Tanks

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Contents
Articles
Leopard 2E Depleted uranium Chieftain tank M1 Abrams AMX-56 Leclerc Leopard 1 T-62 T-54/55 T-72 Arjun (tank) T-80 T-64 T-90 MBT-70 Main battle tank Type 99 1 7 29 36 57 66 77 97 111 122 132 143 155 165 170 180

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 187 190

Article Licenses
License 195

Leopard 2E

Leopard 2E
Leopard 2E

Spanish Leopard 2E in Zaragoza, June 2008 Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank
Germany, Spain

Service history
Inservice Usedby December 2003present
Spain

Production history
Designer Krauss-Maffei Wegmann Manufacturer General Dynamics Santa Brbara Sistemas Unitcost Produced Numberbuilt 10.95m including spares etc 200308 219

Specifications
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armor Main armament Secondary armament Engine Power/weight Transmission Suspension Fuelcapacity approx. 63tonnes (69.4tons) 7.7m (25.26ft) 3.7m (12.14ft) 3.0m (9.84ft) 4 Composite armor Rheinmetall 120 mm L/55

2 7.62mm MG3s

MTU MB 873 Ka-501 12-cylinder diesel 1,500PS (1,479hp, 1,103kW) at 2600rpm 23.8PS/t (17.5kW/t) Renk HSWL 354 Torsion-bar 1,060liters (208.02gallons)

Leopard 2E

2
500km (310mi)

Operational range Speed

72km/h (44.74mi/h)

The Leopard 2E or Leopard 2A6E (E stands for Espaa, Spanish for Spain) is a variant of the German Leopard 2 main battle tank, tailored to the requirements of the Spanish army, which acquired it as part of an armament modernization program named Programa Coraza, or Program Breastplate. The acquisition program for the Leopard2E began in 1994, five years after the cancellation of the Lince tank program that culminated in an agreement to transfer 108 Leopard 2A4s to the Spanish army in 1998 and started the local production of the Leopard 2E in December 2003. Despite postponement of production owing to the 2003 merger between Santa Brbara Sistemas and General Dynamics, and continued fabrication issues between 2006 and 2007, 219 Leopard2Es have been delivered to the Spanish army. The Leopard2E is a major improvement over the M60 Patton tank, which it replaced in Spain's mechanized and armored units. Its development represented a total of 2.6million man-hours worth of work, 9,600 of them in Germany, at a total cost of 2.4billion euros. This makes it one of the most expensive Leopard 2s built. Indigenous production amounted to 60% and the vehicles were assembled locally at Sevilla by Santa Brbara Sistemas. It has thicker armor on the turret and glacis plate than the German Leopard 2A6, and uses a Spanish-designed tank command and control system, similar to the one fitted in German Leopard 2s. The Leopard2E is expected to remain in service until 2025.

Spanish armor programs 198793

By 1987, the Spanish army was equipped with 299 French-designed AMX-30Es, assembled by Santa Brbara Sistemas,[1] and 552 American M47 and M48 Patton tanks.[2] The AMX-30Es were put into service in 1970,[3] while the latter went into service in the mid-1950s.[4] Although Spain's M47s and M48s were modernized to M47Es and M48Es, bringing them to near equivalence with the M60 Patton tank,[5] the Spanish army considered them antiquated.[6] In 1984, when deciding to replace its Patton tanks, the Spanish government declared its intention to produce a whole new main battle tank locally, since known as the Lince.[7] Five companies expressed interest in bidding, including Krauss-Maffei in a partnership with Santa Brbara Sistemas, GIAT with what became the Leclerc, General Dynamics with the M1 Abrams and Vickers with the Valiant.[8] While the M1Abrams and Valiant bids were not accepted,[9] the bidding continued until 1989 when it was officially canceled.[10] Instead, the Spanish government opted to replace its older Patton tanks with American M60 Patton tanks retired from Central Europe in accordance with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe.[11] Although the Spanish army was originally to receive 532 M60 and M60A1 tanks,[12] only 260 M60A3s were ultimately delivered, of which 244 were put into active service in the army.[13] In the late 1980s the Spanish Ministry of Defense approved a modernization program for 150 of its AMX-30Es and a reconstruction program for the remaining 149 vehicles of this type, restoring them to their original condition.[14] However, neither the M60s nor the AMX-30s were a considerable improvement over Spain's fleet of M47 and M48 Patton tanks.[15] Since the existing tank fleet did not meet the Spanish army's needs, Spain opened talks with Germany and Krauss-Maffei over the possibility of future collaboration in regards to Spain's future tank,[16] and sent a military delegation to Germany in 1994. Although the Germans offered Spain surplus Leopard 1 tanks and Soviet equipment incorporated into the German army after the reunification of Germany, the Spanish government declined these offers and pressed for the Leopard 2.

Leopard 2E

Programa Coraza
In March 1994, the Spanish Ministry of Defense created Programa Coraza 2000 (Program Breastplate 2000), which focused on the procurement and integration of new armament for the Spanish army's modernization.[17] The program included the Leopard2E and the Pizarro infantry combat vehicle,[18] as well as the Eurocopter Tiger attack helicopter. The program's scope extended to the integration of 108 Leopard2A4s,[19] which were leased to Spain in late 1995.[20] Apart from procurement, Programa Coraza was meant to prepare the Spanish army logistically for the introduction of new matriel.[21]
Spanish Leopard 2A4 in Madrid, October 2006

Leopard 2A4
A memorandum of understanding was signed on 9 June 1995 between the German and Spanish governments, setting the foundations for an acquisition of up to 308 brand-new Leopard2Es. These were to be assembled in Spain by Santa Brbara Sistemas, with 6070 percent of the components manufactured by Spanish companies, and production taking place between 1998 and 2003. Furthermore, the German government agreed to lend the Spanish army 108 Leopard 2A4s for training purposes for a period of five years.[22] These vehicles were delivered between November 1995 and June 1996. In 1998, Spain agreed to procure the ceded Leopard 2A4s and reduce production of the brand-new Leopard2E to 219 vehicles. In 2005 it was declared that the 108 Leopard 2A4s were to cost Spain just 16.9m, to be paid by 2016. The Leopard 2A4s equipped X and XI Mechanized Infantry Brigade,[23] which at the time formed part of Eurocorps.[24] As production of the Leopard2E began and these units received Leopard 2Es, their Leopard2A4s re-equipped the Alcntara Armored Cavalry Regiment, based in Melilla.[25] Spain's Leopard2E is based on the Leopard 2A6,[26] and incorporates the add-on wedge armor of the Leopard 2A5 on the turret.[27] This armor maximizes the armor depth that a kinetic energy penetrator must travel through to enter the internal volume of the turret.[28] Like the Swedish Leopard 2S (Strv 122), the Leopard2E has increased armor thickness on the hull's glacis plate, the turret frontal arc and the turret roof, bringing the vehicle's weight close to 63tonnes (69.4tons).[29] The vehicle's protection is augmented by the added armor that is built into the tank during the manufacturing process, as opposed to being added on after assembly as is the case for German Leopard2A5s and 2A6s.[30] As a consequence, the Leopard2E is one of the best-protected Leopard2s in service.

Close-up of the Leopard 2Es turret armor

The tank is armed with Rheinmetall's 120-millimeter (4.7in) L/55 tank-gun, and is capable of adopting a 140-millimeter (5.5in) gun.[31] Both the tank commander and gunner have identical second generation thermal viewers, derived from those of the TOW 2B Light Launcher System.[] These are integrated into the tank by Indra and Rheinmetall Defense Electronics. Indra provides the tank's command and control system, called the Leopard Information and Command Equipment (LINCE), based on the Swedish and German Integrierte Fhrungssysteme (IFIS). Other differences between the Spanish Leopard 2E and other Leopard2A6s include an auxiliary power unit, manufactured by SAPA, an air conditioning system and new rubber pads for the vehicle's tracks to increase their lifespan on the irregular Spanish terrain. About 60% of each Leopard2E was manufactured in Spain, as opposed to 30% for the Swedish Leopard2S, for example.[32]

Leopard 2E

Although the final contract for the production of Spanish Leopard2Es was signed in 1998, calling for a production rate of four tanks per month,[33] the first Leopard2Es were not manufactured until late 2003.[] This was largely due to the merging of Santa Brbara Sistemas with General Dynamics, and Krauss-Maffei's reservations regarding the sharing of the Leopard2's technology with a rival company[34] manufacturer of the M1 Abrams.[35] Krauss-Maffei delivered 30 Leopard2Es between 2003 and 2006.[36] Production by Santa Brbara Sistemas was delayed after assembly had begun; between January and Leopard 2E driven on to a transport truck November 2007, for example, only three of the 43 Leopard2Es to be delivered to the Spanish army were actually deliveredwith 15 more being delivered before the end of the year to make up for the earlier production problems. By 1July 2006 the Spanish army had received 48 Leopard2Es and nine Bffel armored recovery vehicles, which was only a quarter of those contracted. Production of the Leopard 2E was planned to end by 2007 but was extended into 2008. The Leopard2E replaced the Leopard2A4 in Spanish mechanized units, which in turn replaced M60s in cavalry units.[37] Both versions of the Leopard 2 are expected to remain in service with the Spanish army until 2025.[] In terms of industrial scale, the production and development of the Leopard2E represents a total of 2.6million man-hours of work, including 9,600 in Germany.[38] It is one of the most expensive Leopard 2s built;[] the original contract was worth 1,910m but the final cost was 2,399m.

Comparison with other tanks in Spanish service

The Spanish army replaced its M60Patton tanks and AMX-30s with the Leopard2 between 1995 and 2008, a considerable improvement in capability.[39] Previously, the Spanish army was equipped with M47 and M48Patton tanks, which were upgraded to near M60 equivalency during the late 1970s and during the 1980s. Both the Leopard2A4 and Leopard2E sport a much more powerful gun than the AMX-30 and M60 tanks.[40] The Leopard 2's 1,500horsepower (1,110kW) engine provides greater power than the M60A3's 750horsepower (559.27kW) and the AMX-30EM2's 850horsepower (633.84kW) engines.[41] On the other hand, the Leopard2 carries fewer, but larger rounds than the M60A3.
Leopard 2E Weight 63 t (69.45tons) Gun 120mm L/55 smoothbore (4.72in) Ammunition 42 rounds Roadrange 500km (310mi) Engine output 1,500PS (1,479hp, 1,103kW) Maximum 68km/h (42.25mph) speed Leopard 2A4 [] M60A3 [] AMX-30EM2 [42]

55t (60.63tons) 120mm L/44 smoothbore (4.72in) 42 rounds 500km (310mi) 1,500PS (1,479hp, 1,103kW) 68km/h (42.25mph)

55.6t (61.1tons) 105mm M68 rifled tank-gun (4.13in) 63 rounds 480km (300mi) 750hp (559.27kW) 48.28km/h (30mph)

36t (39.68tons) 105mm rifled (4.13in) Not available 400km (250mi) 850hp (633.84kW) 65km/h (40mph)

Leopard 2E

Notes
[1] de Mazarrasa, Carro de Combate AMX-30E, p. 60 [2] Manrique and Molina, La Brunete, pp. 6974 [3] de Mazarrasa, Carro de Combate AMX-30E, p. 58 [4] Zaloga, The M47 and M48 Patton Tanks, pp. 3637 [5] Manrique and Molina, La Brunete, p. 73 [6] Gonzles, Espaa negocia la adquisicin de hasta 500 carros de combate que sern retirados de Centroeuropa, El Pas [7] El Pas, Cinco empresas compiten para cofabricar un carro de combate en Espaa [8] Yarnz, El Gobierno elegir el mes prximo el carro de combate de los noventa, El Pas [9] Yarnz, Serra descarta a EE UU y Reino Unido para cofabricar los nuevos carros, El Pas [10] Yarnz, Espaa eliminar decenas de carros de combate al concluir la negociacin sobre desarme en Europa, El Pas [11] El Pas, El tanque de los noventa [12] Gonzles, Defensa cifra en 1.500 millones el coste de los 532 tanques estadounidenses que recibir a partir de 1992, El Pas [13] Military Technology, Europe, p. 192 [14] de Mazarrasa, Carro de Combate AMX-30E, pp. 8084 [15] Candil, Spain's Armor Force Modernizes, p. 41 [16] Candil, Carros de Combate, pp. 161162 [17] Candil, Carros de Combate, p. 162 [18] Candil, Spain's Armor Force Modernizes, pp. 4142 [19] Candil, Carros de Combate, p. 163 [20] Jerchel & Schnellbacher, Leopard 2 Main Battle Tank 19791998,p. 42 [21] Candil, Carros de Combate, pp. 164165 [22] Gonzlez, Firmada adquisicin de 308 tanques Leopard 2, El Pas [23] Candil, Carros de Combate, p. 167 [24] Candil, Spain's Armor Forces Modernizes, p. 42 [25] Fuerza Terrestre, Resea histrica del RCAC Alcntara n 10, p. 78. [26] Candil, The Spanish Leopard 2E, p. 66 [27] Jerchel & Schnellbacher, Leopard 2 Main Battle Tank 19791998, pp. 2436 [28] Hilmes, Aspects of future MBT conception [29] Candil, Leopard 2 daneses en Crdoba, p. 62 [30] Jerchel & Schnellbacher, Leopard 2 Main Battle Tank 19791998, p. 35 [31] Candil, Carros de Combate, p. 170 [32] Candil, Carros de Combate, pp. 168169 [33] Candil, Carros de Combate, p. 168 [34] Candil, Un entorno industrial plagado de dificultades, p. 49 [35] Green & Stewart, M1 Abrams at War, p. 23 [36] Spain (http:/ / disarmament. un. org/ UN_REGISTER. NSF), United Nations Register of Conventional Arms, retrieved 2008-06-20 [37] Fuerza Terrestre, Carros Leopard 2A4 en Melilla, p. 66 [38] Santa Brbara Sistemas y el Programa Leopardo 2E (http:/ / www. gdsbs. com/ web/ frame. asp?page=http:/ / www. gdsbs. com/ web/ frames. asp), Santa Brbara Sistemas, retrieved 2008-06-05 [39] Candil, Spain's Armor Force Modernizes, p. 42 [40] Green & Stewart, M1 Abrams at War, p. 59 [41] de Mazarrasa, Carro de Combate AMX-30E, p. 81 [42] de Mazarrasa, Carro de Combate AMX-30E, pp. 8083, 103104

References
Candil, Antonio (March 1999). Carros de Combate: Evolucin, Presente y Futuro (http://www.isdefe.es/ webisdefe.nsf/web/Carros+de+Combate.+Evolucin,+presente+y+futuro/$file/CarrosBN.pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish). Madrid, Spain: Isdefe. ISBN84-89338-18-3. Candil, Antonio. "Leopard 2 daneses en Crdoba". Fuerza Terrestre (in Spanish) (Barcelona, Spain: MC Ediciones) 3 (36): 7. 15751090. Candil, Antonio (1 March 2004). "Leopard 2E MBT Delivery Begins". Military Technology (Mnch Editorial Group): 2. Candil, Antonio J. (1 January 2006). "Spain's Armor Force Modernizes". Armor magazine (Fort Knox, Kentucky: US Army Armor Center): 3.

Leopard 2E Candil, Antonio (1 February 2007). "The Spanish Leopard 2E: A Magnificent Tool". Military Technology (Mnch Editorial Group): 2. Candil, Antonio. "Un entorno industrial plagado de dificultades: La fabricacin del Carro de Combate Leopard 2E en Espaa (I)". Fuerza Terrestre (in Spanish) (Barcelona, Spain: MC Ediciones) 3 (49): 8. 15751090. "Carros Leopard 2A4 en Melilla". Fuerza Terrestre (in Spanish) (Barcelona, Spain: MC Ediciones) 3 (47): 6. 15751090. "Cinco empresas compiten para cofabricar un carro de combate en Espaa" (http://www.elpais.com/articulo/ espana/EMPRESA_NACIONAL_SANTA_BARBARA/empresas/compiten/cofabricar/carro/combate/ Espana/elpepiesp/19841029elpepinac_7/Tes). El Pas (in Spanish). 29 October 1984. Retrieved 2008-06-09. de Mazarrasa, Javier (1990). Carro de Combate AMX-30E (in Spanish). Aldaba Militaria. p.104. ISBN84-86629-29-2. "El tanque de los noventa" (http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/ESTADOS_UNIDOS/ESPANA/ ESPANA/ESTADOS_UNIDOS/tanque/noventa/elpepiesp/19901102elpepinac_3/Tes). El Pas (in Spanish). 2 November 1990. Retrieved 2008-06-09. "Europe". Military Technology (Mnch Editorial Group): 95. 1 January 2006. Green, Michael; Greg Stewart (2005). M1 Abrams at War. St. Paul, MN: Zenith Press. p.127. ISBN0-7603-2153-1. Gonzles, J.C. (10 June 1995). "Firmada adquisicin de 308 tanques Leopard 2" (http://www.elpais.com/ articulo/espana/GARCIA_VARGAS/_JULIAN/ESPANA/ALEMANIA/ESPANA/ REPUBLICA_FEDERAL_ALEMANA/Firmada/adquisicion/308/tanques/Leopard/elpepiesp/ 19950610elpepinac_3/Tes). El Pas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2008-06-16. Gonzles, Miguel (2 November 1990). "Espaa negocia la adquisicin de hasta 500 carros de combate que sern retirados de Centroeuropa" (http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/ESTADOS_UNIDOS/ESPANA/ ESPANA/ESTADOS_UNIDOS/Espana/negocia/adquisicion/500/carros/combate/seran/retirados/ Centroeuropa/elpepiesp/19901102elpepinac_2/Tes). El Pas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2008-06-07. Gonzles, Miguel (31 December 1990). "Defensa cifra en 1.500 millones el coste de los 532 tanques estadounidenses que recibir a partir de 1992" (http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/ESTADOS_UNIDOS/ ESPANA/ESTADOS_UNIDOS/MINISTERIO_DE_DEFENSA/PODER_EJECUTIVO/ _GOBIERNO_PSOE_/1989-1993/Defensa/cifra/1500/millones/coste/532/tanques/estadounidenses/recibira/ partir/1992/elpepiesp/19901231elpepinac_3/Tes). El Pas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2008-06-09. Jerchel, Michael; Uwe Schnellbacher (1998). Leopard 2 Main Battle Tank 19791998. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. p.48. ISBN1-85532-691-4. Lathrop, Richard; John McDonald (2003). M60 Main Battle Tank 196091. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. p.48. ISBN1-84176-551-1. "Leopard 2A4: Lamina Fuerza Terrestre N 49". Fuerza Terrestre (in Spanish) (Barcelona, Spain: MC Ediciones) 3 (49): 4. 15751090. Manrique, Jos Mara; Lucas Molina. La Brunete: 1 Parte (in Spanish). Valladolid, Spain: Quirn Ediciones. p.80. ISBN84-96016-27-7. "Resea histrica del RCAC Alcntara n 10". Fuerza Terrestre (in Spanish) (Barcelona, Spain: MC Ediciones) 3 (48): 7. "Santa Brbara Sistemas" (http://web.archive.org/web/20080507182429/http://www.gdsbs.com/web/ frame.asp?page=http://www.gdsbs.com/web/frames.asp). Santa Brbara Sistemas. Archived from the original (http://www.gdsbs.com/web/frame.asp?page=http://www.gdsbs.com/web/frames.asp) on May 7, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-05. "Spain Finalizes Buy of 108 Leopard 2A4 Tanks" (http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/ spain-finalizes-buy-of-108-leopard-2a4-tanks-01155/). Defense Industry Daily. 8 September 2005. Retrieved 2008-06-16.

Leopard 2E "Spain" (http://disarmament.un.org/UN_REGISTER.NSF). United Nations Register of Conventional Arms. United Nations. Retrieved 2008-06-20. Yarnz, Carlos (31 March 1986). "El Gobierno elegir el mes prximo el carro de combate de los noventa" (http:/ /www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/ESPAnA/MINISTERIO_DE_DEFENSA/PODER_EJECUTIVO/ _GOBIERNO_PSOE_/1982-1986/Gobierno/elegira/mes/proximo/carro/combate/noventa/elpepiesp/ 19860331elpepinac_13/Tes/). El Pas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2008-06-09. Yarnz, Carlos (2 January 1989). "Espaa eliminar decenas de carros de combate al concluir la negociacin sobre desarme en Europa" (http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/MELILLA/CEUTA/ MINISTERIO_DE_DEFENSA/PACTO_DE_VARSOVIA/ ORGANIZACION_DEL_TRATADO_DEL_ATLANTICO_NORTE_/OTAN/PODER_EJECUTIVO/ _GOBIERNO_PSOE_/1986-1989/Espana/eliminara/decenas/carros/combate/concluir/negociacion/desarme/ Europa/elpepiesp/19890102elpepinac_1/Tes). El Pas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2008-06-09. Yarnz, Carlos (30 December 1985). "Serra descarta a EE UU y Reino Unido para cofabricar los nuevos carros" (http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/ESPANA/REINO_UNIDO/ESTADOS_UNIDOS/ESPANA/ ESTADOS_UNIDOS/REINO_UNIDO/Serra/descarta/EE/UU/Reino/Unido/cofabricar/nuevos/carros/ elpepiesp/19851230elpepinac_8/Tes). El Pas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2008-06-09.

Depleted uranium
Depleted uranium (DU; also referred to in the past as Q-metal, depletalloy or D-38) is uranium with a lower content of the fissile isotope U-235 than natural uranium.[1] (Natural uranium is about 99.27% U-238, 0.72% U-235the fissile isotope, and 0.0055% U-234). Uses of DU take advantage of its very high density of 19.1g/cm3 (68.4% denser than lead). Civilian uses include counterweights in aircraft, radiation shielding in medical radiation therapy and industrial radiography equipment and containers used to transport radioactive materials. Military uses include defensive armor plating and armor-piercing projectiles.
The DU penetrator of a 30 mm round Most depleted uranium arises as a byproduct of the production of enriched uranium for use in nuclear reactors and in the manufacture of nuclear weapons. Enrichment processes generate uranium with a higher-than-natural concentration of lower-mass uranium isotopes (in particular U-235, which is the uranium isotope supporting the fission chain reaction) with the bulk of the feed ending up as depleted uranium, in some cases with mass fractions of U-235 and U-234 less than a third of those in natural uranium. U-238 has a much longer halflife than the lighter isotopes, and DU therefore emits less alpha radiation than the same mass of natural uranium: the US Defense Department states DU used in US munitions has 60% the radioactivity of natural uranium.[2]

Since the U-235 content of nuclear reactor fuel is reduced by fission, uranium recovered by nuclear reprocessing from spent nuclear reactor fuel made from natural uranium will have a lower-than-natural U-235 concentration. Such 'reactor-depleted' material will have different isotopic ratios from enrichment byproduct DU, and can be distinguished from it by the presence of U-236. Trace transuranics (another indicator of the use of reprocessed material) have been reported to be present in some US tank armor.

Depleted uranium The use of DU in munitions is controversial because of questions about potential long-term health effects. Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and numerous other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because uranium is a toxic metal. It is only weakly radioactive because of its long radioactive half-life (4.468 billion years for uranium-238, 700 million years for uranium-235). The biological half-life (the average time it takes for the human body to eliminate half the amount in the body) for uranium is about 15 days. The aerosol or spallation frangible powder produced during impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites, leading to possible inhalation by human beings.[3] The actual level of acute and chronic toxicity of DU is also a point of medical controversy. Several studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents suggest the possibility of leukemogenic, and of genetic, reproductive, and neurological effects from chronic exposure. A 2005 epidemiology review concluded: "In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU." However, the World Health Organization, the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations, states that no risk of reproductive, developmental, or carcinogenic effects have been reported in humans due to DU exposure. This report has been criticized for not including possible long term effects of DU on the human body.

History
Enriched uranium was first manufactured in the early 1940s when the United States and Britain began their nuclear weapons programs. Later in the decade, France and the Soviet Union began their nuclear weapons and nuclear power programs. It was at this time that depleted uranium was first stored as an unusable waste product (uranium hexafluoride). There was some hope that the enrichment process would be improved and fissionable isotopes of U-235 could, at some future date, be extracted from the depleted uranium. This re-enrichment recovery of the residual uranium-235 contained in the depleted uranium is no longer a matter of the future: it has been practiced for several years. Also, it is possible to design civilian power-generating reactors using unenriched fuel, but only about 10%[citation needed] of those ever built utilize that technology. Both nuclear weapons production and naval reactors require fuel containing concentrated U-235. In the 1970s, the Pentagon reported that the Soviet military had developed armor plating for Warsaw Pact tanks that NATO ammunition could not penetrate. The Pentagon began searching for material to make denser armor-piercing projectiles. After testing various metals, ordnance researchers settled on depleted uranium. The US and NATO militaries used DU penetrator rounds in the 1991 Gulf War, the Bosnia war, bombing of Serbia, and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. While clearing a decades-old Hawaii firing range in 2005, workers found depleted uranium fins from training rounds from the formerly classified Davy Crockett recoilless gun tactical battlefield nuclear delivery system from the 1960s and 1970s. These training rounds had been forgotten because they were used in a highly classified program and had been fired before DU had become an item of interest, more than 20 years before the Gulf War.

Production and availability

Natural uranium metal contains about 0.71% U-235, 99.28% U-238, and about 0.0054% U-234. In order to produce enriched uranium, the process of isotope separation removes a substantial portion of the U-235 for use in nuclear power, weapons, or other uses. The remainder, depleted uranium, contains only 0.2% to 0.4% U-235. Because natural uranium begins with such a low percentage of U-235, enrichment produces large quantities of depleted uranium. For example, producing 1kg of 5% enriched uranium requires 11.8kg of natural uranium, and leaves about 10.8kg of depleted uranium with only 0.3% U-235 remaining. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) defines depleted uranium as uranium with a percentage of the 235U isotope that is less than 0.711% by weight (see 10 CFR 40.4 [4]). The military specifications designate that the DU

Depleted uranium used by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) contain less than 0.3% only DU that contains approximately 0.2% 235U (AEPI, 1995).
235

9 U (AEPI, 1995). In actuality, DoD uses

Depleted Uranium is also produced by recycling 'spent' nuclear fuel,[5] in which case it contains traces of Pu and Np[6] and has therefore been called 'dirty DU'[7] although the quantities are so small that they are considered to be not of serious radiological significance (even) by ECRR.[8]

Uranium hexafluoride
Some depleted uranium produced is stored as uranium hexafluoride, a crystalline solid, (D)UF6, in steel cylinders in open air storage yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder holds up to 12.7 tonnes (or 14 short tons) of UF6. In the U.S. 560,000 tonnes of depleted UF6 had accumulated by 1993. In 2008, 686,500 tonnes in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth, Ohio and Paducah, Kentucky.[9] The storage of DUF6 presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF6 is exposed to water vapor in the air, it reacts Hexafluoride tank leaking with the moisture to produce UO2F2 (uranyl fluoride), a solid, and HF (hydrogen fluoride), a gas, both of which are highly soluble and toxic. The uranyl fluoride solid acts to plug the leak, limiting further escape of depleted UF6. Release of the hydrogen fluoride gas to the atmosphere is also slowed by the plug formation. Storage cylinders are regularly inspected for signs of corrosion and leaks, and are repainted and repaired as necessary.[10] A tenfold jump in uranium prices has transformed approximately one-third of the U.S. depleted uranium inventory into an asset worth $7.6 billion, assuming DOE re-enriches the tails. This estimate is based on February 2008 market price for uranium and enrichment services, and DOE's access to sufficient uranium enrichment capacity.[11] There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States, including one in which 32 workers were exposed to a cloud of UF6 and its reaction products. 1 person died, and while a few workers with higher exposure experienced short-term kidney damage (e.g., protein in the urine), none of them showed lasting damage from the exposure to uranium. The U.S. government has been converting DUF6 to solid uranium oxides for use or disposal. Such disposal of the entire DUF6 inventory could cost anywhere from $15 million to $450 million. World depleted uranium inventory
Country Organization Estimated DU stocks (tonnes) 480,000 460,000 190,000 30,000 16,000 Reported

United States Russia France

DOE FAEA Areva NC

2002 1996 2001 2001 1999

United Kingdom BNFL United Kingdom URENCO Germany Netherlands Japan JNFL

10,000

2001

Depleted uranium

10
CNNC KAERI NECSA DSO National Laboratories 2,000 200 73 60 1,188,273 Source: WISE Uranium Project [12] 2000 2002 2001 2007 2008

China South Korea South Africa Singapore TOTAL

Military applications
Depleted uranium is very dense; at 19,050kg/m, it is 1.67 times as dense as lead, only slightly less dense than tungsten and gold, and 84% as dense as osmium or iridium, which are the densest known substances under standard (i.e., Earth-surface) pressures. Consequently a DU projectile of given mass has a smaller diameter than an equivalent lead projectile, with less aerodynamic drag and deeper penetration due to a higher pressure at point of impact. DU projectile ordnance is often inherently incendiary because of its pyrophoric property.[13]

Armor plate
Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armor, sandwiched between sheets of steel armor plate. For instance, some late-production M1A1HA and M1A2 Abrams tanks built after 1998 have DU reinforcement as part of the armor plating in the front of the hull and the front of the turret, and there is a program to upgrade the rest (see Chobham armor).

Nuclear weapons
Depleted uranium is used as a tamper in fission bombs.

The 105mm M900 APFSDS-T (Depleted Uranium Armor Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot Tracer)

Ammunition
Most military use of depleted uranium has been as 30 mm caliber ordnance, primarily the 30mm PGU-14/B armour-piercing incendiary round from the GAU-8 Avenger cannon of the A-10 Thunderbolt II used by the United States Air Force. 25mm DU rounds have been used in the M242 gun mounted on the U.S. Army's Bradley Fighting Vehicle and the Marine Corp's LAV-25. The U.S. Marine Corps uses DU in the 25mm PGU-20 round fired by the GAU-12 Equalizer cannon of the AV-8B Harrier, and also in the 20mm M197 gun mounted on AH-1 Cobra helicopter gunships. The United States Navy's Phalanx CIWS's M61 Vulcan Gatling gun used 20mm armor-piercing penetrator rounds with discarding plastic sabots made using depleted uranium, later changed to tungsten. Another use of depleted uranium is in kinetic energy penetrators, anti-armor rounds such as the 120mm sabot rounds fired from the British Challenger 1, Challenger 2,[14] M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams.[15] Kinetic energy penetrator rounds consist of a long, relatively thin penetrator surrounded by a discarding sabot. Staballoys are metal alloys of depleted

Depleted uranium uranium with a very small proportion of other metals, usually titanium or molybdenum. One formulation has a composition of 99.25% by mass of depleted uranium and 0.75% by mass of titanium. Staballoys are approximately 1.67 times as dense as lead and are designed for use in kinetic energy penetrator armor-piercing ammunition. The US Army uses DU in an alloy with around 3.5% titanium. According to 2005 research, at least some of the most promising tungsten alloys that have been considered as replacement for depleted uranium in penetrator ammunitions, such as tungsten-cobalt or tungsten-nickel-cobalt alloys, also possess extreme carcinogenic properties, which by far exceed those (confirmed or suspected) of depleted uranium itself: 100% of rats implanted with a pellet of such alloys developed lethal rhabdomyosarcoma within a few weeks. Depleted uranium is favored for the penetrator because it is self-sharpening and pyrophoric. On impact with a hard target, such as an armored vehicle, the nose of the rod fractures in such a way that it remains sharp. The impact and subsequent release of heat energy causes it to disintegrate to dust and burn when it reaches air because of its pyrophoric properties. When a DU penetrator reaches the interior of an armored vehicle it catches fire, often igniting ammunition and fuel, killing the crew and possibly causing the vehicle to explode. DU is used by the U.S. Army in 120mm or 105mm cannons employed on the M1 Abrams tank. The Russian military has used DU ammunition in tank main gun ammunition since the late 1970s, mostly for the 115mm guns in the T-62 tank and the 125mm guns in the T-64, T-72, T-80, and T-90 tanks.

11

1987 photo of Mark 149 Mod 2 20mm depleted uranium ammunition for the Phalanx CIWS aboard USS Missouri.

The DU content in various ammunition is 180 g in 20mm projectiles, 200g in 25mm ones, 280g in 30mm, 3.5kg in 105mm, and 4.5kg in 120mm penetrators. DU was used during the mid-1990s in the U.S. to make hand grenades, cluster bombs, and land mines, but those applications have been discontinued, according to Alliant Techsystems.[citation needed] The US Navy used DU in its 20mm Phalanx CIWS guns, but switched in the late 1990s to armor-piercing tungsten. It is thought that between 17 and 20 countries have weapons incorporating depleted uranium in their arsenals. They include the U.S., the UK, France, Russia, China, India, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, Pakistan, Thailand, Iraq and Taiwan.[citation needed] Iran also has performed wide research on DU penetrators since 2001[citation needed]. DU ammunition is manufactured in 18 countries. Only the US and the UK have acknowledged using DU weapons.[16] In a three-week period of conflict in Iraq during 2003 it was estimated that over 1000 tons of depleted uranium munitions were used.[17]

Legal status in weapons

In 1996 the International Court of Justice (ICJ) gave an advisory opinion on the "legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons".[18] This made it clear, in paragraphs 54, 55 and 56, that international law on poisonous weaponsthe Second Hague Declaration of 29 July 1899, Hague Convention IV of 18 October 1907 and the Geneva Protocol of 17 June 1925did not cover nuclear weapons, because their prime or exclusive use was not to poison or asphyxiate. This ICJ opinion was about nuclear weapons, but the sentence "The terms have been

Depleted uranium understood, in the practice of States, in their ordinary sense as covering weapons whose prime, or even exclusive, effect is to poison or asphyxiate," also removes depleted uranium weaponry from coverage by the same treaties as their primary use is not to poison or asphyxiate, but to destroy materiel and kill soldiers through kinetic energy. The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities of the United Nations Human Rights Commission,[19] passed two motions[20] the first in 1996[21] and the second in 1997. They listed weapons of mass destruction, or weapons with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and urged all states to curb the production and the spread of such weapons. Included in the list was weaponry containing depleted uranium. The committee authorized a working paper, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, of the weapons. The requested UN working paper was delivered in 2002[22] by Y. K. J. Yeung Sik Yuen in accordance with Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights resolution 2001/36. He argues that the use of DU in weapons, along with the other weapons listed by the SubCommission, may breach one or more of the following treaties: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Charter of the United Nations, the Genocide Convention, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, the Geneva Conventions including Protocol I, the Convention on Conventional Weapons of 1980, and the Chemical Weapons Convention. Yeung Sik Yuen writes in Paragraph 133 under the title "Legal compliance of weapons containing DU as a new weapon": Annex II to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material 1980 (which became operative on 8 February 1997) classifies DU as a category II nuclear material. Storage and transport rules are set down for that category which indicates that DU is considered sufficiently "hot" and dangerous to warrant these protections. But since weapons containing DU are relatively new weapons no treaty exists yet to regulate, limit or prohibit its use. The legality or illegality of DU weapons must therefore be tested by recourse to the general rules governing the use of weapons under humanitarian and human rights law which have already been analysed in Part I of this paper, and more particularly at paragraph 35 which states that parties to Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 have an obligation to ascertain that new weapons do not violate the laws and customs of war or any other international law. As mentioned, the International Court of Justice considers this rule binding customary humanitarian law. Louise Arbour, chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia led a committee of staff lawyers to investigate possible treaty prohibitions against the use of DU in weapons. Their findings were that:[23] There is no specific treaty ban on the use of DU projectiles. There is a developing scientific debate and concern expressed regarding the impact of the use of such projectiles and it is possible that, in future, there will be a consensus view in international legal circles that use of such projectiles violate general principles of the law applicable to use of weapons in armed conflict. No such consensus exists at present.

12

Requests for a moratorium on military use

Some states and the International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons, a coalition of more than 155 non-governmental organizations, have asked for a ban on the production and military use of depleted uranium weapons. The European Parliament has repeatedly passed resolutions requesting an immediate moratorium on the further use of depleted uranium ammunition, but France and Britain the only EU states that are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council have consistently rejected calls for a ban, maintaining that its use continues to be legal, and that the health risks are unsubstantiated. In 2007 France, Britain, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic voted against a United Nations General Assembly resolution to hold a debate in 2009 about the effects of the use of armaments and ammunitions containing depleted uranium. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained. The ambassador from the Netherlands explained his negative vote as being due to the reference in the preamble to the resolution "to potential harmful

Depleted uranium effects of the use of depleted uranium munitions on human health and the environment [which] cannot, in our view, be supported by conclusive scientific studies conducted by relevant international organizations." None of the other permanent members of the United Nations Security Council supported the resolution as China was absent for the vote, Russia abstained and the United States voted against the resolution. In September 2008, and in response to the 2007 General Assembly resolution, the UN Secretary General published the views of 15 states alongside those of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and World Health Organization (WHO). The IAEA and WHO evidence differed little from previous statements on the issue.[24] The report was largely split between states concerned about depleted uranium's use, such as Finland, Cuba, Japan, Serbia, Argentina, and predominantly NATO members, who do not consider the use of depleted uranium munitions problematic. In December 2008, 141 states supported a resolution requesting that three UN agencies: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), WHO and IAEA update their research on the impact of uranium munitions by late 2010 to coincide with the General Assembly's 65th Session, four voted against, 34 abstained and 13 were absent[25] As before Britain and France voted against the resolution. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained: the Netherlands, which voted against a resolution in 2007, voted in favour, as did Finland and Norway, both of which had abstained in 2007, while the Czech Republic, which voted against the resolution in 2007, abstained. The two other states that voted against the resolution were Israel and the United States (both of which voted against in 2007), while as before China was absent for the vote, and Russia abstained. On June 21, 2009, Belgium became the first country in the world to ban: "inert ammunition and armour that contains depleted uranium or any other industrially manufactured uranium."[26] The move followed a unanimous parliamentary vote on the issue on 22 March 2007. The text of the 2007 law allowed for two years to pass until it came into force. In April 2009, the Belgian Senate voted unanimously to restrict investments by Belgian banks into the manufacturers of depleted uranium weapons. In September 2009 the Latin American Parliament passed a resolution calling for a regional moratorium on the use, production and procurement of uranium weapons. It also called on the Parlatino's members to work towards an international uranium weapons treaty. In December 2010 the UN General Assembly passed a resolution calling on users of depleted uranium to hand over quantitative and geographical data on their use, to the relevant authorities of affected states when requested to do so. The resolution passed by 148 votes to four, with 30 abstentions. Five states that abstained on previous resolutions in 2007 and 2008 voted in favour Belgium, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Greece, Luxembourg and Slovenia, and no former supporters changed position. The UK, US, Israel and France voted against.[27] In April 2011 the Congress of Costa Rica passed a law prohibiting uranium weapons in its territories, becoming the second country in the world to do so. In November 2010 the Irish Senate passed a bill seeking to outlaw depleted uranium weapons, but it lapsed before approval by the Dil In December 2012 the UN General Assembly passed a fourth resolution on depleted uranium. The text of 67/36 [28] built on previous texts and recalled the position of the UN Environment Programme, which had called for a precautionary approach to the use of DU due to ongoing uncertainties over its long-term environmental behaviour. The resolution was supported by 155 states [29], with 27 abstentions and, as with previous texts, the US, UK, France and Israel opposed.

13

Depleted uranium

14

Civilian applications
Depleted uranium has a very high density and is primarily used as shielding material for other radioactive material, and as ballast. Examples include sailboat keels, as counterweights and as shielding in industrial radiography cameras.

Shielding in industrial radiography cameras

Industrial radiography cameras include a very high activity gamma radiation source (typically Ir-192 with an activity above 10 TBq). Depleted uranium is often used in the cameras as a shield to protect individuals from the gamma source. Typically the uranium shield is supported and enclosed in polyurethane foam for thermal, mechanical and oxidation protection.

Coloring in consumer products

Consumer product uses have included incorporation into dental porcelain, used for false teeth to simulate the fluorescence of natural teeth, and uranium-bearing reagents used in chemistry laboratories (e.g. uranyl acetate, used in analytical chemistry and as a stain in electron microscopy). Uranium (both depleted uranium and natural uranium) was widely used as a coloring matter for porcelain and glass in the 19th and early-to-mid-20th century. The practice was largely discontinued in the late 20th century. In 1999 concentrations of 10% depleted uranium were being used in "jaune no.17" a yellow enamel powder that was being produced in France by Cristallerie de Saint-Paul, a manufacturer of enamel pigments. The depleted uranium used in the powder was sold by Cogma's Pierrelatte facility. In February 2000, Cogema discontinued the sale of depleted uranium to producers of enamel and glass.

Trim weights in aircraft

Aircraft that contain depleted uranium trim weights (such as the Boeing 747100) may contain between 400 to 1,500kg of DU. This application is controversial because the DU may enter the environment if the aircraft were to crash. The metal can also oxidize to a fine powder in a fire. Its use has been phased out in many newer aircraft. Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas discontinued using DU counterweights in the 1980s. Depleted uranium was released during the crash of El Al Flight 1862 on 4 October 1992, in which 152kg was lost, but an extensive study concluded that there was no evidence to link depleted uranium from the plane to any health problems. Counterweights manufactured with cadmium plating are considered non-hazardous while the plating is intact.

U.S. NRC general license

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations at 10 CFR 40.25 [30] establish a general license for the use of depleted uranium contained in industrial products or devices for mass-volume applications. This general license allows anyone to possess or use depleted uranium for authorized purposes. Generally, a registration form is required, along with a commitment to not abandon the material. Agreement states may have similar, or more stringent, regulations.

Sailboat keel
Pen Duick VI, a boat designed by Andr Mauric and used for racing, was equipped with a keel in depleted uranium. It was later replaced by a standard lead keel.

Depleted uranium

15

Sampling Calorimeters for detectors in high-energy particle physics

Depleted uranium has been used in a number of sampling calorimeters (such as in the D0 and ZEUS detectors) in due to its high density and natural radioactivity.

Health considerations
Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and numerous other systems can be affected by uranium exposure because, in addition to being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic metal, although less toxic than other heavy metals such as arsenic and mercury. It is weakly radioactive but is 'persistently' so because of its long half-life. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry states that: "to be exposed to radiation from uranium, you have to eat, drink, or breathe it, or get it on your skin." If DU particles do enter an individual, the type of danger presentedtoxic vs. radiologicaland the organ most likely to be affected depend on the solubility of the particles.[31] In military conflicts involving DU munitions, the major concern is inhalation of DU particles in aerosols arising from the impacts of DU-enhanced projectiles with their targets. When depleted uranium munitions penetrate armor or burn, they create depleted uranium oxides in the form of dust that can be inhaled or contaminate wounds. The Institute of Nuclear Technology-Radiation Protection of Attiki, Greece, has noted that "the aerosol produced during impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites or can be inhaled by civilians and military personnel." The utilisation of DU in incendiary ammunition is controversial because of potential adverse health effects and its release into the environment. The U.S. Department of Defense claims that no human cancer of any type has been seen as a result of exposure to either natural or depleted uranium. Militaries have long had risk-reduction procedures for their troops to follow, and studies are in consistent agreement that veterans who used DU-enhanced munitions have not suffered, so far, from an increased risk of cancer (see the Gulf War and Balkans sections below). The effects of DU on civilian populations are, however, a topic of intense and ongoing controversy. As early as 1997, British Army doctors warned the British MoD (Ministry of Defence) that exposure to depleted uranium increased the risk of developing lung, lymph and brain cancer, and recommended a series of safety precautions. According to a report issued summarizing the advice of the doctors, "Inhalation of insoluble uranium dioxide dust will lead to accumulation in the lungs with very slow clearanceif any. Although chemical toxicity is low, there may be localised radiation damage of the lung leading to cancer." The report warns that "All personnel should be aware that uranium dust inhalation carries a long-term risk [the dust] has been shown to increase the risks of developing lung, lymph and brain cancers." In 2003, the Royal Society called, again, for urgent attention to be paid to the possible health and environmental impact of depleted uranium, and added its backing to the United Nations Environment Programme's call for a scientific assessment of sites struck with depleted uranium.[32] In early 2004, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service attributed birth defect claims from a February 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning.[33][34] Also, a 2005 epidemiology review concluded: "In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU." Studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents continue to suggest the possibility of leukemogenic, genetic, reproductive, and neurological effects from chronic exposure.

Chemical toxicity
The chemical toxicity of depleted uranium is about a million times greater in vitro than its radiological hazard, with the kidney considered to be the main target organ. Health effects of DU are determined by factors such as the extent of exposure and whether it was internal or external. Three main pathways exist by which internalization of uranium may occur: inhalation, ingestion, and embedded fragments or shrapnel contamination.[35] Properties such as phase (e.g. particulate or gaseous), oxidation state (e.g. metallic or ceramic), and the solubility of uranium and its compounds influence their absorption, distribution, translocation, elimination and the resulting toxicity. For example,

Depleted uranium metallic uranium is less toxic compared to hexavalent uranium(VI) uranyl compounds such as uranium trioxide.[36][37]
Compilation of 2004 Review Information Regarding Uranium Toxicity Body system Renal Human studies Elevated levels of protein excretion, urinary catalase and diuresis Animal studies Damage to Proximal convoluted tubules, No studies necrotic cells cast from tubular epithelium, glomerular changes Acute cholinergic toxicity; Dose-dependent accumulation in cortex, midbrain, and vermis; Electrophysiological changes in hippocampus Increased urine mutagenicity and induction of tumors No studies In vitro

16

Brain/CNS

Decreased performance on neurocognitive tests

DNA

Increased reports of cancers

Binucleated cells with micronuclei, Inhibition of cell cycle kinetics and proliferation; Sister chromatid induction, tumorigenic phenotype No studies

Bone/muscle

No studies

Inhibition of periodontal bone formation; and alveolar wound healing Moderate to severe focal tubular atrophy; vacuolization of Leydig cells Severe nasal congestion and hemorrage, lung lesions and fibrosis, edema and swelling, lung cancer n/a Fatty livers, focal necrosis

Reproductive

Uranium miners have more first born female children No adverse health effects reported

No studies

Lungs/respiratory

No studies

Gastrointestinal Liver Skin

Vomiting, diarrhea, albuminuria No effects seen at exposure dose

n/a No studies No studies

No exposure assessment data available Swollen vacuolated epidermal cells, damage to hair follicles and sebaceous glands Elevated uranium urine concentrations Elevated uranium urine concentrations, perturbations in biochemical and neuropsychological testing Chronic fatigue, rash, ear and eye No studies infections, hair and weight loss, cough. May be due to combined chemical exposure rather than DU alone No studies Conjunctivitis, irritation inflammation, edema, ulceration of conjunctival sacs Decrease in RBC count and hemoglobin concentration No effects

Tissues surrounding embedded DU fragments Immune system

No studies

No studies

Eyes

No studies

Blood

No studies

No studies

Cardiovascular

Myocarditis resulting from the uranium ingestion, which ended 6 months after ingestion

No studies

Uranium is pyrophoric when finely divided. It will corrode under the influence of air and water producing insoluble uranium(IV) and soluble uranium (VI) salts. Soluble uranium salts are toxic. Uranium slowly accumulates in several organs, such as the liver, spleen, and kidneys. The World Health Organization has established a daily "tolerated intake" of soluble uranium salts for the general public of 0.5g/kg body weight, or 35g for a 70kg adult. Epidemiological studies and toxicological tests on laboratory animals point to it as being immunotoxic, teratogenic, neurotoxic, with carcinogenic and leukemogenic potential. A 2005 report by epidemiologists concluded: "the human

Depleted uranium epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU." Early studies of depleted uranium aerosol exposure assumed that uranium combustion product particles would quickly settle out of the air[38] and thus could not affect populations more than a few kilometers from target areas, and that such particles, if inhaled, would remain undissolved in the lung for a great length of time and thus could be detected in urine. Violently burning uranium droplets produce a gaseous vapor comprising about half of the uranium in their original mass. Uranyl ion contamination in uranium oxides has been detected in the residue of DU munitions fires.[39] Approximately 90 micrograms of natural uranium, on average, exist in the human body as a result of normal intake of water, food and air. Most is in the skeleton. The biochemistry of depleted uranium is the same as natural uranium.

17

Radiological hazards
The primary radiation danger from depleted uranium is due to alpha particles, which do not travel far through air, and do not penetrate clothing. Thus, the primary concern is internal exposure, due to inhalation, ingestion or shrapnel contamination. Available evidence suggests that this risk is small relative to the chemical hazard. Surveying the veteran-related evidence pertaining to the Gulf War, a 2001 editorial in the BMJ concluded it was not possible to justify claims of radiation-induced lung cancer and leukaemia in veterans of that conflict. While agreeing with the editorial's conclusion, a reply noted that its finding in the negative was guaranteed, given that "global dose estimates or results of mathematical modelling are too inaccurate to be used as dose values for an individual veteran", and that, as of April 2001, no practical method of measuring the expected small doses that each individual veteran would receive had been suggested.[40] The author of the reply, a radiation scientist, went on to suggest a method that had been used several times before, including after the 1986 Chernobyl accident. Despite the widespread use of DU in the Iraq War, at least a year after the conflict began, testing for UK troops was still only in the discussion phase.[41] The Royal Society DU Working Group concluded in 2002 that there were "very low" health risks associated with the use of depleted uranium, though also ventured that, "[i]n extreme conditions and under worst-case assumptions" lung and kidney damage could occur, and that in "worst-case scenarios high local levels of uranium could occur in food or water that could have adverse effects on the kidney."[42] In 2003, the Royal Society issued another urgent call to investigate the actual health and environmental impact of depleted uranium. The same year, a cohort study of Gulf War veterans found no elevated risks of cancer generally, nor of any specific cancers in particular, though recommended follow up studies.[43] According to the World Health Organization, a radiation dose from it would be about 60% of that from purified natural uranium with the same mass; the radiological dangers are lower due to its longer half-life and the removal of the more radioactive isotopes. However, in a matter of a month or so, depleted uranium generates amounts of thorium-234 and protactinium-234, which emit beta particles at almost the same rate as that of the alpha particles from the uranium-238.

Depleted uranium

18

Gulf War syndrome and soldier complaints

Since 1991, the year the Gulf War ended, veterans and their families voiced concern about subsequent health problems. In 1999, assessment of the first 1,000 veterans involved in the Ministry of Defence's Gulf War medical assessment programme found "no evidence" of a single illness, physical or mental, that would explain the pattern of symptoms observed in the group.[45] Nevertheless, in 1999, MEDACT petitioned for the WHO to conduct an investigation into illnesses in veterans and Iraqi civilians. A major 2006 review of peer-reviewed literature by a US Institute of Medicine committee concluded that, "[b]ecause the symptoms vary greatly among individuals," they do not point to a syndrome unique to Gulf War veterans, though their report conceded that the lack of objective pre-deployment health data meant definitive conclusions were effectively impossible.[46] Simon Wessely praised the IOM's review, and noted that despite its central conclusion that no novel syndrome existed, its other findings made it "equally clear that service in the Gulf war did aversely affect health in some personnel."[47] Aside from the lack of baseline data to guide analysis of the veterans' postwar health, because no detailed health screening was carried out when the veterans entered service, another major stumbling block with some studies, like the thousand-veteran one, is that the subjects are self selected, rather than a random sample, making general conclusions impossible.[48]

Approximate area and major clashes in which DU bullets and rounds were used in the Gulf War

Graph showing the rate per 1,000 births of congenital malformations [44] observed at Basra University Hospital, Iraq

Increased rates of immune system disorders and other wide-ranging symptoms, including chronic pain, fatigue and memory loss, have been reported in over one quarter of combat veterans of the 1991 Gulf War.[49] Combustion products[50] from depleted uranium munitions are being considered as one of the potential causes by the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses, as DU was used in 30mm and smaller caliber machine-gun bullets on a large scale for the first time in the Gulf War. Veterans of the conflicts in the Persian Gulf, Bosnia and Kosovo have been found to have up to 14 times the usual level of chromosome abnormalities in their genes. Serum-soluble genotoxic teratogens produce congenital disorders, and in white blood cells causes immune system damage. Human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in the offspring of persons exposed to DU. A 2001 study of 15,000 February 1991 U.S. Gulf War combat veterans and 15,000 control veterans found that the Gulf War veterans were 1.8 (fathers) to 2.8 (mothers) times more likely to have children with birth defects. After examination of children's medical records two years later, the birth defect rate increased by more than 20%: Dr. Kang found that male Gulf War veterans reported having infants with likely birth defects at twice the rate of non-veterans. Furthermore, female Gulf War veterans were almost three times more likely to

Depleted uranium report children with birth defects than their non-Gulf counterparts. The numbers changed somewhat with medical records verification. However, Dr. Kang and his colleagues concluded that the risk of birth defects in children of deployed male veterans still was about 2.2 times that of non-deployed veterans. In early 2004, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service attributed birth defect claims from a February 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning. Looking at the risk of children of UK Gulf War veterans suffering genetic diseases such as congenital malformations, commonly called "birth defects", one study found that the overall risk of any malformation was 50% higher in Gulf War veterans as compared to other veterans. The U.S. Army has commissioned ongoing research into potential risks of depleted uranium and other projectile weapon materials like tungsten, which the U.S. Navy has used in place of DU since 1993. Studies by the U.S. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute conclude that moderate exposures to either depleted uranium or uranium present a significant toxicological threat. In 2003 Professor Brian Spratt FRS, chairman of the Royal Society's working group on depleted uranium, said: "The question of who carries out the initial monitoring and clean-up is a political rather than scientific question," and "the coalition needs to acknowledge that depleted uranium is a potential hazard and make in-roads into tackling it by being open about where and how much depleted uranium has been deployed." A 2008 review of all relevant articles appearing in the peer-reviewed journals on MEDLINE through to the end of 2007, including multiple cohort studies of veterans, found no consistent evidence of excess risks of neoplasms that could have some link to DU, and that "[t]he overall incidence of cancers is not increased in the cohort studies of Gulf war and Balkans veterans". Though a more comprehensive assessment is possible, a 2011 update on a cancer scare regarding Italian soldiers who had served in the Balkans found lower than expected incidence rates for all cancers, a finding "consistent with lacking evidence of an increased cancer incidence among troops of other countries deployed in the areas of Iraq, Bosnia, and Kosovo, where armour-penetrating depleted uranium shells have been used."[51] One particular subgroup of veterans that may be at higher risk comprises those who have internally retained fragments of DU from shrapnel wounds. A laboratory study on rats produced by the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute showed that, after a study period of 6 months, rats treated with depleted uranium coming from implanted pellets, comparable to the average levels in the urine of Desert Storm veterans with retained DU fragments, had developed a significant tendency to lose weight with respect to the control group. Substantial amounts of uranium were accumulating in their brains and central nervous systems, and showed a significant reduction of neuronal activity in the hippocampus in response to external stimuli. The conclusions of the study show that brain damage from chronic uranium intoxication is possible at lower doses than previously thought. Results from computer-based neurocognitive tests performed in 1997 showed an association between uranium in the urine and "problematic performance on automated tests assessing performance efficiency and accuracy."

19

Iraqi population
Since 2001, medical personnel at the Basra hospital in southern Iraq have reported a sharp increase in the incidence of child leukemia and genetic malformation among babies born in the decade following the Gulf War. Iraqi doctors attributed these malformations to possible long-term effects of DU, an opinion that was echoed by several newspapers.[52][53] In 2004, Iraq had the highest mortality rate due to leukemia of any country. In 2003, the Royal Society called for Western militaries to disclose where and how much DU they had used in Iraq so that rigorous, and hopefully conclusive, studies could be undertaken out in affected areas. The International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons (ICBUW) likewise urged that an epidemiological study be made in the Basra region, as asked for by Iraqi doctors,[54] but no peer-reviewed study has yet been undertaken in Basra. A medical survey, "Cancer, Infant Mortality and Birth Sex Ratio in Fallujah, Iraq 20052009" published in July 2010, states that the "Increase in cancer and birth defectsare alarmingly high" and that infant mortality 2009/2010

Depleted uranium has reached 13.6%. The group compares the dramatic increase, five years after the actual war 2004, or exposure, with the lymphoma Italian peacekeepers[55] developed after the Balkan wars, and the increased cancer risk in certain parts of Sweden due to the Chernobyl fallout. The origin and time of introduction of the carcinogenic agent causing the genetic stress, the group will address in a separate report.[56] Four studies in the second half of 2012one of which described the people of Fallujah as having "the highest rate of genetic damage in any population ever studied"renewed calls for the US and UK to investigate the possible links between their military assault on the city in 2004 and the explosion in deformities, cancers, and other serious health problems, even though no depleted uranium was found in soil samples taken from Fallujah.

20

The Balkans
In 2001, doctors at the Serb-run hospital in Kosovska Mitrovica say the number of patients suffering from malignant diseases has increased by 200% since 1998. In the same year, the World Health Organization reported that data from Kosovo was inconclusive and called for further studies.[57] A 2003 study by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in Bosnia and Herzegovina stated that low levels of contaminate were found in drinking water and air particulate at DU penetrator impact points. The levels were stated as not a cause for alarm. Yet, Pekka Haavisto, chairman of the UNEP DU projects stated, "The findings of this study stress again the importance of appropriate clean-up and civil protection measures in a post-conflict situation."[58]
Sites in Kosovo and southern Central Serbia where A team of Italian scientists from the University of Siena reported NATO aviation used depleted uranium during the 1999 in 2005 that although DU was "clearly" added to the soil in the Kosovo War. study area, "the phenomenon was very limited spatially and the total uranium concentrations fell within the natural range of the element in soils. Moreover, the absolute uranium concentrations indicate that there was no contamination of the earthworm species studied."

Contamination as a result of the Afghan War

The Canadian Uranium Medical Research Centre obtained urine samples from bombed civilian areas in Jalalabad that showed concentrations of 80400ng/L of undepleted uranium, far higher than the typical concentration in the British population of ~5ng/L.[59]

Studies indicating negligible effects

Studies in 2005 and earlier have concluded that DU ammunition has no measurable detrimental health effects. A 1999 literature review conducted by the Rand Corporation stated: "No evidence is documented in the literature of cancer or any other negative health effect related to the radiation received from exposure to depleted or natural uranium, whether inhaled or ingested, even at very high doses," and a RAND report authored by the U.S. Defense department undersecretary charged with evaluating DU hazards considered the debate to be more political than scientific.[60] A 2001 oncology study concluded that "the present scientific consensus is that DU exposure to humans, in locations where DU ammunition was deployed, is very unlikely to give rise to cancer induction". Former NATO Secretary General Lord Robertson stated in 2001 that "the existing medical consensus is clear. The hazard from depleted

Depleted uranium uranium is both very limited, and limited to very specific circumstances". A 2002 study from the Australian defense ministry concluded that "there has been no established increase in mortality or morbidity in workers exposed to uranium in uranium processing industries... studies of Gulf War veterans show that, in those who have retained fragments of depleted uranium following combat related injury, it has been possible to detect elevated urinary uranium levels, but no kidney toxicity or other adverse health effects related to depleted uranium after a decade of follow-up."[61] Pier Roberto Danesi, then-director of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Seibersdorf +Laboratory, stated in 2002 that "There is a consensus now that DU does not represent a health threat". The IAEA reported in 2003 that, "based on credible scientific evidence, there is no proven link between DU exposure and increases in human cancers or other significant health or environmental impacts," although "Like other heavy metals, DU is potentially poisonous. In sufficient amounts, if DU is ingested or inhaled it can be harmful because of its chemical toxicity. High concentration could cause kidney damage." The IAEA concluded that while depleted uranium is a potential carcinogen, there is no evidence that it has been carcinogenic in humans. A 2005 study by Sandia National Laboratories' Al Marshall used mathematical models to analyze potential health effects associated with accidental exposure to depleted uranium during the 1991 Gulf War. Marshall's study concluded that the reports of cancer risks from DU exposure are not supported by his analysis nor by veteran medical statistics. Marshall also examined possible genetic effects due to radiation from depleted uranium.[62] Chemical effects, including potential reproductive issues, associated with depleted uranium exposure were discussed in some detail in a subsequent journal paper.[63]

21

Atmospheric contamination as a result of military actions

Elevated radiation levels consistent with very low level atmospheric depleted uranium contamination have been found in air samples taken by the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment at several monitoring sites in Britain. These elevated readings appear to coincide with Operation Anaconda in Afghanistan, and the Shock and Awe bombing campaign at the start of the Second Gulf War.[64]

Other contamination cases

On October 4, 1992, an El Al Boeing 747-F cargo aircraft Flight 1862, crashed into an apartment building in Amsterdam. Local residents and rescue workers complained of various unexplained health issues which were being attributed to the release of hazardous materials during the crash and subsequent fires. Authorities conducted an epidemiological study in 2000 of those believed to be affected by the accident. The study concluded that there was no evidence to link depleted uranium (used as counterbalance weights on the elevators of the plane) to any of the reported health complaints.

Safety and environmental issues

About 95% of the depleted uranium produced until now is stored as uranium hexafluoride, (D)UF6, in steel cylinders in open air yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder contains up to 12.7 tonnes (or 14 US tons) of UF6. In the U.S. alone, 560,000 tonnes of depleted UF6 had accumulated by 1993. In 2005, 686,500 tonnes in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth, Ohio, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Paducah, Kentucky., The long-term storage of DUF6 presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF6 is exposed to moist air, it reacts with the water in the air and produces UO2F2 (uranyl fluoride) and HF (hydrogen fluoride), both of which are highly soluble and toxic. Storage cylinders must be regularly inspected for signs of corrosion and leaks. The estimated lifetime of the steel cylinders is measured in decades.[65] There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States. The vulnerability of DUF6 storage cylinders to terrorist attack is apparently not the subject of public reports. However, the U.S. government has been converting DUF6 to solid uranium oxides for disposal. Disposing of the whole DUF6 inventory could cost

Depleted uranium anywhere from 15 to 450 million dollars.

