KARMA AND REBIRTH IN

CLASSICAL INDIAN
TRADITIONS
SP<)nw.l by I > ~
JOI NT C0 1'.L\trrT"EE ON SOUTH ASI A
Qf ,h"
SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL
and ,he
A/-.'IERICAN COUNCI L OF LEARNED SOCIETIES
KARMA AND REBIRTH IN
CLASSICAL INDIAN
TRADITIONS
WENDY DONIGER O'FLAHERTY
Editor
UN I VERS ITY O F CA LIFOR NIA PRESS
Berkeley Los A IIgeln umdo'l
for MIRCEA ELIAOE and JOSEPH M. KITAGAWA
Uni\'ersity of Ca lifornia Press
Berkeley and Los Angeles, California
University of California Press, Ltd.
London, England
1980 by
The Regents of the Universi ty of California
Printed in the United States of Ameri ca
23456789
Ubr:lry of Congress Cataloging in Pllblicat ion Dura
"lain entry under title :
Karma and rebirth in classirn l Indian
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
I. Karma- Addresses, essays, lectures. 2. Rein-
carnation-Addresses, essays, lectures . I. O'Flaheny,
Wendy Doniger.
BL201S.K3K37 294 79-64475
ISBN 0-520-03923-8
Contents
Li st of Contributors
..
vu
lntcoducuonL-______________________________ c-________ -"'ix
HINllUlS1-LAND ITS ROOTS
l. Karm.a-.aod Rebirth in the...Yedas and PuraQ.a>' ________________
WENDy OONIGER O'EI AHERn
2. The Concepts of Human Act ion and Rebirt h in the
MahJibhimllfl
[. BRUCE LONG
Rebirth in the Dharmasastras
UIJ)O ROCH ER
4. Caraka Sattlbita on the Doctrine of Karma
MITCHEl ! G WEISS
5. The Theory of Reincarnation among the Tamils
GEORGE L. HART, III
PART II. BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
6. The Rebirth Eschatology and Its Transformations:
A Contribution to the Sociology of Early Buddhism
GANANATH OBEYESEKERE
7. Karma and Rebirth in Earl y Buddhi sm
JAMES P. MCDf.RMOn
8. The Medical SOlcri ology of Karma
in....the..B.uddhisLTantrjc Tradition
Wll.LlAM..STAIIl.E1N
9. Karma and the Problem of Rebirth in Jainism
PADMANA8H S. l AIN!
PA RT Til PHIIOSOPH ICALTRADITIONS
10. The Kanna Theory and Its Interpretation in Some
Indian Phil osophical Systems
KARLH-"01TIR
v
18
61
90
116
Jl7
165
19J
21 7
24 1

VI CONTENTS
I I. Karma, Apurva, and "Natural" Causes: Obscrvalions on
the Growth and l imits of the Theory of a ~ / S a r a 268
WIl.HELM HAl BFASS
12. Karma as a "Sociology of Knowlt"dge" or
"Social Psychology" of Process/Praxis 303
GERALD lAMES LARSON
List of Partici pants in the First Two American Council of
Lc.arne.cLS.o.cic.Ues- Socia [ Sri enci!..Resea reh COli neil
Karma Conferences
Bibliography
Index and Glossary
'17
' 19
}}l
Contributors
WILHEl.M HAI.IIFASS is Associate Professor of Indian Philosophy at the' Uni-
versity of Pennsykanil. He is the author of Drscartcs' Frage 1/(/ch drr
Ex;stell'/, der \Vrlt (1968). 2ur Theone drT KaSll;'nord7llmg in drr j'ldi5Chen
Philosophic (1975), and of numerous artides.
GEORC[ L. HART. Ill, is Associate Professor of Tami! at the University of
California, Berkrley. His book The Poems of Allciem Tamil; Their Miliell
and thcir Samkrir COlll1lnparts was published by the Unil'ersity of
Cal ifornia Press in 1975.
PAD.\tANA8H S. is Professor of Buddhist Studies at the University of
California, Berkeley, and author of T"t' Jaina Path of Purification, Univer
sity of California Press, 1978.
GEKAl[) LARSO:-" is Professor of the Hi slOry of Religions in the De-
partment of Religious Studies, University of California. Santa Barbara.
He is the author of CfaHiftil SalllkbY'I; An Interpretation of Its History
and ,If<>",,,i"8 (Delhi . 1969) and editor of Mytb in Indo European An-
tiquity ( Los Angells. 1974). and is currently working o n thl' Sinkhya and
Yoga volumes for the Ellcyclopedia of Im/iml Philosopbif'S.
J. BRUCE LO:-.lG is Director of the Blaisdcliinstitute in Claremont, Califor-
nia. Among hi s most ncent publications art " Life Out of Death: A Struc-
tural Analysis of the Myth of the 'Churning of the OCl'an of t.,lilk, " in
Hindlli5m; New EssllYs ill the History of Religiom, o:dito:d by Bardwell L.
Smith (Lo:ido:n, 1976) , pp. 171 -207. and The Mahiibharllta. All Al/nOllltcd
Bibliography (South Asia Occasional Papers and Theses, Cornell, 1974).
JA.\tES l\o\cDER.\t OlT is Professor of Rdigious Studies at
College, Buffalo, No:w York. Hi s pre\'ious anicles on karma include
"Undetcnnined and Indeterminate Kamma," in the Indo-Iral/jall jOllmalj
"Is Thero: Croup Karma in Thl'ravida Buddhism?" in NJlIlIl'Il; and " Th('
Kati1ava1!i1u Kamnta Debates" and " Knmnll in thl
o
Milindapanha," both
in the journal of the AmeriCi/!/ OrientalSocief)'.
CA;-":ANATH OllnF..sEI\ERE is Professor of Anthropology at the Universi ty of
California, San Dio:go. He is the author of Lmd Tellure ill Village Ceyloll
(Cambridge, 1966), "Theodiey, Sin and Salvation in a Sociology of Bud-
. .
\'11
Vlll
CONTR!BUTORS
dhism" (in Edmund R. Leach, ed., Dialectic in Practical Religion, Cam-
bridge, 1968, pp. 7-40) , and many articles on religion and social structure
in Sri Lanka. He has juSt completed a monograph, "The Goddess Panini:
Virgin, Wife and MOlher : An Imerpn.lation of a Mother Goddess Cult in
Sri Lanka and South India in Its Historical and Institutional Swing."
WENDY DoNtGER O'FLAHERTY is Professor of the History of Religions and
Indian Studi es at the University of Chicago and author of Asceticism and
Eroticism ill tile Mythology of Siva (Oxford. 1973) ; Hindu Myth. (pen-
guin, 1975) ; Tbe Ori8im of Evil in Hi71dll Mythology (University of
California Press . 1976) ; and Women, Androgynrs , alld Othrr Mythical
Brasts (Uni"ersity of Chicago Press, 1980) .
KARL H. POTTER is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Washing-
ton. He is the author of PresuppositlolU of India' s Philosophies and the
General Editor of the Encyclopedia of hldi,m Pbilomphies.
Luoo ROCHER is Professor of Sanskrit and Chairman of the Dl'partrnent of
South Asia Regi ona! Studies at the University of Pennsylvania. He is the
editor and translator of Sanskrit legal texts, and the author of a bibliog-
raphy of classical Hindu law, of a manual of Hindi , and of over one
hundred articles.
WI LUAM STAlILf. IN has taught in the Depart ment of Religion 1t Columbia
Univers ity "nd the University o f Califo rnia Santa C r u",- . H e h"s pub-
lished a number of articl es on the healing traditions in Tibenn Buddhism.
MITCHELL G. WEISS is a Sanskritist specializing in and is currently
in training at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. He is
the author of a cross-cultural study of mental disorders based on early In-
dian texts.
Introduction
WENDY DONIGER O'FLAHERTY
These twdve essays are the first fruit (phala ) of twO conferences that
took place as part of a project sponsored by the Joint Committee on
South Asia of the American Council of Learned Societies-Social Sci-
ence Research Council. At the first meet ing, on the serene shores of
Lake Wilderness ncar Seattle, on October 22-23, 1976, preliminary
probll'ms were discussed and plans made to develop a series of publi-
cati ons and to hold further meetings. At the Association for Asian
Studies meeting on March 25-27, 1977, early drafts of six of the papers
in this volume wert' presented and subjected to spirited and enthusias-
tic discussion. At the second karma conference, in Pasadena on
January 26-29, 1978, further quest ions arising out of the revised
papers were argued and new plans made for further conferences-
and on and on, world wit hout end, until we exhaust the patience and
the pocket book of the ACLS-SSRC.
There was a very special mood at all of these encounters, inspired
in part by the great pains taken by Karl POtte r, the o rganizer of the
project (together with David Szanton of the SSRC), to make sure that
everything ran smoothly, and in part by the openness and relaxed
intelligence of the participating scholars. Instead of wasting time and
energy on the uneasy one-upmanship that so often plagues such meet-
ings, everyone seemed genuinely interested in learning something
from colleagues, in trying to find Out what we wanted to know and
how we might go about finding it OUl. Although we left each meeting

"
INTRODUCTI ON
with the: feelin g that we: had raised more: questions than we could
answer, and perhaps had not even asked all the ri ght questions, I
think we found out a lot; the: reader will judge for hims elf. (A list of
the participants at the twO conferences appears at the end of this
volume. ) I was al so fortunate in finding a particularly sympatheti c
and intelligent student, William K. Mahony, to prepare the index for
this volume.
In re:,lding over the papers for the final edi ting, I was struck by the
degree to which tlwy draw upon one another and by the harmony, if
not uniformity, of their approaches. To SOme extent this is the result
of twO scholars arriving at the same idea about a problem because it
was a reasonable idea (one hesitates to say " the ri ght idea" ). But this
harmony was further enha nced by the circulation of many of the
papers (including some not included in this volume) before and after
each conference: one of this is a kind of
leapfrog cross-referencing in the essays, paper A referring to an ear-
lier draft of paper 13 , which, in turn , cites an ea rlier draft of A.
Karl Potte:r and McKim Ma rri ott are the twO central and unifying
forces in thi s volume:, the hubs from which all the other papers de-
vol ve like spokes: Karl an immanent pres(' nce, organizing and
;!.nd asking provoc;!.tiv" questions, whil" Kim was morc
transc(ndenr, an eminence grise whose revolutionary perceptions of
Indian social interaction cropped up again and again in our discus-
sions. Though he wrOte no essay for this volume, several of the essays
refer to a concept central to his publisht"d work, a concept that wiil be
summarized in the following pages.
[n prepar ing this introduction , [ have tried to reconstruct some-
thing of the spirit of those exciting interact ions, to poim out tht' links
and conflicts that came to light as we talked, to help the reader put the
papers together and derive his own insights from them as we did in
Seattle and Pasadena. [ have drawn heavily upon notes made during
th" final meetings and am indebted to my colleagues for their ideas
and for allowing me to make my own (often very different ) sense of
them. I have arranged the papers in three categories, each in a roughly
chronological sequence: Hindui sm (beginning with the Vedas,
through the MaiJiibh("trlafl, Dharmasas tras , medical texts, and early
Tamil tt'xts), Buddhism and Jainism (beginning with the postulated
sources of Buddhism, through Theravada to Tantric Buddhism and
Jainism), and philosophi cal texts (Pon er's article in response to Mar+
rion, then Halbbss on rhe development of the theory, and Larson in
.
Ii'o:TRODUCTION
"
response to Potter). For readers unfa mil iar wi th the karma theory, it
might be easiest to begin with the philosophical section, setting forth
the basic ideas in thei r various abst ract permutations ; another logical
starting point might be Gananat h Obeyesekere's article, which is here
used as the anchor pi ece for the secti on on Buddhism but which al so
provides a useful theoretical framework in which to view both the
historical and the logical development of the karma theory.
The Definition of Karma
Much of our time at the first conference at Lake Wilderness was
devoted to a livel y but ultimately vain attempt to define what we
mea nt by karma and rebirth. The unspoken conclusi on was that we
had a sufficiently st rong idea of the parameters of the topic to go
ahead and study it, in the hope that perhaps then we would be able to
see more clearly precisely what we had studied (rather like the woman
who said to Abraham Lincoln, "How do I know what I think 'til I
hea r what I say?"). After all the papers were written and had been
discussed at Pasadena, we mustered our courage to att empt the defi ni-
ti on agai n, and came up with several possi ble formulations. The gen-
eral consensus that we were deal ing with a theory of rebinh based on
the moral quality of previous lives was further refined by A. K.
Ramanu jan (A) and Charles Keyes (B): The three essential constitu-
ents of a karma theory arc A: (1) ca usali ty (ethi cal or non-ethi cal,
involving one life or several lives); (2) ethi cization (the belief that
good and bad acts lead to certain res ults in one life or several lives);
(3) rebirth. B: (1) explan:Hion of present circumst:mces with reference
to previous actions , including ( possibly) act ions prior to birth; (2)
orientation of present actions toward future ("nds , including (possi-
bly) those occurring after death; (3) moral basis on which action past
and present is predicated.
Though there remain certai n ambigui ties and exceptions even in
these careful summaries, it seemed a suffi cientl y solid b a s i ~ on whi ch
to proceed to other problems. We had, at one point, hoped to be abl e
to construct a typology of karma theories: " A differs from B in the
following ways." This is still a desideratum and a task that mi ght well
be undertaken by making intell igent use of the data assembled in this
volume, but it is a task that we found impossible to begin until we had
surveyed the vast native literature, and one which even then presents
major organizational and theoretical problems. Someday, perhaps, it
.
'"
INTRODUCTION
will be possible to present family trees of karma theories, grids of
karma theories, a kind of police Identikit for all theoretically possible
as well as actually occurring karma theories. For thc moment, how-
ever, it seemed wise to pause at thi s point and publish [he fruits of OUT
preliminary treasure-hunting : all you wanted to know about karma
and never dared (bothered?) to ask.
Abstract Theory versus Hi storical Explanation
As a result of an unresolved argument as to whether karma was a
theory. a model, a paradigm, a metaphor, or a metaphysical stance,
the question of our own approach to the subject was scrutinized; do
we seck to construct a purely theoretical model or to explai n a hi stor-
ical process? In defense of the first view it was suggested that a
historical approach is too na rrow, depending on esoteric texts, while
a typology would at least allow us to sce the patterns that may under-
lie not onl}' thc extant texts but a broader Indian concept of karma;
that although models as analogi es do not generate further knowledge,
models as ideal types enable one to define terms. In favor of the
second view it was argued that models cannOt be 3rbitrary but must
b(' predictiv(', th3t th('y must :Utl'mpl 10 ('xplain wh:lI actuall y hap-
pened. Fully aware of the pitfalls inlll'rcnt not only in ('ach of the
theoretical posi ti ons but , even more, in the attempt to appJy either
one to the karma material, we threw caution to the wind and tackled
both. I should like to devote th, rest of this introduction to a s u ~
mary of a fcw of the insights in these tWO areas derived from the
conferences and from the papers in thi s \'oi ume.
The Historical Origins of thc Karma Theory
Gananath Obeyesekere' s essay suggests that we look for the ori gins
of the idea of karma in ancient Indian tribal religions in the Gangetic
region where Buddh ism and Jai nism, as well as the religion of the
Ajivakas, flourished. He argues that it is reasonabl e to suppos{' th3t a
simple theory of rebirth, not unlike thost which occur in other parts
of the world, underwent certain chang{'s in order to develop into the
spccifically Indian theory of karma; that ethicization transformed
rebirth into the Buddhist and Jaina theories of karma. (Similarly, the
transactions implicit in the Vedic ritual of sraddha, when applied to
..
lNTRODUCTION Xlii
the equally amoral Vedic concept of entry into heaven, resulted in the
Hindu theory of karma.) Obeyesckcrc shows the way that Buddhism
approached the potential conflict between layman-oriented and
bhikku-oriented religion (which has dear parallels in the Hindu con-
flict between householder and sannyasin, dharma and In
fact, the overwhelming acceptance of merit transfer in Buddhism
despite its doctrinal inappropriateness may be seen as a solution to
this conflict : the bhikkll's merit is transferred to the layman. as the
layman transfers food to the bhikku (a process that is seen not only in
the sriiddha transaction but in the svadhtlrma basis of the caste sys-
tem, whereby one group achieves merit for another group restricted
to a less auspicious profession).
It is clear from Obeyesekere's presentat ion that the karma theory
of rebirth is not a li near development from Vedic and
religion, but a composite structure. At this point one might ask if it
would be possible to separate these strands and to determine the
chronological order in which they developed. It seems implicit in
Obeyesekcre's argument that the "tribal" substratum came first, and
indeed many scholars have long supported a theory that all three of
the great ancient religions of India originated with non-Aryan tribal
teachers in the Ganges valley. But since we know virtually nothing
about these hypothetical sages other than our own defini ng assump-
ti on that they were not Vedi c. it might be argued that "tri bal" is
merely a scholarly way of saying "we do not know who they were."
The remaining candidates for historical primacy are the Vedic
thinkers, the heterodox thinkers (Jaina, Buddhist, and Ajlvaka), and
the Dravidians (ancestors of the Tamil speakers. or, hypothetically,
inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization). Let us examine each of
these witnesses in turn. The Vedic sacrifice was called "karma" and
the word retains that meani ng in the Upani$ads (and even later), but
with additional, superseding connotations. The Upa-
(4.4.5-6) says that karma is what determines one's good or
evil rebirth, karma surel y designating action including hut not limited
to sacrifice. The Svetasvatara begins with a discussion of
the various causes for man's birth - time, inherent nature, necessity,
chance, and so forth-not including the word " karma," which may
be implicit in the others.
One aspect of the karma theory, at least, seems firmly rooted in the
Vedic tradition, and that is the concept of transfer of me rit . Karl

XIV I NTRO DUCT I O N
Pott er has formulated a poss ibly histori cal contras t between theories
of karma lha1 assume a possibility of transfer of kuma and those tha t
do not . The first of these assumptions may be understood in teTms of
McKim Marri ott's transactional model of Hindu society;
By Indian modes of though!. what goes on between leU) rs are the same
connected processes of [nixing and sepa ration th:u go on wi thin actors.
Actors' panicubr nat ures arc thought 10 b.' result s as wdl as (JUStS of their
particular aClions (karma ). Varil'd codes of acti on or codes of conduct
(dharma ) arc thought 10 be naturally embodied in actors and otherwise
substantialized in the !low of things that pass among actors. Thus the as-
su mptio n of the casy. proper sep;uability of acti on from arlOr, of code from
substance (similar to the assumption of th e separabilit y of Jaw from nature,
norm from behavior, mind from body, spirit or cncrgy from matt t' r), that
pCf"adcs both Western philosophy and Western COllllll on senSl' ... is gen-
erally absent. 1
Marriott describes thl' mann"r in which various groups are defined in
relationship 10 one another by the degree 10 wh ich they do or do nOt
accept from one another what Marrio!! call s "code-subs!lnce" or
"substance-code," though all transactions take place on a spectrum in
which aClOr and acrion, substance and code, arc onc. Thesc transac-
ti o ns arc classified as optimal, pessi mal , mlximll , and miniml!' He
di stinguishes paradi gmatic approaches involving minimal trlnsac-
tions, with the emphas is on the ac!Or (such as Jainism), from syma g-
malic approaches involving maximal transactions, with the emphasis
on the acti on (Buddhism).
The second assumption, that karma may 1/01 be transferred, under-
lies the Yoga and Advaita Vediint ic philosophical mode!s, in Potter 's
view. Gerald Larson, however, challenges thi s dichotomy and re-
defines the apparent conflict in terms provided by Sankhya philoso-
phy. A very different attempt to resolve the views of Marri ott and
Polter occurs in Ashok K. Gangadean' s essay on karml.
2
[am grate-
ful 10 Dr. Gang,}dean fo r allowing me to preS('nt some of his
!. McKim Maniott , 'Hindu Transacti ons : Diversi ty without D<1'll is m;' in Tr<lm<lc-
lioll <l lld Me<l lli ng, ('d. Bruce Kapfe rcr. Instimt(' for the Smdy of Human Issues
(Philadelphia, 1976), pp. 109- 110. See al so Marrion and Ronald Inden , 'ClSIe
trms," Encyclopedi<l BrirJllnic<l ( 1973), vol. C, pr. 9S} ff.
2. Ashok K. Gangadean, "ComparatiV!.' Ontology and the Il11erprelali on of
'Kuma, '" paper presel11ed at lhc SOCiC1Y for Asian and Compar.uive Philosophy
session on karma, Chicago, }O, 1978, in conjunction wit h the meeting of the
Associati on for Asian Studies; and at the Int ernational Society for the Comparat i.-e
5wJr of Ci,iliz;J. l ions, U y of \'\' ;,("on<i n, 1\1 A pri! r:.. 1978. It <"'i",",l
and published in 111(11,111 ,J!JI/OjQP!JlCid QUi/rlcr/y, n. s. 6:1 (januarl', 1'}]9).
INTRODUCTION
conclusions-outside the context of his long and ca refully reasoned
argurnent-to illuminate this particular point for us:
Pon er lnd Marriott lre spelking on different levels. Marriott is developing J
gcncral conclOptual model which applies to all existent entities in a
world. And in this world of qualificational monism, where al l existents are
"dividual," existential transformations or transactions are possible or COII-
ce/vllble on al1levds. But it is clear that dividual ent ities retain their identi ty
through such transformations. Which 5pecific constituent quali ties (sub-
stance-code) of an individual are ill fact transferred or transacted is open
to differing interpret:ltions. Ii is perfectly plausible for Yoga and Advaita to
be ontologicall y committed to the gClleric paradigm and nevertheless den)'
that karmic residues are ill fact trlnsferred between different persons. But
thi s docs not meln that qualificational transference (transaction of
substance-code) in general must be rejected, much less the rejection of the
generic paradigm as a whole. On the contrary, bOth Yoga and Advaita are
committed 10 the ontological ft'atures of the karma paradigm: to to
transmigr:uion, and to qualificationl l monism .. ..
Again, if Yoga and Advaita are simply denY;/lg the spccific case of
ka rmic transference between persons, then til(' di sagreemerll between Potter
and Marrio!! is accommodated, indeed made possible, by the generic
paradigm. For this plradigm in principle (and formally) allows for qualiu-
live transference at all lc\'ds of existence. This ma kes it possible for a part icu-
lar theory to JellY that t here is t ransfer of karma, while another
theory affirms this . ... Such diversity at t he level of specifics is 10 be ex
pected and celebrated, rather than found problemat ic or 10 be explained
away, )
We have, therefore, two different aspects of a consistent ontology,
The first element, tht;> concept of transfer. seems very old in India,
and very persistent. james McDermott demonst rates that the idea of
transferred kar ma continued 10 plague the Buddhists, with whose
canonical formulat ions it is demonstrably inconsistent , and he sup-
pOrts B. C. Law's suggestion that this idea was taken o\'er from t he
sraddha rires . P. S. j aini points out that the idea of trans-
fer is even more rep ugnant 10 t he j ainas, who t herefore adamantly
refuse to allow it to influence their doctrine; the J aina cosmology
does nOt even lllot any plJce fo r the world of t he ancestOrs (p;tr5) to
whom sriiddha woul d be offered. Wilhelm Halbfass offers evidence
that the sriiddha was a centra! target of ridi cule ('ven among H indus,
an archaism, perhaps, that remained stubbornly in the way of certai n
lat er developments. Further support for the sraddha as the basis of
J . pp. 30-31. citations from Manion's 3r1id .. appear in
POller' s G"rald Larson' s artides in this <"olum ...

,v,
I NTRODUCTION
the transactional karma model may be seen in some of the arguments
presented in my essay in t hi s volume. Finally, it is clear from material
presented by Pott er and Mitchell Weiss that food is the basic medium
by which parental brma is transferred; the offered to the an-
cestors is a primary form of karma; mi ght it not be (he primary
karmic transact ion? If the transactional karma theory is indeed pri-
mary, and linkl'd imimatcly with parental karma, it is surdy signif-
icant thaI parental karma looms largest in non-ph ilosophical,
transaction-oriented cont exts: in popular Buddhism (as reflected in
certain theories described by McDermott and Stablein), in Pura!)ic
Hinduism, and in the medical texts cited by Weiss and Stablein.
Another reflection of thdriiddlJit ritual in karma theory appears in
the persistence of ri ce (the bas ic ell!ment of the sr;u/dha offering of
in the so-called non-transactional karma model: the grain of
rice as the seed of causati on (the heart of the karma probl em), rhe
suggestion that a man may be born as a grain of rice, the
rice crop in the agricultural metaphor for karma ci ted by Pott er, the
likening of embryonic development to the separation of rice into
sediment and water, and so forth. In contemporary Tamil thought ,
tOO, sexual union is likened to thl! ha nd of a mot her feeding rice into a
child's mouth , the woman opening as the child naturally opens his
mouth, the man feeding seed as the mother feeds rice.
4
The metaphor
works in the other direction, as well : the Tamils speak of ploughing as
"mi xi ng," a reference to the mixing of ma le and female to make a
child; the paddy is an embryo that sprouts just as the human embryo
"sprouts" fingers and toes. The word which in Tamil as well as
in Sanskrit (as we shall see) designates an embryo, is also used to refer
to the paddy seed. The paddy plants arc likened to children, cared for
by women (after the men have ploughed and sown tht' seed); the
harvest therefore produces considerable guilt.
s
The rice imagery raises several possible historical questions . If this
is the earlier form of the theory of rebirth, why was rice chosen as the
symboli c grain , rather than some other form of grain, such as wheat
or harley? The prevalence of the rice imagery seems to exclude the
4. Trawick Egnor, "The Sacred Spell and Other Conceptions of Life in
Tam iJ Culture," :l 5U bmitted . . . for the degree of doctor of phi losoph y,
of Anth ropology, University of Much. 1978, p. 142.
S. Trawick Egnor, "The Symboli5m of Paddy in Tarnilnadu." paper pre-
sented u the Conference on Religion in South India at Marth a's May D.
1979.
INTRODUCTION
--
XV!!
Indus Valley as a source of the karma theory, for this was a whc:at-
growing civilization, Rice was developed on the other side of the
Gangetic plain, among tribal peoples dwelling on the borderlands of
South and Southeast Asia-tribes among whom an aboriginal idea of
merit for the dead also occurs. 6 This would lend support to Obeycse-
kere's theory of the primary role of tribal people in the karma theory,
and it is easy to see why the rice imagery would be so persistent and,
perhaps, even why the karma theory would arise among rice-growers
rather than wheat-growers: rice is planted twice, first the seed and
thc:n the seedling that is replanted; rice is also harvested over and over
in a year, rather than at a single harvest season; hence it is a natural
symbol for rebirth. The rice evidence supports a tribal rather than an
Indus Valley origin for the karma theory, and this is further substan-
tiated by George Hart's argument that the Tamils did not believe in
reincarnation at all until the Aryans came and that the karma theory
reflects Buddhist and Jaina influence when it does appear in Tamil
texts.
This brings us, finally, to the heterodox sources of the karma
theory. Though Jaini and McDermott have shown that the idea of
merit transfer is foreign (and repugnant ) to these traditions, other
elements of the karma theory may well have originated here. By the
third century A.D., the Jainas had by far the most copious karma
literature, which may imply that they were the ones who first devoted
their attention to certain aspects of that theory. Yet Jaini argues that
the linear theory of s ~ s r which is one component of the Jaina
view comes from the Ajivakas with their finite sar/Jsara; it is,
moreover, a non-ethical theory, like that postulated for the ancient
"tribals." Once again problems arise from the largely unknown na-
ture of Ajivaka thought, despite A. L. Basham's thorough study of it;
yet perhaps there is sufficient evidence to show that at least this one
strand of the karma theory may be traced back to the Ajivakas. To
postulate an "Ajivaka origin" or "Dravidian origin" or "tribal origin"
is to some extent a way of passing the buck away from the major
religions which must be explained; it is a scholarly way of saying
"somewhere else." Indeed, the scholars who have examined each of
the major traditions seek the source of the karma theory elsewhere.
There was such constant interaction between Vedism and Bud-
6. Personal communication from Charles Keyes.
XVlll I NTRODUCTI ON
dhism in the early period that it is fruitless to attempt to son out the
earlier source of many doctrines; they li ved in one another's pockets,
like Picasso and Braque (who were, in later yea rs, unable to say
which of them had painted certain paimings from their earlier. shared
period). To postulate sraddha as the "source" of transfer of merit in
Buddhism is to ignore the stark chronological fact that the sraddhtl
first appea rs in G(hya Siitras roughly contemporaneous wi th Bud-
dhism, and that many Vedic doCtrines continued to develop under
Buddhist influence. One can, of cou rse, find earlier traces of merit
transfer in Vedic texts, but it is impossible to isolate them and fix
them in time. Ra ther than looking for one central "source" which
was then embroidered by "secondary influences" like a river fed
by tributary St reams, it would be better to picture the intellectual
fountainhead of ancient l ndia as a watershed consisting of many
streams- each one an incalculabl y archaic source of contributing
doctrines - Vedi c, Ajivaka, Jaina, and tribal.
Logical Oppositi ons in Theories of Karma
This leads us back again to the logi cal or abstract approach to karma,
in contrast wi th the histori cal approach. [f we are forced 10 ignore
chronology, the attempt to distinguish \arious ancient in fluences is
reduced to a logical problem: how many dist inct factors can we dif-
ferentiate ill the karma th('ory? Looked at in thi s way. the various
karma theories seem to be remarkably amenable to a dialectic
ana lysis - perhaps bec.ause all of the scholars looki ng at karma are,
after all, Indo-Europeans, who tend naturally to lapse into dialectic
whenever faced with contradictions. but perhaps because there rea ll y
are di alectic forces at work in the material itself, as well as in the
minds of the scholars dealing wi th the material: the ancient Indi ans,
after all , were Indo- Europeans par excel lence. To what extent these
oppositions may be said to represent "indigenous conceptual
schemes" and to what extent they arc merel y conveniem ficti ons.
ways for us to explain karllla to ourselves, it is difficul t to say. Is
nat ure Illirroring art , or are we impos ing a false logical model on a
rea l historical system?
Despite this caveat, it appears that none of us has been able to resist
some sort of dialecti c swipe at karma. A summary of the major dialec-
tic oppositions discussed in this volume appea rs ill the accompanyi ng

1NTRODUCT10N XIX
chart. McKim Marriott has distinguished paradigmatic approaches
involving minimal transactions from symagmatic approac hes involv-
ing maxima l transactions . Similarl y, bhdkti and the doctrines of the
classical philosophical daddnas depart somewhat from Marriou's
model-but in a consistent way, bhakti emphasizing willing subor-
dinat ion and pessimal transactions, the darianlls emphasizing optimal
t ra nsactions; and both of them exal t moksa, which is difficult to fit
intO a conceptual graph of karma doctrine in any way. (I ndeed, as
Obeyesekere has shown, mok.sa, or is not an integral part of
a karmic eschatology at all. ) Simi larly, McDermon sees a connict
between karma doctrine based on the existence of the soul (transac-
tional ) and Buddhist doctrine which is based on the non-existence of
the soul. Another formulat ion of this doctrine appears when one
realizes that karmic transfer in Hinduism is very materialist ic, vi-
sualized as a thing- money or food-in a system of limited good:
if one goes up, another must comt down, on the karmic seesaw.
In Buddhism, however, the transfer is spiritualized: somehow, the
more you give, the more you have, as with love or cell division.
Some Basic Oppositions in Karma Theories
O'Flaherty jriiddba reincarnation of the soul
parental karma individual karma
h .. aven mok.,a
l ong bhakti Ved:i.nta
god man
karmic causation time, fate
Wci ss practical, empirical fatalistic
human action fate
material present non-matl'ria! past
Han rebirth in stones
. .
relnCarnatlon
standpoint of living standpoint of dead
crossi ng boundaries keeping boundaries
Obcycsekcrc amoral n:binl, <,thici:ud karma
Vedi c or tribal Buddhist or Jaina
t.,lcDermot t eternalist ionisl
existence of soul denial of soul
patcnt lattnt
will d,w
karmic causation repen tanceJexpiltion
XX INTRODUCTION
Some Basic Oppositions in Karma Theories (continued)
Stablein
J aini
P OltN
Halbfass
positive value of womb
flesh body
suffering
. .
contammatl on
duality
dull light
entering the womb
linear
transactional
Vedic
pra-v'(w
dhanna
physi(al
.
(osml(
empirical
karmi c GlUsation
pl/mJa
(onS(IOUsness
freedom (kaivalya)
liriga
diachroni( uansactions
antecedent non-existen(e
maximal transactions
syntagmauc
Buddhist
negative of womb
thought body
awareness
sUll),ata
non-duality
clelf light
Buddhahood
evolutionary
philosophi cal
Vedantic (Advait:t, Yogic)
nlvrttt
nloksa
cthi(al
soteriological
theoretical
non-karmi c causation
prak'(ti
awareness
release and bondage
bhava
synchronic transacti ons

consequent non-existence
minimal transactions
paradigmatic
Jaina
" Frorn the lnicles ciled in fn. 1 of Ihis lni roduCii on.
Karl Potter di stinguishes basically betwe,-n transacti onal and philo-
sophical approaches to karma, while noting other related dyads
that can be built upon thi s opposition, dyads that recur in other
essays in this vo]umc:p"lv'(ui and niv'(ui (which J. Bruce Long sees
as the underlying oppos it ion of the diverse Mahabhimlta attitudes to
karma), dharnltl and (cent ral to almost all of our esslYs), lnd
the cont rast between Ved ic and Ve&inti c g03ls. Wilhelm Halbfass
then demonstrates the Wly in which other philosophical theories
were able to incorporate the t ransactional model into the "ph ilosoph-
ical" model through the concept of omnipresent souls (useful al so [Q
Buddhist and J aina thinkers)_ In this way, the physical and ethicli
.
INTRODUCTI ON
XXI
levels of karma, as well as the cosmological and soteriologicallevels,
arc reconciled through the concepts of apiirva and adma, though
Halbfas5 still sees a conflict between karmic and " non-karmi c" or
" narural" ideas of causation (a valid observation wh ich cannot really
be represented on a graph of karmic oppositi ons at all, si nce it is off
the chart).
This conflict may also be seen as an opposi tion between empirical
and theoret ical approaches to causation, and raises again the point
first illuminated by Karl Potter regarding the relevance of empirical
evidence for the validation of a theory. Halbfass states that reversals
of expectations require that the theory be adjusted to fit the facts;
indeed, the karma theory itself is inspired (or at least invoked) pre-
cisely as a response to reversals of expectations on numerous occa-
sions in the Mahabhamr,t, as Bruce Long makes dear. Is the theory
of karma purel y formal, and therefore nOt subject to empirical verifi-
cation? Or, to put it another way, is the theory of karma a scientific
theory or a metaphysical theory? Western scientific paradigms remain
constant , despite experimentation and growing counterevidence,
until finall y overthrown by overwhelming refutation, as Thomas
Kuhn has demonstrated; this is all the more Irue of metaphysical
theories, such as the Western attemptS to prove the exislt'nce of God,
which seem emot ionally irrefutable. Scientific and metaphysical
paradigms never die; their scope of appli cation merely changes.
Whether the karma theory is metaphysical or scielllific or both (as
one could well argue), it ought to be subject to certain standards of
verification and falsification - though it is likely to remain a viable
theory even if faced with irrefutable counterevidence. Indeed, texts
such as the Yoga Vaiiuha narrate ta les involving material witnesses
and physical proof of multiple lives, and Nyaya texts argue about
memory of previous lives, answering a Hindu need to establish a
scienlific basi s of rebirth. 7
The widening gap between theory and empirical evidence is hi ghly
relevant to the way in which many post-Vcdantic or non- Vedantic
thinkers dealt with the dialecti cs of karma. Halbfass sees ap'-wlla as an
escape clause, a built-in foil against empirical evidence; a far more
elaborate example of this confrontation (perhaps because of a far
more pervasive commitment to empiricism) appears in the medical
7. I am indebted to l\lIen Thrasher for this r d r r ~ n c e from a papa on the Yoga
V"siUh" narratin' s that he presented at the Dt"<:cmbcr 1977 m(eting of the American
Academy of Religion, in Sln Funcis,o.
.
XXII INTRODUCTION
textbooks, as Mitchell Weiss's essay makes abundanti), clear. The
conflict between inherited karma and fortuitous ingestion of poison,
for example, is expressed in a travesty of common sense remini scent
of Lewis Carroll ("if you drink much from a bottle marked ' poison,'
it is almost cert ain to di sagree with you sooner o r later, " the "sooner
or later" perhaps corresponding to the karmi c escape cl ause) . Weiss
demonstrates how the medical textbooks attempt 10 reconcil e the
fatalism of the indi genous concept of karma with a more practi cal,
empirical attitude toward human enterprise. He sees an implicit con-
flict between the vicw of thc almarl (and hence of karma) as
physicaltm:tt erialist or as non-physical/non-materiali st , and he shows
how a shift from an emphasis on past karma to an emphasis on
present karma leads to a shift from abstract philosophy to practical
empiricism. Here again, karma is ust' d nOt to in\' alidate a medi cal
theory (with which it is clearl y incompatible in some very basic ways)
but rather to shore it up, to account for those occasions on which it
does not work. Thus, as Karl Polter poims OUt , empirical evidence is
really not relevant after all ; for all its scars and pat ches, the theory
survives healthil y in the bee of all the fact s. As Leon Festinger
suggests, a psychol ogicall y useful theory is not discarded when its
predict ions fail to actualizc; it rnercl y result s in cosnil; ve dissonance. II
In Ti betan medical texts tOO, as William Stablein demonstrates, the
problem of anatman leads to elaborati ons of the karma theory; here,
even more than in the Hindu medical texts, Tibetan Buddhist
soteriol ogy emphasiz.cs the ways in which karma may be altered by
ritual. Stablein points out another, rebted conflict which is relevant
to many problems tackl ed by other essays in thi s volume: the confl ict
between karma as the womb in the nega tive sense (in sotcriology and
philosoph)", where it is contrasted with Buddhahood) and karma as
the womb in the positive sense (in myth and ritual ). The former may
be derived from Vedantic, non-transactional Indian thought, the lat-
ter from Vedic and transactional levels.
Moving from philosophy and medicine to the rea lms of Dhar-
masastra, Epic, and Pural.la, we encounter still more varied opposi -
tions. Ludo Rocher isolates at leas! five different, di sc rete systems of
karma in one Dharrnasa.stra a.lone; though he is unwilling to say
which is chronologi call y first, there is a fairl y clear logical devel op-
ment . J. Bruce Long then points out that the Mahtibhiir,lfa intro-
8. Leon Fest inger. A Theory of Cognitive DiWman(C' (Stanford, 19S7).
I NTRODUCTION XXJll
duces bhakti as yet another alternative to the Vedantic view of karma,
surely a transactional alternative, and one to be placed on the side of
heaven-oriented Vedic views despite the theoretical emphasis on
that pervades the bhakti texts. Perhaps bhakti could best be
viewed as itself a mediation: Vedamic or philosophical in its belief
that karma exists and that is the highest desideratum, but Vedic
or transactional in its belief that karma may be removed and that
heaven is the reward for the devotee.
Like bhakti, the forces of time and fa te appea r in the Mahabharata
as "non-karmic" clements (like the factors cited by Hal bfass). As is
apparent from the Pura!) ic materials, too, karma and fat(' (vidhi,
niyari, or daivam) are sometimes equated and someti mes cxplicidy
contrasted. The conflict ma y be viewed in terms of frec will : accord-
ing to karma, the individual is responsible for what happens to him;
with fate, he is not responsible. In other expressions of the theory,
karma appears to mediate bet ween responsibi lity and non-
responsibility: since the act regarded as the cause of present cir-
cumstances was committed by me, but by me in a previous life (i.e.,
by a " me" that I cannot know and for whom I cJ. nnOt trul y repent ), it
is my fault and nOt my fault, like a crime committed by someone
temporarily insane or by someone who has subsequently developed
amnesia. This shift of emphasis from active to passive responsibility is
also manifest in the shift from sin to evil : the karma theory may
explain either why the actor acts as he docs (why the thief steals, why
one sins) or why certain things are done to the actor (why the thief is
ca ught, why evil befalls the innocent ); the former is emphasized in
Buddhist texts with their concern for the psychological genesis of sin,
and the latter occurs more often in Hindu texts , where previous sin
(s uch as kill ing a Brahmin in a former life) is used as the starting point
by which present evil (why the former Brahmin-ki ll er now has lep-
rosy) may be expl ained. The contrast between active and passive
karma appears in the medical texts, when karma is equated wi th ei ther
passively received fate (daivam) or actively pursued human action
Here again, karma may appear on one side of a dialecti c
or may funct ion as a mediation between twO sides.
When we turn to Buddhism and Jainism, we encounter further
fascinat ing complicati ons. McDermott descri bes a compromise be-
tw,'cn an eternalist and an annihi b ti oni st approach to the problem of
human existence, achieved by means of the postulation of the further
dichotomies between patent and latent action, will and deed; this

XXIV INTRODUCTION
serves also to reconcile transmigration (a non- Buddhist theory based
on the existence of the soul) with the Buddhist ncr:d to deny the
existence of the soul. H e further points OUt how repemance serves to
negate karma; as Ludo Rocher made clear, and I seconded, expiation
serves a similar function for Hindus. Jaini describes the manner in
which S{'veral complexit ies of the Jaina phil osophy of karma (and
complex it surely is ) arise from the need to deny karmic transfer as
we ll as to account for the presence of life in st"veral of the clements
used by Other systems (Hindu and Buddhist) as inanimate vehicles for
the karma of others. Jaini sees the Jaina system as a reconciliation of
yet another set of historical oppositions: a linear view of the life
process and an evolutionary view.
Among the Tamils, one sees other syntheses taking place. the most
basic being that between an ancient Tamil view that the souls of the
dead inhabit stones and a superimposed Aryan view that the souls
transmigrate. George Hart points out an oppos ition that may well be
present in other Indian systems, though no one else seems to discuss
it: a conflict between theories of afterl ife composed from the
sta ndpoi nt of the living and those composed from the standpoint of
the dead. His emphasis on the powerful tension in Tamils between
the need to build boundaries (as reflened in traditional caste ethics)
and the need to cross them (emphasized in the native system) is also
strongly reminiscent of the interaction between transactional and
nontransactional models that interact in Sanskrit texts (and in the
theories of Marrion and Potter). Here, :1S in so many of the systems
under discussion. lip service is paid to karma, but the emotional
thrust of devotiona l ism negates the power of karma.
Clearl y, one could not possibly reduce all of these concepts to " the"
Indian theory of karma, though, equally clearly, certain patterns of
thought do emerge. Is there some way to construct a hierarchy of
these various karma theories? Is there an indigenous measure to de-
termine which text is more important? And important in what
way-known by more people. or used by those of higher status?
When two theories contlin, which one is really believed? Perhaps the
most basic opposition of all is that between the assumptions held by
philosophers and those held by hoi polloi, between scholastic o r
iiH(raic ideas that arc games and experiential folk attitudes that people
use in their lives; the "inner logic" of one system may well be non-
sense to the other. The Indians themselves have developed highly
I NTRODUCTION xxv
sophisticated ways of dealing with such differences of strata. for they
do nOt hold assumptions in the same way on different levels; they
treat karma sometimes as a concept, sometimes as a theory, s o m ~
times as a model; sometimes they accept it, and sometimes they chal-
lenge it. 9
The present collection of essays presents a variety of ideas about
rebirth, often in competition and disagreement, but always in dia-
logue; for what makes Indian thought so fascinating is the constant
rapprochement between opposed world views, hardly a true syn-
thesis, but a cross-fertilization that seems to have no end, one me-
diation giving ri se to another, each result becoming a new cause,
endlessly, like karma itself. This volume might serve as a model of
diversity to explain how any group of South Asians will fight (as
Marriott has put it)-and, indeed, to explain how any group of
Indologists will fight. For we too are actors, and how can we tell the
dancers from the dance?
9. Sce Sheryl Daniel, "The Tool-box Approach of the Tamil to the hsu<:s of Karma,
:'loral R.(sponsibility. and Human Destiny," paper presented at the SSRCt\CLS
Joint Commim'l' on South Asia Seminar althe University of Chicago, June 9, 1977.
Part I.
Hinduism and Its Roots

In
1
Karma and Rebirth
the Vedas and Puranas

WENDY DONIGER O'FLAHERTY
The Ved ic Background
The theory of rebirth does nm appear in the Vedas: but the theory of
fe-death .1ppcars at a very early stage indeed. It may be that ancient
Indian ideas about death predate and indeed predetermine the later
theory of birth. Moreover, the idea of karma in its broader sense
(including the concept of merit transfer) may well have preceded the
idea of rebirth, giving strong grounds for postulating Vedi c origins
of the karma theory. (Throughout this paper, I shall use the term
"merit transfe r" to indicate the process by which one living creature
willingly or accidentally gives [0 anot her a non-physical quali ty
of his own, suc h as a virtue. credi t for a religious achievement, a
talent, or a power-often in exchange for a negative quality given by
the reci pient. )
In his analysis of the iraddJJlf and rites, David M.
Knipe has raised a number of poi nts relevant to the question of the
origin of the theory of karml . He suggests that even the earl iest
recorded forms of these rites may reOect yet an older level, in which
"the si mpl er, unsophisticated Vedic desire to prevent the dissolution
of an after- life for the deceased" may have prevailed; the need LO
provide ritual food for the deceased ancestors would then be based on
the desire to keep them there in some sort of heaven, not to move
)
WENDY DONIGEK O'FLAHEKTY
them on (as is thc oven reason), the desire !O prevent them from
suffer ing " repeated death ( pl/!/armrrYII )."1 This ambivalence in the
very earliest t("xtS may account for a number of the persistent
paradoxes, contradictions, and inconsistencies in the vari ous karma
theori es - p,tradoxical statemems lboUT whether kJrma Cll1 or cannot
be overruled, comrldicwry Stl lement S about the int(' raoion of bt('
and human effort, and inconsistencies between various statementS
regarding the actual physical mechanism by which karma is trans-
ferred from one li fe !O the next. Knipe' s observation regarding the
motivation underlying the Ved ic funeral ri tes indi cates that the ten-
sion is bui lt in from the very beginning, a simple tension between the
dl.'sire !O prevent rebirth and the desire !O ass ure rebi rth.
This ambivalence appears in many forms of Puraryic Hinduism and
is usua lly referred !O as the tension between and dharma or
between Vedic and world views. [ t is often
specifi cal ly related 10 the question of rebinh : one kind of immonality
("above the navel" ), spiritual immortali ty, is destroyed by the binh
of a son and the consequent ties to the world of sa,,:wlm; the other
kind of immort ality (" below the navel "), physical immortali ty, is as-
sured by the birth of a son to perform sy(iddha rit es. That these t wO
goals are cquatcJ is o:vjdo:nt frum the oft-qtlOted maxim, "You
create progeny and that 's your immortality, 0 monal. '2 That they
arc actual!y confused is cvident irom the statement of one of
Carstairs' informants, who quoted the ma xim defining a son as one
who saves his father from hell (punnama-narakat trayale tal putr)
and explained it thus : "\Vhen a man dies wit hout a son he cannOt
att ain niT1Nlwl or mukhri Isi c] . . . . Because when he has no son, after
his death there is no one to perform the funeral rites and for lack of
these ri tes he can' t get nirva lla." ] According to the classical (ext s, (he
son is necessary to assure that his father wilf be able to get another
body; to be sure of being freed from the body forever. a man should
l. DAvid M. Knipe. "SApiI)QikarAna: The Hindu of Ent ry into Heaven," pp.
111 - 114 of Religious E"cQu"lt'rs u 'ilh De.llb. hlilgbli from Ih. HIstory ami AI"
dnop%gy of ReligiOn>. edit ed by Frank Rey nolds and Ear le H. Waugh (Penn.,yl-
\'ania Slate University Press. [977), p. 1 [2. f or another anal ysis of pi,!da-d,illa as a
J; ymbo[ic recreation of the body, as interpreted by the priests in dealh
rituals. sec Mcena Kaushik, "The Symboli c Represent alion of Death," in COll tribu-
lion; 10 hld;"'i Sociology. n. S. to (t976) . 256- 192.
2. Ap<Ulamba Dharma, iltra !.9,N .[; see W'endy Doniger O' F[aherty. Ascetidsm
,md Eroticism in the Mythology of Siva (Oxford, [973). pp. 76-77.
J . G. M. Carmirs. The T'Il.icl' -Bom (Bloomington, Ind iana, 1958), p. 122.
KARMA AND REBIRTH I N THE VEDAS AND PURANAS
5
have no son . But this Hindu confuses the two, probably equat ing the
"trap" of wi th the tfap of the limbo to wh ich the man
out descendants is condemned; in his view, the sraddha saves the dead
man from rebirth-perhaps by assuring that he will be reborn at least
o nce in order to fin d his way to ultimate rdease, instead of stagnating
forever in hdL The Purar:t ic atti tude toward karma is basically Vedic,
and non- (or even anti-) it advocates thesraddha in order
to achieve rebirth . Bur enough Veda nt ic influence filters through to
allow popul ar texts to equate the Vedic and Vedantic goals .
More specifically, it is interesting to nOte how precisely th" death
r it uals foreshadow the mode! later set forth for the creation of the
embryo. As Knipe describes the ritual,
day of the 'rites results in a new portion of the preta' s intermediate
body, the head being created on the first day, then in succession the neck and
shoulders, ... the genitals, and, on the tenth day of the offeri ngs , the prela
receives digestive powers so that the sufferings of hunger and thi rst now
experienced by the "body of nourishment" duly created may be all ayed by
COntinued offerings of and water from tht living.
4
Aher ci t ing various authorit ies for this p rocess, Kni pe remarks:
Incidentally, among the (Vedic- Hindu rites of passage), it is re-
markable to note the parallel structures of these post-cremation sTadt'has and
the rites at birth (jiitak"r/1/all). In each case, following the day ofbirt h/death
there are ten days of offerings of rice, sesame, etc. , ten being a homology to
the human gestation period of ten (lunar) months. It may well be the case,
then, that the completi on of the temporary body on the tenth day is an
intentional rebirth
Numerous pecu liarit ies in the classical karma doctrine begin to
make good sense when viewed as developments o r inversions of the
p rocess of death and the view of afterl ife implicit in the sriiddba
ri tual. That it can all be put together from an assumption of the
primacy of death is a ge nuinely ritual istic view; all the
karma texts on rebirth begin with death and then proceed to desc ribe
birth. Thi s vi ew compleme nts what McKim Marriott and Ronald
Inden have been demonstrat ing in recent papers, that birth is the
central symbol of H indui smj 6 the ini tial u ni ty of the model for the
two processes, however one prefers to grab hold of it fo r a 10gic;).1
4. Knip(', p. 115.
5. Jbid., p. 123, fn . 18.
6. lI.-!ost recentl y in lheir article on "Caste Systems" in the Encyclopedia BTlt"""I""
\' 01. C, pp. 983 ff.
6
WENDY DQNIGER O' FL AHERTY
beginning, makes it possible to derive ei ther onc by rearranging the
parts of the other. It is a chicken.and-egg problem: inlddha is the
chicken, and birth is the egg.
One linguist ic clue to the manner in which the Vedic sraddha sys-
tem leads to the poSt- Vedic karma/rebi rth mode! is the development
of the word "pi/'}a." The is a ball of cooked rice mixed with
other ingredients such as sesame seeds, milk, butter, and honey; it is
offered to the dead ancestors in limbo as a transitional food mediating
between death and rebirth. Now, this ball of rice is often explicitly
said to be symbolic of (a ball of) seed, as in the horse-sacrifice, where
it appears in conjunction with other seed symbols (ghee and gold) . 7 It
is surely signifi cant that in the offering this seed is mixed with
milk (the female creative fluid) and butter (wh ich mediates between
the female fluid from which it is derived and the male fluid into whi ch
it is symbolically transmull,d by churning and distillation). H The pi'}tja
is th us a food strongly symbolic of the commingled substances of
human procreation . Moreover, thi s mixture is repeated in the
crated dim of rice boiled with milk and butter that is given to women
to ensure conception (preferably of a male child). Indeed, thi s very
ceremony is directly connected with the offerings :
It is stat ed in the Grihya SUlfa that du ring the ancestor-propitiation ritual s
the pinda offrred to the grandfather of the householder should be eaten by
his (houstholder's) wi fe if she is desirous of a
It might be inferred that the very same substance eaten (invisi bl y) by
the ancestors is simultaneously (vis ibl y) eaten by the wife, and that
the embryo that she conceives is in fact the new body of the deceased
ancestor. In some myths, as we shall see, this is the case, but generall y
it is not so; for what she eats is the remainder (lfcchiHa) of the offering
to the ancestors, just as a woman who wishes to become pregnant
may cat the remainder (theprasiida ) of the offerings to the gods. This
is expli cit in some of the earliest texts deali ng with impregnation by
eating the offering of ri ce and mil k:
Adili wished 10 have offspring, and so she cooked a Brahmin' s rice-offering
to the Sadhya gods. When they gave the remains to her, she ate it and became
7. s..rapMh" Brahma'.la, Chowkhamba Sanskril Series % (Benares, !9&4). IJ . LI.!-4.
8. "Sexual Fluids in Ved;" and India," "h3p. 1 of Wendy Donigcr
O'Flaherty, \VomCII , Androgynes, and Orh,' r Myrhical Beasts (Chicago. \980).
9. Grhya Siitras, cited by Veena Das. Struct ure alld Cogmtiow Aspect5 of Hi'ldu
Caste alld Ritual (Delhi. 1977), pp. 101-102.
KAR;\!A AND REB!RTH IN THE VEDAS AND
7
pregnant, giving birth to the four Adityas. Then she cooked a second rice-
offeri ng, Jnd thinking tim her children would be stronger if she Jte before
the gods, instead of merely eating the remains, Shl' ate first, became preg-
nant, and gave birth to an egg that miscarried. 10)
\Ve will encounter other instances of t he "miscarriage" of a preg-
nancy as a result of the eating of the rice offering in the wrong way.
H ere we may merely note that what the woman cats is the same
substance as what the gods (or ancestors) eat, but not actually the
same portion of that substance. The woman's pregnancy is like the
ancestors' rebinh; it is nOt a part of that rebirth.
A Purat:lic myth with strange Vedic resonances plays upon the un-
conscious correspondence between the carll given to the wife and
the given to the ancestors:
A childless king was given a consecrated caru of ri ce boiled with milk and
buner to give to his wife; one of his twO wives ate it and the second wifr had
imcrcoursr with her in the manner of a ma n. The older wife brcame
pregnant and give birth to a son; but the child "born without mall' semen"
lacked bones and was a mere ball (pil.l(ja) of flesh. I,
The male/fema le elements of procreation are ingested, but the child is
abnormal, since there is no physiological involvement of the father
(who is the one believed responsible for (he formation of the bones,
in traditional Hindu thought; Susruta explicitl y states that a ch il d
born as the result of the mating of tWO females wiJllack The
lack of mtde (nor female) agency is deplored, for uni lateral creation
by men is widely accepted in the mythology; indeed, as the modern
Indian editor remarks on the abnormalit y of the child in the myth
ci ted above, "Th is is the nat ura l consequence of the mating of
females,"
The abnormal child is a m('re pi1Jtja, a ball of boneless flesh - the
very word that is commonly used to designate th( unshaped embryo
in Hindu medical texts. More is often used to refer to
the male embryo, while the female is calledpdi, "lump," especia!1>' in
SuSruta. (Pcii may also describe rhe unformed embryo in a miscar-
riage. like the lump that Gandharl brings forth and that is later
10. Tairtiri),a Samhi!a 6.''>.1; Alai/raya", Sa",/,i!a 1.6.2. 4.6.9. Cf. S"'apalha
3.1.3- 5 for ;mother ver:o;;on of Adit;'s
11. The of the Hldmll eJi ted by Asokc Chatterjee
(All - India Kashirlj Trust, Vlunasi. 1972). 16.11- 14.
12. ,IIah::.bhiirala, critical edition (Poona, 1933- 1%0). 12 .293.16- 17: AS"i Pur,"'a
(Anandasrama Sanskrit Series 41, Poona, 1957) 369.31- 32: 370.19-20.
8 WEN D Y DO N I GER O 'FL AH ERTY
di vided into a hundred sons and a single female; so, toO, the sun,
MartaQ93, is brought fo rt h as a lump and then shaped int o an-
thropomorphic form. ) 13 Like the morc common term for embryo
(garbha ).pi,,4a may refer to the womb, as in a myth in whic h Vi$I,H1
and several women take the form of yot/ is (called to s uppOrt
liilga5. \ 4 And by virtue of its shape, may also represent mal e
genitals: pi',u!dndaIJ , "ball-eggs" (dual), refers to the testicles. espe-
ciall y of horses. But the termpilJ. c!a is most significantl y applied to the
body in general , to the human form-of which the embryo is the
essential aspect. Thus a word whose primary meaning is seed-food
for the dead ancestors (the milk element being regarded as subser-
vi ent , a necessary vehicle for the true crea ti ve force passi ng from son
ro fa ther) comes to mea n the unshaped embryo, made Out of ingested
food transformed intO seed, or, by extension, the womb that receives
the embryo and the testicl es that contain seed, :lnd fi nall y the body
which develops fr om seed, womb. and embryo.
A fi nal, and highly signi fi cant , variation on the theme of pi1Jt!tl
appears in a Sanskrit and Tibetan Tant ra. IS Here lhe adept uses a
meditation on the process of creati on of the embryo as an expl ici t
metaphor for his own "cre:uion" of the " isu:!. li1. ed image of the deity
wi th which he will idmtify hi mself. This met aphorical prOCCS!i is an
exact parall el to the process by whi ch Ihe new body of the ancestor in
the sraddha ritual is imagined to develop like an embryo. The fi rst
stage of the embryo is a dot (birulll ) between semen and blood; it then
takes the shape of urine, then of a bubble call ed a then of a
lump (pd i ) which is identifi ed wi th semen, then of a mass (ghana)
identified with menstrual blood; and fi nall y it rakes the form of fl esh.
Karm:!. is said to enter the body through the seed (either the semen at
the beginning of the process or, less likel y, the pefi of the inter-
mediary stage). The text adds, however, that the aggrega te of physic:!.l
qualities (skin, fles h, and blood from the mother, and tendon, mar-
row, and semen from the father) is cal1 ed pilJ(ia, the (globular) fo rm
of the body. in this text is contrasted wit h both semen and
menstrual blood bUi used TO designate !he tinal product of the em-
bryo res ulting from the combination of male and femal e elements.
U. Afabii bhar.Ha 1.107 for Gandhari; Satapatha Brabma1Ja .U.J.l for
H. SJ.'anlia (Bombay. 18(7) 1.1. 7. 20- 11; 1. 1. 8.1 7- 19.
15 . The Samvarodava Ta Il/rei . Selected Cb"pIl'Ti l te"t and translati on b)'l Shinichi
Tsuda (Tokyo. The Hokuscido Press. 1974). [1.14-29. I am indebted to Charles
Orzech for th is pusage.
KAItMA AND ItEBlltTH IN THE VEDAS AND
9
Another striking example of the manner in which the funera l pirJ4a
has been adapted, and inverted, into a sexual ritual appears in a Tan-
trie puja to the Goddess Kali. 16 In this ceremony, the male and female
participants take in their left hands ball s of food (mixed wit h the four
Tantric "m"s) called and they cat them in an action referred to
as (arpa'./a ("satisfaction," the term also used to refer to the offerings
of to the ancestOrs). This inversion is int roduced nOt in order
to change re-death imo re-birth but in order to reverse death al-
tOgether, to change it into immortality through the secret ritual.
It is worthy of nOte that the "cognitive assumption" underlying
lIonna/ birth processes only becomes explicit in an abnormal cir-
cumstance, .1S in the case of the exclusion of the f:tther (.1nd the
substit ution of .1 second mot her) from the utilization of the milk-rice
cam. A similar insight into normality through the distOrted lens of
abnormality may be glea ned from the Dharmasastra prohibition
against fellatio: " He who performs sexual intercourse in the mouth of
his wife causes his ancestors to cat his seed for a month." 17 The sexual
act which diverts human seed from performing its essential dharmic
function of procreation is regarded as reversing its normal direction,
traveling b.1ck to feed the previous generation instead of forward to
feed the coming generation; thus the pirJ4a is replaced by literal
human as we havc seen, it is in itself precisely a
metaphor for such seed trallsmMed into food- a transmutation
which is symbolically valid (a nd which often occurs in myths, where
women swallow seed to become pregnant ) but which is explicitly
denied .1S a permi ssible hum.1n practice in the Dharmasastras. The
metaphor of food in the world of the dead appears throughout
the kanna-vipiika literature in descriptions of punishments for bad
deeds: sinners are forced to eat disgusting food in hell.
At this point, Jainislll provides a useful negative example to pin-
point the historical development from jriiddha to k:trma. As P. S.
Jaini points out, the Jainas refused to indulge in sraddha ceremonies
because they would nOt acccpt the illogical idea that one person 's
merit affects b.1sic component of the bnna doctrine, and
16. Fredhique ApHd MargJin, "Types of Sexual Union and Their Implicit Mean-
ings," paper presented 3t Harvard Vnivenity's Center for World Religions. at the
conference on "Ridhi and the Divine Conson." on June 17, 1978. pp. 17_19. Based
on an unpublished manuscript entitled Syamap"jii BidiJi, in Sanskrit (Onya script ),
ownL-d and translated, with COmmtntary. by the ritual speci al ist in Puri who per-
forms thi s woo-hip.
17. VasiHhadhamlIIsiisrra (Bombay Sanskrit Seri es 13, Bombay, 1883) 12.2J.
' 0
WENDY DONlGEK. O'FL!\HERTY
one with st rong Vedic roots, roots that might already have sparked
off a chall enge among the early Jainas. The Carvikas, 100, found the
sraddha hard to swallow: " If the sr(uidha produces gr:l.t ific:Hion to
beings who are dead, then here, toO, in the case of tr:lVcllers when
they start, it is needless to give provisions for the journey [because
people at home could eat and sati sfy the travelers' hungerJ."18 Jainism
may well have developed this distinctive non- Vedic eschatology at the
same time as, or even before, the Buddhists and thinkers
were developing theirs-at least as carly as the time of the Buddha,
the sixth century Il.c, These various doctrines of karma may then
have evolved at the point in history when the Jainas either amicipated
or spli t off from the rest of Indian tradi tion. The Buddhists adhered
more closely to the Vedic model, rejecting sriddha but developing the
idea of merit rr:l.nsfer far more strongly than the Hindus ever did
themselves . The Jainas cannot explain the process of birth and rebirth
at all, perhaps (as Jaini suggests) because rhey are toO fastidious to go
into the gory details, but more, I think, because all other Indian
explanations of rebirth are based on a ritual image of food transfer
and an underlying concept of merit transfer which the Jainas reject .
Transfer of Merit in Ved ic Texts
The concept of transferred merit in its broadest sense may be traced
back e"en behind the srliddha ritual. As Knipe points OUt,
I t is no longer the case, as it was in eschatology, that l complete new
body awai ts thr drceasrd in heJven . He requires exact assistJncr of the living
in o rder to emigrate frOIll thi s world to that higher one, to pass fro m the
dangerous cond ili on of a di sembodi ed spirit (preta ), to tlK secure role of
among hi s own pitar,!i!. In ord"r to ni.'goti:l1r that passage he must have a
proper body (or series of bodies) and rcgubr
It is at this point that the idea of transfer (originally of food, but soon
after of :l. combination of food and merit, a code-substance, in Mar-
riott's terminology) must have been irnroduced, when rt'binh in
heaven was no longer a process that the individual could accomplish
alone. For the descendants gave their ancestors pan of their own
religious merit (including the meri t of having performed the srliddha!)
along wit h the bal! of seed-rice; this enabled the preta to move "up"
t 8. S",.."ad"riaruwlIl} g mha of Mi dha va (B ibliotheca Indica, Calculta, 18S8), chap. 1:
transbted by E. B. Cowdl (London, 1904 , 4th cd.), p. to.
19. Knipe, p. 114.
KARMA AND REBIRTH IN THE VEDAS AND PURANAS
"
Out of limbo, to Ihe mutua! bencht of Ihe preta (who could now get
on wit h the task of rebirth) and the living descendant (would could no
longer be haunted by the preta ). Thus the sradd/Ja represents an
exchange of food and merit flowing in both direct ions: food TO the
preta (in the form of pil.uJa ) and TO the unborn descendant (in the
form of embryonic subStance), as well as merit to thepretll (accrui ng
from the ritual ) and 10 the descendant (from the same ritual ). The first
assistants tlla! the dead man required were his male children; only
later was it bc!ie\'ed that his parents also played a role in his rebirth .
Thus the primacy of the Vedic model explains another puzzling
aspect of the karma doctrine, the de-emphasis on the role of the
parellts.
Various forces that act very much like karma arC' transferred
between sexual partners in tht, " Good
deeds" are said to be taken from a man by his female partner if he has
intercourse without knowing the proper ma1llm, and he is encour-
aged to speak a verse guaranteed to "take away" (and transfer to
himself? the tC'xt does nOt say) the breath, sons, cattle, sacrifices, and
good deeds of his wife's lover, so that the man will die "impotent and
without merit." 20 Surely this is the beginning of the idea of transfer of
karma through sexual contact ; though the word for "good deeds"
and " meri t " here is slIkrtam, not karma, Ihe unity of context dearly
implies thai the man will transfer to himself the lover's good deeds
even as a woman may take his own good deeds from him. Between
these two passages occurs a third in which seed is transferred from the
woman to the man; again a reversal of the natural ordl' r, and again an
instanc!! in which seed functions like ka rma, as the code-substance
that transfers power (with which Ihe semen is explicitly equaled in
this text ) fro m a man to a woma n or from a woman to a man. An even
earlier, though more problematic, reference to a similar transfer may
be seen in the Rg Vedic verse in which the goddess of dawn,
described as a seductive dancinggirl, is said to cause t he mortal to
age, wearing away his life-span as a cunning gambler carries off the
stakes.!\ A kind of merit transfer occurs in the A(htlrva Veda ritual
invoking food in the form of IfcchiHa, a ritual which may be the
source of the sraddhll offering. 12
20. Brh"dimllJy"k" Up,,"ifad (in Up.mifll d5, with the comnWrHary of SaiJbra,
HaTi Raghunath Bhagavan, roona, 1927) 6. U and 6.4.12.
21. /?g Veda wilh the commcmary of 4 vo!s. (London, 1890- 92). 1.92.10.
21. Personal communication from David /I.\. Knipe.
,
WENDY I)ONI GER O'FLAHERTY
Transfer of meri t occurs in other Vedi c rituals as well. J, C. H Ces-
terman has suggested that the sacrificer's evil was transferred to hi s
guest , or to a ri\'al , or even to the officiating priest.
23
Instances of
karma transfer occur in t he Upani$ads , tOO: a dying father bequeaths
his karma (a mong other things) to his a rare bu t perhaps sig-
nificant inst ance of the transfer from parent to child rather than (as in
the Vedic ritual ) from child to parent. Yet anot her aspect of merit
transfer in the Vedic context has been suggested by Frits Staal:
[n all i ral<ta ritual s there arc three basic clements: dra'1lyam , the substance of
the oblation; devlltii, the deity to whom the oblation is off('re(l ; and tyaga,
the fomlUla pronounced by the Yajamana at the time of the oblat ion, by
which he f("nounc("s th(" benefits or fru its of the ritual in favor of the
deity . . . . The t)',iga formul as, uttered by the Yajamana, arc of the form :
"This is for Agni , nOt for me ' (agnaye idam IIlI and analogously for
the other dei ties). Increasingl y, tyaga is s<'en as the eSS<'nce of sacrifice. The
term was to have a great fUlun' in Hinduism. In the Bhagavad Gita, ty.1-ga
means abandoning and renounci ng the fruits of all activi ty, and is advocated
as the highest goal of life.
H
A similar ritual may be seen in t he insti tution of prasada in
la ter Hinduism, in which ;t gift is made to t he god (t ransferri ng t he
worshipper' s devotion to t he god), consecrated by the priest (the
m(diator), and then b:!ck to the worshipper with added merit
upon it (transferring the god's grace to the worshipper). Prastula in
this sense is a recycling of powers ; the offeri ng is a food (the usual
medium of merit transfer) given to the god to keep him "alive" in
limbo, like a pretti, to give hi m the power to act; and t he prasada is a
form of power granted to the worshipper in return. T his t ransfer is a
pract ical , ecologic:! lly et hic:! ! exchange.
The offering is a simultaneous transfer of flesh and merit,
substance-code, to appease potent ially angry or harmful ancestors,
like the offer ings to demons or the prasada offerings t o maleVOlent
gods.
1
1> The of the embryo is an inversion of this t ransfer: t he
13. J. C. HeeSH'rman, in /" dQ- lro1nia" journal 6, no. !
(1 961): 1- 37; "Veda and Dharma," in The Concept of DMy in Soulh Asia, edited by
Wendy Donig{r O'Flaherty (South Asia Boob, 1977), pp. 80-95. Cf. Wendy
Doni ger O'Fb heny. The Origins of Evil in Hindu M)'tholugy (Universi ty of
California Press , 1976). pp. 1J7 and 141.
24. Kauiitaki UpanHati l .IS: d . Ch:mdogya Upanif'Jd 4.1.4.
15. Frii S St aal , Agm: The VedIC Ritual of Ihe Fire Alrar; I, The Agnirayrma
Ritual (Berkeley, 1980).
16. OTlahefl}, (1976). pp. 89- 93. For :o.hrriou' s theor), of wde and sub5tanc<", or
coded subsunl'e. see the introduction \0 this volume.
KARMA AND ItEB1RTH IN THE VEDAS AND rURANAS , )
parents give the child both his substance (as is stated by the medical
texts) and his merit, or karma (as is clear from the mythological
texts), in one process. The householder (g-rhastha) is thus precari-
ously balanced in the middle, supporting the male line of the past (his
ancestors) and of the future (the sons who, he
hopes , will feed him 3fter death, and whom he must nourish with his
own bodily substance before their birth).
When the theory of transmigration came to be accepted in India
(whatever its sou rce), it was superimposed upon the old system with-
out superseding it; thus the substance-code of karma mediates be-
tween IWO different, contradictory theories. At this point, in the
classical medical and philosophical texts, the parents are said to retain
their role in providing the substance, but the merit is attributed to the
soul's previous exist ence(s); the substance is spl it off from the code.
The Hindus and Buddhists were now forced to postulate a series of
mediating elements to connect the body (given by the parents) with
its karma (given from Ihe previous life), now that these had been split
apart; hence all the bhoga -bodies and Gandhabbas and so forth, to
mediate between spirit and matter - disunited in the interim between
death and birth, and about to be reunited once :lgain during the
li fe-cycle after birth. Hence, toO, the need for wind and breath, so
prominent in the descriptions of the birth process, to mediate be-
tween fi.re and water in the interim between death and birth. In these
various ways, Vedic rimal established the basic ground rules by which
the Pura!)as were to play the ka rma game-and furnished several
jokers for the classical deck \vith wh ich it was to be played .
Karma in the Pura!)as
The doctrine of karma is a straw man in the Pura!)as; it is set up in
order to be knocked down. Although the Oharmasastra passages
rejoice in long lists of hideous tortures inevitable for various sinners,
with specific causa l links between karmic deeds ::Ind fru its, the narr::l -
tiv(' passages and in particular the glorifications of shrines and pil-
grimage seem bent upon the very opposite goal: to show in how very
many ways the workings of karma may be overcome, upset, or re-
versed. Though the functions of karma and the mechanisms of rebirth
are discussed at great length, and though characters in tight SpotS
often blame fate or karma, while the narrator in a tight SpOt hastily
conjures up a previous incarnation to explain an otherwise awkward
WENDY DON I GER O' FL,\ H ERTY
twist of the plOl or inconsistency of characler, the maj or thrust of the
texts is to exhort the worshipper to undertake remedial acti ons in
order to swim like a salmon upstream against the current of karma.
The contradictory and refractory n:ature of the PuraQas has often been
noted in this regard: " As against the mOst common interpretation of
the doctrine o f transmigr:ation, viz. a system of reward for the good
acts :and retributi on of evil :acts of :an individual, there are stOri es in
the Purary3.s that suggest t he idea of evolutionary rcbirth," 21 O n 3.
deeper leve l, however, the basic hyd rauli c analogy implicit in the
karma doctrine - the reifi cati on of moral qualit ies into a transfer3.ble
subst3.n ce-is 3.n assumpt ion b3. sic to Ihe workings of Puraryic
mythology, where it is dearl y m3. nifest ill the int er3.ctiOll s between
persons li vi ng or dead, as well as in the transition of an individual
from one life to another.
A set piece occurs in mOSt of the ea rly Pural') as and is kno wn as
karma-vipaka, or the ripening of karma; it is usuall y placed in the
context of the cosmological description of the hel ls, and it explains
how people get to hell by com milling si ns. There is nO!hi ng particu-
larl y Indian about thi s set piece, though some of the fiendi sh tortures
di splay an Oriental ingenuity in making the punishment " Il he cri me;
it is the old. sad tale that we know from Dante, from S3.nrc, from
J oyce, from our own ni ghtmares. These passages usually say nothing
aboul the mechani sm by which the sinner comes 10 hell or the
mechanism by which he is released; bUI it is worth noting that even
here almost ('very chapler on hell is followed by a chapter on expia -
ti ons, whic h are solemnly guaranteed 10 t hrow a monkey wrench in
the kar mic machine, whatever it is . These passages simply use karma
27. ,'0\'$. Bindu C. "Th,' OTlgm ""d DI' I,:e/opmem of lhr DO(lri" e ofT""m-
m'grillio" III lJ)(' Sanlk.it Liter .. /u re of ,he H i"Jus," Ph .D. di .UI"nuion. Universi l}'
of BombdY, 1957, p. 16&; cil cd by S. G. Cult"",,1 HiHoryfmm the Mdtry,'
Purar:a (B3rod3, 1%" ), p. 229.
28 . VlfI./" I'",;;,,!,, ",il h til<' {'olllnwllt.l ry of (ClicllttJ. 197]) 2. 6; V;;"""",
1%&) 12; Agm l>uTli"" 370; (with (Omm,'n -
l.lT). Bombay. 1890) 14; Bh;;gdval" wilh Ih,' wmmeOlary of Sridhu"a ( Bom-
bay. 18J2) 3.30; Pur-a,,,, 1.IS.31; Samb,. Pur""" ( Bombay. t94 2) !H; Garl1(la
{'"r;,r:a ( Benares, 1%9) 104; also Uftara Khalll!1I 46-U; Brllbm,mda Pura"" (Del hi,
1973) 4. 2; VaY" Pura(,a ( Bomb"a)'. 1897) tOl; Brll 1m", vaiVllrla
Sansk ri t Series 102. 1'00n.1, 19J5) 1.30, -.51 - 52; Sh",dd Varal",
(CaIcUlIJ, 1893) 195- 212; P.1,lm" Pura(I" (Cak UI!3. 1958) 1.32; 2.IS- 16;
5. 237, -.24) , -.245; Brahmil 1954) 216- 217; BbilVi s)'O(/ilr"
4, b} R. C. Hazr"J.. Stu,hrs ill the Upa.p" ra"",; Volume II: Sahel ,md No"-
Srctari" n Up"p"ra,!"s (Calculu Sanskr it Coll eg(' Research Series 22. Calcutta. 1%3),
p.
A:-.;D KEBIRTH IN THE VE DAS AND I' URANAS , 5
as a club with whi ch to beat the listener into a suitably contrite frame
of mind; they tell us nothing :IboUl karma other t han the hct that
one's deeds in this life pursue one after death.
The weapon thus constructed by the " ripening of karma" chapters
is then reinforced by equally formulaic phrases and paragraphs stress-
ing the inexorabl e nature of karma. One such chapter, caBed "The
Glori hcalion of Karma" (ka rma-mahiilmya-katIJilllam ), 19 explains
that karma is t he cause of everything t hat happens in the universe.
Elsewhere it is said, "The seers proclaim the karma process to be the
very pedestal of the PU6.1.1aS . ... The course of
karma in a breathing creature tied to a body is deep and mysterious,
hard even for the gods to comprehend; so how could men understand
it?"JO
Undaunted by thi s rhetorical question, some of the later PuraQas
go into considerable detail on t he mt'chanism and functi o n of karma,
emphasizing its inevitabilit y.J J The coment of these passages has been
well summari7.ed and di scussed on several occasions;32 for the mOst
part, the texts merely present the major theories of the classical dar-
sallas at the Reader's Digest level characteristic of philosophical dis -
course in t he Pllr3nas.
The Process of Death
Some PuraQas di scuss the processes of death and birth in great detail;
in true Indian fashion, they begin with death and then proceed to
bi rth, a procedure which this essay will mimic.
The sadness of death and the inability to accept it as final (sent i-
ments which must lie very near the heart of t he spirit thal crealed lhe
karma doctrine) are clearly reflect ed in several discussions of dying:
The" sages askl'd Vyasa, "Who is the companion of a dying man, his father or
mother or son or teacher. his crowd of friends and relations? When he leaves
the body that has been hi s house as if it were a house of wood or lllud, and
goes into the world beyond. who follows him?" The sage Vr 2.Sa replied.
"Alone he is born, and alone he dies: alon .. h .. crosses the dangerous
thresholds, without the compani onship of father, mother, brother, son or
29. P.ldma f'ur:ma 2.'H.
JO. (wit h comment.!ry, BCIIJres, 1%0) 6.1 0. 22a, -.J4,
d. .
.>1. IbiJ .. 6.10.8-10; 6.11.10-30: 4.11.5- 7; 4.11.19- 18.
31. Johann Jakob Meyer, Sexual Lif. in Ancien! India (N .. w York. 1930), pp. 359-
369.
,6 WENDY DQNIGER O'FLAHERTY
lelcher, without hi s crowa of friends and relations. When hl' leaves the dead
body, for a brief moment he weeps, and then he turns his face away and
departs. When he leaves the body. dbarma alone foll ows him; if he has
dharma he goes 10 heaven, but i f he has adharma hl' gors to hdl. Earth,
wind, space, water, light, mind, intelligence, and the self (alman)-thcse are
the witnesses that watch constantly ovrr the dharma of creatures that
breathe on carl h; IOgcthn wilh them, dharma follows the jiva. Skin, bone,
flesh, semen and blood leave till' body whrn it is lifeless; but thejiva 1ha! has
diJamla prospers happily in this world and the world beyond.".H
Another version of this texi rings a few minor changes: " His relatives
t urn away and depart, but dharma follows him .. .. The body is
burnt by fire , but the karma he has done goes wit h him. "J4
T he five elements mentioned by Vyasa and coupled wit h three
levels of cognition are more fully expounded in other texts, which
seek to dist inguish between this mat eria l component of the human
being and t he immortal jiva:
Earth, wind, sky. fire, and water - these arc the seed of the body of all who
have bodies. The bodv made of these five elements is an artificial and im-
permanent thing which t urns to ashes . The jiva has the form of a man the
size of a thumb; thi s subtle body is taken on in order to experience I the fruit s
of b rma]. That subtl( body does not turn to ashes even in the blazing fire in
hell; it is not dest royed in water, even .. fter a long tin1<", nor by weapons,
swords or missiles, nor by very sharp thorns or heated iron or stone, or by
the embrace of a heated image (a common torture in hdl!, or c\'('n by a fall
from a very high place. [t is nOt burnt or broken.
H
This subtle body, here called the jiva , is the carrier of the ka rmic
deposit; it is identical with dIe lii-lga-5arlra and is also called t he
ativahika (or ativahika) body, the body "swifter than wind. "J6
The karmi c chain does not end with the ativnhika bodv, however ;
,
several texts posit yet another st age of development, and another
body to experience it in. This involves the world of thepreras, whom
we have already encountered as central figures in the Vedic antece-
dents of the brm;] theory; it is t herefore nOt surp rising t hat t hey
33. 217. 1-16.
H. GaTt. 4a Uttara Khanda, 1.22-15.
35. Br"h",,,v,,iv,,r(tl Pura,," 2.31.17-31.
36. Pu r;;na (Bombay, no date) 116.1-12; 2.113-1].1; Mark"ndeya
Purtlllt:l 10.48b-50; Ag"j Pura"t:l 369.1- 10; 371.6- 11 ; Garu4a Pur:''},,-.
UIr"ra Kha,,4a, lLlJP; see also Knipe, fn. 19, citing P. V. Kane. History of
IV (I'oona. 1953), 265-166, and Ranjan Origi" and
Developme", of Ihr Riruals of Ancestor Wor,hlp j" 'ndid (Cakum, 19(3). pp. 58 ff .
for funher references 10 the Pur:inas.
KAR;\IA AND REBIRTH IN TH E VEDAS AND
'7
remain central to the full effl orescence of that theory. The
duty of the living to o ffer oblations to the preta ancestors is a subject
of major interest to the Brahmin authors of our texts. J7 An entire
thirty-fi ve-chaptcrporti on of the known as the Pre-
taka/pa, deals with nothing but the nature of these suspended souls,
the very embodiment of karmic ambivalence. literally hanging be-
tween life and death. Other texts take up the thread after the dead
man has been judged by Yama:
The dead man remai ns in that impure ati'1.:ahika body, eating the pi(uja.
offered by his rel atives; then he abandons that body and assumes a prt'ta
body and goes to the prCld world for a year. A man cannot be rel eased fr om
his iitivahika body wi thout the for the pre/as, but when the
ri te has been performed a yea r after his death, he gives up hi s prCld
body and obtains an (>xp(>rience body fbhoga-dehal. By means of t he experi-
enCl' body he experiences the good and bad accumulated according to the til'S
of karma; then he is cast down, and the night-wandering demons cat that
(expt'rience) body.3S ... These deformed and hideous demons on earth eat
that expa il'nce body wht'n it has fallen from htaven.
H
Not content with the preta body mediat ion of the mediation, t he
dialectic al ways eager to subdivide anyt hing into t wO of
anything else, have added yet another body-the experience body,
which is disposed of in a way which, we shall sec, is hi ghly signifi cant
for PuraQ.ic mythology. But even this docs not sati sfy them, and they
go on to split the experi ence body itsel f into two :
There are IWO forms of ex perience body, one good and the other bad: the
good one has the form of a god, but the bad one is hidt'ous to look upon.
Whatever form he used to have when he was a man, the body resembles that
form somewhat. Then he leaves the experience body and goes to heaven, and
when there is only a little karma left, he fall s from heaven. If some evil
remains, then when he has experi enced hea\' en he rakt's a second experi t'nce
body for evi l, and having exprrienced the evil he then experi ences heaven
aft erwards. (In the fi rst instance), when he falls from heaven, he is born in
the house of good, pun' people. But (in the second instance), if (only a little)
meri t r('mains, then he experi ences tht' evi l (ti rs!), and when that body has
takes a guud form, and when onl y a lilli e karma remain s, the
soul is released from hell and is born in an animal womb, and there he does
not experirnce any evil.
}7. O'Flaherty (1976), pp. 360-361; sec also Wendy Donign O'Flaherty, Asretirism
,md Erotiri5l'l j" the Mythology ofSiv<l (Oxford Uni\' ersity Prn s. 1973), pp. 68- 70.
38 . Ag!li 369.11- 14.
39. Pura,s" 1.113; C",,, r/,. 117.J-7.
40. Aglli 369. 15-19; Vif(IUdhiJ.mlOtldriJ. Pur::'!" 2.1[).1-1S.
, 8 WEN VY DONIGEK O' FLAHEKTY
Ahhough the sequence of action is not entirely clear, it is evident that
the man of mixed karma has one experi ence body in heaven and
another one in hell; if evil predominates. apparently he goes first to
hell, then to heaven, and then from hell to an animal womb; if good
predominates, he goes fi rst to heaven, then 10 hell, and then from
heaven again to a good birth among humans. It is hi ghly sign ificant
that the word translated throughout these sel ections as "experience"
(n. or v. : bhoga, bJJ/lj) also has the st rong connotati on of " eating" or
"consuming. " Thus the soul in limbo eats not only the offer-
ing, its li teral food, but its own past karma-its spiritual food.
The Process of Binh
This brings us then to the mechanism of birth itsel f. In earl y texts , the
process is merel y described, not explained, and certain questi ons are
raised : " Every dead person consumes both his good and bad deeds;
then how do they bear fruit for him? How is it that the link creature
(the embryo) is not digested like a piece of food in the woman' s bell y
where so many heavy foods are digcsted?"11 The close histori cal
connect ion between the transfer of meri t-food to dead ancestors and
to unborn dcsn'nd:mts underli es the Indian variant o f an anatomica l
misconception uni versal among children : that babies grow in the
stomach. (Thi s idea is further supported by the many Hindu myths
describing conception by mouth and mal e anal But
the Sanskrit text supplies a lengthy and seri ous answer to the naiv{'
questi on:
When he has suffered through all the hells, the sinnr r, through thl' ripening
of hi s own kar ma that he committed even while inside anOther bod)', enlers
the animal creation, among wor ms, inseCl s, and birds; among wild animals,
mosquitoes, and so fonh; among elephants. trees [sicl, catt le, and horses,
and other evil and harmful creatures. Then he is born as a man, a contempt-
ible' one like a hunchback or a dwarf; among Carydalas, Pulkasas, and so
forth. And then, accompanied by hi s remaining si ns and Ill erit s, he enters
the classes in ascending Vai sya. king, and so forth - and then
he becomes a Brahmin, ;\ god, and an Indra. But sometimes he does it in
descending order, and e\' i! -docrs fa ll down into hdl.
4 J
41. Mark,mdc),,, P" r,mtl 10.04-6.
42. O'Flaherty (1973), pp. 173-181; (1976), pp. 334, 343-344 .
43. Marktl(u!l')''' 10.88- 92 .
AND REBIRTH IN THE VEDAS AND PURAl':'AS
'9
This text then goes on to describe the process of birth as determined
by karma, though unfortunately without providing a link between
thc ]iva in hell and [he engendered embryo:
Impregnation of a woman by a man takes plan' when the sud is pl aced
in her blood; as soon as it is discha rged from heaven or hell, It sets
ou!' , . . The embryo remembers its many transmigrations, and it is dis-
tressed because of this ont'" and that one, and therefore it becomes

