Basic Log Interpretation

Introduction to Log Interpretation
Introduction to Log
Interpretation
1
© Schlumberger 1999 1
Log Interpretation
Interpretation is defined as the action of
explaining the meaning of something.
Log Interpretation is the explanation of logs ρb,
GR, Resistivity, etc. in terms of well and reservoir
parameters, zones, porosity, oil saturation, etc.
Log interpretation can provide answers to
questions on:
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Why Run Logs
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The Reservoir
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Requirements of a reservoir
To form a reservoir needs
- source of organic material (terrestrial or

marine)
- a suitable combination of heat, pressure and

time
- an oxygen free environment
- a suitable basin
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Reservoir Geometry
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A Introduction to Log Interpretation
Reservoir elements
The major elements of a reservoir are
• permeable rock stores the hydrocarbon

• source rock produces hydrocarbon
• impermeable rock traps hydrocarbon
• trap captures fluids
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Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir Rocks
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Reservoir Rocks
The Earth
pl
as
tic
Crust
10 miles
plastic
liquid
solid
Inner Core Core Mantle

750 miles 1400 miles 1800 miles
ρ = 10.7 g/cc ρ = 4.0 g/cc
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2
Reservoir Rocks
The Earth 2
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Reservoir Rocks
Plate Tectonics 1
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Reservoir Rocks
Compressional Features
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Reservoir Rocks
Tensional Features
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Reservoir Rocks
Ocean plate - Ocean Plate
Trench
Mountains
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Reservoir Rocks
Ocean plate - Continental plate
Mid Ocean Ridge Mountains

Trench
Ocean plate
Magma Magma
Continental
plate 8
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Reservoir Rocks
Continental - Continental
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Reservoir Rocks
Plates
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Reservoir Rocks
Rocks General
There are three major classes of rock:
Igneous:
(e.g. Granite).
Sedimentary:
(e.g. Sandstone).
Metamorphic:
(e.g. Marble).
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Reservoir Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Comprise 95% of the Earth's crust.
Originated from the solidification of molten
material from deep inside the Earth.
There are two types:
Volcanic - glassy in texture due to fast cooling.
Plutonic - slow-cooling, crystalline rocks.
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Reservoir Rocks
Igneous Rocks and Reservoirs
Igneous rocks can be part of reservoirs.

Fractured granites form reservoirs in some
parts of the world.
Volcanic tuffs are mixed with sand in some

reservoirs.
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Reservoir Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
2) Metamorphic rocks
formed by the action of temperature
and/or pressure on sedimentary or
igneous rocks.
Examples are
Marble - formed from limestone

Hornfels - from shale or tuff
Gneiss - similar to granite but
formed by metamorphosis
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Reservoir Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
The third category is Sedimentary rocks. These

are the most important for the oil industry as it
contains most of the source rocks and cap rocks
and virtually all reservoirs.
Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of

older rocks and are split into two categories
Clastic and Non-clastic.
Clastic rocks - formed from the materials of

older rocks by the actions of
erosion, transportation and
deposition.
Non-clastic rocks -
from chemical or biological
origin and then deposition.
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Reservoir Rocks
Depositional Environments
The depositional environment can be
Shallow or deep water.
Marine (sea) and lake or continental.
This environment determines many of the

reservoir characteristics
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Reservoir Rocks
Depositional Environments 2
Continental deposits are usually dunes.
A shallow marines environment has a lot of
turbulence hence varied grain sizes. It can also
have carbonate and evaporite formation.
A deep marine environment produces fine
sediments.
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Reservoir Rocks
Depositional Environments 3
The depositional characteristics of the rocks

lead to some of their properties and that of the
reservoir itself.
The reservoir rock type clastic or non-clastic.

The type of porosity (especially in carbonates) is
determined by the environment plus subsequent
events.
The structure of a reservoir can also be

determined by deposition; a river, a delta, a reef
and so on.
This can also lead to permeability and

producibility. of these properties are often
changed by further events.
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Reservoir Rocks
Depositional Environment 4
The environment is not static.

Folding and faulting change the structure.
Dissolution and fracturing can change the
permeability.
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Reservoir Rocks
Sedimentation
Sediments settle to
the bottom of the
sedimentary basin.
As the sediments
accumulate
the temperature and
pressure increase
expelling
water from the
sediments.
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Reservoir Rocks
Sedimentation 2
Sedimentary muds become sedimentary rocks.
Calcareous muds become limestone.

Sands become sandstone.
Another effect involves both the grains in the

matrix and the fluids reacting to create new
minerals changing the matrix and porosity.
Fluids can also change creating a new set of
minerals.
This whole process is called Diagenesis.
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Reservoir Rocks
Rock Cycle
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Reservoir Rocks
Clastic Rocks
Clastic rocks are sands, silts and shales. The

difference is in the size of the grains.
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Reservoir Rocks
Depositional Environment - Delta
Sediments are transported to the basins by

rivers.
A common depositional environment is the delta
where the river empties into the sea.
A good example of this is the Mississippi.
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Reservoir Rocks
Rivers
Some types of deposition occur in rivers and

sand bars.
The river forms a channel where sands are
deposited in layers. Rivers carry sediment down
from the mountains which is then deposited in
the river bed and on the flood plains at either
side.
Changes in the environment can cause these
sands to be overlain with a shale, trapping the
reservoir rock.
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Reservoir Rocks
Carbonates
Carbonates form a large proportion of all

sedimentary rocks.
They consist of:

Limestone.
Dolomite.
Carbonates usually have an irregular structure.
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Reservoir Rocks
Carbonate types
Chalk is a special form of limestone and is

formed from the skeletons of small creatures
(cocoliths).
Dolomite is formed by the replacement of some

of thecalcium by a lesser volume of magnesium
in limestone by magnesium. Magnesium is
smaller than calcium, hence the matrix becomes
smaller and more porosity is created.
Limestone CaCO3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and Anhydrite

(CaSO4) can also form in these environments.
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Reservoir Rocks
Depositional Environment
Carbonates
Carbonates are formed in shallow seas

containing features such as:
Reefs.
Lagoons.
Shore-bars.
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Reservoir Rocks
Rock Properties
Rocks are described by three properties:
Porosity - quantity of pore space
Permeability - ability of a formation to flow
Matrix - major constituent of the rock
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Reservoir Rocks
Definition of Porosity
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Reservoir Rocks
Porosity Sandstones
The porosity of a sandstone depends on the
packing arrangement of its grains.
The system can be examined using spheres.
In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore

space accounts for 26% of the total
volume.
With a Cubic packing arrangement,

the pore space fills 47% of the total
volume.
In practice, the theoretical value is

rarely reached because:
a) the grains are not perfectly round,
and
b) the grains are not of uniform size.
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Reservoir Rocks
Porosity and Grain Size
A rock can be made up of small grains or large

grains but have the same porosity.
Porosity depends on grain packing, not the

grain size.
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Reservoir Rocks
Diagenesis
The environment can also involve subsequent

alterations of the rock such as:
Chemical changes.
Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock
after burial. An example is the replacement of
some of the calcium atoms in limestone by
magnesium to form dolomite.
Mechanical changes - fracturing in a

tectonically-active region.
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Reservoir Rocks
Carbonate Porosity Types 1

Carbonate porosity is very heterogeneous. It is
classified into a number of types:
Interparticle porosity:
Each grain is separated,
giving a similar pore space
arrangement as sandstone.
Intergranular porosity:
Pore space is created inside
the individual grains which
are interconnected.
Intercrystalline porosity:
Produced by spaces between
carbonate crystals.
Mouldic porosity:
Pores created by the
dissolution of shells, etc.
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Reservoir Rocks
Carbonate Porosity Types 2
Fracture porosity:
Pore spacing created
by the cracking of the
rock fabric.
Channel porosity:
Similar to fracture
porosity but larger.
Vuggy porosity:
Created by the
dissolution of
fragments, but
unconnected.
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Reservoir Rocks
Carbonate Porosity
Intergranular porosity is called "primary

porosity".
Porosity created after deposition is called

"secondary porosity".
The latter is in two forms:
Fractures
Vugs.
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Reservoir Rocks
Fractures
Fractures are caused when a rigid rock is
strained beyond its elastic limit - it cracks.
The forces causing it to break are in a constant
direction, hence all the fractures are also
aligned.
Fractures are an important source of

permeability in low porosity carbonate
reservoirs.
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Reservoir Rocks
Vugs
Vugs are defined as non-connected pore space.

They do not contribute to the producible fluid
total.
Vugs are caused by the dissolution of soluble
material such as shell fragments after the rock
has been formed.
They usually have irregular shapes.
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Reservoir Rocks
Permeability Definition
The rate of flow of a liquid through a formation
depends on:
The pressure drop.
The viscosity of the fluid.
The permeability.
The pressure drop is a reservoir property.

The viscosity is a fluid property.
The permeability is a measure of the ease at
which a fluid can flow through a formation.
Relationships exist between permeability and

porosity for given formations, although they are
not universal.
A rock must have porosity to have any
permeability.
The unit of measurement is the Darcy.
Reservoir permeability is usually quoted in
millidarcies, (md).
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Reservoir Rocks
Darcy Experiment
The flow of fluid of viscosity m through a
porous medium was first investigated in 1856 by
Henri Darcy.
He related the flow of water through a unit
volume of sand to the pressure gradient across
it.
In the experiment the flow rate can be changed
by altering the parameters as follows:
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Reservoir Rocks
Darcy Law
K = permeability, in Darcies.
L = length of the section of rock, in centimetres.
Q = flow rate in centimetres / sec.
P1, P2 = pressures in bars.
A = surface area, in cm2.
µ = viscocity in centipoise.
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Reservoir Rocks
Permeability and Rocks
In formations with large grains, the

permeability is high and the flow rate larger.
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Reservoir Rocks
Permeability and Rocks 2
In a rock with small grains the permeability is

less and the flow lower.
Grain size has no bearing on porosity, but has a

large effect on permeability.
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Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir rocks need two properties to be

successful:
Pore spaces able to retain hydrocarbon.
Permeability which allows the fluid to move.
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Reservoir Rocks
Clastic Reservoirs
Sandstone usually has regular grains; and is

referred to as a grainstone.
Porosity
Determined mainly by the packing and
mixing of grains.
Permeability
Determined mainly by grain size and
packing, connectivity and shale content.
Fractures may be present.
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Reservoir Rocks
Carbonate Reservoirs
Carbonates normally have a very irregular

structure.
Porosity:
Determined by the type of shells, etc. and
by depositional and post-depositional events
(fracturing, leaching, etc.).
Permeability:
Determined by deposition and post-
deposition events, fractures.
Fractures can be very important in carbonate

reservoirs.
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Reservoir Rocks
Cap Rock
A reservoir needs a cap rock.
Impermeable cap rock keeps the fluids trapped

in the reservoir.
It must have zero permeability.
Some examples are:
Shales.
Evaporites such as salt or
anhyhdrite.
Zero-porosity carbonates.
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Reservoir Rocks
Source Rocks
Hydrocarbon originates from minute organisms
in seas and lakes. When they die, they sink to
the bottom where they form organic-rich
"muds" in fine sediments.
These "muds" are in a reducing environment or
"kitchen", which strips oxygen from the
sediments leaving hydrogen and carbon.
The sediments are compacted to form organic-
rich rocks with very low permeability.
The hydrocarbon can migrate very slowly to
nearby porous rocks, displacing the original
formation water.
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Reservoir Rocks
Temperature Window
If the temperature is too low, the organic

material cannot transform into hydrocarbon.
If the temperature is too high, the organic
material and hydrocarbons are destroyed.
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Reservoir Rocks
Hydrocarbon Migration
Hydrocarbon migration takes place in two

stages:
Primary migration - from the source rock to a porous
rock.
This is a complex process and not fully understood.
It is probably limited to a few hundred metres.
Secondary migration - along the porous rock to the trap.

