Apuntes

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? K J @A ? ?E EA J I HABAHA JAI = FH ?AI I @A ? B H =?E @A I =JAHE= AI = =I GKE =I JE AI E IJHK A J I O IEIJA =I @A B=>HE?=?E KJE E =@ I O = I ? JH AI O LAHE ?=?E AI A?AI=HE=I F=H= =IACKH=H FEA =I O FH @K?J I =? H@AI ? =I H =I O AIFA?E ?=?E AI AIJ=> A?E@=I >= ?HEJAHE I A? E? I O @A HA J=>E E@=@
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xn
! "
+K= @ = CK = L=HE=> A xi AI @EI?HAJ= >JA E@= F H KAIJHA IK L=HE= = y uxi IA AIJE =H F H si O x F H 1 ni i -IJA AI A A@E I KIK= F=H= >JA AH = E ?AHJE@K >HA @A =I A@E@=I = F=HJEH @A = FH F=C=?E @A AHH HAI A = ?=@A = @A ?= E>H=?E
!$
+= E>H=?E
@A K E IJHK A J @A
A@E@=
+= E>H=H K IEIJA = A@E@ H AI D= =H = @AILE=?E IEIJA JE?= ? HHA? ?E O = @EIFAHIE E ?AHJE@K >HA @A A@E@ H = ? F=H=H ? K F=JH @A =O H FHA?EIE FHALE= A JA ?= E>H=@ - A FH ?AI @A ?= E>H=?E IA HA= E = nc A@E@=I I >HA K > GKA F=JH c O K AIJE =@ H @A = @AILE=?E J FE?= sc >JA EA @ K L= H A@E X c 5EA @ X0 - IAIC AHH H IEIJA JE? @A E IJHK A J Xc = X0 X = A@E@= E = @A > GKA F=JH = E ?AHJE@K >HA @A = A@E@= IAH ?= ?K =@= = F=HJEH @A = E ?AHJE@K >HA =I ?E=@= = > GKA F=JH U0 O =F E?= @ = AO @A FH F=C=?E @A L=HE= =I
( U K )2 = ( U0 K0 )2 + s2 c ( 1 1 + nc n )
! #
+ IA FKA@A >IAHL=H = E ?AHJE@K >HA @A = A@E@= AI =O H GKA = @A F=JH 2=H= >JA AH =O H FHA?EIE IA HAGKEAHA L= HAI >= I @A sc
"
+=F JK
AJH
C = @E A IE =
O = J I @A nc ; ?K= J =O H IA= A AH @A A@E@=I n A H IAH = E ?AHJE@K >HA 2=H= IE F E ?=H A FH ?A@E EA J IA IKA A FH ?A@AH = AIJ=> A?AH = E ?AH JE@K >HA C >= @A E IJHK A J @A A@E@= F=H= J @ A ?= F @A A@E@= @A IJA 2=H= A A IEIJA = @A ?= E>H=?E E @KIJHE= 5+1 D= AIJ=> A?E@ A IECKEA JA FH ?A@E EA J 5A AI? CA > GKAI F=JH ?KO=I A@E@=I L= = HAFHAIA J=H A ?= F @A A@E@= @A E IJHK A J +=@= K @A AIJ I > GKAI F=JH JA @H K = A@E@= x0 O K = L=HE= = u0 5A AIJ=> A?A A AH @A A@E@=I ?= E>H=@ H=I GKA IA L= = HA= E =H I >HA ?=@= > GKA F=JH nc ! ,AIFK I @A HA= E =H =I nc A@E@=I I >HA ?=@= > GKA IA >JEA A L= HAI A@E I xci O =I @AILE=?E AI J FE?=I sci @A =I A@E@=I HA= E =@=I " A@E= JA K ?HEJAHE @A ? JH F H A A F A @A +D=KLA AJ IA ? FHKA>= GKA =I A@E@=I HA= E =@=I FAHJA A?A = = EI = @EIJHE>K?E AIJ=@ IJE?=
# ) F=HJEH @A =I @AILE=?E AI F=H?E= AI A ?=@= > GKA F=JH Xci = X0 xci IA >JEA A A IAIC C >= @A E IJHK A J Xc = (Xci )/n $ = E ?AHJE@K >HA ?= A = A@E@= @A ?=@= > GKA F=JH =@= = F=HJEH @A = L=HE= = -I @A?EH
2 u2 i = u0 +
IAH ?= ?K
s2 ci nc
! $ ! %
Ui = K ui
% 2=H= D= =H = E ?AHJE@K >HA IA ?= ?K = FHE AH = @AILE=?E @A = A @E= A ?=@= > GKA F=JH i = Xc Xci = E ?AHJE@K >HA C >= @A E IJHK A J IAH
U2 =
N{i2 + Ui2 }
! &
=I ?K= E@=@AI @A E IJHK A J A ?K= J = = FHA?EIE GKA@=H HA FHAIA J=@ I F H A IAIC Xc O = E ?AHJE@K >HA U E @E?= @ A B=?J H @A ? >AHJKH= KJE E =@ K A JHA F=H JAIEI
!$
A@E@=I E @EHA?J=I
L a r
H2 H1
.ECKH= !
4AC = @A 5A I F=H=
A@EH
CK
- ?HEJAHE @A +D=KLA AJ IA = =@ A A FK J " @A FH ?A@E EA J ? IEIJA A HA?D= =H =I A@E@=I O F H J= J L LAH =I = J =H GKA IA @AI L A @A = A@E= I @A K = HA =?E ? A AIJE =@ H @A @AILE=?E J FE?= - 2=H= K = ?= E>H=?E HA= E =@= ? nc = 10 K = LA ?= ?K =@= = A@E= xc O = @AILE=?E J FE?= sc IA HA?D= =H J @ I I L= HAI xi GKA ?K F = | xi xc |> Kn sc IEA @ Kn K L= H J=>K =@ GKA J = K L= H @A Kn = 1,96 F=H= nc = 10
!$!
J @ I @A
A@E@= E @EHA?J=
I KIK= AI
@A
5A ANF A = ? JE K=?E = CK I CK I O H=@E I @A @ E @EHA?J
J @ I F=H= = @AJAH E =?E
4AC = @A IA I
IA =
H1 + d1 H2 d2 L
! '
+ E?E@=@ ANJAHE H
JC(/2) =
M1 M2 2(L1 + r1 L2 r2 )
!
+=F JK
AJH
C = @E A IE =
r L
.ECKH= ! !
J @ F=H=
A@EH ? E?E@=@ ANJAHE H
H1
r1
H2
r2
.ECKH= ! "
J @ F=H=
A@EH ? E?E@=@ E JAHE H
! % 4KC IE@=@ IKFAH ?E=
b R
.ECKH= ! # .K ?E = EA J @A = I @= @A H @E I
+ E?E@=@ E JAHE H
IA
r2 r1 = 2 H1 + r1 H2 r2
!
5 @= @A H @E I
I
R= b2 2rb + (c/2)2 b
!
!%
4KC IE@=@ IKFAH ?E=
= HKC IE@=@ @A K = IKFAH ?EA IA IKA A >JA AH A@E= JA K HKC I AJH GKA ANF H= @E?D= IKFAH ?EA O >JEA A K FAH @A = IKFAH ?EA z (x) IEA @ x = @E A IE @A = CEJK@ ANF H=@= ) F=HJEH @A AIJA FAH IA @A A I IECKEA JAI F=H AJH I GKA ?=H=?JAHE = = HKC IE@=@ IKFAH ?E= CEJK@ @A ANF H=?E H=@ F H A HKC I AJH
L -I =
CEJK@ @A FAH
CA
JHE? ANF
CEJK@ > IE?= l -I = CEJK@ @A FAH AL= K=H = HKC IE@=@ 5KA A ? E ?E@EH ? =
CA JHE? A ACE@= F=H= CEJK@ @A ANF H=?E
A= A@E= @A FAH 5EJK=@= = K = ? J= z0 AI A L= H A@E @A = BK ?E z = =HC @A = CEJK@ > IE?= l -I = A= GKA @ELE@A = FAH ABA?JEL @A = AH= GKA A JHA I EJAI @A = CEJK@ > IE?=
&
+=F JK
AJH
C = @E A IE =
= IK = @A =I HA=I A ?AHH=@=I F H A ?E = @A AIJ= A= O A FAH ABA?JEL AI ECK= = = IK = @A =I HA=I A ?AHH=@=I F H @A>= @A IJ= A= O A ?EJ=@ FAH = KAIJH= A= @A HABAHA ?E= 5A ?= ?K = @A = IECKEA JA B H =
z0 = 1 l
l
z (x)dx
0
! !
