CORROSION CONTROL

CORROSION CONTROL

WA TER PIPE

Design Manual

LININGS AND COATINGS FOR CORROSION PROTECTION OF STEEL PIPELINES

The application of linings and coatings to steel pipe to prevent corrosion is a critical part of pipeline engineering. Our existing water systems infrastructure is in a state of terrible disrepair because the technology of corrosion prevention was not available to our design predecessors. Today, with the use of modern protective linings, coatings, and cathodic protection, buried pipelines can achieve incredibly long lives with very little added cost.

SECTION 1 GENERAL
INTERNAL CORROSION
Steel pipe has a long history of effective internal corrosion control. For almost all water conditions, cement-mortar lining has provided high hydraulic flow capacity without the build-up of tubercles. The cement provides a high-pH environment in conjunction with a low oxygen supply, and self-healing characteristics. Where non-potable liquids are being transported or in conditions of high velocities (over 20 feet per second), dielectric coating systems are recommended for lining of steel pipe.
PIPE ANODE CATHODE

MOIST - EARTH ELECTROLYTE HYDROGEN FILM

IONS

IONS

EXTERNAL CORROSION
Preventing or greatly reducing external corrosion requires an understanding of how corrosion operates as well as the mechanisms required to perpetuate the process. Corrosion is a process that deteriorates metallic surfaces. The systems by which this happens are both electrical and chemical. Corrosion can occur naturally or can be induced by stray currents. Naturally occurring corrosion results from dissimilar metals, dissimilar surfaces, old and new pipelines, concentration cells, dissimilar soils, bacteria, or stresses. Corrosion cells can also occur due to the introduction of electrical current into the ground (stray current). For metallic pipelines, it is critical to minimize or eliminate these corrosion processes. The methods used to combat corrosion of pipelines and to ensure a long-term performance life typically include the application of coatings and linings as well as the additional use of a cathodic protection system. There are four requirements for the corrosion process: 1. 2. 3. 4. The presence of an anode and a cathode A metallic bond A voltage potential between the anode and cathode An electrolyte (the surrounding soil, air, and/or water) with the presence of oxygen.

the electrolyte from the metallic surfaces. The potential current between the anode and cathode can be reduced or neutralized with the use of cement coatings, a process called passivation. A variety of bonded dielectric coatings are available, which are designed to isolate the metallic pipeline from the surrounding environment, thus providing electrical isolation. Although coatings, by themselves, may not be the perfect answer to corrosion control in all environments, when they are used properly in conjunction with a cathodic protection system, a nearly unlimited life can be achieved. Cathodic protection (CP) is a method that, when connected to the pipeline, discharges an electrical current from a remote anode to the pipe. If enough current is discharged from the remote anode to the pipe, corrosion on the pipeline will not occur. Cathodic protection systems should be designed, taking into account the many variables that can come into play. For more detailed information on catholic protection, please refer to Demystifying

Table 1: Six Levels of Corrosion Protection

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6
No protection, pipe installed bare without monitoring system Install pipeline bare with polyethylene encasement, without monitoring system Add monitoring system (bonded joints and test leads) to Level 2 Bonded dielectric coatings or cement-mortar coating without monitoring system Add monitoring system (bonded joints and test leads) to Level 4 Add cathodic protection to Level 3 or Level 5

An anode is the location where corrosion takes place and metal is lost. A cathode is where the lost metal migrates to, and thus, a transfer of metal ions occurs. The anode/cathode and metallic bond are always present on metallic pipelines due to the physical make-up of steel. The first two requirements of corrosion are, therefore, always going to be present. To control pipeline corrosion, a coating system is applied to the pipe surface to reduce or eliminate the potential between the anode and the cathode, or to provide an impermeable membrane to separate

Choose a level right for you. Consult your local sales engineer or corrosion expert.

WA TER PIPE

Design Manual

Cathodic Protection, the Steel Plate Fabricators Association publication by Donald Waters. For proper operation of cathodic protection, each pipe must be electrically continuous and test stations installed at regular intervals. Northwest Pipe Company offers a variety of coating and lining systems. They each have capabilities and limitations that need to be carefully considered before a planned system should be specified. Our representatives can provide additional technical information and guidance regarding your pipeline system needs. There are two major categories of linings and coatings applied to steel pipe. One is cementitious materials, which neutralize the chemical process by passivation. The second is dielectric, which provides a physical barrier separating the metallic surface from the electrolyte. Both systems can be used as either linings or coatings. Example specifications are provided in this manual.

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CEMENT-MORTAR LINING
Cement-mortar lining is the most commonly specified lining material in todays water transmission industry. A lean mixture of three parts sand to one part cement is centrifugally spun onto the interior surface to create a dense, smooth surface. The actual cement application is performed by pumping or pouring a high slump cement mixture onto a slowly rotating length of pipe. The rotating speed is then increased so the proper centrifugal forces level out the wet mortar to a uniform thickness. Continued spinning removes the excess water and compacts the mixture to a dense and hard surface. After the spinning process, the lining is cured either by moist curing at ambient temperature or by an accelerated process using steam. Cement-mortar linings are applied under the guidelines of AWWA C205. Like concrete, cement-mortar lining can develop drying cracks, but these cracks will self heal when the lining is wet. Wetting the cement lining also causes the lining to swell, which increases strength and adherence. Cement-mortar linings can add significant stiffness for resistance to deflection forces. The strength of the mortar lining may be added to the strength of the steel when calculating stiffness. Soft, aggressive waters, as well as prolonged contact with heavily chlorinated water, may be injurious to cement-mortar linings. Cement-mortar linings perform best when flow velocity is 20 feet per second or less.

Protective end caps used to prevent the lining from drying out prior to installation are removed at this Colorado job site.

40- to 102-inch pipe was used by Farmers Reservoir and Irrigation Company for their Standley Lake Dam Improvements in 2002.

Steam curing optimizes cure times, enabling faster production cycles.

Pipe is lowered onto belts that spin pipe during the cement-mortar application to achieve an even, compact lining.