This occurs by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamics
through a continuous water-filled pore system.
It can take place over large distances. 50
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Reservoir Rocks
Rock Classification
Clastics
Rock type Particle diameter
Conglomerate Pebbles 2 - 64mm

Sandstone Sand .06 - 2mm
Siltstone Silt .003 - .06mm
Shale Clay <.003mm
Non-Clastics
Rock type Composition
Limestone CaCO3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Salt NaCl
Anhydrite CaSO4
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Coal Carbon
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Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir Structure
There are many other types of structure.
The criteria for a structure is that it must have:
Closure, i.e. the fluids are unable to
escape.
Be large enough to be economical.
The exact form of the reservoir depends on the

depositional environment and post depositional
events such as foldings and faulting.
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Reservoir Rocks
Traps General
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Reservoir Rocks
Structural Traps
The simplest form of trap is a dome.
This is created by upward movement or folding
of underlying sediments.
An anticline is another form of simple trap. This

is formed by the folding of layers of sedimentary
rock.
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Reservoir Rocks
Fault Traps
Faults occur when the rock shears due to
stresses. Reservoirs often form in these fault
zones.
A porous and permeable layer may trap fluids
due to its location alongside an impermeable
fault or its juxtaposition alongside an
impermeable bed.
Faults are found in conjunction with other
structures such as anticlines, domes and salt
domes.
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Reservoir Rocks
Salt Dome Trap

Salt Dome traps are caused when "plastic" salt
is forced upwards.
The salt dome pierces through layers and
compresses rocks above. This results in the
formation of various traps:
In domes created by formations pushed up by
the salt.
Along the flanks and below the overhang in
porous rock abutting on the impermeable salt
itself.
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Reservoir Rocks
Stratigraphic Traps
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Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir Mapping
Reservoir contours are usually measured to be

below Mean Sea Level (MSL).
They can represent either the reservoir
formation structure or fluid layers.
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Reservoir Fluids
Reservoir Fluids
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Reservoir Fluids
Definitions
Fluid Contacts
Oil in Place OIP The volume of oil in the

reservoir in barrels or cubic metres.
Gas/Oil Ratio GOR The gas content of the oil.
API Gravity API Oil gravity. 2

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Reservoir Fluids
Fluids in a Reservoir
A reservoir normally contains either water or

hydrocarbon or a mixture.
The hydrocarbon may be in the form of oil or gas.
The specific hydrocarbon produced depends on

the reservoir pressure and temperature.
The formation water may be fresh or salty.
The amount and type of fluid produced depends

on the initial reservoir pressure, rock properties
and the drive mechanism.
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Reservoir Fluids
Hydrocarbon Composition
Typical hydrocarbons have the following
composition in Mol Fraction
Hydrocarbon C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+
Dry gas .88 .045 .045 .01 .01 .01
Condensate .72 .08 .04 .04 .04 .08
Volatile oil .6-.65 .08 .05 .04 .03 .15-.2
Black oil .41 .03 .05 .05 .04 .42
Heavy oil .11 .03 .01 .01 .04 .8
Tar/bitumen 1.0
The 'C' numbers indicated the number of carbon

atoms in the molecular chain.
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Reservoir Fluids
Hydrocarbon Structure
The major
constituent of
hydrocarbons
is paraffin.
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Reservoir Fluids
Hydrocarbon Classification
Hydrocarbons are also defined by their weight
and the Gas/Oil ratio. The table gives some
typical values:
GOR API Gravity
Wet gas 100mcf/b 50-70
Condensate 5-100mcf/b 50-70
Volatile oil 3000cf/b 40-50
Black oil 100-2500cf/b 30-40
Heavy oil 0 10-30
Tar/bitumen 0 <10
The specific gravity of an oil is defined as:
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Reservoir Fluids
Hydrocarbon Gas
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane, CH4.

Some heavier gases make up the rest.
Gas can contain impurities such as Hydrogen

Sulphide, H2S and Carbon Dioxide, CO2.
Gases are classified by their specific gravity

which is defined as:
"The ratio of the density of the gas to that of air

at the same temperature and pressure".
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Reservoir Fluids
Reservoir Pressure
Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled by

the gradient in the aquifer.
High pressures exist in some reservoirs.
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Reservoir Fluids
Reservoir Pressure Calculation
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Reservoir Fluids
Reservoir Pressure Example
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Reservoir Fluids
Reservoir Temperature Gradient
The chart shows three possible temperature

gradients. The temperature can be determined if
the depth is known.
High temperatures exist in some places. Local
knowledge is important.
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Reservoir Fluids
Fluid Phases
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.:
gas or oil.
In a reservoir oil and gas exist together at

equilibrium, depending on the pressure and
temperature.
The behaviour of a reservoir fluid is analyzed

using the properties; Pressure, Temperature and
Volume (PVT).
There are two simple ways of showing this:

Pressure against temperature keeping the
volume constant.
Pressure against volume keeping the

temperature constant.
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Reservoir Fluids
PVT Experiment
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Reservoir Fluids
Phase Diagram -single

component
The experiment is conducted at different
temperatures.
The final plot of Pressure against Temperature is
made.
The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the
Bubble Point and Dew Point.
(For a single component they coincide.)
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Reservoir Fluids
Phase diagram Oil

The Pressure/Temperature (PT) phase diagram for an oil
reservoir:
Point 'A' is the initial reservoir condition of pressure and
temperature.
If the reservoir is produced at a constant temperature
until the fluid reaches the wellbore, the line to Point 'B'
is drawn. This represents the flow of fluid from the
reservoir to the borehole. The fluid travelling to surface now
drops in both temperature and pressure arriving at he "separator
conditions" (s) with a final volume of oil and gas.
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Reservoir Fluids
Phase Diagram Condensate/Gas

Point 'C' is at the initial reservoir conditions. The
reservoir is produced at a constant temperature
from C to D. Fluids flowing up the well now drop
in temperature and pressure, crossing the Dew
point line and liquid condenses out.
At separator conditions (s) the result in both

liquid and gas on the surface.
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Reservoir Fluids
Gas Reservoir
In a gas reservoir the initial point is A. Producing
the well to separator conditions B does not
change the fluid produced.
The point B is still in the "gas region" and hence

dry gas is produced.
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Reservoir Fluids
Hydrocarbon Volumes
Fluids at bottom hole conditions produce
different fluids at surface:
Oil becomes oil plus gas.
Gas usually stays as gas unless it is a Condensate.
Water stays as water with occasionally some
dissolved gas.
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Reservoir Fluids
FVF Oil and Gas

There is a change in volume between downhole
conditions and the surface.
The volume of the fluid at reference conditions is
described by the Formation Volume Factor:
Volume at downhole Conditions

FVF =
Volume at reference Conditions
Bo = formation volume factor for oil.

Bw = formation volume factor for water.
Bg = formation volume factor for gas.
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Reservoir Fluids
Saturation
Formation saturation is defined as the fraction of
its pore volume (porosity) occupied by a given
fluid.
Volume of a specific fluid

Saturation =
pore volume
Definitions
Sw = water saturation.
So = oil saturation.
Sg = gas saturation.
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg
Saturations are expressed as percentages or

fractions, e.g.
Water saturation of 75% in a reservoir with
porosity of 20% contains water equivalent to
15% of its volume.
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Reservoir Fluids
Saturation Definition
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Reservoir Fluids
Wettability
The wettability defines how a fluid adheres to the

surface (or rock in the reservoir) when there are
two fluids present, e.g. water and air.
The angle measured through the water is the
"contact angle".
If it is less than 90° the rock is water wet; greater
than 90° the rock is oil wet.
Most reservoir rocks are water wet.
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Reservoir Fluids
Irreducible Water Saturation

In a formation the minimum saturation induced
by displacement is where the wetting phase
becomes discontinuous.
In normal water-wet rocks, this is the irreducible
water saturation, Swirr.
Large grained rocks have a low irreducible water
saturation compared to small-grained formations
because the capillary pressure is smaller.
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Reservoir Fluids
Capillary Forces
Pc = capillary pressure.
σ = surface tension.
q = contact angle.
rcap = radius of capillary tube.
In a simple water and air system the wettability

gives rise to a curved interface between the two
fluids.
This experiment has a glass tube attached to a

reservoir of water. The water "wets" the
glass. This causes the pressure on the concave
side (water) to exceed that on the convex side
(air). This excess pressure is the capillary
pressure. 24
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Reservoir Fluids
Capillary Forces and Rocks