22

DUF6 cylinders: painted (left) and corroded (right)

References
Notes
[1] : "Depleted uranium possesses only 60% of the radioactivity of natural uranium, having been 'depleted' of much of its most highly radioactive U234 and U235 isotopes." [2] "Properties and Characteristics of DU" (http:/ / www. gulflink. osd. mil/ du_ii/ du_ii_tabc. htm) U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense [3] Mitsakou C., Eleftheriadis K., Housiadas C., Lazaridis M. Modeling of the dispersion of depleted uranium aerosol. (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 12705453) 2003 Apr. Retrieved 15 January 2009. [4] http:/ / www. nrc. gov/ reading-rm/ doc-collections/ cfr/ part040/ part040-0004. html [5] Depleted uranium (http:/ / www. who. int/ mediacentre/ factsheets/ fs257/ en/ ) WHO Fact sheet N257, Revised January 2003 [6] Plutonium in DU Weapons, a Chronology (http:/ / www. nukewatchinfo. org/ Quarterly/ 2007spring/ 07sprp11. pdf) Dr. Michael Repacholi, WHO [7] U.S. Dirty Bombs: Radioactive Gene Busting Munitions Spiked with Plutonium (http:/ / www. globalresearch. ca/ articles/ LAF208A. html) John M. Laforge, Centre for Research on Globalisation (CRG), 2002 [8] The Health Effects of Exposure to Uranium and Uranium Weapons Fallout (http:/ / www. euradcom. org/ publications/ ecrruraniumrept. pdf) Chris Busby, Documents of the ECRR 2010 No 2

Depleted uranium
[9] How much depleted uranium hexafluoride is stored in the United States (http:/ / web. ead. anl. gov/ uranium/ faq/ storage/ faq16. cfm), anl.gov [10] (http:/ / web. ead. anl. gov/ uranium/ pdf/ DUF6MgmtOverviewFS. PDF), Overview of Depleted Uranium Hexafluoride Management Program [11] Agency review nuclear waste (http:/ / www. cibolabeacon. com/ articles/ 2008/ 04/ 03/ news/ news7. txt), Cibola County Beacon News, April 3, 2008 [12] http:/ / www. wise-uranium. org/ eddat. html [13] US Dept. of Energy Handbook, "Primer on Spontaneous Heating and Pyrophoricity" (http:/ / hss. energy. gov/ NuclearSafety/ techstds/ standard/ hdbk1081/ hbk1081. html), Chapter "Uranium" (http:/ / hss. energy. gov/ NuclearSafety/ techstds/ standard/ hdbk1081/ hbk1081e. html#ZZ30) [14] McManners, Hugh, Gulf War One Real Voices From the Front Line, Ebury Publishing, 2010, ISBN 9780091935986 p91 [15] Fahey, D. (2003) "Science or Science Fiction? Facts, Myths and Propaganda In the Debate Over Depleted Uranium Weapons" (http:/ / www. antenna. nl/ wise/ uranium/ pdf/ dumyths. pdf), Table 1 on p. 13 [16] The International Legality of the Use of Depleted Uranium Weapons: A Precautionary Approach, Avril McDonald, Jann K. Kleffner and Brigit Toebes, eds. (TMC Asser Press Fall-2003) [17] Paul Brown (25 April 2003). "Gulf troops face tests for cancer" (http:/ / www. theguardian. com/ uk/ 2003/ apr/ 25/ internationaleducationnews. armstrade). theguardian.com. Retrieved 29 August 2013. [18] ADVISORY OPINION 1996 July 8; General List No.95 (req: UNGA) (http:/ / www. cornnet. nl/ ~akmalten/ unan5a. html). Cornnet.nl. Retrieved 16 January 2011. [19] http (http:/ / www. houstonprogressive. org/ hpn/ iraq08. html). //www.houstonprogressive.org. Retrieved 16 January 2011. [20] Depleted Uranium UN Resolutions (http:/ / www. prop1. org/ 2000/ du/ resource/ 000310un. htm). Prop1.org. Retrieved 16 January 2011. [21] International peace and security as an (http:/ / www. unhchr. ch/ Huridocda/ Huridoca. nsf/ 0811fcbd0b9f6bd58025667300306dea/ 887c730868a70a758025665700548a00). Unhchr.ch. Retrieved 16 January 2011. [22] ( backup (http:/ / www. unhchr. ch/ huridocda/ huridoca. nsf/ AllSymbols/ 22481F4157DE6274C1256C00004C29BB/ $File/ G0214167. pdf?OpenElement)) "In its decision 2001/36 of 16 August 2001, the Sub-Commission, recalling its resolutions 1997/36 and 1997/37 of 28 August 1997, authorized Mr. Y.K.J. Yeung Sik Yuen to prepare, without financial implications, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, the working paper originally assigned to Ms. Forero Ucros." [23] Joe Sills et al Environmental Crimes in Military Actions and the International Criminal Court (ICC)-United Nations Perspectives (http:/ / www. aepi. army. mil/ internet/ env-crime-icc-printer. pdf) (PDF) ( HTML (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20041015050907/ http:/ / www. aepi. army. mil/ internet/ env-crime-icc-printer. pdf)) of American Council for the UN University, April 2002. Page 28 [24] Staff. UN Secretary General Publishes Report on Uranium Weapons (http:/ / www. bandepleteduranium. org/ en/ a/ 188. html), ICBUW (http:/ / www. bandepleteduranium. org/ en/ i/ 57. html), 17 September 2008 [25] UN Department of Public Information: Effects of the use of Armaments and Ammunitions Containing Depleted Uranium (A/C.1/63/L.26) (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2008/ ga10792. doc. htm) See draft XIV and also Annex XIII [26] UK Uranium Weapons Network launched as Belgium becomes first country to ban depleted uranium weapons (http:/ / www. bandepleteduranium. org/ en/ a/ 274. html). Bandepleteduranium.org (2009-06-22). Retrieved 16 January 2011. [27] 148 states call for transparency over depleted uranium use in UN vote (http:/ / www. bandepleteduranium. org/ en/ a/ 364. html). Bandepleteduranium.org. Retrieved 16 January 2011. [28] http:/ / www. bandepleteduranium. org/ en/ docs/ 202. pdf [29] http:/ / www. bandepleteduranium. org/ en/ docs/ 203. pdf [30] http:/ / www. nrc. gov/ reading-rm/ doc-collections/ cfr/ part040/ part040-0025. html [31] . Briefly, inhaled and insoluble means the DU particles will stick around in the lungs and attendant lymph nodes, presenting a radiological risk; highly soluble means those particles are off to the kidneys, where toxicity is the issue. [32] . The article quotes Professor Brian Spratt of the Royal Society's DU working group: "It is highly unsatisfactory to deploy a large amount of material that is weakly radioactive and chemically toxic without knowing how much soldiers and civilians have been exposed to." [33] Williams, M. (February 9, 2004) "First Award for Depleted Uranium Poisoning Claim," (http:/ / vitw. org/ archives/ 405) The Herald Online, (Edinburgh: Herald Newspapers, Ltd.) [34] Campaign Against Depleted Uranium (Spring, 2004) "MoD Forced to Pay Pension for DU Contamination," (http:/ / www. cadu. org. uk/ news/ 17. htm#icbuw) CADU News 17 [35] ; . [36] Gmelin Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie 8th edition, English translation, Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. U-A7 (1982) pp. 300322. [37] (an HTML copy of the text (http:/ / web. archive. org/ */ www. deploymentlink. osd. mil/ du_library/ du_ii/ du_ii_refs/ n52en017/ mr1018_7_chap1. html) is also available, as part of Rostker, B. (2000) Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II) Environmental Exposure Reports Tech. Rep. No. 2000179-2 (Washington, DC: Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense)), citing Army Environmental Policy Institute (June 1995) "Health and Environmental Consequences of Depleted Uranium Use in the US Army," (Champaign, Illinois) and U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (1998) "Interim Summary, Total Uranium and Isotope Uranium Results" (Operation Southern Watch) CHPPM Project No. 47-EM-8111-98.

23

Depleted uranium
[38] Rostker, B. (2000) "Research Report Summaries," (http:/ / www. deploymentlink. osd. mil/ du_library/ du_ii/ du_ii_tabl1. htm) Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II) Environmental Exposure Report no. 2000179-2, Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense. [39] Rostker, B. (2000) "Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II)" (http:/ / www. deploymentlink. osd. mil/ du_library/ du_ii/ du_ii_refs/ n52en017/ mr1018_7_chap1. html) Environmental Exposure Reports Tech. Rep. No. 2000179-2 (Washington, DC: Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense) [40] . Mould's suggestion was electron paramagnetic resonance dosimetry using tooth enamel. He also wrote that the US National Institute of Standards and Technology was able, using this method, to measure doses as low as 20mSv, and that, if it were asked to, the NIST would be able to get involved, meaning at least one centre could help undertake a screening programme for veterans. [41] , which found that perhaps a quarter of all UK troops would have been interested in undergoing DU-related monitoring, although "the desire for DU screening is more closely linked to current health status rather than plausible exposure to DU."

24

Confusingly, reports that "testing is now available to all troops that served in Iraq", and does not say if this is testing la Mould.
[42] The study is mentioned by . According to Patel, "[t]he majority evidence and expert opinion on the lack of a clear association between depleted uranium are quite consistent". Similarly : "[T]here is now a large body of evidence to suggest that, whatever the cause of the illhealth experienced by Gulf War veterans, neither DU nor vaccinations are likely to have caused them."

The Working Group study he mentions is , which is a summary of the second part of the Working Group's look at the health effects of DU: Part1: ; Part2: .
[43] : "There is no current excess risk of cancer overall nor of site specific cancers in Gulf war veterans. Specific exposures during deployment have not resulted in a subsequent increased risk of cancer. The long latent period for cancer, however, necessitates the continued follow up of these cohorts." [44] I. Al-Sadoon, et al., writing in the Medical Journal of Basrah University, (see Table 1 here) (http:/ / www. irak. be/ ned/ archief/ Depleted Uranium_bestanden/ DEPLETED URANIUM-2- INCIDENCE. htm). This version from data by same author(s) in Wilcock, A. R., ed. (2004) "Uranium in the Wind" (Ontario: Pandora Press) ISBN 0-9736153-2-X [45] : "As the veterans assessed by the programme were all self selected, the prevalence of illness in Gulf war veterans cannot be determined from this study. Furthermore, it is not known whether the veterans in this study were representative of sick veterans as a group." To recapitulate using : "[T]hough Gulf War veterans' illnesses are real and sometimes disabling, they do not seem to constitute a unique illness." [46] . The quote is of Lynn Goldman, who chaired the IOM committee that carried out the review.

notes that "despite clear evidence of an increase in symptom burden and a decrease in well being" among Gulf War veterans, "exhaustive clinical and laboratory based scientific research has failed to document many reproducible biomedical abnormalities in this group. Likewise, there has been no evidence of an increase in disease related mortality."
[47] . The quote is of Wessely himself. [48] ; . [49] U.S. Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (2004) "Scientific Progress in Understanding Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses: Report and Recommendations" (http:/ / www1. va. gov/ rac-gwvi/ docs/ ReportandRecommendations_2004. pdf) [50] : "Metallic DU is weakly radioactive and therefore contact with unbroken skin is an extremely low risk to health. However, when a DU round strikes an armoured target, it undergoes spontaneous partial combustion resulting in a fine aerosol of largely insoluble uranium oxides. Presence of this aerosol elevates the risk of potentially chemotoxic or radiotoxic exposure via inhalation or ingestion". [51] : "[T]he excess of reported cases for this malignancy [lymphoma] in 20012002 was probably due to a peak that occurred in 2000 among the whole military; it is therefore unrelated to deployment in the Balkans, and probably represents a chance event." [52] Elizabeth Neuffer Iraqis Trace Surge in Cancer to US Bombings (http:/ / www. commondreams. org/ headlines03/ 0126-03. htm) Boston Globe January 26, 2003, Page: A11 Section: National/Foreign [53] Larry Johnson Iraqi cancers, birth defects blamed on U.S. depleted uranium (http:/ / www. seattlepi. com/ national/ 95178_du12. shtml) Seattle Post-Intelligencer November 12, 2002. Retrieved 25 January 2009. [54] Support the Basra Epidemiological Study (http:/ / www. bandepleteduranium. org/ en/ a/ 41. html), International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons [55] Mantelero_Depleted uranium legal aspects (Italy)2009-2011 (http:/ / staff. polito. it/ alessandro. mantelero/ DUP. html) 7-05-2011 [56] Cancer, Infant Mortality and Birth Sex-Ratio in Fallujah, Iraq, 20052009 (http:/ / www. mdpi. com/ 1660-4601/ 7/ 7/ 2828/ ), By Chris Busby, Malak Hamdan and Enteser Ariabi, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health July 2010, ISSN 1660-4601. Article is also here (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pmc/ articles/ PMC2922729/ ). [57] Report of the WHO's Depleted Uranium Mission to Kosovo (pdf 123kb) (http:/ / www. who. int/ entity/ ionizing_radiation/ pub_meet/ en/ Report_WHO_depleted_uranium_Eng. pdf) January 2231, 2001

Depleted uranium
[58] Low-level DU contamination found in Bosnia and Herzegovina, UNEP calls for precaution (http:/ / www. unep. org/ Documents. Multilingual/ Default. asp?DocumentID=298& ArticleID=3926& l=en) United Nations Environment Programme, 25 March 2003. Retrieved 25 January 2009. [59] A. Durakovic, 2005, "The Quantitative Analysis of Uranium Isotopes in the Urine of the Civilian Population of Eastern Afghanistan after Operation Enduring Freedom", Military Medicine, vol. 170, no. 4, pp. 277284. [60] Bernard D. Rostker Depleted Uranium, A Case Study of Good and Evil (http:/ / www. rand. org/ pubs/ papers/ P8066/ ). RAND Corporation [61] Military medical aspects of depleted uranium munitions (http:/ / www. defence. gov. au/ DPE/ DHS/ infocentre/ publications/ journals/ NoIDs/ adfhealth_sept02/ ADFHealth_3_2_50-57. pdf) [62] An Analysis of Uranium Dispersal and Health Effects Using a Gulf War Case Study (http:/ / www. sandia. gov/ news-center/ news-releases/ 2005/ def-nonprolif-sec/ snl-dusand. pdf), Albert C. Marshall, Sandia National Laboratories [63] Marshall, A. C. Gulf war depleted uranium risks Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 18, 95108 (January 2008) | [64] C. Busby and S. Morgan, 2006, Did the Use of Uranium Weapons in Gulf War 2 Result in Contamination of Europe? Evidence from the Measurements of the Atomic Weapons Establishment, Aldermaston, Aberystwyth, Green Audit. [65] Science-Based Stockpile Stewardship (Vol. 5, No. 2) Institute for Energy and Environmental Research (http:/ / www. ieer. org/ sdafiles/ vol_5/ 5-2/ deararj. html)

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External links
Scientific bodies US Health Physics Society (http://www.hps.org/) United Nations "Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering" (http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.Sub.2. 2002.38.En?Opendocument) (The UN 2002 report) Depleted Uranium and the IAEA (http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/DU/du_qaa.shtml) Scientific reports ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM): Uranium Toxicity (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ csem/uranium/) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services "Depleted Uranium in Bosnia and Herzegovina Postconflict Assessment" (http://postconflict.unep.ch/ publications/BiH_DU_report.pdf) by UN Environment Programme "Radiological Conditions in Areas of Kuwait With Residues of Depleted Uranium" (http://www-pub.iaea.org/ MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1164_web.pdf) by International Atomic Energy Agency "Technical Report on Capacity-building for the Assessment of Depleted Uranium in Iraq" (http://postconflict. unep.ch/publications/Iraq_DU.pdf) by UN Environment Programme "A Review of the Scientific Literature As It Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses" (http://www.rand.org/pubs/ monograph_reports/2005/MR1018.7.pdf) by RAND Depleted Uranium (http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/landing.asp?id=1243) article from the Royal Society An Analysis of Uranium Dispersal and Health Effects Using a Gulf War Case Study (http://www.sandia.gov/ news-center/news-releases/2005/def-nonprolif-sec/snl-dusand.pdf)Wikipedia:Link rot by Sandia National Laboratories Depleted Uranium Human Health Fact Sheet (http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/Depleted-Uranium.pdf) by Argonne National Laboratory Environmental Assessment Division

Depleted uranium Depleted uranium (DU) normative value pilot study: levels of uranium in urine samples from the general population (http://www.iom-world.org/pubs/IOM_TM0503.pdf) by AD Jones, BG Miller S Walker, J Anderson, AP Colvin, PA Hutchison, CA Soutar. IOM Research Report TM/05/03 A normative study of levels of uranium in the urine of personnel in the British Forces (http://www.iom-world. org/pubs/IOM_TM0508.pdf) by BG Miller, AP Colvin, PA Hutchison, H Tait, S Dempsey, D Lewis, CA Soutar. IOM Research Report TM/05/08 Opinion on the environmental and health risks posed by depleted uranium (http://ec.europa.eu/health/ scientific_committees/environmental_risks/docs/scher_o_123.pdf) by the Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks (SCHER)

28

Chieftain tank

29

Chieftain tank
Chieftain (FV4201)

Chieftain Mk 10 or Mk 11 with Stillbrew Crew Protection Package. Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank
United Kingdom

Service history
Inservice Usedby Wars 1966 1995 UK, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman IranIraq War, Iraq-Kuwait War

Production history
Manufacturer Leyland Motors

Specifications
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armour 55 long tons (62 short tons; 56t) 35ft 4in (10.77m) - gun forward 7.5m (24ft 7in) - hull 12ft 0in (3.66m) 2.9m (9ft 6in) 4 Glacis: 120mm (4.7in) (72) Hull sides: 38mm (1.5in) (10) Turret: 195mm (7.7in) (60) L11A5 120 mm rifled gun

Main armament Secondary armament Engine

2 x L7 Machine Gun

Leyland L60 (multifuel 2 stroke compression-ignition) 750hp (560kW) 6 Cyl, 19 litres. 11.1hp (8.3kW)/ton (at sprocket)
[]

Power/weight

Chieftain tank

30
Transmission Suspension TN 12 Horstmann

Groundclearance 1ft 10in (0.56m)) Fuelcapacity Operational range Speed 195impgal (890l) 500km (310 miles) on roads

Road: 48km/h (30mph) Off road: 30km/h (19mph)

The Chieftain FV4201 was the main battle tank of the United Kingdom during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. It was one of the most advanced tanks of its era, and at the time of its introduction in 1966 had the most powerful main gun and most effective armour of any tank in the world.[1] The Chieftain also introduced a supine (reclining backwards) driver position, enabling a heavily sloped hull with reduced height. It remained in service until replaced with the Challenger 1.

Development
The Chieftain was an evolutionary development of the successful cruiser line of tanks that had emerged at the end of the Second World War. British engineers had learned during the war that their tanks often lacked sufficient protection and firepower compared to those fielded by the enemy, and that this had led to high casualty levels when faced with the superior German tanks in World War II. Centurion addressed this to a great degree, combining higher levels of armour and an improved gun, which made it at least equal to any of the contemporary main battle tanks. However, the introduction of the Soviet IS-3 heavy tank forced the introduction of their own Conqueror heavy tank, armed with a 120mm (4.7in) gun. A single design combining the firepower of the Conqueror's 120mm gun with the mobility and general usefulness of the Centurion would be ideal. Leyland, who had been involved in Centurion, had built their own prototypes of a new tank design in 1956, and these led to a War Office specification for a new tank. The General Staff specification drew on experience of Centurion in the Korean War and Conqueror. The tank was expected to be able to engage the enemy at long range and from defensive positions, be proof against medium artillery. To this end the gun was to have a greater angle of depression than the 8 degrees of Conqueror and better frontal armour. The tank was expected to achieve 10 rounds per minute in the first minute and six per minute for the following four. The first few prototypes were provided for troop trials from 1959, this identified a number of changes. Changes to address engine vibration and cooling resulted in redesign of the rear hull. This increased to the design weight to nearly 50 tons and as such the suspension (which had been designed for 45 tons) was strengthened. Track pads had to be fitted to protect roads from damage and the ground clearance increased. The design was accepted in the early 1960s. Britain and Israel had collaborated on the development in its latter stages with a view to Israel purchasing the vehicle. Two prototypes were delivered as part of a four year trial. It was eventually decided not to sell the marque to the Israelis however which prompted Israel to follow its own development programme. In 1957 NATO had specified that its forces should use multi-fuel engines. The early BL Engine delivered around 450bhp (340kW) to the sprocket which meant a top road speed of around 25mph (40km/h) and cross country performance was limited. This was further hampered by the Horstmann coil spring suspension, which made it a challenge to drive cross country and provide the crew with a comfortable ride. Due to the cylinder linings being pressure fitted, coolant leaks within the cylinder block were common, resulting in white smoke billowing from the exhaust.

Chieftain tank In the late 1970s engine design changed with the introduction of Belzona which was used to improve the lining seals. Engine output also increased with later engines delivering some 850bhp (630kW) to the sprocket. This meant better performance and an increased speed. Cross-country performance remained limited, however. Several aspects of Chieftain design were trialled by the production of the FV4202 "40-ton Centurion" with a reclined driver position and mantleless gun mounting.

31

Design
Chieftain design included a heavily sloped hull and turret which greatly increased the effective thickness of the frontal armour - 388mm (15.3in) on the glacis (from an actual thickness of 120mm (4.7in)), and 390mm (15.4in) on the turret (from 195mm (7.7in)).[] It had a mantletless turret, in order to take full advantage of reclining the vehicle up to ten degrees in a hull-down position. For security reasons, early prototypes had a canvas screen covering the mantlet and a sheet metal box mounted over the sloping glacis plate to disguise the configuration of the vehicle. The driver lay semi-recumbent in the hull when his hatch was closed down, which helped to reduce the profile of the forward glacis plate. The commander, gunner and loader were situated in the turret. To the left side of the turret was a large searchlight with infra-red capability in an armoured housing. The Leyland L60 engine is a two-stroke opposed piston design intended for multi-fuel use so that it could run on whatever fuel was available. In practice the engine did not deliver the expected power, and was unreliable, estimated to have a 90% breakdown rate, but improvements were introduced to address this. Primary problems included, cylinder liner failure, fan drive problems and perpetual leaks due to vibration and badly routed pipework. However, as the engine power improved the tank itself became heavier. The tank was steered by conventional tillers hydraulically actuating onto external brake discs. The discs worked via the epicyclic gearbox providing "regenerative" steering. The gearbox was operated motorcycle-style with a kick up/kick down "peg" on the left which actuated electro-hydraulic units in the gearbox; the accelerator was cable operated by the right foot. In the turret the loader was on the left and the gunner on the right of the gun with the commander behind the gunner. The suspension was of the Horstmann bogie type, with large side plates to protect the tracks and provide stand-off protection from hollow charge attack. The main armament was the 120 mm L11A5 rifled gun. This differed from most contemporary main tank armament as it used projectiles and charges which were loaded separately, as opposed to a single fixed round. The charges were encased in combustible bags. Other tank guns, such as on the Conqueror, needed to store the spent shell cartridges or eject them outside. The combustible charges were stored in 36 recesses surrounded by a pressurized water/glycol mixture so-called "wet-stowage". In the event of a hit which penetrated the fighting compartment, the jacket would rupture, soaking the charges and preventing a catastrophic propellant explosion.[2] As there was no shell case, the firing of the charge was by vent tubes automatically loaded from a magazine on the breech. Due to the length of the gun which required balancing and the need for storage space, the turret has a large overhang to the rear. This contains radios, ammunition, fire control equipment and has further stowage externally.

Chieftain display at the Bovington tank museum, 2006

The gun could fire a wide range of ammunition, but the most commonly loaded types were high explosive squash head (HESH), armour-piercing discarding sabot (APDS), or practice round equivalents for both types. Chieftain could store up to 64 projectiles (though a maximum of 36 APDS, limited by the propellant stowage). The gun was fully stabilised with a fully computerized integrated control system. The secondary armament consisted of a coaxial L8A1 7.62 mm machine gun, and another 7.62mm machine gun mounted on the commander's cupola.

Chieftain tank Chieftain had an NBC protection system, which Centurion lacked. The initial Fire-control system (FCS) was the Marconi FV/GCE Mk 4. A .50-inch (12.7mm) ranging gun was mounted above the main gun (with 300 rounds available). This fired ranging shots out to a maximum of 2,600 yards (2,400m), at which point the tracer in the ranging rounds burned out. The tank commander had a rotating cupola with nine vision blocks -giving all round view - and a periscope, plus the 7.62mm machine-gun and an infrared (IR) projector coaxial with the weapon. The aiming systems were provided for both gunner and tank commander; they had 1x or 8x selectable magnification power, and they were replaceable with IR vision systems for the night operations (3x magnification power). The commander could rotate his cuplola to bring his sight onto a target and then engage the mechanism that brought the turret round on to the correct bearing so that the gunner could complete the aiming. The left side of the turret had a large searchlight with an infra-red filter inside an armoured box, with a relatively long range up to 11.5 kilometres (0.620.93mi).[3] From the beginning of the 1970s, the Mk 3/3 version replaced the ranging gun with a Barr and Stroud LF-2 laser rangefinder with a 10km (6.2mi) range. This allowed engagements at much longer ranges, and also could be linked to the fire control system, allowing more rapid engagements and changes of target. On later models fire control was provided by the Marconi IFCS (Improved Fire Control System), using a digital ballistic computer. The upgrade was not finished until the end of 1980, when some examples (but not the majority) had the IR searchlight replaced with TOGS. Many later examples had Stillbrew armour, meant to face Soviet 125mm tank guns and heavy anti-tank missiles. These became the Mark 13 version.

32

Service
Like its European competitors, Chieftain found a large export market in the Middle East, but unlike Centurion, it was not adopted by any other NATO or Commonwealth countries. Chieftain proved itself capable in combat and able to be upgraded with enhancements both for overall improvement and to meet local requirements. The marque was continuously upgraded until the early 1990s when it was replaced by Challenger 1. The final Chieftain version used by the British Army until 1995, incorporated "Stillbrew" armour named after Colonel Still and John Brewer from the Military Vehicles and Engineering Establishment (MVEE), the Improved Fire Control System (IFCS) and the Thermal Observation Gunnery Sight (TOGS).

Chieftain tanks of 14th/20th King's Hussars on parade with urban camouflage, Strae des 17. Juni, West Berlin, 18 June 1989.

The first model was introduced in 1967. Chieftain was supplied to at least six countries, including Iran, Kuwait, Oman and Jordan. An agreement for sales to Israel was cancelled by the British Government in 1969, despite considerable Israeli technical and tactical input into the development of the tank, especially in desert environments, and the use of hull-down to maximum effect in the final design. This experience spurred the creation of the indigenous Israeli Merkava, the development programme of which was led by General Israel Tal, who had worked closely with the British in the Anglo-Israeli Chieftain project. The largest foreign sale was to Iran, which took delivery of 707 Mk-3P and Mk-5P, 125189 FV-4030-1, 41 ARV and 14 AVLB before the 1979 revolution.[4] Further planned deliveries of the more capable 4030 series were cancelled at that point. The tank was heavily used during the IranIraq War of 1980-88 with mixed results, engine breakdowns being a common issue. Chieftains participated in the biggest tank battle of the war in early 1981. Iran lost 200 Chieftain and M60A1 tanks in battle. In return, Iraq lost 50 T-62 tanks.[5]

Chieftain tank Kuwaiti Chieftains participated in the Gulf war(1990). 136 tanks were captured by Iraq. Only few of Chieftains managed to survive the war with Iraq.[6]

33

Specifications
Crew: 4 Combat weight: 55 tons Overall length: 10.8m (35ft 5.2in) gun forward Hull length: 7.5m (24ft 7.3in) Height: 2.9m (9ft 6.2in) Width: 3.5m (11ft 5.8in) Powerplant: Leyland L60 (diesel, multi-fuel compression ignition) 695bhp (518kW) Range: 500km (310mi) Maximum road speed: 48km/h (30mph) Cross-country speed: 30km/h (19mph) Armour: turret front, 195mm (7.7in) RHA (60)

Armament 120 mm L11A5 rifled tank gun Rate of fire: 8 rounds per minute Elevation: -10 to +20 degree Laser rangefinder Coaxial L8A1 7.62mm machine gun Cupola-mounted L37A1 7.62mm machine gun Mark 1 and Mark 2 models had coaxial .50-inch (12.7mm) ranging machine guns prior to the introduction of the laser rangefinder. Equipment Twin Clansman VRC 353 VHF Radio sets 1 C42 1 B47 Larkspur VHF radios 2 X 6-barrel smoke dischargers on turret Bulldozer blade (optional - fitted to one tank per squadron)

Variants
Chieftain Mk 1 40 training vehicles for 19651966. Issued to 1 RTR and 5 RTR for troop trials. Chieftain Mk 2 First service model with 650hp engine. Chieftain Mk 3 Extra equipment fitted giving rise to several sub-marks. New cupola. Chieftain Mk.5 Final production variant, with upgrades to the engine and NBC protection system. Chieftain Mk.6-9 Incremental upgrades to earlier Marks of tanks, including addition of Clansman radios. Chieftain Mk.10 Mark 9 upgrade, addition of Stillbrew Crew Protection Package to the turret front and turret ring.

Chieftain tank Chieftain Mk.11 Mark 10 upgrade, searchlight replaced with the Thermal Observation and Gunnery System (TOGS), manufactured by Barr and Stroud. Chieftain Mk.12/13 Proposed further upgrades, cancelled when the Challenger 2 was introduced. Chieftain 900 Chieftain with Chobham armour FV4205 AVLB Bridge-laying vehicle FV4204 ARV/ARRV Armoured Recovery Vehicle, Armoured Recovery and Repair Vehicle. Chieftain AVRE Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers, a British Army combat engineering variant used by the Royal Engineers. Chieftain Marksman self-propelled anti-aircraft gun version, equipped with the Marksman twin gun turret. Chieftain Mineclearer Mine-clearing development. Chieftain Sabre Twin 30mm AA turret. Khalid (also designated 4030P2J - P = Phase & J = Jordan)/Shir (Lion) 1 Jordanian with the running gear of the Challenger 1. Basically this was a transition vehicle from the Chieftain to the Shir 2 which had been intended for Iran but was subsequently cancelled. The Shir 2 tanks became Challenger 1 tanks after reworking at ROF Leeds. The vehicle chassis comprised the front half of a Chieftain Hull, Chieftain running gear and the rear of a 4030/2 Chassis (Sloping Hull). This allowed the fitment in the engine bay of a Rolls-Royce CV12 engine producing 1200 bhp at 2,300 rpm. Weapon Carriers The Chieftain chassis was modified to mount air defence weapons ("Marksman" 2 x 35mm cannon) and a 155mm howitzer in various modifications. Shir 2 Iranian variant. Visible external differences from Chieftain Mk.5 included a sloping rear hull, Removal of the Searchlight from the left turret area and storage baskets refitted, water channel removed from around drivers hatch on the glacis plate, modified light clusters also on the glacis plate, Larger sight housing on commanders cupola. Mobarez Tank Iranian upgraded version of Chieftain.
An AVRE carrying fascine on Salisbury Plain.

34

Khalid variant

Chieftain tank

35

Operators
United Kingdom: Used from 1965 to 1995. Iran: 707 Mk-3P and Mk-5P, 125189 FV-4030-1, 41 ARV and 14 AVLB obtained before the 1979 revolution. Further planned deliveries of the more capable 4030 series were cancelled at that point. 100 in service as of 2005[7]. (100 in 1990, 250 in 1995, 140 in 2000). Iraq: 50-75 tanks in service with Iraqi Army in 1990. Most upgraded to Khalid-level with Air-conditioning for crew and reinforced armor and night vision.[8] Jordan: 274 Khalid delivered between 1981-1985 + 90 MK5/5 From Iraq.[9] 350 in service Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items[citation needed] Kuwait: 175 in 1976, 143 in 1989, 20 in 1995, 17 in storage in 2000. Oman: 27 delivered 198185.[10]

References
Notes
[1] Richard M. Ogorkiewicz, Jane's - The Technology of Tanks, Jane's Information Group, p.69 [2] Simon Dunstan, Chieftain Main Battle Tank 1965-2003, Osprey Publishing, p.6 [3] JP-4 dossier, 'Main battle tanks'(1990), p.35-36, edited by Ed.Ai. 1990, Florence [4] , (Search UK to Iran, 1950-2008) [5] The Iran-Iraq War Efraim Karsh pp.29-30. [6] Tanki v operacii "Shok i trepet", Aleksei Brusilov, Leonid Karyakin, Tankomaster 2003-08(Russian: , , , 2003-08) [7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Chieftain_tank& action=edit [8] Stephen Hughes, The Iraqi Threat and Saddam Hussein's Weapons of Mass Destruction, page 304 [9] , (Search UK to Jordan, 1950-2008) [10] , (Search UK to Oman, 1950-2008)

Bibliography Norman, Michael, AFV Profile No. 18 Chieftain and Leopard (Development), Profile Publishing

External links
FAS.org (http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/row/chieftain.htm) Chieftain Tank (http://www.chieftaintank.net)

M1 Abrams

36

M1 Abrams
M1 Abrams

M1A2 Abrams with prototype TUSK equipment and Common Remotely Operated Weapons Station (CROWS). 50 machine gun at the commander's station Front Rear Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank United States

Service history
Inservice Usedby Wars 1980 present See Operators below Persian Gulf War War in Afghanistan Iraq War

Production history
Designer Designed Manufacturer Unitcost Chrysler Defense (now General Dynamics Land Systems) 1972 1979 Lima Army Tank Plant (since 1980) Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant (19821996) US$6.21 million (M1A2 / FY99) (with inflation adjustment) 1979 present 10,000+
[2] [1]

Estimated in 2012 as US$8.58 million

Produced Numberbuilt Variants

See variants

Specifications
Weight Length 67.6 short tons (60.4 long tons; 61.3t) Gun forward: 32.04ft (9.77m) Hull length: 26.02ft (7.93m) 12ft (3.66m) 8ft (2.44m) 4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver)
[3]

Width Height Crew

M1 Abrams

37

Armor

Chobham, RH armor, depleted uranium strike plates, Kevlar mesh[citation

needed]

M1: Hull & turret 350mm vs APFSDS, 700mm vs HEAT M1A1: Hull & turret 600mm vs APFSDS, 700mm vs HEAT M1A1HA: Hull 600mm vs APFSDS, 700mm vs HEAT, Turret [6][7] 800mm vs APFSDS, 1,300 mm vs HEAT M1A2: Hull (turret) 600 (780mm)mm vs APFSDS, 800mm (1,060mm) vs HEATWikipedia:Verifiability

[4][5]

Main armament Secondary armament Engine Power/weight Transmission Suspension Groundclearance Fuelcapacity Operational range Speed

105mm L52 M68 rifled cannon (M1) 120mm L44 M256 smoothbore cannon (M1A1, M1A2, M1A2SEP) with 42 rounds 1 .50-caliber (12.7mm) M2HB heavy machine gun with 900 rounds 2 7.62 mm (.308) M240 machine guns with 8,800 rounds (1 pintle-mounted, 1 coaxial) Honeywell AGT1500C multi-fuel turbine engine 1,500shp (1,120kW) 24.5hp/t (18.27kW/t) Allison DDA X-1100-3B Torsion bar 0.48m (1ft 7in) (M1, M1A1) 0.43m (1ft 5in) (M1A2) 500 US gallons (1,900l; 420impgal) M1A2: 426km (265mi)

M1A2: Road 67km/h (42mph) (governed) Off-road: 40km/h (25mph)

The M1 Abrams is an American third-generation main battle tank produced by the United States. It is named after General Creighton Abrams, former Army Chief of Staff and Commander of U.S. military forces in the Vietnam War from 1968 to 1972. Highly mobile, designed for modern armored ground warfare,[8] the M1 is well armed and heavily armored. Notable features include the use of a powerful gas turbine engine (multifuel capable, usually fueled with JP8 jet fuel), the adoption of sophisticated composite armor, and separate ammunition storage in a blow-out compartment for crew safety. Weighing nearly 68 short tons (almost 62 metric tons), it is one of the heaviest main battle tanks in service. The M1 Abrams entered U.S. service in 1980, replacing the M60 tank.[9] It served for over a decade alongside the improved M60A3, which had entered service in 1978. The M1 remains the principal main battle tank of the United States Army and Marine Corps, and the armies of Egypt, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Australia, and Iraq. Three main versions of the M1 Abrams have been deployed, the M1, M1A1, and M1A2, incorporating improved armament, protection and electronics. These improvements, as well as periodic upgrades to older tanks, have allowed this long-serving vehicle to remain in front-line service. The M1A3 was under early development as of 2009.

M1 Abrams

38

History
The M1 Abrams was developed during the Cold War as a successor to the canceled MBT-70. The M1 Abrams contract went to Chrysler Defense and was the first vehicle to adopt Chobham armor. Adaptations before the Persian Gulf War (Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm) gave the vehicle better firepower and NBC (Nuclear, Biological and Chemical) protection. Being vastly superior to Iraqi tanks, very few M1 tanks were hit by enemy fire. Upgrades after the war improved the tank's weapons sights and fire control unit. The invasion of Iraq in 2003 destroyed Iraq's military. The subsequent insurgency exposed the tanks' vulnerability to rocket-propelled grenades and mines. These problems were partially rectified with the TUSK modification. The Marine Corps sent a company of M1A1 Abrams to Afghanistan in late 2010.

Development
The first attempt to replace the aging M60 tank was the MBT-70, developed in partnership with West Germany in the 1960s. The MBT-70 had advanced features such as a height-adjustable pneumatic suspension and a very small body with the driver in a turret design that allowed the driver to always face the direction of travel. The MBT-70 ultimately proved to be too heavy, complex, and expensive. As a result of the imminent failure of this project, the U.S. Army introduced the XM803, using some technologies from the MBT-70 but removing some of the more troublesome. This succeeded only in producing an expensive system with capabilities similar to the M60. Congress canceled the MBT-70 in November and XM803 December 1971, and redistributed the funds to the new XM815, later renamed the XM1 Abrams after General Creighton Abrams. Prototypes were delivered in 1976 by Chrysler Defense and General Motors armed with the license-built version of the 105mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun along with a Leopard 2 for comparison. The turbine-powered Chrysler Defense design was selected for development as the M1; Chrysler had significant experience designing turbine-powered land vehicles going back to the 1950s. In March 1982, General Dynamics Land Systems Division (GDLS) purchased Chrysler Defense, after Chrysler built over 1,000 M1s.[citation needed]

An XM1 Abrams, during a demonstration at Fort Knox, Kentucky in 1979

A total of 3,273 M1 Abrams were produced 197985 and first entered U.S. Army service in 1980. Production at the government-owned, GDLS-operated Lima Army Tank Plant in Lima, Ohio, was joined by vehicles built at the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant in Warren, Michigan from 1982 to 1996. The M1 was armed with the license-built version of the 105mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun. An improved model called the M1IP was produced briefly in 1984 and contained small upgrades. The M1IP models were used in the Canadian Army Trophy NATO tank gunnery competition in 1985 and 1987. About 6,000 M1A1 Abrams were produced from 198692 and featured the M256 120mm (4.7in) smoothbore cannon developed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany for the Leopard 2, improved armor, and a CBRN protection system. Production of M1 and M1A1 tanks totaled some 9,000 tanks at a cost of approximately $4.30 million per unit. By 1999 costs for the tank were upwards of US$5 million a vehicle. In 1990, Project on Government Oversight in a report criticized the M1's high costs and low fuel efficiency in comparison with other tanks of similar power and effectiveness such as the Leopard 2. The report was based on data from U.S. Army sources and the Congressional record.[10]

105-mm M1 Abrams tank of the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment at Grafenwhr Training Area in Germany, 1986

M1 Abrams As the Abrams entered service in the 1980s, they operated alongside M60A3 within the United States military, and with other NATO tanks in numerous Cold War exercises. These exercises usually took place in Western Europe, especially West Germany, but also in some other countries, including South Korea. The exercises were aimed at countering Soviet forces. However, by January 1991 the Berlin Wall had fallen and the Abrams was instead employed in the Middle East.

39

Persian Gulf War

The Abrams remained untested in combat until the Persian Gulf War in 1991, during Operation Desert Storm. A total of 1,848 M1A1s were deployed to Saudi Arabia to participate in the liberation of Kuwait. The M1A1 was superior to Iraq's Soviet-era T-55 and T-62 tanks, as well as T-72s imported from the Soviet Union and Poland.[11] The existence of licence-produced T-72 (nicknamed Asad Babil) has been disputed; according to Polish officials none were finished prior to the Iraqi Taji tank plant being destroyed in 1991. The T-72s, like most Soviet export Abrams move out on a mission during Desert designs, lacked night vision systems and then-modern rangefinders, Storm in 1991. A Bradley IFV and logistics though they did have some night-fighting tanks with older active convoy can be seen in the background. infrared systems or floodlights. A total of 23 M1A1s were damaged or destroyed during the war. Of the nine Abrams destroyed, seven were destroyed by friendly fire, and two were purposely destroyed to prevent capture after being damaged.[12] Some others took minor combat damage, with little effect on their operational readiness. Very few M1 tanks were hit by enemy fire, which resulted in no fatalities and only a handful of wounded. The M1A1 was capable of making kills at ranges in excess of 2,500 metres (8,200ft). This range was crucial in combat against previous generation tanks of Soviet design in Desert Storm, as the effective range of the main gun in the Soviet/Iraqi tanks was less than 2,000 metres (6,600ft). This meant Abrams tanks could hit Iraqi tanks before the enemy got in rangea decisive advantage in this kind of combat. In friendly fire incidents, the front armor and fore side turret armor survived direct APFSDS hits from other M1A1s. This was not the case for the side armor of the hull and the rear armor of the turret, as both areas were penetrated on at least in two occasions by friendly depleted uranium ammunition during the Battle of Norfolk.[14]

An M1A1 of 2nd Squadron, 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment "Eaglehorse" destroyed by an ammunition explosion accident in Camp Doha, [13] Kuwait on 11 July 1991.

During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm some M1IP and M1A1s were modified locally in theater by modification work orders (MWO) with additional rolled homogenous armor plating welded on the turret front. The M1 can be equipped with mine plow and mine roller attachments.

Upgrades
The M1A2 was a further improvement of the M1A1 with a commander's independent thermal viewer, weapon station, position navigation equipment, and a full set of controls and displays linked by a digital data bus. These upgrades also provided the M1A2 with an improved fire control system.[15] The M1A2 System Enhancement Package (SEP) added digital maps, FBCB2 capabilities, and an improved cooling system to compensate for heat generated by the additional computer systems. The M1A2 SEP also serves as the basis for the M104 Wolverine heavy assault bridge.

M1 Abrams Further upgrades included depleted uranium armor for all variants, a system overhaul that returns all A1s to like-new condition (M1A1 AIM), a digital enhancement package for the A1 (M1A1D), and a commonality program to standardize parts between the U.S. Army and the Marine Corps (M1A1HC).

40

Iraq War
Further combat was seen during 2003 when U.S. forces invaded Iraq and deposed Ba'athist Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein in the Iraq War's Operation Iraqi Freedom. As of March 2005, approximately 80 Abrams tanks were forced out of action by enemy attacks.[16] The most lopsided achievement of the M1A1s was the destruction of seven T-72s in a point-blank skirmish (less than 50 yards (46m)) near Mahmoudiyah, about 18 miles (29km) south of Baghdad, with no losses for the American side.[17] In addition to the Abrams' already heavy armament, some crews were also issued M136 AT4 shoulder-fired anti-tank weapons under the assumption that they might have to engage heavy armor in tight urban areas where the main gun could not be brought to bear.

M1A1 conducts reconnaissance in Iraq in September 2004.

U.S. Army M1A2 Abrams with TUSK equipment

Following lessons learned in Desert Storm, the Abrams and many other U.S. combat vehicles used in the conflict were fitted with Combat Identification Panels to reduce friendly fire incidents. These were fitted on the sides and rear of the turret, with flat panels equipped with a four-cornered 'box' image on either side of the turret front (as seen in the images at right). Some Abrams were also fitted with a secondary storage bin on the back of the existing bustle rack on the rear of the turret referred to as a bustle rack extension to enable the crew to carry more supplies and personal belongings.

Several Abrams that were irrecoverable due to loss of mobility or other circumstances were destroyed by friendly forces to prevent their capture, usually by other Abrams.[18] Some Abrams were disabled by Iraqi infantrymen in ambushes during the invasion. Some troops employed short-range anti-tank rockets and fired at the tracks, rear and top. Other tanks were put out of action when struck in critical places by heavy machine gun rounds. A majority of Abrams damaged post-invasion were by improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Due to the vulnerability of tanks in urban combat, the Tank Urban Survival Kit, or TUSK, is being issued to some M1 Abrams. It adds protection in the rear and side of the tank to improve fighting ability in urban environments.[19]
Abrams crossing the Euphrates River at Objective Peach on ribbon assault float bridge deployed by the 299th Engineer Company in 2003.

In May 2008, it was reported that an American M1 tank had also been damaged by an RPG-29, which uses a tandem-charge high explosive anti-tank warhead to penetrate explosive reactive armor (ERA) as well as composite armor behind it, in Iraq.[20] The U.S. considered the RPG-29 threat to American armor high and refused to allow the newly formed Iraqi Army to buy it, fearing that it would fall into the insurgents' hands.

M1 Abrams

41

War in Afghanistan
Operating tanks in Afghanistan can be difficult due to the rough terrain, although Canada and Denmark have deployed Leopard 1 and 2 battle tanks that have been specifically modified to operate in the relatively flat and arid conditions of south-western Afghanistan. In late 2010 at the request of Regional Command Southwest, the U.S. Marine Corps deployed a small detachment of 14 M1A1 Abrams from Delta Company, 1st Tank Battalion, 1st Marine Division (Forward),[21] to southern Afghanistan in support of operations in Helmand and Kandahar provinces.[22]

Future
The tracked M8 Armored Gun System was conceived as a possible supplement for the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflict in the early 1990s. Prototypes were made but the program was canceled. The 8-wheeled M1128 Mobile Gun System was designed to supplement the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflict. It has been introduced into service and serves with Stryker brigades and Airborne units. The U.S. Army's Future Combat Systems' XM1202 Mounted Combat System was to replace the Abrams in U.S. service and was in development when funding for the program was cut from the DoD's budget. The M1A3 Abrams was in the early design period with the U.S. Army in 2009. At that time, the service was seeking a lighter tank version with the same protection as current versions. It aimed to build prototypes by 2014 and begin fielding the first combat-ready M1A3s by 2017. With the budget compromise of December 2013, the M1A3 program received the funding needed to begin full-scale production in 2018.[citation needed] The M1A2 SEP TUSK Abrams and a modernized M1 Abrams were included in the Ground Combat Vehicle (GCV) Analysis of Alternatives (AOA). Vehicles included in the AOA were determined to be inferior to the planned GCV. The U.S. Army Vice Chief of Staff Gen. Peter Chiarelli commended the M1 Abrams program and recommended a similar approach for the GCV program. The Ground Combat Vehicle family of vehicles is the planned successor to the M1 as well as many other U.S. Army vehicles. However, the Army anticipates that the M1A1 will remain in U.S. service until at least 2021, and the M1A2 to beyond 2050. Production shutdown The U.S. Army planned to end production at the Lima Army Tank Plant from 2013 to 2016 in an effort to save over $1 billion; it would be restarted in 2017 to upgrade existing tanks. General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS), which operates the factory, opposed the move, arguing that suspension of operations would increase long-term costs and reduce flexibility. Specifically, GDLS estimated that closing the plant would cost $380 million and restarting production would cost $1.3 billion. If passed, a bill in the U.S. Senate from the first session of the 112th Congress would allocate $272 million in funds toward the plant to allow it to continue regular operations through 2013. By 16 August 2013, details emerged on how the $181 million Congress had allocated for the Abrams would be spent: $114 million would upgrade 12 tanks, $26 million would buy 48 transmissions, and $41 million would buy 86 Block II second-generation forward-looking infrared sensors. The buy is to mitigate Abrams FLIR industrial base risks, and sustain development and production capability. Congress and General Dynamics had been criticized for redirecting money to keep production lines open. A report in July 2012 documented that the company and its employees gave campaign donations to lawmakers, and over 120 lawmakers sent a letter to Secretary of the Army John McHugh expressing their disappointment that the service had stated they didn't intend to fund any tank upgrades until 2017. General Dynamics had asserted that a four-year shutdown would cost $1.1-$1.6 billion when the time came to restart the line. The difference between the estimates was because of several variables, including the length of the shutdown, whether the Army would pay to keep machinery oiled and running periodically, and whether the plant's components would be completely removed. The company and Congress were accused of "forcing the Army to buy tanks it didn't need." The fleet age is low and the Army is not required to begin recapitalization until FY 2017, believing that foreign sales can keep the line running until then. General Dynamics contends that they are

M1 Abrams not forcing more tanks onto the Army, but that they are changing their configuration to make them the most modern. At the time, most Army National Guard units operated the M1A1, while only two Guard units and the rest of the Army had upgraded versions. The 12 upgraded tanks will be going to the National Guard to expand a "pure fleet." The Army has identified three key "irreplaceable" subcomponents: Allison transmissions, Honeywell turbine engines, and night vision systems for target acquisition. Makers of those subcomponents were not in danger of going out of business, but a prolonged shutdown could cause them to lose their ability to produce them. Foreign sales are also not certain to keep orders, as planned contracts from Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Iraq, and Egypt have been pushed back or are unknown. Even though money is being spent to protect the industrial base, some feel those strategic choices should not be made by members of Congress, especially those with the facilities in their district. There is still risk of production gaps even with production extended through 2015. With funds awarded before recapitalization is needed, budgetary pressures may push planned new upgrades for the Abrams from 2017 to 2019.[23]

42

Design
Countermeasures
Camouflage Earlier U.S. military vehicles, used from World War II through the Vietnam War, used a scheme of dark brownish green known as "olive drab" with large white stars. Prototypes, early production M1 (105mm gun) and M1-IP models switched to a flat medium green paint scheme. The large white insignia stars have also transitioned to much smaller black markings. Some units painted their M1s with the older MERDC 4-color paint scheme but the turn-in requirements for these tanks required repainting them to solid green. Therefore, even though a large number of the base model M1s were camouflaged in the field, few or none exist today. M1A1s came from the factory with the NATO three color camouflage Black/Med-Green/Dark-Brown CARC paint jobs.[citation needed] Today M1A1s are given the NATO three color paint job during rebuilds. M1s and M1A1s deployed to Desert Storm were hastily painted desert tan. Some, but not all, of these tanks were re-painted to their "authorized" paint scheme. M1A2s built for Middle Eastern countries were painted in desert tan. Some M1 series tanks are being painted desert tan for service in Iraq and some are not. Replacement parts (roadwheels, armor skirt panels, drive sprockets, etc.) are painted overall green, which can sometimes lead to vehicles with a patchwork of green and desert tan parts. Australian M1A1s were desert tan when delivered but have undergone a transition to the Australian Army vehicle standard 'Disruptive Pattern Camouflage'; a scheme that consists of black, olive drab and brown.

American M1A1s during the Foal Eagle 1998 training exercises in South Korea, with their factory single green paint scheme.

M1A1 in the Australian Army's Disruptive Pattern Camouflage, used for vehicles and materiel. Smoke grenade launchers are seen at left.

Concealment The turret is fitted with two six-barreled smoke grenade launchers (USMC M1A1s use an eight-barreled version). These can create a thick smoke that blocks both vision and thermal imaging. The engine is also equipped with a

M1 Abrams smoke generator that is triggered by the driver. When activated, fuel is sprayed into the hot turbine exhaust, creating the thick smoke. However, due to change from diesel as a primary fuel to the use of JP-8, this system is disabled on most Abrams today because of a slightly elevated risk of fire damage to the engine compartment. Active protection system In addition to the armor, some Abrams are equipped with a Softkill Active protection system, the AN/VLQ-6 Missile Countermeasure Device (MCD) that can impede the function of guidance systems of some semi-active control line-of-sight (SACLOS) wire and radio guided anti-tank missiles (such as the Russian 9K11 Malyutka, 9K111 Fagot, 9M113 Konkurs, 9K114 Shturm) and thermally and infrared guided missiles. The MCD works by emitting a massive, condensed infrared signal to confuse the seeker of an anti-tank guided missile (ATGM). However, the drawback to the system is that the ATGM is not destroyed, it is merely directed away from its intended target, leaving the missile to detonate elsewhere. This device is mounted on the turret roof in front of the loader's hatch, and can lead some people to mistake Abrams fitted with these devices for the M1A2 version, since the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer on the latter is mounted in the same place, though the MCD is box-shaped and fixed in place as opposed to cylindrical and rotating like the CITV. Armor The Abrams is protected by armor based on the British-designed Chobham armor, a further development of the British 'Burlington' armor. Chobham is a composite armor formed by spacing multiple layers of various alloys of steel, ceramics, plastic composites, and kevlar, giving an estimated maximum (frontal turret) 1,3201,620 millimetres (5264in) of RHAe versus HEAT (and other chemical energy rounds) and 940960mm (3738in) versus kinetic energy penetrators.[24] It may also be fitted with reactive armor over the track skirts if needed (as in the Urban Survival Kit) and slat armor over the rear of the tank and rear fuel cells to protect against ATGMs. Tankers drive an M1A1 Abrams through the Protection against spalling is provided by a Kevlar liner. Beginning in Taunus Mountains north of Frankfurt during 1987, M1A1 tanks received improved armor packages that Exercise Ready Crucible in February 2005. incorporated depleted uranium (DU) components in their armor at the front of the turret and the front of the hull. Armor reinforced in this manner offers significantly increased resistance towards all types of anti-tank weaponry, but at the expense of adding considerable weight to the tank, as depleted uranium is 1.7times more dense than lead. The first M1A1 tanks to receive this upgrade were tanks stationed in Germany, since they were the first line of defense against the Soviet Union. US-based tank battalions participating in Operation Desert Storm received an emergency program to upgrade their tanks with depleted uranium armor immediately before the onset of the campaign. M1A2 tanks uniformly incorporate depleted uranium armor, and all M1A1 tanks in active service have been upgraded to this standard as well. The added protection from the depleted uranium armor is believed to be equivalent to 24 inches (610mm) of RHA. In the Gulf War, Abrams tanks survived multiple hits at relatively close ranges from Iraqi Lion of Babylon tanks and ATGMs. M829A1 "Silver Bullet" APFSDS rounds from other M1A1 Abrams were unable to penetrate the front and side armor (even at close ranges) in friendly fire incidents as well as an incident in which an Abrams tried to destroy an abandoned Abrams stuck in the mud.[25]

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M1 Abrams Damage control The tank has a halon firefighting system to automatically extinguish fires in the crew compartment. The engine compartment has a firefighting system that is engaged by pulling a T-handle located on the left side of the tank. The crew compartment also contains small hand-held fire extinguishers. Fuel and ammunition are stored in armored compartments with blowout panels to protect the crew from the risk of the tank's own ammunition cooking off if the tank is damaged the main gun's ammunition is stored in the rear section of the turret, with blast doors that open under power by sliding sideways only to remove a round for firing, then automatically close.

44

Armament
Primary M68A1 rifled gun The main armament of the original model M1 was the M68A1 105mm rifled tank gun firing a variety of high explosive anti-tank, high explosive, white phosphorus and an anti-personnel (multiple flechette) round. This gun is a license-built version of the British Royal Ordnance L7 gun. However, it proved to be inadequate; a cannon with lethality beyond the 3-kilometer (1.9mi) range was needed to combat newer armor technologies. To attain that lethality, projectile diameter needed to be increased. M256 smoothbore gun The main armament of the M1A1 and M1A2 is the M256A1 120mm smoothbore gun, designed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany, manufactured under license in the United States by Watervliet Arsenal, New York. The M256A1 is a variant of the Rheinmetall 120 mm L/44 gun carried on the German Leopard 2 on all variants up to the Leopard 2A5. Leopard 2A6 replaced the L/44 barrel with a longer L/55. The M256A1 fires a variety of rounds. The M829A2 APFSDS round was developed specifically to address the improved protection of a A Marine M1A1 fires its main gun into a house Russian T-72, T-80U or T-90 main battle tank equipped with providing suppressive counter fire against insurgents in Iraq during the Second Battle of Kontakt-5 Explosive Reactive Armor. Later, the M829A3 APFSDS Fallujah, 2004. round was introduced to improve its effectiveness against next generation ERA equipped tanks. As a counter to that, the Russian army introduced Relikt, the most modern Russian ERA, which is claimed to be twice as effective as Kontakt-5. Development of the M829 series is continuing with the M829E4 currently in development. The Abrams also fires HEAT shaped charge rounds such as the M830, the latest version of which (M830A1) incorporates a sophisticated multi-mode electronic sensing fuse and more fragmentation which allows it to be used effectively against armored vehicles, personnel, and low-flying aircraft. The Abrams uses a manual loader. The fourth tank crew member on the Abrams also provides additional support for maintenance, observation post/listening post (LP/OP) operations, and other tasks. The new M1028 120mm anti-personnel canister cartridge was brought into service early for use in the aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. It contains 1,098 38-inch (9.5mm) tungsten balls which spread from the muzzle to produce a shotgun effect lethal out to 600 meters (2,000ft). The tungsten balls can be used to clear enemy dismounts, break up hasty ambush sites in urban areas, clear defiles, stop infantry attacks and counter-attacks and support friendly infantry assaults by providing covering fire. The canister round is also a highly effective breaching round and can level cinder block walls and knock man-sized holes in reinforced concrete walls for infantry raids at distances up to 75 meters (246ft).[26] Also in use is the M908 obstacle-reduction round. It is designed to destroy obstacles and barriers. The round is a modified M830A1 with the front fuse replaced by a steel nose to penetrate into the obstacle before detonation.[27]

M1 Abrams The Army is developing a new round to replace the M830A1, M1028, and M908. Called the Advanced Multi-Purpose (AMP) round, it will have point detonation, delay, and airburst modes of operation in a single munition. Having one round that does the job of three would simplify logistics and be able to be used on a variety of targets. The AMP is to be effective against bunkers, infantry, light armor, and obstacles. It will be able to breach reinforced concrete walls and defeat ATGM teams beyond 500 meters.[28] In addition to these, the XM1111 (Mid-Range-Munition Chemical Energy) was also in development. The XM1111 was a guided munition using a dual-mode seeker that combined imaging-infrared and semi-active laser guidance. The MRM-CE was selected over the competing MRM-KE which used a rocket-assisted kinetic energy penetrator. The CE variant was chosen due to its better effects against secondary targets, providing a more versatile weapon. The Army hoped to achieve IOC with the XM1111 by 2013. However, the Mid-Range Munition was cancelled in 2009 along with Future Combat Systems.[29] Secondary The Abrams tank has three machine guns: 1. A .50 cal. (12.7 mm) M2HB machine gun in front of the commander's hatch. On the M1, M1IP and M1A1, this gun is on a powered mount and can be fired using a 3 magnification sight, known as the Commander's Weapon Station (CWS), while the vehicle is "buttoned up" with all its hatches closed to protect the crew. On the M1A2 and M1A2 SEP, this gun is on a flex mount, the commander having to expose himself to manually fire the weapon. With the Common Remote Operated Weapons System (CROWS) add-on kit, an M2A1 .50 Caliber Machinegun, M240, or M249 SAW can be mounted on a CROWS remote weapons platform (similar to the Protector M151 remote weapon station used on the Stryker family of vehicles). Current variants of the TUSK kit on the M1A2 have forgone this, instead adding transparent gun shields to the commander's weapon station. The upgrade variant called M1A1 Abrams Integrated Management (AIM) equips the .50 caliber gun with a thermal sight for accurate night and other low-visibility shooting. 2. A 7.62 mm M240 machine gun in front of the loader's hatch on a skate mount (seen at right). Some of these have been fitted with gun shields during the Iraq War, as well as night-vision scopes for low-visibility engagements.

45

M1A1 firing its main gun as seen from the loader's hatch. The M240 is visible left while the M2HB is visible right.

3. A second 7.62mm M240 machine gun in a coaxial mount to the right of the main gun. The coaxial MG is aimed and fired with the same computer fire control system used for the main gun.[30] 4. (Optional) A second coaxial 12.7mm M2HB machine gun can be mounted directly above the main gun in a remote weapons platform as part of the TUSK upgrade kit.

M1 Abrams Aiming The Abrams is equipped with a ballistic fire-control computer that uses user and system-supplied data from a variety of sources, to compute, display, and incorporate the three components of a ballistic solutionlead angle, ammunition type, and range to the targetto accurately fire the tank. These three components are determined using a YAG rod laser rangefinder, crosswind sensor, a pendulum static cant sensor, data concerning performance and flight characteristics of each specific type of round, tank-specific boresight alignment data, A view of the gunner's station (bottom left) and ammunition temperature, air temperature, barometric pressure, a commander's station (top right) muzzle reference system (MRS) that determines and compensates for barrel droop at the muzzle due to gravitational pull and barrel heating due to firing or sunlight, and target speed determined by tracking rate tachometers in the Gunner's or Commander's Controls Handles. All of these factors are computed into a ballistic solution and updated 30 times per second. The updated solution is displayed in the Gunner's or Tank Commander's field of view in the form of a reticle in both day and Thermal modes. The ballistic computer manipulates the turret and a complex arrangement of mirrors so that all one has to do is keep the reticle on the target and fire to achieve a hit. Proper lead and gun tube elevation are applied to the turret by the computer, greatly simplifying the job of the gunner.[citation needed] The fire-control system uses these data to compute a firing solution for the gunner. The ballistic solution generated ensures a hit percentage greater than 95percent at nominal ranges.[citation needed] Either the commander or gunner can fire the main gun. Additionally, the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer (CITV) on the M1A2 can be used to locate targets and pass them on for the gunner to engage while the commander scans for new targets. In the event of a malfunction or damage to the primary sight system, the main and 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment soldier, assisting coaxial weapons can be manually aimed using a telescopic scope in the critical job of "boresighting" the alignment boresighted to the main gun known as the Gunner's Auxiliary Sight of all the tank's sights to the center of the axis of the bore of the main gun on an M1A1 Abrams in (GAS). The GAS has two interchangeable reticles; one for HEAT and Mosul, Iraq in January 2005. Hand signals enable MPAT (MultiPurpose AntiTank) rounds and one for APFSDS and the gunner (inside the tank) to train the main gun STAFF (Smart Target-Activated Fire and Forget) ammunition. Turret onto a boresighting target. traverse and main gun elevation can be accomplished with manual handles and cranks in the event of a Fire Control System or Hydraulic System failure. The commander's M2 .50caliber machine gun on the M1 and M1A1 is aimed by a 3 magnification sight incorporated into the Commander's Weapon Station (CWS), while the M1A2 uses either the machine gun's own iron sights, or a remote aiming system such as the CROWS system when used as part of the TUSK (Tank Urban Survival Kit). The loader's M240 machine gun is aimed either with the built-in iron sights or with a thermal scope mounted on the machine gun.[citation needed]

46

M1 Abrams

47

Mobility
Tactical The M1 Abrams' powertrain comprises a 1,500 shaft horsepower (1,100kW) Honeywell AGT 1500 (originally made by Lycoming) multi-fuel gas turbine, and a six speed (four forward, two reverse) Allison X-1100-3B Hydro-Kinetic automatic transmission, giving it a governed top speed of 45mph (72km/h) on paved roads, and 30mph (48km/h) cross-country. With the engine governor removed, speeds of around 60mph (97km/h) are possible on an improved surface; however, damage to the drivetrain (especially to the tracks) and an Marines from 1st Tank Battalion load a increased risk of injuries to the crew can occur at speeds above 45mph Honeywell AGT1500 multi-fuel turbine back into (72km/h). The tank was built around this engine and it is multifuel the tank at Camp Coyote, Kuwait, February 2003. capable; meaning that it can be powered with diesel, kerosene, any grade of motor gasoline, and jet fuel (such as JP-4 or JP-8). For logistical reasons, JP-8 is the US military's universal fuel powering both aircraft and vehicle fleets. On the other hand, Australian M1A1 AIM SA burn diesel fuel, since the use of JP-8 is less common in the Australian Army. The gas turbine propulsion system has proven quite reliable in practice and combat, but its high fuel consumption is a serious logistic issue (starting up the turbine alone consumes nearly 10 US gallons (38L) of fuel). The engine burns more than 1.67 US gallons (6.3L) per mile (60 US gallons (230L) per hour) when traveling cross-country and 10 US gallons (38L) per hour when idle. The high speed, high temperature jet blast emitted from the rear of M1 Abrams tanks makes it difficult for the infantry to proceed shadowing the tank in urban combat. The turbine is very quiet when compared to diesel engines of similar power M1 driving controls output and produces a significantly different sound from a contemporary diesel tank engine, reducing the audible distance of the sound, thus earning the Abrams the nickname "whispering death" during its first REFORGER exercise.[citation needed] Honeywell was developing another gas turbine engine with General Electric for the XM2001 Crusader program that was to be a replacement for the Abrams' AGT-1500 engine. The new LV100-5 engine was lighter and smaller (43% fewer parts) with rapid acceleration, quieter running, and no visible exhaust. It also featured a 33% reduction in fuel consumption (50% less when idle) and near drop-in replacement. The Abrams-Crusader Common Engine Program A Marine M1A1 offloading from Landing Craft was shelved when the Crusader program was canceled, however Phase Air Cushioned vehicle 2 of Army's PROSE (Partnership for Reduced O&S Costs, Engine) program called for further development of the LV100-5 and replacement of the current AGT-1500 engine. General Dynamics has been working on a drop-in diesel engine to replace the gas turbine engine. It is smaller than the turbine, 14% cheaper to operate per mile, and has a four-fan cooling system which is to greatly reduce the tank's heat signature.[31] General Dynamics is offering the Tognum America/12V883 diesel engine with new Diehl 570P3 tracks. The engine represents advancements in diesel engine design since the Abrams was first designed, including a common rail fuel injector system where fuel is pressurized and atomized in the cylinder rather than mechanically sprayed. It also has greater torque, an altered nuclear, biological, and chemical protection system that operates independently of the engine, uses less fuel while idle, is quieter, and gives off significantly less heat and pollutants.