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PAINTS & POLYURETHANE LININGS

Bonded dielectric linings have been used as protective linings for above-ground applications for many years. There are two major categories of liquid film linings in the waterworks industry at this time: epoxies and polyurethane-based products. Epoxies are applied per AWWA C210 and polyurethanes per AWWA C222. These linings have excellent water and chemical resistance properties and can be used as an alternative to cement-mortar lining. They can be applied at various thicknesses and are factory applied to provide an excellent dielectric lining. Bonded dielectric lining systems can be applied as either a single or a multiple coating process. They are tough, resilient, and extremely abrasion resistant, making them an ideal lining choice for high internal velocities. Bonded dielectric lining systems are an excellent choice for extreme conditions such as wastewater or other industrial applications, including both gravity sewer and sanitary force mains. Epoxy and polyurethane systems do have some drawbacks that must be considered prior to application. A critical performance factor to all film linings is the surface preparation of the metal surface. In most cases, a near-white blast surface is required for proper adhesion, and this will require good inspection. Curing times and curing temperatures must adhere to critical tolerances. With proper surface preparation, controlled applications, and strict curing procedures, thin-film materials can provide a strong, resistant, long-lived lining. Epoxies are typically solvent-based, although some 100% solids epoxies are now available. The aromatic polyurethanes are 100% solids material. The 100% solids materials contain no VOCs. The epoxies are typically mixed and then applied by airless spray or brushed on to the pipe. The polyurethanes require heated, plural-component equipment. Epoxies typically cure in a matter of hours to days, whereas polyurethanes may be handled in a matter of minutes.

End caps are installed to keep pipe free from debris and other contaminants prior to shipment.

A spray boom is used to evenly apply a bonded dielectric lining. During application, the spray head rotates and the pipe may spin on rollers to ensure even, complete coverage.

Hampton Roads Sanitation District chose the SuperMain system featuring an anti-microbial polyurethane to line their sewer force main.

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TAPE COATING

Design Manual

Modern tape coatings are the most universally specified dielectric coatings in the water industry today. The electrical resistance, mechanical strength, reasonable cost, and long performance record of tape coatings have contributed to their success in the water industry, as well as the oil and gas industry. Exterior tape coating systems are applied at the factory by the methods described in AWWA C214. The tape system consists of cleaning and blasting the pipe surface, immediately applying a primer-adhesive, and then simultaneously applying the inner dielectric tape (corrosion protection) and outer-layer tapes (mechanical protection). Surface Preparation The pipe surface is first cleaned and then grit blasted to achieve a surface preparation at least equal to that specified in Surface Preparation Specification No. 6, SSPC-SP 6, Commercial Blast Cleaning. Priming Immediately after blasting, the pipe receives an adhesive or primer coating. The primer coating is applied as recommended by the manufacturer. When complete, it will be uniform and free of sags, runs, and bare spots. The state of dryness of the primer shall also be in accordance with the recommendation of the manufacturer. Tape Application The inner corrosion protection tape layer is directly applied to the primed surface using a helically wound process. The minimum overlap shall not be less than 1 inch. The applied tape is tight, wrinkle-free, and smooth. The inner tape is then tested to ensure there are no flaws or holidays using 6000-volt detectors. Outer-layer Tape Simultaneous to the inner wrap, one or two layers of polymeric-type mechanical-protection tape is also spirally wound over the inner

tape coat. The completed multi-layer tape coating system will provide a final protective encasement of between 50 and 80 mils of strong, durable, lightweight, and reliable bonded coating. Field joints may be repaired with polyurethane tape per AWWA C209 or with shrink-wrap sleeves per AWWA C216.

Bonded joint leads on the tape-coated Lake Chapman pipeline add electrical continuity, opening a window into the pipeline to monitor its condition.

This piece of tape-coated pipe demonstrates the superior quality from Northwest Pipe.

After grit-blasted pipe is primed, layers of polyolefin and polyethylene tape are consecutively applied.

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Design Manual

CEMENT-MORTAR COATING
Unlike the dielectric coatings (tape, Pritec, coal-tar and paints), cement mortar works by chemically inhibiting corrosion. The cement creates a highly alkaline environment at the interface of the pipe surface. Steel pipe, when protected by this high-alkaline environment, will exhibit no corrosion or corrosion at a reduced rate. It is critical that the cement coating be in intimate contact with the pipe surface for a long-lasting protective coating. Soil conditions play an integral role in the ability of cement mortar to provide long-term protection. Soils containing high concentrations of chlorides or soluble sulfates may adversely affect cement mortar coating protective properties. Cement-mortar coating, although consisting of the same mixture as cement lining, is applied at a very low moisture content, or no slump consistency. The application procedure consists of metering the mortar between a set of counterrotating belts or impinging wheels, which accelerate the mixture to the required compaction velocity. This high-velocity stream is applied to a slowly rotating and translating steel pipe. Simultaneously with the application of the mortar, reinforcing steel wire is embedded into the middle third of the mortar-coating thickness. The pipe coating is then cured by either the moist-curing or accelerated-curing method. Cementmortar coatings are applied under the guidelines of AWWA C205. Cement-mortar coating can be applied at various thicknesses, and it provides excellent mechanical protection for resistance to handling and installation damage. Like cement-mortar lining, mortar coatings add significant stiffness to the pipe, which resists deflection. The strength of the mortar coating and/or lining may be added to the strength of the steel when calculating ring stiffness. Deflections of cement-mortar-coated pipe must be manufactured within AWWA standard specifications to minimize cracking. Cathodic protection systems used with mortar coatings will require significantly more current to operate than that of dielectric coated pipe.

Cement mortar was applied on the inside and outside of this recycled water line from the Eastern Municipal Water Districts Temecula Wastewater Treatment Plant.

Steel pipe offers the flexibility for easy tie-ins and changes of direction.

A worker prepares this large diameter pipe for a Los Angeles Department of Water and Power pipeline.

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PRITEC COATING
Northwest Pipe Company is the exclusive supplier of ShawCor Pipe Protections Pritec coating for large diameter water transmission pipelines. This dielectric, side-extruded polyolefin coating is an extremely durable material when applied to pipe per the requirements of AWWA C215. The pipe surface must be clean and abrasive-blasted to achieve a surface preparation at least equal to SSPC-SP 6 commercial blastclean standard. A compound of butyl rubber adhesive is then extruded onto the surface of a rotating pipe in a continuous operation. The butyl rubber layer is 8-mils thick. Immediately following the butyl rubber, a layer of high-density polyolefin is extruded onto the surface. Both materials are heated to a nearly molten state, thus providing a seamless, bonded, damage-resistant coating. The thickness of the polyethylene layer is 40 mils for 18- to 36-inchdiameter pipe and 60 mils for diameters greater than 36 inches. Pritec withstands the stresses of field bending at cold temperatures and is suitable for operating temperatures up to 180F. Field joints should be coated with polyethylene tape per AWWA C209 or with shrink-wrap sleeves per AWWA C216.