In a reservoir the two fluids are oil and water
which are immiscible hence they exhibit capillary
pressure phenomena.
This is seen by the rise in the water above the
point where the capillary pressure is zero.
The height depends on the density difference and

the radius of the capillaries.
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Reservoir Fluids
Transition Zone
The phenomenon of capillary pressure gives rise
to the transition zone in a reservoir between the
water zone and the oil zone.
The rock can be thought of as a bundle of
capillary tubes.
The length of the zone depends on the pore size
and the density difference between the two fluids.
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Reservoir Fluids
Relative Permeability
Take a core 100% water-saturated. (A)
Force oil into the core until irreducible water
saturation is attained (Swirr). (A-> C -> D)
Reverse the process: force water into the core
until the residual saturation is attained. (B)
During the process, measure the relative
permeabilities to water and oil.
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Reservoir Fluids
Relative Permeability
Experiment
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Reservoir Fluids
Drive Mechanisms
A virgin reservoir has a pressure controlled by
the local gradient.
Hydrocarbons will flow if the reservoir pressure
is sufficient to drive the fluids to the surface
(otherwise they have to be pumped).
As the fluid is produced reservoir pressure drops.
The rate of pressure drop is controlled by the
Reservoir Drive Mechanism.
Drive Mechanism depends on the rate at which
fluid expands to fill the space vacated by the
produced fluid.
Main Reservoir Drive Mechanism types are:
Water drive.
Gas cap drive.
Gas solution drive

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Reservoir Fluids
Water Invasion 1
Water invading an oil zone,
moves close to the grain
surface, pushing the oil out
of its way in a piston-
like fashion.
The capillary pressure

gradient forces water to
move ahead faster in the
smaller pore channels.
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Reservoir Fluids
Water Invasion 2
The remaining
thread of oil
becomes smaller.
It finally breaks
into smaller pieces.
As a result, some
drops of oil are left
behind in the
channel.
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Reservoir Fluids
Water Drive
Water moves up to fill the "space" vacated by

the oil as it is produced.
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Reservoir Fluids
Water Drive 2
This type of drive usually keeps the reservoir

pressure fairly constant.
After the initial “dry” oil production, water may
be produced. The amount of produced water
increases as the volume of oil in the reservoir
decreases.
Dissolved gas in the oil is released to form
produced gas.
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Reservoir Fluids
Gas Invasion
Gas is more mobile than oil and takes the path of
least resistance along the centre of the larger
channels.
As a result, oil is left behind in the smaller, less
permeable, channels.
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Reservoir Fluids
Gas Cap Drive
Gas from the gas cap expands to fill the space

vacated by the produced oil.
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Reservoir Fluids
Gas Cap Drive 2

As oil production declines, gas production
increases.
Rapid pressure drop at the start of production.
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Reservoir Fluids
Solution Gas Drive
After some time the oil in the reservoir is below

the bubble point.
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Reservoir Fluids
Solution Gas Drive 2

An initial high oil production is followed by a
rapid decline.
The Gas/Oil ratio has a peak corresponding to
the higher permeability to gas.
The reservoir pressure exhibits a fast decline.
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Reservoir Fluids
Drives General
A water drive can recover up to 60% of the oil in
place.
A gas cap drive can recover only 40% with a
greater reduction in pressure.
A solution gas drive has a low recovery.
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Reservoir Fluids
Drive Problems
Water Drive:
Water can cone upwards
and be produced through
the lower perforations.
Gas Cap Drive:

Gas can cone downwards
and be produced through
the upper perforations.
Pressure is rapidly lost as
the gas expands.
Gas Solution Drive:

Gas production can occur
in the reservoir, skin
damage.
Very short-lived.
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Reservoir Fluids
Secondary Recovery 1
Secondary recovery covers a range of techniques
used to augment the natural drive of a reservoir
or boost production at a later stage in the life of a
reservoir.
A field often needs enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
techniques to maximise its production.
Common recovery methods are:
Water injection.
Gas injection.
In difficult reservoirs, such as those containing

heavy oil, more advanced recovery methods are
used:
Steam flood.
Polymer injection. .
CO2 injection.
In-situ combustion.
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Reservoir Fluids
Secondary Recovery 2
water
injection
gas injection
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Spontaneous Potential Measurement
Spontaneous Potential
1
SP Theory 1
SP results from electric currents flowing in the
drilling mud.
There are three sources of the currents, two

electrochemical and one electrokinetic.
Membrane potential - largest.
Liquid - junction potential.
Streaming potential - smallest.
2
2
SP theory 2
Membrane and Liquid Potential
These two effects are the main components of the SP. They are
caused because the mud flitrate and the formation waters contain
NaCl in different proportions.
Firstly, shales are permeable to the Sodium ions but not
the Chlorine. Hence there is a movement of charged
particles through the shale creating a current and thus a potential.
The ions Na+ and Cl- have different mobilities at the junction of
the invaded and virgin zones. The movement of the ions across
this boundary creates another current and hence a potential.
Streaming Potential
This is generated by flow of the mud filtrate through the mud

cake. As this does not normally occur this effect is small. It will
only become important if there are high differential pressures
across the formations.
3
3
SP theory 3
4
4
SP scales
The SP is measured in millivolts, mV.
The scale on the log shows a number of mV per

division for example 20mV/division. This gives a
total for the track of 200mV.
The scale across the track is variable and depends

on the conditions in the well.
The scale is set during logging to have the SP

curve in the track over the zone of interest and as
much of the rest of the log as possible.
5
5
log-1
The SSP is the
quantity to be
determined.
It is the deflection
seen on the SP
from the Shale
Base Line (zero
point) to the Sand
Line (max.
deflection)
6
6
example log 2
The maximum
SP deflection in
this example
occurs at the
same depths as
the resistivity
curves show a
separation.
The minimum
point on the SP
corresponds to
where all the
resistivity
curves overlay,
no invasion, a
shale.
7
7
SP uses
Differentiate potentially porous and permeable

reservoir rocks from impermeable clays.
Define bed boundaries.
Give an indication of shaliness (maximum

deflection is clean; minimum is shale).
Determine Rw in both salt and fresh muds.
8
8
Rw from the SP
Rw is often known from client information or
local knowledge.
The SP can be used to check the value or compute

it when it is unavailable.
It is especially useful when there are variations

along the borehole.
Rmfe
SSP = −k log
Rwe
K is a constant - depending on the temperature.
9
9
Rw from the SP
Knowing the SSP (the maximum deflection) from
the log and the temperature, the ratio of
resistivities is obtained from Log Interpretation
Chart SP-1.
Rmfe
output =
Rwe
10
10
Rw from SP 2
Rmf is measured, using the mud cell.

Rmfe is computed from Log Interpretation Chart
SP-2.
Rwe is computed, from the ratio from SP1 and
Rmfe.
11
Chart SP-2 output is Rw. 11
Salinities chart
Grains/gal
10
at 75ÞF
8
ppm
6
5
200
4 10
3 300
15
400
2 20
500
25
600
30
700
800
NaCl Concentration (ppm or grains/gal)

1 0
40
100
Resistivity of Solution (ž - m)
0.8 0 50
120
0
140
0.6
0
170
0.5 0
200
100
0.4
0
300
0.3 150
0
400
200
0.2 500
0
0 0 250
60
0
70000 300
80
400
000
10,
0.1 ,000 500
12
0.08 000
14,
7,000
1
0.06 20,
000
1000
0.05
00
30,0
0.04 1500
00
40,0
2000
0.03 50,0
0 0
0 00 2500
,
60
00 3000
70,0 00
0.02 80,0 4000
000
100, 5000
000
,000 120,000
300 140, 00
0
170, 0
0.01 0
200,,0000 10,000
250 000
280, 15,000
50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400
20,000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200
Temperature (ÞF or ÞC)

This chart is used to compute salinities from
resistivities of solution e.g. mud, and vice versa.
It is also used to find the resistivities at a given
temperature.
12
12
SP borehole Effects - 1
Baseline shifts:
These can occur when there are beds of different

salinities separated by a shale which does not act
as a perfect membrane.
13
13
SP Borehole Effects - 2
Resistive formation:
The presence of a resistive bed in a permeable
interval will disrupt the SP deflection. The
current is contained and hence the potential drop
changes with depth. The log takes a sloped
appearance.
The log in this situation can no longer define the

bed boundaries correctly.
14
14
SP surface Effects
The SP can be affected by a number of surface
effects as it relies on the fish as its reference
electrode.
Power lines, electric trains, electric welding, close
radio transmitters:
All these create ground currents which disrupt he
"fish" reference causing a poor, sometimes
useless, log.
15
15
Gamma Ray Measurement
1
Gamma Ray Principles
The Gamma Ray log is a measurement of the

formation's natural radioactivity.
Gamma ray emission is produced by three
radioactive series found in the Earth's
crust.
Potassium (K40) series.

Uranium series.
Thorium series.
Gamma rays passing through rocks are slowed

and absorbed at a rate which depends on the
formation density.
Less dense formations exhibit more radioactivity
than dense formations even though there may be
the same quantities of radioactive material per
unit volume. 2
2
Basic Gamma Ray Uses

Bed definition:
The tool reacts if the shale
is radioactive (usually the
case), hence show the
sands and shales, the
permeable zones and the
non-permeable zones.
Computation of the
amount of shale:
The minimum value gives

the clean (100%) shale free
zone, the maximum 100%
shale zone. All other points
can then be calibrated in
the amount of shale.
3
3
GR Uses
The gamma ray log is used for:
Lithology/mineralogy, e.g. shaliness.
Correlation:
A major use of the tool is to identify marker beds and thus allow
well-to-well correlation. Marker beds can be the top or bottom of
the reservoir or a specific shale giving a high reading.
Subsidence logging:
Radioactive bullets are placed accurately spaced in the
formation. A gamma ray tool with a number of precisely
spaced detectors is logged and the peaks noted. Subsequent logs
will show any movement.
Tracer logging:
A radioactive fluid is ejected by a tool at a chosen level. The fluid
movement is monitored by the gamma ray and will show thief
zones and channels in the cement behind the casing.
4
4
NGT
The NGT tool measures a spectrum that is the
result of the three naturally occurring radioactive
series.
The Potassium has a sharper shape than the

other two as it decays through a single reaction to
a stable element. The other two decay through a
number of daughter elements each with some
contribution to the final picture. 5
5
NGT Principle
The measurement in the standard tool is made by

a measurement in a number of fixed energy
windows. Three of these at the highest levels are
set over a characteristic peak of each of the
elements.
The statistical nature of the measurement is
partly improved by using another two windows
set at a lower energy which has a higher rate. 6
6
NGT Log
Outputs are the relative amounts of Thorium,