4KC IE@=@ A@E= Ra -I = A@E= @A = @AILE=?E = = A= A@E= z0 5K ? ?K =JA JE? IAH =

1 Ra = l
l
@A FAH
HAIFA?J ! "
|z (x) z0 | dx
0
4KC IE@=@ J J= L= A
NE = Rt -I = @AILE=?E
Rt = zmax zmin
NE = A JHA FE? O ! #
,AILE=?E J FE?= Rs -I = H= ?K=@H=@= @A = A@E= @A I ?K=@H=@ I @A = @AILE=?E @A FAH HAIFA?J @A IK A@E=

1 Rs = l
l
(z (x) z0 )2 dx
0
! $
2=H= ?=H=?JAHE =H = HKC IE@=@ IKFAH ?E= IA KI=H Rt Ra Rs @AFA @EA @ @A F=H= A ?K= IA AIJ ?=H=?JAHE = @ I IA ?E @A ?= ?K =H AI Rt FKAI HAGKEAHA A A F A @A E C ? ?K AIFA?E= I KI=@ AI Ra FKAI IK A@E@= AI K?D I HAFAJEJEL= GKA = @A = HKC IE@=@ J J= O AI A F=H AJH ?KO= HAFHAIA J=?E AIJ H = E =@= = @AILE=?E J FE?= @A = JKH=I Rs AI K L= H I HAFAJEJEL GKA A L= H @A Ra FAH IK ? ?K D= IE@ F IE> A D=IJ= = =F=HE?E @A HKC I AJH I ? I= E@= @ECEJ= F H GKA AIJ J @=L = KO ANJA @E@ - I AIJK@E I @A A? E?= @A ? J=?J IA IKA A ?=H=?JAHE =H = IKFAH ?EA F H Rs
!&
2H > A =I @A
AJH
C=
2=H= ?= E>H=H K E IJHK A J @A A@E@= A K FK J @A IK AI?= = IA A F A= K F=JH @A ! A E ?AHJE@K >HA U0 = 0,4 K0 = 3 >JA E @ IA I L= HAI IECKEA JAI ! ' '' ' ''! ' ''' ' ''$ ! ' ''# ' ''% ! ' ''" 7 = LA ?= E>H=@ A E IJHK A J IA E@A K = FEA = JHAI LA?AI >JA E @ IA =I A@E@=I ' ''& ! ! "
! & 2H > A =I @A
AJH
C=
'
5A FE@A
A@E@= A E ?AHJE@K >HA @A = FEA = K !
4 30,004 0,011
7 J= AH L= = A?= E =H A ANJAHE H @A K A A ?E @HE? ? @E A IE AI AIFA?E ?=@=I 2R = 50 0,025 - = B=IA @A FHAF=H=?E IA A?= E = K = FEA = O IA ? FHKA>= K H=@E IEJK= @ IJ= I >HA K H O =FH NE @ A @ I L=HE =I ?= E>H=@=I F H = > I =@ I J = @ = ? J= A JHA =I F=HJAI ANJAH =I @A I H @E I I H @E I JEA A K H=@E @A ? E ?AHJE@K >HA @A K = 2 O A =F=H=J @A A@E@= JEA A K = E ?AHJE@K >HA @A ! K = 2 = ? J= @= K L= H @A &! &#& ? ?
+= ?K =H A H=@E @A = FEA = B=>HE?=@= A E ?AHJE@K >HA @A FH ?A@E EA J

R
4 D = 50,973 0,0214
K
! += ?K =H = ? E?E@=@ @A ? @A = CKH= ?K= @ M1 = 100 r = 8 O L1 = 20 5E IA J = JH= A@E@= ? L2 = 10 HAIK J= GKA M2 = 75 =I K E@=@AI LEA A A 5E =@A I IA I=>A GKA = E ?AHJE@K >HA @A L AI UL = 0,006 + 0,001 L ? KL = 2 O GKA UM = 0,02 ? KM = 2 ,AJAH E =H = E ?AHJE@K >HA @A = A@E@= @A = ? E?E@=@ F=H= K K = 3
M
r L
!
+=F JK
AJH
C = @E A IE =
" 5A FHAJA @A A@EH K CK A@E= JA K = HAC = @A IA I O > GKAI F=JH J= ? IA KAIJH= A = CKH= I @=J I K HE? I I I IECKEA JAI L = 50 r = 10 H1 = 20 H2 = 42 =I E ?AHJE@K >HAI I Ur = 0,01 UH 1 = 0,005 O UH 2 = 0,007 J @=I ? K = 2 += ?K =H O IK E ?AHJE@K >HA A CH=@ I IAN=CAIE = AI 6 @=I =I =C EJK@AI CEJK@E = AI LEA A A
L a r
H2 H1
4 = 0,45559 0,001959 H=@ K
# - = A@E@= @A K = ? E?E@=@ E JAHE H IA D= KJE E =@ K = I @= @A FH BK @E@=@ O @ I AIBAH=I ?= E>H=@=I J= ? IA E @E?= A = CKH= 5E = E ?AHJE@K >HA @A E IJHK A J @A A@E@= AI @A UH = 0,01 O =I @A =I AIBAH=I I UR = 0,007 R ?= ?K =H = ? E?E@=@ O IK E ?AHJE@K >HA A CH=@ I 6 @=I =I K E@=@AI LEA A A 6 @=I =I E ?AHJE@K >HAI IA ?= ?K = ? K = 2
H1
r1
H2
r2
4 = 11,46 0,373 K
+=F JK " .K @= A J I @A I FH ?AI I @A =HH= GKA @A =JAHE=

" 1 JH @K??E
I FH ?AI I @A A?= E =@ F H =HH= GKA @A LEHKJ= AIJ KO ANJA @E@ I A = E @KIJHE= - AIJ I FH ?AI I A J= = @A = FEA = HECE = ?EH?K I?HE>A = CA AJH = = O A =JAHE= I >H= JA AI =HH= ?=@ A B H = @A LEHKJ=I = ?= JE@=@ @A @AIA?D L= @AI@A K FAGKA F H?A J= A D=IJ= K % ' @A = FEA = HECE = + F=H= @ AIJA JEF @A B=>HE?=?E ? JH I J @ I F=H= ? IACKEH = CA AJH = = IA E ? KOA LA J= =I A E ? LA EA JAI IAC I ?=I I - JHA =I LA J= =I @A AIJA JEF @A FH ?AI I @A A?= E =@ GKA I =I H= AI F H =I GKA IK KI AIJ J= ANJA @E@ AIJ 5A ? IECKA K = = J= FHA?EIE @E A IE = A IKI FAH=?E AI F ?=I DAHH= EA GKA ? IAHL= IKI 2KA@A ? IACKEH K = = F E= L=HEA@=@ @A B H =I ? J=I ?= >E= = E?H AIJHK?JKH= @A FH FEA@=@AI A? E?=I 5 FH ?AI I B ?E AI @A =KJ =JAHE= F H
5A ? IECKA JANJKH=I IKFAH ?E= AI ? LA EA JAI F=H= I @EIJE J I @EIA I =JE =H IEA @ KO ANE> AI 4AGKEAHA F ? JEA F @A FHAF=H=?E !
+=F JK " .K @= A J I @A
I FH ?AI I @A =HH= GKA @A
=JAHE=
2 H JH= F=HJA J= >E JEA A @AILA J= =I HAIFA?J = I JH I FH ?AI I @A B=>HE?=?E I >HAJ @ HAIFA?J = I @A ? B H =@ F H @AB H =?E F IJE?= O I @A BK @E?E /A AH= =JAHE= @A @AIA?D A K?D I ?=I I HA?E? => A
4AGKEAHA K =
=O H A AHC = @A FH ?AI I A AL=@ I E EJ=@ = FAH EJE@ F H = @A JA AI GKE =
I JEA F I @A FH @K??E
- J= = @A =I FEA =I AIJ DAHH= EA J= 5KA A IAH F ? A?