That the actual mechanism of birth is the union of the man's seed and
the woman's blood is never challenged in thcse tcxts:
All creatures, m('n and animals, are bound by desire, and they have inter-
course and play with one anot her. Th.' blood of women, in the breast, causes
the sperm to grow; for the semen of men, in the seed. grows by union with
women and is nourished by the blood of t he WOman. At the time of the
falling of the seed of the man, a portion of the j/va (f/vfifll5a) grows in the
pregnant womb, by means of blood. From the entry of the man's jiva into
the womb, flesh
Here it is apparent that t he jiva is given by the man and nourished by
the woman, a view up held in most of the medical and legal texts .
Other Purary.as indicate a more equal divis ion of responsibility be-
tween man and woman: " If a person violates dlMrma, he is born in a
womb made of a conjunction of semen and blood, wit h all the re-
mainders of his own karmas. In the union of a woman and a man he is
born
But of course things cannot remain so simple; soon we have our
dialectic, now in t he seed: "Leaving both heaven and hdl, he takes
birth in the womb of a woman, taking the form of a pa ir of seeds
situated at the navel. The embryo is a mere bubble at first, but then
blood is Another text divides t he embryo into a different
pai r, sediment and juice, on tht, analogy of cooking rice which sepa-
rates into solid and liquid in this way (and yet anot her echo of t he
rice-seed-food in the sraddha ritual); it then subdivides each of these
into twelve: the secretions are separated into twelve forms of impur-
H. Ibid. , 11.1, -.13, - .22-24.
45. (Poona, 19(9), II lines 2909- 2915.
46. Ling;,! f'"r'I1JIA (Calcutta, 1890) 88.47-48.
47. Gamda [>"'a"a 2]7.6-7.
20 WENDY DONI GER O'F LAH ERTY
it y and expelled from the body, and the juice circulates in the form of
twelve-fold blood which nourishes the body. Then:
St.-men is born from food; and from semen the birth of the divine body takes
place. When the flawless semen is placrd in the womb at the fenile season, it
is blown by the wind and unit es with the blood of the woman. AI the time of
the ejaculation of the semen, the jiV(/ unit ed with the cause and enveloped
and joined with its own karmas enters the womb. The semen and blood in
their united form become an embryo in one day.
The wind in the form of (sometimes subdivided into apdntl and
IIdima ) is said to be the scat of the jiVtl that leaves the body of the
dying ma n in the form of a sigh.
4
'1 Now it returns to blow lifc back
into ,he body, to unite the elements of fire (seed) and water (blood);
this tri:Id - wind joining fire and water - appears on the macrocos-
mie scale as the whirlwind bctween the doomsday conflagrat ion and
fl ood . 50 The triad appea rs in other descriptions of the birth process,
as well:
Wind, fire, and Soma always develop the body of embodied creatures. The
jiva, impell ed by karma, ent ers into the embryo, taking the form of wind,
abandoning all the experience bodies as it comes from heaven or hell or from
an animal womb, Thus the jivil enters th(' embryo because of the power of
dlC ch ain of
Here the wind is explicitly ident ified with the jlva, the spirit (alman,
the bre:uh of life) that bridges the gap between the tWO primal
elements of maner, fire and water, as well as between ma tt er :Ind
substance.
Often it is sai d that the jiv(1 becomes deluded as the embryo de-
velops inside the \vomb. ;;2 While in the womb, the embryo remem-
bers his former Jives and is thus subject to the twin tOrtures of chagrin
for his past mi sdemeanors and Angst over the anticipated repetitions
of his stupidit y (i n addition to the considerable physical discomfort of
confinement inside the disgusting womb), The embryo then resolves
to make a better job of it this time: but like all New Year' s resolu-
ti ons, this one is short- lived , and at birth the jiV(1 is deluded by the
force of miiya so that (unless he is a parti cularly talented yogi ) he
fo rgets his fanner lives. The belief in the consciousness of the embryo
48. {'uranll (Bombay, 1959) 4.4. 9- 11.
49. Vi! (l luJharmQll<lra Pu r,I IJ" 116. 1- 12; ,I f a rkalldeYIl {'urana 10.48 - 72 .
50. O'F!dherlY (1973) , pp. 21- 26; (1976), pp. 35- 36, 42.
51. Vil(wdlJIIymOrillW I'ura(,,' 2.112 .
52. Br"hma Purana 2!7.2J-Jl .
KARMA AND REBIRTH IN THE VEDAS AND rUR ....
"
makes possible such episodes as the talc of Brhaspati's rape of his
pregnant sister-in-law; in the midst of the act, the embryo called OUt,
"Hey, uncle, there isn't room enough for twO here; your seed always
produces a child, and J was here first." When the embryo'S foot
actually kicks Brhaspati's semen OUt of the womb, the enraged rapi st
curses the child to be born blind. 53 Thus karma can be amassed even
inside the womb.
Although the newborn child is thus unaware of his accumulated
karma, it is there nevertheless, together with other predetermined
factors: "A creature in the mortal world is born because of his own
karmas; his life-span, karma, wealth, learning, and death arc born
with the embodied creature in the womb. Head down and feet up, the
embryo gives forth a breath, and from birth the illusion of
deludes the AnOlher text repeats this list of five dest ined
facmfs and then adds, "By his own karmas a creature becomes a god,
man, animal, bird, or immovable thing. "5S The categories inm which
one can be born may be determined by a number of influenc{' s more
complex than the mere preponderance of good or bad karma: "By
good deeds one becomes a god; by bad deeds a creature is born
among the animals; and by mixed deeds, a mortal. The Veda (Srllti ) is
the authority for the distinction between dharma and tldhtlnna. "56
But nothing is ever so simple, and other texts prefer to subdivide
the fat e of the incarnate jiva in other ways: " The jiv a endowed with
material substance is of three sortS, all of them devoid of knowledge
and full of ignorance: the evil-doer bound for hell; the merit- rmker
who is bound for heaven; and the jiV{I with a mixture of these qual-
it ies."S7 Yet another division-always into tWO opposed categories
and one mediating one-raises more compl icated issues:
1n the' union of seed and blood, a bal! of flesh begins to grow in the
belly, !ike the moon in the sky. Consciousness (e<ll'tanya) is always inherent
in semen which has the form of seed ; desin-, thought, and semen become
one, and then a man takes a malerial form in the womb of a woman. A gi rl is
born if thl' re is a preponderance of blood; a boy if there is a preponderance
of semen; if semen and blood are equal, the embryo is a
53. Mahabh!mtta 1.98.6- 18 (with inserti ons omitted by critical edition) ; Brabmal'}(la
Purarya 2.3.74.36-47.
54. Garu4a PUra(la, Ullara 22.70- 72.
55. P.ldma 2.94.12.
56. Bhavqya (Bombay. 1959) 4.4 .6-8,
57. Linga 1.86. 15-19.
58. Garur!a PUra(la, UUara Kharya, 22.18- 21.
,rENDY D0 0il GER O'l' LAHE RT Y
Here the mal clfemlle opposition is ldded to the seed/blood, prallill
apima, fi re/water, ju ice/sediment, heaven/hell, godlanimal dual-
of them subsumed under the most elementary of them all ,
goodlevil. 11 is worthy of note that man lpprars as the mediation
between god and animal {as he docs between gods and demons in the
rnythology);5<1 he is, like wind and karma, the link that explains but
cannot be explained.
This text, the is unique in regarding consciousness
as a signifi cant element of se men; it al so places more emphasis upon
the consc iousness of father himself: "Whau'vet a man has Oil his
mind at the time of impregnati on, a creature born of such a nature
(svabhiiva) will ent er the womb."t'>O This is a va ri ant of the wide-
spread Indian beli ef that whatever one thinks of at the moment of
death determines one's form of rebirth; thus the tale is told of a
virtuous man who, bl'ing frightened by demons at the moment of his
drath, thought , "Demons!" and was therefore reborn as a demon. 61
The signifi cant vlriant in the is that it is the thought
of the father , nOt of the reborn jivil iudf, that determines this birth
(jUSt as, in the a man is exhorted to meditlte appropriatel y
while begetting his offspring in order to get the kind he has in
mind. hl)
This brings up once more the question of the role of the karma of
the parentS in the process of rebirth, a role that is implicitly excluded
by most of th, direct discussions of the karmic process in the Pural)as
(whi ch do not mention parental karma) but is obviously cent ral to
many of the narratives in these vcry same texts. There arc even hints
of it in some of the texts describing the karmic process: " The mltcrial
substance of the embryo becomes completely dried up by karma and
because of the narure of others [kala ayati karmary-
Who could these "others" be if nOt the pa rents?
The Purar:ras stlt e that the child's birth is affected by the karma of the
father and the mother jM simibrl y, the embryo' s physical makeup is
contributed by bot h plrcnts: the mot her gives hair, nails, skin, 11 esh.
59. (1976), pp. 78- 9J.
60. Ga,uda Pur,ina, Vllarll Khllnda, 22.17.
M. 1.1.5.1-35; d. (1976). pp. 1J5- t36.
62. Brh,tdimmyaka Vpllr"llld 6.4.1-22.
6J. Liilg(J P"":',,a 1.86.16.
M. Ag"i Pura"a 1 5 1 . 1 S: pit" r ",:; / uka k(Jrm.tl(Jb.
" ARM .... AND REBIRTH IN THE VEDAS AND PURANAS
2)
and the father gives bone, sinew, and marrow.65 In the many Puraryic
accounts of the wicked king Vena, his evil nature is often attributed to
his mother's sinful karma.
66
The actual mechanism of this karmic
transfer duri ng the process of birth is not explained in the Puraryas,
but the effeci of it is certainly taken for granted; and, as we shall sec,
the transfer of karma in the opposite direction (from ch il d to parent)
takes place often during life and after the death of the parent.
Karma and Fate
Other factors in addition to the karma of the jlva itself and the karma
of the parents affect the chi ld' s birth, and one of these is fate. Thus it
is said, "B)' karma impelled by fate a creature is born in the bod)';
taking refuge in a drop of the seed of a man he enters the belly of a
woman." The commentator, Sridhara, glosses it thus : "By the karma
that he has previously committed, with fate-that is, Isvara [God]
- as the leader or impeller, he enters; the embryo becomes a bub-
ble made of a mixture of seed and blood."67 Yet karma and fate
are often said to work together, or even to be the same.6fJ They are
clearly superimposed upon each other in a myth in which a sage tries
to dissuade Parasara from killi ng all the demons in order to avenge his
father's murder by them: "Tht, demons did not hurt your fath er; it
was fated to happen to him in this way. Who is killed by whom? A
man experiences (t he fruits of) his own deeds."69
The interaction of forces is more clearly evident in a similar myth in
which a sage tries to dissuade Dhruva from killing al1 the in
order to avenge his brother's murder by them:
"The Lord ordains Ihe increase or decrease in th e lifespln of a mi serable
creature Sr'idha ra glosses this as karmadhinll, dependent on
karma, though the Lo rd himself is indcpcndmt) . So me S.1y Ihi s is brma;
others that it is one's own nature; others that it is time; others that it is fat e;
(,). Agni Pur,l>Ja 369.31-31; 370. 19-10: cf. O'Fbhwy (1976). PI>. 36)-361..
66. P.ldma 1.19-33; Bhagavata 4. 13 ; Vamana p,.raTJa, S. 16; cf.
O'FJahmy (1976), pp. 314- 3lS.
67. Bhaga'1.lala 3.31.1- 2; Hari'1.lalTJid, sl.',adharmaprakaraTJa (appendix II),
Jines 2795-2796.
6S. MalSya Pur:iTJa 30.12: Kanu .... ala, p. 206, citing \'01. I, p. 127, of the 3>\'01.
edit ion with Prlikp commentary by and Ananli carya; De-
'1.Iibhagavala 6.1 0.29.
69. Lii/ga Pura,}" 1. 64 . 109- 111.
WENDY ()ONIGER O'FlAHERTY
and that it is desirl". TIll" sl" r ... ams of Kubera, the werl" nOI the
slayers of your brot her; the cause of a man's birth and death is fate (rlaiva:
Sridhara glosses it as lsvaral . He creates this universe, Jnd keeps it. and ki lls
it; but becJuse he has no egoism, he is not affected by karmas or qual -
iti es
The confusion is inherent in the very word for fate , dai-va, whi ch
etymologically should mean "that which pert ains to the gods
fdcv'Hl." Sridhara glosses daiva as a word for God. in which case
the I{' xt is saying that God is independent of karma and unaffected by
it , an attiwde whi ch we will sec refl ected in the bhakti text s .
It is sometimes stat ed or impl ied that the gods aTe fr ee of karma:
" There are no acts presc ribed or forbidden for the gods , no acts
which giv{" good o r bad fruit s."71 But ds{"wh{"Te a clear distincti on is
made between the power of fate and the pOwer of karma, and it is said
that the gods aTe not only separat e from fat e but in its sway:
In hi s various avatars, Visnu was under a cu rse, and hl" did his various
actions always in lhe power of blC fdaival.
1
'! . .. Brahml , Vi sr:t u, Rudra,
Indra, and th e olher gods, demons, and Gandhlrvas. all are in
th ... power of karma ; otherwise how could th ey havc bodies and expe-
ri ence happiness and sorrow as an embodi(d crealurr does? Kr$1:la per-
fo rmed all hi s great manly deeds Ip"un<fa] by Ihe power of predesti -
nltion [bhiivivaf,it). 7l
Indra is particularl y susceptible to his back-logged karma; time and
again, karma is invoked as an excuse for hi s weakness or failure : Bali
was abl e to usurp Indra's throne because of the evil karma that Indra
had amassed by destroying the embryo in Oiti's womb. Often the
poet remarks, "The immortals have become unhappy because of their
own karma; Indra has reaped thl' fruit of hi s evil acti on ."7S The gods
may also escape punishment faT thei r sins by blaming t his same
power of karma: when Indra had rape<j a pregnant woman and hid-
den in shame, Brhaspati (who had committed the same act, and even
with the same woman) consoled Indra by saying, " Don't worry. All
thi s universe is in the sway of karma."76 Thes(' apparently con fli cting
70. Bhagal!atd Puralltl
71. ,IIauya Purii"a
72. Drvibhagavara f'ura>Jd 4.20.52. cf. 3.20.36-37.
73. Ibid. , 6.10.17- 19. -.38b.
74. VallMlla Cf. Droibhagavara PI",ll1d 6.17. 40 and 9.40.70- 9\ for
olher eumples of Indra' s karma.
75. Siva Pura'Ja (Bennes, 1%4) 2.3.1U8-14.
76. Sk,,,,Ja ( Bomba)'. 18(7) 2.7. 23. 8- 40; see O'Fhheny (1976), p. 17.
KARMA AND REB IRTH IN THE VEDAS AND PURANAS
'5
attitudes to the fat!: and karma of the gods may be somewhat clarified
when one realizes that Sridhara is talking about God, the absolute,
who is rega rded as being either above fate or identical with it, and that
the others are merely lower-case gods, who arc helpless against fate
and karma, Other inconsistencies result from the narrator's freedom
to select whatever theory best explains the present exigencies of
his plo t.
In the li ght of these twO beliefs-that God controls fate, and that
the gods Jre controlled by it-many texts argue that man himself can
do nothing to battle these inexorable forces, Yet this argument is
challenged as often as it is stated without challenge, \,\lhen the wicked
Karp sa learns that he is "fated" to be killed by a child of Devaki, he
boaSTS, " T his is a matler that concerns mere mortals, and so it can be
accomplished by us though we are mortal. It is known that people
like me can overcome fate and turn it to advantage by the right
combination of spells , and herbal medicines , and constant effort," 77
Unfort unately for Karpsa, his fale docs not turn out to be surmount-
able (for the child fated to kill him is no "mere mortal"), and
when Karp sa's scheme backfires he changes his tune, saying that it
was not he but fale that arranged eventS, that he could lIot o vercome
fat e by mere human effon. Yet the means that Karp sa set such store
by must have been accepted by many people in ancient India -
among them, the very woman whose child he was determined to
destroy, Devaki, who tri ed to di ssuade her husband, Vasudeva, from
handing over the fated child:
"},'Ien must experience the karma that was formerly made, but can that not
be worn away by pilgrimages, asceticism, and gifts? For the rites of ex pia
tion have be!.'n set forth in the Dharmasastras composed by the noble (sages )
in order 10 destroy the evils amassed in fonn!.'r (lives) .... If you decide,
'What is to be, will be,' thcn thc medical books are in vain, and all the sacred
recitations, and all effort is in va in. If c\'!.'rything is brought about by fate, if
'What will be, will be, ' then all undertakings are wi thout purpose, even the
sacritices that are supposed to achieve hea\'en. If this is so, then the authori ty
(of the Vedas ) is fal s ... !y procbi,n"J, an d if tI,,, is h! S(" ",hy is n't
dharma cut down? But in faCt, when an effort is made, success is achievcd,
right before yom eyes. Therefore you should investigate and d,-t ermine what
is to be done to prOtect this little boy, my little son. "7S
This argument, unlike Karpsa's, is vindicated by the plot, for al-
though Vasudeva answers Oevaki with a description of the inevitabil -
77. 47.q5. 78 . Devibhagavala Pur,'ma 4.21.5-17.
WENDY DONIGER O'FLAHERTY
ity of and hands over the first six children that she bears, he
docs make an effort to save the last son, and this effort is successful:
the child, is saved. That he is saved by supernatural interven-
tion, and that he himself is God, somewhat qualifies the value of this
episode as proof of the efficacy of "manly effon" against divine fate .
Nevertheless. it is surely significant thaI in proclaiming her worldly,
anti-karma, attitude to human experience, Devaki
call s upon the Vedic tradition to support her, referring 10 " the sac-
rifices th:u are supposed to achieve heaven"; for this is precisely the
goal which David Knipe has shown to underly the sriiddha ritual in
its archaic form, the goal of the pre-Brahmaryic world view that is
preserved in the Puraryic model of death and rebirth.
The argument that fate can be overcome is fully developed in other
texts:
All depends upon karma. There are tWO desti nies l"Vidhalle]: one is brought
about by fate (or gods It/"iv,,!) and the other by men Fate
cannOt be lathomed; and so all activity is based upon manly effort
One's own karma is called fate, earned from another body:
therefore wise men say that manl y effort is more important. An adverse fate
may be OVl'rcOmt' by effort, by those who engage in ceremonies and strive to
rise. B}' effort men obtain the fruit that they seek: men who have no manl y
energy believe in fate. Fate, what a man does, and the effects of the three
times (past, prescnt, and triad bt'ars frui t for:l
Karma is here equated with the things that a man does, in contrast
with the things thar arc done to him (i. e. , fate ); it is thus by means of
karma that a man overcomes fatc . An earlier v:lriam of thi s text Ci teS
only the tWO factors, fate and the actiyities of man;81 the longer text
then mediates between them with a third factor, the power of time
(itself a tri ad ), which enters intO the karma cycle at various points and
is often cited as a cause for otherwise inexplicable action .82 Similarly,
when the medical textbooks arglle aboll t the relalive weights of vari-
o us causal factOrs, the author rejects in turn the physical elements
(dhiiflts), mother and father, karma. one's own nature (svabhiiva),
and arrives at the penultimate solution: The creator, Prajapati , made
happiness and sorrow for his creatures. But , objects the text, this
could not be: since Prajapati wishes for the welfare of his creatures ,
he would not have bu rdened them with mise ries as if he were a bad
79. Ibid .. 4.115- 7, 19- 28.
80. Mau)"a 221.1 - 12 .
81. Agni Purana 225.23- 33: 226.1- 4.
82. O'Fbhen:y (1976), pp. 22 - 26. 0. CaukJ 25.16- 24.
KARMA AND REBIRTH IN THE VEDAS AND PURANAS
person (asadhuvat). The final solution to this expression of theodiey
is the tradi tional Indian one: time (kala) is the source of a person and
of his diseases. Thus time combines with fate and karma; and yet a
man may try to break away.
The Conquest of Karma
If one can reverse fate, one can certainly reverse karma, a far less
impersonal and more accessible force; and the t exts insist that this is
so. In the oldest strain of Purat:lic writings on this subject, after the
usual hair- raising description of the torments of hell, the Brahmin
author of t he text is asked by a desperately worried listener if this is,
reall y and truly, inevitable; the Brahmin then proceeds to narrate
several chapters laying out the types of gifts to Brahmins t hat are
certain to protect the generous sinner from the slightest danger of
going to hell. In some texts, the karma theory is t urned inside OUt
against itself: by acquiring merit in certain ways , one abolishes
rebi rth.
8J
As t he doctrines of Yoga entered the Puraryic mainstream, Yoga
became another means of del iverance; after setting up the inexorable
ka rma process , the PUYllTJa proceeds to undermine it
completely with a long chapter on the way that the practice of Yoga
releases people from karma.
84
Meditation and renunciation are
equally effective as karmic antidotes ;8S and later, as pilgrimage begins
to usurp the Brahmin' s monopoly on deliverance, the Puraryas nar-
rate chapter after chapter of glorifications of shrines (tirtha-
mahatmya) -bathing at anyone of which is guaranteed to wipe out
all one's past bad karma. Thus when Parvatl asks how evil that
has been accumulated in a thousand former births can be worn away,
replies t hat this evil is worn away when one enters the Avimukta
shrine at Benares.
86
Finally, when bhakti is in full flower, devotion to the god is a
safe-conduct through the ran ks of the soldiers of Yama. The
t:las abound in stories in which the unrepentant sinner, about to be
dragged away by t he minions of Yama, is saved at the last minute by
t he arrival of the chariot of the servants of the sectarian god, landing
83. Matsya Purana 57.27; 59. 19; 206.17-18.
84 . Mark<l(u!eya Purana 39.
85. Linga Pur/Hi-a 1.86.15-21.
86. "'auya Pura(la 181.10, -.1 7-18.
WENDY DONIGER O' FL AHERTY
like the marines at the eleventh hour.87 By the worship of Vi$I.lu, one
can "dispense" with karma; karma is conquered by those whom
loves."" The constricting aspects of the doctrine of karma are
particularl y unacceptable to the posi tive-thinking and vigorous dev-
otees of contemporary gurus: thus Swami Bhaktivcdanta comment s
on the Bhilgllvtlfa fJura1!d passage about karma:!l<l "Under the laws of
kanl1a a living ent ity wanders within the universe under the rule of
eternal time, and sometimes he becomes a mosquito and sometimes
Lord Brahma. To a sane Ill:!.n this business is not very frui tful. .. .
But in the Brahma-Samhita we find it sa id , kll rmall/ nirt/ahati liit. :
. .
"He burns away karmas"]: the Lord dimini shes or vanqui shes the
reactions of devotees."'iO
It is thus apparent that each of the major religi ous systems that
appear in the PuraQas has developed a sure-fire antidote to the di sease
of karma; yet karma is invoked on almost every page. Why? In the
firs t place, one must nOt underesti mate the value of karma (and fate)
as a plot device; karma ex machina explains what cannot otherwise be
justified. Thus inconsistencies in character, such as an inappropriately
virtuous demon, or in experience, such as the sufferings of a good
man, are explained by reference to karma accumulated in unknowable
previous lives-and this also gives the PauralJi ka a chance to drag in
another good story, often bei den Hllflrn.91 Karma and rebirth are
even used to explain textua l varia nts and multifonns : when the sage
tells one version of a story. and the listeners object that they heard it
di fferently, he may retor! that it happened to the man twi ce, in twO
different
The Transfer of Karma
The karma doct rine is also put to a si gnifi cant use as an expression of
the identity of spirit and matter or "code and substance. "93 Karma
87. O'Flaherty (1976), pp.lJl - l36.
88. Dl'Vibhagavara Purima 9.19-}0; v,m"iha Puralla 5; Brabmavaivarta Pu.r,".'"
2.29- H: 4.74.
89. Bhagavata Pu.Ti'ma 3.31.1-2.
90. A. C. Bluk(; vedan(1>. SrimiJd Bbagavalam ( Ncw York. 1975). Third Canto. ran
Thret', p3ge 472.
91. O'l' bheny (1976). pp. DI - 138.
92. O'Flaherty (1973), p. 19.
93. McKim l\larriou , " Hindu Transactions: without Duali sm. " pp. 109-
142 of Bruce J\apfercr ({'d. ). TriJlI5<lcti01I iJlIIl Meaning: DireaiQm in the A1lfbropol-
ogy of Exchange and Symbolic Beh.lViQr, Institut e fo r th ... Study of Human Issucs.
Philadelphia, 1976.
KARMA AND REBIRTH IN TH E VEDAS AND I'URAN,' S
'9
is a metaphor for the effecls that human beings have upon one
another. in th is li fe :lnd even across the barri er of death. This function
is based on the idea of merit transfer.'14 Although the transfer takes
plan.' between any two an imate creatures (so that one may be po!1utcd
by contact with a tot al st ranger or even an animal ), it is particularly
li kely to arise in relation to transactions involving food and sex, the
two bases of Hindu social activity and caste interactions.
95
Thus good
karma accrues to anyone who feeds guests, particularly Brahmins,
and bad karma to one who does not. Brahma says, " One must never
mistreat a guest, for the guest then takes the good karma of the host
and leaves his own bad karma behind."96 The feeding of a Brahmin
guest is, as we ha\'e seen, a highly recommended way to get rid of
one's bad karma,
The concept of the transfer of good and evil occurs throughout
Indian texts on various levels of religious experience. In one view, all
evil on earth is regarded as a transfer of bad karma from the Creator
to mankind; in particular, Indra and Siva wipe off their moral dirt on
us. '!7 In the war between the gods and demons , the good qualities and
virtues of one group arc constaml y being transferred to the other, and
back again.
98
Other qualities like ascetic power and spiri tual energy
(tapas and tcjas) are also transferred on the karma analogy: Parvatl
transfers her tapas to Siva .'!'!
The most significant transfers take place within rhe family, between
husbands and wives, sibli ngs, and parents and children. The wife' s
chastity is an integral part of her husband's karma; the chaste wife can
release her husband from his sin. 1M Like all karma transactions, thi s
has a negative side as well : to destroy a man, destroy his wife's
chastity:
Siva knew that he could not kill the demon as long as the
demon's wife remained faithful. He commanded Visnu to take the form of
and seduce her, which he did; when the 'good woman real iz.ed
what had happened, she said, "By breaking my virtue, you have kill ed my
husband." 101
94. O' Flaherty (1976), p. )26.
95. Marrion, pp. 110- 11!.
96. OTbheny (1973), pp. 182-184: Sit-'a P"rii(1a 4.12.16-27: Siva Pura(Ja, j!iiirJa
(Bombay, 1884) 42.2)-45.
97. O'Flaherty ( 1976), pp. 139-173.
98. Ibid .. pp. 67- 68.
99, Brahma )5.31- 60.
100. Mats)"a 5l .23-25.
101. Sit-'a 1.5.40-41; Brahmavaivarla Purii.!Ja 2.16, 2.17, 2.22; O'FlaherlY
(197J), p. 186.
)0
WENDY DONIGER O'l' lAHERTY
The substantive nature of this interaction is clear from a similar myth
in which Siva destroys the chastity of the wife of the demon Ja!an-
dhara: when the demon and his wife died , the spiritual energy (tejas)
of the wife emerged from her body and entered Parvati, and the
spir itual energy of JaLtndhar:t entered Siva. 102 Alf Hiltebeitel has
pointed out many similar instances in the Mahiibhiirara, in myths in
which a conq ueror takes to himself some virtue or power of the man
he conquers, as well as in the entire corpus of myths in which S6, the
goddess of pros perity-often regarded as a " wife" of the victorious
king and the incarnation of his virtues and powers-is transferred in
the course of batde. LOJ
The role of a wife in the transfer of karma may involve J. number of
complex tfJ.!l SJ.cti ons :
A demon carried off a Brahmin' s wife and abandoned hcr in the fo rest. The
Brahmin approached the king and said that had curied off his wift"
whil .. he sl ept. The king asked him to describe her, and the Brahmin replied,
" \'(' ell , she has pil>Tcing eyes and is \'ery tall, with shOT! arms and a thin face.
She has a sagging bell y and short buttocks and small breasts; she is reall y
ver y ugly - I' m nOt blaming h.t>r. And sh.e is very harsh in speech, and not
gentle in nature; thi s is how I would describc my wifc. She is awful to look
at , with a bi g mou th; and she has passed hcr prime. This is my wife's
honestly." The kin g repli ed, " Enough of her ; I will give you
another wi fe." But the Brahmin insisted that he needed to pro tect his own
wife, " Fo r if she is not protected. confusion of (':I st es will arise, and th at will
cause my ancestors to fall from heaven ." So the ki ng set out to fi nd her.
The king came upon her in the fo rest and asked her ho w she gOt thi:re; she
!Old him her SlOry. concluding, " ] don' t know why he did it , as he nei thcr
enjoys me carnally nor cats me ." The king found the demon and questi oned
him about his behavior: "Why did you bring th e Brahmin's wife here,
night -wanderer? For she is (,(rtainly no beauty; you could find many better
wives, if you brought her here to be your wife; and if you took her to eat
her, thcn why haven't you eal en
The demon repl ied, "We do not eat men; those arc other demons. But we
cat the fruit of a good deed. (And I ( an tell you all about the frui t of a bad
deed, for [ have been born as a ( fud demon. ) Being dishonored, we con-
sume the very na ture of men l nd women; we do not eat meat or devour
living creatures. When we eat th e patience of men, they become furi ous ; and
when W(' have eaten their evil nature, th ey become vi rtu ous. \Y/e have fem:ll e
demons who are as fasci nating and beautiful as the nymphs in heaven; so
why would we seek sexual pleasure among human women?" The ki ng said,
102. Siva Pu,:ma 2.5.23-24: P..ldma P"ralJa 6.106. U- J4: O' Fl aherty (1973). p. !82.
103. Alf Hilt ebeit e!, TiJ(' Ritu"! of Satdc: Krishna [,1 the ,l{abiibharata (Cornell
Universi ty Press, 1976), pp. 141 -191 (esp. p. 153) , 323, and 352. Cf. also O ' Flahert y
(!976), p. 68.
KARMA AND REBIRTH IN THE VEDAS AND PUR Ai','AS
J '
"If she is 10 serve neither your bed nor your table, then why did yOll enter
the Brahmin's house :lnd take her away?" The demon said, " He is a \'ery
good Brahmin and knows the spells. He used to expel me from sacrifice after
Slcrifice by reciting a spell thai destroys demons. Because of this, we became
hungry, and so we inflicted this defect upon him, for without a wife a man is
not qualified to perform the ritual of sacrifice."
The king said, "Since you happened to mention that you eat the very
nature of a person, let me ask you to do something. Eat the evil disposition
of this Brahmin's wife right away, and when you have eaten her evil disposi-
tion, she may become well behaved. Then take her to the house of her
husband . By doing this you will ha\'e done c\'eryt hing for me who have
come to your house." Thcn the demon entered inside her by his own maya
and ate her evil disposition by his own power, at the king's command. When
the Brahmin's wife was enti rely free of that fiercely ('viI disposition. she said
to the king, "Because of the ripening of the fruits of my own karma, 1 was
separated from my noble husblnd. Thi s night wanderer was (merely the
proximate) cause. The fault is not his, nor is it the fault of my noble hus-
blnd; the faul! was mine alone, lnd no one else's. The demon has done a
good deed, for in another birth I caused someone to becomt' separated from
another, and this (separation from my husband) has now fallen upon me.
What fault is there in the noble one?" And the demon lOok the Brahmin's
wife, whose evil disposition had been purified , and led her to the house of
her husband, and then he well! away. 104
The first karmic transaction takes place when the Brahmin fears that a
transfer of negative karma will cause his ancestors to fall from
heaven - a significant beginning, for without legitimate children
there can be no sr:Hldha to protect the ancestors. The second is im
plicit in the demon's wish to grant the desires of his guest (lest the
sl ighted guest carry away the demon's good karma). The wife is ugly
and evil because of the ripening of her own karma, and the demon has
reached his evi l circumstances as the fr uits of his past misdeeds.
But the most striking transfer takes place when the demon cats the
wife's evil nature (as demons eat the discarded experience-bodies of
t he sinners who have used them up). LOS The word used for the "eat
ing" of her nature is bhllj, the Same word that we encountcred as it
was uscd to dcsignatc the "experiencing" of karma, which is eaten or
consumed in hell. The demon (a strict vegetarian) refuses to "enjoy"
the woman in either of the normal demonic ways (as a sexual object
or a square meal- t he twO most heavi ly charged karmic transfer
situations, and both described by the verb bhllj, which often refers to
104. Pura'Ja 66.24- 39: 67.1 -39.
lOS. Vimudhllrmottara Pura'ia 1.11J; Garuda Purana 217.3- 7.
. . . . .
,,'ENDY DONIGER OTLAHERTY
sexual enjoyment ). But he eats her karma directl y; and this amounts
to a transfer of evil karma from the woman w the demon-who,
being evil already, can easily absorb it. As Gananath Obeyesekere
remarks of this process, " O nly the si nner can come w harm Urom
demonsJ. This amounts w an elhicization of the actions of de-
mons ." LO(; This ethicization may even be read back inw the previous
lives of the demons; as Mircea Eliade has pointed out, "The goddess
Hati t i is said to have obtained the right to cat children as a conse-
quence of merits gained in a previous existence."L01The good karma
of demons, accumulated in a previous life, here allows them w cat
good food; the evil karma of the demon that ate the evil disposition of
the Brahmin's wife allows him to eat evil food (though, apparently, in
this case he does not eat the woman's ugliness, as her long-suffering
husband might have wished).
Another important karmi c transfer takes place between brothers.
In the Mahabhardtd, Yudhighira refuses to go to heaven and wishes
to remain in hel1 in order to give comfort (sukba) to his brothers
suffering there, by means of the cool br('eze which his body gives off
because of his virtue; at length, Dharma [('l Is him that the scene in hell
was a mere illusion produced in order to test him and to serve as a
moral instruction; his are in heav.:n, where he toO j;o,:s at
last. LOS The merit transfer in this episode is minimal; YudhiHhir3.' s
virtue proves usl'ful to his brothers, and he is willing to lose some-
thing in return-heaven. But the Purat:lic expansion of this scene is
far more explicit and complex:
During a brief visit 10 hell, !O expiate one brief lapse, the virtuous king
Vipascit noticc(llhat the air from his body was relieving the suffering of the
si nni.'rs there. He therefore wished 10 remain there 10 help Ihem, saying,
"NO! in heaven nor in the world of Brahma do find such joy as arises
from gi\'ing release to suffering crellures." When I ndra insisted on
leading him!O heaven, the king Slid, "Men are IOrtured by the thousands in
hell. They cry out 10 me, 'Save me!' and so I will not go away." Incira said,
"These men of very tTi! karnll hlve reached hell because of their karma; and
you mUSt go!O heaven because of your own good karma. Go and enjoy your
deserts in the world of Ihe immortals, and !I't them wear away the conse-
106. Gananath Oberesckcre, Sin and Salvation in a Sociology of Bud-
in Edmund R. (cd. ), Ditl/eerie in Pracrieal Religion Pa-
pers in Social Anthropology. no. ;, Cambridge, 1%8), pp. 7-40. Cf.
(1976). p. 78.
107. Mircca Eliadc, 'Notes de Demonologi ... :' in ZalmQx;, 1 (1938); 197- 203; cf.
O'Flaherty (1976), 1" 78.
108. M"hiibh,UM" 18.1.
KAR:\IA AND REBIRTH IN THE VEDAS ANO l'URA::<AS
JJ
quences of their own karma by means of this hl'l l. " The king said, "How can
other men find dl'l ight in associating with me if these men do not bt.'come
el ... vat ... d in my pres ... nce? Therdore, Jet th ... se sinners who ar ... undergoing
punishment be freed from hl'l l by m ... ans of whatever good deeds 1 have
done." Indra said, "By thi s you have achit'ved a higher place, and now you
may set.' how these peopl e, despite their evil karma, art.' released from hell."
Then a rain of flowers fell upon that king, and lndra plac ... d him in a cel ... sti.ll
chariot and led him to h ... .lven. And thos<.' who w ... r<.' ther<.' in hell were
released from their punishments and entered other wombs, as d<.'lcrmin t.'d by
tht.' fruit s of tht.'ir own karma . 109
There is considerable Buddhist influence here. The virtuous king
saves men who are his "brothers" only in the sense that all men are
brothers; he gives thl.' m nirvar;tl , a Buddhist word for release (and set
in a very Buddhist sentiment about the relief of sufferi ng) in place of
the mere "comfort" that YudhiHhira gave to hi s brothers; and he
sa\'es them all from hell not by t he awkward plot device of the
Epic-which simply rakes it all back by declaring it an illusion- but
by a very real tranSfer of meri t in a very real hcll. Even so, karma gets
the last wo rd: the sinners don't go to heaven with Vipascit (as t hey do
with Yudhighira in the Epic), but arc merely given rclease from one
phase of t heir redemptive reincarnation. as parents arc "released"
from hel l, to be reborn after they have bee-n given offering.
Parents and Children
As karma's primary function and innovation is in the realm of re-
birth, it is nOt su rpris ing that the mOst significant transfers take
place between parents and children . Thc strange silence of the classi-
cal texts regarding the role of parents in rebirth is, as we have seen,
partially explained by the post-Vedic rejection of the model which
took the sraddha ritual as t he basis of the birth theory, a ritual in
which the child " makes" the parents, and partially explai ned by the
inversion of the birth process implicit in that very model. In the
classical system, the transmigration theory bypasses the parents al-
together. But PuraQic texts tend to combine these twO views. Indeed,
the various types of karma, according to some systems, correspond
precisely to the distinction between the parents' contribution and
what we would regard as "our own" contribution to the karma bank.
To be sure, some of the philosophical texts (some and
J4
WENDY DONIGER O'FLAHERTY
Carakl texts, and perhaps even some of the Advait:t} do (ell us some
thing about parents; but the parents seem to play primaril y a phys ical
role, giving the st uff (blood and semen) into which the unborn child's
karma is to be infused. The Buddhist s, however. suggest a primal
scene which would have gladdened the heart of Sigmu nd Freud: the
unborn child, witness ing his parentS in intercourse, interacts in classi
cally Oedipal fashion with them and is born .!1O In thi s model, social
interaction with one's future parents precedes the birt h process. The
Ti bcr:ln texts, moreover, make it dear that some p:l.rent:1i karma is
transferred to the child. If we look to mythology for some of the
underly ing, unexpressed bclids a nd cognitive assumptio ns of all
South Asians, we find numerous exampl es in whi c h the karma of the
pare nt s is t ra nsferred to the child- ('ven as t he ka rma of the child is
transfe r red 10 the parent in the srliddha ceremo ny.l l l This suggests
that the birth process in some levels o f I ndian classical thought is ('ven
more compli cated than our Sanskrit and Pali t exts have led li S to
be li eve-unless we simplify the model by di st inguishing di scret e hi s-
torical, chro nologi cal per iods, vie wing parental karma transfe r as
pri or to, and an al ternati ve to, the concept of reincarnat ed karma.
T he myths presen' e the pre- rebirth, Vedic model of birth, and it is to
t he my ths t hat we must now turn.
N umerous examples of karmi c interaction between pare nt and
child occ ur in the Mahtibhii. rata; I should like to poach once :tga in on
Bruce Lo ng' s territOry ( whic h is so t emptingly adjacent to my own)
to cite a myth wh ich strikes me as particularly archaic, even Vedic , in
its attitude to karma, and whi ch thus provides a useful foil to the full
Puraryic myt hs:
King Soma ka had only one son. J antu; he worried that thi s child migh t die.
His priest advi sed him 10 sacrifice the child and let hi s one hundred wiv('>s
inhal e the smoke, so that they would conceive sons. Somaka did so, despite
the protest of the wives, and after ten months t hl' y all had sons; Jan tu was
reborn as the eldest. by his ori ginal mother. When Somaka and the priest
died, Somaka saw the pri est boiling in a terrible hell, and 3.sked him why. " I
caused you to sacri fi ce, 0 king, " said the priest , "and thi s is the fruit of that
karma ." The king said. "I wil! enter thi s (hell); let my pri est he rel eased. For
he is being cook cd by the fire of hell for my sake ." But Dharma objected.
" No onc ever ex periences the fruit of another's act ion. You see here your
own fruit s." When t he king continued to prOtest that hi s k.lrma was the same
110. S{'e James papn in this volume, t iling Vasubandha' s t\bhidh'lr-
makosa 3.15, and, more elaborate, William Srablein, cit ing the Tibet an Book of the
Dead and th e Tan/ra.
Ill. O'Flahenr (1976), pp. J65 H.
KARMA AN D REBIRTH IN THE VEDAS AND rURAl':'AS
)5
as the priest's, Dharma conct.'ded, "If you wish this, experience the same
frui t with him, for an equal length of time, and then afterwards you will
both reach ht.'avcn." And so it happened. III
Many conflicting attitudes to karma appear in this tale. The "virtue"
of the single son is somehow transferred (by personal sacrifice. the
most primitive form of transfer. and by the ingest ion of substance-
significantly. funeral smoke) to a hundred others - bur he is reborn
among them, so that he is not truly sacrificed at all; in this first
episode. the text seems to emphasi",e that no actual exchange need
take place at all, that nothing need be lost by the one who "gives"
merit, that karma is inexhaustible. This view is reinforced by Dhar-
ma's objection to the king's wish to sac rifice his good karma to get the
priest OUt of hell-just as Dharma objects, in the MahabharaM, to
wish to get his brothers out of hell. The sol ution in this
case, however, is the inverse of the solution to the sacri fice of the son :
where, in that episode, no one lost anyth ing by the transfer, so in this
second episode both of them lose- both of them suffer the tortures
of hell. In this way, the doctrine of karma is satisfied without any
merit transfer -and yet ultimately everyone escapes to heaven. as
they do in .the YudhiHhi ra episode. T hat the suggested transfers arc to
take place in the fo rm of a human sacri fi ce and in the transfer of merit
between a king and his pries! 1 \J are indications of the antiquity of thi s
myth, possibly composed at a period when the concept of merit
transfer was still being developed.
Elsewhere in the Mahabharata, and in the Purar:tas, we fi nd myths
ill ustrative of the karma flow in both directions: from living children
to dead ancestors (as in the tale of a sage' s ancestors hanging by
their fingertips in a great and, less often, from parents to
children. A seri es of karmic transfers from children to parents takes
place between King Yayati and hi s sons and grandsons. 1 IS In the
myth of Vena, karma flows in both di rections: the evil of Vena him-
self is the result of the direct transfer of negative karma from hi s evil
mother-who is evil because of the karma inherited from her father,
deat h ; 11 6 but when Vena di es, and is reborn as a leper, his good son
Prthu saves hi m by goi ng to a shrine , performing a ritual, and trans-
111. Mahabharl1.fa 3.117. 1-10; 118. 1-19, esp. 118.13- 16.
113. See HeestermJ.fl. as cited in fomnotc 13, J.bove.
114. Mahabhar.lla 3.94- 97; d. O'Flaherty (1973), pp. 53-54 and 68 - 70.
115. O'Flaheny (1976) , pp.137-H3; Mahabharata 1. 76-91; 5.118-110.
ll6. Padm" 1.19-33; Bhagav ata Pura"a 4.\3; Van/alia Pura"a, S. 16; d .
O'Flaheny (1976), pp. 324-328.
WENDY DONIGER Q'FLAHERTY
ferring that merit to his father, for hi s father is so impure that he
would transfer his own bad karma to the shrine and thus defile it:
onl y the devotional sacrifice of the son can sav{' him.
l17
In other
texts, Vena is saved simply by the birth of his good son, 1111 or, in a
more primitive process, by lhe birth of an evi l son, who draws the
evil O Ut of Vena in a direct transfer, 119 as the evil demon drew the ('vil
nature Out of the Brahmin' s wife. Here, then, is the turning point in
the chain of karma: evil karma is transferred from parent to child in a
direct, homeopathic line, explaining the existence of evil in the pres-
ent: but good karma is transferred backwards into the past and into
the futur e, througb the heteropathic devotion of the good chi ld to the
evil parent-the ritual model of the sriuidha offering, translated into
bhllkti mythology.
The Flow of Karma
The mot if of personal devotion (bhakti) flows against th( current of
impersonal kJrrna and the "ocean of rebirth," like a stream of fresh
water flowing back out into the ocean. The fluid analogy is apt, and
occurs often in the Sanskrit texts ; the karma modd is a \' ery fancy bit
of plumbing, a complex hydraulic system. In any social illleranion,
karma is transferred as by the act ion of a siphon when twO vl'ssels of
unequal height arc suddenly connected by a tube: things flow back
and forth between them until they arc equalized . In India, what fl ows
is pollution (which flows up) and merit (which fl ows down). Things
flow in and OUi of the body al1 the time in Vedi c!Puraryic Hinduism;
hence the great Stress placed on bodi ly secret'ions as literally creative
substances: semen, blood, ph legm, tears, sweat, and so fonh. 12This
also explains the Indian' s great emphasis on food .
Because of this fluidity in social interaction, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to pinpoint an indi vidual' s karma as distinct from that of
everyone else. We have seen how the karma of parents and children
merges, and that of husb:mds and wives; these are indeed maximal
117. Ska>ll/a P"Yalld 7.1.336.95-253; Gay"da P"',ll1a 604- 8; Vim"dbarmQltar;<
. .."
1.106.5- 66; O'Flaherty (1976) . pp. 325-326.
118. Purana 2.36.127-227: Ska,/da PUralla 7.1.337.72-175; Harivaltl5a
5.1-21: 6.1- 4; Brabma P"r:ma Vama'lII P"ri na, 5.26.31; Vim" P"rana
. .. . .
1.13.7-41; O'Flaheny (1976), pp. 324-325.
119. Bbtigav al<l P"r.1rlll 4.13- 15; P.uilll<l PurtifJa O'Flahcny (1976), pp.
324- 328.
120. OT\ah<,rty (1973), pp. 171-273.
KARMA AND REBIRTH [N THE VEDAS AND PURA /':JAS
37
exchange si tuations. But in the indian view, every act is the result of
the karma of ma ny people; all share the responsibility for evil, though
they all sec it from different perspecti ves. Thus, as Air Hiltcbcitel has
poi nt ed out , the responsibil ity for the death of Dro!)a is diffused,
depending on the philosophy of the different heroes who examine its
causes. Lll in this way, the concept of joint karma functions as a
cosmological as well as a sociological pri nci ple, in which no acts of
any particular figure can have any ultimacy as evil. According to this
aspect of the theory of karma, the retributive function of rebirth is of
secondary signi ficance; indeed, as a Tamil Brahmin woman said to
me, karma means that we arc punis hed not for our acti ons, but by our

actions.
Karmi c forces flow constantl y between people (and between gods,
and :mimals). Two great exceptions to this rule arc the rea lms of
Hindu asceticism (where all life processes are reversed, all body sub-
stances held in 122) and Jainism. where an extreme efforl is made to
reduce the flow and an almost obsessive concern with boundaries
leads to a minimiz.i ng of transactions. L2J In Jainism, the soul moves
up, while karma pushes down; wi thout the basic sriiddha model,
there can be no true exchange. In Hinduism, Vedi c or Pura!)i c, spi rit
and matter (code and substance) constantly flow in and OUt of each
other; even in the creation myths, Prajapat i alternates between the
cr eati on of physical entit ies (men, beasts, trees) and abstractions -
the yea r, and hunger, and space it self. Here is true relativity, matt er
and energy in constant fluid transformati on.
121. Personal communication from Alf Hiltebeitel. November 19, [977. See also p.
127, 1I.3J, and p. nJ of hi s TJJ/' Riru,, { flf Battle: Krish"" i" Tht' Mah.ibh.'r{t/{'
(Cornd! University Press. 1976).
122 . O'Fbheny (1973), pp. 261- 270; ([976). p.
t23. Personal communicJtion from 1977.
124. 1.;.26-65: see 1J:/tndy DonigL' r OrlahcTLY. Hindu Myths ( Pen-
guin. 1975), pp. 44 - 46 and 316.
2
The Concepts of
Human Action and Rebirth
in the Mahabhclrata
J. BRUCE LONG
Introduction
The analysis of the variety of formul ations of the conccptS of karma
and in t he Mahabharala will be the sale concern in t his
paper. I recognize that any disclission of this subject wi th regard to
the MBh. m uSt be undertaken in medias res, gi ven the appreciable
development of these not ions prior to the epic period. Even so, the
eno rmity of the task of treat ing even this somewhat limited topic in
the epi c prohibit s us from taki ng even a passing glance at the relevant
materials in the pre-epic literature.
1
I shall also avoid t he issue of the
trut h or falsity, adeq uacy or inadequacy of the princi ples of karma
and as a general hermeneut ic of the human condi tion , nor
l. Information on karma and Ja m,ara in the Vedas, ami may
be found in thr follo wing sources: A. B. Kt>it h, Religion ,md Phi/oJophy in the Veda.
a"d Upanishad, (C3mbridge, Mass .. I92S). pp. 2S2 ff . H4 fL. 581- S91; S. N. Das-
gupta, A H,story of Indian Pbilosophy (Cambridge, 1922-) , "01. 1; C. Sharma. A
Critic,,1 Survey of ! ndia" Philosophy (Varanasi, 1960); F. Edgerton, The 8/'gimlings
of iridian Philosophy (Cambridgt>, Mass .. \%;). pp. 19 ff.; S. Radhlkrishnan. The
Principal Upam,ad, (London , 19;3), t>sp . pp. 104-116; 1\1. Hiriyanna, Thr Essent ial,
of Illdian Pbllosophy (London, 1949), pp. 47 ff.; R. D. Ranade, A Comt ruetivl'
S .. TVry of Up,mlwlic Philosophy (Poona, 1926) , pp. IS2 ff.; and Eliot Deutsch. Ad-
Valla Vrdama. A Philosopbical RCCOIIJlruClioll (Honolu lu, 1969), pp. 67 ff.
HUMAN ACTION AND REBIRTH IN TH E ,ifAHA8HARATA
J9
shall I attempt to compare thi s definitive Indian world view with that
of other cultures, Eastern or Western, questions treated in a sugges-
tive article by EliO! Deutsch on "karma as a convenient fiction,"l and
in the voluminous writings of Ian Stevenson, which represent the
published findings of extensive research into possible empirical evi -
dence for rt'hinh. J
The task before us here is at once more modest and more ambi ti ous
than those refl ected in other writings on karma and samsara. The
modesty of the task rcsts on the intention to focus only on specific
passages in the !dBh. which speak to some aspect of the question of
the nature of human action and its role in the formation of human
ends. The ambitious nature of the task is determined by the inten-
tion to scrutinize a great many passages scattered throughout the
MBh. more closely and in greater detail than has previously been
attempted.
4
The passages discussed herein reflen among themselves a remark-
able (and to those who hanker after consistency, frustrating) degree of
diversity, and even incongruity, of thought. At the same t ime, there
arc numerous motifs that appear time and again in passages drawn
from every section of the M Bh., a fact t hat would appear to indicate
that the various spokesmen on karma drew upon a common store of
general nOtions, and at the same time exercised considerable freedom
to recombinc and modify those ideas according to individual and
2. "Karma as a 'Con"enient riction' in the Ad\'aiu Ved:inta," Philowphy [all alld
IVw 15, no, 1 (\965) ; ) - 12 ,
3. Twenty Cases SI< ggrm'lle of Reincarnation (New York. 1%6), and Cases of the
Reincarnat i(m Type (ChJrlon cs\' ilk' , Va., 1975), 1 ,ols.
4. Cf. other writings on brma and samsara and rclatM topics in th(' ,'.ISh. and the
antecedents in pre-epic literature: V, M. Bedebr, "The Doctrine of the Colou rs of
in the M Rh , ," Annab of the BiJa>ut",kar Oriental Research Imtitute (ABOR!)
48_49 (1967-68) ; 329-3)8: Haridas Bhat tacharya , " Thl.> Biihman;cal Concept of
Karma," A. R. U'
l
adi.1 CommemQratiOIl Volume (Bangalore, 1954), pp. 29_49:
G. N. ChakrJ\,Jrty, "The Idea of Fate and Freedom in ,he AI 8h ., "Poona Qrifntalisr
20 (1 955)1The Dr. H. L Han)'appa Mem. Vol.J: v. A. Gadgil, " Rta and the Law of
Karma. " A II- I "dill Qrim/tI! Conjr' C>la, 10 (Tirupat i. 1940): 13-211; f\ . L. H crm an,
"Samsara," journal of the Gallgallatha jhJ. Rej. Imt .. 27 (1 971 ): I- 10: H. G.
Nar-thar;: "Karma and Reinumation in the A'Bh.," ABORI 27 102-113:
"Vedic Ant ecedent s of the Epic 'Sasarirasvarga,''' Irldi"n Hil ton'c"l Quarterly 28
(1952); 87-90: "Rebirth in Ancient Indian Though t." j oumal of Illdian History 4)
(1 965): 119- 142; "Ideas About Karma in the RamayJryl," Mum};i hldological Fclici-
tari071 Volume (Bombay, 1963) : 111 -115: "Karma and Re;ncarnat ion in Classical
Sanskrit Lit('rature," Q"a't. j our. of the My/hic Socicty .p ( 19"6-47): 68-71: Ronald
M. Smith, "Binh of Thought-III. and God." ABORI 35 (1954);
176-193.
J- BRUCE LO NG
sectarian pred il ections. I shall make every anempt to maintain a bal-
ance in the emphasis on both parall els and discontinui t ies among the
various passages presented in order to distinguish those assumptions
that appear to be common to the entire epic from those that arc
unique to specific passages. The focus of the present paper, on
specific fo rmulations of the doctri nes of karma and in the
MBh. , nt' cessa ril y nl'glects the notion of karma in its " dhannic"
form in thl' MBh. as a wllol(>.5
The Causa l Determinants of Human Destiny
In accord with its own sync retistic nature and the general propensity
of India n sages and mythographers to appeal to a multivalent range of
ideas in trea ting al most every doctrinal topic, the Mahtibhimlfa rec-
ognizes a number of different causal factors at work in arranging both
immediate results and ultimate destinies. Any summary of the factors
which are cited at one point or another in t his great storehouse of
Indian cultural lore would necessarily incl ude the following: provi -
dent ial actS of God (div)'a-kriya),6 di vine ordina nces (divya-vidhi), 7
di vi ne power or fate proper (daivII, nlytai, bhtlgya),8 lime
(kala),') death (mrtytl , krrant a, anttlka), If' nature (prtlkrti), 11 and,
finally, human action (kmma) . 12
The variegated nature of the palette of the ancient Indian intellec-
tual tradition is exemplified in the ini tial chapter of the .)vcra5vatara
Upmzi$tld (vss . 2-3) where the sage paSses in review a se ries of con-
cepts of causation, then en vogue wi thin various schools of thought:
lime, inherent nature, necessity, chance, the elements, the womb, the
person, a combination of these, and the soul. He reject s all of these
phenomena as being incapable of forming the causal basis of the
5. For thi s topic, sec James L. Fin.gerald' s "Two Brief Notes on ' KarmA' Rebtive to
the Mababh:mlla.' Prt's<'nted ,II Iht' ACLSSSRC Joinl Commi ttee on Soulh Asia-
sp-on50red seminar, "Person and Intcrpersonal Rdalions in South Asi a: An Explora-
I ion of [nd igenous Concepl ual Sy slcms" I he U niv{rsi Iy of Chicago, A prj I H, 1';177.
6. Cf. ff. : 3.2.6; BIMgavaa Git,; 8.21 - J I: 33- 34. (All cit a-
tions of the Mahabhimlla (M Bh. ) ar,' from the Poona Critical Edit ion, unless other-
wi se nOINl.1
7. 3.31.3 ff.
s. 1.89.9: 5.39.1; 2.41.1, 4: 44.[; 2.17.3: 45.55 f. : 5!..25-26: 56.17: 57.4:
58. 18: 63 . .\6: 64.5- 6; 66.3; 67..}- 4, 7; 67.7; 68.28; 72.10- 11.
9. 2040.5; 71.42; 72. 8- 11.
10. Brhadimmyab (BAU) 1.2 . 1 ff .; MBh. 13 .1. 50 (f.
II. MSb. 12 .212.24 ff. (I'. C. Roy tr ans. : hereaft er referred 10 as PCR).
12. Ka!h'l Up"n . 1.2.7: Main; Upan . 4.2 : MBb_ 1.1.188- 191: 3. 14 8- 154; 109.10-
11; 12.[53.12-13 (POl,); 13.207.19 f.
ACTION .'\ND REBIRTH IN THE Il lI fl ti HlltiRAT;I
4 '
existence of conscious beings and cOll t('nds, instead, that it is the
"power of God himself, concealed in its own qualities" that comrols
all the forces mentioned, "from time to the sou!." The importance of
this passage lies in the facl that it is both a synoptic history (perhaps
the earliest ) of the religious philosophies of India up to the time o f the
late (ca. 400 B.C. -) and a kind of prospectus for
philosophi cal reflection on questions of causation and human destiny
for centuries to come. The durability of thi s set of ideas is demon-
strated by the appearance of a comparable statement made by
,hira in the !;,inri-parvdll:
Among Ihe various groups of scholars (viprii ), there are some ."..ho say that
in the production of results, human effoft (plml fakara) is primary. Some
learned Olll'S say that destiny (dai;;a) is primary and some that it nature
(,vabhav a) that is the motivJting force. Others say that actS flowing from
effort (Qlllbin('d) wi th destiny, produce resuit s, assisted by natufe. Rather
than taking anyone of th('se (factors) as the sole cause of result s, others say
th:u the three in conjunction produce results .... Thrsl', of COUfse, arc tht
views of thos(' who depend on actS wi th rcf('r('lIe(' 10 goak Those, how('ver,
whosr vi,' w of thi ngs is established upon the truth. know Br"bman to be the
(primary) causr (of evcrythi ng).' 3
While the epic sages drew upon this set of ideas almost exclusively
in characterizing t he principle of causati on, they manift'sted a re-
markable lack of consensus concerning the precise number and com-
bination of causal factors which they believed to be operative in the
world . The passage from the )llllti- ptlr'"vall above suggests that thl'
various schools cmlld be classified under twO rubrics: those which
were committed to a life of action (pravrai) in quest of worldly goals
and, perhaps, heaven after death, and those wh ich were committed to
the renunciation (lIivrtti) of all worldly values (including heaven) in
preference for the liberative knowledge of absolute truth ( Brtlhmtl-
v idya). The particular concept of causa ti on and human action 10
which allY person gave allegiance would ha\'(' been dictated by the
school of thought or life-ethic to which he was committed . While the
philosophies of Salikhyll and Vl.'d'lntti (both reprcsentcd in a variet y
of subsets in the /IfBIl . ) provided the philosophical basis and frame-
work for a majority of discourses on human act ion and destiny,
U. Consult the "Anion and Rebirth, " by F. Edi;enon in hi s trans. of the
Bh"g", .. "d Cir;; (N,' w York, 19M), pp. 157 ff.; "The Nature of Karma Yoga," in E.
Deutsch's trans. of the SJme text ; and , h .. whole of B. G. Ti !ak's Srimad
BJJ:lgCl 'lhldgira-,ahasya (Paona. 1%5).
4'
J. BRUCE LONG
numerous seclarian traditions (e.g., the Na rayaniyas and t he
Pasupatas) also made a significant imprint upon epic thought.
One conclusion that we might draw from this diversificat ion of
philosophical perspectives and the incl ination to intermingle ideas
drawn from a variety of schools of thought evidenced throughout the
MBh. is that the sages and scholars failed to discover any single
principle of ('ausati on that could accoun! for all the exigencies of
human life. Or, to state the matter affirmadvcly, like their Vedic
forebear s, the epic wri ters weTC prepared to embrace (or, at least, to
tolerate) a diverse array of doctrines, in the conviction that while
rca.!ity one, it can bl' des ignated by many names (Rg Veda 1.164.46).
A cursory survey of a select number of passages in the M 8h. which
address some aspect of the topic of the nature of human act io n and its
role in influencing human destiny will illuminate the rangt of ethico-
reli gious ideas to which the sages appealed and the nature of the
existemial situati ons in which such questions demanded a. didactic
response.
KARMA
Generally spea ki ng. the epic sages and storytellers take up their
respecti ve positions within the philosophical lineage of the
by accounti ng fo r the f:tshioni ng of human destiny through the
medium of human action (karma). As one most sllccinct classical
formulation of the principle of brma has it: "Even as Olle aCts, even
as he behaves, so does he become. The doer of good becomes good,
the doer of evil becomes evil ... whatever dt'cd he performs, tha.t he
becomes [or attains]" (BAU 4.4.5). In a grea.t many myths, legends,
and didactic passages in the MSh. , the ide:! is propounded that a
person reaps the results of his acts performed in previous lifetimes
and comes to good- o r ill-fortune as a res\llt of his acts a.lone. Accord-
ing to one a.ccount provided by Vyasa himself, "The actS done ill
former births never a.bandoll any creature . .. . [Andl since ma.n lives
under the control of karma, he mUSt always be alert to ways of
mainta.ining his equilibrium and of avoiding evil consequences."l4 In
the Uuarayayiit i, after Devayani has been rescued from certa.in death
in a deep well by King Yayati, she is admonished by her father, Sukra,
that, "by their own faults peopl e reap sorrow and happiness. Appar-
ently you once did some wrong which has thus been avenged"
(1.73.29). Shonly thereafter, he sounds a disturbing note- to Vr$3par-
14. }.107. 19- 10. Compa,,: 11.lJZ.19 ff.
H UMAN ACT ION AND REBIRT H I N THE
43
van, the murderer of Kaca: " The promotion of unrighteousness does
not , like a cow, yield results immediately, 0 King. But evil does bear
sure fruit, like a heavy meal on t he stomach; if you do nOt see it ripen
on yourself, it will on your sons or grandsons" (1.75.2). Along the
sarn(' line, Yayari declares that the forest -dweller who has achieved
liberation from his body conducts not only himself but the ten gener-
ations on either side of him to virtuous deeds (1.86.7). In tilt' account
of the conversation between the wicked fowler and the saintly
Gautami, the quest ion arises as to who or what is responsi ble for the
death of Gautami's young son, who had died as the result of a
snake-bite. A series of possible culprits is passed in review in per-
sonified form: lhe snake itself, dealh, time and Ltte. One by one, each
of the accused denies any culpability with regard to the boy's death.
In the end, Gautami, "invested with great patience and menIal tran-
quility," divines the cause of her son's demise to be the boy's own
karma in a previous lifet ime and adds that she toO "so acted [in the
past} such that my son has died tas a consequence]."l S
This strong confidence that each person has the capacity to innu-
ence (if not determine) his own course by his own efforts, is counter-
poised with an equally compelling skepticism aboU! the effect iveness
of human aeeion. On one occasion, Yudhighira questions the efficacy
of the law of karma: "Whether there be an effect or not of good and
evil actions ... those are the mysteries of the gods (deva-gllhyii.ni)"
(3.32.33). And, in numerous sections of the didactic portions of the
MBb. (viz., the ArWlyaka-, !;ami- and AT//lsasana-paY't-'ans), where
the relative merits of the active life of the world ling (prav rtti) and of
the non-active life of the ascetic (rliv rui) are debated, the party which
Opts for the latt er way denies categorically that human acts are in any
way effective in conducting men to auspicious ends. It> An exemplary
account of this ascetic position with regard to human action is pro-
vided in the story of King Vicakhu's condemnation of the animal
sacrinc('s of the Br:i.hmaD:lS and his assertion that non-injury
J5 . is one of the meager number of inslances in the Mllb . where the notion
appears Ihal person's bnna influences bOlh own hl1uTe and Ihal of others
who arc closel y rdat ed \0 or temporally contiguous wilh him. See 1.86.7 cited in the
leXI abo,c.
16. Sec esp. Ihe " Dialogue bel"'"'cn the Brahmin Father .lrtd His Son," 12.169 and
11.278 (PCR 175 and [16'/]). This same dialogue is found in}:.taka 509. garha ... ;
Mii rk. Pur., adby. 10 ff. Compare also Dhammapada ... 47- 48; and Ut -
taradhyay.masutra 14.21- 23. For crilical di scussions of various aspeCIS of Ihis stOT)"
consult the following sources: "Critical NOles," in C. E. of MBh. on 12.169; J.
Charpentier, ZDMG 62 (1908): 725 fL and M. Winrcrnill., A His10ry of Indian
Litnature (Calcutta, 1933), \"01. 1, pp. 419 ff. , 562 ff.
J. I>lwel:. LONG
(abilll sii) to all creallires and a life of renunciation is the highest dUlY
to which men can aspire (slIr'"<1cbhyo dlumnebbyo l),a),asi mata). So
profo und is hi s di staste for the life of the worldling (g rhllsrha), estab-
lished as it is upon till' sacrifice, that he says, "Only the avari cious arc
motivated by a desire for frui t [of sacrifices]" ph,lidbcrdV"f?)
and " the employment of these [sacrifi..:esj is nOt prescribed in the
Vedas" but "has been ini tiated by raKals" (dIJllrt" iiJ ) ( 12.257).
The most striking feature of those paSS<1gl' s in the MBb. which
di sc uss the relative merits and demeri ts of human action is the lac k of
agreement concerning the effectiveness of human action in producing
resultS. The belief that human actions 3re effective stands in an unre-
solved state of tension with the clai ms that the act s of god or the
mac hinations of blind fa te are the primary causative forces al work in
the world.
l UI E
[n the opening chapter of the Adi-pm"Van, the bard, Saniaya. co n-
soles the grieving Dhrtar:'s.tra wi l h the declaration Ihat :til ueatures
pass from birth 10 d('ath and thence to rebi rt h through the irresistible
operations of time (kala). It is kala, he says. that ri pcns the creatures
:tnd then them ( J. I. ISB- 191; compare 11.220). I n <:h "PI C1lhr(" of
the same pm-vall, in the course of undergoing a series of ordeals for
the purpose o f lcquiring a pa ir of earrings for hi s guru's wife, Ut-
tanka is struc k by 3 vi sion of t wO women weaving a piece of fabric
composed of black and white strands and a gigantic whed with 360
spokes being rotated by six boys and a handsome man- all represent-
ing the cre:ltive and destructi\'(' movements of time ( 1.3 . 150- 151) . So
inOexible is the bw of time bdieved to be th:t t the sages proclaimed,
"Death has been detreed for all cre:l ted beings. When thei r ho ur
(vidhi) comes round. all beings are removed by law (dbarmella)." 17
In the di alogue between the \' uiture and the jackal concerning the
possibili ty of restoring the de:td 10 [ifc and the relative efficacy of
austeri ties in accompli shing that cnd. the vult ure assert S that
"whether fricnd or foe, 110 one' cver comes back to life having once
succumbed to the power of time" (12.[49.8- 9) . In the same passage,
the fr uits of karma, whether good or evi!. are said to be nullified by
the iron rulc of time. 18
17. 754 (peR); C.E. i\r.pendil:: 1.8 (240- 2-13). Cf.
18. Vss . For a ew of the mall )' ot her PJ5sages alxllIl kal" as t he pr inury
causalin force, consult 1.3.148- 17); 2.40.5; 69.44; J.188.99; 189.25-26: 12.26. 1 ff .;
149. IZ- IJ, 44_ 45: 213 .1 ff .; nZ.1 ff .; B . I.SO ff .; B.6; IU7.7 ff.
HU;\IAN }\CTl ON AND REBIRTH IN THE MAHABH.J,RATA
45
FATE
Out of the wealth of materials dealing with the concept of Fate
(daiva, I shall present only a select few that illustrate the use
of this concept in accounting for human destiny. 19 Like all the other
concepts under investigation, the notion of fate is rend('red mu!-
tiphasically, by identifying it with a variety of other factors-for
exampl e, divine providence, human acts in past time, circumstantial
conditions, time, and so forth . Whatt'ver the specific meani ng at-
tributed to the idea in any given context, the term fate consistently
indicates certain external forces over which the individual exercises no
control, ei ther in actualizing o r deactualizing any particular state of
affairs.
Yudhighira rationalizes his compulsion to pursue ever-elusive suc-
cess in the infamous dice-game by appea ling to the invincible influ-
ence of fate. Though he knows that Duryodhana's challenge to the
dic ing will bring the entire family to a state of ruination, he admits, " I
cannot disobey his word," because of the irresisti ble influence of fale
(2.67.3- 4). In the UIt<llyaytiti , Yayati says, "All living creatures
depend upon fate (digtl ) and their acts are wasted: regardless of
what one obtains, the wise olle is not concerned, knowing as he does
that his fate is stronger (diHam btliiytd?). Whether it is good- or
ill-fortune that comes to him, it is not he but fate that brings things to
pass " (1.84 .6_8).10
In many instances , fate is conceived as the instrument which the
divine arranger (Dhilf1:) employs in working his (or its) will in the
world and is frequently identified with the principle of kala. In reply
to Sarijaya's prophesy of the fall of the family of in ret-
ribution for their crimes against the avows (hat
it is the acts of the gods (not human det'ds) that bring a person to
defeat. The gods delude man' s mind by d istorting his vision of the
true nature of th ings and the proper order of their interrelationship,
with the result that the entire system of socioreli gious yalues is turned
upside down. I n this regard the old patrian:: h observes. " Time [or
fatel does not raise a stick and clobber a man's head; the power of
19. Consult E. W. Hopkins. Epic Myt hology (Strassburg. 191 5), pp. 73 ff. for a
resume of ma({'rials o n fat<' in MSh.
20. Compare 12. 15; C. Drckmeicr, Kingship ami Cummunit ), in Early /ndi>1 (S13n -
ford, 1962). pp. 150 f.; H. Zimrm'r. PbilolOphics of India, (New York. 1951 ), pp.
98 ff.; and J. A. B. van Buitencn. "Some Notes on the Uttara- yaya13," Adyar Li-
br>1ry Bulletin 31 - 32 (1%7-b8): bI7- b3S.
46 J. BR UCE LONG
time is juSt thi s view of things" (2.72.8- 11. J. A. B. van
Buitenen, trans.). 21
GOD AS T il E 'ARR" NGf.R'
Th{, belief that both intermediate results and fina l destinies are
predetermined by an omnipotent divine being (or principle) referred
to as the "Arranger" (Dhim:) is represented in stark and unsettling
terms by Draupadi in her discourse to the grieving
(3.31.21-39). She declares that it is god al one who establishes
thi ng for the creamres, both happiness (Slfkha) and unhappiness
pleasure (priy a), as well as pain (apriya) , even before
"ejaculati ng the seed." She represents this god as a kind of cosmic
magician or " puppetee r" who "makes t he body and limbs move," a
" capricious blessed Lord" who "hiding behind a di sguise, assembling
and breaking the creatures, plays with them as a child plays with its
toys." In turn, she likens men to wooden puppets who are " propelled
by the Lord" to t heir several destinies . Because man at no lime is
completely independent of the COl1l roll er's manipulative PO\Vc-rs, he
is the " master neither of himself nor of others." He knows nothing
and exercises no influence whatsoever over his own happiness and
misery. The entire human body, which is call ed a "fi dd " (k.s(,l ra), is
not hing but the inst rument by wh ich god propels human beings to-
ward their actions and corresponding resuhs-both good and evil.
Draupadi continues by arguing tha t since god's relati on to man is
more like that of a capricious and belligerent taskmaster than a be-
nevolen t and symp:nhetic parent, his 3ctions must be viewed as 3ris-
ing from t he S3me son of motivat ions as human actions.
Consequently, god, like man, is pursued by the impure fruits of his
own deeds and is, therefore, vulnerable to the same morll censure
ship as hi s creatures. (Compare 2.18-61. )
Yudhi sth ira, true to hi s namre as the " Son of Dharma," first con-
gratulates Draupadi on the eloquence of her statement but then con-
demns it as ut terly heretical.
22
While it is admittedly often difficult to
"justify the ways of god to man," he asserts , " those of pure mind and
will recognize that neither dharma nor the gods should be
21. Consult the following pdssages for addil ional 10 concept of fat r:
U.32: 45." ff. ; 7U5; 3.176. 26 H. : 5. 159.4 (PClt); 6. 76. 19;
7.!35. 1 H. (PCR); 8.9.3; 12.28.18 H.; D.b. ! ff.
22. Comp.ue 11.161.45- 46 Yudhis.!hirl affirms precisely the SJme " iew JIll! he
has categori call y denied here.
HUMAN ACTI ON AND REBIRTH IN THE MAHABHA RATA
47
aged, simply because the rewards [of human actsJ arc Lin many casesl
imperceptible." In other words, the inclination to revile god and
dharma arises from a false understanding of the true nature of both,
for "whoever doubts dharma falls into bestiality . . . [and], failing to
discover a proper standard of action elsewhere, (esons to using him-
self as the rule, thereby falling into hell himself and bringing the
world that mueh closer to bottomless darkness ." Yudhisthira coun-
te(s Draupadi's condemnation of God with essentially the same meS-
sage as that de livered to Job by the voice in the whirlwind: "Dharma
always bears (appropriate) fruit .. . [and) is never fruitless .... The
fruition of acts, good as well as bad, their appearance and disappear-
ance, arc the mysteries of the gods." Therefore, man has no recourse
but to behave in strict conformity to dharma and to recognize that "it
is by the grace of the Supreme God that a devoted monal becomes
immortal" (J .J2 .29-JJ) .
This juxtaposition of the views of Draupadi and stands
out as an illuminating moment in the epic treatment of karma and
human destiny. Vi ewing each position in its starkest form, the one
maimains that god alone is responsible for everything that happe ns in
the world; the other, that either man alone or man in concert wi th
god is responsible for the- occurrence of events. This bi-polar modd is
often complicated all the more by introducing other factors, such as
time, fate , prak':ti. The fact that various spokesmen in the MBh.
designate first one then another factor as the cause of e-vents would
seem to indicate that the-y did not feel that the total complexity of
forces at work in the world could be accounted for by reference to a
single principle or agent. There is a variety of causal elements: human
action, divine influence, hereditary traits, extenuating circumstances,
and ("ven potent actions of extraordinary personages such as sages,
seers, magicia ns, and soothsayers. An e.'(ample of the negative effects
of such powers appears in the story of Shima's enCount('r with the
gigantic serpent, which, as it turns am, is King in a degraded
form of existence (1.176-177) . Bhi$ma inquires how he came to rhis
terrible end, and in serpentine guise, replies that the misfor-
tune resulted both from his own proud and belligerent behavior to-
ward Brahmins and from the curse of Agastya. The salutary effects of
the presence of gifted persons appear in another story: As Yudhighira
and his kinsmen are entering the forest , they are assured by a coterie
of Brahmins that their (the Brahmins') presence in the forest would
yield a beneficent effect upon the life of the Paryqavas during their
j . flH. UCE LONG
twe!ve-YC:H- exill', even though their exile is vicwl'd as ret ributi on for
e\,i l deeds in past time.
Indeed, llumerous other passages champion the idea that multipl e
combinations of factors opera te in the producti on of eVents. Fo r
example, declares that it is "because of :lcts and bond:lge to
time (kala-Yllktena) [that I the se lf revolves through repeated rounds
of birth [and death]" (12.206. 13). NO! infrequendy, divi ne acti on and
time are seen as conspiring to create existing Stall'S of affairs (2.72.8-
11; 14 . 17.7 ff. ). reveals himself 10 Arjuna on as the
all-creating and all- destroying power of time (SG 10.33; d. II .}] )
and, \' iewed specie $JIb actcrtIJtatls, the onl y actual aC10r within the
entire uni verse. [Compare BG 9.8.Jl n the course of his instruction of
in the AnItSaSlUta-pa rv'lII , assertS th:l t a combi-
nation of destiny (understood in this context to be the cumubti ve
effects o f previous acts) and individual effon (contemporaneous reso-
lution and its concomitant action) directs each person' s e:lrthl y career.
contends that wi thout the ass urance that all karma bears ap-
propriatl' frui t, all action would come to be viewed as meani ngless,
and relying on destiny alone, ml"n would become idlers (13.6.2).
Dhrtar3{'.tra rejects thi s view of ca usati on in hi s lamentati on over the
rcpcatcd defeat of Kan.la at thc hands of Bhima: 'Tm convinced that
fate is soverei gn. Resolute cffon is fruitless, given failure to
maSter Bhlma despite a courageous struggle" (7.135.1 , peR).
The latitude to appeal 10 l number of different doctrines (some of
whi ch are ostensibly incomp:lIible) in defining the ca usati ve forces
operative wit hin the world is exemplified nowhere more clearly than
in the Shaglwad Gira. In the course of instructing Arjuna concerning
the nature and bases for moral action, invokes several different
notions. On the one hand, he declares that "all acti ons are performed
by the strands (glll!as) alone. He is deluded by egoism that surmises ,
'I am the actor'" (3 .27; compa re 13,20-21; 18.40) , Elsewhere, he
urges Arjuna to recognize " that tri tual] action arises from Brahman
and that Brahman ari ses from the Imperi shabl e (akJara)" (ibid. }.15) .
Again , asserts that he and he :llone is the source, foundati on,
and cause of all evcnts wi thi n the temporal o rder: " [ am the source of
e\'crything : from me all things spring forth " (BG [0.8a; compare 9. 8).
Knry:l provides experiential confirmation of thi s content ion by reveal -
ing his universal form (visvariipa) to Arjuna. On this occasion he
presents himself as the living and ever-evolving divine embodiment of
all the causative forces (and their effects) in the uni verse (10,21-31 ),
HUMAN ACTION AND REBIRTH I N THE ,lftlHABHARATA
49
as the source and suppOrt of all polarized forces (10.4-5), and as the
creatOr, maintainer, and destroyer of the entire cosmos (4.6; 7.10.
12-15; 9.8-10; 10.33-34). Finally, he complicates the situation still
furthe r by representing human action as composed of five compo-
nents: body (adhiHhdntl ), :tgern (kart!) , instruments
the various activities (ccNa), and destiny or divinity itself (daiva)
-all this without reference to any extra-human agency (18 .13- 15).
Karma J. nd HumJ.n Destiny according to
\Xfhile textual scholars custOmari ly interpret a particular text by focus-
ing attention on the ideJ.tional contents or narrative st ructure of the
material, the hermeneutical signifi cance of a piece can also be de-
ciphered by taking note of its placement within the narrative and of
the events or circumstances which frame it on ei ther side. For exam-
ple, in the MBh. a great many inquiries concerning the nature and
destiny of man are int roduced at momcnts of ext rcmc distress, when a
certain unforescen misfortune has disrupted normal lifc patterns.
Such crises may be precipitated by a variet y of untoward eve IllS-
discouragcment in the face of an onerous task, a costly dcfcat in
battle, subjection to a terminal illness , or the fai lure to acquire some
desi red boon. The crisis-event in the At Bb. which, more than any
other, calls forth instruction on t he cause or causes of human dest iny
is Yudhighira's experience of debilitating grief ovcr the misfortunes
of the Pan4avas and his personal guilt for precipitating their demise
by witl essly pursuing the ill-fated dicing match long after all hopes
fo r success had vanished. At the moment of greatest
despair, a "comforter" in the form of a dcity, a sage, or a wanderi ng
mendicant, appears to reassure him and his kinsmen that their prcscnt
misfortunes arc the natural conseq uence of previous acts (karmam)
and, likc cverything else, will soon pass away. He counsels them to
recognize that extended grieving ove r eventS resuiting from one's own
:'Ictions ;11 past time is both a sign of ignorance and a wastage of vi tal
energies which should be expended in more salutary ways. He assurcs
them further that just as the currcnt stale of misfort une displaced
happicr states of an earlier time, even so these adversities will, in time,
give place ro more propitious conditions-all in strict conformity
with the law of just recompensc and rctribution for P:'lSt deeds.
At the beginning of a rathcr lengthy discourse to and
his kinsmen on a wide rangc of ethi co- religious tOpics (3.179-221;
50
J. BRUCE LONG
peR \82-231). the S.lgc ivEirkal.l<;leya presents an elaborate formula-
tion of the twin doctrines of karma 3. nd 5,'nlSara . As usual ,
.thira initiates the session by rai sing a number of quest ions regarding
the nature of human aCts and of the causative force or forces that
innuencc shon- and long- range " ends" in hurn:m existence. Is it a
facl, he inquires, that man is the agent of hi s deeds, for good or ill,
and that each person rea ps his own reward? O r. do both acts and their
effects result from the act s of god? Is it true that the results of all
human acts pursue the doer during Ihi s lifctim{' only, or into another
birth as well? By what means is the embodied soul pursued by its
deeds and how is it conjoined with them. here and hereafter? And
where do the act s abide when a person is deceased (3.181.6-9) ?
:vEirkat:Jdcya begins hi s di scourse by ddineating the history of
mankind in terms of a twofold temporal schema. Du ring the primal
era, all souls were implanted in pure (slI ddha) bodies. Being free from
physical weakness and moral ambiguity, all persons were observant of
holy vows, truthful and godlike. Ik ca use everyone existed in a State
devoid of any kind of impurity, they enjoyed t he capacity to migrate
between heaven and earth at will and to perceive the multitudes of
gods and secrs tangibly and wi thout the aid of any extraordi nary
powers of po;:rception. They lived for thousand5 of years and bon: an
equivalent number of mal e offspring,. But, in the course of time , they
\vere overwhelmed by the twin "ices, lust and wrath (kama, krodbfl ),
became enslaved to avarice and delusion, and as a consequence of
their mental confusion and morll corrupti on, were "cooked by all
sons of transmigrations," and were reborn innumerable ti mes as de-
mons, animals, and human beings . Since the time of the " fall, " man,
in hi s ori ginal , god-creat ed body, accumulates large quantities of
good and e\il At death, hi s soul abandons hi s deteriorating
corpse and is instantly reborn in a womb, "withom an}" time imerven-
ing." l.I His past acts come to frui tion, " following him likt' a shadow,"
and he is reborn with a good- or ill -fortune. The ignorant ones,
blinded by t heir deluded views of the world and their mindless desire
to perpetuate exi stence on their own terms , mi stakenly bdit've
t hat [nan's destin y is controlled by death (mrtYII ). But thc wise
ones - those who ha\' e immersed thernsd ves in sac red scripture, arc
resolu te in their vows, arc of pure birth, and arc self-controlled -
l3. } .l SI .l3-H.
HUMAN ACTION A ND RfBIRTH IN TH f MAHARHA RAT.'\
know rather that the destiny of each person is determined by the
"imprints" created by his good and bad acts . In vicw of
the fact that a person's acts follow him throughoUi this life and into
the next and determine the quality of his rebirth, is urged
to recognize that man, even in his "fallen" state, possesses the capac-
ity to exercise a decisive influence over his bte by his own deeds in
each present moment .
But the question remains whether a person can expect to reap the
full harvest of his deeds, good and evil, in this world or whether the
moral outcome of ce rtain deeds will be act ua lized only at the moment
of death or in a realm beyond this one. The answe r to this question is
formulated in the form of a " calculus" based on the relative degree of
self-restraim and self-indulgence that marks any given lifeti me. Ac-
cording to Markary4eya, the law of karma requires that each person at
the end of a life-span go to one or another of four different destinies:
(I) persons of great w('ahh whose life has been filled with hedonistic
self-indulgence obtai n the treasures of this world but nOt those of the
next; (2) tbose who study the Veda, practice austerities, adhere to
Yoga, control their senses, and render aid to those who are in need
earn the rewards of the other world but not this ; (3) persons who li ve
according to the di ctates of dharma as householders , who take a wife,
offer sacrificial oblations, and obtain wealth acquire the rewards of
hath this world and the next; (4) those ignorant and immoral persons
who disdain true knowledge, give no gifts, fail to restrain thei r senses,
and beget no offspring find happiness neither in this world nor in the
next. concludes his homil y on human destinies by de-
claring that "it is by performing magnanimous deeds, practicing
penances, exercising self-control, sustaining the gods, the sages, and
the Manes [with auspicious rites], that those of pure mind and moral
character, by their own acts, achieve the highest heaven where the
souls of the blessed dwell."
It is the primary purpose of this lengthy colloquy to persuade
(a nd, by extension, all those who listen to or recite this
discourse) that worldly events occur not randomly, fortuito usly, or
devoid of human mea ni ng but in strict accord with the eternal princi-
ple of universal order (dhamM or karma). The realization that events
are caused solely by human aClS (or in concert with other aforemen-
tioned factors, such as time. fate or divine providence) provides a
person with the courage to make a firm and enduring commitment to
J. BR UCE LONG
a life of action (karma-yoga ) and to behave in the manner commensu-
fate wi th the injunctions of the sacred texts. By doing so, one may
expect to havl' maximized his chance of coming to a good death and a
good rebirth (or to a final suspension of rebirth). In addition, the
assurance that tht' fu ll range of eHects produced by a particular act or
cluster of acts does not come to fruiti on immediately or even during
the current lifetime and that even those results that are act ualized may
be imperceptible to all but the most prescient sages and seers is meant
to restOre confidence that any given period of misfortune (of the
par:J9avas. in this instance) m:'!y be nothing but the prelude to a more
propitious condi tion still to come.
The Dialogue between K:'!syapa and the
Brahmin concerni ng Karma and Samsara
In that section of the Asvamedha-parvan commonly known as the
Anllgit(j (14.16 ff. ). relates the story of a dialogue between an
unidentified Brahmin and another Brahmin, named Kasyapa, about a
series of questions pertaining to the nature of human action and its
dfect or lack of effect on the process of birth and death.
The Brahmin init iates the conversation by giving an account of his
earlier life: hi s early yea rs of fortune and felicity, his subseqllent fall
intO ahernat ing states of felicit y and misery as the result of certain
sinful deeds, and his transition through numerous painful births and
deaths. Thi s autobiogra phical sketch is meant 10 Kasyapa
with an experiential basis for interpreting the more abstract teachings
that are to fo llow. In quest of more information aboU! the cause of his
"faU" from felicity and hi s subjecti on to repeated births and deaths,
Kasyapa poses a number of queri es: How does the body perish? How
is another body constituted? How does one achieve emancipation
after going through repeated rounds of rebirth? Once freed from the
body, how does thejlvd achie"e another body? How does a person
appropriate the fr uit s of his own good and evil deeds? \Wh ere do the
aCts reside when one is devoid of a body? It appears from the text that
the Brahmin responds to no more dun three of the inquiries (i.e., the
death of the body, the acqu isition of another body, and the
mechanism of rebirth). We shall examine the sage's r('sponse to these
quest ions in thei r na tural order, beginning with the event of death and
its aft ermath and proceeding to the process of rebirth.
HUMAN ACT!O:-.r ANI) REB!RTH !N TH E MAHAHHARATA
5J
THE PROCESS OF CORPOREAL OIS<;() LUT!ON AT
Whenen' r :t person is haunted by a sense of hi s own approaching
deat h, hi s mind becomes overwhelmed with fear, doubts, and de-
spair.
15
As a result , he is diverted from the course of thought and
action which he knows to be proper and conducive to a felicitous
existence. As the intensity of his anxiety grows, he develops poor
eating habits, with the result that he ea ts on an irregular basis and
partakes of improper tyP('S of food . I n the course of time he devel ops
an intesti nal disorda that combi nes with the psychological infirmity
to create a disruption of the balance among the three humors
The disequ ilibrium among the humors in the body pro-
vokes other severe psychosomatic infirmi ti es and, ultimately, deat h,
if the degenerat ive process is not reversed.
According to a more detailed account of this process that foll ows
immediately in the same text, the windZ7 in the body becomes agi-
tated in response to the combined disorders.28 The wind di sperses
debilitating heat (i.e.,jvam, or fever) throughout the organism. The
free and natural movements of th, vi tal brt' aths arc fir st
restrained and then, JUSt prior to the moment of death, hal ted
completel y.n
Compare the aU'oum of the d<'Jth pru,ess re('orded in BAU from
whi,h the epic writ,' r obviously derived his basic concepts.
25. MBh. 14 . 17.6-3'J.
26. E.g., (rido!,. "" va)'I< , or wind, or bile, and l/qma,j or /t apIJa, or phlegm.
The r('Json thn thi' exciut ion of t '''y'' in the body creau s intestinal di sorders is that.
according to $u.sruta (Nidallas/hima 1.8), the intestines and the rectum are the abodes
of vti)," .
27. Sec BAU 3.3.2.
28. For a more technicli tfeatment of til<' physio cosmoJogy of the wind, wnsuh
Caraka, Su(rasrba>la, 12 , Susruu, Nidanasth:ma, 1. of both
t.:xts arc transbtnl by J. Fill ioz.1t in TI,,' C/,wim/ D()(lri,,( of /",/i.11I ,II",/',illl'
(Delhi, pp. 1% ff.
29. Acwrding 10 Caraka (ibid. , 12.8) " It [the windl becomes the deti'rmining ,ause
of the prolongation of life when it is nOll'xcit<-il. But ,,hen. in truth, it is ('x,ited in
the body. it inflins on the body aJl sorts of derang<' ment s to the detrimental forces of
colo r, of ",<'II being and lo ngevi, y. 1, pu, . if} tum"lt ,he mind, all ,he h cul,ies,
throws down thi' pro"okes makes it go on for tOO long a
time, fright . dugrin, be"'ildcrment, sadness, loquacity, and bl(Kks the
breaths." FiJ!iozat, ibid. , p. 200. In the teachings of Yijthval kya (BAU 3.2. 11- 13;
4. 3.37; ff. ). JUS t prior to the moment of expiration thl' ,i tl! breJths (prii"ii)
congregate within the body by mOl'ing toward the motionless ,:enter of the person,
or the am"",; then all the organs arc fused IOgethu imo an indi stinguishJble
remaining uithin (he body of liberated person (m"kla) but abandoning the
body of a bound person, "ithcr through the eye, the heJd, or otheT ap<T!urts in the
bodr
J. BRUCE LONG
Exci ted by another violent disorder, the wind infl icts upon the
body an immobil izing chi ll and thereby di ssolves the body int o iLS
five component c!cmcnt s.
JO
[n order to esca p(O confi nement wi thin
the tortured frame, the wind residing within the and ap'lna
frant ically rushes upward and abandons the body, leaving it desti-
!Ute of wa rmt h, breath, beauty, :md consciousness.
11
The channels
through which the person once apprehended sense objects collapse
wit h the loss of the suppOrt of the li fe breaths, the int ernal wind, and
the jiva. As a result , all perception ce3ses.
Ve rses 24- 28 of the same chapter addi tional informati on
aboU! the condi tion of the psychosomatic organism just prior to
death. Thcjiva (here identified wi th the etern31 Brabman ) attr3cts to
itself the basic elements (dhlitlts or dO?llS) and fuses them together to
form the vital organs (marmani). n Whenever those \ital partS are
pierced, the jiva, ri sing up, enters the heart and immediately represses
the princi ple of cognition (satlva).JJ Though still retaining the
rudimentary hculty of consciousness, the individual is nOt conscious
of anything (i.e., he is in a comatose state)Y Wit h the uni fication of
the vital functions, the mind is overwhelmed with darkness (lamasa).
Deprived of all its life-supports, thejiva is agitated by the wind. At
this po int, the person makes om' lun),; final exhalat ion, and the umon-
5ciou$ body experiences 3 fin31 shudder. Desert ed by the jiVll (or
Brahman ), the person is recognized as dead .
Even though it is 1l0W separated from the body, thejiva, nOllethe-
less, is surrounded on all sides by its deeds, "marked" (ai/kiM) by
auspicious alld inauspicious deeds. The jiva is said to be impercepti-
ble in its present condition to all except those Brahmins who, en-
dowed with spiritual knowledge and the resolUTions of the scriptures,
30. '4.17.20.
31. The four breJths according to Susnll l (ibid . l.!1 fL) arc (I) upwmi br ... at h
which sustains the b(){ly and the other breaths and draws nouri shment into
the body; (2) downward br ... at h (apalll-l ), which governs th. of el!CreI J,
urine, sperm, embryo, and mens ... s; (.) concentrated breJth (5<>mii",,), which, in
cooperation with fire. digests th ... nou ri shment and s ... parates il into various sub-
stances; and (4) diffused breJth (vyiina), ,,hleh transports the li fe .... ssence, produccs
perspiution, blood to circulate. Jnd ills throughout the body. Com"
pare BAU 3.9.26; and MBb. 3. 203.1'-27.
32. Sce BAU 4.4.1-24.
33. According to SusrUIa (ibid . US), the wind Ihat r ... sides in the blood can create
ulcers. thJt in the n ... sh can create painful nodes. and that in fany tissues CJn
create ulcerous protuberances.
34. Sec Susrula (ibid. , 1.(4) for a description of this stale.
HUMAN ACTION AND REBIRTH IN THE ,LfAH.48HARATA
5 5
have the capacity to perceive the moral and spiritual quality of a
person's deeds, by deciphering the " signs" that are left behind by
those deeds in the post-mortem state. The soul of the deceased is said
TO experiem:e pain of an identical nature at the time of both death and
rebirt h, caused, no doubt, by the rapid transition from one mode
of being to another {i .e., from the "subtl e body" to the "gross
body").35 Thi s latter statement may refer, implicitly, to that post-
mortem state of consciousness in which the jiva experiences re wards
and punishments demanded by acts in the previous lifetime. However
this may be, the assertion is made that until that time when the soul is
freed completely from bondage to egotism and rebirth, each and
every lifetime will be framed and suffused by suffering.
Another significant feature of the anthropology that informs this
passage is the absence of any refefence to a preternatural being or
principle, or to any non-material factor connected with the death-
process. Mental anxiety arising from the anticipation of death appears
to be the sole ca usal factor. This text appears to draw directly upon
the writings of either Caraka or SUSruta or both, where the concep-
tion of man is delineated in the terms of philosophical materialism.
Nevertheless, reference is made to the influences of divine forces
upon the human situation elsewbere in the Anuglta, and such refer-
ences are juxtaposed, without being completely synthesized, with the
concepts of materialistic physiology as a means of accommodating the
central theistic bias of the Anugita and of the MBh. generall y.
THE OF ACQUIRING ANOTllER BODY IN THE WO.\l13
36
Owing to the continuing influence of the results of previous acts,
tht' jivtl "reaps a harvest of both happiness and sorrow" by entering
another womb. The text indicates unambiguously that the mind
(milnas) serves as the abode of the karmaphala and compels the jiva
to commit itself to additional acts in queST of lasting satisfaction in
one form or another. At the moment of conception, the jiva, marked
with all its acts and enslaved to passion and wrath, enters the womb
by the following means; the sperm combines with the blood of the
female and enters the womb to form the "field of good and bad
actions." Because of the subtlety of its nature and its unmanifested
condition, the j1va as eternal Brahman remains unattached to the
organism which houses and supports it. On entering the
}S. H.17. 18b-19. 36. Ar-.. amedbap:u .... a01 t8.1 - 13.
J. BKUCE LONG
foetus and pervading it throughout, the life-force assumes the attri -
bute of mind and by abiding within the realm of suppOrtS
the body and quickens the limbs into anima ted activity. The jiva
aSsumes whatever form is dictated by the person' s previous acts.
During each lifet' ime the jiVtl continues to ca ncel old "debts" and to
create new ones until the embodied self (dehin) "ach ieves a true
knowledge of the duties requi red by that contemplati on which leads
to liberatioll.".l7
THE MECHAN1 S.\t OF REB1RTlt .l
6
Given the fact that the jiva is compell ed to encount er the effects of
its previous deeds and to assume a " mode of being that is different
from li. e., contrary to} its true naturC,"J9 the question ari ses as to
why the variousjivas came under the sway of corporeal ity in the first
place. The Brahmin's explanation of the " initial incarnation" of the
jivas is fra med by a philosophical cosmology composed of ideas
drawn from both Ved:tnta and Sankhya- a procedure commonly fol -
lowed in virtually every part of the /If Bh. According to thi s cosmol-
ogy, the Grandfather of all the creatures fir st
created a body for himself and then fashioned the three worlds with
both moving and still cr"atures. He then (thc
material cause of the universe) . Pradharla p"rvades and constitut es
"very thing in the cosmos and, therefore, is known by the sages to be
the "chief" consti tuent of all phenomena. Evny cr"ature has a dU;llis-
lie nalll re: the invisible, no n-matcrial, spiritual essence o f the self is
the imperishabl e; the visible. material, corporeal abode of the self is
the perishable. Praj:tpati then created all the prima! elements (or erea-
P. Ibi d .. IS.12 .
JS. Ibid., JS.N-H.
J 9. the embodied state of bcing (drhin) is thought 10 Ix- an abnormal conditi on
for the }'v" is indiCdted by the standJrdized use of the (impu rity, Llul!.
po!lutl nl) in referrin g to the basic humors in the body.
Cf. I'.:d" IO. t21;Sal.,p,' IIM IJr."ihm,"'tI 7.4. 2.'; .
41. CompaT< 12.198.16. I'r"dl,:in .. means the "originator" or th,' "chief thing." Jnd
at 12. 218.4, the "unmani fest" (avy";',!,,). In the ,IIok f" dbrm" .md the AnuSir,i.
pr"dhillM is used synonrmously with prakrtl (12. 298.10). According to E. H.
Johnston (Early S:i,,,klJya fLondon. 19J71. pp. 67- ( 8), it is employed a.1 on ... of
J set of sixtc..-n vi.(. ara:l , or dl'rivJtive modi fications," the len" is with
:l lIabhir"" a, or " inherent nature," and. we]" indicat es that the tweruy. four princi -
ples of the universe arc d..-ri\'ed from ro"bhi,Vil. Cf. G. ClaHira/ Sa,,,k/'),.,
(Delhi, 1969). p. Il l.
IIUMAN ACTI ON AND REBIRTH I N TH E MAHABHARATA
57
lUres = bbiitiini ) and all the immobile creatures , after which he or-
dained a temporal boundary as well as transmigrations (pariv rtfi)
and a returning (puTJaravrttl) for all mortals.
This account of the cos mology and the establishment of the law
governi ng birth and death differs marked ly from the version pre-
sented in the subsection "The Process of Corporeal Dissolution at
Death" above. This is all the more remarkable given the fact that the
tWO :tccounts are, supposedl y, delivered by a single person. Whereas
the fi rst account makes no mention of a supernatural agent in connec-
tion with the establishment of the cosmi c-order, the second credits a
personal or quasi-personal divine being with the fash ioning of not
only the material basis of existence the primal clements,
and the creatures of ('very species, but of the law of transmigration as
well. The latter secti on makes no mention whatever of the role of
karma in the determination of human destiny. This passage suppOrts a
position midway between philosophical Vedanta and devoti onal
b)' attributing all primary causative action to god while, at
the same time, identifying th:tt CreatOr as BrahmJ. - PrJ. japati mther
than \Y./e might be justi fied in assuming that the idea of karma
is the underl ying assumption of ever)' statemellt on human destiny in
the MB!;. , but taking th is text as it stands, the responsibil ity for the
creJ. tion of the world-order and the actualizat ion of human desti ny
lies with the di vine being, wit h no contri bution of any magnitude
fr om man himself.
The Ge neral Ideol ogical Basis
of the Conceptions of Karma and
The Indian sages conceived of life, within both the micro- and macro-
cosll1 ic spheres, not as a steady state but as a process. a cont inual
and protracted (i f not int ermina ble) flow of life-powers, a perpetual
fluctuat ion of forces or a coursing of energies through chan nels that
pervade the body of the univ('fse and the bodies of all the creatures
who inhabit it. That the world and the passage of the creat ures from
state to state is conceived to be a transmission of power from place to
place through time is clearly art icul ated in the Sanskrit term for
metempsychosis, or rebirth. The term means literally the act
of going about, wandering through, coursing along, or passi ng
through a series of states or condilions. specificall y the passage
J- BKUCE LONG
through successive stal es of birth, death. and rebirth.
41
The basal
universal energy (tejas, tapas, sakri) is a kind of elan \' ital, which
creates, supportS, and (according to certain "schools of thought")
constitutes SIIbua1/livc/y all li ving things . Thi s energy is conceived to
be something on the order of an electrical current or a bundle of
forces fluctuating within an electromagnetic field (k!clra) with good
and bad, merirorimls and unmeritorious deeds acting as the positive
and negative charges. On other occasions, the imagery employed in
both mythological and philosophical materials suggests the transmis-
sion of a fluid substance through channels or conduits running
through the micro- and macrocosmic bodies: e.g., the T/(II;1ibandhas
or 51f!lImnaS of Tantrism, the canal or trench (klflya), channel or
water course or canal (srota) of the narrative and medical
literature.
43
Alongside these naturalistic, abstract metaphors, there also appear
images of a more organic and even personalistic n:l!ure. From the
time of the Rg Veda, for cxample, the uni\'ersc is conceived after the
fashion of an animal (such as a goat, a cow, a horse, a bird) or as the
cosmic manifestation of a primal Superman (pllrIl!II) , invested with all
the physical and mCllIal features of the primordial archelype. Accord-
ing to the P,IYlI!luiikta (R,V 10.90), 44 thl' cosmos was fashioncd by thl'
self-immolation of this primordial creature, with the various seg-
ments of the ll:.Hural and social orders constituted of corresponding
parts of his body. In the eleventh chapter of the BIJtlgavad Gtta,
reveals to Arjuna his universal form as the phenomena! man-
ifestation of the manifold universe; the rellm of is di splayed
as the parade of multitudinous creatures entering and leaving the
mouths of This sa nl(' cosmogony is rcpn:scnted in
a drasticall}' modified form in the dialogue between the Brahmin and
Kasyapa in the passage frol11 the AlIllgita discussed earlier. Sup
42. The term is J erivoo from the Sanskrit rOOt mean ing ' t o flow tog,!hcr:
"wander about ," or 'pass through. "
43. MBh. 14.17.1J- 24: "By those channels (f wwbIJa;r) through which percei ves
sense objects, the bearer of the body no longer percei"es them. It is the ctcrnal jiva
who creates in the body in those vny channels the life breaths thlt art generated by
food."
H. For illuminating commentJry On thi s hymn, consult R. Panikkar, 1""1' l "edlc
Experil'll cr (University of California Press, 1977), pp. 72 if.
4S. It should aho be noted in thi s connection Ihn the South Indian
th,"()logiln, Sri R:i.m:i.nujidrya. employs the " body language" in
sptaking of the uni "eTse as the psychophpiological abode of the eternal Godlwad,

HUMAN ACT! ON AND REBIRTH !N THE ,lf AHA8HARATA
59
posedly, Prajapati was able to [Urn his creative powers to the task of
making the creatures only after he had fashioned a body for himself.
Alt hough the text does not say so, it is quite likely t hat this body
served not only as the residence of the creator and the instrument of
his creative acts, but was the material stuff from which the universe
was shaped.
With this much material before us, we arc in a position to draw a
few tentative concl usions regarding the general ideational framework
within which the Indian sages formu lated their views of the nature
and cauSl' or causes of human destiny: (1) The universe was creat ed or
evolved by a cosmogon ic power, concei \' ed as either a personal divine
being or an abstract generative principl e. (2) The cosmos exists in the
form of a gigant ic living organism, invigorated, shaped, and sup-
ported by a gargantuan store of life-energy ci rculat ing within both
the micro- and macrocosmic realms along channels or ducts. (3) That
primal person or princi pl e fashioned the creatures by projecting small
quantities of his (or its) own life-essence into their bodies and
jng them wi th hi s (or its) physical features and mental faculties. (4)
According to the anthropomorphic view of the universe, these crea-
tures ei ther represent microcosmic rt' pli cat ions of the universal or-
ganism in the form of t he primal person or collectively form the
numerous partS of hi s universal body. (5) Finall y, once this cosmic
life-system with its multitudinous creatures was propell ed into mo-
tion, it has continued to gyrate in a cycl ical pattern from death to
rebirth, either under the creator's influence or by the act ion of fate,
time, or human action, or by a combination of these fac tors. The
universe will cominue progressing in this fashion until that t ime when
all forms of life return to perfect union with t hat primal emity from
which they ori ginall y sprang into being.
The MBb . addresses a number of provocative issues pertaining to
the doctri nes of karma and and posits a wide diversity of
answers to questions provoked by deep reflecTi ons on these ideas . At
the same time. this vast reservoir of na rraTive tal es and didactic mate-
rials leaves many of the more intellectually troublesome areas un-
explored. 1 have found no passage t hat attemptS to account for the
exact means by which each soul finds its way into the womb and
thence into the family whose moral and social standing is commensu-
rate wi th the " merital" status of thejiva. Nor is it stated how moral
entities such as good and bad acts become attached to and are trans-
ported by physical entities such as wi nd, fi re, water, breath , sperm,
60
J. BR UCE LO NG
and blood. Again, it is not specifi ed in the epic whether the effects of
human acts are believed to be of a mora! or a physiological nature, or
both. The vocabulary adapted from the world of trade and c.ommerce
to refer to good deeds as merits or assets and evil deeds as demerits or
liabilities, and to the accumulat ion of bad karma as the acquisi tion of
a debt, as though deeds wcre so many items on a fi nancial ledger,
appears to stand :l.t odds with the description of life, death, and
rebirth as Ih!' result of the transmission of a quasi-physical subs tance
on the "back of the wind" or in the blood stream.
The silence of the Indi an sages during the epic period concerning
many aspects of probl ems relating to karma and san:zsara sets us to
wondering why cc rtain qucries were ra ised but nOt answered and
why others we re not formulated at all until latcr times. Pcrhaps the
sages bypassed such issues because of their own I:tck of the necessary
philosophical concepts or because of their recognition that dis-
cuss ions of a subtl er and more abstract nature would exceed the
limitations of their li steners' powers of comprehension. Yet anot her
explanation might be thai since Ihe bul k of the materials in the MBb.
concerning these twO doct rines is cont ai ned in the
vaN where the spotlight is focused upon the nature of the path to
enlightenment and liberation, some aspects of the doc trine of karma
and rebirth were developed rather curiously to function as a
springboa rd, so to speak, to the more elaborate articulation of the
nature of the state of liberation and the mOSt efficacious way or ways
of achieving that sublime Stat c.
It would appear that the int ell ectual needs of the time wcre fulfilled
by di stinguishi ng between twO primary lifc-ethi cs; the religion of
action (prav,:w), which entail s the punctilious performance of sac-
rifices and religious observances, and tlt e religion of inaction or re-
nunciation (niv ,:ui), which demands the rejec tion of res ponsibili ties
for worldly action and a single-minded quest fo r liberative knowledge
of the eternal, changeless Bmhman. Those who adhere to the fir st
discipline are promised that after death they may expect to go to the
realm of lhe gods and enjoy pleasures that are sweet but transitory,
and then return to world by means of a more auspicious mode of
exi stence. Those who adhere to the latt er di sc ipline would expect to
become endowed wi th intelligence, faith, and courage, wi th the ulti-
mate result that " e\'en those who have an inauspicious birth, such as
women, Vaisyas, and Sudras, could reach the highest goal."
3
Karma and Rebirth
in the Dharmasastras
LVDO ROCHER
Th(' begi nni ng of the twelfth book of the ManltwI1:ti is expli ci tl y
to " the ultimate retribut ion for (their = the four castes')
deeds" (M 12.1) or " the decision concerning this whole connection
with actions" (M 12.2) .1 This topic is, again expl icitly, concluded at
12.81ab: "All the results, proceeding from actions, have been thus
pointed OUL" Manu 12.82cd introduces a related but d ifferent topic:
"those acts which sec ure supreme bliss to a Brahmar:ta ," which is
concluded at 12.107ab: " Thus the acts which secure supreme bliss
h3\,(' been exactl y and fully described. " I shall take the fir st of these
passages in "the most important Dharmasastra" as the basis for the
following di sc ussion . I shall supplement it wi th data from other pas-
sages in Manu and compare these wi th similar passages from ot her
texts, in order to reconstruct the theory of karma and rebi rt h as it
appears in DharmasJ. stra lit erature. On the other hand, I shaH exclude
from this study aH data from later commentaries . In addi tion to the
I. II lanv (itarions in this article are from translations of Dharmaiastras in The Sa('T(' d
Books';[ fhl' a5l. Ewn though thne tr.msl ations are oft{'n susccpt ibk to impro,' c-
ment, they in general, reli able. When"'n [ disagree with th,' existi ng transla-
tions, I shall ei ther Sidle so or r<'pla(e thcm wit h my o wn. following volulllcs
of SBE will be 10: "01. 2, Gautama (Buhler); vol. 7,
(Jolly); \'01. (Bii hler); \'01. 15 :\hnu (Bii hler). These texts
will bc abbrcviated as A
p
, G. Vi, Va, B, and M. respeni n lr, in addition 10 Y
for 't':I.jiiavalkya.
Lu n o ROCHER
fau that much of thi s literature, insofar as it relat es to karma, remains
unpublished, it is not possible at thi s point to prese nt a bab.nced
picture even of the printed commentaries in the field of dharma.
j\tbnu 12.1 -82 exhibits a strange mixture of general considerat ions
on karma and saI'Jsara, on the one hand, and different systems of
reincarnation, on the other. O ne gets the impression that passages
which originall y belonged to ,\ variety of sources-or were indepen-
dent units-have been collcctcd by the compiler of the M(/1/l/smrri
and put together in succession, often without the slightest transition.
This procedure, whi ch is not unknown elsewhere in Manu- and in
other Dharmasastras-should be a warning to tiS when we try to
desc ri be tht' theofY of karm:l and rebi rth as it emerges from
sastra literature. To be sure, there are a number of general
ing ide:\s and concept s. Yet these have been used to elaborate seve r:!.l
very different systems, which are mutually independent but all
equally within the range of dharm{l. I shall first desc ribe the systems
and then di scuss some of the general ideas.
First System
As early as 12.3, Manu introduces a threefol d o rigin of karma,
respond ing to Yajiiavalkya J.iJl:
mind (manas)
speech (va,)
body (deba (1"1'1 ) = ka)'a (Y) )
"Action, which springs from the mind, from spcech, and from the
body." This threefold division of karma leads, both in Manu (12.5-9)
and in Yajnavalkya (3.\34- \36), to :l firs! system of Both
texts gi ve the sa me examples for the three t ypes of karma;
I\-lental action;
coveting the property of ot hers
thinking in one' s he,Ht of what is undesirable
adherence to false (doctrines)
1. The fi ve IJb!('s in Ihi s article Ih .. Sansk rit terminology on karma and
rebi rth in the Dh.umasast ras only. Translating many of the t(' rms would requ ire
.. "tensi,," notes. (Etlitor's note: Though Proft"ssor Rocher is of course pcrfectl y right
in hi s Stat(' men! that one (;;\ nllot J('cuutdy translate the names of many of the animals
and things in these lists, one C.1I1 tran slate most of th .. m Jnd a guess
at somc of Ill<" othus. For tlH' hencfit of the non -Samkrit . reading masses, [ have
rushed in whue Professor Rot her disd:.ined to tread; the translations will give at
least a ide.l of the structure of the lists. )
KARMA AND REBIRTH IN THE DHARMASASTR1\ S
Verbal action:
abusing (others)-l
(speaking) untru th
detracti ng from the meri ts of all men
t alki ng idly
Bodi ly acti on:
taking what has not br rn givrll
injuring (crratures) without the sanction of the law
hold ing criminal int ercoufsr "'ith JnodJ('r 111,1 n's wife
6)
An important point in th is sys tem is that each of the three types of
karma uniformly leads to a specifi c form of rebirth :
(sinful ) mental action....,. a low caste
(evil ) verbal action .....,. a bird or a beast
(wicked) bodil y action _ something inanimate
Even though the "actions" are further subdivided into nine (Y) or ten
( M), the three types of rebirth are not. (See Tables 1 and 2, )
Manu (1 2.10- 11) concludes his descript ion of the first system in an
equally stra ightforward fashion: he who has full control over hi s
mind, his speech, and his body is called a Tridaryc.Jin ; such an ind i-
vidual attains siddbi, "complete success," wh ich is norma ll y inter-
preted as synonymous with
Second System
Manu 12,24 int roduces the three or inherent quali ti es of all
matter: satt'Va, rajas, and lamas (goodness, passion, and darkness) .
After several stanzas dealing with aspects of the three gu,!as which are
less relevant for our purpose, Stanza 12,39 introduces the transmi gra-
ti ons resulting from them. Before doing so, the text (M
12.41 ) further subdivides each of the three gu'!as into three levels,
whidl have been used on numerous occasions in th e DharmlS3stras:
"low, middli ng, and high ." The following nine StanZlS (M 12.42-50)
list , within each of the nine subtypes, a number of possi bl e forms of
rebirth, Slarting from the low subtype of lamas up to the high sub-
J. Thi s is thl' only significant difference betwe.'n M and Y. M 12 .6a hasparuly,wl
allflam caivQ 3S two Slparate items of the -explicidy- founold ""erbal anion."
Y 3. 135a, which does not say thJt this type of karma is fourfold. "Irl,lt"adi
ca 3S one item in a threefold subdivi sion.
Table {
tiel (k"rm,,;
lypCl
coveting the prop"ny of others
ment al thinking in one's heart of what is
action undesirable
verbal
action
bodily
.
action
adherence to false (doctrines)
abusing (others)
spe'lking (untruth)
detracting from (he merits of all men
talking idly
(aking what has nOt been given
injuring (creatures) without the sa nction
of the law
committing with another
wife
LUDO ROCH EH.
a low caste
a bird or a heas!
something inanimate
type of Mtrva. Even as in the first sys tem, each of the principal
categories leads to a spec ific type of rebirth:
sativa - the state of gods
rajas -- Ihe st:1ll' of men
wmas the condition of beasls
Differently from (he fir st system, each of the nine subtypes is associ-
au'd with a variet y of possible rebirths, ranging from four 10 seven.
(Sec Tables 3 and 4.)
H ere ;lgain, Yajiia\'alkya (3.137-139), immedia tely after its discus-
sion of the first system, has a similar passage, but without t he sub-
division into nine subtypes. It connects directly the ch:lTacteristics of
M(lVfl, '<Ijas, and I,mltls - which arc \'ery similar to the ones men-
ti oned at lv\ anu 12,31-33 - wi l h rebirth as a god, a human, or an
3.Ilimal, respectively. Al so, Yljnavalkya (3.140) seems 10 suggest that
only t hose who are subject t o rajas and tanws enter into s(IIl}s<ira.
t\. AKM A AND REBIRTH I N THE DHARMASASTRAS
f)'pes
-
manasam
-
vanmayam
,- -
san ram
Table 1
mbt)'prs
paradravycsv abhidhyanam (M)
abhidhyayan ( Y)
manas:" (M)
ani$!ani cintayan ( Y)
vitathabhinivdary (M)
vi tathabllinil'cSi (Y)
(M)
[V, sec nOle 4]
anrtam (M)
' nrtavadi (Y)
paisunyam (!\I )
pisuna0 puru$ary (Y)
asambaddhapralapa0 (M)
anibaddhapralapi ( Y)
adauanjm upadanam (M)
adanadananiratary (Y)
hityl sa avidhanatal.l U\'I )
himsako vidhanena ( Y)
paradaropaseva (M)
paradaropasevakal.l ( Y)
Third System
result (pha/'lI'l )
yat y ant yajatitam (M)
jayatc 'nty:"su yoni$u (Y)
ya!i sthavaratam (M)
abhij ayatc ( Y)
The sequence Manu 12.52- 58 again opens with twO st an7.as whi ch
might have served as an introduction to any treatment of karma and
rebirth:
In consequence of attachment to (the objects of) the senses, and in consc-
quence of the non-performance of thei r duti es, foo ls, the 10Wl' S! of men,
reach the vilest births.
What wombs this individual soul enters in th is world and in consequence
of what actions- learn the particulars of that at length and in due order.
66
first
Ascet ics
Mendicants
Pricsts
Hosts in HCln' nly
Chariots
Constellati ons
Demons
lou:
Pri zc-Ii. gh 1('rS
Wrestlers
Dancers
Men who make their
living with weapons
Those addiCl cd !O
gambling and
drinking
lcw
Immovable (beings)
\'(' Ofms and Insects
Fish
Snakes
Tortoises
Domestic Beast s
Wild Beasts
Table J
r<,alm of goodm'fS
second
become gods

Secrs
Gods
Vedas
Lights
YeaTs
Ancestors
Re:llized ones
,e.lim of paHIO'1
lIIilidl"
bccome men
Ki ngs
Nobles
Precept ors of kings
Those ill'S! in Wars
of Words
rralm of dar!.:m'n
'lIiJdle
b I:{O>lIl: beasts
Eleph:IlHS
Horses
Servants
Despi sed Fo rei gners
Lions
Ti gers
Boars
LUDO ROCHER
11Igbt'II
Br:thmas
,\ It-creators
Dharma
The Great
The Unrnani fCSI
high
Cdesli al musicians
Goblins
Spi rit s of fertility
Foll o wers of the Gods
Celesti al nymphs
Act ors
Birds
high
Men who Cheat
Murderous Demo ns
Flesh-eating demo ns
KARMA AND KBIRTH IN TH E DHARMASASTRAS
prarhama
tapasary
yatayary
viprary
vaimanika garya\).
naksatrani
dairya\).
jhallal,l
mallah


Sastravfllayary
d yii tapanaprasak tal)
jaghaflya
sthavarah
k.rmikitah
matsyary
sarpal.l
kacchapal.l
pahva/:l
mrga/:l
Table 4
yajvana\).

deva\).
vcdah
. - -
lYOtlffl$1
vats:Hah
pitaral)
sadhyary
dvitiya
man .. yanll
rajanary

rajna!)1 purohital)
vada yudd ha pradhanal,l
tamas; galih
madh),ama
yam!
hastinah
turailgal.l
slidraQ
ml eccha garhital).
sl!]1hah
vyaghral).
varahah
.. llama
brahma
visvasrjal)
dharmary
mahan
avyaktal)
.. llama
gandharval)
guhyakary

vibudhanucarary
apsarasaQ
caraQaQ
suparQal)
dambhi kal)

pisacal)
68 L u no ROCHEK
H OW{"VCT, what follows refers exclusively to the rebirth of " those who
committed mortal si ns" (mahiipataka), whieh have been enumerated
at Manu! 1.5;:
killing 3 Brabmana
drinking (t he spirituous li quor called) Sura
stealing (th(' gold of a Brahmana)
ad ult ery with Guru's wi fe
The rules for these fmlT shall, logically, al so apply to those "associat -
ing with s\lch (offenders)" (M 11.55), and to those gui lty of oHenses
which arc "equal to" each of the four mortal sins (M 11.56-59).
r ... lanu 12.54 (d. Y 3.206) lays down the general rule: all those guilty
of " mortal sins" will spend large numbers of years in dreadful hell s
and, at the end of that, emer into (M 12.SS),
thousands (M 12.57). This rule is followed by four mnzas (M
12: . 55- 58; d. Y 3.207- 208), li sting several forms of rebirth for each
morcli These include mainly animals, a few low of 11lHmm
beings, and especially for "the violalOr of a Guru's bed," plants
(Tables 5 and 6).
The thi rd system is different from the twO previous ones in several
it deal s with a vny and well -circumscribed
number of activi ties. Second, for each of the four act iviti es there is a
li st of possible rebirths in which humans , animals, and plants appear
side by side indiscriminately. Third, a comparison between Manu and
Yajnavalkya shows that, although the system as such was well estab-
lished, the specific forms of rebinh were nO!: some forms of rebirth
which both text s have in common arc related to one " mortal sin" in
M;lIlU and 10 a different one in
Fourt h System
The next set of stanzas in Manu (12.61- 69) becomes even more
specific; it deal s, in great detai l, wi th the rebirths oi all kinds of
thieves. There are corresponding passages in Yajnavalkya (3 .213-
215), and, even more closely, in (44.14- 43) (Tables 7 and 8).
Again, the system is very different from the preceding ones. First,
it confirms somL,thing we al so know from other sources : classical
o! "Iuw of hum.l n camfa/d , p.",lk.ua, and llso
lppear at Ap 2.1.2. 5, but r"binhs for " theft and Brah1llJ!1.l murd.-r" (? St/" IO
'bbii(maq), by J Brahmana, a KSJtriya, and l Vaisya .
KAR1>lA AND REBIRTH IN TH E DHARMASASTRAS
India's preoccupation with theft; of all wrongdoi ngs theft is, in this
kind of text, invariably given the mOSt exhaustive treatment. As a
resuh, more than thirty types of theft are enumerated, each of them
related to one single type of rebirth. Except for the faCt that Yajnaval-
kya is less exhaustive than Ma nu and the th ree texts display a
far greater uniformity than Manu and Yajnavalkya di d in t he preced-
ing system. Docs this mean anything for the particular relat ion be-
tween stealing object A and being reborn as animal B? There is no easy
ans wer to this question . We might understand why a thief of grain
will be reborn as a rat, or someone who steals meat, as a vult ure. \Y/e
may be able to appreciate, for very different reasons, why the thief of
a cow (go) is reborn as an iguana (go-db{i ), or the thief of molasses
as "a flying-fox" (vagguda). We can even imagine why a thief
of drinking water is reborn as "a black- white cuckoo," for this bird is
said to subsist on ra indrops. But, in general, names of animals in
Sanskr it are often uncertain, and so is their relation to the objects
stolt rt.
Of the t WO concluding stanzas in this sequence (M 12. 68- 69, Vi
44.44-45), the first seems to summarize the whole section by stating
that whoever steals something from someone else becomes an ani-
mal. 5 The second is inreresring in that it specifl cally refers to the
rebirth of women: warnell who are guilty of theft are reborn as the
females of the animals listed in the preceding stanzas.
Fifth System
Finally, one sequence (M 12 .70-72) approaches rebirth from the
point of the specific duties of the In general, members of
any van;Ja who fall shan of their specific duties, except in cases of
emergency. "migrate into despicable bodies" and "will become the
servants of the Dasyus." Next, more specific rules art' la id down for
the four separately:
Brahm:!!,:! _ Ulkamukha Prl"ta "who fl"l"ds on what has been vomit ed"
-- Ka,aputana (Preta) "who eats impure substances and corpses"
Vaisya ...,.. Prcta "who feeds on pus"
_ Cai!aSaka (Preta) "who feeds on moths" or "body-lice"
S. In reality, the sun'.J only partl y refers to the subje<:l of theft. It list s, togerher
,,ith thl" rhief, "or lone} who has eaten sacrificial food (of) whi ch (no porti on) had
b<' rn offacd," whi ch means that it had a diifcrr nt origin in a ( onrcxr and
was only secondarily inst'rted ar t hi s plaL'c.
7
0
Mortal !;mICT5
Brahmin-killrr
Wine-drinker
Thief
Defiler of the
Guru' s bed (wife)
Table j
Dog
Pi g
Donkey
Camel
Cow
Goal
Shet"p
Deer
Bird
Untouchable
Mixed-birth Tribal
Worm
Insect
Moth
Birds that r at
e)( crement
Vicious crratures
Spidrrs
Snakes
Lizards
Aquati c animals
Vi cio us fles h-eating
Demons
grass
shrub
cn:ep<T
.
carnivo r es
beasts with fangs
LUDO ROCH ER
Rebmb
Yiijii",-,.dkya
Deer
Dog
Pig
Camel
Donkey
Mixed-birth tribal
Musici an/Magi cian
Worm
Insect
r-,'loth
grass
shru b
crr('per
those do ing cruel deeds
KARl'-lA AND REBIRTH IN THE DHA!<.l'-!ASASTRAS
surapa!).
gurutalpaga!)'
MaTI"
, -
sva
sukara!).
kharah
uSlTah
, , ,
gau!).
aj a!).
avih
mrga!).