Uranium and Potassium in the formation.
With:
Thorium in ppm.
Uranium in ppm.
Potassium in %.
Additional curves are the total gamma ray (SGR)
and a Uranium-corrected gamma ray (CGR).
7
7
NGT uses
This tool has many applications:
Lithology identification.
Study of depositional environments.
Investigation of shale types.
Correction of the GR for clay content
evaluation.
Identification of organic material and
source rocks.
Fracture identification.
Geochemical logging.
Study of a rock's diagenetic history.
A major application was to solve North Sea log

interpretation problems in micaceous sands.
8
8
NGT uses
The three radioactive elements measured by the
NGT occur in different parts of the reservoir. If
we know the lithology, we can obtain further
information.
In Carbonates:
U - indicates phosphates, organic matter

and stylolites.
Th - indicates clay content.
K - indicates clay content, radioactive

evaporites.
9
9
NGT in Clastics
In Sandstones:
Th - indicates clay content, heavy

minerals.
K - indicates micas, micaceous clays and

feldspars.
In Shales:
U - in shale, suggest a source rock.
Th - indicates the amount of detrital

material or degree of shaliness.
K - indicates clay type and mica.
10
10
NGT Crossplots - 1
The NGT data is interpreted using
three major crossplots. In order of
complexity:
Thorium versus Potassium:
Gives clay type
Photoelectric factor, Pe, versus

Potassium:
Gives clay type and micas.
Pe versus Thorium/Potassium
ratio:
Gives clay type and micas.
11
11
NGT Crossplots - 2
This plot can be used to determine the type of

clay mineral or mica.
12
12
NGT Crossplots - 3
This plot adds in the Thorium contribution
making it more precise than the previous one.
13
13
NGT/GR parameters
Vertical resolution 18"
Depth of investigation 6"-8"
Readings in: API units
Limestone <20
Dolomite <30
Sandstone <30
Shale 80-300
Salt <10
Anhydrite <10
No formation is perfectly clean, hence the GR readings

will vary. Limestone is usually cleaner than the other two
reservoir rocks and normally has a lower GR.
14
14
GR/NGT Limits
GR
- Organic materials (see the uranium as

"shale").
- Micas (sees micaceous sands as shaly).
NGT
- Barite in the mud (reduces the count rate

but can be partially corrected for).
- KCI mud (Potassium in the mud masks
the formation response but can be
partially corrected for).
- Large boreholes decrease the count rate
hence increase the statistics.
- Statistical errors.
15
15
GR Correction 1
GR logs require correction for the effects of the

mud.
16
16
GR Correction 2
An additional correction is needed if there is mud

in the borehole.
17
17
Neutron Porosity Measurement
Neutron Porosity
1
Lithology and Porosity

The next major step in the procedure is lithology
identification. Lithology data gives information
on porosity and other parameters.
Lithology of a formation can be:
Simple
Dirty
Complex
2
2
Lithology and Porosity Tools

All tools react to lithology - usually in conjunction
with the porosity.
Major lithology tools are:
Neutron - reacts to fluid and matrix.
Density - reacts to matrix and fluid.
Sonic - reacts to a mixture of matrix and fluid,

complicated by seeing only primary
porosity.
NGT - identifies shale types and special minerals.
CMR - magnetic resonance reacts to the porosity

with a small element if lithology.
3
3
Neutrons
4
4
Early Neutron Tools

The first neutron tools used a chemical neutron
source and employed a single detector which
measured the Gamma Rays of capture
They were non-directional.
The units of measurement were API units where

1000 API units were calibrated to read 19% in a
water-filled limestone.
The tool was badly affected by the borehole

environment.
5
5
Neutron Tools
The second generation tool was the Sidewall
Neutron Porosity (SNP).
This was an epithermal device mounted on a pad.
The current tool is the Compensated Neutron

Tool (CNT).
The latest tool is the Accelerator Porosity Sonde

(APS), using an electronic source for the neutrons
and measuring in the epithermal region.
6
6
Hydrogen Index
Hydrogen Index is the quantity of hydrogen per
unit volume.
Fresh water is defined as having a Hydrogen

Index of 1.
Hence oil has a Hydrogen Index which is slightly
less than that of water.
The Hydrogen Index of gas is a much smaller

than that of water.
In a formation, it is generally the fluids that

contain hydrogen.
7
7
Thermal Neutron Theory

Neutrons are slowed down from their initial
"fast" state by collisions with the formation
nuclei. At each collision there is some energy lost
by the neutron.
The principal element involved in the slowing

down is Hydrogen, because it is close in size to the
neutron which loses most energy in these
collisions.
The CNT measures the neutron population in the
thermal region.
This is why the tool measures the Hydrogen
Index.
8
8
Detectors
Two neutron detectors are used to produce a
ratio eliminating some of the borehole effects
experienced by single detectors.
The count rate for each detector is inversely
proportional to porosity with high porosity giving
low count rates.
9
9
Ratio to Porosity Transform
The count rates are first corrected for the dead

time of the detectors (when the detector is not
available to receive counts).
The count rates are calibrated with the master

calibration.
A ratio of these is then taken.
The ratio is translated into porosity using a

transform. (This is a combination of theoretical
and experimental work).
The current field output for the thermal neutron

porosity is called TNPH.
10
10
Borehole Effects
The logs have to be corrected for the borehole
environment:
Borehole size.
Mud cake.
Borehole salinity.
Mud weight.
Temperature.
Pressure.
Formation salinity.
Stand-off.
11
11
Hole Size Correction

Necessary because the tools algorithm from ratio
to porosity is built to "fit" a 77/8" hole.
Larger holes cause the tool to see more mud
(100% porosity) around the borehole, hence the
tool reads too high in larger hole sizes.
The chart is entered with the porosity;
Go down to hole size.

Follow trend lines to 7 7/8".
Read of ∆φ.
∆φ
A correction is made automatically in open hole

using caliper measurements from the combined
density tool.
It can be made using the bit size if a caliper is not
available.
The correction can be large. 12
12
Mud Cake Correction

The mud cake absorbs neutrons before they can
enter or leave the formation.
mud cake = stand-off with porosity <100%.
The larger the mud cake, the larger the
correction.
It is a small correction but one that is rarely ever
applied because the mud cake cannot be easily
measured.
13
13
Borehole Salinity Correction

This arises due to Chlorine.
The more Chlorine present, the more neutrons
absorbed in the borehole. ==> decrease
count rate.
The largest effect is seen in salt-saturated muds.
Go down to the borehole salinity.

Follow trend lines to zero.
Read ∆φ.
∆φ
14
14
Mud Weight Correction

The extra material in heavier muds means there
is less hydrogen, hence more neutrons reach the
formation.
It also changes if the mud is full of barite.
In this case the amount of material needed to

achieve the same mud weight is less, hence the
correction is less.
Select normal or barite mud.

Enter with porosity.
Go down to mud weight.
Follow lines to 8 lb/gal.
Read ∆φ.
∆φ
The correction is quite small.
15
15
Formation Temperature
Correction
The correction is large and depends on the
porosity.
This is a dual effect:
The expansion of the water reduces the quantity

of Hydrogen seen by the tool.
Change in the borehole fluid capture cross-
section.
Enter with porosity at the top.

Go down to hole temperature.
Follow trend lines to 75ÞF.
Read ∆φ.
∆φ
16
16
Pressure Correction
The effect is caused by the compression of the
fluids downhole.
In standard water-based muds the effect is small.
Select oil-based or water-based mud.

Enter with porosity at the top.
Go down to hole pressure.
Follow trend lines to zero.
Read ∆φ.
∆φ
In oil-based muds the correction is large.
17
17
Formation/Salinity Correction
There are two factors affecting the neutron
measurement in the formation:
The chlorine in the formation water.

The rock matrix capture cross-section.
The simplest method is to assume that the matrix

Σ' known.
is clean and that the matrix 'Σ
This leaves salinity (mud filtrate) as the only
"variable".
The complete solution is to measure the total

formation 'Σ Σ' and use this to compute the
correction.
The correction can be large but is not applied in
the field because the lithology is unknown, hence
the 'ΣΣ' unknown.
It is taken into account in the interpretation
phase.
18
18
Stand off Correction

Any space between the tool and the borehole wall
is seen as 100% porosity.
The value of the correction depends on the hole
size:
Larger holes = more correction
Stand-off is rarely measured. One method is to
use the SA curve recorded with a PCD.
The chart is entered with the porosity at the top;
Go to the nearest hole size.

Go down to the stand-off value, e.g. 0.5".
Follow the lines to zero.
Read the ∆φ (always negative).
19
19
Standoff Correction Chart
20
20
Alpha Processing
Alpha Processing is a method that enhances the
resolution of the standard measurement.
It utilizes the higher resolution of the near

detector to increase the resolution of the more
accurate far detector.
21
21
Alpha Processing
The first step is to depth-match the two detectors'
responses.
The next step is to match the resolution of both

detectors.
22
22
Alpha Processing
The difference between the two readings now
gives the "high frequency" information - which
highlights thin beds missed by the far detector.
23
23
Alpha processing
The "high frequency" information is added to the

far detector signal to give the final enhanced log.
24
24
Thermal Neutron Parameters

Vertical resolution:
Standard (TNPH) 24"
Enhanced 12"
Readings in zero porosity:
Limestone (0%) 0
Sandstone (0%) -2.00
Dolomite (0%) 1.00
Anhydrite -2.00
Salt -3.00
Typical Readings
Shale 30-45
Coal 50+
25
25
Thermal Neutron
Interpretation/Uses
The tool measures hydrogen index.
Its prime use is to measure porosity.
Combined with the bulk density, it gives the best

possible answer for lithology and porosity
interpretation.
26
26
Thermal Neutron in Cased Hole

The CNT can be run in cased hole for the
porosity.
In addition to the standard corrections some

others are needed to take into account the extra
elements of casing and cement.
The standard conditions are:
83/4" borehole diameter.

