How to overcome the obstructions to horizontal distance measurement (using tape) give 3 examples and solutions.

Introduction
Taping is a common method used for horizontal distance measurement and is quite a simple task when it consists measuring directly between two points without any obstruction in between. Nevertheless, not all situations are perfect and it is very common to encounter obstacle during the process of measuring distance. Such a line could be across a body of water such as a lake, a lagoon or a river, or across agricultural fields with standing crops. This will inevitably give rise to a set of problems which can be dealt with a series of methods and techniques, depending on the situation. These methods simply put are applications of simple mathematical geometry and trigonometry.

Techniques
There are 3 methods which are commonly used by surveyors to tackle these situations:

Parallel offset Swing offset Similar triangle

Parallel offset This method involves the usage of parallel line to indirectly measure a distance which is obstructed by either a water point(a lake) or an agricultural field as examples. In this case, the obstacle is not obscuring vision but does prevent measurement. To have a better insight of this method, the example below illustrate a case where parallel offset is being used. The distance from point A to point B is to be measured using taping method but in between these two points there is a pond which is present as shown in the figure below.

Two equal offsets EC and FD are constructed perpendicularly to the line AB. The right angles are constructed using a tape and EF is measured to supply the missing length CD. The parallel line KL which is erected from point G and H at the bottom serves as a check to ensure the measurement is correct. Note: The distances AC and DB are easily measured by direct linear measurement and added to CD the measurement at EF to complete the measurement of AB. Swing offset Swing offset is a technique used where it is very difficult and unrealistic to measure round the obstacle. This method can be applied to the case of the lake discussed above too. In this method, simple trigonometry, sine and cosine rule, pythagoras theorem and proportion is being used. As real life application, the case of measuring a distance which is obstructed by a river is discussed. There are 2 ways to tackle this problem using almost similar methods, but one more direct than the others. The figure below shows distance AB which is to be measured with a river passing across.

From B, lay out a perpendicular line which will be called BX as shown below.

On this line BX, determine point C, such that when A and C are connected, they make a 45 degree angle.( Angles BCA)

AB and BC will be of the same length as the whole geometric figure formed is an isosceles triangle. Hence, AB=BC. If the 45 degree angle is being difficult to find, we can connect A to line BX at any point (i.e. point Z), and by measuring the distance AZ and BZ, we can apply Pythagoras theorem to find AB, which is (AZ2 +BZ2). Diagonal Measurement In the case where line AB crosses the river on the skew (diagonally), another method involving poles is used. The diagram below illustrates how this case is being tackled.

Poles are placed along the line AB at E and G on the near and far bank respectively. A line DF is set out along the bank, so that GF is perpendicular to DF. A perpendicular from D is constructed to meet AB at C. Then EG = (CE EF) / ED AC and GB can be measured directly and added to EG to have the measurement AB. Similar Triangle Using similar triangle principle, it is quite easy to measure a distance which is obstructed in between. This method can be used when parallel offset method fails to work because the obstacle is spanned over a too big area and length. The case of river is once again used as an example to illustrate this method.

As shown above, the distance GH is to be measured.

With the use of a ranging pole, prolong the line GH back to point C as shown in the diagram below. At G and C, lay down perpendicular lines to Z and X.(creating lines GZ and CX)

On each of these lines, set out a point, E and F, so that they lie on a straight line FY passing through H, on the opposite bank. Measure accessible distances GE, GC and CF.

From GC, GE, CF and GE, we can calcite the inaccessible distance GH by GH= (GEGC)(CF-GE)

Permanent test and adjustment for accuracy in theodolite Collimation in azimuth, Spire and Plate level tests.

Collimation in azimuth
Aim: The aim of the collimation adjustment is to make the line of sight(collimation) perpendicular to the horizontal axis. Necessity: There will be a variation in the line of sight with varying position of objective during focussing if the horizontal axis does not intersect with the optical axis. If the horizontal hair is not adjusted, the error for horizontal measurements is negligible but this will affect the vertical measurements. In the case of the vertical hair, if it does not intersect the optical axis of the telescope, this will cause the line of sight to not be perpendicular to the horizontal axis. If the vertical hair is displaced to one side or the other of its true position then the line of sight will no longer be along the telescope and at right angle to the horizontal axis. Hence, the horizontal hair and vertical hair must be tested and adjusted to avoid all these discrepancies which will induce errors in measurements and results. Test: The horizontal hair is tested as described: The apparatus is levelled carefully; make sure that all the clamps are fixed. A staff is placed/held at about 100 meters from the instrument, with a suitable vertical angle being set and a reading is taken. The vertical circle is set to a previous value after loosening the horizontal and vertical motion and reading is taken again. If both readings are equal, the adjustment is precise. Adjustment: If the readings do not coincide, the following adjustment is done. The diaphragm is moved using the top and bottom capstan screws until the staff reading is the mean of the two values. Diagramatic representation:

Adjustment of horizontal hair

Test; The vertical hair: The instrument is temporarily set up and a sharp object is placed 100 metre from the instrument. The sharp object A is focused with the telescope in the direct position.

Adjustment:

The telescope is transited, and a sharp object B is marked on the other side at about the same distance from the instrument and level as the sharp bject A. The telescope is released, swung through 180 degrees, and clamped after A is sighted again. If, on transiting, the line of sight intersects B. the adjustment is correct.

Point B1 is marked is marked on the line of sight at about the same distance as B A point B is fixed in the line B1B such that B1B = (1/4) B1B The side capstan screws of the diaphragm are turned until the vertical hair appears to intersect Q. The work is repeated until there is no error in changing face. Diagrammatic representation:

Spire Test This test is also called the test for the adjustment of standards. In this test, the desired relation is that the horizontal axis should be perpendicular to the vertical axis. Test: The theodolite is set up carefully and levelled at about 50 metre from a building. A point is taken on the building and will be called A. It is bisected with a vertical angle of more than 30 degrees. The telescope is lowered and a point B is set near the ground. The face is changed and point A is sighted again. The telescope is the depressed. The line of sight will fall on the ground vertically