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PART-A 1. Identification, Specification & Testing of R, L, C Components Aim: - To identify and test different components. Apparatus: S.No 1 2 3 4 5 Apparatus Resistors Capacitors Inductors Switches Type Different types Different types Different types Different types Requirement 1Each 1Each 1Each 1Each 1Each
Theory:Resistors:Opposition to flow of current is called resistance. The elements having resistance are called resistors. They are of two types: 1. Fixed resistor 2. Variable resistor
Fixed resistor
Variable resistor
Resistor Color Code:The resistance value and tolerance of carbon resistor is usually indicated by color coding. Color bands are printed on insulating body. They consist of four color bands or 5 color bands & they are read from left to right.
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The above resistor has 4 color bands. The first band represents first digit The second band represent second digit The third band represents multiplier (this gives the no. of zeros after the 2 digits) The 4th band represents tolerance in %
The color codes: First digit for Second Color the 1st band digit for the 2nd band Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White Gold Silver No color 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10^0 10^1 10^2 10^3 10^4 10^5 10^6 10^7 10^8 10^9 10^-1 10^-2 1% 2% 3% 5% 10% 20% Page 2 Multiplier digit Resistance tolerance for the 3rd band
B black 0
B brown 1
R red 2
O orange 3
Y Yellow 4
G green 5
B blue 6
V violet 7
G gray 8
W White 9
Examples:The resistor has a color band sequence green, blue, brown and silver identify the resistance value.
The resistance value=56x10^110% =56010% Therefore the resistance should be within the range of 555 to 565
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Fixed capacitor
Variable capacitor Capacitor value identification:Most capacitors indicated with XYZK/M volts V, where XYZ stands for the capacitance, K and M indicates the tolerance 10% and 20% and working voltage. Eg: A capacitors indicated with 105k330 is identified as 10105pF10% with a working voltage of 330 V. Similarly 103M100V = 10103pF 10% =0.01F Capacitor Specifications:1. Value of capacitance 2. Tolerance 3. Voltage rating 4. Temperature coefficient 5. Leakage resistance 6. Frequency range 7. Dielectric constant 8. Dielectric strength 9. Power factor 10. Stability
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Fixed inductor
Variable inductor
Inductance:The inductance is defined as the ability of an inductor which opposes the change in current. It is denoted by the letter L and its unit is Henry (H). An inductor can be tested with continuity test.
Inductor Specifications:1. Inductance value 2. Resistance 3. Capacitance 4. Frequency value 5. Quality Factor 6. Power Losses 7. Current Rating 8. Electro Magnetic Radiations
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SPST
SPDT DPST
DPDT Bread Board:An experimental version of a circuit generally layout on a flat board and assembled with temporary connections so that circuit elements may be easily substituted or changed. The name originates from the fact that early electrical circuits were actually wired on wood bread boards. It is used to connect an electronic circuit temporarily for testing and experimentation. A typical bread board is shown in fig.
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Opto electronic device -SCR UJT DIAC TRIAC Linear and Digital ICs ------
Theory: Semiconductors:Semiconductors are partial conductors which conduct electricity partially through them. They play major role in electronics. 1 P-N Junction diode 2. Zener diode Semiconductor is a material for which the width of the forbidden gap between the valence band conduction band is very small. As gap is every small valence electron acquire required energy to go in to the conduction band. These free electrons constitute of current under the influence of applied electric field. The conductivity of a semiconductor lies between that of a conductor and an insulator. The conductivity of a semiconductor lies in a range of 10^5 and 10^-4 siemens/meter.
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Circuit Symbols:-
Zener diode Diode testing: On an (analog) VOM, use the low ohms scale. A regular signal diode or rectifier should read a low resistance (typically 2/3 scale or a couple of hundred ohms) in the forward direction and infinite (nearly) resistance in the reverse direction. It should not read near 0 ohms (shorted) or open in both directions. A germanium diode will result in a higher scale reading (lower resistance) due to its lower voltage drop. On a (digital) DMM, there will usually be a diode test mode. Using this, a silicon diode should read between .5 to .8 V in the forward direction and open in reverse. For a germanium diode, it will be lower, perhaps .2 to .4 V or so in the forward direction. Using the normal resistance ranges any of them will usually show open for any semiconductor junction since the meter does not apply enough voltage to reach the value of the forward drop. Note, however, that a defective diode may indeed indicate resistances lower than infinity especially on the highest ohms range. So, any reading of this sort would be an indication of a bad device but the opposite is not guaranteed.
