Learning Theories Guide for Parents

By: Jackson Pearson

Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development. He said that people have a need for understanding, order, and certainty because they want to make sense of their experiences. He said that individuals use their existing understanding to make sense of new experiences (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 34). To make understanding, individuals use two processes. They use organization and adaption. He said that through the process of organization people create schemas to construct their meaning of the world. The process of adaption is used to adjust schemas and experiences to each other to maintain their understanding of the world. Piaget broke the idea of experiences into the categories of physical and social. Piaget emphasized the role of social interaction as a key to development (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 36). Piaget broke child development down into four stages. The sensorimotor stage occurs from 0 to 2 years old. In this stage, children use their senses and motor capacities to understand the world. Children learn by observing others during this stage. The preoperational stage occurs from 2 to 7 years old. During this stage, children develop language with perception dominating the childs thinking. The concrete operational stage occurs from 7 to 11 years of age. Children begin to think logically about objects. Children begin to group objects and to determine relationships between objects. The formal operational stage occurs from age eleven through adulthood. Individuals learn to think and examine abstract problems. Teachers apply this theory in their classrooms by presenting concrete experiences to students and then following with abstract and detailed ideas. Parents can apply this theory by allowing their children to do hands-on activities to gain concrete experiences. Also, parents must consider their childs development and maintain reasonable expectations for their child. They can challenge their child based on the stage of their development and present ideas that coincide with their stage of development.

Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky developed a sociocultural theory of development. He emphasized the role of language, together with social and cultural influences on a childs development. Vygotsky determined that a childs thinking developed as a direct result of social interaction (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 45). A child develops understanding through interacting with an adult or more knowledgeable other. Vygotsky promoted the idea of internalization in which learners incorporate society-based activities into internal cognitive processes (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 46). He said that internalization creates a link between the external and internal world of the child and is a primary tool for development (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 46). Vygotsky believed that children learned more efficiently by being an active participant in a meaningful activity. Vygotsky promoted the idea that language is central to childs development. He believed this because language gives a child access to an adults knowledge. Also, language gives a child the ability to reflect and regulate their own thinking. Vygotsky also promoted the idea of proximal development. Learners should have assistance to complete difficult tasks that they cannot yet complete on their own. Teachers apply Vygotskys theory by making learning active and social. Students work together with the teacher to accomplish tasks in a social setting that promotes interaction between individuals. Parents can apply Vygotskys theory by providing assistance to their child when they are doing homework and school projects. However, as the child becomes older the parent can withdraw some of the scaffolding to allow the child to become more independent over time.

Urie Bronfenbrenner
Urie bronfenbrenner developed the theory of bioecological development. He proposed the idea that development was influenced by both genetics and peoples experiences. Genetics influence a persons physical traits and their temperament (the stable inherited characteristics that influence the way we respond to social and physical stimuli) (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 62). He separated social influence into the categories of parents, peers, and society. Parents have the most powerful influence on childrens development, according to Bronfenbrenner. He suggested that parenting styles instill habits and healthy development that lasts through an individuals lifetime. He coined four parenting styles that influence child development. Authoritative parenting styles reflect children who usually have high self-esteem and are successful in school. Authoritarian parents usually rear children who are withdrawn and lack social skills. Permissive parents usually lead to children who are immature and lack self-control. Uninvolved parents usually result in children who are disobedient and lack long-term goals. After parents, peers have the largest influence on individuals. They influence an individuals attitudes, values, social development, and provide emotional support. He also includes the idea that society influences a childs development. These influences can be either their parents job or the city they live in. Cultures influence development as some stress independence while others stress conformity. Teachers can apply this theory to their classroom by involving parents in their childs educational experience. The teacher can do this by scheduling parent meetings or by inviting the parents to come to class for a day and interact with the students. Parents can apply this theory by having high expectations for their children and providing support to them. Most importantly, parents need to be involved in their childs life and educational experience.