Top left: Clean, grit-blasted pipe is coated first with a layer of butyl rubber adhesive, which is applied via a side-extruded process. Bottom left: A three-layer seamless system makes Pritec coating a durable, long-lasting corrosion protection solution for steel pipe. Top right: High-density polyolefin pellets are melted and extruded in a near-molten state to form the top layer of the Pritec system. Bottom right: A pipe with Pritec coating is moved outside, where the newly coated pipe can be stored until it is time for shipment.

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EPOXY AND POLYURETHANE COATINGS

Thin-film bonded dielectric coatings have been used for many years. There are two major categories of liquid film coatings in the waterworks industry at this timeepoxies and polyurethane-based coatings. Epoxies are applied per AWWA C210 and polyurethane per AWWA C222. Dielectric coatings have excellent water and chemical resistance properties. They are factory applied to provide an excellent dielectric coating that is very compatible with cathodic protection. These systems can be applied as either a single- or a multiple-coat process to meet AWWA standards. They are tough, resilient, and extremely abrasion resistant. With all epoxy and polyurethane linings and coatings, a critical performance factor is the surface preparation of the metal surface. A near-white blast surface is required in most cases for proper adhesion, requiring good inspection. Curing times and curing temperatures also must adhere to critical tolerances. With proper surface preparation, controlled applications, and strict curing procedures, thin film coatings can provide a strong, resistant, longlived coating. Epoxies typically cure in a matter of hours to days, whereas polyurethanes may be handled in a matter of minutes.

Epoxies are an excellent choice for fabricated piping.

A spray nozzle applies an even coating of polyurethane.

Madison Chemicals Corropipe II TX polyurethane was used on this 84-inch pipeline for the City of Houston, Texas. The cement-mortar lined pipeline with field-welded joints was manufactured at the Denver, Colorado plant and installed in 1999.

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COAL-TAR ENAMEL COATING

Coal-tar enamel has been used to protect steel since the late 1800s. Its electrical resistance, mechanical strength, and long performance are known the world over. Factory applied per AWWA C203, this coating system can be custom designed to fit the existing soil and laying conditions. The applied system consists of cleaning, priming, application of hot enamel, then usually a covering of a fiberglass matte and/or a felt outer wrap. Whitewash or kraft paper is then applied for storage protection. Service Prep The pipe is cleaned and blasted to a minimum surface equal to SSPC-SP 6. Priming Immediately after blasting, primer is applied per the manufacturers specification. When complete, the primer will be uniform and free of sags, runs, and bare spots. Enamel Application Molten enamel (450-500F) is applied in a continuous coat with a minimum thickness of 332 inch +/- 132 inch. Outer wrap The outer wrap (glass or felt) is immediately applied over the hot enamel. This is followed by a layer of kraft paper or whitewash. Electrical Inspection Because there can be several layers of enamel and outer wrap, depending on trench conditions, it is important that the holiday-detection equipment is set up in accordance with AWWA C203. However, in no case should the operating voltage exceed 15,000 V. Field joints may be repaired with polyurethane tape per AWWA C209 or with shrink-wrap sleeves per AWWA C216.

Contractors installed this 72-inch pipe for Tacoma, Washingtons Second Supply Line.

Northwest Pipe Company employees prepare this coaltar pipe with proper holdbacks.

Kraft paper covers the coal-tar enamel to protect the coating from UV degradation prior to its installation.

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Steel Water Pipe

BULLETIN NO. 1-94

DEMYSTIFYING CATHODIC PROTECTION By Donald M. Waters, P.E. Vice President PSG Corrosion Engineering, Inc./CORRPOR This technical bulletin discusses the basic principles and types of corrosion and methods employed to cathodically protect pipelines so that it can be thoroughly understood. Prepared for: Steel Plate Fabricators Association 3158 Des Plaines Avenue Des Plaines, Illinois 60018 (708) 298-0880 TEL (708) 298-2015 FAX American Iron and Steel Institute 1101 17th Street N.W. Washington, DC 20036

DEMYSTIFYING CATHODIC PROTECTION By: Donald M. Waters, P.E. Vice President PSG Corrosion Engineering, Inc./CORRPOR 8840 Complex Drive, Suite 100 San Diego, CA 92123 (619) 565-6580 TEL (619) 569-1743 FAX Prepared for: Steel Plate Fabricators Association 3158 Des Plaines Avenue Des Plaines, Illinois 60018 (708) 298-0880 TEL (708) 298-2015 FAX American Iron and Steel Institute 1101 17th Street N.W. Washington, DC 20036

1. INTRODUCTION In todays world a water utility should not accept the fact that pipelines have a limited life due to corrosion. Technology exists to install a new pipeline so that it will remain in the ground almost indefinitely without experiencing external corrosion. Cathodic protection is the technology which allows this phenomenon to occur. This paper will explore corrosion and its prevention through the use of cathodic protection. It defines the principles of cathodic protection and explains in a simplified way how cathodic protection can mitigate corrosion. It should eliminate the misunderstandings as to the complexity and perceived expense of the installation of cathodic protection. Cathodic protection is a proven technique for mitigating corrosion. There is nothing mysterious or cryptic related to diminishing corrosion on metallic pipelines with this technology. The prevention of corrosion with cathodic protection is not new, the technology has existed for over 150 years. In 1824, Sir Humphrey Davy used cathodic protection to prevent corrosion of British naval ships. He did this by attaching zinc blocks to the

copper sheathing on the hulls of the naval vessels. From that time to today metals have been protected against corrosion through the use of cathodic protection. During the 1970s the United States Congress passed a law requiring cathodic protection to prevent failures on pipelines carrying hazardous materials and natural gas. In the 1980s Congress passed another law requiring cathodic protection on underground fuel storage tanks. If cathodic protection systems are properly installed and maintained, virtually all external corrosion can be eliminated. No utility or company operating pipelines should accept the fact that pipelines wear out, corrode and fail. With todays technology, these types of failures can and should be prevented. Economic analyses of cathodic protection programs at East Bay Municipal and Marin Municipal Water District (both in California) indicate benefits to a cost in the 7:1 to 8:5:1 range. These clearly indicate that benefit of water utilities using cathodic protection to mitigate external corrosion. The basic principles and types of corrosion that exist will briefly be discussed so the methods employed to cathodically protect pipelines from corrosion can be thoroughly understood. The major portion of the paper is devoted to cathodic protection principles and the many aspects of cathodic protection. It will conclude with a summary of costs for cathodic protection. 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CORROSION Corrosion, as defined by NACE International is the deterioration of a substance (usually a metal) or its properties due to a reaction with its environment. As a material reacts to the environment its properties are changed over time until the structural integrity of the material is gone. Corrosion and its causes can be categorized in many different ways. This discussion will simplify the causes of corrosion. The author has been requested to avoid mathematical equations and chemical formulae to explain the basis for many decisions that must be made if corrosion is mitigated. In this simplified approach, a discussion of other corrosion cells. 2.1 Basic Corrosion Cell The basic corrosion cell has four parts (Figure 1). All of these parts must exist for corrosion to occur:

1. The cell must contain anodic and cathodic areas. Anodic areas are where current leaves the pipeline or structure and corrosion occurs. Cathodic areas are areas where current flows onto a pipeline or structure and where no corrosion occurs. 2. There must be a greater difference in electrical potential between anodic and cathodic areas. The greater the difference in potential, the stronger the driving force for the continuation of a corrosion cell. This principle will be discussed in detail later in the text. 3. A conductive electrolyte must exist. In general terms, an electrolyte is the soil or water environment which surrounds a pipeline. Many factors can influence the conductivity of the electrolyte. 4. A metallic return path for electrical current must exist. The return path is generally the pipeline itself. If one of these factors does not exist, then corrosion will not develop. Therefore, it is beneficial to examine the mechanisms of corrosion and determine the most effective means to eliminate one of more of these factors. The deterioration rate of material at the anode is directly proportionate to the amount of current discharging from the anode, the anode material, and the passage of time. Formulas exist to calculate this deterioration. The weight loss is generally stated in terms of pounds per ampere per year. Table 1 identifies loss rates for some common materials. TABLE 1 Metal Steel Ductile Iron Loss Rate Pounds/Ampere/Year 20 20

Lead Copper Zinc Magnesium Aluminum

74 45 23 8.8 6.4

Twenty pounds of steel is lost when one ampere is discharged from a steel pipeline over a period of one year. Another way to look at this phenomenon is to examine a one inch square area of a quarter-inch wall steel pipe. This area weighs about .071 pounds. The time for complete destruction of this one inch square at various amounts of current are listed in table 2. TABLE 2 Current (Amperes) 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 Time (Years) for Destruction 35 3.5 0.35 (4 months plus) .0355 0.00355 (31 hours)

A milliampere (.001) of current discharging continuously off this area of a pipeline would cause destruction of the entire one inch of steel in 3.5 years. Discharging one ampere of current would destroy the steel square in 31 hours. The significance of these numbers will be clearer later on in this discussion when coatings, holidays and corrosion failures are presented. The relative size of the anode and cathode areas will affect corrosion rates. The smaller the anode area in relationship to the cathode, the more rapidly it corrodes. As the corrosion current is concentrated in a small area (high current density), rapid pitting and penetration occurs where current is discharged. On the other hand, if the anodic area is large and the cathodic area small, current discharge can be spread over a larger area which results in lower current density and much slower time to failure. An example is where a copper pipe surface is connected to a ductile iron or steel transmission main. Since steel or iron is anodic to copper, corrosion of the steel or iron can be expected. However, since the anodic area would presumably be on a large diameter (hopefully continuous) pipeline and the cathodic area would be on a small diameter short copper service pipe, corrosion occurring at the anode would not be as severe due to the relative sizes of the anode and cathode areas. 2.2 Naturally Occurring Corrosion Cells Galvanic corrosion cells occur due to natural reactions between a metal and its environment. Varying conditions develop which create differences in potential between

anodic and cathodic areas on a pipeline or structure. These differences result in corrosion. Some of the more common differences follow: 1. Dissimilar Metals

When two dissimilar metals are connected electrically and placed in an electrolyte, corrosion will occur with one metal becoming the anode while the other is the cathode. Table 3 indicates the relationships of one metal to another as predicted by a galvanic series. A practical galvanic series is the ordering of metals by their potentials to a known reference. TABLE 3 Practical Galvanic Series (1) Metal Commercially pure magnesium Magnesium alloy Zinc Aluminum alloy (5% zinc) Commercially pure aluminum Mild steel (clean and shiny) Mild steel (rusted) Cast iron (not graphitized) Lead Mild steel in concrete Copper, brass, bronze High silicon cast iron Mill scale on steel Carbon, graphite, coke Volts* -1.75 -1.5 -1.1 -1.05 -0.8 -0.5 to 0.8 -0.2 to 0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 +0.3

*Typical potential normally observed in neutral soils and water, measured with respect to copper sulfate reference electrode (1) Source: Control of Pipeline Corrosion, Peabody, A.W., NACE Handbook, Chapter 2, Page 5, Figure 2-2

Metals with more negative voltages (towards the top of the table) will, when connected to a metal below it on the table, corrode to protect the lower metal in the galvanic series. For example if steel pipe were connected to a brass valve, the steel would corrode to protect the brass (Figure 2). It a steel pipe were connected with galvanized fittings, the fittings would corrode to protect the steel, etc. (Figure 3).

1. Dissimilar Surfaces Corrosion cells will develop when dissimilar surface conditions exist on the metallic pipeline. Scratches on the surface of the pipe become anodic to the remaining sections of the pipe (Figure 4). Prevention of dissimilar surface areas on a single structure (nicks in pipe coating, hitting pipe with a rock, dropping mortar coated pipe, etc.) should be the goal of any inspector during the installation of a pipeline (Figure 5).

2. Old and New Pipelines When rusty steel or an old pipeline is connected to a new pipeline, the new pipeline corrodes to protect the old (Figure 6). In order to prevent this naturally occurring corrosion phenomenon, an insulator should be placed between the two materials. This would prevent the return metal path (one of the four requirements in the basic corrosion cell) from existing; and corrosion would not occur.