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2. FET: Field effect transistors again 2 types P-Channel FET N-Cannel FET 3. JFET: Junction field effect transistors they similar to FET. 4. MOSFET: Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor These are of two types a. Depletion MOSFET: These are again classified into two types N-Channel MOSFET P-Channel MOSFET b. Enhancement MOSFET: These are again classified into two types N-Channel MOSFET P-Channel MOSFET
Testing of a transistor: Set the DMM to the diode test. Connect the red meter lead to the base of the transistor. Connect the black meter lead to the emitter. A good NPN transistor will read a Junction Drop voltage of between 0.45v and 0.9v. A good PNP transistor will read OPEN. Leave the red meter lead on the base and move the black lead to the collector. The reading should be the same as the previous test. Reverse the meter leads and repeat the test. This time, connect the black meter lead to the base of the transistor. Connect the red meter lead to the emitter. A good PNP transistor will read a Junction Drop voltage of between 0.45v and 0.9v. A good NPN transistor will read OPEN. Leave the black meter lead on the base and move the red lead to the collector. The reading should be the same as the previous test. Place one meter lead on the collector, the other on the emitter. The meter should read OPEN. Reverse the
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For SCRs, the gate to cathode should be tested like a diode on a multimeter. The anode to cathode and gate to anode junctions should read open in both directions.
For TRIACS, the gate to main terminal 1 (MT1) should test like a diode junction in both directions. MT1 to MT2 and gate to MT2 junctions should read open in both directions.
For DIACS and there is no gate terminal - resistance should be infinite in both directions.
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soldering is employed. Specific gravity of Sn63/ pb 37 is also lesser than that of Sn60/p 40 that makes the equipment lighter.
Procedure: The electronic components are carefully assembled as per the circuit design. The assembling of electronic components on a PCB involves the following steps. Components Lead Preparation: Components such as capacitors have leads and are bent carefully to mount on PCB. The lead bending radius should be approximately two times the diameter of the lead. The bent leads should fit into the holes perpendicular to the board, so that the stress on the component lead junction is minimized. Suitable bending tools may be used for perfect bending. Leads are bent and assembled on board in such a way that the polarity symbols are seen after mounting the component.
Component Mounting: Components are mounted on one side of the board and leads are soldered on the other side of the board. The components are oriented both horizontally in vertically but uniformity in reading directions must be maintained. The uniformity in orientation of diodes, capacitors, transistors, ICs etc, is determined at the time of PCB design. Components dissipating more heat should be separated from the board surface. Manual Assembly of Components: The components to be assembled on a PCB are arranged conveniently. The board to be assembled is held in a suitable frame and the components are kept in trays or bins. The Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering Page 13
Inspection and Testing: The components assembled on the PCB are tested before they are soldered to the board. It is a practice to have the assembled boards checked prior to soldering. An assembly inspector is located at the end of the assembly line for inspection. The inspection includes verifying component polarity, orientation, value and physical mounting.
Soldering and Lead Cutting: The components are soldered on the PCB. The excess lead is cut after soldering. The performance and reliability of the solder joints are best if lead cutting is carried before soldering so that the lead end gets protected. However, this is not practiced in hand soldering.
PCB Cleaning: The soldering PCB may have contaminants that could cause trouble during the functioning of the circuit. The contaminants include flux and chips of plastics, metals, and other materials. Hence, the PCB must be cleaned before use. A wide range of cleaning media is available; usually chemicals such as acetone and alcohols are used.
Result: Thus the soldering of active and passive components was practiced.
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Single Layer PCB A single-sided PCB contains copper tracks on one side of the board only, as shown in figure. Holes are drilled at appropriate points on the track so that each component can be inserted from the non-copper side of the board, as shown in figure .Each pin is then soldered to the copper track. Multilayer PCB It is a very important hardware element and it is almost certain you will find one in a wide array of devices starting from a mobile phone and TV, ending with military machines and space ships.