M1 Abrams Incorporating the diesel engine into the Abrams would decrease the operating cost of an armored brigade combat team by 14 percent per mile, increase its operating range from 205 miles to 300+ miles, and use half the amount of fuel on a combat day than the turbine engine. The tracks are a version of the Leopard 2's tracks with different rubber pads and a larger center guide. The improved engine and tracks are not part of an Army upgrade program, but may be included in a near-term engineering change proposal (ECP) phase.[32][33] Using a high power density 330cc (20cuin) Wankel rotary engine modified to use diesel and military grade jet fuel, the Army's TARDEC developed a 220-pound (100kg) Auxiliary Power Unit designed to fit into the M1 Abrams, replacing an existing battery pack that weighs about 500 pounds (230kg). The new APU will also be more fuel efficient than the tank's main engine. Testing of the first APUs began in 2009. Although the M1 tank is not designed to carry riders easily, provisions exist for the Abrams to transport troops in tank desant with the turret stabilization device switched off. A battle equipped infantry squad may ride on the rear of the tank, behind the turret. The soldiers can use ropes and equipment straps to provide handholds and snap links to secure themselves. If and when enemy contact is made, the tank conceals itself allowing the infantry to dismount.
Marine M1A1 fitted with snorkel attachment and bustle rack extension.

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Strategic Strategic mobility is the ability of the tanks of an armed force to arrive in a timely, cost effective, and synchronized fashion. The Abrams can be carried by a C-5 Galaxy or a C-17 Globemaster III. The limited capacity (two combat-ready in a C-5, one combat-ready tank in a C-17) caused serious logistical problems when deploying the tanks for the first Persian Gulf War, though there was enough time for 1,848 tanks to be transported by ship. Marines transport their MAGTF-attached Abrams by combat ship. A Wasp-class LHD typically carries a platoon of 4 to 5 tanks attached to the deployed Marine Expeditionary Unit, which are then amphibiously transported to shore by LCAC at 1 combat-ready tank per landing craft.
A U.S. Army M1A1 after being offloaded from a US Air Force C-17 at Balad Air Base, Iraq in 2004.

The Abrams is also transportable by truck, namely the M1070 Heavy Equipment Transporter (HET). The HET can operate on highways, secondary roads, and cross-country. The HET accommodates the 4 tank crewmen. The first instance of the Abrams being airlifted directly into a battlefield occurred in April 2003, when armored elements of the 1st Infantry Division were lifted by C-17s into northern Iraq from Ramstein, Germany to support Task Force Viking.

M1 Abrams

49

Variants and upgrades

XM1-FSED: Preproduction test model. Eleven Full-Scale Engineering Development test bed vehicles were produced in 1977-78. These vehicles were also called Pilot Vehicles and were numbered PV-1 through PV-11. M1: First production variant. Production began (at Chrysler) in 1979 and continued to 1985 (at General Dynamics) (3,273 built for the US). The first 110 tanks were Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) models, still called XM1s, because they were built prior to the tank being type-classified as the M1. M1IP (Improved Performance): Produced briefly in 1984 before the M1A1, contained upgrades and reconfigurations like new turret with thicker frontal armor, new turret is referred as "long" turret instead of older "short" turret, armor upgraded from ~650mm line of sight thickness to ~880mm (894 build for US). M1A1: Production started in 1985 and continued to 1992, pressurized NBC system, rear bustle rack for improved stowage of supplies and crew belongings, redesigned blow-off panels and M256 120mm smoothbore cannon (4,976 built for the U.S. Army, 221 for USMC, 755 for Egypt, 59 M1A1 AIM SA sold to Australia).

U.S Army M104 Wolverine Heavy Assault Bridge

M1A1HA (Heavy Armor): Added 1st generation depleted Grizzly Combat Mobility Vehicle (CMV) uranium armor components. Some tanks were later upgraded with 2nd generation depleted uranium armor components, and are unofficially designated M1A1HA+. M1A1HC (Heavy Common): Added new 2nd generation depleted uranium armor components, digital engine control and other small upgrades common between Army and Marine Corps tanks. M1A1D (Digital): A digital upgrade for the M1A1HC, to keep up with M1A2SEP, manufactured in quantity for only 2 Assault Breacher Vehicle launching a line charge battalions. M1A1AIM v.1 (Abrams Integrated Management): A program whereby older units are reconditioned to zero hour conditions; and the tank is improved by adding Forward-Looking Infra-Red (FLIR) and Far Target Locate sensors, a tank-infantry phone, communications gear, including FBCB2 and Blue Force Tracking, to aid in crew situational awareness, and a thermal sight for the .50caliber machine gun. General Dynamics has been awarded contracts by the U.S. Army to supply this variant. M1A1AIM v.2/M1A1SA (Situational Awareness): Upgrades similar to AIM v.1 tanks + new 3rd generation depleted uranium armor components. M1A1FEP (Firepower Enhancement Package): Similar upgrade to AIM v.2 for USMC tanks. M1A1KVT (Krasnovian Variant Tank): M1A1s that have been visually modified to resemble Soviet-made tanks for use at the National Training Center, fitted with MILES gear and a Hoffman device. M1A1M: An export variant ordered by the Iraqi Army. M1A1SA "Special Armor": configuration for the Royal Moroccan Army.

M1 Abrams M1A2 (Baseline): Production began in 1992 (77 built for the US and more than 600 M1s upgraded to M1A2, 315 for Saudi Arabia, 218 for Kuwait). The M1A2 offers the tank commander an independent thermal sight and ability to, in rapid sequence, shoot at two targets without the need to acquire each one sequentially, also 2nd generation depleted uranium armor components.[34] M1A2SEP (System Enhancement Package): Has upgraded 3rd generation depleted uranium armor components with graphite coating (240 new built, 300 M1A2s upgraded to M1A2SEP for the USA, also unknown numbers of upgraded basic M1s and M1IPs, also 400 oldest M1A1s upgraded to M1A2SEP). M1A3: Under development, with prospective prototypes by 2014, operational by 2017. Improvements are to include a lighter 120mm gun, added road wheels with improved suspension, a more durable track, lighter armor, long-range precision armaments, and infrared camera and laser detectors. A new internal computer system is also desired, with current wiring replaced by fiber-optic lines that could decrease weight by some two tons.[35] M1 TTB (Tank Test Bed): Prototype with unmanned turret, 3 crew members in armored capsule in front of the heavy armored hull, main armament was 120mm smoothbore gun, M256 derivative or modification, mechanical loading system under turret, never fielded. CATTB Experimental model with a 140mm smoothbore gun, heavy armored turret and upgraded hull based on the M1's chassis. It had a mechanical loading system in turret bustle, a new engine and probably other upgrades, never fielded. The tank went trials in 19871988. CATTB stands for Component Advanced Technology Test Bed. M1 Grizzly Combat Mobility Vehicle (CMV) M1 Panther II Remote Controlled Mine Clearing Vehicle M104 Wolverine Heavy Assault Bridge M1 Panther II Mine Clearing Blade/Roller System. M1ABV Assault Breacher Vehicle: Assault variant for the USMC. Based upon the M1A1 Abrams chassis, the Assault Breacher Vehicle has a variety of systems installed, such as a full-width mine plow, two linear demolition charges, and a lane-marking system. Reactive armor has been fitted to the vehicle providing additional protection against HEAT-based weapons. The turret has been replaced by a new smaller one with two MICLIC launchers at its rear. A M2HB .50 machine gun in a remote weapons station is mounted on the commander's cupola and a bank of grenade launchers are fitted to each side of the superstructure to cover the frontal arc are provided for self-protection.[36] M1 Armored Recovery Vehicle. Only a prototype produced.

50

Specifications
M1 Produced Length Width Height Top speed Range Weight Main armament Crew 7.79ft (2.37m) 45mph (72km/h) 310mi (500km) 197985 M1IP 1984 M1A1 198692 32.04ft (9.77m) 12ft (3.7m) 8.0ft (2.4m) 41.5mph (66.8km/h) 288mi (463km) 243mi (391km) 42mph (68km/h) M1A2 1992 on M1A2SEP

61.4 short tons (55.7t) 62.8 short tons (57.0t) 67.6 short tons (61.3t) 68.4 short tons (62.1t) 69.5 short tons (63.0t) 105 mm M68 rifled 120 mm M256 smoothbore 4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver)

Note: All of the above produce a power of 1,500shp (1,100kW).

M1 Abrams

51

Tank Urban Survival Kit

The Tank Urban Survival Kit (TUSK), is a series of improvements to the M1 Abrams intended to improve fighting ability in urban environments.[37] Historically, urban and other close battlefields have been the worst place for tanks to fighta tank's front armor is much stronger than that on the sides, top, or rear, and in an urban environment, attacks can come from any direction, and attackers can get close enough to reliably hit weak points in the tank's armor, or gain sufficient elevation to hit the top armor. Armor upgrades include reactive armor on the sides of the tank and slat armor (similar to that on the Stryker) on the rear to protect against rocket-propelled grenades and other shaped charge warheads. A Transparent Armor Gun Shield and a thermal sight system are added to the loader's top-mounted M240B 7.62mm machine gun, and a Kongsberg Gruppen Remote Weapon Turret carrying a .50caliber machine gun (again similar to that used on the Stryker) is in place of the tank commander's original .50caliber machine gun mount, wherein the commander had to expose himself to fire the weapon manually. An exterior telephone allows supporting infantry to communicate with the tank commander.

M1A2 with TUSK

The TUSK system is a field-installable kit that allows tanks to be upgraded without needing to be recalled to a maintenance depot. While the reactive armor may not be needed in most situations in maneuver warfare, items like the rear slat armor, loader's gun shield, infantry phone (which saw use on Marine Corps M1A1s as early as 2003), and Kongsberg Remote Weapons Station for the .50caliber machine gun will be added to the entire M1A2 fleet over time. On 29 August 2006, General Dynamics Land Systems received a U.S. Army order for 505 Tank Urban Survivability Kits (TUSK) for Abrams main battle tanks supporting operations in Iraq, under a US$45million contract. The add-on kit will be provided for M1A1 and M1A2-series tanks to enhance crew survivability in urban environments. The kit ordered by the Army consists of a Loader's Armor Gun Shield (LAGS), a Tank Infantry Phone (TIP), Abrams Reactive Armor Tiles (ARAT), a Remote Thermal Sight (RTS) and a Power Distribution Box (PDB). Deliveries are expected to be complete by April 2009.[38] Under a separate order, the U.S. Army awarded General Dynamics Armament and Technical Products (GDATP) US$30 million to produce reactive armor kits to equip M1A2. The total contract value could reach $59 million if all contract options are exercised. The reactive tiles for the M1 will be locally produced at GDATP's Burlington Technology Center. Tiles will be produced at the company's reactive armor facility in Stone County Operations, McHenry, Miss. On 8 December 2006 the U.S. Army added Counter Improvised Explosive Device enhancements to the M1A1 and M1A2 TUSK, awarding GDLS U.S. $11.3million, part of the $59million package mentioned above. In December GDLS also received an order amounting about 40% of a US$48million order for loader's thermal weapon sights being part of the TUSK system improvements for the M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams Tanks.

M1A1 Abrams with an Abrams Integrated Management System and the Tank Urban Survivability Kit conducting a patrol in Baghdad, 2007.

M1 Abrams

52

Operators

M1 Abrams operators

Australia Australian Army: 59 M1A1 (AIM) configuration (hybrids with a mix of equipment used by U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps tanks, without depleted uranium layers in armor) tanks were bought from the United States in 2006, to replace the Leopard AS1 in 2007. Egypt Egyptian Army: 1,005 M1A1 tanks co-produced by the US and Egypt for the Egyptian army. Another 200 tanks have been ordered. Iraq Iraqi Army: 140 M1A1Ms (downgraded, without depleted uranium layers in armor). Iraq was leasing 22 U.S. Army M1A1s for training in 2008.[39][40] The first 11 tanks were delivered to the Iraqi Army in August 2010. All were delivered by August 2011.[41] In October 2012, it was reported that six more tanks were being delivered.[42] Kuwait Kuwaiti Army: 218 M1A2s (downgraded, without depleted uranium layers in armor)[43] Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabian Army: 373 Abrams tanks, To be upgraded to M1A2S configuration in Saudi Arabia. 69 more M1A2S tanks ordered on 8 January 2013, to be delivered by 31 July 2014.[44] United States United States Army and United States Marine Corps have received approximately 8,725 tanks of the M1, M1A1 and M1A2 variants combined.

Australian Abrams tank during Talisman Sabre 2011.

Egyptian Abrams tank deployed during the 2011 Egyptian Revolution.

M1A1M Abrams tanks in Iraqi service, January 2011

M1 Abrams

53
U.S. Army 1,547 M1A2 and M1A2SEP variants 4,393 M1A1 variants 2,000 M1 variants U.S. Marine Corps 403 M1A1

Potential operators
Greece Hellenic Army: 400 ex-U.S. Army M1A1 tanks have been offered to Greece, from which 95-117 might be procured.[45][46] Morocco Royal Moroccan Army: 200 excess M1A1s were requested in 2011. The U.S. DSCA notified Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale for upgrades in June 2012. The proposed sale is for enhancement to Abrams tanks to the Special Armor (SA) configuration, refurbishment of Abrams tanks, and associated parts.[47][48] Peru - Peruvian Army: In May 2013, the M1A1 Abrams was reported to be part of comparative tests to be conducted by the Peru to find a replacement for their aging T-55s. Between 120 and 170 tanks may be acquired. The Abrams competed against the T-90S, Leopard 2A4 and A6, T-64, and T-84.[49] By September 2013, only the M1A1 Abrams, Russian T-90S and T-80, and Ukrainian T-84 were still competing.[50] Taiwan Republic of China Army: According to a report, the Taiwanese government is considering placing an order for 200 used M1A1s from the U.S.

References
Footnotes
[1] "Department of Defense Annual Report FY99" (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ library/ budget/ fy1999/ dot-e/ army/ 99m1a2. html). [2] Pike, John. Lima Army Tank Plant (LATP) (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ facility/ lima. htm). Globalsecurity.org, 05-07 2011. Accessed on 6 May 2012. (Production cost of M1A2, upgraded) [3] Abrams fact file (http:/ / www. army. mil/ factfiles/ equipment/ tracked/ abrams. html). U.S. Army [4] Steven J. Zaloga & Peter Sarson (1993), pp. 9, 10. [5] In T-72 Ural vs M1 Abrams (page 15) Zaloga mentions that a Soviet report estimated the protection of the basic M1 to be equivalent to 470 mm steel armor against armor-piercing rounds and equivalent to 650mm steel armor against shaped charge warheads. [6] Steven J. Zaloga & Peter Sarson (1993), p. 11 [7] In M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 19821992 Steven J. Zaloga writes that "[t]he new armour reportedly gives the M1A1HA the equivalent of 1,300mm steel armour against shaped charge warheads and 600mm against APFSDS," (page 11), which is at least partial a contradiction to what he wrote in T-72 Ural vs M1 Abrams. On page 27 is a chart where the frontal turret armor of the M1A1HA is claimed to be equivalent to 800mm steel armor (RHA). [8] M1 Abrams Main Battle tank (http:/ / www. fas. org/ man/ dod-101/ sys/ land/ m1. htm). FAS.org, 14 April 2000. [9] Hunnicutt 1984, pp. 6, 149, 408. [10] "The Army's M1 Tank: Has It Lived Up To Expectations?" (http:/ / www. pogo. org/ pogo-files/ reports/ national-security/ the-armys-m1-tank/ ns-m1tank-1990. html#90rpt). Project on Government Oversight. 1 January 1990. [11] Steven J. Zaloga & Peter Sarson (1993), p. 24 [12] GAO/NSIAD-92-94, "Operation Desert Storm: Early performance assessment of Bradleys and Abrams" (http:/ / archive. gao. gov/ d31t10/ 145879. pdf), p. 24. GAO, January 1992. Quote: "According to the Army's Office of Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, 23 Abrams tanks were destroyed or damaged in the Persian Gulf area. Of the nine Abrams destroyed, seven were due to friendly fire, and two were intentionally destroyed to prevent capture after they became disabled. Other Abrams tanks were damaged by enemy fire, land mines, on-board fires, or to prevent capture after they became disabled." [13] The Incident at Camp Doha (http:/ / www. eaglehorse. org/ 3_home_station/ doha/ doha. htm). eaglehorse.org [14] ; Sketch depicting the path of a DU 120mm round through the hull of Abrams C-12 (http:/ / www. gulflink. osd. mil/ declassimages/ army/ 19980729/ 980715_sep96_sagwi1_0083. html). OSD. [15] Diaz, R. Gary. "Intervehicular Information System (IVIS): The Basis for a Tactical Information System", SAE Paper Number: 940982, General Dynamics, 1 March 1994. [16] Komarow, Steven. "Tanks take a beating in Iraq" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ world/ iraq/ 2005-03-29-abrams-tank-a_x. htm). USA Today, 29 March 2005.

M1 Abrams
[17] Conroy, Jason & Martz, Ron. Heavy Metal: A Tank Company's Battle To Baghdad. Potomac Books, 2005, p. 158. [18] Zucchino, David: Thunder Run: The Armored Strike to Capture Baghdad. Grove Press, 2004, pp. 2030, 73. [19] Komarow, Steven. "Tanks adapted for urban fights they once avoided" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ world/ 2005-03-29-tank-inside_x. htm). USA Today, 29 March 2005. [20] RPG-29 vs M1A2 (http:/ / www. liveleak. com/ view?i=c1e_1263769845). LiveLeak.com [21] Marine tanks prepare for their first missions in Afghanistan (http:/ / www. usmc. mil/ unit/ 1stmardiv/ Pages/ MarinetankspreparefortheirfirstmissionsinAfghanistan. aspx). U.S. Marine Corps, 18 January 2011. [22] U.S. Tanks En Route to Southwestern Afghanistan (http:/ / www. defense. gov/ news/ newsarticle. aspx?id=61767). American Forces Press Service, 19 November 2010. Retrieved 12 March 2011. [23] "Over Army Objections, Industry and Congress Partner to Keep Abrams Tank Production 'Hot'" (http:/ / www. nationaldefensemagazine. org/ archive/ 2013/ October/ Pages/ OverArmyObjections,IndustryandCongressPartnertoKeepAbramsTankProduction'Hot'. aspx). Nationaldefensemagazine.org, October 2013. [24] R.P. Hunnicutt, Abrams: A History of the American Main Battle Tank [25] Clancy, Tom: Armored Cav: A Guided Tour of an Armored Cavalry Regiment. Berkeley Books, 1994, p. 58 [26] Hilmes (2004), p. 79. [27] "M908 HE-OR-T" (http:/ / www. atk. com/ products-services/ m908-he-or-t-ammunition-120-mm-2/ ). ATK.com [28] http:/ / www. dtic. mil/ ndia/ 2012armaments/ TuesdayPaulHill. pdf [29] "MRM cancelled" (http:/ / www. soldiergeek. com/ milblog/ 2011/ 7/ 11/ atk-awarded-contract-to-develop-abrams-advanced-kinetic-ener. html). Soldiergeek.com, 11 July 2011. [30] "M1A1/M1A2 Main Battle Tank, USA" (http:/ / www. army-technology. com/ projects/ abrams/ index. html). Army-technology.com. [31] "Diesel M1 engine" (http:/ / www. nationaldefensemagazine. org/ archive/ 2013/ January/ Pages/ VendorsPourFundingIntoArmoredVehicleDevelopment. aspx). Nationaldefensemagazine.com, January 2013. Retrieved: 17 December 2012. [32] Abrams Dieselization Project: A Modest Proposal (http:/ / www. defensemedianetwork. com/ stories/ abrams-dieselization-project-a-modest-proposal/ ) - Defensemedianetwork.com, 5 November 2013 [33] Abrams Dieselization Project: Doing the Math (http:/ / www. defensemedianetwork. com/ stories/ abrams-dieselization-project-doing-the-math/ ) - Defensemedianetwork.com, 7 November 2013 [34] M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank (http:/ / www. fas. org/ man/ dod-101/ sys/ land/ m1. htm). Federation of American Scientists [35] "The Abrams Tank - Next Generation" (http:/ / usmilitary. about. com/ od/ armyweapons/ a/ abrams. htm). About.com [36] Abramson,Mark, " ABVs ready to break Afghan ground (http:/ / www. stripes. com/ article. asp?section=104& article=67677)", Stars and Stripes, 1 February 2010. [37] Cramer, Eric W. "TUSK to Update Abrams for Urban Battle" (http:/ / www. dau. mil/ pubs/ dam/ 07_08_2005/ new_ja05. pdf). Defense AT&L: JulyAugust 2005. [38] Tank Urban Survivability Kit (TUSK) (http:/ / defense-update. com/ products/ t/ tusk. htm). defense-update.com. [39] "Iraqi military plans major arms purchase" (http:/ / www. yourdefencenews. com/ iraqi+ military+ plans+ major+ arms+ purchase_18628. html). Your Defence News, 16 December 2008. [40] M1 Abrams Tanks for Iraq (http:/ / www. defenseindustrydaily. com/ M1-Abrams-Tanks-for-Iraq-05013/ ). Defense Industry Daily, 15 March 2009. [41] "Iraqi Army receives last shipment of Abrams tanks" (http:/ / www. army. mil/ article/ 64944/ Iraqi_Army_receives_last_shipment_of_Abrams_tanks/ ). Army.mil, 6 September 2011. [42] "6 more tanks" (http:/ / www. defenseindustrydaily. com/ M1-Abrams-Tanks-for-Iraq-05013/ ). Defenseindustrydaily.com, 5 October 2012. [43] M1 Abrams (http:/ / www. militarium. net/ wojska_ladowe/ m1_abrams. php). Militarium.net (Polish to English translation) (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / www. militarium. net/ viewart. php?aid=165& sl=pl& tl=en& hl=en& ie=UTF-8) [44] "Saudi Arabia Orders 69 More M1A2S Abrams Heavy Tanks" (http:/ / www. deagel. com/ news/ Saudi-Arabia-Orders-69-More-M1A2S-Abrams-Heavy-Tanks_n000011118. aspx). Deagel.com, 8 January 2013. [45] Agence France-Presse "Greece Considers Free Tank Offer" (http:/ / www. defensenews. com/ article/ 20111207/ DEFSECT04/ 112070307/ Greece-Considers-Free-Tank-Offer). Defense News, 7 December 2011. Retrieved: 18 April 2012. [46] - C 130 100 - Abrams "-" - OnAlert.gr (http:/ / www. onalert. gr/ stories/ pente-c130-kai-100-armata-maxis-abrams-erxontai-apo-usa) [47] "Kingdom of Morocco M1A1 SA Abrams Tank Enhancement, Support and Equipment" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20130511160838/ http:/ / www. dsca. mil/ PressReleases/ 36-b/ 2012/ Morocco_12-28. pdf). US DSCA, [48] Large Scale Tanks (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ june_2012_new_army_military_defence_industry_uk/ morocco_has_requested_a_possible_enhancement_and_refurbishment_of_200_m1a1_abrams_tanks_2006123. html). armyrecognition.com [49] "Peruvian Tank Contenders" (http:/ / www. army-technology. com/ news/ newsrussia-t90s-battle-tank-peruvian-army). Army-Technology.com, 17 May 2013. [50] Peru; Future main battle tank projects lags on despite criticism (http:/ / dmilt. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=7865:peru-future-main-battle-tank-projects-lags-on-despite-criticism& catid=35:latin-america& Itemid=58). Dmilt.com, 2 September 2013.

54

Citations

M1 Abrams Bibliography Orr, Kelly. King of the Killing Zone. W.W. Norton Company, 1989. Rostker, Bernard (1998). "Environmental Exposure Report: Depleted Uranium in the Persian Gulf (II)" (http:// www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/index.htm). DoD Publication, gulflink.osd.mil. Retrieved 2010-06-30. United States General Accounting Office:Operation Desert Storm: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams. Washington, January 1992. PDF (http://archive.gao.gov/d31t10/145879.pdf#prof). Halberstadt, Hans. Desert Storm Ground War. Osceola, WI: Motorbooks International, 1991. 128 pp. Hilmes, Rolf (1 December 2004). "Arming Future MBTs Some Considerations". Military Technology (Mnsch). Hunnicutt, R.P. "Patton: A History of the American Main Battle Tank". Presidio Press, 1984 ISBN 0-89141-230-1. Forty, George: Tank Action. From the Great War to the Persian Gulf, Allan Sutton Publishing Ltd., Phoenix Mill 1995. Zaloga Steven J., & Sarson, Peter. M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 19821992. Osprey Military, New Vanguard. Reed International Books Ltd, 1993. "M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank" (http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm). FAS Military Analysis Network. Retrieved 17 January 2004. "TUSK to update Abrams for urban battle" (http://web.archive.org/web/20050316200903/http://www4. army.mil/ocpa/read.php?story_id_key=6985). Army News Service. Archived from the original (http://www4. army.mil/ocpa/read.php?story_id_key=6985) on 16 March 2005. Retrieved 6 April 2005. Army Times Two soldiers die in attack on Abrams tank, October 29, 2003 (http://www.armytimes.com/ story.php?f=1-292925-2348567.php)Wikipedia:Link rot Practical Applications of Vehicle Control within the Distributed Processing Architecture, Proceedings of the 1992 American Control Conference, Ruggirello, Joseph A., Bielawski, Dennis A., and Diaz, R. Gary, General Dynamics, IEEE, Published Jun. 1992

55

External links
M1A2 on Armour.ws (http://armour.ws/m1a2-abrams-tank/) Abrams U.S. Army Fact File (http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/tracked/abrams.html) Official Abrams page on General Dynamics Land Systems site (http://www.gdls.com/programs/abrams. html)Wikipedia:Link rot M1A1/M1A2 Abrams Main Battle Tank on Army-Technology.com (http://www.army-technology.com/ projects/abrams/index.html)Wikipedia:Link rot M1A1/2 Abrams page on the Armor Site (http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/abrams.htm) Main Battle Tank M1A1 Abrams on Enemyforces.com (http://www.enemyforces.com/tanks/m1a1abrams. htm) Anatomy of an M1 Abrams on military.discovery.com (http://military.discovery.com/convergence/abrams/ explore/explore.html)Wikipedia:Link rot M1 Abrams page, with a detailed overview of how the tank works on howstuffworks.com (http://people. howstuffworks.com/m1-tank.htm) M1 Tank Urban Survivability Kit (TUSK) (http://www.defense-update.com/products/t/tusk.htm), M1A1 AIM Upgrade (http://www.defense-update.com/products/m/M1A1AIM.htm), and M1A2 SEP Upgrade on Defense-Update.com (http://www.defense-update.com/products/m/M1A2SEP.htm) M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank page on GlobalSecurity.org (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ ground/m1-intro.htm) AGT1500 Turbine Technology on Honeywell.com (http://www51.honeywell.com/aero/common/documents/ myaerospacecatalog-documents/SurfaceSystems/AGT1500_Turbine_Technology.pdf)

M1 Abrams http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/M1-Abrams-Tanks-for-Iraq-05013/ US.Army Modernisation Plan 2012 and beyond (https://www.g8.army.mil/pdf/AMP2012_lq. pdf)Wikipedia:Link rot M1 Abrams modernisation 2011 (http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/wsh2010/16.pdf) M1 Abrams modernisation 2012 (http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/wsh2011/16.pdf) XM360 and XM360E1 lightweight 120mm smoothbore guns (http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2010armament/ WednesdayReunionDavidSmith.pdf) "Heavy Brigade Combat Team (HBCT) Gunnery" (http://www.scribd.com/doc/52910109/fm3-20x21). Army Field Manual FM 320.21. Department of the Army. September 2009. Retrieved 11 January 2012.Wikipedia:Link rot

56

AMX-56 Leclerc

57

AMX-56 Leclerc
Leclerc

Demonstration of a Leclerc tank in Paris, on the 14th of July 2006 Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank
France

Service history
Inservice Usedby 1993present
France United Arab Emirates

Production history
Designed Manufacturer Unitcost 19831989 GIAT Industries (now Nexter) 104,304,000 in 1993, 15,900,000 in 2001 according to the Cour des comptes. [2] 17 million or $27,183,000 in 2008
[1]

Produced Numberbuilt

19902008 (The last unit was produced in 2007, and the production line was closed, although Nexter still retains the capability to build more if there is a need) ~862

Specifications
Weight series 1: 54.5 tonnes series 2: 56.3 tonnes [3] series 3 (SXXI): 57.4 tonnes 9.87 m (6.88 without gun) 3.71 m 2.53 m 3 (Commander, gunner, driver) composite armor, SXXI version (series 3) include titanium, tungsten and NERA (ERA blocks and Slat armor in [4] "Leclerc AZUR" version) GIAT CN120-26/52 120mm tank gun 40 rounds (1 round ready to fire in the chamber, 22 rounds inside the autoloader magazine with additional 18 rounds in the chassis)

Length Width Height Crew Armour

Main armament

AMX-56 Leclerc

58

Secondary armament Engine Power/weight Transmission Suspension Fuelcapacity Operational range Speed

12.7 mm coaxial M2HB machine gun (1,100 rounds) 7.62mm machine gun (3,000 rounds)

8-cylinder diesel SACM (Wrtsil) 1,100 kW (1,500 hp) 27.52 hp/tonne Automatic SESM ESM500 hydropneumatic 1300 liters (1700 with fuel drums) 550 km, 650 km (400 mi) with external fuel
[5]

72km/h (45mph)

[6]

The AMX Leclerc, is a main battle tank (MBT) built by GIAT, now Nexter of France. It was named in honour of General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque who led the French element of the drive towards Paris while in command of the Free French 2nd Armoured Division (2me DB) in World War II. The Leclerc is in service with the French Army and the army of the United Arab Emirates. In production since 1991, the Leclerc entered French service in 1992, replacing the venerable AMX 30 as the country's main armoured platform. With production now complete, the French Army has a total of 406 Leclercs and the United Arab Emirates Army has 388. The current price in 2011 is 9.3 million, making it the most expensive tank in history.[7]

History
In 1964 studies were initiated about a possible replacement vehicle for the AMX 30: the Engin Principal Prospectif. In 1971, in view of the inferiority of the AMX 30 in comparison to the new generation of Soviet tanks about to be introduced, the Direction des Armements Terrestres ordered the beginning of the Char Futur project. In 1975 a working committee was created that in 1977 agreed on a list of specifications. In February 1980 however, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed with the Federal Republic of Germany involving the joint development of a MBT, called the Napolon I in France and Kampfpanzer III in Germany. Fundamental disagreements about its desired configuration led to a failure of this cooperation in December 1982. It was announced that a purely French battle tank would be developed, called "EPC" (Engin Principal de Combat). Importation of foreign equipment, like the M1 Abrams, the Leopard 2, or the Merkava had been studied and rejected.[8] In contrast to most Western programmes of the time, much consideration was given to active, besides passive protection, to limit the overall mass of the vehicle. Mobility for evading enemy fire and fire control systems were given particular attention. Nevertheless it was a stated design goal to achieve at least double the protection against KE-penetrators in comparison to the level attained in then current MBTs of the fifty ton weight class, the latter indicated at about 400mm RHA equivalency, the higher level at the same time protecting against shaped charges.[9]

AMX-56 Leclerc

59 Partnership with a foreign state was sought to limit the cost per unit, and this was found when the United Arab Emirates ordered 436 vehicles, adding to the 426 units already planned for the French Army. In 1986, the project was started under the name of "Leclerc", six prototypes being built swiftly. Mass production started in 1990 with the four-unit Batch 1, used mainly for comparative tests in foreign countries. The 17 units of Batch 2 were shipped, with improvements in the turret and in the hull armour. These units were diagnosed with problems in the engine and suspension, and were quickly retired. Batch 3 followed with some improvements and have been used to define the

The gunner's position, looking down from the turret roof.

doctrine of use, and instruction. Batches 4 and 5 were better built, eliminating the recurrent problems in the powerplant, and are still in service, after having been refitted at the end of the 1990s. The second series started with Batch 6, with an added climate control system in the right rear of the turret. Batch 7 introduced a transmission system to the command vehicle, and a data system giving instantaneous vision of the state of all battle tanks and acquired targets. It also incorporated minor improvements in the visor. Batch 8 was a modernisation of the electronic system, and Batch 9 replaced the thermal imaging ATHOS by a SAGEM Iris with better resolution. All previous batches will be modernised up to the standards of Batch 9 from 2005. In 2004, Batch 10 was presented, incorporating new information systems which could share the disposition of enemy and friendly units to all vehicles on the battlefield, and a new armor package. This was the beginning of the 96-unit third series. By 2007, 355 tanks should have been operational, 320 of them incorporated in four regiments, each of 80 Leclerc vehicles. As of 2010[10], after a French defence review, each of the four regiments operates 60 Leclerc tanks for a total of 240 in operational units; with a further 100 Leclerc in combat ready reserve. Due to finance cuts, only 254 tanks are fully operational in 2011. The four regiments are: 1er Rgiment de Chasseurs stationed near Verdun, part of the 7th Armoured Brigade 4e Rgiment de Dragons stationed in Carnoux-en-Provence, part of the 7th Armoured Brigade 12e Rgiment de Cuirassiers stationed in Olivet, part of the 2nd Armoured Brigade 501e Rgiment de Chars de Combat stationed in Mourmelon-le-Grand, 2nd Armoured Brigade

AMX-56 Leclerc

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Design
Armament
The Leclerc is equipped with a GIAT (Nexter) CN120-26 120mm smoothbore cannon. This cannon is capable of firing the same NATO standard 120mm rounds as the German Leopard 2 and US M1 Abrams, but in practice only French-produced ammunition is issued. The gun is insulated with a thermal sleeve and has an automatic compressed-air fume extraction system instead of the usual bore evacuator. The Leclerc has a unique autoloading system which was specifically designed for it, and reduces the crew to three by eliminating the human loader. The turret of the Leclerc was designed around the auto-loading system in order to avoid the problems common to other tanks with an autoloader. The Leclerc autoloader allows a rate of fire of 12 shots per minute and holds 22 rounds of ready ammunition; it can accommodate Note the commander's sight on the right and up to six different types of ammunition at once, although like most gunner's sight on the left side of the picture. autoloader systems it cannot change ammunition types once a round has been loaded. The most common types are the armour piercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot (APFSDS) with a tungsten core and the high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) round. There are 18 other rounds available for reload. A Leclerc tank can fire while traveling at a speed of 50km/h on a target 4,000 metres away. The gun is 52 calibres long instead of the 44 calibres common on most tanks of the Leclerc's generation, giving the rounds a higher muzzle velocity. The Leclerc is also equipped with a 12.7mm coaxial machine gun and a remote-controlled 7.62mm machine gun, whereas most other NATO tanks use 7.62mm weapons for both their coaxial and top machine gun mounts; the major exception is the American M1 Abrams, which has a 7.62mm coaxial machine gun and two top-mounted machine guns, one 7.62mm and one 12.7mm.

Protection
The Leclerc has the GALIX combat vehicle protection system from GIAT, which fires a variety of smoke grenades and infra red screening rounds, as well as anti-personnel grenades. The hull and the turret are made of welded steel fitted with modular armour, which can be replaced easily for repair or upgraded over the years. The French army in the late seventies rejected Chobham armour as being overly specialised in its optimisation to defeat hollow charge-weapons; it therefore opted to develop their own composite arrangement to defeat both hollow charge and sabot round. Due to the introduction of modernized threats, the batch 3 has a new armour package, including composite armor, titanium insert and on the sides of the turret, ERA blocks.

AMX-56 Leclerc

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Fire control and observation

The last 96 AMX XL Leclerc have the ICONE TIS battle management system with digital communication system which integrates data from other tanks and upper levels of command. The Leclerc tank features the HL-60 gunners primary sight from SAGEM. The sights day channel offers X3.3 and X10 magnification (x14 in case of the UAE version). The night channel thermal intensifier offers X3 , X6, X10 and X20 magnifications. No emergency or auxiliary sights are mounted. The laser range finder is of the Nd:YAG Closeup of the front of the Leclerc's turret; the type at 1.06 m. The tank commander can observe the surroundings 12.7mm coaxial machine gun can be seen below through 7 periscopes and the HL-70 Panoramic sight. The HL-70 is and to the side of the 120mm main gun equipped with a day channel at X2.5 and X10 magnification and a night channel with X2.5 magnification. On the Series XXI and UAE variant the HL-80 commanders panoramic sight is mounted. The sight offers X2.5 and X10 magnification for the thermal intensifier and a laser range finder of the Nd:YAG type at 1.06 m. Both sights are also equipped with a semi auto tracker for target acquisition. The combination of the gunners primary sight and commanders panoramic sight allows the Leclerc to operate in a hunter-killer mode. The Leclerc's digital fire control system can be operated independently by the gunner or the commander, and it offers real time integrated imaging from all of the tank's sensors and sights, including the gunner's SAVAN 20 stabilised sight, developed by SAGEM.

Propulsion
The Leclerc has an eight-cylinder SACM (now Wrtsil) V8X-1500 1,500hp Hyperbar diesel engine and a SESM ESM500 automatic transmission, with five forward and two reverse gears. The official maximum speed by road is 72km/h and 55km/h cross country (speeds in excess of 80km/h were reported on road). The maximum range is given as 550km, and can be extended to 650km with removable external tanks. The "hyperbar" system integrates a Turbomeca TM 307B gas turbine in the engine, acting both as a turbocharger and an APU giving auxiliary power to all systems when the main engine is shut down. The Hyperbar name comes from the unusually high boost pressure of 7.5 bar and the resulting mean effective pressure of 32.1 bar.[11] To compare, the largest diesel engine in the world (the Wrtsila RTA96) has a mean effective pressure of 18.6 bar.[12] In addition, being the boost available even at idle, this arrangement also works as an anti-lag system. At a combat weight of just 56 tons, the Leclerc is one of the lightest main battle tanks in the world; this gives it one of the best power-to-weight ratios among the Western tanks (27hp per tonne) and makes it one of the fastest MBTs of its generation (0 to 32km/h in 5 seconds). The engine exhaust, exiting at the rear left, is cooled to reduce the thermal signature of the tank. Transmission is a hydromechanical type with five forward and two reverse gears. Fuel tanks carry 1,300 litres and act as extra protection; two 200-litre external tanks can be fitted on the rear of the turret, but have to be jettisoned before entering combat since they limit turret rotation. The gear box is equipped with a hydrokinetic retarder which can slow the Leclerc down at a deceleration rate of 7m/s (0.7 g) which is automatically used over 30km/h.

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Combat experience
In service only since 1992 (after the Gulf War), the Leclerc has no notable experience in true warzone environments, but has seen deployment on multiple low-intensity conflicts, including 15 Leclerc stationed in Kosovo (KFOR) and others in Lebanon (UNIFIL) in the context of UN peace-keeping operations, where their performance was judged satisfactory by French officials. Until 2010, 13 Leclerc were deployed in the south Lebanon for a peacekeeping mission with UNIFIL.
A Leclerc on manoeuvres.

Variants and upgrades

Sries 1 : Original production model Sries 2 : new NBC system which integrates a hybrid air conditioner. indepentend air conditioning unit installed on the back roof behind the gunenr's hatch. In order to balance the turret since the adding of the air conditioner, the turret frontal armor is thickened a few centimeters ahead the commander's station. revised sprocket cooling fins. extra splash guard added to the front hull. Remote operated hydraulic track tensionner. bolt-on appliqu armor on each hull sponsons. Athos thermal camera on the gunner's sight is replaced by the new Iris thermal camera since the block 9 (T9). Sries 2.1 (XXI) : New composite armor package, the additional weight caused by the adding of tungsten is avoided thanks to the titanium that replace the steel previously used in each armor modules. Turret bustle modular armor includes also semi-reactive layers made of explosive materials. Turret storage bins have been tailored for the larger armor package. The commander has now the HL 120 panoramic sight which now features a laser rangefinder and the Iris thermal camera. Higher electrical turret output. IFF indicator. SIT ICONE battlefield management system. Leclerc AZUR Action en Zone Urbaine : proposed urban warfare kit for actions in urban areas. Leclerc EPG Engin Principal du Gnie : "main engineering vehicle": armoured engineering Leclerc DNG Dpanneur Nouvelle Gnration : recovery tank Leclerc MARS : Moyen Adapt de Remorquage Spcifique : provisional Armoured recovery vehicle prior to the arrival of the DNG.

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Leclerc EAU Tropicalized : version of the United Arab Emirates; it is fitted with : EuroPowerPack with the MTU 883 diesel engine of 1,100kW. The United Arab Emirates have interests in the German company which builds them (MTU) and preferred an engine of their own. This powerplant is more reliable than the French UDV 8X (1,100kW), though it has small problems with the clutch[citation needed] . Externally mounted Diesel auxiliary power unit with a tank infantry telephone fitted on its armored box.
Leclerc used by the Army Forces of United Arab Emirates.

Redesigned engine compartment (louver, access panels). Engine-driven mechanical air-conditioning mounted in the left part of the hull to cool the tank without the use of electric current which could reveal the position of the tank. HL-80 commander panoramic sight with Alis thermal camera and laser rangefinder. ATO (Armement Tl-Opr) remote-controlled mount for a 7.62mm FN MAG machine-gun operated under-armour by the HL-80 panoramic sight. Leclerc Battlefield Management System (LBMS). Completely automated driving and turret functions with pictograms on the buttons for use by crew with only basic training. Thermal tarp. Some bustle storage bins are replaced by baskets.

Technical data
Description Leclerc Srie 1 132 1992-1996 T1 to T5 Leclerc Srie 2 178 1997-2003 T6 to T9 Leclerc Srie 21 (SXXI) 96 2003-2008 T10 to T11 3 54,5 t 36 t 18,5 t 56,3 t 37 t 19 t 57,6 t 37,5 t 20,5 t 57 t x x MTU MT 883 Ka 500 12-cylinder diesel engine 27,700cm3 3 1500hp (1,118kW) at 2700 RPM 4545 Nm at 2000 RPM Renk HSWL 295 TM Tropicalized Leclerc

Produced Date Batch Crew Combat weight Hull weight Turret weight Engine

388 1994-early 2000s Not applicable

SACM V8X Hyperbar 8-cylinder diesel engine

Engine displacement Forced induction ratio Power output Maximum torque Transmission Suspension system Maximum speed

16,470cm3 7,8 1500hp (1,118kW) at 2500 RPM 4850 Nm at 1700 RPM SESM ESM 500

12 SAMM ESO twin-cylinder oleopneumatic suspension 72km/h; backwards 38km/h

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1,300liters (up to 1700liters with external fuel drums) 6,88m 3,43m (3,71m with ballistic side skirts) 2,53m (turret roof) 500mm 1,1m 7,03m

Fuel capacity Hull length Width Height Ground clearance Wading depth without preparation Wading depth with snorkel Trench passability Climbing ability Turret rotation time (360)

4m 3m 1,1m 12seconds

Users
Current users
France 406 + 20 armoured recovery vehicles. United Arab Emirates 388 + 46 armoured recovery vehicles

Potential users
Qatar Some were tested by the Qatari army, France hopes to sell about 40 second-hand Leclercs.

References
[1] report from the French senate (http:/ / www. senat. fr/ rap/ l01-087-342/ l01-087-342_fn. html#fn31) [2] http:/ / www. marianne2. fr/ Le-char-Leclerc-un-bide-a-113-millions-par-an_a184346. html [3] http:/ / farm9. staticflickr. com/ 8212/ 8390203044_6cbb6be4c9_b. jpg [4] http:/ / www. decitre. fr/ livres/ encyclopedie-des-chars-de-combat-modernes-9782352501763. html [5] SESM ESM500 (http:/ / www. renk. newsfactory. de/ cms_media/ objekte/ 267-ESM_500. pdf) [6] http:/ / defense-update. com/ products/ l/ leclerc. htm [7] http:/ / www. defensenews. com/ story. php?i=6442452& c=FEA& s=INT [8] Enrico Po, 1990, "The AMX LECLERC: French Armour Enters the 21st Century", Military Technology No. 9/90, pp. 79-86 [9] "First light on the LECLERC", Military Technology No. 4/86, pp 82-83 [10] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=AMX-56_Leclerc& action=edit [11] Moteur V8X suraliment hyperbar de 1500ch (http:/ / engins-blindes-francais. wifeo. com/ groupe-moto-propulseur. php) [12] Doosan Engine : Doosan-Wartsila (http:/ / www. doosan. com/ doosanengine/ en/ products/ marine/ lowspeed/ doosanwartsila. page)

Chassillan, Marc (2005). Char Leclerc: De la guerre froide aux conflits de demain. Chassillan, Marc (2001). Raids Hors-srie N.3: les chars de combat en action.

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External links
Leclerc program update (http://www.defense-update.com/products/l/leclerc.htm) Leclerc MBT article on Armour.ws (http://armour.ws/leclerc-mbt/) Leclerc article at Army-technology.com (http://www.army-technology.com/projects/leclerc) Leclerc tank photos @ 5 Star General site (http://www.peachmountain.com/5star/ Museum_Tanks_Musee_des_Blindes_Saumur_LeClerc.asp)

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Leopard 1
Leopard 1

Leopard 1A3 (Canadian Leopard C1) at the Base Borden Military Museum Type Main battle tank

Placeoforigin West Germany

Service history
Wars Bosnian War War in Afghanistan

Specifications
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armor Main armament Secondary armament Engine Power/weight Suspension Operational range Speed 42.2 tonnes (increased on later models from original 40.0 tonnes) 9.54/8.29 m (gun forward/rearward) 3.37 m 2.39/2.70 m (turret roof/absolute) 4 (commander, driver, gunner, radio operator/loader) steel 19-21.7mm and 10-70mm RHA 1 x 105mm Royal Ordnance L7A3 L/52 rifled gun (13 rounds in turret 42 rounds in hull)

2 x 7.62 mm MG 3 or FN MAG (co-axial and commander's hatch) (5500 rounds)

MTU MB 838 CaM 500, 10-cylinder, 37.4 litres, multi-fuel engine 830 PS (819 hp, 610 kW) at 2200 RPM 19.6 PS/tonne Torsion-bar 600 km (on road), 450 km (cross-country)

65 km/h

The Leopard (or Leopard 1) is a main battle tank designed and produced in West Germany that first entered service in 1965. Developed in an era when HEAT warheads were thought to make conventional heavy armour of limited value, the Leopard focused on firepower in the form of the German-built version of the British L7 105-mm gun, and improved cross-country performance that was unmatched by other designs of the era. The design started as a collaborative project between Germany and France in the 1950s, but the partnership ended and the final design was ordered by the Bundeswehr, production starting in 1965. In total 6,485 Leopard tanks have

Leopard 1 been built, of which 4,744 were battle tanks and 1741 were utility and anti-aircraft variants, not including eighty prototypes and pre-series vehicles. The Leopard quickly became a standard of European forces, and eventually served as the main battle tank in over a dozen countries worldwide. Since 1990, the Leopard 1 has gradually been relegated to secondary roles in most armies. In the German Army, the Leopard 1 MBTs have been phased out in 2003 while Leopard 1 derived vehicles are still widely used. The Leopard 2 MBTs have taken over the MBT role. Leopard hulls have been re-used in a wide variety of roles.

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Development history
Leopard 1
The Leopard project started in November 1956 in order to develop a modern tank, the Standard-Panzer, to replace the Bundeswehr's American-built M47 and M48 Patton tanks, which, though just delivered to West Germany's recently reconstituted army, were rapidly growing outdated. On 25 July 1957 the detailed specifications were released; the new design needed to weigh no more than thirty metric tons, have a power-to-weight ratio of thirty horsepower per ton, be able to withstand hits by 20mm rapid-fire guns on every side as well as operate in a battlefield contaminated with chemical weapons or radioactive fallout, the then-standard baseline for combat with the Warsaw Pact. In addition the main armament had to consist of a 105mm caliber weapon (the new British L7A3 105mm gun was selected), carrying at least as many rounds as current US tank designs. Mobility was the priority while firepower came second; armour was seen as less essential, as it was believed no real protection against hollow charge weapons was possible anyway. France was very interested in the design as its own AMX 50 project had just failed. In June 1957, West Germany and the French Fourth Republic signed an agreement to develop a common tank, designated in German Europa-Panzer. Three German (Arbeitsgruppe A, B and C) and one French design team would be included in a competition, with each team producing two prototypes each. In September, 1958 Italy joined the development program. Several prototypes were entered for testing in 1960. Among the prototypes were Porsche's Model 734 from team A, sporting a cast turret and that of team B (Rheinmetall) whose Leopard 1 prototype cast turret was somewhat higher. Team C from Borgward, designing a very futuristic tank, failed to have a prototype ready in time (Possible blueprint: http://www.panzerpower.de/bilder/leo1/entwicklung/borgward.jpg). Even before these first prototypes were finished, it had (in 1959) been decided that a second phase with improved designs would be started: Team A had to build 26 phase II Prototypes for testing, team B six. Only two tanks of the required six would actually be constructed by team B.

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The Porsche Prototype II was eventually selected as the winner of the contest in 1963; this did not come as a surprise: it had already been decided in 1961 to build a preseries of fifty vehicles based on this design; production of these was started that very year. This "0-series" was modified with a new cast turret and several hull changes to raise the rear deck to provide more room in the engine compartment, and move some of the radiators to the upper sides of the hull. Before mass Leopard 1 Prototype II production of the standard version started it was also decided to add an optical range-finding system for better long-range gunnery, which required the turret to be somewhat taller, and added "bumps" on either side of the turret to mount the optics for triangulation. In 1963 France and Germany had decided to each build their own tank; Germany continued with the Leopard, while France built the similar AMX-30. Production was set up at Krauss-Maffei of Munich from early 1964 onward, with deliveries of the first batch between September, 1965 and July, 1966. The Leopard was soon being purchased from Germany by a number of NATO members and other allies including in chronological order Belgium (1968), the Netherlands (1969), Norway (1970), Italy (1971), Denmark (1976), Australia (1976), Canada (1978), Turkey (1980) and Greece (1981). Germany has a strict export policy for military equipment; Greece, Spain and Chile, while still dictatorships, purchased the French AMX-30.

Leopard 1A1
After the first batch was delivered the next three batches were the Leopard 1A1 model, which included a new gun stabilization system from Cadillac-Gage, allowing the tank to fire effectively on the move. The 1A1 also added the now-famous "skirts" along the sides to protect the upper tracks, and a new thermal jacket on the gun barrel to control heating. A less important change was to use rectangular rubber blocks fastened to the treads with a single pin instead of the earlier two-pin "shaped" versions. The rubber blocks could be easily replaced with metal X-shaped crampons for movement on ice and snow in the winter. Between 1974 and 1977 all of the machines in the first four batches were brought to the same Leopard 1A1A1 standard, and given additional turret armor developed by Blohm & Voss. A further upgrade in the 1980s added leftover image-intensifier night sights which were being handed down from the Leopard 2 as they were themselves upgraded. The PZB 200 image intensification system was mounted in a large box on the upper right of the gun, creating the Leopard 1A1A2. A further upgrade with SEM80/90 all-digital radios created the Leopard 1A1A3.

German Army Leopard 1A1

Norwegian Army Leopard 1A1

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Leopard 1A2
The first 232 tanks of the fifth production batch was delivered as the Leopard 1A2 between 1972 and 1974. The A2 included a heavier and better armored turret, and therefore did not receive the B&V armor add-ons as did the earlier machines. They did receive the other upgrades however; the Leopard 1A2A1 received the PZB 200, the Leopard 1A2A2 received digital radios, and the Leopard 1A2A3 got both.

Leopard 1A3
The next 110 vehicles in the fifth batch were fitted with a new welded turret, which was equipped with a new armour consisting of two spaced steel plates with a plastic filling between them, and a wedge-shaped gun mantlet, creating the Leopard 1A3. Although the level of armor area density was equivalent to the A2's new welded version, the internal volume was increased by 1.2 m and the effective protection level was increased by half. The improved TRP 2A independent sight was installed for the commander. Upgrades were identical to the 1A2 models, the Leopard 1A3A1 with the night sights, Leopard 1A3A2 with the new radios, and the Leopard 1A3A3 with both.
Leopard 1A2 crossing a river at night.

Leopard 1A4
The Leopard 1A4 formed the sixth batch of 250 vehicles, delivery starting in 1974. The 1A4 was externally similar to the 1A3, but included a new computerized fire control system and the new EMES 12A1 sighting system to aim it. In addition the commander was provided with his own independent night sighting system, the PERI R12. The new equipment used up space and the ammunition load was reduced to 55 rounds, of which 42 were stored in the magazine to the left of the driver.

Leopard 1A5
In 1980 a research program was undertaken to study further improvements to the Leopard 1, providing it with a completely modern fire control system and fully effective night/bad-weather vision system. This was going to require even more room than the larger turret from the 1A3/1A4 models, so the decision was made to base the upgrades on the earlier models which were no longer competitive. The resulting Leopard 1A5 was based on 1225 vehicles of the Leopard 1A1A1 model. The turrets were again modified for the 1A5, with a larger section at the back, both in order to store all of the new equipment, as well as to move more of the ammunition into the rear turret, as opposed to the left side of the driver where it had traditionally been stored. The new turret was also able to mount the newer 120mm gun from the Leopard 2 if desired, although this option has not been used. After trials the Krupp-Atlas Elektronik EMES 18 fire control system was selected in December 1983, developed from the EMES 15 used on the Leopard 2. The EMES 18 included two new sights on to the top of the turret, and no longer required the "bumps" as did the earlier optical systems. A crucial part of the upgrade was the introduction of more effective ammunition, including new APFSDS rounds. The Leopard tank could also be fitted with bolt-on lexan armour panels, which have increased the effectiveness of the armour. These "modified" tanks have proved themselves in the field. The first modified vehicle was delivered in early 1987. Since then almost all users of the Leopard 1 have also applied similar changes to their own vehicles, and in most ways the 1A5 can be considered the "standard" Leopard 1 today.

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Leopard 1A6
A single 1A1A1 was also modified with additional armor on the turret and had the 120mm gun as the Leopard 1A6. The project was ended in 1987, as the Leopard 2 was in widespread service at this point and the 1A5 offered a reasonable upgrade path for a fraction of the cost.

Modified and derivative vehicles

Simultaneous to the production of the battle tanks a number of engineering, bridging and recovery vehicles was developed, as well as a number of versions used in the anti-aircraft role. In the Netherlands, an improved version equivalent to the A5 called "Leopard 1 Verbeterd" (improved)was developed, the same version is used by the Chilean Army. The most well known Leopard variants are the Engineer Vehicle Bergepanzer and the Anti-Aircraft Gun Gepard. The Warsaw Pact equivalent of the Gepard is the ZSU-23-4. There was also a British SPAAG version called Leopard Marksman, which was equipped with the Marksman turret. The Canadian Land Forces operate the Beaver bridgelayer, Taurus ARV, and Badger AEV, all based on the Leopard 1. The United Kingdom's Royal Marines operate a vehicle known as the Hippo BARV (or Beach Armoured Recovery Vehicle). The Hippo is a conversion by ALVIS Moelv of a Leopard 1A5 chassis. The main alteration has been the replacement of the turret with a raised superstructure which resembles the wheelhouse of a boat. The original 830hp (634kW) diesel engine has been retained but the gearing of the transmission had been lowered, reducing the vehicle's road speed to 32km/h (20mph), but increasing tractive effort to 250kN (56,000lbf). Other modifications include the addition of working platforms, a nosing block, raised air intakes and an Auxiliary power unit; this has raised the weight of the vehicle from 42.5 tonnes to 50 tonnes. The Hippo has a fording depth of 2.95m (10ft) and can pull vehicles up to 50 tonnes weight or push off from the beach a 240 tonne displacement landing craft.
Armoured engineering vehicle "Dachs" (Badger) German Army.

Bergepanzer 2 (Armoured recovery vehicle) GE Army.

Bridgelayer "Biber" (Beaver) with armored vehicle-launched bridge.

Gilded Leopard, Eber and Keiler

Leopard 1 Almost as soon as the Leopard was introduced into service in 1965, Porsche was awarded a contract to study further improvements to the existing design, while waiting deliveries of the MBT-70 in the mid-1970s. This original Gilded Leopard (vergoldeter Leopard) program expired in 1967 with no production order. In that year it had already become obvious that the MBT-70 would be a failure. The agreement between the USA and the Federal Republic of Germany forbade any national development of an MBT apart from technological experimentation, so a new tank project was begun under the designation of Experimentalentwicklung or "experimental development", two prototypes of which were built. When the MBT-70 program was ended a further contract was offered under the name Boar (Eber), with an emphasis on using as many technologies from the MBT-70 as possible, but without the problematic combined gun - rocket launcher. Two prototype vehicles were constructed using a new chassis from Porsche with the road wheels from the MBT-70 and the original Leopard engine, combined with a new Wegmann turret mounting the MBT-70's Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore gun (although some also mounted the original 105mm). These were considered promising enough that seven more were ordered, this time powered by the MTU engine designed for the MBT-70. When this happened the Experimentalentwicklung team went public with their alternative design which they called the Keiler (a synonym of Eber). In 1971 the minister of defence, Helmut Schmidt, decided to abandon the Eber-project and build seventeen prototypes of a Leopard 2, based on the Keiler design, which had a turret with spaced sloped armour. The maximum weight was to be fifty metric tons. During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, 1950s and 1960s generation tanks were badly beaten by wire-guided missiles, and it was realized that dramatically improved armor protection was needed. The decision was made to allow the tank to increase its weight to the next classification, Military Loading Class 60 (tonnes), and a new design effort was started, with the spaced armour replaced with a much denser perforated armour assemblage. The new design would go on to augment and after the Cold War sometimes replace the Leopard in many countries' armies.

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Operators
Countries that are current or former Leopard 1 operators: Australia 71; 90 Leopard 1A3s were originally delivered as Leopard AS1, later upgraded, and since replaced by 59 M1A1 Abrams from the US Belgium 132 Leopard 1A5s(BE); 334 originally; all were originally going to been replaced by 40 Mowag Piranha III with a 90mm canon (which are going to be resold). 40 Leopards are to remain in service. Brazil 128 Leopard 1A1s and 250 Leopard 1A5s
Brazilian Army Leopard 1A5 tank.

Canada 114 Leopard C2s (updated Leopard 1A5), reduced to 66 in the early 2000s. The Leopard C2 are likely to remain in active service until 2015. The 66 Leopard C2 are gradually replaced with the Leopard 2's purchased from the Netherlands and Germany. Chile 202 Leopard 1Vs, reduced to 150; 120 remaining in service. Denmark 230 Leopard1A5DK Replaced with Leopard 2. Only 16 ARVs(Wisent) and 10 Bridgelayers remain in service Ecuador 60 Leopard, 30 1A5 and 30 1V, all acquired from Chile[1] Germany 2,437 originally. They were replaced by the Leopard 2. Remaining Leopard 1 tanks in long-term storage for resale. Greece 520 Leopard 1A5GR in service,104 Leopard 1A3/A4GR and 70 Leopard 1V/INL are converted to support vehicles,parts and the rest will be scrapped. Italy 720 (600 A2s, 120 A5s) retired by the end of 2008 (replaced by Ariete main battle tank), the AEVs, ARVs and ABLVs remain in service. 120 Leopard 1 A5 kept in reserve.

Leopard 1 Lebanon 43 ex-Belgian Leopard 1A5(BE)s to be delivered. Netherlands 468 originally; replaced by Leopard 2. Only ARVs, BARVs and Bridgelayers remain in service. Norway 172 originally; Replaced by Leopard 2. The final remaining Leopard 1A5 were decommissioned in 2011 after a ceremony marking 42 years of service,[2] ARVs and Bridgelayers remain in service. Turkey 337[3] United Kingdom 4 Leopard 1A5 hulls have been adapted through extensive modification to create the Hippo BARV (armoured amphibious recovery vehicles)

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Australia
In 1974 the Australian government confirmed the purchase of the Leopard, with a total of 101 vehicles being acquired (consisting of 90 MBTs, five Bridgelayers and six Armoured Recovery Vehicles, while a further two ARVs were purchased later.) The first Leopards subsequently arrived in Australia from Germany in 1976, ending a selection and trial process (against the US M60[4] series) which started in 1971 when the army decided it needed a replacement for its British Centurions which had served since 1952.
Australian Army Leopard 1A4 (AS1) on exercise.

In March 2004, the decision was made to replace the Leopard 1 with reconditioned US M1A1 Abrams AIM.[5] The first 18 of 59 M1A1 Abrams arrived in September 2006. The M88A2 Hercules is concurrently replacing the Leopard family of support variants in Australian service. The Leopard 1 was operated by the 1st Armoured Regiment and was officially withdrawn from service in July 2007. Their guns were never fired in combat operations.

Belgium
The Belgian Army received their 334 Leopard 1BE between 1968 and 1971. They equipped 8 tank regiments each equipped with 40 Leopard and the Armour School. The first regiment to receive the Leopard was the 4 Lancers, followed by the 1 Lancers, 2 Lancers, 3 Lancers, 8 Lancers, 1st Gidsen, 2nd Gidsen and finally 2nd Mounted Rifles. From 1974 they were modified with a gun stabilisation system and an Automatic firing direction system (AVLS = Automatisch VuurLeidingsSysteem) from SABCA. This system allowed to fire the gun on the move. At the time it was the most modern system available. The Belgian tankers were on the top of NATO tankers and that was proven at the prestigious Canadian Army Trophy (CAT). In 1984 the Army Command decided to upgrade 132 Leopard to the A5 standard. At the end of the Cold War there was a drastic cut in the amount of tanks. So around 90 tanks were sold to Brazil. From 1993 on the upgrade of the 132 tanks started and was completed in 1997. The upgrade included a new gun firing direction system with thermal imaging, laser rangefinder and a muzzle reference system. At that time 4 regiments were still equipped with the Leopard 1A5(BE). At the end of the 90's the remaining 4 regiments amalgated into 2 tank regiments, 1/3 Lancers and 2/4 Lancers. In 2010 the 2/4 Lancers were disbanded. Around 40 Leopard 1A5(BE) are kept operational in the 1/3 Lancers and 1 Caribiniers/1 Grenadiers. The 1/3 Lancers are no longer a tank regiment but a medium infantry battalion with 1 squadron of Leopard 1A5(BE), identical to the rest of the medium infantry battalions of the Belgian Army. Belgian Leopards have served in Kosovo. The Belgian Army also had the following variants: - 36 Armoured Recovery Vehicles (ARV - TRV) - 17 Pionier tanks (Armoured engineers) - 55 Gepard Anti aircraft tanks (withdrawn from service) - 12 Driving school tanks - 9 Leguan AVLB (Armoured Vehicle launched Bridge)

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Canada
Canada acquired 127 Leopard C1 tanks (equivalent to Leopard 1A3 with laser rangefinder), in 197879 for its Land Forces, with 114 being put into service. Most of these tanks were stationed in Germany during the Cold War, with a few retained at Canadian Forces Base Gagetown, New Brunswick for training. While investigating the possibilities of increasing the Leopards' armour prior to a refit, turret armour upon close-up inspection was 1.5" + turret wall cast .75" steel, 'belly' armour was approx. 2.25" + cast frame steel 0.75" steel, skirt covering treads (tracks) was 1" rubber - not steel, but additional armour was applied on the forward half of the skirt during the refit - although only a small handful of C1s received a complete refit. The refit also included adding thermal night-vision equipment, five or six Leopard C1 tanks had an extremely thick MEXAS appliqu armour kit applied, made by German firm IBD Deisenroth Engineering. These tanks, designated Leopard C1 MEXAS, served with Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) in the 1999 KFOR mission in Kosovo. They were later upgraded with the same sights and fire-control system as the Leopard C2 (see below).

Canadian Leopard C2 uparmoured, en route to Afghanistan, October 2006

Starting in 2000, the 114 Leopard C1 tanks in service were upgraded to C2 standard at a cost of CAD $139 million. The turrets of 123 surplus Leopard 1A5 tanks purchased from the German Defence Ministry were fitted into the existing hulls (nine turrets were reserved for spare parts and training), and the German tank hulls sold back to the upgrade contractor. The Leopard C2 is also equipped with thermal sights and EMES 18 fire-control system. Eighteen Leopard Crew Gunnery Trainers were purchased at the same time. Canada also operates the Leopard 1-based Beaver Bridgelayer and Taurus Armoured Recovery Vehicle, bought with the original Leopard C1, and the Badger Armoured Engineer Vehicle with a dozer blade and excavator bucket, which entered service in 1990. A number of the Canadian Leopard tanks were pulled out of service during the mid-2000s in anticipation of replacing them with the eight-wheeled Mobile Gun System, but these plans were put on hold. Of the obsolescent tanks, 23 were sold to companies in North America, 4 put in museums or used as monuments (including two at the Bovington Tank Museum),[6] and 21 used as hard targets on ranges. The Canadian Army web site list indicates that 66 Leopard C2 remain in service.[7] Canada sent a squadron of Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) to Afghanistan in the fall of 2006, equipped with fifteen Leopard C2 tanks with add-on armour, as well as four recovery vehicles and four engineering vehicles.[8][9] The armoured squadron is intended to provide convoy protection, supporting Canada's Provincial Reconstruction Teams and other organizations equipped with lighter vehicles, and combat operations. The first tanks arrived in Kandahar in mid-October 2006. On December 2, 2006 the Leopards stationed in Kandahar entered the field, marking the first time since the Korean War that a Canadian armoured squadron had sent tanks into an active war zone, and fired their guns in combat for the first time in as many years on the following day in response to a Taliban rocket attack. The deployed tank squadron was in combat operations from late 2006 till July 2011. The first squadron deployed with just with C-2 MEXAS and then mid July 2007 a thermal cover and a cooling unit with crew vests were added to the tanks. The tank squadron was combined in mid September 2007 with the 20 Leopard 2A6M with slat bar type armour, then with the Barracudda system added mid-2008. The tank squadron in late 2010 added 5 of the new Leopard 2A4M's. The tank squadron operated with the three different Leopards until they were pulled

Canadian Leopard C2 Royal Military College of Canada

Leopard 1 from combat operations. The C-2 MEXAS with the mine ploughs, mine rollers and the dozers were used alongside the Leopard 2's, until a bracket was installed for the Leopard 2A6M to mount them. After an initial assessment of the performance of the Leopard C2 in Afghanistan, Canada decided to invest in Leopard 2 tanks. It was determined that the lack of adequate air conditioning (essential in the searing heat of Afghanistan) was degrading the tank crew's war fighting ability.[10] The Army later downplayed this factor, citing increased armour protection and the main gun armament as reasons for upgrading to the Leopard 2.[11] After some public speculation, Canadian Defence minister Hon. Gordon O'Connor clarified the situation on Thursday, April 12, 2007.[12] To meet immediate needs in Afghanistan, twenty of the Bundeswehr's stock of Leopard 2A6s were upgraded to 2A6M standard and loaned to Canada at no cost by the German government. Two Leopard 2 Bffel Armoured Recovery Vehicles were acquired at the same time. These vehicles were shipped from Germany to Afghanistan, with the first arriving on August 16, 2007.[13] For the long term, Canada plans to replace the borrowed Leopard 2 tanks with a purchase of 100 surplus vehicles from the Netherlands, including 20 Leopard 2A6Ms for combat service, 40 Leopard 2A4s for training, and 20 support vehicles, such as Armoured Recovery Vehicles, Bridge-Layers and Armoured Engineer vehicles. The older Leopard C2 tanks are considered to become completely obsolete by 2015, but specific plans for them have not yet been announced. Until deployment with the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan the Leopard 1 C2 had never seen active combat.[14]

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Denmark
In 1976 Denmark acquired 120 Leopard 1A3 tanks, which were designated Leopard 1 DK. This was completed in 1978. In 1992 Denmark acquired another 110 1A3 tanks (partly through Conventional Forces Europe treaty AFV reduction requirements.) These tanks were upgraded to Leopard 1A5-DK along with the first 120 Leopards which were not identical to the German 1A5 with welded turrets. Denmark had a total of 230 Leopard 1A5-DKs. These Leopards were involved in one of the most important engagements in modern Danish military history. Denmark was the only Scandinavian country to send a significant tank force to support their peacekeeping operations in Croatia and Bosnia. During Operation Bllebank and Operation Amanda, in 1994, these tanks successfully engaged hostile Serbian forces. This is believed to be the first hostile engagement involving the Leopard 1 tank.

Greece
Greece bought its first 104 Leopard 1A3 GR tank during 1983-1984.They are actually Leopard 1A3 but came with an EMES 12A3 FCS and some other modifications required by the Greek army at that time.During 1992 Greek army received a batch of 75 Leopard 1A5 as offsets for the construction of 4 MEKO 200 frigates.Some months later Greece received another batch of 170 Leopard 1V and 2 Leopard 1A5 from the Royal Netherlands army,the Leopard 1V is actually an 1A1A4 with an EMES 12A3 AFSL-2 FCS.Greece bought 192 used Leopard 1A5 from 1998 until 2000 as offsets for the upgrade of the Greek F-4 aircraft in Germany in a symbolic price. In 2001 Greek army decided to upgrade 104 Leopard 1A4GR and 120 Leopard 1V to the A5+ version costing 234 million dollars.However the programme was cancelled because Greece received a batch of 150 Leopard 1A5 along with the newly built Leopard 2A6 HEL.In 2011 Greece is the largest user of Leopard 1 tanks, having over 500 Leopard 1A5 GR MBT and many tanks of the ST, Biber, Leguan versions.

Leopard 1

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Italy
Italy placed its first order for the Leopard 1 in 1970, with 200 delivered between 1971 and 1972. The vehicles replaced mainly the M47 Patton in the armoured units of the Italian Army. A further 400 Leopard 1s were built in Italy by OTO Melara starting in 1974, with a second batch of 120 build by OTO Melara between 1980 and 1983. All Italian Leopards were the A2 variant. Italy ordered a further 69 Bergeleopards (ARV) in Germany with another batch of 67 built in Italy by OTO Melara. The Pionierleopard (AEV) was ordered only in 1985, with 12 produced in Germany and 28 in Italy. 64 Bibers (AVLB) were assembled by OTO Melara. At the end of the Cold War the Italian Army began an upgrade and a downsizing of its armoured units, the M60 along with a number of Leopards were retired in 1991. In 1995 Italy bought 120 A5 surplus turrets from the Bundeswehr, which were mounted on the same number of reworked A2 hulls. These tanks took part in the various peacekeeping missions in the Balkans, but they never saw action. The last A2 was retired in 2003, with the last A5 going in 2008, leaving the Ariete as the sole tank in Italian service. The AEVs, ARVs, and AVLBs have been reduced in number and some have been modified to work with the Ariete, they are stated to serve some more years as no replacement has been selected yet.

Lebanon
Lebanon and Belgium finalized the transfer of 43 Leopard 1/A5 tanks to the Lebanese Armed Forces in a deal worth 3.5 million euros, which also includes a number of ex-Belgian APCs. The purchased ex-Belgian APCs include 16 AIFV-B-C25s and 12 M113 armoured ambulances.

Turkey
The Turkish Army upgraded its Leopard 1 tanks to a version called the Leopard 1T. The modernization program included the serial production and integration of the Volkan fire control system developed by Aselsan.[15] The new indigenous system provides the capability of detecting the targets in daylight or at night in all weather conditions and combat environments. It significantly increases the first round hit probability on the move.[16][17]

References
Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Aging Leopards Prowl The Andes (http:/ / www. strategypage. com/ htmw/ htarm/ articles/ 20090116. aspx) http:/ / www. tv2. no/ nyheter/ innenriks/ leopard-1-har-skutt-sin-siste-granat-3592319. html Scandinavian Armor - Leopard 1 world wide (http:/ / www. haaland. info/ leopard1/ world/ ) Hunnicutt, p. 6 & 408 Australian Defence Force maintains a supportable, survivable and interoperable tank capability until at least 2020 (http:/ / www. defence. gov. au/ dmo/ lsd/ land907/ land907. cfm) [6] A Brace of Leopards (http:/ / www. tankmuseum. co. uk/ collatest. html), Bovington Tank Museum [7] http:/ / www. army. forces. gc. ca/ lf/ English/ 2_display. asp?FlashEnabled=1& product=55& more=55 [8] http:/ / www. theglobeandmail. com/ servlet/ story/ RTGAM. 20060915. wafghantroop0915/ BNStory/ National/ home [9] http:/ / www. ctv. ca/ servlet/ ArticleNews/ print/ CTVNews/ 20061101/ tanks_purchase_061101/ 20061101/ ?hub=Canada& subhub=PrintStory [10] "The announcement will likely be welcome news to soldiers who have had to endure searing heat driving their current Leopard C2s in the Afghan desert during the summer months. Heat-related health risks have threatened before to cause the tanks to be pulled from service. O'Connor said the newer tanks will be equipped with a cooling system for the crews before they reach Afghan soil." CBC News (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2007/ 04/ 12/ leopard-tanks-070412. html), April 12, 2007 [11] Military touts tougher image as tanks roll out in Kandahar - 'It could give our soldiers more confidence and be a bit of a shock for enemy troops' (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2007/ 08/ 16/ leopard-tanks-afghanistan. html) CBC News, August 16, 2007 [12] http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2007/ 04/ 12/ leopard-tanks-070412. html [13] " Canadian Forces to refresh aging fleet of tanks (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2007/ 04/ 12/ leopard-tanks-070412. html)", CBC news, April 12, 2007.

Leopard 1
[14] " Renewing the Canadian Forces' Tank Capability (http:/ / www. forces. gc. ca/ site/ newsroom/ view_news_e. asp?id=2252)", Official DND/CF Backgrounder. [15] Leopard 1A1/A1A4 Tanks Improvement Project (http:/ / www. ssm. gov. tr/ EN/ Projeler/ karaaraclari/ prjgrptank/ Pages/ LEOPARD1A1A1A4__K. aspx) [16] VOLKAN - Fire Control System for Leopard 1 Tanks (http:/ / www2. ssm. gov. tr/ katalog2007/ eng/ urunler. html) [17] ite bu tesislerde yaplyor (http:/ / www. hurriyet. com. tr/ gundem/ 10464568. asp)

76

Bibliography Hunnicutt, R. P. "Patton: A History of the American Main Battle Tank." 1984, Presidio Press; ISBN 0-89141-230-1.

External links
Leopard 1 (http://www.kmweg.com/gb/frame.php?page=14) at Krauss-Maffei Wegmann Leopard 1 worldwide (http://www.haaland.info/leopard1/world/) at Scandinavian Armor Battle tank Leopard 1 A5 (http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/row/leopard1.htm) at FAS.org Australian Leopard external links Acquiring Armour: Some Aspects of the Australian Army's Leopard Tank Purchase (http://www.defence.gov. au/army/lwsc/Publications/journal/AAJ_Summer_05_06/pelvin_armour_AAJ_Summer_05_06.pdf) Australian Army Journal, Vol.3(1), Summer 2005-6. Leopard 1 in Australia (http://anzacsteel.hobbyvista.com/Armoured Vehicles/leopardph_1.htm) - Anzac Steel Australian plans to retire stocks (http://www.smh.com.au/news/National/ Leopard-tanks-to-be-offered-for-sale/2006/08/30/1156816945773.html) Leopards being withdrawn from service (http://www.defence.gov.au/media/download/2007/Jul/20070711/ index.htm) - Official ceremony July, 2007. Canadian Leopard external links Canadian Tanks to Kandahar: the Leopard C2 (http://www.sfu.ca/casr/bg-leopard-afghan.htm) at CASR Passage to Panjwaii: Canadian Tanks Go to Afghanistan (http://www.sfu.ca/casr/ft-isaf-armour2.htm) at CASR Assessing the Threats to CF Leopard Tanks in Afghanistan (http://www.sfu.ca/casr/ft-isaf-armour3.htm) at CASR Punching at Panjwaii: Canadian Leopard Tanks in Combat (http://www.sfu.ca/casr/ft-leopard-tank.htm) at CASR - Dec 2006 Leopard 2A4/2A6M Tanks for the Canadian Forces? (http://www.sfu.ca/casr/bg-leopard2-afghan.htm) at CASR Canadian Army: Leopard C2 (http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/lf/English/2_display.asp?product=55) Leopard C2 (http://www.army.dnd.ca/GGHG/OpsTrg_files/AFV/AFV_L1/leoC2/Info_leoC2.htm) at the Governor General's Horse Guard militia regiment Leopard C2 (http://www.strathconas.ca/armour_leopard.php) at the Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) regiment Canadian Leopard C2 walk-around (http://www.primeportal.net/tanks/dan_hay/leopard_c2/) Raw footage of Canadian Leopards in Kandahar, Afghanistan (http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Rab8cxw1YfM) at Youtube.com Official DND/CF Backgrounder Renewing the Canadian Forces' Tank Capability (http://www.forces.gc.ca/ site/newsroom/view_news_e.asp?id=2252)

T-62

77

T-62
T-62

A T-62 tank on display at the Museum of the Great Patriotic War in Kiev. Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank
Soviet Union

Service history
Inservice 1961 present

Production history
Designer Manufacturer Produced OKB-520 design bureau Uralvagonzavod 1961 1975 (USSR) 1975 1978 (Czechoslovakia) 1980s (North Korea) More than 22,700

Numberbuilt

Specifications (T-62)
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armor 40t (44 short tons; 39 long tons) 9.34m (30ft 8in) with barrel in forward position 6.63m (21ft 9in) hull only 3.30m (10ft 10in) 2.40m (7ft 10in) 4 (commander, driver, gunner, loader) Cast turret 242 mm turret front 153 mm turret sides 97 mm turret rear 40 mm turret roof 102 mm at 60 hull front 79 mm hull upper sides 15 mm hull lower sides 46 mm at 0 hull rear 20 mm hull bottom 31 mm hull roof

T-62

78
115 mm U-5TS (2A20) smoothbore gun (40 rounds)

Main armament Secondary armament Engine Power/weight Suspension

7.62 mm PKT coaxial general-purpose machine gun (2500 rounds) 12.7 mm DShK 1938/46 antiaircraft heavy machine gun (optional until T-62 Obr.1972) V-55 12-cylinder 4-stroke one-chamber 38.88 liter water-cooled diesel 581 hp (433 kW) at 2,000rpm 14.5hp/tonne (10.8 kW/tonne) torsion bar

Groundclearance 425mm (16.7in) Fuelcapacity 960 l 1360 l with two 200-liter extra fuel tanks 450km (280mi) on road (650km (400mi) with two 200l (53USgal; 44impgal) extra fuel tanks) 320km (200mi) cross-country (450km (280mi) with two 200-liter extra fuel tanks) 50km/h (31mph) (road) 40km/h (25mph) (cross country)

Operational range Speed

The T-62 is a Soviet main battle tank, a further development of the T-55. Its 115mm gun was the first smoothbore tank gun in use. The T-62 was produced between 1961 and 1975. It became a standard tank in the Soviet arsenal, partly replacing the T-55, although that tank continued to be manufactured in the Soviet Union and elsewhere after T-62 production was halted. The T-62 was later replaced in front-line service by the T-72.

Development history
The initial requirements
By the late 1950s, Soviet commanders realized that the T-55's 100mm gun was incapable of penetrating the frontal armor of newer Western tanks like the Centurion and M48 Patton with standard armor-piercing shells. While 100mm HEAT ammo could have accomplished the task, they were considerably more expensive and required more training of tank crews for proper use. It was decided to up-gun the T-55 with a 115mm smoothbore cannon, capable of firing APFSDS rounds. Experimental trials showed that the T-55 was inherently unsuited to mount the larger new cannon, and work therefore began on a new tank. The bigger gun required a bigger turret and turret ring to absorb the higher recoil. This in turn necessitated a larger hull, as the T-55 hull was simply too small to accept the new turret. The T-62 thus took shape, marking an evolutionary improvement upon the T-55. (Perrett 1987:38)

Ob'yekt 140
At the time when Morozov was working on his Ob'yekt 430 tank, a young engineer, Leonid N. Kartsev, was the head of the OKB-520 design bureau of Uralvagonzavod factory (UVZ) in Nizhny Tagil. He was responsible for the T-54A (Ob'yekt 137G) and T-54B (Ob'yekt 137G2) modernizations of T-54 main battle tank. After work on the T-54M (Ob'yekt 139) modernization was abandoned he and his design team started working on a new tank, called Ob'yekt 140. The new tank had a suspension with six light roadwheels made of aluminium. The turret was cast and armed with a 100mm D-54TS tank gun with the Molniya two-plane stabilization system. The tank carried 50 rounds and was powered by a V-36 diesel engine developed by engineer Artiemejev. The engine was placed on the bottom of the hull, a solution which reduced the height of the engine compartment. The Ob'yekt 140 weighed 37.6 tonnes.

T-62 Morozov's Ob'yekt 430 tank had a hull of welded rolled steel plates and a turret of cast and forged steel. The turret had three-layer armour with an overall thickness of 185mm to 240mm. It was armed with the same D-54TS tank gun as Kartsev's Ob'yekt 140. In 1957 Uralvagonzavod built two Ob'yekt 140 prototypes which were put on trials soon after. The trials showed that because of the complicated construction of many of the tank's systems, Kartsev's tank would be expensive in serial production and hard to maintain. Forced to abandon the Ob'yekt 140 project, he started working on yet another T-54 main battle tank modernization called the T-55 (Ob'yekt 155) in which he included one of the key features from his Ob'yekt 140 tank: the upper fuel tanks were fitted with mounts for tank gun ammunition. This increased the ammunition load carried by the tank to 45 rounds.

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Ob'yekt 165
At the end of 1958 Kartsev decided to modernize the Ob'yekt 140 turret. He fitted it with a cartridge-case ejector and mounted it onto a stretched T-55 chassis with a new suspension. He also considered that designs based on already produced vehicles had higher of chance of acceptance. The Ob'yekt 140 turret diameter, bigger than the T-55 turret by 249mm, made redesigning the central part of the hull necessary. Kartsev changed the arrangement of the torsion beams, which was necessary to keep the tank's weight balanced. The tank received the designation "Ob'yekt 165" and in November 1958 three prototypes were built.

Ob'yekt 166
While working on a new tank, Kartsev was looking for a more powerful tank gun. The 100mm D-10T and D-54 tank guns had a fierce opponent in the form of the British L7A1 tank gun. The Soviets decided to "recaliber" the already existing 100mm D-54TS tank gun. The modifications done to the gun included removing the rifling of the gun, reducing the profile of the bullet chamber, removing the muzzle brake, lengthening the gun tube, adding an automatic cartridge-case ejector and adding a bore evacuator in the middle of the gun tube (as opposed to the D-45TS tank gun, which had a bore evacuator in the base of the gun tube). The new 115mm tank gun was designated U-5TS "Molot" Rapira, which was the first Soviet 115mm smoothbore tank gun. When it went into serial production it received the designation 2A20. It was put in trials against the D-10TS tank gun, which armed the T-54B as well as some T-55 and T-55A main battle tanks. These trials showed that the undercaliber projectiles shot out of the U-5TS had a 700km/h higher muzzle velocity. It became apparent that the maximum range of the new tank gun was almost double that of the D-10TS. The only serious drawback of the U-5TS tank gun was the fact that it was not as accurate as the D-10TS, because of the lack of rifling. However, the greater range of the gun and its extremely high muzzle velocity made the poor accuracy less of an issue. The new 115mm U-5TS "Molot" (2A20) Rapira smoothbore tank gun was fitted into the Ob'yekt 140 turret at the end of 1960. The new tank received the designation "Ob'yekt 166". In 1960 both Ob'yekt 165 and Ob'yekt 166 prototypes passed their trials. The Uralvagonzavod was preparing to start serial production of the new tank, though the General Armoured Directorate (GBTU) was paying much more attention to Morozov's Ob'yekt 430, which was in development since early 1952. Morozov was supported by general Ustinov, who was in charge of Soviet military industry at the time. He didn't see it as necessary to produce the new tank from Uralvagonzavod but soon the situation changed dramatically with the appearance of a new American main battle tank, the M60. Zaloga claimed in January 1961, an Iranian officer defected with his new US-made M60A1 main battle tank across the border into the Soviet Union but it seems very unlikely as the M60A1 didn't exist in 1961.[1] The new American tanks were armed with a British 105mm Royal Ordnance L7A1 tank gun, the same as the earlier British Centurion main battle tanks and the later German Leopard 1 main battle tanks. The M60's armour layout and L7A1 tank gun granted superiority to the NATO main battle tanks over Soviet contemporary main battle tanks. This situation caused great concern in the Soviet armoured forces. In 1961 the Soviet intelligence discovered that the British were working on new a main battle tank armed with a 120mm tank gun. Because of this, General Czujkov demanded an explanation of the

T-62 "Kartsev's tanks" case. At a conference of GBTU and the Soviet ground forces committee it became apparent that Morozov's Ob'yek 430 tank was only 10% better than the serial T-55. Because of this, Morozov's project was deemed a complete failure. The representatives of Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau said that works on a new tank, the Ob'yekt 432, had already started. Czujkov demanded that production of the Ob'yekt 166 main battle tank be started immediately. The OKB-520 design bureau of Uralvagonzavod provided another design, the Ob'yekt 167, which was the Ob'yekt 166 with a new more powerful V-26 engine using a charger, developing 700hp (522kW). Two prototypes were built in the middle of 1961 and passed the trials. This time the GBTU decided not to wait for the new main battle tank to pass trials and send the Ob'yekt 166 into mass production on July 1961. The Ob'yekt 165 also entered service in very small numbers, under the designation T-62A.[2]

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Design
The T-62 has a typical tank layout: driver's compartment at the front, fighting compartment in the centre and engine compartment in the rear. The four-man crew consists of the commander, driver, gunner and loader. Although the T-62 is very similar to the T-55 and makes use of many of the same parts, there are some differences. Those include the hull, which is a few centimetres longer and wider, the different road wheels, and differences in characteristic uneven gaps between US Army recognition poster roadwheels. Unlike the T-54 and T-55 main battle tanks, the gaps between the last three pairs of roadwheels are larger than the rest. (Perrett 1987:37-38)

Armament
The armament consists of the 115mm U-5TS "Molot" (2A20) Rapira smoothbore tank gun with a two-axis "Meteor" stabilizer and 7.62mm PKT coaxial general-purpose machine gun mounted on the right of the main gun. The 12.7mm DShK 1938/46 antiaircraft heavy machine gun is mounted on the loader's hatch. It was optional until 1972 when all newly built tanks were fitted with the AA HMG. The tank carries 40 rounds for the main gun (although only 4 are placed in the turret while A T-62 armed with 12.7 mm DShK 1938/46 the rest are stored in the back of the fighting compartment and in the antiaircraft heavy machine gun front of the hull, on the right of the driver) and 2500 rounds for the coaxial machine gun. All of the vehicle's armament is mounted in or on the round cast egg-shaped turret from the Ob'yekt 140 prototype main battle tank, mounted over the third pair of roadwheels. It takes more than 21 seconds for the T-62's turret to rotate through a full 360, which is longer than the time needed by US and NATO tanks of the time. The T-62 was armed with the world's first smoothbore tank gun, giving it considerably greater muzzle velocity than the Western 90mm and 105mm tank guns of its time. [citation needed] It can fire BM-6 APFSDS-T, BK-4, BK-4M HEAT and OF-18 Frag-HE rounds. The 115mm gun introduced the first successful APFSDS ammunition, albeit with a steel penetrator. A smoothbore gun allowed a significantly better performance (from 10% to 20%) from HEAT ammunition, which was considered the main ammunition type for fighting enemy armour at medium and long ranges. The gun can be elevated or depressed between 4 and +16. The tank has no autoloader and has to be reloaded by hand. To reload the gun it must be elevated or depressed to +3.5. Empty cartridges are automatically ejected outside the vehicle through a small hatch in the rear of the turret. The gun has range of fire of about 4km during day conditions and 800 m (with the use of night vision equipment) at

T-62 night. The T-62's practical rate of fire is 4 rounds per minute while the vehicle is stationary and is lower when the vehicle is moving. The low rate of fire falls behind the capabilities of Western 105mm tank guns. When the tank and the target are stationary, the U-5TS has almost the same accuracy as the American M60 Patton and the German Leopard 1 main battle tanks. When the tank or the target are moving the accuracy becomes very poor due to the tank's poor stabilization system and the lack of a fire control system. Even the APFSDS-T rounds at a range of 700 metres are half as accurate when the target is moving with a constant speed.

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Mobility
The T-62 uses torsion bar suspension. It has five pairs of rubber-tired roadwheels, a drive sprocket at the rear and idler at the front on each side, with no return rollers. The first and last roadwheels each have a hydraulic shock absorber. The tank is powered by the V-55 12-cylinder 4-stroke one-chamber 38.88 litre water-cooled diesel engine developing 581hp (433kW) at 2,000rpm. This is the same engine as the one used in the T-55. Because the T-62 weighs more than the T-55, it is less maneuverable. Like the T-55, the T-62 has three external diesel fuel tanks on the right fender and a single auxiliary oil tank on the left fender. The tank carries 960 litres of fuel in its internal and external fuel tanks. Two optional 200-litre drum-type fuel tanks can be fitted on the rear of the vehicle for an increased operational range.

Side view of a T-62. The tank in the picture has either damaged or disassembled torsion bars and its hull lies on the ground.

Rear view of a T-62. Notice the two optional 200 litre drum-type fuel tanks.

Countermeasures
The T-62 has 5% better armour on the front of the hull (102mm at 60) and 15% better armour on the front of the turret (242mm) than the T-54/T-55. The turret armour is 153mm thick on the sides, 97mm thick on the rear and 40mm thick on the roof. The hull armour is 79mm thick on the upper sides, 46mm at 0 thick on the rear and 20mm thick on the bottom. Although the armour on the front of the hull is thicker than in the T-55, the lower side armour (15mm) and the roof armour (31mm) are actually thinner.
A T-62 laying a smokescreen.

T-62

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Equipment
One of the many similarities between the T-54/T-55 and T-62 tanks is their ability to create a smokescreen by injecting vaporized diesel fuel into the exhaust system. Like the T-54 and T-55, the T-62 has an unditching beam mounted at the rear of the hull. The tank can be fitted with a thin snorkel for operational usage and a large diameter snorkel for training. The thin snorkel can be disassembled and carried in the back of the turret when not used. The commander's cupola is located on the left of the top of the turret. The loader has a single piece hatch Front view of a T-62 located on the right side of the turret and further back than the commander's cupola. The loader's hatch has a periscope vision block that can be used to view the areas in front of and behind the vehicle. The commander's copula has four periscopes, two are located in the hatch cover while the other two are located in the forward part of the cupola. The driver has a single piece hatch located on the left front of the vehicle, directly in front of the left side of the turret. The tank uses the same sights and vision devices as the T-55 except for the gunner, who received a new TSh-2B-41 sight which has x4 or x7 magnification. It is mounted coaxially with an optic rangefinder. The Rear view of a T-62 gunner has two periscope vision blocks, one of which is used in conjunction with the main searchlight mounted coaxially on the right side of the main armament. There are two other smaller searchlights. One of these is used by the commander and is mounted on his cupola. The tank has two headlights on the right front of the vehicle, one of which is infrared while the other one is white. Curved hand rails around the turret allow easier entry for the commander, the gunner, and the loader. They also help the infantry to mount and dismount the tank while performing a tank desant. The tank has a box-shaped radiation detector/actuator mounted on the right hand side of the turret, behind the compressed air tanks. While the T-62 did not feature an automatic loader (as would become characteristic of later Russian tanks), it had a unique "ejection port" built into the back of the turret, which would open as the main gun recoiled, ejecting spent shell casings outside. This was considered advantageous since the spent casings would otherwise clutter the floor of the tank and fill the interior with noxious burnt-propellant fumes. (Perrett 1987:38) There is a blower mounted in the rear of the turret, to the left of the spent cartridge ejection port.

Limitations
The T-62 shares some of the T-55's limitations: a cramped crew compartment, crude gun control equipment (on most early models), limited depression of the main gun and vulnerable fuel and ammunition storage areas. The automatic spent-cartridge ejection system can cause dangerous accumulations of carbon monoxide and possibly actual physical injury to the crew from spent cartridge cases ricocheting against the edge of a poorly aligned ejection port and rebounding into the crew compartment[citation needed]. Crew members often suffer blunt force injuries and burns from ejected cases bouncing around the interior of the tank[citation needed]. Later designs fitted a deflector behind the commander to protect him from this, but other crew members remain vulnerable. (Perrett 1987:38) Opening the ejection port under NBC (nuclear, biological, or chemical) conditions would expose the crew to contamination. Each time the gun is fired, the tube must go into dtente for cartridge ejection; the power traverse of the turret is inoperable during ejection and reloading operations. Since manual elevation and traverse are rather slow and not effective for tracking a moving target, rapid fire and second-hit capabilities are limited. The turret cannot be traversed with the driver's hatch open. Although the tank commander may override the gunner and traverse the turret, he cannot fire the main gun from his position. He is unable to override the gunner in elevation of the main gun,

T-62 causing target acquisition problems. To fire the 12.7mm antiaircraft heavy machine gun, the loader must be partially exposed, making him vulnerable to suppressive fire, and he must leave his main gun loading duties unattended. The T-62 never enjoyed the anticipated success for numerous reasons. First, the T-62 was more than twice as expensive as the T-55, and many Warsaw Pact nations passed on the new tank because they did not feel that the improvements inherent in it warranted the cost. Secondly, in 1968, a 100mm HVAPDS tank shell capable of piercing Western armor was developed. Use of this shell made the T-55 gun almost as effective as the T-62s, undercutting the T-62's original selling point: a bigger, more powerful gun. Third, the T-62 was almost immediately rendered obsolete upon its introduction by new Western tanks like the Chieftain, Leopard 1 and M60, and it became clear to the Soviets that work had to begin on an even newer main battle tank to keep pace, even though the T-62 was brand new (this even newer Soviet tank would become the T-64). Finally, the T-62 was slow and could not keep up with the new Soviet BMP (Infantry Combat Vehicle) the principal infantry fighting vehicle which the T-62 was supposed to accompany. All of these factors combined to ensure that the T-62 enjoyed relatively low commercial success, and only briefly served in first line Soviet units before being relegated to training, to reserve status, or being exported to Third World clients. (Perrett 1987:41)

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Production history
In July 1961, Uralvagonzavod in Nizhny Tagil, Malyshev Factory in Kharkiv, Ukraine and Omsk Factory No. 183 replaced part of their T-55 production with the T-62.[3] The original plans were that the T-62 would be produced until Morozov's Ob'yekt 432 tank was developed. T-62 production was maintained at Uralvagonzavod until 1973 when it was replaced on the production lines by the T-72. Until the end of production 20,000 T-62 main battle tanks were produced by Uralvagonzavod. Production in the Soviet Union was stopped in 1975. Czechoslovakia built more than 1,500 T-62 main battle tanks for export after production ceased in the Soviet Union in 1975, and it continued there until 1978. North Korea produced the T-62 under license until the 1980s. In the early 1990s the North Korean Second Machine Industry Bureau designed a lighter copy of the T-62 which is mass-produced and is known locally as the Ch'nma-ho I (Ga).[4]

T-62

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Models
Former Soviet Union T-62A (Ob'yekt 165) Predecessor of T-62. It was essentially a stretched T-55 chassis with a 2245mm turret ring, a new suspension, and an Ob'yekt 140 turret modernized with the addition of a spent-cartridge ejector; armed with the 100mm D-54TS (also sometimes called U-8TS) tank gun equipped with the "Kometa" two-plane stabilizer. Only a very small number entered service. T-62 Obr.1960 (Ob'yekt 166) Original production model equipped with the 115mm U-5TS "Molot" (2A20) Rapira smoothbore tank gun with a "Meteor" two-plane stabilizer. It has a TKN-3 commander's day/night sight, TSh-2B-41 gunner day sight with 3.5/7x magnification and TPN14111 night sight. It carries 40 rounds for the main gun and 2500 rounds for the PKT coaxial general-purpose machine gun. The V-55V engine produces 581hp (433kW). It has a commander's cupola welded to turret.

Front view of T-62M of the Afghan National Army in Kabul, 2004.

T-62K (Ob'yekt 166K) (K stands for komandirskaya ["command"]) (1964) T-62 command variant. It is fitted with an R-112 (or R-130) radio, an AB-1 APU and an antenna base on top of the turret. The ammunition load was decreased to 36 for the main gun and 1,750 rounds for the coaxial general-purpose machine gun. It was mainly used by company and battalion commanders. T-62KN (Ob'yekt 166KN) T-62K fitted with additional TNA-2 navigation aids. T-62K fitted with the 9M14 Malyutka (NATO reporting name: AT-3 Sagger) ATGM launcher.[citation
needed]

Ob'yekt 167 T-62 fitted with a V-26 engine which with a use of charger develops 700hp (522kW). It has a 9M14 Malyutka (NATO: AT-3 Sagger) ATGM launcher on the rear of turret and a new chassis with return rollers and smaller roadwheels. Not produced. Only two prototypes were made. Ob'yekt 167T Ob'yekt 167 fitted with a GTD-3T gas turbine engine. T-72 A further development of T-62 with some features of the T-64A.[5] T-62 Obr.1967 T-62 Obr.1960 with a slightly modified engine deck. T-62 Obr.1972 T-62 Obr.1967 with a DShK 1938/46 machine gun installed on the loader's hatch. The tank is fitted with a new drive sprocket, RMSh tracks and an improved fording attachment.[citation needed] It is sometimes incorrectly called T-62A and T-62M. T-62 Obr.1975 T-62 Obr.1972 equipped with a KTD-1 or KTD-2 laser rangefinder in an armoured box over the main armament. It has concealed bolts around the commander's cupola. T-62D (Ob'yekt 166D) (D stands for Drozd [thrush]) (1983) T-62 Obr.1975 equipped with KAZ 1030M "Drozd" active protection system (APS), BDD appliqu armour on the glacis plate only and new V-55U diesel engine. T-62D-1 (Objekt 166D-1) T-62D fitted with a new V-465M diesel engine. T-62M (Ob'yekt 166M) (1983) - Extensive modernization of the T-62 with protection and mobility improvements and the "Volna" fire control system. It is fitted with a BDD appliqu armour package, an additional belly armour plate for anti-mine protection, 10mm thick reinforced rubber side skirts and 10mm thick anti-neutron liner. The BDD appliqu armour package was

T-62 specially designed to defeat shaped charges (for example RPGs) and consists of an appliqu plate on the glacis and two horseshoe shaped blocks fitted to the front of the turret. The handrails around the turret have been removed to make space for the bra appliqu armour. Fastenings for four spare track chain links have been added on the side of the turret. The tank is fitted with RhKM tracks from the T-72 main battle tank and two additional shock absorbers on the first pair of roadwheels. The "Volna" fire control system was improved by fitting the KTD-2 (or KTD-1) laser rangefinder in an armoured box over the main armament. There is a new TShSM-41U gunner's sight, new commander's sight, "Meteor-M1" stabiliser, BV-62 ballistic computer and 9K116-2 "Sheksna" (NATO: AT-10 Stabber) guided missile unit with 1K13-BOM sight (it is both a night sight and ATGM launcher sight. However, it cannot be used for both functions simultaneously) which allows the tank to fire 9M117 Bastion ATGMs through its gun tube. The tank was fitted with a gun thermal sleeve, new radios, the R-173 radio set instead of R-123M and a new V-55U diesel engine developing 620hp (462kW). The ammunition load was increased by two rounds. Some are fitted with two clusters of four smoke grenade launchers each on the right rear of the turret. The US intelligence saw T-62M main battle tanks for the first time during the Soviet war in Afghanistan and they gave it the designation T-62E. There are a number of sub-variants of the T-62M, depending on how much of the modernization package the vehicle has installed. T-62M-1 (Ob'yekt 166M-1) T-62M fitted with a V-465M diesel engine. T-62M1 (Ob'yekt 166M1) T-62M fitted with a revised frontal armour layout on the hull and a normal night sight. It doesn't have ATGM capability. T-62M11 (Ob'yekt 166M11) T-62M1 fitted with the V-465M diesel engine. T-62M12 (Ob'yekt 166M12) T-62M1 without belly armour or the BDD armour package. T-62M121 (Ob'yekt 166M121) T-62M12 fitted with the V-465M diesel engine. T-62MD (Ob'yekt 166MD) (D stands for Drozd ["thrush"]) T-62M fitted with KAZ 1030M "Drozd" active protection system (APS). T-62MD-1 (Ob'yekt 166MD-1) T-62MD fitted with V-465M diesel engine. T-62MK (Ob'yekt 166MK) (K stands for komandirskaya ["command"]) T-62M command variant. It doesn't have ATGM capability but has TNA-2 navigation aids, additional R-112 and R-113 radio sets and an AB-1 auxiliary engine to power the additional radios. The tank has a lower ammunition load for both the main gun and the coaxial general-purpose machine gun. T-62MK-1 (Ob'yekt 166MK-1) T-62MK fitted with the V-465M diesel engine. T-62MV (Ob'yekt 166MV) (1985) (V stands for vzryvnoi ["explosive"]) Fitted with "Kontakt-1" explosive reactive armour (ERA) on the sides of the hull, the glacis plate, and in the front of the turret (were it replaces the appliqu bra armour). T-62MV-1 (Ob'yekt 166MV-1) T-62MV fitted with the V-465M diesel engine. T-62M1V (Ob'yekt 166M1V) T-62MV without ATGM capability. T-62M1V-1 (Ob'yekt 166M1V-1) T-62M1V fitted with a V-465M diesel engine. T-62 fitted with a box on the rear of the turret containing anti-aircraft missiles. T-62 fitted with the ZET-1 (ZET stands for Zaschtschita Ekrannaja Tankowaja) vehicle protection system. The system was developed in 1964 and was specially designed to protect the tank's front and sides up to an angle of 25 against shaped-charge projectiles with of a maximum caliber of 115mm. It consisted of a stretchable screen with net structure centered on the vehicle's main armament and lateral flipper-type sideskirts. It was intended for T-54, T-55 and T-62 main battle tanks. The diameter of the screens was different for each tank type. The individual screen sections could be replaced in two minutes. While it was

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T-62 successful in wide open spaces, it was an impractical in wooded areas. Because of that the development was not heavily used, although the flipper-type sideskirts were later used in the initial T-72 models. T-62 experimentally fitted with a "Zhelud" autoloader.[citation needed] T-62/122 T-62 based combat engineering vehicle rearmed with 122mm howitzer. T-62/160 T-62 based combat engineer vehicle fitted with BTU and armed with a shortened 160mm mortar. T-67 T-62 armed with a 125mm tank gun and fitted with a drive train from the T-72 main battle tank. TO-62 T-62 converted into a flamethrower tank. The flamethrower has an effective range of 100 meters and is mounted coaxially with the 115mm gun.

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IT-1 (Ob'yekt 150) T-62 converted into a tank destroyer (istrebitel' tankov). It was developed between 1957 and 1962. It utilized the chassis and the hull of the T-62 main battle tank and was fitted with a new low 'flattened dome' turret with a stabilized 2K8 ATGM system instead of the tank gun. The IT-1 was the only one of several "rocket tank" ('raketniy tank') designs that actually entered service. It could launch radio-guided semi-automatic PTUR 3M7 "Drakon" ATGMs with a range between 300 m and 3,300 m. It carried 15 PTUR 3M7 "Drakon" ATGMs on board (3 in reserve and 12 in the autoloader). The ATGM was launched from an arm rising through the roof of the turret. The secondary armament consisted of a 7.62mm PKT general-purpose machine gun for which it carried 2,000 rounds. The turret was fitted with T2-PD and UPN-S day/night sights. About 60 IT-1 tank destroyers were built between 1968 and 1970 by various companies including 20 built by the Uralvagonzavod factory in 1970. Only two battalions operated them, one with artillery personnel and one with tank personnel, with one battalion in Belarus MD and the other one in the Carpathian MD. The units were disbanded after the withdrawal of IT-1 and all the vehicles were converted to armored recovery vehicles (ARVs). IT-1T (T after IT-1 stands for tyagach ["tractor"]) After the withdrawal of IT-1 from front-line service many of the vehicles were partially converted to ARVs. The only differences from the standard IT-1 was that the turret was fixed in position after all the ATGM gear was removed. They weren't very successful and were soon converted into the BTS-4V armoured recovery vehicles. BTS-4V (BTS stands for bronirovannij tyagach, srednij ["medium armoured tractor"]) Conversion of T-62 main battle tanks and IT-1 tank destroyers into a turretless ARV. They are similar to the much more common T-54 -based BTS-4. The vehicle was fitted with a stowage basket, a hoist and a small folding crane with a capacity of 3 tonnes, a winch, and a snorkel. It is also known as BTS-4U. BTS-4V1 Conversion of approximatively 35 pre-production T-62 main battle tanks into ARVs. BTS-4V2 Partial conversion of 20 T-62 main battle tanks damaged by fire into an armoured recovery vehicle. The turret was replaced by a dome-shaped fixed superstructure. There is a single hatch on top of the superstructure fitted with a 12.7mm DShK 1938/46 antiaircraft heavy machine gun. It was limited to basic towing operations and most were disposed of by giving them away as foreign aid. They were also known as BTS-4VZ. Impuls-2M Decommissioned T-62 main battle tank converted into a fire fighting vehicle fitted with a 50-round launch system for flame-retarding projectiles on a rotatable mount in the turret ring and a dozer blade on the front. It sometimes incorrectly called T-72PPM.

T-62 Austria T-62 modernization made by NORICUM. The modernization includes a replacement of the 115mm tank gun with a 105mm Royal Ordnance L7 tank gun. The Egyptian Army evaluated the vehicle and incorporated its upgrades in its RO-115 Mark I modernization (See Egypt section for details). Bulgaria TV-62 T-62 main battle tank converted into an armoured recovery vehicle. T-62 modification. TV-62M T-62M main battle tank converted into an armoured recovery vehicle. This vehicle is composed of a T-62M hull with a modified T-55 or T-55A turret which was cut in half; the upper part was bolted onto the hull in the 6 o'clock position. There is a large winch and a snorkel mounted on the rear of the hull. TP-62 fire fighting vehicle, for the first time presented during the Hemus 2008 defense equipment trade show. Used in the putting out of the Vitosha 2012 fire. Egypt 1st Upgrade: RO-115 Mark I: developed in early 1980s. While retaining the Soviet 115mm gun, more powerful ammunition allows engaging a target at greater range. Some main guns were replaced with the Royal Ordnance L7 105mm gun as offered by the Austrian firm NORICUM See Austria section for details). Other modifications included a British diesel engine developing 750hp (559kW), a two-plane stabilizer, ballistic computer, laser rangefinder in an armoured box over the main armament, a cluster of six smoke grenade launchers on the right side of the turret, a fire control system from BMP-3 IFV and additional armor including reactive armor. The upgrades resulted in an increase of weight to 43 tons. 2nd Upgrade: T-62E Mark II: Mid 1990s Egyptian refurbishment and modernization program. The tanks were fitted with a license-built German MTU engine developing 880hp (656kW). The tanks are armed with a license-built 105mm M68 tank gun, an Italian fire control system with ballistics computer, infrared vision device, laser rangefinder, gun stabilizer, additional armor including reactive armour, armored side skirts, modernized suspension and six smoke grenade launchers on each side of the turret. It has an upgraded NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical) protection system. The T-62E Mark II carries two Egyptian-made two-round anti-tank missile launchers, or two 2-round launchers for 80mm D-3000 smoke rockets on an encroachment extension, or a box-type launcher holding two Sakr smoke missiles on each side of the turret. The upgrade did not change the weight of the tank, which remained at 45 tons. 3rd Upgrade: RO-120 Mark III: T-62 main battle tank upgrade developed in 2004. This upgrade arms the tank with the 120mm M-393 tank gun developed by FSUE. The gun is 5.30 m long and weighs 2.6 tonnes. It can be elevated or depressed between 7 and +15. The tank has a new license-built German MTU engine developing 890hp (664kW) and additional armor, including reactive armor and armored side skirts. The upgrades resulted in a weight increase to 46.5 tons. This upgrade was completed by the end of 2008.

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T-62 France T-62 modernization made by GIAT. The modernization includes a replacement of the 115mm tank gun with a 120mm smoothbore tank gun, the same as the one used in the AMX 40 prototype main battle tank. No orders were placed for this unit. Israel Tiran-3 Israeli designation for an unmodified T-62. Tiran-6 Modernization of ex-Syrian T-62. Fitted with a laser rangefinder and thermal imaging sight for the gunner. The tank was fitted with a US-made radio. Some Tiran-6s have "Blazer" reactive armour tiles fitted to the hull and turret. The original Tiran-6 engine was replaced by a General Motors diesel engine. Tiran-6s have a flat plate bustle rack added to the turret rear, two stowage bins (one on the right of the turret and other one on the rear of the turret), a larger headlight bracket on the glacis plate and pintle mounts for machine guns on the turret roof in front of each hatch. The original 115mm tank gun was replaced by a 105mm tank gun. The 12.7mm DShK 1938/46 antiaircraft heavy machine gun was replaced by an M1919 Browning light machine gun. The M2 Browning heavy machine gun was mounted on top of the mantlet of the main gun. North Korea Ch'nma-ho I (Ga) This is a lighter and thinner armoured copy of the T-62. Based on general trends and photography of armed forces parades, it is clear that North Korea has made considerable modifications to the basic Soviet and Chinese designs in its own production. Ch'nma-ho II designation for an imported T-62. Ch'nma-ho III A simple progressive upgrade of the Chonma-ho 2, with a thermal sleeve for the main gun and armored track skirts added. It is possible, but considered unlikely, that lugs for ERA have been added since its introduction; if they are present, they would be most likely found on the glacis and turret sides. A night vision upgrade.[citation needed] Ch'nma-ho IV Greatly upgraded armor protection, including composite armor on the glacis and turret front, and appliqu or thickened armor elsewhere. Even the appliqu and/or thickened armor appears to be more advanced than earlier models, does not appear to have gained a huge amount of weight. A ballistic computer was added to the fire control suite, and the fire control suite has been integrated into a complete system rather than being a patchwork of upgrades. Gun stabilization has been improved. Radios are improved, and the suspension beefed up. The new engine is a 750-horsepower model which can lay a thick, oily smoke screen by injecting diesel fuel into its exhaust. Lugs for ERA (similar to the Russian Kontakt-3 ERA) added to turret sides, and lugs on the armored track skirts and on the glacis. Lugs for a relatively small amount of ERA bricks on the turret front; the ERA on the turret front would only protect 40% of hits to the turret front. On side of turret, clusters of four smoke grenade launchers; at the rear of the turret another cluster of four smoke grenade launchers, firing backwards instead of forwards.[citation needed] Ch'nma-ho V Armor upgrades derived partially from the T-90S and T-72S, as well as a better ballistic computer and the addition of the aforementioned thermal imagers. Upgraded main gun a copy of the 125mm 2A46 gun, complete with an autoloader. The fire control system replaced with one matching the new main gun, and the spent shell ejection system dispensed . Use wider tracks.[citation needed]

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T-62 Ukraine T-55AGM Ukrainian T-54/T-55 modernization which can also be applied to T-62s.[6] T-62AG - Upgraded by Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau. It is fitted with the 5TDF 700hp diesel engine, a 125mm KBA-101 tank gun, new fire control equipment and enhanced armour protection. Combat weight is 39.5 tonnes. The crew still consists of 4 men because there is no automatic loader. The upgrade package is aimed at the export market, since the Ukrainian army no longer uses the T-62. Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau is offering three T-62 conversions:[7] T-62 based heavy infantry fighting vehicle. T-62 based armoured recovery vehicle. T-62 based armoured bridge layer. United States T-62 - This version is modified in a number of ways including the replacement of the original diesel engine with a Caterpillar diesel engine and fitting of US radios and antennae mounts. T-62 main battle tanks modified in such a way were used by the US Army for opposing forces training.

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Service history
Soviet Union
The T-62 entered service with the Soviet Army in July 1961. Because of the firepower of the new 115mm gun, it was considered to be a formidable tank for the time, despite its drawbacks. Along with the T-55, the T-62 was one of the most common tanks in the Soviet inventory. The two tanks together once comprised approximately 85% of the Soviet army's tanks.

MAZ-537 tractor-trailers transporting T-62 tanks, 23 May 1984

Sino-Soviet border conflict The T-62 saw combat for the first time during 1969 SinoSoviet border conflict during which one was disabled and captured by the People's Liberation Army. The T-62 (No. 545) was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade fired from the Type-56 (Chinese copy of RPG-2) RPG launcher on the morning of 15 March 1969 during a PLA counterattack. The RPG penetrated the left side of hull, killing the driver. This tank was later studied and the information gathered from those studies was used for the development of the Type 69 main battle tank.[citation needed]
T-62 tank captured by the PLA during the 1969 Sino-Soviet border conflict.

T-62 Soviet war in Afghanistan During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the T-62 was a primary tank used by the Soviet army.[8] The Soviets used tanks in a similar way to what the US Army did in Vietnam, with the use of many in fire support bases. Towards the end of the war T-62Ms, using the BDD appliqu armor, appeared in large numbers. Numerous T-62s fell victim to Mujahideen attacks, especially from antitank landmines. Others fell into the hands of the Afghan Mujahideen after they were left behind by withdrawing Soviet forces.

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Russia

Soviet T-62M of the "Berlin" tank regiment which was a part of the 5th Guards Motor Rifle Division, leaving Afghanistan, 1 January 1987

The T-62 and T-55 are now mostly used by Russian reserve units for a possible secondary mobilization while some are kept in storage. The active duty and primary mobilization units mainly use the T-80, T-72, and T-64, with a smaller number of T-90 tanks in service in active units. War in Chechnya The Russian army used both T-62s and T-62Ms in combat in Chechnya. The T-62M is still being used for counterterrorism operations in this region.[citation needed] 2008 South Ossetia war Were used in the war against Georgia.[9]

Foreign service
Bulgaria The only other Warsaw Pact member to operate T-62s on a mass scale was Bulgaria which bought 250 T-62s, which were delivered between 1970 and 1974.[10] After the war in Afghanistan, Bulgaria received a number of T-62s from the Soviet Union in the 1980s. These were modified, but due to several problems, they were quickly withdrawn from service and some were sold to Angola and Yemen. Many were converted into TV-62 and TV-62M armoured recovery vehicles and their turrets were scrapped. The TV-62M is the standard armoured recovery vehicle of the Bulgarian Army.

T-62s of the Afghan National Army in Kabul, 27 April 2004

T-62 Other Warsaw Pact members Both Poland and Czechoslovakia evaluated the vehicle but refused it because of the high price and low update value compared to the T-55. Israel During the Yom Kippur war, the T-62 was an effective adversary for Israeli Patton and Centurion main battle tanks armed with 105mm tank guns. The T-62 had an advantage in its better night-fighting capability, but Syrian losses were heavy. The Israelis captured several hundred of these tanks from the Syrians in 1973, and put some of them into service as the Tiran-3. About 120 Tiran-3 were modernized and received the designation Tiran-6. Only a small number was converted because the new US made M60 main battle tanks started arriving in Israel.[11] A small tank brigade consisting of two enlarged tank regiments, each equipped with 46 Tiran-6 tanks, was formed. The Tiran-6 is used by reserve units. The Israelis have sold the rest to assorted countries, many in Latin America.[citation needed] Iraq The Iraqi T-62s performed well against opposing Iranian tanks such as M48s, M60A1s and Chieftains in the Iran-Iraq war. Iraqi T-62 participated in the biggest tank battle of the war in early 1981. Iran has lost 200 Chieftain and M60A1 tanks during battle. In return, Iraq has lost 50 T-62 tanks. The remaining Iranian armor, turned about and withdrew.[12] Libyan-Chadian War In 1982, when Libya invaded Chad the T-62 tanks were faced with militiamen who had made technical fighting vehicles from Toyota pickup trucks, most of them still in their civilian paint. The technicals were essentially makeshift tank destroyers, as the militiamen had mounted MILAN ATGM firing posts and welded tripod mounts for assorted recoilless rifles onto the beds of the trucks.[13] Cuba The first T-62s arrived in Cuba in 1976.[14] Currently approximately 400 are in service with the Cuban armed forces and about 100 are in storage. They are modernized to the T-62M standard with additional armor, laser equipment and fire control systems. In 1988, Cuba deployed several T-62s to Angola to support its MPLA allies during the Angolan Civil War. Throughout the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, they engaged attacking South African Olifant tanks and Ratel-90 armoured cars. The Cuban crews only enjoyed limited success due to the unsuitability of the demanding African terrain to tank warfare, and were frequently outperformed by enemy ATGMs and wheeled fighting vehicles.[15]

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Soldiers assigned to the 1st Afghanistan National Army Armored Battalion, stand in formation with 7 of their T-62s and two of their T-62Ms during their graduation ceremony held at Polycharky, Afghanistan, 15 May 2003

T-62 Ethiopian Civil War The Ethiopian Army purchased T-62s and used them against guerrillas.

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Cuban T-62s

Operators
Angola 175 were ordered in 1980 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1981 and 1985 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service). 35 were ordered in 1987 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1987. 100 were ordered in 1987 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1987 and 1988 (the vehicles were previously in T-62 operators (former operators in red) Soviet service). 24 were ordered in 1993 from Bulgaria and delivered in 1993 (the vehicles were previously in Bulgarian service). 30 were ordered in 1993 from Russia and delivered between 1993 and 1994 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet and then Russian service; some could be T-55s). 18 are currently in service.[16]

Cuba 200 were ordered in 1976 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1976 and 1983 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service). 200 were ordered in 1984 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1984 and 1988. 380 are currently in service. They are modernized to the T-62M standard. Egypt 750 were ordered in 1971 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1972 and 1975. Approximately 600 (500 of which are modernized and 100 stored) are currently in service. 1,300 T-62s were in service in the 1980s. Currently 500 are in service.[17] Eritrea Received a number from Ethiopia.[18] Ethiopia 20 were ordered in 1977 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1977 (the vehicles were possibly either produced in Czechoslovakia or previously in Soviet service). 50 were ordered in 1980 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1980 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service). Approximately 100 are currently in service. Iran 65 were ordered in 1981 from Libya and received in 1981 as aid (the vehicles were previously in Libyan service). 100 were ordered in 1982 from Syria and delivered in 1982 (the vehicles were previously in Syrian service). Iran ordered 150 Ch'nma-hos in 1981 from North Korea and they were delivered between 1982 and 1985. They had 100 T-62s and Ch'nma-hos in service as of 1990, 150 as of 1995, 75 as of 2000, 2002, 2005, and 2008.[19] Currently 50 are in service.[20] Iraqi Kurdistan - 100-120 with PUK peshmerga forces,and 50 with KDP peshmerga forces.[21] Kazakhstan 280 in service as of 1995, 75 as of 2000, 2002, and 2005.[22]

T-62 Libya 150 were ordered in 1973 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1974. 400 were ordered in 1976 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1976 and 1978. 250 were ordered in 1978 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1978. At the peak there were approximately 900 T-62s in service. Currently 100 are in service and 70 are stored.[23] Mongolia 100 were ordered in 1973 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1973 and 1975. 250 are in service as of 2011. North Korea 350 were ordered in 1970 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1971 and 1975. 150 ordered in 1974 from the Soviet Union were delivered between 1976 and 1978 (the vehicles were probably produced in Czechoslovakia). North Korea also produced more than 1,200 Ch'nma-hos. There were 1,200 T-62s and Ch'nma-hos in service as of 1985, 1,500 as of 1990, 1,800 as of 1995, 800 as of 2000 and 2000 as of 2011.[24] South Ossetia Syria 500 were ordered in 1973 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1973 and 1974. 200 ordered in 1978 from Libya were delivered in 1979 as aid. 300 were ordered in 1982 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1982 and 1984 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service). This country had 1,000 T-62Ms and T-62Ks in service as of 1990, 1995, 2000, 2001 and 2003 and around 1,000 as of 2005.[25] Free Syrian Army Limited use of captured government tanks [26] Uzbekistan 179 were in service as of 1995, 190 as of 2000 and 170 as of 2005.[27] Vietnam 200 were ordered in 1978 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1978 and 1979. The vehicles were either produced in Czechoslovakia or previously were in Soviet service. 220 were in service in 2009. Yemen 150 Former operators Afghanistan 100 were ordered in 1973 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1975 and 1976. 155 were ordered in 1979 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1979 and 1991 (the vehicles were probably previously in Soviet service). in service with the Afghan army were T-62, T-62M and T-62M1. Belarus 170 were in service as of 1995, none as of 2000.[28] Bulgaria 250 were ordered in 1969 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1970 and 1974. A number were received from the Soviet Union after the Soviet War in Afghanistan, modernized, withdrawn from service, and then converted into TV-62Ms. Withdrawn from service around 2000, only recovery vehicles remain in use. Iraq 100 were ordered in 1973 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1974 and 1975. 600 ordered in 1976 from the Soviet Union were delivered between 1977 and 1979 (the vehicles were probably produced in Czechoslovakia). 2,150 were ordered in 1982 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1982 and 1989 (the vehicles were probably previously in Soviet service). 1,500 were in service as of 1990, 500 as of 1995, 2000 and 2002.[29] More than 1,000 were in service before the First Persian Gulf War. Israel 120 Tiran-6 (non-combat service).[30]

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T-62

94 Russia At least 2,000 were inherited from the Soviet Union. 761 were in active service in 1995. 191 were in active service and 1,929 in storage as of 2000. During 2013 all the tanks of the model and its modifications will be scrapped.[31] Soviet Union More than 20,000 were produced between July 1961 and 1975. There were 12,900 in 1985 and 11,300 in 1990. The tanks were passed on to successor states.[32] Tajikistan Three were in service as of 2000, none as of 2005.[33] Turkmenistan seven Ukraine At least 300[34] were inherited from the former Soviet Union. 85 in service as of 1995, none as of 2000.[35] United States The US Army used a number of T-62 main battle tanks for OpFor training.
Iraqi T-62 destroyed near Ali Al Salem Air Base during Operation Desert Storm, 18 April 1991

Lebanese Forces the Christian Lebanese Forces militia received 64 T-55 and T-62 tanks from Iraq via Jordan in 1988-89. North Yemen 16 ordered in 1979 from the Soviet Union were delivered in 1980 (the vehicles were probably either produced in Czechoslovakia or previously in Soviet service). South Yemen 50 were ordered from the Soviet Union in 1979 and received in 1979 as aid. Another 100 were ordered in 1980 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1981 and 1982. 120 more ordered in 1986 from the Soviet Union were delivered in 1986. All the vehicles of the last batch were previously in Soviet service.
Iraqi T-62 wreckage at Khorramshahr, Khuzestan, from the Iran-Iraq War

Yemeni Southern Rebels - 56 were ordered in 1994 from Bulgaria and delivered in 1994 (the vehicles were previously in Bulgarian service; they were bought for $20 million).

Evaluation-only operators People's Republic of China One tank was captured during the 1969 Sino-Soviet border clash by the PLA along the Ussuri river. It was used for study only. Czechoslovakia Evaluated the tank, but didn't accept it. Produced more than 1,500 between 1975 and 1978 for export. Poland Evaluated the tank, but didn't accept it.

Combat history
1969: Sino-Soviet border conflict 1973: Yom Kippur war 19741991: The Kurdish-Iraqi War, 197491 (by the Iraqi Army and Kurdish Peshmerga) 19741991: Ethiopian Civil War 19751991: Western Sahara War 19752002: Angolan Civil War 19781987: Chadian-Libyan conflict 19861987: Toyota War 19791988: Soviet war in Afghanistan 19801988: IranIraq War 19821983: Lebanese Civil War, Phase III

T-62 19881993: Georgian Civil War 19911992: War in South Ossetia 19921993: War in Abkhazia 19901991: Gulf War 19921997: Civil war in Tajikistan 19941996: First Chechen War 19992009: Second Chechen War 2001 present: United States war in Afghanistan 20032011: Iraq War

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2003: Invasion of Iraq 2008: War in South Ossetia 2011: Libyan civil war 2011present: Syrian civil war

Notes
[1] Zaloga 2004, p 13. [2] "Czogi wiata" (World's Tanks or Tanks Of The World) magazine issue 20 [3] Zaloga 2004, pp 1314. [4] "JED The Military Equipment Directory" (http:/ / www. jedsite. info/ tanks-tango/ tango-numbers-su/ t-62_series/ t62-series. html) [5] "Czogi wiata" (World's Tanks or Tanks Of The World) magazine issue 19 [6] "Morozov T-55AGM" (http:/ / morozov. com. ua/ eng/ body/ t55agm. php?menu=def2. php) [7] "Morozov T-62 conversions" (http:/ / morozov. com. ua/ eng/ body/ t5-6x-2. php?menu=def2. php) [8] "The Soviet armored machines in the Afghanistan" (http:/ / www. aviapress. com/ viewonekit. htm?TRN-089) [9] http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ afivedaywar/ Home/ rutanklosses#TOC--62-232-70--42[10] SIPRI Arms Transfers Database (http:/ / armstrade. sipri. org/ arms_trade/ trade_register. php) [11] "Tiran" (http:/ / www. israeli-weapons. com/ weapons/ vehicles/ tanks/ tiran/ Tiran. html) [12] The Iran-Iraq War Efraim Karsh pp.29-30. [13] A. Clayton, Frontiersmen, p. 161 [14] "Cuban tanks" (http:/ / www. urrib2000. narod. ru/ Tanques2-e. html) [15] T-62 Main Battle Tank (http:/ / www. urrib2000. narod. ru/ Tanques2-e. html) [16] Angolan army (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ angola_angolan_army_land_forces_uk/ angola_angolan_army_land_ground_forces_military_equipment_armoured_vehicle_pictures_information_desc. html) armyrecognition.com [17] Egyptian army (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ egypt/ egyptian_army_egypt_land_forces_military_army_modern_equipment_vehicle_pictures_description. html) armyrecognition.com [18] defenceindia.com (http:/ / www. defenceindia. com/ def_common/ world_battletanks. html) [19] Iranian Ground Forces Equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ iran/ ground-equipment. htm) [20] Iranian army (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ iran/ iran_armee_iranienne_forces_terrestres_informations_descriptions_photos_images_renseignement_materie. html) armyrecognition.com [21] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=TgbEhvrfwQc& feature=player_embedded [22] Kazak Ground Forces Equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ centralasia/ kazak-ground-equipment. htm) [23] Middle East Military Balance, (2005), "Libyan Military" (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ jcss/ balance/ Libya. pdf), Libya, Accessed 24 April 2007 [24] Equipment Holdings - Korean People's Army (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ dprk/ kpa-equipment. htm) [25] Syria - Army Equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ syria/ army-equipment. htm) [26] Video Evidence of Free Syrian Army using T-62 tank (http:/ / brown-moses. blogspot. be/ 2012/ 07/ first-video-evidence-of-free-syrian. html) [27] Uzbek-Army Equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ centralasia/ uzbek-army-equipment. htm) [28] Belorussian Army equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ belarus/ army-equipment. htm) [29] Iraqi Army equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ iraq/ ground-equipment. htm) [30] "Israeli Army Equipment" (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ israel/ army-equipment. htm) [31] http:/ / lenta. ru/ articles/ 2013/ 01/ 03/ t62/ [32] "Russian Army equipment" (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ russia/ army-equipment. htm) [33] Tajikistan Army equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ centralasia/ tajik-army-equipment. htm) [34] Ukrainian army (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ ukraine_fr/ ukrainian_army_land_ground_forces_military_equipment_armoured_vehicle_pictures_information. html) armyrecognition.com

T-62
[35] Ukrainian Army equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ ukraine/ groundforces-equipment. htm)

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References
Foss, Christopher F. (1987). Jane's AFV Recognition Handbook, pp 7071. London: Jane's. ISBN 0-7106-0432-7. Perrett, Bryan (1987). Soviet Armour Since 1945. London: Blandford Press. ISBN 0-7137-1735-1. Zaloga, Steven J. and Hugh Johnson (2004). T-54 and T-55 Main Battle Tanks 19442004. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-792-1.