3. Concentration Cells A number of factors exist that cause differences in surface conditions on a pipe which would result in corrosion. One principal difference is the supply of oxygen. If the pipe is in an area which has a lot of oxygen and another area of the same pipe has much less oxygen, corrosion would occur in the oxygen starved area. This can occur when a pipe passes underneath a paved road or is placed on top of undisturbed soil in the bottom of a trench with well aerated soil backfill around the pipe (Figure 7). Similar concentration cells can exist due to dissimilar moistures and/or dissimilar pHs (acid and alkaline concentrations).

4. Dissimilar Soils Pipelines are installed in many types of soil including gravel, sand, silt and clay. These different types of soils may create dissimilar conditions which could cause corrosion (Figure 8). Even differences in temperature of the soil from one area to another could be significant enough to establish an active corrosion cell. Pollution in the ground and chemical constituents in the soil are extremely important in creating

dissimilar conditions which can cause corrosion. Irrigating and fertilizing can also contribute to dissimilar soil conditions.

5. Bacteriological Corrosion Bacteria often thrive in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic bacteria), and in certain soils, can create corrosion problems. Bacteria create a special type of galvanic action. While attacking neither the pipe nor the coating, they can cause changes in the soil which results in corrosive conditions. While bacteria can consume oxygen in one spot leading to a strong concentration cell, products of their metabolism are also frequently acidic and increase the corrosivity of the soil. In earlier periods, bacteria have been known to destroy the protective films which were applied. This traditionally occurred with synthetic materials. Present-day coatings contain bactericides which prevent damage to modern coatings. While working in these soils, it is necessary to be aware that bacteria may serve to create galvanic cells on a pipe. 6. Simple Stress When a portion of a pipe or fitting is placed in a stressful situation (threaded bolt which could be bent or twisted), the stressed area can become anodic to the remainder of the pipe (Figure 9).

Corrosion would occur on the stressed area due to dissimilar conditions from one area of the metal to the other. Corrosion in the water works industry that may result from stress would include failures in joints, bolts and leak clamps.

2.3 Stray Current Corrosion Cells In addition to the naturally occurring corrosion cells, corrosion cells can occur due to the introduction of electrical current into the ground. An overwhelming majority of these ground currents are created by man-made causes such as DC welding, electroplating processes, operation of DC transit systems or DC mine rail systems and the operation of an improperly designed cathodic protection system. The potential for stray currents can be significant. Stray current can vary from just a few milliamperes to large amounts of current. For instance, a light rail transit system generally uses 3,000 amperes to power a car while the subway system could use 12,000 amperes to power a train. The amount of current which develops into stray current is dependent upon the track to earth isolation. Electroplating plants can use up to 200,000 DC amperes to plate metals while shipyards have been noted to have welding operations that use over 500,000 amperes of direct current. Even miniscule leakage from any of these types of operations could cause devastating effects to pipelines. If stray currents are not controlled at their source early failure of pipelines could be expected. 3. CATHODIC PROTECTION

Cathodic protection uses the principles of a corrosion cell to stop corrosion. In a properly designed cathodic protection system all anodic areas are removed from a pipeline by placing an anode in the soil and discharging electrical current onto the pipe (Figure 10).

If enough current is discharged from the remote anode to the pipe, corrosion currents will not leave the pipeline; therefore, corrosion on the pipeline will not occur. Cathodic protection does not eliminate corrosion; it just removes it from the structure being protected and concentrates corrosion in another area (the remote anode). Discharging current from the anode can be designed so that the anode will have a predictable life. As long as the anode exists in the soil or water away from the pipeline, anodic areas will not exist on the pipe and the corrosion will not occur. Another way to look at this is to relate the flow of electrical current to water and water pressures. If water flows through a pipeline with a hole in the pipe wall, water may flow out of the pipe. The water will flow out of the hole into the exterior environment as long as the pressures from the exterior environment are less than the pressure causing the flow of the water. However, if the pressures outside the pipe become strong enough, they will create a force which prevents the water from coming out of the pipe. With such a force the water will remain in the pipe. Similar occurrences exist in a corrosion cell. Sufficient amounts of current are placed onto the pipe that will prevent any current from flowing off the pipe. If current does not flow off the pipe, no corrosion will occur. Three mechanisms cause corrosion to be reduced when cathodic protection is applied: 1) potential of the metal is lowered so that all of the areas of the metal are cathodes; 2) the electrolyte adjacent to the surface of the pipeline becomes more alkaline. This increase in pH causes inhibition of corrosion; 3) the increase in pH could cause the precipitation of insoluble salts (calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide); which may deposit on the metal producing a protective calcareous scale.

10

3.1

What Cathodic Protection Can and Can Not Do

Cathodic protection can be used to solve all of the corrosion problems listed in the above sections discussing corrosion cells. In other words, dissimilar metals, dissimilar surface conditions, concentration cells, stray current, etc. Cathodic protection cannot protect structures removed from the electrolyte such as pipelines in the air or surfaces of the pipeline not in contact with the electrolyte in which the anodes are located. For instance, anodes placed outside a pipe in the soil to protect the exterior of the pipe have no effect on the internal condition of the pipe (internal corrosion control is generally handled by water treatment and/or pipe linings). Conversely, anodes used to protect the inside of a steel water tank will not protect the soil side of the floor of the water tank. This is because the anodes inside the tank are in the water electrolyte and not the soil. Additionally, cathodic protection will not replace metal lost due to corrosion. If a cathodic protection system is adequately designed and sufficient current is available to curtain corrosion, corrosion of the pipe will stop. However, metal that has already corroded will not be replaced and the pits and thinness that exist on the pipe at the time the protection system was installed will remain throughout the life of the pipeline. Cathodic protection is the only recognized method of mitigating corrosion on existing structures. The use of cathodic protection for new structures can prevent any exterior corrosion from occurring. Henceforth, with the use of a properly designed, installed, and maintained cathodic protection system, the life of a pipe is virtually infinite since no external corrosion can occur. The amount of current necessary to protect a pipeline and therefore alleviate corrosion is dependent upon numerous factors: the type of coating; the changing conditions that may exist in the electrolyte; the metal allow that is used for the pipeline; the size of the pipe and its ability to conduct cathodic protection current.

4.

CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS

There are two types of cathodic protection systems: galvanic and impressed current. These systems can be described as follows; 4.1 Galvanic (Sacrificial Anodes)

A galvanic system is sometimes called a sacrificial anode system. This system is based on the galvanic series shown in Table 3. It used the concept that a metal higher in the galvanic series (or more negative) will corrode to protect a metal below it in the series. For example, magnesium and zinc can be used to protect steel and iron from corrosion. In a galvanic system, the anode material is sacrificed and the anodes must be replaced in order to continue protection. Sacrificial systems are generally designed for a 20 year

11

anode life. It is necessary to bury sufficient amounts of anode material to attain the design life. Sacrificial anodes have the following characteristics (Table 4): TABLE 4 Sacrificial Anodes Magnesium Theoretical consumption, lb/amp-year Actual consumption, lb/ampyear Potential vs. Cu/CuSO4
Source: Cathodic Protection - John Morgan

Zinc 23 25 -1.15

9 18 -1.7

The difference between the theoretical and actual anode consumption is a result of the anode itself corroding (galvanic corrosion of the anode). Sacrificial anodes in soil are generally surrounded by a backfill. The backfill is usually composed of 75% gypsum, 20% bentonite, and 5% anhydrous sodium sulfate. Backfills decrease the electrical resistance of the anode to discharge uniform current through its entire surface and not be subject to variable properties of the soil which could directly touch the anode ingot. 4.2 Impressed Current

The impressed current system uses a relatively non-sacrificial material as an anode and current from an exterior source. Current is impressed from an anode to the pipeline, making the entire pipeline a cathode. The source of electrical current is generally alternating current rectified to DC. Direct current is then discharged from the anode to reduce corrosion of the pipeline. The more common anode materials utilized in soil are graphite and high silicon chromium bearing iron. In recent years, various mixed metal oxide anodes have been used. 4.3 Selection of a Protection System

Confusion sometimes exists among some people as to which type of cathodic protection system is preferred. The system should be designed ; 1) so that it is functional and achieves equal amounts of current distribution along the desired structure; 2) current distribution should be achieved in a manner minimizing any interference to foreign structures; and 3) the cost of the system to be installed and the life of the required system should be analyzed before a system is selected. The calculations to determine anode life and the anode designs are conducted by corrosion engineers. Fontana and Green describe corrosion engineering as the application of science and art to prevent or control corrosion damage economically and safely. A corrosion engineer must have a solid feeling for economics. In solving corrosion problems a corrosion engineer must select the method that will maximize profit. 12

Each system has definite advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of a sacrificial anode system and an impressed current system are as follows: 1. Sacrificial Anode System a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Requires no external power source. Requires no regulation. Generally, maintenance is small over the anode life. Installation is simple. Damage from cathodic interference is minimized. Additional anodes can be added at any time to supplement the existing system. Current can be distributed evenly over a long structure, thereby eliminating high voltage drainage points.

2.

Impressed Current System a. b. c. d. e. Can be designed for a wide range of voltages and current. High ampere-years can be obtained from one ground bed installation. An extensive structure area can be protected from one installation. Voltage and current can be varied to meet changing conditions. Current requirements can be read easily at the rectifier.

Disadvantages of the same systems are listed below: 1. Sacrificial Anode System a. b. c. d. e. Limited current output. Generally, cannot be economically justified in high resistivity media (such as soil with resistivities above 5,000 ohm-cm). Installation may be expensive (particularly when installed under concrete). Large numbers of anodes are usually required to protect bare structures. Moisture in the soil is very critical. An anode will operate in moist soil and may not operate in the same soil during dry seasons.

2.

Impressed Current System a. b. c. d. Must be carefully designed to avoid cathodic interference. Subject to power failure and outside interference. Requires inspection and maintenance. Requires constant alternating current power which may be costly over the life of the unit.

Failure to select and design the proper system can mean that the structure to be protected may not be protected, costs could be excessive, or that nearby structures are corroded at

13

an accelerated rate due to interference current from the installed cathodic protection system (Figure 11).

5.

ANODE GROUNDBEDS

A grouping of anodes is referred to as a groundbed. There are a number of configurations for impressed current system groundbeds. Three of the more common are: a conventional anode bed; a distributed anode bed; and a deep anode bed. 1. A conventional anode bed is placed at one location removed from the area to be protected (Figure 12).

14

This type of anode bed is generally limited to cross country pipelines of very well coated pipelines in uncongested areas. 2. The distributed anode bed is frequently used to protect pipelines and structures where current distribution and interference are of concern (Figure 13).

15

As the title of the anode bed implies numerous single anodes are distributed along the structure to be protected. Anodes are located so that equal amounts of current can reach the structure to be protected. Frequently these types of systems are used where interference is of great concern, geology prevents deep anodes, or economics are such that a deep anode should not be installed. 3. The third type of anode system is a deep anode bed. With this system, anodes are placed anywhere from 50 to 400+ feed deep (Figure 14).

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Current is then discharged from the anodes back to the structure in a manner that minimizes electrical interference. This system also has the advantage that it can be installed where limited right-of-ways exist. Therefore, purchasing of additional land is not required. Impressed current anodes installed with any of these three types of groundbeds generally have a carbonaceous backfill around the anodes. As was the case for sacrificial anodes, the backfill decreases electrical resistance of the anode and provides a uniform low resistance environment. Another advantage of the backfill exists for impressed current systems. As a result of these systems operating at high outputs, gas could be generated in the area of the anode. Backfills assist in venting of gas produced at the anode surfaces. 6. POWER SOURCES

A number of power sources exist for impressed current cathodic protection systems. These systems: 6.1 Rectifiers The most commonly used source of power for cathodic protection systems are rectifiers. Rectifiers come in a variety of capacities specifically designed and constructed to be used in impressed current cathodic protection systems. These systems use selenium stacks or silicon diodes as rectifying elements. The 17

rectifiers are capable of converting AC to DC so direct current can be discharged from the anodes to the pipe to be protected. Rectifiers are generally constructed in a manner that voltages can be varied in small increments over a wide range. This provides a flexible choice of power capacities to the corrosion engineer. 6.2 Solar Solar cells convert sunlight into direct current electricity. The output of solar systems is limited. However, in areas where power AC power lines are not available and a pipe structure is well coated, solar power have provided very reliable sources of direct current for cathodic protection. 6.3 Thermoelectric Generators In these systems electricity is generated by heating a junction of certain dissimilar metals. These systems are expensive and should only be used in areas where AC power and sunlight are not available. 6.4 Batteries When current requirements are low, storage batteries can be used to provide power for impressed current cathodic protection systems. One problem with batteries is that they periodically have to be recharged so maintenance can become a critical item. 6.5 Generators Fuel or wind driven generators have been used to supply direct current for impressed current systems under selected conditions.