E? I ?K= @ A J= =
KO A AL=@
"
/A AH=?E
@A IKFAH ?EAI
- FHE ?EFE @A CA AH=?E @A IKFAH ?EAI A AIJA JEF @A FH ?AI I AI A >E@E A IE = O= GKA = CA AJH = @A = DAHH= EA J= I F IAA E B H =?E @A K FK J A A A J @A IKFAH ?EA @A = CA AJH = = -IJ JEA A ? LA J= = = ANE>E E@=@ F=H= CA AH=H K?D= L=HEA@=@ @A IKFAH ?EAI ? = EI = DAHH= EA J= 2=H= CA AH=H = IKFAH ?EA IA HAGKEAHA = A I @ I LE EA J I HA =JEL I A JHA = FEA = O = DAHH= EA J= = CA AJH = @A = FEA = = IA HECE = A@E= JA = ? >E =?E @A @ I A A A J I = CA AJH = @A = DAHH= EA J= O A F=JH @A LE EA J I HA =JEL I A JHA = FEA = O = DAHH= EA J= =I GKE =I DAHH= EA J= I =I A ?=HC=@=I @A CA AH=H AI I LE EA J I HA =JEL I =F HJ= @ = A AHC = A?A I=HE= = FH ?AI ,A I @ I LE EA J I HA =JEL I E I F=H= CA AH=H = IKFAH ?EA IKA A D=>AH K GKA AI A GKA ? IK A = =O H F=HJA @A = F JA ?E= @A = GKE = -IJA LE EA J IA A IKA A @A E =H LE EA J FHE =HE @A ? HJA JH LE EA J IA KI= ? >E =@ ? A LE EA J @A ? HJA F=H= =OK@=H A = A E E =H A =JAHE= I >H= JA AIJA LE EA J AI = =@ LE EA J @A =L= ?A -IJ I LE EA J I FKA@A IAH = IK LA E A= AI ?EH?K =HAI FKA@A A L=H I = DAHH= EA J= =I FEA =I E @EIJE J= A JA -IJ D=?A GKA D=O= K?D= L=HEA@=@ @A GKE =I DAHH= EA J= F=H= CA AH=H =I IKFAH ?EAI ) @ @A A A F LA= I ? IA ? >E = AIJ=I L=HE=> AI A =I GKE =I DAHH= EA J=I I KIK= AI
" ! . H =?E
@A LEHKJ=
!! 6EF L E A= E A= E A= E A= +EH?K =H E A= +EH?K =H E A= +EH?K =H E A= 2 HJ=@ H 0AHH= EA J= 2EA = 2EA = 0AHH= EA J= 2EA = 0AHH= EA J= 0AHH= EA J= 2EA = 0AHH= EA J= 0AHH= EA J=
0AHH= EA J= E =@ H= +AFE =@ H= 6H .HAI=@ H= 6= =@H=@ H=
L
Mc Ma Mc Ma Mc Ma Mc Ma Mc Ma
"!
. H =?E
@A LEHKJ=
- A AIJK@E @A = B H =?E @A LEHKJ= IA L= = IKF AH GKA = DAHH= EA J= AI K @EA@H GKA @AI E = I >HA = IKFAH ?EA GKA AIJ CA AH= @ -IJ= IKFAH ?EA AIJ K F ? F H @A>= @A = IKFAH ?EA @A = FEA = HECE = @A B H = GKA IK LE EA J FH L ?= A @AIFHA @E EA J @A = LEHKJ= @A =JAHE= >=IA = E JAHIA??E @A I @ I F = I @A @EA@H AI K = HA?J= GKA AI A S @A = DAHH= EA J= =I @ I ?=H=I @A AIJA @EA@H I +=H= @A E ?E@A ?E= = ? @A = DAHH= EA J= A GKA AI A F = ?AH?= = = IKFAH ?EA CA AH=@= +=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J A GKA AI A F = I
F H A GKA @AI E = = LEHKJ=
-IJ= DAHH= EA J= @AI E = I >HA = IKFAH ?EA ? K = LA ?E@=@ v c GKA AI = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA IA FKA@A @A EH ? = LA ?E@=@ E IJ= J A= @A LE EA J @A ? HJA HAIFA?J = FEA = O IKA A A@EHIA A E 5E AIJ= LA ?E@=@ AI FAHFA @E?K =H = IA @E?A GKA A ? HJA AI HJ C = A JH ?=I IA @E?A GKA A ? HJA AI > E?K - ? HJA HJ C = AI I IA ?E @A AIJK@E=H GKA A ? HJA > E?K O= GKA IA FHAIA J= K AIJ=@ @A @AB H =?E F = = = IKFAH ?EA CA AH=@= F H A ?E = @A = ?K= IA A E E = A =JAHE= F H = ?=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J AI A F = @A Ps O LEA A @A E@ F H A S O = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA JH=I @A E?E AI @A ? ?AFJ I E F HJ= JAI I )L= ?A -I A LE EA J GKA =CHAC=@ = @A ? HJA ? @K?A = = A E E =?E FH CHAIEL= @A =JAHE= 5KA A A@EHIA A I HAL @EA JA F=I=@=
!"
+=F JK " .K @= A J I @A
=JAHE=
-IFAI H @A LEHKJ= IE @AB H =H ac -I A AIFAI H @A = LEHKJ= FAHFA @E?K =H = O A K F = FAHFA @E?K =H = ? HJA
A@E@
-IFAI H @A LEHKJ= @AB H =@ ao -I A AIFAI H @A LEHKJ= A@E@ @AIFK I @A ? HJA 4A =?E @A ? HJA rc AI A ? ?EA JA A JHA A AIFAI H @A LEHKJ= ac =@ O A AIFAI H @A LEHKJ= @AB H =@ rc = a <1 o ) ?D @A LEHKJ= aW AI A = ?D @A = LEHKJ= A@E@ A = @EHA??E @AB H @A
HA= @A ? HJA Ac AI A HA= FAHFA @E?K =H = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA GKA AI >=HHE@= F H = DAHH= EA J= HA= @A =L= ?A Af AI A HA= FAHFA @E?K =H = = LA ?E@=@ @A =L= ?A >=HHE@= F H = DAHH= EA J= 6=I= @A =HH= GKA ZW 8 K A @A =JAHE= @A = FEA = =HH= ?=@ F H K E@=@ @A JEA F 6EA A K E@=@AI @A ?=K@= 5E IA = = E = >IAHL=H = GKA I BA A I ?KHHE@ I A J H H = @AIFHA @AHIA @A = =HH= GKA @A LEHKJ= IA =JAHE=
A AI EI= O >HE = JA
= LEHKJ= ?= >E= @A ?
= ?=H= @A = LEHKJ= GKA D= AIJ=@ A ? J=?J ? EA JH=I GKA = JH= AI I?KH= O HKC I=
ao > a c F H
GKA rc < 1 IEA FHA I @KH= O BH CE GKA A =JAHE= >=IA = =JAHE= = @A ? HJA
= LEHKJ= AI
5A FH @K?A CH= @AI E ?HA A J I @A JA FAH=JKH= A = B H = @A = LEHKJ= @AFA @A @A = LA ?E@=@ @A
- =HH= GKA @A LEHKJ= A =JAHE= AI @ ?JE AI IA FH @K?A A@E= JA = @A B H =?E F IJE?= GKA ?KHHA A K = BH= = AIJHA?D= = =@= F = @A ?E = =@KH= - =JAHE= @AB H =@ @AI E = I >HA = ?=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J LA ?EA @ BKAH =I @A H = EA J A AL=@=I 5A @EIJE CKA JHAI JEF I > IE? I @A LEHKJ= 8EHKJ= @EI? JE K= IA FH @K?A ?K= @ IA A?= E = =JAHE= AI BH CE AI O? =JAHE= AI @ ?JE AI = LA ?E@=@AI KO >= =I @A ? HJA - ? HJA IA FH @K?A = >=IA @A FAGKA =I BH=?JKH=I @A =JAHE= >=IA
" " /A
AJH = @A ? HJA
!#
8EHKJ= ? FH JK>AH= ?E=I ? HJA ? HA?HA?E EA J @A IA FH @K?A A =JAHE= AI KO @ ?JE AI = LA ?E@=@AI @A ? HJA >= =I +K= @ = BHE??E A JHA = LEHKJ= O = DAHH= EA J= AI KO = J= IA FH @K?A K = =@DAIE KO BKAHJA A JHA A =JAHE= @A = LEHKJ= O = IKFAH ?EA @A = DAHH= EA J= ? GKA = LEHKJ= A FEA = = @AI E =H @EHA?J= A JA I >HA = ?=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J IE I >HA =JAHE= =@DAHE@ I >HA A = -IJA HA?HA?E@ FKA@A AC=H = K J= = A A ?K= IA @AIFHA @= A =JAHE= =@DAHE@ I >HA = FEA = I >HA = LEHKJ= @A = @ A J @ ?=I K =?=>=@ IKFAH ?E= KO @A ?EA JA 8EHKJ= ? JE K= -I A H CE A H = @A ? HJA O AI A GKA A H =?= >=@ IKFAH ?E= @A = 2=H= B=?E EJ=H = AL=?K=?E IA IKA A @EIF AH @A K H FALEHKJ=I A = ?=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J 8EHKJ= IAC A J=@= - K = LEHKJ= GKA JEA A B H = @A @EA JA @A IEAHH= A = GKA K =I >= @=I ? HJ= JAI =F=HA?A HACK =H A JA EA JH=I GKA A =JAHE= E JAH A@E =FA =I D= IKBHE@ @AB H =?E F IJE?= 5 >HA A A?= EI @A IK =F=HE?E D=O ? IA I A I AIJK@E I ?EA J ? I = JA H = I =?AFJ=@= A = E AIJ=>E E@=@ JAH F IJE?= A =JAHE= AI ?KO= HAIEIJA ?E= ?=A @H IJE?= A JA = = ?= =H K = JA FAH=JKH= @AJAH E =@= ) A=?E AI @A GKA O JEJ= E ?K= @ IA A?= E = = = J= LA ?E@=@ FHAIA J= AIJA JEF @A LEHKJ= 0=O =JAHE= AI GKA FKA@A FHAIA J=H I JHAI FHE AH I HAC ?EJ=@ I @AFA @EA @ @A = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA J =@= A AI @A ? HJA
""
/A
AJH = @A ? HJA
2=H= AIJK@E=H = CA AJH = @A = DAHH= EA J= IA L= = IACKEH A IEIJA = @A = HA? A @=?E 15 ,15 ! -IJ= H = AIJ=> A?A K IEIJA = @A F = I = F=HJEH @A I ?K= AI IA L= = @A EH I CK I @A ? HJA = H = @EIJE CKA A JHA CA AJH = DAHH= EA J= A = O CA AJH = DAHH= EA J= A KI - FHE AH IEIJA = IA KI= ? AI @A B=>HE?=?E O = =@ @A DAHH= EA J=I EA JH=I GKA A IACK @ IA @A A ?K= @ = DAHH= EA J= AIJ HA= A JA ? HJ= @ -IJ= AI K = B H = @A JA AH A ?KA J= I ABA?J I @A I CH= @AI =L= ?AI O I F IE?E = EA J I @A =I DAHH= EA J=I A =I GKE =I @EIJE J I @A I H = E =@ I E? GKA FKA@A @EIJE CKEH K IEIJA = @A JH AI = @EHA??E @A = LA ?E@=@ HAIK J= JA O = @EHA??E @A = IK A?E A A J= A ,A AIJA @ A K FK J @A O @A = DAHH= EA J= IA FKA@A @A EH K IEIJA = @A A AI ?=HJAIE= I A A ?K= A A A OX IA= = @EHA??E @A =
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=JAHE=
Punta de la herramienta
Filo secundario Flanco secundario Cara
Eje de la herramienta Filo principal Flanco principal
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IK A?E @A = DAHH= EA J= A A ?=I @A J H = @EHA??E @A L IJ=C O ? A A OY ? A @A = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA - A A OZ IA >JA @H @A I @ I = JAHE HAI O IKA A ? E ?E@EH ? A A A A Z @A IEIJA = @A = GKE = DAHH= EA J= 6= J A A A OX ? A A A OZ I F IEJEL I A A IA JE@ A A GKA = DAHH= EA J= IA = A = @A = FEA = -IJA IEIJA = @A ? H@A =@=I AI E JH IA? = = GKE = DAHH= EA J= GKA AI = GKA FH @K?A I LE EA J I HA =JEL I A JHA FEA = O DAHH= EA J= A A OY O = GKA IK AJ= = DAHH= EA J= A A OX + AIJ= ? IJHK??E IA @A A I IECKEA JAI F = I DAHH= EA J= A = 2 = @A HABAHA ?E= Pr AI A F = XOZ O AI A GKA B IE?= A JA HAFHA IA J= A F = FAHFA @E?K =H = = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA 2 = @A JH=>= Pf ? JEA A = A A OY O A LE EA J @A =L= ?A JA HE? - A ?E E @H=@ AI A F = Y OZ O A A HABHA J=@ Y OX 2= CEJK@E = PL -I A F = FAHFA @E?K =H = I @ I = JAHE HAI - ? @E?E AI H = AI = vc ? E ?E@A ? A A A OY ? JA @H = = = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA O IAH = FAHFA @E?K =H = =L= ?A K J = I F = I = JAHE HAI IA @A A JH I F = I GKA JEA A A ?KA J= = CA AJH = @A = DAHH= EA J= = =@ I F = I @A IEJK=?E 2 = @A Ps -I A F = GKA ? JEA A = S O = = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA v c 2 H ? JA AH = v c AIJA F = AI FAHFA @E?K =H = Pr 2= H = Pn A F = H = =
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I F = I I E JH IA? I = = CA AJH = @A = DAHH= EA J= JAI @A IK F IE?E A = GKE = DAHH= EA J= = @A F = I O= IA FKA@A @A EH I CK I @A ? HJA -IJ I K = AJH= CHEAC= O K IK> @E?A GKA E @E?= A F = I >HA H = Pn IA @A A I IECKEA JAI CK I
CK @A @AIFHA @E EA J n AI A GKA B H = A O Pr CK @A E ?E@A ?E= n AI A GKA B H = A O Ps CK @A n AI A GKA B H = A O A O AI ? @ I = JAHE HAI

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@A HABAHA ?E= Pr IA E@A A CK @A F IE?E @A CK GKA D=O A JHA Ps O Pf A@E@ I >HA A Pr - A 2 = @A Ps IA @A A A CK @A E ? E =?E @A A B H =@ A JHA S O Pr 5E s = 0 A ? HJA AI HJ C =
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+K= @ = DAHH= EA J= JAH E = A FK J= IKA A E JAHLA EH @ I I A A ? HJA - FHE ?EF= GKA AI A GKA =O H F=HJA @A ?=HC= AL= O A IA?K @= HE =I =C EJK@AI HABAHE@=I = IA?K @=HE IA @A E = ? ?= @ K I > @AIFK I @A I > )I IA @A E = r -IJ= CA AJH = FKA@A ?= >E=H A =I ? @E?E AI @A KI @A>E@ = = E KA ?E= @A I =L= ?AI = @AILE=?E A A F IE?E = EA J @A = DAHH= EA J= - AIJA ?=I IA @A A =I EI =I =C EJK@AI = =@EA @ A IK> @E?A e = =I =C EJK@AI @A E@=I = JAHE H A JA ne re se AJ? = JH=I =?E @A K IEIJA = = JH IA HA= E = A@E= JA ? ?K I CA JHE? I = F=HJEH @A KAL F IE?E = EA J @A A A OY A A= ? = LA ?E@=@
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KA ?E= @A I EA J
CK I @A ? HJA A A BK ?E =
5E A CK @A @AIFHA @E EA J ne AI CH= @A =I BKAH =I @A ? HJA @EI E KOA FKAI A =JAHE= IA @AB H = A I F IJE?= A JA O = DAHH= EA J= IA @AIC=IJ= K?D A = ?=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J = =K A J=H = BKAH = @A BHE??E O = LA ?E@=@ HA =JEL= @A = LEHKJ= I >HA = ?=H= @A = DAHH= EA J= 5E A CK @A E ?E@A ?E= ne AI CH= @A = DAHH= EA J= FKA@A BH=?JKH=H IK FK J= @A>E@ = =I = J=I BKAH =I @A ? HJA FAH ?K= J I FAGKA IA= =O H @AIC=IJA IKBHEH = FK J= =K A J= @ =I F H@E@=I F H H = EA J @A = DAHH= EA J= ? = IKFAH ?EA @A = FEA = CK @A E ? E =?E @A se E KOA A = @EHA??E @A = LEHKJ= A IK I= E@= F H = ?=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J 6 = L= HAI F IEJEL I ?K= @ A?D= = LEHKJ= BKAH= @A = FEA = ; J = L= HAI AC=JEL I ?K= @ JEA @A = D=?AH ?D ?=H = LEHKJ= @A KAL ? = FEA = +K= @ IA A?= E = =JAHE= AI @KH I O BH CE AI IA KI= se < 0 7 CK @A F IE?E @A re @EIJE J @A 90 FAH EJA K A H =FH LA?D= EA J @A = CEJK@ @A I >HA J @ ?K= @ IA JEA A E EJ=@= = FH BK @E@=@ @A F=I=@= 6= >E IA KI= F=H= ALEJ=H BKAH =I @A E F=?J = E E?E @A ? HJA IK=LE = @ = A JH=@= @A = DAHH= EA J= A A ? HJA