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In multi-layer PCB's, each side contains several Layers of track patterns which are insulated from one another. These layers are laminated under heat and high pressure. A multi-layer PCB is shown in figure The steps for designing PCB are 1. Layout planning 2. Art work 3. Film master production 4. Pattern transfer (photo/screen printing) 5. Plasting 6. Etching 7. Mechanical matching operations
The layout is the work done before the art work in the PCB. It provides all the information about the circuit, which has to drawn on PCB. Protection of copper tracks is very much essential Plasting is such processes which forms a thin layer over copper tracks and protect them. Generally, it is done with gold. Types of copper plating: Copper plating Nickel plating Gold plating Tin plating Tin lead plating
Etching means to draw on board by the action of acid, especially by coating the surface with wax and letting the acid cast into the lines or area laid bar with needle. Spray etching Laminate etching Splash etching (Configured force by rotating in centre). The double sided Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering Page 16
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Aim: - To study and operation of multimeters, function generator, and regulated power supply. Apparatus: S.No Apparatus 1 2 3 Multimeter Function generator Regulated power supply Type Analog and Digital 1MHz 0-30V Requirement 1Each 1Each 1Each
Theory:Regulated Power Supply:Power supplies provided by a regulated DC voltage facilities fine and coarse adjustments and monitoring facilities for voltage and current. They will work in constant voltage and current mode depending on current limit and output load. The current limit has good stability, load and line regulations. Outputs are protected against overload and short circuit damages. They are available in single and dual channel models with different voltage and current capacities. Overload protection circuit of constant self restoring type is provided to prevent the unit as well as the circuit under use. The power supplies are specially designed and developed for well regulated DC output. These are useful for high regulation laboratory power supplies, particularly suitable for experimental setup and circuit development in R&D.
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Other important features of the function generator are continuous tuning over wide bands with max-min frequency ratios of 10:1 or more, a wide range of frequencies from a few Hz to a few MHz, a flat output amplitude and modulation capabilities like frequency sweeping, frequency modulation and amplitude modulation. S.No 1 2 3 Designation Wave form Amplitude Sine distortion Specifications Sine, squares, triangles, TTL square waves 0-20V for all the functions Less than 1% from 0.1 HZ to 100 HZ harmonics Modulation showed down fundamental for 100KHz to 1MHz 4 5 6 7 Offset Frequency range Output impedance Continuously variable 10V 0.1 HZ to 1hz in ranges 600 ohms, 5%.
Differential linearity
0.5%
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VCO input:- An external input will vary the output frequency. The change in frequency is directly proportional to input voltage.
TTL output:- A TTL square wave is available at this jack. The frequency is determined by the range selected and the setting of frequency dial. This output is independent of amplitude and D.C offset controls.
Amplitude Control:-Control the amplitude of the output signal, which appears at 600ohms.
Offset Control:-Control the DC offset of the output. It is continuously variable for 5V, 100V.
Fine frequency dial:- Multiplying the setting of this dial to the frequency range selected gives the output frequency of the wave forms at the 600ohms.
Multimeter:Digital Multimeter:A Multimeter is a versatile instrument and is also called Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM). It is used to measure the d.c and a.c voltages and resistance values. A digital multimeters essentially consists of an analog to digital converters. It converters analog values in the input to an equivalent binary forms. These values are processed by digital circuits to be shown on the visual display with decimal values. The liquid crystal display system is generally employed. Actually all the functions in DMM depend on the voltage measurements by the converter and comparator circuits
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Result:- The operation of multimeters, function generator, and Regulated Power Supply are studied
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Aim: - To observe front panel control knobs and to find amplitude, time period and frequency for given waveforms and also find phase by using the Lissajous figures. Apparatus: - Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, function generator, connecting wires. Theory: - C.R.O is a versatile instrument used for display of wave forms and is a fast x-y plotter. The heart of C.R.O is and the rest is the circuitry to operate C.R.O The main parts are 1. Electron gun: - It is used to produce sharply focused beam of electron accelerated to very high velocity. 2. Deflection system: - It deflects the electron both in horizontal and vertical plan. 3. Florescent screen: - The screen which produces, spot of visible light. When beam of electrons are incident on it the other side of tube is coated with phosphorus material. Front Panel:On-Power: Toggle switch for switching on power. Intensity: Controls trace intensity from zero to maximum. Focus: It controls sharpness of trace a slight adjustment of focus is done after changing intensity of trace. AC-DC Ground:-It selects coupling of AC-DC ground signal to vertical amplifier. X-Mag: It expands length of time base from 1-5 times continuously and to maximum time base to 40 ns/cm.