6.0

REQUIREMENTS FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION

Certain basic conditions must exist prior to placing a pipeline under cathodic protection. These conditions are as follows: 6.1 Electrical Continuity The structure to be protected must be made electrically continuous by either welding or bonding each joint along the pipe. When designing cathodic protection, electrical continuity must take into account current attenuation characteristics, pipeline coatings and rectifier sizing. Bonding can be done from either inside or outside of a pipeline. During the pipeline design, specifications should indicate where and how many bond wires should be attached to the pipe. Wires should be attached by welding. Care should be taken not to burn rubber

18

gaskets or (with prestressed concrete cylinder pipePCCP) damage the prestressing wire. Electrical continuity must also be designed into certain types of pipe during pipe fabrication or cathodic protection cannot be applied. With pipes constructed under AWWA C301 Specification, prestressing wires can be inches away from the steel cylinder of the pipeline. In these cases this pipe must be constructed with shorting straps so that electrical continuity exists between the prestressing wires and the prestressing wire and the steel cylinder. 6.2 Isolation Electrical isolation should exist between the structure being protected and any structure not being protected. Appurtenances extending from a pipeline can either be protected or not. Design decisions must be made. Structures which are not being cathodically protected should be isolated from the pipe. Since in many locations water is conducive, care should be made to establish a large enough isolation surface so that the pipe section to be isolated will not be shorted by the water inside the pipe. Isolation is critical for the effective operation of a cathodic protection system. A system is designed to protect a certain surface. The addition of more pipe into an existing system could cause the existing cathodic protection system to become insufficient as more than the originally designed pipeline would now be receiving current. If this occurred, corrosion of the originally protected pipe might begin again. Care should be taken when changes are made to a piping system to ensure that the pipe to be isolated remains isolated, and the pipes to be connected to the cathodic protection systems remain electrically continuous within the system that is being protected. 6.3 Cathode Connection At every location where anodes are placed, a connection must be made to the pipe to be protected. In the case of impressed current cathodic protection this system will connect the negative terminal of the rectifier to the structure to be protected. This connection must be appropriately sized to take care of the return current from the structure back to the rectifier. 6.4 Monitoring Facilities Any pipeline placed under cathodic protection should have an adequate monitoring system. This system is used to determine the effectiveness of the installed cathodic protection system. Failure to provide a monitoring system leaves in doubt many questions regarding the functioning of the cathodic protection system.

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6.5

Design Information Information is needed about the structure to be protected before a cathodic protection system can be designed. As Peabody states, selection, sizing and spacing cathodic protection systems are critical. He states the following decision must be made: 1. The decision should be made whether to use galvanic or impressed current cathodic protection. 2. A decision needs to be made as to how much total current is required for cathodic protection. 3. The spacing that should exist between the cathodic protection installations and what current output should exist at what installation must be defined. 4. Provisions should be made for testing at each installation. 5. Any special considerations at certain locations that require modifications of the general cathodic protection plan must be stated. Peabody states that answers to the following questions influence decisions: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Is the pipeline coated or bare? What is the quality and strength of the coating? What is the metal or alloy used for the pipeline? What is the size of the pipeline and its ability to conduct cathodic protection currents? Are there any metallic structures in close proximity to the pipeline to be protected? What is the soil structure and resistivity of the soil which could influence groundbed construction? Are there areas known to be corrosive from past experience? Is there any situation that exists in the vicinity of the pipeline being protected which could cause stray current to the pipeline?

7. CATHODIC PROTECTION CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITIES Each cathodic protection system needs to be designed specifically for the structure to be protected. The amount of cathodic protection current depends upon a number of factors as pointed out by Shrier on page 11.10 of his second book (Corrosion). In his book he states the quality of the coating determines the amount of bare metal in contact with the electrolyte. Current requirements to protect the pipeline depend almost entirely on the coating. All other factors are secondary. For instance, with a pipeline of different materials (see Figure 15), different amounts of current are required for protection.

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With bare steel, 100% of the area requires protective current. This current I mildly aggressive soil is generally applied at 2 milliamperes per square foot. With polyethylene encased ductile iron and wrapped steel, current would be applied in the same amount, 2 milliamperes per square foot, with one key difference. Since the wrap isolates the pipe from the electrolyte, the cathodic protection current only is required to protect tears in the wrap and defects in the coating. A polyethylene bag is estimated to protect 96% of a pipeline while a wrapped coating can protect 98% of the pipe. In some tested facilities, a loose wrap installed with minimal inspection has resulted in over 20% of the pipeline indicating no wrapped coating. This means that only 4% and 2%, or 20% respectively, o9f the pipeline needs to be protected with cathodic protection current. Finally, with cement coated steel, the cement partially protects the steel; hence current density used for design is generally calculated using 0.2 milliamperes per square foot. The results of these different current requirements can clearly be seen in the last section of the paper Cost. The cost section shows that bonded wrapped coating on steel can be protected and maintained under protection for a much lower dollar expenditure than any other pipe coating material. The nature of the electrolyte determines current density required for protection. Environment** Current Density Required for Adequate Cathodic Protection* 21

Bare Steel 1. Sterile, neutral soil 2. Well aerated neutral soil 3. Dry, well aerated soil 4. Wet soil, moderate/severe conditions 5. Highly acid soil 6. Soil supporting active sulfate reducing bacteria 7. Heated in soil (e.g. hot water discharge line) 8. Dry concrete 9. Moist concrete 10. Stationary fresh water 11. Moving fresh water 12. Fresh water highly turbulent and containing dissolved oxygen 13. Hot water 14. Polluted estuarine water 15. Sea water 16. Chemicals, acid or alkaline solution in process tanks 17. Soils High Voltage Holiday Detected Well Coated Steels 18. Soils
**Shrier II I I.25

MA/ft2 0.5 - 1.5 2.0 - 3.0 0.5 1.5 2.5 6.0 5.0 15.0 Up to 42.0 5.0 25.0 0.5 1.5 5.0 25.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 15.0 5.0 15.0 50.0 150.0 5.0 25.0 5.0 25.0 0.01 0.02

0.001

*Higher current densities will be required if galvanic effects (i.e. dissimilar metals in contact) are present.

8.