Casing thickness 0.304".
Cement thickness 1.62".
Fresh water in the borehole / formation.
No stand-off.
75ÞF.
Atmospheric pressure.
Tool eccentred in the hole.
27
27
Corrections in Cased Hole
28
28
Bulk Density Measurement
1
Gamma Ray Physics -density -1

The Density Tools use a chemical gamma ray
source and two or three gamma ray detectors.
The number of gamma rays returning to the

detector depends on the number of electrons
present, the electron density, ρe.
The electron density can be related to the bulk
density of the minerals by a simple equation.
ρe = ρ( 2Z/A )
Where Z is the number

of electrons per atom
and A is the atomic
weight.
2
2
Gamma Ray Physics -density 2

The assumption made in the interpretation is
that:
Z/A = 0.5
This is very close for most elements commonly

encountered, except hydrogen which has
little effect on the measurement. Therefore ρe = ρ
Element Z/A
H 0.9921
C 0.4996
O 0.5
Na 0.4785
Mg 0.4934
Al 0.4819
Si 0.4984
S 0.4989
Cl 0.4794
K 0.4860
Ca 0.499
3
3
Calibration
The tool measured density, ρb, has been
experimentally related to the electron density;
ρb = 1.0704 ρe - 0.1883
The tool needs to be calibrated in a known

condition.
This condition is fresh water and limestone,
densities, 1.00 and 2.71 respectively.
The bulk density versus the electron density

equation fits for all the common minerals with a
few exceptions:
Salt - true density 2.165
density tool value 2.03
Sylvite - true density 1.984

density tool value 1.862
4
4
Spine and Ribs

The spine represents the line of increasing
formation density on the plot of the long spacing
count rate versus short spacing count rate.
The presence of mud cake causes a deviation

from the line in a predictable manner. Thus a
correction can be made to obtain the true density.
1.9
2.0
Mud cake
with barite
2.1
2.2
B
2.3 Increasing
C A Mud cake
2.4 Thickness
Long Spacing Count Rate
Increasing
Mud cake 2.5
Thickness
2.6 Mud cake
without
.
2.7 barite
2.8
2.9
Short spacing Count Rate
5
5
Spine and Ribs

1.9
2.0
Mud cake
with barite
2.1
2.2
B
2.3 Increasing
C A Mud cake
2.4 Thickness
Long Spacing Count Rate
Increasing
Mud cake 2.5
Thickness
2.6 Mud cake
without
.
2.7 barite
2.8
2.9
Short spacing Count Rate
Example:
The correct reading is at point A.
An increasing mud cake thickness moves
the point to B or C depending on whether
there is heavy material (barite) in the mud
or not.
6
6
Density Outputs
The outputs are:

RHOZ/RHOB (ρ ρb), the corrected bulk density.
DRHO (∆ρ ∆ρ),
∆ρ the correction that has been
applied to ρb (LDT only).
RHOZ/RHOB is the main output;
DRHO is a quality control curve (LDT only).
7
7
Borehole Effects
The LDT is a pad tool with collimated source and
detectors. It experiences little or no
environmental effect.
In large holes, the curvature of the pad versus

that of the hole causes a minor error that needs to
be corrected.
8
8
Borehole Effects
Hole rugosity may affect the measurement.
The source and detectors "see" different

formations/borehole.
The effect is an erratic and incorrect log.
9
9
Alpha Processing
As the density tool also uses two detectors it can

be Alpha processed in exactly the same way as the
CNT.
The resulting log shows a great improvement

over the standard output.
10
10
Density Parameters
Standard 18"
Enhanced 6"
Readings in:
Limestone (0pu) 2.71

Sandstone (0pu) 2.65
Dolomite (0pu) 2.85
Anhydrite 2.98
Salt 2.03
Shale 2.2-2.7
Coal 1.5
11
11
Interpretation/Uses
The density tool is extremely useful as it has high
accuracy and exhibits small borehole effects.
Major uses include:

Porosity.
Lithology (in combination with the

neutron tool).
Mechanical properties (in combination

with the sonic tool).
Acoustic properties (in combination with

the sonic tool).
Gas identification (in combination with the

neutron tool).
12
12
Density Porosity
ρ b = ρ f φ + ρ ma (1 − φ )
ρ ma − ρ b
φ=
ρ ma − ρ f
There are two inputs into the porosity equation:

the matrix density and the fluid density.
The fluid density is that of the mud filtrate.
13
13
Scaling/Porosity
The density tool is usually run with the neutron.
To aid quicklook interpretation they are run on
"compatible scales".
This means that the scales are set such that for a
given lithology the curves overlay.
The standard scale is the "limestone compatible" where
the neutron porosity scale is:
To fit this the density log has to have its zero limestone point (2.7
g/cc) on the same position as the neutron porosity zero and the
range of the scale has to fit the neutrons 60 porosity units hence the
scale is:
Changing to a sandstone compatible scale would put the zero

sandstone density, 2.65, over the neutron porosity zero to give:
14
14
Pef Physics
The Photoelectric effect occurs when the incident
gamma ray is completely absorbed by the
electron.
It is a low energy effect hence the Photoelectric

Absorption index, Pe, is measured using
the lowest energy window of the tool.
Pe is related directly to Z, the number of

electrons per atom, hence fixed for each element.
Pe = ( Z/A )3.6
Its units are barns/electron.
15
15
Pef Theory
Pe can be easily computed for any lithology by
summing the elemental contributions.
Measurement is virtually porosity and fluid

independent.
Major use is Lithology identification.

Another way of using it is express it in volumetric
terms as:
ρe
U = Peρ
This is called the Volumetric photoelectric

absorption index.
This parameter can then be used in a formula for
computing the components of the reservoir.
U = φUf + (1 - φ) Uma
16
16
Pef Parameters
Standard 4"
Readings in:
Limestone 5.08
Sandstone 1.81
Dolomite 3.14
Shale 1.8-6
Anhydrite 5.05
Salt 4.65
17
17
Sonic Measurement
Sonic Measurement
1
Sonic Measurement
Sonic Tool
The sonic tools create an acoustic signal and
measure how long it takes to pass through a rock.
By simply measuring this time we get an

indication of the formation properties.
The amplitude of the signal will also give

information about the formation.
2
2
Sonic Measurement
sonic borehole waves
3
3
Sonic Measurement
waves 2
In a fast formation both compressional and shear
waves are created.
The head waves in the borehole are the signals

seen by the receivers.
The array of receivers see the signal at different

times as they are at different distances from the
transmitter.
4
4
Sonic Measurement
Sonic -BHC
A simple tool that uses a pair of transmitters and
four receivers to compensate for caves and sonde
tilt.
The normal spacing between the transmitters and

receivers is 3' - 5'.
It produces a compressional slowness by

measuring the first arrival transit times.
Used for:
Correlation.
Porosity.
Lithology.
Seismic tie in /
time-to-depth
conversion.
5
5
Sonic Measurement
Long Spacing Sonic

The BHC tool is affected by near borehole altered
zones hence a longer spacing is needed with a
larger depth of investigation.
The tool spacings are 8' - 10', 10' - 12'.
The tool cannot be built with transmitters at each

end like a BHC sonde, hence there are two
transmitters at the bottom.
A system called DDBHC - depth derived borehole

compensation, is used to compute the transmit
time.
The uses of this tool are the same as the BHC

tool.
6
6
Sonic Measurement
Array Sonic
Multi-spacing digital tool.
First to use STC

processing.
Able to measure shear waves

and Stoneley waves in hard
formations.
Used for:
Porosity.
Lithology.
Seismic tie in /
time-to-depth conversion.
Mechanical properties (from shear and
compressional).
Fracture identification (from shear and
Stoneley).
Permeability (from Stoneley). 7
7
Sonic Measurement
DSI General
In a slow formation the shear wave from a

monopole source never creates a head wave.
The fluid wave is the first arrival after the
compressional.
A dipole source is directional.
It creates a flexural wave on the borehole wall

and shear and compressional in the formation.
The shear wave is recorded whether the

formation is soft or hard.
8
8
Sonic Measurement
DSI tool
Generates both monopole and dipole signals.
Generates different frequencies for measuring a
range of waves.
Measures:
Compressional and shear
Two orthogonal shear - dipole signals
Stoneley
Application:
Seismic.
Mechanical properties (from shear and
compressional).
Fracture identification (shear and
Stoneley).
Permeability computation (Stoneley).
Porosity / Lithology.
Gas shows.
9
9
Sonic Measurement
STC Processing
This type of processing is necessary to extract the
shear and Stoneley information from the
waveform.
The processing applies a "semblance algorithm"
to the recorded set of traces.
This means looking for the same part of the wave

(e.g. shear) on each wavetrain.
Once this has been done the transit time can be

computed.
10
10
Sonic Measurement
STC Map
At a given depth, the slowness can be plotted
against time.
Regions of large coherence appear as contours.
These correspond to the compressional (fastest),

shear (close to the compressional) and Stoneley
(furthest away).
11
11
Sonic Measurement
STC Output
12
12
Sonic Measurement
Tools Summary
Measurements: BHC LSS Array Dipole
Sonic Sonic
Compressional x x x x
Shear/Stoneley:
Hard rock - - x x
Soft rock - - - x
Computations:
Porosity x x x x
Lithology x x x x
Seismic tie in x x x x
Mechanical properties:
Hard rock - - x x
Soft rock - - - x
Fracture detection- - x x
Permeability - - - x
13
13
Sonic Measurement
Borehole Effects
As the sonic tool is measuring the time for the
signal to go from the transmitter to the receiver
there are two types of erroneous responses.
Cycle skipping
If the signal strength

is too low the
detection goes to the
next peak.
This means that the
final transmit time
will be wrong.
Road noise
This is noise at the receivers that is due to the

borehole environment and has nothing to do with
the signal being measured. 14
14
Sonic Measurement
Borehole Effects 2
There are a number of borehole phenomena
which cause these effects:
Borehole rugosity - causes the tool motion to be

erratic, the signal may be distorted and give road
noise or cycle skipping.
Large holes - if the borehole diameter is very

large the mud signal may arrive at a receiver
before the formation signal. The proper tool set-
up for each condition has to be picked before the
job.
This means choosing whether to centralise or

excentralise the tool and the equipment to
be used.
15
15
Sonic Measurement
Borehole Effects 3
Gas in the well
The acoustic impedance of gas is very low, hence
the signal will be strongly attenuated. There may
be skipping.
Altered zone
This is largely overcome by using a long spacing
tool to read deeper into the formation.
Caves
Can create problems in spite of compensation as
they will also reduce signal amplitude.
Fractures
Reduce the signal amplitude especially the shear
and Stoneley waves.
16
16
Sonic Measurement
Porosity - 1
The porosity from the sonic slowness is different
than that from the density or neutron tools.
It reacts to primary porosity only, i.e. it does not

"see" the fractures or vugs.
The basic equation for sonic porosity is the Wyllie

Time Average:
∆t log = φ∆t f + (1 − φ )∆t ma
∆t log − ∆t ma
φ=
∆t f − ∆t ma
17
17
Sonic Measurement
porosity 2
There is another possibility for transforming
slowness to porosity, called Raymer Gardner
Hunt.
This formula tries to take into account some
irregularities seen in the field.
The basic equation is:
1
=
(
1−φ
+
φ
2
)
∆t c ∆t ma ∆t f
A simplified version used on the Maxis is:
∆t log − ∆t ma
φ =C
∆t log
C is a constant, usually taken as 0.67.