Square:-This provides square wave 2v (p-p) amplitude and enables to check y calibration of scope. Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering Page 22
Measurement of Phase:-
Y2 Y1 x1 Y2
Y1
X2
= sin -1 (Y1/Y2) = sin -1 (X1/X2) Applications of CRO:1. Measurement of current 2. Measurement of voltage 3. Measurement of power Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Apparatus:-
S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6
Apparatus CRO Function generators Bread Board Resistance Capacitance Connecting wires
Requirement 1 2 1 1 1 ---
Theory: (a) Measurement of Phase: Since sine waves are based on circular motion they illustrate phase difference very well. One complete cycle of a sine wave relates to one complete circle and therefore to 360.This means that the phase angle of a sine wave can be represented using degrees. Figure shows how a complete sine wave cycle relates directly to 360.
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Phase shift describes the timing difference between two otherwise similar signals. The e x a m p l e i n f i g u r e b e l o w s h o w s t w o s i m i l a r s i n e w a v e s o f t h e s a m e f r e q u e n c y . T denotes the period of one complete cycle (10 cm on screen), andt signifies the time between the zero transition point of both signals (3 cm on screen).
( b ) Measurement of Frequency using CRO: A simple method of determining the frequency of a signal is to estimate its periodic time from the trace on the screen of a CRT. However this method has limited accuracy, and should only be used where other methods are not available. To calculate the frequency of the observed signal, one has to measure the period, i.e. the time taken for 1 complete cycle, using the calibrated sweep scale. The period could be calculated by T = (no. of squares in cm) x ( selected Time/cm scale ) Once the period T is known, the frequency is given by f (Hz)= 1/T(sec)
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Fv/Fh = No. of tangencies (vertical)/ No. of tangencies (horizontal) Precautions: 1. Connections should be tight. 2. There should be no short circuiting in the circuit. Procedure: 1. Switch on the CRO. Rotate the intensity control clockwise. After some time you will see either a bright spot or a line on screen. If you see none, adjust X-POS and Y-POS controls to get the display in the centre of the screen. 2. Operate the INTEN and FOCUS controls and observe the effect on the spot (or line). Adjust them suitably. 3 . To measure the voltage of the signal generator, adjust the vertical amplifier sensitivity suitably, so as to get a sufficiently large display. Read on the calibrated graticule, the vertical length of the display. This corresponds to the peak -to-peak value of the signal. Multiply this length by the sensitivity (in V/cm). Dividing this result by 22 gives the rms value of the signal voltage. Repeat the measurement procedure for two or three other values of the output signal voltages. 4. For measuring the frequency of the signal feed the unknown signal (taken from the signal generator) to the Y-Input terminals. Take a standard signal generator, and connect its output to the X-Input terminals of the CRO. Put the Time-Base or Horizontal amplifier knob at EXT position. Change the frequency of the standard signal generator till you get a stable Lissajous pattern. For the various frequency ratios, fv/fh, the Lissajous patterns are shown in Fig. The unknown frequency can thus be determined using the relationship:
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5 . T o m e a s u r e p h a s e s h i f t i n t r o d u c e d b y a n RC phase-shift network, make connections as shown in Fig. Put the Time-Base control at EXT position. Adjust the vertical and horizontal amplifier gains (sensitivities) so as to get an ellipse of suitable size, as shown in Fig. Measure the lengths YI and Y 2 (or X 1 and X 2). Y1 = Y2 = cm cm
Calculate the phase difference between the two waves using the relation. Sin = Y1/Y2= X1/X2
Observations: Known S.No frequency No. of vertical tangencies 1 2 3 Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering Page 29 No. of Horizontal Tangencies Pattern obtained Unknown frequency= f h/ fv
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3 4 5
1 1 Each 1
6 7 Theory:-
-----
1 ---
A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode is a curve between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is connected to ve terminal of the supply voltage, it is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced and the diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage. When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current is due to minority charge carriers.