Table 6
C aJ) <;i;i I a h
pukkJ.$a!).
krmih
kItah
patahgai).
\"ihbhuj al.l
hirpsra\.1 sattva!)'
luta
ahih
sara.tab
liryatlcO
hil"{lsra\.1 piSlcJ.I.l
Irnam
gulrnab
lata
kravyadab
daT]1S!rinal.l
krii ra k anna krtal.l
Rebirth
mrgal.l
sva
sukarah
ustrah
, ,
kharai).
pulkasa\.1
vef!a\.1
kml ih
, ,
ki t.ah
patahga\.1
unam
gullllal.l
lata
7 '
The criterion for rebirth in this fifth system is the lack of perfor-
mance, by an y member of a "Var'l ll, of the specific duti es assigned to
that The same criterion is also applied in other text s, but in
vcry diffl'rent ways. Apastamba (2.5 . 11.10- 11) lays down the general
rul e that members of any " if they have fulfill ed their duti es,"
move up one V.:l I"I./d in each fu ture existence; on the cont rary, " if t hey
~

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8
fine pl' rfumc muskrat muskrat
perfume muskrat
leafy vegetables pcarock peacock peacock
various cooked food
.
porcupme
cooked food hedgehog
uncooked food
. .
porcupme porcupine
fi"
crane crant' crane
household utt'nsils "house-maker" ",.l sI' "house-makt'r"' wasp "houSt--maker" wasp
dyed cloth francolin partridge francoli n partridgl'
deer or elt.-pllant wolf
t."le pham
.
tortOIse
horse
.
Hgt' T IIger
fruit and roots monkey
fruit monkt."y
fruit or Ilowt."r$ monkey
woman bl'ar bear
drin king WJ! t'r bllrk- while ru(' koo
vehicl t."s camel camel
(';!mt."i
catllt' goat goal (\' ult urc)
gannent
lept." r
Table 8
Rl.'bmb
Obju/ Sloll'Il M",IU Yapia'lMfk)'a ViHIIO
dhiinyam iikhul.l ii khul.l
kii!)l syam haT!ISah hamsah
j:tlam pLl\"ah jaElbhipbval.1
madhu dal )lhh dal)lial.1 dal)ISah
payah kii kah
rasah
. -
.
sva sva S\" 3
ghrtam nakulah
-
grdhrah grdhrah mal)lsam
palam grdhraI.J
-
madguh vapa
VAsa madgul.1
tailam tai lapJkal.1 khagal.l t ai lapa)" ikal.l
Iaval.13m cirlvakah ( I f1 cirivak
dadhi balakii sakunih ba laka
kausevam ritti rih tittirih

dardural.1 dardurab
karpiisatant3Vam krauncah krauncab
gaul.! godha godha godhj
vagguda\:l villgudal.l
subha
g:mdhab
pal rasak al,l
knannam vividham
krtannarn
akrtannam
agnib
upaskarab
raktani vasarnsi
mrgcbhab
gajab
aSvall
phalamiib,m
phalam
phalarrr va
) t rt
van
.
yanalll

vastram
chucchundaril.1
barhi l)ab
svavJt
h tyabh
babl.l
grhakari
ir v ajr va bl,l
vrkah
. .
"yighral)
markalJh
rk$ah
stokakah
ustrah
. . .
aial.}
<:hucchurl(hri
sikhi
bahl.l
grhlkari
kapih
ustrah
iivi tri
eh u,,;hu nd a ril.}
barhi
sedha
salyakah
bakah
grhakari
jivaiivakah
kurmah
,"yaghrah
markalJb
rksah

ajal.l (grdhral.l)
LU DO KOCH EK
neglect their duties," they arc each time reborn in the next lower
It is worth nOticing that these twO sii tras h3ve no connection
whatever wi t h the context in which they occur. They obviously rep-
resent nothing more th3n flo;uing aphorisms of a very general nalUre,
which fail to inform us, for instance, what h3ppens upward 3fter the
Brahmana or downward after the Sudra.
Miscellaneolls Rul es
In addition to the five systems described so far, Manu- and o ther
dh,nma texts-exhibit a number o f isolated rules on karma and re-
birth. Some of these rules are inserted in the sections on karma and
rebirth generally; others appea r in very different contexts.
For instance, in between Manu's third and fourth systems there are
two stanzas (M 12.59- 60) which not only have nothing in common
with the surrounding systems, but also have no connection wha tever
with each other. The first stanza enumer:lt es four activities and four
resul ting forms of rebinh:
men who delight in doing hurt ...". carni\orous (animal s)
those who eat forbidden food ..... worms
thieves ...... creatures consuming their own kind
thos(' who h.we intercourse wit h women of the lowest C:lStes -. PretJs
The second stanza (d. Y 3.212) is .muctured differently, li sting three
activities leading to the same result:
he who is associated with
outcastes
be who has :lpproached the
wives of other men
he who has stolen the property
of a Brahmar.la
--1" tlrahnJ;lraksasas
In the eleventh book Ma nu insert s, without any introduction, the
followi ng Stanzas o n rebirth (M 11.24- 26 ; d. Y 1.127, Vi 59.1 t) :
A Brahmana who begs from
l Siidra for :I
sacrifice
A lkihmana who, h:lving
begged :lny property
for a sacrifice, does
not use the whole
(for that purpose)
for a hundred years a
--0 (vulture of the kind c:llled)
Bhas:!, or :! crow
KARMA AND REHIRTH IN THE DHARMASASTRAS
That sinful man, who,
through covetousness,
seizes the property of
the gods, or the property
of Brihmal)as
-. feeds . . . on the
leJvings of vultures
77
In the passage in Manu that deals with the dut ies of women, three
stanzas (M 5. 164-166) refer to their rebirth; the first twO appear,
idemically but in reversed order, in the "legal" section on the duties
of husband and wife (M 9.29-.30). One stanza (M 5.164 = 9 . .30; d. Va
21.14) is devoted to the fate of the unfaithful wife: she is "disgraced in
thi s world, (after death) she enters the womb of a jackal, and is
tormented by di seases, (the punishment for) her sins." Two stanzas
(M 5.165 = 9.29, and 5.166) dea l with the faithful wife "who controls
her thoughts, speech, and body" -a formula remini scent of the firsl
system. Such a wife, besides gaining renown in this world, obtains
"in the next (world) a place near her husband." This sequence, which
forms a of its own, clearly illustrates the nature of
Dharmasastra rules on rebirth- and on many ot her subjectS. The
stress in thi s case is definitely on the need for wives to be faithful to
their husbands. Hence the opposition:
unfaithful wife -- jackal
faithful wife - the world of (her) husband
The question whether the husband himself has lived the best of lives,
and, therefore , whether ht' himself will move on to tht' best of
worlds, is tOtally irrelevant. A similar stanza in Yajii.avalkya (1.87)
indicates the true meaning of Manu' s " world of the husband"; it
holds out, for the faithful wife, " the bcst possible destination."6
Other isolated rules may very well have bcen part of similar
systems.
Theon'tical Considerations
One cannot help being struck by tht: fact that, in the Dharmasastras,
thc construction and description of various systems outweigh by far
the attention given to theoreti cal considerations Jnd analyzing the
technique of karma and rebirth.
6. Va 11.11 threatens ",ith to the p,,,;/oka ",oman of the
<:aste ",ho dri nks spi ritl.lous liquor"; sh,' ",iI!, instead. be "born again u a leech or a
pearl-oyster."
,8 LUDO ROCH ER
The basic statement appears at the outset of Manu' s twelfth book
(M 12 .3): subh;isubhaphaldl'.1 karma. Buhler' s translation: "Action
. .. produces good or bad results," is misleading; the real meaning
of the Sanskrit text is that actions produce "morc or less" favorable
result s, that is , the entire gamut from very favo rabl e to very llnf:lVor-
able. Yet, the principal fact is tilJ! "acti on produces result s."
There is no doubt that, for the typi cal Dharmasastra, the results of
"sinful acts" are varied and complex. Manu {12.74- S0)1 lists them in
the following ordl"r:
pain here (below) in various births
(the (orlUff' of) being tossed ahout in dreadful hell s, TImisra and the r eSI
(that of) thr fo rest with sword- leaved trees and the li k"
of) being bound and mangled
vanous tOrments
thl' (pai n of) bei ng devoured by ravens and owls
th e heat of scorching sand
the (torture of) being boiled in jars, which is hard to bear
births in the wombs (of) despicable (bl'i ngs) which cause constant mi sery
affl ictions from cold and heat
terrors of various kinds
the (pain of) repl'atedlr Iring in various wombs
agoni >: ing
impri sonment in feu ers hard to bear
the misery of b"ing enslaved by others
separations from thei r relati ves and dear ones
the (pain of) dwelling together with the wicked
(labor in) gaining wealt h and its loss
(trou ble in) making frie nds and (thl' appl'arancc of ) enemies
old age against which there is no reml'dy
the pangs of diseases
affl ictions of vari ous kinds
and (finall y) un conquerable death
Although rebirth, therefore, has to be viewed within a much larger
framework, there is no doubt that, for the compil ers of the Dharma-
sast ras, it ranked as the fi rst and most import:mt res ult o f act ion .
Aftt'r the long enumeration of possible consequences of "si nful acts,"
Manu's conclusion (M 12.81; cf. Y 3. 13[ - 132) refers to rebirth and
rebirth only :
But with whatever di spositi on of mind (a man) performs any act . he reaps its
result in a (future) body endowed with the same quali ty.
7. For a sirnilar .:rn,m<'ralion . . 1>1 6,61- 64.
KARMA AND REBIRTH IN THE DHARI\ IASASTIl.AS
79
Manu (12.3) also immediately introd uces another concept: karmaja
gatayo which means that a m:ln's actions determine his
gati-in the plural. Buhler translates: "the (various) cond iti ons." But
it is clear from several contexts in which the term occurs that gali has
10 be taken far more literally: "going, going away." Yajnavalkya
3,D1, which also corresponds with Manu 12.3 in other respects,
makes this even marc expl ici t by using thc verbal fo rmprayati "goes
forth. "
The texts give only the most elementary indications on what
exactly "goes forth." Manu 12.3 merely refers to " men," and so docs
Manu 6.61. Elsewhere the subject of "going" is " the inner self" (an-
taralman) ( M 6.7J ) or "the individual soul" (jiva) (M 12.23, Y 3.IJ1).
Apastamba (2.1 .2.2) and Gautama (11 .29-30) exhibit an interesting
parallel pass:lge on the nature of gat;, even though they do not use the
term. When a man who has duly fulfilled his own dharma dies,
according to Apastamba, he enjoys "supreme, unlimited happiness";
according to Gautama, "he experiences the results of his actions."
Afterwards - both texts explicitly say tarak- "on his return" (Ap:
pariv':ttall), he takes birth again under the best of ci rcumstances-
good family, beauty, wisdom, and so fonh . Those who have not
fulfilled their own dhamltl undergo a similar fate, but in the opposite
direction .
Apastamba compares the indi vidual's movement from this world to
a world of supreme happiness - or unhappiness -and back to this
wodd, to a wheel (mkravat; pariv,:tti also involves the idea of roll-
ing). Although Apastamba docs not usc the word Sa1l:lSa ra, his text
reminds us of Manu 12.124: the supreme being makes all created
beings "revo[ve [ike the wheels (of a chariot)" (s anJsarayati
cakrav(lt).
Important in both texts is the statement that rebirt h occurs, after
the intermediate period in which " he enjoys happiness"-or its
opposite-or in whic h "he experiences the resuhs of his actions,"
(G) or (Ap) . Buhlcr rranslJ.tcs: " by virt ue of
a remnant of their (merit)" (G), and "by virtue of a remainder of
merit" (Ap). These translations are acceptable only wi th the proviso
that " remnant" and " remainder" not be understood to mean mere
unimportant and incidental additions to that which they arc the "rem-
Ilant" or "remainder" of. The term sqi/ in Sanskri t always indicates
an important and necessary compl ement to something which, with-
out it, would remain incomplete and imperfect. Hence rebirth takes
80
LUDO ROCHEK
place "by way of a necessary suppJemcm to the result of acti ons," or
" in order to bring the result of act ions !O completion ."
The passages from A.pastamba and Ga ut ama arc exceptional in that
they actually descri be thl' results of "good ac tion ," and, sub-
sequentl y, conclude with a brief note: " from thi s you can llso gather
what happens 10 bad acti on ." In most cases att ent ion is paid
primarily- often uniquely-to a person's gari as a resuh of "bad
action" (kannado!a). This is obvious not only from most types of
rebinh wit hin the various systems described ea rli er, but also from the
bet that the texts deal far more elaboratel y wit h the intervening
" world of unhappiness" than they do with the " world of supreme
happi ness ." Hells and sufferi ng in hell arc wry prominent in
Dhannasastra literature. Bl'sicies numerous shoner references in
other texts, the most detai led treatment is exhibi ted by This
text devotes an enti re cha pter (0 ) to the enumerltion of tWCt1ly-
one hells , to the periods of time to be spent there-one kalp:l, one
m,IIIVdl1tara, one ra/loyuga, one thousand years, "a grell many
years" -and, finally. to a most graphic descripTion of terrible pains
and suffering.
The most revealing theoreti cal Statement on the technique of
transmigration is probably contained in Manu 12.12-23. Unfortu-
natdy, the text as we have it is susceptibl e to very different interpre-
tati ons; the va ri ous explanati ons by the Sans krit commentators are
reflected in Buhl er's unusually lengthy notes. The text clearl y de-
scribes atmall or bhiitatmall as the author of actions: the instigator of
atman is call ed k?erraj,i,l. II It llso introduces, separately, jiva
"through which (tht' becomes sensibl e of all pleasure and
pain in (successive) births"; as was indi cated earli er, this passage is
one of those that attribut es gali - in the plural- to jiva. Another
concept whi ch is clearl y expressed is that, after death, anot her
"slrong body" is produced, " formed of particles (of the) five (cle-
ments)"; it is thi s body that is " destined to suffer the tormentS (in
hell )," after whi ch it is again dissol ved into its elements. Any further
interpretation at thi s point is likely to do injusti ce to the text .
We have seen earlier thaI, as a rule, action produces a result. In
most cases thi s result is-upward or or $<1111-
BhH{a{'lla '" YIl!? ktlrOl1 karmalli; k lrlra"i.,h '" yo 'iiilmalla!? kii rayilii. CompHe
M 12 . 119cd! aIm;; IJ/ ja'''1)'<lly ("l a'I) karmayo8" '!I j"rinllam " for the Sdf prod IIces Ihe
connecti on of these embodit'd (5piri ls) with aClions."
KAR'\IA AND RFBJRTH!N THE
8 ,
saras, for, [ike gati, this term is often used in the plural. There are,
however, exceptions, such as the TridaDQin, who has been referred to
in tllt' context of the first system. The distinction is made at a more
general level at Manu 6.74, in connection wi th the ascetic:
He who possesses true insight (into the nature of th e world), is not feuered
by hi s deeds ; but he who is destitute of that insight, is drawn into the circle
of binhs and deaths.
In other words, the disrincrion is berwet'n "being tied down by ac-
tions" and its opposite, which is not mentioned here, "being set free
by actions."
The critcrion for reaching the latter state is true insight. Thus, the
ascetic is able (M 6. 73), "by the practice of medi t:ltion," " to gain true
insight"'! in the gali of the Inner Self (a maratmall ).
The text adds (M 6.75) that asceti cs can reach that level even during
their lifetime:
By not injuring any creatures, by detaching the senses (from objects of
en joyment), by the rites prescribed in the Veda, and bv rigorously practising
austerities, (men) gain that state ('\'en) in thi s (world).
But, conversely, the state of being " released while still alive"
Oivml1nlfkt(l-the text uses the term mukta) can again be lost (M
6.58),
Let him disdain all (food) obtained in consequence of humbll' salutations,
(for ) even an ascetic who has attailll'd final liberation, is bound (with the
fetters of thl' slWlsara) by acccpting (food given) in consequence of humble
salutations.
The idea expressed at Manu 6.73-74 returns in the second section
of the twelfth book (M 12.82-107), which, for Brahmal)as on ly,
examines " those ac ts which secure supreme bliss." The list of these
activi ti es (M 12.83; d. Y 3.190) comes very close to thaI of the si xth
book:
Studying the Veda, (practisi ng) austerities, (th(' acquisition of tfue) kno wl
edge, the subjugation of the organs, abstention from doing injury, and sen'-
ing the Guru an' the best means for atta ining supreme bliss.
Two of these are then singled out as superior to the others and, in
fact, encompassi ng them all: "knowledge of the soul " and "(the per-
9. There is no doubt a betwcen so.Im-p,j fyl'l 31 M 6.73. sam}'ag'
/1-,1 6.74: the preverb is oftcn interpreted 3S synonymous with the
3d"crb sall/yak.
LUDO ROCH ER
formance 01) the acts taught in the Veda." The remainder of the
section is primarily devott'd to praising the Veda. Yet tht're are a few
elements in it that tOuch on the subject of rebinh. The text (M
12.88-90) distingui shes twO types of acts taught in the Veda:
1. pravrttarIJ karma, "acts which secure (the fulfillment of) wishes
in this world or in the next," and
2. lIivrttam karma, "acts performed without any desi re (for a re-
ward), preceded by (the acquisition) of (true) knowledge."
The difference is that he who performs pravrttanJ karmt/ "becomes
eq ual to the gods," whereas he who performs karma " passes
beyond (the reach of) the five elements." Although the term is not
used here, [he tradit ion una nimously equa tes this stat e wi th mokF.
i rrespc'Cl ive of whether a person is " ti ed down" in 5a1!lsara or " set
free" from it, in all cases discussed so far his fate is the result of hi s
actions. i shall conclude thi s article by discuss ing a few sit'Uarions in
which the correlation "action - result" seems either to have been
deni ed. or to have become the object of some theoretical discussion.
In the first place, certain act ivities have expli citly been labeled
"wi thout result." Thus, whereas the fifth system above lays down
specific result s for members o f a who deviate from the duties of
their va l'/?a , a short sequence in Man u (11 .28- 30) deals in a very
different way \villl the fate of those who live, in normal times, ac
cording to the duties that shall apply to their in times o f dis-
tress only.
But a twice-born, who, without being in distress. performs 11i s duties
according to the law for ti mes of distress, obtains no reward for them in the
next world; that is the opinion (of the sages).
By the Visve-devas, by til!;' Sadhyas, and by the great sages (of the)
Brahmal.la (casle), who were afraid of perishing in limes of distress, a substi-
tute was made for the (principal) rul e.
That evil-minded man_ who, being able ( to fulfill ) the original law, Jives
according to the secondary rule, reaps no reward for that after death.
Similarl y. whereas the perfo rmance of the twO ty pes of Vedic acti on
karma) produces the most excellent results, performance
of what might be call ed non-Vedic action karma - a tcrm
not used in the text ) produces, according to Manu 12 .95, no result
at all.
All those and all despicable systems of philosophy, which
arc not based on the Veda, produce no re\!,'a rd after death; for they are
declared to be founded on Darkness.
KARMA AND REBI RTH IN THE DHARMASASTIl.AS
Buhler's " reward " (M 11.18,30) translat.es Sanskrit pba/am, and
" produce no reward" (M 12.95) renders Sanskrit ni$phalak. It is only
normal that living by the wrong set of dut ies, or according 10 non-
Vedic prescriptions, should not produce a "reward." What is more
surprisi ng is that the text actually denies such acts a "result."
In the second place, it is possible for
counteract and eliminate, during their lifetime, the
results of actions. One who knows the Veda is such a person. Accord-
ing to a simile used by Manu (12 . 10!), he "burns down" the evil
results of action.
As a fire that has gained strength consumes even trees full of sap, even so
he who knows the Vrda burns out thr taint of hi s soul which ari ses from
(evil) acts.
It comes as no surprise that such an idea was widespread in Dharma-
S3.st ra circles. Vasigha (17.2) has an identical stanza, except that he
replaces "he who knows the Veda" (vedajtial! ) by "the fire of the
Veda" And "the fire of the Veda," or "the fire of knowl-
edge" (M 11.247: jtianagnina) also occurs elsewhere as the destroyer
of the results of
The idea of "burning down" the result s of actions d uring one's
lifetime leads me to a fina l problem, whi ch appears to have been of
concern to the compilers of Dharmasastras : the relation between
karma and rebirth on the one hand, and the performance of pen-
ances or expiat ions (prayascitta ) on the mher. The problem is raised
in a passage wh ich appears quasi -identically in three dlJarma5lttras:
Gautama (19.2 -6), (22 . 1- 5), and Baudhayana (3. 10.1-5).
This is Gautama's text:
Now indeed, man (in) this (world) is polluted by a vile action, such as
sacri ficing for men unworthy to offer a sacrifice, rating forbidden food,
speaking what ought nOt to be spoken, negl ecting what is prescribed, prac-
tising what is forbidden.
They arc in doubt if he shall prrform a penance for such (a dced) or if he
shall not do it. (Some) declare that be sball not do it, because tbe d eed docs
not perish.
The most excellent (opi nion is), that he shall prrfonn (a penance) .
In other words, the question was disputed whether expiati o n was at
all a worthwhile enterprise. for. according to one opinion, "action
does not pass, waste away, perish," understood: in this lifetime.
To be sure, the protagonists of penance prevailed: there are numer-
ous texts stating that the sin incurred by such or such action is cleared
Luno ROCH ER
by such or such penance. But the ambivalence remained, as in
valkya (3 .133):
Some acti ons ripr n (viptika) after death, Olhers ripen in Ihis world, othrrs
again eilhrr here or there; Ihe deci ding factor is tl1r disposition (bJ,tiv a).
Hence conflicting text s and, wi thin the saille texts , differing views, on
whetllt'r to limit penance to sins committed unintenti onally. For in-
stance, according to Manu (11.45) :
(All) sages prescribe a penance for a sin unirllerlliona!ly committed; some
dedare, on the evidence of the revealed texts, (that it may be performed)
even for an irllenIional (offence).
More important for our present purpOSe is another type of uncer-
taint y in the texts, namely wit h regard to a long li st of physical
deficienc ies which are believed to be the result s of wrongdoings .
Manu (11.48) states the problem as follows:
Som(' wicked men StIffer a change of thei r (natural ) appearance in
quence of crimes committed in this lifr . and some in consequence of those
committed in a fonner (existence).
The whole passage is obviously meant to exhort peopk to undergo
the required penances immediately. Comparc Manu's concl uding
stanzas (M 11.53-54):
Thus in consequence of a remnarll
lO
of (Ihc guilt of fonner) crimes, are
born idiots, dumb. blind, deaf, and deformed men, who are (a U) despised by
the vi rtuous.
Pen:mces. therefore, must always be performed for Ih( sake of purifica-
ti on, bee,luse those whose have not bcen expiated, are born (ag:lin) with
di sgraceful marks.
The intervening four stanzas (M 11. 49- 52) exhibit sixteen specific
cases of physical consequences of wrongdoings-:lccording 10 the
introductory slamo::a: in thi s life o r in the preceding one. II is worth
notic ing that the first four offenses (J\t 11.49) are the four " monal
sins" (mahapataka) the rebirths fo r which arc dealt with in Manu' s
twelfth book - and the third sys tem above - and which will only be
introduced at Manu 11.55, after the sequence we are now dealing
wi th. The corresponding stanza in Yajnavalkya (3.209), on the other
hand, is an int egral part of its sequence (Y 3.206-208) on the rebirths
10. Blihkr optS for [he reading "avaiesena, rat her than Either onc is 3
vari ant. "l ttr; ( ausa, for
KARMA AND REBIRTH I N THE DHARMASAsTRAS
of "mortal sinners." VasiHha (20.43-44) definitely relates the ill-
nes ses to "mortal si ns" committed in a previ ous existence:
Now they qUOtt." also (tht." following vt." rses): " Hear, (how) the bodies of
those who having committed various crimes died a long time ago, and were
(aft erwards) born aga in, are (marked)"; "A thi ef will have deformed nails,
the murderer of a Brahmarya will be affli cted with white leprosy, but he who
has drunk spirituous liquor will have black teeth, and the violator of hi s
Guru's b('d will suffer from skin di scasl's."
(45. 1) al so no doubt that the phys ical defects for "mortal
sinners" -and many others-obtain in future existences only. This
text even establishes a time sequence for passage through hells, re-
births in animal form described in its chapter 44-see the fourth
system above- and subsequem rebirths in human form:
Now after having undergone the tormentS inflicted in the hells, and having
passed through the animal bodies, the si nners are born as human beings with
(the following) marks (i ndicating their crime).
But even then the chapter concludes wit h twO stanzas (Vi 45.32- 33)
very similar to Manu 11. 52-53, exhorting people that "penances must
be performed by all means."
The detailed list of offenses and resulting illnesses (M 11.49-52, Y
3.209-211, Vi 45.2-31; sec Tables 9 and 10) contains at least a kernel
that must have been widel y accepted by the Hindu tradition. In many
ways it is similar to the lists of rebirths in animal form in Table 7. For
an unknown reason this t ype of "results of act ions" was closely
associatt'd with exhortations to perform penances, so much so that at
least one Dharmasas tra, Manu, transferred it to its chapter on expia-
tion. But everythi ng seems to indicate that, in reality. we are dealing
with yet another "system" of karma and rebirth.

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Olf" rlder
atipataki
suvarnataurah
. .
hemahar'i
suvan:Jahari
surapal,l
brahmaha
gurutalpagaD
pi sunal,l
sucakal.l
dhanyacauraD


misracora\.!
annahaTla
annapaharaka\.!
vagapaharakah
vastrapah arak al,l
asvahirakal,l

krosakal,l
MIln"
kaunakhyarn
sy adan !ata

dauSt:armyatll
pautinasikyam
p ii t i vak trat a
ailgahinat"am
atiraikyam
amayavlIam
mauk yarn
. .
svanr yarn
pangutl
Table 10
Deficiency
Yii;nav" lkYil
kUllakhi
s yi vacian!ak 31,1

duscarmj
pii tinisika\.!
piit i vak t ral,l
a tirik I anga\.!
amlyavi
mub\.!
Vlnl"

kunakhi
syavadant akal,l

ciuscarma
putinasa\.!
puti vak t ral,l
angahinal,l
l tiriktanga\.!
amayavt
mukal,)
SVltn
pail guh
mukab

agnidah

goghnah
dipaharta



hiI'J1Sa
ahitylsa
Iai lahrt
-
trapucamara-
sfsaka vikra),i
ckahphavikrayi
kuryQasi
st cnah

mmasy cki ki
samayabhl.'tta
avaki rnah
paravrttigh nai)
parapi1i karah
andhai)
kanah
vyadh ibh u y aSH'am
arog!tvam
tailapiyi
lohjihval.l
unmattai)
apasmarl
andilli)
andhah
kaJ). ai)
rajahl)
mrgavyidhal.l
bhagasyah
ghary!ikai)
bhramari
viuagulmi
khaJ va.!ai)
slipadi
daridrai)
dirgharogi
4
Caraka Samhita on the