18
18
Sonic Measurement
Porosity 3
This chart shows the relationship between the
sonic compressional slowness and the porosity.
Both the lithology and the equation must be
known prior to using this chart.
19
19
Sonic Measurement
Crossplots
The sonic measurements can be cross-plotted
with the density or the neutron readings to give
porosity and lithology information as with the
density-neutron crossplot, however:
The neutron - sonic (TNPH-Dt)

Has problems because there are two
possible equations.
The density - sonic (Dt-RHOB)

Has problems with the transforms as there
is no separation between the lithology
lines.
20
20
Sonic Measurement
mechanical properties
21
21
Sonic Measurement
Mechanical Properties and

Sonics
A combination of compressional, shear and

density measurements gives the rocks' dynamic
elastic moduli.
These are used to obtain the formation's

mechanical properties.
22
22
Sonic Measurement
Mechanical Properties uses 1

Main uses of mechanical properties in soft
formations are:
Sand stability evaluation, i.e.

The prediction of the formation collapse under
producing conditions.
Using theoretical failure criteria it is possible to

predict if the perforation will produce sand.
Well bore stability, i.e.

The prediction of formation failure / collapse
while drilling.
This is especially relevant in deviated wells when
drilling at high angles through soft rock can be
problematic.
The physical mechanism is similar to that of sand
stability evaluation.
23
23
Sonic Measurement
Mechanical Properties uses 2

The major use of mechanical properties in hard
rocks is to predict how they will behave under
"excess" pressure:
Drilling:
Will the formation fracture and the drilling mud
disappear?
Hydraulic fracturing:
How much pressure will fracture the formation
and how far will the fracture extend?
Experimental models are used to compute

parameters such as tensile strength.
Simulations are used to predict the pressures that

will "crack" the rock and lengths of fractures.
24
24
Sonic Measurement
Sonic Parameters
Standard (BHC, LSS, MSTC) 24"

STC 36"
6"DT 6"
Depth of investigation:
BHC 5"
LSS-SDT 12" (12 ft spacing)
Readings in(ms/ft)
Limestone (0pu) 47.5

Sandstone (0pu) 51-55
Dolomite (0pu) 43.5
Anhydrite 50
Salt 67
Shale >90
Coal >120
Steel (casing) 57
25
25
Magnetic Resonance Measurement
Magnetic Resonance
Measurement
1
Magnetic Resonance
Sand grains
Irreducible water
Free Fluid
A typical sandstone formation consists of rock

grains plus fluids.
The fluids are distributed as free fluids and
immobile fluids
The grains can be large or small or mixed.
There may or may not be clay minerals associated
with the formation
Magnetic resonance is used to analyse the
porosity distribution and estimate permeability 2
2
Dephasing and T2 Relaxation

Time
Z
Alignment
along Bo
The protons are aligned in
X a magnetic field
Y
Z
The protons are tipped
Tipping
out of the field by 90°
X
Z
Dephasing The protons precess back
into line. during this time
X
they ‘dephase’ with each
Y other.
3
3
Precession
The spin of the proton in a magnetic is the same as

a top in a gravity field.
They spin around their axes and also in a direction
around the applied field.
4
4
Measurement
The protons act as minute bar magnets.
In a magnetic field the generate a signal at the

Larmour Frequency.
This is picked up by the receivers.
The more protons the higher the amplitude.
Hence the tool measures the number of

hydrogens or the porosity
5
5
Spin Echoes
The pulse sequence consists of firstly a pulse to

push the protons at 90° of the permanent field.
Then after a time another pulse to ‘flip’ them
through 180°.
This continues for a set number of echoes.
6
6
Spin Echoes 2
The race analogy shows the runners as protons

dephasing.
The echo pulse reverses the field allowing the
slower ‘runners’ to be in front.
When they all line up again (6) a signal is
generated that is picked up by the antenna.
7
7
T2 Decay
The gradual decay of the peaks reflects the

formation signal to be measured, T2. The
transverse relaxation time.
The CPMG sequence eliminates spurious effects.
8
8
Porosities
Clay Capillary Producible

Bound Bound Fluids
Fluids Fluids
There are three ‘porosities’ in the rock system

Producible or Free Fluids - fluids that can move
Capillary Bound Fluids - fluids (usually water)
stuck to the rock surface by surface tension
forces.
Clay Bound Fluids - the water associated with the
clay minerals.
The relaxation time for capillary bound fluids and

clay bound fluids are very short.
9
9
Free Fluid vs Irreducible Fluid
The Magnetic Resonance shows a difference in

the time distribution for each fluid.
An empirical cut-off (for sandstone) of 33msec is

used to separate the Free Fluids from the others.
10
10
Pore Size
Amplitude
Amplitude
Large Small
Pore pore
Time msec Time msec
In a large pore the proton collides with the grain

surface less often than in a small pore
The relaxation time is reduced
The amplitude in both cases can be the same. The
porosity is the same in the large and small pores.
1/T2 = ρ(S/V)
T2 = Transverse relaxation time
(msec)
S = Surface area of pore
V = Volume of pore
ρ = Surface relaxivity
11
11
Permeability
Porosity = 20%
Permeability = 7.5 md
Porosity = 19.5%
Permeability = 279 md
12
12
Permeability Equations
Method 1:
k ~ φb/(S/V)2
1/T2 = ρ2(S/V)
φCMR)4 (T2,log)2
k = a (φ
a ~ 4 mD/(ms)2
Method 2: Timur/Coates Equation:
φCMR)4 (FFI/BVI )2
k = a’ 104 (φ
a' ~ 1 mD
13
13
CMR Wellsite Presentation
The key outputs are in track 3, the CMR

porosity and the CMR free fluid Index.
Track 4 show the T2 distribution
Track 2 shows T2 and the permeability
Track 1 shows the GR.
14
14
CMR Sonde Cross Section
15
15
CMR Tool
Applications
• Continuous permeability
• Determine Swirr
• Measure free fluid volume
• Identify thin pay zones (6 in.)
• Lithology-independent porosity
• Hydrocarbon identification
• Low-resistivity pay
Tool specifications
Length 14 ft
Weight 300 lb.
Minimum hole 6.5 in.
Logging speed
(sandstone) 600 ft/hr
Measurement aperture 6.0 in.
Combinable Yes
Mud resistivity No limits
Max. temperature 350°F
[175°C]
16
16
CMR Example log 1
17
17
CMR Example Log-2
18
18
CMR Example log -3
19
19
Pore sizes
(V/S) pore (µm)
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1
Berea 100 Sandstone

ρ = 5 µm/s
2
Population
10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1
950517-01
T2 (s)
(V/S)pore = ρ2 T2
Pore Shape V/S
Sphere diameter = dd/6
Tube diameter = d d/4
Sheet width = d d/2
Typical sandstone: ρ2 ~ 5 mm/s
Typical carbonate: ρ2 ~ 1.7 mm/s
20
20
Electrical Resistivity Logs
1
Resistivity Theory
The resistivity of a substance is a measure of its

ability to impede the flow of electrical current.
Resistivity is the key to hydrocarbon saturation

determination.
Porosity gives the volume of fluids but does not

indicate which fluid is occupying that pore space.
2
2
Resistivity Theory 2
Current can only pass through the water in the
formation, hence the resistivity depends
on:
Resistivity of the formation water.

Amount of water present.
Pore structure.
3
3
Resistivity Model
4
4
Mud Resistivities
The first resistivities encountered are those of the
mud, mud filtrate and mud cake.
The surface measurements to obtain these values

are often erroneous.
Key points:
The samples must be identical to the mud
used in the logging interval.
Check answers using the Chart Book
formulae.
Rmf < Rm < Rmc
Identify the sample source (measured or
charts).
5
5
Salinities chart
Grains/gal
10
at 75ÞF
8
ppm
6
5
200
4 10
3 300
15
400
2 20
500
25
600
30
700
800
40
NaCl Concentration (ppm or grains/gal)

1 0
100
Resistivity of Solution (ž - m)
0.8 0 50
120
0
140
0.6
0
170
0.5 0
200
100
0.4
0
300
0.3 150
0
400
200
0.2 500
0
0 0 250
60
0
70000 300
80
400
000
10,
0.1 ,000 500
12
0.08 000
14,
7,000
1
0.06 20,
000
1000
0.05
00
30,0
0.04 1500
00
40,0
2000
0.03 50,0
0 0
0 00 2500
,
60
00 3000
70,0 00
0.02 80,0 4000
000
100, 5000
000
,000 120,000
300 140, 00
0
170, 0
0.01 0
200,,0000 10,000
250 000
280, 15,000
50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400
20,000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200
Temperature (ÞF or ÞC)

This chart is used to compute salinities from
resistivities of solution e.g. mud, and vice versa.
It is also used to find the resistivities at a given
temperature.
6
6
Old Tools
The voltage measured at M is proportional to the
formation resistivity.
This electrode configuration is the Normal tool.
The distance between the A and M electrodes.