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Forward Bias:
Reverse Bias:-
Model Graph:-
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Observations:-
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Result: -
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Theory:A Zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current through it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators. Precautions:1. The terminals of the Zener diode should be properly identified 2. Parallax error should be avoided while taking the readings.
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Reverse Bias:-
Procedure:Forward bias:1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. Keep the current control knob at maximum and voltage control knob at minimum position before turning ON the regulated power supply. 3. Increase the forward voltage in steps of 0.1V and note down the corresponding forward current values. 4. Repeat the step 3 for different values of forward voltage and tabulate the Iz values. 5. Plot the graph VF vs Iz 6. Identify the cut-in voltage and calculate the static resistance and dynamic resistance from the graph.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Reverse bias:1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. Keep the current control knob at maximum and voltage control knob at minimum position before turning ON the regulated power supply. 3. Increase the reverse voltage in steps of 0.5V until breakdown occurs and note down the corresponding Zener current values. 4. Repeat the step 3 for different values of reverse voltage and tabulate the readings. 5. Plot the graph between Zener current (IR) and Zener voltage (VR). 6. Identify the reverse saturation current and breakdown voltage Vz of the Zener diode.
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Reverse current(mA)
Model Graph:-
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Result:-
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S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Apparatus Transistor Regulated power supply Voltmeter Ammeters Resistor Bread board Connecting wires
Requirement 1 1 1 1 2 1 ---
Theory:A transistor is a three terminal active device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In CB configuration, the base is common to both input and output. For normal operation, the E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. In CB configuration, IE is +ve, IC is ve and IB is ve. So, VEB=f1 (VCB, IE) and IC=f2 (VCB, IB) With an increasing the reverse collector voltage, the space-charge width at the output junction increases and the effective base width W decreases. This phenomenon is known as Early effect. Then, there will be less chance for recombination within the base region. With increase of charge gradient with in the base region, the current of minority carriers injected across the emitter junction increases. The current amplification factor of CB configuration is given by, = IC/ IE Output resistance is the ratio of change of collector emitter voltage VCE, to change in collector current IC with constant IB.
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Circuit Diagram:-
Procedure:Input Characteristics:1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set VCB to 0V, vary the input voltage VEB and note down the emitter current IE. 3. Repeat the above step keeping VCB at 1V, 2V, and 3V. 4. A graph is drawn between VEB and IE for constant VCB.
Output Characteristics:1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set IE to 1mA by varying VEB and keep it constant. 3. Vary the collector to base voltage VCB from -0.5V to 0 in steps of 0.1V and later in steps of 1V up to 10V and note down the collector current IC. Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering Page 41
S.NO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Output Characteristics:-
IE = VCB(V) IC(mA)
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Output Characteristics:-
Calculations:1. Input Impedance hie =VEB/IE= 2. Reverse Voltage Gain hre =VCB/VEB= 3. Forward Current Gain hfe =IC/=IE= 4. Output conductance hoe ==IC/=VCB = Result:-
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Theory:A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter terminal is common to both input and output. The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit. The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. The collector current varies with VCE up to few volts only. After this the collector current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the collector current changes with VCE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always operated in the region above Knee voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IE. The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by = IC/IB.
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Circuit Diagram:-
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Output Characteristics:1 Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set IB to 20 A by varying VBE and kept it constant. 3. Vary the VCE and record the values of IC. 4. Repeat the above step for constant values of IB at 40 A , 60 A and tabulate the values of IC. 5. Plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB
Observations:Input Characteristics:VCE = S.No VBE(V) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 IB(A) VBE(V) IB(A) VBE(V) IB(A) VCE = VCE =
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Calculations:1. Input Impedance hie = 2. Voltage Gain hre = 3. Current Gain hfe = IC / IB at constant VCE 4. Output Impedance hoe =VCE/IC=
Result:-
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Apparatus:-
S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Apparatus Diode Resistors Electrolytic capacitor Transformer C.R.O Ammeter Bread Board Connecting wires
Type 1N 4007 100, 330, 820 1K . 470 F 12-0-12 20MHz DTO 0-200 mA -----
Theory: During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and conducts through the load resistor RL. Hence the current produces an output voltage across the load resistor RL, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage. During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and there is no current through the circuit i.e., the voltage across RL is zero. The net result is that only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the load. The average value of the half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value measured on dc voltmeter.