"#
=@
.KAH =I @A ? HJA
)K GKA A ? IJA @A = F JA ?E= ? IK E@= A K = FAH=?E @A A?= E AI K B=?J H A? E? E F HJ= JA D=>EJK= A JA AI A?AI=HE IK ? ?E EA J F=H= IAH ?=F=?AI @A AIJE =H = ?= JE@=@ @A F JA ?E= A?AI=HE= F=H= HA= E =H = FAH=?E @A>E@ = =I E EJ=?E AI E FKAIJ=I F H = GKE = @EIF E> A = ?=F=?E@=@ @A AIJE =H = F JA ?E= @A K = FAH=?E AI E F HJ= JA I >HAJ @ A =I FAH=?E AI @A @AI>=IJA O= GKA GKA E JAHAI=
"
+=F JK " .K @= A J I @A
=JAHE=
AI HA= E =H = FAH=?E A A A H JEA F O A A A H AH @A F=I=@=I F IE> A 2 H JH= F=HJA =I BKAH =I @A ? HJA J= >E E JAHLEA A A BA A I? A ?= A J= EA J @A = FEA = O = DAHH= EA J= A @AIC=IJA @A = DAHH= EA J= = ?= E@=@ IKFAH ?E= O @E A IE = @A = FEA = A @EIA @A = =HHA O KJE = AI A?AI=HE I AJ? = E JAH=??E A JHA = DAHH= EA J= = LEHKJ= O = FEA = IA JH=@K?A A K = IAHEA @A FHAIE AI I >HA = IKFAH ?EA @A = DAHH= EA J= -IJA IEIJA = @A BKAH =I O FHAIE AI IA FKA@A HA@K?EH = K = BKAH = HAIK J= JA F A J HAIK J= JA IA FKA@A @AIFHA?E=H O= GKA A HA= I >HA A GKA IA =F E?= = BKAH = AI KO FAGKA = 7 = FHE AH= @AI? F IE?E @A AIJ= BKAH = AI A @ I @E HA??E AI HJ C = AI K = A = @EHA??E @A = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA GKA IAH = BKAH = @A ? HJA Fc O = JH= A = @EHA??E FAHFA @E?K =H = = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA GKA IAH = BKAH = @A A FK A Ft ,A =I @ I BKAH =I = E?= GKA ? IK A F JA ?E= AI Fc IEA @ = BK ?E @A Ft = @A = JA AH = F IE?E @A @A = DAHH= EA J= A A F = A Ps
"#
- AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA
5A @A A = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA ps ? = A AHC = A?AI=HE= F=H= HA LAH K = K E@=@ @A L K A @A =JAHE= -IJA L= H HA =?E = = F JA ?E= Pm O = LA ?E@=@ @A =HH= GKA @A =JAHE= Zw
ps = Em Em /t Pm = = V V /t Zw
"
5E IA JEA A A L= H @A ps K J ? A L= H @A = F JA ?E= @EIF E> A A = GKE = IA FKA@A ?= ?K =H = J=I= @A =HH= GKA NE = @A = FAH=?E IA= A L K A NE @A =JAHE= GKA IA FKA@A =HH= ?=H F H K E@=@ @A JEA F -IJ= J=I= @A =HH= GKA JEA A K E@=@AI @A ?=K@= O IA FKA@A ?= ?K =H E JACH= @ A FH @K?J AI?= =H @A HA= @A >=HHE@ F H = LA ?E@=@ @A >=HHE@ ,A @ IE F E ?=@ IA FKA@A KI=H A HA= @A ? HJA A HA= @A =L= ?A F=H= IK ? ?K 5EA @ A HA= @A ? HJA Ac A HA= >=HHE@= F H = DAHH= EA J= FAHFA @E?K =H = = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA O A HA= @A =L= ?A Af A HA= >=HHE@= F H = DAHH= EA J= FAHFA @E?K =H = = LA ?E@=@ @A =L= ?A
Zw = Ac vc = Af vf
"
2 H J= J A L= H @A ps J= >E HA =?E = = BKAH = @A ? HJA Fc O A HA= @A ? HJA Ac F H GKA J= >E IA A IKA A = =H BKAH = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA Ks
ps = Pm Fc v Fc = = Zw Ac v Ac
" !
" # .KAH =I @A ? HJA
"
I ANFAHE A J I FKA@A @A?EH ? L=H = ps ? =I ? @E?E AI @A ? HJA - ? ?HAJ IA L= = AIJK@E=H A ABA?J @A = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA O @A AIFAI H @A LEHKJ= I >HA A L= H @A ps ) LA ?E@=@AI >= =I = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA AI KO = J= @EI E KOA @ ? B H A =K A J= = LA ?E@=@ D=IJ= K L= H = F=HJEH @A ?K= ps FAH = A?A ? IJ= JA -IJ IA @A>A = HA?HA?E EA J @A GKA =F=HA?A = >= =I LA ?E@=@AI @A ? HJA O ?K= @ = BHE??E AI = J= H = A JA IA @A>A JH=>= =H A A JH= A A GKA ps AI ? IJ= JA O= GKA J= >E AI = I A? E?= ps @EI E KOA = =K A J=H ac K?D I B=>HE?= JAI @A DAHH= EA J=I FH F H ?E = K = ANFHAIE @A AIJ= L=HE=?E - =K A J @A ps = @EI E KEH ac IA @A>A = ABA?J @A J= = O= GKA =I BKAH =I @A BHE??E A = ?=H= @A E ?E @A ?E= O =F =IJ= EA J @A = FK J= HA@ @A=@= HAFHAIA J= K F H?A J= A =O H A = A AHC = ? IK E@= = @EI E KEH ac
"#
.KAH =I @A BHE??E
= BHE??E A =I FAH=?E AI @A A?= E =@ JEA A ?EAHJ=I FA?K E=HE@=@AI GKA D=?A GKA IKI AOAI IA= @EIJE J=I @A =I GKA IECKA I BA A I @A BHE??E H = AI - A @AI E = EA J @A = LEHKJ= I >HA = ?=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J =I IKFAH ?EAI AIJ E>HAI @A ?=F=I @A NE@ I O= GKA = ?=H= @A = LEHKJ= A ? J=?J ? = DAHH= EA J= AIJ HA?E ?HA=@= O D= JA E@ ? J=?J ? A =EHA IE ? = ?=H= @A = DAHH= EA J= O = ?=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J D= AIJ=@ H = @ = JAHE H A JA ? LEHKJ= O= @AIFHA @E@= GKA = I FHE AH I AJH I D= @A =@ @AI K@= = = DAHH= EA J= @A ?K= GKEAH ?=F= @A NE@ -IJ D=?A GKA IA AIJ=> A ?= K E AI AJ E?= A JHA I J I @A = LEHKJ= O I @A = DAHH= EA J= 2 H JH= F=HJA =I FHAIE AI H = AI I A AL=@ IE =I F H A ?E = @A = JA IE @A KA ?E= @A = FEA = F H GKA A ? J=?J A JHA IKFAH ?EAI IAH F A E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A =I @K =?E AI @A = HKC IE@=@ = BKAH = @A H = EA J IA FKA@A A@EH = F=HJEH @A = BKAH = @A ? HJA O = @A A FK A -IJ ANF E?= >IAHL=@ A I ANFAHE A J I = BKAH = @A H = EA J AI E @AFA @EA JA @A ne ) =K A J=H ne @EI E KOA = BKAH = @A ? HJA FAH = BKAH = @A H = EA J GKA =K A JA = ?KHL=HIA A I = LEHKJ= O F H J= J =K A J= = LA ?E@=@ @A @AI E = EA J @A = LEHKJ= I >HA = DAHH= EA J= =K A J= @ @A = AH= ? IE@AH=> A A ?= A J= EA J O @AIC=IJA @A = DAHH= EA J=
"
+=F JK " .K @= A J I @A
=JAHE=
= BKAH = @A H = EA J AI A H ?K= J I @EIE E =HAI IA= I = JAHE= AI @A = DAHH= EA J= O @A = FEA = ,A @ @A LEA A = E F HJ= ?E= @A HA?K>HEH >EA I =JAHE= AI @A DAHH= EA J= ? ?=F=I ?AH E?=I H = A JA 6E
"$
6A FAH=JKH=I @A ? HJA
7 = @A = E EJ=?E AI @A I FH ?AI I @A ? HJA I =I JA FAH=JKH=I = ?= =@=I @KH= JA A A?= E =@ = F JA ?E= ? IK E@= A A ? HJA IA E LEAHJA A = @AB H =?E F IJE?= @A = LEHKJ= O A I @EIJE J I H = EA J I -IJ I JH=>= I IA ? LEAHJA A ?= H GKA IA E LEAHJA A =K A J=H =I JA FAH=JKH=I @A = LEHKJ= = DAHH= EA J= O = FEA = @A JH=>= = DAHH= EA J= FEAH@A HA IEIJA ?E= ? B H A =K A J= IK JA FAH=JKH= =K A J= @ IK @AIC=IJA O F H J= J @EI E KOA @ IK LE@= JE 2 H JH =@ K ?= A J= EA J AN?AIE L @A = FEA = @A JH=>= FKA@A L=HE=H =I FH FEA@=@AI @A =JAHE= @A>E@ = ?= >E I E?H AIJHK?JKH= AI F H ABA?J I J H E? I J= >E FKA@A =BA?J=H = = FHA?EIE @A A?= E =@ = AIJ=H A?= E = @ K = FEA = @E =J=@= GKA = JA FAH=JKH= = >EA JA IA FKA@A ? JH=AH )K GKA IA L= = AIJK@E=H = B @ A BA A JAH @E E? I GKA ? LEA A JA AH = CK I ? ?AFJ I ? =H I HAIFA?J = = E KA ?E= @A I @EIJE J I F=H AJH I @A ? HJA A =I JA FAH=JKH=I @A = DAHH= EA J= O A = FEA = O F H I J= J A = A? = O ?= E@=@ @A FH ?AI
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,AB H =?E F IJE?= A = = @A ?E = =@KH= @A = LEHKJ= - ?= H CA AH=@ F H K E@=@ @A JEA F JEA A K L= H IA FKA@A ?= ?K =H A BK ?E @A = LA ?E@=@ @A ?E = =@ O = BKAH = @A ?E = =@ Ps = Fs vs .HE??E A JHA = LEHKJ= O = DAHH= EA J= - K @A ?= H CA AH=@ IAH I= ?E@=@ -IJ= @ =
Pf = Fr vo
.HE??E A JHA = DAHH= EA J= O = FEA = 5K L= H = ECK= GKA JAHE HAI IAH A FH @K?J @A = BKAH = @A H = EA J F H = LA HA =JEL= A JHA = DAHH= EA J= O = FEA = Pf w = sl V B aw v BKA JA @A ?= H @AFA @AH @A @AIC=IJA V B GKA IAH K ?K= DAHH= EA J= AI KAL= AIJ HA?E = =@=
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)>H=IE = FEA = @A JH=>= ? JEA A E ? KIE AI @A F=HJ ?K =I @KH=I GKA H=O= = IKFAH ?EA @A = DAHH= EA J=
,EBKIE ) JA FAH=JKH=I A AL=@=I I J I @A = A=?E IA @EBK @A D=?E= @ @A ANEIJA A I ? ?A JH=?E 2 H AIJA A?= EI = IKFAH ?EA @A = DAHH= EA J= IA A F >HA?A @A A A A J I @A = A=?E @A>E EJ @ IA -IJ I A?= EI I IA =CH=L= ?K= @ =K A J= = JA FAH=JKH= O ?K= @ I =JAHE= AI I I = AI - @AIC=IJA A = DAHH= EA J= @A ? HJA AI @A @ I JEF I FHE ?EF= A JA - = ?=H= @A @AIFHA @E EA J IA FH @K?A K ?H JAH A FK J @ @A = JA FAH=JKH= = ?= = IK NE H = A JA A
- = ?=H= @A E ?E@A ?E= IA FH @K?A K =?D= = = EA J @A = FK J= @A>E@ = H = EA J @A = DAHH= EA J= ? = IKFAH ?EA A?= E =@= - @AIC=IJA F H ?H=JAHE =?E IA ?=H=?JAHE = F H I F=H AJH I KT KM O KB EA JH=I GKA A @AIC=IJA A = ?=H= @A E ?E@A ?E= IA ?=H=?JAHE = F H V B O F H NB 2=H= AIJE =H = CH=LA@=@ @A @AIC=IJA IA IKA A KJE E =H V B O KT 7 L= H AN?AIEL @A V B FH @K?A E AIJ=>E E@=@AI A A ? J=?J ? LE>H=?E AI =@A I @A =K A J=H =I F H@E@=I F H BHE??E A = ?=H= @A E ?E@A ?E= 7 L= H AN?AIEL @A KT =K A J=H = A HEAIC @A BH=?JKH= @A = FK J= @A = DAHH= EA J= = H = 15 6+ ' AIJ=> A?A K I L= HAI NE I @A V B KT ? ?HEJAHE @A LE@= @A = DAHH= EA J= F=H= ?=@= JEF @A =JAHE= @A DAHH= EA J= - JHA =I @EIJE J=I AIFA?E ?=?E AI @AIJ=?= = E EJ=?E @A V B = K L= H @A ! @A L= H A@E = =HC @A = K L= H NE @A $ - L= H V B IECKA K = AL K?E E A= ? A JEA F FAH = FA @EA JA @A AI= HA?J= @AFA @A @A = LA ?E@=@ -NEIJA F=H= K = DAHH= EA J= K = HA =?E A JHA A = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA O A JA F A GKA V B J=H@= A = ?= =H A
""
+=F JK " .K @= A J I @A
=JAHE=
L= H @A ! = =@ LE@= @A DAHH= EA J= t -IJ= HA =?E IA =FH NE = K?D = = = =@= AO @A 6=O H = ?K= AIJ=> A?A GKA vtn = C C O n I >JA E@ I ANFAHE A J= A JA O @AFA @A @A =JAHE= @A = DAHH= EA J= O @A = FEA = = A?= E =H CA AJH = @A ? HJA HABHECAH=?E = LE@= @A = DAHH= EA J= IAC KT @AFA @A @A ne ,A>E@ = GKA = F=HJEH @A K L= H @A ne A @AIC=IJA FKA@A IAH ?=J=IJH ? F H n AIJ E EJ=@ F=H= @EIJE J I JEF I @A =JAHE= AI 2=H= I AJ= AI @KH I IK L= H IKA A AI @A ! # F=H= I =?AH I H FE@ I IK L= H AIJ ? FHA @E@ A JHA O " ?K= @ A?= E = =JAHE= AI @KH I O A JHA " O ! ?K= @ A?= E = =JAHE= AI @ ?JE AI
"&
=JAHE= AI @A DAHH= EA J=
;= IA D= LEIJ = E F HJ= ?E= @A =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A =JAHE= @A DA HH= EA J= F=H= AIJ=> A?AH I F=H AJH I @A ? HJA FJE I - ? ?HAJ = =JAHE= @A DAHH= EA J= IA A L= = FA@EH GKA JA C= >KA =I FH FEA@=@AI = = J= JA FAH=JKH= @A @AIC=IJA HAIEIJA ?E= @KHA = O JA =?E@=@ )@A I D= @A JA AH F ?= = E@=@ GK E?= ? = FEA = @A JH=>= O @A>A IA HAIEIJA JA = = ? HH IE 2=H= ? IACKEH K = ? >E =?E FJE = @A FH FEA@=@AI IA D= @A AC=H = K ? FH EI A JHA HAIEIJA ?E= = @AIC=IJA O = JA =?E@=@ I =JAHE= AI @A DAHH= EA J= I L=HE=@ IE I O AIJ A ? JE K= AL K?E )GK IA L= = ? =IE ?=H A JHAI CH= @AI CHKF I )?AH I H FE@ I 055 AJ= AI @KH I + O +AH E? I ++ - H@A @A ?EJ=?E D= IE@ A @A HAIEIJA ?E= = @AIC=IJA ?HA?EA JA FAH JA =?E@=@ @A?HA?EA JA I =?AH I H FE@ I I = A=?E AI @A F e IA FH @K?A F H BK @E?E O JH=J= EA J J H E? 5A KI= F=H= DAHH= EA J=I > GKA O F=H= ? HJA E JAHHK FE@ 6H=>= = D=IJ= JA FAH=JKH=I @A $ dg + I AJ= AI @KH I I ?=H>KH I ?A A J=@ I A K = =JHE @A ? >= J 5A FH @K?A F H FH ?A@E EA J I FK LE AJ= HCE? I IA FH F H?E = A B H = @A F =GKEJ=I = KIJ=> AI = >=HH=I F HJ=DAHH= EA J=I 2KA@A JH=>= =H D=IJ= JA FAH=JKH=I @A + = H = 15 6+ ' D= ? =IE ?=@ AIJ I =JAHE= AI A JHAI CHKF I 2 F=H= A?= E =H =JAHE= AI @ ?JE AI F=H= A?= E =H =JAHE= AI =>H=IEL I O F=H= A?= E =H =JAHE= AI BH CE AI ; I K AH= IAC = ?= E@=@ GKA LEA A @=@= F H IK HAIEIJA ?E= = @AIC=IJA @A = # +K= J =O H AI A AH A H HAIEIJA ?E= = @AIC=IJA JA @H ,A JH @A CHKF @A I =JAHE= AI ?AH E? I IA A ?KA JH= I ?AH AJI A EJHKH @A * H + >E? +* A @E= = JA F E?HEIJ= E 6EA A = LA J= = @A GKA =CK= J= KO = J=I JA FAH=JKH=I D=IJ= + JEA A F ?= = E@=@ ? I AJ= AI O I KO @KH I 6EA A A E ? LA EA JA @A
"'
=GKE =>E E@=@ @A
=JAHE= AI
"# GKA IA ?= EA J=
IAH KO BH CE AI JEA A >= = ? @K?JELE@=@ J H E?= F H = JAI
"'
=GKE =>E E@=@ @A
=JAHE= AI
- ?HEJAHE F=H= AIJ=> A?AH GKA K =JAHE= AI I =GKE => A GKA JH FKA@A >A@A?AH = @EIJE J I ?HEJAHE I = F JA ?E= HAGKAHE@= = B H = @A = LEHKJ= A =?=>=@ IKFAH ?E= 5E A >=HC A I KI=@ AI A @A @AI C=IJA @A = DAHH= EA J= K =JAHE= AI =GKE => A ?K= @ @AIC=IJ= F ? = DAHH= EA J= I =?AH I IA IKA A = A=H ? S P b T e ) = J= JA FAH=JKH= B H = E ? KIE AI GKA K>HE?= = IKFAH ?EA A JHA = LEHKJ= O = DAHH= EA J= K?D=I = A=?E AI =?AH I E NE@=> AI ) K E E I = A=@ I JEA A E ?H AIJHK?JKH=I ? B=IAI =>H=IEL=I GKA @AIC=IJ= = DAHH= EA J=
"
. KE@ I @A ? HJA
I KE@ I @A ? HJA JEA A @ I BK ?E AI 4ABHECAH=?E 2=H= @EI E KEH =I JA FAH=JKH=I @A ? HJA FAH EJEA @ JH=>= =H = =O H LA ?E@=@ ALEJ= @ I E ? LA EA JAI @A E ?HA A J @A JA FAH=JKH= GKA AL= ? IEC K>HE?=?E 1 JAHF E @ IA A JHA = LEHKJ= O = DAHH= EA J= F=H= @EI E KEH =I BKAH =I @A BHE??E O ALEJ=H A HA?HA?E EA J @A ,A>E@ = GKA = FHE ?EFE IA KJE E =>= A FAH=?E AI @A J= =@H=@ @ @A D=O F=HJAI @A GKA JEA A K = LA ?E@=@ KO >= = O F H J= J IKI?AF JE> A @A B H =H HA?HA?E@ = I KE@ I @A ? HJA IA AI IKA A @A E =H J= =@HE =I - A?= EI A A GKA A KE@ IA E JAHF A A JHA = LEHKJ= O = DA HH= EA J= AI A @A ?=FE =HE@=@ F H GKA = J= =@HE = @A>A JA AH KO >= = JA IE IKFAH ?E= O HAGKEAHA FAI I A?K =HAI KO >= I = =??E @A K>HE?= JA AI AIA ?E= A JA GK E?= = J= =@HE = ? JEA A HA=?JEL I GKA IA =@DEAHA = = IKFAH ?EA GKA K>HE?= @EI E KOA @ = =@ DAIE LEHKJ= DAHH= EA J= O B=?E EJ= @ A @AI E = EA J - KC=H @A KI=H HA=?JEL I A >=IA = 5 2 IA IKA A KJE E =H ? FKAIJ I ? H=@ I JAJH=? HKH @A ?=H> CCl4 ? H B H CHCl3 JHE? H AJ= CH3 Cl3 FKAI =CK= J= K?D A H =I = J=I JA FAH=JKH=I GKA IA FH @K?A A A J H 7 E ? LA EA JA E F HJ= JA @A =I J= =@HE =I AI IK J NE?E@=@ GKA D=?A GKA AIJ I AJE@ = HAC = A J I A@E = >EA J= AI KO AIJHE?J I
"$
+=F JK " .K @= A J I @A
=JAHE=
= =F E?=?E FHE ?EF= @A =I J= =@HE =I AI ? HABHECAH= JA )?JK= A JA A =I GKE =I =KJ JE?=I IA FKA@A E OA?J=H A KE@ = = J= FHAIE A = = @A ? J=?J CH=?E=I = ?=HA =@ IE =I E EJ=?E AI @A LAH @EHA?J= A JA A ? HJA @A =I I= FE?=@KH=I
"
4KC IE@=@ IKFAH ?E=
= HKC IE@=@ @A K = IKFAH ?EA IA IKA A >JA AH A@E= JA K HKC I AJH GKA ANF H= @E?D= IKFAH ?EA O >JEA A K FAH @A = IKFAH ?EA z (x) IEA @ x = @E A IE @A = CEJK@ ANF H=@= ) F=HJEH @A AIJA FAH IA @A A I IECKEA JAI F=H AJH I GKA ?=H=?JAHE = = HKC IE@=@ IKFAH ?E= CEJK@ @A ANF H=?E H=@ F H A HKC I AJH
L -I =
CEJK@ @A FAH
CA
JHE? ANF
CEJK@ > IE?= l -I = CEJK@ @A FAH AL= K=H = HKC IE@=@ 5KA A ? E ?E@EH ? =
CA JHE? A ACE@= F=H= CEJK@ @A ANF H=?E
A= A@E= @A FAH 5EJK=@= = K = ? J= z0 AI A L= H A@E @A = BK ?E z = =HC @A = CEJK@ > IE?= l -I = A= GKA @ELE@A = FAH ABA?JEL @A = AH= GKA A JHA I EJAI @A = CEJK@ > IE?= = IK = @A =I HA=I A ?AHH=@=I F H A ?E = @A AIJ= A= O A FAH ABA?JEL AI ECK= = = IK = @A =I HA=I A ?AHH=@=I F H @A>= @A IJ= A= O A ?EJ=@ FAH = KAIJH= A= @A HABAHA ?E= 5A ?= ?K = @A = IECKEA JA B H =
z0 = 1 l
l
z (x)dx
0
" "
4KC IE@=@ A@E= Ra -I = A@E= @A = @AILE=?E = = A= A@E= z0 5K ? ?K =JA JE? IAH =

1 Ra = l
l
@A FAH
HAIFA?J " #
|z (x) z0 | dx
0
4KC IE@=@ J J= L= A
NE = Rt -I = @AILE=?E
Rt = zmax zmin
NE = A JHA FE? O " $
,AILE=?E J FE?= Rs -I = H= ?K=@H=@= @A = A@E= @A I ?K=@H=@ I @A = @AILE=?E @A FAH HAIFA?J @A IK A@E=

1 Rs = l
l
(z (x) z0 )2 dx
0
" %
"
2H > A =I @A
A?= E =@
"%
2=H= ?=H=?JAHE =H = HKC IE@=@ IKFAH ?E= IA KI=H Rt Ra Rs @AFA @EA @ @A F=H= A ?K= IA AIJ ?=H=?JAHE = @ I IA ?E @A ?= ?K =H AI Rt FKAI HAGKEAHA A A F A @A E C ? ?K AIFA?E= I KI=@ AI Ra FKAI IK A@E@= AI K?D I HAFAJEJEL= GKA = @A = HKC IE@=@ J J= O AI A F=H AJH ?KO= HAFHAIA J=?E AIJ H = E =@= = @AILE=?E J FE?= @A = JKH=I Rs AI K L= H I HAFAJEJEL GKA A L= H @A Ra FAH IK ? ?K D= IE@ F IE> A D=IJ= = =F=HE?E @A HKC I AJH I ? I= E@= @ECEJ= F H GKA AIJ J @=L = KO ANJA @E@ - I AIJK@E I @A A? E?= @A ? J=?J IA IKA A ?=H=?JAHE =H = IKFAH ?EA F H Rs
"
2H > A =I @A
A?= E =@
7 = DAHH= EA J= @A J H ? FK J= = CK =H @ @A r = 60 O f = 0,05 HAL +K @A>A IAH A CK @A IA?K @=HE F=H= >JA AH K = HKC IE@=@ A@E= Ra = 3 >= ? @E?E AI E@A= AI 4 r = 15,57 - K = FAH=?E @A A?= E =@ ? ? HJA HJ C = A =JAHE= IECKA = A?K=?E @A AA 5D= AH + ne = /4 += ?K =H = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA I=>EA @ GKA IE JA IE A@E= @A ?E = =@KH= AI s = 250 2= O GKA A CK @A ?E = =@KH= AI = 20 ! - K = FAH=?E @A J H A=@ @A K ?E E @H 70 300 A =L= ?A AI @A # HAL O = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA @A I = BKAH = @A ? HJA AIJ E EJ=@= = ! O = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA @A =JAHE= AI @A 2= += ?K =H
= - JEA F @A HA= E =?E @A = FAH=?E > = FH BK @E@=@ NE = @A F=I=@=

4 $! ' I $ " - K = FAH=?E @A J= =@H=@ ? K = >H ?= @A @ I I = LA ?E@=@ = CK =H nt = 300 H F A =L= ?A AI f = 0,2 HAL A CK @A FHE ?EF= r = 60 A @E AJH @A = >H ?= AI dt = 12 5E = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA @A =JAHE= GKA AIJ ? HJ= @ AI ps = 3000 2= += ?K =H
= = J=I= @A =HH= GKA > - AIFAI H @A LEHKJ=
@AB H =@
"&
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=JAHE=
? - F=H
4 !
3
J H @A = J= =@H=@ H= I &% &
# 5A FHAJA @A HA= E =H K J= =@H ? K = >H ?= @A # @A @E AJH O CK @A F IE?E r = 60 5KI @ I I FKA@A I F HJ=H AIFAI HAI @A LEHKJ= @AB H =@ I NE I @A O LA ?E@=@AI @A ? HJA NE =I @A $$ I = F JA ?E= NE = GKA FKA@A FH F H?E =H = J= =@H=@ H= AI @A " # 9 O = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA LEA A @=@ F H = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE
( ps = 2100 ac 0,4 )0,29
- HAIK J=@ LEA A A A
2= IEA @ ac A AIFAI H @A LEHKJ= NE
@AB H =@
= += ?K =H A =L= ?A
> += ?K =H = LA ?E@=@ = CK =H NE = A HF F=H= AIJA =L= ?A JA EA @ A ?KA J= =I E EJ=?E AI @A LA ?E@=@ O @A F JA ?E=

$ - K = FAH=?E IECKEA JA A?K=?E K E@=@AI 5 1 @A ?E E @H=@ = LE@= @A = DAHH= EA J= >A@A?A = = 0,1 @A 6=O H t = v 0,3 f 0,8 a AIJ= @ v f O ap A p
-IJE =H A ABA?J A I >HA = LE@= @A = DAHH= EA J= = @KF E?=H = J=I= @A =HH= GKA E ?HA A J= @
= ?
= LA ?E@=@ = FH BK @E@=@ @A ? HJA
> - =L= ?A
4 &% "! % % - K = FAH=?E 40 70 = !# @E AJH @A !$ A @E AJH = CK @A F IE?E @A J H A=@ IA HA@K?A A @E AJH @A K ?E E @H 2HE AH A@E= JA K = F=I=@= @A @AI>=IJA D=IJ= K O @AIFK I A@E= JA K = F=I=@= @A =?=>=@ D=IJ= = DAHH= EA J= JEA A K H=@E @A FK J= @A OA @A AI r = 75 = GKE = JEA A K = F JA ?E=
"
2H > A =I @A
A?= E =@
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NE = @A # 9 = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA LEA A @=@= A BK ?E @A AIFAI H @A LEHKJ= A@E= JA = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE
0,4 ps = 3000 ac [ ]0,29
LE EA @ acmax A ,AJAH E =H
O ps A
2=
= - =L= ?A NE A = F=I=@= @A @AI>=IJA IE = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA AI @A % E > - =L= ?A NE A = F=I=@= @A =?=>=@ IE = HKC IE@=@ IKFAH ?E= = ? IACKEH AI @A Ra #
& 7 HA@ @ @A & @A @E AJH IA HA>= = = A K = F=I=@= = %# @A @E AJH = =HC @A K = CEJK@ @A # = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA @A =JAHE= @A JH=>= AI @A 2= - =L= ?A AI @A # HAL O = LA ?E@=@ = CK =H @A DKIE AI @A ! HF += ?K =H
= - JEA F @A HA= E =?E @A = FAH=?E > - F=H J H O = F JA ?E= A?AI=HE= F=H= HA= E =H @E?D= FAH=?E
ap ae
.ECKH= " # .HAI=@ FAHEB HE?
#
+=F JK " .K @= A J I @A
=JAHE=
' - K = FAH=?E @A AI?K=@H=@ ? BHAI= FAHEB HE?= .ECKH= " # IAC A @E>K @A = CKH= ? ap = 30 O ae = 5 = FEA = JEA A K = CEJK@ @A # O K = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA ps = 2000 2= = BHAI=@ H= JEA A @EA JAI O K @E AJH @A # ,AJAH E =H A =L= ?A A HAL F=H= GKA = HKC IE@=@ IKFAH ?E= IA= Rt = 0,2 += ?K =H A AIJA ?=I A AIFAI H NE @A LEHKJ= 4 HAL
+ I @=J I @A FH > A = = JAHE H O I=>EA @ GKA = F JA ?E= NE = @A = GKE = AI @A ! 9 O = LA ?E@=@ @A = BHAI= AI @A H F ,AJAH E =H A =L= ?A NE A HAL O A JEA F @A A?= E =@ 4 $ HAL $ # I
- K BHAI=@ FAHEB HE? = BHAI= JEA A @EA JAI O IK @E AJH AI @A = LA ?E@=@ @A H J=?E AI @A # HAL I A =L= ?A ! I = FA AJH=?E $ O A = ?D @A = FEA = @A # = HA =?E A JHA A AIFAI H NE @A LEHKJ= @AB H =@ acmax O = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA LEA A @=@ F H
( ) 2,5 106 ps = 1,4 1 + acmax
" &
LE EA @ acmax A -IJE =H
O ps A /
= >

= J=I= NE = @A =HH= GKA = F JA ?E= E = A 9 HAGKAHE@= F H = FAH=?E = FEA = @A JH=>= JEA A K IK AIFAI H D= @A HA>= =HIA
- K = FAH=?E @A BHAI=@ FAHEB HE? = ?D @A %# O K = CEJK@ @A # A K = F=I=@=
=
3K LA ?E@=@ @A =L= ?A @A>A KI=HIA IE = F JA ?E= @EIF E> A F=H= A ? HJA AI @A ! 9 O = BKAH = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA AI @A ! $ /0 3 @A @E AJH K I @EA JA O = HKC IE > 5E = BHAI= JEA A @=@ NE = IKFAH ?E= E@A= AI @A # +K @A>A IAH = = LA ?E@=@ @A H J=?E E = @A = BHAI=
"
2H > A =I @A
A?= E =@
#
? @
+K AI = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA ; A JEA F @A A?= E =@
! - K BHAI=@ FAHEB HE? = BHAI= JEA A @EA JAI O IK @E AJH AI @A = LA ?E@=@ @A H J=?E AI @A # HAL I A =L= ?A ! I = FA AJH=?E $ O A = ?D @A = FEA = @A # = HA =?E A JHA A AIFAI H NE @A LEHKJ= @AB H =@ acmax O = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA LEA A @=@ F H
( ) 0,5 106 ps = 1,4 1 + acmax
" '
LE EA @ acmax A -IJE =H
O ps A /
= >
= J=I=
NE = @A =HH= GKA E =A 9 HAGKAHE@= F H = FAH=?E
= F JA ?E=
" - K = FAH=?E @A BHAI=@ FAHEB HE? IA AIJ=> A?A =I IECKEA JAI ? @E?E AI LA ?E@=@ @A H J=?E AI @A & HAL I A =L= ?A I = FA AJH=?E A = ?D @A = FEA = @A # = CEJK@ @A = FEA = # A @E AJH @A = BHAI= " @A @EA JAI @A = BHAI= = HA =?E A JHA A AIFAI H NE @A LEHKJ= @AB H =@ acmax O = A AHC = AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA LEA A @=@= F H
0,4 ps = 3000 acmed [ ]0,29
"
LE EA @ acmed A -IJE =H
O ps A
2=
=
= F JA ?E= HAGKAHE@= F H = & A?= E =@
GKE = IE JEA A K = HA @E EA J @A
> 6EA F @A
# - K = FAH=?E = ?D @A %#
@A BHAI=@ FAHEB HE? = FEA = @A JH=>= JEA A K O K = CEJK@ @A O IA D= @A HA>= =H IK
+=F JK " .K @= A J I @A
=JAHE=
AIFAI H # A K = F=I=@= = BHAI= JEA A # @A @E AJH O ! @EA JAI = F JA ?E= E = @A = BHAI=@ H= AI @A ! 9 O = A AHC = 3 AIFA? ?= @A ? HJA AI @A ! $ / ,AJAH E =H
=
NE = LA ?E@=@ @A =L= ?A A?= E =@ @A = FEA =
> - JEA F @A
$ - K = FAH=?E @A BHAI=@ BH J= = FH BK @E@=@ @A ? HJA AI # = LA ?E@=@ @A =L= ?A $% I A = ?D @A = FEA = # O = BHAI= JEA A @EA JAI ? K @E AJH @A & = LA ?E@=@ @A ? HJA AI @A I += ?K =H
= 8A ?E@=@ = CK =H @A = BHAI= > 6=I= @A =HH= GKA

NE = CEJK@ #
? JEA F A?AI=HE F=H= A?= E =H FEA =I @A IE A JEA F @A ?=HC= O @AI?=HC= AI @A & I
" !

+KAIJE AI @A AN= A
+K @ IA B H = A HA?HA?E@ @A = LEHKJ= ?
s
FH JK>AH= ?E=I E KOA A A @AIFHA @A J= =@H=@
,A A A CK @A E ? E =?E @E EA J @A = LEHKJ=
! ,A A A F = @A HABAHA ?E= ABA?JEL A K = FAH=?E 3K CK I IA E@A A AIJA F = " ,A A A # $ CK @A F IE?E @A

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- A @A @A =HA = @A = CKH= & F=H= I IJA AH = IA E?= = IKFAHE H ?= ?K =H A FAI KAHJ A?AI=HE
! -IJE =H = BKAH = @A ?EAHHA F=H= A FH ?AI @A B=>HE?=?E @A K I I @=@ I @A F F H BK @E?E = FHAIE @A 2= +=@= I @=@ JEA A
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K HA= FH OA?J=@= @A # E OA??E IE = BKAH = @A FEIJ
+K J I IA F @H = B=>HE?=H A K = AI @A
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