The spacing determines the depth of investigation
and hence the resistivity being read.
7
7
Normal and Lateral Tools

The Lateral device used
the same principle.
The difference is in
electrode configuration
and spacing.
Problems came from

"thin beds" when the
signature of the curve
was used to try and find
the true resistivity.
8
8
Old Tools 2
This figure shows some of the "signature curves"

for the interpretation of lateral and normal
devices in thin beds.
A library exists plus the rules to extrapolate the
measured value to the true resistivity of 9
the bed. 9
Laterolog Principle
A current-emitting electrode, Ao, has guard

electrodes positioned symmetrically on either
side.
Guard electrodes emit current to keep the
potential difference between them and the
current electrode at zero.
This forces the measuring current to flow into the
formation of interest.
10
10
Tool Types
Various configurations have been used:
LL3
The first tool of its type; single guard electrodes.
LL7
Four extra electrodes added, including a feedback
loop to keep the bucking current at an optimal
value.
LL9
Two more electrodes added, plus a Shallow
Laterolog measurement. Deep and Shallow
measurements were taken sequentially.
DLT
Same as the LL9 but able to run deep and
shallow simultaneously.
11
11
borehole effects
Laterologs see the borehole environment as:
RLL = Rm + Rmc + Rxo + Rt
Rm Best measurement is in salt-saturated, low

resistivity mud. Worst readings obtained
in fresh mud. Measurements cannot be taken
in oil-based mud.
Rmc Usually neglected as very small.
Rxo Depends on Rmf, needs to be known.
Rt Parameter to be measured, the higher the

better. 12
12
Laterolog Corrections
The log must be corrected for the effect of mud
resistivity.
There are two possible conditions:

Centred.
Eccentred.
There is only a small difference between the two

in most circumstances for the modern tool DLT-
E.
The old tool, DLT-B, could only be run centred.
The correction to the shallow is greater than the

deep, especially in large hole sizes.
13
13
Laterolog Corrections
14
14
Correction Charts
15
15
Bed Correction
The next correction accounts for the effects of
adjacent beds which still occur despite focusing.
If the shoulder bed is highly resistive, the log has

to be reduced. (Squeeze.)
If the shoulder bed is of low resistivity, the log has

to be increased. (Anti-squeeze.)
LLS has a better definition because it is a shallow

device.
16
16
Squeeze/Anti-Squeeze
Rs is the resistivity of the bed above and below the

formation of interest.
The chart is entered with the bed thickness,
moving up the ratio RLLD/RS.
The correction factor is read on the y-axis.
17
17
Squeeze/Anti- Squeeze
The same method is used in this chart for the
Shallow Laterolog
18
18
String Effect
Laterolog tools have another problem in

conductive beds due to the frequency of the
measurement.
In long combination tools, the LLD reads too

high.
The effect has been commonly seen in low

resistivity formations.
19
19
Correction Example
The correction depends on the hole size, Dh, and
the mud resistivity, Rm.
This correction has to be applied before any other

borehole corrections.
A new chart is needed for each tool combination.
20
20
TLC effect
There are two effects occurring when a Laterolog
tool is run on drill pipe.
1)In TLC operations Laterologs need a special

stiff bridle usually made of three sections of
tool housing giving a length of 30 feet compared
to the normal 80 foot bridle.
2)The total current returns to the pipe which acts

as the return electrode.
The relative error is proportional to /Ra (the

apparent resistivity).
This can be up to 200% at low Rt/Rm contrasts

and low Rm.
21
21
Example Chart
The chart is used to transform the TLC reading
into the reading theoretically obtained in a
vertical well with a bridle.
22
22
Pseudo Geometrical Factor

Once corrected, the log can be evaluated to find
Rt.
Neglecting the mud and mud cake resistivities

(corrected log), the tool response equation is:
Ra = J(di)Rxo + (1-J(di))Rt
Where J(di) is the pseudo-geometrical factor

which is a function of the invasion diameter, di.
For large di, J(di) is large reflecting the
important contribution of the invaded zone to the
measurement.
23
23
Depth of Investigation
The plot shows the pseudo-geometrical factor
versus di for various tools.
The relative depth of investigation is defined as
the invasion diameter for which the invaded zone
contributes to 50% of the signal (J = 0.5).
The relative depth of investigation is computed
from the chart.
For example, it is 35" for the LLS.

24
24
Groningen Effect
Resistive Bed
Torpedo
Laterolog
Induction
bridle
electrode
LLS distance to
LLD /LLG
torpedo =
distance
below high
Groningen resistivity
Response Groningen
effect seen.
LLG
Induction
does not react
LLD
increase
DLT measure
point
The high and increasing LLD reading, associated

with a flat LLS, can be caused by the presence of
hydrocarbon in the formation, or by the infamous
Groningen effect. 25
25
Groningen Effect Physics
This is caused by the voltage reference (cable-

torpedo) becoming non-zero.
Caused by highly resistive beds overlying the

formation that is being measured.
This forces the deep current into the mud

column.
26
26
Solutions
The HALS/ARI tool can be corrected for
Groningen effect.
There is a curve measurement by the DLT called

LLG, which gives an indication of the Groningen
effect.
LLG is:
An LLD using a bridle electrode as return
rather than the torpedo.
An indicator of the presence of Groningen
Effect because:
LLG equals LLD when there is no
effect.
LLG is affected at a different depth
than LLD.
LLG is not an LLD corrected for Groningen.
27
27
Laterolog Applications
Measures Rt.
Standard resistivity in high resistivity

environments.
Usable in medium-to-high salinity muds.
Good results in high contrast Rt/Rm.
Fair vertical resolution (same as porosity tools).
28
28
Laterolog Limits
Cannot be used in oil-based muds.
Cannot be used in air-filled holes.
Affected by the Groningen Effect in some

environments.
Difficult to model.
Poor when Rxo > Rt.
29
29
Modelling
It is useful to model the tool response for different
conditions.
The approach of bed boundaries can be seen in

deviated wells.
Unusual log responses can be checked with

different model formations.
A finite element method has to be used to model

Laterologs, and all resistivity tools.
This type of program is heavy on computer time.
30
30
DLT Parameters
Vertical resolution: 24"
Maximum reading:
LLD 40000ohm-m
LLS 6000ohm-m
Minimum reading:
LLD 0.2ohm-m
LLS 0.2ohm-m
31
31
Azimuthal Laterolog principle
The current emitting electrode is split into twelve

separate electrodes.
It has 12 electrodes set equally spaced around the

tool giving 12 azimuthal Laterolog readings.
These are focused to give a deep reading and a

very shallow reading of the tool stand-off. 32
32
Azimuthal Laterolog principle 2
There are two modes:

Active mode: current is emitted from each
of the electrodes.
12 calibrated resistivities are output in
real time.
Passive mode: no current is emitted. This

is used if the resistivity is above 2 ohm-m
The mud resistivity is needed to compute
the resistivities.
33
33
Azimuthal Laterolog corrections

The borehole correction is similar to the other
Laterolog measurements. It is a function of the
borehole diameter and the ratio of formation to
mud resistivity.
This chart is used to make the correction. It can

be done by the surface acquisition system.
34
34
Azimuthal Laterolog outputs

The standard outputs of the Azimuthal Laterolog
are:
Standard LLD and LLS curves.
LLhr - high resolution deep Laterolog.
12 azimuthal resistivity curves.
12 electrical stand-off measurements.
An electrical image of the borehole similar

to FMS.
35
35
Azimuthal Laterolog uses

The simplest use of the ARI is for deep resistivity
in laminated formations. Here the tools high
vertical resolution reads the correct value when
the LLD averages the beds.
36
36
Azimuthal Laterolog Uses 2

Another use of the ARI is fracture identification.
As with any resistivity measurement it reacts to
the presence of the conductive fluid (mud) in the
fractures. They show up as low resistivity on each
of the 12 resistivities at different depths
depending on their geometry. The best indication
is the image.
37
37
ARI Uses 3
There are a number of other uses for this
azimuthal tool:
Heterogeneous formation
One or more of the resistivities will react to a
heterogeneity while the others read normally. An example could
be a shale lens in an oil zone. Here the resistivity will be reduced
by the low resistivity shale if a standard LLD is used, however the
shale will be "seen" by some of the azimuthal resistivities and the
true resistivity of the oil zone can then be understood.
Horizontal well
The ultimate heterogeneous formation. The azimuthal resistivities
will be able to see the overlying and underlying formations, the
cap rocks and the water table for example. Knowing where these
are will greatly assist in completing the well as well as computing
saturations.
Dip computation
This is an extra due to having 12 azimuthal
resistivities and the possibility of adding directional information.
The output dips are not as good as a standard Dipmeter as the
resolution is not as fine, however, they are sufficient for most
structural interpretations.
38
38
Azimuthal Laterolog parameters

Depth of investigation
LLhr close to LLD
Vertical resolution
8" (in a 6" hole)
Azimuthal resolution
60° for a 1" stand-off
Resistivity range
0.2 - 100000 ohm-m
Mud resistivity
< 2 ohm-m active mode
< 5 ohm-m passive mode
39
39
Microresistivity Devices
Shallow reading versions of resistivity tools;
always pad-mounted.
First was the Microlog which is still in use;

Second was the Micro Laterolog (MLL),
replaced by
Proximity (PL) tool, replaced by
MicroSpherically Focused Log (MSFL),
replaced by
Micro Cylindrical Focused Log(MCFL)
Objective is to read Rxo (Invaded Zone

Resistivity) only.
Tools are focused to pass through the mud cake.
40
40
Microlog Uses
Microlog is used to identify permeable zones.
2" Micronormal. (A -> M2)

1"x1" Microinverse. (A -> M1)
(Slightly different depths of
investigation).
If the zone of investigation is shale (no invasion),

both curves read the same.
If the zone is sand (with invasion), Microinverse
reads mud cake plus some of the formation and
Micronormal reads some mud cake plus the
formation (slightly higher).
We are only interested in the separation between
these curves and so scales are chosen to show this
and not the rest of the readings.
41
41
MSFL Principle
This tool uses a set of 5 electrodes which focus the

signal into the invaded zone just beyond the mud
cake.
42
42
MSFL Borehole Corrections

In spite of its focusing, the tool still needs to be
corrected for the mud cake thickness and
resistivity.
The correction requires an input of mud cake
thickness which is not measured directly.
It also needs the mud cake resistivity which is

either measured or computed from charts.
The tool focusing has been set assuming there is

always some mud cake, hence the tool
always needs some correction.
43
43
Uses and Limits
Uses:
Rxo measurement in water- based
muds.
Correction for deep resistivity
tools.
Sxo determination.
Limits:
Rugose hole.
Oil-based mud.
Heavy or thick mud cake.
44
44
Induction logs
Induction Logs
1
Induction logs
Induction history
The idea for the tool developed out of mine
detector work done by Henri Doll during the
Second World War.
The objective was to measure resistivity in fresh

or oil-based muds.
The first tools had 5 coils to focus the signal.
The next generation of tools employed 6 coils.
Two measurement curves were eventually

developed, a medium and a deep paralleling the
Laterolog's shallow and deep readings.
2
2
Induction logs
Induction Principle
An Induction tool uses a high frequency
electromagnetic transmitter to induce a current
in a ground loop of formation.
This, in turn, induces an electrical field whose

magnitude is proportional to the
formation conductivity.
3
3
Induction logs
Geometrical Factor
In a simple model, (tool centred, homogeneous

formation), the response of the tool can be
calculated as the sum of all the formation loops
coaxial with the sonde.
Each signal is proportional to the conductivity

and to a Geometrical Factor, Gi which depends
only on the loop position with respect to the
transmitter and receiver positions.
The sum of all the geometrical factors is equal to