Precautions:1. The primary and secondary sides of the transformer should be carefully identified. 2. The polarities of the diode and electrolytic capacitor should be carefully identified. 3. While determining the % regulation, first full load should be applied and then it should be decremented in steps
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Model waveforms: -
Observations & calculations:-:Without filter:VNL = S.No RL 1 2 Vm V IL mA Vrms= Vm/2 Vdc=Vm/ Ripplefactor =[(Vrms/Vdc) -1]
2
With filter:S.No RL 1 2 Vm V IL mA Vrms= Vm/23 Vdc=Vm Ripplefactor =Vrms/Vdc %Regulation =(VNL-VFL)/VFL 100
3 4 5 6
lN4007 --100F/25v 1K
Theory:The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2. During positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward biased and D2is reverse biased. The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor RL. During negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts and current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction. There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor RL, during both the half cycles and will get unidirectional current as show in the model graph. The difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360 degrees of the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180 degree).
Precautions: 1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully identified 2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified. Procedure:1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side to the rectifier. 3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier. Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering Page 52
With Filter: -
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With filter: -
Observations & calculations: With Out Filter: VNL = S.No RL Vm V IL mA Vrms= Vm/2 Vdc=2Vm/ Ripplefactor =[(Vrms/Vdc)2-1] %Regulation =(VNL-VFL)/VFL 100 1 2
With Filter: VNL = S.No RL Vm V IL mA Vrms= Vm/2 Vdc=Vm Ripplefactor =Vrms/Vdc %Regulation =(VNL-VFL)/VFL 100 1 2
Result:-
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Aim: - a). To draw the drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET. b). To find the drain resistance (rd) amplification factor () and transconductance (gm) of the given FET. Apparatus: S.No Apparatus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 FET Regulated power supply Voltmeter Ammeter Resistors Bread board Connecting wires Type BFW-11 0-30V 0-20V 0-100 mA 100 ,560 ----Requirement 1 1 1 1 1Each 1 1
Theory: A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of high input impedance and less noise, the Gate to Source junction of the FET s always reverse biased. In response to small applied voltage from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current increases linearly with VDS. With increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and the channel region reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the channel begins to remain constant. The VDS at this instant is called pinch of voltage. If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied in the direction to provide additional reverse bias, the pinch off voltage ill is decreased. In amplifier application, the FET is always used in the region beyond the pinch-off. IDS=IDSS(1-VGS/VP)^2
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Circuit Diagram:
Procedure: 1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. Switch ON the power supply VGG, and set VGS = 0V. 3. Vary the VDD and change VDS in steps of 0.2V up to 1V and later in steps of 1V up to 7V and note down the values of ID. 4. Repeat the above step3 for different values of VGS at -1V and -2V. 5. Plot the drain characteristics VDS vs ID for constant VGS 6. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V. 7. Vary VGG and change the values of VGS in steps of 0.5V and note down the values of ID. 8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 2 V and 3V. 9. plot the transfer characteristics, VGS Vs ID keep VDS constant 10. From drain characteristics, calculate the values of dynamic resistance (rd) by using the formula rd = VDS/ID 11. From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of transconductance (gm) by using the formula Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering Page 56
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Result:-
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Theory: It is a four layer semiconductor device with alternate P-type and N-type silicon. It consists of 3 junctions J1, J2, J3.The J1 and J3 operate in forward direction and J2 operates in reverse direction and three terminals called anode A, cathode K, and a gate G. The operation of SCR can be studied when the gate is open and when the gate is positive with respect to cathode. When gate is open, no voltage is applied at the gate due to reverse bias of the junction J2 no current flows through R2 and hence SCR is at cut off. When anode voltage is increased J2 tends to breakdown. When the gate positive, with respect to cathode J3 junction is forward biased and J2 is reverse biased. Electrons from N-type material move across junction J3 towards gate while holes from P-type material moves across junction J3 towards cathode. So gate current starts flowing, anode current increase is extremely small. Junction J2 break down and SCR conducts heavily. When gate is open thee break over voltage is determined on the forward voltage at which SCR conducts heavily. Now most of the supply voltage appears across the load