External links
T-62 at Federation of American Scientists web site (http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/row/t62tank. htm) T-62 at Globalsecurity.org (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/t-62.htm) Cuban T-62 (http://www.urrib2000.narod.ru/Tanques2-e.html)

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T-54/55
T-54/55

T-55 Type Placeoforigin Medium tank

Soviet Union

Service history
Inservice 1946present

Production history
Designer Designed Manufacturer KMDB (T-54), OKB-520 (T-54A and later) 1945 KhPZ, UVZ (USSR), Bumar-abdy (Poland), ZTS Martin (Czechoslovakia) 1946 81 (USSR) 1956 79 (Poland) 1957 83 (Czechoslovakia) 86,000100,000+ est. See text

Produced

Numberbuilt Variants

Specifications (T-55)
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armour 36 tonnes (39.7 ST) 6.45 m 3.37 m 2.40 m 4 hull front 100mm @ 60, turret front 205mm(rounded), hull side 80mm @ 0, lower hull side 20mm @ 0, turret side 130mm(rounded), hull rear 60mm @ 0, turret rear 60mm(rounded), hull top 33-16mm, turret top 30mm, hull floor 20mm

T-54/55

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D-10T 100 mm rifled gun

Main armament Secondary armament Engine Power/weight Transmission Suspension Groundclearance Fuelcapacity Speed

7.62 mm SGMT coaxial machine gun, (12.7 mm DShK heavy machine gun)

Model V-55(V-54) V-12 water-cooled. 38.88-l diesel 581 hp (433 kW) 14.6 hp/tonne Mechanical synchromesh, 5 forward, 1 reverse gears Torsion bar 0.425 m 580 l (internal), 320 l(less on early T54) (external), 400 l (jettisonable rear drums) 48 km/h (30 mph)

The T-54 and T-55 tanks are a series of main battle tanks (according to some sources) although not recognised as MBT by Soviet and Russian sources, instead classifying them as medium tanks [1] (the very concept of "main battle tanks" was applied only to tanks beginning with T-64A, armed with 125-mm tank gun) that were designed in the Soviet Union. The first T-54 prototype appeared in March 1945, just as the Second World War ended. The T-54 entered full production in 1947 and became the main tank for armored units of the Soviet Army, armies of the Warsaw Pact countries, and others. T-54s and T-55s were involved in many of the world's armed conflicts during the late 20th and early 21st century. The T-54/55 series eventually became the most-produced tank in history. Estimated production numbers for the series range from 86,000 to 100,000. They were replaced by the T-62, T-64, T-72, T-80, and T-90 in the Soviet and Russian Armies, but remain in use by up to 50 other armies worldwide, some having received sophisticated retrofitting. Soviet tanks never directly faced their NATO Cold War adversaries in Europe. However, the T-54/55's first appearance in the West in 1960 spurred the United States to develop the M60 Patton.[2]

Development history
Predecessors: T-34 and T-44
The Soviet T-34 medium tank of the 1940s is considered to have the best balance of firepower (85mm gun), protection and mobility for its cost of any tank of its time in the world.[3] Its development never stopped throughout the Second World War and it continued to perform well; however, the designers could not incorporate the latest technologies or major developments as vital tank production could not be interrupted during wartime. In 1943, the Morozov Design Bureau resurrected the pre-war T-34M development project and created the T-44 tank. Thanks to a space-efficient torsion-bar suspension, a novel transverse engine mount, and the removal of the hull machine-gunner's crew position, the T-44 performed at least as well as the T-34, but with substantially superior armour. The T-44's main drawback was the small turret which remained incapable of mounting more powerful armament than its predecessor's 85mm tank gun. A tank mounting a 100mm gun was desired.

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Prototypes
Development of the first T-54 prototype started in October 1944 at the OKB-520 design bureau, at the Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod), in Nizhny Tagil. The initial design was completed in December, with a prototype completed in February 1945. Trials conducted between March and April 1945, resulted in the new tank being commissioned for service with the Red Army as the T-54. The tank had virtually the same hull and drive train as the T-44. Major differences included thicker front armour (120mm on the upper section and 90mm on the lower section) and a newly designed driver's hatch and vision slot. The turret ring increased in diameter to 1800mm and had thicker armour (180mm on the front, between 90mm and 150mm on the sides and 30mm on the roof). The main armament was the 100mm D-10TK cannon, with two 7.62mm GWT machine guns. The tank was powered by a new V-54 12-cylinder 38.88 litre water-cooled diesel engine developing 520hp (388kW) at 2,000 rpm with a two-stage reduction gearbox. Fuel capacity was increased to 530 litres in the internal fuel tank and 165 litres in the external fuel tank. Unlike the T-34, the external fuel tanks were connected to the fuel system. The rubber rollers on the road wheels were widened. The T-54 weighed 35.5 tonnes, making it slightly slower than the T-44 at 43.5km/h. The road range increased to 360km. It was decided to modernize the tank before production started. The new tank's turret was tried on two modified T-44 tanks. Another T-54 prototype, which received the alternative designation Ob'yekt 137, was built in July 1945. The tank was equipped with a new turret armed with 100mm LB-1 tank gun and 7.62mm SG medium coaxial machine gun. The turret armour was thickened (200mm on the front, between 125mm and 160mm on the sides). The tank was armed with two 7.62mm SG-43 medium machine guns mounted inside fixed boxes on the fenders, each with 500 rounds of ammunition and operated by the driver. The turret was fitted with a 12.7mm DShK anti-aircraft heavy machine gun. The fuel capacity was increased to 545 litres in internal fuel tanks and 180 litres in external fuel tanks. Because of this, the road range remained 360km despite the increased weight of 39.15 tonnes. This prototype went through trials between July and November 1945. Although there were numerous drawbacks, which required correction and many alterations that had to be made to the vehicle's design, it was decided to begin serial production of the new vehicle and the vehicle officially entered service on 29 April 1946. It would go into production in Nizhni Tagil in 1947 and Kharkiv in 1948.[4]

T-54
Production of the initial series of T-54s began slowly as 1,490 modifications were made. The Red Army received a tank that was superior to World War II designs and theoretically better than the newest tanks of potential opponents. The 100mm gun fired BR-412 series full-calibre APHE ammunition, which had superior penetration capability compared to the T-34 that it replaced. The serial production version, designated T-54-1, differed from the second T-54 prototype. It had thicker hull armour (80mm on the sides, 30mm on the roof and 20mm on the bottom).[citation needed] As production ramped up, quality problems emerged. Production was stopped and an improved T-54-2 (Ob'yekt 137R) version was designed. Several changes were made and a new turret was fitted. The new sides was inspired by the turret from the

The original T-54-1. It has a turret reminiscent of the T-34-85's, with prominent, undercut shot traps. This example has the fender machine gun boxes replaced with fuel tanks.

dome-shaped

turret

with

flat

T-54/55

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IS-3 heavy tank; it is similar to the later T-54 turret but with a distinctive overhang at the rear. It also had a shorter bustle. The fender machine guns were removed in favour of a single bow-mounted machine gun. The transmission was modernized and the track was widened to 580mm. The T-54-2 entered production in 1949, at Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod). In 1951, a second modernization was made, designated T-54-3 (Ob'yekt 137Sh), which had a new turret without side undercuts, as well as the new TSh-2-22 telescopic gunner's sight instead of the TSh-20. The tank featured the A column of five T-54-2 tanks. TDA smoke generating system. A command version was built, the T-54K (komandirskiy), with a second R-113 radio.[5] T-54A and T-54B In the beginning of 1950s, the personnel of the OKB-520 design bureau of the Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod) had been changed considerably. Morozov was replaced by Kolesnikow, who in turn was replaced by Leonid N. Kartsev in March 1953. The first decision of the new designer was to fit the 100mm D-10T tank gun with the STP-1 "Gorizont" vertical stabilizer. The new tank gun received the designation D-10TG and was fitted into the T-54's turret. The new tank received night vision equipment for the driver and was designated T-54A (Ob'yekt 137G). Originally, this had a small muzzle counter-weight, which was later replaced with a fume extractor. It was equipped with an OPVT wading snorkel, the TSh-2A-22 telescopic sight, TVN-1 infrared driver's periscope and IR headlight, a new R-113 radio, multi-stage engine air filter and radiator controls for improved engine performance, an electrical oil pump, a bilge pump, an automatic fire extinguisher and extra fuel tanks. The tank officially entered production in 1954 and service in 1955. It served as a basis for T-54AK command tank, with additional R-112 radio set (front line tanks were equipped with R-113 radio set), TNA-2 navigational device, ammunition load for the main gun decreased by 5 rounds and the AB-1-P/30 charging unit, which was produced in small numbers. In October 1954 a T-54A tank, designated as T-54M (Ob'yekt 139) served as a testbed for new D-54T and D-54TS 100mm smoothbore guns and "Raduga" and "Molniya" stabilization systems, which were later used in the T-62. These were not completely successful, so further T-55 development continued to use the D-10 series guns. It was fitted with V-54-6 engine developing 581hp (433kW). It never went into production. A new version, based on T-54A, designated T-54B (Ob'yekt 137G2), was designed in 1955. It was fitted with a new 100mm D-10T2S tank gun with STP-2 "Tsyklon" 2-plane stabilizer. It entered production in 1957. During the last four months of production, the new tanks were equipped with an L-2 "Luna" infrared searchlight and TPN-1-22-11 IR gunner's sight, and OU-3 IR commander's searchlight. Modern APFSDS ammunition was developed, dramatically enhancing the penetrative performance of the gun to keep it competitive with NATO armor developments. T-54B served as the basis for T-54BK command tank which had exactly the same additional equipment as the T-54AK command tank.

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T-55
Trials with nuclear weapons showed that a T-54 could survive a 215 kt nuclear charge at a range of more than 300 metres (980ft) from the epicenter, but the crew only had a chance of surviving at 700 metres (2,300ft). It was decided to create an NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical) protection system which would start working 0.3 seconds after detecting gamma radiation. The task of creating a basic PAZ (Protivoatomnaya Zashchita) NBC protection system offering protection against T-55 front, rear and side elevations the blast of a nuclear explosion and (radioactive) particulate filtration, but not against external gamma radiation or gas, was given to the KB-60 design bureau in Kharkov and was completed in 1956. The documentation was sent to Uralvagonzavod. It was decided to increase the tank's battle capabilities by changing the tank's construction and introducing new production technologies. Many of those changes were initially tested on the T-54M (Ob'yekt 139). The tank was fitted with the new V-55 12-cylinder 4-stroke one-chamber 38.88 litre water-cooled diesel engine developing 581hp (433kW). Greater engine power was accomplished by increasing the pressure of the fuel delivery and charging degree. The designers planned to introduce a heating system for the engine compartment and MC-1 diesel fuel filter. The engine was to be started pneumatically with the use of an AK-150S charger and an electric starter. This eliminated the need for the tank to carry a tank filled with air. To allow easier access during maintenance and repairs, it was decided to change hatches over the engine compartment. To increase the operational range, 300 litres (66impgal; 79USgal) fuel tanks were added to the front of the hull, increasing the overall fuel capacity to 680 litres (150impgal; 180USgal). The ammunition load for the main gun was increased from 34 to 45, with 18 shells stored in so called "wet containers" located in hull fuel tanks (the concept for which came from Kartsev's cancelled Ob'yekt 140. The ammunition load included high explosive-fragmentation and anti-tank rounds and designers also planned to introduce the BK5M HEAT rounds which penetrated 390 millimetres (15in) thick armour. The TPKU commander's vision device was replaced by either the TPKUB or TPKU-2B. The gunner received a TNP-165 vision device. The original T-55 lacked an antiaircraft machine The loader's hatch-mounted 12.7mm DShK anti-aircraft heavy gun mount. machine gun was dropped, because it was deemed worthless against high-performance jets. The tank was supposed to be equipped with the "Rosa" fire protection system. The tank had a thicker turret casting and the improved two-plane gun stabilization system from the T-54B, as well as night vision fighting equipment. To balance the weight of the new equipment, the armour on the back of the hull was thinned slightly. The T-55 was significantly superior to the IS-2 Heavy Tank in all respects, including the rate of fire of the gun (at least four compared to less than three rounds per minute). Despite somewhat thinner frontal turret armour (200 millimetres (7.9in) instead of 250 millimetres (9.8in)) it compared favourably with the IS-3, thanks to its improved antitank gun and better mobility. Heavy tanks soon fell from favour, with only 350 IS-3s produced. The old model of highly mobile medium tanks and heavily armoured heavy tanks was replaced by a new paradigm: the "main battle

T-54/55 tank". Parallel developments in the West would produce similar results. Katsev combined all the ongoing improvements being offered, or planned, on the T-54 into one design.[6] This became the Ob'yect 155, and entered production at Uralvagonzavod 1 January 1958 as the T-55.[7] It was accepted for service with the Red Army on 8 May. It suffered a significant lapse in one area: there was no antiaircraft machinegun, which had been present on the T-54. After 1959, it served as a basis for the T-55K command tank which was equipped with an additional R-112 radio set, an AB-1-P/30 fuel powered accumulator charging unit, and TPN-1-22-11 night vision sight. All this additional equipment made it necessary to decrease the ammunition load for the main gun to 37 rounds and eliminate the bow machine gun. In the beginning of the 1960s, a T-55K was experimentally fitted with a Uran TV relay apparatus for battlefield surveillance. The tank was fitted with an external camera, the picture from which was relayed to a receiver in a BTR-50PU command vehicle. There was an observation camera mounted on a folding mast which was in turn mounted on a UAZ 69 car. The range within which the picture could be relayed varied between 10 and 30 kilometres (6.2 and 19mi). In 1961, a T-55 tank was used to test the "Almaz" TV complex which was supposed to replace the standard observation devices right after a nuclear explosion or while fording a body of water. There was a camera mounted on the hull for the driver and two cameras mounted on the turret, one for aiming and one for observation, and the picture from the cameras was relayed to two control screens. The tank had the front hull fuel tanks and bow machine gun removed. The commander was seated in the driver's usual position while the driver sat next to him. The cameras allowed battlefield observation and firing during daytime at ranges between 1.5 and 2 kilometres (0.93 and 1.2mi). Because of the low quality of the equipment, the trials gave negative results. In the beginning of the 1960s, the OKB-29 design bureau in Omsk was working on adapting the tank to use a GTD-3T gas turbine engine developing 700hp (522kW). One T-55 tank fitted with this gas turbine engine passed trials but was deemed unsatisfactory and the design did not go into production. The Omsk OKB-29 group tested three experimental T-55 tanks (designated Ob'yekt 612) between 1962 and 1965 that were fitted with an automatic gearbox controlled by electro-hydraulic systems. The trials found that such gearboxes were prone to frequent breakdowns in tanks. At the same time the Ob'yekt 155ML, a T-55 fitted with a launcher for three 9M14 "Malyutka" (NATO code: AT-3 Sagger) ATGMs mounted on the rear of the turret, was tested. Along with standard tanks a flamethrower-armed version was designed (designated TO-55 (Ob'yekt 482)), which was produced until 1962. It was fitted with 460 litre tanks filled with flammable liquid instead of the frontal hull fuel tanks. The flamethrower replaced the coaxial machine gun. This was a much better way to mount a flamethrower than in the experimental Ob'yekt 483, based on the T-54 tank, where the flamethrower replaced the main gun. TO-55 flamethrower tanks were withdrawn from service in 1993. During the 1950s, the T-55 remained a significantly smaller and lighter tank than its NATO contemporariesthe U.S. M48 Patton and the British Centurionwhile maintaining good firepower and reliability but light armor.[8] The 100-mm D-10T tank gun had a larger bore than its Western counterparts. In January 1945, some captured German tanks and vehicles were shipped to the Ordnance Research and Development Center, Aberdeen, Maryland, for tests and examination. The criteria for penetration in the tests was for at least fifty percent of the mass of the projectile to penetrate the armor. The M3 90mm gun, firing the most widely equipped T33 armor-piercing round penetrated roughly 6 inches (150mm) of steel armor at 100 metres (330ft), while the T30E16 HVAP round penetrated 10.5 inches (270mm) at the same range. These tests were carried out before the T-54/55 tank entered production, so it was not known how the popular 90mm gun on the M-46, M-47, M-48 and other western tanks would perform against the armour of the post-World War II Soviet tanks. The data shows that the T33 AP round would fail to penetrate the frontal armour of the T-54/55 at any range, while the T30E16 HVAP round would only be able to penetrate the armour within 700 metres (2,300ft). The T33 round could penetrate the side armour of the turret at about 800 metres, while the T30E16 HVAP round could do this at any practical range. The most popular anti-armor round the Soviets used for the D-10 tank gun was the 100mm

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T-54/55 BR-412 APHE, first used on the SU-100 tank destroyer during World War II with an 80% probability of penetrating 135 millimetres (5.3in) of steel armour at 1,000 metres (3,300ft) fired from the D-10S tank gun. The BR-412D and BR-412B rounds developed in 19461950 had slightly superior performance over the 90mm T33 and the M82 armor-piercing rounds. This disadvantage lasted until the Soviet tanks began to be surpassed by newer Western developments like the M60 Main Battle Tank[9] and upgraded Centurions and M48 Pattons using the 105mm rifled Royal Ordnance L7 gun. Due to the low velocity of rounds from the 100mm gun, and the tank's simple fire-control system, the T-54/55 was forced to rely on HEAT shaped-charge ammunition to engage tanks at long range well into the 1960s, despite the relative inaccuracy of this ammunition at long ranges. The Soviets considered this acceptable for a potential European conflict, until the development of composite armor began reducing the effectiveness of HEAT warheads and sabot rounds were developed for the D-10T gun. T-55A In 1961, development of improved NBC protection systems began. The goal was to protect the crew from fast neutrons; adequate protection against gamma radiation was provided by the thick armour and a PAZ basic NBC protection system. The POV plasticized lead antiradiation lining was developed to provide the needed protection. It was installed in the interior, requiring the driver's hatch and the coamings over the turret hatches to be noticeably enlarged. This liner had the added benefit of protecting the crew from fragments of penetrated armour. The tank was equipped with a full PAZ/FVU chemical filtration system. The coaxial 7.62mm SGMT machine gun was replaced by a 7.62mm PKT machine gun. The hull was lengthened from 6.04 m to 6.2 m. The hull machine gun was removed, making space for six more main gun rounds. These changes increased the weight of the vehicle to 38 tonnes. The design work was done by OKB-520 design bureau of Uralvagonzavod under the leadership of Leonid N. Kartsev. The T-55A served as the basis for the T-55AK command tank.

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T-54/T-55 upgrades
In its long service life, the T-55 has been upgraded many times. Early T-55s were fitted with a new TSh-2B-32P sight. In 1959, some tanks received mountings for the PT-55 mineclearing system or the BTU/BTU-55 plough. In 1967, the improved BM8 APDS round, which could penetrate 275mm thick armour at a range of 2km, was introduced. In 1970, new and old T-55 tanks had the loader's hatch modified to mount the 12.7mm DShK machine gun, to deal with the threat of attack helicopters. Starting in 1974, T-55 tanks received the KTD-1 or KTD-2 laser rangefinder in an armoured box over the mantlet of the main gun, as well as the R-123 or R-123M radio set.[10] Simultaneously efforts were made to modernize and increase the lifespan of the drive train.

A Somali National Army T-55.

During production, the T-55A was frequently modernized. In 1965, a new track was introduced that could be used for between 2,000km and 3,000km, which was twice the range of the old track. It required a new drive sprocket, with 14 teeth instead of 13. Since 1974, T-55A tanks were equipped with a KTD-1 "Newa" rangefinder and a TSzS-32PM sight. All T-55A tanks were equipped with the TPN-1-22-11 night sight. The R-113 radio set was replaced by a R-123 radio set. Late production models had rubber sideskirts and a driver's windshield for use during longer stints.

T-54/55 T-54 and T-55 tanks continued to be upgraded, refitted, and modernized into the 1990s. Advances in armour-piercing and HEAT ammunition would improve the gun's antitank capabilities in the 1960s and 1980s. A wide array of upgrades in different price ranges are provided by many manufacturers in different countries, intended to bring the T-54/55 up to the capabilities of newer MBTs, at a lower cost. Upgrades include new engines, explosive reactive armour, new main armament such as 120mm or 125mm guns, active protection systems, and fire control systems with range-finders or thermal sights. These improvements make it a potent main battle tank (MBT) for the low-end budget, even to this day. One of these upgrade packages was produced by Cadillac Gage Textron and a prototype named the Jaguar was produced. The Jaguar looked quite different from its predecessors. A newly designed turret was formed by flat armour plates installed at different angles. The hull top was new. The engine compartment and fuel tanks on the shelves over the tracks were armour-protected. The Soviet-made 100mm gun was replaced with the American M68 105mm rifled gun fitted with a thermal sleeve. A Marconi fire control system which was originally developed for the American light tank Stingray was fitted. The vehicle incorporated a Cadillac-Gage weapon stabilizer and gunner's sight equipped with an integral laser rangefinder. The powerpack inherited by the Jaguar from the Stinger underwent only minor alterations and comprised the Detroit Diesel 8V-92TA engine and XTG-411 automatic transmission. In 1989, two Jaguar tanks were manufactured. The chassis were provided by PRC, while the hull tops, turrets and powerplants were manufactured by Cadillac Gage Textron.[11] Another prototype upgrade package was produced by Teledyne Continental Motors (now General Dynamics Land Systems) for the Egyptian Army and was known as the T-54E. After further modifications and trials it was sent into mass production and received the designation Ramses II. As late as 2013, Ukrainian companies were reportedly developing T-55 main battle tank upgrades targeting the export market.[12]

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Description
The T-54 and T-55 have a cabin layout shared with many post-World War II tanks, with the fighting compartment in the front, engine compartment in the rear, and a dome-shaped turret in the centre of the hull. The driver's hatch is on the front left of the hull roof. The commander is seated on the left, with the gunner to his front and the loader on the right. The tank's suspension has the drive sprocket at the rear, and dead track. Engine exhaust is on the left fender. There is a prominent gap between the first and second road wheel pairs, a distinguishing feature from the T-62, which has progressively larger spaces between road wheels towards the rear.

The T-54, see here at the Panzermuseum Thun(de), can be recognized by the dome-shaped ventilator on the turret roof, which the T-55 lacks.

The T-54 and T-55 tanks are outwardly very similar and difficult to distinguish visually. Many T-54s were also updated to T-55 standards, so the distinction is often downplayed with the collective name T-54/55. Soviet tanks were factory-overhauled every 7,000km and often given minor technology updates. Many states have added or modified the tank's equipment; India, for example, affixed fake fume extractors to its T-54s and T-55s so that its gunners would not confuse them with Pakistani Type 59s.[13] The older T-54 can be distinguished from the T-55 by a dome-shaped ventilator on the front right of the turret and a driver-operated SGMT 7.62mm machine gun mounted to fire through a tiny hole in the centre of the hull's front. Early T-54s lacked a gun fume extractor, had an undercut at the turret's rear, and a distinctive "pig-snout" gun mantlet.

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Advantages and drawbacks

The T-54/55 tanks are mechanically simple and robust. They are very simple to operate compared to Western tanks, and don't require a high level of training or education in their crew members. The T-54/55 is a relatively small main battle tank, presenting a smaller target for its opponents to hit. The tanks have good mobility thanks to their relatively light weight (which permits easy transport by rail or flatbed truck, and allows crossing of lighter bridges), wide tracks (which give lower ground pressure and hence good mobility on soft ground), a good cold-weather start-up system, and a snorkel that allows river crossings. Together, the T-54/55 tanks have been manufactured in the tens of thousands, and many still remain in reserve, or even in front-line use among lower-technology fighting forces. Abundance and age together make these tanks cheap and easy to purchase. While the T-54/55 is not a match for a modern main battle tank, armour and ammunition upgrades can dramatically improve the old vehicle's performance to the point that it cannot be dismissed on the battlefield.[14] Nevertheless, T-54/55 tanks have many serious defects. Small size is achieved at the expense of interior space and crew comforts, which is a common trait of most Russian tanks. This causes practical difficulties, as it constrains the physical movements of the crew and slows operation of controls and equipment. Israelis who crewed T-54/55s captured during the 1967 and 1973 wars constantly complained about this, and it remains a problem that cannot be remedied by any upgrades. However, height limits were set for any recruit joining the A disabled Iraqi T-55 tank lies among other tankers in the Soviet Army, hence the low average height of Soviet wreckage along the Highway of Death in April tankers. This is believed to completely solve the low silhouette issue, 1991. whereas other armies may not include crew member height limits as standards. The low turret profile of the tanks prevents them from depressing their main guns by more than 5 (the average for Western tanks is 10), which limits the ability to cover terrain by fire from a hull-down position on a reverse slope. While both tanks have stabilized guns, in practice they can only fire accurately when the vehicles are at rest (this problem may have been solved with more recent upgrades). Its main disadvantage is its light armor. While it had very strong armor that could withstand frontal hits from bazooka, PIAT, RPG-2 and most tank guns of that era, its armor became obsolete within 20 years of its introduction. Because it was designed for "traditional warfare", its side and rear armor was between a third and a half the frontal thickness. In Vietnam, its side armor proved very vulnerable to LAW rockets, TOW missiles and the M41 Walker Bulldog light tank with 76mm gun. As in most tanks of that generation, the internal ammunition supply is not shielded, increasing the odds that any enemy penetration of the fighting compartment could cause a catastrophic secondary explosion. The original T-54/55 tanks are unlikely to be successful against modern opponents without the benefit of upgrades. The T-54 is especially defective: It lacks NBC protection, a revolving turret floor (which complicated the crew's operations), and early models lacked gun stabilization. All of these problems were corrected in the T-55 tank, which is otherwise largely identical to the T-54.

Production history
USSR
T-54-1 production was slow at first, as only 3 vehicles were built in 1946 and 22 in 1947. 285 T-54-1 tanks were built in 1948 by Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod); by then it had completely replaced T-44 production at Uralvagonzavod, and Kharkov Diesel Factory No. 75 (KhPZ). Production was stopped because of a low level of production quality and frequent breakdowns. The T-54-2 entered production in 1949 at Uralvagonzavod, which produced 423 tanks by the end of 1950. It replaced the T-34 in production at the Omsk Factory No. 183 in 1950. In 1951, over 800 T-54-2 tanks were produced. The T-54-2 remained in production until 1952. The T-54A was

T-54/55 produced between 1955 and 1957. The T-54B was produced between 1957 and April 1959. The T-55 was produced by Uralvagonzavod between 1958 and 1962. The T-55K command tank was produced from 1959. The TO-55 (Ob'yekt 482) flamethrower tank was produced until 1962. Overall 35,000 T-54-1, T-54-2, T-54 (T-54-3), T-54A, T-54B, T-54AK1, T-54AK2, T-54BK1 and T-54BK2 tanks were produced between 1946 and 1958 and 27,500 T-55, T-55A, T-55K1, T-55K2, T-55K3, T-55AK1, T-55AK2 and T-55AK3 tanks were produced between 1955 and 1981.

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Poland
Poland produced 3,000 T-54, T-54A, T-54AD and T-54AM between 1956 and 1964 and 7,000 T-55 (between 1964 and 1968), T-55L, T-55AD-1 and T-55AD-2 (between 1968 and 1979).[citation needed]
Polish T-54AMs

Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia produced 2,700 T-54A, T-54AM, T-54AK, T-54AMK between 1957 and 1966 and 8,300 T-55 and T-55A between 1964 and 1983 (T-55A was probably produced since 1968) (most of them for export).[citation needed]

Service history
Soviet Union and Russian Federation
The T-54/55 and the T-62 were the two most common tanks in Soviet inventoryin the mid-1970s the two tank types together comprised approximately 85% of the Soviet Army's tanks. T-54 tanks served in the 1956 invasion of Hungary, and a few were knocked out by Molotov cocktails and Hungarian antitank guns.[15] The revolutionaries delivered one captured T-54A to the British Embassy in Budapest,[citation needed] the analysis of which spurred the development of the Royal Ordnance L7 tank gun. The T-62 and T-55 are now mostly in reserve status; Russian active-duty units mainly use the T-80 and T-72, with around 900 T-90 tanks in service.

T-55A on the streets during Martial law in Poland

Middle East
During the 1967 Six-Day War, U.S.-supplied M48 Patton tanks, Centurion tanks, and even upgraded World War II era Sherman tanks, faced T-55s. This mix of Israeli tanks, combined with superior planning of operations and superior airpower, proved to be more than capable of dealing with the T-54/T-55 series.[16] During the 1970 Jordanian Civil war, Syrian tanks inflicted heavy losses on Jordanian Centurions. In one case, a squadron of T-55s stopped the advance of a large Jordanian column, with 19 Centurions destroyed and up to 10 Syrian T-55s lost in the battle.[17]

An abandoned South Lebanese Army Tiran-5 in South Lebanon

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By the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the T-54A and T-55's gun was starting to lose its competitive effectiveness relative to the 105mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun mounted in Israeli Centurion Mk V and M60A1 tanks. Israel captured many T-55s from Syria and mostly Egypt in 1967, and kept some of them in service. They were upgraded with a 105mm NATO-standard L7 or M68, a US version of the L7, replacing the old Soviet 100mm D-10, and a General Motors diesel replacing the original Soviet diesel engine. The Israelis designated these Tiran-5 medium tanks, and they were used by reserve units until the early 1990s. Most of these were then sold to assorted Third World countries, some of them in Latin America, and the rest were heavily modified, converted into the Achzarit heavy armoured personnel carrier.

A destroyed Iraqi T-55 and supply truck, painted with graffiti by Coalition troops, along the highway between Kuwait City and Basra, Iraq, following the retreat of Iraqi forces from Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm

Vietnam War
In the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese NVA used T-54s against the South Vietnamese ARVN and US forces. The NVA and ARVN engaged each other for the first time during Operation Lam Son 719, in February 1971. During that battle, 17 M41 light tanks of the ARVN 1st Armored Brigade destroyed 22 NVA-tanks, 6 T-54 and 16 PT-76, at no loss to themselves,[18][19] but the friendly units loss 5 M41s and 25 APCs[20] On Easter Sunday, 2 April 1972, the newly activated ARVN 20th Tank Regiment, consisting of approximately 57 M48A3 Patton tanks (ARVN regiments were equivalent to US battalions, and ARVN squadrons were equivalent to US companies or troops)[21] received reports of a large NVA tank column moving towards Dong Ha (the largest South Vietnamese city near the DMZ at the 17th parallel). At about noon, the crewmen of the ARVN 1st Squadron observed enemy armour moving south along highway 1 towards Dong Ha, and concealed their tanks on high ground with a good vantage point. Waiting for the NVA column to close to between 2,500 and 3,000 meters, the 90-mm guns of the Pattons opened fire, quickly destroying nine PT-76 light tanks and two T-54 medium tanks. The remaining NVA armour, unable to see their enemy, turned about and withdrew. On 9 April 1972, all three squadrons of the 20th Tank Regiment fought enemy armour, firing upon tanks accompanied by infantry, again while occupying the high ground. The Pattons opened fire at approximately 2,800 meters. A few answering shots from the T-54s fell short, and the NVA tanks began to scatter. By the end of the day, the 20th had destroyed sixteen T-54s and captured one Type 59, at no loss to themselves.[22] NVA armour units equipped with the T-54 tank achieved one of their greatest victories in April 1972, when the NVA 203rd Armored Regiment attacked the ARVN 22nd Infantry Division at Tan Canh, which dominated a main route into the city of Kon Tum. After a two-day artillery barrage, eighteen T-54 tanks from the 203rd regiment attacked the 22nd Division at dawn from two directions, breaking the ARVN unit, which quickly abandoned its positions.[23] T-54 tank No. 377 had destroyed seven M41s before itself had been destroyed by M72 LAW rocket launchers Big tank battle between NVA and ARVN armor occurred during Battle of Loc Ninh. In this battle the NVA destroyed 18 M41 tanks and 31 M113 APCs and captured 17 other M41s, while losing two T-54 and one PT-76 tanks.[24] On 30 April 1975, Type 59 tank No. 390 of the NVA 203rd Armored Regiment went crashing through the gates of the South Vietnamese presidential palace, signalling the end of the war.

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Other conflicts
Indian Army has used T-55 extensively in its conflicts with Pakistan with great success. T-54 tanks were used during the Cambodian civil war.[25] During the Ugandan-Tanzanian War of 1978-79, Libya sent an expeditionary force to aid Uganda dictator Idi Amin which included a few dozen T-54/55 tanks. Some of these tanks saw action against Tanzanian forces.[26] Polish T-55L tanks were also deployed during Martial law in Poland to intimidate the population and suppress overt displays against the Communist government. The T-54/T-55 saw action against South African and UNITA forces during the war in Angola. This Soviet tank's reliability and ruggedness matched the demanding African operational environment. However, several numbers of T-54/T-55 tanks were lost to South African Olifant MBTs, artillery fire, and wire-guided missiles in several engagements. Known tank clash between Cuban and South African tanks occurred on 14 December 1988 during Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. Cuban T-55s destroyed 10 Olifants and 4 armored vehicles, and losing 6 T-55 (3 by RPGs, and 3 by the Olifants). The remainder of the Olifants withdrew.[27]

Civilians atop a T-55 tank in Libya, 2011

Macedonian Army T-55 tank and its crew in 2001.

The T-55 was the most numerous tank of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA). It was the mainstay of armoured combat units during the Yugoslav Wars, where it proved vulnerable to infantry equipped with anti-tank rockets, and to misemployment in urban areas and unfriendly terrain. But there were too many of them in service for them to be replaced. During the battle of Vukovar, where the JNA grouped a large part of its tank force, a number were destroyed, almost exclusively by infantry-carried anti-tank weapons. Serbian T-55s performed well against Croatian M47 Patton tanks. The T-55 tank remained the most common tank in the armies of the Yugoslavian successor states until recently, and it was the most used tank by all armies during the wars. T-55s were used by Yugoslavia and Macedonia in Kosovo and the 2001 Macedonia conflict.[28] The Soviet Union sold thousands of T-55 tanks to both Iran and Iraq during the IranIraq War of 19801988 (known as the Persian Gulf War prior to 1991). Known tank battle occurred on 15 October 1981, when a large Iranian convoy was ambushed by Iraqi T-55s. During tank battle Iranians lost 20 Chieftains and other armored vehicles and withdrew.[29] Some saw action during Operation Desert Storm in Iraq and Kuwait in January/February 1991, and during the 2003 US/UK invasion of Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom). The T-55 has been used by Ethiopia in conflict with the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia. The Sri Lankan army used T-55s in the Sri Lankan Civil War, which concluded in May 2009, against the LTTE (Tamil Tigers). A T-55 belonging to the LTTE was destroyed on 6 April 2009; according to media reports, it was a model produced in Czechoslovakia and obtained by the LTTE in 2001 or 2002. T-55 tanks have seen use on both sides of the 2011 Libyan civil war, with anti-Gaddafi forces either stealing them or having them contributed by defecting members of the Libyan Army.

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Operators and variants

The T-55 has been used worldwide by as many as 50 countries and quasi-armies. They have been subject to numerous improvements throughout their production history and afterwards and many are still in service today. Modifications to the T-54/55 series over the years have changed almost every aspect of the vehicle. Initially, Soviet modifications included a better turret shape, improved NBC protection and an improved powerplant. Later, improved fire-control equipment and night-vision equipment was added. Foreign improvements, both in Warsaw Pact nations and elsewhere, have further improved protection, powerplant, and firepower. T-54/55s have been re-armed with improved tank guns, AA machine guns, advanced armour arrays, and technologies, such as laser range finders and computerized fire control systems, that did not exist when the tank was first being built in the early days of the Cold War.

Serbian modification of T-55

Notes
[1] http:/ / armor. kiev. ua/ Tanks/ Modern/ T54/ manual/ [2] Halberstadt, Hans Inside the Great Tanks The Crowood Press Ltd. Wiltshire, England 1997 94-96 ISBN 1-86126-270-1 "The T-54/T-55 series is the hands down, all time most popular tank in history." [3] Miller, David The great Book of Tanks Salamander Books London, England 2002 338-341 ISBN 1-84065-475-9. [4] Zaloga 2004, p. 6. [5] Zaloga 2004, p. 11. [6] Sewell, Stephen, CW2 (rtd). "Why Three Tanks?" (Armor, JulyAugust 1998), p.26. [7] Sewell, p.27. [8] Zaloga 2004, p. 40. [9] Hunnicutt, pp. 6, 149, 408. [10] Zaloga 2004, p. 14. [11] Jaguar Main Battle Tank (http:/ / www. janes. com/ extracts/ extract/ jaa/ del02252. html) at Jane's Armour and Artillery. [12] Jane's Defence, http:/ / www. janes. com/ products/ janes/ defence-security-report. aspx?ID=1065977074& channel=defence& subChannel=land [13] Zaloga 2004, p. 41. [14] Gelbart 1996, pp.75-78 [15] Zaloga 2004, p. 39. [16] Zaloga 1996. [17] "Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948-1991", Kenneth Michael Pollack, U of Nebraska Press, 2002, pp.337-341 [18] Starry p. 193 [19] /Dunstan. [20] Fulgham, David, Terrence Maitland, et al. South Vietnam On Trial: Mid-1970 to 1972. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1984. P.85 [21] Starry. [22] Starry p. 207, 208 [23] Dunstan. [24] Thi, Lam Quang, Hell in An Loc, The 1972 Easter Invasion and the Battle that Saved South Viet Nam, University of North Texas Press, Denton, Texas, 2009. p.50-70 [25] Peou S., (2000). Intervention & change in Cambodia: towards democracy?. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-312-22717-3 [26] Kenneth M. Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948-91, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 2002. [27] Cuban Tanks, II part, Rubn Urribarres, 2001 Marksman SPAAG T-55

"Hurricane" T-55

T-54/55
[28] The M47 Patton was an interim solution developed during the Korean conflict, though it was a system that did not see action in that war. (http:/ / www. militaryfactory. com/ armor/ detail. asp?armor_id=33) [29] TACTICAL EVOLUTION IN THE IRAQI ARMY: . ' A THE ABADAN ISLAND AND FISH LAKE CAMPAIGNS OF THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR (http:/ / www. dtic. mil/ dtic/ tr/ fulltext/ u2/ a241169. pdf)

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References
Cockburn, Andrew (1983). The Threat: Inside the Soviet Military Machine. New York: Random House. 3 May 1983 ISBN 0-394-52402-0. Dunstan, Simon (1982). Vietnam tracks-Armor In Battle 1945-75. Osprey Publications. ISBN 0-89141-171-2. Foss, Christopher F., ed (2005). Jane's Armour and Artillery 20052006, 26th edition. 15 August 2005 ISBN 0-7106-2686-X. Gelbart, Marsh (1996). Tanks: Main Battle and Light Tanks. London: Brassey's. ISBN1-85753-168-X. Starry, Gen. Donn A. (1989). Mounted Combat in Vietnam (http://www.history.army.mil/books/Vietnam/ mounted/). Washington, D.C.: Vietnam Studies, Department of the Army. First printed in 1978-CMH Pub 90-17. Hunnicutt, R. P. "Patton: A History of the American Main Battle Tank." ISBN 0-89141-230-1. Hunnicutt, R. P. Sheridan: A History of the American Light Tank. Volume 2; 1995, Presidio Press. ISBN 0-89141-462-2. Zaloga, Steven; Hugh Johnson (2004). T-54 and T-55 Main Battle Tanks 19442004 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=tbZhcjy0-5IC&lpg=PT2&ots=E_nltDvqZf&dq=isbn:1841767921&pg=PT7#v=onepage&q& f=false). Oxford: Osprey. ISBN1-84176-792-1. Zaloga, Steven; Samuel Katz (1 September 1996). Tank Battles of the Mid-East Wars 1: The Wars of 19481973. Concord. ISBN978-962-361-612-6.

External links
T-54-1 (http://www.thetankmaster.com/english/afv/t-54-1946_01.asp), T-54-2 (http://www.thetankmaster. com/english/afv/T-54_U.asp), T-55AM (http://www.thetankmaster.com/ENGLISH/AFV/T-55AM_1.asp), T-55AM2 (http://www.thetankmaster.com/ENGLISH/AFV/T55AM2_1.asp) Additional photos Cuban T-55 (http://www.urrib2000.narod.ru/Tanques2-e.html) Technical data sheet and pictures T-55 from ArmyRecognition.com (http://www.armyrecognition.com/Russe/ vehicules_lourds/T_54_55/T_54_55_description1.htm) T-55 Variant walk arounds and photos on Prime Portal (http://www.primeportal.net/apc/t-55.htm) Jaguar prototype main battle tank (http://www.military-today.com/tanks/jaguar.htm)

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T-72
T-72

A Russian T-72B3 tank Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank Soviet Union

Service history
Inservice 1971present

Production history
Designer Designed Manufacturer Unitcost Produced Numberbuilt Leonid Kartsev-Valeri Venediktov 19671973 Uralvagonzavod 30,962,00061,924,000 rubles (US$12 million) (in 2009) 1971present 25,000+

Specifications (T-72A[1])
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armour Main armament Secondary armament Engine 41.5 tonnes (45.7 short tons) 9.53m (31ft 3in) gun forward 6.95m (22ft 10in) hull 3.59m (11ft 9in) 2.23m (7ft 4in) 3 steel and composite armour 125mm 2A46M smoothbore gun

7.62mm PKT coax machine gun, 12.7mm NSVT antiaircraft machine gun

V-12 diesel 780 hp (582 kw)

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112
Power/weight Transmission Suspension 18.8 hp/t Synchromesh, hydraulically assisted, with 7 forward and 1 reverse gears. torsion bar

Groundclearance 0.49m (19in) Fuelcapacity Operational range Speed 1,200L (320U.S.gal; 260impgal) 460km (290mi), 700km (430mi) with fuel drums

60km/h (37mph)

The T-72 is a Soviet second-generation main battle tank that entered production in 1970. It was developed directly from Obyekt-172, and shares parallel features with the T-64A.[2] The T-72 was one of the most widely produced post-World War II tanks, second only to the T-54/55 family, and the basic design has also been further developed as the T-90.

Origin
While the T-64 was perhaps the world's most advanced battle tank design when introduced, but it was too expensive to issue to all the Soviet tank armies, let alone Warsaw Pact (WARPAC) allies. Therefore the parallel development of a so-called "mobilization model" was ordered, while T-64 development and production continued. An "economy" tank with the old design V-46 powerplant was developed from 1967 at the Uralvagonzavod Factory located in Nizhny Tagil. Chief engineer Leonid Kartsev created "Object 172", the initial design, but the prototype, marked "Object 172M", was refined and finished by Valeri Venediktov. Field trials lasted from 1971 to 1973 and upon acceptance the Chelyabinsk Tank factory immediately ceased T-55 and T-62 production to retool for the new T-72 tank.
Object 172 at the Kubinka Tank Museum

At least some technical documentation on the T-72 is known to have been passed to the CIA by the Polish Colonel Ryszard Kuklinski between 1971 and 1982.

Production history
The T-72 was the most common tank used by the Warsaw Pact from the 1970s to the collapse of the Soviet Union. It was also exported to other countries, such as Finland, India, Iran, Iraq, Syria and Yugoslavia, as well as being copied elsewhere, both with and without licenses. Licenced versions of the T-72 were made in Poland and Czechoslovakia, for WARPAC consumers. These tanks had better and more consistent quality of make but with inferior armour, lacking the resin-embedded ceramics layer inside the turret front and glacis armour, replaced with all steel. The Polish-made T-72G tanks also had thinner armour compared to Soviet Army standard (410mm for turret). Before 1990, Soviet-made T-72 export versions were similarly downgraded for non-WARPAC customers (mostly the Arab countries). Many parts and tools are not interchangeable between the Russian, Polish and Czechoslovakian versions, which caused logistical problems. Yugoslavia developed the T-72 into the more advanced M-84, and sold hundreds of them around the world during the 1980s. The Iraqis called their T-72 copies the "Lion of Babylon" (Asad Babil). These Iraqi tanks were assembled from "spare parts" sold to them by Russia as a means of evading the UN-imposed weapons embargo. More modern derivatives include the Polish PT-91 Twardy and Russian T-90. Several countries, including Russia and Ukraine, also offer modernization packages for older T-72s.

T-72 Various versions of the T-72 have been in production for decades, and the specifications for its armour have changed considerably. Original T-72 tanks had homogeneous cast steel armour incorporating spaced armour technology and were moderately well protected by the standards of the early 1970s. In 1979, the Soviets began building T-72 modification with composite armour similar to the T-64 composite armour, in the front of the turret and the front of the hull. Late in the 1980s, T-72 tanks in Soviet inventory (and many of those elsewhere in the world as well) were fitted with reactive armour tiles. Laser rangefinders appear in T-72 tanks since 1978; earlier examples were equipped with parallax optical rangefinders, which could not be used for distances under 1,000 metres (1,100yd). Some export versions of the T-72 lacked the laser rangefinder until 1985 or only the squadron and platoon commander tanks (version K) received them. After 1985, all newly made T-72s came with reactive armour as standard, the more powerful 840bhp (630kW) V-84 engine and an upgraded design main gun, which can fire guided anti-tank missiles from the barrel. With these developments the T-72 eventually became almost as powerful as the more expensive T-80 tank, but few of these late variants reached the economically ailing WARPAC allies and foreign customers before the Soviet bloc fell apart in 1990. Since 2000, export vehicles have been offered with thermal imaging night-vision gear of French manufacture as well (though it may be more likely that they might simply use the locally manufactured 'Buran-Catherine' system, which incorporates a French thermal imager). Depleted uranium armour-piercing ammunition for the 125mm (4.9in) gun has been manufactured in Russia in the form of the BM-32 projectile since around 1978, though it has never been deployed, and is less penetrating than the later tungsten BM-42 and the newer BM-42M.

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Models
Main models of the T-72, built in the Soviet Union and Russia. Command tanks have K added to their designation for komandirskiy, command, for example T-72K is the command version of the basic T-72. Versions with reactive armour have V added, for vzryvnoy, explosive. T-72 Ural (1973)[3] Original version, armed with 125mm smoothbore tank gun and optical coincidence rangefinder.[4][5] T-72A (1979) Added laser rangefinder and electronic fire control, turret front and top being heavily reinforced with composite armour (nicknamed Dolly Parton by US intelligence), provisions for mounting reactive armor, smoke grenade launchers, flipper armour mount on front mudguards, internal changes. T-72M Export "Monkey model" version, similar to T-72A but lacking composite armour and with downgraded weapon systems, such as a ;lack of fire-control systems. Also built in Poland and former Czechoslovakia[6] T-72 SIM1 Increased implementation of K-1 reactive and K-5 passive armor. New FALCON command and control system, GPS navigation system and Polish SKO-1T DRAWA-T fire control system with thermal imager and laser rangefinder (from PT-91 Twardy).[7] It has also a friend-or-foe recognition system. T-72B (1985) New main gun, stabilizer, sights, and fire control, capable of firing 9M119 Svir guided missile, additional armour including 20mm (0.8in) of appliqu armour in the front of hull, improved 840hp (630kW) engine. T-90 (1995) Modernization of the T-72, incorporating technical features of the heavier, more complex T-80. Originally to have been named the T-72BU, before being referred to as the "T-90".[8]

T-72 The T-72 design has been further developed into the following new models: Lion of Babylon tank (Iraq), M-84 (Yugoslavia), M-95 Degman (Croatia), M-2001 (Serbia), PT-91 Twardy (Poland), T-90 (Russia), Tank EX (India),[9] and TR-125 (Romania).

114

Operators and variants

The T-72 hull has been used as the basis for other heavy vehicle designs, including the following: BMPT Heavy convoy and close tank support vehicle. TOS-1 Thermobaric rocket launcher, with 30-tube launcher in place of the turret.[4] BREM-1 (Bronirovannaya Remonto-Evakuatsionnaya Mashina) Armoured recovery vehicle with a 12-tonne crane, 25-tonne winch, dozer blade, towing equipment, and tools.

T-72 on a wheeled tank transporter. The engine exhaust port is visible on the left side. This tank has additional fuel drums on rear brackets.

IMR-2 (Inzhenernaya Mashina Razgrashdeniya) Combat engineering vehicle with an 11-tonne telescoping crane and pincers, configurable dozer blade/plough, and mine-clearing system. MTU-72 (Tankovyy Mostoukladchik) Armoured bridge layer, capable of laying a 50t (55 short tons) capacity bridge spanning 18m (59ft) in three minutes.

Design characteristics
The T-72 shares many design features with other tank designs of Soviet origin. Some of these are viewed as deficiencies in a straight comparison to NATO tanks, but most are a product of the way these tanks were envisioned to be employed, based on the Soviets' practical experiences in World War II.

Weight
The T-72 is extremely lightweight, at forty-one tonnes, and very small compared to Western main battle tanks. Some of the roads and bridges T-72 monument in its production place, Nizhny Tagil. in former Warsaw Pact countries were designed such that T-72s can travel along in formation, but NATO tanks could not pass at all, or just one-by-one, significantly reducing their mobility. The basic T-72 is relatively underpowered, with a 780hp (580kW) supercharged version of the basic 500hp (370kW) V-12 diesel engine block originally designed for the World War II-era T-34. The 0.58m (1ft 11in) wide tracks run on large-diameter road wheels, which allows for easy identification of the T-72 and descendants (the T-64/80 family has relatively small road wheels). The T-72 is designed to cross rivers up to 5m (16.4ft) deep submerged using a small diameter snorkel assembled on-site. The crew is individually supplied with a simple rebreather chest-pack apparatus for emergency situations. If the engine stops underwater, it must be restarted within six seconds, or the T-72's engine compartment becomes flooded due to pressure loss. The snorkeling procedure is considered dangerous but is important for maintaining operational mobility.

T-72

115

Nuclear, biological, and chemical protection

The T-72 has a comprehensive nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) protection system. The inside of both hull and turret is lined with a synthetic fabric made of boron compound, meant to reduce the penetrating radiation from neutron bomb explosions. The crew is supplied clean air via an extensive air filter system. A slight over-pressure prevents entry of contamination via bearings and joints. Use of an autoloader for the main gun allows for more efficient forced smoke removal compared to traditional manually loaded ("pig-loader") tank guns, so NBC isolation of the fighting compartment can, in theory, be maintained indefinitely. Exported T-72s do not have the antiradiation lining.[citation needed]

Armenian T-72 memorial

Interior
Like all Soviet-legacy tanks, the T-72's design has traded off interior space in return for a very small silhouette and efficient use of armour, to the point of replacing the fourth crewman with a mechanical loader. The basic T-72 design has extremely small periscope viewports, even by the constrained standards of battle tanks and the driver's field of vision is significantly reduced when his hatch is closed. The steering system is a traditional dual-tiller layout instead of the steering wheel or steering yoke common in modern Western tanks. This set-up requires the near-constant use of both hands, which complicates employment of the seven speed manual gearbox. There is a widespread Cold War-era myth, that T-72 and other Soviet tanks are so cramped, that the small interior demands the use of shorter crewmen, with the maximum height set at 1.6m (5ft 3in) in the Soviet Army.[10] According to official regulations, however, the actual figure is 1.75m (5ft 9in)

Armour External images

The cavity in the cast turret [11] [12]

Laminated turret matrix of the T-72B

T-72

116 Armour protection of the T-72 was strengthened with each succeeding generation. The original T-72 turret is made from conventional cast armour. It is believed the maximum thickness is 280mm (11in), the nose is about 80mm (3.1in) and the glacis of the new laminated armour is 200mm (7.9in) thick, which when inclined gives about 500600mm (2024in) thickness along the line of sight. Late model T-72s feature composite armour protection. The T-72A featured a new turret with thicker but nearly vertical frontal armour. Due to its appearance, it was unofficially nicknamed "Dolly Parton" armour by the US Army.[13] The cast steel turret included a cavity filled with kvartz or sand. The T-72M (export version of the Soviet T-72A) featured a different armour protection compared to the T-72A: it had a different composite insert in the turret cavity which granted it less protection against HEAT and armour-piercing (AP) munitions. The modernised T-72M1 featured an additional 16mm (0.63in) of armour on the glacis plate, which produced an increase of 32mm (1.3in) horizontally against both HEAT and AP. It also featured a newer composite armour in the turret with pelletised filler agent. Several T-72 models featured explosive reactive armour (ERA), which increased protection primarily against HEAT type weapons. Certain late-model T-72 tanks featured heavy ERA to help defeat modern HEAT and AP against which they were insufficiently protected. Late model T-72s, such as the T-72B, featured improved turret armour, visibly bulging the turret frontnicknamed "Super-Dolly Parton" Indian T-72 Ajeya with ERA armour armour by Western intelligence.[14] The turret armour of the T-72B was the thickest and most effective of all Soviet tanks; it was even thicker than the frontal armour of the T-80B. The T-72B used a new "reflecting-plate armor" (bronya sotrazhayushchimi listami), in which the frontal cavity of the cast turret was filled with a laminate of alternating steel and non-metallic (rubber) layers. The glacis was also fitted with 20mm (0.8in) of appliqu armour. The late production versions of the T-72B/B1 and T-72A variants also featured an anti-radiation layer on the hull roof. Early model T-72s did not feature side skirts; instead the original base model featured gill or flipper-type armour panels on either side of the forward part of the hull. When the T-72A was introduced in 1979, it was the first model to feature the plastic side skirts covering the upper part of the suspension, with separate panels protecting the side of the fuel and stowage panniers. The July 1997 issue of Jane's International Defence Review confirmed that after the collapse of the USSR, US and German analysts had a chance to examine Soviet-made T-72 tanks equipped with Kontakt-5 ERA, and they proved impenetrable to most modern US and German tank projectiles; this sparked the development of more modern Western tank ammunition, such as the M829A2 and M829A3. Russian tank designers responded with newer types of reactive armour, including Relikt and Kaktus.
T-72A top view. This model sports thick "Dolly Parton" composite armour on the turret front.

T-72 Estimated protection level The following table shows the estimated protection level of different T-72 models in rolled homogeneous armour equivalency. i.e., the composite armour of the turret of a T-72B offers as much protection against an APFSDS round as a 520 millimetres (20in) thick armour steel layer.
Model T-72 'Ural' T-72A [15] Turret vs APFSDS Turret vs HEAT Hull vs APFSDS 380mm (15in) 500mm (20in) 380mm (15in) 420mm (17in) [16] [17] 520 / 540 mm / [18][19] 740mm (29in) 800mm (31in) 490mm (19in) 560mm (22in) 490mm (19in) 490mm (19in) 950 / 900 mm 940mm (37in) Hull vs HEAT

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335mm (13.2in) 450mm (18in) 420mm (17in) 490mm (19in)

T-72M T-72M1 T-72B+Kontakt 1 T-72B+Kontakt 5 T-72B+Relikt

335mm (13.2in) 450mm (18in) 400mm (16in) 530 / 480 mm 690mm (27in) 490mm (19in) 900 / 900 mm 1,180mm (46in) 1,100mm (43in)

[20][21]

1,200mm (47in) 750mm (30in)

Gun
The T-72 is equipped with the 125mm (4.9in) 2A46 series main gun, a significantly larger calibre than the standard 105mm (4.1in) gun found in contemporary Western MBTs, and still slightly larger than the 120 mm/L44 found in many modern Western MBTs. As is typical of Soviet tanks, the gun is capable of firing anti-tank guided missiles, as well as standard main gun ammunition, including HEAT and APFSDS rounds. The main gun of the T-72 has a mean error of 1m (39.4in) at a range of 1,800m (1,968.5yd). Its maximum firing distance is 9,100m (9,951.9yd), due to limited positive elevation. The limit of aimed fire is 4,000m (4,374.5yd) (with the gun-launched anti-tank guided missile, which is rarely used outside the former USSR). The T-72's main gun is fitted with an integral pressure reserve drum, which assists in rapid smoke evacuation from the bore after firing. The 125 millimeter gun barrel is certified strong enough to ram the tank through forty centimeters of iron-reinforced brick wall, though doing so will negatively affect the gun's accuracy when subsequently fired. Rumours in NATO armies of the late Cold War claimed that the tremendous recoil of the huge 125mm gun could damage the fully mechanical transmission of the T-72. The tank commander reputedly had to order firing by repeating his command, when the T-72 is on the move: "Fire! Fire!" The first shout supposedly allowed the driver to disengage the clutch to prevent wrecking the transmission when the gunner fired the cannon on the second order. In reality, this still-common tactic substantively improves the tank's firing accuracy and has nothing to do with recoil or mechanical damage to anything. This might have to deal with the quality of the T-72s stabilizers. The vast majority of T-72s do not have FLIR thermal imaging sights, though all T-72s (even those exported to the Third World) possess the characteristic (and inferior) 'Luna' IR illuminator. Thermal imaging sights are extremely expensive, and the new Russian FLIR system, the 'Buran-Catherine Thermal Imaging Suite' was only introduced recently on the T-80UM tank. Most T-72s found outside the former Soviet Union do not have laser rangefinders. T-72 built for export have a downgraded fire-control system.

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Autoloader
The T-72's autoloader design is not based on the faster, but more complicated autoloader in the USSR's domestic-use-only T-64 tank series (the T-72's is horizontally auto-fed, the T-64's uses vertical actuators). The autoloader must crank the gun up three degrees above the horizontal in order to depress the breech end of the gun and line it up with the new shell. While autoloading, the gunner can still aim because he has a vertically independent sight. With a laser rangefinder and a ballistic computer, final aiming takes at least another three to five seconds, but aiming is pipelined into the last steps of auto-loading so it proceeds concurrently. The average rate of fire for this type of carousel automatic loader is quoted to be 8 rounds per minute. The use of the autoloader allows the elimination of the extra loader crewmember, decreasing the size of the tank.

Service
The T-72 was never used in the Afghanistan War. The 40th Soviet Army that was deployed there had only T-55 and T-62 tanks. The Russian Federation has over 5,000 T-72 tanks in use, including around 2,000 in active service and 3,000 in reserves. The T-72 has been used by the Russian Army in the fighting during the First and Second Chechen Wars and the Russo-Georgian War. The T-72 has been used by over 40 countries worldwide.

T-72 operators (former operators in red)

In the 1982 Lebanon War, Syrian T-72s engaged Israeli M60A1 and Merkava tanks in the south of Lebanon.[22] On 9 June 1982, the Syrian General HQ ordered a brigade of the 1st Armoured Division, equipped with T-72 tanks, to move straight ahead, cross the border and hit the right flank of the Israeli units advancing along the eastern side of Beka'a. The T-72s clashed with several companies of M60s, destroying some Israeli companies in process while suffering only a few losses in exchange.[23]After the war, Syrian president Hafez Al Assad called the T-72 "the best tank in the world." Syrian and Russian sources claim that the T-72 had success against the latest Israeli Merkava tanks and that no T-72s were lost. Others claim that the two tanks never met in combat and that 11-12 T-72s were lost mostly due to anti-tank ambushes and the usage of TOW missiles. Only one Syrian T-72 probably was knocked out by Israeli tank fire. The Iraqi T-72s performed well against opposing Iranian tanks such as M48s, M60A1s and Chieftains in the Iran-Iraq war. In the early stages of war, the Iraqi battalion T-72 tanks faced with the Iranian battalion of Chieftain tanks. During a tank battle all Iranian tanks were destroyed. In turn, the Iraqis have suffered no losses. Iraqi T-72 had great success in the battle for Basra and the last stages of the war. Iranian TOW missiles proved ineffective against armor of 72.[24]60 T-72 tanks were lost during the eight years of war.[25][26] According to Iranians and Iraqis T-72 was the most feared tank of the Iran-Iraq War.[27][28] The Iraqi export version of the T-72 (Lion of Babylon (tank)) engaged Western forces in both Iraq wars. Battle of 73 Easting, the last tank battle of the 20th Century[citation needed] took place during a sandstorm in the Kuwaiti desert.