Doctrine of Karma
MITCHELL G. WEISS
The study of karma in the trad itional l ndian medical system, A. yur-
veda, shows how conflict between fatal istic aspects of an indige-
nous traditional concept must be reconciled wi t h a pract ical syst em
whi ch necessar il y assumes that the course of many human ills is not
predetermined. Consequentl y, Caraka San;hita (Car. ) mUSt cope
with those aspects of the karma doctrine conflicting with preeminent
claims of medical effi cacy. Car. deals wi th karma in the context of
two iss ues : as it relates to embryology and as it rebtes to the et iology
of various diseases. To some extent eac h assumes a need for medi cal
interventions, and the flavor of the karma doctrine advanced in Car.
reflects that situation accordingly. Where interventions arc not re-
quired, as in the explanation of the coming together of semen , blood,
and the other components at the moment of conception, substantial
al terations of the tradi tional concepts are nOt required. Here they are
adequat e, even useful, and Car. refers to them. Where interventi o ns
are suggested, including procedures to bring about the birrh of a
healthy male child o r to restore a sic k patient to health, these tradi-
tional ideas about karma lead to contradictions, and the adjustments
made by Car. will be di scussed.
As in the PUral.laS and el sewhere, karma and fate (daiva) arc
equated and used interchangeabl y. These arc contrasted with actions
in the present life (pllrtl.sakara).
9
0
CARAKA SAJIHITA ON THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA
Fat e is 10 be regarded as self- inflicted ,
an acti on (karmall ) of a prior incarnation;
There is also a person's action
that he does here.
l
9'
Precedence by one or the other depends upon their relat ive strength.
Actions are eit her powerful, lacking power,
or both;
Thus, three types of karnlJ are observed :
base, moderate, or superior.!
Weak fate is impeded
by indi,idual action,
On the other hand, one's action
is impeded by preeminr nt fatt'.J
Karma is defined as an act ion requiring some effon,4 and both
karma and quali ty are in herently related to substance (dra-
v)'a), in which they abide,S Karma is required for all associations and
separations, and causali ty stands as a fundamental precept, Cau-
sality serves as a rationale for the karma doct rine
6
and explains
seemingly unexplainable situations, The p rinciple of ca usality also
implicitly establishes the:' validity of the empirical context on which
the clinical p ractice of medicine is based,
1. Car.J.J.30; sec also C.:Ir.4.1.44. Caraka Samhil,j of Aglliveja with tbe
Ayurveda-Dipik:. Commentary of Cakrapal1idatta, ed. by Gahg:isah:ip Pandeya in 1
\10k, Kashi Sanskrit Series , no. 194 (Varanasi: Chowkhamba, 1%9). The Caraka
6 'ols .. Sanskrit lext with introducti on and translations into Hindi,
Guiarali , and Engli sh by Shrt<' Gulabkun"crba, Ayurvcdic S" . .: icty
Guhbkun\lcrba, 1949).
2. Car. 3.3.31.
3. Car. J.J.3J
l
h - 4.
4. Car. 1.1.49-56.
5. Thi s emph<lsis on action, eithtr in J past or the present life, and the rigid insistence
that e"cryt hing must proce<'<l from J cause (q.\,. Car. 2.8.41, 4.J.14) is consistent
with lhe Ny metaphysics adopted by CIJT. at the outse!. Concepts from
all of th e orlhodnx Indian howe"cr, ore in
some point and in varying degrees of fidelity with the sou rces of their own traditions.
Dasgupta feds that the arguments on logic in Car. predale and foreshadow for-
malized Nyiya (Dasgupt:l: 373-392). The t<"Tm karman is dealt with fi rst in an
clabor.llion of cause (kilralJa ) in lhe Nyaya- Vai .scsika SIT Surendranath
Dasgupta, "Speculations in the Medical Schools," ch. 13, vol. 1, pp. 173- 436 in
Hiuory of lndiml Philosophy, in 5 \1015. (Cambridge UniH'rsity Press, 1932); 5,'e also
I : 1lJ-117.
6. Cf. in which "karma is the cause of e\lerything"
(p.ldma Pura,!a 2.94), cited by Wendy in this votum ....
9'
;\!l TCi-IELL G. WEISS
The essential conflict between the deterministic implications of the
karma doctrine and the need to act, though especially salient in rhe
medical context, has also been addressed elsewhere. Despi te the im-
plications of fatalism of karma in the Purar,las, Oharm<lsastras.
philosophical texts, and story literature, numerous means by whi ch it
may be circumvented are included, and t hey are often ce mral. Wendy
0' Flaherty refers to a didactic aspect of the Puraryas which preaches,
"If you decide 'Wh:lI is 10 be, will be,' then the medica l books are in
vain, and all the sacred rccit:lI ions and all cHo r! is in vain ."7 And
" Lazy men and those who depend upon fate never obtain their
goals ."!> Thi s view, that since fale ca nnot be fathomed all effort is
invested in human activi t)', is tacidy incorporated as a basic premise
in Car. The relationship between the passive aspect of karma (i.e.,
daiva) and the acti \'e, the deed one pe rforms, is not explici t , although
there is a sense tha t the latter can prevail. The usc of karman in the
active sense as a remedy is routine in the medical texts. Reference to
the passive sense usually specifies the resfflt , fruit, or time of matura-
ti on of karma, employing the geni ti ve in fl ection of karmall. 'J
The means of overcoming the effects of karma advanced in the
Puraryas, Dharmasastras, and the rest, namely, gifts LO Brahmins,
Yoga practic\:, pilgrirnag\:, anJ so forth , have their anal ogues in
Ayurveda. The treatment o f many disorders includes bali sacrifices
and other ritual observa nces in such detail as to resemble passages
f rom Dhannasastra, especially for disorders attributed to exogenous
(aga1lfu) factors which are k ss susceptibl e to physiological interven-
tions . I II As a principl e it is maintained:
Thought, word, lnd deed (karmal/ ) properly bound,
c!car-hCJ.(k d with sparkling jlldgmcnt .
Intent in his practice of auSterities and knowledge-
diseases do not befall such a man as thi s. ' 1
Ot her passages explain the onset of specific disorders as the result of
inauspicious karma.
7. Gam rfa Ut/llra 1.2.1- ,. q.\'. Wendy O'FlaheT\ }"s discussion of
"Karma and Fate" and "The Conquest of Karma ." 10e. ,il.
8. Malry'lI 221.1 -:12. q.\'. \Vendy O'Flaheny, ibid.
9. See Cakrapl')idJ\l J'$ l'ommcmary (in Chowkhamba edition of
Car,) on Car.
10. E.g .. to trcat insanit y (umniida) associated wilh demons (bhii/(I); SUS"""
Sll",hitii (5u. ) 6.60.11- 37. and Gn.
11. C"y_ 4.2.47.
CARAI\'A SA ,IIHI TA O N THE DOCTRIN E OF KA RMA
Exogtnous insanity (umniida) is caused by lhe assault of
Gods, Seers, Gandharvas, risacas,
and Pitrs;
And it is the result of improperl y executed religious
vows and promises, and so fort h, or karma in a previous
93
511srllta Slln.1iJifa (511. ) is more reluctant to cite karma as an etiologic
factor. 5u. 1.24 is a chapt er providing a detailed etiologic schema.1.J It
contains many ideas also found in Car., but some that are nO!; and it
lacks some that occu r in Car. Car. has no such chapter devoted
exclusively to etiology and does not include suc h detail; 511 . , how-
ever, does not include karma. A category of supernormal factors,
tiaivabalapravrltd, refers to curses, spel ls, and demonic wrath, and so
forth, on the one hand, and lightning and natural disasters, and so
forth, o n the other. Daiva here is more directly related to the Oevas
in cont rast to GIr., where tiaiva is often synonymous with karma.
This and the emphasis on surgical procedures characteristic of the
Dhanvantari tradition represented in 511. distinguish it from the other
early texts in the mainstream of Ayurveda, the remaining t wO of the
so-called great three (brhattrayi), n:tmely, Ca r. and Vagbha.t:t' sAHiinga-
hrdaya (AHr. ).
According to the traditi o n delineat ed in Car. 1.\, Indra was re-
quested by a group of seers to de live r the medica l doctrine to their
representative, Bharadvaja, who then taught it to the other seers,
among them Atreya Punarvasu. Atreya trained six disciples, includ-
ing Agnivda, Bhela, and four others. Agni vda was the principal
among these and the fi rst to compose an instructional text to preserve
the doctrine of Atreya. Colophons of Car. and 6.30.289-90 indicate
that the composit ion of Agnivesa was call ed the Agnive5tl Tanrril and
that it was reconstructed by Caraka. Part of Caraka's revision was
lost or never completed, and DrQhabala completed the adumbrated
version, fini shing the last twO of eight books and seventeen chapters
of the sixth book. Dr<.lhabala may also have worked on other chapters
12. Car, 6.9.16; d. Ca r. Alta>lgabrdaya S",!llma (AHr. ) 6.4.6,
13 . /T.l ilchell Weiss. Critical St udy of Un",:ida i" jhe Early Sallsh it Mrdieal Litera
Il<r/'. Ph. D. Di ss., Universi lY of Pennsylvania, 1977, p. 62. The Sl<f rllla Samhi/:' of
SUiTII''', edited by Niriyal) Rim Achirya (Bombay: Nir"aya $ig3Tll, 19H); English
Transla /ion of The Suslm.la Samhi/a Rued 011 Original Samkn/ Text, ) \'ol s .
Chowkhamb Sanskrit Studies, vol. 30 (2 nd I'd . ; Varanasi: Cho ... kh:unba, 1%3). The
lr.l.nslalion frequently ineorporalu material from Oalhana s eommemary wilhout
notice and is otherwise unreliable.
H. SII . 1.14. 7.
94
lo.!t TCH ELL G. WE ISS
as well , and t he question of whether he did, and if so, on which
chapters remains probl ematic The organi zation of Ca r. at the time o f
Dr4habab is also uncertain, and so the ma!ler of which seventeen
chapters of the sixth book 3rc indeed the last sevent een is unsettled.
The dale of compos ition and revision by Ca raka is estimated to fall
within the first 300 years A.D. and [he revision by Dr4habala at ap-
proximately A,D. SOO.15 11 should be noted that whereasSII . is gener-
a!!y considered to be essentially the composition of its namesake,
Caraka is believed to be the r('\'iseT rather th:m ;ImhOf o f the \\'ork
bearing hi s name. I n large rneaS\ITC Car. contains the pro nOUllce me ntS
of Atreya frequentl y offered in response to questi ons posed by Agni-
vesa and the other disc iples, and sometimes in response to chal-
lenges made by a Bharadvaja, not Atrcya' s teacher, and others . If> In
addition to elaborations of the Atreya doctrine by a later author(s) ,
one finds V(' rses , some of which may be surviving the Agnivesa
Ta7lfra. An adequate elucidation of the rel ationship of Car. 's compo-
nent sources as they contribute to the text requires furt her study.
Predetermined Life Span
Dasgupta has cornrncmeJ 011 Car. 's fa c ilit y in dealing with confl ict
between an immutable karma doctrine and medical cfficacy.
(Nowhere el se] do we find the SOrt of common-sense eclectici sm that we
find in Carah. For here it is onl y the fruit s of extremel y bad actions that
cannOt be arrest('d by the norma! effons of good conduct. The frui lS of all
ordinary actions can be arrestt'd by normal physical ways of well- balanced
conduct, tilt' adminislf;1tion of proper medici nes and the like. Thi s impl ies
that our ordinary non-moral anions in tht' propt'r cart' of health, taking
proper tonics, medicines and the like, can mod ify or arrest the ord inary
IS. Reasons for assigning thi s and discussion of StatuS of the cOntroversies
su rrounding Drdhabah' s contribution to ClIr. in G. J. '\leulenbeld, Thc M",O;""a-
lIid"''''' a"d Its ChiC! Com,mmrary; Cbapun 1-10, Intro""ction, Tram}alio" , ,,,,d
NOles, Ed. 6; Trans. (I.fidi'n: Bri lL 197-4), pp. .. !3: Sfe also pp. 403- 406.
The Gulabkun"nba edition oi ( .ar. (1949) claims to settled the of
determining DrdhabJ!a's contribution, vol. I . pp. %- 106. Sef also Juli us Jolly,
,\fed,o n, Bd. 3, H. 10, Grundri5S der Indoarischen Philologic I.Ind Ait cnumskundc,
translated by C. G. KJShibr, Indian Medicine (Poona: Kashikar. 19S1),
16. E.g., Ca r. 4.3.\;. N.b. Car. 1.16.S in which a group of cOnlemporarics of Atrcya
disput f the rlUmb" r of wsas. It is unl ikely that the Bharad"aja in these
dialogues in the teKt could be ident ified Ihe Bharad":ija held \0 havc deliverC<! lhe
corpu s of Ayurvcda to Atrfya in ellr. !.1.l9- 27 after recei" ing ;t from !ndra.
Bharadvaja Kumarasira is speci fiC<! in Ca r. 1.16.4. Scc Gulabkunvnba's discussion,
"01. \, pp. 40- H.
C.1RAI\A SAtt.,tHITA ON THE DOCTRJNE OF KARMA
95
course of the fru it ion of our karma. Thus, 3ccord ing to the effects of my
o rdinary karma I may have fallen ill; but , if I take due care, I may avoid such
effects and may still be in good health. According to othcr th,'oril.'s the laws
of k3rma are immutable. I?
By shifting the emphasis of etiology from previous lives to the pres-
ent, Car. effeCtively redefines aspeCts of an immutable karma doctrine
as mUtlble. In Car. 3.3 on cat3strophi c epidemics, Atreya confronts
the essential issue. After discoursing on the increasing immorality and
decreasing Ijfe span over the course of the four world ages leading to
the present Kali Yuga, Atreya is questioned by Agnivesa, who re-
sponds to the determinative implications. "Is the li fe span always
fixed or is it not ?" he asks. Atreya replies that life span and one's
power or weakness depend on both fate (daiva) and human effort
Action (karman) performed in a prior existence is fate,
and the is what is done here. When both are noble,
life is long 3nd happy; when both are base, it is otherwise; and when
they arc moderate, it causes the life to be moderate. He explains th31
some karma ripens in a fixed amount of time and is powerful, but
some is not fixed to a time and is aroused only by motivating faCtors.
He elaborates:
If all life spans wen' fixed, then in search of good heahh none would
employ efficacious r('medies or v('rscs, h('rbs, stones, amull.'ts, bali offcrings,
oblations, observances, expiations, fasting, benedictions, and prostrations.
There would be no disturbed, ferocious, or ill-mannered cattle. d('phanrs,
camels, donkeys, horses, buffalos and the like, and nothing such as polluted
winds 10 be avoided. No anxiety about falling from mountains or rough
impassable wat('rs; and none whos(' minds w('re negligent. insane, disturbed,
fierc", ill -manncred, foolish , avaricious, and lowborn; no enemies, no rag-
ing fir('s, and non" of the various poisonous creepers and snakes; no violent
acts, no actions OUt of place or untimely, no kingly wrath. For the occur-
rence of th ese and the like would nOt cause death if the term of all life were
fixed and predetermined. Also, the fear of untimely death would not beset
those creatures who did not practice the means for fending off fear of un-
timely death. Undertaking to empl oy the stOri('s and thoughts of thc great
seers regardin\\ the prolongation of lire .... ould be scnscl .. ss. Even Indra could
nOt slay with his thund('rbolt an enemy whose life span was fixed; even th e
Asvins {divine physicians] could nOt comfort with their m"dicines one who
suffers; th" sr"at se"rs could not attain their d"sir"d life span by means of
austerities; and the great secrs together with the lords of the gods who know
all that is 10 be known could nOt sec, teach, nor perform in full measurc.
Furthermore, it is o ur powcr of observation that is first and foremost of 311
17. S. DasguplJ., op cit. (n. 5 above), p. 40).
;\1ITCHELL G, WEISS
that is known, :l!ld it is by observing that we perceive the following: over the
course of a great many battles, the life span of the thousands of men who
fight compared with t hose who don't is not thl.' same; similarl y for t hose
who tf(-at every medica l conditi on that may arise versus those who don't.
There is also a discrepancy in the life span of who imbibe poison and
t hose who do not. Jugs for drinking water and ornamental jugs do nO! last
t he same alll oum of time; consequentl y, durat ion of life is based on salu tary
practices, and from the antithesis there is <Ieath. Al so, dealing in the appro-
priatl.' manner with adverse geographic locale, season, and one' s own charac-
teristics; de,l ling with karma and spoiled foods, avoiding Mer-indulgence,
abstinence, or the wrong use of all things, keeping all over-indulgence in
check and doi ng away with lack of restraim, avoiding vagabonds and
haste- we perceive that proper regard for these will bri ng about freedom
from disease. On the one hand we obsen 'e it and on the other we leach iL18
In response to thi s o f physiological determinism,
veSa asks Atreya what is meant by the di stinction of timel y and
untimely death if the re is no fixed length of life. 1'> Atreya answers by
comparing the life span of a man and that of an axle. An axle will
funct ion properl y in a ca rriage until it wea rs out , and t he heal t h of a
man's body remains until his o riginal measure of strength expires in
due course and he dies. That is a timely death.
10
Various problems
affecting the axle will cause it to wear OUI prematurel y. The load in
the wagon may be excessive ; poor roads, clumsy drivers o r draft
animals, poor maintenance and handling, and so forth , all might
b ring t hi s about , and the same is true for a man's life span.
He com<.'5 to hi s end as ,\ of an undertaking nOI in an'ord with his
strength, from eating beyond hi s digestive capacity, or bad food, from
a deteriorated condition of the body, from excessive sexual int ercourse, from
rel ati onships with evil rn(-n , from restraining int ense urges And from nOt
restraining int ense urges that should b{' restrained, from the pnin brought on
by spirits, drugs, wind, and fire: from a beating, :tnd from shunning food
and treatmell!. Such is un timel y death. \X1e also observe untimely death
among those who are improperl y tn'3 ted for an illness such as fcver.
H
Embryology ; Promoting Conception
Recognition of the val ue of knowledgeable interven t ion predominates
t hroughout Car., not JUSt wi t h respeer to maintaining health and
18. G IY, 3.3.36.
19. Car, 3.3 .37.
10 .. .. Itl lb,iy"b b"r","'"rpwk [lya }'Iuhiivad
g a htll i 5a kale II ... IICar, 3.3.3811
21. CaT. 3.3.38. Thi s vicw is rCittTJICd in Car, sce notc 86 below. This also
raise$ the question of the position of Dharmasistu with regard to maJ pn Cli<:c.
CtlRAKA SA,II Hf T A ON THE DOCTRI NE OF KARMA
97
slaving off death, but also with d(tai led directives for promoti ng
fertili ty and the birth of a healthy, intell igent male chi ld. This is
inconsistent wit h morc rigi d interpretations of the karma doct rine
holding that it is t he ka rma of the fetus remaining from previous lives.
not the activi ties of the parents, that determines the sex and charac-
teristics of the child. Karl Potter discusses Sailkara's formulati on, in
which karma produces certain residues (vastlna). It is these karmic
residues that condition the kind of birth. life span. and the nature of
the experience that the jiVtl will encount er in the next incarnat ion. 22
This is also the mechanism specified by Pa tanjal i in the Yogtl Siitms. 1J
In Car. , as a practical matter the influence of the parents is more
important. There arc di rections "for the explicit purpose of establ ish-
ing pregnancy and impeding obstacles to Ctl r.'5 fourth
book deals with "embodiment" (Stlrirasthdna) and is composed of
eight chapters. The last of these det"ails clinical applications and is
present ed as the culmination of the theory di scussed in the firs t seven.
Chapter 8 begins with procedures for deali ng with infertility and
establishing a pregnancy in difficult cases.25 Preliminary procedures
for purification and de:msing with emetics, purgatives , and enemas
are suggested . 26 To produce a son the parents arc to copulate on even
d:t ys after the onset of mens truation and for a daughter on odd days,
but in ei tht' r case they should abstain until three days following that
onset. 27 The woman is cautioned not to lie prone or on eit her side "'St
the phlegm (ilepnan) obstruct the passage of semen to the womb or
the scmen and blood be burned by bile (pitta). 28 A woman's overeat-
ing, excess ivc hunger or thirst, fear, di srespect, depressi on, anger,
desire for sexual congress with another man, or ardent passion will
render her unable to conceive, or else her offspri ng will be lacking in
qualiti es. Both the man and the woman should be nei the r toO old nor
toO young, nor unhealthy, and they should be well sui ted to each
22 . Karl on 'The of R.binh in Some Indian Philosophical Sys-
temS," in thi s volume.
13. lala, 1,"/ v iplik';"" I!I ,ii",;m nliblnt)"lm, ':Jiis<i",iml
( YS ripens soldy in accordance with it s quali ties, and therr is a manif<.'$!alion of
the resi dues" ( YQg" SUlra 4.8).
Car, HAL
1, . Car. 4.8.3.
16. ell ,. such prdiminJry IreJtmC!lI is commonly prescribed fOT many
conditi ons.
17. Car. 4. 8.5.
28 . Car. 4. 8.6. The thre{' dOf<lS, i.e., pathogeni c bodily dements , are generally ci ted
Vala. pilla, and k"pha. Slrp>lall is commonly substitut ed for k'lpiJa.
MITCHELL G, WEI SS
other.2,) Recitation of charms is suggested, special preparations of rice
and barley arc to be eaten, a white stallion or bull is to be gazed upon
by her, and various other measures and techniques of a ritualistic
nature in the character of Dharmasiistra aTe desc ribed.'JO
A priest (rtv1j ) may be hired, who selects a SpOt at the northeHt of
the dwell ing, where he strews cowdung and water about and fixes an
altar. For a Brahmin he sits on the skin of a while bull , a tiger or bull
for a an antelope or billy goat fo r a Vaisya. He places
specified articles in their proper place, lights the fire, and prepares the
oblat ion while well -born members of the appropriate (i.e. ,
Brahmin, etc., as above) are seated all about. The woman and her
husband make obl:t[ions and propitiate Prajapati and Vi$l;u: " May
cause thi s womb to be fertilized." She receives water for her
general usage from the priest, circumambulates the fire three times,
and eats the remains of the sacrificial ghee with her hus band, and the
twO receive the blessi ng of those attending. Then they coh3bit for
eight days and will thus conceive the desi red sonY For a Sudra,
however, respectful salutation (lIamaskiira) to the authorit ies is suffi.-
cient.
J2
For a wom;m desi r ing a specific tyP(' of son having certain
physical and mental features , adjustments in the rilllal can be made,
and she is instructed regarding the diet , spOrt, and occupation of thi:'
kind of child she desires.
JJ
If these procedures arc followed, concep-
ti o n is cerlain.
H
With ri:'gard to intellectual endowments, traditional karmic influ-
enCt' S inherent in the individual himself arc also involved .
Present merl[al ;;haraner is a functi on of the nat uri:' of the intellen in all
former lives, the parents' in tellect, what is heard at the moment leading to
pregnancy, and one's own proper behavior.JS
Embryology: The Viable Embr),o
To understand the daboration of personal it y types wh ich result
from permutations of the constituents of 5atrva (i.e., mental charac-
ter), the theory of conception should first be reviewed. It is believed
that the garbba (the term for embryo and fetus ) develops as a result of
29. Car. 4. 8.6- 7. 30. Car, 4. 8.8- 9. 31. Car. 4.8 . 10- 11.
32 . Car. 4.8.1.3. 33. Car. 4.S.12.H. Car.
35. Car. See also Cn. 4.1..27. With regard to thi s usage of Jail va, see note 65.
CtlRAKtI StlA.1HITA. ON THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA
99
the successful union of semen (iukra) and menstrual blood
artava, rakca, etc.). When blood predominates in the garbha, a girl
results, with seme n, a boy, and when the semen splits, there are
twins.
36
Karma is invoked to explain the occurrence of a multiple
birth:
Into as many parts as it shall split,
the semen-menstrual complex in which there is
excessive wind (vata)-
That many pans is the number of offspring
that she shall bear, in accordance with their karma,
nOt her will.J1
As a result of karma there is unequal division
of the semen-blood complex as it develops in the womb;
One is larger and the second is smaller,
and so among the twins one is distinctly larger.
J8
Eight abnormali ties pertaining to sexual identity, development, and
behavior are enumerated, including hermaphroditism, impotence, in-
fertility, ectopic testis, and so forth, and each is attributed to a specific
cause, such as abnormal mixture of sperm and blood, complications
involving the three is, pathogenic bodily elements, wind
(vata ), bile (pitta), and phlegm (kapha )-or the result of problems
with achieving satisfactory coitus, and so forth . At the conclusion of
the list , however, karma is al so mentioned. "The above eight types of
abnormalities are to be regarded as dependent upon karma."39
After conception, movements of the woman's left limbs; desire for
men; feminine dreams, drinks, foods, character, and movements;
feeling the garbh<l on the left side, milk from the left breast, and so
forth, indicate that a female fetus will develop, and the opposite
indicates a male. The importance of her thoughts at the time of con-
ception in shaping her coming child is also emphasized.
40
It was
believed that through the performance of certain pU'Zlsavana rites the
sex of the newly conceived garbha could be changed to male. Various
combinati ons of herbs, curds, foods, and insects werc employed at
the proper time in a prescribed manner. One preparation of rice and
flour was to be ingested through the right nostril; she might also
drink two handfuls of a mixture of curds, milk, and water after
36. 4.1. 12.
39. Car. 4.2.11.
37. 4.1. 14. 38. Car. 4.2.1f>.
40. 4.2.24-25.
'00
MITCHELL G. "" EISS
tossing in mmlalure gold, sih'cr, or iron figures of men:;! Other
procedures are also described. Measures to insure a healthy preg-
nancy and precautions to avoid miscarriage were Certain
behaviors and habits of the cxpeuam mother were said to be respon-
sible for specified defects in the offspring.
Sleeping strelch('(l out on her back Illight cause th" umbilicus to wind around
the throat of the fClus; sleepi ng without a COveT and going about in the nude,
she gives birth to insane offspring; a shrewish quarrelsome character gives
birth to an epil eptic: a lustful woman 10 an ugly and shaml'll'ss or effeminate
son; a woman who is perpetuall y upset to a fearful, t:maciatl'd, or short- lived
child: a longing woman to one who causes pain to others, is jealous or
effeminate; J thief to a drudge, o ne who inflicts great injury or who is idle;
an impatient woman to one who is fierce, a cheat or a malcontent; a woman
is always asleep to a sleepyhead, a fool or a dxspeptic; a dru.nk to a big
dnnker, one who ha5 a short memory or who IS mentally disturbed; a
woman who eats the me:11 of the large lizards !O one wi th kidnry stones,
urinary retention or polyuria; J wonlln who cats boar melt to onc who has
red eyes, dyspnea and "ery shaggy hair; a woman who always eatS fi sh to
one who blinks infr('qucntly o r whose eyes are fixed; a woman al ways eating
swrets to one with urinary disorda, a mute or one who is vr ry Stout; a
woman always caring sour foods to Orlr who has blood-bile sicknrss
(raktapitta) or disease of skin and eyrs; a woman always eating salt to onr
who soon becomes wrinkled and gre)' or bald; a woman always eating
pung<'n! foods 10 a son who is weak, deficient in semen or withom children;
a woman always eating biner foods to one who is dehydnurd, without
strength or poorly devrloped; a woman always taking astringents to one
who is dark l'OmpleC1('d, <'onstipatcd or sickly-a prrgnant woman, b(ing
devoted to such practiccs associated with the il1s described above, will often
brar a child with diseJse causing those symptoms. Furthermore, there arr
defects in the semen engendered by the father along with defrns prO(iuced
by the.' mother. These are the conditions which are said to CJ US<' d(frcts in the
ga rb},a, H
Thus, the father's semen could al so be rrsponsible (or defects in the
offspring, and according to Cakraparyidaua's commentary, the samr
indiscretions (apacar;l ) prior to conception arc impli cated ... .l In t"ither
case, this wide va ri ety of afflictions results from parental activities
with no mention of the child's Although parental behavior
during-and possibly pri o r to pregnancy, for the father - is an im-
Car.
41. CM. 4. 8.21; S('e also Car. 4.4.30.
43, commentary on ibid.
H. Ibid.; sc<" abo Car. Ca r. 4.3.17 represents another "iew ",hen il is
10 explain observed e"ents.
CARA/I/\ S/I ,\.fHITA ON TH E DOCTRI NE OF KAR;\lA '0 ,
ponant determinant of the condition of the offspring, o ther compo-
nents of the garbha also playa major role, as \Ve shall see.
At birth, the infant' S life expectancy could be ascertained from
various signs. These included the qual iry of hair on the head, qualities
of the skin, the relative size of the head; earlobes, eyes, eyebrows,
and other facial features; navel, excreta, various anatomical relation-
ships, and so forth.
4S
Other features were indicators of subsequent
pathology that would develop and were attributed to fat e (d(livaJ46
and thus to karma . These were not necessaril y present at birth, hut
were latent and might appea r at any time.
Car. ' s analysis of the viable embryo el ucidates the relationships
between specified components and accounts fo r a variety of
stereotypical cha racter types . As was already noted, the relative pro-
portion of paternal semen and maternal blood determines the sex,
multiplicity, and other conditi ons of the fetus . The garbha is made up
of the four elements (prabhava, bhifta)-name!y, wind, fire, ea rth ,
and wate r - and six types of nourishment (rasa). These 3re also con-
stituents of maternal b l o o d ~ 7 paternal semen, food, and one's own
deeds, which in turn contribute the components of the garbha.
48
Contri buti ons from karma and t he parents thus have a physical basis.
The parental contributions to the garbha influence its physical and
mental nature, while the mental condition is also influenced by karma
from his previous incarnations, both through a material transfer of
the four elements. For karma, however, thi s will raise a problem as
the theory is developed further in the next chapter, Car. 4.3. There,
karma is expli citly inherent in atman, which is denied a physical basis
in the elements; here, karma and atman are construed in terms of the
four element s. Additi onal data contribut e to an explanati on of s uch
discrepanci es as the failure in the integration of concept s from diverse
sources. Car. 4.2 states:
Due to defects of the seed, the res idue of one' s
own karma (iitma-karma- "saY,I) and the st.'ason,
as well as the mother's food and activi ties,
The various, polluted do.sils produce mal formati ons
manifest in complexion and the senst.'s .
J ust as excited waters flowing in the streams
Juring the rainy season pound with sticks and stones and
May deform a tree, the do.sas do the same
to the gllrbha in the womb.
45. Gu. 4.8.5\. 46. Car. 5.\.7. 47. Car. 4.2.3. 48. Car. 4.2.4 ,26-27.
\IITCII ELL G. WEISS
That whi ch is borne flee t as thought goes from body to body
with the four elements and the subde body:
A functi on of the nature of hi s karma . .
it s form is unseen wi thout divine \i5ion.
It pervades everything and suppOrtS all bodies:
it is all karma and all form:
It is consciousnl'ss, and the const ituent element (dhii llt ),
but beyond t hl' sensl'S: it is forl'ver fixed and imminent;
it is just that.
The elementS (bhiita) (cont ai nl'd in its nourishmlnt .
the litll/all , mother. and father) are known 10 number
six\el' n in the
The fou r come 10 reSt dl l' re in the (I/mll/I
and, correspond ingly, tll(' almall in thost four.
They say the element s (bIJiila) of the mothn and at hl' r
. the uterine blood and semen are the garbha;
The blood and semen arc swoJll'n with t hosl' clement s,
and nutrient el(ment.S are added.
There are also fou r elerm' nt s eng<'ndeft' d by hi s karma
whi ch cling to thl' alman and enter the garbha;
Since . he dJ",rr, ,,,s or ,he . eed .lTl' ,,11 different,
they each enter into the iilman of the other body.
Sinn' fo rm is a!lained from it s prior form,
the mind (11I,111as) is of thl' character of its own karma,
Which then splits to form the intell l'Clualjudgml'ntal
facult y (bIlJdhi), wherl'i n there is rajas and lamm.
Karma is the cause.
r orm is neHr separated from (I!mall -
nOt by 11ll' impereertibles or subtl e forms,
Not by karma, the menta fJcu lt y nor will,
nOt by one's sense of identity illness,
nor til l' dal as.
Since the mind is restricted by rajas and tama5,
and in the absence of knowledg<.' all the are there,
It is the affliet<.'d mind (mill/as ) and the forn ' of karma
that is the repu ted eau se of the aeli"i ti l's and growth
of the tWO [i.e. , raj"s and t<l/l/<lsl.
50
49. I.e .. four ckmellls from each of four sources. Cakraplf)idana embellishes ",i!h
discussion of the mcu physics.
50. Car. 4.1.29-38.
CARA .... A SAAlHlTA ON THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA
'0)
There are four components of the viable embryo: cont ributions
from ( I) the mmher, (2) the father. (J) nutrients (rasa) ingested by the
pregnant mother, and (4) the atman through which karma exens its
critical influence. This schema outl ined in the preceding sIoka verses
is nOt, however, the last word on the maner.
As was indi cated earlier, the survivi ng redaction of Car. is not
without textual-critical problems.
51
The text is a mixture of prose and
vari ous types of verse, usually sIokas but also more complex epic
meters, and there are notable substantive inconsistencies to suppOrt
an argument that the text is a conglomeration of st rata from several
sources. From a medical perspective, the most highly sophist icated
passages are frequently in prose, quoting the views of Arreya. Sum-
mary sIokas commonly appear at the end of a discussion, either in the
middle of a chapter or at the end, and they may also make up major
po rti ons of or even entire chapters, as in Car. 4.2. It was suggested
earlier th,1[ some of these verses may be survivors from earlier medical
texts, and the possibility that some arc citations from support ive
non-medical works should also be considered. This would serve to
explain the inconsistencies and the occasio03lly tenuous links be-
tween some of these passages and the surrounding context.
52
The prose discussion of Car. 4.3 , quoting Atreya, elaborates and
contradicts the preceding chapter and specifics an addit ional compo-
nent in the constitution of the garbha, namely, s,itmya (i .e., consti-
tutional integrity). The role of sattva becomes complex and more
significant, its particu lar nature (now) dependent upon five compo-
nents of the garbha.
Sperm and blood come togethrr and srtde in the womb; the jiva descrnds
and. following conjuncti on wi th 5dltVa , it producrs the g,nbha.
This garbha is engenderrd by mother, father, atman, satmya, and nourish-
mcnt (rasa). Thcrc is also the sattV,I, which is self-produced (,mpapad/(i.:a)
(i.c., not an extcrnally cont ri butcd componcnt likc the mhcrsl.SJ
To this Bharadvaja objects,S4 arguing that [hc garbha cannOt be said
to be born of these componcnts because no single one of them can
51. See note IS.
52. See M. Wei ss, op cit .. pp. 68- 70, 72-73, 78-81. FM eXMnple, in Car. there is
some confusion about whether demons are the cause of insanity or the manifestation
of it; d. Car. 2.7.]] - 15 and 2.7.10,19- 23.
53. Car. 4.3 .2-3.
54. See notc 16.
MITCH ELL G, WEISS
itself produce a gtlrbha. H Atreya explains that this objeClion misses
t he poi nt, that it is the combination of the five that is required,s6 and
that without anyone o f them no garbha can possibly result. This al so
offers an opportunity for Atreya to expound upon the nature of the
five and satlVa.
S7
Atreya argues that there can be no conception in the absence of
mother, father, alman, and so forth. From the maternal contribu-
tion to the garbha is dcrivcd blood, f]csh, fat , umbili cus, heart ,
lungs , liver, spleen, kidneys, bbddcr, rectum, stomach, and the other
gastrointestinal organs. From the father 's contribution comes hair,
beard, nails, teeth, bones, blood vesscls, sinews, o t hcr physiological
channel s, and semen. \'V'itha/man and the first twO an important tri ad
is made that receives additional d iscussion.
Every insunce of a/man may not necessarily produce the gllrbbll,
but it cenainly will nOt without the maternal and paternal contributions.
Some produce a gllrbbll by their own choice, some by force of karma;
sometimes there is power to bring it about , sometimes not. Where sallVIl
and the reSt arc successfully made, therc is sufficient po",('r for produci ng a
fCIUS as desired. Otherwise there is not. When there is a failure in generating
a gllrbha because of defeClive means, the a/man is not the cause. According
to who know thea/man, the power of vision, motion, the womb, and
rrlease is atmall . Nothing else can produce pleasure and suffering, and from
none but that is the gllrbhll made and does the gll rbha it self produce. The
shoot does not sprout wi thou t a
Contribut ions derived from a/man include the b et of arisi ng in a
pa rt icular womb, life span, s') self-knowledge, mind (manas), the
senses, breat hing, urges, controls, various features, voice, and com-
plexion, pleasure and pain, desire and hate, conscious ness, concentra -
tion, intellectual-judgmental faculty (bllddhi ), memo ry, sense of self
;l11d effort.
60
Siitmya, the required balancc of all the constitutional components,
is al so required. From its cont ri bution sickness, let hargy, and greed
desist. 1t provides clari t y of the se nscs, acqui sition of good voice,
features, seed. and penile erection."1
SS. Car, 4.>.4.
;6. Car, 4.J .; . Bharadvaja' s objections serve as a nl 10 A J ' s discOll rse ; sre
also Car, 4.>.IS ff. and below,
;7. Ca r. 4.J.6- 13.
S8. Ca r, 4.3.9.
S9. L ... , "predetermined" o nly insofar as lime!y d.alh: see abovr.
60. Car, 4.J. 10.
61. Car. 4.3.11.
CA RAKA SA.l.fHITA ON THE DOCTRI NE OF KARMA
Proper (rasa) is nccessary for thegarbha as wcll as for
t he health of the mother. It provides for the formation and growt h of
t he body, ma intenance of life, satiety, thriving, and strength.
b2
That SaffVtl plays an important role is .:Iear, though the exact nature
of that role is somewhat elusive.
bJ
As the link between the spiritual
and physical, and perhaps also in its role as the starting point for the
individuation process prod ucing the various mental {'volutes and re-
su lt ing character t ypes,f>.4 it resembles the Sahkhya concept of bl/d-
dhi. While it carries a connotation of mental efficacy here, it is not the
saltVtl of Its usage in Car. 4.4 as thc term for person-
ali t y indi catcs an appl icat ion broader than the cognitive function as-
sociated with mal/as. In Car. 4.3, however, a passage on the nature of
sattva identifies it with mallas:
The 5altva is ind'ed self-produced (allpap,iduk,t ). In contact with thejiva,
51HtVa binds it to the body. Upon confronting death, personality (5ila) leaves
it, trust is toppled, all the are afflicted, strength is discharged, disf.'"lses
abound, lnd because it is dcstroyed thl' lifc-breath departS. It is the perceiver
of the senses and is clIJ.:d "!<llIas. We teleh that there l re three types: pure,
impulsive, and If.'"thargic (sllddha , rajasa, and lamasa). Williever shall indeed
predominate in manas, he sluIJ mect thlt in the ncxt birth. Funht.'nnore,
when he has that purl' type, he rt'll1t'mbers even thc previous incarnat ion,
since aWlreness of memory is connected with the m,IlUH of that atman lnd
follows. Consequently, thi s man is called "one who remcmbers past lift'
(fa timw r'l ). "66
The contributions of the satt1.la to the garbba include trust, charac-
ter, purity, hate, memory, foolishnf.'"ss, apostasy, jealousy, heroism,
fCJr, rJge , bssirudc, perscvcrencc, fiercencss, gentleness, ser iousness,
fickleness, and so forth. These are considered evolutes of satt'Va as it
undergoes a differentiation process (te sattv a-vikara yan u(tara-
sartv a-bbedam). The above traits are not all act ive at the same
62. Car. 4.3 . 12 .
63. J. A. B. Van Buitenen, in Sihkhya (I II) : Sattva. ,. j ou",,,,l oitbe Ameri-
can Ori,."ta! Socirry (j AOS) 77 (19;.7): 88-107.
6-1. Car. 4.4. 37-39; more dttail helow.
65. Rajas and lam<ls oc(ur in Car. as J dpd, si ngly, or with thc form of ,altV<I
tcrrnN j"ddha. as in the which follows. This is a vari .uion on the tradi -
tional triad inasmuch as this suggests raj<l' and t<lmas here are modificl-
tions of the ' pure" $<ll/va. Thus, we have three types of saltva of ,atlva as
one of the three constituting prakrri. Car. 4.4.34 compares the dl'bilitaring
effects of raj a, and lamas on the mind (So1ItVa) with the effects of the dOfd$ on thc
bod\'.
66. 'Car. 4.3.13; sec also CaT. 4.4.36-39.
,06 ,\IITC HELl G, \'(' EISS
time, and the individual at a given point may be by one
or another.
As described, these afC the five components from external sources
(mim:ja, pill:jtl, atmaja, sZltmyaja, rasaja ) and the sauva which arises
spontaneously in a given birth and depans at dcath Y Atreya again
offers the analogy of a man and a can
68
and adds another wit h a tent,
that is, products whose integral function depends upon the proper
mutual rehuionships of their component pans.
69
Sattva infl uences
manifestations of thciitman in the next birth and in its pure form may
admit memory of a past birth, apparentl y by means of a present
interaction of the sattva wi th atmall capable of detecti ng the effects
ana/man of the p ri or incarnatesattva - wh ich is eq uated tOmanas in
the above account .
The influence of karma is manifest in the at man and secondarily in
the saftva, which is derived fr om atman. li.t rcya refers to this rela-
tionship to explain why the mental auribmes of children differ frolll
their parents.
The senses are always derived of arm,m, and destiny (daiva) is the cause of
their development or failur e to develop. Therefore the children of senseless
ones, and so forth, do nOt resemble their father. 70
Embryology : Character
In Car. 4.4 there is a detailed account of the development of the
garbha and the characteristic changes observable in the fetus and the
mother in the progressive stages frolll conception onward through the
pregnancy. Saftv a receives greater emphasis than before as the process
of individuati on is scrutiniz-ed .
71
[n the developi ng garbha feelings
and desir"s arise, and th"ir locus is the hea rt. When the natural
bing of the fetus is fi rst perceived, it is attributed to desires ca rri ed
forth from another existence, and in thi s condition it is said to feel
67. According to AHr. 2. 1.1 the w mbination of semen and blood only is suffi cient to
produce SdMJa (jic). Karma shapes larva directl y and is not mediated by thl' almall.
suddhe sukrart ave sal vah I sampadyate yuktivasidag.
nir;virlnau /I " In accor dall(;C with its own karma and hindran,,:s, Mtv<l arises in
the pure semen"lllf'nSlrual bloO<.I combination. The garbha results as surely as in
a kindli ng stick." (AHr. 2.1.1) . In his commentary Arm.ladan a glosses sat'M by}iva.
With n:gard 10 Hew, S l'C Yog<l S"l ras 2.>- 9.
68. Sec Car. 3.>.J8.
69. Car. 4.>.14.
70. Car. 4.3.1 7. For a diffrrent view see nOles H - 44.
71. In Car. 4,4. 4 sativa is included with Slatu S equivalent to Ihe olher fi ve in a list of
CtlRtl KA StUfNIT}, ON TH E DOCTRINE OF KAItMA
with twO hearts (dvailn:daya). The garbha heart, a maternally engen-
dered organ, is linked to the mother's heart , :lnd nutrients are trans-
miued through the connecting channels.
71
As was discussed, defects in the maternal or paternal contributions
to thegarbha arc responsible for defects in the offspring, according to
Car. 4.8. Car. 4.4 .32 also includes faults stemming from the nu-
trients, s,itmya, and sattva among these, but defects in atman are not
allowed.
73
Of the three types of sativa, rajilSa and tamasa arc unde-
sirable, while the slfddha is desirable.
There arlo three types of saltva, viz . sudllha, rtijasa, and tam/UtI. The sJlddiJa
type is considered faultless and represems the auspicious aspect. The rajasa
type is fault y and represents the impassioned aspect. The tamaM type is also
faulty and represents the fool ish aspect .
Various personality types are derived from each of these, and they
may also be associated wi th certain body types , which, however, arc
not described. H For the suddha type, categories are named after
deities. The Brahma type is pure, truthful, wise, and free of desire,
anger, greed, and so forth. The ni type is devoted to sacrifices, study,
vows, and si milar concerns . The Indra tyP(' is powerful, acquisitive,
heroi c, virile, and concerned with his own righteousness, posses-
sions, and pleasures, T he Yama type follows what is prescribed , does
what is proper, docs not fight, and has a good memory, and so forth.
The VarUl;Ja type is resolute, clean, intolerant of filth, fas tidi ous in the
performance of sacrifices, and is in control of his anger and tranquil-
it y.76 The Kubera type commands honor, attendants, and pleasures;
the components of the garbh'i.
72 . Car. 4.4.15 .
73. Car. 4A.33.
N. Car. 4.4.36.
75. Car. 4.4.37-39. Cf. a rdated classification of "demonic" (bJ;ura) th:l.t
produce stereotypic mcnul disorders in specified individual s; Car. 2.7. 12;6.9. 20-21;
see Weiss, op. cit., pp. 112 - 133.
76. Since many of the parameters of human beh;l\'ior arc invariant. it is not surpri s'
ing in many of uses essenti al features are recognizable in many
formulations of personality Iype. The Varu!la calegory espc."'Cialty is
comparable 10 the so-calted CharaCl er. Note also the prominence of
hypomanic traits in those lha1 foUow. RajaSd lypes are eompaubl e to various forms
of narcissistic personality, whi ch arc currently Ihe focus of much psychoanalytic
theoretical interest: 1-1 . Kohut, "Thoughts on Narcissism and Narcissistic Rage,"
Psycboanalytic Study of tbe Cbild, 27 (1972): 360-400; O. K,'mbt"rg, "Contrasting
Viewpoints Regarding the Nature and Psychoanalytic Trcatmt'nt of Narcissistic Per-
sonalities: A Preliminary Communication," Jour. of the Amer. Psychoanalytic AJSQC.,
22 (1974): 255- 267. Such 3 study of comparative IhCQry is of count
beyond the $cope of the prest'nt 5tud>.
, oS MIT CHEL L G, WEISS
he is elllotional and enjoys his leisure. The G:mdharv;l type is fo nd of
laugllter, dancing, music, and stories, and is well versed in ltih:lsa and
Purana. He al so li kes garlands, women, leisure activit'ies, and is
contented. Although all seven of dlCSC are considered slIddha- sattv il
types, a hierarchy is indicated, with the Brahma type at the top.
The claim of being able to remember previous lives (made for the
jati5mara, who is defined by his s/uldba-S(fllva )77 seems consistem
theoretically fo r the Brahmin type only, since the others are for lhe
most part reasonably normal, and the empirical strain on a theory
holding that such ;m extraordinary capability was widespread would
have been intolerable. It is more probable that CaY. 4.3. 13 and 4.4.37
represent different theoret ical formubt ions culled from different
sources , the fonner passage from a more grandiose schemt'. The in-
terchange there of manas and sa/(v a may be a remnant of such a
philosophically rather than medically orien ted context. 711
There :Ire six riijaSti types, each ma nifesting some degree of ami -
soci:I l and othenvise undesirable behavior. The Asura type is fi erce,
misanthropic, lordly, deceitful , and given to rage; he is without com-
passion and self-serving. The type is intolerant and 31ways
enraged; he is faultfinding, cruel, fond of me3t , gluttonous, jealous,
and lazy. The Pi saca type is glullono\] s, effemina te, and likes 1\) be
alone wi th women; he is filth y, cowardly, a bully, and given to bad
habits and diet. The Sarpa (snake) type is po\verful when :lngry and
otherwise cowardly; he is often bzy; he frightens others in the :lrea
and considers his own food and spOrt abo\'e all else. The Preta type
likes food , has a morbid personali ty, is jealous and selfish. The
5akuna type is forever preoccupied with pleasure. For him food and
sport come first; he is unstable and impa tient, living from moment to
moment.
T he three tamasa categories represent the fat uous aspect of s'ltlva.
They arc the Pasu (animal ) , M:nsya (fish) , and Vanaspati (tree) Iypes.
Th(' Pasu type is obstructive and stupid ; his diet and behavior arl'
despicable. He is a somnolent character for whom sexual intercourse
is foremost. The Matsya type is cowardl y and dull, and he covets
food . He is fond of water, unstable, sat isfied one moment and angry
the next. The Vanaspati type is idle, solitary, intent on food , and
bereft of all mental fac uiti t' s.
77. Car. u. U.
78. N.B. the account in Car. of th(' differentiati on of ./!tm as in to the sCIl ses
d 1 . ,' "8 (m rI)'a), etc. In s Q a verse, r __ , 1.
CA RAKA SA,I./HfT.4 ON THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA
Et iology of Disease
Car. divides all disease into twO categories: mja (endogenous), al -
ways attributable to an imbalance of the three 19 and aga11fll
(exogenous), caused by demons, poison, wind, fire, and battle in-
juries. The agamu conditions, however, reduce to praj1ia-'paradha
(culpable insight , i.e., violations of good sense). All of the undesir-
able me ntal states (mano-vikara) including jealousy, depression, fear,
anger, vanity, and hate are caused by it.80 Nija disorders arc treated
by restoring the proper physiological balance,8! and agantll disorders
by giving uppraj,iii'pariidhll, calming thc scnses, recognizing implica-
tions of geography, season, and one's own nat ure, and behaving in a
manner consistent with them.
8 2
While Car. admits karma as a causat ive factor in the etiology of
disease, it tends to be incl uded in verses of a general, theoretical
nature rather than in passages with more direct clinical applicability.83
Loss of concentration, resolve, and memory,
reaching the time when brma is manifest,
And the arrival of that which is unhcalthy-
know Ihese to be causes of
And
For there is no significant karma whatsoever
whose fruit is not consumed.
Diseases produced by karma resist treatment
until that fruit is gone; th(>n they
Karma serves a dual function. Not only does it provide an explana-
tion for those di seases that do nO! fit the recognizable patterns,
but even those disorders tha t do fit the patterns are, when resistant to
treatme nt, redassinable as kannaja, since that resistance is itself
palhognomonic. The medical system thus copes wilh the characteris-
79 . Car. 1.7.39-40.
SO. Car. 1.7.51 - 52.
81. Car. 1.7.49-50; see also Car. 4.6. 5-1 1.
82. Car. 1.7.53-54; see also Car.
83. Car. 4.1.1. In 19O1 J. Jolly comment ed on thi s "escape clause" feature provided
the medical tht'Ory by the karma doctrine: From the standpoint of the principle of
rebirth, those are wnsidcr<'d as karmaja. i.e., procet'"{/ ing from the misdeeds
in a previous birth. for which appears no \" isibJeeause and which resist the usual
curing methods" (jolly. op . ..:i(. In. 15 above]. p. 71).
84. Car. 4.1.98 .
85. Car. 4.1.116- 117.
.\!! TCH ELL G. WEISS
tically Indian drive for completeness in formulating theoretical foun-
dations and thereby justifies an essential premise (i.e. , theofY)
which can survive intact despite instances of its admimd ineffective-
ness in healing certain patients. Notwithstanding this success of
.Ayurveda in as similating a karma doctrine, from an etic perspective it
manifests an abandoning of empiri cal medical methodology in the
face of insurmountable illness . The system the n compensates by in-
corporat ing whateve r philosophical and spir ilUal modes of solace are
available from the culture at large in order to cope with its failure .
Consider the analogous situation of the present day. Although Chris-
tian Science and Western medicine arc doubtlessly incompatible,
physicians may none the less refer to th,' Will of God with impunity
upon reachi ng the periphery of thei r clinical competence, and hospi-
tal architecture commonly includes a chapel , thus manifesting similar
deference to the dominant cult ural values.
Car. has in effect redefined the concept of karma, shifting the em-
phasis from p.lst lives to present behavior in such a way as to make it
clinically germane. In doing this wi th the concept of praj,ia-'paradha,
Car. adds forct' to its own advocacy of a salutary lift' style. One finds
a greater willingness on the pan of Car. to v{'nture fa rt her frOI11 the
doctrinal escape hatclt - karma - than those lall'f in whi ch med-
ical and speculative norions became morc hi ghly intertwined in their
cl inical appli cat ion. After refuting the proposal that the life span of
every ind ividual is predetermined, the logical inference from a more
fundamentalist interpretati o n of the karma doctrine, Atrcya affirms:
In this age the life dan is one hundred years; perfecting one's own conslitu-
tion and merit s an attending to good health brings this
Although Car. 's shift from the eti ologic perspec tive dependent
upon ka rma and spirit-possession is especially significant because the
trend was moving toward a less ra ther than a more secular appro:l.ch
to medicine, in some cases the shift from karma and demoni c posses-
sion to pmjiia-'partidha is incomplete or altoget her lacking. Child-
hood diseases have a sudden onset , produce high fever, and quickly
86. Car. 4.6.19- JO. Set' al so Car. 1. 7.J 7- J8 ,H . Tht' discu55ion of praj,ia- p,mi dh"
emphasizes the imporlance of abJndoning bad habit s and establishing goo{1 ones .
Car. discusses the salutary effect s of such behavior when fauli sm and medicine arc at
odds. Cf. .. . viig-v asl ,, -mii rram elad v ii dmn rf a)"() mall)","'!/.' niihllr 11I f l )'''' a,/ ;II 1/
..... The seers considt'r thi s doctrine, that there ;s no ulltimel y death , 10 be nothin g
but a matter of words" (Car. 4.6.18).
CA RA .... A SA.l/HITA ON TH E DOCTRI NE OF KAK;\1 A
'"
abate. They were considered independ(nt of the theory and
" brough1 on by the anger of the gods and the rest," that is, classes of
demons (bbiita). 87 The exogenous menu I disorders were conceived in
simi lar terms, but here we dis(ern a distinction between more and less
sophisticated formulations of the medical theory. Car. 6.9. 16, quoted
earlier, appeals to karma and demons to explai n one form of insanity,
(lganw-umniidtl . In the Nidana section ("Pathology") this \'iew is
distinguished from and then rationalized with that of Atreya:
Somt' seek its lagallw-Immada ! cause in the effect of unpraiseworthy karma
commiued in a pre\' ious li fe, but according to the great AlTeya Punarvasu,
pral'ia-'paradha is really the cause. For it is because of thi spr'lj7ili-'paradha
that one is cornemplUOUS toward the Devas, Pitrs! Gandharvas, Yak-
Pisacas, Gurus, old people, Siddhas, Acaryas, and those
worthy of honor, and thereby behaves improperly; or .-I se ht' underllkts
some equally unpraiseworthy Jctivity. Once he is stricken by himself, the
assaulting gods and the rest render him insane (1I7177U/lta).88
The point may be obscured in other passages of Car., but it is sig-
nificant that the locus of etiologic cause had clear ly shifted from
outside the individual, as in the demonic accounts represented in tht
earlier AriJarva Veda, to a pe rso nalized account in early
despite tlH" fact that this view seems to have lost ground in the later
Ayurvedic texts. Summary S/oka$ at the end of Car. 2.7 make it clear
that it was nOt the demons, but the individual who was the source of
hi s illness:
Neither Devas nor Gandharvas nor Pi sacas
nor
Nor th e others afflict the man who is
nOt self-afflicted.
Regarding those who turn on him
who is afflicted by hi s own karma,
Hi s distress is not caused by them,
since th ey did not bring on hi s apostasy.
[n the case of disease born of hi s own karma,
the result of prajrili- 'pllradha,
The wise man does not blame tht' DC"as,
Pitrs, or
87. Car. In Car. arc associ3ted .... ilh improper (oman with
unctuous, cold, or warm objei:ts.
SS. Car. 2.7.10.
I (2 ,\IITCHELL G. \'('EISS
He should rl'gard onl y himself as the cause
of his happiness and mi sery;
Therefore, he should krep 10 a salutary path
and not falter.
Honoring t he Devls and the rcst
and devoting himself to what is wholesome-
Whether doi ng Ihest or their opposit(,
it sha ll all reach him in the ,i I/nan. S"
These slokas emphasiz.e the weight given in early Ayur veda to the
shift from external to internal etiology. Demonic possession was re-
defined so that the problem here is not to appease the demon (d .
Atharvd Veda 6. 111) but to put one' s own life in o rder. Cl r.'s shift in
emphasis from karma to prajriti -'paradha similarl y serves to define
the rOOt of the problem in terms of behavior pertinent to the present
si tuati on instead of previous incarnations, which the indi vi dual is
actuall y no more able to affect in a medi cal context than he can a
fickle demon. Unlike Car. (and She/a Su. and AHr. eJch
contlin one o r more separate chapt ers o n demons (bhiita-vidya)
which more clearly accept the posi ti on that it is the demon rather than
the individual who causes these maladi es . Compare, for example. the
above verses with the following admoni tion from Su. 6.60.55 which
is llso rept'ated in AHr. 6.5 .49:
One should 110t move 19ainst the affl iction of the
Pisaca in ot her than the propt;'T manner ;
They arc resol ut e. angry, very powerful , and may
!:lunch an attack against the physician and pJ.tient.
These texts also lack a concept of prajlja- 'partldha and tend to see
karma in more t raditional rat her than medical terms.
The termllpllradha is used in AJ--ir. without prajlia, thereby strip-
ping the concept of its !echni cal usage and transforming it into the
violation of a more tradit ional moral imperati ve. Vagbhap, author of
AHr. (approximately A.D. 600) , posi ts three categories of disease,
res ulti ng (1) from the (2) from brma, and (3) from a mixture
of !he firs! two. The disorders are associated with acti ons in thi s
life and tht' karma disorders with a previous life.
Some arise fr om transgressions which arc experienced,
some from prior culpabilit y (aparadha);
From a mixture of these there is anothrr,
and thus disease is known !O br thrrr-fold.
89. Car. Z.7.1 9-lJ.
CA RAf,,'A ON THE DOCTRINE or KARI>IA
Arising from the it has the corresponding
pathology; arising from karma it is
without basis [in tht" present life];
A malady wi th an intense onset when there is
slight cause is the resul! of dosas and karma.
The firs t desists aftl'r treatment counteracting (thl'
the karma type after dissipating karma,
And the dise3Se arising from both dt'sists
after the eradication of the and karma.<>O
"J
Thus, any malady is cured when the influences of both the do!as and
karma are dissipated.
The zenith in the rising impact on Ayurveda of more traditional
ideas about karma is best represent ed in an obscure monograph sur-
viving from the later middl e ages. Though unrepreseTltat ive in the
extreme to which its position is taken, and so interesting for the same
reason,jriiwllbhaskllm consists of a dialogue between SUrya and his
charioteer on the evils of human existence lnd a host of diseases - all
attributed to karma. Descriptions of pathology arc extensive, but
t herapeutics are confi ned to expiatOry procedures. Within t he scope
of that presentation, however, traditional Ayurvedic tOpics are in-
cluded, such as vata, pitra, and kapha disorders.'.11 It was, however,
long before this point that Ayurveda had begun to allow its garden of
empiricall y derived clinical insights to be invaded by weeds spreading
from the more supernaturall y o riented popular culture.
9 l
Epidemics
In his analysi s of karma in the Mahilbharata, J. Bruce Long notes
that during limes of misfortune and mental anguish rhe karma doc-
trine served as a source of meaning, encouragement , and consolation .
Car. 's chapter on catastrophi c epidemics (Car. 3.3; jalUlpado-
'ddva1!lSlI1M) addresses itself 10 situat ions in which one might there-
fore expect the role of karma to be significant. In stich times normal
90. AHr. 1.11.">7- 59. AU,;;'g"hrday" S",nlJitil (Bombay: Sag3TJ, 1939),
tran$hted int o German by L. Hil gl'nberg and W. Kirfcl (Leiden: Brill . 1941).
'll. Mss. from approximatel y A. Il . 1500 described in Cala/oKI'1' of Samknt M"t/I<-
lcripH ill the Lihra,)' o[ the India Of fin' , Lo"dml, com riled by E. W. O. Windi sch
and J. Eggeling in 2 \"015. , 4 pn. (London: Secretary 0 Slate for India, 1887-1935),
#2719 (2030), pr. %2-9&4. Sl'e also M. Wintrrnitz, Hino,)' of !mlia" Lilt' ratl<H:':
'1.101. III, pa rt 1I (Scienlific Literature), translat ed by S. Jha (Ddhi: MOIilal. 1%7).
p. 638.
92. Persona! communicJtion from Jeremy Nobd.
,\lITCHELL G, WEISS
medical practices and l'xpecta tions arc frustrated by indisc riminate
and high ratcs of mo rbidity.')J Thc etiol ogic explanation conscquentl y
shift ed from the mja category, which could not account for these
events, to thc agantll category. Alreya o bserved that e\'en though a
diverse populalion may be stri cken by an epidemic, there are several
common denominators, namel y, season, landscape, \vater, and
wind.
94
Aberrations in any of these, such:ts windstOrms, pmrid w:t-
ter, changes in the wildlife or complexion o f the landscape, and un-
seasonable weather, might produce epidemic illness.'15
Specific cases were said to respond well to treatment, herbal rem-
edies being especiall y useful, and an intelligent physician was wel l
advised to gather the appropriat e medicinal provi sions while he could
upon observing the natural signs of impending di saster. Cases Ihat did
nOI respond to trea tment and ended in fatality were attributed to
karma. " Most do nOt die , mOSI are not o f Ihal karma."'IIt Cakra-
paryidana's comment ary on thi s passage explains that only some
karma will produce deadl y illness when it matures, such as burning a
vi ll age o r murder. H e surmises thaI because such cvents wcre rare, so
were the fa t:tliti es . According to thi s view, although such fataliti es are
attributed to karm:t , it is not nccess aril y t he karma o f the victim, but
potenti:lJly somebody cls(' in the rcbion that is ultim:l tcl y respons ible.
Atrcya makes no such speculation, and thc nature o f hi s di scuss ion
argues against it. He seems to allow, howevcr, for the effects of a
group' s karma, which may be impli ed by his USe of adharma.
In answering a question PUt to him by Agnivd a, Alreya responds:
The (' :lUSt' of them all , Agni ve.sa , the mi sfortu ne Ih:l! arises from the winds
and the rest, is aliharma (unrii;hteousncss) or ebe previously ('om mined
karma ((uar-karm(ll1). It is nothing but pr,ljlla-'par,idba that nurtures them
bOlh.9'
He cites the widespread adbarma accruing from corrupt and
spiraling down Ihe social order. T hen the dei ties forsake the commu-
nit y; the seasons, winds, and wat ers are di sturbed , :md the po pul:t-
lion devastated. Adbarma is the cause of ,\\ar, and ei ther at/harma o r
some other transgress ions ca use the Rak$:lsas the other demoni c
93. Car, 3.3.; ,
94. Car. 3.3.f>- 7. The list here is in descending order of si);nifi cance. q. \". Car.
3.3. 10.
95. These condit ions ,n e wi th ('pidemic outbreaks of , holen from con-
tami nat <'<i water supply, ma!.ui a from Anoph,]cs mosqui to infest ation . etc.
91>. Ca r. 3.3.13.
97. Car. 3.3 . 19.
CARAi<A SA.4,fHI TA ON THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA
hordes to strike. The curses of gurus, elders, accomplished ones, and
others are also caused by improper behavior rooted in adhamla.
911
Prajiiii-'pariidha is the source of both adharma and asat-karmall,
which lead to catastrophy. Adharma may be either mediated or man-
ifest by improper actions, and may simply refer to asat-karman en
masse.
The following, drawn from Car. el ucidates the nature of
prajnii- 'pariidha .
Praj,ja- 'pllrildha is considered to refer to that deed which, lacking in concen-
trati on, resolve and memory. causes harm. It provokes all the dOMs.
Among these " vi olations of good sense" are the foll owing :
forcing and suppressing the natural excretory urge
reckless behavior and too much attention to women
doing something either toO late or something that should not be donr
(mithya-karman)
violating social custom and insulting venerable men
indulging in what one knows to be unhealthy, in psychotropic drugs, and
what is contrary to one's beliefs
roaming about at improper times and in improper places
friendship with those who wreak havoc
ignoring what one' s senses tell him and valid expl"ri enre
jealousy, vanity, fear, anger, greed, bmalion, intoxi cation, and confusion or
a blameworthy deed (karma,, ) derived frolll Ihl"se
a blameworthy bodily aC'tivit}' or any other such deed (karmall ) by
passi on or fatuation -
The learned call these prajria-'paradha, and t hey art' the cause of disease.
Thl"se arc defective di scriminations of the judgmental fa cult y (bl/eldhi), and
they bring on distress, They are known as praj1ja- 'paradha bl"cause they arc
in th r firld rrlating to mind (manas). 100
This formulati o n of praj7ia-'paradha, unique in Ayurveda, faciliated
At reya' s un paraJJ eled emphasis on clinical empiricism o\'er dog-
matism and his subord ination of superna tu ral et iology. Whil e village
burning and a murder committed in a prior life readily came to mind
for CakrapaQ. idatta in t he eleventh century as he sought to understand
t he significance of the term karman in Car. 3.3 .13, they in fact belie
Atreya's predilection for addressing more mundane activiti es in the
world of the present over obt use speculation on karma rooted in the
dista nt past.
98 . Car, 3.3. 10-23.
99. Car. 4.1. 102. For larva-t!Qfa, Cakrapal)idau a includes mJas and tamas with vaM,
pilla. and kapha.
100. Car. 4.1.1 03- 109.
5
The Theory of Reincarnation
among the Tamils
GEORGE L. HART, III
The culture of Tamilnad comes not fr om the Aryans of the North,
though many clements from tha t cult ure were superimposed on Tamil
cu lture. but from the mcg:dithic culture of the Deccan. Through the
oldest extant Tamil poems it is possibl e to gain a fairl y clear picture of
JUSt what Tamil culture was like before the incursion of Aryan d e-
ments.
1
While there are, of course, many different elements that go to
make up a cuhure, we may discern three basic features of the culture
ofTamil nad before Northern influence. They are the cu lt of the king,
the power of woman, and a corpus of conceptions about death . [1 is
this third :Lrc:! that thi s paper will discuss.
Before the coming of the Aryan ideas, the Tamils did not believe in
reincarnation. Rather, like many archaic peoples, they h:td sh:tdowy
and inconsistent ideas of what happens to the spirits of the dead.
Their oldest belief appears to bl? that the spirit of the dead remains in
the world ready to work mischief if it is not somehow contai ned and
controlled . To this end, Stones call ed naptk,lis were erected to the
spirits of especially powerful fi gures- heroes, kings, sat;j - whl?re
the spi rits could aetu:tll y reside and be propi tiated. Indeed, til(' Tamils
believed that any taking of life was dangerous, as it released the spirits
I. See George L Han, Ill , Tlu' Poeml of A'U7em T.1I1lil: Tlm'r MdieJ< and Their
S,mskrif COUlI ll'rp.lTu (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univcrsiry of California Press .
197; ).
THEORY O F REINCARNAT! ON AMO NG THE TAl-IlLS
"7
of the things that we re killed. Likewise, all who dealt wit h the dead or
wit h dead substa nces from the body were considered to be charged
with the power of deat h and were thought to be dangerous. Thus,
long before the coming of the Aryans with t heir notion of Van.la, the
Tamils had groups that were considered low a nd dangerous and wi th
whom contact was closely regulated.
2
It is important to note tha t
these beli efs survive quite strongly even to the pr('sent. Not only are
there many very low castes with whom contact is regulat ed (drum-
mers, leatherworkers, barbers), there is even a low caste in Kerala
called t he a y a ~ i s who erect stones to their ancestOrs, whom they
believe to inhabit the stones.
J
Another important consequence of the indigenous Tamil noti ons
regarding death is belief in possession . In the Sangam poems, there
are many verses that show t hat a despondent woman was thought to
be possessed by the god Murugan. Today, there a re possession cults
all over South India and Northern Ceylon. Whi tehead described a
Westerner who inadvertently witnessed a possession:
A was a stranger to the country and ils ways. He was relurning home
laIr one night. . .. 1\Jliss ing his way, he strayed towards the shrine of the
village goddess; and when passi ng thr low wall s of the tempIr hi s atlrntion
was suddenly arrested by a heart-rending moan, seemingly uttered by some-
one in grell distress, inside the walled enclos ure. Impelled by though ts of
Tl'ndering help to a fellow creature in distress, A approached the templr
wall, and looking over it, saw the prost rate form of a young and handsome
female, of the better cllss of Hindus, lying motionless as d('ath on the stone
pavement. . . . Quick as lightning, a g;lUnt and spenra! object, almost nude,
bearded to the knee, with head covered by matt ed tuft s of hair and present-
ing a hideous apP('arance, eme rged from the deep shadows around. The
figure held a naked sword in one hand and a bunch of margosa leaves in th(
other .... [Upon asking a policelnl n the significance of wIlli he had seen),
he was tol d thaI the woman was the mal ron of a respeCtable Hindu famil y,
who, having had no children si nce her marriage, had come, by the advice of
her ciders, to invoke the assistance of the goddess, as she was cn:dited wi th
Ihe power of making women fertile .... The grotesque fi gure which had so
terrified A was the vill age pujari, and a noted exorciser of evil spi rits;
and hl' was then exercising his art over the' terrifi ed woman in attempting to
drive away the malignant spirit that had possessed her, and had t hereby
rendered her childless.
4
2. Ibid., pp. J!9- 133.
3. See A. Aiyappan, "SociJI and Physical Anthropology of the Nayadis of Malabar,"
in M"d'''J Government ,11,<>(' 11>11 B"flelin, genaai section 2, 1930- J 7, pp. IJ-S' .
4. Henry Wh itehead. The VII/"ge Gods 0[50,,!h l udi" (Calcutta: Oxford Uni"crsily
Press, 1921), p. 120.
GEORG E L. HART. II I
[n Tu[unad, it is beli eved that there arc many spirit s of men and
women long dead who possess people and who must be propitiated in
the body they have possessed .
5
The fact is that both the spirits of the
dead and gods may possess people. Indeed, there is evidence that the
beli ef in possession th rough the spirits of the dead is older than t he
be lief in possession by gods."
The Tamils believe that the spirit of a dead man or woman remai ns
in the world and able to act in some mysterious wa y. There is rcla-
tivc!y little to fear from spirits that have not been wronged or that arc
not especially powerful because of the circumstances of their life and
death. Howe\'er, the spirit of a king, of a great hero who di('d in
battle, or of a woman who committed sut tee, as well as t he spirit of
anyone unjustly killed, \vould lur k in the world, eager to do ha rm o r
wrelk vengeance. In order 10 contain these powerful spiri ts, Stones
were const ruct ed where the spirit might be contained :lIl d propiti:lled .
These spiri ts might act in m,lny ways, but one of their most danger-
ous manifestations was possession. It is signifi ca nt that there is noth-
ing in these bel iefs t hat takes the view of the dead person. It is as if
once dead, a man's spirit becomes existentilily so ali en to li fe t hat
there is no use attempting to describe the world he experi ences.
[yen in the oldest Tamil poems, t hc so-call ed Sang:1Il1 poems, there
arc \'erses desc ri bing l life l fter death in terms other t han the <l bovc.
M<ln y poems d.' pict a SOrt of Valhalla or warriors' paradise to whi ch a
man would go if he died in battle:
How can bail ie ragt' now.
how can wa rriors hold bAck Adva nci ng ranks?
Tou(' hing th(' wounds of mt'n who have di ed fighting there
and smeari ng their hai r with their bloody red hands,
demon womcn whose forms arc bri ght with color
dance 10 the slow rhythm of the p<l!:<li (!rum.
The armies lrt' being eaten up by vultures,
and the two kings who fought furiously but justly
have perished.
5. Pete. Clms. "Possession. P,c)!I:<:!ion Punishment as An ributcs or tfle Deities
in a Sout h Irl dian Village, " Mall JII ""Ii" 5J (1973): Pe' e. Claus, "The Siri
/Il yth and Ritual: A Mass Po>session Cult of South India," Ethllology. ,0J. XIV, no.
I, January, 1975, pp.
6. Sr<' G, A. Orlcury, The Cult of Vllhobii (Poona. 1%0), pp. 193-108. Ddeury
argues persuasively that the t"mpk to Vi_thobi 3t Pandharpur aros!' around the me-
morial Slone orit;inall y e.ened 10 a hero named. Bi.q a):a.
THEORY OF REI NC,\RNATl ON AMONG THE TAMILS
Their parasols droop do wn
and their drums , acclaimed for their greatness, are ruined.
In the large camp,
where hundreds from different pbces were gath('red
so there was no space,
there is no onl' fit 10 capture the field,
and so the damor of fighting hls ceased
suddenly, fearfully.
Women do ell green leaves,
do not bathe In cool waler,
but lie there embracing the chests of their men.
Those who have fragrant food,
whose garlands are un withering,
whose eyes lTC unwinking,
have guests as the world hard to get fills.
May the fame [of the tWO of] you be resplendent! 7
Another poem describes the treatment of men who did not die on the
field of battle :
The mean kings there died
and so esclped the rite that wo uld have rid them of their infamy:
if they hld died in bed,
thei r bodies would have been taken,
and, a1110ve for them forgotten ,
10 purge them of their evil,
Brlhmins of the four Vedas and just principl es
would have laid them out on gTeen grass
ritually prepared
and would have said,
"Go to where warriors with renown('d anklets go
who hlve died in battle with thei r manliness their suPPOrt,"
lnd would have CUI them with the
I do not believe that this notion of a wa rriors' paradise was native to
South India. For one thing, several poems on this theme associate this
idea with elements that arc dearly Aryan, like the unwinking gods
with unfading garlands in the first poem quoted above. For another,
the notion of a warriors' paradise simply docs nOt accord wi th the
practice of erecting stones thought to be inhabited by the spi rits of the
dead, a practice that is clearly older than the Sangam poems.
There arc several pOems that dcscribe reincarnation, of which some
indi cate that the belief is not well accepted. In Pu,:an,j'Jlt':u 134, for
7. Pllranimuy" 6Z. See also P"ran:mur" 241.
S. P,,-r>lnanu-ru 93. -
[ 20 GEQH. GI L HART. II I
exampl e, the poet Uraiyur Enicccri l\tlutamociyar sings about the
king Ay:
He is nOt a merchant dealing in the pri ce of ,-inu",
he docs not think,
" What I do in thi s birth I get back in the nex!."
No, because it is the way of good mcn,
his gi"ing is the way it
In 397, the heroine td ls her friend that she will nOt die, even
t hough her lover is away. for she is afraid that "if I di e, and if there is
another birth, I might forget my lover. " In PUral/fllJl/TII 214, a poem
that appears to havc been influenced by J aini sm, a king gives the mOSt
detailed description in al! the anthologi es of the theory o f reinca rna-
tion. The king is about to commit suicide by sitting towards the north
and st,l TVing himself (an ancient custom evidently not related to an y
North Indian practice). He says,
"Shall we do good you think,
o you who do not cease your doubting,
your hearts wi thout resolvc.
\,our minds unclean.
A hllntn of ekphants may g CI an depham,
a hunter of lin I" birds may come back with empty hands.
If, indeed, for those high ones who hunt the highest
there is reward for acts they do,
Ihey may enjoy thei r n,'compensc in an etcrnal world.
Or if then' is no li"ing in enjoymcnt Ihen',
they may nOt have 10 bc reborn.
Yet e"en if they are not born again,
one thing is "i tal :
they ITlUSt di(' with a faultless body
establishing tht'ir fame li kl' a towering penk of the Himalayas.
Presumably the e1ephnnt is entry to paradisc or releasc from thc cycle
of transmigration, while the bird is remaining alive and experi enci ng
earthly pleasures. Two po ints necd to be mndc. First, the king is not
starving himself to death as a Jain ascetic would, to gain release from
but rather because hi s two sons are coming against him in
battle and he is di sgraced. Second, after he did, stones were crc(tcd
to him and those of his followers who sat and died with him, and
THEORY OF REINCA RNATION AMONG THE TAMILS
, "
those stones were thought to be inhabited by the spirits of the dead, a
poim made eloquently by Pllrallaljl1rll 221:
He had the ampl e fatm' of giving to singers.
He had the great love to give to dancers.
He had a just sceptre praised by the righteous.
He had st eadfast love eXlOlled by the able.
To women he was gentle, to men, manl y.
H r was a rdugr for the high ones of the faultless revdation.
But Death, caring nothing for hi s greatness and scorning hi s worth,
took away his sweet life.
Gathe r your grieving families and come, poets of true speech.
We will abuse Death and say,
" Mmlrning TeStS on th e wide worl d,
for he, putting on good fame.
our prOleClOr,
has become a stone."
So st rong was the belief that the stones were inhabi ted by the spirit s
of the dead th:l.t, in Puraniirpl!u 222 , Potti yar, who was to ld to go
away and return to join the king in fasting to death only aft er his
pregnant wife had borne a son, addresses the Stone of the king upo n
his return:
" After sht: who loves you,
whose body is bright with ornamentS radiant as fire,
who no mOTe leaves you than your shadow,
has borne a glorious son,
come."
With such words you banished me from here, loveless one.
Surel y you will not remain silent, unmindful of me.
Which place is mine,
you who yea rn faT fame?
One of the finest pieces in Indian literature on the theoTY of rein-
carnation occurs in the Pl/rantUlllpl (192). The poet accepts the
theory, but not in the usual mechanistic sense. Li fe is so mysterious,
he says , that even though a m;ln is responsible fo r what happe ns t o
him he must show compassion to others:
All lands horne, all men kin.
Evi l and good come not from others.
nor do pain and its abating.
Death is nothing new;
we do not rejoice thinking life s\veet.
[ 12
If there is hun,
even less do we find il cause for grief.
Through the seeing of Ihe able ones
GEORGE L. HART. [[]
we ha\'e come 10 know Ihal hard life lakes il s course
as if it were a raft upon Ihe walers of a mighty river
evcr roaring and bealing on rocks
after cold drops pour from fl ashing skies,
and so we do nOI wonder al those bi g wilh greatness
and still less do we despisc Ihe small.
These poems of the Sangam amhol ogies can b(' dated to the second
and third centuries A.D. By about th<' fifth century, the influence of
the J ainas and the had grown, and the literature shows a
growing acceptance of the doctrine of reincarnation. for example ,
sections of the Ntila(iytir, a J aina wo rk, descri be t he fate of sinners in
the next birth. Poem 122 speaks of those who imprison birds :
Their legs bound wi th iron,
slavcs of st range kings,
they will work in bb.ckeanhed fields
who bring and keep in cages
plTtridges ana
tha t live in forests resounding with bees.
Poem 243 is also interesting:
Whate\'er soil you pl.lnl it in,
the in Ihe sirychnine !Tee
does nOI grow into a coconut.
Men of the sout hern land, 100, haw entered paradise.
The neXI birth depends on one's effons.
!n the northern land tOO,
many many men arc worthl ess .
The Timkhl!II!, which many believe was written by a J ain, also
spea ks of reincarnat ion. Verse 339, for example, says,
Like sleeping is death. Like waking
aft er sleep is birth.
Verse S says ,
The tWO act ions, good and bad, filled with dar kness do nOl att ach
10 those who Ion Ihe fame of God's Innh.
In the Cilappatikimm! the theory of karma has been grafted OntO
an older story, in whic h a sat i whose husband was unjustly killed
becomes a stone that must be propitiated and worshipped . The
THEORY OF REINCA RN ,\ TION ,\MOI\:G TH E TAMILS
" l
author of this work, I!aiik6, spoils the tragi c effect of the poem by
attributing all the misfortunes of the hero and heroine 10 acts in a
previous life.
It is important that in the history of the theory of reincarnation in
Tamilnad, we ca n di scern the Indian tendency to incorporate new
ideas int o a system by grafting thelll on the old, no matter how
inconsistent the tWO may seem, rather than by discarding the old
ideas. Thus the Cilappiilik7mml does not deny the older ek'ments of
the story-that Kar:tr:taki became a stone that was worshipped- but
rather adds to that version t he idea that she becomes a goddess in
paradise. It appears that t he indigenous notions of life aft er deat h
were so unclear and inchoate that the theo ry of reincarnati on, COtn-
par-Hi vely wi'll -defined and cl ea r, was /lOt felt to confl ict with t hem.
Moreover, the old ideas concern the fa t(" of the living, while the
theory of reincarnation describes the fate of the dead soul. Very
likdy, dlese different viewpoints of the t \\'O systems were at least
partly responsible for thei r not being percei ved as contradictory.
Thus the theory of reincarnat ion did nOt in an y sense di splace the
older bel iefs about the dangerous sp irits o f the dead and possession.
The history of religion in Tamilnad in the next few centuries is that
of the emergence of devotional Hinduism and the disappearance of
Buddhi sm and Jaini sm. I have argued that one of t he most important
reasons for this course of events was that Hinduism was able to adapt
itself to native South Indian ideas rega rding the king, woman, and
death, white Buddhism and Jaini sm were no!. 10 In this regard, it is
quite importalll, I beliew, that while devotional Hinduism pays lip
service to the doctrine of reinca rnati on, its popular manifestations
never make very much of that theory. Rather, works that appeal to
the mass of Tamilians the older bel iefs. A good ('xample is
the story of the great sinner from the To a
pious Brahmin and his good wife, a si nner was ho rn " like a ship
loaded fu ll with murder and other cruel si ns. "
\Xfhcn llc had );rown into a youlll ,
the deeds [of former births] lust, immense in it s del usive power,
attracted him and o\'ercame his str<.'ngth of wiH
so that he desi red her who had carried him an d borne him from her womb.
He began to sleep with his mother, and o ne day, caught in the act of
violating his mother by his fath er, he took a mattock and kill ed his
10. Han, op. ciT.. pp. 71 -71.
GEORGE I.. IIART. III
father. That night , he alld hi s mother left the village fo r t he wilder-
ness. There they were surrounded by hunters, who took away the
sinner's mother and money.
As if he thought , " Who will go wi th my son
now that robbers have taken his mot her?
Now I shall be his compan ion," hi s fa ther came
and held fast to him in the form of hi s greal sin.
[The si n] would weep " Alas!" It would cry Out ,
"God, god, wrelchl'd, wretched is the punishment [for murder].
Help! Help!" Sh;lking ils hands, it would dash Ihem on the earth,
and, likc' a shadow, i1 would follow aftc'r him.
11 would not let him come ncar a sacre(1 tank or place holy to Si"a;
it kept him fa r from good men.
Nor would il allow the praise or the name of Siva to come to his cars,
10 come into hi s heart, to be uttaed by his lOngue.
It went before him and behind hi m.
II lOok hold of hi s garment and pulled hi m on.
\'(lith his great sin he wandered, tormented by helpl<-ssness,
anguish.
overcome b\
,
Al o ne he went all (,,'<' r Ihe earlh , larih<:"d ~ n suffering.
Finall y, "Siva showed hi s grace, his sin dwindled and dwindl ed, and
he drew near Madurai ." Si\'a and hi s wife, Aiikayarkanr:ti , appeared
before him as a huntl'r and huntress, and Si va asked him why hl' was
so di slrl' ssl'd.
He slOod piti full y and tol d how he had been born
as the <'viI deNls he had done I in former births] bore fruil,
how he had cuckolded his h ther and th.'11 kill ed him,
how afterwards that sin had caught him. IOrml' nt<,d him,
and had not gone away no matter wh.'re he went,
and how he had ent('red this city.
SiV;l tell s him fhat he can ;ltone for his si n by performing devoti ons to
the god Cuntarar (a fo rm of Siva) at Madurai, and by rolling around
th e t('mpl e 108 times th ree limes a day. A her the sinll er departs, Si,,;l's
wi fe asks him,
" My lord. t h i ~ wi.:;ked man has cornmil1ed su.:;h a sin
that he would nOt escape <,ven ii hc fel l for measurci ess time
into 18 crores of hells .
THEORY OF REINCA RNATI ON AMONG THE TAMILS
Why, then, did you show him how he might esclpe?"
And the onc who rides on the red-eyed bull that is ViSt,lU spoke:
"Evrn though a man is despiclble, not even frightened of the sin of murder,
even though he deserves to perish with no suppOrt and no wly of freeing
himself,
bound by a sin he did without fear,
a sin so terrible that men lre frightentd even to think of it -
slving such a mln is indeed saving," said he whose very form is compassion.
His wi fe replies, " If you wish it, then no matter what acts he has done
a man can be saved. Such is the p lay of your grace." The sinner
performs the devotions he has been instructed to do and finally
merges with Siva. The piece concl udes:
It dispelled the sin of killing his Brahmin hther and guru
after loving his own mother, and it gave salvation.
If it can do this , then how much more can bathing in this water
cure diabetes, J(prosy, dropsy, and consumption.
When they found out that the great sin of the fallen Brahmin had been
dispelled,
the king, his ministers, the people of the city. others on the earth,
lnd the gods in the sky were amazed, wondering,
" \Xlhlt is the reason that grace beyond telling and thought
WlS shown to thi s wi cked one?"
They shed tears, praised the Lord of four-towered Madurai ,
and were transported with bliss.ll
It is immediately apparent that in thi s story, ~ i v a works outside the
system of reincarnation. He gi\'es salvation without any regard to a
man's karma; indeed , the heinousness of the sins of the Brahmin
make him, in some mysterious fashion, a more appropriate object of
~ i v a s grace than some other person with better karma. The religion
described in this Story is most emphati cally not the devotion of the
Bhagavadgita, where one becomes unencumbered by one's acts by
laying their fruits at the feet of God. Here, no effort is required of the
man who is saved. The escape from his karma is a gift given spon-
taneous!y by ~ i v a as a part of Hi s play. The theory of reincarnation is,
in a real sense, irrel evant to the religion of devotion in Tamilnad.
I suggest that the notion of sin that is so prominent in the practice
II. Paraii cotimu!).j,ar. TiruvifaiyiiraTPur:mam, Ki.rarkiiTJram (Madras, Tirunclvetil
TenQintiya Caiv;lciuantJ NUI P3tippuk Ka!akam, 1965), pp. 113-141.
GEORGE L. H/\RT III
of religi on In Tamilnad was a complex phenomenon .... irh roms in
indigenous religi ous ideas. The ancient noti ons about death descri bed
above have hr-rcaching consequences: no one is so pure that he can
protect himself from taint completel y. Every man, no maner how
careful he is in insulating himsel f from the dangerous forces carried
by Hari jans, menstruous women , and the like, is charged with some
dangerous power that will produce negative result s at some time in
the future. I! Moreover, the state of being charged with dangerous
power is equated in the mind of the devotee with a state of sinfulness.
That is shown d earl y in the stOry of the greal sinner, where the sin
actuall y takes the fo rm of the ghost of the dead hI her and torments
the future devotee, A sin is not simply an act tha t one has done in the
past , leaving san}skaras that must bear fruit. It is a real force in the
worl d, existentiall y the same as the spirit of the de,\d, that d ings to
one because he has become vulnerable to it through some act. U One
poss ible response to this condition is to att empt to insuhte oneself in
an extre1Tle manner, elaborately ordering every act one dues in order
12 . of holds only for Ihe hi gh CaStes. It is irltereslill g thaI the
also have Ilolioll of pO'Hr thaI is dangerous ) dwm. Dr. K. K. A. Vcnkat achari
ull s me that when mempt ed 10 enll'r the of HariiJns in his ,jl b !:", Ihey
begged him nm 10 because, beill g a Brahmill , Ill' "'o uld their houses to burn
down or some othrr misfortune 10 o,,;ur. See Edgar T. ThurslOn, Cutes ami Tyibes
o!Sout},"m India (Madras, 1909) , VI: 88 ff. Because ddngerOU$ power has erroll(' "
ously been call ed "poll utioll" by mOSt sludents of castl' , it has be" 11 aS$umed {hat
is imposed from lOp downwJrds, and Ihat if one understall ds the
of the higher castes, one can understand Ihe nSle system. 1 feel that Ihe opposite is
true. Caste is a social illst itution necessit ated by the nN,d to ill sulate o nesdf from
dang<' rous power. Those who perform the of ill5ulat ing arc the Hariians. Hellce,
to ull dl' rsu nd one must under5Tand the ( ullUre and Ihe ethos of Ihe J'brijans,
no one has done 10 my knowledge.
lJ . See George L. Han , III. "The Nature of Tamil DevOIioll ," in A I)'all ami Non-
Aryan hi I>lJi,1, edited by Madhav /1.-1. Deshpall de alld Peter Ed wi ll Hook, Michi gan
PaJX' rs on South all d Southeast Asia, of Michigan, 1979. Th.u ,ins are
tall gibl e Ihi ngs that call suddenly cling to a person when his condit ion becomes
disordere<l is shown by all excerpt from a Tami l "ersion of Sriraiigam:Sh;;tmyam'
When you $neeu, when you cough, w!u:n you yawn, when you $pit , whell d
happens 10 your body, ",hell you associ ate wi lh sillners. "" h,'n you say a hlse word,
whefl you 5pt'ak in 3ccord with 5i nllers, thell if with cleanlinl'ss of the
organs-the boor, milld, specchl- yo u ", ith eDllccmration,
thell nodall ger wi ll Dchll you . .. . ,\ nd what is more, if someolle is a thousl lld
Y0l'mal if he thill ks of that holy place, that greal man the anCl'SIOrS in his
li ll e going back to thl' 21st generatioll will beeom(' pnsons of meril
yava!.lkal] , all the sins they di<l in former bi rt hs having depart ed. (From Sriranka
M"}';;I", i),a", IMadu s, R. G. Pali Company, n.d.J, pp. tl - 12.)
THEORY OF REINCARNATION AMO'iG THE TAM ILS
"7
to escape the disorder of dangerous forces. Indeed, such attempts
were and ::a re mad{' by m::any high-caste people. Yet, ev{'n assuming
that such extreme attempts to cre::atc ord{'r could be successful, they
involve so much boundary-making, so much insulation from other
hum::an beings, that they appear anti social and unethical to others in
the soc iety. Thus there is much literature in Tamil and allied languages
disparaging narrow, ungenerous behavior. A good example is
PII[an;lIJi/[1f SO, in which a wandering poet has entered t he king's
palace and, because he is exhausted, lies down Oil ::a flower-covered
table, not realizing that he is desecrating the table of the king' s drum:
It s black sides glisten,
long straps fastrned to them faultlessly.
The), shine with a garland woven of long, full peacock feathers,
blue-sapphire dark, wi th bright spots,
and they are splendid with golden shoots of I.!i,;"i.
Such is the royal drum, hungry for blood.
Before they brought it back from its bath
1 climbed on it s bed unknowing,
lving in the covering of soft flowers
that was likr a froth of oil poured down.
Yet you were not angry,
you did nOt usc your sword whose rdge cuts apart.
Surely that was enough for all of Tamil land to I.un of il.
But you did not stop with that.
You came ncar mr,
you rai srd your strong arm, as big around as a concert drum,
you fanned me,
and you made me cool.
Did you do that act, mighty lord,
because you havt. heard and
that rxcept for thosr whosl'" fanl{" hen' sprrads over the broad earth,
no one can stay there in the world of high estate?
It is not enough for a high-caste person to insulate himself from
dangerous forces, for then he cannot show generosity and lo\'e to
others. i ndrl'"d, a man who lives an excessive ly insulated life is a
si nn<'r in a worse Sl, ns<, than his Counte rpart who docs 11 0t ObSl'f\'e
restrictions adequately, for he is responsibl e for the suffering of
othl'"rs. Thus he, toO, becomes t::aimed:
There is nothing more bitter than death, yet even that is sweet
when one cannot give. 1-1
H. TiruU,,;-a! B O.
uS
GEORGE L. HART, III
I n order to escape from sin, a hi gh-cas!t' man muSt bOth be insulated
from dangerous power and be generous and compassionate. IS The
native system produces two dilemmas . First . no mall er how o ne tries,
he can no! entirely insulate himsel f from taint. Second. a man must be
generous and compassionate in addition to being insulated from taint.
Many in the past have written on the n"stricti ons one muSt observt' to
attain respectability in South Indian society. \6 What has not been
suffi cientl y emphasized is the corollary of thi s doctrine: a man must
also be compassionate, generous, and a crosser of boundaries to be
accorded respect.
An ideal life, then, invol ves a ca reful balance between building
boundaries and crossing them: one must remain insulated from
dangerous forces while helping other human beings regardl ess of their
pos ition in society. The solution to this ethical dilemma was, in the
indigenous culture, to elevate the king to a position in whi ch he could
do what other human bt'ings could no!. Thus the king had the power
to shield those who followed him and who lived in his kingdom from
the taint of death incurred by killing in battl e and in the course of
daily life:
If the should fall,
if the han.est sho uld dimini sh,
if thc unnatural should in mens' affairs,
it is kings who ar(' blalllNj by th is world. 11
Again and again the pOt'ms invoke the king's parasol as a symbolic
agent thaI shields those in hi s kingdom f rom t he destroyi ng 11l'at of
the SUIl while emitting the cooling rays of the moon. I S The signifi-
cance of Ihi s figure is that charged dangerous power is considered
hot, while auspicious safe things afe cool. Thus those in the kingdom,
and especiall y those who were dcvotcd to the king and were willing to
15 . Som{- wilJ argue dwre is ,10 confl iC( hetw ...... n the 10 iEl5ulu{' onesdf
from tdin! a"d the illlperl t j,c 10 be generous dnd compassionate. To tdkc such
a position is. I fed, to misunderstand tht' importJEl ce Jltrihul<'<i fO generosit y iEl
Sout h India. Generosity mcans not only distribut;El'; "'ealth 10 th ... l .... fortunal,'. bUI
elling with them as wel l. 11 is significaPlI Ihal {' "ing is bot h the Ell OS! dangerous au
rives cvcry day and Ih" au which, morc-than anything el se, on,' Int,S! share with
others.
J 6, M. N , Srin; vas. R eligum "",I Sonety """"' g rhe C(X) rgs of SOUlh I tldi .. (Oxford,
19S2).
17. P"!dlla!l i'!1< 35. See also P" !"lIii!!u!" 10. 68. 105, 117. 114, 104. 384, 386. 388,
389, 395, 397.
18 . See cspe<:i ally ""[""ii,!,,!,, J5. 60, 229.
THEORY OF REINC ARNATI ON AMONG TH E
sacrifice themselves for him. were in a nat ura ll y protected condition
and could devote t hemselves to generosi t y. It may be remarked that
the difficulty of t he Brahmins throughout Tamil histOry has been
that, unable to be warriors and behol den to northern gods and ideals,
they did not submit to the king and his powers as did others in the
society. Thus they had to devote themselves excessively to building
boundaries and r('maining insulated, as a result of which they were
regarded with considerable ambivalence by others in the society
throughout hi story. The Sanskritization and Brahmanization that
some anthropologists have seen in South Indian society is an errone-
ous interpretati on of the tendency indigenous to South Indian society
to raise onc's posi ti on by observing a delicate bJ.bnct.' between bui ld-
ing boundari es for insulation and bei ng generous. I'} If men insubte
themselves from dangerous power fo r the prestige they attain, they
do so because of ideas that have been present in Sout h India since
before the coming of the Brahmins, not to imit:ne the Brahmins, who
by their peculiar history have to build boundaries in a way that
appears extreme even to others high in society.
With the coming of North Indian ideas in the centuries after
Christ, the practice of worshipping specific gods, such as Siva and
Vi$ryu, arose and spread rapidly. Since there were no indigenous gods
upon whom these imported deities could be modeled,20 they were
likened to the king. Thc evidence for this is extensivl' and, in Ill y
view, In the new system that arose, the god, like the
king, was able to banish sin, or taint, in hi s devotees. Indeed, it was
thought that si n was unable evet) to entcr the god' s templ e. The only
requirement was that one be a true subjl'ct of the god, that one
manifest utter devoti on and commitment. The sin that was removed
by thl' god was none other than the tailH of murder, often conceived
in st rikingly coneretc terms, as in the story of the great sinner above.
Nor could the new god destroy sin . Rather, he transferred it , making
it inhere in somet hing else. For example, in the Tirll va,-wikkap-
cited by Shulman, there is a story of a Pandyan king who
inadvert cntly kill s a Brahmin. " The king's bf(J.hmahatya still stands,
[9. Srinivas. op. cit.
20. Th<: re was 3 cult of th(' god Murub[) bdore the coming of the Aryans, bUI that
god was, in the oldest time, propitiat .... d by a lowcast ... man (ailed a Veb [) with
dancing and with u ;:rifi c ... s. As the Brahmins wishl:d 10 be lhe pri l:SIS of the new
gods, they could nOI moJl1 them on
21. [ have treated this at som ... length in the fonhcoming "Thl: Natllre of Tamil
Devoti on."
, )0 GEORGE L. HART. II!
waieing for him, at the eastern gate [of the temple], where it receives
offerings of salt :md spices. Complete safety exists only inside the
shrine."2J Here again. it should be noted, the sin of the king is dearly
identi fied with the spirit of the man whom he has killed.
It was nOi only the live king that the new deities wcre modeled
upon ; they also derived some of thei r character from indigenous
spirits and gods that were propitiated and contained to keep them
under control. The new gods were nOt above being ca priciolls or
demanding blood sacrifice. Shulman cites a story about Kamak$l, the
goddtss at Kanei: "When the ch:trio! of the Pa.l.1i s was arrested at
Kanei, the sacrifice of a woman pregnant with her firs! child induced
to make the chariot move again."lJ One of the most popular
stories of devotion in South India is that of Kal)t')appar, who tears out
his e}'es and places them on t he linga to grat ify SivaY It is possible
that this aspect of the new gods was modeled upon the cult of the
ancestors of kings .!5 Whatever the case, the new gods, like the indig-
enous gods and the spirits of the dead, were sometimes capricious,
were associ ated with blood sacrificr,lfl and were able to possess the
living.
It is thus in tWO ways that indigenous notions about the dead come
into the religion of devot ion. First, the god is able to banish all dead
spirits and taint of death from his domain and the hearts of his de-
votees, and second the god is capricious, is associated with blood
sacrifi ce, and is able to possess, like the spi rits of the dead. Neither of
these has any connection with reincarn:n ion .
The ultimate goal of devotional religion differs wi th it s adherents.
In general, worship of a god provides a way out of the dilemmas and
impasses created by the extremel}' rigid social structure of South
India . An important aspect of this fun ction has been discussed above :
the god's power to remove the taint of dea th. It must be stressed that
South Indian society is one in which social exigencies - caste restri c-
tions, family structure, pressure to conform in undesired ways, and
other restri cti ons whose ultim:ltc purpose is to insulate from taint -
often clash with personal desires or with a sense of wh:lt is ethical and
22. Shulman, op. cit., p. 385.
13. Ibid., p. 62.
24. See Hart, ' The Nature of Tamil Devotion." For [he of sec
G. U. Pope, The Ti'I<"I,.,i{ag(lm (Oxford, 1900). pp. H1- 145 n.
25. Ptter has that some cults in Tulunad are upon worship of
a king's anCCSlOrs.
16. Sl'C Shulman, op. ci[ .. p. 482.
THEORY 0 1' REINC/IRNATION AMONG TH E TA,\II LS
'J'
moral. Indeed, this is t rue even of North Indian society, where the
Bhagavadgitfl solves the dilemma by an appeal to duty over every-
thing clse. In Tamilnad, no easy solution was possible, for in its
society from the earliest times, ethical notions such as generosi ty and
compassion received an emphasis that they did not have in North
India wi th its ascet ic traditionsY As a result, in Tamil society guilt
plays a predominant role: few are able to escape totally a sense of
their own inadequacy at bei ng unable to reconcile themselvcs. to thc
role that socicty demands of them. It is the function of the god of
devotion to provide rel ief for suc h people, a rel ief that is psychologi-
call y effective because of the commitment and abasement shown to
the god. The channel for relief is power, but not merely a generalized,
inchoate power. For the sins of the devotee are conceived in ancient
terms: they are ultimately made of the same stuff as the ghosts of the
dead that possess, spread havoc, and create disorder. The power to
remove such sins must be of the same substance (though, since it
belongs 10 the god. it is under control and can help the devotee). Thus
it , toO, is a power that can possess and that can, if not carefully
controll ed by devotion, cause havoc.
Ther" is, of course, a more sophisticated level at which devotional
religion operat(s, a It'vel reih.cted by such works as the Caiva eiuanta
treat ises, Ramanuja's commentaries, and some Sthalapural) 3s. At this
level, the aim of worship is not mainly to provide peace of mind for
pt'ople caught in a difficul t social system; it is actually to merge with
the god, It is true that these expressions of bhakti appropriated the
Nort h Indian system of reincarnation; howel'er, ther have dOlle so in
such a way that it remains essentia!ly extraneous. In its most coherent
formulations in North Indian texts, the system of rebirt h is a mechan-
ical one, the acts one docs inevi tably determi ning what happens in the
fut ur( . The cycle of rebirth is, of course, inescapable so long as one
has produced by past deeds that must come to frui t ion.
The way out of involves either the cessation of action
(Jaini sm, the Ajivikas) or a rea lization of the true nature of existence
27. I IhJt the lack of emphasi s on Nhical subjects in Nonh
lit erature is at leJst pardy occasioned by the ascetic traditions that flourished there.
The Bhilgat'.:ldgit'; uses the ascttic tradition to justify the adh"n'nce to duty in the
hce of an dilemma. There is no anci ent uork of Nonh India thaI I know of
that, like the T,rukku!a!, is based upon such ethical subjects Jslove, forbearance, and
hmily lift . It is significant that the tWO poems from Sangam liten!Ure that rlescribe
Ill<' life of an ascetic center about the great tragedy that must hd'c happen,d to lhe
ascetic to make him leave famil y life (Pu!a":,,!,,! ,, 1;1, 151).
,
.,
,-
GEO RG E l . H ART, III
(the Buddhi sm). By the time of the Bbagavadgird the
solution to the dilemma of is to transfer (Stlnllyas) the fruit s
of one's actions 10 God, so that they are no longer binding. While it
could be argued that in all but the first of these movements, the
system of reincarnation is basically foreign, it is nonethel ess undeni-
abl e that it has been incorporated in a basic way into all of them. The
truth of the and the Buddhists, and the God of the
Bhagavadgita, all include in their operations the system of trans-
migration. For the bhakti movement thi s is not so. The relation of
God 10 the syStem of transmigration is not made clear (except in a few
abstruse treatises). Rather, the bhakti poet s exclaim again and again:
I struggled in the great whirl pool
of birth and death.
O\'l'rcOllW by desi re, I fdl into
uniting ",itll ornamented women.
The Lord who has a woman for paT! of him
made me join his fret.
What that f irst One granted me
who nn receive?l8
The system of transmigrati on has been adopted as an evidence of the
irremediably taint ed conditi on of m:m. God exi sts outside o f it as an
escape to tall y independent of $tW lStlrtl. One's dforls are made nOt to
escapc from rebirth, but rat Iter to attain God. Thus in a famous verse,
Appar sings,
Evcn if [ am born a worm, 0 kind one )pl"miyiil, you must grant
that I hold your feet firml y in
The universe is God' s play for the devotee. Even though he may
pay lip sen' ice to the system of transmigration , he reall y believes that
suffering is a test SCnt by God, not a result of his past actio ns . In the
story of the Little Devotee, fo r example, God hears of the devOl ee's
p iety and decides to test him, much as the God of the Old Testament
tested J ob:
In those days his Ithe devotee's] deeds of service went
and anain('d the \'encrabl e feet of the Lord who dwells on Kailasa mountain.
That Lord who rides the bull, in order to experience his love that never fails,
ca m.' from hi s mountain as a fearful ascetic, his heaT! di sposrd to grace.
JO
18. TiruV,wrk",,, 51.8.
19. Thiiram . i (l\-ladras, 195J ), vol. II , poem 507H.
:lO. PUra(Mm E>l '} um PHiyapura(Mm, comm. C. K. Cuppira-
maQiyamutaliy"lr (Coi mbatore,-195J), vcrse J685.
TH EORY OF REINCARNATI O N AMONG THE TAMILS , ) )
As part of his vow, the Linle Devotee must feed the disguised Siva.
When it turns out that the ascetic will accept only the meat of a
first-born human male child, the Little Devotee and his wife kjll their
only son, cook him, and serve him. Finall y, his devotion established,
the devotee is merged with Siva along with his wife and his son, who
has been brought back to life by the God . There arc many other
stories in this vein, the purport of which is that life is a test to be
passed through total and unswerving loyalty to God. Suffering con-
ceived as the result of one's past actions, while mentioned on occasion
(as in the story of the Great Sin ner), is clearly not an indispensable
part of the reli gion of bhakti. itself is conceived not as an
intricate mechanism for the recompense of one's acts, but rather as a
nightmarish condition from which the only reI case is God. Nor can
God be bought by action or even devotion. He acts in inscrutable
ways and is not predictable. His grace is freely given. As Sankara is
supposed to have said,
Birth again, death aga in,
lying in a mother's womb again and again.
In this \'cry wide, without end,
O UI of compassion saw me, lord Murari .
Wle have been able to deli neate one clement that helped devOlional
Hinduism defeat Buddhism and Jainism in Tamilnad. The hl'terodox
religions put great stress upon the theory of transmigration, as is
shown by such Tamil works as the Jaina Cilappatikaram and the
Nalariyar and thl' Buddhist Even whert:' such works
expressed indigenous religious concepts, as when the stone for
Qaki is brought from the Himalayas in the Cilappatik;m:m, they arc
nO! made part of the Jaina or Buddhist religion. On the other hand,
devot ional Hinduism paid lip service 10 the doctr ine of rebirth, but
incorporated into itself and, indeed, based itself upon the vague in-
digenous ideas concerning death and the fate of the dead. Not only
did it base the concept of sin upon the idea of the spirit of the dead; it
also deri ved many important characteristics of the god himself from
this idea. The southern rdigion of devotion was indeed a radically
new religion in South Asia.
Part II.
Buddhism and Jainism
6
The Rebirth Eschatology and Its
Transformations: A Contribution to
the Sociology of Early Buddhism
GANANATH OBEYESEKERE
Introduction
This paper will inquire intO the origins of the karma theory in a
somewhat unorthodox manner by ignoring the Hindu- Buddhist textS
in which that theory is presented and describing instead the hypothet-
ical and ideal typical manner in whic h the karma- rebirth theory prob-
abl y evolved . If my procedure S(' cms outrageous it is, I submit, Jess
hazardous and more rewarding than attempting to lind the origi n of
the theory on the basis either of texts which have little or no reference
to it (c.g., the Vedas and or of texts where the theory is in
full bloom, elaborated by the speculative thought of Hi ndu-
Buddhist-J Olina philosophers . I Many of the discussions of karma-
I. Th. firs! "crsioll of this papcr, wriu<,n in 1975, included a long prelimin3ry section
l'mit kd "The Rel igi ous Tradition." Basiclily my thesis here fa"ors ideas
by scholus like Kosambi and who the lam,mi( religions
(Jain ism, Buddhi sm, and Ajh'ihism) products of Ihe Gangeti c rather than the
Indus area or the Brahmavaru, region of East Punjab which wa:; the locus
classicus of carly V .. di sm and Brahmanism. The sa,.,antH wert' specuJ.ti ve thinkers
who syslcmJtizl-ci diverse exi sting philosophical and popular retigious tr.lditions
(ideas from Mohc'ljodaro ,md Iiar. ppa, Vedism, ami the tribal traditions of the
G:mges region) i'llo Ihe great retigions of the century H e. 13m gr.uefu! 10 fnnk
'37
GANANATH O BEYESEKERE
rcbinh assume that it was invented by Indian thinkers, whereas the
cvidence I shall submit will show that rebirth theories arc ve ry wide-
spread, both in fant :lsy, as $tevcnson has shown,2 and in the in-
st itutionalized eschatology of tribal peoples in different pans of t he
world . In alllikclihood, rebirth theories were found in ancient Indian
tribal religions, probably in the Ga ngetic region where the great
"htterodox" religions flo urishcd. J The I ndian religious philosophers
can be credited, nOt with the invention of t he rebi rth theory, but
rather wi th transforming the " rebirth eschatology" into the "karmic
eschatology," through a process of speculat ive activity which I label
"ethi cization," Even here the Hindu- Buddhist-Jaina thinkers had
compet ition from the Greeks of 600 B. C., notably Pythagoras and the
Orphics, who produced an eschatologi cal scheme remarkably simi1:tr
to the karma theory. This essay then attempts to view rebirth theories
in comparative perspective and thereby to deri ve, in an admittedly
speculative but logically rigorous manner, the proceH whereby the
rebi rth eschatology is transformed into the karmic eschatology
Reynolds and Ageh.lnanda Bharati for comments on earlier versi ons of this paper.
[ Ed: The re.1der will find other rdated discussions of karma in Obcvesekere' 5 article,
"Theodicy, Sin Salv.1tion in Soc;ol ogy of Buddh; sm," ;n Di"lccli, i" P.,.a,;-(;c,,1
ReligIon, ed. E. R. Leach (C.1mbridge Universi ty Press, 1%8),[
2. [an Sre\" .. nson. T-u .. nty Cal'" S"ggrlli'llr of Reincarnation Va .,
1974).
3. [usc the term "Iaterodox" advisedly. [n fact. my is that the great lam""i,
religions wae helerodox only vis-ii-vis Brahmanism. These religions were the or,
thodox tradi tions of Gangt,tic regi on. It should be noted that the Ki ngs of
and were simply conti nuing th", pra(:t ice of \h<;" region when the}'
patronized the religions: it was a cont inu ing rr ligious tndition hrl d in high
regard by the of the region. The same tradition was followed in the lat er
hi story of Magadha. afler il became the Maurya Empire under Chandragupta.
scholars have had to iustify the het that Asoka became a Buddhi st : they have been
skeptical about the Jaina view that Chandragupu became a Jaina asceti c in hi s old
age. or that Bindusa ra was an Aiivikl. These .1ceounts eertainl)' hi in wi ll, our
preceding discussion; the ki ngs were personally committed to the ascetic retigi ons,
Though Brahmanism was becoming increasi ngly imponanl for Sill e ri tu.11. That per-
sons wi thi n the same family should give prderence to on .. of the three reli gions -
Buddhism, J3ini sm, and Ajivikaism- is again expectable, since they were all part of
.1n OVCfall Iraditi on of ascetic lamar/ as indi genolls to region.
tradi tion of shifting allegiant<' from one I,im,mic religion to anothl' r or eXll' nd -
ing speci'l l pat ronage 10 one seemed to have continued ti ll very much later. The
Sdappadikaram composed in Sou th India sometime ix:twcen the fifth and eight h
cCfl turies 11 .1) deals with urban merchant groups who belonged to the Gangetic reli -
gion.>. 'Ill(" author of Ihi s ep ic is J Jaina; the protagoni sts Ko\"ahn and Kannaki arc
also jaina. Yet, Kann.1ki's father became an Ajivib, l'>"1ade\'i became a s"ddhisl, and
her daughur. a Buddhist saint .
REBIRTH ESCHATO LOGY AND I TS TRANSFORMATI ONS
, 39
through the operation of the crucial causal variable known as ethiciza-
rion. I shall then examine the kind of speculativc activity in carly
Buddhist-Jaina thinkers that produced this transformation, which in
turn will lead us to a discussion of some key features of the sociology
of early Buddhism, Jainism. and Ajivikaism.
The Rebirth Eschatology and Its Transformations
I shall conStruCt a model of a simple rebirth eschatology and show
how this model gets transformed into the more complex eschatologies
of the great Gangetic religions. I suggest that the hypotheti cal pro-
cesses we del ineate in the model will hel p us to clarify actual processes
that would have occurred in history. My assumption here is that
reli gi ous eschatologies are not unique creations of individual religious
geniuses, but are also col lective representations -socially shared ide-
ational sys tems-which have their genesis in the social struct ure and
the collective hi storical experience of a particular social group. The
three great indigenous religions of South Asia- Buddhi sm, Hin-
duism, and Jainism- have many features, particularly in the realm of
ethics, psychology, and eschatology, which clearly express the views
of religious geniuses like the Buddha, Mahavira, or Nagarjuna. Reli
gious geniuses, however, did not speculate in a socio-cultural vac-
uum; they are themselves products of their times, and their views are
constrained by the political and social circumstances of the peri ods in
which they lived and, above all , by their own prior cultural (ideologi-
cal) heritage.
jainism, Buddhism and later Hinduism arc indi vidual religions
which nevertheless share the following common s('[ of eschatological
features:
A theory of rebirth that postulates a cyclical theory of continuity,
so that dcath is merely a tcmporary state in a continuing process of
births and rebirths.
A theory of karma th:n postulates th:u one's present existence is
determined for the most part by the et hical nature of one's past
.
actIOns.
A theory of the nature of existence known as which in-
cludes all living things in the cycle of endless cont inuity.
A theory of salvation (rlirodT}a), the salient characteristic of which
is the view that salvation must involve the cessation of rebirth, and
must therefore occur outside of the whole cycle of continuity, or
GANA :-.JATH O Il EYES EKEI{ E
5amsara , Each religion may emphasize different aspects of this es-
chatOlogy, and some even differ radically from others (e.g., the
Hindu view of the atman, or soul, and the Buddhist view of the
absence of soul , or a'Mttd); but the main eschalOlogical outlines are
common to these three religions of South Asia. The term karmic
eschatology refers to the first three characteristics of the eschatology.
The karmic eschatology, it can be presumed, COnStilliteS the common
core, or base, of the three religions on which are built their respective
ideological variations and doctrinal elabor:ttions.
The qU('st ion that [ pose is as follows: What is the genesis of the
k:mnic eschatology and how did it evolve into its presem form? [
assume that the karmic eschatology did not emerge out of nothing,
and 1 agree with Furer- Haimendorf that it evolved out of a prior,
simpler or primitive eschatological scheme.
4
When W(' examine the
karmic eschatology we feel t hat among its th ree feallires-karma,
Ilirva'ld (salva tion), and rebirth- the cri tical fea ture is rebirth . Why?
When we look at eschatologies cross-cultur:dly, we find that there are
many primit ive or prel iterate societ ies that possess theories of rebirth
but lack any idea of karma or in their eschatologies. Such
prel iterate rebirth eschatologies occur in societies as different and
glo!;raphically remute frolll each other as thc Trobriand Islands and
the Igbo of South East Nigeria. We shall assume that Indian society
also had a rebirth theory of a " primitive kind," of the same type as
that of Trobriand or Igbo. and that the karmic eschatology is a later
devclopment from this primitive base. We then construct a model of a
rebirth eschatology which can be applicable to any society that holds
a doctri ne of rebirt h. Thus, the model contains the fun damental
st ructural features essential to any rebirth doct rine, minus those sub-
stantive and cross-societall y va riable features fou nd in any empirical
case. Having constructed a primi t ive rebirth eschatology, we then
perform certain operations which show how this model is trans-
formed into the more complex ka rmic eschatology. The term "trans-
formation" as J use it is a sociological notion more in the tradition of
Max Weber than of Uvi-Strauss or t ransformat ional linguistics. [ will
show how the introduction of a single causal variable- in this case a
process known as ethicization-transforms the simple rebirth theory
into the ka rmic eschatology. Existent rebirth eschatOlogies like other
empirically manifes t cul t ural st ruct ures show structural similarities as
C. \' on Fiircr-Haimendorf. "The Aft er-l ife in Indian Tri bal Bdicf." Journal of the
Roy'" AIlI/)yopologic(,llmlit1<tr S3 (19,3): 37-49.
REBIRTH ESCHATOLOG Y AND ITS TRANsrOR,\1ATIONS
, 4 ,
wen as differences. Transformational studit"s cannOt be performed by
the usc of concrete existent cases with their substantive variations; a
model that draws out the structural features common to a variety of
empirically existent systems must be constructed so as to show the
transformational process. But the ideal model has to be contruCted on
our knowledge of exi stent systems. Therefore let me present the em
pirical cases that he lped us construct the ideal rebirth eschatology.
NON-INDIAN REBI RHI ESCHATOLOGY: THE TROBRIAND
Trobri:md have an inverted version of the conventional eschatol-
ogy, for the Trobriand heaven is located in the nether world.
ing to Trobriand, a new life begins at the death of the indh,j dual,
when his spi rit , or soul (baloma), moves to Tuma, the Island of the
Dead located "underneath." Here in Tuma the individual leads a
pleasant life, analogous to the terrestriallif(" but much happier. Life in
the other world is characteriud by perpetual youth , which is
served by bodily rejuvenation .
\X/hen the spirit, or baloma, sees that bodily hair is covering his
skin, that his skin is getting wrinkled, or his hair grey, he simply
sloughs off the old and takes on a new appearance-black locks,
smooth skin, no bodily hair. The power of rejuvt"nation, enjoyed by
spirits in Tuma (the nether world), was previously enjoyed by all
humanity before it was lost through inadvertence and ill wil l.
When a spirit becomes tired of constant rejuvenation after a long
spell "underneath," he may want to come back to life on earth . To do
lhis, the spirit leaps far back in age and becomes a small, unborn
infant. Some of Malinowski' s informants explained why thc spirits
become tired of their heavenly abode. They said that in Turna, as on
earth, there are sorcerers. Evil sorcery is frequently practised and can
reach a spirit and make him weak, sick, and tired of life: then he will
go back to the human world. However, one cannot ev('r kill a spirit
with evil magi c or accident as in the human world (where sorcery is
the classic interpretation of death), since "his end will always mean
merely a new beginning." These rejuvenated spirits, or little pre-
incarnated babies, or spirit children, arc the only source from which
humanity draws its supplies of life. The spirit finds its way back 10
the Trobriands and there into the womb of some woman-but al-
ways a woman of the same clan and subdan as the spirit child itself.
There are different versions as to how this occurs, but no cont roversy
about its actual occurrence. The main facts ha\' r always bern "that all
GA NA NATH OBEYESEKERE
the spirirs h:tve ultimately to end their life in Tuma and turn into
unborn infants; that every child born in this wor ld has come into
existence (iblibl/liJ in Turna through the metamorphosis of a spirit :
that the main reason and the rcal cause of every birth lies in nothing
else but in the spiritua l action.".s
NON-INDIAN 1I Il IIITH ESCH ATOLOGY: THE IGBO
Igbo have a more complex eschatology. There arc certain elements
in the Igbo model that resemble the karmic eschatOlogy. which I shall
discuss later. Igbo have a polytheistic pantheon with various nature
spirits, a mother goddess, ancestOrs. and a creatOr God who is dCff s
or105115. There is al so a very important guardi an spirit, Chi:
a personal god whose role approximates to that of a guardian spirit ; Chi
det ermines one's fate on earth . On it is blamed one' s failu res. It ~ Chi who
guides one 10 fortunl' or mi sfortune. God gives man choice, and it is one' s
Chi who leads him in the exercise of thi s choice. "
In additi on to all this is a theory of rebi rt h.
Rt.,inca rnation is cardinal in th(' reli gious belief of the Igbo. It s chief role is to
give hope 10 those who feel they have fail ed 10 achi eve their status goal. In
the nex t reincarnati on, it is strongly belirved , a m:1Il has a chance to achieve
his objectives . Transmigrati on, on the other hand, is conceived as the
greatest punishment for the incestuous, the murderer, and the wi tch.
" !lodigll II'wa na mmadll "-"1l1ay you not rei ncarnate in human form" - is
a gn' at curse for the Igbo.
7
Let me p resent briefly the o ut lines of the Igbo rebi rt h esch:lto logy,
as described by Uchendu. Unlike Trobriand, the Igbo arc full y aware
of the biological factS of conception, "but other facto rs are al so in-
volved in pregnancy and are much more important: the consent o f the
deities and willingness of dead lineage members and other friendly
spirits to reincarnat e themsel ves . The absence of either of these two
age nt s renders conception impossible, the Igbo Sly."8 Thus, Jgbo
views on conception and binh are based on an assumption of rebirth;
the ancest ral soul is reincarnated in the womb o f a woman (probabl y
of the same lineage as that of the dead man, t hough the evidence is not
clear on th is point) . In any rebinh theory the problem o f the identit y
5. B. Malinowski , The Fmber in "nmitl 'l.!( Psycbology (New York, 1966), p. 32.
6. Victor C. Uch.ndu, " The Status Implications of Igbo Reli gious B.,lids," r bt
Nigaiml Field 29:27-37 (1964), 35.
7. Ibid .. p. H.
8. Victor C. Uchcndu, The 19b/) of S01< lhl'tH! Nl gt'l1" (New York , 1965).
REBIRTH ESCHATO LO GY AND ITS TRANSFOR,\ IATIO N$
'4J
of the newborn in hi s pr{\' ious birth is difficult to determine. In
Tro briand, where there is a perfectly closed cycle, the identity prob-
lem is rel ativel y clear: one is born in the same lineage and clan. BUI
the exact kinship relationship is impossible 10 determine by normal
human cogniti on. In the South Asian rdigions, the capacity for pre-
cognition is the gi ft of special virtuosi. In Igbo, the diviner helps to
identify the exact kin relation of the neonate in his previous
incarnation. At death the 19bo soul , guided by his guardian spirit,
Chi, confronts the creator. The creator presents the sou! with twO
parcels, one of which contains "the desired social positions that the
individual predicted during his [bibi (pre reincarnation social position
Ihat the individual predicts during his lif(time on earth) ." The bargain
with god includes such things as long life on earth, "intelligence,
wealth, 'having mouth,' that is, the power of oratory and wisdom."9
Those who fail to make the right choice by bargaining with the
creator need not despair, for they can be reborn on earth again "and
hope for better luck during the next cycle."10 Furthermore, unless he
has violated a taboo the Igbo need not fear the other world, since
Igbo have no conception of hd1. Thus, if he has made a poor bargain
with the creator, he can well afford to wail another lifetime.
What is the natuft' of the Jgbo aft erlife? Fundamental to the Jgbo
(and Trobriand) is the absence of a notion of heaven and hell as a
means of retribution or reward. The sou! joins the world of the
ancestors, so that the invisible societ y is simpl y a continuation of the
lineage structurt of the earthly society. " In the Igbo concept ion, the
world of the 'dead' is a world full of activities; its inhabitants manifest
in th(' ir behavior and their thought processes that they are 'living.'
The dead continue their lineage system; they are organized in lineages
with patrilineal emphasis just as those on eanh."11
Thus the 19bo 3ft erworld is a reified version of the mundane social
st ructure. After a sojourn in the afterworld the dead are reborn in the
earthly social structure, except for those who have violated taboos.
The latter have an inferior rebirth; they "are born feet first, or with
t(,eth , or as members of a twin st't-all of which are in themselv('s
taboo."'2
FORMAl. FEATURES OF A I'RELlTERATE IU: 13 IRTII ESCtt ATOI.OGY
I shall now construct a simpl ifi ed ideal model of a rebirth esch3tol-
ogy typical of prt'litt'rate socit'ties. Substanrive and cross-societall y
9. Ibid. , p. 16. 10. Ibid., p. 17. II. Ibid .. p. 12. 12. Ibid., p. 102.
11,,,h
GA N ANAT H OIS EYESE KERE
THr OTl-rUt W'OHLD
,I' " ... '<loon t,"m
S" II '"" Ill( 1
________ +_ n,:.llh
,Su(i"""t:
1
TI-Ib \XU!U.D
vl riab1e cult ural features are eliminated from the model , so that it is a
culture free representation of the rebirth eschatology. The model can
be represented as foll ows:
Birth transfers the individual from some Olherworld (the im' isi ble
world) to the visible human world. Rites of passage at birth assist in
this peril ous transition. The human world into which the individual is
transfer red at bi rt h is a world of suffering- in Weber' s and Parson's
sense of the term. During the individual's life in the huma n world,
religious , magical , and Olher techniques help him cope with the prob
lem of suffering. Especially critical are so called life crises, where the
individual is transferred from one social status to another. Each tran-
sition tends to be viewed as a symbolic death and rebirth or, as Hertz
puts it, as an excll/ sion followed by an inclusion in a new status. t J
When real death occurs, funeral rituals serve to transfer the individual
once again to the invisible world of the dead. In some eschatologies
the soul slays in the other world permanentl y, but in a rebirth es-
chatology by definition the soul's Stay in the ot her world is tempo-
rary, for he has to be reborn in the human \"\'orld at some time or
other. It is indeed possible that the otherworld-in the sense of a
sacred place where soul s sojourn-may hard ly exist or may be
byp:lssed altogether; in thi s case the soul, soon after rel ease from the
body, seeks reincarnation in a new corporeal body in another earthly
existence. In the ideal model of the rebirth eschatOlogy, there is a
perfectl y closed cycle: a limited pool of souls moving round and
round through time in a circle, as in the figure sket ched above.
13. Robert Hem:, Dcat/) ,wd the Right fi,wd (lTan sbted by R. and C. Nerdham,
New York, 1960).
RE BIRTH ESCHATOLOGY AND [TS TRANSFORMAT[ONS
Let us now sketch in more detail rhe formal features of a rebi rt h
eschatology.
The Structure of the Otherworld. Once the soul has surmounted
death it may stay temporarily in some otherworld. What is the nature
of that otherworld, and how is it structured? In order to const ruct
another world human beings must perforce dr:lw upon their experi-
ence of the earthly society in whi ch they live. This is particul arly t rue
of small-scale preliter:n e societies where the experiencc of individuals
is generally limited to their own group. The image of the otherworl d
is based on this world. Yet, as Henz. points out , the otherworld need
not be a replica of this one. Since it is a product of the mind, human
beings could express through it their fantasies of a utopia or a
paradise, where suffering is el iminated . " Jr is or can be t he realm of
the ideal," says Henz.14 Thus, t hree logical possibilities regarding the
structure of the otherworld should be added to our model; it should
be realized thar these logical possibilities are empirically realized in
actual rebirth eschatologies.
The otherworld does not exist, or is a \' ague unstructured zone.
The otherworl d is more or less a duplicate of the social structure of
thi s worl d (as among the 19bo).
The otherworld is a paradise or Elysi um or an idealized version of
the mundane soci al structure (as among t he Trobri and).
In all of the foregoi ng t here could be a special evil otherworld
where violatOrs of taboos, or those who commit speciall y heinous
crimes (e.g., sorcery) are punished. In a rebinh eschatology the
paradisal or Elys ium notion of the otherworld cannot be a permanent
state of bl iss or non-suffe ring, since the soul' s stay there is temporary,
and it must be reborn on earth, which is condi tioned by " suffering."
Moreover, a real problem of explanation is involved in such es-
chatologies, for if the otherworl d is one of bliss, what mot iva tes t he
individual to be reborn on eart h? Mali nowski' s Trobriand informants
realized this problem and gave him va ri ous di fferent interpretat ions,
such as the existence of sorcerers in thei r Elysium or plain boredom
wit h paradise.
Rebirth, Tra.nsmigra.tion, iwd Metempsychosis . A rebirt h theory, in
my usage, must involve a cultural belief in rebi rt h in the world of
humans . The perfectl y closed cycle of the preliterate rebirth model
(empirical approximation: Trobriand) is broken up when, on the em-
14. Ibid. , p. 79.
GANANATH O BEYESEKEKE
pirical level, the rebirth eschatology is associat ed wi th a doctrine of
transmigration , where the soul sojourns in other spheres of existcoce
outside of the human. Thus, 19bo have an addition to the rebirth
escl13tology, a transmigration theory to account for a class of indi-
viduals barred from human reincarnat ion . A transmi grati on theory,
wi thout rebirth, should not be confused with a rebirth eschatology.
The Abserlcl' o/ " Erhicization ." Let me add ;l.nother feature to the
rebirth model sketched above: the absence of the religious eval uation
of moral and ethical action, or "ethi ciz:ni on." Anal yti cally viewed,
moralit y and reli gion arc separate spheres of action. Morality deal s
with the eval uat ion of social action in terms of "good" and "bad ." I
suggest that in t he ideal rebirth eschatology there is no ethi cizat ion:
morally wrong actions arc not reli giously wrong actions, and ethi -
cally good ac ti ons arc nOt rel igiously good actions . The analyti cal
dist inct ion between ethics and religion is maintained in the ideal
model. At death the indivi dual is transferred to the otherworld irre-
spective of the nature of the good and bad done by him in this world.
Using ethi cal terminology from the great religions, the otherworld is
for saim and sinner alike. There is no notion of ethical compensation
or reward , thal is, sin and merit. "Sin" is defined as the viola tion of
an ethical norm, which is ipso facto a religious norm; " merit' is the
conformity to an ethi cal norm whi ch is also a religious norm. Both
are religious assessments of moral action absent from the ideal rebirth
eschatology.
Ideal models or types, as Weber reali zed, arc never dupli cated in
reality; on ly type approximation is possible. The utili ty of the ideal
mode! is that il permits us, among other things, to deal with ca usal
variables that transform the model into another type. This is what we
propose doing. What are the ca usal variabl es that transform the pre-
literate rebirth eschawlogy into the karmi c eschatology of the three
great South Asian religions? The crit ical variabl e. I postul ate, is the
presence of ethitizat ion in the latter. If the pre1iterate rebirth model is
et hicized it ml/st tra nsform itself into the karmic eschatOlogy. In
order to show how thi s occurs it is to spell out in marc
detail the concept of ethicization.
Sin and meri t , we noted, are absent from the rebirth eschatOl ogy;
si n, in rhe sense in which we have defined it , presupposes an ethi ciza-
t ion of the religious life. Social acti on is always normativel y
sancti oned, but in the preli terate model such nonnat ive sancti on is
dependent on a secular rather than l religious morality. For exampl e,
REBIRTH ESCH ATOLOGY AND ITS TRANSFO RMATIONS
it is always the case that an adulterer has violated a moral norm; but it
does not follow from this that he has violated a religious norm. In the
great historical reli gions of literate civilizations, the ethical life is
systematicall y implicated in the religion so that any viol ation of an
ethical or moral tenet involves simultaneously a violation of a reli-
gious tenet. This implies that the religion has been ethicized, that is,
converted into an ethical system. It is likely that on the empirical level
there is no religion devoid of ethical implications, but the systematic
ethicization of religion is a product of evolution from a "primitive"
base. How does the systematic ethicization of the reli gious life arise
in the evoluti on of religion? This, it seems to me, is fundamentally
due to the activities of a highly specialized priesthood engaged in
speculative act ivi ty; or, as in the case of the biblical tradition, it may
be due to ethical prophecy; or ethical asceticism may be operative, as
in Buddhism. Literacy per se is probably of little consequence except
in facilitating the process of ethicization. As far as the South Asian
tradition is concerned, the intellectual climate from the period of the
Upani$ads until the time of the Buddha was conducive to religious
and ethical speculat ion.
THE TRANSFORMATION Of THE
PRELITERATE REBIRTH ESCHATOLOGY
\'('hen ethicization occurs, the rebirth eschatology must be logically
transformed into a karmic eschatology in the following manner:
Since ethicization implies the religious evaluation of moral action,
actions that arc morally good or bad arc transformed into actions that
are also religiousl y good or bad; that is, the noti ons of sin and reli-
gious merit must develop.
Inasmuch as any social morality must punish (wi th negative sanc-
t ions) those who violate moral norms and reward those who con-
form, so a religious morality must also reward and punish. But in
what ma nner? A purely social morality is concerned only with the
earthly existence of humans. Since, by contrast, a rebirth eschatOlogy
entails Ol her existences after death. reli gious rewards and punish-
ments must extend to the whole eschatOlogical sphere. This conse-
quence of ethicization could be call ed "the principle of the condi-
tionality or contingency of reward."
In the primitive rebirth eschatology the otherworld is for all; the
transfer to the ot herworld depends on the proper performance of the
funeral rites. But when this system is ethiciztJ, entry to the other-
14
8
GANANATH OBEYESEKERE
world must be contingent, depending on the ethical nature of a per-
son' s thi s-worl dly actions . What is the logical effect of the principle
of the contingency of reward on the structure of the otherworld?
The otherworld must be transformed into a world of retribution
and reward. If the rebirth eschatology possesses any concept of the
otherworld-be it a paradisal one, as in Trobriand, or a replica of this
world, as in Igbo-it must min imall y spli t into two, a world of
retribution (hell) and a world of reward (heaven). Thus, notions of
heaven and hell are a part of the :trchitecture of the otherworld where
retribut ion and reward are meted out on the b:tsis of an individual's
this-worldly actions. The minirll:ll logic;llly expectable consequence
of ethicization is the splitting of the otherworld into two; the actual
number of mythic worlds will usually depend on the nature of the
earthly social system. In Hinduism, for example, with its social struc-
ture of caste, there arc multiple stratified myt hical worlds of retribu-
tion and reward. When a religion is ethicized, notions ~ u c h as heaven
and hell mUSt be invemcd . In every case hea ven and hell are the JUSt
compensations for merit and sin in any ethicized religious syst em.
The soul's stay in the otherworld is by defini tion temporary, or it
may be bypassed altogether :tnd the soul be reborn in a human world.
But note; The earth in which the soul is reborn has alrl'ady bCl'n
ethicized, prior to the sou l' s arrival, so to speak . The earthl y social
structure inlO whi ch the soul arrives is a place where the ideas of sin,
merit, and contingency of reward have already developed as conse-
quences of ethicization. Therefore, the opera tion of the principle of
the contingency of reward must result in a good rebirth and a bad
rebirth based on the quality of an individual' s actions in thi s world,
which inevitabl y must be anions during his previous lifetime. In
other words, the human world itself must become a world of retribu-
ti on and reward: a proto-karmi c theory. What are the nature and
content of these good and bad rebirths? These cannot be pred icted
by the manipulation of the model, but one would guess that, on the
empirical level, rebirth rewards would pertain to health, wealth,
and high StatuS (all culturall y defined), while retribution would in-
volve their undesirable opposites. These types of rewards and
punishments- especially status and wealth - inevitably upset the
scheme found in both Trobria nd and 19bo, where the individual is
reborn in the very same lineage he occupied in his previous lifet ime
on earth (and, by definition, in all prior lifetimes). [f status and
wealth are allocated as rebirth rewards and punishments, he must be
RE6!II. TH ESCH ATOLOGY AND ITS TRANSFO RMATI ONS
'49
reborn in a position commens urate with his load of si n and merit
rather than his lineage affiliations.
We noted above that the world in which the individual is reborn is,
as a resul t of ethicizat ion, a world of retribution and reward influ-
enced by the nature of his actions in a previous lifetime. But , logi-
ca li y, his previous life time has been in turn influenced by a still earlier
lifetime, and so on. Thus, ethicization of a rebirth eschatology,
pushed to its logical ext reme, links one lifetime wit h another in a
continuing series of ethical links: which si mpl y means that the Sout h
Asian theory of s<l'tJ5,irtl and karma has fully developed .
Et hicization results in a powerful "ontologi cal" explanation for the
necessity and nature of rebirth, a type of explanation absent in a
simple rebi rth eschatology.
Thus fa r we hav( seen how the ideal primit ive rebirth model logi -
cally produces several elements of the karmic eschatology when the
not ion of ethi cization is introduced into it. But the crucial concept of
or salvation is not entailed by the et hicization of the rebirth
mode!. We havl' deduced an eschatology where the karma-bound
"soul" wa nders in su'tlsara in a cycle of births and rebirths: compen-
sation for good and bad is meted out in the otherworld or the next
rebirth or both. The doctrines of karma and sa'l;lsara have developed,
but nOt the concept of
therefore, cannot be derived from the ethicization of the
rebirth eschatology. However, the kind of religious specialists in-
terested in ethi ci zation wo uld also be interested in pushing specula-
ti on further by concerning themselves wi th salvation. Some of the
rel igious \,irruosi of sixth century India certai nly were. If and when
this occurs , lhe form that striving fo r salvation takes is ent irely de-
termined by the ethicization process described here. I define "salva-
t ion" as "a state in which suffering has been elimi nated." Pure bliss
resul ts from this state. It is the ultimate status a human being achieves
and the final goal of human endeavor. Says Weber: "NO! every ra-
tional religious ethi c is necessarily :m eth ic of salvat ion. Thus, Con-
is a religious ethic but it knows nothing at all of a need for
salvation. O n the other hand, Buddhism is exclusively a doct ri ne of
salvation";'s and, one might add, later Hinduism and Jainism 100
have clearly developed notions of salvat ion. All these three religions
15. Max Weber, Tbe Sociology of Rl'iigion (lr ansbled by Ephraim J'i'ichoff, New
York , 1%3). p. 14(, .
, ,0
GAN ANATH OBEY ESEI\ ERE
rna y define different! y. but these den ntlions have one til iag in
common : lIirt!Ql}ll 1l3S 10 be sought outside of or the whole
scheme of births and rebirths. and it must result in the cessation of
rebirth and karma. I shall demonstrate that the Indian idea of salva-
tion outside of the rebirth cycle is n Ot particularly unique or "origi-
nal," but is an inevitable logical consequence of the cthiciz.ation of a
prditcrate rebirth eschatology.
Nirva1}d, o r salvat ion, is the elimination of suffering. In many
non-rebirth eschalOl ogi es suffering is eliminated in the hen'after and
the soul enjoys permanent bliss. I n these syst ems the following equa-
tion obtains : heaven or paradise = sai\':l.ti on = elimination of
suffering. In a rebirth eschatology this equation is falsifi ed by the fact
that the souls' sojourn in heaven mUSt perforce be temporary (not a
permanent Stat e of bli ss), and by the presence of sufferi ng in the next
human rebirth. Heaven at best is an alleviation of suffering, never its
elimination; and rebirth clearly implies its presence. If so, salvati on
must logically and inevitably occ ur outside of the karmic and
(rebi rth) process . is the abol it ion of rebirth and
logically the one cannOI occur wi thin the other. Empirically, Bud-
dhism, for example, defines nirval}a as a "cessation of rebirth ,"
"eliminati on o f karma ,' for thi s very reason. There can be no other
way of achieving (xcept outside of the rebirth cycle. In other
words, if or salvati on, is defined as a Stat e where suffering
has been eliminated (or, more positively, as a Slate of pure bliss), then
it is logical1y impossible !O :tchieve salvation within any rebirth
theory. One mllst abolish rebirth in order to achieve salv ation. This is
nOt simpl y an idea that religious leaders have invented: they must
invent it , since it is ent:tiled by the logical structure of :my rebirth
theory.
PYTHAGORAS AND THE
OI{PH IC MYSTERIES: TIl E GREEK EVIDENCE
The preceding di scussion could be clarified furth er if we move
away once again from the Indian cont ext to a comparative perspec-
tive , thi s rime to highl y developed and ethieized rebirth theories from
the Greeks of the sixth (('mury H,C. and after. Let me briefly di sc uss
twO Greek eschalOlogi es which clearly had karma-type beliefs,
though of course IlOt the term itself. Both PYlhagoreans and O rphi cs
believed in rebirth, though the detail s of their eschatol ogi cal donrines
RERIRTH ESC HATOLOGY AND ITS TRANSFOR\i.o\Tl ONS
'"
have not survi\'ed, The Pythagoreans were a tight ascet ic order, and in
view of the founder' s own contribut ions to Greek science and math-
ematics, they probably had a more intellectual religion than that of
the Orphics, Thi s is also evident in Pythagoras' positi ve relationship
to the Apollonian cultus (he was known as "the son of Apollo"),
whereas Orphism was rooted in the Dionysian mysteriesY' Both
practiced elaborate food taboos, especial ly " meat eating and the
spread of pollution through the medium of animal ski ns,"17 though
the Pythagorean taboos were more elaborate. Both believed in the
purification of the soul through successiV(' births. The Orph ics in
particular saw the soul as the prisoner of the body; "body was tht'
tomb of the soul." 18 According to Aristotle, the purified soul, in
Pythagorean theory, may become incarnate in the philosopher and
rel igious teacher who then raises the level of others. Like the Buddha
himself, Pythagoras, as a purified being, could remember his past
inC:lrnati ons and maintained that in his very last incarnation he had
been Euphorbus the Dardanian, who, with Apollo's hel p, wounded
Patroc!us.
19
Again utilizing the evidence in Plato's Phaedo, Burnet
says " that there was an interval of seven generati ons between each
rebirth, which, if we regard the myths which Plato putS in the mouth
of Socrates as Pythagorean , were spent in purg:ltory."20
Regarding conceptions of ethical compensation and reward in these
Gree k rebi rth theories, Pollard says: " The Orphic priests explained
that punishments in this life \\'ere awarded for transgressions in a
previous one."ll Farnell refers to an inscription anributed to the
Orphics where a notion like that of karma -vipaka is expressed, a
series of purgative punishments whereby the soul is purified: " I have
paid the penalty for unrighteous deeds." Howe\'cr there is no extant
statement on Pythagorean ethics. though it would be su rprising if one
of the great speculative philosophers of all time did no! develop a
sophisticated ethic. It is dear, though, that both had doctrines of
16. john Pollard. Seers, Shrines <lnd Simll (London. 1965), pp . ]B-1!4; e w i ~
Richard farnell , Greek Hero Cults <llld Ide<ls of /mmorl<lfily (Oxford. l'IlI ), pp.
} 74 _}7b.
17. Pollard. p. %.
18. John Burnell, "Pythagoras and Pph3!;Orianism", in Haslings' Encydopedi .. of
Religion and Ethin (New York, 1%1). vol. 10, p. 526.
19. Ibid.
20, Ibid.
21. Pollard, p. 100.
t51
GAN!\NATH OBEYESE KER E
salvation which had little resemblance to the early Buddhist notion of
but were not unlike more abstraCt conceptions like Nagarju-
na's, or the Hindu mystical notions of identi ty with God.
The consequences predicat ed by our mode! are found in Orphic-
Pythagorean eschatology. A karim-type theory is associated with a
rebirth theory, probabl y the result of the ethical speculation of reli -
gious groups like the Pythagorl'ans and the Orphics. Both Orphism
and Pythagorean ism have a concept of salvation, a mystical union of
an abstract sort in the fonn"r, and a more personal union in the latter.
However, according to the prediction made from our model, salva-
tion in a rebirth eschatOl ogy muSt logically occur outside the cycle of
births and rebirths, or Is there any evidence in the Gn'ek
eschatOlogies that this in fact was the case? There is no evidence as far
as I could gather from Pythagorean religion, but the Orphic evidence
clearly confirms our expectation. Farnell refers to an inscription on
the Compagno Tablet found near Naples which reads like a stat ement
by the Buddha himself: "I have /led forth from the wheel of bitter and
sorrowful existence." A similar formula is preserved by Proclus'
Commentary on the Timaells: " To be released from the wheel and to
ga in respite from l'vil."22 It is therefore clear that the Greeks had nOt
only a theor)" of ethical compens:nion and reward like that of karma,
but also a concept of sa lvation occurring outside the samsarJc process.
EMPIRICAL OBJECTIONS
I shall now raise twO seri ous objections to the theory stat ed above.
First, it may be objected that the modd of the prei it eratc rebirth
eschatology is toO gross a violation of empirical realit y to be
methodologically useful as an ideal model. Second. it may be argued
that my crucial concept of ethi cization as a feature of reli gious evolu-
tion has no empirical validity since recent studies
23
have attempted to
show that preliterate reiigions are mlly implicated in a moral uni-
verse. In other words, empiri cal cases do not approximate to OUT ideal
type of an allloral religious system. I shall now considl' r thl'se twO
objections together.
In the preceding account we have seen how the ideal model of a
preliterate rebirth eschatology develops logically into a karmic one
under the pressure of a social process known as eth icization. The
22. Farnell , p. 377.
23. Guy E. SWMlson. The Birth of (he Go'" (Ann Arbor, Mi chigan. !968).
REBIRTH ESCHATOLOGY AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS
'13
crucial characterist ic of the ideal model, from the point of vicw of my
analysis, is the absence of ethicization and the ideas of sin and merit
deri "ed therefrom. Now, ideal models are never found in "nature"
(empirical reality), and the validity of the model depends on how
actual primitive eschatologies vary from the model. In actual life there
will be degrees of et hicization ranging between tWO ideal extremes,
from no ethit ization (zero value) 10 complete or tolal ethitizat ion.
My view is that the rebirth eschatologies of preliterate societies occur
near the "no cthicization" cnd of rhl;' scale, whereas Hindui sm,
Buddhism, and Jainism occur near the olher (total ethicization) end. I
have 110t tested thi s hypothesis for a sample of primitive societies, but
I should like to consider some of the empirical e\'idence.
First, though I have used prelitt'ra tc and primitive as convenient
terms, the crucial distincrion is between ethicized and non-clhici:r.ed
in rela tion to rebirth eschatologies. If a rebirth eschatology is
ethicil.ed, it will produce a karmic eschatology. Thus, if Trobrianders
convened thei r eschatology into a moral system, they would end up
with a religion like Buddhism. It is irrelcvant whethcr they are
technol ogically primitive or civilized. However, ethicizat ion e"olvcs
when there are specialized priesthoods, speculativc activity, ethi cal
prophecy, and other social institutions productive of speculative
t hinking; insofar as such institutions 3.re reblively absent in simple
societies, one would argue that, contrary to Swanson, primitive reli-
gions are characterized by a rebt ive lack of ethical systematization of
religion.
Second, in simple societies viol ations of the moral code arc
punished in thi s world by the legitimately sanctioned secular author-
ity, not by some supernatural authority. However, when taboos 3.nd
other ritual obligati ons are violated there may be immediate or au-
tomatic punishment (disease, death, or the act ion of an angry ances-
tor, ghost, or deity) or delayed punishment or both . But all moral
laws-those ethical norms governing social act ion-are not taboos,
though some taboos may involve violation of the moral code. For
example, adultery rarely involvcs taboo, but incest oftcn does and is
also a violat ion of the common morality. At best, taboo is a "protO-
religious ethic" which may coincidentally itwolve morality, but not
intrinsically. I suspect that it is these fort uitolls associations of moral-
ity with taboo that led Swanson to conclude that morali ty and reli-
. . . . ..
glOn are Interwoven In pnmrl!"e SOCIeties .
Third, in primitive societies at most some special aCl S of immorality
CANANATI-I O BEYESEK I:. RE
may be singled out for otherworldly punishment, likl' murder or
sorcery in Igbo. 13m there is no sys tematic attempt [Q incorporate the
secubr moral code into a religious one, so that certain kinds of im-
moral deeds like slander, lying, theft , urunkent'ss, and sexual mis-
demeanor are almost never invested with delayed supernat ural
punishment in most small-scale societies, though they arc always
ethicized in the great hi stori cal religions. II is interesting [Q note tillt
when the Igbo meets hi s maker at death, accompanied by hi s guardian
spirit, he has twO packages-one containing hi s statuses in his previ-
ous (lUSt ended) life. and another. his aspi rati onal statuses for the next
life. Wllat he ultim:ndy obtains at rebirth is dependent on a " market
ment:ality"-haggling and bargaining-rather than on morality. In
contemporary Buddhist peasant societies, by contrast, there is the
concepti on of the dead man confronting Y:ama , the Lord of the Un-
derworld, who has a pair of scales 10 weigh the good and bad actions
of the dead man in hi s ea rthl y life. Similarly, in Zoroastrianism the
good souls at death are guided over the Bridge of the Requi ter by the
prophet himsel f and are rewarded, whereas the bad are consigned to
hell. In all of these reli gions those who have violated the kind of
everyday morality li sted ea rli er arc punished in appropriate places of
hell ish torment.
PRIMARY AN]) SECON DARY F.THIC1ZATION
In the previous sections I have dealt only with the conversion of a
soci al and secular moralit y (i.e . social norms governing behavior and
conduct) into a religious one. This aspect of et hicization has, I think,
been neglected by historians of reli gion who have, in general, foc used
on the investment of preexisting religious beliefs and practices with
ethic:a! and symbolic values . They have, for example. concerned
themselves with the ways in which the Buddhists convert ed ~ Vedic
and indigenous deities into moral beings. upholders of righteousness,
g:ave the Vedic sac rifice ethi cal and symboli c meaning, and so forth.
This blter process occurs in every great religion, but I bdieve that the
former process is the more important one. In order !O highlight the
importance of the former process I shall call it primary ethicization;
the imposi tion of symbolic ethi cal meaning on preexisting beliefs is,
in my terminology, secondary ethi cization.
The Ethicization of Indian Religions
In this present section I shall examine how ethicization occurred in
ea rl y Indian religion. I shall deal with three problems: First , if the
REBIKTH ESCHI\TOlOGY AN I) ITS TR i\NSI' O R1'>IATIONS
, S S
karmic esch:ltology was indced derived from an aboriginal belief
system that was relatively unethicized, then it will be worthwhile
examini ng contemporary t rib:!1 religions of Indi:!. If they lack et hici.
zation now, they could surely have lacked it then . Furthermore, a
lack of elhic izati on in these religions would substantiate our general
view, contrary to Swanson and most anthropologists, that simple
societies lack ethical religions in our sense of the term. I shall then
consider the pre Buddhi st Vedic traditions of India in order to see
whcther these were ethical religions or not, since secondary ethitiza-
tion of these beliefs took place in Buddhism. Then I shall deal wit h
Nhicization as a civilizational process wi th specia l emphasis on how
that process occurred in the time of the great Ganget ic r('ligions.
CONTEMPORARY TRIBA L RELIGIONS
Wit h refcr('nce to cont emporary tribal religions, we are fortunate
in having the foremost ethnologist of tribal India dealing wi th prob-
lems of "morals and merit " in a recent book. ~ Haimcndorf says that
those groups that are least influenced by Hindu culture have
"amoral" religions. Reg:!rding the Chenchus: "Supernatural sanc-
tions, though not easily evaluated, carne ro play:! comparativel y small
part in promoting conformity 10 the accepted moral standards . .. .
There is little to suggest that moral lapses are subject to supernatural
sanction."H The Reddi s: " ... lhe dei ti es demand from man the ob-
servance of cert ain taboos . . . but the rcl ari ons betwe('n man and
man are 10 them J matter of indifference; there is no divine retribu-
tion of cri me or n:ward for \,irruous behavior."26 " The Kamars' at-
titude to adultery is much Ihe same as that of the Reddi s."H The
Dallas: "While an appeal to supernatural powers is used to strengthen
:! peace-pact, there is otherwise no suggestion that gods and spi ri ts are
concerned wit h the moral conduct of human beings.":s " The Apa
Tanis arc sensitive to social approval or di5approval, and the fear of
being 'shamed' is a powerful incentive to conformity. There is, on the
Olher hand, no sense of 'sin' and no corresponding desire to acquire
merit ' in a system of supernatural rewards . ... IDailar and Apa
Tanisl do not ascribe to their gods a general interest in the moral
conduct of man."2'1
Some tribes, like the Gonds, have notions of sin, but Haimcndorf
thinks these arc newly introduced notions.
14. C. ,on Flirer-Hainwndorf. Mor,,{, and Mrrit (London. 1%7).
2S. Ibid., p. 23. 16. Ibid., p. 43. 27. Ibid., p. 4S. 28. Ibid .. p. 69.
29. Ibid. , p. 79.
GANANATH OBEYESEKEHE
When (al king of such an offense against the acceptcd moral order the Gonds
usc the wordptlp, whi ch in several Aryan languages means "sin." There is no
Gond e<ltlivalem 10 thi s word loaned from Hindi , Urdu or Marathi , and this
siruation suggests that Gondi ideology ori ginally lacked the contept "si n,"
as distinCt from an offensl' ag:linst the customary law upheld by the noti on of
\' illage and tri bal counci ls but unfortifi ed by any supernatural sanction Y'
We have shown that ethlcl zation, or rather its lack, is no! simply a
feature o f our ideal model, bur is al so a feature of at least some
primitive tribal rdi gions of Indi a. We ha\' e no idea what the tribal or
aboriginal rel igions were like in Buddha's o wn time, but it seems very
likely that they iackl'd ethi cization, like their contemporary represen-
tatives . But it should be not ed tha t the Buddha, if n Ot other
groups, also hclpl'd et hici ze popular I3rahmat:Ji c religious ideas pre-
vailing in the Gangl's region, such as the sacrifice, the gods, and, as
till' evidenc\.' of Brahmajtil!t Silua and Tevi)ja SIiUtt indicates, the
magit.tl idl'as of the Atharvavedi c tradition. It wil! t hus be important
to see what t he pre- Buddhi st Vedi c tradition was in respect to pri -
mary and secondary eth icl zation.
PIl E- ll UDDHIST VEDI C TRADITION
When we examine the eschatology of the Veda we arc con-
fronted with an unethi cized religi on. In the Rg Ved a the chief place
for the dead is heaven. The soul at dea th, driven by a chariot or on
wings, takes the route of the fathers and reaches a place of eternal
rest. The notion of hea ven is a paradisal aile; "There is light , the sun
for the highest waters, every iorm of happinl'ss, the Svadha, whic h is
at once the food of the spiri ts and thl' power which they win by it,
thei r self-determination.")1 The spirits enjoy material luxury, mra,
milk , honey, ghee, and soma, as well as the de light s of love. There is
also music and singing, and a celesti al fig t ree where Yama d rinks wi th
the gods .
Thi s eschatology is a paradisal, not a retri but ive (et hi ci zed) o ne.
Even Yama and Varu!):!., who somet imes may appear as ethi cal dei ti('s,
do nOt " puni sh the dead or judge them for their sins ," but rather
grant:!. kind of unconditional pardon: " t he idea of a judgement of any
SOrt is as foreign to the Rg Veda as to earl y lran ." u
30. !bid. , p. IJS.
31. Arthur BcrricdJk Kt'ilh, TfJf R,>ligion ami Philmophy of rh, Vcr/a> alii/ UP,I -
lIIsbml5 (C1Illbridgc, .\1.1sSJChUscln. 1915), p.
REBII{ TH ESCHATOLOGY AND ITS T RANSFORMATIONS
, 57
The notion of hell "was present in germ" in the Veda.)J It is a
place under the earth into which Indra and Soma are lO hurl evil-
doers, thcse bcing the cnemy, robbers or demons. The Atharva Veda
has the word nar(lka/oka, "evil place," in contrast with svargfl,
" heaven"; the former is a blind, black place where female goblins,
sorceresses, and murderers are confi ned . Here persons who inju re
Brahmins sit in streams of blood eating their hair. There seems to be
hardly any ethical view underlying these notions: special offenses are
listed, nOi general categorical ones as in the later rel igions. Persons in
hell are those who have committed specially heinous crimes. This is
an unethicized eschatology : the otherworld is fo r saint and sinner
alike, except for special cases of demons and criminals. Entry to the
otherworl d is dependent on the performance of rhe correct ritual,
rather than on the moral nature of one's this-worldl y actions.
Regarding the later Brahmaryas, Keith has this to say: " The most
convi ncing evidence of all rega rding the almost purely ritual character
of goodness in the view of the Brahmaryas is that their concept of
tomlent is inext ricably bound up with the correct practice ... of the
ritual.")"' It is true that at death a Illan is weighed in a balance to test
the good and the bad, but this is not based on a social morali ty, as
among the present-day Sinhala-Buddhists. It is based on \iolations of
taboo :lIld on ritual interdicti ons. This comes OUI clearly in the vision
of Bhrgu in the S(/tapatbtl and Jaiminiya There the per-
sons punished in hell are those who CUt wood without offering the
agnihotra and those who kill and eat animals and even herbs without
performing the correct ritual. [n t he K(/I/!It(/ki the animals
take revenge upon a man in the next world unless he performs the
correct ritual.
15
Clearly. we are dealing with taboo violat ion rather
than with religious ethics or morality.
The Upani}ads while belonging to the Vedic tradition were influ-
enced by the speculative ascet icism of the Gangetic region.
36
Yet they
prove that a sophisticated speculative religion need not concern itself
with mora[i ry or ethics. I shall later discuss the reasons for this lack.
This absence of ( thical concern has dismayed scholars who, on the
bas is of later histOrical religions, are condit ioned to think that a
32. Ibid., p. "*09. }). Ibid .. p. "*1 0. .14 . Ibid., p. "* 74.
)S. Ibid. , pp. 47"* -US.
36. A. L. Basham, History and Doc/ri,u af rhe Ajivika, (London, 1951 ), p. 242.
GA NANATH OBEYESE KERE
specuLlt ive soteriology must al so entail an ethical sOleriology. Thus,
Paul Deussen, in hi s exhaustive di scussion of the Upani$ads, points
out moral injunctions contained there: " The thief of gold, and the
spirit drinker, the murderer of a Brahmin, and defiler of his tcacher's
bed: these four peri sh, and he who associates with them as the fifth."
But Deussen is puzzled that only special cases are cited here, rather
than a systematic ethi cization. His explanation is naive : " Lack of
generalization, as well as the rarity of such warnings in Upani$ad
literature, proves that offenses of this character we re not common ."J7
Ht' also states that ethics have no objective or external work to do in
the misjudging their ethical nature, since European reli-
gious traditions emphasize external , non-subjective ethics.)!! But he
forgets th:n both Jainisrn and Buddhi sm had an external (i.e., social)
morality radically different from the subjective internal "ethics" of
the The faCt is that the seeker of salv:nion is
above and beyond common everyday morality. In the Upa-
(he man who att:lins Brahman after passing by the ri ver of
immortali ty casts away his good and evil deeds ; he is above all moral+
ity, even above such heinous deeds as the slaying of an embryo and
the murder of a father or a mother. One can therefore accept Keith' s
characterization of the Upani,mds: " There is no :ltlempt to make the
theoretical philosophy a ground of morality of any sort."J9
ETHI ClZATlON AS A C1V1LlZATtONAL PROCESS
In this section I propose 10 examine the nature of the institutions
thai promote ethicizat ion. I write in the sociological tradition of Max
Weber, who was concerned with isolating general social processes
from the flow of history.
I shall deal with twO fundamen tal and contrasting modes of ethici-
zation of the ancient Indo- Iranian religious tradition common to both
[ran and Northwestern India. t assume with most scholars that the
type of religion characteristic of the R-g Veda also extended to Iran. It
was also the religion that was subject to the Zoroas trian reform, while
the Vedic religion, in the form in which it existed in the Gangetic
va lley, was ethicized by rel igious reformers like the Buddha. The
37. Paul Deuss<' n, The PhiloJOphy of the Uptll1i fhtl df (London. 1906; New York.
[9(6). p. 366.
38. Ibid .. pp. 365-366.
39. Kei th. p. 585.
REB!RTH ESCHATOLOGY AND ITS TRANSFORMAT! ONS
'59
Buddha not only cthicized the rebirth eschatology but also gave a
rl dical secondary ethical interpretat ion to popular Brahmaryic beliefs
and institutions that prevail ed in the middle Ganges. However, we
arc interested now not in the content of ethicization but in its vehicle
and the mechanisms by which ethicizat ion is expressed.
The Indo-Iranian religion can be seen as belonging to a single
tradition; furt hermore, if the preceding interpretation of the Vedic
rel igion is correct, it was not an ethical religious tradition. The ethici-
zation of Indo- Iranian religion took place in two radi cally different
directions: in Iran through ethical prophecy as it was manifest in
Zoroaster's reform, and in India through ethical asceticism, which
was pan of the spcculative asceticism of the samanas and wanderers
of the Gangetic region.
The Zoroastrian reform of the older Indo-Iranian religion is the
typical case of ethical prophecy. Zaehner shows how the preexistent
religion is rationalized to constitute a unified religious world view
ent irely ethical in nature. A fine example of this ethical orientation is
a hymn that descri bes Zoroaster's vision of God, which transported
him back in time to the beginning of the world: " Then, Mazdah, did I
realize that thou wast holy when I saw thee at the beginning, at the
birth of exi stence, when thou didst ordain a (just) requital for deeds
and words, an evil lot for evil (done) and a good one for a good
(deed)."40
I n India the rat ionalization and ethicization of the preexisting reli-
gious beliefs- Vedic and non-Vedic- was through a radicall y di ffer-
cnt process which, for want of a better term, I label "ethical asceti -
cism." It should be noted that all ascet icism is not ethical, much of it
involving magical attempts to gain power and control over man and
nat ure, in India at the Buddha's time as well as in ours. Ethical
asceticism li ke prophecy is speculative, involving a rationali zation of
religion; ve ry often this rat ional izat ion converts the religion into a
moral system. A rational specul ative religious ideology can exi st
'Wi t hout:t systemati c moral concern, but in both ethi cal prophecy and
erhical asceticism these two factors arc inextricably interconnected. In
short , one can have rationalization of religion without ethicization
but not ethicization wi thout rat ionalization.
40. R. C. Zaehner, The Dawn a"d TWlfighl of Zoroam-ianilm (New York. !961).
p. 44 .
,60
GANANATH OIl EY ESEKER E
The spirit of the times indicates conSt ant argument and debate
among and between groups of wanderers rmd samal/as. The suttas are
full of references to these debates, whi ch constituted the catal yst for
speculation and religious rationaliz:n ion. For example, Mahti Sakll-
Iydllyi Surra refers to a debating hall "where diverse members of
other sects. recluses and Brahmins were gathered together," presum-
ably dur ing the rainy season ."J The substJ. nce and content of these
debates are sometimes listed in Jaina and Buddhists slltt as.
It is Ollt of this kind of cult ural background that the greal specu-
lative religions of India emerged- the Upanipds, Buddhism, and
J ainism. Yet, speculation is different from cthicization: the UpaniFds
produced a great speculative soteriology but not an ethical religion .
In reading the Buddhist and Jai na sutras o ne is struck by the fact that
the Ja ina and Buddhist monks often congregated during v as, or at
resting places during their wandl'ri ngs, o r in a park donated by a rich
devotee. In other words, the Buddhists and Jainas had a lay congrega-
tion which specially suppo rted their own group: there were lay con-
yens to the religion. [n cont rast , the other groups of wanderers,
including the Upani$adi c ascet ics, had the general suppOrt of laymen ,
as any ascetic communi ty would , but were not interested in lay con-
version. Perhaps the real difference between 5amaTl aS and wanderers
may precisel y have been this : the latter were concerned with the
individual ascetic who has reno unced the world to seek salvation ;
they were not interested in lay sOleriology. I suggest that it is onl y in
relatio n to a lay community that a syst ema tic ethi cizati on of a religion
occ urs. Let me spell this out with regard to the contrasting ethi cal
orientations in Buddhi sm and the Upanil' ads.
Indian writers usuall y explain as " rahllsyam," " secret,"
and Deussen agrees with thi s interpretation. It is an esoteri c secret
doc tri ne that the guru impart s to hi s pupil s ques ting for salvat ion.
The seeker of salva ti on goes to a guru and learns the secret knowl-
edge: J suspect this orientation is true of many of t he wanderer sects
of the time. The secret esoteri c nature of knowl edge is toO
well known to requi re any documenta tio n here.
In Buddhism and Jainism, by contraSt , there was an interest in the
common man, in women, and in SLidras, that is, in a larger lay com-
munity. As Durkheim said in a class ic essay, the individual cannot be
41. 1. B. Ho mer Tllc Col/caion of the LOlgl b So.yillgS. vol. 2
( London. 1957). p. 206.
KElIIRTJ-! ESCHt\TOLOG'r AND ITS TRANSFORMATI O NS
a moral object to himself; the ground of mora li ty is established in a
social network . Egoism and morali!}' are fundamentally opposed;
morality is established only in our relationship with others:
H
This
condition hardly obtains in the where the emphasis is o n
the indivi dual's quest for his own salvation rather than the welfare of
the group. This is to say, nOt that ethics are absent in these doctrines,
but that they lack systematic ethicization. Social morality is at best
irrelevant for sa lvation, and in some instances it is a hindrance insofar
as a social morality links a person to his group, whereas sah"ation for
the Upani$adic ascetic is the removal of himself from the group.
Weber was wrong when he st ated that in Buddhism the personal
cl?rtitlldo sa/utis rather than the wel fare of the neighbor was the issue.
Such a stance constitutes the rational e for ascetic withdrawal from the
world . One could assume that retreat from the world must surely be
related to pe rsonal striving for salvation. Thi s was obviously one of
the goals of early Buddhism, and perhaps the mOSt important one.
Nevertheless, another goal was conversion, proselytization, and the
establishment of a lay communit y. But the ascetic withdrawal from
the world with its goal of person:d salv:lt iOIl must be rt>conciled wit h
the establishment of communication betwt>en laity and monk. This
has bt>en a major dilemma in Buddhism and Jainism and also, as
Basham has shown, in Ajl\'i kaismol1_the reconciliation of personal
striving for salvation with the welfare of the neighbor. One answer
was the class ic differentiation of monks into certain categories: v ipas-
santi dlmra-gramha dura (calling of meditation-calling of study);
va1ltlvasins - grtlmavasill (forl's! dwellers-community dWl,l!ers). The
first category is associat(:d with individual sah'ationj the latter is in-
volved in the lay community.
While there have always been problems in reconciling the goal of
the asceti c renunciation with the demands of t he lait}', there is not the
slightest doubt that Buddhism was never an exclusive "monks' reli -
gion." The Buddha's own dilemma comes OUt in the ea rl y sermon,
Ariyapariyesillla Sulla.
44
There he recognized that his doct rine was
difficult and for the few, and he was reluctant [Q preach it to the
world. By not preaching he would have opted for the goal of personal
salvation-in the Buddha mythology that of apacceka Buddha. But
after Brahml interceded he opted for the "welfare and happiness of
42. tmi!..> Durkheim, Sociology <Ina Phi/osopby (New York, 195.\).
pp. 131- 13S.
H. Horner (1957), pp. 103-219.
162 GANAN,'\ T H Oll EYESE KERE
the many." ThUlltlas are replete with statements that the religion is in
fact for both monks and laymen. Thus, it seems to me to be
incontrovertibl e that ea rl y Buddhism and Jainism and to a lesser
extent Ajivikaism involved the following: Preaching to the world and
the establishment of communication with the by community- not
only to obtain recruits for the order but also to establish a lay follow-
ing; communication with the lai ty facilitated by the developmelll of
monasticism. Once the order was established there were communities
of monks in var ious pans of the middle Ganges. When the Buddha
visi ted a Ci lY, the monks who were already there gathered to meet
him. Furthermore, during the rain- retreat (vassa) monks rt'sided
close to human settl ements, where lay supporters also were already
established. The texts have many references to lay disciples in the
several pbces where Buddha preached; they assembled to hear his
teaching, and sermons were utlered dur ing a good pan of the night.
Thus, a crucial featu re of early Buddhi sm was the public sermon,
which has remained to this day as a vehicle for the communication of
the doctrinal tradi t ion to till' unmusical masses. These public sermons
were open to ail, unlike the close esoteri c world of the Upanipdic
guru :md his pupil.
It seems clear that the laymen were part of thl' pro sdytizat ion go als
of early Buddhism. Social links between monks and laymen were
established very early in Buddhism. It should be remembered that thc
term bJJikku is not always to be translated as " monk," as social scien-
tists have shown. Indeed, English-speaking Buddh ists translatc it
generally as " priest." Difficu lti es in translation should nOt blind us to
the sociological realities underlying the role of bhikkll in the early
period of the establishmcnt of Buddhism.
THE CONTRASTING ORI ENTATIONS Of
ETHICA!. PROPHECY AND ETHI CAL ASCETICI SM
The ethical asccti cism that I have described is not simply a phe-
nomenon of ancient Gangetic religion. It has also set a decisive stamp
on the South Asian reli gious tradi t ions that were influenced by it,
much as ethical prophecy influenced the religious traditions stem-
ming from Islam, Zoroastrianism, and Christianit y. Thi s is a huge
question, and I shall only deal with a few salient characteristics of
et hi cal asce ticism as they emergc when contrasted wi th its polar op-
positc, cthical prophecy, developing Weber's argumcnt.
4S
4S. Weber, pp. 46-59.
REBIRTH ESCHATOLOGY AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS
The crux of ethical prophecy is that the prophet is the vehicle of a
transcendental, unitary ethical deity whose message he communicates
to the world . The ethical ascetic, by contrast, formulates his own
message, derived from his own inward, contemplative speculation.
Deities are external agents who at best validate or sanct ion the
soteriological message, urging its establishment in the world.
Flowing from the foregoing is the nature of the prophet's message:
It comes from God, and is therefore a proclamation of the divine wil l.
The prophetic ethics that ensue constitute a commandment. By con-
trast, the ascetic's ethi cal message does not come from God; it is a
precept to be followed because of its inherent rightness. The distinc-
tion between commandment and precept are crucial to the respective
religious traditions in which ethical prophecy and ascetici sm are
institutionalized.
Since the prophetic message is from God himself, his command
brooks no compromise. Thus, ethical prophecy has an uncompromis-
ing attitude to the world. Zoroaster sees his opponents as evil incar-
nate; in the extreme case no mercy or quarter is shown, as in Islam or
Zoroastrianism and in many sectarian traditions of Protestantism.
The preexisting rc:ligion is viewed with intolerance, regarded as the
worship of sticks and stones. Thus, Zoroaster denounces the soma
drinkers: "Wilt thou strike down this filthy drunkenness with which
t he priests evilly delude the people."46
In ethical asceticism the ethical message, insofar as it comes from
inward speculat ion, is vulnerable to compromise and revision. The
rules of the monks' order were constantly being revised: the SJlras by
contrast can never be revised. The attitude to lay religion is tOlerant,
skeptical, viewed as folly rat her than as evil. Contrary to the opinion
of recent scholars, Buddhism does not contain a theory of evil strictly
parallel to the monotheistic one. The basic contrast is that the
preexist ing (or al ien) religions are evil for the one, and foll y for t he
other. This latter attitude emerges in early texts such as the
Brahmajiila Sutta and Tevijja Sulla in those sect ions that deal with the
"base arts" of the Atharva Veda and popular ;'superstition."
These respective attitudes characterize the tone of the religious
message. The prophet's message is intense, emotionally charged, and
expressed in condensed poetic language and metaphor, whereas the
doctrine of ethical asceticism is ironic, reflective, and expressed in
simile.
46. Zaehnc:r, p. 38.
GANANATH OIH. YESE KERE
The uncompromising :tttiltlde of the ethical prophet often brings
him into contlict with the secular order. The prophet ethi cizcs a
preexistent religion, and this often brings him into confl ict with the
established priesthood and the secular authority which is legitimated
by that priesthood and religion. This was true of Jesus and also of
Mohammed and Zoroaster, at least in the initial period of their re-
forms. By contrast, ethical asceticism, lacking an uncompromising
pOSture, does not threaten tilt' secular order. [t is neutral to that
order, for it is dillectic311y open .
The dialectical problem of trying to reconcile difficult doctrinal
concepts with lay understandings was an ongoing historical process.
The sociological signifi cance of Milirrda Paiih'l (The Quest ions of
King Milinda) is precisely this.
H
It shows this process going on five
centuries after the death of the Buddha. Milinda, Ihe King, represents
arrha, the interests of the world, while Nagasena represents th{'
dhamm(l, in this case the Buddhist doctrinal position. The King's
dilemmas center around three basic issues. First, how to reconcile
certain doctrinal concepts like karm(l and nirvill.ltl with the realities of
mundane experienct'. Second, how to reconcile cert lin features of
popular lay Buddhism, such as pariH(lS already accepted at the time,
wi th doctrinal ideas. Third, huw to reconcile popular non- Buddhist
lay views with doctrinal Buddhism. Niigasena's achi evement is in fact
their reconciliation: the key doclfines are rendered intelligible 10 lay
understanding and experience.
47. [. B. Horner (translator), Mili"d,, 's QuestiO'I >, 2 \'ol s., S"cred Books of the [ ,lSI
(London. 1%4).
7
Karma and Rebirth
in Early Buddhism
JAMES P. McDERMOTT
On the ni ght of hi s enlightenment , as he passed through a series of
states of higher consciousness, the Buddha came to recognize that
beings pass from existence to in accordance with the nature
of their deeds (kamma). The refrain is frequently repeated: " Thus
wi th divine, purified , superhuman eye he sees beings passing away
and being reborn (upapajjamcwe). He knows that beings arc inferior,
exa ltcd, bC3utiful, ugl y, well-faring, ill-faring according to (the con-
sequences of ) thei r kamma."l Men are heirs to what they do.
If we are fu ll y to understand the sense in which men 3 Tt' considered
heirs to their kamma, and the way in which they pass from existence
to existence, brief consideration must fir st be given to the Buddha's
understanding of the nature of man himsel f. According to the Pili
canon, man is made of fivt aggregates, or khmulbas. These lre the
materill body, feelings, percepti on, predisposi ti ons , l nd conscious-
ness. At any given time man is but a temporat y combinati on of these
aggregates; for the klJlmdhas are subject to continual change. A per-
son does not rem lin the same for any two consecuti ve instants . The
Buddhists deny that any of the aggregat es individulll y o r in combina-
l. MaiJbi>1la- Nikaya ( M) US3. Cf. At l.V; U S2; 2.31; 3.99; etc Sometim ... s the
formula is placed in the mouth of the BlaldhJ. 3tld at others it is {i escriplil'c of him.
Unkss othcrwisc noted, all citations of th, pjJi texIS rd n to th ... edi tions of the Pal i
Society (I'TS).
J AMES P.
tion may be considered to be an ego. self, or soul (alla). Indeed, it is
erroneous to postulate any real, lasting unity behind the clements that
make up an individ ual. The Buddha taught that belief in a self behi nd
the khandhd$ results in egoism, attachment , craving, and hence in
suffering. Thus he t:lUght the donrine of anatl a, th:tt is, the doctrine
that there is no permanent self, in order to draw people away from
their egoistic attachments.
Nonetheless, under certain circumstances Gotama was not so ready
to deny the existence of the alta. Thus, in Samyutla-Nikaya (5) 4.400-
401, an encounter between the Buddha and Vacchagotta is de-
scribed. Vacchagotta asks whether there is a self (alta). The Buddha
remains sil ent. Then Vacchagotta asks whether this means that there
is no self. Again the Buddha remains silent. Later the Buddha ex-
plains his silence to his disciple Ananda as follows: If he had said
there is a self, he would be open to the charge of siding with the
etcrnali sts. To say that there is a self does not fit with the Buddha's
teaching of impermanence (al/icca). On the other hand, to say that
there is no self is to side with the annihilationists, who rejected any
idea of rebirth as untenablt.>. Since till' Buddha himself professes a
concept of rebirth, the denial of the self would only tend to confuse
the uneducated. Thus. the Buddh:l takes the middle view and rClnlins
sil ent.
The middle way which the Tathagata treads is spelled out in greater
detail at 5 2.76. Here the interlocutor is a certain Brahmin. In re-
sponse to his questions, Gotama points out the tWO extremes that are
to be avoided: the belief that he who does the deed is he who experi-
ences the result - this is ont'" extreme. The other is the view
that he who does the deed is anotht'"r individual than he who experi-
ences the fruit. At S 2. 19 the former of these two extremes is asserted
to be the view of the eternalist (sassara), the latter being the view of
the annih ilationist (lI ccheda). The impli cation of the Buddha' s re-
sponse is that the being who experiences the fruits of a deed in one life
is neither the same as nor different from the being who performed
that deed in a previous existence. The being who is reborn is neither
the Same as nor different from the being who dies in a previ ous
existence. As opposed to either of the two extremes, the Buddha
teaches the doctrine of paiiccasamuppada (dependent co-originat ion)
as the middle way between them. According to this teaching.
199regation (slmJ..J,ara) depending on ignorance. consci ousness depending
on aggregltion, name and form depending on consciousness, the six organs
of sense (ayatana) depending on nlllW and form, COnt let depending on the
KARMA AND RE BI RTH IN EARLY BUDDHISM
,6,
six organs of sense, sensation depending on contact, desire depending on
sensation, grasping depending on desire, the proct"ss of becoming (bhav4)
depending on grasping, birth (j:Hi) depending on tbe process of becoming,
old age and death depending on birth; sorrow, suffering, grief, and despair
arise. Thus is the origin of all this aggregati on of suffering.
l
Through this causa l chain a connection is made between t he doing of
deeds and the later experiencing of their fru its, bC'tween ignorance
and craving, on the one hand, and rebirth, on the other. Rebirth t hus
conditions rebirth. Indeed, in the traditiona l interpretation t he for.
mula of dependent coorigi nation is taken to cover three successive
existences .
J
But what is posited is a locus of points in a changing
causal st ream, rather t han a permanent entity of any SOrt which could
be said to transmigrate.
The postcanonical but nonet heless aut horit at ive Milindapanho
(Miln. ) is particularly concerned to emphasize this view, using a ser ies
of similes to illust rate the point.
4
Let us cite but one example of the
way in which Nagasena deals with th(> qu(>stion of whether on(> re
mains the same or becomes another through a series of rebirths. He
holds t hat the process is like t hat undergon(' by fr(>sh milk from a
cow. Aft(>r a time it turns to curds, then to butler, and ev(>ntually to
ghee. It would be wrong to say t haI l he milk was the same as the
curds, the buner, or t he ghee; yet they are produced Out of it. J USt as
there is no sweet mi lk left to be found in the ghee, so there is no being
(saILa) t hat passes from t his life to another.
5
T hus, although t here is
1. Th ... full prinud 1<"xt of the paficcaSif""'ppilJa is to be found at Vinll)'a Pililkam
(Vi,). ) 1.1 - 2. 1 n tlw PTS edition, tht formu b is at 5..n.'y" I/,,N ikay" (5)
1.19 and 1.76. For dcuiled trealml'n t of the fonnuh. 5ce Da,id M. Willi ams.
"11, e Tra!lSbtion Jild Imerpre!a! ion of the T,,' c1vc Terms in th<' r:.,i ccasamup'
pada;' N"men 21 (1974): 3;- 63 . second link in the formula is underSfood
by the comment.ltors to ref{"r to r.birth-prodllcing "0Iit ion5 (rl'llw;; ). or " kJrma-
formations."
J . St ... Vi$" ddIJi""'ggll (Vilm) 17.1 ff., and A bbidb,lrrnako5a (AoM. ) 3.20 for classical
int erpn'utiQ"s of Ih ... paficca5amuppil d" . Hac and in what follows rder{"nces to
Vi,m. will b<' by l'hapter and parag,."ph. foll owin): 1/ 15uddbimaRR'1 oj Bud-
dhaghtJlJeari)'il , editcd by Henry Clark,' Warr" n and rc"ised by Dharmananda
Kosamhi. Harvard Orienul Series (Cambridge: Harvard Uni versity Press, 1950).
References 10 Ko5a. and it s sel f-commentary wi]! b{" by chapter and q'rse, For the
Ko5a. I ha"c employed the edi tion of Swami Shastri . AI,J,jdhanl!ak"j"
alld Bhii'J.l Qj Ath" ry" V"s"ba",ih" uil h Spbl<lii rliJa Commentary of Acii rya
)'aimni/ra, 4 "015. BaudJha Bhar:lti Series, nos. ; _7 and 9 (Varanasi: Bauddl13
Bharati. 1970- 197.l).
Th is cumple is tJken from ,lfd". Other ill us trati ons of the point arc at
Miln. 46-48 aod 71.
5. Mil". 71.
JAMES p,
no transmigration in the stri ct sense of the word, kamn'ltl continues to
be effective within the locus which defines individull existence ,
Does thi s mean thlt in some sense k ,lImna itself mly be said to pass
from one life to the next? This is the thrust of a quest ion which King
Milinda poses to the monk Nagasena , Once aglin Naglscna' s rc-
sponse t akes the form of a simile:
" What do you think about thi s, great King? Is it possible to point!O the fruit
of (Tel'S which have nOt yet produced frui t, saying: 'The fruit is here or
there'?" "No indeed, venerable Sir," "Just so, great King, whil<' th<' eon-
linuit )' (of life) is uninterrupt ed, it is not possibl e 10 point to these act S,
sayi ng: 'These acts arc hefe or there: " ..
The implicati on of illust rati on seems t o be thl! once
done , deeds conti nue 10 exist only through thei r potential to modify
th" continuity o f life. The lCI (kammtl) itself does not pass from one
state to the next ; it cannot be sai d to exi st here or there. But sincc its
potential ca nnot be prevented from actualizing itself in due time , it
rna)' be considered to foll ow a man like an unshakabll' shadow.
Thl' ViSl/ddhimagga is explicit in Stating t hat " the kamma that is
the condition for the frui t does not pass on then> (t o where t he fruit
. ) '"
".
Similes such as those employed by Nagasena 10 expla in the rebirth
process were not fully co\wincing, however. Even Mili nda, while
applaudi ng Nagasena 's il lustrations, repeatedly presses for further
clarifi cation . As Thomas Dowling notes:
The wide agreement on the principle of karmic fruition for morally <l ual i-
fiable deeds stands OUt in marked contrast to the disagreement that char-
acteri 7.es the vari ous sectari an lreatmefll S of the mechan ism whereby this
principle is effened . ... The wider doct rinal positions of several of the
schools can often be understood in li ght of the schools' unique approaches
to the explan:lti on of the link up between deed and
The Puggalavadins, for example, believed that a personal entity, the
pliggala, exists . I n order to avoid being accused of beli ef in I n l /ltii,
they further maint ained that thi s plIggll /1l was nei t her identi cal wit h
nor d ifferent frorn the five aggregates, Rather, they considered the
6. ,lid". 72.
7. I'ism. 17.168. The IrdnSlalion is tlut of Bhi kkhu nu' ["li b of P,mjic,,-
lim' (Colombo: A. .. .
S. Thomas Dowling, " Karm, Donrinc JS E"rllJ;lrk," p:lpcr
rc,d J[ tho' AmcricJrl ACJdcnty of Rcl igian AnnUli L\l etting Jt 51. Loui s. Mi ssouri ,
on On. S. 1976: p. I.
KARMA ANI) REBIRTH IN EA RLY II UDDHI S1'>'i
relationship bet wee n the and the aggregates to be ineffable
(avakt avya). Moreovcr, it was their opinion that the puggala trans-
migrates from existence to existence, thereby defining individual con-
tinuit y. It provides the connecting link between one life and the next ,
without which the principle of kamma could not operate. Its exi s-
tence is nO! a momentary state. That is , thepllggaia does not undergo
constant change, dying and being reborn in each moment of con-
sciousness. Yet it is nonetheless incorrect to hold that it remains the
same from instant to instant. Again the m:1lter is considered ineffabl e.
The concept of the plfggaia is attacked by the Theravadin in the
KathiwattJJI/ (KvlI .). 'J
In lie u of the personal entity of the Puggalav3dins, Buddhaghosa
speaks of the rebirth -linking (pa{isandIJl) of the present state wi th the
immed iately preceding state of existence-or, better, state of becom-
ing. In the normal state of huma n deat h, the body grad uall y withers
away li ke a green leaf in the sun , the sense faculties cease, and lhe
consciousness that remains is supported by the heart - bas is alone. This
laSt momcnt of consciousncss before death is known as the Cllt; v;ii-
tiana. Immediatel y on its cessat ion, contingent upon some kamma,
condi tioned by the cut; vi/i,/ana, and driven by craving and ignorance
not yet abandoned, there arises in the mother' s womb the first stir-
ring of consciousness of thc succceding birth. It is known as the
rebirth-linki ng consciousness (parismulhi v itiiiana). Not being car-
ried ovcr from the previous life, this rebirth-linking consciousness
newly arises at the precise moment of conception. In other words , no
transmigration of consciousness is being posited here, but rather a
causall y linked st ream (sora) of disc rcte moments of consciousness.
Buddhaghosa likens the relati onship between (uti viliriana and
patisandhi viii,;at/a to that between a sound and its echo, o r a
signat ure-seal and its impression. 10
Accordi ng to the Maharanl)asaM.:hayaslltta of the Mtljjhima
Nikiiya, the conjunction of three factors is nccessary for conception
to take place: there must be sexual intercourse between the parents,
the mother must be in the proper phase of her menstrual cycle, and a
9. See K'(!u. 1.198 and 1.160-161. For furthe r elaboration of bOth the Puggalavadin
and Thera,'adin positions, see P. McDermott , 'The KJlhav3uhu Kamma De-
bates," jOl<mal of lhe American Oriental Society (jAOS) 95 (1 975): 424-425. Sce
below for J di scussion of Ihc VaibhaJikl and Saut Tlllt ib t'onceptions of the link
b.,tween deed and fruit.
10. Buddhaghosa's discussion of rebirth.linki ng and ilS ramifications is 10 be found
at Vism, 17. 158-173 .
JA.\ IES 1'. :..-l cDERMOTT
gandhabba must be present. I I In his commentary on this passage,
Buddhaghosa explains gandhabba as the being about to enter
the womb (tatriipakasaua), rl'ady to exi st (pacCilpaghito hOI i), being
driven on by kaT/una. 12 This interpretation is not to be ta ken as
implying the exis tence of an imermediate-state being (amara bhllVll ),
however; for elsewhere Buddhaghosa writes that it is the person who
is confused about death and rebi rth who considers it to involve a
"being's transmigration to another incarnation, . . . a lasting being's
manifestation in a new body."13 Theravada was vocal in its drnial of
an intermediate- Slate being existing between death and This
being the case, Piyadassi Thera's analysis would seem to be consistent
not only with the text but also wi th Buddhaghosa' s understanding of
the matter. Piyadassi Thera maintains that gandhabbll is simpl y a
term for the rebirth- linking consciousness (par/sandhi v /ii,iana),
rather than for a discarnate spirit of any kind. IS
Among others. the SJrvastivadins, the Vatsiputri yas, and the Sam-
matiyas disputed t11 (' Theravadin denial of an intermediate-state being
(antara bhava) between death and In the Abhidharmakoia
and its Bhafya (cha p. J ), Vasub:mdhu argues the case for the affirma-
ti ve in some detail. As he defines it in the Bha?YIl, theantara bhav a is
a being which is to be found between twO destinies (gati ). Thal is, it
exists between the moment of death and the moment of birth, being
bracketed by the five aggrega tes (skaT/dha ) of the moment of death,
on the one hand, and the five Jggregates of the moment of birth, on
the other. The intermediate-state being itself is made up of five skan-
dh(lS which proceed to the place of rebirth.1 7 The antara bhava is
further said to have " the configurati on of what is to be tbe configura-
ti on of the fUlUre being .... It is seen by the pure divine eye be!ong-
I I. M 1.266.
11. p,'puri c<uuda1l ; Mujjhim,mukaJ'o.{tb",ko.lliii (M/l ) 2.310.
1.3, V/S'n.
14. Sec Kv u . S.l . The Thcravadins were ioi ned in 1his .. iew by the VibhajYJvadins,
Mah"i5"ihgh ikas, and These groups offered no dear posit ive alternative
to the concept of amarii bhava. See Andre BareaLl . Lei Secrcs BQ"ddhiq" l'l d" Petit
vehic1<le (Paris ; t eok' d'Extreme-Ori ent , 1955), p. 2S3.
15. Piyadassi Thera, Thl' PsychQ{ogic<l. ! Asprct of Buddbism, The Wheel Publ ication
no. 179 ( Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. 1972), p. 20.
16. See Bareau, Les SeClI'S, p. 283. Also nOte Alex Wayman, "The Inlermrdi at e-Stat e
Dispute in Buddhism, " Buddhist St .. diN ;., HOOlOur of I. B. Homer (Do rdTc("ht: D.
Reidel, 1974). pp. 227-237, for a di scussion of the o\'era!l eontro\ersy.
17. Kola. 3. 10.
KARMA ,\ N D KR1KTH I N EA KLY BUDD HI S.\ 1
'7 '
ing to beings of its class. It has the force of magical pOW('r o r act. Its
sense organs arc perfect. II ca nnOi be impeded or turned b:lck."IS
Vasub:lndhu goes on to suggest that it is thi s intermediate-st:lle
being to whi ch the Buddha referred with the terllls numomaya,
nirvrtti, and gandharvtl. 19 The name gandbarva is ex+
plaincd as applying to the antara bhavtl because of its pattern of
feeding on odors (g(lluihabIJllk).lO The intermediate state being itsel f
is not to be classed as a destiny on tht" level of the fi ve gillis, the antara
bbava being instead the access (sagaman,j) through which a being
reaches its proper course of existence (gati). Spatially, the amara
bhava arises in the place where death takes place.
11
Vasubandhu is careful to ma inta in that the intermediate state being
which he posi ts is not the same as dle iitmm/, the exis!(>nce of whi ch
he d(nies. Thl.' atmall is consider('d to be an ent it y whi ch abandons
the aggregates (skandha) of one existence, exchanging them for the
aggregates of another, and which exi sts independently of the causal
relationship between the dharmas.
ll
By wa)" of contrast , Vasu
bandhu' s ,II/ t,m; bhava is itself a karll1icall y det('rmined combination
o f skamlhas, as we have seen.
Given the existence of suc h an intermedi ate-state being, Vasu-
bandhu proceeds to an expla nation of how rebirth (pralisaT!ldhi) takes
place.!) The Oedipal cha racter of hi s analysis would do justi ce to
driven by karma, the intcTmediate-stale being goes to the
location where rl'birth is to take place. Possess ing the divine eye by
virtue of its karma, it is able to see the place of its bi rt h, no matter
how distant. There it sees its father and its mother to be, unit ed in
intercourse. Finding the scene hospitable, it s passions are stirred. If
mal e, it is sminen with desi re for its mother. If female, it is
with desire for its father. And inversely, it hates either mother or
!8. Kojo.. J .13- H. The I ranshtion is Ih31 of '" r nlermedi3I e-$lll e Oi spul e,"
p. I.H.
19. KoM. 3. 40-41. The Icrm galldharvo. is lhe SJnskrit equivalent of Ihe Pil i
gandhabbil.
20. Ko"' . 3.40. cr. Kola. 3.!4.
21. Kok 3. 4.
12. Kola. 3.18. The appendix 10 8 (sometinl<'s ciled 3S chap. 9) of IheKol a. is a
delJilcd refuulion of the p .. and -irma" theories. Thi s part of the Kosa. been
lranslat oo inlO English b)" Sl chl' rbauky, The 50" / Theory of the 8"ddhim
(V3ri(lasi : Bhi m iyJ Prdkihna, 1970).
Z3. Kola. 3. 15.
'7 '
JA.\IE5 P . \IcDEK,1>lQTT
fath er, whi ch il comes to regard as a ri va l. Concupiscence and hatred
thus arise in t he g(llulharva as its driving passions. St irred by these
wrong thoughts, it attaches itself to the place where the sexual organs
of the parents afC united, imagining that it is there joined with the
object of its passion . Taking pleasure in the impurity of tht> semen and
blood in the womb, the aI/tara bha1)(1 establishes itself there, Thus do
lhe skandha5 arise in the womb. They harden; and the intermediatc-
state being perishes, to be replaced immediately by the bi rth existence
(prlltistlnJdbi).
When the embryo thus formed is masculine, it clings to the right of
the womb, back forward , in a crouc hing position; when feminine, to
the left of the womb, stomach forward; when sexless, in the attitude
in \vhi ch the intermedi :n e- statc being envisions itself as making love.
In effect, the inte rmedi:lte-stat e being is possessed of a full y de-
veloped set of sexual organs. It ente rs then, masculine or feminine,
and holds on as suits its sex. Developing after it thus takes rebirth in
the womb, the embryo then loses its mature sexual characteri sti cs.
In this \jew, as in the more psychologically oriented concept of
rebi rth consciousness, there is a stream of renewed existences pro-
duced in accordance wi th the act ion of karma. This is the cycl e of
-
SaT/BaTa o
The usual posi ti on of the Pali Nikdyas, accepted by Vasubandhu,
is that there are five possible courses, or realms of existence (gflti),
into which sentient beings may be born. These five courses, or
destinies-as the term is oft en translated- arc li sted in ascendi ng
order as (1) niraya, purgatory or hell ; (2) riTacchlwayoni, brut e crea-
tion, the realm of animals; (3) pettivisaya, the world of the
(4) manltssii, men, human existence; (5) devii, the gods, heavenly
In some passages (e.g., D .3.264) a sixth category. that of
the a Slml5 is added between the shades and mankind. When but fi ve
courses of exist ence arc enumerated , the asJtras are usuall y conceived
as denizens of thl' world of the shades.
O f these courses of existence, niraya and the realms of anima ls,
shades, and aSl/ ras are considered unhappy realms of existence
(apiiya, or duggati). Only human and heavenly exi stence are con-
sidered relatively desi rable courses (s lIgati). In contrast to the
24 . The tCTm "'hungry ghost," the usual translation for pc/a, is reserved for th e
particular class of pc/as who are Jistinguisht""d by pcrpt""tuaJ hunger.
TIlesr five ga/is are li sted .11 Digha Nikaya (DJ Ahg"tlara.Niki"l)"a (A)
M 1.73; C"lalliddela (NiddeM 1) 5S0, etc.
KARMA "NO REBIRTH ! N EARLY BUDDHISM
T heravada analysis on this point, the common view of the Sanskrit
texts is that the aSl/rilS occupy the lowest desi rable state of existence
(sugati) . 26
T he course into wh ich an individual is to be born is largely deter-
mined by the nature of his acts (kamma). Thus, when the Buddha
sees men passing from this life in accordance with their kamma, he
thinks:
Indeed, these venerable beings who arc t'ndowcd wit h good conduct of
body, of speech, and . .. of mind, who do nOt abuse nobl e ones
who arc of right vicw, acquiring for thcmselvcs thc kamrna (whi ch is thc
consequence) of the right vicw, after thc breaking up of the body after death,
they are the ones who attain happiness (or a good course, sugati), a heaven
world /oka".l) ... they are oncs who attain existence among men.
Indced, thcsc venerable beings who arc endowed with misconduct of body,
of speech, and . .. of mind. who abusc noble:' ones, who arc of wrong views,
acquiring for thcmselves the kamma (which is the consequence) of the
wrong ,jew, they, after the breaking up of the body after death, arc ones
who attain existence in the realm of the shades, ... in an animal womb
(tiracc/Janayoni), ... who aUl in l sute of loss (apaya), a miserable course
(dlfggatl,) , dcstruction (vinipaM) , niraya.
27
The gods too-and even Brahma, the c reator-arc not immune to
rebirth in lower st ates of existence. Thus, Ananda expla ins to King
Pasenadi of Kosala that even devas of the heaven of the thirt y-three
arc subject to rebirth, and "whatever Brahma does harm (5ltvyapa-
Jjba ), that Brahma returns to the present state of becoming (itthatta).
Whatever Brahma does nOt do harm (abbyapajJha), that Brahm:' docs
not return to the present stat e o f bccoming." l8 Digha Nikaya 1.17- 18
gives an account of the beginning of a cosmic period in t erms of
kammic effect. According to thi s account, with the di ssolution of
each world system, most beings arc reborn in a world of radiance.
Aft er a long t ime, that world begins to revolve. Eventually "some
being because of the passing of his span of yea rs, or because of the
26. On thl.' dSll ras thl.'ir posi tion in thl.' Buddhist schl.'mr of I.' xistrnce. see Alicia
/\"btsunaga, The B .. ddhiJl f'1,,'{()s()pJJY of Assimil.uio" ( Rulb"d. VI . ""d Tokyo:
Charles E. TunIc. 1969), p. SI.
17. !of 3.1 78-179.
28. M 2. 132. Louis d., [a ValJcl.'Poussin. The '<{lay IQ Nirva(/a (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge Uni"ersi ty Press, (917), p. 83, observes in passing that "man and woman alone
lrr usu ally Tl""gardoo as being capabl e of sin or good d,cds. The other states of
cxistc"ce, helJs Jnd paradises, are almost exclusi,'cl y sUles of enjoyment, of reward
or punishment ." ,If 2.132 proves exception to this genera[i1.ltion, as do the numerous
instances of good pcrforme-d by the Bodhisattl in previous animal existences re
corded in the jatakas.
'74
JA:'l ES P_ .\1 cDERI'.10TT
waning of his merit (pmiriakkha)'a), ha ving passed from the radiant
body, is reborn (lIpapaJiati) in the uninhabi ted PaJace of Braluna."19
Similarly, other beings event uall y fall from the world of radiance.
Since Brahma preceded them chronologically, they erroneously con-
sider him to be thei r creatOr, a view whi ch he also accepts because
they appeared in thi s worl d system only aft er he had wished for
company.
The begi nning of the round of rebirth and, hence, of the cycle of
cosmic periods is incalculable, according to the Buddha. It is like a
dog on a leash running around the stake to which it is ti ed. There is
no end 10 its ci rcling.JO
The course of one's existence, then, is CTuciJl1y affected by the
nat ure of one's kamma, However, kamma is operati ve not only ill
which of thegatis an individual wil l be born into but also
as a causal factor with respect to certai n differences between individu-
als, Thus, at At 3.202- 203, it is related that Subha, Todeyya's son,
asked:
"What now, Sir GOUInJ., is the (:ause, wh:l( the reason that lowness and
excellence are seen lTl10ng m('n .. . ? For, Sir GOl3rna, short- li"ed men are
5een, and long-lived ones an' seen; men with many illnesses are s<"t'n, and
ones free from illneu ;tre seen; ugly men are seen, and beauti ful are seen;
weak men are seen, and mighry are seen; men of lowly families are seen, men
of high families are seen ; men of littl e wisdom are sel' n, J.nd ones possessed
of insight. ... What now. Sir Gotama, is the cause, what the reason thaI
lown{' ss and excell ence are seen among men even while they are in human
form "Possessed of their own kamllM, young Brahmin, beings are hei r to
kamma . . . . KammJ. disti nguishes beings. that is 10 say, by lowness and
excdlence."
Appearance, health, w('alth, and influence are all the result of onc's
past deeds . But what about one's caste? In the SlIlfa Nipata, differ-
ences of namc and clan are pronounced 10 be mere designations
(samamla) settled by convention . Only the ignorant declare that one
is a Brahmin by birth . "One becomes neither a Brahmin nor a non-
Brahmin by birth .! One becomes a Br:lhmin by kamnlll ; one becomes
a non-Brahmin by kamma."J! In this passage the term killmna is used
29. D 1.17.
30. 5 Cf. S .?178f. andS .?186.
31. SUII" (5".; 650. Edil cd by Lord Chalm ... rs in B"ddIJ" '$ Te"chings: Being
tbl' S"u,,-N,pat" or D'fCo" ,-se Collection. Harv"d Series 37 (Harvard Uni -
vasil )' Press . 193.?). The rare form J",,,,m,,,,,;, ba,\cJ on the consonantal Stem. ap-
pears here. Th., idea ... xpressed is si mibr 10 at Sn. 116-H.?
KflRMA fiND REBIRTH IN EARL) IlUDDHI Sr-.1 , 75
wit h two levels of me.wing. On the one hand, Gotama is saying that
caste distinction is meaningless apa rt from the way a person acts. He
alone deserves to be called a Brahmin in whom there is truth and
righteo usness . Even a poor man who is free from earthl y attachments
is, in trut h, a Brahmin.32 A s('cond lcvel at whic h I woul d interpret
the meaning of the term kamma in the verse JUS! 'luored from the
Sima Nipiila is as a reference to past deeds working themselves out in
the present (or future). That is, a man is a Brahmin in this life because
of ce rt ain good works in a previous existence. The effects of kamma
are here carefully differentiat ed from birth. One becomes what he is,
not through birth, but rather because of his past acts. Birth or, rather,
rebirth is hence but o ne of the eff('cts of kamma. It is seen as but one
e1cment among many in the locus of instants in the round of
h is logica]!y no more important than any other moment of existence,
as is borne om by the formula of dependent co-origination
SlllIIl<ppll dll ).
Although each individual is heir to hi s deeds alone, the ripening of
hi s kllmma has consequences that reach beyond himself. That is to
say, in any given situation the kamma of each individual involved
must be in confluence with that of every other participant in the
situati on. Thus, for example, a fratricide could only be born of par-
ents who because of their past kll mmll deserved the sufferi ng that
results from the violent loss of a child, who in turn dese rved to suffer
such a death at the hands of his brother as puni shment for his own
past deeds. It is a matter not simply of the kamma of the one son
leading to his own death, but of the confl uence of the kamTll(i of both
the pafents wit h that of both their sons. With fafe exceptions, suc h as
in the Vitjlft!abhavall/JII of the Dhammapada CommclIIary, JJ it is
onl y in this sense of the confluence of the individual kammic reward
and punishment of those involved in a given situati on that it is possi-
ble to speak of "group kamma" in the classical Pali texts.
H
Not all pleasure, pain, and mental states that men experience arc
due to previous acts . 1n response to a questi on raised by one Sivaka
Moliya, Gotama replies that in addit ion to the effect of kamma
(kammavipaka), "certain experiences (vedayita) . . . ari se here
32. This id{,J is clearly {'xpress{'d at Dbammapada (Db.) 393 and 396. Edited and
translated by S. Radhdkri shnan (London: Oxford UniversilY Press, 1950).
D. DIJammap"dallbakatha (DbA. ) 1.337- 361. 1.360.
3-1. See James P. McDcrrnou, " Is Thrre Group Kam13 in Buddhi sm?"
'/1,',"'1<'" 2J (1976): b7- 80.
JI\;\ \ ES p, Mr DFIO! OTT
originating from bile, . . . from phlegm, . . . from wind, .. . result-
ing from the humors of the body, .. . born of the ch:lnges of the
seasons, . , , of being attacked by ad\'ersilies, . .. of spasmodi c
atiacks ."15
y,'t where deeds arc performed intentionally, their fruition in time
is inexorable. SIIIIa Nipdl<l 666 declares that man's Iwmma is never
lost (na nassari); it comes blCk to haunt him .. 16 In a similar vein, A
5,292 strongl y denies thaI intentional (sa,icerallika) deeds ca n be
wiped out once accumulated, unless their result is first experienced,
in either this state of existence or another.
J7
That kamma should not
work itself out is as much an impossibilit y as that the mortal should
not die, Not even Brahrna, on the one hand, and j\.fira , on the other,
are able to dday the inexorable frui t ion of deeds in due
The reward (or pmlishnwnt) fits the deed, good deeds bringing
results that arc in some sense conceived to be good o r pleasant, evil
deeds bringing unpleasant or painful results ,J<j
The MahiikmnmavibbailgllSlllta provid('s further definition of the
way in which kamma. inevi tably wo rks itself 0\11. ,", 0 In thi s Slf tta,
Gotama rejects lhe view that everyone who kill s, lies, steals, :md so
fort h will be reborn in an undesirable stat e. Indeed, he holds that
SOlllt such indi vi dual s may t'vcn bt, reborn in a heavenly realm. Simi-
la rl y, not everyone who refrains from immoral act s will be reborn in a
good course. The nitta goes on to explain how thi s view can be
reconciled with belief in the inevit:lblc working out of the effects of
kammll: pmctical experit'ncc shows us that in their lifetimes individu-
als are capable of doing both good and evil deeds. Moreover, depend-
ing on the circumstances, actions may corne to fruition either here
and now or in some future state. Thus the effect of a comparatively
weak deed (dubbalakamma) may be superseded by the effect of a
comparati vely strong deed (baltlvakamma) o r by lhc accumulated
effects of a se ries of deeds, Thi s Imans that l lthough an individual
may have been a murderer. a liar, and so forth, on dealh he may
nonetheless arise in l pleasant state if the effects of his accumulated
35. 5 Cf. II 1.87-88, 3.D1. and 5.110.
36. Cf. Tberdgalba H3- 1H.
37. Similar occur at A 5.197, 29'9, Jnd 300.
3S. A !.In.
39. The general principle is st aled at II 1.18- 30. and again at M 3.66- 67. The col non
i , al so full of spec ifi c of the of this principle , Among thl." mall}',
one mi ght note ,II 1. 388; S 1. S5 : A 1.81-82 as but examples.
40. At 3.207- 21 5,
KARMA AND R IIlRTH IN EA RLY BUDDHIS)o,!
'77
good deeds are sufficient to supersede the results of hi s wrong doing.
The fruits of the deeds which have thus been superseded will then be
experienced once the fruits of the deeds which have superseded them
have been exhausted .
It is in this sense that we must interpret the Buddha' s analysis of
kamma into the following four categories: (1) inoperative, apparently
inoperative; (2) inoperative, apparentl y operative; (3) operative, ap-
parently operative; (4) operative, apparently inoperative:
'l
A deed
that is clearly of slight ethical significance is call1'd "inoperativc, ap-
parentl y inoperat ivc" when its fruition is superseded, albeit tem-
porarily, by a deed of greater ethical force. A deed, the effect of which
is expected, is called "inoperative, apparently op('rativc" when its
fruition is prevented by the cultivat ion of another deed of the oppo-
site character when one is on the point of death. An act of strong
ethical force is called " both operat ive and apparentl y operative" when
it bears frui t as expected. And, finally, if a deed, although cultivated
when one is near death, is nOt l'xpected to bear its fruit because of
the ex..isrence of previous deeds of a different ethical character, it is
called "operative, apparently inoperative" if it nonetheless comes
to fruiti on.
u
Thi s interpretation points to another element in the canonical
Therav:ida view of kamma, namel y, the belief that deeds done or
ideas seized at the moment of death are part icularly significant. Thus,
in explaining how an individual who has broken one of the five
precepts may nonetheless come to be reborn in a desirable course,
Gotama suggests that it may be because at the time of his death he had
secured the proper outlook.
43
However, this idea is not to suggest-
as von Glasenapp does-that the final thoughts of a dying man " are
abl e fundamentally to alter the value of the karma heaped up during
his whole life."J4 In the balancing of accounts, a man's final outlook
is given extra weight, to be sure. Nonetheless, the full force of ac-
M 1.215; allhi bmm",!, abhabba'1'
bhabb:ibhasJI)1: ;ltthi kammal)1 bh abbaii c.' eva bhabbabhasan ca : anhi kammam
bhabbalTl abhabbibhasan ti.
-fl. 11,i5 interpretation follows lIuddlugho5aeariya. l'.'p-"nClHuda,,; Majjhimll-
nik!lya!!hakalh!l. edited by J. B. Horner et a1. j \"015. (London: Humphrey Milford
for PTS, 19Z2-193S). \ ' 01. 5. p. 20.
43 . M 3. 214 . Cf. 5 4.168, 302, and 400.
44 . Helmuth \'on Gbsenapp. Immorlalil), and Silivalioll ill ii/dian Religiom. Irans
fated by E. f. J. Payne (Calcutu: Susi! Gupu IndiJ, 1903), p. 50. Von Glmnapp
regards this view as parallel to cenJin ideas in the Bbagll vad Gila.
,,8 JA,\ IES P. ,\1cDERMOTT
cumulatcd kamma is not left OUI of consideration. In at leas! one
passage, the Buddha seems to take the nature of the
dlOughts 311he moment of death merel), as indicative of that person's
general moral character throughout hi s life ..
A man's character as a whole is a most significant element in deter-
mining how the effects of any given act will be experienced. A tritling
deed done by an individual who is generllly unscrupulous in hi s
acti ons will have different consequences than will a similar deed done
by one who is more sc rupulous about what he does. Such a deed may
drag the former down to a hellish existence; whereas in the case o f the
lauer, il may work itself out entirely in this life. The lime at which the
fruit of a deed ripens is thus dependent upon the circumstances.
In a section on t he punishment of deeds (kallllllakarmlll ) in the
Aflglluara Nikaya, t WO classes of fault s (vajja) are delineated : t hose
which have their result in the present existence (Jiuadhammika), and
those which ha\'e their res ult in a future state (sllInparayika). A man
who commits a theft , is capmrecl by the authori ties , and is tortured
for his crime, is an example of the formcr class of faults. The latter
class is composed of those offenses of body, word, and t hought which
are rewarded through appropriate rebirth. Among t hese arc fi ve
deeds th;1I fi nd Htributioll without delay (ma"tarika)."6 Re-
gard less of whatever other kamma rnay have been accumulated, these
lead to hellish existence in the immedi3tely following rebirth . With
the t' xception of these five , any deed may lie qui cSCl' nt for long
periods of time before it ripens. Practical exp(orience shows that the
wicked do nOi always suffer for their deeds in thi s very life.
It is also to be nOied that t he fruit of a del' d may bud without
actually ripening unti l much tater. That is to say, a given dt'ed may
have both visible and future results, the result s in thi s life being but a
foret aste of what is to come. A liberal almsgiver thus becomes dear to
many and gains a great reputation in thi s life, yet the result s of hi s
generos ity come to fu ll fruition only following hi s death when he is
reborn in a heavenly realm.
41
The great periods of time over which the rewards of a deed are said
10 be experienced is significant. This duration of rewards and
puni shments is stressed in Buddhist sermons and lales largely as a
deterrent against evil, and as an inducement toward good.
45. Sec Il i""ir<lk" (Ir .) t2- t4.
46. These 3rc m3lTicidc, IMtri cidt', arhatici dc, shedding of Uuddha's
blood. dnd J wi thin thcS"mgl",_ S ... c VItI_ 5.t 28; note Vill _ 2. 19J.
47. A US- J9_ Cf. 5 1.1 50.
"NO REBIRTH IN EA RLY BUDDHISM
'79
As we have already seen, the state of existence in which an indi-
vidual finds himself is largely determi ned by the nature of his past
aCls. Kamma is also active in determining the individual's moral
status. Tims we might well ask whether any room is left for individual
freedom. Or, is a man completely predestined in what he docs? Does
beli ef in kamma inevitably lead to fatalism? This is in part 10 raise the
question of human nature.
First, it is 10 be noted that Gotama's understanding of existence,
and hence of kmmna, was 10 a cenain extent based on the observation
of things as they are. Thus the series of SIIttas in the Nikaya
to the effect that as the earth is greater than a speck of dust, so the
number of those reborn in lower lives outnumbers those reborn as
is at once a recognition that other creatures are indeed more
numerous than men, and at the same time an observation that those
who regularly act selflessly arc truly few in number. For these t wO
reasons it is concluded that it is difficult to be reborn as a human
being.
49
One of the observations that Gotama made is that, by and large,
people are strongly attached to life and the sense pleasures ; and that
this attachment frequently results in impurity. The account of Mara as
plowman makes th is point.
so
The evil one, it is recounted, appeared
before Gotama in the guise of a plowman. He decl ared that each of
the senses and their corresponding sense objects belongs to him.
Hence all men, not even excluding the Buddha himself, must eventu-
ally fall into his clutches. The Buddha agreed rhat the senses do
indeed belong 10 Mara. and insofar as they do, men are under his
sway. Nonetheless, as Winston King stresses, the Buddha "claims
that there i5 a way, a type of living, which is beyond the power of all
sens ibil ity and discrimination and hence free from Mara's power."51
What is to be distingu ished here is the difference between old, or
past, deeds on the one hand, and new deeds
(navakamma), on the other.
5l
The eye and the other sense organs,
understood as a base for fecling, are what is called
The act ion wh ich one performs now-navakamma-stands in con-
trast to past action. Man's present situation derives from old kamma,
48. S 5.474-475.
49. Dh. 187.
50. S 1.114- 116.
51. Winston L. King. hi tbe Hope of NibbmUl: An Essa)' on Tbrro. 'VdJ" Buddhist
Etbin (LaSalle. Ill: Open Court, 1964). p. 24.
52. TIlis distinction is rnadc at S 4.132.
,80 J AMES I' . . \l cDERMOTT
but he remains frce to make what he will of hi s prescnt. Past kammll
must always burn itself out ; nonetheless. it is man himself who
chooses among the options for present action which are presented to
him. What is predetermined, then, is an individual' s opportunity for
certain modes of beha\ior, rather than either his inner moral tendcn4
eies or what he actually does.
In addition to present and past kamma, the Buddha also speaks
of kammarlirodha (literally cessation of action). Kmnm:wirodha
involves both thc exhaustion of past deleterious kamm(l , and the
avoidance of further action which may prove deleterious in the long
run . The way that is said to lead to such cessation of act ion is the
noble eightfold path. The fact that sllch a way to kammanirodba
exist s, even though the past ma y belong to Mara, is a clear indication
of the recognition of human free will . The questi on of free will is not
one that is explicitly asked in the Pal; canon, however. R:l.ther, belief
in the existence of free will is implici t in the notion of human
sibility, an idea which is closel y connected wilh the whole Buddhist
concept of kamnld.
In additi on to being classed as old or new, kat/llna is al so classed
according to the result it produces. FOllr categories of deeds are
lineateJ in this ( I) Dark with dark result. These are deeds
that are harmful, that violate one or another of the precept s. They
lead to an existence of unmiti gated pain. (2) Bright, or pure, with
bright result . Such acti on is harmless. Included in t his category is
abstenti on from taking life, from stealing, and the like, when these
are done with a view toward obtaining a favorable rebirth. And,
indeed, abstent ion from evil under sueh circumstances does lead to
favorable rebirth, it is held . (3) Both dark and bri ght with mixed
results. Such deeds are those which are at once harmful and
cia I. They result in states of existence wh ich, like human exi stence,
know both pleasure and pain . A significant feaIUr," of these fitstthrce
categories of kamma is that they are each purposive. That IS, they arc
done with a view toward attaining sensual enjoyment in this lifl' , or a
specific rebirth . (4) The fourth category of deeds is called " nl'ilher
dark nor bright with neither result ." Deeds of this final CJtcgory lead
to the consumption of past kamma . This category of aCti on involves
;3. Thl." fo ur calcgori l."s arc (I) kamma kanha kallhl\"ipaka, (1) b mma .lUkka suk-
kavip7lka . (3) kalll tna kal)hasukka kat.lh asukka,<ipaka. (4) kamma akanhama. ",kka
akaQha- .lsukka,i paka. Thes!." I n " (l," li ncJt oo scnral li m('s at A 1.130- 137. Al so nOi c
thl."ir appearance at f) 3. 219 f ., and ,lf 1.389 f.
KAK,\lA AND REB1KTI-I IN E!\RlY BUDDHI S1>l
, 8 ,
giving up all behavior condu.:ive of further n-binh, whether painful
or pleasant. Such action , unlike the first three catcgories, is selfless.
Hence, from the Buddhist point of view, it alone is to be pursued.
I n the Abbidbarrnakosa Vasubandhu accepts this fourfold categori-
zation of act s. However, he notes that the third category, that of
mixed karma , refers not to the charaCter of indi\,idual acts but rather
to the series of acts .... ,hich defines an individual life. That is to say,
there is no such thing as a black-and-white act, nor retribution which
is mixed. That would imply a contradiction, according to Vasuban-
dhu. Rather, in the same mental series some good actS are mixed with
some bad actS, each with thei r own characteristic fruit , whether good
or bad. When su.:h a situation exists, this is referred to as mixed
black- and-white karma. ~
One of the most common classifi.:a ti ons of kamma is into acts of
body (k rlyakmmlla), acts of speech (variklUllma), and acts of mind
(mallokamma). H Each of these produces results. [veil a thought
which is unaccompanied by outward action, even $0 much as the
mO\'i ng of a muscle, is considered to produce k:unmic effects . Actual
Inurder no doubt has greater effect than the mere thought of murder
unaccompanied by any action, yet from the Buddhist point of view,
even the latter is wrong.
This classi fi cation of kamma into deeds of body, word, and thought
is further reduced into a twofold classification at A 3.415. On the one
hand, there is volition, mental or spiritual acti on. On the other, there
is what is born from volition, what a person does after having
willed-namely, bodily and vo..: al :!.ction.
Sb
Th is twofold schein:!. has the advantage of stress ing t he ccmrality 10
the early Buddhist understanding of kamma of what has often been
translated as "voli tion," namely, ectal/a. Kamma is virtually defined
as cctmlll: " I sa}" !Honks, that Celana is k'lmma; having intended
(cetayitva), one does a deed by body, word, or thought. "S7 In the
words of Herbert V Guent her:
Cnmltl, 10 stat e it plainly, is something that corresponds 10 our idea of
Stimulus, motive, or drive. Especiall y this Janer concept of drin', as a
stimulus arousing persistent mass activit)" assists ill explaining the origin of
:H. K()ia . 4.118- 130.
SS. This di"ision is found ~ t ,II 1.106, :md A JAIS, for exampl e. Cf. II. 15.
56. Cf. K Q ~ 4.1.
S7. A JAIS.
jt\ .\!ES P. :-"I , I) ER MOTT
activity as well as that which is cxcitatcd and is forthwith activc. That which
is 10 activity is the sum IOtal of :111
In ot her words. cetana is not a matter of wil l alone, but al so involves
the impulse or drive to ca rry thro ugh wi th what is intended. Dcli ber
ate intenti on to do a deed plays an essentia l role in determining the
ethical qual ity of that deed. Thus, a person who commi ts acci dent al
mansl:tughter is nOt subject ro bmmic consequences as serious as
those suffe red by the perpetrator of a premeditated murder. In the
same vein, throughout the Vinaya Pifaka the penalties whi ch are laid
down [or intentional violations of the monastic rules are more severe
than those exac ted for violations committed unwittingly. Likewise,
tempo rary insani ty is considered a mitigating cireumstance by the

The Abhidharmakosa follows A 3.415 in defining "karmall" as
"i nt entional impulse (CCCima) and the act whi ch follows upon it. " It
further accepts the wuanta's t hreefold classification of kmmna into
bodil y, vocal, and mental acts. Vasuhandhu goes on ro clarify thi s
threefold ana lysis in a wa y that is counter to the Ther:l.vadin under-
standing, however. He notes that the intentional impul se (eetana)
itself is that which is termed "mental act ." Bodi ly and vocal acts ari se
fr o m it.
S9
Allhough any physica l act supposes an intent ional impulse,
the actual phys ical act is something other dun intention . For exam-
ple, there is no murder without a will to kil l. But the actual Illurd('r
involves somet hing more than simpl y the motive or driye behind the
act. It also involves a ce rtain mOtion o r di spbcement of the body by
means of which some living being is deprived of its life.
[n contrast to the Sarvastivad in opinion on thi s point, the Pali
schools consi der all kamma to be me rely cetanii . Ment al acts are pure
intentional impul se, while acts of body and yoice are intentional im-
pulses which PUt the body and voice in motion, nOt simpl y the ac-
tions ensuant upon sllch impulses.
60
Among the more significant addit ions made by the
to the conception of k:l.rrn:l is their analysis of actS into Vlj"iillpti (pa-
tent; literally informative) and avijnllpti (latent; literally non-
;8. Herbert V. Guenther, Philosopby ami f'jycbolog)' in/be Abbidb,mna (Luck now:
Buddha Vihara. 19;7), p. 66.
;9. Kok 4.1.
60. On this point. 51.'<' Loui$ de 1.1 VaU':'e-Poussin, La Morale Bouddhlque (Paris:
Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, 191 7), pp. 114- 11,.
KARMA AND REBIRTH I N EAR LY BUDDHISM
informative).61 According 10 the position as described by
Vasubandhu. acts of body and voice can be further di"ided inlO pa-
tCnt and latent. This distincti on arose out of thei r concern to explain
how the effects of an act ion can som{'times become manifested only
long after the completion of the overt activi ty.
Corporal vlj rillpli karma is manifes t physical act ion. In Western
thought it is what might be loosely term('d physica l movement. From
the viewpoint this would be an improper irHerprctation,
however, fo r all conditioned elements of existence are held
to be momentary. Their transilOry existence is not sufficiently long to
allow for the poss ibility of movemenl.
62
Thus, rather than speaking
of patent bodily karma as movement, the descri be it as a
kind of appearance or condition (samsthll1la) which iss ues from the
intentional impulse and informs others of it. For example, the phy-
sica l act of decapitating a man with an ax informs others of the mur-
derotls intent ion that initi :ucd the murder, and would be classed as
corporal vijriapti.
Patent vocal action consiSts of the pronunci:J.ti on of syllables.
Speech iss ues from an intentional impuls{' and informs others of it.
Thus, for example, an order 10 commit a murder proceeds from a
murderous intention and makes that intention manifest (vijriapti).
To usc Herbert Guenther's terminology, aVljnapti karma is "a se-
rial continuity"63 set up immediately after a patent (vij1iapti) act has
been performed. In other words, it is a latent potential impressed on
the psycho-physical Stream of the individual who initiates an ethically
significant action. It is an unseen efficacy capable of producing results
at some later moment of time. In some respects the con-
cept of avijliapti karma is similar to the concept of apur"va
61. For the t ransbtion of vij"apli and """ii,japri JS "patent" and" latent" respective! y,
I am indcbtw to DlSgUpta, A History of Indl<l.1! Philosophy, vol. 1
(Cambridge: Uni "ersi ty Press . 1932), p. 124 . Al so see K. "On
the Jdea of avijfiaprikarma in Abhidha rml Buddhism" (in Japanesc.o) , Joumal of
/ndum fllld Buddhist Studies (Tokyo). vol. 19 (1962), pp. J49-JS4. Vil'iapli karma is
action wh ich makes itsel f known to 01 hers, whi Ie aviJ,lapri karma si)Jnifie, "3 brm ic
energy which is not perceived by the ""c senses or made known 10 another"
Sogen. S),ltem j of Buddhi,rk Thought [Calcutta: University of Calcuna
Pms, 19621. pp. 149- 1:)0).
62. KoSa. Vasubandhu notes that the Vitsiputriyas held the counter view that
corporal 't,jpillpti is displacement , or movcmenl (gat i).
63. Gu<'nther, P}'ilQiOphy and P,),ch%K,), in the Abhidharma, p. 148.
JA)"I ES 1'. )..l cDER)"I OTT
by Mim;ull sa to explain the interval benveen sac ri fici al action and its
frui ts. (..I
As a means to greater understanding of the concept of avijriapti
karma, let us consider twO examples . In presenting himsel f before the
monastic community and taking the monasti c vows, the prospective
novice accomplishes a patent ac!. Insofar as il involves his presence
and coming forward, it is a corporal act. Simi larl y, the acmal recita-
tion of the vows is vocally paten!. With the pcrformance of these
patent acts, a new dispositi on toward self-discipline is born within
the initiate. This inner dispositiotl is an example of ll vijriapti (i.e. ,
latent) karma. It is an imernai karma, which ca ntl Ot be percei\'ed by
the five senses, but which nonethel ess continues to reproduce itself
beyond the act ual moment when the vows are recited and the accom-
panying rimal is performed.
A second example: Let us suppose that r hire someone to commit a
murder. In giving him hi s orders, I commit l patent (vij riapt i ) voca l
act. However, I am not yet l murderer, si nce no death has occurred.
Nonethel ess, the intent (c(,Mlla) to kill continues latent wi thin me. In
obeyi ng In y orders my accompli ce commits j pa tent ('orporal ac tion
of his own, namely, a murder. At that prec ise moment, regardless o f
how I am occupied, I become a murderer along with Ill)' accomplice,
even though no one else may become aware of m)' part icipation in tht'
fou l deed . In the theory there was created within me l
latent (avipiap/i ) karma which by continually reproducing itself pro-
vides the connecting link betwet'n my murderous intcnt, on the one
h:md, and t hc actual ll1urdt' r and ilS {'ventu,11 retribution, on the
other.
Latent klrma is said to be ei ther corporal or vocal depending on
whether it proceeds from a bodil y or a vocally patent act.
AVlj llllpti ka rma is ei ther good (husala) or bad (akll stda) . It is never
neutral or undefined (avyti krrll ), for an undefined intentional impulse
(eetalla) is weak, incapable of engendering a powerful act such as
latent karma must be in order to reproduce itself after its initial cause
has di sappeared. (os Since avijliapli karma is never undefined, it call 1lot
be bo rn of retributi on. 66
In contrast 10 latent action, however, patent (vljliapti) karma and
64. For a brief discussion of apii rua in l\"1imalpsii . sec SurJrll:l. Det;(!/op.
mem of MQr"II'/,i/Qlophy in h,dia (New York: Frcd,'rick Ungar, 1%5), pr. 80-81.
65. Kou . 4.30.
66 . "':ok
KAR:-'I A AND RFBIRTH IN EARLY BUDDHIS:-'I
its corresponding intentional impulse (cerana) may be undefined or
neut ral (avyakrra), as well as good or bad.
Vasubandhu goes beyond any of the texts of the Theravada
Tipi{aka in making clear in pract ical terms which acts fall imo the
undefined category. The Buddha is ta ken as the final authority in this
matter. Any act of which the Buddha did not say that it was either
good or bad, writes Vasubandhu, is undefined, or ethically neutral
(avyakrta).67 This means that any act done wi tham grasping and
which was neither specifica!ly enjoined nor prohibi ted by the Buddha
may be classed as (lvyab:ta. Thus the acts of everyday existence are
undefined, so long as t hey arc done without grasping (tmla).
The Saut61mikas knew and refuted the theory of vi-
jnapti and aVljiiapli karma. Remaining closer to the posit ion of
Theravada in this particular instance, the Sautramikas denied that
patem karma, whether corporal or vocal, is distinct from ce(ana.
Since there is no act beyond the intentional impu lse, Vii,/apt; karma as
defined by the is merely a gratuitous concept. Fur-
thermore, since latent ka rma is alleged to derive from patent karma, it
toO mUSt be a gratuitOus concept if considered distinct from cetalla. b8
The theory with which the Sautrantikas replaced the
understanding of vijnapti and aVljliapti karma may be fo und in the
(Treatise on Karma). f>" i n brief t heir view is as
follows: The Sautrantikas began wit h the SlIttanttl princi pl e that
karma consists of the intentional impulse plus the act after having
willed. They defined three such types of impulse: (1) resolution,
(2) decision, (3) the mOtor impulse. The first twO of these constitute
the act of intention, or volit ion (ceta1uikarmall). The third is the act
after having willed . The mOtor impulse is twofold, namel y, the inten-
tional impulse which moves the body and that which produces
speech. It is these twO types of motor impul se wh ich are loosely
termed corporal and vocal acts. rntentional impulses which thus bear
on bodil y movement and the emission of sounds are capable of
67. KOla. 4.106.
68. The SaulrJ.rl1ib positi on is outlined at Kosa . .. . 3.
69. The Kam/asiddhiprtlk" rmw is l scribl:d to Vasubandhu. lI u-ston considers it an
exposit ion uf karma from the Yogac3.rJ poim of ,ie". And, the text does
include treatmem of a notion closely the Yogacara ala)'" '!Iii';;-"'''. In
of all this, however, ttienne Lamo!!e concludes on the basis of internal that
the H,xt is reall y Sautrantika. See l amon e, <oLe Traite d .. fACie de V3subandhu
Karmasiddhiprakaral)a," AU/tinges Cbin()I's eI Bouddliique!, vol. 4 (193,-1936),
pp. 176 ff. t\ translation of the treati se is to be found on pp. 207-263.
JAMES p, :-I . DER,\IOTT
producing sui gene ris further impulses which the Sautrantikas term
aVljrlapli.
70
Fu rt he r differences between the Sautrantika and Vaibhl$ika con
c('plions of karma arise in their respective understandings of the
mechanism of reward and retribution . The quest ion is how an act can
bear fruit, how a man can be heir to his own deeds, if the ind ividual
defined as a constantly changing series of aggregates. Let us turn first
to the Vaibha$ika answer. By way of background, it should be noted
that the Va ibha$i kas maintained that the past and future exist. Thus
the act is held to exist in its own nature (svabhava) in all times, past,
present, and futu re. Only the mode of it s exist ence varies.
71
During
its present existence, that is to say, at the moment it is actually ac-
complished, an act projects its fruit of retri bution. At that moment a
potential is established which only actualizes itself much later. [n
projecting this potent ial in thi s way, t he act becomes the cause of the
frui t. By the time the potcntial, the frui t , is ready to actualize itself,
the act has already entered imo its past modc. Since the act still exists,
albeit in a past mode, it provides the energy which ma kes the pOlcn-
tial fruit enter into the present mode as an actuality at the appropriate
time. This is the moment at which the frui t is experienced as pleasure
or suffering. Thus an act project.'> it.'> fruit-potential at some moment
in a psycho-physical series and causes that frui t to be experi enced at a
later moment in that series. During the int erim, however, that aCt has
changed it s mode of exi stence from presem to past.
Moreover, in the psycho-phys ical series which constitutes an indi-
vidual there exis t certain immaterial entities (dharma), unassociated
with thought, which are called prapt i (possessions). As Thomas
Dowling nOles, prapti "is said to be the cause that originates
(lltpaui-hecu) a specific nature in a given stream of consciousness at a
given moment."12 Every act creates in him who does it the possession
(prllpti) of that act. So, too, a corresponding possession is created by
every thought or desire. The existence of the prapli is momentary.
Scarcely having been born, it peri shes. However, it engenders a pos-
session (prapti) similar to itself. Through a continuing process of
generation of thi s type, we continue to possess our lCts even long
aft er til(.' actual moment of their accomplishment. The generation of
70. This exposit ion of the Sautdntik.l theury summarizes some of the material from
sees. -+ !- 50; " Tuit e de i'Actt'," pp. 256- 263.
71. KoSa . 5,;8.
72 . Dowling, " Karma D()( tr ine as Earmark" (n. 8 ahove), p. 7.
ANl) Rf.BIKTH IN EAKLY BU DDHI SM ,87
the possession (prapti) of any act in thi s way ca n be interrupted only
by the actualization intO the present of the fruit which was projected
with the doing of the act. It is thus through the mechanism of posses-
sion th:a latent and, hence, patent karma become effective. In short,
the posit an intermediary form of karma-avij,iapti
karma- operaling through a process of the continuous generation of
karma-possession as the means by which merit and demerit are
rewarded.
73
A different mechanism is posited by the Sautrantikas. They di s-
agreed with the first of all in maintaining that neither the
past nor the future exists. Thus past acts do not exist and, as a result ,
cannot be considered efficacious in actualizing the potential fruits
projected when the actS were being done. In effect, an act is con-
sidered present o r past according to whether it operates or has ceased
to operate. If a former act bears fruit , it is because it operates , and
thus it is to be considered a present rather than a past act. All thi s
simpl y means that the Sautrantikas consider prapti as defined by the
to be one more purely gratuitous philosophical inven-
ti on. It is no more valid a conception than is the notion of
latent karma as distinct from the intenti onal impulse. Neither posses-
sion nor (i vljT/apti are things in themselves. When the Buddha
affirmed the persistence of past karma, he intended only to affirm the
inevitability of retribution . The Sautrantikas, contrary to the Vai -
bha;;i kas, held that all acts are momentary, perishing as soon as they
are born without ge nerating new intermediary karma. However, a
good or a bad act perfumes the complex psycho-physical
series which in popular parlanc(' is termed the indi vidual. It creates a
special potentiality (5aktivisqa) which causes the perfumed seri es to
undergo an evolutionary process, the culminating term of which is a
stat e of retribution called the "fruit. " This potentiality, o r power, is
termed the bija (seed). 14
In the Abhidbamltikosa we find a f\lJ!y deve loped theory of what
consti tutes complete karma. Though a full-blown theory of this SOrt
was never developed in the Pali Nikayas, certain precursors of such a
73 . See KoJ.l . 2.179-195. Cf. la Vall"e-l'oussin, Morale 8ouddhiqur, pp. 1%-199.
Also see s('Cs. 15-]7. Cf. Lamotte. "Tr3;'" de pp.
153- ]54, 158- 160,166_168. and 224-230.
74. See KoSa . 2.185 and 272; 5.63; and 9.296. Cf. Karmalid<iJ"prakarana, sees.
10-26, pp. 232-239 in Lamotle, " Trail l' d.IAcl". "' Also see I'admanabh S. Jaini,
"The SaU!ranli ka Theory of Bij". ,. B"lIrtin of [b. Srhool of Or;enlal anti Afriran
Slid/n, Umv nlity of London, \"01. 22 , pp. 136-149.
JAMES I'. McDERMOTT
theory arc to be found in the Tipirab , [n brief they 3rt' 3S follows :
First there was the noti on that for an 3CI to h:lVe kammi c conse-
C[ucnces, it had to be.' done intenti onall y, Related to thi s was the idea
that for a deed to have the greatest poss ibk effect, it had to be done
wi th consideration, nOt casuall y. Fi nally, there was the idea tha t, to 3
certain extent , the et hi cal potenti al o f a deed, whether good or bad,
ca n be counteracted by repentance.
75
According to the fo rmul ation of the Abhidhannakosa, to be com-
plete and really fruitful a deed must consist of three parts, 7fo Fi rst, a
complete act preparation, This pan is called thepmyoga. It is
twofold, consisting of premeditat ion, or the intenti on to do the act,
on the one hand, and the actual preparatory steps (siimantakii) requi-
site to the ca rrying out of the act. on the other, For exampl e. a man
desiring to butcher a domestic ani mal rises from his bed, takes some
money, and goes to market, where he buys a cow or a goat. He then
takes a knife and prepares to deal the beast a blow, All these act ions
arc prep3ratory to the actual killing of the beast. They consti tut e the
prayog<l . The second element necessary for a complete act is the
principal action, call ed the mall fa karmapillba. To continue with our
illustration, the principal action is the death-dealing blow itsel f. Like
the pr,,)'oga, it tOO is twofold. [t consists of th( patent action at the
momlrH of thl' animal ' s death, namely. the kni fl' stroke, It also in-
ducks the latent act ion that aris('s at ,he pre( isc mOIlll' nt of death.
Finall y, to be comp[cte the principal anion must be backed up. This
d emcnt of an action is call ed the bac k (pmha), The pl"S{h(/ consists of
consequ(' nt anions that folio\\" upon ti l(' principal action, as well
as succeeding moments in til(' (/"Vlj/iapti. To conti nue wi th our illus-
tr:uion, the pm/J(I of the butchering woukl include a satisfied at-
titude, and such aus as preparing and l"llll ing up the' carcass and
sel ling the mea t. 77
Before we proceed furth(' r, it must be stressed that the term kar-
mapalha (course of action) does /lOt apply to tri ll ing 3ets. Thus the
forc'going anal ys is is applicable only to ethicall y signifi ca nt aClS,
namely, those which if complcte may be expected to prod uce karmi c
fruits. With thi s het in mind, We arc in a posi ti on to raise the questi on
75. Se\' I'. IIkDermOIl, D,'vdopml'nlS III thc Early R"ddhm COUO'PI of
' ,:amma/Karma. Ph .D, disscrtaTion, PrincclOn Ur.i\"crsi ry, 1<;71, pp. 69- 71.
76. These Me dcli,u: al00 at Ko5.. , ,U"O-' ''1.
77, Tl", illustrat ion is from K05'/ _ ".1 41.
" AR\IA .. 'ND REBIRT H I N EARLY BUDDHI SM
of t he broader implications o f Ihis theory for t he princi ple of kann;!. .
This defi nit ion of wh:n consti t ut es a complete act is of particular
significance in the Sarvasti vadin undemanding of the force of repen-
tance as a facto r that may modi fy the consl'qucnces of any given
act ion . We have alread y not ed the Theravadin belief that the force of
an act can h(' counteract ed to some extent by repentance. Such a belief
tendl' d to dilute bdief in the inevi tability of ka rmic retributi on, The
Sarvastil'adin theory of compl ete aCls tended to reinforce this latter
belief, while :n the same time allowing a rol(' fo r repentance. Th('
Sarvasrivadins held that if an individual repented of an act im-
mediately after committing the principal course of acti on, that act
must be considered incomplete. In such a case t he back (p-mha) is
lacking. Being incomplete, the consequ('nces of that act arc vitil ted.
However, once an act has b('en carried t hrough 10 its completion,
once it has been back('d up, whether by consequent actions or an
approving it is 100 late for meaningful repentance.
The maintain that in till' s('nsuai worl d (kiimadhil-
tit ) the preliminaries (samallt llka) that prepare for a course of action
(karmapatha) will always be pat(' nt (vijiiapti). These preparations
mayor may not also include latent (avijriapli) clements, depending on
whet her or not they arc carried out while in a Slale of great passion.
In COntrast. the back, or consequential acts (pmhil), necessarily in-
volves latent clements. It is patent as w('11 only wit('n one continues to
commit acts analogo us, or s('condaril y relat ed, to the principle course
of action. 78
Vasubandhu makes a furthe r distinction between the act done
(h:ta) and t he act accumulated (llpacita). An act is said to be accumu-
lated by virtue of ils intentional character, its completion, t he absence
of regret or any counteraction, and finall y its reward or retribution.
7
'1
In thus considering aClion one t hi ng and its accumulation something
else, Vasubandhu is in accord wi th the Andhakas in their disagree-
ment with th(' Therav:idins,80 who held that si nce the accumulat ion
( uptfctfya) of kamma is the automat ic concommitanr of action, the
twO must be viewed as but different aspects of one and t he sam('
thing.
78. See KOM. -1.140.
79. Kola. 4. 2-12.
SO. See Kt,/<. 1;.11. Abo see "KJth;I\'mhu KanUlla D<,bJt es" (n. 9
abo,c), p . .00.
P.
There arc three qualities which are conceived as especiall y con-
tributing to the accumulation of meri t. These are (I) dana - liberal-
ity or (2) bh:lva na -contcmplalion, meditati on;
(3 ) silll- moral practice. tlZ
Merit can be built up and accumulated. But is it possible to transfer
merit from one account to another, as it were? Taken as a whole the
Tipi(akll is not futly consistent on this point. On the one hand,
throughout much of the Pali canon there is a strong emphasis on the
personal nature of kllmmll. Onc'skmnlllil is said to be hi s own . Each
being mUSt be an island untO himself, working out his own salva-
tion. tlJ No sponsor (p.1!ibboga) - whether Brahmin or recluse, whet her
Brahma or Mara-can protect a man against t he fruit of his evil
deeds.
84
Meritorious action well laid up is a treasure "not sha red with
others ."tls On the other hand, a doctrine of transfer of merit - ap-
parently a popular development traceable to the Brahmanic srad-
dhl/ rit es-finds expression ill several places in the canon.S<i In the
Pet{/'1,,(ItfI)JI, for example, a common theme is that of the benefactor
who gives a gift to the samgha and declares the act of charity to be a
petil 'S. Through being ascribed to the peril, the act of giving becomes
his in aClual ity; and, in this way, thepeM acquires meri, from t he gift.
I n ,\ similar vein, dlC :Halulparillibballu Sutttl cxhorts :
In what c,"er place the wisc man shall mJke his home,
Thrnce having fed the virtuous, self-controlled Brahm:i-farcrs ,
Whatever d(''/ultas may be th<'r<', ret him declare the gift theirs.
Honored. they honor him; revered, they revere
Another example of mcrit transference can be seen at A 4.63 ff , where
Naryda's mother dines an order of monks in the name of the deva
81. Thi s panic ... larly Teft-rs to almsgi"ing.
82. Thes<, are listed at 11. ;1; D 3. 218 ; and II 4. HL
83. S 3.42: etc.
84. A 1.172.
85. " Kh ... ddaka [>:l1h3'" ("h.) 8.9. Edit ed by R. C. Childers info ...... al of (he Royal
Asialic Societ),. N.s.4 (1 870): 309- 339.
86. On l r.mSr,,r of merit in the Tlpqak . , see I'. L. l,X'oodwu d, " The
Buddhist Doctrine of Reversible Merit." The B,,'[dhill (London), vol. 6
( 1914), pp. 38-50. The connection wilh iraddh" rites is spelled out in B. C. La'v, The
Buddhist Crmuptiol1 of 5pm'/f (London: Luz.3c, 1936).
87. D 1.88. With slighl vari at ions insignificall! for th,' qucslion 3t h3nd, these same
lines appear UrI" na (Ud.) 89 and Vi". 1.229. I. B. Horner renders these lines quite
differently in her translation of Vi". 1.229. The ",ucial to line),
text of which "'I:llauha !:' sam adise:' My
KARMA AND RIIIRTH IN EARLY BUDDH!SM
'9 '
Maharaja Vessaval')a, declaring: "Whatever merit (pll ri,ia) is in this
gift, Reverend Sir, let it be beneficial for the well - being of the great
king Vessa\'al)a ." Scattered expressions of such a doctrine are also to
be found in theJiiraka5. Thus in tfle Macchudd,illa Jiitaka we read tha!
as the Bodhisatta and his brother waited on the banks of the Ganges
fo r a boat, they ate a meal. " T he Bodbisa tta, baving thrown the
left-over food to the fish, gave t he river spirit the profit (patti)."88
Twice in the course of the Jiitaka it is stated that the river spirit
immediately benefited from the Bodhi satta's gift to the fish.
In light of the apparent conflict of opinion in the texts concerning
the possibility of merit transference, it is wort h noting that the
Siidhina jlllilka seems to provide evidence that acceptance of the
pract ice of merit transference within Theravicia at times came
grudgingly.8'1
Other means for aiding the departed cont inued to be denied. No
more than praye rs can raise a rock sunk in llle waler can they speed a
man heavenward who has sunk to a lower stat e of existence because
of his own evil actions . '1(1 Prayers for the dead will nOt alter the effects
of thei r kamma. Nor can OIlC aiter his own lot by prayers, sacrifices,
or rituals of other SOrts.'JI A man becomes cleansed only once he has
abandoned the various ways of e\' il action. Purificatory rites arc of no
avail. Thus when PUl)l')ika encounters a Brahmin performing ritual
ablu t ions in t he middle of wintcr, she asks him what fears lead him
thus to endure the cold waters. H e answers :
"Knowing the answer, honorable Puqqika, you ask
One who doing a good deed (bm'lla), is restraining bad kamma. (238)
Whether old or young, Ill' who performs a bad deed (kamma)
[s freed from bad kamnl<l by a water-ablution." (239)
of Ih," passage as a n: fcfence 10 t ransfe r of meril is by the
commenury to Ud. 89, which adifr with politi,,] d<ldl'))'a, or
merit. " For a fuJler discussion of Ihe issues and see McDermon,
Drvelopml"l1lf ( n. 75 above), pp. 83-84, and especiallr p. 88, nOtc 1.
ss . l' ausboll , J", ... I..r n O. SS, ' 01.1. p. 42 3.
89. See James P. lI-1cDermon. J'11..ka: A Case Againsl Trander of
(1974): 385- 387. For a .:onfl icting interpretation. see Heinz !lcch-
crt, Buddha-reld und Verdienstijbcrlr:lgung: Mahayina. ldet:"n im
!luddhismus Ccylons,' AC.1. demie Roy"le de Belgique Bullcrin de I;. C1MJe des
Lettres et de5 SOenCl' 5 Morales ('/ 1'01Iliql<<'5, 51h series" ' 01. 61 (1976) , pp. 42- 43.
90. S 4. 311 f.
91. TIIC (hupa cuI! is an exception to the g,"nrn] rule.
, "
J AI'. ! ES r
To this she responds:
"Who in ignurance told you, who did not know, that
One is certainl y fr eed from bad kamma by a water-:tblution? (240)
Is it then Ih:u all frogs, tOrtoises, snakes, crocodil es,
And whatever else passes through water shall go 10 helven? (24 1)
BUl chas of sherp, bu\thcrs of swine, fisnermcn, deer hunters,
Thieves, execut ioners, and whatever others do had decds-
Even they are freed from bad kil l/mill by a water-ablut ion? (242)
If these streams could carry away evil formerly done by you,
They also could carry away you r merit. By t his means you would
become an outsider. (243)
Th.at af raid of which, 0 Brahmin, you always descend 10 water-
That do not do. Do not let the cold destroy your skin." (244 )9l
The effectiveness of Vedic sacrifice is al so dcnied. Thus, when
Gotama learns of King Pasenadi 's preparations for a great animal
sacrifice, he decl ares that such rites do not bring results. Animal
sacrifices are rej ected as harmful. Offerings where no goats and sheep
arc sl ain are alone acceptable. ;l3 Such offerings arc to be in the form of
gifts to the deserving, for they bea r great fruit.
The Buddha also rejected selfmortifi cation as a means to acquiring
good kamm(l, and as a way to Nibbiwa. In his own quest for
lightenment, he came to realize that austerities can be more of a
hindrance than an aid. [n t hei r stead he came to favor a middle path
between and the life de voted to sensual pleasures.
For all the attention given to kmnma in carl y Buddhi st thought ,
the way to Nibbiina, thc ult imate goal, remained - as ordinarily
conceived-precisely the cessati on of kamma (kammanirodha).
In concl usion, it remains to suggcs t that both the varicty of early
Buddhist interpretations of the karmi c mechanism and the rebirth
process, as well as whatever is distinctive in these interpretations, can
be seen ultimatel y to d(Tive fr om the Buddha' s denial of a permanent
personal enti ty (a uii /iwn(/u).
9Z. Tbrrrgatba 238 - 2H. Similarly, at /II 1.39 himsel f dcnies the useful
ness of ritual for wash in!; away wicked deeds.
93. S 1.76.
94. Kb. 8 and Mi111 . HI are exceptional in viewing Nibbana as a possible r<:ward for
bmma. James P. McDermon, "Nibbana as a Rl'wnd for KanHna, " JAOS 93
(t97J) : H4-H7.
8
The Medical Soteriology
of Karma in the Buddhist
Tantric Tradition
WILLIAM STABLEIN
Introduction and Sources
South Asian ceremony and meditative disciplines arc conditioned by
a dogma of soteriology based on the idea of karma and rebirth which
accommodates all possibilities for living yet dying human beings. The
meaning conveyed by the hierarchy of interdi sciplinary textual mate-
rial dictates the ceremonial face and inner logic of Vajrayana (i.e. ,
Tantric) Buddhism to such a large extent that it is impossi ble to
overlook its interlocking semantic structures. Karma cannot be un-
derstood merely by locat ing all the occurrences of the word karma
(or las, in Tibetan) in a particular text. Since karma is the complex
from which the devotee desires to he liberated, either through
niques of salvation or techniques of healing. it is reasonable to assume
that the medical and salvinc traditions contain structures that will
provide some meaningful assumptions about karma.
From a superficial point of view, the interdisciplinary nature of this
essay is based on the seeming disparity between the genres of source
texts chosen for this study. I The most popular medical classic still
1. See Robert B. Ehall, "Correlation of Contradictiom: A Tibetan Semanti c De-
"ice," in Anthropology (Thl' Hague: l\-\outon, 1977).
'93
' 94
WILLl A:\-1 STA III. EI N
studi ed and practiccd :t1110 n g Tibctan-speaking peoples is the
seventeent h-century co mmemary on The Four Ta IHYtH, called the
BIII(, Ltlpis Lazuli , which has an embryological mode! of karma
common to the sacramcmari cs and the mcdi tati onal texts of Tamri c
Buddhi sm. Since the L lpis Lazuli is a standard medi cal trealise, it is
int eresting to fi nd similar ideas and Ilnguisti c St ructures in o ther
genres of literature, such as texIS in the Tanlri c sect ion of the Ti betan
Buddhist c:t non. The and Afahiika/a Tantms are
particularly useful for the topic of ka rma and rebirth , and the six-
teenth c113pter of the Tantra reit erates and inter-
prets the dependent ori gination process whi ch has bearing on the
structure of karma.
Some of the Tantras form quasi- medi cal traditions of their own
with a number of heali ng formulas that bear a struct ural resembl ance
to similar phrases in the Lapis Lazuli. Among the priestl y cllSS of
Buddhist Newa rs in Kathmandu Vall e)" Nepal, the deity Cal.H.i a-
presides over and protects the medici nal arts wi th pres-
t ig(' equal to that of t he Hindu god of medicine, Dhanvantari. The
Tantras, then, const itut e a synthesis of the healing a rt S as found in the
Lapis LtlZldi and the various t radi tions of m('d ir,lIi onal and devotional
practi ces. O ur meditat iona! source, chosen for its succinctness . be-
longs to the set of Mahakiil a practi ces attributed to the Brgy ud
2. fj'li.Jl< r. mgon. po: Bei"g Ihe u xt of Gso.ba.rig,p"hi.lm"n ,bcos.snW.lI, bl"I,I,-
dgongs. rg)'>l ll , rg)'u d. b.,))11/. g5lll. bal. d" r. m gon . pol, i. "''' .Ili};:" ' .. SJe. >Til!. MugS. -
rg)'M.rgyd .mI5ho'l d,.Miled s),lIthet ic tr,.>ll is/' on Ihi' Rgy ud.bzIJi, thl' j "nd" men/" I
exposilion oj Tib('l ,m Ayuro .. dic Me dicinl' , from a prim of !he 18118- 1892
blocks preserved in til., Lh'l.sa. !cags.po .ri.rig,byed,hgro .phan,gli ng , Leh, Ladhak:
S. W. Tas higangpa, 1973. Thi s is a PL 480 acq ui siti on; I-Tib. 73-904162. Further
references will u.\c , ll( abbreviat ion 8ai ,!1I!; 0f/ , S,'" also Rinpoch. Jampal
KUnZJll!; , Tibetan Medicine (Berkeley: Universit y of California Press, 1973); Wil-
li am Slablein, "Te:<t ual Criticism and Tib<,tan in The Tibet Socicty Bulle-
li'l; Willi am Stablein, " TanIric Jnd Rit ual Bless ings," in Tbr Til,el j ournal:
An i>Hr m<lliontll Pllb!iC>l IlOIl for the Sw dy of Tibt' l, published by the Library of
Tibelan Works & Special Issue, "Tibel : A Living Tradilion," vol. I. nos.
'; - 4 (Au tumn 1976), pp. 55- 69, WiIli'lm Stablcin, " The Mahilkil la Tamra : A Theory
of Kitual Blessings and Tantri" Medicin!' ," Ph.D. di sserta1ion. Columbi a Uni versi ty,
1971,; Cp.(ulam"bii ,01""a Tall/r.1 (Tibl'un: dpd, dl /j ill .po. k hro. bQ ... hetl , poll i. rgyud. ),
the Tib"tan Tripiuka in the collecti on in the Harvard Uni"crsity Lhasa
l-oit ion of th( Bka/!.I!gvl.r as C m\ia) Rgyud, senion nga, folio 43 I. For
an edition and trmsbti on of the fi rst eight chapters, see Chri stopher George, The
C"' II(j.amdh,irofa(M A Crit i .. .J! Edifi(lu "' li d English Tr,ws/alion, Ch"'pU' rs
I -VIlI, American Orient al Series, vol. 56, New Haven, Sl'<' also Loui s de]a
Vall ee roussin , "The Buddhist Wheel of Li fe from a Nl'W Source, " joum", { uf the
Roy",/ ASI,lI;c Sucil'ty oj G ,,,,1 fhit",!" II "d " d ", m/ (N <.' w Seri es), 1897, pp. 463 - 4 70.
;"I EDI CA L OF f'AR;,,'I ,\ I N IIUDDHISTTANTRA 195
pa lineage.] The passages quoted from the meditational text arc all
from the third and last part of the book, dealing with perfection or
way of completion, which has structural similarities to the Tibetan
Book of the Dead. 4 Indeed, the Book of the Dead maintains that one's
success in attaining liberation after death depends on previous prac-
tice nO! only in dcvotional observances but in the specific ways of
generation (bskyed. rim) and perfection (n/zogs. rim).
One aim of Ihis essay is 10 restrict the di scussion of karma to its
tlow through the continuum of the afterdeath state into the tlesh and
blood of an earthl y being; hence our sources are limited to those
which arc basic 10 an understanding of thi s process, such as the
Zab.mo.nang .gi.doll , by Rang.byung.rdo. rje. This text is concerned
primarily with the inner body referred to as the three channel s
(ma.gSllm), which the Mahiikiila Tantra calls the Vajra body
(rdo. rje. /lI s) . 5 This inner structure, which is important for the Tantric
explanation of rebirth as well as sa lvat ion, has parallels in Hindu
Tantra and yoga and offers a fully developed model of the inner body,
which can be detected at various stages of sophist ication in the myths
and medical theories of most cultures,6 Any di scussion of the three
channels or the channel-wind-drop structur(' (rlsa.rhmg.thig.le) is
necessarily both Tamric and medical. Hence the Book of (Iu, Dead
assumes this structure as operative for the aftcrdeath being or "in-
berween-st;lt('-bcing" (bm.dol?i.sons.can), demonstrating its affinity
with medica! and meditationa! texts.
). Grub. chen, k ,mNa .pakshiqi. marl. rlK<lg, yi , gr. med.paq!. ftI) all . brgyud, m<l, mgor,.-
z hal, jb)"()r, sg rub. 7'I<ln ,ngag , zh,. bri,. ngag. klmd. )'od .Iqili. la. b,kyed, rim .Ias. '
uhogj .rdzogj .nm,mc/x)d.jgr"b. chll.rsh.mg.fllgso: This il /h( Oral Trtuliljon without
'Ui ordj in 11, ( Higher rxpl"'l<llion of Karma "',kshi; Ihe guiili'lg wm"lf"ltary '(;:ilh
(Hrcaiom f or Ihe conjugal prdC/ice of rbe proreaor ,1/ abakala ,mil l,i5 miJtrcsJ . H ,'rri"
arC II,.. complt'le sacrifiri.ll prMricc< of generalion, "'f5. ,m,} perfeclio". GallglOk:
Sikkim. in th, Ms.: .. lIgon, )
4. Lhundup (edilOr), B<l r.dobi.liJos ,gr()/.bzhugj.;o: The Tibelall Book of Ihe
Dead (Varana5i: E. Kal$.ng. Buddhist temple) . HIlr.do) See also til<'
t\\'o trarl.lJ.tioll s into En):!i sh, fr""ccsca Frenl:l. nll e and Choltpm TruIlItPJ.
trans . Thc Tibt'fa'l Book of the D"<I</: The Crt'al Libl'T<lli()" Tbrou gh H ear/lIg ill I;'.
SIlrdo (Boulder: Shambala. 1975), and W. Y. EI'ans Wentz, The Tibetan Book of Ihe
D.'"d, /I]/" Afler- D.'a/I, [xperien"5 on /hc Bardo Plane, according /0 LAma Kali
D"wa-Samdup' s Ellglish R"m/t"ri"g ( New York: GJb"y, 1%0).
5. Z"b.mo.IJaIJ8.gi.JoIJ.zhes,bya.bahi,gzbung.bz/"'gs: Tb .. Text called fbe Deep
/",,,, r '\/'"lIin8 (Gangtok, Sikkim). (Abbrevi atcd Nang ,doll. ) For the v<ljra -body
and the 5ee Stablein, Mabiik,ila, pp. ISO-\81.
6. Lommrl , Sbam"lIism: TIJe Bcgi",,/tIg .. of Arl ( New York: Hill,
1%7).
\VtL LlA .\t S'['''HU' I N
The Setting, tilt' Problem, and the Terminology
It is not surprising th:n a Tantric ( Vajr<l)'iwlI ) priest may know a
considerable number of medical techniques. or that the heal er may
:lI so function as a priest. The fluidity of the literary struC!ures crr-
tainly reflects the interplay of epistemology and empiri cism that takes
place in the Tantri c rit e itself. The ,\bove texts are all read and prac-
ticed in the Him31ayan regions from Ladhak and Northern India to
the borders of China; and. as "" e can see from the other arti cles in
this volume. they arlO structurally akin to (('xts known throughout
South Asia.
Karma is a very general notion that is applied to all phases of
Buddhist praxis; on the popular and cuhuralleve!s it is all assumption
that rarely takes the form of philosophical disCllS5ion and inquiry.
The onl y Inl jor difference between Buddhists living in either a Ti-
betan- or a Nepalese-speaking community- both of which fall under
the aegis of the Buddhist Tantri c tradition- and the Buddhi sts of
other parts of SOllth Asia is that the former ha\'c a definite and for .
mal ized conception of an :tfte rdea th (or in-between-being) that can be
verifil,d by ca noni cal sources. However. karma is a very specific no-
ti o n in (er!.lin cont exts and defies any simple definition because it
includes the va rious li terary and cul tural contexts menti oned above.
The problem is to simplify th( noti on of b rma at least to the point
where we G ill delineate a karmi c structure - in relief- in the Bud-
dhi st Tantric tradition. In no place in the lit erature;s karma defined in
such a compl ete and intercontextual sense; yet this study will not go
beyond the text s themselves or make comparisons with Western
theories of rebi nh.
OUf approach will be to locate " natural st ructures," that is, struc-
tUfes tilat arc natural 10 the meaning of karma in its most radi cal
iOfmation. For example, :llthough we sh:lll nOI di scuss the bo-
dhisattva doctrine, we may refer to the seed of enli ghtenment as it
is related to the formation of karma. We shall not be concerned with
the Buddhist eight fold path, but we shall di scuss the concepts of
suffering and disease. The body (/1/ 5) and the mOTe philosophical idea
of the person will be to uched upon only in the di scussion of the
beginnings of the body in embryological development and in medita-
tion, where the three channels form a dominant structure. Reference
to dependent o rigi nati on (rteTl.hbrci) will be limited to the
interpretations. The idea of conjugal unio n (khll.sb)' or )
MED!C.'\L SOTER!OLOGY OF KARMA IN BUDDHIST TANTRA 197
provides a model for the purification of karma through the language
of the procre,uive-embryological metaphor. The concept of siillyat{i
(stong.pa.riid) will not be considered except in the context of the
wandering consciousness's attempt to become aware of its own na-
ture and in the liturgical discourse where it forms an opposition with
purity (dag .pa).
One of the controversies in Buddhist circles throughout the cen-
turies has been the significance of the afterdeat h or in- bctwecn-
state-being.
7
In the Tantras, the in-between-state is an imagined state
of wandering, and it is this wandering that dooms one to another
rebirth. Hence the word "wanderer" designates that being whose
body has died and who is battling with the foes in his own karma
in order to reach salvation . The term I?kh)'am means one who wan-
ders with no purpose; the wanderer is beset with karmic error
(/as.J!khrt/l). " Error" is preferable to " illusion," for "error" denotes a
more causal connection wi th rebinh. Indeed, the wanderer is faced
not with an ill usion in the sense that it is simply not what he thinks it
is, but with a force that, like a mirage, is something else, a con-
tingency of siin),ata that is brought about through a lack of aware-
ness. Any differentiation between the in-between-state and the
wanderer itself is purely semantic. It is somewhat misleading 10 say
that karma moves from one place to anot her. transforms or
stands still, but on the popular and cultural level these are cer-
tainly the prevailing ways of viewing the subject of birth, rebirth,
and death.
Methodology of Oppositions: Suffering-Salvation
Karma implies a rad ical opposition between good (bzang) and evil
(rl gall) and all of their metaphors. such as clear light and dull light ,
vi rtue and non-virtue, awareness and fear. Karma and rebirth merit
little altcmion outside the domain of soteriology; it is no accident that
the Tibetan Book a/the Dead, ostensibly a book about salvat ion (i.e.,
the certain attainment of complete and perfect Buddhahood), pro-
vides us with a panorama of descripti ons of karma and rebirth .
An awareness of karma could not exist without a lucidity of con-
7. For a re"iew of the argumentS between those who adhere to the theory of inter-
medi ate state and those who do not , see Alex Wayman, "The Int ennediau: State
Di spul e in Buddhism," in Buddhist St udies il/ H OII OI" of I. B. Homer, l. Cousins,
A. Kunst. and K. K. Norman, cds. (Dordrecht. Holland: D. Reidel, 1974), pp.
227-239.
\VI LLlA .\1 STARL EIN
sciousness, which is expressed in the first intermediate state by the
phrase " disclosi ng the face of the clear light in the moment-of-de:nh-
intermedi:lte-slale," Sinc(' the intermediate state is characteri z.ed by
both the thought-body and the body-of-sensati on, lucidity encom-
both. The carnal body, the body of flesh (sha.fll s), despite its
dualistic Co ntrast with the thought- body (yid./lIs), is interlocked in
polarity with the thought-body through karmi c impressions
(bag.c/)ags). Hence we have the term bag.chags. yid.kyi./zls, " body of
thought impression." The opposition "bod y-mind" is then. not a pl us
and minus but a n:ltural StruCt ure projected to assist the listener or
reader in understa nding the problem at hand, which is man's suffer-
ing and liberation. Since the term " body" occurs in correlations con-
cerning the carnal as well as the mental , the key terminology for
carnality is the word flesh (sha), not body (hiS). This is also true for
blood (kbmg) and semen (kbll.ba) used in explanations of procreati\' e
embryoni c development and disease eti ology. " Thought-body"
suggests impressions from previous lives, which are the cOlllmon
denominator between flesh and thought. tn a strict sense, therefore,
1M means not "body" but rather " that whi ch is cont aminated"; :lnd ,
as we shall see b ter, contamination (5k)'01l ) is oper:ni on:t! not in the
body per se but in blood semen even more T:ldicall y in the
five aggregates that define the in- between-being, the wanderer. Con-
tamin:l!ion, whether it be of the humors or of the fi ve poisons, traces
ka rma. wht' n the tt'xtS speak of humors the}' arc rderring to the body
of fl esh, but when the thought- body is discussed the tex ts refer to the
poisons which serve as the main barrier to health, liberat ion, or a
betH'T rebirth. The term dug (poison) is used to describe the cont ami-
nation left in the yogi in his highest contemplati ons. Hence "con-
tamination" (i .e., " fault,' naturally pai rs with " flesh and
blood," and " poisons" with " mind," but each pair is in turn organi-
cally related to tht' other.
The in-berween-st:tt e-being in rhe second of the dying-
moment s-stage is able to see the setting it has come from; the pries t
then says: "Oh nobl e son, now Ih:1I which is defint' d as 'my death'
has :lrrjved .... You yourself have nOI transcended the wandering in
the world."8 And at another moment in the rite, just before rebirth,
the wanderer is told: " Il eca usc you are a thought- body, even though
you hav(' been dessicated and slaughtered, you have /lOt at all died. "Q
S. 8;",.10, p, 15 , 9. 8"r,do, p. 81.
MEDI CAL SOT F.R I O LOGY O F KARMA IN BUDDHIST TA NTRA [99
We might conclude that there is no death in Tibetan Tantri c Bud-
dhism, or that the concept of death is not an absol ute, or that death
and no-death are equally beside the point, especial!y in the li ght of
the cont inuum of rehirth. Our main concern, however, is the in-
between-state-deat h O?chi.khal!i.bar.do). In the second quote, the
term bsad ("s laughter" or "kill") does not mean death (I?chi.ba). If
we take the Book of the Dead's exampl e of death, that is, " t hat
mome nt whe n the consciousness is able to see where it has come
from," we can concl ude that death is the ability of the wanderer to
distinguish a new set of karmic appearances. Altogether there are four
sets; the flesh -kinship set that the wanderer first perceives when he
leaves the Ilesh; the dull lights of rhe si x realms and the karmi c errors;
the world at large; and (if one is reborn) the flesh-kins hip set once
again, now wi th a new appearance. Death implies redeath, but this
redeat h occurs only if the wanderer is not aware of the metaphor
" You are a thought- body." In salvific terms, the opposite of death is
not life but the cll-a r light (I!od.gsal).
Karma takes on val ue from the language express ing the syndrome
of suffering and from salvific express ions. The sening of karma can be
del ineated in the following general way:
I. Flesh body (slndll s) I. Thought body (yid./lI s)
2. Suffering (sdug.bngaf) 2. Awareness (ngo.shes)
J. Contamination (skyon) J. $itnyata (stong.pa.uyid)
4. l mpressions (bag.chags) and 4. Dharma-, sambhoga-, &
Poisons (dug)
5. Dual ity (gliis) S. Non-dual ity (gliis.med)
6. Dull light (bkrag.med) 6. Clear light O!od.gsal)
7. Entering the womb 7. Buddhahood (saTlgs.rgyas)
(mTlg':!. J?jlfg)
If, instead of regarding the above oppositions as phenomena, we
take advantage of the built-in zero degree (i.e., sill/yata and its equiva-
lent s on the right-hand side), we have a pure value system where the
meaning and val ue of karma are decided from both sides of the chart.
Introduction IO the In-Between-States (Book of the Dead)
The texts t hat are consulted or call ed to memory at the ti me of deat h
vary. but the dominant themes and paradigms that indi cate rhe projec-
tion of consciousness and its contingent karma arc presented in the
Book of the Dead and in a text called the Utkramayoga, used in the
STABLE1:"!
Nepalese communi ties. W Both texts offer instructions for raising the
consciousness up from the corporeal self and liberating it or, falling
shon of liberation, directing it to the best possible rebirth. This en-
tails the wandering of lhe consciousn(>ss principle through the in-
between-s tates (btlr.do) until it chooses or fall s into a particular
rebirth.
The term btlr.do has the fundamental sense of those in-between
in the passage of life and consciousness that determine the
individual's future pleasure and pain and redeath-rebirth experiences.
It is a state where consciousness is thrust up and down between onc's
former and ensuing birth by karmic power (itls.dbang). (That is 10
say, the one who is of btlr.do is a see ker of life and is thrust up and
down by karmic power, as Ge. she.chosdag's Tibertl!/ Dirtionay),
defines bar.do.ba. } While we think of karma in the language of fles h
and blood, the Ltlpis Lazuli unequivocally views the corporeal as
cont ingent on karma :
[n the same way, the f.uher's semen, th(' 1110thl.' r's blood with unimpaired
wind, and so on (the humors), :lnd the bar.do consciousness constituting
one' s former devOfions and dependenci es are by karma ... brought into
confluence. 11
" [ n the sam(" way" refers to thc exampl e in which firc is the result of
the proper combination of mal e rubbing wood (i .e. , semen), female
wood that it is rubbed against (i.c., blood), dry timber, and the
energies of man (i.e., the bar. do consciousness). Then, karma is akin
to the compelling of the ene rgies which arc the ultima te cause of rhe
fire_ Even though the bar.do consciousness wanders wi thout any
corporeal state with its body of fles h and blood, it is precisely ,hat
Statl' of wandering that is called the bar.do aggregate (btlr_dol?i.
phung_po). This implies that the wandering being of consciousness
has the qualities of form, pleasure- pain feclings, conception, aggre-
gates, and consciousness; the wandering consciousness has momen-
tarily lost its opportunity for complete and perfect Buddhahood and
is see king a new rebirt h,
Consciousness as detached from rhe fles h and blood may not be
contingent on form, but for the purposes of re-entry into the cor-
poreal world where the semi-deceased maintains his individualized
10. ThC' U llmwltI)'Qgtl ;s the standard procedure for perfonn ing death rite in
society.
11. nlll,sngQJl, fol io 93.
MEDICAL !)OTERIOlOGY 01' K,\KLI-'IA I N IWDDHIST T/\:-.JTRA 20]
karma, the in-benveen-state aggregates are necessa ry. For exampl e,
the Lapis Lazllli, in its general d iscussion of the signs of procreation,
states:
Since the twO organs are united, Ihe semen blJs into the secret flower; and
that which is the blood in the womb is call ed seed. That is to say, the semen
lnd bl ood of the mother and father are said to be the seed. Because of thai, it
is n('cessary 10 understand the method of re-emry for the bar.do
consciousness. ~
And ... si nce Ihe lMr.do aggrega tes have l' volvcd and there is unimpaired
(semen and blood)- as ml,ntioned before-as well as the karmic causes for
maluration (las.kyi.rkY{'lI), the bar.do aggregates wil! enter Ihl' womb.!.l
The Lapis Law/i, then, and pres umabl y the rest of t he Ti-
betan medical traditi on, accept the in- between state of being as :t n
intrinsic part of their Illedicallorc and, as suc h, accept the theory of
karma. H ow they believe it works we shall see in the next few para-
graphs. The philosophical and r itual Tantms assume the bar.do con-
sciousness as necessary for their praxi s.
The Book of tin' Dc(ul Structure
The three main di visions of the in-between state-the moments-of-
death (i!chi.kha), the re- recogni t io n of [he world (chos.tiid), and re-
entry to the wo rld (srid.pa)- are roughly analogous 10 the dependent
originati o n process . The first phase of the mo ments-of-death bar.do
could occur bcfo re the resetting in of nescience, which is the last
opportun ity to atta in complete liberat ion without going through
the ensuing phases . Here liberation is referred to as " the basic-
dear-li ght-t'xperience which is the unborn-venicall y- penetrating-
dharma-body with- no-bar. do ." 14 If [hi s "basic-c lear-light . . . " is not
disclosed to the dying person, he gets a chance at the second br.do
clea r-l ight-experience. This phase is the interim when the wheel turns
to the touch of nescience. The text now mentions for the fi rst t ime the
force of karma (/as. kyi.'l11s.pa). The omi ssion of (his expression in (he
discussion of the basic-clear-light-experience stage that has no bar. do
reflects the theory of liberation as maintained by the earli er Therava-
din texts . When the term bar.do is appl ied to thi s very beginning
phase, death as the Book of the Dead defines it has not yet occurred.
The physiological space of the bar. do has not developed. Hence, at
12. Bai.mgorl , foli o 109. lJ. Bai. s1!go1! , folio 11 0. 14 . Bar.du. pp. (,- 7.
\X'l U . 1A ,\lSTA II LElN
this very point the possibilit y of a rebi rth as explained in Ther:tvadin
texts becomes feasible.
In the in- bctween-state aftcr the three :t nd
one-h:tlf d:l )'s when one has realized the reality of death and is on the
way back to rebirth, th(' re is the appearance of karmic ertors
(Ias .kyi. hkhml.mang). Now the consciousness princi ple, having de-
parted from the body, is abl e to re- recognize its former immediat e
worldly surroundings, such as the wa iling oi relatives and so on . That
is, even though the Book of the Dead di scusses the initial ph:lse of
li beration in terlllS of the latent escape of what mOSt peopl e thi nk of as
the consciousness principle, the descripti on of the fi rst phase, the
basic-clear light-experience, does nO! di sc uss the consciousness prin-
ciple but speaks rather of the inner wind (riling). At this time of the
subliminal dying experience, complete and perfect Buddh:thood m:t y
be directly att ained wi th no contingenci es . In the second phase of the
moments-of-dying, the consc iousness principle departs to the out-
si de, wondering, " Am I dead or not dead?"IS The Book of tbe Dell d
clarifies this phase of reaffirming the departed consciousness not as a
corpore:tl being but as an emotional being pl agued by the vicissitudes
of his own karma. The officiating priest reads: " You arc now a body
of thought impressio ns."!!;
During the period of thi s re- recogni J;ed bar. do, the
deceased, through the medium of the ritual speciali st, wages a battl e
" ... jth karma; he is \Old by the offi ciating priest \0 request to be saved
from t he " path of the dreadful bar.do." t1 Indeed, dread, attachment ,
and desir(' are the dominant forces of karma that constitute the obsta-
cles blocking the path of liberati on. 111 For thl' first six days, the salva-
tion of the wanderl'r depends on hi s awareness of the six lights associ-
at ed wi th the six Buddhas. The lack of awareness of each li ght is
proportionate to the wanderer's desire for the dull light's that emanate
from the six realms of rebi rth. On each day comes a li ght from one of
t he realms of rebirth ; the former Buddha li ghts are called the knowl -
edge lights, and the latter, dull li ghts. This is a dominant polarity
throughout the rite.
Can we make an axi om for the ri te? Can we say that fear of sal va-
ti on and lust for fl eshl y attachment make up the crucial OppOS ItIon
I;. Bar. do, p. 11.
18. Bar.do, p. 18.
16. Bar_do. p. 16. 17. Bar.do, p. 19.
MEDICAL SOTERIOLOGY OF KARM,\ IN BUDDHIST TANTRA 203
for the whole of the rite' s praxis? Not exactly, except in the specific
boundaries where the textual opposition occurs. It has liltle salvific
meaning for one who understood the sign " the basic-clear-light" in
the moments-of-death. In a literal sense, then, the sign is understood
as the sacrament on a theological and mystical plane, but on another
plane it is not undersTOod. In the multidimensional realms of diver-
sified codes, the wanderer's karma functions in terms of a semiotic
system: a language, as we shall sec, unreliable for the ordinary wan-
derer who docs not sec it in terms of radical oppositions. The Book of
the Dead states :
If you are frightened of the pure wisdom lights and attracted to the impure
lights of the six worlds, the body of (one of) the six classes of these worlds
will be acquind; and you will ne\'er be liberated from the great ocean of
swirling suffering. I"
On the seventh day one experiences the polarity, knowlcdge-hold-
ing-divinity- realmlbeast-realm; and then from the eighth through
the fourteenrh day the re-recognition bar.do is called the wrathful
bar. do, for at this time all the wrathful divinities in this rite make
their appearance. On the fourteenth day, moreover, if the conscious-
ness principle has nOI yet been li berated from the peace-
ful deities re-emerge in the form of the black Protector, and the
wrathful deit ies in the form of Yama, king of the dead and of dharma.
Since the re-recognition bar.do constitutes the qualities of the si x
sense bases, it can be said to span the categories on the wheel of life up
through indul gence.
In this phase there is still the opportunity for liberation before
entering a womb. Curiously, the wanderer is endowed with karmic
miraculous power (las. kyi . rdZll.i!phrul. sJmgs) which the Book of tbe
Dead further qualifies by stating that it is nOt at all a miracle of
samtidhi, but is from the power of karma.
lQ
The wanderer at this
point takes on the characteristics of the kind of being he will be in his
next birth. He can see those beings and they can see him: "Even the
complexion of his own body wit! take on the (:olor of the light of
whatever birth (he is destined for)."H
So far, the implication is that the in-between states and their con-
figurations, though having a logic of their own , arc structurally re-
lated to the dependent ori gination process. Since the reflects
19. Bar.do, p. 37. 20. Bar.do, p. 74. 21. Bar. do. p. 88.
Wl t Ut\ ,\ \ STABt EIN
the theory of the Book 0/ the Dead we , shall look briefly at its
. .
InterpretatiOn:
Form is endowed with the four elellll'nt s: th,> whi ch the quality of
heaviness, w:ller which hls the quality of moislUf{>, fire \ ... hi ch has the qualit)'
of heat , and wind whi ch has the qualiti es of movement, lightness, 3nd
Therefore :Ire six of the s.' nse: eye, car,
nose, IOngu(' , body, and mind. They see, and so on, and so there is touth,
form, sound, smel l, taSte, the obiect of touch , and th" realm of the dharma is
completely attained. And because of craving one desin:s happiness; and fwm
that thcre is indulgence. Karml is obllined and a being enters the womb.
Then birth causes the appear:lllce of the five aggreg3teS of indulgence, which
are then born from the womb. But when the arising deathlike thoughts and
their objects are suppressed. consideration of old age and death are without
suffering and angui sh. Yet, if (aft er the conscious principle is) released it
laments, thinki ng, "[ will not fi nd the prop(>r birth beca use of the obstacles
of disease and so on," he will suffer. Then , beclUse of fettering the mind over
and over again there will be discontent. Indeed, hc who is di scont ent and
creates obstacles is anguished. n
The Hook 0/ the Dead ca n then be viewed as a partly subliminal
infrastructural dependent origination cycle that is repeated in t he
dying and after-death moments . It is infrastruetural because it ex-
tends the meaning of the original nltural structure as represented by
the original formula. Indeed, the possibility of salvation is inherent in
the very formation of the sign, where the primary metaphors arc
based on the vicissitudes of emoti o ns, procreation, and death, The
goal of the praxis is to undtrstand this formation, and any metaphor
is permissible as long as it promulgates an understanding, for it is the
"knowledge being itse lf" that accommodates the sign. Karma is ob-
tained after indulgence, whi ch in the Book 0/ the Dead designates the
wanderer's entrance into the womb and in the Lapis Llzl"i designates
the proper psycho- physical conditi ons for birth .
The Karmi c Cycl e and Sign
In the last bar. do, the re-entry to birth phase when one cannot see his
own reflection in a mirror, there occ urs the expression:
" Pro long ass iduous ly th e emanations of good k ar ma
(bzang.po.!as) . .. . Cultivate the priest as fat her and mother and
22 . foli os Sec al so the Sanskrit t('Xt. Buddhist Wht'f/. pp.
There are cerlai n di screpJncies the Tibel3n Jnd Sanskrit texts.
II!EDICAL SOTERIOI.OGY OF KAR.\1A IN BUDDHIST TANTRA 205
abandon iealousy."D Jealousy and the other contaminations appear as
the primary expressions of bad karma (las.ngan). They stand consis-
tently in relation to wande ring. The Book 0/ the Dead states in the
re- recognition phase: HALls! Through the force of the five poisons,
thi s is the ti me of wandering in As we shall see shortly,
the five poisons are a dominant set of emotions in the process of
complcti on yoga. In the Book a/the Dead, in a similar structure, they
arise in the first six days of the re-recognition phase. From a
psychological and religious (and maybe ethical) point of view, this is
probably the most important structure of karma for the focu s of our

attention.
In the second phase of the first bar. do, the dying stage, karma acts
on the "wind princi ple" in such a way as to direct it through the inner
nerve system and out one of the orifices of the body. This is impor-
tant, for the lower the wind descends, the more bad karma it bears in
the future. The Book of the Dead docs nOt explain this in detail but
simply states:
After the good and bad karma moves the wind into one or the other right
and h.f! channel, it win corne out from one or the other apertures: and then
there win be the entering on the path of clear knowlcdgc.
H
As the passage suggests and as the Book of the Dead briefl y relates in
earlier passages, the movement of the wind is a concern which entails
the knowledge of speciali zed techniques. Idea!!y, as in the Utpalli-
kramayogil of the Nepalese, the wind is to be directed through a SpOt
(mascakll) in the top of the head. Thi s technique with its concommit-
am system of channels has a salvific as wel l as a medical value; if the
technique is sucCI: ssfu! at this dying moment, as the Book of the Dead
states,
karma is without it s bridling power. For example, it is like the light of the
sun that dispels the darkness. The clear light of the path defeats the power of
darkness and there is liberation'!'"
\'Vhcn lib('r:Hion is nOt imminent and the signs have nOt been under-
stood, the wanderer, in fleeing from them, cannot distinguish be-
tween happiness and misery. The signs, that is, the karmic errors,
13. Bllr.do. p. 38.
24. Bar.do, p. 38.
25. Har.do, p. 11. For a more detailed s)'Stt'm t' xplaining the channel s, see
Nall.doll.,folio 5.
26. Ba . do, p. D.
206 WILLI .. \).1 STAII LEl'"
seem to take on a life of their own and to function in the thought of
the wanderer as a kind of tri ckster. In thi s drama of will and fate, the
wanderer may still be released and is urged by the priesl 10 fasten
himself 10 Ihe flow of good karma.
17
But what is the good karma? Or, to put it in a more precise way,
where does karma receive the value "good"? The Book of /be Dead is
explicit in stating how the wanderer should fasten himself to the flow
of good karma. At the time it is tempted by the copulating parents
it is offered five methods by which it will not enter the womb. These
methods define not onl y the way to link up with good karma but, as
such, define good karma. That is to say, in the first method the
emphas is is placed on perseverance; in the second it should cultivate
the copulating male and female as one' s guru in the male and femate
aspects without entering between and it should perform
prostrations and make offerings with the mind. In the third method,
although perseverance is again mentioned, the emphasis is on the
llullification of the lusl and haired lhat the wanderer fecl s for the
copulating parems. In the fourth method, if the wanderer is still
unsuccessful in dosing the door to the womb, it is to regard all
substance as fal se and umrue.
2
" For the fifth method- the other four
failing - the wanJerer .s houlJ cultivate thc thought that "all thi s is the
manifestation o f its own mind and that the mind it self is like maya-
from the beginning, nothing."JO
The sign, then, indudes the appearance of devotional exercises and
any indication of perseverance or of an altitude that regards all sub-
stances as false . Theoretically, every Buddhist rit e is a karma sign-
structure with sah-ific possibili ties . For example, in the Mahakala rite,
ambrosia is realized through a series of signs :
From the own nat ure of sli 'lytUa is a three-cornered cauldron from the
(syllable) ml; th(' rc is a jewellcd skull ,cssel from thc (syllabic) (\ and from
til<.' (sl' lbbk\) ymll . rlllh./tlllI .kh<1lIl .,lIil (issues) bile , bloo<L brain marrow,
fles h and bone th.lt the fj,e r oisons. Then, on lOp. contemplarc the
three' s,cd (OIi1 .,il,.hiim); and after cIcryt hing melt S there evoln's
ambrosia . ."
The above quote is a short I'ersion of a common paradigm that
reocc urs in the Maha kala rit e. Since the goal of the rit e is to rece ive
17. Bar.i/o, p. ';I!.
}o. 8I1r.do. p. 96.
28. Bar.i/o, p. 91. 19. 8",. do, p. 9; .
} I. Stable;n, M'lhiik"la Tamfa. p. 51.
;o.I EI) I CAL SOTERI Ol OGY OF 1\AfC\IA IN BUDDHI ST TANTK.A 107
the powers of body, speech, and mind, 32 we have focused, albcit
bridly, on l he key sign-struCturc of karma; put in the form of a series :
mind aggregates = hatred, lust , and mental confusion = Silt/yara (i.e.,
all substancc is false) = syllabl es (mi, II, etc. ) = images (cauldron,
etc. ) = syllables (yam, etc. ) = bile, blood, etc. = the five poisons ""
otil.iiJr blim (Buddha's body, speech, and mind) = melting (peak
moment of transsignifying) = ambrosia (amr1a ) = body-, spcech- ,
and mind- po wlr (kayasiddhi, ('!C.) .
Returning now to the Book of {he Dead, if we ass ume that t he
wanderer fail s in the five met hods of closing thc womb door, he will
choose o r bcd ri\'en to rebi rth; at this point, we must turn to thc Lapis
Lawli in order ro complete the pi cture.
The wanderer receives a value of indul gencc fr om the sign of the
copulating parents who in turn are grasping beca use of the fund:unen-
tally identic:!.l brm:!. . The nature of the valul' is t he extension of fl esh.
The Lapis Lawli says:
After the wandering bar. do consciousness is set in motion by thl' winds of
karma ""i th whatever merit or demeri t it may have, and, also, by nescience
and the rema ining obscurities, a basis is formed in the copulating pannts.
When the five d ement s with the semen, blood, and thought accumulat e
together and arc sui tablr aggregated, it is the cause of the format ion of the
child in the womb.
J J
In the case of serious impairments of the semen, blood, and t hought
which cause sterility, the Lapis Lazuli quotes the commentary on t he
which recommends curi ng ceremonies to
puri fy each of the impairments .
3
.! Presumably tlwse ceremonies arc
thought effective, which call s attenti on to the condition that. in ef-
feet , karma ca n be alt ered through t he medium of ritual.
Karma , as we might (' xpect, plays an important rol e in explaining
the inabiliry to reproduce, and , as such, provides us with a theory of
transgcnetics that allows considL"fable scope for ph ilosophical expla-
nat ion. The Lapis Lazuli, this time quot ing the sillm literature, states :
Thai which is is substance arising fmm Ih" assn'salt's of u"pndin-
able meri ts and demeri ts which constitute the senti ent bl'ing who wanders in
the re-entry int ermediat e stJtl'j and it is the cause of acquiring a human
body. If the accumul ating meritorious karma is the same kind as the karma
31. Sable;n, ,Ilah:.k:.ia Tamr .. , pp. 70- 71.
33. Btli.mgon. folio 94.
34 . Btli.mgo>l , 94 and 95.
WILU ,,:'I STAIILEI l\'
of the mot her and fa ther it will enter this womb. But the karma that is nOt
reciprocal m<.'ans that the consciousness will nOt b<.' deposited in th ... par-
en ts'
Karma is seldom termed substance ((IlIg05), but in Ihc effort 10 ex-
plain the reasons for a consciousness nOt entering the womb, the
substantive explanation S{'cms inevitable. In this case, the question
arises: does the wanderer create substJnct' because of its own lack of
awareness and inability to see the :Ipp:Iritions as si/nyara? The ques-
ti on is not :Inswered, for such :In att empt in the dialogue may produce
a more embarrassing questi on concerning the exi stence of self
(almall ), a problem that seems to be taken as a moot poim in the Bud-
dhist TallHic literature.
Evcn though karma does not have the status of a permanent being
of any kind, its value, a \' alue of having miglny power (la5.1iid.
Ilbang.btsall )-l6 cont rol s and direc ts the consciousness
- at least in certain phases- almost bctrays the no-permancnt -
self concept as being a mere heuristic device. This must be the
reason why the texts are careful not to {'onfuse {'onsciO\lsness with
karma, even good karma, so that it is not only non-self that becomes
a heurism but, al so, karma . The above passage could be evidence that
karma is a metaphor for genetics. Indeed, what we are confronted
with in our study of ka rma is a geneti c concept of the aggregates, or
defiled impressions. The Lapis Laz uli quotes the Garland of Vajra
Tantw in the foll owing way:
The cause is the bar. do consciousness , th e mi nd of defi led impressions. Seen
as anotht' r form, it is [i ke an expanding bubble. J1 The mean ing is not known
for certain , but th e wind concreti zes Ihe obscuriti es ;nlO a unit y. After the
storehouse-consciousness is drawn, thr impressions are conducted to rmer
the womb. Then the impressions themselves control tht' consciousness and
the blood-semen drops become mixed tOgether with the stOrehouse-
conscio usness . It is iusi li ke one who is intOxi cated with the taste of spi rit s.JR
The structural connecti ons bctween thc Book of the Dead and the
Lapis Ltauli becomc clear in the embryology which encom-
passes the same radical structure of signs that are expressed in terms
35. 8ai. s"gol/, folio 96.
36. 8ai.mgol/, fol io 98.
37. Th ... form -dub is not dear to mc.
38. B.,J. SUgUII, fol ios 109 l nd 110.
.\IEDICAL SOTERI Ol OGY OF KARMA I N BUD1) HI ST H NTRA 209
of oppositions. The Llipis Lall/Ii, drawing upon the siitr<l literature ,
states:
After the consciousness aggregatcs come to the womb. there first of all arise
two kinds of mental opposi ti ons.J
9
What arc the two? If at the time of
copulati on the wandert'r is 10 be born as a mJle, lust wi!! be generated for the
moth"r and hatred for the father . . .. If the wanderer is to be a f<'male, lust
is generated for the father and hatred for the mothnY
That the medical tradition deems the poisons, hatred and Just, 10 be
the ultimate cause of disease (as seconda ry growths of ignorance)
confirms our position that not only is there a common structure to
both Tibetan medicine and Buddhist Tantra but that their underl ying
concepti on of mental opposi tions is a natural structure of karma: that
is to say, karma takes its value from the concept of ment al opposi-
tions, which hence constitute a transgenetic unit of the bllr.do con-
sciousness . TIH'sl' texts makl' transgcnetic sense out of the binh-
rebirth process .
\'{Ihen we come to the actua l mom em of conception, for example,
we read:
It is like the light rays of tht' sun that burn wood and grass through the
power of a magnifying crystal. The wood does not appear to touch the
magnifying cT}'stal ; and further, e\'("n though thl' magnifying crystal docs nOt
appear to touch the wood, it burns. In tht' same way, the consciousness
enters the insi de of the womb, Jnd so it is said that it enters from invisible
doors. Because the sentient being entering the womb is invi si ble it is con-
sidered nOt to be a foundation .... Thi s is said to be simil ar to t he place in
the womb of sent ient beings. For "xample, fire is connected with the light
rays of the sun and meets with the jewd called magniFying crysl3l: even
though the light may be obscured, it spreads to the woud through the place
of the crystaL Reaching that (wood), the penetrat ion is invisible. In the same
way, el'en though the being of the re-emry consc iousness is in\-i sible , it
reaches the placc of the womb. h entcrs that place.
41
Kanm. is given the status of bringing t oget her the first channel s (or
nerves) aft er the being of the re-emfy consciousness enters the womb:
" The paths of the right and left channels of the semen and t he womb
(ovaries?) arc connected by the power of brma."42 Hence, in Tantric
39. This i. an imponant teTllI in the philosophicallia'nlure designating duality, such
as altract ;\'C- l.Inattracti,e: (""yin. ri./og).
40. Bai.mgo1l, folio 110.
~ 1 B"i ,$>J8,m, fol io 112.
42. Bai.mg<m, folio 119.
\VI LLIAM STAllLEt N
meditation when it is said that the right and left channel s must fuse
into the middle channel it is tantamount to a purifi cat ion o f t he power
of karma. The signs, the right and left channels, take their value from
karma, but with the understanding that karma takes its value from the
poisons and that the poisons are slillyala. The expression " power of
k3rm3" (Ias.kyi.dballg) is cmployed in such a way as 10 on a
hy pothet ical embryological structure (i,e" the original channels)
which not onl}' explains the embryo'S e, :lfliest forma t ion but provides
t he Tibetan Buddhist with a path 10 sal vation in hi s very being. The
same phrase is used in the descri ptio n of the embryo'S cominuing
development from the moment of conception:
From the moment when the blood, semen, 3nd thought are nussed tOgether
(i.e. , conception) , through the first momh, by means of the power of karma
1here evolves a life-wind from the storehouse-consciousness. One half of the
life wind becomes thoroughl y mi xed with aU of the elements of the blood
and semen, JUSt like milk when it is chu rned into curds. In dw same way, in
the week, afte r the evolu tion of that which is call ed the completely
amal gamated karmic wind, it becomes a oblong form wh ich is a lit -
tle thi ck. In th(' third week. aft<'r the <'volution of the wind- treasury karma,
the own-nature of t he th ickness cOllles into being like the actual formation
of curd.
43
Karma is vtl lnerable, es peciall y up through the t hird week of the
developing embryo, at which time the sex of the foetus is said to be
subject to change through the process of center-altering. Thi s is a
ritu:l L the detail s of which are not without interest, but not central to
t he point of the present essay,44
Now that we have followed brrna through the bar.do with its
salvific possibi lit ies into the ,'ery flesh and blood, ""I' should be curi-
ous as to how karma or expressions closely contingent on the idea of
ka rma, suc h as the nve poi sons, are used in rebtion to the new array
of signs we have learned from t he embryological process, Wle will sce
further how this sign- structure of karma accornrnod:ltes the ter-
minology ut ili zl'd in t he ritual - medi tati,'e tradition which, in turn,
was partly based on a conception of t he body, thai is, t he
body reduced to the three channels as a basis for a karmic being.
-0. 8(1I.>'Igon. folio 122. H . B.1I. mgo". folio 121.
MED[CAL SOTERIOLOGY OF KAR/o.[A [N BUDDH[ ST TANTRA 1 [[
The Etiology of Corporeal Karma and Salvation as "Great Time"
When the Book 0/ the Dead, the Lapis Law/i, and the elabo-
rate the wa nderer's lust and hatred for its future parents, and espe-
cially when the Book 0/ the Dead describes karm;} as a force that we
may liken to a trickster, clearly, at least for the moment when the
wanderer succumbs to the enticement of the copulating parents, the
cards are stacked against him in favor of the poisons-especiall y
hatred and lust - the karmi c nexus of the flow of suffering and
disease.
The Lapis Lalit!; in the section on physiology formul ates the
syndrome in terminology that enables us to extend further the sign
st ructure of karma into blood and fl esh: the struct ure itself is the
formation of the channels.
The channels , popularly related to cakras, are not only significant
for an understanding of esoteric meditation, but form an important
st ructure in the Tibetan medical tradition. They help our process of
understanding, not so much in the development of the physiological
body, but rather in rhe conception of the emotional body consti t uting
what the Buddhist Tantric traditi on deems the five poisons. As such,
it is not incorrect to think of this as a secondary extension of the
primordial karmic body, that is, the wandering consciousness, or the
aggregates of consciousness .
The basis of these channels is the life channel, which is formed
gradually with the navel and produces the other channe ls (in the fifth
week) , as well as wind and drop (sperm essence).H The channels are
not completely explained but are nonctheless mentioncd as if they
were a necessary step in the formation of the Let us t urn
again to the Lapis Lazuli:
The channel that generales the humors such as phlegm, the cause of [hl'
water principle, is the left one; the one that generates bile and so on, the
cause of [he fire princi ple, is [he right one; and [he ch:lnnel [hat generates
wind and so on, possessing the wind princi pl e, is below the stomach.
4 7
...
Thc brain constitutes d...!usion as ""..!I as phlegm; ddusion is b:l.se{1 on th e
brain. And since, to a very large extent, i[ is observed that depression and
obscurit y ari se fr om the head, and because phlegm is produced from delu+
sian, therefore cause, secondary cause, and resul[ are found in the top part of
[he body. Blood, the cause of the fire principle and relat ed to the ri ght
4S. B"j.mgon, folio 128. 46. 8"j.mgQn, fol ios !ZS and [Z9.
47. Bai.5I!8Q11, folios lSI and 15Z.
III WILLlAM STABLEIN
channel, constitutes hatred and bile; hatred is bds<'d on blood and the black
left channel. Because bile is produced from hatred, it s cause, secondary
cause, and result arc found in the midd le part of the booy. When hatred
suddenly arises, spasms can be observ"d 10 arise in the middle part of the
bod y. Moreover, wind, the cause of the knowl edge principle, guides prop-
erly the body ' s breath. On, extremity of the wind reaching below the navel
caus('S th(' principl e of bli ss and forms the hidden place The
semen, then, constitut es lust and wind: lust is observed to appear in the
hidden places (genitali a) of the moth(' r and father. Since wind arises from
lust, th ... cause. secondary cause, and result are found in t he lower part of the
body.oS
To clarify the structure a little more , and to see karma in the light of
it s salvific dimensions, we s hould recall the three poi sons of the mind
aggregates in lhe dependent origination process and turn again to the
which reitcr:ncs in a slightl y di fferent way t he process of
rebirth. We should keep in mind tha t the following passage is pa n of
the interpretation of the dependent origination process :
After the bar, do being acquires the basis of the si x senses with nescience (and
the remaining links) and sees the three worlds, it al so sees the Ius! traces of
it s (potential) 1I10t her and father. Having b('cn catapult('d by one's karma of
previous birt hs, one will be born ther;.'. thi s is the birth where the
wanderer sees the (erotic) delights of hi s mother and father, he feels thei r
touching. Then, if the wanderer is going to be a he will see his own
form as a baby boy; and hi s mOSt intense lustful thought will arise for hi s
mother as well as a thought possessing great hatred for his father. Through
lust and hatred there will be feelings of bliss as well as suffering. Then,
thinking tlw by joining in Ihi s conjugality he will sh.lTe in the delight - even
thouglt there may be no feelings of part ic ular suffering or bl iss- the W;\n-
derer through hi s forme r lives wil1 return (10 existence). Then,
because of the great thi TSI which catapult s the wanderer by means of the
winds of it s former karma (sngot/,gyi,/as.kyi, rh<'lg), the thought ari sl' s, " I
should make myself happy." Then, having considered that if born a male he
would dt'si re hi s own mOlher, the wanderer' s though t , in the manner of a
shooting Slar, ent ers from the path of the father' s head and establi shes the
semen. Because thl' thought is esublish<'d (in the fathe r's semen), the con-
sci ousness realizes it self yearning for bli ss (for the mother, the Sanskrit text
adds). H('nce the cause of bl iss incorporated (in thi s process). Then, the
lust traces becollle one !:ISle with th(' s,'men by means of great lust. It then
from the fa ther's vaJr,1 (genitalia) by means of the middle channel and
is l'stablished in !l l(' womb-channel through it5 channel of the Vaj m>
principle queen who exists within the opening of the p"r/ma (the woman's
geni talia), in the manner of trickling thought (semen), and then there is
birth . ... If th( wanderer is to be born a girl, the thought -ronsciousness
Baungon, folios I:'J- l :'5. See also Nang ,don., folio 17.
MEJ) I C,\L SOTERI OLOGY OF K AR,\IA I N BUDDHI ST TANTRA 1.1 3
will havt." lust tract."s for the fa ther and hatred for the mOther. The conscious-
ness, dropping into the padilla frolll the way in lhe mother's ht'ad and
coakscing with the father 's semen, establi shes the channel of it s birth and
sees itself in the form of a woman. So it is born according to its former birth
(i.e., karma, but spt."cincally according 10 moment of lust traces for the