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Procedure: 1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram. 2. Keep the gate supply voltage at some constant value 3. Vary the anode to cathode supply voltage and note down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter. Keep the gate voltage at standard value. 4. A graph is drawn between VAK and IAK . Observations: IG= S.No VAK(Volts) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 IAK( A) IG= VAK(Volts) IAK( A)
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Result:
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Requirement 1 2 2
Resistors
1 Each
5 6
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Theory: A Uni Junction Transistor (UJT) is a semiconductor device with only one junction. The UJT has three terminals viz emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called inter base resistance. The original Uni Junction Transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its length. The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT. The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the base region) causes (conductivity modulation) which reduces the resistance of the base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at Sasi Institute of Technology & Engineering Page 63
Procedure: 1. Connection is made as per circuit diagram. 2. Output voltage is fixed at a constant level and by varying input voltage corresponding emitter current values are noted down. 3. This procedure is repeated for different values of output voltages. 4. All the readings are tabulated and Intrinsic Stand-Off ratio is calculated using = (Vp-VD) / VBB 5. A graph is plotted between VEE and IE for different values of VBE.
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Observations:VBB= S.No VE(V) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Calculations:VP = VBB + VD = (VP-VD) / VBB When VBB = ,Vp= ,VD= = Result:IE(mA) VBB= VE(V) IE(mA)
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Theory:The CE amplifier provides high gain & wide frequency response. The emitter lead is common to both input & output circuits and is grounded. The emitter-base circuit is forward biased. The collector current is controlled by the base current rather than emitter current. The input signal is applied to base terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across collector terminal. A very small change in base current produces a large change in collector current. When +ve half-cycle is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of the circuit which causes the collector current to decrease, it decreases the voltage more ve. Thus when input cycle varies through a -ve half-cycle, increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector current to increases thus the output signal is common emitter amplifier is in out of phase with the input signal.
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Procedure:1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram 2. Apply the input of 40mV peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using Function Generator 3. Increase the input signal frequency in steps and note the corresponding output voltage from CRO and record in the tabular form. 4. voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the expression Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi) 5. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at 20mV peak-to-peak 6. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis on Semi-log graph. The band width of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression, Bandwidth, BW= (f2-f1) Hz Where f1 lower cut-off frequency and f2 upper cut-off frequency 7. The bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated using the expression Gain Bandwidth product=3 dB mid band gain Bandwidth
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
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Result:
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frequencies, bandwidth, and input resistance. Apparatus:S.No Apparatus 1 2 3 4 5 Regulated Power Supply CRO Function Generator Transistor Resistors Type 0-30V DC (0-20) MHz (0-1) MHz BC107 1 k,2.2k, 33k,10 k 1Each Requirement 1 1 1 1
Capacitors- 470F
Theory: In common-collector amplifier the input is given at the base and the output is taken at the emitter. In this amplifier, there is no phase inversion between input and output. The input impedance of the CC amplifier is very high and output impedance is low. The voltage gain is less than unity. Here the collector is at ac ground and the capacitors used must have a negligible reactance at the frequency of operation. This amplifier is used for impedance matching and as a buffer amplifier. This circuit is also known as emitter follower.
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Procedure:1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram 2. Apply the input of 0.5V peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using Function Generator 3. Keeping the input voltage constant vary the input frequency from 100Hz to 1MHz in regular steps and note down the corresponding output voltage for each frequency 4. Tabulate the readings in the tabular form. 5. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the expression Av in dB =20 log10 (V0/Vi) . 6. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis on Semi-log graph. The band width of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression, Bandwidth BW=f2-f1 Where f1 lower cut-off frequency, and f2 upper cut-off frequency Voltage gain = Output Voltage (VO) / Source Voltage (VS)
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Vi= 0.5V (constant) S.No Frequency Output (Hz) Voltage V0) Gain Gain in dB
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
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Result: -
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