T-72 American M1A1s and Bradley Fighting Vehicles came up against Republican Guard T-72's and BMP's. The primary battle was conducted by 2ACR's three squadrons of about 400 soldiers, along with the 1st Infantry Division's two leading brigades, who attacked and destroyed the Iraqi 18th Mechanized Brigade and 37th Armored Brigade of the Tawakalna Division, each consisting of between 2,500 to 3,000 personnel.[29] On 26 February, 1991, the Iraqis dug-in T-72 tanks to stop the advance of American tanks in southern Iraq during Battle of Phase Line Bullet. In January 2009, it was reported that the Iraqi government was negotiating a deal to purchase up to 2,000 T-72 tanks. The T-72s were to be rebuilt and modernized.[30] In September 2009 it was announced that Venezuela was planning to purchase 92 Russian T-72 tanks. The first T-72s destined to Venezuela arrived at the port of Puerto Cabello May 25, 2011. Xu Bin-shi, a high ranking Chinese military engineer, revealed during an interview that China first obtained a T-72 from Romania in the 1980s, in exchange for plasma spray technology.[31]

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Combat history
19801988 IranIraq War (Iraq) (Iran) 1982 Lebanon (Syria) 19832009 Sri Lankan Civil War (India) 1986-1989 South African Border War (Cuba) 19881994 Nagorno-Karabakh War (Armenia and Azerbaijan) 19881993 Georgian Civil War 19911992 War in South Ossetia 19921993 War in Abkhazia 1992-1997 Civil war in Tajikistan 19901991 First Persian Gulf War (Iraq, Kuwait) 19902002 Sierra Leone Civil War (Executive Outcomes) 19912001 Yugoslav Wars (Yugoslavia) 1991 Ten-Day War (Yugoslavia) 19911995 Croatian War of Independence (Yugoslavia, Krajina Serbs, Croatia and Republika Srpska) 1998 Kosovo (Yugoslavia) 2001 2001 Macedonia conflict (Macedonia) 1994 Rwanda Civil War (Uganda) 19941996 First Chechen War (Russia, Chechnya (limited)) First known case of using tank-launched missiles, which effectively destroy targets at 4 km range.[32]
Iraqi 'Saddam' main battle tank destroyed in a Coalition attack during Operation Desert Storm Iraqi T-72M in 2006

19992009 Second Chechen War (Russia) 2003 Invasion of Iraq (Iraq) 2008 War in South Ossetia (Russia and Georgia) 2011 2011 Libyan civil war (Gaddafi Government and Anti-Gaddafi forces) 2012 Syrian civil war - Government forces using T-72 tanks 2013 2013 South Sudanese political crisis

T-72

120

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] "Gary's Combat Vehicle Reference Guide" (http:/ / www. inetres. com/ gp/ military/ cv/ tank/ T-72. html) http:/ / www. otvaga2004. narod. ru/ publ_w7_2010/ 0063_172. htm "War Technology" (http:/ / wartechnology. ovh. org/ pages/ bron_obecna/ t-72. php) "Czolgi Swiata" (World's Tanks or Tanks Of The World) magazine issue 20 T-72 [ZSRR]: Strona 2 (http:/ / www. pancerni. abajt. pl/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=21& Itemid=35& limit=1& limitstart=1) (in Polish), Pancerni.net [6] T-72 [ZSRR]: Strona 3 (http:/ / www. pancerni. abajt. pl/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=21& Itemid=35& limit=1& limitstart=2) (in Polish), Pancerni.net [7] http:/ / vadimvswar. narod. ru/ ALL_OUT/ TiVOut0809/ GruzPz08/ GruzPz08001. htm [8] Foss 2005, p. 85. [9] MBT-EX / Tank-Ex / Karna (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ india/ tank-ex. htm) globalsecurity.org [10] Perret 1987, p. 121. [11] http:/ / btvt. narod. ru/ 4/ armor. files/ image009. jpg [12] http:/ / btvt. narod. ru/ 4/ armor. files/ image008. jpg [13] Zaloga 1993, p. 9 [14] Zaloga 1993, p. 10 [15] T-72 Main Battle Tank 1974-93 by Steven Zaloga ISBN 978-1-85532-338-4 [16] T-72 Ural vs M1 Abrams by Steven J. Zaloga ISBN 978-1-84603-407-7 Osprey Publishing 10/08/2009, p. 27 [17] http:/ / btvt. narod. ru/ 5/ rogatka/ rogatka. htm [18] http:/ / btvt. narod. ru/ 5/ rogatka/ rogatka. htm [19] http:/ / fofanov. armor. kiev. ua/ Tanks/ index_r. html [20] http:/ / btvt. narod. ru/ 5/ rogatka/ rogatka. htm [21] http:/ / niistali. ru/ security/ armor/ relict?start=2 [22] Ilyin and Nikolski 1997 [23] Day Two, 9 June (http:/ / www. acig. info/ CMS/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=207& Itemid=1) [24] Fire in the Hills: Iranian and Iraqi Battles of Autumn 1982 By Tom Cooper & Farzad Bishop,2003 (http:/ / www. acig. org/ artman/ publish/ article_214. shtml) [25] : - (http:/ / army. lv/ ru/ Zabitaya-voyna-irano-irakskiy-konflikt/ 2640/ 4272) [26] (http:/ / btvt. narod. ru/ 2/ iraqarmy2. htm) [27] Interview - Iranian Tank Commander,McCaul ED, Apr-2004, Military History Vol. 21 No. 1 [28] "Saddams Generals: Perspectives of the Iran-Iraq War", Youssef Aboul-Enein [29] "Briefing, Battle of 73 Easting". The Middle East Institute [30] Osborn, Kris. "Iraq Plans To Buy 2,000 Tanks" (http:/ / www. defensenews. com/ story. php?i=3896249). Defense News, 12 January 2009. [31] http:/ / tech. sina. com. cn/ d/ 2004-11-19/ 1551462152. shtml [32] " " Part 1. // " " 9 2007. Part 2. //" " 1 2008, V, Belogrud

References
Foss, Christopher F. (2005), Jane's Armour and Artillery 2005-2006, Jane's, ISBN978-0-7106-2686-8 Hunnicutt, R. P. (1984), Patton: A History of the American Main Battle Tank, Presidio Press, ISBN0-89141-230-1 Ilyin, Vladimir; Nikolski, Mikhail (1997). "Sovremennye tanki v boiu" [Modern Tanks in Battle]. Tehnika i vooruzhenie [Machinery and Armament] (in Russian) (1). Karpenko, A.V. (1996), Obozrenie otechestvenno bronetankovo tekhniki, 1905-1995 gg. (in Russian), Nevskij Bastion, OCLC 41871991 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41871991) Leizin, Uri (2004), Two myths of one battle: Syrian T-72's in 1982 Lebanon war (http://www.waronline.org/ IDF/Articles/t72-myth/index.html) (in Russian) Perret, Bryan (1987), Soviet Armour Since 1945, London: Blandford Press, ISBN0-7137-1735-1 Sewell, Stephen Cookie (1998), "Why Three Tanks?" (https://www.knox.army.mil/center/ArmorMag/ backissues/1990s/1998/ja98/4sewell98.pdf), Armor (Fort Knox, KY: US Army Armor Center.) 108 (4), ISSN 0004-2420 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0004-2420) Ustyantsev, Sergej Viktorovich; Kolmakov, Dmitrij Gennadevich, Boyeviye mashiny Uralvagonzavoda. Tank T-72

T-72 Zaloga, Steven J (1993), T-72 Main Battle Tank 1974-93, Osprey, ISBN1-85532-338-9

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External links
T-72S Main Battle Tank, Russian Federation (http://www.army-technology.com/projects/t72/) Vasiliy Fofanov's Modern Russian Armour Page (http://armor.kiev.ua/fofanov/) Huge pile of Hungarian T-72 walkarounds (http://mhrfweb.makett.org/MHRF/index. php?option=com_phocagallery&view=category&id=63:t-72-harckocsi&Itemid=11&lang=en) T-72 variants (http://www.t-72.de/html/varianten_des_t-72.html) (German) "??????" (http://www.otvaga2004.narod.ru/). Retrieved 2008-06-15. "Kalejdoskop" (Russian language) http://www.inetres.com/gp/military/cv/tank/T-72.html

Arjun (tank)

122

Arjun (tank)
Arjun MBT

Arjun MBT conducting driving test on sand berms Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank
India

Production history
Designer Designed Manufacturer Unitcost Produced Numberbuilt Variants CVRDE, DRDO March 1974present Heavy Vehicles Factory, Avadi 17.2 crore (US$2.6million) 2004present 124 (124 Mk-I and 124 Mk-II ordered) Tank EX

Specifications
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armor Main armament Secondary armament Engine Power/weight Transmission 58.5 tonnes (57.6 long tons; 64.5 short tons) 10.638 metres (34ft 10.8in) 3.864 metres (12ft 8.1in) 2.32 metres (7ft 7in) 4 (commander, gunner, loader and driver) Kanchan armour. 120 mm rifled tank gun LAHAT anti-tank missile HEAT, APFSDS, HESH Rounds NSV 12.7mm AA MG Mag 7.62 mm Tk715 coaxial MG MTU 838 Ka 501 diesel 1,400 hp (1,040 kW) 23.9hp/tonne, Renk epicyclic train gearbox, 4 fwd + 2 rev gears

Arjun (tank)

123
Suspension hydropneumatic

Groundclearance 0.45 metres (1ft 6in) Fuelcapacity Operational range Speed 1,610 litres (350impgal; 430USgal) 450 kilometres (280mi)

72km/h (45mph) Road 40km/h (25mph) Cross country

[]

The Arjun (Sanskrit: ) is a third generation main battle tank developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO), for the Indian Army. The tank is named for Arjun, a character in the Indian epic, Mahabharata. The Arjun features a 120mm main rifled gun with indigenously developed APFSDS ammunition, one 7.62mm coaxial machine gun, and a 12.7mm machine gun. It is powered by a single MTU multi-fuel diesel engine rated at 1,400hp, and can achieve a maximum speed of 70km/h (43mph) and a cross-country speed of 40km/h (25mph). It has a four-man crew: commander, gunner, loader and driver. Automatic fire detection and suppression and NBC protection systems are included. All-round anti-tank warhead protection by the newly developed Kanchan armour is claimed to be much higher than available in comparable third generation tanks. In March 2010, the Arjun was pitted against the T-90 in comparative trials and performed well. Subsequently delays and other problems in its development from the 1990s to the 2000s prompted the Indian Army to order T-90S tanks from Russia to meet requirements that the Arjun had been expected to fulfill.[1] Army placed an order for an additional 124 Arjun Mk-I tanks on 17 May 2010 and 124 Arjun Mk-II Tanks on 9 August 2010. The Arjun entered service with the Indian Army in 2004. The tanks were first inducted into the 43rd Armoured Regiment, Indian Army Armoured Corps, which was later built up to regiment strength in 2009, while the latest induction has been into the 75th Armoured Regiment on 12 March 2011.

History
Planning and development
The DRDO, with its Combat Vehicles Research and Development Establishment (CVRDE) as the main laboratory, was tasked to develop the hull, armour, turret, running gear and gun for the tank, with the powerpack being imported. Although the development of the tank began in 1972 by the CVRDE, it was only in 1996 that the Indian government decided to mass-produce the tank at Indian Ordnance Factory's production facility in Avadi.[] When first accepted for service in the army, the Arjun relied heavily on foreign components and technology. Initially close to 50% of the tank's components were imported, which included the engine, transmission, gun barrel, tracks, and fire control system. However, several of these have since been replaced by indigenous systems or are being supplied by Indian companies. Recent comments from Army sources indicate that the Russian T-90S will form the mainstay of its future force, despite that tanks performance issues in hot weather. The Arjun project experienced serious budget overruns and repeated delays that resulted in a development time of over 37 years. A complicating factor was that advances in technology and the threat environment in the intervening years led to multiple revision of requirements by the Army. While the government sanctioned 15.5 crore (US$2.4million) for the initial design in May 1974, by 1995, DRDO had spent 300 crore (US$45.9million) on development due to changing requirements and inflationary cost increases.

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Production and deployment

The Indian Army ordered 124 Arjuns in 2000, expected to cost US$471.2 million. Early development versions of the Arjun were held by 43 Armoured Regiment which were shown in display in the Republic Day Parade of 2001. The first batch of 16 production version Arjun tanks were received in 2004[2] and they were provided as a squadron to the 43rd Armoured Regiment.[citation needed] The regiment was later made up to 45 tanks on 25 May 2009 making it the first Arjun regiment of the Indian Army. More than 100 tanks have been delivered to the Indian Army by June 2011. The latest regiment to be completely equipped by the Arjun tank is 75 Armoured Regiment which was the last regiment in the Indian Army to hold the T-55 tank.

Upgrades
As part of improving the Arjun to the Mark-II variant, DRDO is continuing to develop new technology systems for MBT Arjun, in order to improve performance in areas like automatic target locating, tracking and destruction. The Arjun MK-II variant is being developed in coordination with and with the involvement of the Indian Army and will feature several modifications that are being sought by it. DRDO is developing the Tank Urban Survival Kit which is a series of improvements to the Arjun intended to improve fighting ability in urban environments which includes defensive aids like laser warning, IR jammer, and aerosol smoke grenade system. CVRDE is in the process of developing tank simulators. DRDO is developing a Laser Warning Control System (LWCS) in cooperation with Elbit Limited of Israel to be equipped on the Arjun at regimental level trials with T-90s. The MCS is being developed by DRDO to help the tank reduce the threat of interference from all types of sensors and smart munitions of the enemy in the tank's systems. LWCS includes the defensive aids mentioned, and will help reduce the signatures of the tank in the battle field and improve its survivability. DRDO is also co-developing the and Mobile Camouflaging System (MCS) technology along with a Gurgaon-based private sector defence manufacturer Barracuda Camouflaging Limited.[citation needed] The upgrade also includes a new improved 1500hp engine. An anti-helicopter round is under development as well.

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Specifications
Weighing in at 58.5 tons, the Arjun tank is significantly heavier than the Soviet-legacy tanks used presently by the Indian Army, and required changes to the army's logistics establishment, including new railroad cars to transport the bigger and heavier Arjuns. The required logistical changes have been made but the cost of the whole project has increased.

Armament
Armed with a 120mm rifled gun, the Arjun is believed to be capable of firing APFSDS (Kinetic Energy) rounds, HE, HEAT, High Explosive Squash Head (HESH) rounds at the rate of 6-8 rounds per minute and the Israeli developed semi-active laser guided LAHAT missile. The LAHAT is a gun-launched missile and is designed to defeat both enemy armour and enemy combat helicopters. In addition, the Arjun is armed with a 12.7mm AA machine gun and a 7.62mm coaxial machine gun.[3] The Arjun can carry 39 rounds in special blast-proof canisters. The Arjun uses a manual loader and has a crewman to reload the gun.

LAHAT missile

Fire control and navigation

The computerised fire control system aboard Arjun has been jointly developed by DRDO with the Elbit,Israel. The Fire Control System is stabilised on two axes, and with an extremely high hit probability (design criteria call for a greater than 0.9 Pk) replaces an earlier analogue one, which had problems due to its inability to function under the harsh desert conditions. The combined day sight from Bharat Electronics Ltd. and the thermal imager (formerly from Sagem, now reported to be from El-Op) constitute the gunner's primary sight. The first batch of tanks of the 124 ordered by the Army will have an Arjun gunnery simulator. all-digital Sagem FCS, whereas the second block will have the BEL unit, which will be used for all units thereafter. The commander's own stabilised panoramic sight allows him to engage targets and/or hand them over to the gunner. The Arjun has an auxiliary power unit to operate weapon systems in silent watch mode as well. The tank incorporates GPS-based navigation systems and sophisticated frequency hopping radios. The state-of-the-art Battlefield Management System, co-developed by DRDO and Ebit Israel, allows it to network with other fighting units. The Arjun has the capability to network with other tanks, thanks to its Battle Management System. In a search and engage operation, several Arjun tanks can monitor an opponent and his moves, and try to eliminate him in a chase or ambush.

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Protection
The turret and glacis are heavily armoured and use "Kanchan" ("gold") modular composite armour. The Kanchan armour got its name from Kanchan Bagh, Hyderabad, where the Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL) is located. The armour is made by sandwiching composite panels between Rolled Homogenous Armor (RHA) to defeat APFDS or HEAT rounds. During the trials in 2000, the Kanchan was able to withstand a hit from a T-72 at point blank range, and was able to defeat all available HESH and APFSDS rounds, which included Arjun Mk-I the Israeli APFSDS rounds. A new honeycomb design of Non-Explosive and Non-Energetic Reactive Armour (NERA) along with Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC) protection equipment, mine sweeps and an automatic fire fighting system are reportedly being tested on the Arjun. Electromagnetic-counter mine system can also be installed as the electromagnetic pulse disables magnetic mines and disrupts electronics before the tank reaches them. Signature reduction suite is also available for this design to reduce the probabilities of the object to be detected by Infrared, Thermal, Radar-Thermal, and Radar bands. Electro-optical/IR "dazzlers", Laser warning receivers, aerosol grenade discharging systems and a computerised control system are few planned improvements in the design. The tank has been 'painted' by a weapon-guidance laser that allows the crew to slew the turret to face the threat. The infrared jammer, laser rangefinders and designators are used in navigation (GPS/INS), observation systems and sensors, real-time command and beyond-vision-range target engaging. Advanced Fire Control System (FCS) is linked to a millimetre band radar system, laser range-finder, crosswind sensor and IR and radiometer sensors on board. The millimetre band radar system mounted on the turret is capable of operating as a Missile Approach Warning System (MAWS) and also has a Radar Warning Receiver (RWR) and radar jammer. Four all-bearing Laser warning receivers (LWR) for the new fire-control system enables the Arjun to shoot down helicopters and find and destroy armoured attack helicopters. Battle Management System has a panoramic sight with the commander's station equipped with eight periscopes for 360 vision. Commander's independent thermal viewer, weapon station, position navigation equipment, and a full set of controls and displays have been linked by a digital data bus for improved fire control system. The System Enhancement Package (SEP) has added digital maps, improved cooling system to compensate for heat generated by the additional computer systems, FBCB2 capabilities, New radars, EW Systems, C4ISR Systems, Gun Control System (GCS) Integrated Battlefield Management System (IBMS) and Active protection System. A Mobile Camouflage System has been developed and integrated into the Arjun as part of the 'Development of Defensive Aids System' project. in collaboration with Barracuda Camouflage Limited,to reduce the vehicle signature against all known sensors and smart munitions. An Advanced Laser Warning Countermeasure System (ALWCS) for the fire control system has been developed. This consists of a laser warning system, Infra-Red (IR) jammer and aerosol smoke grenade system. This is being developed jointly with Elbit Systems Limited of Israel. The ALWCS has been integrated on Arjun MBT and trials have been carried out.

Mobility
The engine and transmission are provided by German companies MTU and Renk respectively.[4] The water-cooled engine generates 1,400hp and is integrated with an Indian turbocharger and epicyclic train gearbox with four forward and 2 reverse gears. A local transmission is under trials and it is envisioned to ultimately replace the Renk-supplied unit. The tracks which were being supplied by German company Diehl are now being manufactured by L&T. The cooling pack has been designed for desert operations. The Arjun has a lower ground pressure than the

Arjun (tank) lighter T-72, due to its design. The Arjun features a hydro-pneumatic suspension. This coupled with the Arjun's stabilisation and fire control system allows the tank excellent first-hit probability against moving targets while on the move. Its ride comfort is highly praised. Though on the negative side, it is a more maintenance-intensive and expensive system, even if more capable than the simpler and cheaper torsion bar system utilised on many older tanks worldwide. During trials, the Arjun showcased its fording capability, by driving under six feet of water for 20 minutes. A new 1500hp engine is being developed that will eventually replace the present engine. An allocation of 40 crore (US$6.1million) has been allocated for the project which is expected to be completed within five years.[5]

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Trials and exercise

In 1988-1989 two prototypes underwent automotive trials, which revealed major deficiencies in mobility, engine, and transmission.[6] Several prototypes underwent extensive mobility and armament trials, in 1996 and 1997. The Army found the performance of the prototypes below the acceptable standards and listed deficiencies in the following areas: Accuracy of gun at battle ranges Mission reliability Ammunition lethality Containerisation of ammunition bin Emergency traverse Fire control system unable to function in temperatures above 42 degrees Celsius (108 degrees Fahrenheit).

During summer trials in 2005, it was reported that the Arjun suffered major problems with its main gun sight, suspension system, and fire control system. Moreover, engine failures occurred commonly in temperatures averaging 55-60 degrees Celsius.[7] There are conflicting accounts of Arjun's trial results in 2006. In 2007, Major General H.M. Singh, a director in charge of trial and evaluation, said that the last year's user field trial report had certified that the accuracy and consistency of the weapon system was proved beyond doubt." However, the 2006 army trial results showed that "the decade-old problems of overheating persist" and that "tanks main subsystems, the fire control system (FCS) and integrated gunners main sight, which includes a thermal imager and laser range-finder, are rendered erratic and useless by the Arjuns abnormally high peak internal temperature, which moves well beyond 55 degrees Celsius. This is in testimony to the Parliamentary committee." In 2007 the Arjun tank was fielded during the Ashwamedha exercise in the deserts of Rajasthan. The army was extremely unhappy with the tank, citing 14 defects that included "deficient fire control system", "inaccuracy of its guns", "low speeds in tactical areas" and "inability to operate over 50 degrees Celsius".[8] "The Army is now faced with a troubling prospect: inducting a lumbering, misfiring, vintage design tank like the Arjun, and that, too, in large numbers". This, after DRDO over-shot Arjuns project deadline by 16 years from 1984 to 1995, finally closing the project only in 2000 and the cost overrun is almost 20 times the original estimate. This is the highest percentage overrun for any DRDO project. With the September 2007 winter trials, the Indian army deemed Arjun's performance unsatisfactory, including at least four engine failures.[9] DRDO, on the other hand, insisted the tank was a viable choice for adoption and suggested the unsatisfactory performance of the engine during the winter trials was due to sabotage.

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The Auxiliary User Cum Reliability Trials (AUCRT) of the Arjun MBT were conducted from September 2007 to summer of 2008. In a report to the Parliamentary standing committee the Indian army deemed Arjun's performance unsatisfactory, including four engine failures within only 1000 kilometres. The defence minister presented this report before the parliament, later published by Press Information Bureau Government of India (PIB). The Army wrote in the report that during the "accelerated user-cum-reliability trials" in 2008, the Arjun "was found to have Arjun MBT bump track test failure of power packs, low accuracy and consistency, failure of hydropneumatic suspension units, shearing of top rollers and chipping of gun barrels". Sabotage was suspected, but the Army rejected that any sabotage happened during the trials. A later report published by the Government of India during the induction ceremony of the Arjun tank, confirms the success of the trial. "An independent evaluation of the tank by a reputed tank manufacturer found that the MBT Arjun is an excellent tank with very good mobility and fire power characteristics." DRDO installed an instrument to function as a black box in the Arjun, following attempts to "sabotage" its engine. Subsequently in September 2008, the Indian Army signed a deal with Russia to import 347 T-90 tanks and license build a further 1000. Transfer of key T-90 technologies has also been agreed upon as a part of the deal. In 2008, the Indian Army announced plans to acquire an entirely new main battle tank unrelated to the Arjun, to be inducted after 2020. The Indian Army has held an "international seminar on future MBTs", during which the parameters and requirements of this future MBT were identified. As a result, Russia has offered to team with India on developing this future tank. According to Jane's, the Indian Army had confirmed that the Arjun's production will be capped at 124 units. According to the testimony to the Indian Parliament in the winter of 2008 by the Defense Minister, the Arjun's defects have been rectified "periodically", and the army has "categorically" indicated Arjun's performance as satisfactory. 124 Arjun tanks will be inducted into the army, one regiment by the end of 2008 and the next regiment by the summer of 2009. The tanks will enter service with 140 Armoured Brigade at Jaisalmer. The Arjun was to undergo comparative trials against the Indian Army's Russian-built T-90 tanks in June 2009.[10] Retired Lt. Col. Anil Bhat, a strategic analyst, pointed out that the Arjun tank is cumbersome for strategic movement, i.e. to be taken from one sector to another. It is too wide and too heavy to be moved in the railway carriages that we have in India. The comparative trials are just an eyewash as Arjun is incomparable to T-90" owing to the different weight class of both tanks. This comment by Lt. Col. Anil Bhat was made without realising that Arjun-specific rail wagons have already been inducted. A comparative trial was conducted by the Indian Army in March 2010, in which the Arjun was pitted against the Indian T-90. The trial pitted one squadron of Arjuns against an equal number of T-90s. Each squadron was given three tactical tasks; each involved driving across 50 kilometres of desert terrain and then shooting at a set of targets. Each tank had to fire at least ten rounds, stationary and on the move, with each hit being carefully logged. In total, each tank drove 150km and fired between 30-50 rounds. The trials also checked the tanks ability to drive through water channels 56 feet deep. Regarding the trial, a Ministry of Defence press release reported: After many years of trial and tribulation it has now proved its worth by its superb performance under various circumstances, such as driving cross-country over rugged sand dunes, detecting, observing and quickly engaging targets, accurately hitting targets both stationary and moving, with pin pointed accuracy. Its superior fire-power is based on accurate and quick target acquisition capability during day and night in all types of weather and shortest possible reaction time during combat engagements.

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Variants
Bhim SPH: A 155mm self-propelled howitzer variant of the Arjun has been prototyped by fitting the South African Denel T6 turret, which comes with the G5 howitzer to the Arjun chassis. This project has been delayed as Denel has become embroiled in a corruption scandal in India, and hence the Indian Ministry of Defence has suspended the Bhim. A bridge layer tank (BLT) based on the Arjun chassis has also been displayed by the DRDO.[11] Developed in cooperation with Indian industry, this bridge layer is deemed superior to the T-72 based units, as it can handle a larger load and uses a "scissors type" bridgelaying method, which does not raise the bridge high up into the air, and hence make it visible from afar. The R&DE(E) did this by replacing the tanks gun and turret with the bridge launcher. The bridge is cantilevered over chasms or across rivers to cover a distance of 26 m with a width of 4 m. The BLT-Arjun carries two halves of a bridge. At a wet or dry gap, the launcher slides the two parts and docks them to each other in such a way that the far end of the second half touches the other bank. The BLT then crosses the bridge, turns around, retrieves the bridge after undocking its two halves, folds it and is ready to move with the armoured column. Armoured engineering vehicles based on the Arjun are also assumed to be in development, as the Arjun induction will require units of a similar power-to-weight ratio or powerful enough to tow it, or recover it on the battlefield. Tank EX: A new tank obtained by coupling a T-72 chassis and an Arjun turret. Only prototypes have been built so far. An MBT Arjun Simulator comprising a driving simulator and turret simulator are being developed for troop level training.

Arjun Mk-II
DRDO chief V.K. Saraswat, also the scientific adviser to the defence minister, told HT at Aero India-2011: "The new variant will have several modifications including superior missile firing capabilities." On June-2011 the Mk-II begun to undergo trials at Pokhran ranges in Rajasthan. The Mk-II is also expected to go through its winter trials later the same year. According to CVRDE the Director P. Sivakumar, the Arjun Mark II will have a total of 93 upgrades, including 13 major improvements. Arjun Mk II The major upgrades would be missile-firing capability against long-range targets, panoramic sight with night vision to engage targets effectively at night, containerisation of the ammunition, enhanced main weapon penetration; additional ammunition types, explosive reactive armour, an advanced air-defence gun to engage helicopters; a mine plough, an advanced land navigation system and a warning system which can fire smoke grenades to confuse laser guidance. Other upgrades are an enhanced Auxiliary power unit providing 8.5 KW (from 4.5 KW) and an improved gun barrel, changes in the commander's panoramic sight with eye safe LRF, night vision capability including for driver, digital control harness, new final drive, track and sprocket. Arjun tank hull and turret has been modified to achieve the target weight of about 55 tons from 59-64 tons. Elbit is helping to enhance its firepower and battlefield survivability and IMI is helping to augment Arjun Mk IIs mobility, redesign its turret and hull and improve its production-line processes.[12] The development trials of the Mark II tanks started on June 22, 2012, at Rajasthan's Pokhran field firing range which will continue for the next two months and will mainly focus on 19 parametres, according to DRDO spokesperson Ravi Gupta. DRDO will start production of 124 Arjun Mark II tanks for the Indian Army after the success of these trials. The tank commander's thermal imaging (TI) night sight, the tank's operation in "hunter-killer" mode, the tank's

Arjun (tank) missile firing capability from its main gun, and a laser missile warning and counter measure system are among the crucial upgrades that will be tested. The Mark-II version completed most user trials except missile testing, which is slated to take place in summer (AprilMay) of 2013. Since May 2012, user trials had been done in Avadi and Pokhran. So far, the response to the new features of Arjun Mark II was favorable. According to Director, CVRDE P. Sivakumar the Arjun Mk II could fire missiles accurately up to a range of 2km. Owing to the experience while designing and building the first version work on Arjun Mk-II was completed in 2 years. According to recent reports,the newly modified 55-tonne Arjun mk2 tanks have pulled impressive performances in the final trials that commenced from early August 2013.A representative from DRDO (the Defence Research and Development Organisation, which developed the Arjun) added: If the army is satisfied, the order of 500 should be placed in one go, since that would save time for various formalities and procedures of a fresh order."[13]

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FMBT
The Arjun MKII variant is to be followed by the Futuristic Main Battle Tank (FMBT), which started development in 2010. The Indian Army plans to induct the FMBT from 2020 onwards. The FMBT will be a lighter tank of 50 tons. FMBT would be focusing on weight reduction to bring it to below 50 tons.[14]

Operators
India Indian Army 124 tanks in service, total 248 (124 Mk-II more) tanks ordered. A total of 300-400 Arjun Mk2 tanks may be ordered.

References
[1] No more Arjuns for Indian Army (http:/ / articles. timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ 2008-07-05/ india/ 27901037_1_arjun-tanks-combat-vehicles-research-winter-trials) Times of India [2] "Arjun rumbles to life, Army raises maiden regiment" (http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ StoryPage/ StoryPage. aspx?id=2c989f63-5120-4d94-9d36-868a28d3b7d3) Hindustan Times, 26 May 2009 [3] Main Battle Tank, Arjun (http:/ / www. drdo. org/ mbt. html), Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO), Ministry of Defense, India [4] India Defence Arjun MBT (http:/ / www. india-defence. com/ specifications/ tanks/ 2) [5] DRDO, 1500 HP engine development (http:/ / www. drdo. org/ tender/ desidoc/ desidoc29mar07sp2. pdf) [6] Arjun Development Program (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ india/ arjun-dev. htm) globalsecurity.org [7] System failures stall Arjun trials (http:/ / www. janes. com/ defence/ land_forces/ news/ jdw/ jdw050921_1_n. shtml) [8] Indian Army unsure about Arjun tank's role (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ India/ File_Indian_Army_unsure_about_Arjun_tanks_role/ articleshow/ 1994156. cms) [9] Indian Army sounds indigenous battle tank's death knell (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/ Content/ Jul52008/ national2008070577076. asp?section=updatenews), deccanherald.com [10] A last bid to save the Arjun (http:/ / www. thaindian. com/ newsportal/ india-news/ a-last-bid-to-save-the-arjun-main-battle-tank-project_100142182. html) thaindian.com [11] Image of the Arjun BLT (http:/ / www. bharat-rakshak. com/ LAND-FORCES/ Army/ Galleries/ main. php?g2_itemId=2165) bharat-rakshak.com [12] http:/ / img14. imageshack. us/ img14/ 5835/ 39536497. jpg [13] http:/ / rpdefense. over-blog. com/ arjun-mk2-main-battle-tank-trials [14] http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ news/ fmbt-to-focus-on-weight-reduction-of-battle-tanks-says-drdo-chief/ 1055203

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External links
Arjun MBT at indian-military.org (http://www.indian-military.org/army/armour/main-battle-tanks/247-arjun. html) Arjun MBT Project: Reports of the Standing Committee on Defence (http://www.india-defence.com/ reports-3199) Fourteen Arjun main battle tanks delivered to the Army, "Accuracy of weapon system proved beyond doubt" (http://www.hindu.com/2007/05/13/stories/2007051301111000.htm) Arjun induction: move to support indigenisation process (http://www.hindu.com/2004/08/08/stories/ 2004080807640800.htm), in the Hindu 'Arjun' to roll out on 7 August (http://www.hindu.com/2004/08/04/stories/2004080406451200.htm), in the Hindu 'Bhishma' handed over to Army (http://www.hindu.com/2004/01/08/stories/2004010806531200.htm), about India's T-90S tanks, in the Hindu History of Arjun Tank Development (http://frontierindia.net/history-of-arjun-tank-development/), in Frontier India Defence and Strategic News Service Arjun Photos (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Images-MBT1.html) Arjun MBT Vs T-90S specifications (http://frontierindia.net/dissimilar-combat-arjun-mbt-vs-t-90s-specs/) Arjun MBT weight implications (http://frontierindia.net/arjun-mbt-weight-implications/) The advent of Arjun (http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2117/stories/20040827006113300.htm) Arjun order (http://www.janes.com/news/defence/systems/jdw/jdw100520_1_n.shtml) Shukla, Ajai (16 June 2008). The Arjun battle tank acquires a growing fan club (http://www.business-standard. com/india/storypage.php?autono=326234). New Delhi: Business Standard (The writer's blog (http://ajaishukla. blogspot.com/2008/06/arjun-tank-acquires-growing-fan-club.html) has some photos to go with the article)

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T-80
T-80

T-80B at the Victory Day Parade 2005 Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank
Soviet Union

Service history
Inservice Usedby Wars 1976 present Belarus, Cyprus, Kazakhstan, Armenia, Pakistan, Russia, South Korea, Ukraine First Chechen War, Second Chechen War, 2008 South Ossetia War
[1]

Production history
Designer Designed Manufacturer Nikolay Popov, LKZ (T-80), 1967 1975 LKZ and Omsk Transmash, Russia [3] Malyshev Factory, Ukraine USD $2.2 million T80U export, 1994. 1976 1992
[5] [4] [2]

KMDB (T-80UD)

Unitcost Produced Numberbuilt Variants

5,404 (as of 2005) engineering & recovery, mobile bridge, mine-plough with KMT-6 plough-type system and KMT-7 roller-type system.

Specifications (T-80B / T-80U)

Weight Length Width Height Crew Armour 42.5 tonnes T-80B, 46 tonnes T-80U 9.9m (32ft 6in) T-80B, 9.654m (31ft 8.1in) T-80U (gun forward) 7.4m (24ft 3in) T-80B, 7m (23ft 0in) T80U, (hull) 3.4m (11ft 2in) T-80B 3.603m (11ft 9.9in) T-80U 2.202m (7ft 2.7in) T-80B, T-80U 3 T-80B 550mm turret,500mm hull, T-80U turret 780mm vs APFSDS 1,320mm VS HEAT
[6]

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[7]

Main armament Secondary armament Engine

125 mm 2A46-2 smoothbore gun, 36 rounds T-80B, 2A46M-1 with 45 rounds T-80U 9M112 Kobra ATGM, 4 missiles T-80B, 9M119 Refleks ATGM, 6 missiles T-80U 7.62 mm PKT coax MG, 12.7 mm NSVT or PKT antiaircraft MG

SG-1000 gas turbine T-80B, GTD-1250 turbine T-80U, or one of 3 diesel T-80UD 1,000 hp T-80B, 1,250 hp T-80U 25.9 hp/tonne T-80B 27.2 hp/tonne T-80U manual, 5 forward gears, 1 reverse T-80B, 4 forward, 1 reverse T-80U torsion bar

[8][9]

Power/weight Transmission Suspension

Groundclearance 0.38m (1.2ft) T-80B, 0.446m (1.46ft) T-80U Fuelcapacity 1,100 litres (240impgal) (internal) 740 litres (160impgal) (external) 335km (208mi) (road, without external tanks) [] 440km (270mi) (road, with external tanks) 70km/h (43mph) (road) 48km/h (30mph) (cross country)

Operational range Speed

The T-80 is a third-generation main battle tank (MBT) designed and manufactured in the Soviet Union. A development of the T-64, it entered service in 1976 and was the first production tank to be equipped with a gas turbine engine for main propulsion.[10] The T-80U was last produced in a factory in Omsk, Russia, while the T-80UD and further-developed T-84 continue to be produced in Ukraine. The T-80 and its variants are in service in Belarus, Cyprus, Kazakhstan,[11] Pakistan, Russia, South Korea, and Ukraine. The chief designer of the T-80 was the Russian engineer Nikolay Popov.

Development history
The project to build the first Soviet turbine powered tank began in 1949. Its designer was A. Ch. Starostienko, who worked at the Leningrad Kirov Plant (LKZ). The tank was never built because available turbine engines were of very poor quality. In 1955 two prototype 1,000hp (746kW) turbine engine were built at the same plant under the guidance of G. A. Ogloblin. Two years later a team led by the famous heavy tank designer . J. Kotin constructed two prototypes of the Ob'yekt 278 tank. Both were hybrids of the IS-7 and the T-10 heavy tanks, powered by the GTD-1 turbine engine, weighing 53.5 tonnes and armed with the M65 130mm tank gun. The turbine engine allowed the tank to reach a maximum speed of 57.3km/h (35.6mph) but with only 1950 liters of fuel on board, range was a mere 300km (190mi). The two tanks were considered experimental vehicles and work on them eventually ceased. In 1963, the Morozov Design Bureau designed the T-64 and T-64T tanks. They used a GTD-3TL turbine engine which generated 700hp (522kW). The tank was tested until 1965. At the same time in Uralvagonzavod a design team under the guidance of L. N. Karcew created the Ob'yekt 167T tank. It used the GTD-3T turbine engine which supplied 801hp (597kW).[12] In 1966 the experimental Ob'yekt 288 rocket tank, powered by two aerial GTD-350 turbine engines with a combined power of 691hp (515kW), was first built. Trials indicated that twin propulsion was no better than the turbine engine which had been in development since 1968 at KB-3 of the Kirov Plant (LKZ) and at WNII Trans Masz. The tank from LKZ equipped with this turbine engine was designed by Nikolay Popov. It was constructed in 1969 and designated Ob'yekt 219 SP1. It was renamed the T-64T, and was powered by a GTD-1000T multi-fuel gas turbine engine producing up to 1,000hp (746kW). During the trials it became clear that the increased weight and dynamic characteristics required a complete redesign of the vehicle's caterpillar track system. The second prototype,

T-80 designated Ob'yekt 219 SP2, received bigger drive sprockets and return rollers. The number of wheels was increased from four to five. The construction of the turret was altered to use the same compartment, 125mm 2A46 tank gun, auto loader and placement of ammunition as the T-64A. Some additional equipment was scavenged from the T-64A. The LKZ plant built a series of prototypes based on Ob'yekt 219 SP2. After seven years of upgrades, the tank became the T-80.[13]

134

Description
The T-80 is similar in layout to the T-64; the driver's compartment is on the centre line at the front, the two man turret is in the centre with gunner on the left and commander on the right, and the engine is rear mounted.[14] Overall, its shape is also very similar to the T-64. The original T-80 design uses a 1,000 horsepower gas turbine instead of a 750 horsepower diesel engine, although some later variants of the T-80 revert to diesel engine usage. The gearbox is different, with five forward and one reverse gear, instead of seven forward and one reverse. Suspension reverts from pneumatic to torsion bar, with six forged steel-aluminium rubber-tyred road wheels on each side, with the tracks driven by rear sprockets. The glacis is of laminate armour and the turret is armoured steel. The turret houses the same 125mm 2A46 smoothbore gun as the T-72, which can fire anti-tank guided missiles as well as regular ordnance. The tracks are slightly wider and longer than on the T-64 giving lower ground pressure. The main gun is fed by the Korzina automatic loader. This holds up to 28 rounds of two-part ammunition in a carousel located under the turret floor.[15] Additional ammunition is stored within the turret. The ammunition comprises the projectile (APFSDS, HEAT or HE-Frag) plus the propellant charge, or the two part missile. The autoloader is an effective, reliable, combat tested system which has been in use since the mid-1960s. The propellant charge is held inside a semi-combustible cartridge case made of a highly flammable material - this is consumed in the breech during firing, except for a small metal baseplate. A disadvantage highlighted during combat in Chechnya was the vulnerability of the T-80BV to catastrophic explosion. The reason given by US and Russian experts is the vulnerability of stored semi-combustible propellant charges and missiles when contacted by the molten metal jet from the penetration of a HEAT warhead, causing the entire ammunition load to explode. This vulnerability may be addressed in later models. When Western tank designs changed from non-combustible propellant cartridges to semi-combustible, they tended to separate ammunition stowage from the crew compartment with armoured blast doors, and provided 'blow-out' panels to redirect the force and fire of exploding ammunition away from the crew compartment. The autoloader takes between 7.1 and 19.5 seconds to load the main weapon, depending on the initial position of autoloader carousel. The T-80's armor is made of composite armor on the turret and hull, while rubber flaps and sideskirts protect the sides and lower hull. The later T-80 models use explosive reactive armor and stronger armor, like the T-80U and T-80UM1. Other protection systems include the Shtora-1 and Arena APS, as well as the discontinued Drozd APS (though a limited number of T-80Us have them installed). The latest T-80 variant in service, the T-84 Oplot, has an entirely new turret with armoured ammunition compartment to help prevent accidental detonation.

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Production history
Initially, the T-80 was confused with the Soviet T-72 by some Western analysts, but the T-80 and T-72 are mechanically very different. They are the products of different design bureaus; the T-80 is from the SKB-2 design bureau of the Kirov Factory (LKZ) in Leningrad while the T-72 is from the Uralvagonzavod factory in Nizhny Tagil, Russia. They are similar in superficial appearance, but the T-80 is based on the earlier T-64, while incorporating features from the T-72, which was a complementary design.[16] The T-64 was the earlier offering of the Morozov Design Bureau (KMDB), a high-technology main battle This T-80BV (a monument in St Petersburg) has reactive armour tank designed to replace the obsolescent IS-3 and T-10 adapted to its turret and hull. The later T-80U has a large applique of explosive reactive armour installed providing higher crew and heavy tanks, used in the Red Army's independent tank tank survivability than prior models. units. The T-72 was intended to be a tank mass-produced to equip the bulk of the Soviet Motor Rifle units, and for sale to export partners and eastern-bloc satellite states. The mechanically simpler T-72 is easier to manufacture, and easier to service in the field. For many years western analysts denied the usage of gas turbines as main propulsion. From a long distance T-64, T-72 and T-80 look alike even though the T-80 is 90cm longer than the T-64. The Leningrad design bureau improved upon the earlier T-64 design, introducing a gas turbine engine in the original model, and incorporating suspension components of the T-72. This gave the tank a high power-to-weight ratio and made it easily the most mobile tank in service, albeit with acute range problems, as the turbine consumed fuel rapidly, even at engine idle. (Morozov's subsequent parallel development of the T-80UD replaced the gas turbine with a commercial turbo-diesel, to decrease fuel consumption and maintenance.) In comparison to its anticipated opponent, the M1 has a larger 1,500hp (1,120kW) gas turbine, but weighs 61 tons compared to the T-80s 42.6 tons, so it has a worse hp/t ratio of 24.5 compared to 27.1 and is less maneuverable than the T-80 (with GT). The T-80 can fire the same 9K112 Kobra (AT-8 Songster) anti-tank guided missile through the main gun as the T-64. The T-80U main battle tank (1985, "U" for uluchsheniye, meaning "improvement") was designed by SKB-2 in Leningrad (hull) and the Morozov Bureau (turret and armament). It is a further development of T-80A and is powered by the 1,250hp (919kW) GTD-1250 gas turbine. It is a step ahead of the GTD-1000T and GTD-1000TF engines that were installed on the previous tanks of the T-80 line. This gas turbine can use jet fuels as well as diesel and low-octane gasoline, has good dynamic stability, service life, and reliability. The GTD-1250 has T-80U on exhibition at the Kubinka Tank a built-in automatic system of dust deposits removal. It retains the Museum T-80s high fuel consumption, which the Russian army found unacceptable during the Chechen conflicts. It is equipped with the 1A46 fire control system and a new turret. The T-80U is protected by a second generation of explosive reactive armour called Kontakt-5, which can severely dissipate the penetrative capabilities of an APFSDS round, such as the M829A1 "Silver Bullet". The Kontakt-5 is integrated into the design of the turret, hull, and Brod-M deep wading equipment. Like all of the previous T-80 models, the T-80U has full length rubber side skirts protecting the sides but

T-80 those above the first three road wheels are armored and are provided with lifting handles. It can fire the 9M119 Refleks (AT-11 Sniper) guided missile and the Long-Rod penetrator (HVAPFSDS) 3BM46. The remotely controlled commander's machine gun is replaced by a more flexible pintle-mounted one. A special camouflage paint distorts the tank's appearance in the visible and IR wavebands. The T-80U's 1A46 fire control system includes a laser range finder, a ballistics computer, and a more advanced 1G46 gunner's main sights, as well as thermal imaging sights, which greatly increases the T-80Us firepower over previous models. These new systems, together with the 125mm D-81TM "Rapira-3" smooth bore gun, ensures that the T-80U can accurately hit and destroy targets at a range of up to 5 kilometers (ATGMs and HV/APFSDS). The T-80U(M) of the 1990s introduced the TO1-PO2 Agava gunner's thermal imaging sight and 9M119M Refleks-M guided missile, and later an improved 2A46M-4 version of the 125mm gun and 1G46M gunner's sight was used. Recently, the Russians seem to be abandoning the T-80s design[citation needed]. Perhaps because of the turbine-powered tank's high fuel consumption, and the poor combat performance of older T-80BV tanks in the early days of the war in Chechnya,[17] the Russian Army decided to standardize on the Uralvagonzavod factory's T-90 tank (derived from the T-72BM, but incorporating some T-80 technology), and have had some success selling it to the Indian Army. All T-72s, T-80s, and even the T-90 will be replaced starting 2025 by a new Russian tank which several designs are under development[citation needed]. The Omsk Tank Plant in Siberia is facing a shortage of domestic orders, unlike the Ukrainians which embraced the T-80 design and has had success updating and selling the tank. The Russians have only sold a small number of T-80 tanks to South Korea and China, and have demonstrated versions intended for export, including the T-80UM1 with active protection systems, and the advanced T-80UM2 Black Eagle concept tank. Although the T-80 production has stopped for the Russian Army, the Omsk plant still makes the tank for export. As of 2011 the Russian military has upgraded some T-80s to prolong their service lives, and the T-80 will serve in the Russian army for years to come.[citation needed]

136

Ukrainian T-80UD
In parallel with the T-80U and Russia in general, the Morozov Bureau in Ukraine developed a diesel-powered version, the T-80UD. It is powered by the 1,000-hp 6TD-1 6-cylinder multi-fuel two-stroke turbo-piston diesel engine, ensuring high fuel efficiency and a long cruising range. The engine support systems make it possible to operate the tank at ambient fuel temperatures of up to 55C and to ford to a water depth of 1.8m. The T-80UD shares most of the T-80U's improvements, but can be distinguished from it by a different engine deck and distinctive smoke-mortar array and turret stowage boxes. It retains the remotely-controlled commander's machine gun. About 500 T-80UD tanks were built in the Malyshev plant between 198791. About 300 were still at the Ukrainian factory when the Soviet Union broke up, so the T-80UD tank and its design was far more welcomed in Ukrainian Military service. And is more common in Ukrainian service than Russian. The T-84 and Ukraine's older T-80s will be Ukraine's main battle tank well into the 21st century.[citation needed] A further improvement of the T-80UD is the Ukrainian T-84 main battle tank, which includes the new welded turret, a 1,200-hp (895kW) 6TD-2 engine, Kontakt-5 reactive armour, the Shtora active protection system, a thermal imaging sight, a muzzle referencing system, and an auxiliary power unit. The T-84U (1999) shows many refinements, including deeper sideskirts, modified reactive armour, a small reference radar antenna near the gunner's hatch (used to track rounds and compensate for barrel wear), and a large armoured box for the auxiliary power unit at the rear of the right fender. Unlike Russia, Ukraine has had much better success selling T-80s and T-84s to foreign customers. Cyprus has bought a number for its small army. Pakistan countering India's adoption of the Russian T-90 has bought Ukrainian T-80UDs for its main armored corps in the Pakistani army. The T-84 Oplot (ten delivered in 2001) introduced turret-bustle ammunition storage, and to offer more sales to international market, the T-84-120 Yatagan has been offered for export, featuring a very large turret bustle and NATO-compatible 120mm gun. As of 2010 Bangladesh has ordered a major purchase of T-84 Yatagans. In 2011 Azerbaijan announced its intention to buy

T-80 Ukrainian T-84 Oplots to be Azerbaijan's main battle tank in its Army (It later bought 94 T-90's).

137

T-80 models
This section lists the main models of the T-80, built in the Soviet Union, Russia and Ukraine, with the dates they entered service. Command tanks with additional radio equipment have K added to their designation for komandirskiy ("command"), for example, T-80BK is the command version of the T-80B. Versions with reactive armour have V added, for vzryvnoy ("explosive"), for example T-80BV. Less-expensive versions without missile capability have a figure 1 added, as T-80B1. T-80 (1976): Initial model, with 1,000-hp gas turbine engine, laser rangefinder, and no missile capability. This model does not have fittings for explosive reactive armor. T-80B (1978): This model had a new turret, fire-control, and autoloader allowing the firing of 9M112-1 Kobra antitank guided missile, and improved composite armour. An improved 1,100-hp engine was added in 1980, a new gun in 1982, and fittings for reactive armour in 1985. Reactive armor adds protection for 400mm equivalent armor to defend against HEAT warheads. T-80BV (1985): T-80B with explosive reactive armour. T-80A (1982): A move to standardization led to a single new larger and better-armoured turret being adopted for both this tank and the T-64BM, with improved fire-control. T-80U (1985): Further development with K5 explosive reactive armour, improved gunsight, and 9K119 Refleks missile system. In 1990 a new 1,250-hp engine was installed. T-80UD Bereza (1987): Ukrainian diesel version with 1,000-hp 6TD engine and remote-controlled antiaircraft machine gun. T-84 (1999): Further Ukrainian development of T-80UD with 1,200-hp diesel and new welded turret. Black Eagle tank (prototype: cancelled): Several Russian prototypes shown at trade shows, with a longer chassis and extra pair of road wheels, and very large turret with separate ammunition compartment.

Service history

Soviet T-80 MBT during maneuvers, 25 March 1986

T-80

138

Soviet Union
In 1985 there were 1,900 T-80 MBTs overall.[18] According to data publicized in Russia, 2,256 T-80 MBTs were stationed in East Germany between 1986 and 1987. NATO realized that new Soviet tanks could reach the Atlantic within two weeks and because of that started to develop counter methods that could stop them. This led to a sudden increase in development of anti-tank weapons including attack helicopters. In 1991 when the Soviet Union was breaking up the Soviet Army operated 4,839 T-80 MBTs in several different models.[19]

T-80 MBTs were never used in the way in which they were intended (large scale conventional war in Europe). They were deployed during the political and economical changes in Russia in the 1990s; In August 1991 communists and allied military commanders tried to overthrow Mikhail Gorbachev and regain control over the unstable Soviet Union. T-80UD tanks of the Russian 4th Guards Kantemirovskaya Tank Division drove onto the streets of Moscow but the Soviet coup attempt failed.[20][21]

Two T-80UD MBTs on the Red Square in Moscow during the failed Coup d'tat attempt, August 1991

Russia
While a number of T-80 MBTs were inherited by Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, Russia had possession of the majority of the tanks. In 1995 the number of T-80 tanks increased to around 5,000 but was reduced in 1998 to 3,500. The Russian Army currently has 3,044 T-80s and variants in active service and 1,456 in reserve.[] There are at least 460 T-80UD in service with 2nd Guards Tamanskaya Motor Rifle Division and 4th Guards Kantemirowsk Motor Rifle Division.[22] A T-80BV is on display in Kubinka Tank Museum and a T-80U is on display at an open air museum in Saratov. The T-80Us have recently been seen at arms expos in Russia such as VTTV. During the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis Boris Yeltsin ordered the use of tanks against the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies which opposed him. On 4 October 1993 six T-80UD MBTs from 12th Guards Tank Regiment, 4th Guards Kantemirovskaya Tank Division took positions on a bridge opposite the Russian parliament building, and fired on it. In July 1998, a T-80 commanded by Major Igor Belyaev was driven into a square in front of the administration building of Novosmolensk and its gun aimed at the building in protest of several months of unpaid wages. First Chechen War T-80B and T-80BV MBTs were never used in Afghanistan in the 1980s, but they were first used during the First Chechen War. This first real combat experience for T-80 MBTs was unsuccessful, as the tanks were used for capturing cities, a task for which they were not very well suited. The biggest tank losses were suffered during the ill-fated assault on the city of Grozny. The forces selected to capture Grozny were not prepared for such an operation, while the city was defended by, among others, veterans of the Soviet War in Afghanistan. The T-80 tanks used in this operation either did not have reactive armour (T-80B) or they were not fitted before the start of the operation (T-80BV), and the T-80 crews lacked sufficient training before the war. The inexperienced crews had no knowledge of the layout of the city, while the tanks were attacked by shoulder-launched anti-tank rocket-propelled grenade launchers operated by the defenders hidden in cellars and on top of high buildings. The anti-tank fire was directed at the least armoured points of the vehicles. Each destroyed tank received from three to six hits, and each tank was fired at by six or seven rocket-propelled grenades. A number of vehicles exploded when the autoloader, with vertically placed rounds, was hit: in theory it should have been protected by the road wheel, but, when the tanks got hit on their side armour, the ready-to-use ammunition exploded.

T-80 Out of all armored vehicles that entered Grozny, 225 were destroyed in the first month alone, representing 10.23% of all the tanks committed to the campaign. The T-80 performed so poorly that General-Lieutenant A. Galkin, the head of the Armor Directorate, convinced the Minister of Defence after the conflict to never again procure tanks with gas-turbine engines.[23] After that, T-80 MBTs were never again used to capture cities, and, instead, they supported infantry squads from a safe distance. Defenders of the T-80 point out that the T-72 performed just as badly in urban fighting in Grozny as the T-80 and that there were two mitigating factors: after the breakup of the Soviet Union, poor funding meant no training for new Russian tank crews, and the tank force entering the city had no infantry support, which is considered to be suicidal by many major military strategists of armored warfare.

139

Exported T-80s
While other kinds of Soviet equipment, like the T-72, were exported to many countries around the world, T-80, like T-64 before it, had a status of secret weapon which meant that it was not planned to be exported early on.[24] Despite that, Poland wasWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items negotiating with the Soviet Union to buy either T-72S or T-80 MBTs. There were plans to start serial production of T-80 MBTs in Poland but it turned out that Polish industry wasn't yet ready to handle T-80 production. After the political changes of 1989 in Poland and the dissolution of the Soviet bloc, Polish-Soviet talks on purchase of modern tanks came to a halt. This led to Poland developing the PT-91 MBT. United Kingdom In 1992, the United Kingdom bought a number of T-80U MBTs for defence research and development. They were not bought officially but through a specially created trading company which was supposed to deliver them to Morocco. The price of five million USD offered for each tank ensured a lack of suspicion on the part of the Russians. Britain evaluated the tanks on their proving grounds and transferred one to the US where the Americans evaluated it on the Aberdeen Proving Ground. While evaluating the vehicle, the US and UK are alleged to have noted any weak spots and flaws of the T-80U. In January 1994, British Minister of State for Defence Procurement Jonathan Aitken (answering a Question to the Secretary of State for Defence) confirmed in parliamentary debates that a Russian T-80U tank was imported for "defence research and development purposes".[25] People's Republic of China Some sources considers in late 1993 Russia signed a contract with the People's Republic of China for the sale of 200 T-80U MBTs for evaluation. Only 50 were delivered.[26][27] But there is no corresponding materials from China. Pakistan Ukrainian exports of the T-80UD have been moderately successful. In 1993 and 1995 Ukraine demonstrated the tank to Pakistan, which was looking for a new main battle tank. The tank was tested in Pakistan and in August 1996 Pakistan decided to buy 320 T-80UD tanks from Ukraine for $650 million in two variants: a standard Ob'yekt 478B and export Ob'yekt 478BE.[28][29][30] The tanks were all supposed to be delivered in 1997. After the first batch of 15 vehicles were shipped in February 1997, Russia protested that they held the rights to the tank and that Ukraine couldn't export it. Nearly 70% of T-80UD components were produced outside of Ukraine (mainly in Russia). Under the guise of keeping good relations with India, one of its most important military customers, Russia withheld 2A46-2 125mm smoothbore guns, cast turrets and other technology, which forced Ukraine to make its tank industry independent. It developed domestic components, including a welded turret which was in use on the new T-84. Ukraine was able to ship 20 more T-80UD tanks to Pakistan between February and May 1997. These 35 tanks were from Ukrainian Army stocks of 52 T-80UDs; they were built in the Malyshev plant several years before but were not delivered to their original destination. Their capabilities were below the standard agreed by both Ukraine and Pakistan. The contract was completed by shipping another 285 Ukrainian T-80UD MBTs between 1997 and early 2002. These had the welded turret and other manufacturing features of the T-84.

T-80 Cyprus Cyprus is the first foreign country to officially obtain T-80 tanks. Russia sold 27 T-80U and 14 T-80UK for $174 million to Cyprus in 1996. The tanks arrived in two batches. The first shipment consisted of 27 T-80U MBTs arriving in 1996, while the second batch of 14 T-80UK MBTs arrived in 1997. This significantly reinforced the army of this country; their best tank up until that point was the AMX-30B2. New tanks gave the Cypriot National Guard the edge in a possible confrontation with the Turkish Army in Northern Cyprus.[31][32] In October 2009 Cyprus ordered an additional batch of 41 used T-80Us and T-80UKs from Russia for 115 million. Deliveries are expected to be completed in the first half of 2011. South Korea South Korea was given 33 T-80U and 2 T-80UK tanks to pay Russian debts incurred during the days of the Soviet Union. The tanks came in three batches; the first was of six T-80Us in 1996, followed by 27 T-80Us in 1997, and finally two T-80UKs in 2005. Originally, eighty T-80Us were planned. United States The US Government obtained one T-80U from the United Kingdom. It was evaluated on the Aberdeen Proving Ground. In 2003, the Ukraine transferred four T-80UD MBTs to the USA.[33] Failed export attempts Apart from Cyprus and the People's Republic of China,[34] Russia has tried to export T-80 MBTs to Turkey and Greece, who were looking for new tanks. These two attempts have failed.

140

List of operators
The Soviet Union never exported the T-80 tank. Belarus: There were 95 in service in 2000 and 92 in 2003 and 2005.[35] Currently, 90 are in service. Cyprus: 27 T-80Us and 14 T-80UKs were ordered in 1996 from Russia;. In 2010, a further 25 T-80Us and 16 T-80UKs were delivered from Russian surplus. Egypt: 14 T-80UKs and 20 T-80Us purchased in 1997. Kazakhstan: South Korea: 33 T-80Us were ordered in 1995 from Russia and delivered between 1996 and 1997. Two T-80UKs were acquired from Russia in 2005.[36] Pakistan: 320 T-80UDs (Ob'yekt 478B and Ob'yekt 478BE) were ordered in 1996 from Ukraine and delivered between 1997 and 2002. People's Republic of China: Ordered 200 T-80Us for evaluation in late 1993. 50 delivered. Tanks were not assigned to combat units. Ukraine: 345 were in service in 1995, 273 in 2000, and 271 in 2005.[37] Yemen: Bought 31 from Russia in 2000.[38]

T-80 Former operators Russia: 3,144 in active service and around 1,856 in storage in 1995. 3,500 in active service in 1998. 3,058 in active service and 1,442 in stock in 2000. 4,500 in both active service and storage in 2005. 3,044 in active service and 1,456 in storage in 2008. In 2012 there were around 1,400 in active service and less than 3,100 in storage. In December 2013, the Russian Ground Forces withdrew the entire T-80 fleet from service due to maintenance expenses, with all 4,500 now in storage. Soviet Union: 1,900 in service in 1985, 4,000 in 1990, and 4,839 during the breakup of the USSR. All were passed on to successor states.

141

Notes
Notes
[1] David Axe, " By Land, Air, Sea & PC, Georgia Tried to Match Russian Arsenal (http:/ / www. popularmechanics. com/ technology/ military_law/ 4277747. html)", in Popular Mechanics, August 13, 2008. [2] Foss 2005, p.89. [3] Foss 2005, p. 94. [4] Dejong 1995 [5] http:/ / otvaga2004. narod. ru/ xlopotov_8/ 2010_t80. htm [6] T-80 Standard Tank, p14-24. [7] Baryatinsky, p 23. [8] Baryatinsky, p 95. [9] "T-80U Main Battle Tank" (http:/ / www. army-technology. com/ projects/ t80/ ) Army Technology [10] the Swedish Stridsvagn 103 of 1971 used a gas turbine alongside a conventional engine [11] Kolekcja Czogi wiata, Issue 8 [12] Kolekcja Czogi wiata, Issue 8, pp 1,2 [13] Kolekcja Czogi wiata, Issue 8, p 2 [14] Foss 2005, pp. 89-90. [15] Warford 1995, pp 18-21 [16] Sewell 1998, pp 28,29. [17] Zaloga 2000, p 3. [18] Russian Army Equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ russia/ army-equipment. htm) [19] Kolekcja Czogi wiata, Issue 8, p 10 [20] Kolekcja Czogi wiata, Issue 8, p 11 [21] Zaloga 1992 (no page numbers). The official designation of the newly-revealed T-80U/T-80UD was unclear at the time of publication, and Zaloga labels the photographs "T-80U", but the description and photographs are clearly of the diesel-powered T-80UD. [22] Kolekcja Czogi wiata, Issue 8, pp 11,12 [23] Mikhail Zakharchuk, 'Uroki Chechenskogo krizisa' (Lessons of the Chechen crisis), Armeyskiy sbornik, April 1995, 46. [24] Kolekcja Czogi wiata, Issue 8, p 12 [25] Hansard Debates for 3 Feb 1994 (http:/ / www. publications. parliament. uk/ pa/ cm199394/ cmhansrd/ 1994-02-03/ Writtens-9. html) UK House of Commons [26] Kolekcja Czogi wiata, Issue 8, p 13 [27] Global Security T-80 (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ russia/ t-80. htm) [28] "T-80UD" (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ ukraine/ t-80ud. htm) Global Security [29] T-80UD deagel (http:/ / www. deagel. com/ Main-Battle-Tanks/ T-80UD_a000370002. aspx) [30] [Nowa Technika Wojskowa issue 07/09] [31] T-80U deagel (http:/ / www. deagel. com/ Main-Battle-Tanks/ T-80U_a000370001. aspx) [32] SIPRI Arms Transfers Database (http:/ / armstrade. sipri. org/ arms_trade/ trade_register. php) [33] United Nations Register of Conventional Arms (http:/ / disarmament. un. org/ UN_REGISTER. NSF/ 223629f4e4f6e764852563e9006d2b6d/ 670e962f0bccef7a85256ea8007fb9e8?OpenDocument) [34] Military Today (http:/ / www. military-today. com/ tanks/ t80. htm) [35] Global Security.org: Belarus (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ belarus/ army-equipment. htm) [36] ROK Army Equipment- South Korea (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ rok/ army-equipment. htm) [37] Global Security.org: Ukraine (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ ukraine/ groundforces-equipment. htm) [38] Russian arms sales to Yemen grow (http:/ / yementimes. com/ print_article. shtml?i=794& p=local& a=1)

Citations

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References
"T-80BW". Kolekcja Czogi wiata (in Polish) (8) (Poland: Oxford Educational). 2007. ISBN 978-83-7425-773-2Wikipedia:Please clarify.Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources Baryatinskiy, Mikhail (2007). Main Battle Tank T-80. Hersham, UK: Ian Allan. ISBN978-0-7110-3238-5. Dejong, Bruce (January 1995). "T-80U Main Battle Tank" (http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/red-star/issues/ JAN95/JAN95.HTML#THREAT). Red Thrust Star. US Army. Foss, Christopher (2005). Jane's Armour & Artillery, 2005-2006. Coulsdon: Jane's Information Group. ISBN978-0-7106-2686-8. Grau, Lester W. (January 1997). "Russian-Manufactured Armored Vehicle Vulnerability in Urban Combat: The Chechnya Experience" (http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/Red-Star/issues/JAN97/JAN97. HTML#RUSSIAN). Red Thrust Star. US Army. Karpenko, A.V. (1996). Obozreniye Bronetankovoy Tekhniki (1905-1995 gg.) (in Russian). Nevskiy Bastion. OCLC 41208782 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41208782). Sewell, Stephen "Cookie" (JulyAugust 1998). "Why Three Tanks?" (http://www.benning.army.mil/armor/ armormagazine/content/Issues/1998/ArmorJulyAugust1998web.pdf). Armor (Fort Knox, KY: US Army Armor Center) CVII (4). ISSN 0004-2420 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0004-2420). PB-17-98-4. Warford, James M. (1995). "Cold War Armor After Chechnya: An Assessment of the Russian T-80" (http:// www.knox.army.mil/center/ocoa/armormag/backissues/1990s/1995/nd95/6warford95.pdf). Armor (Fort Knox, KY: US Army Armor Center). ISSN 0004-2420 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0004-2420). Zaloga, Steven (1992). T-64 and T-80. Hong Kong: Concord. ISBN962-361-031-9. Zaloga, Steven; Markov, David (2000). Russia's T-80U Main Battle Tank. Hong Kong: Concord. ISBN962-361-656-2. Zaloga, Steven (2009). T-80 Standard Tank. Great Britain: Osprey Publishing. ISBN9781846032448.