1. 4
4
Induction logs
Depth of Investigation
This is equivalent to the plot seen for the
laterolog.
Once again, the depth of investigation can be

obtained from this plot using the same criteria.
Depth of investigation = zone contributing 50% of

the signal.
5
5
Induction logs
Shoulder Bed Effect

To minimise the shoulder bed effect, the tool is
focused using multiple coils.
In addition, the shoulder bed response is

suppressed to improve the vertical resolution.
Deconvolution gives greater weight to the signal

measured at the sonde centre and less
weight to the signals from either side.
The Phasor tool uses the X-signal to make a non-

linear deconvolution correction.
6
6
Induction logs
Skin Effect
Caused by ground loops creating their own fields
and interfering with the signal being measured.
The net result is a reduction in the measured

conductivity.
The correction increases with increasing

conductivity.
The traditional solution was to employ a booster

algorithm.
The current tool uses the X-signal to make the

correction.
7
7
Induction logs
Borehole Effects
Induction tools measure Conductivity.
Induction tools measure resistivity in Parallel.
Thus Induction tools see the borehole
environment as:
Cm - Best readings occur in high resistivity

mud, oil-based is better, fresh mud is good, salt-
saturated mud is worst.
Cmc - Usually neglected as very small.
Cxo - Depends on Rmf - needs to be known.
Ct - Parameter to be measured, the higher the

better. 8
8
Induction logs
Corrections
The tool has to be corrected for borehole effects.
Procedure
1) Compute borehole geometrical factor.

2) Find additional signal due to the borehole.
3) Convert log resistivity into conductivity.
4) Remove borehole signal from total signal.
5) Convert result back to resistivity.
This is best done in the field using either the

Surface Acquisition units
It is also possible using Chart Books.
9
9
Induction logs
Corrections
10
10
Induction logs
Correction Charts
11
11
Induction logs
Correction Charts
Procedure:
Obtain the Borehole Geometrical factor
Enter the value on the axis.
Draw a line through the mud resistivity to obtain
the hole signal..
Subtract the hole

signal from the
measured
conductivity to
obtain the
corrected value
12
12
Induction logs
Bed Thickness
The induction needs to be corrected for the effect

of resistive or conductive shoulder beds.
After signal processing this effect is minor except

in beds less than 6'.
13
13
Induction logs
Enhancement
The standard Deep Induction tool has a vertical
resolution of 6' to 8'.
It is impossible to improve the tool's hardware

design as the measurement is "blind" at some
thickness.
The Medium Induction tool can "see" all
thickness.
The Medium signal is used to enhance the more

accurate Deep reading.
Enhanced resolution of 3'.
Very enhanced resolution of 1.5' to 2'.
A problem - the medium may be adversely

affected by borehole conditions (rugosity, caving),
resulting in a poor deep reading.
14
14
Induction logs
Limits
Cannot be used in salt-saturated muds unless in
small hole sizes.
Cannot be used in high resistivity formations.
Poor in thin beds.
Poor when Rxo < Rt.
Dipping beds will affect the logs.
15
15
Induction logs
Uses
Measures Rt.
Ideal in fresh or oil-based environments.
Ideal for low resistivity measurements and when

Rxo > Rt.
16
16
Induction logs
Modelling
As for the laterolog tool, it is useful to model the
induction response to a given situation.
The Induction is simple to model in almost any

case as it is based on electromagnetic theory.
Programs exist for both vertical and deviated
wells.
Effects such as the effect of dipping beds can be

analyzed and the true resistivity of the
layer obtained.
Horizontal wells are also handled so that the

response of an electromagnetic tool to a nearby
cap rock or water table can be predicted.
This is important in horizontal wells where the

technique called Geosteering is used to accurately
position the well trajectory.
17
17
Induction logs
Induction Parameters
Standard 6' to 8'

Enhanced 3'
Very Enhanced 1.5' to 2'
Depth of investigation:
Deep 60"
Medium 30"
18
18
Induction logs
AIT principle
The tool measures 28 independent signals from 8
arrays. There is one transmitter operating at
three frequencies. The in-phase (R) and the
quadrature (X) signals are both measured.
The conductivities are combined using radial and

depth functions.
These are software focused to give:
5 depths of investigation:10", 20", 30", 60" 90".
3 vertical resolutions: 1', 2' and 4'.
19
19
Induction logs
AIT depth of investigation

The AIT has set radial depths of investigation
which are not affected by changes in conductivity.
The values are taken as the point where half the

signal comes from shallower levels.
In comparison to the 10", 20", 30", 60" and 90"

of this tool, the medium and deep of the old tool
are around 30" and 60" respectively.
20
20
Induction logs
AIT Corrections
There are well defined borehole corrections to be
applied to the measurement. These are made in
real time by the software. The inputs required
are:
Borehole cross section.
Mud resistivity.
Stand-off.
The tool can compute any of these from its

measured signal as well as the formation
resistivity. However, normal practice is to input
at least two of them.
A measurement of the mud can be made with an

auxiliary sonde or surface measurement.
The former is best as logs made have shown
considerable heterogeneities in the mud column
with depth.
A caliper tool can give the hole dimensions. 21

21
Induction logs
AIT Rt-Rxo-invasion
As the AIT produces five logs with differing
depths of investigation, a more realistic
description of the invasion can be made.
The old model is:
New model:
This model has four unknowns with the addition

of a ramp profiled for the invasion.
22
22
Induction logs
AIT independent model

The AIT can be displayed as an image.
The simplest image is of resistivity radial profile

starting at the borehole and going out into the
formation.
This image simply extrapolates the readings of

the tool assigning colour classes to the resistivity
level.
It is called an "independent model" because it

makes no assumptions about the resistivity
distribution.
23
23
Induction logs
AIT saturation
To obtain a saturation image, some assumptions
have to be made about the resistivity profile.
The inversion model is used to produce the

parameters needed for a saturation image, Rt,
Rxo and an invasion distance.
The r2 radius is taken as the limit of invasion for

this calculation.
The image will then show the saturation away

from the borehole, a radial profile.
This image is a more accurate picture of the

invasion as long as the saturation gradient is
constant with depth. The porosity is also assumed
to be constant.
24
24
Induction logs
AIT volumes
Variations in formation water, drilling
parameters and saturation gradient obscure
comparisons along a well and between wells.
A filtrate invasion profile is constructed and

converted to a fluid volume by multiplying it by
porosity.
Hence the AIT outputs plus the Rmf are all that
is needed to compute the volume of mud filtrate,
Vmf.
The result is integrated with depth to give the
volume of filtrate per unit depth.
25
25
Induction logs
examples 2
The invaded volumes computed here show an

increase with depth. The results could be used to
plan sampling points or a well test.
26
26
Induction logs
examples 3
Cable tension (TENS)

10000.0 (LBF) 0.0 90 Inch investigation
SFL unaveraged (SFLU) .2 (ohmm) 2000
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0 10 Inch investigation
Medium resistivity (ILM)
.2 (ohmm) 2000
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0
Deep resistivity (ILD) 20 Inch investigation
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0 .2 (ohmm) 2000
30 Inch investigation
.2 (ohmm) 2000
60 Inch investigation
.2 (ohmm) 2000
The AIT logs (2' vertical resolution) read

correctly in this zone giving a hydrocarbon
profile.
The DIL logs are ambiguous as the SFL

(electrical log) longer reading shallow because
Rxo is less than Rt 27
27
Induction logs
AIT parameters
Radius of investigation:
10" (A x 10)
20" (A x 20)
30" (A x 30)
60" (A x 60)
90" (A x 90)
Vertical resolution (x):

1'
2'
4'
Resistivity range:
0.2 - 1000ohm-m
28
28

Basic Log Interpretation

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Basic Log Interpretation

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Introduction to Log Interpretation

Why Run Logs

To form a reservoir needs

- source of organic material (terrestrial or

- a suitable combination of heat, pressure and

- an oxygen free environment

The major elements of a reservoir are

• permeable rock stores the hydrocarbon

Inner Core Core Mantle

Ocean plate - Ocean Plate

Ocean plate - Continental plate

Mid Ocean Ridge Mountains

There are three major classes of rock:

Igneous Rocks and Reservoirs

Igneous rocks can be part of reservoirs.

Volcanic tuffs are mixed with sand in some

Marble - formed from limestone

The third category is Sedimentary rocks. These

Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of

Clastic and Non-clastic.

Clastic rocks - formed from the materials of

Shallow or deep water.

Marine (sea) and lake or continental.

This environment determines many of the

The depositional characteristics of the rocks

The reservoir rock type clastic or non-clastic.

The structure of a reservoir can also be

This can also lead to permeability and

The environment is not static.

Sedimentary muds become sedimentary rocks.

Calcareous muds become limestone.

Another effect involves both the grains in the

This whole process is called Diagenesis.

Clastic rocks are sands, silts and shales. The

Depositional Environment - Delta

Sediments are transported to the basins by

Some types of deposition occur in rivers and

Carbonates form a large proportion of all

They consist of:

Carbonates usually have an irregular structure.

Chalk is a special form of limestone and is

Dolomite is formed by the replacement of some

Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and Anhydrite

Carbonates are formed in shallow seas

Rocks are described by three properties:

Porosity - quantity of pore space

Permeability - ability of a formation to flow

Matrix - major constituent of the rock

In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore

With a Cubic packing arrangement,

In practice, the theoretical value is

Porosity and Grain Size

A rock can be made up of small grains or large

Porosity depends on grain packing, not the

The environment can also involve subsequent

Mechanical changes - fracturing in a

Carbonate Porosity Types 1

Carbonate Porosity Types 2

Intergranular porosity is called "primary

Porosity created after deposition is called

The latter is in two forms:

Fractures are an important source of

Vugs are defined as non-connected pore space.

The pressure drop is a reservoir property.