

The lid is shut and the box switched on. The photo-resist board,
with PCB mask are left underneath the lid for 2 ½ minutes. The
photo-resist board is then placed in a tank filled with developer
(using plastic tongs)
It is important that the board is only left in the developer for
approximately ten seconds.

When the board is taken out of the developer it must be washed

in clean water before transferring to the etching tank. Always use
plastic tongs.
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

The etchant is held in a ‘bubble etch tank’ and is

heated. This solution slowly etches away the
unwanted copper, leaving the tracks only. At this
stage it is important to keep checking that the PCB is
completed (time - 15 to 45 minutes). If it is left in the
tank too long the copper tracks will also be removed
or damaged.

When removed from the etching

solution, the PCB is washed and a PCB
eraser is used to remove any film from
the tracks. This must be done carefully
because the film will prevent good
soldering of the components to the PCB.
The tracks can be checked using a
magnifying glass. If there are gaps in the
tracks, sometimes they can be repaired
using wire but usually a new PCB has to
be etched.

The last stage is drilling the holes for the

components. A small PCB drill is used for this
purpose.
Again care is needed as a good PCB can be
ruined by careless drilling

This completed Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

has all its components soldered in position. It
has been manufactured through the
processes described in the information
sheets.
PCBs manufactured in industry are designed
on a computer and then manufactured on an
production line controlled by computers.
Usually there is very little human contact.
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Commonly used materials in chemical etching are:

Aluminium
Steel
Copper

Below are the chemicals (atchants) normally used with each metal.

Commonly used etchants for aluminum are:

• sodium hydroxide

Commonly used etchants for steels are:

• hydrochloric and nitric acids

• iron choloride- used for stainless steels

Commonly used etchants for copper are:

• Iron (III) Chloride Ferric chloride

• Ammonium persulfate
• Ammonia

Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is a very efficient etchant for silicon dioxide. It is however very
dangerous if it comes into contact with the body.

Specifically for printed circuit boards conducting layers are typically made of thin copper
foil. Insulating materials have a wider scale: phenolic paper, glass fibre and different
plastics are commonly used. Usually PCB factories use prepregs, which are a combination
of glass fibre mat, nonwoven material and resin. Copper foil and prepreg are typically
laminated together with epoxy resin. Well known prepreg materials used in the PCB
industry are FR-2 (Phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (Cotton paper and epoxy), FR-4 (Woven
glass and epoxy), FR-5 (Woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (Matte glass and polyester), G-10
(Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (Cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (Cotton paper and
epoxy), CEM-3 (Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-5 (Woven
glass and polyester). Other widely used materials are polyimide, teflon and some
ceramics.
HNC Manufacturing Processes Steve Goddard

Bibliography

http://www.emachineshop.com – Machining Website

www.geekwise.com – Electro-Discharge Machining/ Wire erosion

www.bullen-ultrasonics.com/UltraMachine.html - Ultrasonic Machining

http://www.qualitetch.co.uk – Chemical Etching

www.actech.com.my – Plasma Jet Machining

http://www.technologystudent.com – PCB’s

www.wikipedia.org

Class presentation Slides

Class notes