The three channel s are a natural structure. They arc a focus whi ch
introduces the psychophys ical function of karma in four dimensions:
embryology, rebinh, death, and salvation. This is the sense im-
mediately grasped by a trained ritual specialist of Vajrayana Bud-
dhism. The channels lend absolute value to karma, and, as such,
denote the salvi fie " perfect (or completed) way" {rdlOgs.rim}, the
advanced stage of Tantric yoga. The best written example of
this structure that I h3ve seen is in an explanatOry text to t he Maha-
kala rite:
In the middle of the five channel complexes there are: in the head, the white
O,il , the nature of confusion; in the neck, the red hrih, the nature of lust ; in
the heart, the blue-bbckish hiiri), the nalure of hatred; in the navel, the
ydlow rll1h , the nature of pride; and in the genitalia region, the green hil1h ,
the nature of envy. These five poisons, the five sacred knowl{'dgt."s (including
the dichotolllY of) knowl edge-ignorance, art." unified without (xception. The
fivc poisons of sentient beings and oneself are raised from everywhere
through tht, flowing light rays (i .e., the sacred knowledge light rays); melt -
ing into the n" e seed syllables, they absorb all the obscurati ons and ddile-
111('1115 When tht." breath is held because it burns down by means of tht."
sacred knowledge, the hillil of the genitalia region will burn. After it burns
upward, having burned the other four seed syllables, the defilements of the
five poisons are cultivated as purt." and the breath is revived and suppressed.
Tht, nature of the hurned seed syllables are: in the head, a white coupling
l"Iob hak:iiJ and consort symboli cal of body. and on the thirty-two petals,
white OakinlS holding choppers and skull bowls; (similarly, couples in neck,
heart, navel, and genitals).5\1
The structural connections between the medical and meditative
traditions suggest a universe of signs and discourse based on the
radi cal concepts of birth. rebirth, death-redeath , and salvation . The
lalter, in turn, reflects a ritual- medita tive tradition beginning (in
Buddhism) with the many accounts of Sakyamuni's meditation on
dependent origination, which is, in essence, repeated in the A
Buddhist attempts to be mindful of an existence based on nescience,
49. Ctmda, folios 409- 41 0. See al so the Sanskrit lext, Buddhist U?h"d, p. 469.
50. Mgon, folios U - 14. (See n. J above. )
"4
W1LLlA .\1 STABLEI N
:Ind he aspires to the suppression of exi stence as leading [Q the sup-
pression of nescience which is tantamount to the suppression of
karma (karmallirodba). We have seen how the more biological as-
pects of exis tence such as blood. semen, and humors are specificall y
interlocked with the dependent-origination process and, further, with
the Mahakala yoga where the poisons are given absolute value as
designated by the deities coupling with their consorts. The sign of
suppression in the yogic context is holding the breath, which creates
the heat that burns the poisons. The process is similar in all of the
Buddhist Tantra meditati on cycl es.
The Mahakala cycle is of particular significance because of its rela-
tion to time: "Only he whose body possesses Great Time is known as
Mahakala." S! A goal of the praxis is to become Great Time through
the yogic process. The suppression of karma in Tamra, t hen , is not
JUSt the suppression of each link of the chain of dependent origination
but the suppression of ordinary meditation by means of the culti va-
tion of the body, speech, and mind of the mythical perfect body-the
Vajra body. The Mahiikiiia Tanlra puts it thi s way:
Even he who propounds nihili sm would be making the karma of nonexis
tence: and existe:nce. When coupling according to one' s capaci ty, cultivate
nlJi having mental configuradon. In the world, there is no (conceived) seed
without method. n
The p rocreative and embryological metaphors for karma are clear.
Tantra removes karma from the possibility of heresy by relegat-
ing it to a structural metaphor which is a means and an end at the
same time.
Conclusion: Pure Womb, Pure Karma
In the Tantras there is no end to the equ ivalencies of the world of
flesh and absolut e value. Yet on the level of prax is these relat ionships
are unstabl e. Even on the level of sentence analysis, such polarities are
not liable to generate systems of meaning reflective of t he intention of
the Tantras. Although we l1;1ve nOt clearly demonstrated that the
Tantrls regard a!l things as a language, without resoning to a mind-
only interpretation of our subject iT is clear enough that the implied
theory of karma in the Tantras rests upon the procreative and em-
bryological metaphorical models. The language forms its own st ruc-
S1. Stablein. M"hak<i [" tanlr .. , p. 109. .'>2. Idem.
MEDICAL SOT[RI OLOGY OF KARMA I N BUDDHIST TANTRA 2J 5
ture with its own transcendent value disclosing a universe, indeed a
womb, of spontaneously appearing substructures according TO the
nature of the practitioner.
Since the value of karma in Tamra is derived from oppositions
inextricably interlocked with the womb and what it representS, not
only in the embryological context but also in the discourse of
mythos, we must present what is at the very heart of Tantra and is, in
some sense, t he most enigmatic of Tantric sentences-the opening
line of numerous Tantric texts. The Mahakala Tamra, for example,
begins with: "Thus I have heard: at one time the Lord was dwelling in
a desireless manner within the genetrix of the Goddess." s3 Thus we
have from the beginning a procreative metaphor that is as poetic and
mythic as it is psychological or religious. For the practitioner who
follows the Tantras it is this womb that is sought; and hence, when he
constructs his rt'gardless of the deities involved, it is the
as the womb which is being projected with all of its genera-
tive possibilities. That this is the space where the Lord lives and
where the sacred dialogue between him and the Goddess is recorded
is also the mind of enlightenment; that is to say, the ma'Jcf.ala is also
the semen. The body is generated as the (and womb-semen)
and is constituted of body, speech, and mind. Hence, another vers ion
of the first chapter of the Mahakala Tantrtl states: "Thus I have
heard: at one time the Lord was dwelling in the tripartite principle
(i.e., body, speech, and mind) of the Goddess."54
The problem of karma, then, is to understand the absolute value by
means of the corporeal sign which is incorporated by the projection
of the divine conjugal couple. The out ward construction and delinea-
tion of the rite makes possible the momentary establishment of a
circumference which enables the practitioner to focus on body,
speech, and mind as pure substance. Ratiocination, breathing, and
the poisons as the accumulations arc released from their dependence,
not into annihilation but into one's where they take
on or begin to take on an absolutt, v:due.
The five Stages of Tantric self_yoga
5S
arc called the pure dwellings,
53. Stablein. M"hiik;.latan/rll, p. 111.
S4. Ibid . p. 107.
55. Thi s is implici t in every Mahikila rite, but in it is used in the
fulfillment Jnd healing ritual performed on the twent y-nint h day of every lunar
month. See William Stablein, "J\hhlk'i[a Nco-Shaman: Master of the Ritual, " in
Spiric Possmjon ii, the Nepal Himala)',,!, John Hitchcock and Rex Johns, eds. (En-
gland: Aris & Phillips, 1975), pp. 361 - 375.
,,6
W I L L l A ~ STAIIL EJN
or foundations; they present quite succ inctly the sOIcriological di -
mension of karma that is, in essence, the womb where the Lord
dwells: a dwelling of pu re semen, pure blood, pure consciousness ,
and the principle source for the projection of absolute value. This is a
metaphorical struct ure of opposit ions that di sclose an underlying hc-
tion which, in turn, has an even deeper layer of science. The nction is
t he convent ional wo rld of ka rma with its edifice of flesh, blood,
semen, consciousness, and complex of emotions . The science is not
only the observations and knowledge of this corporeal edifice but the
manner in which it is incorpoTJ.tcd in the dharmic rit e which enables
t he Tantric Buddhist to experience the edifice as Siinyata, purity, and
t he womb.
9
Karma and
the Problem of Rebirth
in Jainism
PADMANABH S. JAINI
Although nearly every religious or philosophical tradit ion of India
has accepted the ideJ. of karma as valid, a wide divergence exists in the
extent to which various schools have de\,eloped this idea into a coher-
enl system of doctrine. In terms of the level of interest shown in such
devclopmern- a level best measured by the amount of sacred and
scholastic works devoted to it -one tradition, that of the Jainas.
stands clearly apart from all oth('TS. In addition to the large number of
Ktlnlla-gr,lTI liJa texts found among the 5vetambara scriptures, Di g-
ambaras possess some thirty-eight volumes of the
the and thliT commenta ries. I Portions of the Janer
1. FOT a I:omple,<: bibliographr of Ih{' $"{,lambara Karm<l-gr,mrha !i l{,r.llUre, sec
Gbserupp, Th, Dourine of K"mran in Jain Phllosopby (Bombay. pp. xi - xx.
TI.{' i . 10 h{'cn composed hy Bhi ..
(circa .... n 200). It comp ri ses 6,000 aphorisms (!"traJ) in Prakri! and is divided into si x
parIS. The lirst Ii , ... part s have a commentary ,ailed IJIJav"lii by (A_ D 8]6).
which has been edil ed by Hirab! Jai n and publi shed in six!e<'n volumes by the Jai na
S:ihilyoddharaka Fund, Amaravali , 1939- S9. Thl' sixth pMt of Ihe
cail{.J ,II"/'iik,,,dIJa, is bella known by the aitcrnat{' lid{' M<l hildbavalil; it has been
<,diled by I'hoo! Clu.nd .. Sidbhionushtri and publis\'ed in "olumcs by Ihe
Uh;1ntirJ Vidy;;pi1ha (Benare,\ , A s<."cond impOnalll scriplural work b{'-
longing 10 t\'e is the KMii yapriibhrta of GUQ.abhadra (A 0. ca, 100), This
t{,XI, together wilh its commemary jayadlJ<l valii by Vira,ena and hi s disciple
,,'
S. p .1 Nl
afC said to represent the only surviving examples of the ancient Pii rva
texts , which Digambaras suggest may even predate Mahavira himself.
All of these materials deal in great detai l with various problems relat-
ing to karma in its four aspects , namel y. infl ux (asrava), bondage
(bandha), dur:nion (st lliti), and fruilion (anubbaga). 2
Jainas seem to have been preoccupi ed wi th these problems from the
earliest times; nOl only do lh6r own scriptures P,l), a great deal of
att ention to such mattcrs, but certain Buddhist writings in Pali at
tempt to di sc redit Jain3 theori es of karma, indicating that these
theories were even then seen as fun damental to the overall J aina
world-vicw.
J
We arc nO! yet in a position to explain definitively the earlier and
more intense interest in karma shown by Jaina thinkers (and, to a
lesser extent, by those of the Buddhists) relative to their Brahmat.lieal
counterparts. Perhaps the entire concept that a person's situation and
experiences are in fact the results of deeds commi n cd in vari ous li ves
may be nOt of Aryan origin at all, but ratl]('r may hH'c developed as
part of the indigenous Gangeti c traditi oll from which the va rious
Sramat:la movements arose. In any case, as .... c shall see, J aina views
on the process and poss ibilities of rebirth are distincti vely nOll-
Hindu; the so(;ial ramification s o f \hese " iews , mo rco vcr, have bel'!]
profound .
(A, I> ca. 800-870), has edi led by Phool ChandrJ Si ddhaniasaSl ri and p ...
in fiftcen "olumcs by Ill<" Bhar.ltiya Jaina Gramh3mali ()T. ht!mra, 1941-
7S). All of IIH."sl.' work, . ,,hid, of ,' pit I>roponions (comprising
172,000 II iloka = 32 .)'ll ab!.:sJ). have been broughllO lighl
(lnly in the b ot thiny years and han' nOI f ... lly Mudicd in India oUlsid,' a
,.nall circle of Jaina schol ars . Umasv3Ii', T"rt'!:,irlhfHiilril and CQmmCJ) -
u ry S"rvarrl,,,.i""I,, Ih" IW<.) popu!:.r works siudied in Ih,'
Jaina schools . For a Iranslali on of lanrr wo rk. sr<' S. A. Jaill. Rf!.,{II)' (CalcunJ,
1%0).
1. The hct t h.lI Jaill as reg.lrd karma as m.ller;,l (paudgo.lltka), in w mrasl to such
reialj ,dy abslra(1 mn,cpl.' as s.amsk,;f<l of IllI" Brah maniul s.:hools Jnd bi,,, oj Ihl'
Buddhi sts, is too ,,"<'11 known 10 requir e di) clJssion For a lucid of
Ihe comprehensi"e J ,1illa \<' ach i nl; of the karmic process. see N. T al ia. SIIU{,('j III J "",,,
"/,,/moph), 19SI ), pp. 120-260.
3 . . . . ' u!!e ... Nigan.(h7t mam "(ad a,"oeull" "Niga",ho, a,'u$(>.
Natapullo sabbaiifi " sabbadassh'i JpariSeSJll' ii :inadassana.:n pJ.tij' nali'" _ . >0 ," ' am
aha: "' mhi kho \' 0, Nigamh7t, pubb,' pap .. kamma'), kata.)" tam imaya karukaya
dukkarakarikiya nijjirel],a; yam pan' 'lIh .. elar,hi kaye.u sa')1\"lI\a
manasa sJ'!'vuta IJI)' arar; .)] kammassa akaralpm; iIi pUT; .. ):'nd.!]
1.lpasa byamibh,,,"a, nJ\' allam kammanam akarJ'):'. all aVaS5J\"0, apli m
alla' .. 'sa"j kamma kkh3vo. kammakkha,a dukkhdkkha\'o,
kha}"o. ubb,u:n dUkkh.u)l Eli)ii,lIlam' bh"' ;ssal; I; ' . . ,. (M"J-
jllI",,,,,,kin-.' I, p. 93 rrTS)).
KAKMA AND THE PROBLEM OF REBIRTH IN JAI N I SI-.I 21
9
A signifi cant issue in Indian phil osophy concerns the actual size of
the sou!. Virtually all the Vedic dadanas assert that the soul is vibhll,
omnipresent; Ramanuj a's theory of an atomic, dimensionless soul
stands as the only orthodox exception to thi s view. An all-pervasive
soul would of course be free from spatial limitation by the body;
indeed, the very idea of "dimensions" cannot be appl ied to such an
entity at all. Jainas, however, have consistently rejected the vibhll
theory, arguing that since a soul cannot experience Ihe sorrow or
happiness resulting from its karma except in the context of mind,
senses, :lnd body, any existence of the soul outside that context
comes incompatible with the funCti on of the k:trmic mechanism. This
line of thought leads directl y to the basi c Jaina doct rine that a soul is
exactly coterminous wi th the body of its current Slate of bondage
4 Even a fully liberated soul (s iddha), having
compl etely transcended contact with the material rea lm, is said by the
Jainas to retain the shape and size of that body which it occupied at
the time was attained.
s
This laner doctrine is certainl y a rather
unexpected one, si nce. even in Jai na terms, total freedom from kar-
mic bonds eli minated the necessity for any limi tation upon the extent
of the soul. The liberated soul , in other words, could have been seen
as viblJU without in any way contradicting the Jaina position of the
interdependence of soul and body. 6 One can onl}' conclude that the
idea of thi s interdependence so dominated the minds of Jaina thinkers
that they we re somehow rel uctant to dispense with the body
pletely even in the case of mokfa . Hence we have a doctrine in whic h
the emancipated soul, though said to be forever free of fanner
ences, seems to display through its shape a sort of shadowy associa-
tion with the embodied state.
The Hindu doctrine of vibhll, as we have noted above, has some
difficulty in explaining the limitation of a soul 's experiences. That is,
if the soul is in fact at all limes everywhere, how does it come to
i. ['Qr a J 3; "a cr; ' ;q u<: of .h" viLl>u ,heory, SeC :.,t .. s S )ad"..;,/" """,j" cdi , e<l
by J. c. J ain (Bombay, 1970), pp. 67- 7; (hencefort h referred \0 adM).
5. anakaratvan muktanlm it cen na ; atitanamauiarir:i karatvl\. 5arvii r-
thaslddhl. edited by PhooJ Chandra Siddhamasami (Benam, 1971), 9.4 (hencdonh
rd erred to as 55).
6. syan matam, yadi sariranuvadhiyi tad abhavat svabhh-ikalok:iki sapa ri -
minaHal tavad visarpal)am pr:ipnotili. kutah? k:iral)ibhi\"l\. 5S 9. 4.
The Jainas allow the possibil ity of a sou! spr<'ading throughout th<' [okiikiiia (wi thout
abandoning it s body) JUSt prior \0 attaining jiddah-hood. This is called kN;ali-
samudghata: rat punar aspsamayas:idhyakeval isamudghat.ldaiayim arhatinam api
... sarvavyapakal\"am. tal kidacitk3m (SM. p. 75).
220 PADMANABH S. JAIN!
undt'rgo the experience of onl y one individual bei ng :H a time? This
problem is dealt wit h by postul ation of the so-called subtle body
(siikpnl1-stlrirtl ) , an enti ty sa id generall y to be composed of eighteen 7
subtle dements and to provide the link whereby a soul may- and
must - be associat ed wit h a particular "gross" (i.e., manifest) State of
embodimem. The subtle body is, in othe r words, a SOrt of " agem"
fo r the soul; while the latter "stands sti!! ," as it wer(" the subtl e body
inhabit s one life-matri x (human, animal , or what ever) after another,
in eac h case associat ing Ihe soul with the experie nces of that matrix.
Now, since the soul can experience nothing except in this limited way,
il mi ght be asked why the BrahrnaQi ca l thinkers bothered to intro-
duce the noti o n of vibhu in the firs t place; it is an attribute whi ch
cenainly seems to have no practica l effect upon the experiences of
the soul.
The ans wer to this questi on lies in what is perhaps the most funda-
mental poill! of di sagreemell! separating Brahmaoical and Jaina
phi losophies. For the Brahmaryi cal schools, that which is eternal
(e.g .. soul ) cannot change, whereas for the Jainas, aU existcll!s,
whether senti ent (jiVlI ) or insentient (aj/vll ), are eternal (as dravYlI,
"subst ance") and at the same time subject to change (as paryiiya,
"modes") at every momCnt.H Thus it is possibl e fo r a sou! in the Jain;).
system !O move, to exp:tnd or contract into va ri ous sh:tpes, :tnd so
fo rth. How, then, can it be sa id to be etern:tl? Because, the JainJ.s
suggest, every existent (sat ) possesses a quality called aglfndaglJIIl vll
(" undergoing neither g:t in nor loss"), whereby its total number of
sp:tce-points (pradeSlI ) remains unchanged regardless of the area into
whi ch these points must be accommodated . This is described as anal -
ogous to a piece of cloth, the total materi:tl of which is the same
whether it is folded or spread out flat.
l3eJ. ring in mind the Brahmaoi cai :tnd Jaina views on the nature of
the soul, we are now ready to COmpare the actual mechanisms of
rebirth that these traditio ns h:t ve proposed. The most widely :t ccepted
Brahmaoi ca i desc ription of this mechani sm is strongly biological in
tone. We arc told th:tt after severing its connection with the human
7. piir\'otpann3J)1 asaktJJ)l niy.l1.U)1
sd'J1sauti ni rup.lbhogar)l l>hivair ling.1!lIl!
S:inkhyak.1rikii of 40.
8. sat ulpjda\'ya)'ldhrau\'YJ)'uktJJ)l saIl
tadbhj"j\'yayalll nityallli
Tarrvarrh.llI'tr" 5.19- .31
K,\Ril-1A AN[)THE OF REBIRTH IN JA 1N1SM 111
body, the soul dwell s for some twelve days in a transitional ghostly
fo rm (preta). Thereafter, freed from this limbo through ritual offer-
ings (sraddha) by the son of the deceased, it travels upward to the
" realm of the father" (pitr- /oktt ), there to remain for an indetermi nat e
period. Eventually it is brought back to eart h with the r:l in, enters the
food chain through absorpti on by a plant , and finally becomes associ-
ated wit h the seed of a male who has eaten the fruit of that plant . <J The
act of intercourse thus " int roduces" this soul into the womb where its
new body will grow, and the ent ire process begins once more. The
force of karma operates here in det ermining which potent ial fa ther
will cat whi ch plant , thus guaranteeing the soul a set of circumstances

appropnate to It S pnor expenences.
Given their emphasis on the role of the body, we might have ex-
pected the Jai nas to provide an account e\'en more heavily ori ent ed
towards the physiological than the one given above. For some reason,
however, this was not the case. To the contrary, Jaina texts make
absolutely no ment ion whatsoever of how a sou! actually ente rs the
body of the mother- to-be. It is said only that the soul moves into a
new embryo within a single moment (s<lmaya) after the death of the
previous body. to Perhaps this doctrinal assert ion of so brief a period
bdween births precl uded the detailed elaboration of what actually
took place during that period. It is also possible that Ja ina acaryas
may have simply bee n reluctant to includ(' sexual rcfer{'nces in thei r
discussions. \VIe are, however, only speculating here; all that can be
sa id wi th certainty is that the issue of the soul' s physical ent ry into the
womb is simpl y ignored. Indeed, Jainas even seem to hlve been
unaware of the theories put fort h by their rivals; no menti on, much
less any att empt at refutati on, is made wi th regard ei ther to the
BrahmaDical not ions al ready discllssed or to the theory
that the transmi gratOry consciousness (referred to as gamlharva) 1I
9. For detail s, sec PJul The S)'lft'm of the V"da>lla, New York . 1973 . PI"
357-398.
10. ekJsamayi 'vig,nhat (Tattvimhasi.rra 2.29). nOle 29.
1 J. " Iraran;up sthi ni nim sammukhibhdvat kuk sau garbhasyi "akrinti r-
bha"ati. miti kalyi pi bhal'ati. u. 1Il313pi uuu sannipati tau ca. gan-
dhu ... as ca pratyupasthito bhanti" it i. antJrabhal'Jlll hil"i ko' nyo gandhJrnQ ... .
nJi"a cinwabha ... ikal,t hhiwlt pra"i sall" api tu malur .... Ulp
dehm ... iti bha"Jli (lIbbidharmakosabbarya. cd. P. I'ndhan
[I'atna. 1967], 3. 12-15).
As the following qum(." suggests, was no unanimity of opinion amoll g
teachers as lQ the amOUfl! of time spent in gandharti;l SUt.;
tradition of st'''t'n days' "search" for new PUl'fl!S has perhaps b"en mOSI ,,idely
!'AD,\lANA IH-l S. J, ... IN!
enters the vagina at the moment of intercourse and is thus trapped
therein. Their silence here is unfortunate, since critical discussions of
others' views would have forced both the parties criticized and the
Jainas themselves to deve lop their positions in a morc rigorous man-
ner. Even in the absence of such discussions, however, it is by no
means impossible to infer, on doctrinal grounds, the sorts of objec-
ti ons that Jainas would have voiced had they chosen to do so. This
may well prove to be an instruct ive exercise, since it will bring into
focus certain of the beliefs most central to the Ja ina conception of life
in t he universe.
Consider, for example, the Brahmaryical schema in which first rain,
then plants, act as "vehicles" whereby a soul makes its way 10 its
ultimate destinat ion. For the Jainas, the realm of sent ient existence is
far lOa wide and diverse for such .l lhing to be possible; in their view
even the raindrops, nOt to mention plant life, constitute examples of
embodied soul s, In this context it is poss ible for a soul to be reborn as
a "water- body" (ap-kayika) or as a plant (vaml5pati-kayikfl), but not
for these latter entities to function simply as insentient props in the
life of a soul on ils way to a human existence. The general Brahmaryi-
cal explanation of the human rebi rth process, therefore, would in
Jaina entail at least twO intermediate births in extremel y low-
level dest inies (gflti), a suggestion whi ch violates Ja ina rules pertain-
ing to the operation of karma. To see how this is so, let us look in
more detail at the various kinds of dest inies in which the Jainas be-
lieve a soul may find itself.
I n common wi th ot her Indian schools, Jainas affirm the birth-
categories of gods, men, heH- beings, and tiryarkas (" those going
horizontally," e,g" animals). Each of these categories is generally
associated with a part icular verti cally ordered t ier of the three-
dimensional universe; men, fo r example, dwell in Ihe centrally lo-
cat ed madhyaloka, gods above them in the devalokfls, and hell-beings
below in the various infernal regions. (The case of the tiryaricas is
somewhat more complex, as will be seen below. ) The Jainas. how-
ever, have extended Ihis system in t wO ways. On the one hand, they
have postulated a class of emancipated souls, the "liberated ones" or
accepted: kiyarllJl')l kabm nasti niyama iti Bhadlmah ... saptah31Tl
Bhadama Vasumitrab ' .. saptah:i nit y apare ... a)paljl ki bm it i Vaib-
hisika\:r. Ibid. J, 14. For an ':!lample of the belief in a scv.:n-wc.:k period, see The
Tibetan Book Qf lhl.' DNd, by W. Y. Evans- Went z (New York, 1960).
KARMA AND THE PROfiLEM 01' REBIRTH IN JAINISM
12}
siddbas referred to earlier, who are said [Q have gone beyond s(l1':l5lira
altogether and remain forever at the very apex of the universe. 12 On
the other hand, they have broken down the tiryaiica into numerous
carefully defined subcategories. While this latter move may at fi rst
glance seem to be a mere scholast ic exercise, closer examination re-
veals that what we have here is a doctrinall y significant analysis of t he
lower reaches of existence. The addition of this analysis, together
with that of the siddba theory referred to above, t ransforms the stan-
dard "four dest inies" model from a rather simpli stic description of
the range of life into what is, for t he Jainas, a truly comprehensive
statement of the possibilities available to the soul. As we sha!l see,
moreO\'er, there may well be implicit in the Jaina system what can
only be called a theory of evolution. While the Jainas themselves
subscribe to the not ion of a cycl ic, beginni ngless universe and so do
not accept any such theory, their own texts seem to provide justifica-
tion for such an inference. To make this poi m clear, let us consider
more closely the specific manner in which the various tiryal1cas have
been desc ribed.
It should first be noted that "levels of existence," in t he Jaina view,
reflect a scale of "awareness" (/lpayoga) on the pan of the soul ; hence
the liberated soul is omniscient (sllrvajl1a), gods have a wider range of
knowledge than do men , and so on . The same system of ordering
obtains within t he tiryaiica category itself. At the top of this group
stand those animals, such as the lion,l3 which are said to possess fi,"e
sense-facult ies (it/driYIl ), plus a cert ain capacit y fo r reflection
Next are those which have five senses but lack the retlective
capacity (asal1Jjlh). Moving down the list, we are tOld of creatures
with four, three, and two senses, respectively. Finally, and most im-
portant to the present discussion, are the ekeruiriYlls,
beings whose whole awareness is limited 10 the tact ile mode. Whereas
t he higher {irymkas are of a limited number and dwell in the
mad!Jyaloka, ckendriya$ are too numerous to count and may be
found in evt'ry part of the uni verse. They consis t, moreover, of five
distinct types: pr:fhvi-kayika {"earth-bodies"}, lip-kayika ("water-
12 .. Sec Appendix I to this chapter for a di.lgrammatic representation of the Jain ..
universe.
13. It is believed that 5amj/jj animals ar c capable of receiving religious instruction
and also that '\lahasira himsel f was awakt'ned to the spiri tual life while existing as a
lion. Sec GUl).abhadra's UttarapUfa(la, 74.167-220, (Benares, !968).
S, J,\I NI
bodies"),
and vanaspati (" vegetable life"),'4 As ,he names suggest. the first four
of these arc little more than singl e "molecules" of the various
mental elements, each one a rudimentary body for some soul. The
vallaspati are, again, of tWO kinds: those called pratyeka, which have
an entire plant-body " to themselves" (i,e,. one plantlone soul), and
finally. the or nigoda, those \vhich are at so Iowa level
that they do not even possess an individual body, but rather exist as
part of a cluster or " ball" (go/aka) of organisms of the same type.
Souls in such clusters. moreover, must live and die as a group, sup-
posedly attaining rebirth in the same state eighteen times within the
sp:lce of a single human breath. IS Not onl y arc the nigodas "colonial"
(in the sense that this term is appli ed to algae, for example), but the
clusters in which they dwell may in turn occupy the bodies of other,
higher souls, thereby ac hieving an almost parasitic mode of existence.
Nigodl1S are said to be found in virtually every corner of the universe;
only the bodies of gods, hell-beings, and the "e1emem bodies" re-
ferred to above do nOI harbor them. It is furth er believed thaI these
tiny creatures tend to become especially concemrated in the flesh of
human beings and animals as we!! as in certain rOOtS and bulbs. Such
likely " hosts" are therefor(' banned as food for the devout Jaina, since
their consumption would involve the death of an unaccept:lbl y brge
number of souls.
' 6
It may well be asked what sort of deeds (karmas) one mUSI commi t
in order 10 deserve rebirth in a state so deb:lsed as that of the nigodas.
[n the onl y known reference to thi s probleJll we are tOld how Mak-
khali leader of the Ajivi ka sec! , doomed hi s soul to JUSt such a
fate by propounding whal must h:lve been for the Jainas the ultimate
heresy, namely, that knowledge was in no way efficacious in terms of
1 prthi l'yip!ejo\' J. yu\anaspatayal., stha\' ari lJl (Taw,/lj rc baslara 2.! J).
15. siihi ra(lo<layt"(l.l (ligo{bhrira hd"ant i Si mJI.II,I:t 1
1<' pUl,la du\ihii jivi bldarasuhumJ.ui \'i(lnt"y:' 1/
sahara(l amahho sihiral.wni l.upjlJagahalJalll cal
siharalJaji vj!)arp khat:! alII bhal)i yalT\ "
iauhckka mara; iil'o larlha du maTa'.IJI'fI have J!)aJ)1IJ.!.lJrp/
bakkanui jauha ckko bakkamanJlp twha 'nal)1liinalpli
Cm"'''''i'' siirll (jit'l1k:i",/,zI 191-193 (Agas, 1959)
16. The foll owing plant.s arc among thost" forl>idden as food for a J aina: IUmwri{",
ginger, cardamom, garl ic, bamboo, carrOl, radish, beelrOOI, tamarind, banpn,
margosa. For del ail s, st'{' R. Williams, j"ina Yoga (Lolldon, 196J), pp. 110- 116.
KARMA AND THE I'RO BLBI 0 1' REBIRTH IN JAIN1S.\1
the possibility of attaining (Buddhists seem to have been
equally offended by Gosala's views: their texts suggest that not only
must he have gone to hdl, but for such a person there could be no
possibility of enlightenment even in the future .)'8 It is clear, then,
that only some shockingly evil act could send a soul to the nigoda
realm. This idea seems to present no difficulties until we consider one
further - and linle-known-aspect of Jaina doctrine concerning thl'
lIigodas. This states that there are in fact two distinct types of souls in
nigoda: those which h;we at some time been ill higher states but have
fallen back, as Gosala did, and those which never yet been out of
lIigoda existence. The souls in question arc referred to as itara-nigoda
and nit)'a-nigoda respectivel y. Nitytl here had the sense nOt of
" forever" but of "always up to now"; ltam means simply "those
other than" the members of the nit)'tI class. These arc Digambara
terms: those employed by the Svetambaras are very similar in mean-
ing. The lIitya-nigodtl are, for example, called by them avyiivah/lrika,
"nm susceptible of specific designat ion," that is. n:wi ng no individual
forms, while the ltilra-lligoda receive, al ong with all higher beings,
the label of vyavaharikil, "specifiable." Members of tne itara group
art" of course also wi thout bodies, but they have, at some
time, at least emered the system whert'in such bodies are obtained.
Now, what can it mean to say that there arc ct"rtain souls which
have /d'/i.!ays been nigodas? If such were indeed the case, then the
whole notion of placement witnin a given destiny on the basis of
17. See A. N. Upadhye, " DarSJnaSdra of Dn ascna: Crilical text ," in the AlUla/s of
rll,' Bllarrdarlrar Oriental R('uarcb 1m/mae, nos. 198- 206. Also my
article, "The a"d !he Western Schohr," i" S"",bodb, (Prof. A. N. Upadhyc
Volume), L. D. InSlimte of Indology (Ahmedabad. July 1976).
pp. 121-01.
18. nimuggo nimuggo ,'a hOli Ii " . .. hi puna bhaHlo "ughanar!!
nama natthi ti I'adanli. l\lakkhali-gosm.dayo "iya hc.nha nJfakagginarp ye"J ihira
hom iIi. Pligga/'lp;uj,jafl-A 1111"l;:alll" 7.1. Sec my article, "On the SJu!rimika Theory
of Bija," Bllllrri'l of the 5rbool of Oriema! and Afnc.111 Stu/lIes >'01. 22. part 2,
(London, 1\1;9). p. H6. n. 2.
1\1. anhi Jnal)l la jivil jehi!)l Qa pmo usini pariQi mol
nigoda"isa'll III mu,k allti ll
CQmm..rlakira 197.
d"jvidha jivi as'l,,, ,,,.:;,,,,hiri ki s celi. IJl rJ ye nigod:ivaslhlta
"arlante Ie lokqu sanul} ... vyanhi.
rikii I.lcyame. U' ca yady api bhuyo 'pi nigodiv3S1ham upayanti tathapi u: sarp-
vYlnhiriki n a, samvya\'ahin' patitatv:u. re punar anidikilid irabhya nigodins-
thinn upagatJ te (Qu<.u<.J
from the Praliiiip,mii1i/rii in SM, p. 25\1. )
,, 6
--
PAUl>IANA BH S. J AI NI
previous deeds (karmas) would be undermined, since these beings
would clearly have had no prior opportunity to perform any kanni-
cally meaningful acti ons whatsoever. The vcry term avyavaharika,
1l1 0rl'OVoiT, supportS the suggestion that thl' nitya-nigodas arc in some
sense beyond the operation of karma, just as are the slddhas ,,\( the
opposi te ext reme. In fact, this apparent connection bcnveen the high
and low points of existence is by no means accidental. Given that for
J ain:ls t he number of beings in the realm of vyavahara is fin it e (albeit
"uncoutl l3.ble") , the question is rai sed as to how it is that the steady
"depanure" of souls through the attainment of moksa docs not even-
mall y deplete the universe of all s('rHien! The J ainas deal
with thi s problem by means o f the nitya-nigoda. beings are,
unlike those of any other category, said to be infinite (anallliinallla) in
number, and thus to provide an inexhausti ble reservoir of souls; as we
might suspect, the at which members of the nitya-ll ogoda class
le;l\'t' their dismal condition and enter higher states for the first time is
ei ther equal to or greater than that at whi ch human beings in various
parts of the universe anain siadha- hood. (Such all allai nmem is pos-
sible onl y from the human condition . At least one hundred and eight
souls become emancipated in each period of six months and eight

This ma kes a convenient system, but it leaves the J aina position
open to the kind of interpretation referred to earlier, namel y, that
there is in hct a defini te beginning and end to samsiira , and th:1t a
soul's progress frolll the former to the latter seems in many respects
to mirror the vcr)' evolution of consciousness itself. The key point
here is that no reasonable explanat ion has been gi\'en, in karmic
terms, for the situation of the lIitytl-lIigoda. Furt hermore, while the
Jainas have asserted that there exists a class of souls, the abhavya, 2 1
that can never :main they have not suggested an analogous
10. jatt iy:i khalu iha sa'!' \,pnharajlnra. io l
enti a!)ii"JI.lassai rasio tall io tammi!1
iti \' Jcanad 1'a"ant.,'\ Cd 1'at o Ol ukt; !) S<l (ch.lrl ti t:l" 3nlO
patiraks tdtfls .l cchanti. na n I:iVJI " t3_>r a klcit pJr ih:i!) ir nigoda-j,vanant p s-
(5'\/. p. 259).
Cf . nanu krtYa
si ddhq ll satsu . . . (Qum<, d from the Gommala;ii r,1 (ji-:," kii(uia)
(196) in SM, p. J02, )
21. Sec mr a(lidc. " Bha"pt" a and AbhdVyatVJ: A Jaina Donrine of 'Pre-
destination: .. in Bbag,'W:lII Mahin-'Ira and His Tl.' arhmgs (l,SOO Ni,..oI"'Ja A","-
Volume). Bombay, 1977, pp . 95- 111.
KAKlI-lA AND T HE rKOBLEM OF REB IRTH IN JAI N ISM
"7
group whose members never dwelt within the nitya-nigoda realm.
Given t he Jaina admission that some souls begin thei r existence in
thi s rather primordial and undifferentiated state, we may not be
wrong in inferring that such could be the case for aii souls. Adding to
this the fact that every soul is said to exist along a virtual continuum
of consciousness, from the minimal but ineradicable trace of aware-
ness (nitya-udghatita-jnana)22 possessed by the lIigoda to the omni-
science (anamtl-, i.e. , kevalajnana) of the siddha, we have here a
model which is both linear and evolutionary in its conception.
Neither the Jainas' doctrine that souls frequentl y regress to lower
states, nor thei r asserti on that the abhavyas can proceed no higher
than the devalokas, is incompatible with this model. Even under the
restrictions noted, it is clear that souls arc ill general imagined to
make slow but definite progress from minimal to maximal awareness,
from what might be called to a state beyond
altogether. We may find in this ki nd of speculat ion, moreover, a
rat her ingenuous but interesting parall el to the modern view that the
highest forms of life on our planet are, ult imately, descended from
primitive micro-organisms which inhabited the ancient seas.
As we have indicated previously, Jainas will reject au! of hand any
suggestion that a soul' s progress in the uni verse is either linear or
evolutionary. The former nmion, of cou rse, flies in the face of thei r
cherished bel ief in cyclic, beginningless operation of karma. As for
the latter, it seems to have been anticipated as a potential problem;
hence we find certain J aina stories claiming that groups of souls some-
times leave nigoda existence and proceed directly to the human
destiny, from which, wit h no further rebirths, they attain to sid-
dha-hood .
23
(This SOrt of " example" is not really useful to the Jaina
argument here, since it denies only gradual evolution.) It should be
asked, therefore, how it is that these very notions, which Jainas are at
such pains to deny, are according to our analysis readily inferable
from some of their oldest and most bas ic doct rinal materials. Is it
possible that, for the Jainas, the doct rine of karma represents a rela-
tively late (albeit prehistorical) accreti on, a set of ideas imposed upon
22 . For several scriptural passage$ on Ihi s poi nl , See N. Talia, Siudiej in jaina
Philosophy, p. 240.
2J. ;1.n"idimilhy"idrso 'pi tuyovilfl.Salyad hikanav;1.salaparim"iJ.l"is Ie (;1. nilyanigo-
.. . Bharaupulri jitis Ie ... tapo grhin-i . .. stokak ilena
(Quot ed in J inendra VHni's jai/Umdra-j iddhimla -koa, II, p. 318
[Bhir.uIya Varanasi, 1971).)
, , "
-- ,
PAD,\I ANABH S. JA I N!
what was already a weI I-developed theoretical framework descri bing
the operation of the universe? This framework, of course, would have
been the linear-evolutionary onC' lO which we have referred, r(,mnants
of which arc discernible even now as certain seeming "inconsisten-
cies" wi t hin Jaina doctrine (e.g., the case of the nitya-lligoda), Evi-
dence that such an ancient framework did in fact exist is to be found
through examination of a tradit ion closely associated with Jainism,
that of the t\.jivikas. [t is well known that Gosab, the most famou s
teacher of this school , was a contemporary of Basham and
others have maintained, moreover, that these twO sranllma sects in-
teracted 10 a large ext ent; one sc holar has even suggested (probabl y
erroneously) t hat the Ajivikas were ultimately absorbed into the Di-
garnbara Jaina In any case, what few references to the
Aj ivikas have sun' ived indicate the school' s belief in definite limits to
with each soul passing through exact ly 8,400,000 mahakal-
pas (" great aeons") before reaching That t he Jainas may
have originally subscribed 10 a similar doctrine is suggested not only
by the evidence already SCt forth , but by the bet that t he number
8,400,000 has been retained in their system to the present day, al-
though in a significantl y altered context. This number is, for J ainas,
the sum total of conceivable bi rth-sit uations (y om) (i.e .. Ihe four
destinies divided into all their sub-catl'gories, sub-sub-categories,
etc. ) in which souls may find themselves, again and again, as t hey
circle through Sal(Hara.
26
Again, we seem to have a fragmentary
holdover from an earlier doctrine. This issue need not be pursued
further here; the poim has been made that cert ain apparent anomalies
in Jaina thought on karma can pcrhaps be b('st underslOod if we
consider the possibility of a common background wi th the Ajivika
tradition, The important thing, for our purposes, is that in Jainism
the mode! of a karmically ordered in which the soul's posi-
N. A. F. R. Hoemle. " Ajivaka$," in E'lcyclopedia of RelrglOll ami Erliin, "01. 1,
pp. 259-268: A. L. Basham' s H iJtol')' and Oocrr", l'> of tbl' Ajr"'lkas (LOlldoll , 1951).
25 . . .. ,ull i siti nuhabppuno satasahassani , y:ini bait' u pan4ite Cl sandh:I\";I\'"
safllsaritvi dukkhass' Jlm'!1 karissanti (Oigbamkiiy, j, 1.53-54 [1'1'5) ),
ibid. , p. 14.
26. sacinl sitlu mntah mi Sras tad yonaph l (T"u"t>:i rri),ll Wm.l 2. 32).
tJdbhediS ';Jturasit ihtasahJHaS.lfllkhyJ agarnato \"cdiu\"yil:l. ukUfll n :
1.liccidaradhadu sat ta )' 3 taru dasJ "i yal il)ldiyesu chac,cql
suranirayatirip , Juro coddasa manue u dasahassa l/
SS 2. 32
KARMA AN D THE rROB LE/l t Or: REB!RTH!N JA!NISM
tion could be improved or worsened by action, did prevail over the
kind of fatalistic determinism accepted by the Ajivikas.
Our discussion of the ckclIdriyas has, it seems, Jed us rather far
afield. The reader will recall the point that Jaina emphasis on the
sentient nature of such simple beings makes it impossible for them TO
accept any notion of rebirth simi lar to that proposed by Brahmar:tical
schools. As for the theory of the gtmdhllrvll referred to
above, this too stands in dirt!ct cont radiction to a fundamental Jain:t
premise, namely, that the inter-birth period constitutes only a single
moment in rime. The fact ,hat the gll1ldharvll state is said to persist
for as long as seven weeks (see note 1 t) renders it, for Jainas, not a
stage of transition at all but a whole separate destiny, in many ways
reminiscent of the preta-loka (realm of spirits). Indeed. this same
" tOO much time between births" objection could apply equally wel l
to the idea of slow transmigration through rain and plants, even if this
idea were not unacceptable ior the quite diffcrem reasons that we
havc discllsscd . Why did the Jainas place so much emphasis on the
doctrine of a momentary transition?Z7 To answer this questi on, we
must now examine their discussion of rebirth in some detail.
By conceiving of the soul as viblm, thinkers effec-
17. Whil e Therav::idin and 5autralllika writings have set fo rth a doctrine of instan-
taneous rebirth analogous to the appeaunce of an imag{' in a mirro r (bimba-
pratibimbil). thi s doctrin{' S('cms n<''' {' r to have gained so widc .1 n acceptancc among
as did the gamibar-.;a theory. Even ii i[ had become the standard Buddhist
vic,,', Jainas would haH' r{'jcct{'d it on the grounds that a thing which arises and
peris hes within the same moment cannot undergo rnOliOI1. (Recall that in the Jaina
syStem /bret' momrnt s arr actually involn'd: those of death. of the soul,
and rebirth, respectivel y. ) Indeed, the aWJreness of [his problem verr
likely led them to the notion of an extended transition-st ate in the first place.
Cenain Sankhya and Yoga thinkers also proposed .1 r{birth process occurring
instant aneously o r in a "err shon perioJ. It must be asked, howevcr, whcther such
views c"cr had any mean ingfu l impan on Hindu society; e"cn in those cases where
the), mighl hal'e been accepted in theory, wc hal' e no evidence IhJt the practicc of
sriuldha (rendered meaningless within such a framework) was actuall y ab;lfI doned.
Because only one insunt (sam"ya) intervenes bl,tween death and the follo wing re-
birth, it is possibt.: for d person dying in thl' act of copul ation to be born as his own
child. The idea that a man is in som{' sense identical with hi s son is " 'cll known to
Hindu liter.aturl. Thus. fo r e!Cample, defines 3 wife as follows : " Tht
entering into the wifc, bccoming an embryo, is born here. For th at is why
the wife is called wife (j a)'a), b{"cause he is born (j,iy"lr ) again in her" (9.8) . On tht
other hand. it is o nly in the Jaina literature thi s belief is nlade literll. In faCt. such
an occurren,-t is attcsted to in a Jaina PUrJl!3. the source of which I havt unfortu-
natel y lost.
')0 PAD;\lANABH S. JAINI
tively avoided the question of a soul's movement from one body to
another. Such a soul of course pervades the physical space of tiff
bodies and therefore need not "go to" one or another of them; onl y
the mechanism of its experi ential associati on with a particular body
needs to be explained . In Jainism, however, the movement of the soul
itself is fundamental to the operat ion of the rebirth process. We might
firs t ask ho\v it is that a soul, momentarily separat ed from a gross
body, is able to undergo any motion at all. To this the Jaina will reply
that movement is an inherent property of evcry soul. In its purest
form, this movement proceeds directly upwards, li ke that of a flame;
hence the siddba, free of all restraints, shoots like an arrow to the
very tOp of the inhabi ted uni verse (fok{ikasa ). !A When stili under
karmi c influence, the soul will dart in a si milar manner to its next
embodiment. In both cases, t he speed involved is so grea t th:lt, ac-
cording to the Jainas, the di stance bet ween any twO points connecti-
ble by a straight line will be traversed in a single moment . (Given the
multidimensional StruCture of the Jaina universe, cert ain ci rcum-
sta nces of rebirth will requ ire as many as twO changes of direction
before the appropriate foka and spot wi thin it are reached . Motion
along a curve is not admitted ; therefore, as many as three moments
may occasionally be necessary before the soul can ent(." r its ncw
state.)29 It is important to recognize here that karma is not in any
sense considered to impel the soul ; it functions, rather, to channel or
direct the motive force which is already present , much as a system of
pipes might be used to "send" upwardly gushing water to a desi red
locati on.
Now, it should be d ea r that as a soul moves between t wO gross
physical bodies, that is, du ri ng the state call ed vigrahll-gati,J() it can-
not be accurately described as "totall y free of embodiment "; if such
were the case, it would simpl y fly upwards as thcsiddhtl docs. For the
system to work, in o ther words, the karmic "channel " mUSt exist in
28. tad anantaram lirdh"alfl gacchatr a lokantali plirl"aprayogad asailgatvad ban
dhacche&i l t:nh:igaliparinamac caJ (T.lllv'mhasutra ]05-6) .
. . . p lha ... pradipasikhi svabhavad ulpawi tatha muktatriia
'pi nanag3tivakirakaranabrmanivaranc SJty lirdhvagalisvabhavad lirdh" 3m e"aroilali
(55 10.7). Bcyond Ihi s point there is said to be o nly empty space (alok,i.hiia), .... hae
matt er aod even the principles of motioTl, rest. Jnd lime are absenl. See Tarwii r-
rh,uurra 10.S.
29. 'fl1is takes pbcl' ooly when there is movement to or from those realms inhabited
excl usively by eke'1driya5. See S. A. Jain. Re<l/u),. p. 70. n. I.
30. vigraho dehah. vigrahanha gatir "ignhagatih (55 2.2;).
KAR,\l A AN D THE PROBLEM OF REBIRTH I N JI\lNISM
' J'
some manifest, if subtl e, for m in which the sou! is cont ained . This is
in fact exactly what the Jainas have claimed ; the transmigrating soul is
said (0 be housed by a "karmic body" as well as by
a so-called luminous body (talj(Ha-sarira). 31 Tht! former is composed
of the sum total of one's karma at a given moment; the latter acts as a
subst ratum for this karmic matter duri ng the vigraha-gali and also
functions to maintain body temperature during gross physical exis-
tence. Both of these invisible bodies are said to suffuse the gross and
visible one during life; thus they not onl y "convey" the soul from one
birth state to the next but constit ute a real physical link between these
states as well.
Committed as they were to the doctrine that t he vigraha-gati typi-
call y occupies only a single moment, Jaina thi nkers faced one major
difficult y, namely, explaining how t he "choice" of exactly appropri-
ate circumstances for the next bi rt h could possibly be made in so
short a time. (Recall, in this connection, the gandh'lroa's lengthy
" sea rch" fo r a proper bi rt h-environment. ) They have dealt with this
problem by positing the existence of a unique factor, the so-call ed
{l),u/?- (" longevity") ka rma. To understand the function of this fac-
ror, we must firs t examine certain general points of Jaina doct rine
concerning the types and modes of operation of karmic mauer. In
addition to the four major " vi tiating" (gh;aiya) ka rmas, H which ef-
fectively keep a soul in bondage, Jainas have delineated four mi nor
categories said ro be responsible for the mechanism of rebirth and
embodiment . Among this latter group, known as 'lgbatiya, we find
the foll owing: (I) nama-karma, a cover term for the collection of
karmic material whose fru ition determines some ninety-eight differ-
ent aspects of the futu re body, for example, its dest iny or class of
existence (human, animal, etc.), its sex, color, number of senses,
conformat ion of limbs, and t he like;H (2) gotra-karma, controlling
31. yal lcj onimilllm leiasi bha"alp tat karmanam karyam
... le)o uijasak:i.rmanayor . . .
saryal ra nasli praligh;i.ul.1. .. . nilyaSdJ11bandhini hi 1<' :i
samsi rino ji nsya Ie dve api sarirt bha"ata ity artha!) (55
31. The fou r ghi"wya are (I) (engendering "false "iews" and pre-
venting "pure conduct"; (1) }liana!idr,mi),a ("knowledge-obscuring"); (3) dar-
("perception-obscuring'"); (4) C'restrictor of the quality of
energy (vll)'o1 )").
33. gat ijii ti hriringopinganirmj,l).aband spHi-aT asagandha-
v ar"inu pii TV yigu ru lagh upagh itil apodyotocchviuvihiyogau y ah pnl ye kasari r-
a lrasasu bhagasus, ar asu b h asii iSI h i r ad ey a y aSl \:! k i rt I i sera ran; t i rt ha-
kar31HIp cal S.Il).
l j l S. JAINI
whether the environrnel1t into whi ch onC" fall s is o r is l10t conducive to
the leading of a (3) vedalllya-karma, producing either
pleasant or unpleasa nt feelings in response to the environment, hence
the level of happiness or unhappiness which characteri zC"s an indi -
vidual; (4) aYII /?-ka rmll, whereby the exaCt du ration of life (ostensi-
bly measured, among human beings, by the number of breaths to be
taken) is establ ished.
While this cbssification appears at first to be a simple one, it is
complicated by the faCt that ayu/?-karma , as we have indicated above,
functions in a mOSt unusual manner. Every other JQrt of kart/III in the
Ja ina system is said to bC" in a constant bondage (balldha) and fruition
(anlfbhliga) relationship with the soul; some llama-karma, for exam-
ple, is :11 every moment being bo und, to come to frui tion at some
future time, while another is at every moment producing its reSllit
and falling away (rlirjara) from the sou!. AYIf/!-karma, however, is
bound only OT/C{' in a given lifetime, and its frui tion wil l apply only to
the very next life.J.S This spec ificit y of application effectivel y pl aces
ayltl!-karma in a position of primacy relative to the other aghliliya
ka rmas, since these must "fall into place" in conformity with the
life-period that has been fixed . Givcn an ayus of $n"cnt )' years, for
example, only those namel -karmas generating rebirth in a destin y
where such a life-span is appropriate could conceivabl y come into
play. Thus it is that the " selecti on" of the particular aghariya karmas
determinative of the next existence occurs before the !/Iomem of
death. There need be no "search" during the vigrahllgati, sinCe all
" choices" have already been made Y'
The peculiar cha racteristi cs anri buted to aYIJ,?-karma no! only
bring gr('ater consistency to the Jaina theory o f a moment ary
vigraha-gari, but have implications on the !e\'e! of conduct as wel!.
34. TI, is inlerprNation by scripture) runs CO'Hr.lTY 10 Ihe popular
understandi ng of gor r,,;lS "casle:' etc J onrine. of docs nO! accepl the
notion of a caSt e fixed b)' birth.
35. jnalltlkQ5t1 (in Maralhi). Part 1, b)' Ajii:l.Il 1972), p. 23J
(ay .. ) .
J6. 5il"ft:imhara texIS (jacobi. j ",n.. SU/ MS, PJrl Z. p. 21;) cont ain the ,,.II -known
SlOry thaI the (mbryonic Mah;1"in untk rwent a from Ihe womb of a
Bd hmana woman 10 !lUI of a thl Imer b<-corning his ;len. al 'mother"
Docs this suggest som(" breakdown In the d"lcr minalin' process Jx.gull by the
of ,,),,,1, ktl rm"i' If SQ, il may explain the DigJrn bara refusal 10 J,,ept any such tale as
val id. 5ivet;'mboras, for pJrt . h,n-c simply this event os of the
miracles which may in a givell 3L"OH of lime (a,MmINw
See Sthal/iiiJga sutytl, II
KARMA AND HiE PROBLD .. I O F REBIRTH I N JA INIS;'" , ))
This second aspect relates part icularly to prevailing ideas concerning
when the aYllh-ka.rma may be fi xed. J aina teachers have agreed that
this event cannot take place unt il some moment during the final third
of the present lifetime, and that indeed it will often not occur until
death is very nearly at ha nd. The determination of one's ayuh-ka.rma.,
moreover, is held to be extremely susceptible to the effects of one's
recem volitional activities. Thus the devout Jaina is encouraged to
pay ever more strict attemion [Q his reli gious vows and dut ies as he
grows older. Activities during the first t wo-thi rds of life arc not
irrelevant in this context , howeve r, since these will have created the
habits which largely define a person's behavioral tendencies as the end
of his life approaches. It must be emphasized here that one is not
aware of the moment at which the ayuk-karrna is fixed; thus it will
behoove him to li ve until his last breath as if it were still possible to
infl uence the specific outcome of this event . This orientat ion is most
vividly expressed in the Jaina pranice of sallekhana,.17 in which a
mendicant of advanced age may undertake a ritual fast ending only in
death. It is hoped that he will thus be enabled to face his final mo-
ments in a state of absolute tranquillity, free of the fears. desires, or
other strong volitions which characterize the consciousness of the
average person at this time. The fixing of ayul?-ka. rma under such
controlled and peaceful condi ti ons is held to be extremely auspi cious;
not only will rebirth in lower existences be effectively precluded in
this way, but the individual in quest ion is deemed likely to find
himself in an environment conducive to rapid spiri t ual development.
Although emphasis on the reli gious significance of the last mo-
ments of life is by no means unique to the Jainas (similar notions
prevail among H indus, Buddhists, and certain non- Indian com-
muni ties as well), it might be said that the idea of a)' I/J?-karma, on the
basis of which Jainas rationalize this emphasis, is unique. But this
idea itself is not a fundamental one; it seems to function, as we have
seen, mainly as an explanatory adjunct to the dist inctive Jaina doc-
trine pertaining to rebirt h, namely, the momentariness of v igraha-
gati . The significance of this doctrine goes far beyond the context of
mere scholastic dispute. Indeed, it is not unreasonable to say that the
basic social distinction between Jainas and their Hindu neighbors
derives mainly from the disagreement of these communities over the
period of t ime requi red for transmigration to occur. Whereas Jainas
}7. See Williams, jaina Yoga, pp. 166-172.
I' ADMANAf)l-l S, JAINI
have adopted many Hindu customs and ceremonies pertaining to
such t hings a.'i marriage. the coming of the new year, childbirth, and
so forth, they have never taken up wit at is perhaps the mas! impor-
tant of all ritual s in H indu socicty, namely, sriiddha, the offering of
food by a son to the spirit of his dead parent. We have noted the belief
that this offering is essential if t he parent is to obtain a body sui table
for entrance into the pill:-lok a, and hence to gain the chance for
eventual rebirth, It is further believed that failure of a son to perform
this ritual will result in the loss of inheritance and in his wife's bei ng
rendered barren by the ('urse oi the spiri ts thus stranded in the disem-
bodied state, The srti ddha ritual nOl only represems a signifi cam
expr('ssion of the underlying parent-child tensions characteristi c of
the Indian fami! yJA but al so provides perhaps the most important
funct ion of the Brahmar,! ical castes. The latter point is made in refer-
ence to the Brahmins' monopolizati on of the role of intermediary
between the donor and the departed; only if Brahmins consulllt' the
offerings can these be "convened" into the material from which the
ne\v body of the spiri t is built up.
It will be apparent that for j ainas the very idea of srei ddbtl is dOCl ri-
nall y inva lid ; a soul whi ch goes to its nex! body in aile moment
<:anno t be fed, propitiated, or dealt wit h in any other way by those
left behind. For this and other more "common sense" r('aSons, we
find such writers as the thineelHh-cenlury cornmC'nt:Hor Malli $cl)a
making light of the entire sr(i ddha ritual:
Even through the performance of iriiddba, increase in posterity is in the case
o f most people not found; and ... in t he case of some, as ill that o f donkeys,
pigs, goats, etc., even wit hout performance thereof we sce it srill more .. ..
And ...
" If evcn to dl.',ld beings thl.' iriiddha is
t he caus(' o f sati sfa ction,
Then oil might increase the flame of an
extinguished lamp."
38. It is tempting to read Freudian symbolism into this bdid system: the son,
though perhaps desiring to "kill " his father (by preventi ng his rebirt h), ncvcrthell'ss
performs hi s fi lial duty out of fear of "castrarion" ((h.- loss of property and off-
spring). Perhaps more to the poim, however, is the fact that in Indian society the
parem seems fundamentally unwilling 10 relinquish his control over the son, 10
recognize I.mcr's adulr Status: through the insri turion of $r,jddba, some
Sl'mblancc of par<:mal comrol is in [t would be 10
in\,l'srig3Ic whether JaindS, lacking the institutionalizJtion of filial responsibility thar
5r:uldl!;l rl'presents, have crear.d somc subslitutc ritual or social form whi ch func-
tions in an analogous manna.
AND TH E PROBLEM O F REBIRTH I N JAINI SM
'll
If it is said that "What is enjoyed by the Brahman accrues 10 them (i.e., the
anceslOrs)," wh(J{"ver is 10 agn'e to that? Since only in the Brahman do we see
the fal1ened bellies; and transference of these into theirs (the anccstou')
cannOt be espied; and because only on the part of the Brahmans is satisfac-
tion witnesscdY'
There is one other tl"I]('t of the J:linl system pertaining to rebirth
which must be mentioned here, :IS it provides a further basis for the
unacceptabili ty of the practice of sraddha, Whcreas this practice
clearly assumes that the actions of one person can :tffcctlhc dest iny of
another, Jaina tradition has always held that :tn individual soul c:tn
experience results accruing onl y to actions which it h:ts itself per-
formed. The tenth century aearya Amitagati has provided us wi th a
forceful statement of the adamant posi tion taken by Jainas on this
matter:
Whatever karma a soul has acquired through its own prior deeds,
it will obtain the good and bad results thereof.
If one could obtain results from the deeds of others,
then surely his own deeds would be meaningless.
Exct:pt for karma earned for oneself by oneself,
no one gives anything 10 anyone.
Reflecting upon this faCl, therefore,
lei every person, unwaveringly,
abandon the perverse notion that
another b.'i ng can provide him with anphi ng at
This emphasis on reaping the fruits only of one' s own karma was
not restricted to the Jainas; both Hindu and Buddhist wri ters have
produced doctrinal materials strcssing the same point. Each of the
laller trad itions, however, developed practices in basic contradiction
to such a belief. In addition to sraddha, we find among the Hindus
widespread adherence to the notion of divine intervention in one's
fa te, while Buddhists eventuall y came to propound such theories as
39. SM XI (t r. by F. W. pp. 69- 70) .
40. k(l:ll)"l karma pUr3
labhatc subhisubhaml
pare!):l dallal)"l radi labh)'Jte sphu.wn
s\'ay:llfJ nirarthakarfl tadi ll
nij"arjitalTl karma "ihaj'3 dchino
ko 'pi kasyipi kincanal
c"am
pdro dadat;ti "imuncya
Nitya-naimillik"-pa!hil",,,li , Kuanja, 19)6, p. 21.
I' ,\DMANABH S. JA IN I
the boon-granting bodhisauvas, transfer of merit, and the like. Only
the Jai nas have been absolutely unwill ing to all ow such ideas to
penetrate their community, despite the fact that there must have been
a tremendous amount of social pressure on them to do so.
In t his discussion we have examined var ious aspect s of the Jai na
approach to rebirth. By way of conclusion, we might reiterat(' the
important points raised thereby. The Jainas, first of all, show a re-
markable tendency to associate t he soul with some sort of bodily
influence, whether during ordinary existence, transmigration , or even
after the attainment of siddha-hood. In spite of this tendency, how-
ever, no biological explanation of the mechanism whereby a soul
enters its new environment has been offered. The description of the
possible states of rebirth includes one category, the nitya-nigoda, the
nature of wh ich suggests a more primitive and possibly linear concept
of existence underlying the set of beliefs now taken as orthodox. Jaina
views on rebirth are unique in their emphasis on the single moment
involved in movement of a soul from one embodiment to the next.
This emphasis, together with the less unusual but vcry strictly applied
bel ief in non-t ransference of karma, has been reflected in the com-
plete absence from the Jaina community of cerrain ri t ual forms typi-
cal of Brahmaryical sociery. The deeper ramifications of these issues,
particularly the final one, definitdy require further exploration; it is
to be hoped that fu ture researches will move in these direCtions.::-
THE JAINA UNIVERSE
( LOKAKASA)
Appendix I
The Jaina " universe" (Ioka) is a three-dimensional St ruCture di-
vided into five parts. (A) The Lower World consists of seven layers
and is the abode of infernal beings (naraki) as well as certain demi-
gods (demons , t itan, etc.). (B) The Middle, or Terrest rial, World
consists of innumerable concentric island -continents wi th Jambud-
vipa in the center. This is the abode of humans and animals. Human
beings are nOt found beyond the third "continent" from the center.
In (C), the Higher, or Celestial, \X'orld, are found the abodes of
heavenly beings (devas). (D) Beyond the border of t he Celestial
*1 should like to acknowll'dge the assistJm;e of Joseph ClJck in the of
tbis paper.
KAK.\tA AN D TH E PRO lll. El'-l OF REBIRTH II\' JA INISM
'37
,
E L
World , markl,d by the crescent, is the permanem abode o f the Liber-
ated Souls (siddhas). This region is the apex of "World- space" (Ioka-
(lkiisa). (E) Contains abodes restrict ed to inhabitation by ekendriyas.
(While these single-sense o rgani sms occupy all parts of the /okitkiisa,
Irasas Lbeings having twO or more sensesJ arc restricted to areas A-C;
hence we find only ekcl/(lriyas here.) The area surrounding [hi s entire
Structure is known as "Space wi dlOUt Worlds" (a!okll-iikiisa), which
is devoid of souls, matter, and time. It should be noted that there is
no provI sIon for a pil f-loka (World of Ancestors) in the Jaina
cosmology.
Appendix 2
REGARDI NG THE PROCESS OF REBIRTH
FROM SUBODH K. JAIN, I'IWI'ESSOR Of AGRONOMY AND RANGE
SCIENCES, UNI VERSITY OF C,\ UFORNIA, DAVIS
[n the theory of rebirth we ass ume the karmllS to be somehow
transmitted with the soul from o ne life to the next aft er rebirth. This
entit y of life that is transmitted we shall cal! "Entity" for
nience. It should have at least three properties: (I) it travels very fas t
(instantaneously? or as mathemati cians put it , in as shorr a time as
you please, infin itesimally) ; (2) it has a specific destination , i.e., the
place of birt h (concepti on); and (3) it allows very specifi c individual-
ity in that a person's kannas are specifi call y attached and transfuse
wi th the zygote of the newborn (zygote is the first cell resulting from
the union of twO parent al germ cells). Now, what known scientifi c
clement s could hypotheti call y possess these three properties?
PA[);\IANABH S, JAIN!
First, consider the pheromones, the chemical compounds iden-
tifi ed in the study of animal communi cations. These substances arc
known to be produced by allt s, bees, and so forth , which leave odor
t rails by individual s to inform t heir social groups about their posi-
tion. distance, path of travel, and so forth. Very small quantiti es are
needed, the odor is ve ry rapidly di sseminat ed, and scienti sts think
that the compl exit y of these compounds can allow many specific
signals. Specificit y, that is, the great amount of variation among indi -
viduals t ransmilled through an equal diversity of pheromones (one
individu::d-one ph('foll1one relationship), is quite feasible. (For a dis-
cussion of pheromones, see E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology, Harva rd
Universit y Press , 1975 .) Thus, conceivabl y, at least hi gher ani mals
including men arc capable of communi cating during their lifetime or
at the time of death very specifi c individualized signals. and provi de
some emiry of transmission.
A second form of this entity could be in radiowaves, released as
" energy" at the time of death, which would travel at high speed, have
the capacit y of being received by a specific destination, and carry a
specific message (or karmas). Now, one could easil), post ulate within
the realm of current ideas about the origin of mutation (in genet ics)
(see J. D. \'(Iatson, TIle Moieclilar Biolor,y of the Gene, 2nd cd.,
Columbia University Press, 1975) that this "energy" received by the
zygote could induce changes in DNA, the geneti c code of life, whic h
when decoded during the newborn's lifetime would bring about pre-
destined changes. Birth defects or inherited diseases, for instance, arc
now attributed to chance origi n of mutat ions and expression in a
suitable environment. With the present thesis, one could argue that
their origin is due in part to parental geneti c materials and in pan to
the "entit), " recei ved from the previous life.
Both of these ideas arc speculative in large pan, but are presented
here in relati on to some speci fi c factS, which arc not 10 be mis-
construed as proofs but are merel y sugges ti ons of feasible, scientifi -
call y permissibl e theses. The most serious diffi culty in formu lating
these ideas li es in our ignorance about the precise mechanism by
which "destinat ion" or " receiving stati on" is determined. How does
a zygote receive its proper karmas? How do parent s of a child pro-
vide for receiving it ? How this emity is maint ai ned in a zygote to
unfold the consequences poses a second difficulty. Thus, at t his tillle
we are only speculati ng about the details of these theses. We need to
understand the physical or metaphys ical features of these processors
of informat ion.
Part III.
Philosophical Traditions
10
The Karma Theory
and Its Interpretation in
Some Indian Philosophical Systems
KARL H. POTIER
When reference is made to the Indian theory of karma and rebirth it is
not usually clear what is being referred to. Since it will be important
for my purposes to be as clear as possible about what is being referred
to under such a rubric. I wish to begin with some possibly t edious
distinctions .
A theory, as I shall usc the term, is a sct of connected hypmheses,
involving postulation of unobservable or uncommonscnsical items ,
that purports to predict, postdict, or otherwise explain processes
in the world. Thus, for instance, we speak of particle physics as
a theory, since it purports to develop an account-a set of
hypotheses-to explain the behavior of hodies in a manner involving
postulation of panicles toO small to be observed.
A model, as understood here, is an extended metaphor, drawn
from common sense or from accepted scientifi c understanding, that is
purported to make intelligible the workings of a theory. Thus one
finds models using billiard balls or facsimil es thereof to illustme the
interaction through impact among the submicroscopi c particl es pos-
tulated in the theory just mentioned.
An interpretation, as spoken of here, is an attempt to reconstruct
what must be assumed to be working in the minds of a person or
'4'
KARL H. POTTER
persons in order to understand or explain their behavior and thought.
Thus an interpretation is a second-order theory about the ass ump-
t ions operative in the thinking of those who, for example, propose a
first-order theory. Thus one might speculate on the conccpUlal as-
sumptions which lead physicists to develop a theory of .'>ubmi-
eroscopic particles. and propose as an interpretation of their thought
that the structure of the Indo-Europ"an language (say) pr ... judic(s
them to think in terms of solid lumps of matter having qualities and
motions, rather th:!.n in terms of some other possible model.
A very comprehensive interpretation may be termed a conceptllal
scheme.
l nterpretations may be comparatively explicit or comparatively
implicit. in the Sense that those persons whose t hought panerns an:
being reconstructed may be to a grea ter or a lesser extent aware of the
assumptions suggested in an interpretation.
Theories , models. and inte rpretations may be ei t her indigenollS or
nor. Generally, an indigenous th wry or model is one which is de-
veloped by the persons who arc alleged to think in accordance with
them. But there is room for ambiguity here, especiall y in considering
an indigenous interpretation or a conceptual scheme. An interpreta-
ti on or a scheme may be {('rmcd "indigenous" to community C if (I)
it is atlributed by someone nOt in C to the members of C and it is the
behavior or thought of C which the interpretation is intended to
explain; (2) it is recognized explicitly by all members of C as
explanatory of thei r behavior or t hought; (3) it is attributed by some
members of C to all t l ~ m('mbers of C. where C is the group whose
behavior or thought is alleged to be explained by the int erpretation.
These senses do not exhaust the possibiliti('s,
One point of making these distinCtions is to alen readers to the
differing manners in which theories . models. and inl('rpretatiom may
be criti cized. To crit icize a theory- or an interpretation, which, as
we saw, is a second-order theory-one may produce coumer('xam-
pies, one may demonstrate inconsistency, one may show that the
theoretical const ructs introduced are redundant, or that the theory is
empty, without expbnatory force. To crit icize a model one shows
that the implications of the model run counter to the theory in cruc ia l
ways, that the disanalogics out\veigh t he analogies between the model
and the theory. This is a maner of degree, since everything resembks
every other thing in one respect or another, and, as it is frequ entl y
said, ('vcry analogy has its limits.
KARMA THEORY I N SOME INDIAN PHI LOSOPH I CAL SYSTEMS 243
I shall be most interested here in the criticism of an interpretation.
As we have JUSt seen, interpretations may be criticized according to
the same canons as other theories. However, since interpretations
(unlike other theories) may be largel y implicit, they may have to be
unpacked, and in the process the unpacking may do injustice to the
interpretation. This is especially the case if one is provided with
general suggestions about an entire conceptual scheme, and then at-
tempts (as I shaH below) to unpack the suggestions into an interpreta-
tion of a cerrain theory, the karma theory.
Wh('re the interpretation to be criticized is not indigenous (in one
or another of the senses discriminated above) one may also criticize it
by certain techniques other than the general om's applicable to
theories in general. One may, for instance, point to indigenous lin-
guis ti c usage as suggesting counterexamples to an interpretati on. Or
one may try to make explicit an impl icit indigenous interpretation,
arguing that though it is no better as theory than the non-indigenous
one under discussion, its very indigenousness makes it a superi or
candidate as an explanatory device.
Now to apply some of these distinctions in the case of karma and
rebirth. My starting point is the thesi s that in the philosophical writ-
ings which constitute classical Yoga and Advaita Vedanta and related
systems , karma and rebirth appears as a theory in the sense here
specified. This appears most evident in the formulation found in the
Patanjala Yoga system, which I shall proceed to sketch.
l
An act (karmal/ ) performed under normal ci rcumstances-that
is, with purposive intent and passion- creates (kr) a karmic
due (karmasaya), either meritorious (dharma) or unmeritorious
(adhamla) dependi ng on the quality of the act. This karmic residue
has or is accompanied by dispositional tendencies (samskarll) of more
than one sort, including at least tWO kinds of traces (vasana), one
kind which, if and when it is activated, produces a memory of the
ori ginat ing act, the other whi ch, if and when it is activated, produces
certain afflictions (klda). These kldas arc erroneous conceptions
which chlrlcteri ze the thinking of those engaged in purposive aeti\,-
I. The sketch is based on Y08"5umu of and the basi, ,ommentar;al
literature namely, t h ... l'ugabIJiu)'a of Vyasa interpreted wi th the aid of
VaClspali l'> li sra's Tallvavaijaradi. A!lthrn' work s arc conV{'niently translalt-d under
onc covcr by James Haughton Woods in Harvard Oriental Series 17
Mass.: Harnrd University 1914, 1927; rcprintt-d ,\I<)Iibl Banarsidass : Delhi.
19(6). Rt'fcrrnces 10 thi s work in footnot es Jrc indintcd by " Woods. "
KARL H . POTTER
ity, and it is they which af{' primarily responsible for the agent being
in bondage, that is, cominullJy crelting karmic residues.
When a person dies his unactivatcd karmic residues including his
vasaniis gather together wi thin that individual's ciua. Ciua is Yoga's
term for that prah:ti, or substance, composed of the three
whose fluctuations (vrtti) constitute the thinking, willing, and feeling
of semient bei ngs . In the Yoga view, the clUtl associated wi th the
which had "inhabited" the just-deceased body immediately
passes on to a new body- presumably a foetus-and "fills in" (ap-
jira) thi s new body with cilia appropriate to the kind of body tha t it is
(if it's a cat, feiineciltll fill s it in; if a human, human ciua). The karmic
residues operate within this new body to determine three things : the
kind of body it is (i ts " birth" [jari], cat or human); the length of its
life (aylls) under norm:ll circumstances; and the affective tOne of ex-
periences (bhoga) the person will have, that is , whether hi s experi-
ences will be pleasurable or painful.
The foetus grows and is born as a baby complete wit h karmic
residues and vasanas . As the occasion makes possi ble, that is, when
appropriate kinds of sense-objects are presented or other condi ti ons
are confromcd, a karmi c residue may mature (vipaka) in one of the
due(' fo rms n1('ntioned - as birth, kngth of lift, or tOm of experi-
ence. Within a given lifttime, then'fore, the function of karmic res-
idues is to provide the affecti ve tone of experience. "good" residues
producing pleasurable experiences, "bad " ones producing painful ex-
periences. Given that the person having these experiences is a purpos-
ive agent, he will act in various ways as a pan of his response to these
experi l'nces, and in so acting he will lay down another karmi c residue
with associ:ned vaSllnas.
The theory is worked ou! in some detail. Karmic residues, for
examp!e, may be divided into tWO sorts-those whose maturation
will occur (niYlltllvipaka) in the present lifetime (dmajanman), and
those which arc nOt thus limi ted and so may filature in another life
(lIdrHajllnnlllll ). That is to say, some actions produce res id\les whose
maturation will occur in the same lifetime as that in which they
wefe produced. It is gell erally accepted that memory activates the
smrriVtHanas within the same lifetime, and that in dreams the
kldllviHanas activate experi ences relating to the originati ng actions;
likewise, most waking experience;s the direct outcome of the matura-
tion of residues accrued in this very lifetime. But it is also the case that
frequentl y an experience will be the outcome of VaSal/aS laid down in
karmic res idues produced by acts in long- past li\'{'s. For example, if
KARMA THEORY IN I",UIA N PHILOSOPHIC.U SYSTEMS 145
one is a cat in lifetime Lh is reborn in other types of bodies in to
L
H
) " , and then is reborn as a cat again in LI' I' , those kldavasani15 which
were la id down in L, and have rema ined stOred up until now may
now be activated, producing fcline experiences.
The point of Yoga, as understood by Patan jali, is that it provides a
way to be liberated from this karmic mechanism. I shall not try to
describe the whole process, but the relevant aspect of it for our pur-
poses is that the yogin through practice (hn)'ayoga) tri es to attenuate
(tanttkr) the kfdas through cul tivation of practices opposed to them
When the kldas are att enuat ed a certain kind of
meditation (prasa)(lkhya)la) can make them no longer operative, with
the result that they do not produce any more karmic residues. Fur-
thermore, since the very occasion for the maturation of those residues
already produced requires the operati on of the kiesas, this meditation
is said to make them subtle and so no longer able to provide the
necessary cond it ion for maturat ion, so th:n those residues and their
associated vasa>las cannot bring about any results. At this point, a
process called prariprllsava, a kind of devolution of the manifest state
of citra into its causal state, culminates in its returning to the un-
manifest (avYll kra) state ofprah:ri. There arc then no furth er fluctua-
tions of citra associatt'd with that
This, then, is the Yoga theory. It involves, as any theory in our
St'nse must, a number of postulated enti ti es, theoretical constructs
which arc not dirt'ctiy observable and not part of the everyday vo-
ca bulary of experience. Such constructs include ciua, klda, vasana,
ajaya, and several other items in the above account . That the account
is intended to explain commonly known processes in the world is
evident - memory, dreams, the pleasurable and painful qualities of
daily experience, birth , length of life, and so on are alleged to be
explained by the theory. But it is al so evident th:n the explanation,
like any scientific theory, goes beyond common knowledge to pos-
tulat e vari ous processes and constituents unfamiliar to the ordinary
person.
To provide the ordinary person with a basis for understanding the
theory of karma and rebirth Yoga authors invoke a model. The mode!
is 3gricultural, which is nOt surprising given that India has always
been an agrarian society by and large. Specificall y, the Yoga texts
liken the karmic process to various stages in rice farming. The major
passages appear in Books 2 and 4 of the Yogasii tra5 and its
tari es by Vyasa and Vacaspati Misra.
In the commentaries on 2.2, the 51ft ra in which the att enuati on of
KARL H. POTTER
the ktda5 is explained, an objector is made to ask: "If knyayoga
produces attenuation of the Hdas, what can meditation
khyana) accomplish?" In answer it is said :
Pra5"''Jkhyiina makes barren (val1dbya) the attenuated klda5, which are like
burned seeds (dagdhabija) of winter rice (kalama). If the kld,1S arl' not
attenuated, discrimination between 5,Utv# and PUrIl.M cannOt even arise,
much less makl' the k/eS#s barren. But when the klfi#s are thinned out they
can be made barren.
[n 1.4 it is explained howavidya, one of the fi ve klesas , is re-lated
to the other four. The siitra says that a'vidya is the "field"
that is, the "propagative ground" (prasavabhiimi) of the other four
when those arc either dormant (prasupta), att enuat ed (ramt ), inter-
c{'pted (vicchimw), or sustained (udara). Dormancy is explained as
being the "merely potential" (jaklim(lfra) state in the mind (ceras)
which tends toward the condition of being a seed . [n this state the
klda is awakened when a sense-obiect of the appropriate SOrt is con-
fronted . A questioner asks : why doesn't the person who has attained
discrimination (viveka) still have dormant k/dil5? The answer is that
in such a person the seeds are burned by pmsmnkhyana meditation,
and a burned seed cannot germinate. Thus in the discrill1in,lting per-
son we must recognize a fifth state in addition to the four mentioned
in the nitra. The sa me point is L' choed in Vacaspali's comment on Ihe
tenth siam and bhasytl.
Book 2.\3 contains the most material for our purpose. It is the
sjjrm which declares that as long as the roots (miila), that is, the
kldas, exist, the seeds will mature in the three forms of birth, length
of life, and kind of affective experience. As Vacaspati is explaining
that "bhoga," or "experience," means pleasure (sukha) and pain
(dlf/, kha) he says:
So the soil of the self (armabhiimi) sprinkl ed with the waler of the
kldas becomes a field producing (pr,nava) the karma-fruits (pha/a),;!
Later, in the another passage funs as fol lows:
JUSt as the rice-grains (iiilirll l!4u14) encased within the chaff
when they are nOt burned seeds are fit for growth (prarohasamarrba), but
tht' winnowt'd chaff and the burned seed art' not so fit, simi-
brly tht' karmic residues when encased in the kld as (kldiwallalldha) arc the
subject of growth toward maturation (vlpiikapr,1rohill), but the winnowed
kldas (ap'lTIllaklda) and the seeds burned by pr'lSaI(lkhyana are not fi t.
l
2. Woods, p. Ub. My transia,;()n.
KARMA THEORY IN SOME INDIAN PHllOSOPHICAlSYSTDIS 247
The agricultural analogy is once again made startlingl y explicit in
4. 3. The sutras are discussing how evolution from one
birth into another can occur. (The context seems to be the siddhis, but
the explanation appears to be appl ica ble to the general phenomenon
wherever it occurs.) In 4.2 it is explained that this takes place through
the fi lling in (apiira) of prakrti; commentators explain that this occurs
in dependence on merit (dharma), and so forth, and they liken it to
the way in which a spark landing on some dry grass produces a
conflagration. In 4.3 the idea is developed: the occasion (nimiua) of
this filling in is no direct overt act; rather, it happens naturally when a
difference in the obstruction (varar!a) of pra},,!,ti occurs, says Patan-
jali, " like the farmer Vyasa explains: when the farmer
wants to get water from one plot to another, he does not take it there
with his hands, but cuts the barrier separating the tWO plots.
Likewise, demerit (adharma), the barrier to prakrli's flow. is cut by
merit, so that [h eprakrti then flows naturally into its approprialt new
form (vikara). The analogy is developed even further: perhaps, it is
suggested, the farmer may havc trouble gctt ing water to the roots of
his plants because there are too many sproutS in the field; then, he
will remove some of the seeds. Just so the y ogin attenuates, thins out,
the karmic residues so that he may exhaust them through experienc-
ing their fruits .
A prominent feature of thatprakrti which functions as ciua in Yoga
is its fluidity. Indeed, in Yogabha.sya on l.ll it is explicitly referred to
as a river (nddin) or stream, or rather as two streams, one flowing
toward li beration, the other toward 5an.lSara. There also one gets the
idea that these streams arc subject to obstruct ion.
ThL' strcam toward objeCts (vi?aya) is dammed (khilikriyatc) by non att ach-
ment (vll iragyll ). and the St ream toward discrimination is opened up (lfd-
ghiaya/e) by yogic practice (abhyasa),
says Vyasa, recall ing the other passage abOUT the farmer cutting [he
barrier separating the fields. This dua is composed of [he three gIH/as,
we know, which are constantly changing in their relative domination
of each other. Citra is also subject to "fluctuations" (V!ttl) , one of
which is erroneous awareness (viparyaya), of which the kldas arc
instances. In this series of connections we can perhaps explain what
seems otherwise odd, namely, that in Vacaspati's simile about the soil
of the self being sprinkled with the water of the kldas, [he klefas arc.'
likened to something liquid rather than (as we mi ght expect) to some
soiling diny solid.
Water is by nature cool (pure, sattva), flowing (incessantly active.
KARL H. POTTER
rajas) and eddying (subject to stagnation, m/as ). Howeve r, from the
point of vi ew of a farmer, when (reated in cenain ways it becomes the
source of nutrition and so of life and other types of energy. That
process involves, we may suppose, as any type of control does, a
stabili zati on or hardening of the stuff, at first through eddies in the
stream caused by obstructions, th('n as more stable configurations
whi ch maintai n themselves for a longer time. Furthermore, this pro
cess tOward the cstablishmcrH of stable configuration characteristi
call y will proceed by the hardening of the " exterior" part whi ch holds
the configuration, or shape. Thus, as Egnor repon s, 4 Indians (at least
Tamilians) take the insides of things to be fluid while the out sides are
solid.
In 2.13 a significa nt analogy appea rs, in which citra is li kened to a
fi shnet (marsyajala) having "different shapes in all places and havi ng
beginningless ly a rigid form (sammjirchita) fixed by the vasonas
ca used by experience (allllbhava) of the maturation of ka rmall from
the kld as." This simile fitS the sket ch of the liquids mode! in my
previous paragraph, and may al so help us to understand how the
same k/d as which are liquid may al so be likened in other respcclS to
rOOtS or even to chaff, as we saw. The cause of the " hardening" intO
co nfigurati ons (sec<ls) is the tendency of w"t(' r to eddy .1nd fo rm
whirlpools because of obstructions or because of dispositions (SIlI'l5-
kara) in the water occasioned by previous obstructions upstream.
Obstructi ons may be good or bad depending on where the stream is
heading; thus adharma may obst ruct the passage of citra toward li b-
era tion, whil e non-attachment may dam its paSS:l.ge roward attraction
to sense-objects.
\Y/e have, then, in the Yoga account a rather carefully worked-out
theory concerni ng the mechani cs of karma and rebirth, whi ch is made
available ro the non-philosopher through appeal to the model of rice-
farming. Thi s literature seems to me among classical Indian systems
the most ri gorous in its treatment of these maners , but it is nOt the
only system which de:ds with it ex tensivel y. Notabl y, Advaita Ved-
ant a, from the Upani.sads on, devel ops an acco unt whi ch coincides to
some degree with the Yoga account but dive rges from it in certain
import ant respects.
s
4. i'.hrgdrCt EplOr, " The Spdl and Other of Life in
Tamil Cult ure," [>],.D. disscruli on, Un iwrsit), of Chicago, ,\ -breh. 1978.
5. Th, fo llowill!; of Ad" a;u's " iews on karnu and rcbin h has bern f(' con-
StruCh . ..J from on sc\'eul his BTalimalUI -
Bbagll'l"ldgil .1vlJ;isy.l, and to a slight eXtent from Su reSvJr,ls subcommcn-
taril:S on the
KAR.\lA TH EORY IN SO\I E I NDIAN PHILOSOPH IC AL SYSTEMS 149
Death may be (hIe either 10 "natural causes," construed in Indian
thought as one's having li\' ed through his allotted years as determined
by his karma, or to violence, which interruptS the n:nur:tl working
out of karma. In either case, however, a man comes to the point of
death endowed with several relevant bits of equipment . These include
his gross body, made up of material substances; his sellse organs and
" action" organs (organs of speech, locomotion , sex, excreti on, and
grasping); his intellectual organ (mcwas); his sense of ego (aha1l'.lkam);
and his internal organ (bllddbi which is the basis of
his abil it y to engage in intentional awareness and consequent activity.
In lddition, he has stored up in the form of tendencies
the res idues (allll saya) of acts he has performed in the life just ending,
as well as residues of acts performed in previous lives which have not
as yet come to "fruition" or "maturation" (vipaka), that is, which
have not as yet produced their results. These karmic residues are of
three kinds: (1) those residues which Wl'rc determined at birth to
work themselves out during the present life (the one JUSt ending),
cliled prarabdhakamlil1l; (2) those residues whi ch were produced by
acts performed in a previous life, but whi ch rema in latent during thi s
present life , called sd,icitakarman; (3) the resuit s of acts performed
during this just-ending lifetime, which wil1 mature in some sub-
sequent lifetime in the normal course of evems, called saiiciyamana or
agamiu karma.
6
As karmic residues mature they cooperate with what arc called
"traces" or " impress ions" (vasalla) to determine the way in which
the karmic potential s will in fact be worked out, the kind of experi-
ence (bhoga) which will accrue to the agent in consequence, and the
future karmic residues which will be laid down by the acts so det er-
mined . These t-'asanas appear to be decisions arri\'ed at by the internal
organ to seck certain kinds of ou tcomes. For instance, K. S. Iyer
divides vasanas into impure and pure types. and subdi vides the im-
purl' into those. for example, which rel ate to worldly pride, those
whi ch reiate to overimellectualizing (addiction to study, ritualism),
and those which relate to one's body (taking the body to be one's true
Self, use of cosmetics to beautify or medicine to remove blemishes
from one's body).' At any moment in one' s conscious lifetime he is
guided in acting by such vasanas, which develop intO desires (kama). 8
6. N. Veezhinathan, " The NJ!I.lTC and Destiny of the Indi vidual Soul in AdyaitJ,"
jOll"',,! of tbe ,If"draf Univcrsity no. 2 (197; ): 19- 20, understands .!<Ilim" to
include priirllbdhll karma.
7. K. S. l yeT, of Ihe VedJtHJ," Vcdlllltll K(,Mri '> (1916-17) : 39-"1.
8. op. cil., pp. 11 - 11.
KARL H. POTTER
The offer several accounts of what happens to these
various things at the time of death . It is nO! altogether easy to
rati onaliz.e all these into a consist ent account. \X' hat I provide is a
reconstruction whi ch follows $ahkara where thl'rl' are di sagree-
ments.
9
The process goes as follows :
I. The speech-funct ion becomes absorbed into the intellectual or-
gan, or pOWer of thought (mal/as). Till' dyi ng man stops speaking.
1. h is fo!lowed by the functions of all the other organs. Sahkara
emphasiz.es that it is only the functions which merge, nO! the organs
themselves. One mUSt keep in mind that a sense-organ, for exampl e,
is nO! to be confused with its physical locus-the visual organ is
differenl from the eyeball.
J. Then thc manas, having absorbl'd these various functi ons, has
its own function s absorbed into breath That this is so is
evidenced by the fact that dying persons-lIld for that matter those
asleep and not dreaming-arc seen to brcathe although their
and mind are not functionin g.
4. Next, breath so endowed merges with the individual se lf (jiva),
that is, with the internal organ as limited by the awarenesses, ka r-
mic residues, and vasunas present at this moment . The man StopS
breathing.
5. Now the jiva, thus encumbered, joins the subtl e dernems (tar/-
m,irra). These are five in number, corresponding to the five gross
dernems -lir, fire, earth, water, and iikiisa. These " subtle' elements
are apparently conceived of as minute particles which form the secds
from which their gross counterparts grow. The cluster of the five
subtle clements provides a (material ) " subtle body" (slik!maiarira)
which now encloses the jlva with its appurtenances, just as the gross
body did during life.
6. All these factor s coll ect in the "heart."'o Thejiva arrives replcte
with awareness (both true and fal se), karmic residues, viisalliis, de-
sires, and iT1lernal organs, so it is perfectl y capable of consciousness .
However, since the external organs have stopped functioning, its
consciousness at this point, like consciousness ill dreams, is com-
pletel y controlled by past karma. Thus at this "moment of death" the
)iva is caused by its karma to develop a vasar/ a which determines the
9. SankJra. B,,, lm,,,, ;itr,,h/,,,f)'" 4.1. t- 21.
10. Indian philosophns use thi s tam to mean Iht' pb,'t' withi n body wh .... rt'
willi'lg. think ing. and so fonh. take pide .... . It does not n .... c .... ssuil y de'lOlc Ihe
physical organ ,,hi ch goes by that nallle i'l Indian anawllly.
KARI>IA THEOttY IN I NDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL l S I
direction in wh ich the subtl e body will go as it leaves the "heart "-
by which veins and point of egress, by what path. and to what kind of
birth it wil l eventuall y proceed.
7. Thus decided, the jiva-controlled subtle body leaves the "heart "
by one or anothe r of Ihe many veins and an eries, eventually gaining
egress from the dead gross body by one or another apenure.
To this point, the sources appear rel atively consistent in
their implications . When they t urn to the aCCount of what h:appens
immediatel), after death Ihe versions di\'ergr slightly.
Basically, the texts distinguish th ree paths for the subtl e bodies to
follow. One of these is to as the " nort hern path," "way
of the gods" (devayimll ), that lies through fire or light and leads to the
sun. A second is the "solilhern path," the "way of the fathers" (pit-
leading through smoke to the moon. Sankara tell s us that it is
those who observe ritual obligations but do not have knowledge of
God (i.e., Brahman wi th qual ities, Brahman) that foll ow the
southern p:Jthj thosr who know God follow the nort hern pat h. Those
who neither fulfi i1ed thei r ritual obligations nor h:ave knowledge
follow a third path which leads to Ya ma's world o r city, called
Sarryamana, or else they are immediately reborn as small animals,
insects , perhaps plants, and so fort h. I I
How dot'S the passage along these paths ta ke place? In the
BrhadamIJyaka we are told that the self proceeds from this
body to tht' next like a let!ch or a caterpillar. Sailkara comments that
the idea is ,hat the self creates a link from the old body to the new
by means of its vasilnas. l) This serves to remind us that as the
self encased in its subtle body moves along its path it is not
unconscious-it is having experiences, determined by its karmic
Tt!sidues, as in a dream, and is forming plans :md following them out
as it goes along. It is thus exhausting some of its stored-up kar-
mic resi dues as it proceeds, and cont inues doing so in the " heaven"
or " hell" (sun, moon, a T SaIJ1yam:ma) at which it in due course
lTTlVCS.
Some d.tails of the states along the nort hern path arc di scussed in
the Brahmasiitras.
1J
For one thing, Sahkara argues that by having
11. This is one of points of among texts. Cf. Pall! Deussen,
System of Ihe Vedanta. translaled by C. JohnslOn (Chicago: Open Court , 1912;
repri nted New York: Do\<,r. 1973), chaps. 20. 13.
11. Also in the Hrahmasiilrabharya on J .l .1. commenting on the in the