Erik Erikson Erik Erikson developed the theory psychosocial development. This theory discusses the ideas of identity and self-concept. He believed that people have the same basic needs and that their development depends on the support they receive in meeting those needs (Eggen & Kauchak, pg.67). He proposed that his stages end with a crisis which presents the opportunity for development. The first stage is trust versus mistrust which lasts from birth to age 1. When an infant receives caring love they develop trust. When they receive harsh care they develop mistrust. Next is autonomy versus shame which lasts from age 1 to age 3. Autonomy occurs when a child uses their newly formed skills to explore their worlds. Initiative versus guilt occurs during the ages 3 to 6. Children develop a sense of ambition and responsibility due to encouragement. Guilt occurs when parents criticize their childs efforts to explore. Next, industry versus inferiority from ages 6 to 12. Students solve this crisis through either success or failure on challenging tasks. During the ages of 12 to 18, individuals struggle with concept of identity versus confusion. This deals with the idea of home structure and the opportunities for individual exploration. Intimacy versus Isolation occurs during young adulthood. This crisis involves forming close relationships with others and developing an emotional identity. Generativity versus stagnation occurs next. It involves the former child becoming a parent and the contributions they make to society. The last stage is integrity versus despair. This crisis is the idea that people are either happy with their lives or remorseful over their mistakes. Teachers can apply this theory in the classroom by reinforcing initiative in students. Also, teachers need to be firm but caring with the students by empathizing with the students and their struggles. Parents can apply this theory by encouraging

their child to explore and foster the development of their child through involving their child in activities to develop their social skills and sense of identity.

Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory on moral development that uses moral dilemmas as its basis. Kohlbergs theory has moral reasoning occurring at three levels (Eggen & Kauchak, pg.81). The first level is preconventional morality. This is an egocentric view that lacks the standards for right and wrong and focuses on the consequences of the action for the self. Actions are made based on the idea of whether or not they will be caught and punished. Kohlberg proposed the idea of market exchange in this level. This is the idea that if one does something for another then that person will do something for them in return. The second level in Kohlbergs theory is the conventional level of morality (Eggen & Kauchak, pg.82). This level is based on acceptance of societys conventions about right and wrong. Interpersonal harmony is one of the stages in this level and it is based on the idea that people make decisions based on loyalty to others. Stage 4, law and order, is based on the idea that people follow laws and rules for their own sake. The third level of Kohlbergs theory is postconventional morality. This level views moral issues in abstract and self-developed principles of right and wrong. Stage 5, social contract, states that people make decisions based on socially agreed upon rules and values. The final stage is universal principles. This stage says that an individuals moral reasoning is based on abstract and general principles that transcend societys laws. Kohlbergs theory follows several discrete characteristics. People pass through the stages at different rates and development is continuous and gradual. Teachers can apply this theory to the classroom by using these stages to provide moral reasoning to their classes. Teachers should be able to motivate their students by targeting their moral range and level. Parents can apply this theory by providing guidelines for their childs actions and promoting their childs positive actions in school.

Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov developed the process of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is the process through which an individual learns to produce an involuntary response similar to an instinctive response. This process involves using an unconditioned stimulus (an object or event) that causes a reflexive response. An unconditioned response is the instinctive response caused by the unconditioned stimulus. A neutral stimulus is then put in place that does not normally elicit any type of response. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus and it becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus. Finally, a conditioned response is learned to the conditioned stimulus that is the same as the original unconditioned response (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 165). This process of classical conditioning follows a strict regimen and takes time to condition the response slowly over time. Teachers can apply this method into their classroom to make the students come into the room and settle quickly into their seats. Teachers can place a bellringer on the board for the students when they walk in the door. After students walk into class, they will sit down and complete the bellringer for points. Over time teachers can condition their students to come into class and settle into their seats quickly to help ease classroom transition. Parents can apply classical conditioning by taking their child to get ice cream if they make good grades. The ice cream will serve as the stimulus to encourage good behavior eventually the child will become conditioned to strive for good grades without the ice cream.

