23 Cavity Resonators 23-1 Real circuit elements When looked at from any one pair of terminals, any arbitrary eeuit made up of ideal impedances and generators ss, at any given frequency, equivalent to a generator & in sertes with an impedance =, That comes about because if we put a voltage across the terminals and solve all the equations to find the current f, we must get a linear relation between the current and the voltage. Since all the equations are lnnear, the result for / must also depend only linearly on V- The ‘most general lear form can be expressed as ralty-o. 3.) tn general both z and & may depend un somte complicated way on the frequency «2 Equation (23 1, however, 1s the relation we would get if behind the two terminals there wits just the generator £(a) im series with the mpedance 2(0) “There ako the oppowte kind of question” If we have any electromagnetic devi at all with two teeainals and we measure the relation between Fand ¥ 10 Uterine Gand = as functions of Frequency, can we ind a combination of our idl cements that is equwvalent {0 the sternal impedance 2? The unswer 1s that fo any reasonable—that is, physically meanmngful—funetion 2(a) i possible 10 uppreaanute the atusion to2s high an accuracy as you wish witha creutcontainng afinte set of ie ‘We don't want to consider the general problem now but only Took at what might be expected from physteal arguments fora few cases Twe think ofa real resto, we know thatthe curent through twill produce a1 magnetic eld, So any real retstor should also have some inductance. Also when a resistor his & potential difference across it, there must be charges on the ends ofthe resistor to produce the necessity electtc fields "As the voltage changes the charges wil change in proportion, so the resistor will also have some capate tunes. We expect that a reaf resistor might have the equivalent erreut shown tn Fig 23-1 In well-designed resistor, the so-called “parasite” elements Land C ae small, so that atthe frequencies for which it is mtended, wo 1s much les than Rand 1/4 is much greater than R. It may therefore be posible to neglet therm As the frequency srased, however, they will eventually Become important and resistor begins 10 Took lke a resonunt cia ‘A real nductance is also not equal tothe idealized inductance, whose impe- dances tal. Areal coil of wize will have some resistance, so at low frequencies the coils really equivalent to an inductance in series with some resistance, as shown Fig. 25-2) But, you are thinking, the resistance and inductance are vogether in real co1l—the resistance 1s spread all along the wire, so 11 mixed in with the inductance, ‘We should probably use a circuit more like the one m Fig. 23-2(0) which has severa ile A'S and Z's in series. But the total mpedance of suc Circuit is just SR ++ Sil, whichis equivalent to the sumpler diagram of part (a) ‘As we go up in frequency with areal coll the approximation ofan inductance plus a resistance 1s no longer very good. ‘The charges that must build up on the tires to make the voltages will become important. Iti as there were Ile con- densers across the turns ofthe coll as sketched in Fig 23-3(a). We mught ty to approximate the real coi by the circuit in Fig. 23-3(b). At low frequencies, thn ciruit can be inate fairly well by the simpler one an part (c) af the figure (which is aguin the sime resonant ereuit we found forthe high-frequency model of resistor) For higher frequencies. however, the more complicated eeu of 21 I elements 23-1 Real circuit elements 23-2 A capacitor at high frequencies 23-3 A resonant cavity 23-4 Cavity modes 23-5 Cavities and resonant circuits, een: Chpter 2. Vol 1, Resonance Chapt: 9, Val 1 Me L “7 8 fig. 23-1. Eauicen) crest of 0 real resistor. (e) ) Fig. 23-2. The equivalent circuit of @ real inductance at low frequencies,Oy io Fig. 23-3. The equivalent circu’ «real inductance at higher frequen unes OF (a) Fig. 23-4, Fig. 23-3(b) is better. In fact, the more accurately you wish to represent the actual impedance of a real, physical inductance, the more ideal elements you will have to use in the artificial model of it Let's look a little more closely at what goes on in a real coil. ‘The impedan of an inductance goes as wt, so it becomes zero at low frequencies—it is a “short enrcuit”: all we see 1s the resistance of the wire. As we go up in frequency, wl soon. becomes much larger than R, and the coil looks pretty much like an ideal indue- tance. As we go still higher, however, the capacities become important. Their impedance is proportional to 1/awC, which is large for small a. For small enough Frequencies a condenser 1s an “open cireust,” and when it ism parallel with some~ Ung else it draws no current. But at high frequencies, the current prefers to flow into the capacitance between the turns, rather than through the inductance. So the current in the coil jumps from one tura to the other and doesn't bother to go around and around where at has to buck the emf So although we m: intended that the current should go around the loop, it will ake the easter path—the path of least impedance. IF the subject had been one of popular interest, this effect would have been called “the high-frequency barrier,” or some such name. The same kind of thing happens in all subjects. In aerodynamics, if you try to make things go faster than the speed of sound whten they were designed for lower speeds. they don't work. It doesn't mean that there is @ great “barrier” there, st just means that the object should be redesigned. So this coil which we designed as an “inductance” 1s not going to work as « good inductance, but as some other kind of thing at very high frequencies. For high frequencies, we have to find a new design, have 23-2 A capacitor at high frequencies [Now we want to discuss in detail the behavior of a capacitor—a geometrically real capacitor—as the frequency gets larger and larger, so we can see the transition of its properties. (We prefer to use a capacitor instead of an inductance, because the geometry of a pair of plates is much less complicated than the geometry of a coil.) We consider the capacitor shown in Fig. 23-4(a), which consists of two par allel circular plates connected to an external generator by a pair of wires. If we charge the capacitor with Dc, there will be a posttive charge on one plate and a negative charge on the other; and there wall be a uniform electric field between the plates. ‘Now suppose that instead of pc, we put an AC of low frequency on the plates. (We will find out later what is “low” and what is "high”.) Say we connect the ca pacitor to a lower-frequency generator. As the voltage alternates, the positive ccharge on the top plate is taken off and negative charge 1$ put on. While that 1s happening, the electric field disappears and then butlds up in the opposite direction. SURFACE LINES OF 8 }—- wb) The electric and magnetic fields between the plates of a capacitor. 232As the charge sloshes back and forth slowly, the clectric field follows At each instant the electric field 18 uniform, as shown in Fig, 23-4(b), except for some edge erfects which we are going to disregard. We can write the magnitude of the electric field as = Eye, 32) where By is a constant. Now will that continue tobe right asthe frequency goes up? No, because as the electric field going up and down, there isa lux of electri field through any loop like Tn Fig 23-4(4). And, as you know, a changing electric field acts to produce a magnetic field. One of Maxwell's equations says that when there is a varying electric field, as there i here, there has got to be a fine integral of the ‘magnet field, The integral of the magnetic field around a closed ring, multiplied by e%. 1s equal to the time rate-of-change of the electric flux through the area inside the ring (if there are no currents): a faa 2 [ e-nds 33) So how much magnetic field is there? That's not very hard. Suppose that we take the loop T'1, which 1s a exrle of radius r. We can see from symmetry that the magnetic field goes around as shown in the figure. Then the line integral of B is 2arB. And, since the electric field is untform, the flux of the electric fed is simply E multiphed by r?, the area of the ewcle: 2, a Bar = 2 Boar 3. Bar = Z Boar, (23.4) ‘The derivative of E with respect to time i, for our alternating field, simply iwEye™ So we find that our capacitor has the magnetic field B= BE ee. 3.) In other words, the magnetic field also oscillates and has strength proportional tor. What isthe effect of that? When there isa magnetic field that 5 varying, the will be induced electric fields and the capacitor will begin to acta Tittle bit like an inductance. As the frequency goes up, the magnet fleld gets stronger: 1 is pro- portional to the rate of change of , and so 10. The impedance of the capacitor will no longer be simply 1/iwC. Let's continue to raise the frequency and to analyze what happens more ea fully. We have a magnetic field that goes sloshing back and forth, But then the electric field cannot be uniform, as we have assumed! When there 1s a varying ‘magnetic field, there must bea line integral ofthe electric field—because of Faraday’s law. So if there s an appreciable magnetic field, as begins to happen at high fre- quencies, the electric field cannot be the same at all distances from the center. ‘The electric field must change with r so that the line integral af the electric field can equal the changing flux of the magnetic field Ler’s see if we can figure out the correct electri field. We ean do that by computing a “correction” to the uniform field we originally assumed for low frequencies. Let's call the uniform field E,, which will still be Ege, and write the correct field as E= Ey + Es where Ey is the correction due to the changing magnetic field. For any w we will write the field at the center of the condenser as Eye" (thereby defining £,), so that we have no correction at the center; E; = Oatr = 0. To find Ey we can use the integral form of Faraday’s law. 3 fra Samer