U. Cf. Br .. h",asii(ra 4.J.
'"
KARL H. POTTER
meditated on certain symbols one person may exper ience things ap-
propriate to those symbols, and another other things , still Ihere is
only one "nonhern path ." The Chtllldogya tells us that
these transmigrating selves go to li ght, day, the waxing half of the
moon, the six months when the sun is going north, the year, Adi tya,
the moon, What son of tra\'cl is Ihis? Sankara !'xplai ns
that these are references 10 divinities which conduct the self along the
path, since in his state he is not capa bl e of find ing hi s own way.
The Ch{wtiogya al so gives us an account of the details of the south-
ern It leads from smoke through night. the dark fortn ight, the
months when the sun is movi ng sout h, to the realm of the hthers,
thence to akaj,j and thus to the moon. Agai n, these are identified by
Sailkara as dei ties who act as guides for the transmigrating self.
The selves of those who follow the "third path"- to Yama's
world, perhaps-are " reborn" almost immediately in gr:lins :lnd
other s\l ch things. They retain consciousness :lll the while, and the
" hel lish" experiences they earn-:lscrihed sometimes to inst ruments
of torture controlled by Yanu - are more plausibly construed as the
natural concomit ants of existing in suc h a state, considering the vio-
lent cha nges wrought on them as the grai ns are prepared for use in
meals to be consumed by animal s and human beings. These
embodi ments - such as pl ants and grains-bc.'ing detl'rmined by the
karmic resi dues of the selves which inhabit them, are rather quic kly
li ved through, and the subtle-body-('ndosed sel f may move on soon
from one body to va ri ous otlH' rs, all the while experiencing appropri-
ate pains "as in a d ream." If they are lucky they Illay in due course
find their way into the food of humans and so get int o blood and
semen and event uall y gain a new human birth.
As for those who arrive at the moon, the tell us that they
become the "food of the gods ." which Sahkara expl ains means not
that they arl' actually eaten by the gods but rather that they serve the
gods. Actually, the sojourn in the moon is a period during which the
meritorious resi dues are exha usted, and it is thus basically a happy
interim. Those who have arrivcd there experience their JUSt rewards
in heaven for ritual observances practiced in the precedi ng worldl y
life. They do so until a small amount of karmic residue remains. They
are also said to ta ke on a walery "body" which supports the organs
and allov,'s them to generate experiences .
14. Cb.-,,,'/o&y" Up,mif,ul 5.10.t - 2,
15. Ch.im/ogp Up,misad
"ARM,' THEOR. Y I N SO;\I E I NDIAN PHI LOSOPHI CAL SYSTEMS 2D
Those traveli ng the northern path or " way of the gods" proceed,
as we ha\'c seen, through the sun (Adit ya) to lightning. From there
they are conducted to the realm of that whi ch they have worshipped
and meditated on. If that thing is God, they wi ll be led to the
Brahmaloka. If they mcditated on some symbolit manifestation,
however, they will arri\' C at an appropriate kind of heavenly place.
16
It seems likel }' that Badara. ya Qa , author of the Brahmasiitras,
thought that the Brahmaloka amounted to the Stat e of liberation.
though, cannot allow that one can lit erall y " arri ve at" the
higher Brahman, since he claims Brahman to be quit e unre-
lated to any second thing, and so he is forced to interpret the
Brahmaloka as a highest heavcn, but nOt liberation. That rai ses the
question whether the selves who go there return to be reborn. The
text asserts that they do not return- presumably once
again spea king of liberated ones - and is caught in a di-
Icmma.
17
Either he must rcject Badaraya[.ta ' s and the Upani $ads'
teaching on the point , or he must accept the Brahmaloka as liberation
and so capitulate to the that one can obtain liberation wi thout
knowing the n:Hure of the Highest Brahman. The sol uti on 5ankara
finds is rather complex. On the one hand, he argues that the texts
saying that the selves do not return from Brahmaloka mean that they
do not return to rebirth in this worl d; they do, however, return to
other forms of existence, presumabl y on some divine plane. O n the
other hand , he is willing 10 admit that those attaining the Brah-
maloka, provided they ha ve in the meJntime at tained knowledge
of the Highest Brahman, will be liberated at the time of reabsorpti on
(pralaya). Brt1.iJmasiirrabhav'a 4.3 .1 0 tells us tha t such selves proceed,
along with thc god (Hiraryyaga rbha) who rul es the 13rahmaloka, to
"the pure highest place of Vi$Qu," and that this is what is meant by
"progressive liberati on" (k ramamll kri), since the Hi ghest Brahman
cannot be lit erall y " reached. "
Ma[.14ana Misra suggests still another way of resolving the
lemma, The non- returning may be only relative: it might mcan that
those who go to the Brahmaloka remain there unt il the next reabsorp-
tion, but t hat after that they rcturn to bondage in the neXI cyclical
universe.
18
16. ChiimloR),,1 Upanisad 7 liberally i[!us[rltes th< kinds of rewards intended.
17. Cf. Brahmmutras 4 .. U O. 22: Brhadimm)'aka Up,misad 6.2. 15 ,md SailkJr3' s
("Ommenl S 111<"H"On.
18. 1-li.i ra, Brtlbmasiddhi with SJhkhapal)i 's colllllll"!1tary. by S.
Kuppu S" 'ami !\h dra$ O rienldl 1Ihnuscript S("ri("s 4 ( Madras.
1937) . pp. I2J - 1H.
H. I'OTTER
Ret urning to those in the moon-eventuall y the time comes when
they have exhausted their good karmic residues. At this point the
watery body whi ch had supported the organs , and so forth , during its
stay on the moon di ssolves, and the subtle body with its remainder of
bad karma begins 10 fall back IOward the earth. It is said to descend
inve rsely th rough the stages which it ascended - through .-ik.-isa to air,
10 smoke, into mist and cloud, and then to the earth's surface in the
rain. This process does not take long, and the self is not conscious
during this period, just as one loses consciousness when falling from a
tree (according to one account ) or because the karmic resi dues which
remain do not become operat ive again until thq deH'rmine the next
birth.
Ha ving arrived in the rain, the subtle body finds its way into
plants. [t docs nOt get reborn in the plants, that is, it does not experi
ence the pains of plant existence as do those who follow the "third
path." Instead , the subtl e body eventually att aches itself to a plant -a
grain of rice, say-which is ground up, cooked, and eaten and di-
gested by an animal. Throughout all this the attached subtle bodies
remain unconscious (fortunately for them). It is pointed out by
Sankara that thi s part of the cycle is subject to multifarious acci-
dent s:'" a subdc bod)" might spend a long [;Ill e stuck in some inacces-
sible place where the rainwater had carried it and then evaporated, or
it may be carried around in the ecologica l cycle for a long time,
passing through various bodies, occasionally in!o the ocean, back up
into douds, down again in rain, and so on .
Eventually, as it was said, the subtl e body finds its way into an
animal' s vital juices-blood, semen-and, depending on the kind of
animal it is, gets involved in the reproductive process . In the Clse of
many animlls, including humans, this rnelns that it ("men the ovum
in semen. The Airarl')'a nOtes that the jiva is in a sense
born twice-the first time in the se men when it enters the ovum, the
second when it leaves the mother's body.]O In elch case there is
influcnce of the paTCn! on the new gross body, through the food ea ten
by the parem, whi ch interacts .... i th the elements in the subtle body;
this is why the chi ld when born resembles its parents, both in the fact
that it is l human child and not some other ki nd of animal, as well as
in its facial feltmes, and so forth.
19. on S.10.6.
20.
I\Ale\\,\ THEORY IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTD.lS 255
Not well explained in this account is what is responsible for a jiva
destined for high-born caSte status. say, getting into the bodily flui ds
of the right kind of parents. rather than getting a lower birth among
humans or even ot her animals. It is perhaps not allOgether speculat ive
lO suggest that this may have a good deallO do with the importance
Indians place on the food they eat. The purer jivas find thei r way into
purer foodstuffs (although exactly how or why is stilt a mystery. it
seems); then, since the higher (astes eat the purer foods, and so on
down the nat ural order, it wilt ordinarily work Out that the ri ghtjivas
witt be born from the right parents.
In any case, the food eaten by the mother during gestation becomes
transformed into the various physical and mental substances whi ch
make up the new body, as determi ned by the relevant aspects carried
by the subtle body. H
Suresvara, like other authors, dwells on the misery of the jiva as it
lies in the womb; here once again it has regained consciousness, and it
develops its organs as the gross portions of its body corresponding to
t hem Alt hough we are not explicitl), lOld so, it would appea r
that this development t akes place as determined by karmic residues
t hrough the mechanism of vasanas. If so, it would seem that the
process of mat urat ion of ajiva's karma begins again at least at the time
it enters the womb, if not before.
An interesting story, corroborati ng some of the speculations in-
dulged in above, is provided in the Aitareya and its
by Sa hkara, concerning Vamadeva, who gOt liberated while in his
mother's womb.2.l Vamadeva is said to have realized t he identity of
his self wi th the Highest Self while in the womb, and he immediately
got release there. The idea is that Vamadeva was so pure and so close
to enl ightenment in his previous life that his liberation was ac-
complished before hi s next birth. This suggests several things. First,
something must have happened to Vamadeva while in t he womb, for
he was not liberated when he first gOt there; si nce this could hard ly
havc bcen hC:'Lring the words of scripture or of a teacher (the imme-
diate cause of liberation normally). we must suppose thai hi s purity
21. Surdvara, edited and translated by R. Bahsub-
rarnaniam (Madras: Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, 1974). 2.1 81- 186,
pp. 158-160.
22, Ibid., 2.189- 200. pp. 162- 165.
23 . Ailartyopa"if"d with Sri Sankarichirya' s Bhd?Y'I , tr. D. Venkatramiah (Banga-
lore: Bangalore Press. 1934), pp. 106- 110.
KAR L H. r OTT ER
naturall y resulted in removal of ignorance without any other special
cause. Second, since V:tmadeva is said to have subsequently
born and lived through a life determined by his prarabdhakarman,
we must assume that the determination of his length of life and his
experi ences was in fact fixed prior to his liberation in the womb. Th is
means, I infer, that what the Airareya call ed the "first birth ," where
the subtle body enters the ovum in the semen, is the point at whi ch
the operati on of karmi c residues through vasanas is resumed, along
with the jiva's consciousness. Thi rd, it suggest s that the distinct ion
between Vamadeva' sprarabdhakarman and his other karmic residues
was already fixed prior to this " fi rst birth, " since presumably at the
point of liberation all the other resid ues became inoperati ve.
All of which brings us to what we ordinarily call the birth of the
chi ld, the "second birth" of th, A/tareya. It would seem from the
foregoi ng that , viewed in karmic perspective, this is a relati vel y un-
important event , though for obvious reasons it is a cr iti cal occasion
viewed from the perspecti ve of human society. All the karmic pro-
cesses arc already under way, and have been for about nine months in
the case of a normal chil d.
This child is , then, endowed with the three kinds of karmic res-
idm's notcJ l' arlicr- prambdlM, sa,jC/ta, and iigamin karma. Sankara
likens prarabdbtlkarman to an arrow alrcJ.d y in fli ght - it will con-
tinue until it5 energy is exhausted, unless somet hing obstructs it. H
Likewise, the child as he li ves through the present life will experience
the ripening of the res idues of hisprarabdhtlkarmall unless something
obstructs it, like premature death due to violence or other unnatural
causes. So it is the same balance of karma of this sort which deter-
mines the length of his normalljfe and lhe type of experi ence he will
have during that lifetime.
The process by which karmi c resi dues affect experience needs to be
disc ussed , since it lies at the center of supposed problems over the
fatalistic or at least deterministic implications of the " La w of Karma."
It seems to me that there is little cause for any such problem in the
context of Advaita theory. The key to the puzzle, if any, lies in
dist inguishing karmic residues from vasaniis. A VaSal/a, as we saw, is
a man's determination to aim for certain objectives . Now such a
determination is an effect of one's karmi c residues-one's vasanas
The BhllgllV.ld-Girii wi th the commentary oi Sri Sankarkharp. tr ans!ucd by A.
Sastri (Mad ras: V. Ramaswamy & Sons, 1897. 1972). p. ) (':'>.
KAR.MA THEOI{Y IN SOl-I E INDIAN PHI LOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS !p
will be purer the purer one' s karma. Further, pursuing a purer deter-
mination will get one, on balance, happier experiences, while pursu-
ing impure determinations will gel one, on balance, less happy o r
indeed painful experiences. It is in this sense that past actions deter-
mine future experience. But this is a very loose relation. It is nOt, for
instance, the case t hat a certain act x in some past life specifi cally
determines a cert ain event of experiencing, y, in this one; at best, x
generates a determination on the agent 'S part to pursue a life-plan or
-style which leads him to develop a desire to do something which will
produce y if nothing interferes. Much may interfere. Furthermore,
the agent , once aware of the danger of following his instincts, may
perform yoga, and so on, to counteract the influence of his vasaniu.
Thus the agent aware of the relat ion between his life-plans and hi s
lype of experience may decide to take a certain attitude toward hi s life
as a whole. This is not another life-plan, but a way of looking at
life-plans. The karmic resi dues mllSt keep working themselves out -
that is, a man must lin' some life and foll ow some style or plan,
experiencing appropriate results-but he may remain, as it were,
aloof from involvement in the process. In this second-order attitude
of nonatt achment lies the key to liberation.
In livi ng one's life-plans one necessaril y performs anions. Indeed,
the pri mary meaning of the wo rd "karman" is act ion. Actions may
be classified in various ways according 1O Indian traditions. For
example, they may be divided into bodily (kayika), vocal (vacika),
and mental (manaJtl) acts. Then again, one ca n divide act iom into
ritual and non-ritual acts. Ritual acts may be divided in turn into
those which are enjoined (vidhi) and those whi ch are proscribed
Of the enjoined acts there are said to be four kinds :
(I) regular dail y rites (lliryakllrmall), such as the baths prescribed for
the Brahlllary.a each day; (2) occasional rites (llaimirrikaka rmlm), ob-
sen 'ances for particular occasions, for example, 10 performed at a
certain point in the li fe- cycle, such as investiture, succoring th( ances-
tors; (3) desired acts (kiimyakarman), acts which are prescribed for
one who wishes to obtain a certai n result, say, heaven; (4) expiatory
acti ons (prayakirra), act s performed to purify oneself beca use one has
fail ed to do certain presc ribed acts either in this li fe or in past
On Sahkara' s view all these kinds of acts are eq ually capabl e of
producing karmi c res idues whi ch in turn will condition the type of
25 . Cf. 1\.. S. lycr. op. cit. , Vl' da>lla 1 (1914- 15) : 278.
KAR L H . r O TTER
birth, length of Efe, and kind of experience the jivn will have in the
next life. Some of them, indeed , may produce results in the same
lifetime in which they arc performed.
Which karmic residues work themselves out sooner? And which
ones constitute t he prarabdhakamuw for:t given lifetime as opposed
10 others which arc saticita-stored up for later frui tion? Sa nkara
seems to think that in general the more intense and proximate
residues , whether sinful or meritorious, tend to mature first, but that
the gene ral rule here is subject to many exceptions because there are
incompatibilities among several residues whi ch have equal claim but
only one of which can mature at a given ti me.
How does maturation actuall y come about ? One performs an act in
lifetime A :11 time I , :md this act is supposed to have something to do
wi th the experi ence the same agent has in lifetime B at ti me t +lI. [n
3.2.38- 41 Sankara ('xplains the difference be-
t ween the views of J aimini and Badarayal}3 on this score. The Mi-
mamsa view of Jai mini is that the aCt produces 3t lime I something
called an apii rva, which sonwhow reflect s the act and presages the
eventual out come; thi s api/roil constitut es in a literal manner the
" karmi c residue" and works itself OUI aut om:Hi call y in lifetime B,
h:lVing been passed along with the other eil'mellts of the subtle body.
Bada rayat).a's view, as Sankara interprets it, is that ( I) it is clear that
the act itself cannOt producc the experience in lifetime 13 , since an act
is a short -lived event ; (2) although there is something like an apurva
(as we have seen), it cannOt by itself produce the experience which
constitutes its matu ration, since it is an unintelligent thing, like a
piece of wood, and so it cannot pick OUt the appropriate time and
place for the pleasure or pain whi ch const itutes the experience in
question. As a res ult , the correct view-accepted by Sankara as wel l
as by Bad:lraY3I}a-must be th:H God arranges things so that the
resulting experiences match the merit or demerit characterizing the
agent 's past acts.
h will, I t rust, be appreciated that bringing in God in this fashion
in no \vay commits BadarayaQa or Sankara to such a st rong deter
minism as to stifle freedom of \\'ill on the part of agents. The relat ion
betwcen futu rc act, present experience, and past karma is very loose.
It is possible, accordi ng to the theory. tha t A should do x in lifetime
A, that the karmic residue should breed a vtlsana in lifet ime B which
leads him to do an ac t y, which is productive of great sin but im-
mediately accompanied by pleasant experience z. Indeed, nOt only is
KARMA TH EORY IN SOME INDIAN PHil OSOPHICAL SYSTEMS 259
that possible but pres umably it happens all the time. God does not
ordinarily match experience to act on the ground of the merit-value of
that act, but rather on the ground of the merit-value of past acts.
The Yoga and the Advaita accountS are the twO most thoroughl y
worked out of the theories of karma and rebirth in classical Indian
philosophy. Other accounts differ in various ways from these two,
but are not anywhere nearl y so fully developed. As has been seen, the
Yoga account is particularly strong and rigorous with respect to the
karmic mechanism, while the Advaita account concentrates more
fully on the actual moment-to-moment processes involved in death
and rebirth. Furthermore, there is an important contrast between the
twO on the question of an intermediate state between death and the
next birth. Yoga denies any such intermediate state, whilt Advaita
goes into some detail about what happens during this time. The Ad-
vaita theory, therefore, involves postulation of certain items not pres-
ent in Yoga, notably the subtle body.
In discussing Yoga I pointed out that the texts make consistent use
of the model of ri ce-farming to explicate the theory. There is, as far as
I can tel l, no comparably consistent use made of any model in Ad-
vaita, alt hough Sahkara is very fond of offering similes to explain
particular points. At best, one might say that the model is built
around the ecological cycle: however, this is not really a model but an
integral part of the theory itself. The theory involves the hypothesis,
for example, that in the rainwater there arc subtle bodies embodying
jivas returning from sojourns in the moon, and so on, and this is no
metaphor but a literal claim about thl' ra inwater. I am not sure how
important it is to push this contrast \'er)' far. how(ver.
Although scientifically minded (mostly Western) critics have tended
to view the accounts reviewed above as either vcr)' poor the-
ories or else as myths or models themselves. it seems to me clear
from the care with which the accounts arc presented that their authors
intended them quite literall y as theories . Furthermore, it is nOt It all
clear to me that they arc any worse off with respect to the kinds of
criticisms of theories sketched earl ier than arc theories deemed suc-
cessful in \X/estern science. The major cri ticism of the karma theory is
that it is untestable, but similar criticisms can be made of theori es in
physics, for example those affected by the exigencies of quantum
jumps or those which come under the restrictions suggested by
Heisenberg'S indeterminacy principle. Defenders of the theories in
question respond that these difficulties afe technical or technological,
!60 KARL H I'OTTER
th:1t in principle the theories arc testable at least within broad li mit s.
But surel y the same can be said of the karma theory. It is not in
principl e umestable, though in prat ti e(" it is because of technica l di f-
fic ulti es. The difficulties arise from our inabi liry to determine wit h
prec ision wh ich person now alive inherits which past person' s karmi c
residues, If one compl ai ns that it is precisely the responsibility of the
karma theorist to convince us that rebinh takes place It all , that there
are any karmic residues, the parall el com pI aim may be recorded
against the physici st who postulates unobservable mi croparticles. In
both cases it is clear enough that what is 10 be explained is observabl e;
in both cases the explanation invol\les postulation of unobservabl es.
Technologica l ad\'a nces may in time make possibl e test ing of both
t ypes of theories- we may build bigger and better mi croscopes, or
find theoretical ways of controlling the effects of quantum jumps or
indetcrminacy, and likewise we may evemuJ ll y di scover ways of
identifying karmic residues and vaJanas and so o f re- identifying them
in another body at a later time.
Although because of t heir umestabi li ty the karma theories of Yoga
and Ad vaita may properly be vie wed with an auilUde of suspended
j udgment about thei r truth or falsity, it seems undeniable t hat they do
represent influential and careful Slat ementS which relal e 10 indi genous
Indian thinking about life and de:nh. Thus they arc surely relevant to
allempts w provide an intcrpretJtion which captures t he esscnt iJI
character of the (or an) Indian conceplll al scheme. It is Ihis connec-
t ion which I wish to explo re now.
The mOSt substantial cffon at characteri zing the Indi an conccplUJ!
scheme 10 date is that of the anthropologist McKim Marriott. Mar-
ri ott int erprets I ndian thinking as " translct ional ." H is maj o r essay on
the wpi c, he says,
proceeds from the a:-:iom lhat the pervasi\le indigenous assumptions of any
socielY, such J$ IndiJn notions of the id("nt ity of aclOr and action and of the
divisibility of the person, provide bases on which an anthropologist may
construct hi s models of cultural behavior in that society. It appli es that
axiom by constructing a moni sti c. dividuali st ic general mode! of Indi an
transactions. fitti ng thi s model first 10 Ih(" mOst accessible dall, which are on
the interrelations and ranki ng of castes. It then proceeds to a wider review of
the typi cal transacti Onal tact ics and strat("gies of groups ,md persons in [n-
dia's nri<'d moral. instrumental. and affective systems of
26. McKim Marri utt. " Hindu T .. nsaClions: Di" ersiIY withOUI Duali sm:' in B. Kap-
ferer (cd. ), T.,.",,$<l("l/ml <1"'( .IIeanblg (Philadel phia: Instin!!,- for the Study of Human
Issues. 1976), p. 109. See ;11so the introd ucti on 10 th is ,ol ume for J further di$cussion
of ,\iJrrio\! ', tlwory.
KAR.\IA THEORY IN SOME JNDJ I\N J'HJLOSOJ'HJC!\L S ~ S T E M S l6[
Ma rriol1' s interpretati on featun's what he terms "substance-cOOe."
Before- one bq;ins to think of Hindu transactions, one .. . needs firmly 10
understand that those who transact as well as what and how they Iransa(l are
thought to be inseparably "codr-substance" or 'subslancc-code."17
Marriott deli neates a number of features of substance-cooe; it may be
relatively gross or subtle, that is, more or less capable of t ransforma-
lion, such t ransformations concei\'ed on analogy wi t h t he heating or
cooking of foodstuffs. It is "part iculate, ti]('refore divisible, highly
diverse, " it "constantly circuhues," and it constit utes " all narural
ent ities," which are inevi tably transfo rmed "by combinations and
sepa rati ons of their substanct-codes."28 A characteristic and funda-
mcntal aspect of Indian life cons ists in the exchanging of substance-
code, and Marrion goes on to provide an interpretation of Indian
thinking abom caste that dis ti ngui shes castes according to the
st rategies their members adopt in transact ing such stuff.
In Marrion 's view the Indian conceptual scheme is " monistic" ;
there is basicall y one kind of swff, called "substance-code," and
Indian thought is not characterized by separati ons between law and
nature, mind and body, spirit and matter, substance and code, and so
on . The sc heme is "parti cula ristic" : substance-codes arc bas ically par-
ticles which arc constantly moving from one aggregate (body) to
another. These part icles of substance-code range in size from gross to
excel' dingly subtl e, and in value from negative (evil) to positive (good
or pure). It is no teworthy that not only is what W (' (Wcsterners) think
of as "material st uff" so constituted, but likewise "perceived words,
ideas, appearances , and so fort h" are al so t ypes of substance-code.
Persons, in this scheme, are aggregates of particles of substance-code
of var ious kinds, and thei r natu re is constantly changing, o wing
to gain and loss of these part icles. Persons are thus, in Marrion 's
terminology, "dividu,\]" rat her than "individual," and they are con-
stantl y exchanging some of themselves wi t h what is in thei r environ-
ment, including other persons .
The connection of t his general account to Ihe interpret ation of caste
behavior is sugges ted by the foll owing;
Transactions, notably nonreccivings and receivings as wel l as ini tiations of
action, both demonstrate and bri ng about natural or substantial rnnkings
through what are thought to be the actors' bi Ollloral losses an d gains. t\
pJttern of distributions or communicati ons is also impliNl. Such com-
muni cativl' , distribut ive evellls are assumed to be genera l; one actor and his
17. Ibid. , p. 110. 18. Ibid.
H . POTTER
action arc never for long quit e like another actor and hi s anion, and they all
change constantl y through recombinations of Ih rir parts. But acwrs and
their interactions are never to be separated from ea("h other ; they change
togct hcr.
19
Marr iott goes on wi th great skill to develop an analys is superior in
explanatory po wer to previous accounts of casu' b('havior. I shall no t
summariz(' that analysis here, ('xcept to repon that the account fea-
tures a distinction of fou r extreme tacti cs whi ch is then used to con -
St ruct matri ces in which an indefinite variety of behavior ca n be
mappl'd. The four taCtics .Ire "optimal," which involvcs asymmet-
rical exchange in whi ch I get more than I give; " pessimal ," asym-
metri cal (,xchange in which [ give more than [ get: "maximal,"
symmetri cal exchange in which [ try to maximize t ransactions;
and "minimal ," symmetri cal exc hange in which I t ry to minimize
t ransactions.
Marri ott in his inrerpretatio n nOt o nly promi ses to make sens(' of
the behavior reported in the data from village studi es; he al so spends a
good deal of time devdoping its connection wi th and implications for
the so-called great traditio n of Hinduism. This is accomplished
largely through exploring what were termed " moral, instrumenta l,
and affec tive" aspects o f transactions from a broader perspcctivc.
Marri ott thinks of thi s tri ad as corresponding respect ively to the
dharma , artha, and kama tri:!d of val ues spoken of in Dharmasastras
and other influent!:!l classical texts. He is also able to rel ate the four
strategi es to rhe classical account of life stages, or asramm, identifying
the student (brahmacarin) with the pessi mal tactic, the householder
(g-rhastbin) with the maximal tact ic, forest-dwelling (vtmapraSl hya)
with the optimal tactic, and renuncia tion with the
mal tactic . .lO
The reconstruction of the Indian concept ual scheme which Mar-
riott provides, then, is conceived in broad terms and is clearly in-
tended to provide a rationali zati on for a great deal of Indian tho ught
and behavior. The question J want to rai se now is whether it al so
rati onalizes the karma and rebirth theori es I sketched earli er, or
whether we must find a different interpretation fo r them. It will be
my reluctant conclusion that the latter is required . However, I shall
try to show that gening clear ;tbour thi s ma y well provide the basis for
much more incisive anal yses of the hi story of Indian thought and
related Indological matte rs.
29. Ibid .. p. 112. .30. Ibid.. , p.
KARMA THEORY I N SOME I N DI AN PHILOSOPHI CA L SYSTEMS 263
The fundamental reason why Marriott's imerprctation wil! not fit
the karma theories expounded in Yoga and Advaita is that those
theories do not allow for transfer of karma, while the interpretation
that one naturally derives from Marriott is that they should. Karmic
residues are construed as substance in these theories, and if anything
can be said to be "code," these residues certainly can. Yet it seemS to
me we must infer that this kind of substance-code is not transferable.
We hear nothing about transacting or transferring karmic residues
in Yoga and Advaita. The point of these theories, the motivation for
developing them, derives from the philosoph ical concern for libera-
tion. Indeed, Indian philosophy consists, practically by definition, of
activities motivated by concern for liberation. Liberation is under-
stOod as release from bondage to tht> cycle of rebirth through render-
ing the karmic process inoperative. We saw that in Yoga this means,
roughly, following practices which will result in one's acts not pro-
ducing seeds of future results. In Adv:tita one accompli shes the same
end by discovering that one doesn't rea ll y act at :til; that di sco\'ery
"burns the seeds" of the past, smicira acts, and si nce one no longer
acts, he acquires no new residues. That leaves only the priirab-
dhakamuw, which has already begun to bear fruit, and once the
li berated man has experienced the results of that karma he will not be
reborn, according to Sankara. In either system one's bondage or
liberation is something he himself has to earn; he cannot give away hi s
karma to someone else, even to God. The texts sometimes comment
on the untenability of any view which implies that one person might
experi ence the results of another person's actions.
Relating to this fundamental point are several coroll aries wh ich are
likewise significant. For one thing, though on Marriott's account
one's self is a function of one's substance-code, in Yoga and Advaita
(as well as all other Hindu philosophical systems) one's self is pre-
cisely 1/or substance-code, not transferable. In Yoga and its sister
system Sai1khya the self is called and is carefully distinguished
from the stuff (prakrti) which makes up ciua, which is composed of
the three and so forth. It is the which is dynamic.
intelli gent, and so forth. The Sankhya account of bondage is that it is
due to the confusion on the part of the bl/ddbi stemming from its
failure to discriminate the self from the substance-code
(prak'(ti, composed of the Advaita's view is simi lar. On San-
khya, Yoga, and Advaita accounts ignorance (avidya) about the rela-
tion between the self and what is not the self is the rom-cause of
KA RL H. POTTEk
bondage . tn Advai ta t he true Sclf, t he iitmall whi ch is brahmlln, is
never really bound, never really acts, but only t hro ugh ignorance
appears to do so. Reali zation of this fact is all that is required to end
the karmi c process. In all the Hindu systems it is the appreciation of
t he di stincti on between the sdf and other things which is of the
essence-this is even true in Advaita, which, though professedly a
monism, celebrates the di scovery that there is nothing else in reali t y
except the self, reali ty being contrasted with the phcnornenal wortd of
ignorance, act ion, and transact ion.
Another corollary rel ates to the nature of the renunciate, or
nyasin, whom, as we noted, Marriott tries to explain as representing
t he attitude of minimal transacting. That somet hing is ami ss in thi s is
suggested by t he fact that in Marriott's reconstruct ion of t he classical
four var'!as (BrahmaQas, Vai syas, and it is the
Vai syas who are the minimizers ideall y. Marri ol! explicitl y notcs:
This stage rof renunciationl requ ires the lactic of minimal tr.tnsaction in
gross subslante that typi fies the Vai s}'a. As a mendicant, the ;aTtllly,uin CJn
no longer gain by gross Jnd !Jvish givi ng. He sinks from Ihe moral perfec-
tion of the forest-dwcller by accepting alms in media from all
persons, but uses this tactic 10 reduce hi s att achment to any imake. !-Ie thus
increases his actual independence, hi s freedom from external influence. To
the (' xtem that till' livi ng renouncer succeeds in minimizing hi s transactions,
especiaHy through developing inner F,0wers of thought , he achieves a sub-
der, thus more perfect substance-co( e.
J 1
Marriott himsel f scems to have doubts about t hi s aspect of his
analysis: he feel s himself required to offer a few words of expl anati on
about the paralk! between and Vais}' a.
If he Ithe is sometimes respected much more than his current
minimal transacti ons would justi fy- more than the comparabl .. Vais}'a
among the -thi s seems due 10 an assumption of a cumulati ve effecl,
('xplicit in Ihe texI s: Ihe renouncer should have achieved the virtues no! of a
single strategic positi on alone, but of each previous suge that he has Visited
in sequence. 32
Now it is t rue that the is expected to withdraw from
t ransacti on of worldly materials; he characteristi call y gi ves awa)' al1
his possessions. But most of the rest of the passages JUSt quot ed are
hard to verify from the texts. The accou nt offered S('ems to describe
someone who wishes 10 become a samnyas;II and chooses 10
st rate hi s intent by " reducing his a!!achrnent to any intake," which
31. Ibid., p. 1J1. 32. Ibid .
KARMA TH EORY I N SO)'I INDI AN rHllOSOPHI CAl SYSTEMS 165
was preceded ideally by his having achieved the vinues of student,
householder, and forest-dweller respectively. But a would-be
nyasin and the reallhing are quite different, and indeed it seems from
the texts that one who tri es to become a stlT(myasin merely by at -
tempting to withdraw from transactions will not necessarily succeed,
and likewise that one who employs other tactics of transacting, such
as the BrahmaDa's optimizing, the ya's maximizing, or even the
Sildra's pessimizing, may be able to achieve more easily
than by the Vaisya' s minimizing.
What seems to have happened here is thai Marriolt is describing the
external analogue to the behavior of the but has missed
the inner logic, which is the exaci opposite of transactional. In
Sanskrit parlance we find philosophers speaking of twO approaches to
things, the positi\e approach of action (pravrtti) and the negative
approach of withdrawal from action (niVftli ). The sar(myasin is one
who takes the latter approach. When a takes his vows he
promises to adopt that kind of attitude. He does nOt promise to stop
moving, speaking, eat ing, sleeping, and performing natural bodily
functions. What he promises to do is to stOp thinking transactionally,
to "withdraw from the world" in the sense of losing interest in
worldly transactions. On 5ankara' s account, indeed, a is a
jivanmukrll, a liberated person; in him only prarabdhakarmtlTl is still
impelling his body, but no actions, properly speaking, are taking
place at all. He has gotten this way because he has realized that
transactions and worldly affairs generally arc mere ly projections of
ignorance, that in fact nothing like that really happens. With this
realization that he has never acted and cannot do so now or in the
future, it is clear that what are from a transactional perspective actions
or failures to act are nothing of the SOrt: they arc at best the last
vestiges of the ignorance that he has now dispelled, which mean
nothing at all to him now.
Marriott' s interpretation, then, does not fit well when applied to
matters having to do with bondage and liberation. The philosophical
tradition is nOt the 'pure" side of the transacti onal inttrpretation; it
represents an entirely different indigenous interpretation. This is sug-
gested by a moment's consideration of the Yoga mode! we ex-
plored earlier. It must be dea r that this model of tWO streams meet-
ing, eddying, and eventually being straiglucnd Out again is relevant
if the stre:ull S are one person' s experience, but ma kes no sense if
the context is interpersonal. If the streams are lost in a vast ocean of
KARL H. POTTER
other streams, the eddies will di ssipate into the sea and be nobody's in
particular to experi ence the results of, and to strai ghten them Ollt
doesn' t necessa rily bring liber:l.tion to anyone.
The text ual evidence itself strongly suggests that there were from
ve ry earl y on in I ndia t wO traditions (at least) which had di ssimilar
features-the transacti onal and the philosophical. For exampl e, it is
likel y that the changing of the lrivarga to a catlf rvarga-the adding
of liberati on to the triad of dharma, arrha, ;"md kama -
represented some kind of att empt to synthesi ze the twO tradi tions.
Quitc poss ibly the additi on of the san:myasin to the other three as-
rtlrl1as represents a similar attempt at synthesis. The Bhagavadgitii,
beloved of Indians t hrough the centuries, ma y have won its popular-
iry precisely because it is such a sensiti ve att empt to resolve or tran-
sce nd the tensi ons between the twO traditions.
33
That the theory of
karma and rebirth came late to t he Vedic corpus is suggested by a
passage in one of the where Yajnavalkya seems to suggest
that karma is a secret doctrine not to be expl ained to jusl
The Mim:lTp. sa exegetics, whose ori gins must go back into Vedic times
themselves, docs nOt know of libera t ion and treats dharma as the
superior \\' ay a man shoul d choose to ori ent his life, a way leading
to heaven, which appears 10 be the ultimate cnd conceivable for
man. All of these things suggest that the karma theory did nOt ari se
fr om the transactional one, or vice versa, but that lhey represent
twO di stinct traditions requiring reconciliation in any satisfaclOry
world-view.
The fundament:!l poim in all this is that the phil osophi cal systems,
in expounding the theory of karma and rebirth , do not all ow transfer
of karma . Yet such a notion is alluded to in various places early and
bter in Hindu and Buddhist texts. O ther cssays in this coll ect ion
report such passages. The questi on is, what do they represcllI ?
My notion is that they are the natural Out Come of the conStant
attempt by India ns to reconcile the tensions bet ween the transactional
and ph il osophical interpretati ons, attempt s whic h began as earl y as
the karma theory was recognized and accepted and which have lasted
umil the present. Probabl y the singl e most important tine of reCOn-
ci liati on Wl S religious, better, thei stic. If one ca n give one's
JJ. [am for thi s poim to James L. Fit zgerald, \\'ho polmed out Ihe co nnec-
lion 3 d raft of thl"" prl""se nt PJper WJS fl""ad to J sl""minar at thl"" University of
Chicago in 1977.
J ot. Brhadara,I)lIlka Up:l1/Had J.2. U.
KARMA THEORY IN SOME IN DIAN PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTE;\\S 267
karma-ane's substance-code- to God and thus be liberated from
its fruition, one may escape the necessity of having to choose between
pravr:rti and lIivr:tti . That is (he line of resoluti on developed in (he
Bhagavadglla and rehearsed in medieval literature. It is the basis of
the Hinduism of the last half century or more.
Other papers in this volume will explore the ramifications of and
alternatives to the devotional synt hesis. What seems likely, though, is
that the more incisive and rigorous our understanding becomes of the
nature of the tensions between the two traditions-transactional ver-
sus philosophical , pravr:tti versus nivr:tti, dharma versus mok!{l - the
more insightful will be our understanding of the hi stori cal devel op-
ment of Indi an thought. By developing in detail the transactional
interpretation whi ch Marriott has pioneered, by understanding more
thoroughly the philosophical tht'ories of karma and rebirth, by thus
seeing more clearly just what arc the poims of contrast and what they
may have meant to Indians of various walks of life at various poims in
history, the historian of ideas should be able to grasp in depth much
of what has been, and to a large extent still is, the conceptual scheme
governing Indian thought and behavior.
11
Karma, Apurva, and "Natural"
Causes: Observations on the Growth
and Limits of the Theory of Samsara
WILHELM HALBFASS
Introduct ion
It is one of the familia r paradoxes of the Indian reli gious and
philosophiC:lltradition t hat the theo ry and mythology of transmi gra-
tion and karma. obviously one of the most basic and most commonly
accepted premises of th is tradit ion, is nOt found in its most ancient
and venerable documents. " There is no trace of transmigration in the
hymns of the Vedas; only in the Brahmaryas are there to be found a
few tr:tees of the lines of tho ught from which the doct rine arose,"1
We cannot and need not discuss here in detail the compl ex and con-
troversial q uest ion of its origins :md ea rl y developmems; a few re-
minders may be suffi cient. 2
The available sources seem to indicate that the doctrine of rebirth,
karma, and sa1IJ sara was preceded by the idea of "re-
death," "dying again": provided there is a cominuation of our exis-
1. J. N. rMquh.u. A" Outline ()f the Rrl'giaus Literature of /lIIli.1 (London , 1920,
repro Ddhi, 1967). p. J3 .
2. On Ihe prehistory and the earliest of the doctrine of b rrnJ. and
sa'!lsara, cf., e.g. , A. M. Boyer. " :tudc sur I'o rigin .... dr la doctrinr du Solmsara,"
Journal A,iatilfue 9:1S (1901, \'01. 2), pp. 451 - 499.
KAR1.I A. tI PUR \', 1 , AND " NATUR ,U " CAUSES
tence after this earthly death-does it come to an end, too? What is
the naeure of this end? Is it unavoidablc?-thc notion of pllnarmrcyu
leads to that of pllllilravrtti, "return" into an earthly exist ence; tlte
idea of cycles of death and birth, of transmigrations through many
lives, of the last ing and retributive efficacy of our deeds becomes
more and more prevalent in the Upani!,ads, and it wins almost univer-
sal acceptance in subsequent literature. However, its formulations in
the older are still tentative and partial ; it is still open to
basic questions and doubts, not organized and universalized into one
complete and comprehensive world-view, There is an element of con-
troversy, novelty, secrecy, ill ustrated by a famous passage of the
Upauifad which tells us how Artabhaga received this
teaching from Yajnavalkya,J And not only here, but to a certain
degree even in such texts as the Mahtibhtirata, it appears still in
competition with other theories and concepts, for example, those of
kifla and lIiyati.
In contrast with its absence in the Vedic hymns and with its still
controvers ial and somewhat tentative status in the most ancient
the doctrine of karma and seems to be fully
establi shed and almost universally accepted as a comprehensive
world-view in classical and later Indian thought. Only the Carvakas
and othe r "materialists" appear as rigorous critics of its basic
premisesS- the belief in a cont inued existence beyond death, in cy-
cles of death and birth, in the retributive. ethicall y committed causal-
ity of our actions. For the materialists, as far as they arc known to us
from the repons and references of their opponents, b death, that is,
t he dissolution of our physical body, is the end. There is no inherent
3. Upam?ad 3.2.13.
4. Cf., e.g .. J. Schdtcl owitz, Die Zeit all Schich alsgrJllheit i'l der illdischell "nd
,r .. m' K JJt' n Relig,071 (Stuflg.n!. 1929) ; d . H . G. . .... Rei ncar-
nation in the Mah"ibhi rata, " A,mals of rht' Bhallrlarkar Oriental Research Insritute 27
(1946): 102-113.
5. "Carvaka" is used with more or less specific reference 10 a pJrt icu1.u school, often
with the .nOre !('rm The basic
attributed to the Carviku are also mentioned in the Buddhist canon, wher ... they are
associated with the heretic AjitJ. Kesakambali; d. Dighallikiiya 2.23 ff.
6. Cf. G. Tuc(i, "Linee di del indi .mo," Arti della R.
Accadl'mi" Naziollale Jei Lincei (Rom a), Anno }20 (1923; Scr. 5. Mem. 17), pp.
242- 310; Anno 323 (1929; SeT. 6, t-,km. 2), pp. 667- 713. E. FrauwJl1ner, GeKbichu
dl' r indischt'lI Philosop/)ie (2 ,"ols .. Salzburg, 1953- 19%; Eng. trans . by V. Ih:dekar:
Hiuory of Indian Philosophy, 2 vols., Delhi. 197}). pp. 295-}09 (trans. pp. 215-
226); S. N. Dasgupla, A History of Indiall Philosophy, vol. 3 (Cambridge, 1940,
repro 1%1) .. pp. 512-550.
W1LHEU, 1 HA LBFASS
power of retribution attached to our deeds. There is no goal or value
beyond earthly pleasure. " The dement s an:: earth, water, fire, and air.
Wea lth and pl easure are the sole aims of man. The dements move
through original impulse. There is no other world. Emancipation is
dt':uh."7 " Dharm:l :lnd adharma don't exist; there is no result of good
and bad actions."8 "As long as we live, let' s have a pleasant life."9 The
awareness of thi s basica ll y different approach, thi s material istic and
hedonistic denial of the foundati ons of the karma theory, is 10 a
certain extent kept alivt' by the traditions of the Hindus as well as of
the Jainas and Buddhists, in particular ill doxographic li terature.
Haribhadra's $aljdllrilmaStIlrJllccaya, Madhava' s SarvadarianaslIIl'}-
graha, the falsely attributed to Sahkara, and
various other works of this lype all present the Can'aka view as one
of the trad it ional wo rld- views and as a full y established lIarilma;
other texts deplore the growing influence of materia listic and
hedonisti c ways of thinking. 10
However, the doxographic presentati o n of the Carvakas is usually
highly stereOlyped. Their position is hr from being a li ving philo-
sophical challenge to the authors of later t imes; it appears rather
fossilized in its cOntents and argumenta ti on. There is no "dialogue"
between til(' materialist'S and their o ppont'nts . Thei r criti cism o f the
ideas of immortali ty and retribution, which are basic premises o f the
theory of karma, is preserved by the tradi ti on; but it is 1101 much
more than a relic from the distant past. As a mailer of fact, what the
doxographi c accounts present as the explici t target of thi s criti cism is
in mOst instances not the theory of karma and as such, but
rather the belief in immorta li ty and retributi on in general or in its
older forms. Vedic sacrifices, whic h relate to the "other world"
(para/oka), to a continued existence of our ancestors. and so forth,
arc particularly the sraddh,t ceremony : There is no " other
world," nobody in it for whom our sacrifi cial acti vi ties might be
useful.
lI
[t is this criticism of doct rines and practices of the Vedas and
7. P, ,,boJb,,eitnJroJ,,y . , ed. and !rans. S. K. Nambiu 1971).
pp. 40_41 (act II).
8. Haribhadra. SadJ .. ri"'ltH .. muay ... v. 80.
9, Sa"!I<,daria"";:a,!lgrah,, (Poona, Anandisrama Sanskri t Serit'S lASS),
1906), p. 5: rivaj jivct sukhafll ii,ct. This is aho quoted in "ar;ou5 Olher teXI S.
10. E.g. , the 1'",!xJdhac,,,,droJaya.
ll. Cf. SartlaJa,iana,a''.'gr .. ha, pp. 2, 5: Pr"bodhaca"Jro'/"ya. pp. 40- 'H (v. 21).
According to the Cir\'3kas. sacrifici al paformanct's arc nOlhi ng bUI J means of
linlihooo for the performing priem.
KARMA. AI'ORI'A. AND "NATURAL" C AUSES
'7 '
Brahmaryas whi ch is carried through the centuries by the doxographic
tradition; "materialistic" arguments which relate, in a specific sense,
to later developments of the doctri ne of karma and arc very
ra re.
12
Apart from the Cirvakas and certain other "materialists" and
"fatalists,"13 vi rtuall y nobody in the classical and later traditions of
Indian religion and philosophy has questioned the basic pri nciples of
the theory of karma. There seems to be no explicit awareness and
hardly any refl ection of the initial absence of the theory in the oldest
period of thought, alt hough t he texts which document this absence
are carefull y preserved . The doctrine of karma and stl1':lsara is pro-
jected into the most ancient texts, including the Vedic hymns;14 it is
always taken as their indispensable background and presupposition.
Concepts and theories which were initiall y used independently of and
without reference to the karma theor}', and which, in its earlier
phases, appear side by side with it and as its possible rivals, are
reinterpreted in thl' light of the karma theory, are accommodated to
or ident ifi ed with il. Daivll, niyati, and so forth, no longer represent
an impersonal cosmic "fate," but arc constituted by one's own past
actions; kala, "time," is no longer seen as an independent ordaining
principle, but becomes a function of karma.15 Karma explains the
causes of our present fate
l6
by means of what has been regarded as
"one underlying fundamental intuition ."17 But although it may be
argued that karma is directed toward a single all -comprehensive
world-view,18 we cannot disregard Ihe conert'l e histOrical varieties
U. A sprcifi c cri ti cism of the tramfer of a jiva from one body imo a new one is
found in lokiyatl chlpt ... r of Tall'VaJ<lmgraIM. cd. E. Kri shna-
mach,up (Baroda, Garkwad '$ Ori ental Series [GOSI, 1926, with
P.ukik<i ), "\'. 1861 ff.
13. The most notorious in the Indian are the Ajivikas, headed by
" ' akkhali d. A. L. Basham. Hi,rory and DoC(r;m.'J of the AjitJikll l (London.
1951 ).
14. cr. Rg v"J" 4.27 (VamadevJ in the womb).
IS. Cf. J. Schehelo wirz (sec n. 4), pp. 2] ff.
]6. H. wm Tbe Doarine of A'ar,r'lln In j ,li"" PbllOlQpily. trans. G. B.
Gifford (Bombay. ]'H2), p. 30. (G<'rman original: Leip;>. ig, 191.l; Di ss. Bonn). cr.
aim Sri Aurobindo, The Problem of Rebirth (I'ondicherry. 1%9). p. In a n<'gltive
perspective. Ch ri stian and other critics have often emphasizl'd the all -inclusive
character of karmic causality; e.g., 1: E. Slater, Transmigration and Karm .. (London
and "hdras. 1898). p. 36: "Thus Karma or the one and only law of
universe."
17. R. I'anikklr. " Tht' law of Karman lnd thl Hi storical Oiml'nsion of ;\hrl,"
Phi/'Hophy East and Wrs/ 22 ( ]971): 16.
18. See not es 111-114 below, on the universalizatiorl of
'7'
WILHEUI HA LBFASS
and deep-rooted tensions and ambiguities which remain with the
theory even in its full y developed "classical" ve rsions.19
There arc symptomatic border problems, "grey zones," questions
and ambiguities concerning the scope and limits of ka rmic causality_
It is by no means simply taken for granted that the whole world is just
a stage for ethically committed or soteriologically meaningful events,
or that natural processes are necessarily governed by or subordinate
to retributi ve causal ity. The realm of cosmol ogy and even that of
biology is not eo ipso coextensive with the realm of that is,
of retribution and of possible sotcriological progression. There are
various ways of specifyi ng and delimiting karma and and of
relating karmic causality to other contexts of causality.
The theory of karma and is not, and certainly has not
always been, tbe Indian way of t hinking. It docs nOt represe nt one
basically unquestioned pattern and premise of thought , and it would
be quite inadequate to try to find one master key, one single her+
meneutic device which would allow us to understand it all at once and
once and for all. As a maner of fact, the understanding of the karma
theory has often been hampered by an exclusive and thus misleading
search for Ol1e basic principle or pattern of thought, one essential
meaning, 01le "underlying intuition," by an exclusive interest in its
core and its essence, disregarding its perimeter and its limits, its con-
flicts and its tensions.lo
In its concrete totality, the doctrine of karma and is a ver y
complex phenomenon, both historically and systematically. It func-
tions at various levels of understanding and inrerpret:nion, as an un+
questioned pres upposition as well as an explicit theory, in popular
myt hology as we ll as in philosophi cal thought. In its var ious contexts
and applications, it has at leas t three basically different functions and
dimensions: karma is ( I) a principle of causal explanation (of factual
occurrences); (2) a gui deline of ethical oriem:ttion; (3) the counterpart
and stepping-stone of tinal liberation. These three funct ions arc
balanced, reconciled, and integrated in various manners: they do
nOt form a si mple and unquesti oned unity.
In the following, I shall try to describe and to analyze some of the
basic and exemplary problems which arise from the encounter and
juxtaposit ion of karma and other cont exts of ca usati on. The perspcc-
19. See the introduction to thi s volume for a survey of th("s("
20. Attempt s to categorize karma dcIiQiti\'(ly "as such" as a law. principle, pow<'r,
theory. bel ief. elc. . have in<,,,i!ably be("n futil.;-.
r.AKMA. AI'VRVA , AND CAUSES
'7)
tive will be histOrical; I shall focus on cases which reflect historical
changes in this area, which illustr;lt l' the differences and tensions
between older and later levels of thought, and which exempl ify the
processes of adjustment of and ways of
thinking to the theory of karma and sem:JSara. I shall first discuss the
lvlimaIJ1Sa concept of tlpiirvtl, specificall y its interpretation by
K umari!a; then I sha!! deal with some basic problems of the
concept of adma. A shon "epilogue" wi!! refer to San kara's retro-
spective consummation of the theory of k:mna.
Karma and the Mimarnsa Concept of Apiirva
The Mimalllsa, more properl y PurvamimafTIsa or Karmamimaqlsa,
presents it self as the advocate of the Vedic found:Hions against
criti cisms, changes, and reint erpretations. Divided into various
schools, it carri es the exegesis and defense of the Vedic sacrifi cial
dharma into the period of the classical philosophical systems, into
thei r framework of methods and presuppositions . It carries with it a
set of notions and ways of thinking which may ap-
pear obsolete in the new atmosphere. On the other hand, it disregards
or rejects ideas or doctrines which have become basic premises for the
other systems. Final liberation comrnonly accepted as a lead-
ing theme or even as the basic conct'rn of philosophical thought, does
not play any role in the older literature of the system; Mimal)1sa dea ls
with dhtlnlltl, not with 2 1 Familiar ideas like the cydical
structi on of the world (mahiipraiaYII ), "yogic perception"
the "Lord" (ih'llra), and so forth, remain excluded even
in its later litl'rarure. 22 For our present discussion, the foll owing is of
peculiar significance : the Mimal)1sa C:lrries the heritage of the "pre-
karmic" past of the Indian tradition into an epoc h for which karma
and have become basic premises. As well as thei r
pan, the concepts of karma and do not play any role
in the lifilllamsaSl;tra and remain negligible in its oldest extant
mentary, These texts do nOt deal with "works" or
"deeds" in general, and they do not refer to or presuppose any gen-
eral theory of an ethically committed, retributive causa lit y inhcrelH in
!l. n(glcn of Ihe of final , irreversible lib("ralion is sl ill re/l encd
in the teachings of the founder of the Arya Samij: he rt("(!g-
"ius only temporary "paradises," or stares of bl iss.
!2. We do not consider brCT, syncrICrisric tendencies.
WILH EL M HALBFASS
such deeds. They deal only with the specific efficacy of the Vedic
sacrificial works.
Ho wever, wi th the tr:msform:uion of Mi"miims:t into a comprehen-
sive, fully developed philosophical system, k:LrIna and Stlm.ara , :IS
w(,11 as become more signifi cant and manifest in its thought
and argument:l tion, I10t so milch as expli cit themes, but as u cilly
accepted presuppositions or as points of reference and oricntation.
23
This is exemplifi ed in a vcry peculi :u and complex nl anner by the
writings of Kumari la, the most successful systematizer of the
Mimamsa traditi on. Kumarila' s basic concern in thi s connectio n is to
expli cat e and to justify the specifi c Mima1nsi ideas about the effi cacy
of the Vedic rilUal s, which are considered to be the core of dharma.
He has 10 do this in the context and atmosphere o f ways of thinking
for whi ch karma and sar(l.Sara h;we not onl y bc:come basic premises
but which have also developed sophi sticated theoreti cal model s and :I
keen sense of problems in thi s area and with reference to causality in
general. Kumarila's procedure presents a remarkabl e example of a
highly speci:llized and idiosyncratic line of thinking which neverthe-
less illustrates some of the most basic problems of the functioni ng of
karma and of causalit y in general. The efficiency of the V{'dic rituals
entails its own special and " trans- karmi c" (or rather, " pTOtO-
karmic") causalit y; the encounter of this type of ca usalit ), with the
wider ca usal context of karma and Sal(l Sarl1 leads to symptomatic
questions of corn: spondence and mutual adjustment. The di scussion
of these problems Centers around the concept of apIIFva, for Kumarila
that parti cular "potency" which gathers and Stores the efficacy of the
Vedic ritual s and makes it poss ible for transitory sacrificial perfor-
mances to have lasting effects in the di stant future.
There is no explicit reference to tlpli rvll in J aimini's Mimal(lSas i"itra.
We find it only in and its comment aries and sub-
commentaries. We cannOt di scuss here the background and prehis-
tory of the MimifT\sa usage of thi s concept (in particular it s role in
Bhanrhari's Vakyapadi)'ll, a text with whi ch K umirila is well ac-
quainted), or the question whether or to what extent it rel ates to its
23. Cf. Mimams;iilokavii ru,k" wit h of P:inhas3-
rathimisra, cd. R. S. Taildnga (Bcnans. Chowkhamba Sanskri t 5ai cs I CC51, lS98-
lS99; abbrevi at ed SV), \<v. 108 ff. " Prc\ious
births {janm;",!ara} al so accepted by Sahara on Jaimini's ,t. fimiiltlklliilra (MS)
1. 3.2, where he speJks about the [lOn-remembrance of what has been experienced
in a life.
KAR;\IA. APURVA. AND "NATURAL" CAUSES
'75
usage in grammatical literature, as characterizing the "prescriptive
rules" (vidhi), which teach something "new," not said before. The
way in which it is discussed by 5abara and his commentators leaves
no doubt that, even within Mimarpsa, it is a very controversial con-
cept. It is presented in basically different interpretations and at vari-
ous levels of t hemat ization and reification. 5abara's brief remarks are
commented upon in two widely divergent sect ions in Prabhakara's
Srhat; and in K umarila's Tamravartrika.
24
Prabhakara's comments
are even shorter than 5abara's own remarks; in their brevity, they
remain cryptic and deliberately elusive as far as the ontological status
of apltrva is concerned; for more expli cit statements we have to re-
fer to the writings of Prabhaka ra 's follower and commentator
5alikan:nhamiSra.
15
Kumarila's commentary, on the other ha nd, is
very elaborate, and il goes far beyond 5abara's own statements; t he
of the Talllravarttika is the most important and
most comprehensive discussion of the topic in classical Mimaq1sa.
At the beginning of this section, a lengthy is presented,
according to which the assumption of apltr"o.Ja is quite unnecessary
and unfounded. Kumarila's refutation is a special application of the
epistemological device of arthapatti, "circumstantial inference" or
"negati ve implication": Vedic injunct ions would be meaningless or
misleading if the connection between the sacrificial acts and their
future results were not established; apltrva is this indispensable con-
necting link. Aplcrva is a potency produced by the sacrifice which
makes it possible that its fruits he reaped at a later time; it is a bridge
between the actions and their promised results. In this context,
apltrvtl appears as a specific device to account for a specific exegetic
problem. Yet Kumarila himself leaves no doubt [hat it has wide r and
24. The decisive section is on MS 2.1.5. It relates to an obic<tion alrl'ady discussed
by Sabara on MS as long as the sacrifice it does nOI produce
its fruit. and when the fru it occurs . the sacrifi ce is no longer there. Another relevant
SCi:tiol1 is found in the Vyikarat:ladhibrarp of Kumiri b's Tantraliarllika (henceforth
TV), in ,lfim;" !If;'dar,,,,,,, (Jaimin;, Sabara, Kumarila), cd. K. V. Abhyankara and
G. S. Josi (Part I. on U.I -2.1.49, Poona, ASS, 1917, I'oona:, 1970) on MS 1.3.24-
29. On the use of apurv" in grammar, d. Mahiibha.l)'a on Pil)ini l. ... 3.
Bhanrhari' s ViikYlipadiya uses the word in 2.119 (quoted by KumaTil a. TV HI ff) :
3.7.34; 3.\.69.
25. Cf. his commentary, R,ju'L'imalapa,kjkii, on I'rabhakara's (Brh) (Pan J,
cd. S. Subramanya Sastri, Jl.ladras. 1962) and his systematic monograph
In Prabhakara's interpretation. the word arambha used in
Jaimini's SUlra is much more importam. On the comrasting interpretations, d. G.
Jha (Jha), in III SQurces ( SenaTes.
1
19M), pp. 226 ff.
WI LHELM H ALBI' ASS
more general implications and ramifications: basically, the same prob-
lem for which the concept of tlpii rvtl is supposed 10 provide a solution
exists al so in the case of ordi nary, "secular" activiti es such as farming ,
eating, the result s cannot be expected right after the com-
pletion of the acts, but only some time in the future. A certain
able " power" (SlI.kli) is necessary as a connecting and mediating
principle between act and result. This is a rule which applies to all
cases of instrumentality and to the causal efficiency of actions in
general. n The actions as such arc sequences of vanishing moments.
They can gain tOtality, coherence, and future effi cacy only if, in spite
of their temporal disparity and wnstant disintegration, their causal
power is accumulated and integrated and remains prcsenl up to the
completion of d1l' appropriate results. This is even more obvious in
the case of complex activities which wmbine v:t ri ous :tclual
mances at various times :tnd occasions; a fa\'ourite example in the
sacrificial field is the new and full moon sacrifi ce, darSapiin.uwulsa. 28
We cannot and need not enlarge here on the techni cal details and
scholasti c developments of the theory of apiirva. One of the main
issues is how subdivisions in the realm of apii rva arc supposed to
correspond to the complexiti es of the rituals and till" Vedic
nounccrncnl s by which they arc enjoined, bow certain subordinate,
auxilia ry acti ons have or produce their own specifi c un its of apiirva,
and how these contribute to the final and comprehensive lI. pii rva of
the complete sacrifice, which in turn corresponds to the unity and
totalit y of the result, for example, heaven, svarga. 29 Basically, apl/rva
comes in "units" of higher and lower order; incomplete acts do nOt
produce any aplin'a at all; and the subord inate aplirv1l.5 of the
iary parts of the sacrifice do not accomplish anything independently,
if the whole sacrifice is nOt completed . .lO On the other hand. the
distinguishability of the various apl/rvas or " units" of apl/rva
counts for the multiplicity and variety of the resultsY
26. TV, p. 365.
27. TV, p. 366: i. tJphaiapra"miv ant arali bvyap3r7l "asp -
uh:ivi tv31.
28. TV, pp. 364-365.
29. Cf. pp. 2.;0 ff. The most handbook of lat er p!.'riod is Apadeva,
Mimii' (llii"piyapr"kii 1a (Apadevi), ed. and trans. F. Edg!.'Tlo n Hal' l'n, 1929).
30. On the str uctural analogy u!.'fw!.'en apiirva and the conc!.'pt of spho!<I as usc.:! in
speculative grammar, <:f., e. g., Ma(1 Qan a, Spho!m'ddhl . v. 10 (trans. M. Biardeau, ell.
N. R. Bhan, Pondich!.'Try, !<) 58). pp. 29, 83.
31. TV, p. J67: yasya tv apii rva(1i kri yantc. tasYJ pratikarma putiyogarr ca ud-
bh.d7ld I.lpapaunc phabnanarval' aicit rye.
KARMA , APURVA, AND " NATURAL" CAUSES
'77
I n trying to locate aprwva, to accoum for its lasting presence after
the disappearance of the sacrificial act as a physical act, K umarila
ultimately resorts to the soul of the sacri ficcr-alt hough apjjrva re-
mains for him a potency (yogyata) generated by, and in a sense be-
longing to, not the sacrificing person, but the princi pal sacrifice
(pradhiillakarmall ) itself. The causal potencies created and left behind
by the sacrificial acts remain present as traces or dispositions
kiira) in the person who has performed them; according to Kumarila,
there is no other possible substratum in which they could inhere,-H
Throughout his discussion, K umarila takes it for granted that in its
basic dimensions his discussion of apl/rva responds to problems
which concern acting in general, in part icular the relationship of acts
to such results that occur only in the distant future . In a sense, it
appears as a case study on the ca usal efficiency of acts in general. Yet
the divid ing line which separates apllrva from other types of causal
potency remains clear and irreducible. Apllrva is unique insofar as it
results exclusively from the execmion of Vedic injunctions; and its
separation from and juxtaposition with other, "secular" types of act -
ing and of causal potency leads to peculiar though mostly implicit
problems of coordination and of possible interference.
There seems to be a basic assumption that if Vedic rit es, including
all subsidiary acts, are performed in stri ct accordance with the Vedic
rul es, they will not fail to produCt' their proper results. Sacrificial,
"apllruie" causality seems to operate wi thin a finite and well-defined
set of conditions, a kind of dosed sys tem, in which it seems to be
secure from outside interference: in bringing about its ass igned result ,
the power of the sacrifice, that is, apiirva, will prevail over other
possible influences, including those which might arise from the gen-
eral karmic status of the sacrificer. -lJ
The standard example of a sacrificial result in K um:irila's discussion
is the attainment of heaven (warga); in this case it is obviously impos-
sible to challenge empirically the efficacy of the sacrifice, that is, its
power to produce the result. However, there are other cases where
the actual occurrence of the result is nOt relegated to a future life or a
transempiri cal state of being. The most notable among these is the
32. TV, p. 369: radi sakli r karmal)am, tad"ina&.: 13W na syal,
kartrslhi \U na nasyal i.
33. On the other hand, it is hdd that if a particubr is assigned to a particular
sacrifice by the Veda. only thi s, and no other r('sults, will be accomplished: d. SV,
Citrakscpapari nara, v. 16.
WILH EL M H ,\LBF,o\SS
citra which is supposed to lead to the attainment of cattle
(paslI ) and thus presents itself as an easy target of criticism and
ridi cule, already referred to and discussed in Sabara' s
K umjrila devotes one chapter of hi s Slokavarttikll to presenting the
argument s against the citra ceremony (Citrlik!cpa) and another one to
refuting these arguments In his refut ation, he
does not resort to any eXl ra-apiirvic factors, such as the bad karma of
the sacrifi cer, to account for the obvious irregularities in tht' appear-
ance of the assigned result. It is simply the nature of the citra sacrifice
that there is no specified and exactl y predictabl e temporal sequence
bCl\veen its performance and the occurrence of the result. The desired
reS\llt, the att ai nment of cattle, may very well occur not in this but in
a future life; on the other hand, cases of the acquisi ti on of cattl e
which are not preceded by empiri call y asce rtainable citra perfor.
mances should be seen as results and indicators of performances of
thi s ritual in a previous existence. and the invisible causal agency of
apurva should be taken as directing the visible sequence of cvems.
36
In the case of the 'rai n-producing" k'l riri sac rifi ce, however, rel e-
gat ion of the result to an indefinite future seems to be much less ac-
ceptable, since wh:l1 is :1.1 stake here the production of rain in the
immediate future. In this case, Kum:irila cannot ;'Ivoid referri ng !O
adverse api/rvie inll uences, to the cou nterproducri ve efficacy of other
Vedic actions, which, at least temporari ly. prevelll the resul t of the
kariri ceremony (rain) from appearing. Kumari la's commentator
P:i rthasarathi adds that we arc dcaling bere with acts prohibited by
the Veda , the result of which stands in opposition to the production
of rain; at any rate, the obstructive influence should it self be rooted in
speci fic act s enjoined or prohibited by the Veda. not in any general
karmic circ umstances.
37
Kuma ri la's discussion of apr/rvt! remains for the most part re-
stri cted to "optional rites" (k,imyakarman) and rites for specifi c oc-
casions , which are aimed at the fu ltillmem of specific desires and
needs and prese med in terms of positive injunctions (vidbi). The
question whether there is;'l n apli rva corresponding to the violation of
34, The defense of the Cllra sacrifice is one of (he mOSt {Jses of
I-limarps:i apologetit s. and it b{'camt One of (h( point s of Mim:il!lSa "pis-
tcmolo);}".
)5. On MS 1.1 .5 .
.lb. Cf. SV, \" V. 11 - 12.
)7. SV. v. 26; d. Panhasarathi in SV, p. b88.
KARMA. APURVA. AND "NATURAL" CAUSES
'79
prohibitions (prat#edha), that is. resul ting from such actions which
according to the Veda will lead to punishments or undesirable conse-
quences, is only briefly referred to by Kumarila . .l
ll
Basically, he is
ready to accept such a negative counterpart of the positive potential
resulting from proper sacrificial enactments: there is an apiirva result-
ing from violating the prohibition to kill a Brahmin , and it will ac-
complish the punishment of the violatOr in hell (naraka). Yet it is not
surprising that Kumarila does not further enlarge on this point. He
has obviously reached a rather delicate border area of his theory of
apiirva which would make it difficult for him to avoid various con-
ceptual and to keep his discussion within the limits of a
specifically Vedic context of causali ty and from lapsing into the gen-
eral field of "karmic," that is, retributive causality: what, for exam-
ple, is the mechanism governing a violaror of a Vedic prohibition who
is not entitled to the study of the Veda and thus cannot derive any
apiirva from it? What happens to a killing a Brahmin?
Another point which is not really clarified is the apllrvic status of
the "permanent rites" (nit)'akamum), regular perfotmances which
are not designed for the attainment of specific results. Tn the
Slokilvarttika, 39 Kumarila mentions them casually in connection with
the theme of final liberation, which is not reall y his own concern;
their value consists in their contribution to eliminating past demerit
and to keeping off such demerit which would result if they were not
performed. The syStemat ic implications of these suggestions arc not
pursued.
Apllrva is a conceptual device designed to keep off or circumvent
empirically oriented criticism of the efficacy of sacrifices, to establish
a causal nexus nOt subject to the criterion of direct , observable se-
quence. Yet, in trying to safeguard metaphysically the apllr"<.I ic sanc-
tuary of sacrificial causality, Kumarila repeatedly emphasizes that its
basic problems are parallel [Q those of "ordinary," "secular" causality
and action: the "empiricists" are not safe on their own ground; even
there they cannOt get along without some durable and coordinating
"potency" (Sakti), which must be analogous to that of apiir"<.Ia. 40
Kumarila commits himself much more deeply to developing a
38. TV, pp. 31>8-31>9; d. Somdvara. Nyii ya.;"dhii (on TV), ed. },'Iukunda SaS(ri
(Bcnar<s. CSS, (909), p. 60 ...
39. SV, S:l1nbamlhjk}cpaparihara, w. 110 ff .: (f. also M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of
Indian Philosoph)' (London.
6
191>7), p. 330.
40. See abMe, p. 274.
,So
\VL! HEL.\1 HALIlFASS
comprehensive metaphysical theory of apiirva than hi s ri\'ai
kara, and he goes much more clearly and resolutely beyond Sabara's
statements. In presenting the atrmi1l as the (asrtl)'a) of
apiirvll , which inheres in it as a he opens himself, as [ shall
discuss later, 10 the influence of models of thought developed in
Nyaya and and prescmcd in Vatsyayana' s Nytl)'abhtisya and
elsewhere. Prabh:ikara not only a voids locating apiirvtl as a smlJ.skiira
in the sacrificer; he also avoids any comparabl e theoretical commit-
ment. For him, the basic question raised by the com:ept of apjirvll is
nOt that of a causJ! mechanism functioning toward the accomplish-
ment of a desired result (phala), but that of the unconditional author-
ity and imperatiw power of the Veda: what is " to be done" (karya)
according to the Vedic injunctions h:!s not merely and not even
primarily an instrumental value, and it need not be explained or
justified in terms of a coherent theory of its causal efficacy : nor does
the Veda have to derive any addi tional motivating power from such a
thcory.41 As Ramanujacarya's 7/mtrarahasy:/ explains in an eloquent
summary of the Prabhakara views on thi s maller, "duty" (k aryata)
and "instrumentality" (sadhanata ) arc essential ly different, and the
fulfillment of the Vedic injunctions (vidbi) is a purpose in itself. "!
Here, the "option:! 1 rites" arc themselves interpreted in the light of
the "permanent rites," which are not mot ivated by the expectation of
a desired result.
As we noted earlier, Kumarila, though emphasizing thc parallels
between IIpiir,;a and other "slored effects" of actions, docs not inte-
grate hi s notion of apiirvtl into the general context of the theory of
karma , nor docs he discuss problems of interaction, overlapping, or
conflict between these twO types and contextS of ous:l.lity. Th('re can
be no doubt that Kumarila is fully aware of the karma theory and,
moreover, that he recognizes it as a generally accepted and basically
acceptable presupposition of philosophical Yet hi s way of
dealing with it remains, in spite of a few expli cit state ments, casual
and elusive.
Whilc Kumarila is far from questioning the basic validity of the
theory in general, he docs r('ject certain symptomatic applications,
specifi call y in the field of cosmology, and he points OUI some fun da-
Cf. Brh. pp. 319 ff; Hiripnna, pp. 31S ff.
41. Rimanujatarp, rarllr.!",IJ .. s),fl (TR), cd. R. Shama Shastr),. 2nd ed. by K. S.
S.lstr; GOS. 1956), pp. 57, 59.
Cf . .t;v. \' \'. 9-1 n.
KAII.M.'\, APOI\ VA. AND "NATUII.AL" CA USES
mental difficulties which arise in this cOntext. In accordance with thc
Mimamsa refusal to accept the doctrine of periodic world destruc-
tions and subsequent regenerations, he rejects the att empt of the
school to explain these cosmic processes by prl'seming the
retributive power of past deeds, together wi th the controlling agency
of the "Lord," as their efficient karma cannot be the moving
force b(hind the whole world process in the theistic or in
the " athei sti c" Sankhya context.
On the other hand, it is obvious that the way of thinking whi ch is
exempli fled by the concept of adma - the retributi ve po-
tency of past deeds stored as a quality of the soul (iionarl) -has
served as a model for the explica ti on of apiirva by Kum;uila and by
subsequent au thors. Api'irvll and adrga aTe often found in close rela-
tionship. The)' may be used almost interchangeably, o r adruu may
function in speciflcally sacrificial contexts as a concept which includes
apii rva.
4S
\VIe may al so refer here to Sahkara who uses api/TVa in such
a way that it relates to karma, that is, what is called adrHa in Vai-
in general.
4h
However, in this context Kumarila himself uses
nOt the term adrsta but samskiira, which in Vaisesika is restricted to
.. . . .
other functions . i\ possible source for t he use of in K umari-
la's disc ussion of apiirva would be the "examination of the fruit"
(phataparik$a ) in the This sect ion responds directl y
to the basic concern of the tlplirva discussion: how ('an actions ,
spcciflcaJly sacrifl cial performances but also act ions in a general sense,
produce results which occur a long time after the completion and
disappearance of the actions? The NytlyabhiiD'tl answers that the ac-
tions leave certain dispositions namely, dharma and
adhanlla, in t he soul and that these make it possible that the fruit ,
such as heavcn (warga), is reaped al a much laler time. Even in the
choice of ils examples, the NyaY<lbhii!ya sometimes comes close to
Kumarila's presentation. It is noteworthy that the interpretation of
H, Ibid .. "' .. 70 H. Cf. 00. L S. Dr" ' id (Rcnoyc . CSS.
1916), pp. 320 ff, 327 ff. Althou(;h the i. mon in the focus of (his argumen-
lali on. it seems IIlJt lh<" id<"a which is r<")<"cted h<"re was llot o rigillall) at home in
se, below, " . 71.
45. Cf. SphO!afiddhi (sec 1\. 30), v. 11 (p. Simradipikii,
p. 14 : also the Glossarial Indel''' in E [ dgt- non's Ap"d"'I,!i (5("( . bo,e, n. 19) .
46. 0" Bj,dar:i YMId's Br"hma,i<tm (BS) 3.1.6; 3.2.38 ff .
47. On N),Z,)asutr.t (NS) 4.1.44 ff., in The wit/; Vat5)'a)'a.
"il 'S Bhii,y", ed. G. S. Tailan(;3 (lknar('s, Vizi anagr:Ull Sanskrit Series. 18%). On
cf. also Yog'UU1r<l J.9 If: ff. (t ';sana).
\'i ' l LI-IELM I-IALB FASS
apli rva as a silf1Jsklml is introduced only in the Tamravarrtika; it is
not found in Kumarib' s Siokaviirrtika, which precedes the Tan-
rraviirttika and deals with apiirva in a more casual manner.
While K umarila cauti ously adopts for his own context what he
finds useful in the Nyaya or discussions, representatives of
these sySTems in turn try to cope wiTh the Mimaf!lSa theory of sacrifi
cial causality or specifi cally with Kumarila's explication of apiirva.
Examples may be found in Sridhara' s Nyiiyakandaii and in Jayanta's
NyiiYclmalijari; a pre-Kumarila version of the theory of 'Iplirva, basi-
cally amounting to the idea of a substratcless and impersonal power
wh ich is invoked and manifested by the sacr ifi cial performance, was
already discussed and refuted by Uddyotakara in his Nyiiyaviirtt ika
on Sutra 1.1,7. A major difficult), which Sridhara sees in K umarib' s
apiirva is the way in which it is still supposed to belong to the
sacrifi ce itself and not just to the sacrifi cer. For him, no real quality or
potency can inhere in or belong to an anion."
8
A short er, less specific
discussion is found in Vyomasiva's commentary,"'1 in which
he still refers primaril)' to the older view that there is a "dharma
without substratum" (anasriro In accordance with the
main direction of the karma theory, adma as understood in Vaise$ika
is nOt o nl y stored in. but also belong:; to and is caused b y, til<;' acting
person we arc the responsible causes of our actions, of
whi ch we have to bear the consequences as traces in our own soul. In
Mlma!')'lsa, only the IIBarga, the official act of initiating the sacrifi ce,
has to be done by the sacr ifi cer; the actual performances themselves
may be left to " paid agents." Although Kurnarila maintains that the
soul (arman) of the sacrificer is the subjet' t or the "doer" of the
sacrifi cial acrion, the question of personal authorship and responsibil-
it)' is less important here: what produces apiin;a is rather the imper-
sonal power of the sacrifice itself, which is only unl eashed, activated
during the actual performance of the sacrifice. Apllrva may be stored
and coordinated in the soul; yet it is not merely and not even primar-
ily a quality or subordin;l.te ingredient of the soul; it is and remains
Nyayabndafi (NK) by Sridhar ... in Bhii shya of Pmsa>lap;ula. IOgethtr with the
Nyiiyakalldali, cd. V. P. Dvil'edin (Benarts, Vilinagrlnl Sanskrit Seri es, 1895).
pp. 27} ff: quO!<'S from of TV: h< also refers to Mal)'
4ana. Vidhiy;veka.
49. Vyomauali (Vy) by Vyomai; \, 3, in ... wi th comm. S"kll
by Jagadisa TarkiJahkira, SI' /u by Padmanibha Mi sra, and Vyomavati by Vyo-
maSivicarya . cd. Gopindth Kd"irai (Benarcs. CSS, pp. 6}9 ff.: thi s pas-
sage does not indicat e any acquaintance with TV.
KARMA. Af'URVA. AND " NATURAL" CAUSES
the effect and the stored power of the sacri fice. 50 Although Kumarila
has made various adjustments to the way of thinking exemplified by
the doctrine of categories and to the theories of
and (dma, the magico-ri tualistic world-view of the texts,
which presupposes an impersonal mechanism of forces to be invoked
by the rituals, remains present as an underlying factor in his discus-
sion of apitFva.
In his Nyayammijari, Jayanta discusses the problems of sacrificial
causality in accordance with the Nyaya tradition of Vedic apologet-
ics . He is far from questioning the specific Tole and efficacy of Vedic
rituals; in a rare case of concrete biographical information in Indian
philosophical li terature, he me nt ions an immediately successful sa r!1-
ceremony performed by his own grandfather; yet he does not
:lCcept the Mimarytsa strategy of defenseY Jayanta quotes repeatedly
from the sacrificial discuss ions in Kumari la' s Slokavarttikil; however,
he does not give any indication that he is aware of the apllr-
vadhikllral!a of the Talltravaruika. In his cri ti cism of the Mimarytsa
theoTY of sacrificial causality, he constantly refers to a view whic h,
unlike the theory of Tantrllvarttikil, does not recognize the storage of
sacrificial effects, of apiirvll, as a of the soul. The
"sarytskaric" view is presented :lS a specialty of the
Nyay:l
Jayanta places the theory of sacrificial efficacy more resol utely in
the general framework of the theory of karm::! ::!nd He does
not acct'pt the j\'limamsa restriction to specific and exclusively sacrifi-
cial contexts of caus::! li ty, but sees a much more open field of possible
interaction and interference wit h other ka rmic influences. The possi-
bility of " defects in the sacrificer" is seen as much
more relevant and as a potential cause of delay for the reaping of the
SO. TV, pp. 366 ff.: is nO! Ill<' s:l dbana of th ... results ; pp. 369 ff. : t he sou!
is indispensable as an .is'''),a, bm remains comparable to a mC'f<' carri ... r (d. the simil e
of the cam ... !. p. :)70). A curious discussion of the question of persona! authorship in
saaifici,,! pcrforman.:cs is found in Upaskiu lm V"iie fik;lsiirr" (VS),
6.!.S.; anibbl e in many editio ns (fi rst Bib. Ind. 1861): trans. by N. Sinha
( Allahabad. Sacred Books of Hindus. 1911). Sankaramilira obviously mi sun-
derstands the in MS >.7.18 ( rejected >.7.19 ff. , with Sabara) as
Jaimini 's own view.
S1. Cf. N),ij),al>Ja,jjdrl (NM) of Jar anu BhJ!H. cd. S. N. $ukb, 2 vols. ( Be'nares,
Kashi Sanskrit Series, 1934-1936), pp. 248 ff. ; the s:lmgrahani ceremony, which was
followed by the acquisi tion of the vilbge Gauramulaka. is memione'<l on p. 250.
S2. N1-.l. p. 255. SV, v. 26. is quoted twicc ; cf. also Sv on Sum
2, vv. 195 ff.
H Al.Bh\SS
sac rifi ci:d res ults, Si nce the varying degrees o f immediacy and regular-
ity in the appea rance of sacri fi cial results can be explained by referring
to various factors of merit and demerit , it becomes unnecessary for
Jaya nta to <lS K umarila does. any basic distinction in the
nature of the saerific('s themselves, SJ Thus, without renouncing the
special rol e of sacrificial causality, Jayanta tri es to integrate it into lIle
general framework of karma and
Finall y, we may mention here a secti on in Vacaspa ti 's Tatt-
vavaisa mdi on Yogasiltra 2.13 , where the relati onship between the
dominant apiirva of the jyoliHoma (the me:1.ns of att:1.ining heaven)
to the neg:1. ti ve pot enti al of the act of killing which is subordinate to
this sacrifi ce is di scussed in a way whi ch is charact eristically d iffer-
ent irom Kumari la's way of dealing wit h thi s is,
integrated inw a general theory of merit, demerit , and rerriburi ve
causality.
Karma, AdrHa, and "Natural" Ca usali ty
In the development of the Mimamsa eonapt of apiirva, in particular in
K umari la's present:l.I ion, we fo und the encounter of Vedic exegesis and
o f the theory of the sacrifice with the general theory of karma, the
all empt to defend and to explicate the uniqueness oi sacrifi cial causalit y
and at the sa me time to cope with more g(' neral and basic problems of
causalit y and action, The concept of admll (" unseen, " " invis-
ible"), on the oth(' r h;).nd, exempli fies the encounter o f a system of
cosmology, phi losophy of nature, and cat cgori;). \ an;). \ysis with so-
teriologi cal ideas and the attempt to lxplicatc and to iustify withi n its
own conceptual framework the theory o f karma and 5lI.msara.
In class ic;).l as represented by Prasastapada, (tdma is a
comprehensive lerm fo r dbarma and aelhf/nua, "merit " and "de-
meri t," two o f tlw twenty-four q uali ties (gltl} a) enumerat ed in the li st
of "categories" (padarrha) of the system. However, the basic text of
the sc hool, the VaiSqikasiitnl attributed to Kat:l3da, has only a li st of
i l . The threefold di"ision of sacr ifices into those which b"-3f fruit after death (e.g. ,
;yollf/oma), those which bear fru it (e.g., citra ), and th05<' which bear fruit
in thi s li fe (e.g., kilriri) is Jayanu ' s di rect targ<'t of c-riticiSIll (NM, p. 2; 2). Orl th.,
... theory, which is rejected as a general explanati on by KUlllarila, TV. p. 368,
cf. the (NBh) (in NS lsee n. 47 ab();'el) on 2.1.:17 ff. At any rat e, the
s,lCrifi(' e is nOi suppos1 to perish without any fruition at all (dddHdp/J" ld, NM,
p. 254),
H. on Siilr:1 2, "\'. 2J9 ff., 149 ff.
KARMA. A I' URVA, AND "NATURA L" CAUSES
seventeen which does not include dharma and and
there is no reason to accept the later claim that they were implicitly
considered as that is, as qualities of the soul,ss The integration
of dharma and adharma into the list of is a symptomatic step
in the process of the final systematization of and of its
tempted merger of soteriology and "physics."
Although the docs not list adma among the "qual-
ities," the tenn and concept is nevertheless quite familiar in this text.
Most of the occurrences of adma arc found in a which deals
with various causes of mostly physical movements {karman in the
technical meaning of i.e. , the third "category," padimbtl }:
adrHtl moves objects in ordeals and magnet ic processes; it causes
extraordinary movements of eart h and water, the circulation of water
in trees, the upward flaming of fi re, the horizontal blowing of wind
or air, the initial movements of atoms and "minds" in the
process of forming new organisms). Another section
S1
uses
and dhar1/ltl /adharmtl in a more religious and ethical perspect ive,
referring to the "invisible" results and purposes of ritual and ethical
activities, to their " merit" and " demcrit." Dbtln/Ill is fu rt her men-
tioned as a causal factOr in dreams, in the extraordi nary type of
cogni tion known as and so fonh.
58
It is obvious that adma
covers at least two different sets of problems and implications, and it
may be questioned whether or to what extent there is an original
conceptual uni ty in t hese twO usages, As far ;1S the physical and
cosmological usage of adrHa is concerned, its primary function seems
to be to account for strange and extraordinary phenomena in nature
which would not be explicable otherwise (magnetism, upward
movement of fire, etc.), as well as for phenomena which seem to bt'
signs or to contlin an element of reward and puni shment; according
to Candrananda's Vrui, the oldest extant comment'ary on the V(li-
such evenrs as eart hquakes are indicators of good and evil
(SubhaJubb'H/lcaI/tI ) for the inhabitants of the Although there
55. The sinh century apparently not
with PrlSasllpi da' s work) explicitly that the Ilumber of qualities m is
seventeen; d. rd. D. (Ahmedabad, 1%6- (968).
,.,'. 2971 ff. with fommtntary.
56. VS ; . 1.1;; 8, 14. 19, Cf. al so VS 4.2.;; d/1lmna thl' movement of
atoms the fr)rfllliion of bodies.
57. VS 6,2, 1 ff. ; 6.2.1 is repeateJ as 10_2 0 (10.2.8 of th( ' (' rsion).
58. VS 9. 24, 28 (9.2.9; 28 Upas kara).
59. on VS 5. 2.2: if thi s were to be expressed in terms of Ihe hrma
theory, it would obviously impl y some kind of "group karma."
Wlt HEL:>! HALBI' ASS
is an obvious ethi cal impl icat ion in the second group of cases, the
Sillra text does not indicate in any way that the ad'ma, which is
supposed TO cause these events, is TO be understood as inhering in
souls (arman). This assumption would seem TO be even more remote
in cases like the upward flaming of fire, for which no t'thical, retribu-
tive, or psychological art' suggested .
60
In cases like this,
adma appears simply side by side wi th other causes of physical
mot ions li ke "gravity" (gllrlltva) or "fluidity" (draval va), which in-
here in those matt'rial substances whic h they affect; likeadma, "gra\'-
ifY" and "fl uidity" arc explicitly classified as " qualities" only in the
later li st of twenty-four The most momentous function of
adma seems to be refe rred to in the statement that it causes the initial
movements of atoms and "minds" - the func tion of a "prime mover"
when after a p{riod of mahaprtdayl1., during which the whole world
process has come to a complete rest, the regeneration of our universe
starts again . On the other side and in an obviously different perspec-
ti ve, adnta or dharma/adharma is introduced to ensure the retribu-
t ive efficacy of actions which have a ritual or moral significance. In
thi s sense, it shows a dose analogy with apiirva; Sankarami sra, the
author of the Upaskiira on the Vll isqikasiit ra, repeated ly uses the
word aplo'va in th is context.'"
The does nOt st.1t e that the unseen physical power
behind such phenomena as the upward flaming of fire and the retribu-
tive power of paSt deeds stored in the soul are identical, nor docs it
state t hat they are differem. We do not know when the identi ty,
which is taken for granted by Prasastap:"da and later '>vas
firs t established in an explicit and defi nit e ma nner. Already the
of V:" tsyayana has a morc unified conccpt of dharma/
adharma as being inherent in the soul; and the connection between
t he retributive efficacy of deeds , stored as "dispositions" (sam5kara)
of the soul , and certai n physical processes has been made more ex-
plicit.
62
However, it does not consider the specific kinetic fu nctions
of adrua mentioned in the Vaisqika5Jftra; and it does nOt use the term
ad,:ua as a synonym of dharma/adbarllla. Instead the term is used
wit h reference to a theory which is rejected by thc Nyiiyabhiiryll and
60. Candrananda's and $ailbramisra' s anernpl$ in Ihi s direCtion are nOI very con-
vincing; Sankaramiha on 5.2.!} (14 Candr1nanda) suggeStS that only first movtm<'nts
of flaming, ele.. at the beginning of a nt'''' world period arc mealll.
61. CL also hi s comrnelllS on VS 6. 1.5, with lengthy remarks on Mi rnaili sa.
62. NBh on NS J.2.6J ff.; d. also -1.1 A4 ff.
KARMA , rlI' URVrI . AND "NATUR,\L" CA USES
which maintains that there is an "i nvisi ble force" (adma) in the mate-
rial atOms also in the " mind" (null/as), whi ch gives them the
kinetic impulse needed for the formation of bodies, and so forth; in
thi s view, adma seems to funct ion primarily as a principle of
physicalistic, naturalistic explanation, and its ethical and soteriologi -
cal implications remain at least very obscure.
63
The theory that (ldnra
residl's in the atOlllS and not in the at man is also referred to and
rejected by Prasastaplda's commentatOr Vyomasi va. 64
In the tradition of the school, its final systemati ze r,
Prasastaplda, leaves no doubt concerning the unit y of ad'ma in its
va rious physical, ethical , and religious functions. He uni versali zes its
application as an indispensable factor funct ioning in the processes of
life and consciousness: dharma and tldharma arc supporting causes
and condi ti ons of life in ge neral (jivanastl hakarin), of its basic condi-
tion of breathing as well as of mental processes like desi re and cogni-
tion. In particular, PrasastJpada emphasizes the role of atiJ;'Ha in the
cosmic processes of the peri odic destruction and regeneration of the
whole universe.
66
There is no doubt that adJ;' Ha (dbarmaladhtlrma)
has now become all-pervasi\'e and that it functions as the key facto r
in re-interpreting the " natural" world as sarysartl , that is , as a
mechanism of reward and punishment , or karmic retribution. Yet,
even the great systematizer Prasastapada has not been able to har-
monize compl etely or cover the ambiguities and dichotomies inher-
ited from the There remains a tendency to separ:lle the
contexts of phys ical or cosmological explanation and of ethics,
6J. NBh on 3.2.73: the word adnM is introduced at NS 3.2.72. There is no good
reason 10 accept the suggestion of NyaY<lvartlikatalpm),atlka that [hi s is a
J aina Vil' W. I[ rna)' rather be 3 view whi(; h at a .'en ai n time its proponents "'ithin
o r N)':iya itself. The question of the causality of alOmic mutio n is highly
ambiguous in Jaina thought ; although .. r",a and "dh"rma function as media of
motion and rest and may t""en be calkd their Cluses ( Kundakunda. P,,,ira>likayasdYtl,
\'. 102; 801"'01(1<111 bidik ara(Ja'.Ji ), I hey are not supposed to be efficient (ibid., \'. 95), bu I
onl y conditi onal and auxiliary causes (upagralla; Tall'lIar lhasiUfa 5.(7),
a"J a cerlai" spuntaneous causali . y is I"f 0 ", ovahl,
(cf. \'. 96).
64. Yy, pp. 638 ff.
6S. Praiast<lpJ.d<lbharya (PB). in N K (sec n. 48 above), pp. 308 ff. On the role of
in the process of sense percepti o n, cf. p. 186; in dreams. p. 184;
.. dh<lrma as J hClOr in the occurrence of doubt, p. ]75: also gl'ner:tlly in Ihe explana-
tion of phenomena like desi re, aVl"uion, pleasure, etc. VS 4. L 9, whi ch de:tls wilh Ihe
condi tio ns of perception and corresponds to PB. p. 186, does not menti on dharma.
66. PB, pp. 48 ff. We cannOI discuu here the questi on of the inlluence of II. .. " Gre:!t
Lo rd" (MahdvarJ) in this
,88 WILHelM HAUI]: ASS
sOIcriology, and Vedic apologetics. The physical functions of ad-ma,
in parti cula r the specific examples given by the Siilra, are left om of
consideration in the sect ion o n dbarma and adharma within the
systematic survey of the qUllities; thi s section focuses, qui te in accor-
dance with the more popular connotations of dharma, on socio-
religious duties and their karmic implicati o ns. Instead , it is a sCelion
in the chapter on "motion" (i.e., kafllltOl in it s technica l Vaisesika
meaning) which presents adrull in its more specifi cally physical and
biological role and which refers to the peculiar kinetic function s at-
tributed to it in the Sii lrtt. 61
Prasastapada says thaI, aplrt from its other functions, ad!"!(a has to
lcCOunt for such phenomena in the merely mlteriai. physical rea lm of
the elements (mtl!JtlbJufta) which do not have an otherwi sl' ascert ain-
able cause (atlllpalabhyamtltlllkilrWIa) and which can be beneficial or
harmful (lipakarapakarasamarliJa) to us .(,8 This twofold condition
illustrat es a basic ambigui ty in the meaning of adrS(tl: on the olle
hand, it serves as a kind o f gap-filler in the rea lm of physical causali ty,
providing a principle of explanation where other, "visi ble" and there-
fore preferable causes fail. On the other hand, it serves as a device to
interpret the world process as sallJsara, in terms of reward and
puni shment , of Wh'll is beneficial and harmful to us. th us not s imply
suppl eme nting, but potentially replacing the whole context o f
"natur:d" physical causali ty; as we have seen. Prasastapilda tends to
universali ze the presence and influence of dharmi c, (ttributive causal-
ity, also trying to iTll egrate the '"Lord," isvara.
E. Frauwallner, to whom we owe the most penetrating and reliable
analysis of the system, has suggested that in its the
was a " pure" philosophy of nature, theoretical in its ori-
entation, interes ted in the explanati on of natural pheno mena, nOt in
soterio logi cal schemes and methods of liberation from 6'1
Whatever the original sta tus of the Illay have beell -
whether we accept Frauwallner's stimul ating, yet inevi tably specu-
lative thes is or not - it remains undeniable that the soteriological
orienta ti on is nOt genuinely at home in This was clearly felt
even within the Indian tradition; the dha rmic cOnlmimwnt and the
soteriological relevance of t he doctrine of categories were
67. rB. pp. JOS ff .
6S. Ibid. There is a rule in that "in"isible" uuses should tlOI be itl"ohd as
long 3S "visible" are
69. Cf. Frauwdllner 2, p. 90 (trans., p. ( 0).
I\AR'\IA, APORVA. AND "NATURAL" CAUSES
repeatedl y questi oned. Prasastapada's procedure, as well as t hat of
the fi nal redactors of the may in part be understood as
a response to such charges, found in the N)'iiytlbhiiryll and other
texts. 70 whi ch may primarily ha ve been a ga p-filler in the
causal explication of the universe, subsequentl y offered itself as a
channel for a much more decidedly dharmic and soteriologi cal re-
interpretation of the theory of the uni verse. At the same
time, this theory of the universe and of the categories of reality was
presemed as a framework and basis for explicating in a theoreti cally
coherent manner the status and funCtions of retributi ve causality, to
account for karma in terms of a comprehensi ve metaphysics and
categoriology. Insofar as adnra is presented as a potentially 311-
pervas ive fa ctOr in the universe, in particular as the moving force of
its periodic regenerations. a karmi c framework has been provided for
the functioning of "natural " ca usa lit }'; on the ot her hand, dhltrmal
adhamM, or what is call ed karma in most of the ot her systems, has
found its theoretical accommodation in a context which remains
primarily that of a ph ilosophy of nature and a doctrine of categori es.
This is a balance whith is at the same time a compromise, and it has
obviously contributed to t he scholasti c pet rification of the
As we have notked earlier, this use of karmaladm:l as a principle of
cosmological explanation was rejected by the Mimaql sa; it found .
however, a more positive response in a school which has a much
more genuinely soteriological orientat ion than the the
Sankhya.
71
\'ife need not discuss here in detai l the more techn ical problems of
how adma is supposed to function in the contextS of physical and
mental ca usation . Our main concern is its status in the general field of
ca usality, the question of how it relates to or intetacts wit h other
causal f:tct ors. The most common suggesti on in Prasast"ap:ida' s work
is that of a causa! aggregate in which admll functions as one among
other l' auses its absence or presence, JUSt like the absence or
presence of other factors, may dec ide whether an effect, be it an act of
ptTception or a physiologi cal process, takes place or 110ti or it may
add to or subtract from what other causes may bring about. 12 How-
70. NBh o n 1.1.9 COn1rol.SIS th( 3S objects of
wi th the soterio!ogicallr N )' a)'ol. calq;Ol"y of pr,mleya. In Ih{'"
of it s claim, NBh shows Ihe inllucne<' of Buddhist
thought.
71. Cf. Fr.lu wJl1ncr I, pp ... 04 ff (mns., pp. JIS ff. ).
71. dl}()\(', p. 1S5.
\'(II LHEL\\ H i\LBI' ASS
ever, sometimes it seems 10 represent not so much one causal factor
among others, but rather anothe r level of ca usalit y, or something li ke
a medi um and condition of causal efficacy, which may unleash, neu-
tralize, or counteract causal influences in the mental as well as in the
physical sphere. In this sense, its function would come closer to that
of the "category" of "potency," sakli, which is included in the
categorial systems of the Prabhjbra school and of Candramati 's
Dasapadimhi, but is rejected in classical 73
An importJnt condition of the understanding of ad,(Ha is that its
substrat a, the souls, are supposed to be omnipresent (viblJlt). Its
efficacy is thus nOt at all restricted to that particular body which is
attached to its underlying (amtlll as an instrument of SallJ.saric ex-
perience. Since any almall is omnipresent, its adma can fu nction
anywhere and affect all those entities which may become rel evant for
it in terms of karmic rewa rd and punishment . An illustrati on of this is
given in Uddyota kara' s Nyayavarttika: if somebody waters a tree,
the success of his acti on, that is, the process of fert ili zation and
growth, may be influenced by the brma of the person who at a later
time will eat the fruit s of the tree; it becomes the function of the tree,
directed by the karmic potential of a soul which mayor may not be
th:l.I of the person who watered the tree, to provi de an opportunity of
retributi ve experience, of enjoyment.
Although any soul's ad'(Ha may potentially function anywhere, it
has, of cou rse, a specific jurisdiction over the particubr body which
serves as a vehicle of retribution for that soul which is th(' adrstf/ 's
"own" underlying subs tratum. The body, together with the sense-
organs and the "mind" (manas), provides the arma" wi th its karmic
rewa rds and punishments, and the ad,(Ha regulates their appropriate
di stribution.
The necess it y of meri t and demerit for the explanation of organi c
processes and st ructures is already a them(> in the Nyayas/llr(/ , and the
and its subcommemaries giv(' us elaborate and for -
malized " proofs" for this necessi ty: there ha\'(> to be vehicles, in-
73. Cf. Frauwallner 2, p. 154 (uans .. p. 109). is by v r. p. 194, and
NK. pp. 1044 ff.
74. Ny,ip v,i rttik.Jm (NV) of Udyotabra Misra, V. D\'i\cdin (Cakuna. Bib
liothCCJ IrIdin, 1887- 1914). on 4.1. 47: l11 ii1.l.Ickiidikarmak rutlI bho kwl! brmj-
pcham pphivyadidhi tum anus rh!):;ti. NV on 3.2.67 call s the fUl1ct io llS of brnu
with nferenc< to thc body "rcsu ictin-" (m),i'i nMka).
!\AR/o.!A, APORVA, AND "NATURAL" C AU SES
'9 '
struments of retributive experience; and the complex instrumental
character of organic bodies (Sarira) would remain unexplained if they
were not seen as fulfilling this very function and as being shaped by
the retributive causality of dharma and adhanna. 75 Karmic causality
may affect material, physical processes in general; in the realm of life,
however, it appears as the most basic and decisive factor, as that
which distinguishes living organisms from lifeless matter. The im-
plication seems to be that there is no life without karma, that life
and the realms of biology and of soreriology. are exactly

coextenSIve.
A diametrically opposed view is presented and rejected in the
theory that there is no basic dist inction between
mere matter and living organisms, that all forms of life arc just spon-
taneous configurations of matter, that there is no need to postulate
karma as the formative principle of organisms.
76
This radical
materialistic denial of karmic causalit y remains, as we have noted
earlier, far from being a living challenge to the general acceptance of
the karma theory in classical Indian thought, and its rejection is
common to the Hindu, Buddh ist, and Jaina schools. Yet there arc
certain questions and ambiguities concerning the demarcation line
between the realms of life and lifeless matter; and it is not always
simpl y taken for granted that life and are exactly col'xtensive.
The special case of Jainism, which includes even minerals in its hori-
zon of living, satylsaric existence, need nOl concern us herl' . Even
within H induism, there has been some room for questions and di s-
agreements and for historical changes in thi s matter.
The standard idea of sa,,}sara, of transmigratOry existence and of
retributive causality, is that it comprises the whole sphere "from
Brahma to the tufts of grass" (brabmadistambap' H}'ama). YCt, Ihe
indus ion of the plants or vegetables has not always been accepted in
all the philosophical schools of Hindui sm. In Prasastap:ida's sys-
lenl3lization of vegetables are not classified as living or-
gani sms (f<lrfm) , that is, as receptacles of experience, but as mere
"objects" just like sto nes, they are nothing but special con-
fi gura tions of the element eanh .
77
The Vaiscp"kasiitr,j itself remains
75. Nbh on 3.2.63 ff. The d ... finiti on of itl rira is ginn in LUI.
76. Ibid. This is already r...farrd to in NS 3.2.63 : Bhlitebhyo mur-
tyupldhat udupadanam.
77. PD. p" 17.
H ALBFASS
ambiguous and poses, moreover, peculiar philological problems in
this cOllnection.
711
[n later Va ise$ika texts, the whole issu{' is tacitl y
dropped or its treatment is adjusted to the more comprehensive vi ew
of which includes the vegelables. An explicit discussion of
the problem is found in Udaya na's although trees are
seats of experi ence, although they have all the basic attributes of
living. experiencing beings. Prasastapada ehos" nOt to incluJ" them in
the class of sarira, because their internal awareness is extremel y faint
(alimamlimtahsan;j,jata) and because they are mostl y mere sub-
sidiaries to other living beings.
79
Udayana still argues for what his
successors usuall y take for granted. Cenain border- line problems are
al so found in the case of the lowest animals. slIch as worms and
insects, crearures whi ch are call ed hlldrajantll, svedaja, and so forth
in Indian tradition. The most familiar type of biological or
zoological cl assifi cati on in India follows the criteri on of the origin.
the kind of " birth " of the vari ous creatures. In two different versions,
this scheme is already found in t WO of the oldest Upanipds, the
Chii!lliogya and the Aitarcya. According to the Clu/m/og)'rl Upa-
al1li vi ng beings are either " born of an egg" "born
alive" (jivaja), or "sprout- born" (lI dbhijja, born from something
that bursts, spli lS) . Instead of thi s threefold sche!l1 e, Ihe Aita ye)'"
has a fourfold one: "egg- born." "sprOUl' born " (udbhin-
Ilaja), " born with an embryonic skin" v,i mja, later usuall y jtmiyuJd
and corresponding tojivaja), and finall y "sweat-born" (svedaj<l, in a
more general sens,,: born from warmth :lnd moisture). The twO Upa-
ni$ads neither expla in nor ('Xemplify exactl y ,vlllt til{' Y mean by
these class ifi cations. However, we find these schemes, predominantly
the fourfold one, with certain variations in many tatef texts of diff"r-
78. The Stun whi ch .l ivi d{"$ thl' products of .... arlh into sells{" organs, and
ohi"'u is fOllnd only in the version (4.2. 1).
79. Prasaf/, ' p:id"bhiil)'am wit h the comln . of Udayan::i.carya . ed. J. N.
J .... tly (Baroda, GOS. 1971). p. 39 Cf. pp. 39-40: nksidaph pratiniyal.lbhok-
t riid h hil :; 1.1, ii " Jnama,anaS"ap"apra ijgarallarogabhl'saj apra }'ogabii as a j:i
tiyjn ub3ndh:lnu kulopagantapratiku]apagamjdibhpl.' pra5iddhahri ravat: trees, ,Ie.,
;Ire inh.l bited by particubr experiencers, since they show all the characteristics sud,
as li ,ing. dying, sl.::cp, wakin g. dis{"Jse. cunbilily. ;ltt.lchmcnt to Ih .... ir own
species, seeking what is favorahle. avoiding whal is unfa"o, able, which wI' find also
in Ihe ca.e of what is generally ac.:epled as Sar; . ,. In a diff( , (", 'lues!ion
is to by Vromasi,,;} (Vr, p. 404). Cf. ;llso Upa,.ka, a on \is
4.15. NK. p. 83. denies , o"L, in trees. {"te.
80. Chi", dQgya Up,milail 6.3.1.
81. AiMrI'Y,' Upampd 3.3.
KA RM A. tl f' URV,l. ANI) "NATUIC.\, L" CAUSI' S
'93
ent branches of Indian learning, in ph ilosophy, in medicine, in
dharma litcraturc.
M2
We need nOt discuss hen.' the implications of the
(birds , fi sh, etc. ) andjlvaja groups (viviparous, mostl y
mals), nor even of the more problemati c group of the IIdbhijja
tures (which are nOt always simply undersTOod as plants or
bles, but occasionally also as animals coming from a larva, etc.). The
group which is of primary interest in the present context is that of the
" sweat-born" creatures.
Th,' class of " sweat-born" or "heat-born" creatures often coincides
more or less with what in other contexts is called kpldrajantl/, " little,
insignificant creatures." The expression bhllttllli is already
found in the Chandog)'a 83 where \1,'e arc 101d that these
creatures live according 10 the rule "be born and die" and do nOI
enter the "way of the fathers," whic h is a cycle leading back to an
earthly existence, nor the "way of the gods," which is without retu rn
to earth. It has been suggested that this means that their existence is a
merely ephemeral one and that they do nOt take any parI in the
processes of transmigration and n:tribution.
1I4
Such an interpretation
would go beyond the ambiguous statement of t he and it
would not have the suppOrt of the parallel version of this text in the
It seems that we an' dea ling here not
wit h completely cxtra- transmigrational forms of life, but rat her with
a form of soteriological failure which would relegate Ihese creatures
to an endless repetition of their state of being, not giving them any
opportunity fo r soteriological ascent.
At any rate, the biological and soteriological status of the creatures
known as and svedaja seems to be rather precarious in
several texts, and more than once the possibility of a spontaneous,
non-karmic origin of these forms of life suggests itself. Worms, mag-
gots, licc, and similar creatures are supposed to originate in various
Cf" for ,xamp!{'. Manu 1.43 ff . A classifi cati on of four t),pes of binh (Joni) is
also found in Buddhism: m.lt!aja, ; .. labula, opapiuik<l (Maj}bimanik'lJa
12. eJ . V. Trenckn{,T I London. 1888], vo l. 1. p. 73). Op"palik<l rcf"rs!O the " sudden"'
ori gi nat ion of gods, and so forth. o !] cl assifications, d . Fr:lUwaltncr 1.
pp. 266 ff. (trans., pp. !9} ff.). Slilt hdpfu! :IS a genera! surw y, but 10 be us{'d with
caution: B. N. S ... J!. Th ... l'c"ilivr Scil."'CI.'S of Ih.' Ancient Hi"dus (Londo!]. 1915); on
plant life: G. P. V""<l Jptlli (Caicum, 1927).
83 . Chandogp Upanifad 5. 10.H. Cf. PaQin i 2. 4.8: Pdtari jaii has
l' ariQu s suggestions on Ihe exact meaning of Ih ... lern,. Cf. Yr , p. 229:
yii kad"pi?
84. Cf. H. ,'O!] Gbs{, llapp.indisch,' GeiJlr Swdl (Bad ... n Bad"'ll s.a .), vol. 2, p. 209.
85. Brhadimmyaka Up.,,"sad 6.2.1 - 16; ,'sp. 6.2.16.
294
W1LHEUt HA LIlI'ASS
disintegrating materials, in rotting food. in corpses. in pus, in excre-
ment, and from other kinds of organic warmth and we
even have the curious case of the small worms (krmi), which accord-
ing to some writ ers on the science of erOlies (kiimasastra) are pro-
duced from blood (raktaja, rudhirodbhava) in the female sex organs
and cause there the " itching" of sexual passion.
81
None of
these texts gives us a theory of the spontaneous, non- karmi c origina-
tion of certain forms of life; on the other hand, there is no indication
of an agency of "souls" and their karma in these processes.
It is not surprising that the appearance of maggots in rotting mate-
rials was used by the Carvakas and other materialists in their ar-
for a non-karmic, spOntaneous origi nation of life from
mere matter. In the canonical writings of the Buddhi sts as well as of
the Jainas, we hear about a materiali stic king by the name of Payasi
(Prakrit form: Paesi), who conducts various "experiments" to dem-
onstrate the non-existence of the souiand the soulless origination of
living creatures. For example, he has a persoll executed whose
corpse is PUt in an iron pOI which is then sealed up. When the pOl is
opened again some time later, the corpse is full of maggots . For
PayasilPacsi, this means: no souls could get into the pot, since it had
so mUS t have been soulless, s po ntaneous origina-
ti on of life. And if this is possi bl e in the case of worms, why not al so
in the case of humans?
The materialistic reference to the al legedly spontaneous origination
of life ill rotting materials is still mentioned in the piirvapak$lI secti ons
of various tater texts such as Jayanta's NyaYilmatijllri; in Jaya nta's
own view, there can be no doubt that it is the prcsence of souls
(arman) and the efficacy of their karma which transforms parts of
rotting substances, such as ron ing sourmilk , intO the bodies of
worms, thus creat ing peculiar vehicles of karmi c retribution.
A9
The
Jaina comment at or GUQara tna even turns thc appearance of worms in
corpses into a di rect argument agaiwt materialism.
9O
In sueh classical
86, Cf.. c.g., ,H"hiibiJary.1 on Pal)ini 1.4.30: a casual rdercfl ce to
origination of "dung-beetles" (vrkjka) from cow-dung. On the same phenome-
non," c f. Sai, kJu (also Bhisbra) on BS 1.1.6. Othcr cxamples may be found in
mcdicalli,erJtur,'.
87. R. Schmidt. Beitrag!, zur j"dlS(bf" hOlik (Bcrlin.
1
1911), p. 257 (quot ing from
thc RariMhasyd and t ht A "dilg"Y" ;'8a ).
8R. Cf. Fr.1uwallner 2. pp. 297 ff. (trJns., pp. 216 ff. ).
89. NM 2, p. 13: dad},y .. vaY"lJan vikrlan upiularytll e . .. .
90. TtHk"Y,1h.n)""dipikii on Haribhadra's $a4daYiIlna5llmuccaya, ". 49. (d. ,\-1. K.
laifl (C.akutta, Jiiandpi, ha ;\! lini t!c\", JdinJ Gnntbmal:i, 1969), pp. 114 ff. Cf.
Adiyai/g<lSHty,,1.1.6.
ArURVA, AND "NATURAL" CAUSES
'95
and later sources, there is, in faCt , an incre.1si ngly systenl.1tic and rigid
superimposition of religious and soteri oiogicai schemes and perspec-
tives upon biological , zoological, observati ons, and a
gr.1dual evaporation of the spirit of observation, of the empirical
openness for n.1tural phenomena. The old schemes of biological and
zoological classification arc not further developed or empirically
supplemented.
9
! The imerest in such classifications is more and more
overshadowed by the interest in the ways and levels of the
old schemes of classification are reduced to, or replaced by, sote-
riological hierarchies .
We have discussed earl ier how karmic causality, specifically in Vai-
interacts wi th other ca uses, how it influences or controls phys-
ical and other natural processes, how its sovereignty is extended and
stabilized in the development of thought. To conclude this
discussion, it may be an :l.ppropri:lte experiment to reverse our
persp('ctive and to ask whether or to what degree the efficacy of
physical and other "natural," non-karmic causes may extend into
what should be the domain of karmi c retribution. Since retribution
takes place in the realm of awareness, of the experience (bhoga) of
pleasure or pain, we may formulate this question as follows: is there
anything in the realm of experience, of pleasant and unpleasant states
of awareness, which is controlled nOt by karma bm by the intrusion
of non-karmic factors? Is there, for example, the possibility of
"undeserved" suffering caused by "merely" natural ca uses? In his
presentation of "pleasure" (s lIkha) and "pain" (duJ!kha ) as two
"qualities" of the soul, Prasastapada states that they arise "in
relat ion to dharma" (dharmadyapek!a); 92 apart from [hi s, nOt much
explicit attention is paid to the problem in literature. There
is certainly nothing that might be compared to the very pronounced
and explici t way in which some Buddhist texts, specifically of the
Ther.1vo.da tradition, address this question.
In Moliyasivaka asks whether it is true that all
pleasant, painful, and neutral feelings are ca used by past deeds (pllb-
bckatahetu). The Buddha responds by enumerating eight di fferent
causes of diseases; the "ripening of karma" (kammavipaka) is only
one of these.
9 3
The conclusion is that the view referred to by
91. We:He nOt considering certain developments in medicallitcrature. On the Vai-
sqika way of including th. biological materials in mythical sOltrioJogicaJ schemes,
d. FT3uwallner 2, pp. 41 ff. (trans., p. 23) .
92. PB, pp. 259- 260. In the cas .. of d"J,kI!a (p. 260), referencl' is mad .. toadharma.
93. 26.21, ed. L. FI.'"CT, vol. 4 ( London, 1894). pp. no ff.
WILHELI>I HALBFASS
Moliyasivaka is nOt tenable. The Milindapa/Illa quotes thi s passage
from the SIl"}Ylfttllnikayd and relates it [0 the question of whether
there can still be painful experiences for the T3.thagata whose stock of
brma has been eliminated. '14 The answer is that there can be such
experiences. caused by physical (vents like the falling of a stOne, and
tha t he is still subjeCt to such diseases which are nOt due to karmic
factors. Remarkabl e debates on the scope and limits of karmic
it)' are al so found in the Kilihavattlm; they illustr:ne the cont roversial
Status of this theme as well as the basic contrast whidl was seen
between the " private" and experiential processes of the "ripening of
karma" and such " public" and cosmic processes as lhe formation of
the eanh .'15
There has been a tendency to di sregard or reinterpret the view
expressed in the Milindapa/iha, and it has cert ai nl y nOt become the
prevailing view in Theravada onhodoxy. 9b This \' ie\\/ may, in fact,
show a certain lack of universality and a rigidity in the application of
the brma principle; yet in the wa)' in which it exposes even the
Buddha to "ordinary," " natural," " neutral" causal ity. it opens a
mension of freedom, of indifference towards karma and its peculiarly
" selfi sh" and " private" causality. At the very least, it illustrates a
probltm which was usuall y di sregarded or simply precluded by
definition .
Epilogue: The " Way of the Fathers" and the
Theory of Karma in 5ankara's Advaita Vedanta
Both the Chandogya and the
contain, wi th certain variations, a chaprer which P. Deussen has called
' the mOSt important and most explici t text on the theory of transmi-
gration which we have from the Vedic period. "97 The text first
sents the doctrine" ( pa,kagrlividY'i ), which is supposed to
answer, among other questions, the question why the " other world,"
94. The Mililldapanh.l, cd. V. Trenckncr ( London, 1880; repro 19(1), pp. 134 ff.
95. K<llhii tauJm 7.7-10, specifically 7.7: pa.thavi kammavi pii ko ti? 7.10 establ ishes a
sharp diSlinCli on bel ween kamma and k"mmavip:' k" .
96. Cf. 1Iw 51atcmcntS of leading Sinhalese authoriti es referred 10 by Ny:inatiloka,
Die Fr"gen dn ,\filindo, vol. 1 (Leipzig, 1919). pr. 216 ff. (n. Il l ).
97. Srchzig Upanish<l ds des \'ed,1 1921, repro 1963), p. 137. The IWO se, -
lions ar .. found in Chiinr/og}" 5.3- 10 and 6.1
(=J alapalh" Brilhma(I" 14.9.1).
KARMI\, rll' V R\:tI, AND "N .. \TURAI." CAUSES
'97
in spite of so many creatures dyi ng and passing into it , does not
become full, that is, how and why there is return from that world into
thi s eart hl y sphere, In the sacrificial language of the Brihmaryas, we
learn that man, in hi s return, has to pass through five stages or trans-
formations whi ch are all considered to be sacrifi cial fires , or as taking
place within the context of sacrificial fires: man (i .e. , deceased man) is
"sacrifi ced" by the gods in "that world" as srtlddha, "faith"; then he
becomes soma, rain, food, semen. from whi ch he will again arise as a
human being. Subsequently, this doctrint' is combined wi th the di s-
tinction between the "way of the fathers" (pilryana) and the "way of
the gods" (devllytma). The " way of the gods" is the way of those
who, through their knowledge and bith, reach the "worl d of
brahman," beyond the sun, and liberation from earthl y existence.
The "way of the fat hers ," on the ot her hand, is the way of those who
have done pious and sacrificial \vorks and have enjoyed the reward
resulting from these deeds in he;tven, bUl h;tve ultimately been unable
to avoid the return into an ea rthl y l'xistence. A "third abode"
slbiiJ/am) is also rcierred to: it means existence as low ani -
mals and is for those who do not reach the "way of the gods" o r the
"way of the fathers." According to the all those
who die proceed at least to the moon from where they may be turned
back. The doctrines of the "five fires" and of the "tWO paths" obvi-
o usly do not form an original unity; in fact, the "t wO paths" found
outside this combination, for exampl e, in the KlI/({ilaki
and, side by side wi th the combined version, in the Jaimilllya
"8 We ca nnot and need not enlarge here o n the specifi c
problems and highl y controversial issues connected with the int erpre-
tati o n of these doctrines.
99
Our primary concern is the character of
the sequence of events which constitut es the "way of the fat hers," its
type and patt ern of regularity, and the way in which man is seen as