External links
Kharkiv Morozov: T-80UD (http://www.morozov.com.ua/eng/body/t80ud.php?menu=m1.php) Main Battle Tank T-80U (http://www.enemyforces.com/tanks/t80u.htm) Army Technology: T-80U Main Battle Tank Information (http://www.army-technology.com/projects/t80/ index.html) T-80U Main Battle Tank (http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/T-80U.htm) at the Armor Site Video T-80 main battle tank (http://www.arms-expo.tv/video/video47.htm) Object 478 (T-80UD Prototipe) Walkaround (http://www.dishmodels.ru/wshow.htm?p=532&lng=E) T-80BV Walkaround (http://www.dishmodels.com/wshow.htm?p=880&lng=E) T-80U Armour.ws (http://armour.ws/t-80u/) Virtual tour inside the T-80BV (http://perfectumlab.com/gallery/panorams/tours/military/t80bv?lang=en)

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T-64
T-64

A T-64 tank on display in April 2008 Type Main battle tank

Placeoforigin Soviet Union

Service history
Inservice Usedby 1967 - present Soviet Union, Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan

Production history
Designer Designed KMDB 195162

Manufacturer Malyshev Factory Produced Numberbuilt 1963-87 ~13,000

Specifications (T-64A[1])
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armour Main armament Secondary armament Engine Power/weight Suspension 38 tonnes (42 short tons; 37 long tons) 9.225m (30ft 3.2in) (gun forward) 3.415m (11ft 2.4in) 2.172m (7ft 1.5in) 3 20450mm (0.7918in) of Glass-reinforced plastic sandwiched between layers of steel. ERA plates optional D-81T (aka 2A46 derived from the 2A45 towed antitank gun )125mm smoothbore gun

7.62mm PKMT coax machine gun, 12.7mm NSVT antiaircraft machine gun

5DTF 5-cyl. diesel 700hp (522kW) 18.4hp/tonne (13.7kW/ton) Torsion bar

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500km (310mi), 700km (430mi) with external tanks

Operational range Speed

4560km/h (2837mph) (depending on the version)

The T-64 is a Soviet main battle tank, introduced in the early 1960s. It was a more advanced counterpart to the T-62: the T-64 served tank divisions, while the T-62 supported infantry in motor rifle divisions. Although the T-62 and the famed T-72 would see much wider use and generally more development, it was the T-64 that formed the basis of more modern Soviet tank designs like the T-80.

Overview
The T-64 was conceived in Kharkiv, Ukraine as the next-generation main battle tank by Alexander A. Morozov, the designer of the T-54 (which in the meantime would be incrementally improved by Leonid N. Kartsev's Nizhny Tagil bureau, in models T-54A, T-54B, T-55, and T-55A). A revolutionary feature of the T-64 is the incorporation of an automatic loader for its 125-mm gun, allowing a crewmember's position to be omitted, and helping to keep the size and weight of the tank down. Tank troopers would joke that the designers had finally caught up with their unofficial hymn, "Three Tankers"the song had been written to commemorate the crewmen fighting in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol, in 3-man BT-5 tanks in 1939.[2] The T-64 also pioneered other Soviet tank technology: the T-64A model of 1967 introduced the 125-mm smoothbore gun, and the T-64B of 1976 would be able to fire a guided antitank missile through its gun barrel. The T-64 design was further developed as the gas turbine-powered T-80 main battle tank. The turret of the T-64B would be used in the improved T-80U and T-80UD, and an advanced version of its diesel engine would power T-80UD and T-84 tanks built in Ukraine. The T-64 would be used only by the Soviet Army and never exported, unlike the T-54/55. It was superior to these tanks in most qualitative terms, until the introduction of the T-72B model in 1985. The tank equipped elite and regular formations in Eastern Europe and elsewhere, the T-64A model being first deployed with East Germany's Group of Soviet Forces in Germany (GSFG) in 1976, and some time later in Hungary's Southern Group of Forces (SFG). By 1981 the improved T-64B began to be deployed in East Germany and later in Hungary. While it was believed that the T-64 was "only" reserved for elite units, it was also used by much lower "non-ready formations", for example, the Odessa Military District's 14th Army. With the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, T-64 tanks remained in the arsenals of constituent republics. Currently, slightly fewer than 2,000 of the old Soviet inventory of T-64 tanks are in service with the military of Ukraine and about 4,000 remain in service with the Russian Ground Forces.

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Development history
The initial requirement
Recognizing that the T-55/T-62 lineage had finally exhausted its potential for improvement, the USSR embarked upon the development of an entirely new tank design that could defeat new Western tanks like the British Chieftain and resist new Western anti-tank weapons.[3]

Project 430
Studies for the design of a new battle tank started as early as 1951. The KB-60M team was formed at the Kharkiv design bureau of the Kharkiv transport machine-building factory No. 75 named for Malyshev (Russian: 75 . ) by engineers coming back from Nizhniy Tagil, with A.A. Morozov at its head. A project named obyekt 430 gave birth to three prototypes which were tested in Kubinka in 1958.[4] Those vehicles showed characteristics Object 430 prototype on display at the Kubinka which were going to radically change the design of battle tanks on this Tank Museum in September 2008. side of the Iron Curtain. For the first time, an extremely compact opposed-piston engine was used : the 4TD, designed by the plant's engine design team. The transmission system comprised two lateral gears on each side of the engine. Those two innovations yielded a very short engine compartment with the opening located beneath the turret. The engine compartment volume was almost half that of the T-54. The cooling system was extracting and a new lightweight suspension was fitted, featuring hollow metallic wheels of a small diameter and caterpillar tracks with rubber joints. The tank would keep a D-10TS 100mm gun and frontal armour of 120mm. As it did not present a clear superiority in terms of combat characteristics when compared to the T-55 which was entering active service, Morozov decided that production was not yet ready given the project's drawbacks. However, studies conducted on the obyekt 430U, featuring a 122mm gun and 160mm of armour, demonstrated that the tank had the potential to fit the firepower and armour of a heavy tank on a medium tank chassis. A new project was consequently started, obyekt 432.

Project 432
The gun fitted on this new tank was a powerful 115mm D-68 (2A21). This was a potentially risky decision to replace the human loader by an electro-hydraulic automatic system, since the technology was new to Russian designers. The crew was reduced to three, which allowed an important reduction in internal volume and external visible silhouette, and consequently in weight, from 36 tonnes (obyekt 430) to 30.5 tonnes. The height dropped by 76mm. However, the arrival of the British 105 mm L7 gun and the US M-68 variant of it, fitted respectively to the Centurion and M60 tanks, forced the team to undertake another audacious premire, with the adoption of a composite armour. The recently created process was called "K combination" by Western armies: this protection consisted of an aluminium alloy layer between two high strength steel layers. As a consequence, the weight of the prototype rose eventually to 34 tonnes. But as the engine was now a 700hp (515kW) 5TDF (also locally designed), its mobility remained excellent, far superior to the active T-62. The obyekt 432 was ready in September 1962 and the production started in October 1963 in Kharkiv plant. On December 30, 1966, it entered its service as the T-64.

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T-64A
Even as the first T-64s were rolling off the assembly lines, the design team was working on a new version which would allow it to keep firepower superiority, named obyekt 434. The brand new and very powerful 125mm D-81T gun, from the Perm weapons factory, was fitted to the tank. This gun was merely a scaled-up version of the 115mm smoothbore cannon from the T-62. The larger size of the 125mm ammunition meant less could be carried inside the T-64, and with a fourth crewman loader taking up space as well, the tank would only have a 25-round capacity. This was unacceptably low for the Soviet designers, but strict dimensional parameters forbade them from enlarging the tank to increase interior space. The solution was to replace the human loader with a mechanical autoloader, cutting the crew to three and marking the first use of autoloaders in a Soviet MBT.(Perrett 1987:42) The 6ETs10 autoloader has 28 rounds and can fire 8 shots per minute; the stabiliser, a 2E23, was coupled to the new TPD-2-1 (1G15-1) sight. Night driving was also adapted with the new TPN-1-43A periscope which would benefit from the illumination of a powerful infrared L2G projector, fitted on the left side of the gun. The shielding was improved, with fibreglass replacing the aluminium alloy in the armour, and small spring-mounted plates fitted along the mudguards (known as the Gill skirt), to cover the top of the suspension and the side tanks. They were however extremely fragile and were often removed. Some small storage spaces were created along the turret, with a compartment on the right and three boxes on the front left. Schnorkels were mounted on the rear of the turret. A NBC protection system was fitted and the hatches were widened. Prototypes were tested in 1966 and 1967 and, as production began after the six hundredth T-64, it entered service in the Soviet Army under the T-64A designation. Chief engineer Alexander Morozov was awarded the Lenin Prize for this model's success.

Obyekt 447 at the Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Kiev, Ukraine

The T-64 has a characteristic exhaust vent in the rear

T-64AK at the T-34 Tank History Museum in Russia

Designed for elite troops, the T-64A was constantly updated as available equipment was improved. After only three years in service, a first modernisation occurred, regarding : fire control, by replacing the sights with the TPD-2-49 day sight with an optical coincidence rangefinder and a TPN-1-49-23 night sight, and stabilisation by mounting a 2E26 system. the radio by mounting a R-123M night vision with a TBN-4PA for the driver and a TNP-165A for the tank leader. His battlepost was transformed by mounting a small stabilised turret with an anti-aircraft NSVT 12.7mm x108 machine gun, electrically guided through an optical PZU-5 sight, and fed with 300 rounds. It could be used from within the tank so that the tank leader could avoid being exposed (as on previous tanks). The possibility of mounting a KMT-6 anti-mine system was also added. A derived version appeared at the same time, designed for the commanding officer, and named T-64AK. It comprised a R-130M radio with a 10 m telescopic antenna which could be used only in a static position as it required shrouds, an artillery aiming circle PAB-2AM and TNA-3 navigation station, all of those could be supplied by an auxiliary gasoline-fired generator.

T-64 In 1976, the weapons system was improved by mounting a D-81TM (2A46-1), stabilised by a 2E28M2, supplied by an automatic 6ETs10M. The night sight is replaced by a TNPA-65 and the engine can accept different fuels, including diesel fuel, kerosene or gasoline. The production, first carried on the B variant, stopped in 1980. But the majority of T-64As were still modernised after 1981, by mounting a six smoke grenade-launcher 81mm 902A on each side of the gun, and by replacing the gill plates by a rubber skirt for a longer life. Some of them seem to have been fitted after 1985 with reactive bricks (as the T-64BV), or even with laser TPD-K1 telemeters instead of the optical TPD-2-49 optical coincidence rangefinder(1981). Almost all T-64's were modernised into T-64R, between 1977 and 1981, by reorganising external storage and snorkels, similar to the T-64A.

147

T-64B
The design team was carrying on its work on new versions. Problems with the setup of the 5TDF engine occurred as the local production capacity was proven to be insufficient against a production done in three factories (Malyshev in Kharkiv, Kirov in Leningrad and Uralvagonzavod). From 1961, an alternative to the obyekt 432 was studied, with 12 V-cylinder V-45 engine : the obyekt 436. Three prototypes were tested in 1966 in the Chelyabinsk factory. The order to develop a model derived from the 434 with the same engine gave the obyekt 438, later renamed as obyekt 439. Four tanks of this type were built and tested in 1969, which showed the same mobility as the production version, but mass production was not started. They served however as a basis for the design of the T-72 engine compartment. In the beginning of the 1970s, the design team was trying to improve the tank further. The T-64A-2M study in 1973, with its more powerful engine and its reinforced turret, served as a basis for two projects : Obyekt 476 with a 6TD 1000hp (735kW) engine which served as a model for the T-80 combat compartment. Obyekt 447 which featured a new fire control with a laser telemeter, and which was able to fire missiles through the gun. For the latter, the order was given to start its production under the name T-64B, as well as a derived version (which shared 95% of its components), the obyekt 437, without the missile guidance system for cost reasons. The latter was almost twice as much produced under the designation T-64B1. On September 3, 1976, the T-64B and the T-64B1 were declared good for the service, featuring the improved D-81Tm gun (2A46-2) with a 2E26M stabiliser, a 6ETs40 loader and a 1A33 fire control, including: a 1V517 ballistic calculator a 1G21 sight with laser telemetry a 1B11 cross-wind sensor. Its ford capacity reaches 1.8 m without equipment. The T-64B had the ability to fire the new 9M112 "Kobra" radio-guided missile (NATO code "AT-8 Songster"). The vehicle then carries 8 missiles and 28 shells. The missile control system is mounted in front of the tank leader small turret and has many changes. The T-64B1 carries only 37 shells and has 2,000 7.62mm rounds, against 1,250 for the T-64B. They were modernised in 1981 by the replacement of the gun by a 2A46M1, the stabiliser by a 2E42, and the mounting of a 902A "Tucha-1" smoke grenade launcher in two groups of four, on each side of the gun. Two command versions are realised, very similar to the T-64AK: the T-64BK and the T-64B1K. The decision, in October 1979, to start the production of the 6TD engine, and its great similarity with the 5TDF engine, allowed after some study to fit it in versions B and B1, but also A and AK, yielding the new models T-64AM, T-64AKM, T-64BM and T-64BAM, entering service in 1983. The production ended in 1987 for all versions. The total production has reached almost 13,000.

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Modernisations in Ukraine
After the dissolution of the USSR, Ukraine carried on the development of T-64 modernisations, as the original and main factory was in this country. Two programmes ended in 1999:[citation needed] T-64BM2, with a 57DFM 850-hp (625kW) engine, a new 1A43U fire control, a new 6ETs43 loader and the possibility to fire the 9M119 missile (NATO code "AT-11 Sniper"). T-64U which integrated on top the 1A45 fire control (from the T-80U and T-84), PNK-4SU and TKN-4S optics for the tank commander and PZU-7 for the AA machine gun. The tank leader is then able to drive the tank and to use the gun directly if needed. The tank is also known as BM "Bulat".[citation needed]

Ukrainian T-64BM Bulat on parade

The two variants are also protected by Kontakt-5 modular reactive armour, able to resist to kinetic energy projectiles, as opposed to the first models which were efficient only against HEAT shaped-charge ammunition. Those two variants could also be remotorised with the 6TDF 1000hp (735kW) engine.[citation needed] As of October 2010, Ukrainian Army has 47 T-64BM "Bulat" [-64 " "] in service. In 2010 the Kharkiv Malyshev Factory upgraded 10 T-64B tanks to T-64BM "Bulat" standard, and a further 19 will be delivered in 2011. These 29 tanks are being upgraded under a 200 million Hryvnia ($25.1 million) contract signed in April 2009. The T-64B [-64] tanks were originally produced at Kharkiv in 1980. According to Constantin Isyak (chief engineer of Malyshev Factory), the T-64BM "Bulat" is armoured to the level of modern tanks. They have 'Knife' [i] reactive armour, and the 'Warta' [] active defence system. The T-64BM "Bulat" weighs 45 tonnes (44 long tons), and with its 850hp (630kW) 5TDFM multi-fuel diesel engine can do 70km/h (43mph), and has a range of 385km (239mi). It retains the 125mm smoothbore gun with an autoloader for 28 rounds, some of which can be guided missiles. It has a 12.7mm AA machinegun, and a 7.62mm coaxial machinegun.[5][6]

Production history
The T-64 first entered production in 1967, shortly before the T-72. (Serial production begin in 1963. The T-64 formally entered service in army in 1967.) The T-64 was KMDB's high-technology offering, intended to replace the IS-3 and T-10 heavy tanks in independent tank battalions. Meanwhile, the T-72 was intended to supersede the T-55 and T-62 in equipping the bulk of Soviet tank and mechanized forces, and for export partners and east-bloc satellite states. It introduced a new autoloader, which is still used on all T-64s currently in service, as well as all variants of the T-80 except the Ukrainian T-84-120. The T-64 prototypes had the same 115mm smoothbore gun as the T-62, the ones put in full-scale production had the 125mm gun. While the T-64 was the superior tank, it was more expensive and physically complex, and was produced in smaller numbers. The T-72 is mechanically simpler and easier to service in the field, while it is not as well protected, and its manufacturing process is correspondingly simpler. In light of Soviet doctrine, the relatively small numbers of superior T-64 were kept ready and reserved for the most important mission: a potential outbreak of a war in Europe. In Soviet times, T-64 was mostly in service with units stationed in East Germany. No T-64s were exported. Many T-64s ended up in Russian and Ukrainian service after the breakup of the Soviet Union.

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Models
Ob'yekt 430 (1957) Prototype with D-10T 100-mm gun, 120mm armour, 4TPD 580hp (427kW) engine, 36 tonnes. Ob'yekt 430U Project, equipped with a 122-mm gun and 160mm of armour. T-64 or Ob'yekt 432 (1961) Prototype with a D-68 115-mm gun, then initial production version with the same features, about 600 tanks produced. T-64R (remontirniy, rebuilt)[7] or Ob'yekt 432R Redesigned between 1977 and 1981 with external gear from the T-64A but still with the 115-mm gun. T-64A or Ob'yekt 434 125-mm gun, gill armour skirts, a modified sight, and suspension on the fourth road wheel. T-64T (1963) Experimental version with a GTD-3TL 700hp (515kW) gas turbine. Ob'yekt 436 Alternative version of Ob'yekt 432 with a V-45 engine. Three built. Ob'yekt 438 and Ob'yekt 439 Ob'yekt 434 with V-45 diesel engine. T-64AK or Ob'yekt 446 (1972) Command version, with a R-130M radio and its 10m (33ft) telescoping antenna, a TNA-3 navigation system, without antiarcraft machine gun, carrying 38 rounds of main gun ammunition. Ob'yekt 447 Prototype of the T-64B. Basically a T-64A fitted with the 9K112 "Kobra" system and a1G21 gunsight . This is the "T-64A" displayed in the Kiev museum. T-64B or Ob'yekt 447A (1976) Fitted with redesigned armour, 1A33 fire control system, 9K112-1 "Kobra" ATGM system (NATO code "AT-8 Songster"), TPN-1-49-23 sight, 2A46-2 gun, 2E26M stabiliser and 6ETs40 loader. Later B/BV models have more modern systems 1A33-1, TPN-3-49, 2E42 and a 2A46M-1 gun. From 1985 the T-64B was fitted with stronger glacis armour; older tanks were upgraded with a 16-mm armour plate. Tanks, equipped with the 1,000hp 6DT engine are known as T-64BM. T-64BV Features "Kontakt-1" reactive armour and "Tucha" 81-mm smoke grenade launchers on the left of the turret. T-64BM2 or Ob'yekt 447AM-2 "Kontakt-5" reactive armour, rubber protection skirts, 1A43U fire control, 6ETs43 loader and able to fire the 9K119 missile (NATO code "AT-11A Sniper"), 5TDFM 850hp (625kW) engine. T-64U, BM Bulat, or Ob'yekt 447AM-1 Ukrainian modernisation, bringing the T-64B to the standard of the T-84. Fitted with "Nozh" reactive armour, 9K120 "Refleks" missile (NATO code "AT-11 Sniper"), 1A45 "Irtysh" fire control, TKN-4S commander's sight, PZU-7 antiaircraft machine-gun sight, TPN-4E "Buran-E" night vision, 6TDF 1,000-hp (735kW) engine. T-64B1 or Ob'yekt 437 Same as the B without the fire control system, carrying 37 shells. T-64B1M T-64Ba equipped with the 1,000-hp 6DT engine. T-64BK and T-64B1K or Ob'yekt 446B Command versions, with an R-130M radio and its 10-m telescoping antenna, a TNA-3 navigation system and AB-1P/30 APU, without antiaircraft machine gun, carrying 28 shells. Obyekt 476 Five prototypes with the 6TDF engine, prototypes for T-80UD development. BREM-64 or Ob'yekt 447T Armoured recovery vehicle with a light 2.5-tonne crane, dozer blade, tow bars, welding equipment, etc. Only a small number was built. T-55-64 Heavily upgraded T-55 with the complete hull and chassis of the T-64, fitted with "Kontakt-1" ERA. Prototype. T-80 and T-84 further developments of the T-64.

T-64 Modernisations T-64 19771981 brought to the T-64R standard, reorganisation of external equipment as on the T-64A. T-64A/AK 1972 redesign, fire control improvement (TPD-2-49 and TPN-1-49-23), inclusion of the NSVT machine gun on an electrical turret, R-123M radio. 1975 redesign, new 2E28M stabiliser, 6ETs10M loader, multi-fuel engine, 2A46-1 gun and TNPA-65 night vision. 1981 redesign, two sets of six 902A smoke grenade launchers, rubber skirts on the suspension instead of the Gill protection. 1983 T-64AM,T-64AKM, some tanks were equipped with the 6TDF engine during maintenance. T-64B/B1/BK/B1K 1981 redesign, 2 sets of four 902B2 smoke grenade launchers, 2A26M1 gun. 1983 T-64BM,T-64B1M,T-64BMK and T-64B1MK: some tanks were equipped with the 6TDF engine during maintenance. 1985 T-64BV,T-64B1V,T-64BVK and T-64B1VK: with "Kontakt" reactive armour, smoke grenade launchers on the left of the turret. BM Bulat T-64 modernization by the Malyshev Factory in Ukraine (see above). Variants BMPV-64 Heavy infantry fighting vehicle, based on the chassis of the T-64 but with a completely redesigned hull with a single entry hatch in the rear. Armament consists of a remote-controlled 30-mm gun. Combat weight is 34.5 tons. The first prototype was ready in 2005.[8] BTRV-64 Similar APC version. UMBP-64 Modified version that will serve as the basis for several (planned) specialized vehicles, including a fire support vehicle, an ambulance and an air-defence vehicle. BMPT-K-64 This variant is not tracked but has a new suspension with 4 axles, similar to the Soviet BTR series. The vehicle is powered by a 5TDF-A/700 engine and has a combat weight of 17.7 tons. It is fitted with a RCWS and can transport 3+8 men. Prototype only. BAT-2 Fast combat engineering vehicle with the engine, lower hull and "small roadwheels" suspension of the T-64.[9] The 40-ton tractor sports a very large, all axis adjustable V-shaped hydraulic dozer blade at the front, a single soil ripper spike at the rear and a 2-ton crane on the top. The crew compartment holds 8 persons (driver, commander, radio operators plus a five-man sapper squad for dismounted tasks). The highly capable BAT-2 was designed to replace the old T-54/AT-T based BAT-M, but WARPAC allies received only small numbers due to its high price and the old and new vehicles served alongside during the late Cold War.

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Service history
The tank remained secret for a long time, the West often confusing it with the less-evolved T-72 tank. The T-64 was never exported, and has seen only limited combat experiencein the campaigns against Chechen separatists. According to David Isby the T-64 first entered service in 1967 with the 41st Guards Tank Division in the Kiev Military District,[10] the suggestion being that this was prudent due to the proximity of the division to the factory, and significant teething problems during A Soviet T-64 in Perleberg (GDR) in the 1980s induction into service that required constant presence of factory support personnel with the division during acceptance and initial crew and service personnel training on the new type. T-64s belonging to the 59th Guards Motor Rifle Division in Moldova deployed in combat in May 1992, this being the first combat deployment of the tank.[11] The USSR deployed it with its high-readiness units, independent tank regiments, and divisions based in the GDR and Hungary, and also in many lower-readiness units.

Operators
Transnistria - T-64BVs are in service in numbers 10 to 15. Ukraine 2,345 were in service as of 1995, 2,277 as of 2000 and 2,215 as of 2005.[12] Currently around 600 are in service, 900+ in storage and over 90 from those that are in active service are modernized to T64 BM Bulat. Uzbekistan 100 in service as of 2013.[13] Former operators Soviet Union Passed on to successor states. Russia Approx. 4000 in 1995. By 2013 all have been scrapped. Belarus Unknown number in 1990s. All have been scrapped since.

T-64BV technical information

Capabilities and Limitations
The T-64 did not share many drawbacks with the T-72, even if it is often confused with it: The automatic loader, hydraulic and not electric, is much faster (loading cycle of 6 to 13 seconds) and more reliable, and less sensitive to jolting when running off-road. It also has a "sequence" fire mode which feeds the gun with shells of the same type in less than 5 seconds. It is also able, in the modern versions, to turn backwards to keep a good speed at the end of the loading sequence. Driving seems much less exhausting for the crew, thanks to assisted controls and a more flexible suspension. (Perrett 1987:43) The ammunition is stowed at the lower point of the turret shaft, minimizing the risks of destruction by self-detonation. The fire control on the B version is very modern. The tank commander's cupola provides good vision, the antiaircraft machine gun can be operated from inside the turret; the commander can also control the main gun sight if necessary. Additionally, the adoption of the autoloader was highly controversial for several reasons:

T-64 Early versions of the autoloader lacked safety features and were dangerous to the tank crews (especially the gunner, who sits nearby): Limbs could be easily caught in the machinery, leading to horrible injuries and deaths. A sleeve unknowingly snagged on one of the autoloader's moving parts could also drag a crewman into the apparatus upon firing. (Perrett 1987:42) The turret was poorly configured to allow the human crew to manually load the gun should the autoloader break. In such situations, rate of fire usually slowed to an abysmal one round per minute as the gunner fumbles with the awkward task of working around the broken machine to load the gun. (Perrett 1987:42) While having smaller tank crews (three vs. the usual four) is advantageous since more tanks can theoretically be fielded using the same number of soldiers, there are also serious downsides. Tanks require frequent maintenance and refueling, and much of this is physically demanding work that several people must work together to accomplish. Most of the time, these duties are also performed at the end of a long day of operations, when everyone in the tank is exhausted. Having one less crewman for these tasks increases the strain on the remaining three men and increases the frequency of botched or skipped maintenance. This problem worsens if the tank's commander is also an officer who must often perform other duties such as higher-level meetings, leaving only two men to attend to the tank. (Perrett 1987:42-43) All of this means that tanks with three-man crews are more likely to suffer from performance-degrading human exhaustion, and mechanical failures that take longer to fix and that keep the tank from reaching the battlefield. These problems are exacerbated during prolonged time periods of operations. The T-64 was criticized for being too mechanically complex, which resulted in a high breakdown rate. Problems were worst with the suspension system, which was of an entirely new and advanced design on the tank. Due to these problems, teams of civilian mechanics from the T-64 factories were "semi-permanent residents" of Soviet tank units early. (Perrett 1987:43-44)

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Dimensions
Length (gun to the front): 9.295 m. Length (without the gun): 6.54 m. Breadth: 3.6 m. Height: 2.17 m. Weight: 42.4 t.

Crew
Three men: commander driver gunner

Propulsion
Engine: 5DTF multifuel (diesel, kerosene and petrol) with 5 opposed cylinders, 10 piston, 13.6 L. Developing 700hp (515kW) at 2,800 rpm, consumption of 170 to 200 litres per 100km. Transmission: two lateral gearboxes with seven forward and one backward gear. Three internal tanks for a 740 litres fuel capacity, two on the mudguards with 140 litres and two droppable 200 litres tanks on the aft end of the chassis.

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153

Performance
max. road speed: 60.5km/h. max off-road speed: 35km/h. power-to-weight ratio: 16.2hp/t (11.9kW/t). range: 500km, 700km with additional tanks. ground pressure: 0.9kgf/cm2 (88kPa, 12.8psi). able to ford in 1.8m of water without preparation and 5m with snorkels. crosses a 2.8m wide trench. crosses a 0.8m high obstacle. max. slope 30.

Armament
125mm smoothbore 2A46M-1 gun (D-81TM) with carousel 6ETs40 loader, 28 shots, fire rate 8 shots per minute, 36 embedded shots (8 x 9M112M "Kobra" (NATO code "AT-8 Songster"), 28 shells). Available shells are all fin-stabilised: anti-personnel (APERS) version of the 3UOF-36, 3OVF-22, with several perforating abilities. armour-piercing shells (APFSDS) 3UBM-17 or 3UBM-19 or older ones with a supplementary charge giving them an initial speed of about 1800m/s. hollow charge shells, 3VUK-25 or 3UBK-21. coaxial machine gun 7.62mm PKT with 1,250 rounds. remote-controlled air-defence machine gun 12.7mm NSVT "Utyos" with 300 rounds. 4+4 (T-64B) or 6+6 (T-64A) 81mm smoke mortars 902B "Tucha-2".

Equipment
The 1A33 fire control system, with: Radio control of the 9K112 "Kobra" missiles (NATO code "AT-8 Songster") launched from the gun. The 2E28M hydraulic stabiliser (vertical range -520' to +1515') The gunner day sight 1G42 with embedded laser telemeter. The TPN-1-49-23 active IR night sight. The L2G IR projector left of the gun for illumination. The 1V517 ballistic calculator. The 1B11 anemometric gauge. The tank commander's cupola is equipped with: The PKN-4S combined day and night sight which allows a 360 vision and to fire the main weapons. The PZU-6 AA sight. The 2Z20 2-axis electrical stabiliser (vertical range -3 to +70). The TPN-3-49 or TPN-4 and TVN-4 night vision for the driver. A R-173M radio. An NBC protection, with radiation detectors and global compartment overpressure. Two snorkels for crossing rivers with a depth up to 5m. A KMT-6 mine clearing plough can be fitted at the front.

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154

Protection
3-layer composite armour (K formula), with a thickness between 450 and 20mm: front: 120mm steel, 105mm glass fibre, 40mm steel. sides: 80mm steel. front of the turret: 150mm steel, 150mm glass fibre, 40mm steel lateral rubber skirts protecting the top of the suspension. Kontakt-1 reactive bricks covering: the front and the side of the turret the glacis the lateral skirts

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] T-64A Main Battle Tank (http:/ / www. morozov. com. ua/ eng/ body/ tanks/ t-64a. php) at KMDB. (http:/ / songkino. ru/ other/ hist5. html) (Three Tankers) Perrett 1987:42 http:/ / www. meshwar. vistcom. ru/ tech/ t-64. htm Main battle tank T-64 ( -64)

[5] wknews.ru -64, 28 October 2010 (http:/ / wknews. ru/ news/ read/ 326980/ ukrainskaja_armija_poluchila_desjat_modernizirovannykh_t64/ ) [6] Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau Main Characteristics of the Upgraded BM Bulat Battle Tank (http:/ / www. morozov. com. ua/ eng/ body/ bulat. php?menu=def2. php) [7] Sewell, Stephen, CW2 (rtd). "Why Three Tanks?" (Armor, JulyAugust 1998), p.45. [8] -64: ? (http:/ / www. vu. mil. gov. ua/ index. php?part=article& id=520) (T-64: Will Unique Technology go "Under the Knife"?) at (Ukrainian Army) [9] http:/ / www. morozov. com. ua/ eng/ body/ traktors/ mt-tbas. php [10] p.13, Isby, per "Victor Suvorov" [11] http:/ / www. acig. org/ artman/ publish/ article_281. shtml [12] Ground Forces Equipment - Ukraine (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ ukraine/ groundforces-equipment. htm) [13] Uzbek-Army Equipment (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ centralasia/ uzbek-army-equipment. htm)

References
Isby, D.C. (1988). Ten million bayonets: inside the armies of the Soviet Union, Arms and Armour Press, London. ISBN 978-0-85368-774-0 Perrett, Bryan (1987). Soviet Armour Since 1945. London: Blandford Press. ISBN 0-7137-1735-1. Saenko, M., V. Chobitok (2002). Osnovnoj boevoj tank T-64, Moscow: Eksprint. ISBN 5-94038-022-0. Sewell, Stephen Cookie (1998). Why Three Tanks? (http://www.benning.army.mil/armor/armormagazine/ content/Issues/1998/ArmorJulyAugust1998web.pdf) in Armor vol. 108, no. 4, p.21. Fort Knox, KY: US Army Armor Center. ISSN 0004-2420. (PDF format) Zaloga, Steven (1992), T-64 and T-80, Hong Kong: Concord, ISBN 962-361-031-9.

External links
BM Bulat Main Battle Tank, Ukraine (http://www.army-technology.com/projects/bmbulatmbt/) Ukrspets on T-64 upgrades (http://use-weapon.astral.kiev.ua/arm_t64.html) Kampfpanzer T-64 (http://www.t-64.de/frame-start.htm) (German language) T-64 (http://www.morozov.com.ua/eng/body/t64.php?menu=def2.php) and Bulat (http://www.morozov. com.ua/eng/body/bulat.php?menu=def2.php) at KMDB (manufacturer's site)

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155

T-90
T-90

Russian Army T-90A tank on display during parade festivities in May 2013. Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank Russia

Service history
Usedby See Operators

Production history
Designer Manufacturer Unitcost Produced Numberbuilt Kartsev-Venediktov Uralvagonzavod $2.77 4.25 million USD in 2011 (varies by source) 1992present 1,667+

Specifications
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armor 47.5 tonnes (46.7 long tons; 52.4 short tons) 9.63m (31ft 7in) 3.78m (12ft 5in) 2.22m (7ft 3in) 3 Steel-composite-reactive blend vs APFSDS: 550mm, with Kontakt-5 = 800-830mm; vs HEAT: 650mm with Kontakt-5 = 1,1501,350mm 125 mm smoothbore gun with ATGM capability; mainly 9M119 Svir

Main armament Secondary armament

12.7mm Kord Heavy machine gun, 7.62mm PKMT

T-90

156
Model 84 V-84 12-cyl. diesel V-92 12-cyl. diesel V-96 12-cyl. diesel 840 hp (618 kW) for V-84 12-cyl. diesel engine 950 hp (736 kW) for V-92 12-cyl. diesel engine 1,250 hp (930 kW) for V-96 12-cyl. diesel engine 18.1 hp/tonne (13.5kW/tonne) for V-84 12-cyl. diesel engine 20.4 hp/tonne (15.8kW/tonne) for V-92 12-cyl. diesel engine 26.3 hp/tonne (19.8kW/tonne) for V-96 12-cyl. diesel engine torsion bar 550700km (340430mi) (depending on type of engine)

Engine

Power/weight

Suspension Operational range Speed

6065km/h (3740mph) (depending on type of engine)

The T-90 is a Russian third-generation main battle tank that is essentially a modernisation of the T-72B, incorporating many aspects of the T-80U (it was originally to be called the T-72BU, later renamed to T-90). It is currently the most modern tank in service with the Russian Ground Forces and Naval Infantry. Although a development of the T-72, the T-90 uses a 125mm 2A46 smoothbore tank gun, 1G46 gunner sights, a new engine, and thermal sights. Standard protective measures include a blend of steel, composite armour, Smoke mortars, Kontakt-5 explosive-reactive armor, laser warning receivers, Nakidka camouflage and the Shtora infrared ATGM jamming system. The EMT-7 electromagnetic pulse (EMP) creator is used in testing but not fitted to T-90s in active service. It is designed and built by Uralvagonzavod, in Nizhny Tagil, Russia. From 2011, the Russian armed forces have ceased ordering the T-90, and are instead waiting for the development of the Universal Combat Platform T-99 that is expected to enter service in 2020.[1]

Development
By 1992, the Russian Ministry of Defense announced that it could no longer afford to manufacture two main battle tanks in parallel. Since both the "quality" T-80U and the cheaper "quantity" T-72B were being built at different plants, and each plant was critical to the economy of its city, the government gave small orders to both. Omsk built five T-80Us and Nizhny Tagil built fifteen T-72s, and both built more in the hopes of winning large export orders. Nizhny Tagil had built a few T-72BAs, T-72Bs upgraded with a third generation add-on explosive reactive armour (ERA) called Kontakt-5, which was already in service on the T-80U. To further improve the T-72's export prospects and its chances of being selected as Russia's sole production main battle tank, the T-80U's more sophisticated fire control system was also added to produce a vehicle designated T-72BU. The T-90 was developed by the Kartsev-Venediktov Design Bureau at the Uralvagonzavod factory in Nizhny Tagil. The production model is based on the T-72BM, with some added features from the T-80 series. The T-90 with an 830hp (620kW) engine went into low-level production in 1993, based on a prototype designated T-88. It features a new generation of Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armor on its hull and turret. Of conventional layout, the T-90 represents a major upgrade to every system in the T-72, including the main gun. The T-90S have been identified as export model. The references to a T-90E appear to be unsubstantiated. The T-90 is fitted with a "three-tiered" protection system: the first tier is the composite armour in the turret, second tier is third generation Kontakt-5 ERA and third tier is a Shtora-1 countermeasures suite. T-90s were used in combat for the first time during the invasion of Dagestan in 1999. Models T-90: Original production model. T-90K: Command version of the T-90.

T-90 T-90E: Export version of T-90 MBT. T-90A: Russian army version with welded turret, V-92S2 engine and ESSA thermal viewer. Sometimes called T-90 Vladimir. T-90S: Export version of T-90A. Sometimes called T-90C (Cyrillic letter es looks like a Latin c). These tanks are found with two different turret armour arrays. T-90SK: Command version of the T-90S. It differs in radio and navigation equipment and Ainet remote-detonation system for HEF rounds. T-90S "Bhishma": modified T-90S in Indian service. T-90M: Prototype version featuring new explosive reactive armour (ERA) Relikt, new 1,250PS (920kW) engine, new improved turret and composite armor, new gun, new thermal imaging Catherine-FC from Thales, an enhanced environmental control system supplied by Israels Kinetics Ltd for providing cooled air to the fighting compartment, integrated tactical system, satellite navigation and others. T-90MS: New modernized (M) version of the export tank T-90S, with a 1130HP engine, DSHK with IR camera, and PNM Sosna-U gunner view, 7.62mm turret UDP T05BV-1 RWS, GLONASS+inertial navigation, explosive reactive armour (ERA)re[2][3] Derivatives[4] BREM-72: Armoured recovery vehicle. MTU-90: Bridge layer tank with MLC50 bridge. IMR-3: Combat engineer vehicle. BMR-3: Mine clearing vehicle.

157

T-90MS main battle tank at Engineering Technologies 2012

Production and service history

The Russian Defence Ministry made a selection of a single main battle tank (MBT) in 1995. The T-80 was more expensive and its delicate, fuel-hungry gas turbine engine provided a questionable advantage. It was also notorious for showing how poor the older T-80BV tanks were in urban combat in the First Chechen War.[5] By September 1995, some 107 T-90 tanks had been produced, located in the Siberian Military District.[6] By mid-1996 some 107 T-90s had gone into service in the Far Eastern Military District.

A T-90 during a military exercise in Russia, demonstrating underwater driving

1999 saw the appearance of a new model of T-90, featuring the fully welded turret of the Object 187 experimental MBT instead of the original T-90's cast turret. This new model is called "Vladimir" in honour of T-90 Chief Designer Vladimir Potkin, who died in 1999. It is unknown how this design affects the protection and layout of the turret, or whether the tank's hull armour layout was changed.

T-90

158 The T-90A saw combat action during the 1999 Chechen invasion of Dagestan. According to Moscow Defense Brief, one T-90 was hit by seven RPG anti-tank rockets but remained in action. The journal concludes that with regular equipment T-90A seems to be the best protected Russian tank, especially if the Shtora and Arena defensive protection systems are integrated in it. In 2007, there were about 334 T-90 tanks serving in the Russian Ground Forces' 5th Guards Tank Division, stationed in the Siberian Military District, and seven T-90 tanks in the Navy. Some 31 new T-90 tanks were expected to enter service in 2007, and 60 in 2008.

A Russian Army T-90A

The Russian Federal Service for Defense Contracts (Rosoboronzakaz) announced in July 2008 that a new tank (which rumour has previously referred to as the T-95) was due to be introduced in 2009, but development was cancelled in May 2010. Russia is developing a new Universal Combat Platform T-99 (also known as Armata) to be ready for use by 2015. It is expected to have a more powerful engine, improved armor, main gun and autoloader, with ammunition storage separated from the crew.

Export
India
In 2001, India bought 310 T-90S tanks from Russia, of which 120 were delivered complete, 90 in semi-knocked down kits, and 100 in completely knocked down kits. The T-90 was selected because it is a direct development of the T-72 that India already employs with 60% logistics commonality with T-90 simplifying training and maintenance. India bought the T-90 after the delay in production of the domestically developed Arjun main battle tank, and to counter Pakistani deployment of the Ukrainian T-80UD in 199597. These tanks were made by Uralvagonzavod and the updated 1,000hp (750kW) engines were delivered by Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant. These tanks however did not feature the Shtora-1 passive/active protection system though there are reports that a separate contract for shipment of a modernized version of this suite is being discussed. A follow-on contract, worth $800 million, was signed on October 26, 2006, for another 330 T-90M "Bhishma" MBTs that were to be manufactured in India by Heavy Vehicles Factory at Avadi, Tamil Nadu.

The T-90M Bhishma is a customised, improved version of the T-90S, which India developed with assistance from Russia and France, with both of whom India has very close ties. (Bhishma was a near invincible warrior in the ancient Hindu epic, the Mahabharata). The tanks are equipped with the French Thales built Catherine-FC thermal sights[7] and utilizes Russian Kontakt-5 K-5 explosive reactive armored plates.

Indian Army's T-90 Bhishma tanks take part in a military training exercise in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan. The tanks have two different turret armour arrays.

T-90

159 Kontakt-5 (K-5) ERA in its export variant provides a protection level of 1,2 [20%] against Kinetic Energy (APFSDS) rounds and 1,71,8 [70 %] against Chemical Energy rounds (Tandem HEAT). Semi-active baffle plates and ceramic layers with high tensile proprieties are employed in T-90 base Armour. Even more advanced Armour composition was implemented in the welded turrets of domestic T-90 and on export T-90 Bhishma for India. In several tests conducted in front of Indian delegation using latest foreign ammunitions (APFSDS) The T-90S during India's 2011 Republic Day of the M829A2/KEW-A2 type conducted from 250 meters against parade. T-90S devoid of the normal built-in explosive reactive armor (ERA) Kontakt-5 (K-5) resulted in the turret being completely impenetrable. This absolute resiliency to enemy fire resulted at the end, as one of the most crucial selling point for T-90 Bhishma MBT to India. In April 2008, the Indian Army sent a request for proposal to Rafael, BAE Systems, Raytheon, Rosoboronexport, Saab, and IBD Deisenroth Engineering for an active protection system for the T-90S Bhishma.[8] The contract is expected to be worth US$270 million. Saab's LEDS-150 won the contract in January 2009. A third contract, worth $1.23 billion, was signed in December 2007 for 347 upgraded T-90Ms, the bulk of which will be license-assembled by HVF. The Army hopes to field a force of over 21 regiments of T-90 tanks and 40 regiments of modified T-72s. The Indian Army would begin receiving its first T-90M main battle tank in completely knocked-down condition from Russias Nizhny Tagil-based Uralvagonzavod JSC by the end of 2009. The T-90M features the Kaktus K-6 bolted explosive reactive armour (ERA) package on its frontal hull and turret-top (the T-90S has Kontakt-5 ERA), is fitted with an enhanced environmental control system supplied by Israels Kinetics Ltd for providing cooled air to the fighting compartment, has additional internal volume for housing the cryogenic cooling systems for new-generation thermal imagers like the THALES-built Catherine-FC thermal imager (operating in the 812 micrometre bandwidth). In all, India plans to have 1,640 T-90 tanks in service by 20182020. The first batch of 10 license built T-90M "Bhishma" was inducted into the Indian army on August 24, 2009. These vehicles were built at the Heavy Vehicles Factory at Avadi, Tamil Nadu. A Rs.10,000-crore purchase of 354 new T-90MS tanks for six tank regiments for the China border has been approved which would take the total number of T-90 tanks in the Indian Army's inventory to 2011 and with a total of nearly 4500 tanks (T-90 and variants, T-72 and Arjun MBT) in active service, the world's third largest operator of tanks. India plans to have 21 tank regiments of T-90s by 2020, with 45 combat tanks and 17 training and replacement tanks per regiment, for 62 total each.[9] On 17 September 2013, Indias Defense Ministry approved the production of 235 T-90 tanks under Russian license for $1 billion.[10]

Other
The Cyprus House Defense Committee approved funds in January 2009 for the purchase of 41 Russian-built T-90 tanks. The money is included as part of the 2009 defense budget. Cyprus already operates the Russian-made T-80 tank.[11] In March 2010 it was reported that Cyprus had opted for 41 additional T-80s instead of purchasing T-90s. Anonymous Venezuelan defense sources said that president Hugo Chavez wants to replace his army's obsolete AMX-30 main battle tanks with between 50 and 100 Russian-built T-90 main battle tanks, according to an October 2008 article by analyst Jack Sweeney.[12] In September, 2009 a deal was announced for 92 T-72s only. Saudi Arabia was reported, in July 2008, by Russian daily Kommersant to be in negotiations to buy 150 T-90 tanks. Lebanese Defence Minister Elias El Murr met with Russian Defense Minister Anatoly Serdyukov in December 2008, when

T-90 they discussed the possibility of a transfer of military equipment including T-90 tanks. In February 2010, an arms deal was signed between Libya and Russia. Details of the sale were not immediately released, but a Russian diplomat stated that Libya had wanted 20 fighter planes, air defense systems, and may also be interested in purchasing "several dozen" T-90s, and modernizing a further 140 T-72s. However after Libya's crackdown on anti-government protesters in early 2011, the United Nations enacted an international arms embargo on Libya resulting in the cancellation of Russian arms deals. In April 2013, Rosoboronexport requested for the entry of the T-90S in an upcoming tender by the Peruvian Army for main battle tanks.[13] Peru is seeking to acquire between 120 and 170 tanks to replace its aging T-55 tanks. The T-90 was tested against the M1A1 Abrams from the United States, the Leopard 2A4 offered from the Spanish Army, Leopard 2A6s formerly operated by the Dutch Army, and T-64s and T-84s offered by Ukraine.[14] By September 2013, only the T-90S, the Russian T-80, the Ukrainian T-84, and American M1A1 were still competing.[15] On 19 September 2013, a T-90S was demonstrated to the Commander-in-Chief of the Peruvian Land Forces and 300 officers. During the day, the tank's combat and running capabilities were shown. At night, the accuracy of all weapons at different ranges while stationary and on the move were shown under limited visibility and mountainous terrain conditions. A Peruvian T-55 driver was briefed for 5 minutes about the controls, then was able to move and operate the T-90S, demonstrating the commonality of the two vehicles.[16] In late September 2013, the South Korean K2 Black Panther was entered in the competition.[17] Russia is pushing for the sale of 110 T-90S tanks.[18]

160

Design
Armament
The T-90's main armament is the 2A46M 125mm smoothbore tank gun. This is a highly modified version of the Sprut anti-tank gun, and is the same gun used as the main armament on the T-80-series tanks. It can be replaced without dismantling the inner turret and is capable of firing armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS), high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT-FS), and high explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG) ammunition, as well as 9M119M Refleks anti-tank guided missiles. The Refleks missile has semi-automatic laser T-90 tanks featuring 2A46M 125 mm smoothbore beam-riding guidance and a tandem hollow-charge HEAT warhead. It tank gun, NSV 12.7 mm AA machine gun and has an effective range of 100 m to 6km, and takes 17.5 seconds to PKT 7.62 mm coaxial machine gun. reach maximum range. Refleks can penetrate about 950 millimetres (37in) of steel armour and can also engage low-flying air targets such as helicopters. The NSV 12.7mm (12.7x108) remotely controlled anti-aircraft Heavy machine gun can be operated from within the tank by the commander and has a range of 2km and a cyclic rate of fire of 700800 rounds per minute with 300 rounds available (the NSV was replaced by the Kord heavy machine gun in the late 1990s). The PKMT 7.62mm (7.62x54mm R) coaxial machine gun weighs about 10.5kg while the ammunition box carries 250 rounds (7000 rounds carried) and weighs an additional 9.5kg. Like other modern Russian tanks the 2A46M in the T-90 is fed by an automatic loader which removes the need for a manual loader in the tank and reduces the crew to 3 (commander, gunner, and driver). The autoloader can carry 22 ready-to-fire rounds in its carousel and can load a round in 58 seconds. It has been suggested that the automatic loaders on modern T-90 tanks have been modified to take advantage of newer ammunition such as the 3BM-44M APFSDS, which like the US M829A3 penetrates armour better than the previous shorter rounds. HEAT rounds that can be fired from the 2A46M includes the 3BK21B (with a Depleted uranium liner), 3BK29 (with a credited penetration of 800mm RHA equivalency), and the 3BK29M (with a Triple-tandem charge warhead). Additionally

T-90 the T-90 features the Ainet fuse setting system which allows the tank to detonate 3OF26 HE-FRAG rounds at a specific distance from the tank as determined by the gunners laser rangefinder, improving its performance against helicopters and infantry. Fire-control system on the T-90 includes the PNK-4S/SR AGAT day and night sighting system mounted at the commanders station which allows for night time detection of a tank sized target at ranges between 700 and 1100 meters depending on the version of the sight. Early models of the T-90 were equipped with the TO1-KO1 BURAN sight but later models (T-90S) were upgraded to use the ESSA thermal imaging sight, which allows for accurate firing to a range of 50008000 m using the CATHERINE-FC thermal camera produced by Thales Optronique. The gunner is also provided with the 1G46 day sighting system which includes a laser range finder, missile guidance channel and allows tank-sized targets to be detected and engaged at 5 to 8 kilometres (3.1 to 5.0mi). The driver users a TVN-5 day and night sight. In 2010, Russia started licensed production of Thales-developed Catherine FC thermal imaging cameras for T-90M tanks, a Russian daily said. These thermal imagers are also present on T-90M "Bhishma" build in India under license.

161

Mobility
Different models of the T-90 tank are powered by the V-84MS 618kW (840hp) four-stroke V-12 piston engine, uprated 1,000hp (750kW) engines and 1,250hp (930kW) engines made by Uralvagonzavod and are delivered by Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant. The -90S with 1,000hp (750kW) engine can attain a top speed of 60km/h on the road and up to 45km/h on rough terrain. T-90 tank has classic arrangement of transmission, with rear placed engine and transmission. The 1,000hp (750kW) engines are V-92 four stroke, 12 cylinder, multi-fuel diesel while 1,250hp (930kW) engine is V-96. The T-90 export version i.e. T-90's diesel engine. modified T-90S is fitted with increased power multi-fuel 1,000-h.p. diesel engine with turbochargers. The tank is also fitted with an air conditioning system for work in high temperature zones.

Protection
The T-90 is fitted with a "three-tiered" protection system. The first tier is the composite armour in the turret, consisting of basic armour shell with an insert of alternating layers of aluminum and plastics and a controlled deformation section. The second tier is third generation Kontakt-5 ERA (explosive reactive armor) which significantly degrades the penetrating power of kinetic-energy APFSDS ammunition and also these ERA blocks give the turret its distinctive angled "clam shell" appearance. ERA bricks T-90S Bhishma of Indian Army is fitted only are also located on the turret roof and provide protection from with a "two-tiered" protection system: the first top-attack weapons. The turret's forward armour package, in addition tier is the composite armour in the turret, second to the ERA and steel plating, contains a composite filler of Russian tier is third generation Kontakt-5 ERA. composite armour sandwiched between upper and lower steel plates. The composite armour results in a lower weight and improved protection when compared with steel-only armour.

T-90

162 The third tier is a Shtora-1 (Russian: -1 or "curtain" in English) countermeasures suite, produced by Elektromashina of Russia. This system includes two electro-optical/IR "dazzlers" on the front of the turret (which gives the distinct Red Eyes), four Laser warning receivers, two 3D6 aerosol grenade discharging systems and a computerized control system. The Shtora-1 warns the tank's crew when the tank has been 'painted' by a weapon-guidance laser and allows the crew to slew the turret to face the threat. The infrared jammer, the T-90 turret fitted with third generation Kontakt-5 TShU1-7 EOCMDAS, jams the semiautomatic command to line of ERA. sight (SACLOS) guidance system of some anti-tank guided missiles. The aerosol grenades are automatically launched after Shtora detects that it has been painted. The aerosol grenades are used to mask the tank from laser rangefinders and designators as well as the optics of other weapons systems. Indian T-90S tanks are not equipped with the Shtora-1 countermeasures suite. They will be equipped with the LEDS-150 Land Electronic Defence System. In addition to the passive and active protection systems the T-90 is also fitted with nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) protection equipment, KMT mine sweeps and an automatic fire fighting system. The EMT-7 electromagnetic-counter mine system can also be installed on the T-90. EMT-7 emits an electromagnetic pulse to disable magnetic mines and disrupt electronics before the tank reaches them. The Nakidka signature reduction suite is also available for the T-90. Nakidka is designed to reduce the probabilities of an object to be detected by Infrared, Thermal, Radar-Thermal, and Radar bands. During a reported test conducted by the Russian military in 1999 the T-90 was exposed to a variety of RPG, ATGM and APFSDS munitions. When equipped with Kontakt-5 ERA the T-90 could not be penetrated by any of the APFSDS or ATGM used during the trial and outperformed a T-80U which also took part. During combat operations in Dagestan, there were witness accounts of one T-90 sustaining seven hits from RPGs, and remaining in action.

Operators
Algeria: Algeria has purchased a total of 305 T-90SA tanks in two batches. The first batch of 185 was signed during 2009 and the second batch of 120 was signed in 2011 for $470 million. Azerbaijan: 94 T-90S (option for 94 more)[19] India: India currently operates up to 620 T-90 which were procured in three separate orders. Two batches (310 tanks and knockdown kits in 2000 and a further 300 in 2006) were purchased from Russia. Heavy Vehicle Factory (HVF) at Avadi has delivered 24 tanks in 2009-10; 51 in 2010-11; another 50 were supposed to be delivered in 2012. A further 1,000 were to be produced locally by 2020. Of those, the first batch of 10 were delivered in August 2009. Rs 10,000-crore purchase of 354 new T-90MS tanks for six tank regiments for the China border has been approved. This takes total no. of T-90 tanks to 2011. Russia: Russia operates 550 T-90A as of 2013.[20] Turkmenistan: Turkmenistan ordered 10 T-90S tanks over 2010 for approximately $30 million and a further 30 T-90S tanks in 2011. Uganda: 31 as of 2011[21]

T-90

163

Notes
[1] Lenta.ru: : (http:/ / lenta. ru/ articles/ 2012/ 02/ 15/ uncertain/ ) [2] T-90MS main battle tank (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ russia_russian_army_tank_heavy_armoured_vehicles_u/ t-90ms_main_battle_tank_data_sheet_specifications_information_specifications_pictures. html) [3] Rosoboronexport T-90MS at IDEX 2013 (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ idex_2013_news_coverage_report_pictures_video/ russian_defence_industry_presents_the_latest_generation_of_main_battle_tank_t-90ms_idex_2013_0103136. html) [4] New Russian tank - T-90MS (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=1hzC4jSnRis), 2012-12-01. [5] Zaloga 2000, p 3. [6] , quoting Russian newspaper sources [7] Dunnigan, James. "Get the T-90s Out of the Kitchen" (http:/ / www. strategypage. com/ dls/ articles2006/ 2006624232423. asp), StrategyPage, June 24, 2006. [8] India changes its top defence supplier (http:/ / www. defpro. com/ daily/ details/ 247/ ) [9] Indian T-90s Get 5,000 Meter Reach (http:/ / www. strategypage. com/ htmw/ htarm/ articles/ 20130904. aspx) - Strategypage.com, 4 September 2013 [10] India has approved the manufacture of 235 T-90 main battle tanks under Russian license (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ september_2013_defense_industry_military_news_uk/ india_has_approved_the_manufacture_of_235_t-90_main_battle_tanks_under_russian_license_1909131. html) - Armyrecognition.com, 19 September 2013 [11] Greek-Cypriots to Buy Russian Tanks, Considering Missile Purchases (http:/ / www. defense-aerospace. com/ cgi-bin/ client/ modele. pl?session=dae. 44133748. 1231764731. kz2MJH8AAAEAAA0LO-QAAAAM& cat=3& prod=101229& modele=release) , Forecast International, January 9, 2009. [12] Jack Sweeney Venezuela buys Russian aircraft, tanks to boost power (http:/ / www. spacewar. com/ reports/ Analysis_Venezuela_buys_Russian_tanks_999. html). UPI.com, October 15, 2008. [13] Peru; Main Battle Tanks- new contestants emerge (http:/ / dmilt. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=6488:peru-main-battle-tanks-new-contestants-emerge& catid=35:latin-america& Itemid=58) - Dmilt.com, April 30, 2013 [14] Russia offers T-90S main battle tank to Peruvian Army (http:/ / www. army-technology. com/ news/ newsrussia-t90s-battle-tank-peruvian-army) - Army-Technology.com, May 17, 2013 [15] Peru; Future main battle tank projects lags on despite criticism (http:/ / dmilt. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=7865:peru-future-main-battle-tank-projects-lags-on-despite-criticism& catid=35:latin-america& Itemid=58) - Dmilt.com, 2 September 2013 [16] T-90S Russian-made main battle tank in field demonstration for the Peruvian Army (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ september_2013_defense_industry_military_news_uk/ the_t-90s_russian-made_main_battle_tank_in_field_demonstration_for_the_peruvian_army_2709132. html) - Armyrecognition.com, 27 September 2013 [17] Peru; Korean contender enters MBT competition (http:/ / dmilt. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=8063:peru-korean-contender-enters-mbt-competition& catid=35:latin-america& Itemid=58) - Dmilt.com, 30 September 2013 [18] Russia to promote Pantsir-S1 air defense system to Brazil and T-90S main battle tank to Peru (http:/ / www. armyrecognition. com/ october_2013_defense_industry_military_news_uk/ russia_to_promote_pantsir-s1_air_defense_system_to_brazil_and_t-90s_main_battle_tank_to_peru_0910132. html) - Armyrecognition.com, 9 October 2013 [19] - (http:/ / www. vedomosti. ru/ politics/ news/ 13199631/ v_baku_idet_smerch) [20] -90 2010 (http:/ / topwar. ru/ 23-modernizaciya-tanka-t-90-budet-zavershena-do-konca-2010-goda. html) [21] 2011 -90 (http:/ / www. armstrade. org/ includes/ periodics/ news/ 2012/ 0214/ 124011601/ detail. shtml)

References
Mallika, Joseph (2004) Issue Brief No. 19: T-90S Bhishma (http://web.archive.org/web/20071213104901/ http://ipcs.org/printIssueBrief.jsp?status=publications&status1=issue&mod=d&check=22&try=true). Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies. URL accessed July 24, 2006. Sewell, Stephen "Cookie" (JulyAugust 1998). "Why Three Tanks?" (https://www.knox.army.mil/center/ ocoa/armormag/backissues/1990s/1998/ja98/4sewell98.pdf)Wikipedia:Link rot Armor 108 (4):21. (PDF format) Zaloga, Steven and David Markov (2000), Russia's T-80U Main Battle Tank, Hong Kong: Concord, ISBN 962-361-656-2.

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External links
T-90 MBT Military Today (http://www.military-today.com/tanks/t90.htm) T-90S main battle tank (http://www.armyrecognition.com/ russia_russian_army_tank_heavy_armoured_vehicles_u/ t-90_mbt_main_battle_tank_technical_data_sheet_specifications_information_description_pictures.html) T-90MS main battle tank(Army Recognition) (http://www.armyrecognition.com/ russia_russian_army_tank_heavy_armoured_vehicles_u/ t-90ms_main_battle_tank_data_sheet_specifications_information_specifications_pictures.html) T-90S Project Details (http://www.army-technology.com/projects/t90/) at Army-technology.com T-90S Third-Generation Main battle tank, uralvagonzavod (http://uralvagonzavod.com/products/ special_products/1/) T-90MS Tagil(Military Today) (http://www.military-today.com/tanks/t90ms_tagil.htm) T-90S Main Battle Tank (http://web.archive.org/web/20071231132856/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/ LAND-FORCES/Army/Images-MBT6.html)Bharat Rakshak Uralvagonzavod (http://web.archive.org/web/20080214223841/http://www.uvz.ru/eng/), manufacturer's English-language home page ( Russian (http://www.uvz.ru/rus/index_1024.htm), T-90 English page (http:// web.archive.org/web/20071013161539/http://www.uvz.ru/eng/edata/euvz/eprodukt/mprod/t_90.htm)) The T-90 tank by the Federation of American Scientists (http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/row/ t-90.htm) T-90S Main Battle Tank (http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/T-90S.htm) at the Armor Site Main battle tank T-90: Firing sample (http://www.rbs.ru/exhibition/uralexpoarms/2000/video/t90.mpg) Main battle tank T-90 (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/t-90.htm) at GlobalSecurity.org T-90 Main Battle Tank (http://armour.ws/russian-t-90-tank/)

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MBT-70
MBT-70

A model of the United States MBT-70 design Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank
United States/ West Germany

Production history
Numberbuilt 14 (prototypes and pilots)

Specifications
Weight Length Width Height Crew Armor Main armament Secondary armament Engine Transmission Suspension Fuelcapacity Operational range Speed 50.4 tonnes (49.6 long tons; 55.6 short tons) 9.1 metres (29ft 10in) 3.51 metres (11ft 6in) 1.99 to 2.59m (6ft 6in to 8ft 6in) 3 spaced armor 152mm XM-150E5 120mm gun (FRG only) 20mm cannon 7.62mm machine gun 1,500 horsepower (1,100kW). Renk HSWL354 hydropneumatic 343 gallons (1300 litres) 400 miles (644 km)
[1]

43mph (69km/h)

The MBT-70 (German: KPz 70) was a 1960s German-U.S. joint project to develop a new main battle tank, which was to be equipped with a number of advanced features. It utilized a newly developed hydropneumatic "kneeling" suspension and housed the entire crew in the large turret. The MBT-70 was armed with a 152mm XM-150 gun/launcher, which could use conventional ammunition and the Shillelagh missile for long range combat. In 1969 the project was well over budget and the Germans withdrew from the effort, developing a new main battle tank on their own instead (the Leopard 2). In the US the development continued for a short time, until in 1971 when

MBT-70 Congress cancelled the program. The MBT-70 is the "grandfather" of the Leopard 2 and the M1 Abrams, the current main battle tanks of both countries.

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History
In the early 1960s the German Leopard 1 and the US M60 were the newest main battle tanks in their respective country's service. While designed to counter the T-54/55 tanks, it became clear that the next generation of Soviet tanks would have increased firepower and protection, and both designs would be placed at a disadvantage by the new smoothbore gun in the T-62. An upgrade project for the Leopard was planned, but it appeared this model would not be enough of an advance to be worthwhile. To solve the problems in the tank forces, Germany and the United States had a memorandum of understanding to develop a common new tank for both armies. However, this may have been one of the worst things to happen to the project, as both teams started "pulling" the design in their own directions. Arguments arose over almost every part of the design: the gun, the engine, even whether or not the design would use metric or SAE measurements. This last dispute was eventually "settled" by using both systems, thereby increasing costs considerably.

Design
Many features of the MBT-70 were ahead of their time. The vehicle used an advanced hydropneumatic suspension system that allowed for fast cross-country speeds even though it was to weigh 50 short tons (45,000kg). The suspension could be raised or lowered on command by the driver, down to put the bottom of the tank just over 4 inches (100mm) from the ground, or up to 28 inches (710mm) for cross-country running. The MBT-70 was designed with a low silhouette, unlike the M60, one of the tallest tanks ever built. The MBT-70 Interior arrangement. Gunner's station in foreground, commander's station to the left, driver's rotating capsule partially ended up very low, just over 6 feet (1.8m) from the floor obscured to the right to the turret-roof. This left no room in the hull for the driver, who had to be moved into the turret. He was located in a cupola which was geared to rotate so that he was always looking in the same direction even if the turret turned. He could also spin the cupola around, so the tank could be driven backwards at full speed. The US version was to mount the newly developed Continental AVCR air-cooled V-12 diesel of 1,470 horsepower (1,100kW). German versions originally used a similar Daimler-Benz model, but later moved to an MTU design of 1,500 horsepower (1,100kW). The MTU unit could be easily swapped out of the tank, along with the drive train, in 15 minutes. Both versions could reach 43 miles per hour (69km/h) on their engines, compared to 30 miles per hour (48km/h) for the T-62.