Criteria for Protection

Criteria to determine whether a structure is protected or not are contained in NACE International document RPO169-92. This document in Section 6 contains the criteria industry has accepted to indicate whether a structure is cathodically protected. The criteria lists limits for certain protections and the different protection levels for various materials. Another source for corrosion criteria, which is very similar to the NACE criteria, is in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49, Transportation, Paragraph 192, Appendix D, Criteria for Cathodic Protection and Determination of Measurements. This lists the criteria for steel, cast iron and ductile iron structures. Comments are also made for aluminum, copper and other metals. No pipe can be considered cathodically protected until it meets these two or similar criteria. If pipe potentials fall below these two criteria by even a small amount there is a chance that corrosion on the pipeline can exist. 9. 10.1 Problem areas Shielding

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In congested areas where a number of pipelines and/or tanks are in close proximity to each other cathodic protection currents may be shielded away from the structure it is designed to protect. If shielding occurs on structures in a corrosive environment, corrosion could occur and failures happen even though a majority of the pipe which was tested showed effective cathodic protection. It is necessary for the designer of the cathodic protection to know which structures are in the close proximity of the pipeline being protected and care be taken in design where congested problems exist. In these areas, a remote type of cathodic protection system may not be effective and it may be necessary to design a system in close proximity to the structure to be protected. 10.2 Interference

Electrical interferences caused by cathodic protection systems operated by a structure other than the one being protected could and do occur in many areas. At any time a pipeline crosses another pipeline a review should be made to determine whether the crossing pipeline is being cathodically protected. If protection is present, tests should be conducted to determine whether electrical interference exists. If it does, additional tests must be conducted on that pipeline to determine the best way to mitigate the corrosive effects of interference currents. Once a method is determined, means to diminish corrosion should be installed. Once interference is reduced, failures to pipelines can be minimized. 10. Costs The initial costs for cathodic protection installations can vary from as little as ten dollars for a sacrificial anode to protect a copper service to $40,000 or more for a large capacity impressed current system. Once a system is in, the cost of power to operate an impressed current system. Once a system is in, the cost of power to operate an impressed current system as well as the cost to regulate and monitor cathodic protection systems also can vary. To obtain an idea of the cost, a typical cathodic protection installation for a 60-inch diameter pipeline is examined. Five pipe materials are considered. These are general assumptions made for the comparison of all six pipe materials. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. tape wrapped, welded steel pipe polyethylene bagged ductile iron pipe ductile iron pipeline with loose installation inspection, concrete cylinder pipe, and prestressed concrete pipe

The basic assumptions for each pipe material are: 1. 60 inches in diameter, 2. the length of the pipeline is 5,280 feet, 3. the cost of electrical power is 8 cents per kilowatt hour,

23

4. the discount rate is 8%, 5. the life cycle is 40 years, and 6. the inflation rate is 4% per year. Other assumptions are specific to individual pipe materials. These can be summarized as follows: Tape Wrapped Welded Steel Pipe - The coating efficiency is 98% with a cathodic protection station required every 20,000 feet. The pipe is welded; with test stations every 1,000 feet. Polyethylene Encased Ductile Iron Pipe The coating efficiency is estimated at 96%. Cathodic protection stations were again estimated to be installed every 20,000 feet. The distance between test stations is 500 feet since the pipe must be bonded. The bonding will also require electrical continuity tests of pipe sections. One thousand foot spacing is too great for accurate measurements. The rest of the assumptions are the same as those of the pipe mentioned above. Loosely Inspected Polyethylene Encased Ductile Iron A field installation has been inspected to determine the coating efficiency of an installed polyethylene bag. Current requirements indicated that only about 80% of the pipe had been covered with polyethylene. This efficiency was estimated to be caused by less than adequate inspection. Given the noted field conditions, a set of calculations were made using the assumption in the above paragraph and changing the coating efficiency to 80%. Concrete Cylinder Pipe (AWWA 303) Since cement mortar is not a dielectric coating, current must be applied uniformly to this coating. It is difficult to get current to flow onto a pipe and remain on the pipe as current attenuation is much greater for concrete cylinder pipe. Given this concern, a protection system should be installed every 5,000 feet. Test stations would be 500 feet and current density used would be 0.2 milliamperes per square foot. Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe (AWWA 301) The assumptions made for prestressed pipe would be identical to concrete cylinder pipe with one exception. Since the cathodic protection levels for pre-stressing wires need to be more closely controlled, cathodic protection stations would be located for this cost estimate every 3,000 feet. Given these assumptions, the cost for protecting and providing power to the units and installing test stations can be summarized as follows:

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CATHODIC PROTECTION COST SUMMARY VERSUS PIPE TYPE Pipe Material Installation Power Cost Test Stations Joint Bonding Total Cost
NOTES: * **

Wrapped Steel $7,762 $465 $2,112 None $10,339

Ductile w/Poly* $29,402 $12,263 $4.224 $11,000 $56,889

Ductile w/Poly** $15,524 $2,090 $4,224 $11,000 $32,839

AWWA C303 $29,402 $5,181 $4,224 $8.250 $47,057

AWWA C301 $44,355 $4,573 $5,280 $8.250 $62,458

Calculated with a coating efficiency of 80% Calculated with a coating efficiency of 94%

As can be seen, the cost for cathodically protecting, for providing power, and installing test stations for wrapped steel is markedly less than the prestressed concrete cylinder pipe. Polyethylene wrapped ductile is higher than wrapped steel, yet lower than the two concrete alternatives. Cathodic protection applied to the two concrete alternatives, given the assumptions made in this paper, result in the highest cost for protection. Several different assumptions could be made which would impact the costs set forth in this paper. The principle assumptions that could vary would be to protect the polyethylene with sacrificial anodes as opposed to impressed current. A second change would be to install cathodic protection on the mortar alternatives as the pipe begins to corrode. This latter practice is done by a number of utilities, however, it requires money to come from an operations and maintenance budget as opposed to the initial construction budget. A number of utilities prefer to install cathodic protection with the pipe installations they can obtain funding from the initial bond as opposed to taking it out of operations and maintenance later. Their cost comparisons for cathodic protection indicate that wrapped steel pipe is the most cost effective material for pipe placed in a corrosive environment. Cathodic protection can be installed economically. The power cost is minimal as the coating is 98% efficient, and the test stations are less to install. In addition, since the test stations are 1,000 feet apart, the yearly monitoring costs for maintenance of cathodic protection for wrapped steel pipe would be less, both in testing the test stations and maintaining the rectifiers.

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