partlClpatlng In It.
The downward part of the "way of the fathers" coincides basicall y
wi th the sequence of the fires." Howevcr, it is more naturalistic
in its presentati on , describing the sequence of eve nts as a seri es of
natura l transformations rather than a sac rificial series: there is lrans-
98. UpanilIJd 1.1 ff. jai",ill;)," Brahm,,,!,, 1.lS; Ihe "wmbined" "enion:
l AS ff. The jaiminiya versions differ in various '" ay 5 from the other ver5ions. On the
inHl ",at"r, food, sted, d. SatIJpalha ),7A.4
99. For J bOo<! surv ... )". d. H. W. Boocwitz,jai",illi.)'1J 1.1 - 6S. Transla-
lion and Comillentary (L('idcn. 1973), pp. ff.
WI LH ELM HA I. BFt\ SS
formati o n int o ether, wind , rain, and food-Ihat is. nourishing
etables ; these, being eaten and transformed into semen, may lead the
one who has gone Ihrough t hese stages back into human o r poss ibly
animal existence.
l uo
Natural cycles, recurrent, seasonal phenomena
are used as vehicl es of the migralions or transformations of t he human
being between its ea rthl y existences. Dea th and birth, ascent and
return-the phases and phenomena of man's existence rd:n c to or
even coincide with natural, cos mic, meteorol ogical events, such as the
ascent of smoke to the sky, the phases of the moon, the seasons, the
seasonal rains. The goal is to get beyond these cycli cal , seasonal
processes, to a permanent or to Ihe world of brahman . In
several ancient textS, the moon is the lord of the seasons, those reg-
ularities which imply the recurrence of life and death , which det er-
mine the scope and the limits of the "way of the fathers." He is the
guardian of heaven. In t he he examines the
knowledge of those who ascend to him after their death, and he
dec ides whet her they may proceed to those sphe res where they are
free from the seasonal cycles and the repetition of their earthl y exis-
lence. [n t he \ersions of the Ch;;mdogy<l and UP(i -
no such function is assigned to t he moon; the d ivision o f the
" twO W:"Lys" takes plan.' already here on earth. [n the J(iiminl),<1
the seasons themselves appear as guardi ans and conduct
the deci sive examination. !()1
There are only a few stati ons in the succession o f events where
kno wledge and meri t become relevant. They decide whether one re-
mains confined !O the "way o f the fathers" or reaches the "way of the
gods"; within the " way of the fathers," the merit of past deeds,
primarily sacri fi cial acts, decides how long one is all owed to st ay in
tbe realm of t he moon . Apart from this, entering upon the "way of
the fathers" means to be subject !O a succession of events and trans-
formations which follows its own " natur:d " order and is nOt di rected
o r kept in motion by the ret ri buti ve ca usalit y of our deeds. To be sent
into a plant , a vegetabJc. , is nOt in itself a form of retribution and
punishment; it is JUSt the o rdinary, " natural" way of returning to the
earth. The texts under d iscussion are st ill far from a dear and
100. The version of the Chancing)", is more deuiled. se" eral
addit ional stages of tunsformati on.
101. 1.18. ,,ith Ihc notcs by H. W.
Budewi t7-. pp. 55 ff., 11 7 f! . On the connection I:x-Iw('cn life and death and day and
night, the phas('s of the moon. and so forth. d. Brb.ulara(lyak" Up,,,,if,uJ J .!.J ff .
KAR.MA. IIPORI' II, AND "NAT URAL" CAUS ES
'99
thorough conception of karmi c, retributive causalit y; other passages
in the may indeed come much closer to
such a conception. 101 Problems of the conti nuity and coherence of act
and retribution or of the durability and identi ty of the subject in the
various processes of transformati on do not become explicit; the ques-
tion "who or what transmigrates?" is not reall y asked.
A transition which seems parti cularly delicate and problematic,
most notably in the version of the Chandogya is the trans-
fer from the vegetable bei ng into the organism and to the level of
being of its cater, its consumption and appropriat ion by a human
being or by an animal. While natural processes take care of the trans-
portation up to the vegetable existencc, thc next step is obviously of a
different order. Tht' ChandogYil Upani!ad emphasizes that it is a very
difficult transition. 10.1 As a matt er of fact, it seems to bt' left to mert'
chance which kind of living being wi ll consume a parti cular vegetable,
extract its essence, transform it into the semen of a new creature, its
own offspri ng, and thus raise it to its own level of being. Tht' mOst
exemplary account of the format ion of tht' semen, a "second atman"
in the bod y of the father, and of the processes of conception and
birth, is fou nd in the Aitareya 11).1 and it has bet'n taken fo r
granted by the tradi tional commentators that this has to be under-
stood in the context of till' "way of the fathers."
Onl y the version of the Chandogya tries to establish a
rel:uionship bet ween one's type of birth and the preceding good or
bad conduct in a passage which appears somewhat abruptly
and seems to be a laler addition. 105 Later systematizers, in particular
Sahkara, refer specificall y to this problematic t ransition, trying to
harmon ize and to reconcile, but at the same time making explicit the
di fft'rences and tens ions between this scheme of thought and the later,
fully developed theory of karma.
The most explicit and most coherent discussion of karma and
transmigra tion whi ch W (' find in writings, Brahma-
siilrabhti f)' a 3. 1.1-27, deals primarily wi th the exegesis of the "twO
ways' and the " five fires;' spe..: ifi..: all y th..: "way of the fathers."
emphasizes that onl)' sruri is a really authori tativc source for
our knowledge and understanding of the processes of karma and
102 . Cf. Upallisad 3.2. 13: 4.4.3 ff.
103. C/Jimdogya S.10. b. _
104. Ai/aT!')"" Upa" i1ad 2. 1 ff. (= Ailar!'ya Ara(l)"aka 1.5. 1 fL).
lOS . Chimdogy<l Upalli5ad S.10. 7.
JOO
WI LH EL \ \ 1-! t\LB FASS
transmigrat ion : attempts to explain thi s mauer in terms of assump-
tions produced by human thought al one
are inevitably futil e; th" various theories and conceptuali-
zations presentcd by the SJi1khya o r the by the Buddhists
or the Jainas, are contradicted by one anOther as well l S by 5ruti . 106
Nevenheless, Sailkara devdops a rather elaborate scheme of reason-
ing designed to harmonize and systematize the teachings of srl/ti, to
reconcile the patt ern of the " wa y of the fath ers" with tha t under-
st:mding of tr:msmi gr:lIion which is expressed in the metaphor of the
caterpillar, lo7 an understanding whi ch seems to imply a much more
direct t ransition from one body into the next one, wi thout such a
long and complicat ed interlude as the I n his explanation and
apologetics, Sanbra al so uses a peculi ar interpretation of the theory
of apijF<Ja; it states that subtle ingred ients or transfo rmations of the
sacrifi cial oblations, specifically of the sacrifi cial water, constitute the
apiir'".;a which "envelops" the soul of the sacrifi ce r, accompanies it to
the heavenly spheres, and keeps it there as long as the sacrifi cial merit
IBIS. lOS Following an inter pretati on which had already been
suggested by Badaray;u.la' s predecessor Sahkara states that
once a transmigrating soul ( jiva) has been led back to ea rth by t he
"WJY of the fathers," into the cond ition of a vcgel:l.ble, it s karmic
residue (alllfsaya) wi ll determine its further deveiopml'nt. Thl' as-
sumption of such a residue which remains aft er the processes of en-
joyment and cancellati on of karma in the heavenly spheres is ex-
plail1('d and justified in an elaborate di scussion. In this way, )ankara
tries to bridge what might appear as a gap in the causal sequence, to
establish that the transition from the vegetable to its "eat er" is not left
to mere chance_ 109
It is a familiar phenomenon and need not furth er concern us here
that Sanbra in hi s interpretati o n and apol ogetics presupposes and
employs doctrines and conceptual deVi ces devel oped at a much later
time than the texts he is dealing Wi th. For our present di scussion, it is
mo re signi ficant that hi s exegesis of Ihe --five fires" and the " way of
the fa thers" ultimately and expli ci tl y demonstrat es the unreconciled
]0(.. On BS 3. 1. 1.
]07. As used in BrhadaraIJ)"ab Upamfad -U .3.
]08. On BS 3.1.6. This or a similar theory is aln-.ldy referred to and by
Prabhjkara . Brh, p. 32,\. On llS 3.2.38 ff . .5ail kara criticizes Ihe Mimll)ISl ,'p"TVa.
]09. Cf. on ll S 3.1. 8 ff. Bidaray.tna Tefns 10 in as .\. 1. 9.
KARI-.1A. tlI'URVA. AND "NATURAL" CAUSES
)0'
dispa rity of these old models and the later systemat ic
understanding of karma and transmigration. Following the lead of
Badarayarya, he arrives at a curious juxtaposition of twO different
transmigrating entities (jlva) in one and the same organism.
The rai n which falls to eanh nourishes the plants, but it does not
give them their life-principle. Ajlva which is sent down to earth by,
or in the form of. rain is thus attached to an organism which is al ready
occupied and operated by a jiV,1 of its own . It cannot really be em-
bodied in such an organism; it is only located in it as a kind of "guest
jlva." Sankara is very expli cit on this distinction of different jivas in
one vegeta ble organism: for thejiva that has been "born into" and is
embodied in a vegetable, this means a fo rm of karmic retribution, the
allocat ion of a part ic ular vehicle of retributi ve experi ence. For the
"guest jiva, " on the other hand. no karmic retribut ion is involved at
this particular stage. The descent according to the "ways of the
fathers" has its own order and regul arit y. wi th which karmic proces-
ses do not interfere; as far as this part of the journey is concerned, a
jiva does not accumulate any new karma, nor docs it experience the
results of previous karma. 110 The juxtaposition and contrast of the
twO jivas ill ustrat(' the interference of TWO different models of
thought and, moreover, of differe nt histori cal layers of rhe India n
t radit ion: a. scheme which is, apan from cenain crucial junctures,
primaril y left to " natural," seasonal, cosmic regularities interferes
wi th the more comprehensive context of the universalized theory of
karma and Sankara tries fait hfull y to preserve the peculiar
teachings on the "five fi res" and the " two ways." Yet, these ancient
Upani$adic schemes appear as curious epiphenomena or as fossili zed
reli cs in a uni verse now thoroughly governed by karmic causality.
In the wider framework ofSankara's thought, the expli cati on of t he
pecul iari ties of karma and the exegesis of the sacred texts on this
matter remain confined to the " lower level" of truth, to the realm of
vYdvaiJara. Ultimately, the notions of karma and 5Iln:Hara have only
one meaning and functi on: to provide a counterpart and stepping-
stone of liberating knowledg(" to show us what ul ti mate reality is not,
to expose the spatio-temporal universe in its ontological deficiency.
110. On BS J .1.24 ff. The duplication of the jivas, or wher the allocation of "guest
jivas," is repeated when the vegetable is eaten and by a human being or
an animal (on BS J.I.26). Ramlnuja and other later commentators agree with
011 th .. basic issues of thi s interpretation.
)0'
\XIILHEL:'! H,-\ lBFASS
The whole world is only :I stage for karmic processes, 111 or rather:
it is itself nothing but a karmic play. It owes its very existence to
karmic anachrn ent and superimposition, to that ignorance (avidyii )
which is the root-cause of our karmic involvement and in fact coex-
Icnsi \'c with it. To be in the world, 10 accept its re:!lity 3S welJ as one's
own worldly reality, means 10 ael in the world, to accept it as a
network of causal relations, of desires lnd results, as a context of
practical, pragmatic truth and confirmation. Causali ty is in it s very
essence karmic ('ausalitYi it const itutes the "reality" of the world, a
reality which can be defined only in terms of means and ends, of
praCtical consequences, of " reward" and "punishment," and which
becomes transparent as soon as the practical involvement in t he net -
work of means and ends is terminated. To be in samsara is not JUSt the
function of a particular demeri t; it is the function of and coincides
with the " involvement in causes and resul ts" ( /;ctl lphalavda) as
s uch . 112 The domains of karma and of cosmic ignorance and illusion
(av idya, maya) are identical. Karma is t horoughly universalized and
implemented in Sailkara's ph ilosophy. Yet , this radical and uncom-
promising consummation of the principle of karma is at the same time
a radical devaluation. ill [n a sense, the Lord (isvll ra) is the only
s ubject of t ransmigrati o n ( sa".IS(; rin ), accordin!; to Sailkara;"" in an
even more radical sense, there is no san:l$aril1 at all .
til. Cf. Sankara's commcntary on Aitart)'" 2.1 : Ihe world as providing
manifold facilili .... s (" S<>3IS") which ar .... suitable for II. .... manifold living being. 10
.... nn Ih .... ir karmic result s (am-kapriDibrmaphalopabhogayogyam-kid -

112. Cf. M:i(ldi.k),,,k:i.yihi 4.56: p"add sJmsiras 13.\'Jd
helUphali,-cSc "a upapadYdl d l. Cf. also Su reSvara, Naiskilr-
m)'a5zddhi 4.56. According to Ihe tradilion of AdvJiu Ve&inu, was
leJcher of Sail kara . 5 tea,-her Go,inda. while Sureh J U was Sail kara' s direct di Kipl .... _
113. Uni"crsaliulions which are at lnst equally radical and ambiguous are found in
Buddhis m. I t is well known Ihal is slrongly ;nllu .... " ccd by Ihc philosophy
of Nagariun3.
]]4. on liS 1.1 .5.
12
Karma as a
"Sociology of Knowledge" or
"Social Psychology" of Process/Praxis
GERALD JAMES LARSON
Int roduction
An interesting t heoretical puzzle that has emerged from the series of
conferences on the notion of karma in Soulh Asian thought is the
apparent anomal y between what might be call ed the "transference of
karma interpretation" and the "non-transference of karma interpreta-
tion."1 The former appears to correlate wit h McKim Marriott's and
Ronald Inden's transactional analysis, involving giving and receiving
(in the modalities of "optimal," "pessimal," "maximal," and "mini-
mal") within the cont ext of a unified cod(d substance and encom-
passing the entire range of with all of its rul es and
princi ples regard ing food, poll ut ion, marriage, work, and kinship.
Textual authority for such a transactional analysis (in addition to its
L For f- l3rriou's and Inden's " transactional" analysis, sec the following: M.
r;OI1 and R. B. lndcn. " Casle EIIC).clQpaedia BriralllliCli. 151h edition
(Chicago. !974), Mt1.(Topaeditl 111, pp. 982 - 9'H; Marri OIl and Inden, "Tow3rd an
Ethnosociology of South AsiAn Caste Syslems," The New V;tind: Changing Iden-
tities in 501<1h Asia, ed. K. A. David, World Anthropology Scril-s (The Hague;
Mouton, 1976); and Marri ott. "Hindu Transactions: Diversity without Dualism,"
Trtl"$daiollS a'lIl Metlll ing: DireCliom ill the Amhropolog)' of Excbange and Symbolic
Bebavior, cd. B. Kapfercr, ASA Essays in Social Anthropology, I (Philadelphia:
ISHI Publi cations, 1976), pp. 109- \42. See abo the introduction 10 this ,olume.
JOJ
GERALD J A.\lES LARSO N
contextual data} includes not only Manu and other traditions of
dharma-siwra bm also Vedic traditions of transference (e.g. , the
and so forth) and more popular notions of transfer-
ence found, for example, in the epics, the and later bhakri
traditions. The "non-transference of karma interpretation" appears
to correlate wi th certain philosophi cal traditions (for example, Yoga
and Vedanta), involving the notions of !iilga, karmasayas, vasal/as
and sa1i-Hkaras, in which a person's karmic heritage and karmic pos-
sibilities are construed indi vidually with apparently no provision for
transactional transference. Textual authority for such a "non-
transference perspective" is, of course, the darSana literature or at
least those port ions of dtlrStHlll literature concerned with mok?fl. Karl
H. Potter has suggested that the " transference" orient ation be desig-
nated the "pravrtti-perspective" and the " non-transference" ori enta-
tion the "nivrtti-perspective." Pott er has also suggested that these
twO perspectives may represent divergent historic traditions in South
Asian thought that have coexisted with one anot her over many cen-
turies and have generated various efforts at reconciliation-for
exampl e, the kind of reconciliation attempted in the Cita.
l
I wish to argue here that there are conceptual inadequacies both
in the " transference of karma interpretation" (thai is to say, in the
transactional, pravrtti orientation of Marriott and Inden) and in the
"non-transference of karma interprcurion" (that is to say, in the
non-transactional, nivrtti orientation of Porter), and that there is a
larger conceptual framework within the South Asian traditi on that
encompasses both "transference" and " non-transference." More-
ove r, I also wish to suggest that this larger conceptual framework of
karma serves as a rough equivalent in South Asia to what we would
usually cal! a "sociology of knowledge" or an interactionis! social
psychology.
Before setting forth the larger conceptual framework, however, I
want, first of all, to indicate why I find conceptual limitations in Ihe
"transference" and "non-transference" interpretations, for these
limitations became the occasion fo r my :m empling to devise a larger
conceptual framework. The conceptual inadequacies or limitations to
which I am referring emerge in the following way. The purpose of
these conferences was to uncover and describe t he system of karmJ. in
SOUlh Asia as an "indigenous conceptual system," and yet the twO
2. Sec Karl H. Potl er' s comribUli on in Ihis volume.
KARlll A AS A "SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE"
)0,
most cogent interpretations (namely, "transference" and " non-
transference") appear to make that purpose un:ut:l inable. An impasse,
indeed a ki nd of dilemma, shows itself which cannot be resolved
wi t hout moving to a different level of interpretation. If, on the one
hand, one accepts a "non-transference" interpretat ion, then it must
be conceded tha t only a very few spiritual "virt uosos" (to use
Weber's terminology) or "athletes of the spirit" (to use Zaehner's
termi nology) ('vcr accepted such an " indigenous conceptual system,"
and that, in fact, we are not really talking about a pervasive or wide-
spread "indigenous concept ual system" so much as we are tal ki ng
about what is more adequatel y described as a minor el itist ideology.
If, on the other hand, one accepts a " transfi.>rence" interpretat ion,
then it must be conceded that such an "indigenous conceptual sys-
tem" was impli citly or explicitly accepted by everyone except those
members of the culture who wcre primarily concerned with dcvising
"indigenous conceptual systems."
At this point, of course, the obvious move is to argue that we have
here a clear case of "di \'ergent hi storic traditions" in need of cultural
reconciliation, but methodologically this is an unwarranted move.
Why? Because it introduces the interpretive notion of " history," a
category which has no demonstrable place within any Somh Asia n
"indigenous concept ual system" (at least prior to the middle of the
nineteenth century). Quite apart from t he merit or lack of merit of an
historical interpretati on, it appears that South Asians themselves sel-
dom if ever used such an explanation . In other words, however South
Asians themselves dealt with the issues of " transference," "non-
transference," and so forth , it certainl y was not from the perspective
of hi stOrical interpretation, and by providing histor ical interpreta-
tions of Sout h Asian thought and culture modern interprete rs are
more or less ta lking to themselves. There is nothing wrong with the
latter enterprise, for at some stage in our work we as modern inter-
preters of South Asian culture must "encompass" (in Dumont's
sense) what Sou t h Asian culture represe nt s in our experience. The
crucial met hodological issue, however, is that the "encompassed" can
never pass itself off as an adequate characterization of an indi genous
interpretat ion. 1n other words, to put it directly, historical interpreta-
tion is Ollrs, not theirs! In a South Asia n environment. historical
interpretati on is no interpretation . It is a zero-category.
Regarding karma as an "indige nous conceptual system" in South
Asia, then, interpretive work thus far has reached an impasse, or
) 06 GERA LD JAM ES LAI{SON
indeed, as suggested above, a kind of dilemma. On the one hand,
there is indi sputable evidence for both a " transference" and a " nOI1-
transference" perspective (and various ambiguities in between), and it
is not really possible to resol ve the apparent anomaly by ut ili zing an
historical interpretation, since that approach methodologically begs
tile question . O n the mher hand , McKim Marriott 's transactional
interpretation, which ni cely avoids not only unwarrant ed historical
interpretation but :l number of other methodological biases as wel l,
comes up against a remarkable piece of counterevidence. That is to
say. MarriOit 's transacti onal interpretat ion, which is designed to be a
theoretical clarifi cation of indigenous SOllth Asian social reality de-
rived from wi thin the theoretical categori es of South Asian thought
itself, nevert heless appears to be falsified by thcoretical interpret a-
ti ons within thc tradition which represent the tradition's own theoret-
ical self-awareness, namely, the d (lrS(l1I(H. The acid test of a theory
like Marri on' s must surely be the tradition' S own theoretical reflec-
tion, and yet the theory appea rs not to pass the test. This impasse
then leads to the following dilemma: either (a) karma as an " in-
digenous conceptual system" harbors an anomaly which can no! be
resol ved other than by going outside the indi genous tradition (in the
direction of historical, structurali st, or some other non- South Asian
interpretation) or (b) karma as an "i ndigenous conceprual sys tem"
was never recogni zed as such by those theoreticians within the tradi-
tion who were responsible for creating " indi genous conce ptual sys-
tems." Moreover, if one is tempted to suggest a third alternati ve,
namely, that we are talking about twO or morc " indigenous concep-
tual systems," that does not sol ve the anomaly. for sllch an alternati ve
forces us eit her (a) to move back to the first part of the dilemma or
(b) to argue that there is no "i ndi genous conceptual system" of b rma
that encompasses in any important theoretical way the pluralit y of
systems that have been uncovered . All of the possi bilities, in other
words, lead to the remarkable conclusion that the original questi on
for research cannOt properl y be asked- namely, what is the mea ning
of karma as an " indigenous conceptual system" in South Asia?
The only way out of this impas se, in my judgment , is to interrogate
the South Asian tradition further in order to find a broader concep-
t ual framework that overcomes the gl aring anomaly of the
ence" and " non-transference" interpretations, and in the sequel [
shall try to reconstruct such a broader conceptual framework. 1 shall
KAKMA AS A "SOC!OLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE"
)07
utilize the Sahkhya philosophy as my primary body of evidence
cause (a) it is admitted by all researchers [0 be one of the oldest
conceptual systems in South Asia; (b) it theoreticall y maintains, in
my judgment, both a "transference" and a "non-transference"
perspective; and (c) its influence within the tradition is evident in
so-call ed transference envi ronments (for exampl e, the epics, the
and so forth) and in so-called non-transference environ-
mentS (namely the technical dariana literat ure). (Moreover, I can
claim a greater expert ise in Sankhya philosophy than in most other
systems, and, hence, [ fcc! more confident in reconstructing from it
what I take to be a larger conceptual framework for an interpretation
of karma as an "ind igenous conceptual system" in South Asia.)
Toward a Larger (Encompassing) Conceptual Framework
I shaH proceed, as it were, by moving sequentiall y from the "outside"
to the "inside" (or, in other words , from marc abstract general con-
siderations to the specific issue at hand, namely karma as a conceptual
system), utilizing, as was already indicated, a Sankhya inflection of
the indigenous conceptual system.
J
AN ONTOLOGY AND EPISTEMOLOGY
OF REDUCTIVE MATERIALlS,\l APART f'ROM " CONSCIOUSNESS"
The notion of prakrti in Sankhya philosophy implies a closed
causal system of reductive materialism" in
the sense that all thinking, fantasizing, imagining, feeling, and willing
can finally be reduced to a modal ity or function of sheer materiality.
Sankhya philosophy, to be sure, is nOt a crude materiali sm in the
sense that awareness is simpl )' an epiphenomenon of some kind of
gross stuff. Indeed, it is the reverse of crude materialism in that
Sahkhya argues that gross stuff is an epiphenomenon of subtle mate-
rial energy. It is true, nevertheless, that Sankhya refuses to make an
ontological distinction between what \'V'estern thought would call
J . My m' atmem of the slnkhya position is based largely on theS,ihkhyu,bin'k,i and
its import ant commentari es. Fo r a study of the history and meaning of the sinkhya
(together with the Sanskr it text Jnd English translation of the K,i rikii ), see my CLmi-
(aIS,i,izkhyu: An l"rcrprcrafion of Irs Hisfory' and Meaning (Drl hi: /I.,' otilal Banar
si dass, 1969; s<'<:ond revised edi tion, Universi ty of California Press and Motil al
Banarsidass, 1979).
j08 GERALD J ,\.\1 ES LARSON
" mind" :lnd " body" or " thought" and "extension," preferring,
rathe r, 10 encompass al l suc h distinnions within t he dosed causal
syStem of emergent praktti. Ordinary "awareness" (antal!karatJtl-
'Vrtti ) (citta-v ,:ui), therefore. according to Sahkhya philosophy, is a
manifestation of prclk':ti, as are such resi dual const ructs as intel lect
(bll ddhi), ego (a.I)(unkara), mi nd (manas), subtle body (liilgll-sarira),
gross body (sthiila-sariraJ-indeed, this ent ire manifest world ('tIY
akta, sarga , and so forth). An obvious corollary of this re-
ductive materialism is Ih,1I karma" is also a man ifestation of subd{
materiality and can only be construed within the closed causal sys-
tcm. "Acti on" in any of its modes is a manifest:Hion (vyakta) of t he
continuous transformati on and combination (s{/1ngbata)
occu rring wit hin materiality Similarly, the problem of bon-
dage and release is to be construed soldy within the closed causal
system, and the experience of " release" in Sankhya has no ontological
implications whatever. That is to say, in Sankhya the realizati on of
discriminat ion (viveka) cha nges nothing o ntologically. Ii only reveals
what has always been the cas!', namdy that there is a principl e beyond
the dosed causal sys tem thaI never, in fact, has been in bondage.
Moreover, this realizati o n itself (that is to say, the discrimination of
pllnt!tl ) occurs within the closed ca usal syst em on the level of tbe
bltddhi and, thus, has signific:mct' solel y \vithin the subtl e material
syStem. Hence, the assertion of the Sankhya acarya:
Not any (pl/ rl/ sa), therefore, is bound; nor released; nor does any (pllnlsa)
trlnsmigralc. (Only) prakrti in it s \'arious forms trlnsmigTltes , is bound and
is rcJel sed. (Sankhyaktirika 62 )
In addition, from the point of vi ew of the anal ysis of experience, yet
another corollary of thi s reducti \'e material ism emerges, namely that
in Sankhya a defi nite distinction is made between "consciousness"
and "awareness" \'Vhereas
"awareness" is active, intenti onal, engagcd, and ti t ('vcry moment a
reflection of subtl e material ity, "consciousness" ctl nnOt
think, act, be ontologica!!y involved or intentionally relat ed in any
sense whatcver to "Conscio usness" in other words,
is sheer contentless presence (sakp"t v a). Because of its contendess-
ness, " consciOllsness" appears as what it is not , and "awareness"
appears as if it wen' "consciousness," and it is thi s double nega ti on
occurring wi thi n bllddhi that generates the epistemological confusion
KARMA AS A " SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE"
)09
of bondage. When the fu ndamental epistemic distinction between
"consciousness" and "awareness" is correctl y apperceived, again on
the level of the bl/ddhi, shows itself as being the case, and
more than that, as having al ways been the case and forever to be the
case subsequently. In other words, the final di scr imination is that
"bondage" and " release" as contraries or sub-contraries are both
negated; and the jivan-mukta has mO\' ed to a new meta-level of ap-
perception referred to as kaivalya. Expressing these ontological and
epistemological assertions in t he more precise and technical Nyaya
termi nology, the Sahkhya perspect ive would appear to be the follow-
ing: " bondage" is an exampl e of pradhvan;sabhava, or "conseq uent
non-existence," and "release" is an example of pragabhava, or " ante-
cedent non-existence"; whe reas Ihe fundamenta l ontological differ-
ence between and prakrti is an example of allyonyabhiiva, or
"reciprocal non-existence" (or the logical abse nce of identi ty between
and prah:ti under all circumstances), and the lack of relation
between pllru,sa and prakrti is an example of atyamabhava, or "abso-
lute non-existence" (or the mate rial absence of relation between
and prah:ti under all ci rcumstances) .
To my knowledge tht're is no analogue in t he history of Western
thought to this eccentric form of India n dualism (whereinprakrti as a
reduct ive materialism encompasses gross and subtle matte r as well as
"awarent'ss ," "egoilY," "i ntel lection," and all "strivings,"
as " consciousness" is simply contcntless presence). The only possible
exception could be certain traditions in phenomenology, although
even in these tradi t ions the non- intentionality of consciousness has
never been seriously entert ained. The issue, then, is that we 3re deal-
ing here wi th a way of looking at the world that is rema rkably differ-
ent from our own. Put simpl y and in reference to these conferences
k " " " 'd' " d II f '" on arma, our awareness, our I entity, an a 0 our Inten-
tional" acts haw nothing wha tever to do with our "consciousness,"
and more than tha t, the cycle of rebirt h and the actions that determine
our position in the cycle are funct ions of an " unconscious" (in t he
India n sense) subtl e materiality thai is unfol di ng by means of con-
tinuous transformation and combination (sa1'}ghata).
In attempt ing to construct a larger conceptual framework, Ihen,
the first point to be stressed is the admittedly paradoxical one that
"consciousness" and its freedom (kaivalya) must be, as it were,
"bracketed" in any discussion of karma (ei ther in terms of a " trans-
G ERA LD }AMES L ARSON
ference" interpretation or a "non- transference" interpretation).
"Consciousness" is lI or a function of the closed c,\Usal sys tem of
reductive materialism, and neither bondag(, lIor release pertains to it!
TI l E CONSTITUENT PROCESSES
OF I'XTERNAUZATION, OBJECTIVATlON, AND INTERNALIZATION
Ordinary experience or apperception (as a modl' of subtle material-
ity) presents itself as the awareness of "pain" (lJuJ?kha, apr/fi) , th('
awareness of " alienation" (moha, and the awareness of
"pleasure" (mkha, priti). "Pain" as an awareness is a fecling of dis-
comfort (g1>orll ) arising OUt of the encount er wit h what appears to be
outs ide of onesel f (ei ther from the outside world or from one's own
mi nd/body insofar as it presents itse lf in awareness as "pain-ful"), and
t he awarcness of "pain" always ca rries wi th it a desire to b(' fr('e from
il. "Alienation" as an awa reness is a feeling of reifi calion (rmi4ha), of
having been turned into an enti ty among enti ties , and the awareness
of " alienation" carries with it a neut ralizati on of motivation and af-
fect. " Pleasure" as an awareness is a feeling of joyous and q\liet
fulfi ll ment (fama), of having appropriated (or interiorized) an object
or an activity so that one is free from it , and the awareness of " plea-
sure" carries with it a re(]ectiv(' comprehension of what been
appropriated. According to Sahkhya philosophy, these primal feel-
ings are taken to be manifestations of three procedura l and structural
tendencies that characterize the closed causal system of reductive
materialism, namely, the const ituent process of externalization
( prtlv r:rti or raj(15 ), the constituent process of objectivation (s thiti or
t tl/nas ), and t he const ituent process of internalization ( prakhya or
siluva ) . These consti tuent processes generate in turn a "conSTituted"
world wherein the residual or " constituted" const ructs are ei ther (a)
sattv ika (or vaikrta )-that is to say, reflexive internalizat ions reified
into ideas , ve rbal constructions, and so forth, or, in other words,
what we usually mean by the term "subjective"-or (b) tamaM (or
bhiitadi) , that is to say, intentional eXlernalizalions reified into subtle
and gross objects (tanmalY<lS and mahabhiitas ) , or, in other words,
what we usually mean by the term "object ive." This "constituted"
world (made up of residual constructs that aresattv ika and tamtlStl ) is
media ted by the constituent procesS of externalization . In other
words, internalization and objectivation (both as consti tuent pro-
cesses and as constituted constructs) cannot manifest themsdves as
KAR:-"IA AS A " SOCIOLOGY OF KNO WLEDGE"
J"
what they are without the dialect ically related process of externaliza-
tion. Similarl y, externali zation cannot shO\v itself as what it is wit hout
the dialeaicaJly implicit processes of internalization and object iva-
tion. From the point of view of the 'constituted" world, however,
the constituem processes arc to be construed not as three (m.mely,
s(/!!va, rajas, :md tamas ) but, rather, as two mediated by one (name ly,
sartva and tamas as mediated by rajas). Hence, the entire manifest
world (v)' <lkta) with all of its construct s (buddl)J', ahtlmk7lYa, and so
forth) shows itself as either (a) s,ittvlka or (b) tiimasa with rajas
(ttlijastl ) mediating throughout (Sii ilkbyakiirikii 25, " t'lijasiid
IIbbllyam"). Because rajas or the constituent process of externaliza-
tion is a fundamental mediation throughout the closed causal system,
therefore, "suffering is of the nature of things" (S,ihkhyakii rikii 55 ,
"tasmlid wablulvclIlI" or as the Yllkrldipikii put S it, " dll/?-
raja It l") . The experience of suffer ing constitutes the basis for
all reflection and all alienation as well 3S the desire to overcome
suffering, for there can be neither internalization nor alienation with-
out a pri or proCCH of ext ern:dization. The constituent process of ex-
ternali zation, then, is fund:unental and basic in Sankhya philosophy,
and I would argue that it is the structural basis for the noti on of
karma in all of its modes. However, we Illve no! yCt reached the level
of analysis in which it is appropriate to use the word " karma" in its
ordinary Indian sense. We have only reached t he le.,d of fundament31
"constituent process."
THE TWOFOLD CREATt ON (dvividha4sarga): lii/ga and bhcwa
According to Sankhya philosophy, the " indi.,idual person" in our
ordinary West ern usage is construed to be "dividual" (in McKim
Marriott' s sense), or, perhaps belter, a ' residual construct" made up
oi what ( shall ca ll a "m:lrked ..:ore" (lii/ga), a "projecting S(t of
predi spositions" (bhiiva5, viistltllls, and so forth), a tranS
4
migrating "subtle body" (liilga-sarira), and a m:mifest " gross body"
(srhit!,l -sar'irtt), and thi .s "dividual" "residual construct" is loc:lIcd in a
manifest world (bhalltika-sarga).
Tht: " mark"d core," or ling", is made up of bllddhi, 'lhalflkam, mallas,
thr five sense-cap;lcilies and lh" fin action-capacities (and referred 10 as lhe
" thirtl'enfold instrument ," or Thi s "marked core," or
Iiilg'l, is devoid of ordinary experienc" (mrupabhogll). It can be predomi-
nantl y ,(utvik" or ttmll1sa, as was indicated above, in its intentionality, and is
l"
GERALD JAMES LARSON
rnedia(rd throughout by the constituent process of cxtcrnalization (raja!).
(eL Sankh)'akarikii. 23, 24, and 40.)
The "projecting of predi spositions" (bJuivas) arc meritOrious beha.vior
(dlJdrma), unmerilOrious behavior (a-dharma), knowledge (jriana), 0011-
knowledge (a-jt"ma), absence of passion (vairagya), passion (riiga), powrT
(aivarya), and lack of power (allaiivarYlI ). As is the <:ase with the liilga, so
also wi t h the "projecting SCI of predispositions," or bbav as, they can be
predominantl y s,ittvika or /,imasa with the constituent process of cxternali-
zalion mediating throughout. These bhiivll5 reside in the bllddhi and gener-
ate or project the pratyaya-$drga, or " inte!1eclull creation," of viparyayas,
as'lklis, lIIHis, and siddhis- in other words, these bhavas are the p rl'supposi-
tions or prrdi spositions th:\! render "ordinary awareness" or apperception
possible.
The lTansmigrating "subtle body" (liilga-sarira) is made up of the five
tanmaCTas, or subtle elements, and is tht, subtle t,imasa-vehic1e that accom-
panirs thr liilga in till' process of tran smigration.
Thc "gross body" is the genetic lamaSl/-form of body
that is produced from the sexual relati ons of f.uher Jnd mOlh('r.
Finally, thi s manifcst world (bl"lIItika-sarga) functions as a kind of
theatre, or to usc a fa vorite Sankhya analogy, a stage, on which Ihes(' va rious
constructs play thei r roles, and this manifest world is mad(' up of a divine
realm wherein the comtituent process of internali7.ation (salt't'a) is domi-
nant; a human realm wherein the constituent proeC$$ of externalization
(rajas) is domi nant; and an animal and vegetable world wherein the con-
stituent process of alienation (tamas) is dominant.
Such, in brief, is the closed causal syst em of reduct ive materiali sm
from " Brahma down to a blade of grass " (bTabmadis(mnbaparyall-
Sahkhyakarika 54), or, again, as t he frequently quoted refrain
.,, - .. "
putS It, vartanta /tI.
The socia l eXlent ion of the system, though not directly stated in
t echnica l Sailkhya texts. ca n be easily reconst ructed o n t he basis of
refcrences in the Gita, Sankara, and Ramanuja (especially in the
lengt hy gllf!a-passages of chapt ers 17 and 18 of t he Gita tOget her wi t h
Sa il ka ra's and Ramanuja' s comments) . The reCOnstruction emerges in
t he foll owing manner. The human realm is the realm in which rajas o r
ext ernalizati o n is domi nant (Sahkhyakarika 53-54), Since t he whole
system is a dosed reductive materialism, on t he highest human level
there would natu rally be a tendency to move into l purely inter-
nalized (divine) condi t ion, and on the lowest human level there
woul d naturally be a tendency to move into a purely alienated (animal
or vegetable) condi t ion. On ('very human level, however (following
kiirikas 53-54), externa lization, or rajtH, mllst be presen t. Thus,
KflRMA AS A "SOClOl.OGY OF KNOWLEDGE"
J'J
wI/ va (rajas/tamas) .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . .. "divine realm"
(I) wltva/rajas (tamas) ........... BrahmaQ.a
" human (2) (tamas) .. . . . .. . . . .. . K$Jtri ya
realm" (J) rajas/tamas (stltt-ua) . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . Vai s)"l
(4) lamas/rajlH (wI/va) .... . .. . ....... Slidra
"optimal"
"maximal"
"minimal"
"pessimal"
lamas (rajas/saliva) ................... "animal realm"
This is admittedl y 3. very general 3.ad schematic reconstruction, and
undoubtedly many other kinds of combinations and subcombina-
tions could have been and probably were worked OUt (especially in
juridical environments) . This gen('ral pr('sentation, however, is suffi -
cient to show the basic thrust of an indigenous sociology.
The "dividual" residual construct -that is to say, the "indi vidual
person" in our ordinary Western sense-is, thus, a peculiar blending
of liilga, bh'lva, liilga-sarira, srhiila-sarira, and bhaurika-sargll, all of
which are manifestations of the closed causal system and its con-
stituent processes vartaula iti). Ordinary awareness or
experience within a hierarchical worl d arises when these subtle mate-
rial components come together, and a kind of "feedback" cont inually
operates on two distinct levels. On one level there is a lihga, or
" marked core," successively being correlated wit h a one-t ime-only
geneti cally generated "gross body," and thi s lihga-level is a sort of
"deep-structural" predisposi tional set of possibil ities. (I use the ex-
pression "deep-structural" to indicate that the iii/gil -level, according
to Sahkhya philosophy, is devoid of ordinary exp('rience, or
nirupabhoga. ) On another level there is a bllav/l -constellation, or a
" projecting set of predisposi ti ons," characterized by ordinary aware-
ness or experi ence in a hierarchical world , and thisbhav<l- level makes
up the social real ity of everyday life. Both levels reside in the bllddhi,
according to Sankhya, a concept that also includes the crucial corol-
lary that each level "feeds" the other. In any " dividual" life there is a
deep-structural "marked core" (lii/ga) which determines the place of
the "di\'idual" life in the hierarchical scheme of things, and there is a
"projecting" or experiencing (a kind of usage, as it
were) in the everyday social world which generates traces or further
residues that will accrue to the "marked core" and in turn determine
the future placement of the liirga. Each level presupposes the other in
a dialectical fashion . The vcry notion of a "marked core" (Ji;/ga)
GIcRALD JAMI, S LAH.SON
bei ng diachroni cally reborn pres upposes a previous systemic "pro-
jecting" matrix in whi ch the "core's markings" wcre synchroni cally
derived. By rhe same wken, the sysremi c malTix in which " markings"
(that is w say, to usc Marri ott 's idiom, SUbStarH;e-code transaCtions)
can occur itself presupposcs a scqucnee of "marked corcs" (Iii/gas)
bei ng diac hronicall y reborn, fo r onl y a diachronic:!. ll y derived
"marked corc" could provide the constituents necessary for a (subjec-
tively and objecti vel y) meaningful set o f synchroni c transactions to
occur in a given social realiry. (An intrigui ng piece of evidence that is
symptomatic of thi s point that a " marked core" is always presup-
posed even in the most tho roughly transactional set of matri ces is , he
obsess ive concern wi lh ast rology on all levels of Indi an soc ial rc-
ality.). At any give n poi nt -instant, therefore, then would appear to be
operating an inrersecting (i n the vlIlldhi) set o f transacti o ns, one dia-
chroni c (namel y, a given lihga, or "marked core," bei ng re-embodied
in a one-t ime-only gem' tically deri vcd " gross body") and one syn-
chronic (namely, the systemic substance-codes interact ing vis-a-vis
the living "emities" mani fes ti ng themselves in a given projecti ve,
contextual envi ronment). The former (that is to say, the linga-Ievcl ) ;11
any gi,'en poi nt -instant docs n Ot provide for " transft'reme," si nce, of
course, it is given at that instant. The Ian er (that is to say, the bh(I Vd-
level ) at any given point-instant docs provide for "transfe rence,"
since it provides the fUlUral projection fo r any subsequent point -
instant. Putting the matt er another W'IY. the linga-Ie,'el d efi nes the
appropri at ion of " pastness" in the present point-i nstant, whereas the
bhlivtl-leveJ defines the projective, futural possibil it ies for any sub-
sequent poim-instant in the present point- instant. (Such a tempora l
illlerpretation of these twO levels fi nds somc suppon in the Yoga
di scuss ions of the "moment," o r kSlI/la , and its modalitit,s, dharma-
The Sliilkhy" kii rik<i., while n'tn:t ining silent on the
iss ue of tempor:J lit y, does aSSl' fI the dialcnical significance of the twO
levels .
The Iihga cannot funct ion wit hollt the bb;i 'I,Jll j. The bhfi vlIs cannot funct ion
without the fiirX<I . TIH'T{'fore, a 1 wofuld creation (dvh,idll<l!J $(rrgllfJ) Opl"Tatt'S
call ed {ii/ga and bhava. (Sahk' b)'tl k;i rika 51)
According to Sankh ya philosophy, therefore, it would appear ro be
t he case that thc tcrm " karma" can be used appropri ately both in the
sense of determined ' process" (namely, linga ) and in the sense of
determini ng "praxis;' or purposeful human acti ,' ity (namely, bhava).
KARMA AS A " SOCI OLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE"
) ' 5
The dyad process/praxis (or, if one prefers, the dyad marked/marking,
regressi ve/progressive. d iachroni clsynch ron ic, avyakr il lvyakw,
deep-structurelsurface-structure, transferredftransferring, and so
forth) manifests itself as the specifically human modality of the con-
stituent process of externaJization, or rajas, which in turn is the
dialectically most significant constitut,nt process of the entire closed
causal system itself.
Conclusion
However one wishes to assess the significance of such an indigenous
conceptual system, the least that can be said is that it invites us to look
at the human condition in a way that is remarkably different from our
usual perspectives. The system, to be sure, has interesting affinities
with cenain kinds of recent Western social-scientific theorizing, most
notably, I would argue, with the school of "symbolic intt'ractionism"
in social psychology (in the work of George Herbert Mead, et al.),
with the phenomenological sociology of everyday life (in the work of
Alfred Schutz), and with the sociology of knowledge as set forth by
Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann in The Social Construction of
Reality. The Sahkhya conceptual system as a whole, however, differs
from such loose affinities in fundamental and striking ways , and let
me conclude by briefl y calling attent ion to the most striking differ-
. . .
ences tn onentatlon.
The Sahkhya emphasis on karma as process/praxis avoids either
"idealism" or "crude materialism" by encompassing both in a reduc-
live materialism that transcends our usual polarities of "subjectivity"
and "objectivity," "mind" and "body," "ideas" and "objects," and so
forth. At the same time, of course, the system argues that there is a
consciousness tha t is fundamentall y "non-intentional" and that must
be clearly distinguished from our "awareness." Whereas our "aware-
ness" is derived from within the closed causal system and can be
studied and measured and tested vis-a-vis the closed causal system,
there is finally a radical principle of freedom apart from the system.
According to the Sahkhya, at any given point-instant, twO kinds of
perspective are always poss ible. From one point of view, the "dis-
tribution" of knowledge in a society is completely and utterly deter-
mined by the phylogenetic, socia-biological process occurring wi thin
the system as a whole. From another point of view, however, the
system is completely open-ended ontogeneticall y in so far as my
) ,6 GF RA LJ) JAMES LARSON
contextual praxi s allows me to ch:tnge my status ei ther marginally
(by becoming a "bener" or "worse" or Vaisya) or radically
(by becoming a sadlm and thereby opting Out of the phytage-netic,
socio-biological system :tlwgether). NOIions of the "individual,"
"ego," "society," "caste," arc only apparent real ities. and, finally,
even my "marked core" (lihga), though COrni!l\IO\ls over a potentially
endless series of embodiments, is itself only a residual construct
oper:Hing in the la rger b rmic environment . From one poi nt of view
the system is absolutely conservative and hierarc hical (and was so
developed in later Vedanta theorizing), and from another point of
view the system is absolutel y radical and revolutionary; and the Sab-
khya would appear to be suggesting that botb poi nt s of view are tfue.
Vis-a-vis consciousness, or however, neither the one nor the
other pertains, since "bondage" and " release" are both intrasystemic
constructs tha t have no relevance outside the system.
The S:inkhya conceptual system of karma as process/praxis to
be sure, be descr ibed as a " sociology of knowledge" in the sense that
it accounts fo r the " distribut ion" of knowledge in a socilty by cor-
rehting " ideas" and "systems of thought" with cert ain distinct social
realities and expectations and as such it traces
both "ideas" and "social reality" to a more fundamental level of
process/praxis. Or, again, to be sure, one can describe the Sankhya
conceptual system of karma as a kind of interactionist social ps}'chol-
ogy in that it treats the "individual person" as "dividual," a product
of the interacting o f a "marked core," a gross gl'lletically inherited
physical body, and a social field wherein a con-
tinuous process/praxis unfolds. What is so strikingly different, how-
ever, is the valuation which Sail khya assigns to its sociology of
knowl edge and its social psychology. When one inquires into what
Werner Stark has called the impl ici t " axiological grid " of a conceptual
system, or what Max Weber has called various ly the \tlert -
gesicht5punkt (thc "value view-point "), or the \tlertbezielJlwg (the
"value-relat ion") of a conceptual system, ol1e encounters the remark-
able conclusion that att of our "ideas" and all of our "social realities"
arc valuable only to the extcnt that they make us aware of that which
is closest to us and yet irreducible to any intellectual or social formu
4
lat ion, namely, our si mple presence to ourselves, our consciousness in
and of itself.
Participants in the First Two
American Council of Learned Societies-
Social Science Research Council
Karma Conferences
Fi rst Kann3 Conference (Occober 1976)
Ashok N . Aklujkar, University of British Columbia
Frank Conlon, University of Washington, Seattle
Edwin Gerow, University of Chicago
Wilhelm Halbfass, University of Pennsylvania
Paul Hiebert, Fuller Institute, Pasadena
Padmanabh S. Jaini, University of California, Berkeley
Charles Keyes, Uni versity of Washi ngton, Seattl e
J. Bruce Long, Cornel! University
James P. McDcnnott, Canisius Col1ege
McKim Marrimt, University of Chicago
Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, University of Chicago
Karl H. Pouer, University of Washington, Seattle (organizer)
Ludo Rocher, University of Pennsylvania
David L. Szanton, Social Science Research Council
Allen TIlLIshcr, Universiry of Washington, Seattle
A. Gabrielle Tymer-Stastny
Second Kanna Conference (January 1978)
Roy Amore, University of Windsor
Agch:manda Bharati, Syracuse University
Daniel Bisgaard, University of I!l inois
Kces W. Bolle, University of California, Los Angeles
s. M. s. Chari, University of California, San Diego
E. Valentine Daniel , Universi ry of Chicago
J' 7
PA KTICIPANTS I N KAK;\I t\ CONFERENCES
Joseph Elder, University of Wisconsin
Ram Chandra Gandhi, University of Delhi
Robert Gimello, University of California, Santa Barbara
Paul Hiebert, FuUer Institute, Pasadena
Padmanabh S. Jaini, University of Califomia, Berkeley
Charles Keyes, University of Washington, Seattle
David M. Knipe, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Gerald J. Larson, University of California, Santa Barbara
McKim Marriott, University of Chicago
Gananath Obeyeseken., University of California, San Diego
Wendy Doniger Q'Flaheny, University of Chicago
Karl H. Potter, University of Washington, Seattle (organizer)
A. K. Ramanujan, University of Chicago
K. Sivararnan, McMaster University
Allen Thrasher, University of Washington, Seartle
Guy Welbon, University of Pennsylvania
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Index and Glossary
( \I;lords that have trans! i!l'TJtcd
from rali, Sanskrit, Tamil. Ti bet-
an, and Trobriand arc pJ.lCl'd ;n Roman
alphab.,ticalord,>r. )
"b/M':.)," (souls unable !O obl .lin liba.t-
lion),
Abhidlitlrlll"k(lSa, 170, 187_ 188
,,(11);1"'''' (violation of "osmic rdigiuus
law). !.b J.11H- 1l5. l B. H Z. 270,
281 , 188- 191, ill
Adi!;. 6
ai/rud (U!lSC<'ll r;:suhsj. xxiii, ,181 - -'%
Sa lifetimes, odwr
adullar, 64 , 147. L5J
Ad ... tita Sec
aff1i"lions. Sec kfd"
afterlife, J.., 1.i.3
aftcrworld . ldJ
35,
aggrq;atCS rkblllUIlJM, sk"",lhas), 165,
168_ 170. 2J:),j
Asn; , U
"8m.IJofT<! (ubligation tu Agni ). L51
Agni\"d.t, 93 - 94, ill
Agllivd,[ r;mlr,t, 93 _ 94
"8J1mL'glmt'V'" (lIndngo;nl: n,; t h"r I(Jin
nu T loss). 110
,,!Jamb.a (ego ), Zi.. lQL l.Qi, .H9.
J08 3 II . l1.f,
"I,im"; (non-;Il iurv). H
Ait,m'),a 292 . Z!)9
,,;iva (illscnliml 110
xi,', xix, lJl. lJ9, 161. 224.

Amilagali, ill
Ananda, 166, W
"",imu"" ''''''11.1 of no-sdf),
xi\', HQ, 166
anceStors, 6- 10, L5.l Sl'<' also pim/,,;
P;I,S; pi1r),:ina; ir,iddh,1
JJ'
lIndh.lkas, lS2
Allgll lld'" Nik,iy" , 178, 181, 191
animals, I2Z. 172 , 192, 236, 255, m,
298, ill. abo II"',,' /(d.
lIiik.lyarkanl)i, ill .
">II"I!ka',lIIa-vrlli. Set a\\'3rc'ness
,,>lid See in -bet wC"n-StJt"-of-
b<:ing
3ntc'Cc',kllt n On - ,x,Slc",'c. Scc
priig.iNn"""
"'II<"b,;g,1. Set' fruition, karmic
Allltgir,;, 52, S.5
a""s"Yd. S,,<- kann;c
,'" ylm Y" &I"i';/" ( r cc; p rocal non -
1O'J
ApMI",,,b!J . -dIMm1ll -. iiIM, 71, Z9
Ap.1 Tanis. L55
Apollo. l51
Appar, ill
" pl ..... " or unforcS(','n cons,'-
qurncrs of an act ), xxi ii , IS}, l2B.,
2(,8 - 102
Aristotle. 151
Any" p"riY"I,"''' SitU". lbl
Ar juna. xx,' ;, 48, is
Art3bbaga, 2.f1l
(worldly 164, 262, 26b
An' ans, 1111- 117, U2. 218
,is,;),,, (sub,trawm). S.', karmic rc'sidue
25. ;u, f!!l, B.Q; !:tl.
159
iij",,,,,, (four slages of li fe), 261, 16fl.
ai!o br"h",,,,iiri,, : gr''''''/;''; t" jlIdP-
r . sth,,; S''''11I),ii5in.
See intlux, karmic
Ag,;ng,'/;rdd)'d S,"nlmti. 93, 112, 2QZ
alllr" (dc'lllon), LQ[, In
All"' .... ,,, Veda. !l. In}
1l1I,:'ibib. <lli.'ablhl. Se,
ali/Mil (sdL SOIlI ), xxi\'. !Q. 20, 79- 80.
101- 102. 104, lil6., 112, 1fQ, 166, lZL
J "
,-
<irmall (rolllill"ed)
192,108, 246, 2M, 2..8..6..
22'i. Sl't' pndgaf".r,,ida; soul
Atrcp Punar\'asu, 93, Ul.
ill
alta. S"l' a/man
tltYIl"tiibh:ivJ. (absolute
1O'l
a':Jidyii. Sec ignorance
(latent act), \82-.189
A,-imukta, shrine of, II
:\wan'ncss (itta'
Vfni, ViP" r',,),a ), xxii, 308_ 309
iiyul,-karma (establishment of Ihe icnglh
of life). 232 _'"
Arun-cdic medicine, xxv, l1.. !2, 15- 26,
90 lIS. 1;6_. m
B:i.darapl.'a. 1;3. 158,.lOO 30J
ba8.d!.lgs.yit/ ,k),i,/Ul. SCt' thought nn-
pression. body of
Bali, 1,1
bali sanifil:':'. 'll, 'l5
ba{uma (soul ), liL Sa "/lO soul
bllll,I/",. SCI' bonda!; .. " brrni .. '
B,n,r/o. X(' Tibetan BooA- of tbe Dt\,d
&"r."I)I,I.$('II15.'"'' (bll,.du). Set in-
bl't In'cn -st atl'-of -b"in!;
Basham, A, L., 1SS
Ihwdb,iplIM-db"rnM-";t ra, 8J
bq;!;ing, zn
Benan:s, 1.1
Berger, Peter. ill
Ilbagal;,.d- Cita, lb fh 48. [25. IJI-
lJl. 266- 267. J.Qi. 111
8hag,'':'''la /,,, r,il1a, ZS
bhahi (de\'otion), XX\", 27, 36,
J30 - !JJ. lB, JOi
BhaklivcdJnt.l . Swami, 28
Bhara(kija, 'll., lID
Bhartrhari, m
bh,jll<; (pr<:disposi lion), :<:<ii. 84, 111 - 116
blJlII;iv.,ja. Sec pr,-d<:slina!ion
Ilhcl" S"mbit,i, ill
bbikk". bln/qu. Scc monk
Bhima. 47_48
:is
bboga 246. 249, 295
bbog(l-/{e/J". SIT expcri"nn'-body
Bhrgu, L51
blJI<; (\'crb, 10 enjoy or to "Jt
Or copl.b, ,' wi th), 31
INDEX AND GLOSSARY
bhiira, S"I'
bJ}l,tiitma'l, Sc., firm,tII
bija (seed), 18l. SI't' (,1m S('!lll'n
bile (pitta), 97. 99. UJ... 206, ?1l _ ?1.'
bi nh. <t U, 18-23, 24, J3 , 52, 97- 108,
142, 167. [76, 197, 104, ll8... Sa ,,1,0
gati; procreation, abnormal
birth rill's (jJla-k,mna), 5
blood. 8, 16, 19, 21, H, 36, 60,101, 1Q3,
198, 200,206- 207, 210, 2[2,1[6,254,
m
Blul' ,--,.pl! Lazuli. Se(' Lapis L,' ZI,1I
Bodhisana, Bodhi $Jm' a, 196, 216
bo..ly, l.Q, 'l.. iQ, il.. flZ., !..QL !..22. [98-
m lQZ, ll.Q.. 2[5, 219, 221 , 213 - 124 ,
236,269,191 , 1O&. SCI' aIm di"idu,ll;
experience-body; gros5body; indio
,jdual; kanntina-J"riTi/ ; luminous-
body; physiologi cal
pr .. dbJlla; subtle-body; thought Im-
body o f; vIIJr,,body
boiled riel' offerings. ctim; rice
bondage, brmic (b'lIIdha), 21B.. 132,
25J, 309, 1lb
800k of Ihl' Drad. S('e TibNan Book of
the Dead
Brahma, li, J1. 107, 173, 176,
190,291,112
ImdmMcii rm (dust;. s!Udcm). ill
br,!lml;lbly,i (shying a Brahmin),
hl, 70, 86- 87, In U5, U9 pO,279
Br,dmlaj,'il" S .. lIa, 156, l6J
Brahma-Ioka world of Brahmin).
153, '97_ 798
Urahman, !1 48, 54 55. 60, 158, 253,
ill
Brahmana. Set' Brahmin
43, 157, 168 , 171, 297
Brahn1Jnism, llB., 210 - 212, ill
Brahma- Prajapali , Sf,
(Brahmin ogre), Zb.
al so y,ikk.sa
Br"I"",,-S,mtlnrii, ZS
Br"lml<lsiitr". '51 - '5 J
Br"b",,,si;trabbtifY", 253, 258, 1-'19
UrahmJ\'idya (knowl,'dge of Brahman ).
'"
Brahmin (pri(sl). !Ji, 27, 29- 3L 3(" 47,
52,56, hl, & 92, 2R, U2. 113. [29,
174- [75, 190- 191, .ui. 264, llb.. See
also pi;pri
Brahminicid,. S"e b r"lml,,/J.tly,i
I NDEX AND GLOSSARY
breath lJ., 54- 56,
Brhadarall)'aka xv, lL 42 ,
151, 169, 29'}, 196, 298 - 199
Brhaspati, 2.L 2:1:
Brb"li, ill
of thl' Requi ter, 154
Buddha. the, lQ, 139, 147, 159, 161 - 161,
lZ2, 11:17, 192, 195
,1,0'", 169- l70
I 102, 104,249,163,
XXI', la, 13,
H-H. 121 - 113, 131, 133, 137- 216,
118,225, 233, 235, 266, 270,291, 294.
mo
Buhln, Georg. 78 _ 79
(aill"'Y" (t"ons<:iousncss), lL Scc also
conSClousnl'SS
Cai"a Cillanla. Scc Saiva SiddhjnlJ.
Cakrap-:midana, lQQ, LL4
ctlkrtls (energy centerS or nodes), lll -
213
Cam.tahs, 1], Zi>
Tt"'tr.l, 194 , 196. 203,
llJ
Candramati,
Candrananda, 2ID
Cmlka Sambi/d, H. is.. 90 _ lI5
cam (offerings of boiled ri ce). 6, 2
Cmjka, lQ, 269- 271. ru
caste. 234, 255, 11.6.. See also Vllnla
"Jusali IY, causal ion, pllnim. Sec J.1s"
kJrana
(essalion of karma
ISO, 192, 214
Mtilla (\"olition), lSI - IS!. 184- IKS
chain, causal. Sc<' pratilya-f.<wu<tpJda
CbJndogya Upanif"d, 252, 292 296,
298_299
Chenchus. ISS
CJ!I, lil _ H}
chi ld, abnormal. 99 - 100
Christianit\'. 162- 163
Ch ristiall Sciena, 1lO
Cilappll tikiirtl1ll , 122- 123, ill
citr:i (eremon)" 218
citta, cilta-v rlti. St'C aWJ.TeIlCSS; pTakrri
code-substance, cool,d subsunce, XI'!,
lL ,lZ, m 261-267, lli
combination. See sa'!'ghiira
)lJ
common sense. violations of, 109- IIL
114 - 115, ill
con("<'pliun, 55, 96 - 98, 141, 169, 209,
21Z. SCt' a/sQ birth
scheme, 232
Confucianism, l:i9
uii, 11 , )69, 171, 197-
100, 203, 107,216, 307-310, lL.6..
also (llilanya," PI/TWtl
conseqUCI11
prlld fJ'!.I <II!' siib/"i;:"
continuous transformation. Sec
parl>l<lm"
co-origination, d<penden!. See pr"titya-
StI/IIl/lpiidd
cure. marked (l;j'g";, xxii, m 311 - 316
CuntJrar, 1,2.,1
Dallas, 155
ddiva (fate sent b)' the goos), xx,', 24, 26,
if., 2.Q, 2J., lQl, llL SCt' also destin),;
fat"
Dante Alighi,;'ri. H
'{"rian" (philosophy) , xxi. 13-14 .
33- 34. m illllQ, m 3M-
1
16
darsll-piinlll-IIIlisa-ini (new- and fu!l -
moon sacrifice), ill
Da5I1padiir,bi, 1'10
Oasgupu, Surelldranath. 94
death, 2... lJ., lS- 18. J..i. iO.. i:L iQ. ll,
2i. I.l2, !53, 169 170, 197- 116,
232, 148. 250, 256, 2.'l8... Sec also sal-
kkhllllii
delia. See bod\'
dcmons, .lQ, 6D. See al50a$llra, riikStlStls
dependent co-origination. Sec
s",mupdda
desc<'ndants. 10- 11. IB
desire, Sec ka"lII
destiny, 41, 59, 106; providential acts of
gods (tiiv),a hi),,;), See J.lso daiva; di -
vine o rdinann' (div)'tI viddbi); fate;
Go.1
Deussen, Paul, 158, 160
Deutsch. Eliot. 19
De"aki, 25 76
t/t''1.'ayiina. Set' way-of-tll<'-gods
D';'\"Jyani , 42
dCl"otion. Sec blJakli
dl"mmltl, l6i. Sl't' also dharma
Dbtlllllllapada, lZ5
Ohanl'lmari, l!H
JH
dh,.."",. s\". sxii, :!, lli, )9, 21, 25, Q, H,
(g, ZQ, 2"l., 102, 186, 204,
243 , H 7. 262 - 167, 17Q. 273 _ 274,
284, ill
l)h,lr!l1J (pasonifieJl ion of ,}furm,," ) . 52,
.H - JS, :l6
Dharnlols;lslras, xx;\" :l, ll, 25. 61 -89,
91 , 98, 161, 1.Q,I
dh.iIIH. SI'" d..-IlI,-Il! '
DhrUTJ.s.ITl. 45, :ill
Dhru"a, 2J
Di!;ambaras. 217, 225, 228
Digba N,hi}"', lZJ
Dionysi an myst<:r;"s, l5J
dis<'as,-, 15."1, 204, 109, 211, 295- 196:
of. 109 _ 113
dlil". Sr" f.lIe
Oil;, 1.:1
di,'idual. xvii, 261, ill JI6
ditya.knw'. Sr,- d,'slin),
dH')'.I'l-'ilfdhl. S"i' destiny
doomsday (pM"'),"), 253, 173, 286
,10$11 (h"mor. Ih",), 22.. lO.L 109 110,
lIl - 1U. /15, 176, 198, 2ll1l See ,,/so
bile; phlegm: wi nd
Thomas, 168, I.E6
46, 47
Sec sub,lt.mce
93 _94
dreams and dreaming. 145, 2&5
OrOl:I3, 11
lima-Jill/mil , S,>"
d"gg,'ll (pdinful ex;stc'IKC', a bad ioearna-
lion). J72 _ J73
d"/!kl,,, (misery, p;tio). 46, 146, 295.lKI
Dumonl. Louis, 1O.S
Durkhcirn . Emile, [60
45
,'alil1
b
. Scc food ami
Ebibi . l.:U
humao (purl/sak,;,,, ), xxv, .24-26,
40-4[, 2Q, 95
Egnor. lvlargaret Trawick, xviii. ill
ego. Sec "bamk.ir ..
l,k",,,lri),"! (b" ings having only one sense
organ). l lJ. ill
dc'rncrlls (bln;I", ,tild,,,!}. 26.40, 54,!l.O.,
102, [83, n.o.. 250, m 110
El i;ldc. l\lircu. 32
Elysium, SCI' paradis,
!NDEX AND GLOSS .... RY
embryo. embryology (8'''&/''' )' !!,
J8 - 19. 2.L 5:Y., 96- 108, J70, !ll.
197. 210- 2[ 1,213,237, 2H
305
Epin, the ( M"b,ibl),i r"I" and
. . .. 3.1 , 304, 101
epidemics, 1 l1=-l 15
c'scapc' ,'!Juse, 1. 7 18. Jll)
cschawlugy, lQ, 137 - Ib-l
Nnnalism (s"5sal,lj, Lb6
c,thie.ll ascet;,;.", . SCI' a5<",tic;,m. nhiul
rlhi,,:!! prophc"T- S,' e proph,'cy. ,'Ihi,'al
"lhi<izJtion, xx;, L:I..6
,.'''o!utioo, Sec p."!"am,,
,.' xisten.c. ioyful. Sec mg'w
materi.,1 b;ISis of. S<'c
pradb,i/w
existencc', painful. See .IliUm"
cxpcrienccbodr fbbog.,-dc},a), [l, 17
expiation (pr'l)'aicilli). xx;, !..i. li1. 85,
95, ill
fat Jlism, 2Q. !ll
bIt, .x.xi, xX", ,23-21, ';0, 44, U, 2ll.
abo ,Ial,,'/!; Jtstin,
<
hther, role' of. 12, J 7 J - ! 72, 200, 2lL S,..
"/".. p,>rcn". m1, "f
tin-nndoclrim (p,lIjcagnn',lyi ). 296,
100
Huidity of kamla. 36_ 17 ... tim"
foctus.S<,c ('mbryo '
food Jnd eating. 9, [8- 20, 53, lil., 96,
134,154- 255, 197- 1.9R , J.QQ, lQj
fornl-J,,"dle r 2b.2
I'rJu,,"dllnrr. E . 1.SS
Freud. Sigmund. 34, lZl
fruition . karmic (",,,,bh,ig,l j, 51, ill
fune ral rites, HZ. St" .llso i r.iddl",
Gal1(lhabbas. SrI'
Z
g,mrfb,Ir-'a. JJina theor)' of (Hansmigrat-
ing cons.:iousncss). 121, 129, lJl
Ganciharl'JS, J1, .u.. 93, !QZ, !l!. lZl
Gangadean, A, K .. x,j
garbb, /. 5", t'mbryo
CMt"",1 of the V"jra Tamr". lOS
C,,,"(/a l'ur,i(ta, ll. 12
g"l, (condi lion or situation of J soul
pa"sing through var iollS lins). 79, 80,
170, 171, 111. , nO_ HI
INDEX AND GLOSSARY
GJ.utam .... SrI.' Buddha, the
Gautama-dbanna-futra, Z'l, 8J
Gaut ... mi, ,u
genit ... ls, female. See yoni
genitals, male. See liiJga
ghosts, hungry. See prl.'ta
gifts and gift-gi ving (dana), 22
Gita. See Bbagavad-Gita
GJasenapp, Helmuth von, lZZ
God: "'arranger'" (dhatr), 45 - 46, 258;
am of. 2J - 15, 40, 44 - 47, 50
j
or-
dinances of, 40, 45_46. Sec also i svara
Gonds, L25
Gosala, Makkhali, 2l-t - 225, ill
Gotama. Sec Buddha, the
gOlra-karma (soci al or familial en.-iron-
ment). 2l.l
Greek eschatology, U8, 150_ 152
grhastha (householder), !1.. il, 2l, 262
GrlJya SUITa, xx, 6
gross-body (stbula-sar"iTa , sba.lu$), xxii,
55,198- 199, :z.z0, 230, 249, 254, J08,
ill
guardi an spirit, Igbo. See Cbi
Guent her, Herbert V. , 18[, I.!U
GUQaratna, Z9.4
glllJas (human qu ... litil's), 24, 21 26J,
284, 195; strands of nature, 24 , 48, 63,
2.L 247, 284- 285... Sec also rajaJ;
Muva; lamas
gurllialpaga (sleeping with the teacher's
wife), 10
Haimendorf, C. von Furer, I.iQ, L25
happiness. SCI.' s"kba
Haribhadra, lZO
Harijans, 126
H
.. J'
arl(l ,
hatred , [72,106, 209, 21h 211
he ... ven(s), xxi, 18, [4J, H8, 157, 172, 15[,
22l. 176- 177, 181
Hcestcrman, j. c., [1
hcll(s), li, !b H.Q. 14J , 148, 157, 172,
236, 151, m
Hatz, Robert, 144
Hiltcbeitd, Alf, 11
Hinduism, 3- 133. \J9 , 148, 118-
219,233- 235,262- 263, 266, 22. Sec
a/so Brahmanism
hi story and historical
xi,'- xx, 105
. .
mterpretauon,
I!khyam. SrI' wanderer
householder. Sec grbaslba
human effort . Sec effort, human
humors. Sec
JJ5
husband, role of, 22. 11. 171- 171. See
a{JO falhe r; paTents
ideal-model, ideal -type, 137, HI, LtJ -
C!b
Igbo, of South East Nigeri a, 140. lil -
H3, H5. H8. 154
ignorance (avidya), 246, 256, 263, 102
immortali ty, 'l, 270; in bodies, 4- 5, in
souls, 4- 5, 'l, 56
imprints. Sec
in - between- state-of -be ing (antar"
bhava, bar. dohi.sems . .. .), 170- 171,
195-198, ill
incet , ill
[nden , Ronald, i, .lOJ
individual, 39, 83, 261 . ill. See also
di" idu:l.I
Indr:l. , H.. ll.. 107, liZ
karmic rasrava), ill
insani ty, exogl'nous (llumada ), 93, ill
intercourse, sexu ... l, 'l, [2. 'l2., .!..62, l.'l6-
197. 206- 207 . .ill.. 221- 212. See also
prOCrl'3l!On
interpretation, definit ion of, NJ ; of
theory of karma, 141 _ 267
Iran, 1;7-159
Islam, J62 - 16.3
Island of the Dead. S('e Tuma
IhaTa (Lord), l3 24, 173. 18S, 302
lyer, K. S., ill
J aimini, 258, ill
jaimilliya iJraiJma(la, 157. l'1Z
Jaini sm, xi ", xx\", 9- 10, 37, [20,
[22 - 123, [31,217- 237,270, 291, laO
J alandhara, 30
Jambudvipa. ill
J antu , 3A
jatakas, W
jila-karma. Sec birth ritl's
jali-smara. SrI.' memory of previous lives
j ayanta. 182- 283, ill
Jesus, 1M
jiva (living entity),
79- 80, 10J,
155, .lOQdOJ
))6
Ft' ,,"-mUNI<I (rclt:J5i.'d in this 1ifl'). 81 ,
265, 109
j,i,i"<lbh,isk,na, ill
Job, 132
Joyce, l:l
Iyollf!oma (ri l ual of JII"'mmg
hl' Jn'n). ill
I\JCJ, ,u
!G.b, 1.7, H-45, 41. 214, 269, m
1\31i, 2
Kali-ruga, '0
N,;"'" (desire. JUSt) . 206, 109. 211,
.2-49, 161. 266. m
k,;ma-llb.i/I< (H-gion of wishl's). ]89
"amiksi. LlO
K ;Ull,lrs.
S('(' cess;l l ion of
brma
k",,,nlll.t'lp,ika. Sec hm"<I. -vlp,ik"
Kamu, l5
klimya-karmall (rites for spl-.;:ific ends),
llim
KanidJ,
KJnlp.ki, I1J, W
un
Iwpb.l. Sec phlegm
h ira('<1 (.:alls('), l.89
/.o, ir;r; (rain.producin!; riws). ill
}':,Hma-grdlll b,l lIZ
SCt'
(karmic body), llJ
k"m/,,-mrodlJ.l. SCI' ccss.;uio n o f kanna
k<ln""'p.ul1a (pat h of aClion). 51. 188.
Set llso p"n:rlt/
ktlrmaSd),'" Sa karmi .. rcsi dul'
I\tlrlll<Hiddhlpwk.lr"("'. 1.S:5
h/rlll,j'111pak,1 (ripcninf:: of kamu), 9, 14 ,
84, lL 249, ill
k"rmtl'yog". x<: k,jmul ,p<lfbof
(alI/ISd)'of. aSd),", k",
mau).,,), lU, 249. 151 - 151, 2bO,
JOO, 3tH
I\,lrnl. is
1\ ni .lO.O
b,trt"'glf'!)'<l (f,luhs in th. sacrifi,'<: r).
18J
A:tlfii)' ,jprabh[M. ill
g 58
":<ltha""IIIIJI<, 169, 296
A'aNsitaki STab",alla. 157
I NDEX AND GLOSSARY
1\"'l fit"kl Upalllf"d. 197 _198
hi),a. SCI' body
AJY'I ktl"''''tI (body karma), 1.8.1
K<:i ll.. A. II . 157
k/)""db"s. 51't' aggrCSJI"S
kbrtlg. 5("1' blood
khN.bof. 51'(" Sl"mcn
killing. IH- I24. 118, 1.5J.. SCI' al so
brllh",,,htlt)'a; murder
king(s). J]",!Q, JJ-J4, U2. U!, !.1Q, WI
I\ing. Wi nston. ill
KiraI)3\"ali. 191
klda (affliction). ill
KlliP<'. Da\"id M .. .!. IQ, 2.b
kr,,,,,a"'lIkll (progr"5siH' liberAl ion).
2.53. 51'(' ,,{so lilx-ution
krl)'a)'ogtl (rogic praclin' ), ill
krodlJ</ (wrath), :m
14-16. 18, 48, 5?, 51_58
22.. 2. til. 1M
Kubcra. 24, 1QZ
Kumjrila. ill ff.
laity. 161 - 16.2
l al'I"II" (imprint of acts), 5.1
L .. pls m 100_101., lQ:L III
b t('nl Jet. Sec a7..i,ii<lPII
UIiStTJuss. Claude, l.iO
lib;,ution. 105, 25.1 .. 163, 272, l1.6..
Sc(' also jivtl"'"l11kll; kr,IIII11I1Wkll;
mQJoa; mukl' ; ",...-.:all"; ul\"alioll;
JIIldh,,; sol('Tiol ogy: \'Igrtlbof'glltl
liftuf acti on. Se(' pT.' UTIII
lift-ofr('nuncia!ion. mlll;m/l. 5('(' Il[so
wlllllyaw; t)"ag"
lif(' tim<' . prt'scnt (dm<l ,.mma), 5.2, 90,
95, 17!i, lH, N'!, lS6 .
prar,/bd/)./k<l"'/(I; smirll,/ k"nI/(I
li fNinll's, ()Ih(' r ("drl t"','IIII1I" ). 95, 98,
178,144, ill. Sfl' "lw mtm
o r)" of pr<.,iuus li,'c5
Lmg'/ (s('nitab. rna!.'). 8.. Su "/so core.
rn3rk"d
Img, /.i...lrira. 5f(, subl!.Dody. Ib
liquor. L56
/oA'JkJj,/ (space at 11.< boundary of Ihe
Jaina uni,<: rsc). 230, ZJ6
5cr
luwcr le"ds of truth. '(,')""L'IIJuim
LucklllJnn. Thomas. ill
luminous- body (t"'Jawj,arir,, ), ill
INDEX AND GLOSSARY
lust. See hi",,,
lyi ng, 154
t-,'!adha\'a, lZO
r.h.iurai, 12=1
Mdh,ibharilld, xxii , xxiii , xx,', 30, J2,
H - 35, 38- 59, f&, ill., 169
/lfahiikiil" Tall/rd, 19'; , 106, 11>_ 215
/If abaJ.""",,,,,vibb,," g"Sut/IJ., I U
Ml1biipllrinibbii'M Sufla , 19.0
,"abiipiiMk'l . St'(' monal sin
M'lbii S"k"ludayi S,,/Ia, 160
M"hiilanh,isailkh"yaw t la. 169
r.hhavi ra, 09, 118, 128
Mdjji",,, Nikiiy" . l6'1
r.hkkhal i Gosah. S('(' Gosala, Makkhali
r.blinowsky, B. , !.iL liS
Mallisena, ill
",,,,,as. Set' mind
,\/a",n a-dIJdrma-iaslra. Sa Manu
ill
Misra, ill
mallel. 50'('" ancestors; Pius: pmyalld;
S,,;,,,,,,,,
Mdl.limck"{,,i, ill
m"'to-k"mmd (mind karma), 171, L8J
Manu , '\/dllIIsmrli. 61 fL, 304
Mara, 176, 179, 190
Markar:tdcya, ';9- 51
Mark"I/ (/eyd 11
marked l"Orc (!iilg"). Set' ..:on', marked
Marrioll, McKim, xii , x"i, Hi, 10,
160- 165, 303, J.Q6., ill
8
mat<'rial basis for <' xi stenc,' . Sec
pr,ulhall"
materialists, 269, 171, 294, lOl. Set a/lo
Cirviika; prahl;
Meade, George Herbal , ill
medical I,' xl books. S('t' Arurndic
medicine
meditation, 17, 184- 185, 210, IIJ , 145 -
.H6
nl<'mory of pre\'imls lives, !..Q1.., 1.0.8.. S ('('
dlso lifetimes, other (a4rsla-janlfla )
mendicants, 66.. St'C "Iso begging; monk
menstruati on, 99, 126, 11>9
meril transfer. Set' transfer, mer;1
Milin"a P."iha. See QII('sliOI/5 of Killg
Mi/illtia. The
Mimamsa (ka rm,, -mimiimsa, pUT'/;a-
JJ7
",;" "i,!, S,'; a philosophy of Vedi,'
ritual ), 17J - 181. For 'UMr,,
m,m" nlSii, ! ('t V.:,d:i"ld
,l fim,imSliS';lr" 273 _ 174
. ,
mind (manal ), 55, 61, 101, 104, liS, 173,
207, 114,119,149, 250,257, 185, 187,
190 .108
mis.:arriag<' . l. LOa .. St't ,,/so procrealion,
abnormal
modcl. S('e ideal-mod..!
/I'lohammed, 1.63
mok fa (rri<'ase). xv, i. 63, 219,
225 - 116, 128, 166- 167, 273. 30.;.
lQ9.. Sl.'t' ,,Iso liberation
"\olirasi,' aka. ill
monk (b!Jikkll, bbihll, sama'liI.
i ramana). x,', 156, 160, 161 - 161, 118
moon, 152, ill
mortal sin (mal"ip.itakll ), 68 ff.. &I
mother, rok of, 22. 100. S('t' "Iso par-
ents; ",ife
"wkti 8.L Se, ,,/so li bcrJtiOIl
murder. 158, 183_184 St<' Jl so
br"hm,, -b"lyii; killing
:Vlurugan, :.Iuruka
l1
. ill
Nagarjuna , 139, 151
Niigascna, 1M, 167- \68
NahusJ, iZ
milaripi r, In. 1.13
nama-karma (name-giving), 111
,,,,rak,l. """,ka-Iok" . S,,' hcll(s)
,u
,varrillai. 120
""r" kal (divinl' stone), ill
Njyatis, liZ
new- and full-moon sacrifice. ti",.s,. -
P'; rll/O-mala-l!!1
lIibb,,,IiI. Sec "ir",''' a
nigodal organisms), 214-
217, 2J.6
ni],ilat;oni>nl ("ce/",tI,, ), 166. 114
mrvalla, xxi , i. 31- 33, 139- 140, 149-
I.iQ, 1.& 164, 192
nitya- k"rma" (regular sacri fici al rill'S),
157, lZ9
nh'rlli (activi ty not to maintc-
nance of this world), xxii, 41. ih 60,
82, 265, 267, 10!. S('t' ,,{jO renuncia-
tion; Sdl1.myaM; t)'agd
m-,,,-,'Xlsr,'nn', ':O""<'<]U"11[, Sl'e
pr.ulh'lJm ",bli:; ,'Il
non-cxiskncc. ncipro..-JI or Jntl'C(",i.-nt.
S,"> ,m)'OtI}'i,bb'; ,'<1
no-,elf. S,. ,m,i/m,m
Nyay.l. 282 .28), 1Q2
N,I',iYilf,IJ.'i!)"tI, 2S(" l'lI
\' - ' - 'u,'u,'" i Yd)"m'allj.lrl, _0_ - _0_ , _
.\'y"yak",,,{.d;, 2112
,\'),';),o[5i'lr,[. 190
,\ 'yaya-;:.irlllk,l. 182. 2'lD
of the S,',hCS (l:ii.I)'II ), 14ft _ HZ
Oedil'JI conflict. S.'.' blha
umniprc'si:nl "'lUI. 5,:.,> ;')JI,I",
Orpheus. Orphic m),sttri"s. I 1 ,
other li"":5 ("dm,,-j amll<l ). Set- ]jf"t,nws,
othrr
olhl'r"'orlJ (P,lT.,/"ka). HS, H7.170. Sr,
,,!so hCd"en, hell
Pacsi. S(">
pain. S.'" dIiJikh,/
p,ui(lig",;;u/),ii , Sa Ii \'c-fin: dO\."trirw
I'lnQJ\' as. :!.5.., :!l. .'!2
paradise. Li. 156. Set' Illf(! Il<'J"L'tl
pdr,/fohl . ),>" othnworld
I' Jrjhra, l3
par"ms. roi,' of, ,wi, 11, I'l.. ,H- J6, ')l -
108, 169, 106, 208. 238, 7H_)5;, S,'"
"Iw blher; mother
pdri(uim<l (<'\'oluI;on. trJn,fOrmalion),
110. 127, ill 1m
l'arMlns. Talco!! . 11. .lO
178
P:in' Jti. 12 10
Pas<'nadi, 173, m
P;""p;lt dS. i2
PJt;uij.lli, 243, liZ. S,>" ,,flO YO);.I
patent JCt. Sec
P"!iCC"-Mmllppiid,,, Scc pn'lil),"-
I<lII/lIlpiili"
P"1'SIl",lIJ1 re-
birth), 169_ 170
P;'v:isi 29j
, .
penan,'c, S,' r
P<'I<I, S .. '" prel"
ph"non1<'l1OIogy, ) 09
philosophical texts, 5':e
d"rl<llll'
INDEX ANI) GLOSSARY
phk;:Tl1 (!..'''pl",. iI"1m,,,, ), J2., 'll. 99, lli!...
.w
ph)'siolOl:ical d(,tc'rrnini.m. 23 ff. Set'
,,/;u prcd",tin,ltiun;
pilgrimage', !.l.. 25
pil,l(/<l (b.11! of ri,' c off..r,'d tu ,IIlC,'SW").
x"iii, 5- 6, lL Sr" ,,/,o Jnn"t ors;
ir.ii/db"
PisJ,'Js, 93, 108, W
Pitrs nii, !.Q, 93, U.L 121, .!l.i..
Si'C "/lO In,' l',,un; " 'ay-of-the-f.nhc rs
pll,)""", Sc'(' WJyoithc-hlh.-r1
pllM, SCi' bik
plantS, m - 222, 114, 1;1, 254, 192,.rtH.,
mill
I'lalO, L.5J
picJSUT<." Sec,"kl",
pollU!;"n, lQj
poss<:ssioll spirits or ;:ods, 117- 118
I'rabh:ibra. ,!Q" 110
pr,ulb,"M (matC'fiai hasi s "f ,'xistcncc).
;6_;7
pr"dln:ams,ibh,it'<l no n-
.. ). lQ5I ff,
pr.ig,ibb:it"l (all!''c-,.Jcll! non-,'x ist .. n,'c),
10'1 ff.
PrJjap.lli. 26, ,'7. 5(" 5..'L " Iso
HrJhnu- I'r Jj;lp.lti
pr,'pLip"r"db", Sec commun 5cnsc, c' ;o
btions of
p,,,hlJ (t h<' nUteri,11 world. ll;lIun-). xxii,
iO.. iZ. 2H - 245, 247- .H8, 2(,3,
ill
prd/"Yd, St'" dOOIllSd.l),
pr,ir"dbh -k,trlt/,m (an, to b,- w"rked
out i" present likj, ]49, 156- 257, 263,
165.. S"t' ,,1m li fetime. pn'sem: sa', -
("ir ,I-binI/II
pr",ada (food left o"a after offering !O
the gnds), t!, L1
284 ,
pr.lIil"IIlIIJl , Sec p_'l'5<",dln
pr;ttiwdlJ./ (sJcriticiJi prohibitions), 1l!1
pr.ail)"H<lmltlp,idd (causJl chain of dc-
p,'mit-m co-o r;):in,\!ion), 166, lZi.
PTil:Jflll (Jeti,,;t}' di rcc\('d IOwards nlain-
({'nan,',- of this world). xxii, 1:li, 60,
82, 165, 167, .l.O..i. llO... S('C also
klln/I"-P,'l",'
pr,'y .. Hciu", S<'I'
pn'dc'stinatiOll (bb,I Vi;"IISd). 9i - 96
INDEX AND GLOSSARY
pr"dispusi l ions. 177. JII - 3IS.
JI '>U bf,.'v" .. u"mbir, ... $"u,; '::"Ml1,;
pr,' IIl (spiril of pasun). i.
10- 11. [f1., 62, !2Q, 111, ill
f'rd"k,dp,', LZ
pri",lhuud, 5,'" Brahmin;
P"lil"
pron<, .nion, % - 108. 197. 2lb.; aim""
mal, G 'l. toO. Se, "Iso Dirth
proplu-cy, <'lhiLII. 147, li2. If>]:
I'rult'Stami,rn, L6J
p"r/g,d" -t',;d,, , P"g",f,, -t',idol (du;."l r; ",'
uf J SOld ), L6.8
p"i"r; (rri" SI ). U2 5.'t' "fm Brahmin
l'ulkasJs, LS
pUII ,mtlr/)H. Sct' ,,J (J(h
lii9
Set" expiltion
pm;,iakkh,l)"l' (w.l11ing of mai l ). ill
""!,,,,,;m,ru, 119-111 , ill
{',m;""s, xx;'', 13 _ 15. 22. 32. 90.
JQi, ill
)lurg.lIory. 5,"> hdl
mcdinl. 'll
()piri t ). xxii. 58. 245. 26J. !li.!.
lQli. Sr" "Is(} consciousness
pm"!"!.""r". S,'" (,(furt, h","an
piir,:.""';"'';'m,;. Sec Mi",, ;ml<i
l'ytha!!or.ls, 138, l;O_ IV
Q""sliom "r KillS Md",'/,," TI,c. 164,
167 - 168 . 296
r.lin , .221 - 222 . ,lH. 297- .298 . 301.
abo hiriri
'''IdS (qU.,IiIY of 63, 102, 105.
248, llD
r:ik
l
"Jal (demons). 93. 108, UL al,ro
<lSIITil
R;\l113nuj.l. 13 1. 119, 180, ill
r.B" (1Iuid). 103, 105
r.llionalizltion , li'.!
rd/l ,rlo,lus. S,'o'
,,'alism. s.,c mr:.';jt;-'[;,i""
f('birth , xxi. ,\ - " , L1 56, 61 - 89. UQ,
112 - !l3 , 125, lJl , lJ7 192, 217 !JR,
l.6lL alsu p.,(Il"'lIi},i; j",,,MM
redeJth ,!, 2b&
T<illcJrnJtion. 5 .... liktim,s. o !l\{'r;
f"birth
339
rc!CJSi: , Sec libaJtiun
renunciation. 1.1. SC(' liM) 'liVftll; UIII'
11)'1;",;
rn'Ju, (klln",j!'.,)"" v.'...-"''' )' Sa
1'" ... lispo.l;t;un.,
l:IJ ,
I!g \" '''d, II , 5S, IS .. , 15{' - l i8
r;cc. 12. l5:L See
. Is" (.jTl<:
of kJrmJ , I..m>la-t'lplika
rites of pas"a!;(', 11
rl<'lI.J!brd. Sc<' pralil)'., '''''''"IP;;''''
Rudr;!, H
S.,ban. 173 - 1N, llli, .2..S.O
s,Krificc. S,, 'r.;d"",,;
Vcdic rituals
$ . ,i.d"ri."",-s,,,,, "ce.,)";', 210
!i,li"J Siddh:m\a (Cai\"J CinjnlJ.). W
i . ht (pon-a). 58, IS7, 17(', 279, l'1O
SJlikan:uhalllisrJ. , ill
s.,{fel.h.m'; (J a;nJ of fasting u rlt il
.lath). ill
,ak.l!ion, J.l9 - I"O, li2, !2, 202- 103,
111- 1H
J
271, l8R. St'<' alw ",ok/,,;
nm.l<in<l: sotaiolog),
5.im.",,, . 5(",' monk
$."">;".;,,, (cornDinJli on) .lil9
ill
5dmll),"U, .""m),"II'1 (renunciation. re
l 61 , 264 - 26; 51'" ,.!5o
libaation
UIIIs.ir" (transmigrltion. ein:uit of mun
d.ule' xix , , J1. 57,
f!.t 110. lJI, !lb 139, 149-150, 151,
172. 175,103, l.Qi, UL.Z2!!, 247,
l68. 191, 101 _30'
u,mk';r . (V"die rill' of pJSsdge). 5
.a'(Hk,;", 116, iJ l ,
143, 277, 2S0-281, 183,186, 304.
Sec .llso hI,,,v,,; pred isposilion; ",imll';
5,"")'''11;1 Nik")'.,, 166, Jl2, 295 _ 196
s",k;/,,k;mll., (aeu that remain btent in
,h,' prncn\ life). 15b _257, 1bJ
.'" i ci),""'';'' ii-I." y"",. S{'r fo/ll d 1<1-1." nIl ,/
S3ng.lrll, 117- 118, III
SanjH'J , 44 _ 45
Sank;rJ, 1lJ., 150- 267, .270, 296- 302,
ill
lS6
$ankhJciidJ, 2!J
x"i . 56, 263, 28], 300,
307_ 316
Siilkbya-kartk,i, lQS., 31] - 312, ill
Sanskriliz:l.!ion. ll9
rit e (carmony di ret'led to
1 hr ancestors, part of hiiddba rite),
1, lO..i. Sec ,dso ancestors; Pitrs;
sr,iddh" .
jll,;r". Set body
Sanre, Jean- Paul, H
San"-d,,rilln,'- MmgraJM, 110
S"n',/-lldd "allta-wIl/grld}d I 1lO
sartlii;ti- v,idd (Buddhist doctri nr of
realism), ]70, L82
WSl<lta. See n.:rn:1lism
Sdt"P,l tllil 151
ja/i (widow'S sdf-immo bti on 301 hus-
band's ncmation), 116, 118, III
!iar-kba",dagd",a. 217
$;1m", (quality of goodness or purit y),
63, 98, 105, 247, 110
S""minllka5 (Bllddhis! " followt'rs of the
slllras"), 1&5
Schutz, Al fred, 315
sced symbols, lOZ. St'e also hija
[, !.1 16, 19 - 11, H, 36, 59, 98,
100, ]03, lQZ, 110- 111, 216,
21 ], 297_ 299
st'nse object s. St'e "bjt"Cts of the senses
(vifltya)
icflt 79, Sf. See "Iso
positions
Sl'lL Scc irtlercourse, sexual
fhd.lus. St'e gross-body
Shulman, D,wid, 1?9 _ 110
fiddh" (om' who has become perfected),
1]9,123,126- 227, ill, 216_ ?37 Sct'
also liberation
siddbi (yogic pown), 63, ill
sin, lM!... l56
Siva. l1. 19- 30, 129-130, ill
,kam/bas. SI'( aggregates
Sloka-viirttika, 278 - 279, 282 ?81
som" (a s3nifici al drink, sometimes per-
sonified as a god), & ]56- 157. ill
Somaka. H
sorcery, 145, 150J
sotcriology: medical, 193- 216; specula-
tive, xxii, 263, 288 -289, m 121. Sec
tll;o salvation
soul, xxi , xxvi, 37, 50, !iL IH , H8, 219,
INDEX AND GLOSSARY
216, 236, 283, ,l2,L Sct' also litrlMI/;
balOma; pudgala-v lidd
spet'ch, Qb ILl.. IS3, 207, 2]5, 2SO
o ri gination, ru
iraddh,j (fai th, ill
iriiddha (ceremony for JnccslOrs), xiv, .L
2. l2. 26, 3!, 33, 36, 190, 210,
lZO.. Sa tllso JrlCfStorS;
Pitrs; ritl'
5r';malld, Sa monk
h""ta rituals. Sa Vtxlic
Sri, 30
SridhJra. 12- 25. 2&1
iriili (fl'\'l'3kd tl'xts, thc Veda), .lOO
Sua!. J. F., 11
Stark. Werrtt'T. l1b
SIJr.'at ion, 120, 233
stealing. Sc,' theft
Slennson, bn, 39, 138
Sthala-puri':\as, W
"hiti (karmic duration), 218
SlI}uf"-j,,rira. Set' gross-body
substa1l<:c (dravya ), 'll., 208, !lO,
ill
subst ance-codt.' . See code-substance
subtl e-body (dtivahik", liil8a, si,kW"'-
Stlrira), 16-17, 55, 210, 250- 251,
254 - 255, J08 , ill
Sudra (sen ' ant ), I.[, 60, 69, 76, 160, 2M
suffering. Sc<' dukkhtl.
sugal; (joyful existcncc, good incarna-
tion), 172 - 173
suicide, l1ll Sl'e also lallt,khalla; !<Iti;
Starvati on
sukha (happiness, 246,
295, 110
mkrMm (good luck, good deed), U
siiks",a-jtl rirtl. Se, subtle-body
i"nyd/ii, ]97, 199, 206, 20S, 210, 116
Simi . See liquor
SUrcSV31'J.. ill
Surya, W
Z 55
SlIsrUla Silmhitii, 93, Ul
SIII/tl Nipiiltl, 174 _ 176
wabhiiva {own-being, essence}, 22, 26.
i1.,i.&6
Wtl dr/M-par;",,ima (current state of
bondage of soul in body), 219
w"dbtl mM, xv
svarga. Set hcavcn(s)
INDEX AND GLOSSARY
Svetambaras, 217, 225
$vetasvalara Upani5ad, X\. ill
Swanson, Guy. 152 - !i,l, 155
ttl/jasa-jarira See !uminou)-body
lamas (quality of darkness or inertia),
H. QJ.., 102, 105, 248. 110
Tamils, Tamilnad, xviii . xxvi . 116- 133,
H8
Tamra, 8, 58, 1.93 - 216
Talllra-rahasya, 280
Talllra-vamiktl . 275,282- 283
Itlpas heat), 29, 58
(satisfaction or contentment), 9
le;al (heat, power), 29- 30, S.S
Tev;;}a Surra, 156, 16.3
textual vlriants and muhiforms, 28
thdt, fd, 69- 70, 86- 87, 15.4
h
' . , -",,,
t cory. Xl '. _ , - _ , _
ThcraxJ.da, !1Q, lZ.l. 177. !.BL 189, 191 ,
201 - 202, 295-296
thought-i mpression, bod)' of (bag.-
,hags, . . ,j , xxii , 198 _199
TIbetan Book of tbe Dl.'ad (Bar.do .... ).
19;- W
time. $.-,e K:ill
Tipiltlka, !.BH, 00
Tirllkkural, In
123, 129
liryanCtll (animals ), '22 _ 2']
transf("r: fa mily, 29; food, !Q, lfu fruits of
actions to God, !L 132; good and evil.
l2.; m("rit, xv, xix, J, 10, 28 - 29;
powa, substance, [i, 58, LOL Sec
aIm transfcrenc(" and non-transfercnn
transference J nd non - tunsference,
101- 316
transformation. See parinama
transmigrating soul. s,.e ji .. 'tI
transmigration, xx"i, U, 19. 57, 142, 145,
!.M. 168- '02. $,.,e al5<) <a",..ira
Tretlliw (>II K,lrma, SCI' j,,'llrmasiddbi-
prakaralla
tribal religions of India, Wntcmpoury
(Apa Tanis . Chen,:hu$. Dal flas ,
Kamars, Rldi s), LSS
TripiMka. See Tipiraka
Trobriand Islanders, 140- 143, 145, 148.
'"
truth, lower. Sec v),'".1aiJar'l
TUma, 141_ 142
11. Su alsa renunci-
atiOn;
J<cch,da. Set" nihilation
Uchendu, Vi ctor c., 132
Udayana, 292
UddyOlakara, 282, 220
Jaina. See lokaktila
,almatia. See insanity
x,', 10, 22, 41 - 42, lJlj 137,
147,1 57- 158, ]60, 148, liQ, 266, 269,
292, 29(, - 302. See also Ailtlreya;
Brhadaranyaka; Cballd"gya; Kallii-
laki
UsJS, U
Utkramayoga. W
Ulpaltikramdyoga, 205
Unanka, H
See Vedanta
Ullaray"yal;. 42, ti
Vac. See spn'ch
Vacaspati, 245, ill
vacikamma (voice-karma), 62- 63 , 181,
m Set" ,,1>0 speech
93, ill
!ll. 185, Ul, 22'!. See al5<)
vib/Ju
Vaisesi ka. 781 - 102
Vaijqika-II'lra. .'84 - )86
Vaisya (merchant ), !1, 60, 62. 98, 264,
m
vajra-body, 195, ill
Vaj rarana. Su Tantr:!.
\lakyapadiya, 274
\ 'amade\':l. , l'iS. - Z.l6
vanaprasllJa. Set" forestdweller
vama (class). ZL lib!u" 'N, 117, 2M.
abo Brahmin; caste; Ksatriya ;
Sudr .. : VJis)'l
(rilles gO\'erning
,' arious social classes and of
li fe), .mb 116
Varuna, ]07, L56
vasal/a (prlisposi tionj , 97, 187, 243-
248 - 249, .llli. Set' also hbava;

Vajiuh,, -dhamla-II,/rtl, 83,85
Vasubandhu, 170-172, 181 - !83 , 185
Vasudeva, 25
'/..'.1111. Sr, wind
Valsiyaplllr.ls, LZO
Vals),ayana, 280. 2Sb
VeJa(sJ, li, iL 51, 81-82, 119,
J1Z, 26..8
t'rd<ll" ya-karm<l (a(\ ions that in-
to be made knQwn). 212
V .. J3'1I3, x,j-x,;i. xxi-xxii , i, :!l.
56- 57, NJ , 248 - 167, 196-J01, .104,
116
Vedic rituals, l l-l), 154, I.lii. !..2L llQ.
28.l.. St'," also 5almk,ira;
sTJddl",
Sec piJlllS
Vena, 2J, 15
'(lIbb" (omniprewnt sou l). 119, 119, l'lO
VicJkhll D
'1.,'1(11).,,,,,, St'" d"st;ny
\' id"d"bba;:,mfJl<, lZ5
'l!lgMh.,-g.ltI ( intermediate condit ion (,,'e
or cmbo.:limcnt), 230, l 3? _ ?B St'"
aim li beration
t o,),;"p'; (patent act). lS1 ff.
vlk,ir<l (.kr;\,JI;\,c modifi cJtion) . ill
Vi""y" P, /ilk", lB2
\';oknn'. ill
7.!lp"rY,' .I',', 5.,<> .'''',Ir,'n,"
Vipaseit . 32_ j}
t'il"),II . Sec objet'ls of th,'
Visnu, 8, f.L .H, 18, '!Ii. 125, 119, ill
I'ij>lu-m'fll, 68, !is
l'illltMJ,lm,'gg" , l.6.S
l!1
voli{imL Se'C (n","
I'nJp,lr\' an,
Vyas;I, Ii, 42. ill
-::ya: .. ,/uir" (lowL' r (ruth), 22&, lCJ
[NDF-X AND CLOSSARY
wamkrcr 197_ ][6 S,',' al,o
ja""'y,im,; iram"".,
\\'alson, J. D., liS
way-of-thchthcrs (pllry,ill.l ). 156, 131,
134,137, 251,7'16 30'
way-of-thc-g"Js (.{('t'''y,''I./ ), 151, ill
Weber, ,\!lx, 140, IH . 14(, . 149,
JO;, 116
\X
1
hi,dl cad, Htnr\" III
\'\' ilwn, E. 0 .. .tis
wi f... role of. Q, 19- 31, U. Sa .,/Ju
mot h"r; parems
wind (t"'I." t,,)'u). !l, 59, 99,
ill, I.&. m lOS, ill 2'l8
womb (y{)m) . 8, 96 - 108, 172, 199,
104, 114, 111, llli. ill
wrath. St'e' krodlu
Yaji'ia\'alkr.', (' 1, 2('(', lW
I',i/.i" c"I1,I'.' ,fI",,.,,,.I_ j,ill r". 61
l'"kMS, 13'- 14, '1.l
YJlTl;', !l, ll. lQZ. 156, 251_ ) 5.'
"
" , -., '0
"yall, " Ll
Y ... '7 S J
0103 . X\"I-X"U, "'-'-' =..1 11 , 1H 2(,7,
3Q-1, ill
y,'g,,_"/;.i,.', . , lil
fOg.,-51;IY", 2-<5, ill
)'om. SCt' womb
31 - 33, 35, 1 4), 4;, 47,
49_; 1
.l:I
R. C . lQj
Zoroa'tl'r, 1.61 - 164
Zornlstro.lOi"n. 154. 16' 163
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