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Armament
The MBT-70's main armament was a stabilized XM-150 152mm gun/launcher, a longer-barreled and improved variant of the XM-81 gun/launcher used in the light M551 Sheridan and the M60A2 'Starship'. This gun/launcher could fire conventional 152mm rounds like High Explosive, anti-personnel, High Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT) and Armor Piercing Fin-Stabilized Discarding Sabot (APFSDS) rounds, but also the Shillelagh missile, a 152mm guided missile, which had a combat range of some 3,000 metres (9,800ft). In the 1960s the effective combat range of the 105mm L7 tank gun was considered to be about 1,800 metres (5,900ft).

Turret weapon layout, autocannon in stowed position, barrel pointing backwards

The XM578 APFSDS round was made of a newly developed tungsten alloy, which was 97.5 percent tungsten. This new alloy had a density of 18.5 gcm, which was a big improvement compared to the older tungsten-carbide APDS and APFSDS rounds. Another new feature of the ammunition was that the tank rounds were "caseless"; i.e., they had combustible cases. The MBT-70 was equipped with a laser rangefinder and an auto-loader, located in the turret rear, two 'cutting edge' devices for this time. The auto-loader was capable of loading both the missiles and the normal tank rounds.[citation needed]

MBT-70 prototype test firing an MGM-51 missile

The Germans were planning to use the MBT-70 in combination with the Keiler, a tank built on the MBT-70 chassis equipped with a Rheinmetall 120mm smoothbore gun, therefore some MBT-70 prototypes were tested with the 120mm gun. The MBT-70 would destroy enemies at long ranges, while the Keiler would have an effective combat range of up to 2,000 metres (6,600ft).[citation needed] The secondary armament of the MBT-70 consisted of a remote-controlled 20mm autocannon for use against aircraft and light armoured vehicles.[2] This was the M139, a US-made version of the Hispano-Suiza HS.820 that was a feature of most 1960s US Army vehicle designs. The gun could be retracted into a container behind the driver's rotating cupola for protection as well as to reduce overall height, and was operated remotely by the commander. Furthermore a 7.62mm machine gun was mounted coaxially alongside the main gun for close-defense.[3] The ammunition load of the MBT-70 prototype seen in the Deutsches Panzermuseum consists of 42 tank rounds, 6 Shillelagh missiles, 660 20 x 139 mm cannon rounds and 2,700 7.62x51mm NATO machine gun rounds.
The 20mm autocannon deployed

Protection
The MBT-70 was protected by a newly developed type of spaced armor in the frontal area of the hull and the turret. It consisted of an outer layer made of cold-rolled hardened steel and a softer inner steel layer, which also served as spall liner with space between the two. This type of armour offered better protection against armor-piercing and HEAT warheads, which were by then one of the strongest threats against tanks. The armor offered protection against 105mm APDS at a range of only 800 metres (2,600ft). The design included bulkheads, fireproof doors, and

MBT-70 blow-out sections in the ammunition storage area to minimize crew injury when a hit was received.[citation needed] The tank's low silhouette, which could be lowered from 2.59 metres (8ft 6in) to only 1.99 metres (6ft 6in), was also a big advantage. Compared to the M60 tank, the MBT-70 had a lower profile. With the hydropneumatic suspension lowered it was also smaller than the Leopard 1, which gave the MBT-70 a better hull down position.[citation
needed]

168

Sketch showing spaced frontal armour, low profile and seating arrangement of crew

For protection against neutron radiation a 15 to 20cm thick layer of polythene was installed around the crew compartment. The MBT-70 was protected against electromagnetic pulses and nuclear, biological and chemical weapons as well.[citation needed]

Mobility
The MBT-70 was capable of reaching a top speed of 43 miles per hour (69km/h), and maintained a higher level of mobility than any tank of its time. It was considerably faster than the M60 and even faster than the Leopard 1 tank. It also could accelerate three times faster than the M60. In cross-country performance the high power engine and hydropneumatic suspension allowed it to travel almost three times as fast as the M60 without causing problems for the crew.[citation needed]

Testing
A prototype series started in 1965, with two mild steel hull and six "complete" hulls of both the US and German versions, for a total of 14 hulls. The lower hull and drivetrain were tested in 1966, and full trials began in 1968. The tank proved to be better than the M60: it was considerably faster, both in all-out speed and, more importantly, with about three times the acceleration. All of this led to a reduction in the time the tank was exposed to fire, in testing it was 1/3 less likely to be seen while maneuvering than the M60, and it could run a 10km (6.2mi) obstacle course in 30% less time.

Prototype at Aberdeen Proving Ground undergoing speed tests.

Problems
An unanticipated problem was that the drivers complained of disorientation when the turret was rotated, contrary to the predictions of the designers who felt the location of the cupola near the center of rotation would eliminate this effect. The German 120mm gun proved excellent, but the XM-150 gun/launcher had serious problems. The similar but smaller XM-81 gun/launcher mounted on the M551 Sheridan proved to be just as troublesome. There were also several problems with the ammunition. The caseless design made conventional tank rounds too vulnerable to water. Wet rounds expanded so they would not fit into the barrel anymore or left hard residues after being fired. The auto-loader was capable of handling the Shillelagh missile without problems, but the combustible cases of the tank rounds could be deformed by it. As is often a problem with caseless ammunition, the ammunition also had a tendency to "cook-off", or fire prematurely, due to heat build-up in the barrel from previously fired rounds. The attempted solution, to only carry a single round with the balance in missiles, also proved unacceptable. Deployment of the 20mm anti-aircraft cannon also proved difficult and the weapon itself was overly complicated and nearly

MBT-70 impossible to use effectively.[citation needed] Another problem of the MBT-70 was the increasing weight. While at the beginning of the project, a weight of some 46.3 tonnes (45.6 long tons; 51.0 short tons) was projected, it increased to 54 tonnes (53 long tons; 60 short tons) during development, which forced the designers to redesign some elements, so that finally a weight of 50.3 tonnes (49.5 long tons; 55.4 short tons) was reached, still higher than required. This meant that the MBT-70 would require its own armoured recovery vehicles and bridge-launching systems. In order to power the tank at the required speed, a turbine engine was developed for the original American model.[4] However, turbine engines need very clean air, and the quantities of dust churned up by tank operations proved problematic. After initial efforts to solve the problem using air filters, the turbine engine was replaced with conventional piston engines.[citation needed] Commentators on the MBT-70 typically assert that though it was innovative in many respects, the project was ruined by the use of too many untried and unproven technologies. Senator James W. Fulbright, mentioned that to drive a MBT-70, a master's degree in a technical institute would be required.

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Cancellation
By 1969 the MBT-70 cost five times what was projected, at $1 million a unit ($6.37million in present-day terms[5]). Originally the planned costs of the MBT-70 project were as low as $80 million (or 292.8 million DM), but in 1969 the project had already cost $303 million (nearly 1.1 billion DM). West Germany's part alone of this was about $130 million (475.8 million DM), which in itself was more than the original planned total costs of the project. Germany backed out of the project, and started the development of the Keiler on its own. Later this program would lead to the Leopard 2. The Leopard 2, like the Keiler, uses a 120mm smoothbore gun. At this point Congress also began objecting to the rapidly increasing price and soon canceled it in 1970. The Army then introduced a lower-cost system based on the same design, known as the XM803. This succeeded only in producing an expensive system with capabilities similar to the M60 it was supposed to replace. Congress, angered by the delays and cost overruns, cancelled the project in November 1971, and redistributed the funds to the new XM815. This project was later renamed XM1, the project that led to the very successful M1 Abrams tank. The M1 had a conventional, but welded steel turret, suspension, and gun, and was innovative in incorporating advanced armor materials and the use of a gas turbine engine.

Surviving vehicles
Altogether 14 prototypes and test-beds have been built, two of them were made of mild steel. Some of them have survived in museums and can still be visited today.

American prototypes
One prototype is located in the US Army Ordnance Museum in Aberdeen, Maryland. Another prototype sits as a display tank at Fort Knox, Kentucky. A mild steel prototype in bad condition can be seen in the Military Museum of Southern New England in Danbury, Connecticut.

MBT-70 at Aberdeen Proving Grounds

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German prototypes
One prototype is located in the Deutsches Panzermuseum Munster Another is located in the Wehrtechnische Studiensammlung Koblenz

References
[1] Sign in the Panzermuseum Munster (http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ commons/ f/ ff/ Panzermuseum_Munster_2010_0729. JPG) Kampfpanzer 70 at Koblenz

[2] http:/ / www. johnsmilitaryhistory. com/ mbt70page. html [3] See caption on Aberdeen's example here (http:/ / commons. wikimedia. org/ wiki/ File:MBT-70_Main_Battle_Tank_-_Aberdeen_Proving_Ground. jpg) [4] Daniel H. Else, III, Bias in Weapon Development, ProQuest Information and Learning Company, 2008; pp. 67-68. [5] Consumer Price Index (estimate) 18002013 (http:/ / www. minneapolisfed. org/ community_education/ teacher/ calc/ hist1800. cfm). Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved March 31, 2013.

External links
MBT-70 page at the Armor Site (http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/mbt_70.htm) Ogorkiewicz, R.M. (8 Jul 1965), "The Evolving Battle Tank" (http://books.google.co.uk/ books?id=Bff57um2QCIC&lpg=PP1&lr&rview=1&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false), New Scientist 27 (451): 745

Main battle tank

A main battle tank (MBT), also known as a battle tank or universal tank, is a tank that fills the heavy direct fire role of many modern armies. They were originally conceived to replace the light, medium, heavy and super-heavy tanks. Development was spurred in the Cold War with the development of lightweight composite armor. They are still supplemented in some armies with light tanks. Today, main battle tanks are considered a key component of modern armies.[1] Modern MBTs seldom operate alone, as German Army Leopard 2A5 main battle tanks in August 2010 they are organized into armored units which involve the support of infantry, who may accompany the MBTs in infantry fighting vehicles. They are also often supported by surveillance or ground-attack aircraft.

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History
Previous concepts
Prior to and during World War II tank design suffered from a number of limitations due largely to engine power and transmission capability. This allowed the designer to produce a tank with high maneuverability, armour, or a large gun, but generally not all three at the same time. Combined with tank theory which stressed high-speed dashes into the rear of the enemy's lines, these limitation led naturally to two classes of tanks. The first, known variously as light tanks, cruiser tanks or even tankettes for the very smallest versions, were designed for outright speed. The concept was to exploit holes in the enemy lines and run far into the rear areas in self-supporting armoured groups. This would disrupt enemy logistics and command-and-control, as well as delay the movement of reserves to the front. It was believed operations of this sort would undermine or completely destroy the ability for the front-line troops to continue battle. To create those holes in the line, a second class known as heavy tanks or infantry tanks, were designed to work in concert with front-line infantry. As these were expected to move forward at the same speed as the men, higher speeds were not required and the engine power could instead be used to carry a much greater load. Infantry tanks featured much larger amounts of armour, heavier guns, and more track area to allow them to cross a shell-riddled battlefield. A final class evolved during the war, the dedicated tank destroyer. These were generally conversions of existing tank designs, lightened in order to allow them to carry much larger guns. Much of US tank doctrine was based on tank destroyer warfare, which led to their main tank designs being relatively lightly armed and armoured.

Trial by fire
In spite of a great amount of theory and pre-war testing, the plans for armoured combat quickly proved themselves outdated. The battlefield did not bog down like it did in World War I and tended to be much more mobile. This was especially evident in the great sweeping battles in North Africa and the Soviet Union, where armoured forces executed drives of hundreds of miles. In these cases the problems with having two designs became especially evident; the tanks able to go toe-to-toe with the enemy were generally found miles to the rear, trying to catch up. Those able to maintain the drive were lightly armoured, and proved easy prey for enemy anti-tank guns and rifles. Tank destroyers were particularly derided, invariably finding themselves in the wrong place at the wrong time, attacked by infantry when on their own and rarely finding their natural enemy. This led to the emergence of designs with slightly greater armour, able to defeat anti-tank rifles and most smaller guns. As these appeared, the tank's own weapons had to grow larger in order to deal with enemy tanks with the same level of armour. This evolution led to the medium tank, which dominated combat in the second half of the war. Generally these designs massed about 25 tonnes, were armed with cannons around 75mm, and powered by engines in the 400 to 500hp range. Notable examples include the Soviet T-34, the most-produced tank to that time, the German Panther tank, and the US M4 Sherman. The widespread production of these designs led to most others being pushed out of service or into niche roles.

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Emergence of the MBT

Meanwhile the rapid increase in engine power in aviation world had trickle-down effects in the tank world. An especially notable example was the deal arranged between Rolls-Royce and Rover, which led to Rolls gaining access to early jet engines while Rover took over development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine for tank use. The later, the Rolls-Royce Meteor, offered such a great improvement in power that the resulting Cromwell and related designs were considered cruisers (light or medium tanks) while offering firepower and armour similar to the infantry tanks. Continued development of the basic Centurion Mk 3 Cromwell design led eventually to the Centurion. This design's armour was able to defeat all small and medium anti-tanks guns, mounted a gun able to defeat even the largest enemy tanks, and offered maneuverability even better than earlier light tank designs. It was so flexible that they referred to it as the "universal tank", and it formed the backbone of post-war British Army tank units. It is now regarded as the first main battle tank designs.

Cold War
A surplus of effective WWII-era designs in other forces, notably the US and Soviet Union, led to slower introductions of similar designs on their part. By the early 1950s these designs were clearly no longer competitive, especially in a world of shaped charge weapons, and new designs rapidly emerged from most armed forces. The concept of the medium tank gradually evolved into the MBT in the 1960s,[2] as it was realized that medium tanks could carry guns (such as the US 90mm, Soviet 100mm, and especially the British L7 105 mm) that could penetrate any practical level of armor at long range. Also, the heaviest tanks were unable to use most existing bridges. The World War II concept of heavy tanks, armed with the most powerful guns and heaviest armor, became obsolete because the large tanks were too expensive and just as vulnerable to damage by mines, bombs, rockets and artillery. Likewise, World War II had shown that lightly armed and armored tanks were of limited value in most roles. Even reconnaissance vehicles had shown a trend towards heavier weight and greater firepower during World War II; speed was not a substitute for armor and firepower. An increasing variety of anti-tank weapons and the perceived threat of a nuclear war prioritized the need for additional armor. The additional armor prompted the design of even more powerful cannons. The main battle tank thus took on the role the British had once called the 'Universal tank', exemplified by the Centurion, filling Soviet T-64 undergoing decontamination almost all battlefield roles. Typical main battle tanks were as well armed as any other vehicle on the battlefield, highly mobile, and well armored. Yet they were cheap enough to be built in large numbers. The first Soviet main battle tank was the T-64[3] (T-54/55 and T-62 then considered "medium" tanks) and the first American MBT was the M60 Patton.[4]

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The adoption of ceramic armor as well as greater armor coverage necessitated by attacks from above by combat aircraft such as helicopters also resulted in an effective counter to nuclear explosion radiation. By the late 70s, MBTs were manufactured by China, France, West Germany, Britain, India, Japan, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. The Soviet Union war doctrine depended heavily on the main battle An early model M60 "Patton" tank. Any weapon advancement making the MBT obsolete could have devastated the Soviet Union's fighting capability. The Soviet Union made novel advancements to the weapon systems including mechanical autoloaders and anti-tank guided missiles. Autoloaders were introduced to replace the human loader, permitting the turret to be reduced in size making the target smaller and less visible, while missile systems were added to extend the range at which a vehicle could engage a target and thereby enhance the first-round hit probability. The United States's experience in the Vietnam War contributed to the idea among army leadership that the role of the main battle tank could be replaced with attack helicopters. During the Vietnam War, helicopters and missiles competed with MBTs for research money.

Persian Gulf War

Though the Persian Gulf War reaffirmed the role of main battle tanks, MBTs were outperformed by the attack helicopter. Other strategists considered that the MBT was entirely obsolete in the light of the efficacy and speed with which coalition forces neutralized Iraqi armor.

Asymmetrical warfare
The United States Army used 1,100 M1 Abrams in the course of the Iraq War. They proved to have an unexpectedly high vulnerability to improvised explosive devices. A relatively new type of remotely-detonated mine, the explosively formed penetrator was used with some success against American armored vehicles. However, with upgrades to their rear armor, M1s proved to be valuable in urban combat; at the Battle of Fallujah the United States Marines brought in two extra companies of M1s. Britain deployed its Challenger 2 tanks to support its operations in southern Iraq. Nations such as Israel are reducing the size of their tank fleet and procuring more advanced models.
A German Leopard 2 in the PSO-version, prepared for asymmetrical warfare

Advanced armor has not improved vehicle survivability, but has reduced crew fatalities. Small unmanned turrets on top of the cupolas called remote weapon stations armed with machineguns or mortars provide improved defence and enhance crew survivability. Experimental tanks with unmanned turrets locate crew members in the heavily armored hull, improving survivability and reducing the vehicle's profile. Technology is reducing the weight and size of the modern MBT. A British military document from 2001 indicated that the British Army would not procure a replacement for the Challenger 2 because of a lack of conventional warfare threats in the foreseeable future. The obsolescence of the tank has been asserted, but the history of the late 20th and early 21st century suggested that MBTs were still necessary.

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Design
Overview
1. Periscope 2. Gun mantlet 3. Coaxial gun 4. Bore evacuator 5. Main gun 6. Driver's optics 7. Driver's hatch 8. Glacis plate 9. Continuous track 10. Machine gun ammunition 11. Commander's machine gun 12. Hatch or cupola 13. Gun turret 14. Turret ring 15. Hull 16. Engine air intake 17. Engine compartment 18. Side skirt (only the front skirts are armored on the Abrams.) 19. Drive sprocket 20. Link 21. Road wheel

Countermeasures
Originally, most MBTs relied on steel armor to defend against various threats. As newer threats emerged, however, the defensive systems used by MBTs had to evolve to counter them. One of the first new developments was the use of explosive reactive armor (ERA), developed by Israel in the early 1980s to defend against the shaped-charge warheads of modern anti-tank guided missiles and other such high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) projectiles. This technology was subsequently adopted and expanded upon by the United States and the Soviet Union.
The Challenger II is equipped with Dorchester armour, an advanced composite armour.

MBT armor is concentrated at the front of the tank where it is layered up to 33 centimetres (13in) thick.

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Missiles are cheap and cost-effective anti-tank weapons. ERA can be quickly added to vehicles to increase their survivability. However, the detonation of ERA blocks creates a hazard to any supporting infantry near the tank. Despite this drawback, it is still employed on many Russian MBTs, the latest generation Kontakt-5 being capable of defeating both HEAT and kinetic energy penetrator threats. The Soviets also developed systems designed to more actively neutralize hostile projectiles before they could even strike the tank, namely the The Indian T-90 Bhishma has a two-tier Shtora and Arena systems. Recently, the United States has adopted protection system. similar technologies in the form of the Missile Countermeasure Device and as part of the Tank Urban Survival Kit used on M1 Abrams tanks serving in Iraq. Other defensive developments focused on improving the strength of the armor itself; one of the notable advancement coming from the British with the development of Chobham armour in the 1970s. It was first employed on the American M1 Abrams and later the British Challenger 1. Chobham armor uses a lattice of composite and ceramic materials along with metal alloys to defeat incoming threats, and proved highly effective in the conflicts in Iraq in the early 1990s and 2000s; surviving numerous impacts from 1950-60s era rocket-propelled grenades with negligible damage. It's much less efficient against later models of RPGs. For example the RPG-29 from the 1980s is able to penetrate the frontal hull armour of the Challenger II

Weaponry
Main battle tanks are equipped with a main tank gun, and at least one machine gun. MBT main guns are generally between 90 and 130mm caliber, and can fire both anti-armor and, more recently, anti-personnel rounds. The cannon serves a dual role, able to engage other armored targets such as tanks and fortifications, and soft targets such as light vehicles and infantry. It is fixed to the turret, along with the loading and fire mechanism. Modern tanks utilize a sophisticated fire-control system, Merkava Mk 3d BAZ of the Israel Defense including rangefinders, computerized fire control, and stabilizers, Forces firing its main gun. which are designed to keep the cannon stable and aimed even if the hull is turning or shaking, making it easier for the operators to fire on the move and/or against moving targets. Gun-missile systems are complicated and have been particularly unsatisfactory to the United States who abandoned gun-missile projects such as the M60A2 and MBT-70. The MBT's role could be compromised because of the increasing distances involved and the increased reliance on indirect fire. The tank gun is still useful in urban combat for precisely delivering powerful fire while minimizing collateral damage.

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High explosive anti-tank (HEAT), and some form of high velocity kinetic energy penetrator, such as APFSDS (Armor-piercing fin stabilized discarding sabot) rounds are carried for anti-armor purposes. Anti-personnel rounds such as high explosive or high explosive fragmentation have dual purpose. Less common rounds are beehive anti-personnel rounds, and high explosive squash head (HESH) rounds used for both anti-armor and bunker busting. Usually, an MBT carries 30-50 rounds of ammunition for its main gun, usually split between French Leclerc HE, HEAT and kinetic energy penetrator rounds. Some MBTs may also carry smoke or white phosphorus rounds. Some MBTs are equipped with an autoloader, such as the French Leclerc, or the Russian/Ukrainian T-64, T-72, T-80 T-84 and T-90 and, for this reason, the crew can be reduced to 3 members. MBTs with an autoloader require one less crew member and the autoloader requires less space than its human counterpart, allowing for a reduction in turret size. Further, an autoloader can be designed to handle rounds which would be too difficult for a human to load. This reduces the silhouette which improves the MBT's target profile, however, with a manual loader, the rounds can be isolated within a blowout chamber, rather than a magazine within the turret, which could improve crew survivability. However, the force of a modern depleted uranium armor piercing fin discarding sabot round at the muzzle can exceed 6000KN.(a rough estimate, considering a uranium 60cm/2cm rod, 19g/cm3, @ 1750m/s) Composite+reactive armor could withstand this kind of force through its deflection and deformation, but with a second hit in the same area, an armor breach is inevitable. As such, the speed of follow up shots is crucial within tank to tank combat. As secondary weapons, an MBT usually uses between two and four machine guns to engage infantry and light vehicles. Many MBTs mount one heavy caliber anti-aircraft machine gun (AAMG), usually of .50 caliber (like the M2 Browning or DShK), which can be used against helicopters and low flying aircraft. However, their effectiveness is limited in comparison to dedicated anti-aircraft artillery. The tank's machine guns are usually equipped with between 500 and 3000 rounds each.

Mobility
MBTs, like previous models of tanks, move on treads, which allow a decent level of mobility over most terrain including sand and mud. They also allow tanks to climb over most obstacles. MBTs can be made water-tight, so they can even dive into shallow water (5m (16ft) with snorkel). However, treads are not as fast as wheels; the maximum speed of a tank is about 65km/h (40mph) (72km/h (45mph) for the Leopard 2). The extreme weight of vehicles of this type (60-70 tons) also limits their speed. They are usually equipped with a 1,2001,500hp (8901,100kW) engine (more than 25,000cc (1,526cuin)), with an operational range near 500km (310mi).

A former British Army Challenger 1

The German Army has prioritized mobility in its Leopard 2 which is considered the fastest MBT in existence.

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The MBT is often cumbersome in traffic, much to the disdain of drivers who must share the road with it. The tracks can damage some roads after repeated use. Many structures like bridges do not have the load capacity to support an MBT. In the fast pace of combat it is often impossible to test the sturdiness of these structures. In the 2003 invasion of Iraq, an M1 Abrams attempting to cross a bridge to evade enemy fire plummeted into the Euphrates river when the bridge collapsed. Though appreciated for its excellent off-road characteristics, the MBT can become immobilized in muddy conditions.
The Italian Ariete. Its relatively low weight (54 tonnes) facilitates the mobility, especially while crossing bridges.

The high cost of MBTs can be attributed in part to the high performance engine-transmission system and to the fire control system. Also, propulsion systems are not produced in high enough quantities to take advantage of economies of scale. Crew fatigue limits the operational range of MBTs in combat. Reducing the crew to three and relocating all crewmembers from the turret to the hull could provide time to sleep for one off-shift crewmember located in the rear of the hull. In this scenario, Israeli Merkava Mark IV on a tank transporter crewmembers would rotate shifts regularly and all would require cross-training on all vehicle job functions. Cargo aircraft are instrumental to the timely deployment of MBTs. The absence of sufficient numbers of strategic airlift assets can limit the rate of MBT deployments to the number of aircraft available. The only aircraft capable of transporting full-featured MBTs with ease are the C-5 Galaxy, Antonov An-22, and Antonov An-124 which are declining in number. Military planners anticipate that the airlift capability for MBTs will not improve in the future. To date, no helicopter has the capability to lift MBTs. Rail and road are heavily used to move MBTs nearer to the battle, ready to fight in prime condition. Where well maintained roads allow it, wheeled tank transporters can be used. The difficult task of resupply is usually accomplished with large trucks.

Storage
Main battle tanks have internal and external storage space. Internal space is reserved for ammunition. External space enhances independence of logistics and can accommodate extra fuel and some personal equipment of the crew. The Israeli Merkava can even accommodate crewmembers displaced from a destroyed vehicle in its ammunition compartment.

Crew
Emphasis is placed on selecting and training main battle tank crew-members. The crew must perform their tasks faultlessly and harmoniously so commanders select teams taking into consideration personalities and talents.

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Role
The main battle tank fulfills the role the British had once called the 'universal tank', filling almost all battlefield roles. They were originally designed in the Cold War to combat other MBTs. The modern light tank supplements the MBT in expeditionary roles and situations where all major threats have been neutralized and excess weight in armor and armament would only hinder mobility and cost more money to operate. Reconnaissance by MBTs is performed in high-intensity conflicts where reconnaissance by light vehicles would be insufficient due to the necessity to 'fight' for information.

U.S. Marines during the Iraq War ride on an M1A1 Abrams tank in April 2003.

In asymmetric warfare, main battle tanks are deployed in small highly concentrated units. MBTs fire only at targets at close range and instead rely on external support such as unmanned aircraft for long range combat. Main battle tanks have significantly varied characteristics. Procuring too many varieties can place a burden on tactics, training, support and maintenance. The MBT has a positive morale effect on the infantry it accompanies. It also instills fear in the opposing force who can often hear and even feel their arrival.

Procurement
Manufacture
MBT production is increasingly being outsourced to wealthy nations. Countries that are just beginning to produce tanks are having difficulties remaining profitable in an industry that is increasingly becoming more expensive through sophistication of technology. Even some large-scale producers are seeing declines in production. Even China is divesting many of its MBTs. The production of main battle tanks is limited to manufacturers that specialize in combat vehicles. Commercial manufacturers of civilian vehicles cannot easily be repurposed as MBT production facilities. Prices for MBTs have more than tripled from 19432011, although this pales in comparison with the price increase in fighter aircraft from 1943-1975.

Mechanics at Anniston Army Depot line up an M1 Abrams turret with its hull.

Marketing
Several MBT models, such as the AMX-40 and OF-40, were marketed almost solely as export vehicles. Several tank producers, such as Japan and Israel, choose not to market their creations for export. Others have export control laws in place.

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References
Notes
[1] House (1984), Toward Combined Arms Warfare:A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization [2] . . .. - .: , 1976-80 ., 8- , (Soviet Military Encyclopedia) [3] T-64 manual (" -64. . 1984") state T-64 as "main battle" tank, while previous T-62 and T-55 (in corresponding military manuals, like " -62. . 1968") stated as "medium" tanks [4] MIL-T-45308 state "Tank, Main Battle, 105MM Gun, M60", while MIL-T-45148 state "TANK, COMBAT, FULL-TRACKED, 90MM GUN, M48A2"

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Type 99
Type 99

A Type 99 tank at the China People's Revolution Military Museum in Beijing during the 2007 Our troops towards the sun exhibition. Type Placeoforigin Main battle tank
People's Republic of China

Production history
Manufacturer Unitcost Numberbuilt Norinco 16,000,000 Renminbi (approx 2,000,000 USD) ~500

Specifications
Weight ~54 tonnes for Type-99G ~57 tonnes for Type-99A1 ~58 tonnes for Type-99A2 11.0 m 3.5 m 2.37 m 3 Classified, Al2O3, ERA, composite, with laser dazzler, soft kill defense system, hard kill defense system 125 mm smoothbore tank gun

Length Width Height Crew Armor

Main armament Secondary armament Engine Power/weight Suspension

Type 85 heavy machine gun 12.7x108 mm commander's machine gun, 7.62 mm coaxial machine gun liquid-cooled diesel 1,500 hp (1,100 kW); 2,100 hp for Type 99KM 27.8 hp/tonne; 28 hp/tonne for Type 99KM torsion bar

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600 km (373 miles)

Operational range Speed

80 km/h (50 mph)

The Type 99, also known as ZTZ-99 and WZ-123, developed from the Type 98G (in turn, a development of the Type 98), is a third generation main battle tank (MBT) fielded by the Chinese People's Liberation Army. It is made to compete with other modern tanks. It is currently the most advanced MBT fielded by China. The ZTZ-99 MBT is a successor to the Type 98G tank manufactured for the People's Liberation Army (PLA).

Development
At the end of 1970, the Type 122 Experimental Medium Tank project was aborted after three years of development. In February 1977, work on a second-generation PRC tank was begun, and in April 1978, the development goals for the new project were set. The Soviet T-72 was the tank's primary projected combat target. In March 1979, Chinese government Institutes 617 and 201 developed the new Type 1224 experimental chassis, which had been installed with the MB8v331TC41 model tank imported from Germany. Later, another two models were developed, the Type 1226, with the "8V165", a 763kW, 1,000-horsepower diesel engine by Factory 636, and the Type 1226F2, with the "12V150" 763kW, 1,000-horsepower engine by Factory 616. All three prototypes were armed with 120mm smoothbore cannons. Ammunition was placed behind the turret, similar to the design philosophy of the German Leopard 2 A1. After the designation of the Type 80 as the PRC's second-generation tank in 1981, groups emerged within the Chinese military who argued that a third, more advanced tank generation was still needed. Out of these, two main camps emerged. One group argued for a design based on the Soviet T-72, with three crewmembers and a 125mm autoloader cannon. The other favored an Israeli Merkava-styled design with a power pack closer to the front of the tank, a 120mm semi-automatic-loading cannon, and a high-output diesel or gas turbine engine. The project was delayed for some years because of the division. Finally, in July 1984, the Army settled on the T-72-based design. In the summer of 1986, the plan was submitted to China's State Council and Central Military Commission. It was approved in the same year, and incorporated into the Major Weapons Development program of China's Seventh Five-Year Plan. In the Spring of 1989, Norinco signed a contract with the Chinese government to manufacture the Type 99. At the beginning of the following year, its Factory 617 produced the first Type 99 prototype. In 1993, the front armor plating on the Type 99 was increased from 600mm to 700mm to meet government specifications. In August 1994, two prototypes produced by Norinco underwent climate durability tests in southern China. During the tests, the prototypes were driven 3800 kilometers and 200 rounds were fired. In September 1994, reliability and fording tests were carried out in the Tuoli and Huiahuling regions outside of Beijing. Additionally, from 1995 to 1996, three prototypes underwent arctic climate tests in Tahe County, Heilongjiang. On March 12, 1996, the Type 99 project formally moved into the final stage of development. In May 1996, Norinco's Factory 617 started the assembly of a finalized prototype. At the end of December 1996, two finalized prototypes were again transported to Tahe for further arctic testing. Within the two-month testing period, the prototypes were driven a total of 6,900 kilometers and 20 government testing programs were completed. At the end of 1997, four finalized prototypes underwent additional testing, travelling a collective 20,000 kilometers and test firing 760 rounds. Finally, at the end of 1999, following over five years of extensive government testing, the design of the Type 98, as it was then known, was fully completed. Its firepower, control systems, armor and electronics were deemed by the Army to have met or exceeded the project's original goals. Small-scale production of the Type 98 was begun in time for the tank to be featured in the PRC's National Day parade in 1999. Following the completion of the Type 98, research into improved versions of the tank continued within the Chinese government. These programs produced the Type 98G, a refined iteration of the Type 98 with a better reliability

Type 99 record. At the end of 2001, the first batch of 40 Type 98G tanks entered service with the regular Army. The Type 98G eventually gave rise to what is now known as the Type 99, which was officially revealed by the government in 2001. The final version of the Type 99 included a 1,500-horsepower engine, as opposed to its immediate predecessor's 1,200-horsepower powertrain. Also added were a Leopard 2A5-style sloped-arrow armor plate on the front of the turret, and additional composite armor layers on the sides. Norinco's official designation for the Type 99 is ZTZ-99. The tank is also known as the "WZ-123 MBT". The unit price for one Type 99 is estimated to be 16 million yuan, (2 million US, 1.6 million EUR). In part due to its high cost, the tank is not expected to be deployed in large numbers, unlike earlier Chinese designs such as the Type 59. Because of the limited nature of its production, the Type 99 is currently only operated by the PLA's most elite divisions, while the Type 96 tank has become the force's new backbone.

182

Type 98
The Chinese government made a decision to modernize their tank force by incorporating advanced features into their next-generation MBT, as their older tanks were becoming ineffective. The resulting tank had a hull (chassis) similar to the T-72 or T-80 while having a welded turret like most Western tanks. The aim was to create a tank which could defeat the Soviet T-72/T-80 and approach the capabilities of the German Leopard 2 and US M1A1. Norinco's official designation for the Type 98 is ZTZ-98.

Type 98
This prototype is unique among current Chinese designs. Instead of an autoloader, it has a fourth crew member to manually load the western-style single unit ammunition rounds. Traditional Soviet-style autoloaders were designed to separately load the propellant and warhead components. The transmission is manual instead of automatic like those on the newer Type 90. The tank can also fire DU (Depleted Uranium) rounds.

Type 98G
The most obvious feature is that a modified autoloader was installed so that the crew was reduced to three from the original four. The power plant is a domestic 150HB 1,200-hp diesel engine. It is able to fire depleted uranium rounds.
Type 98 tank seen here in rehearsal for the October 1st 1999 National Day Military Parade.

Type 99
The basic variant of the Type 99 series it has a laser defence system that can temporarily damage the enemy tank's optics. The latest variant that is in full service is the Type 99A2 with a 1,500-hp water cooled diesel engine and getting re-designed at some parts. The newest in trial is the Type 99KM. The Type 99A2 has increased armor on the turret. The self-defense laser module has been replaced by an active defensive module. The ZTZ-99A2 also installed ERA on the front and side turret. The tank hull will follow the MBT 2000 configuration instead of the previously used hull.

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Type 99G
CNGC has been deploying a further modified version of the ZTZ99, possibly known as ZTZ99G. A photo released by the Chinese official Xinhua News Agency in February 2008 revealed an improved variant of the ZTZ99 that features a laser warning system,[1] newly designed observation and active protection system (APS). The commander viewer of the new tank appears to be slightly larger than that of the basic variant ZTZ99, suggesting a possible independent commander thermal imaging viewer.

Type 99A1
The Type 99A1 is the latest version in service of the PLA while the more advanced variant the Type 99A2 is still in various trials and did not make it to the National Day Parade in 2009. While the earlier Type 99 that entered service several years ago had additional armor packages on the original Type 98 turret and the chassis, the Type 99A1 has its turret top reshaped, having the hump on the turret's top removed by thickening it. This might be the result for changing the height of the turret itself to improve more protection or more space for the tank commander and gunner. Other distinct details are the armor packages on the front and at its sides, the ERA panels have been extended. The Type 99A1 might also have received further upgrades in terms of targeting computers etc.

Type 99A2
The much-improved Type 99 variant, with many major upgrades and improvements. Some of the improvement and upgrades include a reaction improved aiming system, a digital battlefield information terminal, a newly designed arrow-shaped armor, a larger turret, an expanded tail chamber, a new commander's periscope, an Integrated Propulsion System, a hard kill defense system and an Active Protection System mounted on the turret with millimeter-wave radar that will replace the laser defence system.

Type 99A2 light tank

A light tank, with a Type 99A2 turret, 105mm gun, and a small chassis, was also spotted.[2]

Design
The development of the new tank was initiated in the early 1990s during the Gulf War. Western tanks had destroyed numerous Iraqi Soviet-made T-72Ms, and were superior to the most advanced tank design in the PLA at the time, the Type 90 tank.[3] The PLA realised that the Type 90 were still no match for the Western MBT designs such as the Challenger 2 and M1A1, and initiated a project to develop a new, modern main battle tank which eventually resulted in the highly A Type 99 MBT from the rear. advanced and successful Type 99. The design was based on the Russian T-85IIM, instead of the Type 90. Other influences include the Soviet T-80 and the German Leopard 2.[citation needed] Features include sloped turret armor and an overall low profile turret for increased protection. The driver's compartment is in the front while the fighting compartment lies directly behind it, with the engine installed in the rear. To accommodate more equipment and ammunition, the Type 98's turret is slightly larger than that of the Type 90, resulting in a gap between the turret and hull in the front. This could be a major disadvantage in battle, as it acts as a shot trap and exposes the turret ring, increasing the likelihood of hits from the front jamming the turret. Norinco has since provided armor upgrades to the Type 99, which minimizes the gap to avoid a shot trap. The tank is equipped with an active laser defense system. The laser warning receiver can determine the location of an attacking enemy tank, while the high-powered laser dazzler can temporarily damage the enemy tank's optics. It can

Type 99 also be used as a secure communications device.

184

Counter Measures and Communications

The type-VHF-2000 tank communication system on the Type 98 (and mostly the Type 99 too) has electronic countermeasures, electro-magnetic compatibility and multiple workstation capability. Mounted behind the commander's hatch is a laser communication and IFF system. It is a compact and multifunctional system used for IFF, sending digital command signal, voiced communication and laser detection. its receiver could function as a laser warning system on the wavelength of 0.91.06m. it has a working range of >3,600m. up and down angle of +45 degree to -10 degree (same as the commander's sight), 360 degree at horizontal level, target detection time is <0.6sec, 60 encrypted IFF code is stored in the system. Further back on top of the turret is the type-9602 GPS navigation and position signal receiving antenna, its a two channel C/A code receiver and provide 3D military grade coordinates under all weather condition, data on tank's moving direction and speed along with those of the target can be established to provide suitable navigation route. type-9602 has a relatively low precision of 100m that fell short of some tactical requirement, once the Type 98G is equipped with the successfully developed GLONSS/GPS navigation and positioning system, the precision can be increased to 20 meters. On the back of the gunner's hatch is an active laser suppression system designated JT-1, which is claimed to be designed to directly attack the various guidance systems on the opponent's weapon system. it can be operated by either the commander or the gunner, the laser ray could interfere or permanently damage IR sensor's components (laser ranger; night-vision equipment; TV camera head; telescopic sight; etc.) and has obvious effect against naked eyes. The system consists of a micro-computer control box; target tracking sub-system; laser suppressor and thermal image jammer. The system can be rotated 360 degrees, +90 degree to -12 degree, horizontal tracking speed 45 degree/sec, vertical tracking speed 40 degree/sec, laser energy output is 1.000MHz, laser pulse's working repetition rate is 10ps, maximum working range is 4,000m, continues working time is 30min, laser beamer has a lifespan of 1.2 million. But other sources suspect it to be ATM guidance device, even a patent description claims it to be laser-based IFF system[citation needed]. A special reporting book published a photo of an electro-optical active protection suite resembling Russian Shtora, called JD-3, but it has never appeared on the Type 99 and instead appeared on some of the prototype 96Gs[citation needed]. In addition, the Type 98/99's driver is equipped with anti-laser glass for protection from similar systems fielded on an opponent's platform.

Armament
The ZTZ99's main armament includes a dual-axis fully stabilised 125mm/51-calibre ZPT98 smoothbore gun with a carousel-style autoloader, a thermal sleeve, and a fume extractor. The gun can be fired by either electronics or manual control. The gun barrel can be replaced within one hour. Loading is mechanical with 41 rounds carried inside the turret and vehicle hull while 22 rounds are stored Type 99 Its 125mm gun in clear view within the autoloader. The gun can fire about 4 rounds per minute using autoloader and 1~2 rounds per minute with manual loading. Ammunition includes armour-piercing fin stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS), HEAT, and HE-FRAG projectiles. China has also reportedly manufactured Soviet AT-11 laser-guided anti-tank missiles[citation needed] to be fired from the 125mm gun for enemy tank with Explosive Reactive Armour, with an effective range of 4km. In addition, the Chinese have developed depleted uranium (DU) rounds for their tanks and these may be available for the Type 99. Its muzzle velocity is 1780m/s.[4] The 3rd generation kinetic energy armour-piercing ammunition for the 125mm tank gun is the APFSDS round with a 30:1 length/calibre heavy tungsten alloy penetrator and is claimed to be capable of penetrating 860 mm steel armor at a distance of 2,000m. A HEAT shell was able to defeat 1100mm

Type 99 rolled homogenous armor.[5] A depleted uranium (DU) APFSDS round is available which is claimed to be able to penetrate 1050mm steel armour at a distance of 2,000 m.[6][7] From Type 98 to all Type 99 variants, they are all armed with a ZPT98 125mm smoothbore gun with a length/calibre ratio of 51:1. The barrel is made of high-intensity PCrN13NoV, muzzle velocity is comparable to that of Soviet 2A46M-1 type 125mm gun. Hydraulic self-strengthening technology has resulted in a much stiffer barrel, the length is 6,412mm. The thermal sleeve is of a double aluminium plate structure with air gap, it consists of 5 non-interchangeable parts, its effective rate is 70%. A severely damaged ZPT98 can have its parts repaired and/or replaced on the battlefield within one hour.

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Armour
Currently, the actual armor composition of the Type-99/ZTZ-99 remains unknown. There are public photos of experimental Chinese composite armors, specifically Al2O3 under test. The armor didn't sustain any significant damage after being shot by a T-72C 125mm armament seven times or a 105mm armament nine times in a range of 1,800 meters.[citation needed] The front armor protection, with added ERA, would be estimated to be equivalent to 1200mm of steel armor against chemical energy weapons on the turret, and about 1000mm against APFSDS on the turret.[citation needed] Another theory that has been suggested is that the armor additions are not ERA (Explosive Reactive Armour), but composite layers in block form. The reason is that the blocks are too large to be effectively used as ERA, since one detonation leads to a large unprotected area. Further support is given in the fact that Eastern Bloc armies had two armor packages after the introduction of ERA. Live ERA blocks for wartime and composite blocks for peacetime, as maintaining ERA blocks during operational conditions is both expensive and hazardous as well as leading to an increase in weight.

Fire Control and observation

Fire accuracy is attained by the laser rangefinder, wind sensor, ballistic computer, and thermal barrel sleeve, while essential muzzle reference system is invisible in released photographs. Dual axis stabilization ensures effective firing on the move. The commander has six periscopes and a stabilized panoramic sight. Both the commander and gunner have roof-mounted stabilized sights fitted with day/thermal channels, a laser rangefinder and an auto tracker facility. The commander has a display showing the gunner's thermal sight, enabling The driver's position. the commander to fire the main gun. The Thermal Imaging System (TIS) with cooled detector using processing in the element (SPRITE) technology has narrow field of view magnification of 11.4 and 5 in wide field of view. The Type 99 is also fitted with a computerized onboard information processing system, which can collect information from vehicle navigation (Inertia/GPS), observation systems and sensors, process it in the computer and display it on the commander's display, giving the ability of real-time command and beyond-vision-range target engaging.

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Propulsion
The Type 99 is powered by a liquid cooled, turbocharged 1,500hp diesel derived from the German MB871ka501 diesel technology. At its current battle weight of 54 tons, this gives a power-to-weight ratio of about 27.78hp/ton. The maximum speed on road is 80km/h and is claimed to be 60km/h on cross country. Acceleration from 0 to 32km/h only takes 12 seconds. The transmission provides seven forward and one reverse gears.[8]

Operators
People's Republic of China: ~500 in service

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] The Japanese Type 90 1:35 Scale model tank by Tamiya | TankNutDave (http:/ / www. tanknutdave. com/ component/ content/ article/ 90) http:/ / i68. photobucket. com/ albums/ i7/ teddyyeung/ 1324216710713. jpg ZTZ99 (Type 99) Main Battle Tank - SinoDefence.com (http:/ / www. sinodefence. com/ army/ tank/ type99. asp) ZTZ99 Main Battle Tank - Army Technology (http:/ / www. army-technology. com/ projects/ type99chinese-main/ ) http:/ / imageshack. us/ a/ img28/ 108/ c7z8. jpg

[6] 125 | - - Powered by phpwind (http:/ / www. fyjs. cn/ bbs/ read. php?tid=962918& page=1) [7] Tank Protection Levels (http:/ / collinsj. tripod. com/ protect. htm) [8] type 99 system (http:/ / www. sinodefence. com/ army/ tank/ type99-system. asp)

External links
Type 99 at Army-technology.com (http://www.army-technology.com/projects/type99chinese-main/) Type 99 at Sinodefence.com (http://www.sinodefence.com/army/tank/type99.asp) Type 99 tank images and intro in Chinese (http://www.airforceworld.com/tank/zztk/99.htm) The Chinese Type 99 Main Battle Tank: A New Beast from the East (http://www.china-defense.com/armor/ type98/type98_1.html)Wikipedia:Link rot - China-Defense.com The New Chinese Type 99 MBT: A Second Look Reveals More Details (http://www.china-defense.com/ armor/type98-2/type98-2_1.html)Wikipedia:Link rot - China-Defense.com Type 99 at Globalsecurity.org (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/type-98.htm) Type 98 at Armor ID Page (http://www.d-2-128.org/armorid/ct-98.html)Wikipedia:Link rot Type 98 at rusi.org (http://www.rusi.org/publication/cmu/ref:P42F363471991B/)

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Arjun (tank) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=587500030 Contributors: AKStheIMAGE, Adaptor40, Adhirk, Adnan bogi, Alansohn, Aldis90, Alfrodull, Allenwalla, Androjan, AniMate, Anir1uph, Anthony Appleyard, Archerblack, AshLin, Auntof6, Avik pram, Ayrton Prost, Azaz129, BD2412, Bcs09, Belovedfreak, Ben Ben, Bender235, Bharat9090, BilCat, Booven, Borderline ginge, Brig.Gurbux Singh Retd., Buckshot06, By78, Canyouhearmenow, Catalan, Cekli829, Chackojoseph, Chanakyathegreat, Chitresh verma, Chris the speller, Clarityfiend, Coikli, CommonsDelinker, DBigXray, DPdH, Dabomb87, Dance With The Devil, Daniel J. 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File:Leopardo 2E. zaragoza 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopardo_2E._zaragoza_1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Oscar in the middle File:Flag of Germany.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Spain.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie Image:Spanish Leopard 2A4 Madrid.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spanish_Leopard_2A4_Madrid.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: JonCatalan (talk) Original uploader was Catalan at en.wikipedia Image:Leopard 2E turret plate and mantlet.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopard_2E_turret_plate_and_mantlet.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: JonCatalan aka Catalan Image:Leopard 2E climbing.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopard_2E_climbing.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: JonCataln (talk) Original uploader was Catalan at en.wikipedia File:30mm DU slug.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:30mm_DU_slug.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Nrcprm2026 at en.wikipedia File:DUF6 cylinder leak.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DUF6_cylinder_leak.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: US Federal Government File:Flag of the United States.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Russia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Zscout370 File:Flag of France.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Good Olfactory, Mifter File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zscout370 File:Flag of Japan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 Recode by cs:User:-xfi- (code), User:Shizhao (colors) File:Flag of South Korea.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various File:Flag of South Africa.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: unknown Contributors: Adriaan, Anime Addict AA, AnonMoos, BRUTE, Daemonic Kangaroo, Dnik, Duduziq, Dzordzm, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Jappalang, Juliancolton, Kam Solusar, Klemen Kocjancic, Klymene, Lexxyy, MAXXX-309, Mahahahaneapneap, Manuelt15, Moviedefender, NeverDoING, Ninane, Pitke, Poznaniak, Przemub, Ricordisamoa, SKopp, Sarang, SiBr4, ThePCKid, ThomasPusch, Tvdm, Ultratomio, Vzb83, Zscout370, 37 anonymous edits File:Flag of Singapore.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various File:M900.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M900.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was TDC at en.wikipedia File:Mark 149 Mod 2 20mm ammunition.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mark_149_Mod_2_20mm_ammunition.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Service Depicted: NavyCamera Operator: PHAN BRAD DILLON File:GWI DU map.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GWI_DU_map.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: BrokenSphere, Electionworld, J 1982, Schneelocke, Stannered, Timeshifter, WhatamIdoing, 1 anonymous edits File:Basrah birth defects.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Basrah_birth_defects.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: --pbroks13talk? Original uploader was Pbroks13 at en.wikipedia File:Kosovo uranium NATO bombing1999.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kosovo_uranium_NATO_bombing1999.png License: Public Domain Contributors: PANONIAN Image:DUF6 storage yard far.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DUF6_storage_yard_far.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Biem Image:Corroded DUF6 cylinder.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Corroded_DUF6_cylinder.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Guy Macon, Monkeybait, Nrcprm2026 Image:Chieftain-MkIII-latrun-2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chieftain-MkIII-latrun-2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Bukvoed File:Chieftain Bovington 2006.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chieftain_Bovington_2006.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Andrew Skudder from UK Image:British Chieftain tanks.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Chieftain_tanks.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: Imke Paust File:AVRE Carrying Fascine MOD 45149255.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AVRE_Carrying_Fascine_MOD_45149255.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Danrok, F File:Chieftain lesany.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chieftain_lesany.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Adamicz File:Flag of Iran.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various File:Flag of Iraq.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown, published by Iraqi governemt, vectorized by User:Militaryace based on the work of User:Hoshie File:Flag of Jordan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of Kuwait.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of Oman.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Oman.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: *drew, Alkari, Bast64, Cycn, Duduziq, Fry1989, Happenstance, Homo lupus, Ittihadawi, Jetijones, Klemen Kocjancic, Liftarn, Mattes, Neq00, Nightstallion, NikNaks, OAlexander, Orange Tuesday, Pumbaa80, Rfc1394, Ricordisamoa, ThomasPusch, Zscout370 File:abrams-transparent.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abrams-transparent.png License: Public Domain Contributors: United States Army and User:ZStoler File:DF-SC-82-07237.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DF-SC-82-07237.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: DoD photo by: EDDIE MCCROSSAN Date Shot: 1 Dec 1979 National Archive# NN33300514 30 Jun 2005, uploader was Signaleer at en.wikipedia.org File:105mm M1 Abrams.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:105mm_M1_Abrams.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Original uploader was W. B. Wilson at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Hohum at en.wikipedia. File:Abrams in formation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abrams_in_formation.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: PHC D. W. HOLMES II, US Navy File:Destroyed M1A1 Abrams.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Destroyed_M1A1_Abrams.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Armbrust, Sfan00 IMG, Signaleer, 3 anonymous edits File:M1A1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M1A1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aleksej fon Grozni, Avron, Benchill, D-Kuru, Denniss, High Contrast, PMG File:Mounted Soldier System (MSS).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mounted_Soldier_System_(MSS).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: High Contrast, Marcus Qwertyus, 1 anonymous edits File:Abrams crossing Euphrates.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abrams_crossing_Euphrates.JPG License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Matthew.j.obrien File:M1A1 Twin Bridges training area 2C Republic of Korea 1-23 Infantry.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M1A1_Twin_Bridges_training_area_2C_Republic_of_Korea_1-23_Infantry.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Specialist Christina Anne Horne (U.S. Army) File:Turret of Australian M1A1 Abrams tank.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turret_of_Australian_M1A1_Abrams_tank.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: DVIDSHUB

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File:SolOline-2005-04-27-095150.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SolOline-2005-04-27-095150.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ariedartin, MER-C, Reidotorpedo, Signaleer, 2 anonymous edits File:Fallujah 2004 M1A1 Abrams.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fallujah_2004_M1A1_Abrams.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lance Corporal James J. Vooris, (USMC); uploaded by Signaleer at en.wikipedia.org File:M1 Abrams turret fire above.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M1_Abrams_turret_fire_above.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sgt. Alex C. Sauceda File:3rd ID M1A1 Abrams TC and Gunner 2008.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3rd_ID_M1A1_Abrams_TC_and_Gunner_2008.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Specialist Thornberry (U.S. Army), uploaded by Signaleer from en.wikipedia.org File:DA-SD-06-06814.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DA-SD-06-06814.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: DoD photo by: SPC ADAM SANDERS, USA Date Shot: 8 Jan 2005, original uploader was Signaleer from en.wikipedia File:AGT1500 engine and M1 tank.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AGT1500_engine_and_M1_tank.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: SGT PAUL L. ANSTINE II, USMC File:M1a1 drivers hole.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M1a1_drivers_hole.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tonker83. Original uploader was Tonker83 at en.wikipedia File:M1 strategic mobility.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M1_strategic_mobility.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Marcus Qwertyus at en.wikipedia

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Xhienne, 2 anonymous edits File:Flag of Qatar.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Qatar.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: (of code) cs:User:-xfiFile:Leopard1 cfb borden 2.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopard1_cfb_borden_2.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Balcer, Denniss, High Contrast, KTo288, Marcelloo, Morio, Mzajac File:Leopard 1 Schnittmodell.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopard_1_Schnittmodell.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Bukvoed, Darkone, High Contrast, Morio, Rcbutcher, TUBS File:Leopard 1 Prototyp Munster.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopard_1_Prototyp_Munster.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Darkone File:Leopard1 Bundeswehr 1983.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopard1_Bundeswehr_1983.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: CMSGT Don Sutherland, USAF File:2 norwegian Leopard tanks in the snow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2_norwegian_Leopard_tanks_in_the_snow.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Common Good, Harald Hansen, High Contrast, Ikar.us, Jwh, Manxruler File:Leopard Tiefwaten.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopard_Tiefwaten.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: powidl File:Pionierpanzer Dachs right Side.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pionierpanzer_Dachs_right_Side.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Powidl at de.wikipedia (Original text : Powidl) File:Bergepanzer2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bergepanzer2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Sonaz File:Panzerschnellbruecke Biber auf Brueckenleger.jpg Source: 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Australian Leopard AS1 tank forest.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Australian_Leopard_AS1_tank_forest.jpg License: unknown Contributors: U.S. Navy photo by Interior Communications Electrician 2nd Class Fred Brier File:Leopard C2 Canadian Forces.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopard_C2_Canadian_Forces.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Air Force photo/ Master Sgt. Mitch Gettle File:Leopard C2 MBT, RMC, CFB Kingston, 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leopard_C2_MBT,_RMC,_CFB_Kingston,_1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Skaarup.HA Image:T62.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T62.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: --Gutsul 06:43, 5 October 2006 (UTC) File:Flag of the Soviet Union 1955.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1955.svg License: unknown Contributors: Image:272b-T-62.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:272b-T-62.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ain92, Bukvoed, Hohum, PMG, Urhixidur Image:T-62 BRL.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-62_BRL.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bilou, Hohum, PMG, SuperTank17 Image:T-62 STATIC.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-62_STATIC.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bilou, PMG, SuperTank17 File:Rear view of a T-62A.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rear_view_of_a_T-62A.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: High Contrast, PeterWD File:T-62 smokescreen.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-62_smokescreen.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: SuperTank17 Image:T-62-batey-haosef-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-62-batey-haosef-1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Bukvoed Image:T-62-batey-haosef-2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-62-batey-haosef-2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Bukvoed File:T-62M Kabul.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-62M_Kabul.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Davric (original picture), SuperTank17 (crop) Image:Tiran-6-latrun-2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tiran-6-latrun-2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Bukvoed Image:Soviet MAZ-537 trucks transporting tanks.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soviet_MAZ-537_trucks_transporting_tanks.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: High Contrast, SuperTank17, Ultra7 File:Captured T-62 tank.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Captured_T-62_tank.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Marchrius Image:T-62 withdraws from Afghanistan.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-62_withdraws_from_Afghanistan.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: High Contrast, Raoulduke47, SuperTank17, 3 anonymous edits File:T62 Afghanistan.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T62_Afghanistan.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Davric, the uploader File:T-62s and T-62Ms Afghanistan.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-62s_and_T-62Ms_Afghanistan.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: SPC KELLY MATTHEW BURKHART, USA File:Cubatanques.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cubatanques.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Pepin1234 File:T-26 operators.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-26_operators.PNG License: unknown Contributors: User:Zo3a File:Flag of Angola.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Angola.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of Cuba.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Cuba.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: see below File:Flag of Eritrea.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alkari, Bukk, Counny, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Moipaulochon, Neq00, Nightstallion, Ninane, Persiana, Ratatosk, Rodejong, SiBr4, ThomasPusch, Vzb83, WikipediaMaster, Zscout370, 3 anonymous edits File:Flag of Ethiopia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg License: unknown Contributors: Aaker, Anime Addict AA, Antemister, Cycn, Djampa, F l a n k e r, Fry1989, GoodMorningEthiopia, Happenstance, Homo lupus, Huhsunqu, Ixfd64, Klemen Kocjancic, Ludger1961, MartinThoma, Mattes, Mozzan, Neq00, OAlexander, Pumbaa80, Rainforest tropicana, Reisio, Ricordisamoa, SKopp, Smooth O, Spiritia, ThomasPusch, Torstein, Wsiegmund, Xoristzatziki, Zscout370, 16 anonymous edits File:Flag of Kurdistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alkari, Alno, Antemister, ChuchoHuff, Denelson83, Erlenmeyer, Flad, Gryffindor, Himasaram, J. Patrick Fischer, Liftarn, Mattes, Pumbaa80, R-41, Raymond, Stianbh, Timeshifter, Zscout370, , 6 anonymous edits File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: unknown Contributors: -xfiFile:Flag of Libya.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Libya.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various File:Flag of Mongolia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370 File:Flag of North Korea.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zscout370 File:Flag of South Ossetia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Ossetia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various File:Flag of Syria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Syria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: see below File:Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Syria-flag_1932-58_1961-63.svg License: unknown Contributors: File:Flag of Uzbekistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370 File:Flag of Vietnam.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lu Ly v li theo ngun trn File:Flag of Yemen.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Yemen.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anime Addict AA, AnonMoos, David Levy, Duduziq, Erlenmeyer, F. F. Fjodor, Flad, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Krun, Neq00, Nightstallion, Pitke, Reisio, Rodejong, SiBr4, Themadchopper, ThomasPusch, Urmas, Wikiborg, Zscout370, 4 anonymous edits File:Flag of Afghanistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370 File:Flag of Belarus.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zscout370 File:Flag of Bulgaria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: SKopp File:Flag of Israel.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the official specification for the design of the Israeli flag. The color of the Magen David and the stripes of the Israeli flag is not precisely specified by the above legislation. The color depicted in the current version of the image is typical of flags used in Israel today, although individual flags can and do vary. The flag legislation officially specifies dimensions of 220 cm 160 cm. However, the sizes of actual flags vary (although the aspect ratio is usually retained). Image:Iraqi T-62.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iraqi_T-62.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: Tech. Sgt. Joe Coleman File:Me, Iraqi war tank.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Me,_Iraqi_war_tank.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Hamed Saber File:Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: A1, Ahmadi, Alex Smotrov, Alvis Jean, Art-top, BagnoHax, Beetsyres34, Brandmeister, Counny, Cycn, Denniss, Dynamicwork, ELeschev, Endless-tripper, Ericmetro, EugeneZelenko, F l a n k e r, Fred J, Fry1989, G.dallorto, Garynysmon, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Jake Wartenberg, MaggotMaster, MrAustin390, Ms2ger, Nightstallion, Palosirkka, Patrickpedia, PeaceKeeper97, Pianist, R-41, Rainforest tropicana, Sebyugez, Skeezix1000, Solbris, Storkk, Str4nd, Tabasco, ThomasPusch, Toben, Twilight Chill, Xgeorg, Zscout370, , , 4, 65 anonymous edits File:Flag of Tajikistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Achim1999, Alex Spade, Anime Addict AA, Antonsusi, Apatomerus, Bjankuloski06en, Cycn, Ecad93, Erlenmeyer, EugeneZelenko, Fred the Oyster, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Johnny Rotten, Klemen Kocjancic, Leonid 2, Ludger1961, MAXXX-309, Mattes, Nameneko, Neq00, Nightstallion, OAlexander, Ricordisamoa, Rinkio, Sarang, SiBr4, SouthSudan, Zscout370, , 3 anonymous edits File:Flag of Turkmenistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Vzb83 File:Flag of Ukraine.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ahonc, Akhristov, Albedo-ukr, Antonanton, Chase I, Cycn, Denelson83, Dzordzm, Fred J, Ilyaroz, IvanOS, Jon Harald Sby, Justass, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Maximaximax, Mormegil, Neq00, Odder, Sarang, SeNeKa, Serhio, SiBr4, Tat1642, ZooFari, Zscout370, , 6 anonymous edits File:Flag of North Yemen.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alkari, AtomicIce, B1mbo, Cycn, Erlenmeyer, Fry1989, Gryffindor, Homo lupus, Indolences, N8eule78, Rocket000 File:Flag of South Yemen.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn File:Flag of Czechoslovakia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: (of code) cs:User:-xfiFile:Flag of Poland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Mifter

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File:T-55 4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-55_4.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: John Harwood File:Flag of the Soviet Union 1923.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_1923.svg License: unknown Contributors: File:Tank T-54 in Verkhnyaya Pyshma.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tank_T-54_in_Verkhnyaya_Pyshma.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Nucl0id Image:T-54-2 Morozov.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-54-2_Morozov.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Soviet government agencies image:T-55 schematic.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-55_schematic.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Beao Image:T-55 icon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-55_icon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: From US Army Field Manual 100-2-3 - The Soviet Army; Troops Organisation and Equipment File:Saft55.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saft55.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: United States Government, Secretary of the Army File:T-54A Panzermuseum Thun.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-54A_Panzermuseum_Thun.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Sandstein Image:Destroyed Iraqi T-55 on highway between Basra & Kuwait City 1991-04-18 1.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Destroyed_Iraqi_T-55_on_highway_between_Basra_&_Kuwait_City_1991-04-18_1.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: Tech. 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File:Object 430 (T-64 prototype).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Object_430_(T-64_prototype).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Serguei S. Dukachev File:T64.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T64.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: --Gutsul 06:42, 5 October 2006 (UTC) File:T-64 Kyiv.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-64_Kyiv.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Varga Attila File:T-64AK at the T-34 Tank History Museum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-64AK_at_the_T-34_Tank_History_Museum.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:VitalyKuzmin Image:T-64BM pre parade.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-64BM_pre_parade.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors: self File:T-64 der GSSD in Perleberg (1980er-Jahre).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-64_der_GSSD_in_Perleberg_(1980er-Jahre).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Ashot Pogosyants File:Flag of Transnistria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Transnistria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AnonMoos, Cycn, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Mattes, Max sonnelid, Nokka, Perconte, Urmas, Walden69, Zscout370, 5 anonymous edits File:2013 Moscow Victory Day Parade (28).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2013_Moscow_Victory_Day_Parade_(28).jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:VitalyKuzmin File:T-90MS main battle tank at Engineering Technologies 2012.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-90MS_main_battle_tank_at_Engineering_Technologies_2012.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Vitaly V. Kuzmin File:T-90 snorkel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-90_snorkel.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: -90_(underwater).jpg: Serguei S. Dukachev derivative work: Hohum (talk) File:T-90A - Engineering Technologies 2012 -01.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T-90A_-_Engineering_Technologies_2012_-01.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Vitaly V. 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D. Myles Cullen

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