B.F. Skinner
B.F. Skinner developed the method of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is when a person learns in terms of observable responses that change in duration or frequency as the results of consequences, events that follow the behaviors (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 167). Skinner believed that consequences controlled behavior more than stimuli that precede a behavior. Reinforcers are consequences that increase the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring. Operant conditioning uses two different types of reinforcement to determine behavior. Positive reinforcement is an increase in behavior that results from being presented with a stimulus. Negative reinforcement is an increase in behavior that results from an aversive stimulus being removed or avoided. Punishments are used as events to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring. The two types of punishment are presentation and removal. Presentation punishment is a decrease in behavior that results from being presented with a stimulus. Removal punishment is a decrease in behavior that results from a stimulus being removed. This rotation of reinforcements and punishments can have a greater effect on a childs behavior than stimuli. Reinforcing positive behavior is seen as a superior system compare to a system based on punishments. When punishing a teacher should never embarrass the student, use physical punishment, or assign classwork. By assigning classwork the teacher would create an aversive association to an otherwise possibly productive action. Teachers can apply this method to help with classroom management. By reinforcing positive behavior, teachers can eliminate aversive behaviors of other students by only acknowledging students with good behavior. Parents can apply this method by reinforcing positive such as studying or good behavior. They can offer rewards such as going to the zoo to reward good behavior and discourage bad behavior.

Howard Gardner Howard Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences. In this theory, Gardner concluded that people have eight relatively independent dimensions of intelligence (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 127). This theory explains why people are smart in activities and below average in others. The first category is linguistic intelligence which is sensitivity to the meaning and order of language. Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to handle long chains of reasoning and to recognize patterns. Musical intelligence is sensitivity to pitch, melody, and tone. Spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive the visual world accurately and to modify aspects of the world based on ones perception. Bodykinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use the body and to handle objects. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to notice and make distinctions among others. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to access ones own feeling of life. Naturalist intelligence is the ability to recognize similarities and differences in the world. Based on this theory, education has evolved to try to touch on as many of these intelligences as possible. Teachers should present content in a variety of ways to reach as many of the domains as possible. Teachers should try to help students understand their strengths and weaknesses. This theory should be used to modify lessons and strategies used on a daily basis. Parents can apply this theory by involving their children in a variety of activities. By including their children in sports, music, and language, parents can enable the development of several of the intelligences. Parents should ensure that their children receive a liberal arts education. These activities and education style will help the child develop a well-rounded intelligence and have a better sense of themselves and their interests.

Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura developed the social cognitive theory of learning. This theory focuses on the idea that changes in behavior result from observing others (Eggen & Kauchak, pg. 179). Banduras theory stresses the importance of beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations in learning. This provides an individualistic feel to the idea of behaviorism. Bandura defines learning as a change in the mental processes that creates the capacity to demonstrate different behaviors. Expectations are defined as being cognitive processes that influence behavior. Bandura saw beliefs, self-perception, and expectations as interdependent in a childs learning. Each one had influence over the other. He felt that modeling was the most effective method to teach children new behaviors or skills. Through modeling children can learn new behaviors that they did not existed before. Models must be seen as competent and have a higher status than the learner for the model to be effective. Bandura promoted the idea of self-regulation through setting personal goals combined with meeting expectations. Self-assessment is needed to monitor the progress toward achieving the goal and used regularly. Teachers can apply this theory to become an effective model for their students and to use the idea of self-assessment for their students. By creating a timeframe for assignments, students can monitor their progress toward the goal and self-regulate their expectations and goals through their progress. Parents can apply this method by modeling good behaviors such as studying and not cussing. The modeling of these activities will encourage the child to mimic these behaviors.

References
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Preschool4all. (2011). 8 multiple intelligences theory. Retrieved from http://www.preschools4all.com/howard-gardner.html Various anonymous authors. (2012, March 19). B.F. Skinner. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner