TRANSPORT

CONCEPT OF THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• In complex animals, including humans, the
circulatory system includes the medium,
vessels and pump.
• Medium: the fluid that flows in the
circulatory system i.e: blood in animals,
haemolymph in some invertebrates
• Vessels: a system of large and small
vessels i.e: arteries, veins and capillaries
• Pump: muscular heart
 COMPOSITION OF HUMAN
BLOOD
Human Blood

Cellular components (45%) (Plasma (55%

erythrocytes leucocytes platelets (Water (90-92% Soluble solutes

Granulocytes Agranulocytes

Lymphocytes Monocytes

Eosinophils Neutrophils Basophils

 ERYTHROCYTES
• There are five millions of erytrocytes in
every mililitre of blood
• Shape: small, biconcave discs, diameter
of 8 um and thickness of 2 um.
• This shape serves to increase the surface
area for gaseous exchange through the
thin cell membrane.
• Erythrocytes have no nucleus. So, there is
space for great quantities of haemoglobin.
 ERYTHROCYTES
• Haemoglobin (Hb), is the site of oxygen
attachment, contains iron
• Hb combines with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
• Erythrocytes are produced in the bone
marrow at the rate of 2 million cells per
second.
• They circulate in the body for 120 days.
ERYTHROCYTES
 LEUCOCYTES
• Also known as the white blood cell
• Responsible for the defence of organisms against
diseases.
• Less numerous than erythrocytes (6000 to 10 000 in
every mm of blood)
• Have nuclei, do not have haemoglobin, larger and do not
have fixed shapes.
• Phagocytic leucocytes can move by changing body
shape.
• Manufactured in the bone marrow but nay migrate to the
thymus gland or lymph nodes for their growth and
development stages.
 LEUCOCYTES -
GRANULOCYTES
• Have granular cytoplasm and lobed
nuclei.
• 3 types: neutrophils, eosinophils and
basophils
• Neutrophils: phagocytes, engulf foreign
materials by phagocytosis
• Eosinophils help to control allergic
response
• Basophils: secrete heparin to prevent
blood from clotting
 LEUCOCYTES -
GRANULOCYTES

Neutrophil Eosinophils Basophil

 LEUCOCYTES:
AGRANULOCYTES
• Have relatively clear cytoplasm, nuclei are not
lobed
• Two types: monocytes and lymphocytes
• Monocytes: The largest leucocytes, live a days
in the blood and then move into the tissues. In
the tissues, they are known as macrophages.
• Lymphocytes: the smallest leucocytes. Produce
antibodies to aid in the destruction of pathogens
and neutralise toxins.
 LEUCOCYTES:
AGRANULOCYTES

Monocyte Lymphocyte
 PLATELETS
• Small, irregularly shaped fragments of
large cells in the bone marrow
• Important in the process of blood clotting
• Each mililitre of blood contains about
250000 platelets.
PLATELETS
 PLASMA
• Pale, yellow liquid
• Made up of 90% water and 10% dissolved
solutes.
• Dissolved solutes consist of digested
nutrients, dissolved gases, minerals,
hormones, plasma proteins and excretory
wastes
• Blood serum: same as blood plasma but
without clotting factors.
 FUNCTION OF BLOOD IN
TRANSPORT
• Transport of oxygen: Oxygen combines with Hb
in the erythrocytes to form oxyhaemoglobin. The
erythrocytes are carried by the circulating blood
to other part of the body.
• Transport of carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide
diffuses into the surrounding blood capillaries. It
then combines with water to form carbonic acid.
This reaction is catalysed by an enzyme in the
erythrocytes (carbonic anhydrase).
 FUNCTION OF BLOOD IN
TRANSPORT
• Carbon dioxide: The carbonic acid then ionises
to form hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate
ions
• Hydrogen carbonate ions then leave the
erythrocytes and remain in the plasma
• 70% of carbon dioxide is transported in the form
of hydrogen carbonate ions.
• Another 23% combines with the Hb to form
carbaminohaemoglobin.
• 7% dissolves directly in the blood plasma.
 FUNCTION OF BLOOD IN
TRANSPORT
• Absorbed food materials: Soluble digested food
(simple sugars, amino acids, vitamin B and C
and mineral salts are absorbed into the
capillaries of the villi in the small intestine. They
are transported by hepatic portal vein to the liver
and then to the heart.
• Fatty acids, glycerol and vitamins A, D, E and K
are absorbed into the lacteals. Then transported
by the lymph into the blood circulatory system
via the left subclavian vein.
 FUNCTION OF BLOOD IN
TRANSPORT
• Excretory waste: deamination of excess
amino acids occurs in the liver
• Amino group is removed from the amino
acid and is converted to urea
• Urea is transported by blood to the
kidneys to be excreted.
 FUNCTION OF BLOOD IN
TRANSPORT
• Heat: blood helps to regulate body
temperature by distributing heat from
heat-producing sites such as the skeletal
muscles to areas of heat loss such as the
skin.
• Hormones: transports hormones such as
insulin and glucagon to the target organs.
FUNCTION OF HAEMOLYMPH IN
TRANSPORT
• Haemolymph is a circulating blood-like fluid found in
some invertebrates with open circulatory systems
• Haemolymph is not confined to vessels only
• Haemolymph in insects is pumped into fluid-filled spaces
called the haemocoel.
• Haemolymph bathes the tissues and internal organs
directly.
• Nutrients and hormone diffuse from haemolymph into
cells.
• Waste products diffuse out from cells into the
surrounding haemolymph.
STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BLOOD
VESSELS
• Arteries: Blood vessels that carry the blood away
from the heart.
• Arteries branch out into smaller vessels called
arterioles.
• Arterioles branch out into tiny vessels called
capillaries
• Capillaries join with one another to form venules.
Venules join together to form veins.
• Veins transport blood back to the heart.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARTERIES,
CAPILLARIES AND VEINS
CHARACTERISTICS ARTERIES CAPILLARIES VEINS

FUNCTION Transport blood Connect arterioles to Transport blood to the

away from the venules heart
heart
Transport Act as the sites for Transport of
oxygenated blood exchange of deoxygenated blood
(except the substances with the (except for pulmonary
pulmonary artery) cells vein)
MUSCULAR WALL Thick muscular Thinnest wall (one cell Thinner wall
muscle thick)

PRESENCE OF VALVES No valves except No valves Have valves to prevent

semilunar valves at back flow of blood.
the base of aorta
and pulmonary
artery
PRESSURE Blood flows in No pulse. Pressure NO pulse. Blood flows
pulses under high lower than arteries but under lower pressure
pressure higher than veins than arteries.
LOCATION OF THE HEART
THE HEART- FRONT VIEW
THE HEART – REAR VIEW
CROSS SECTION OF HUMAN
HEART
 THE HEART
• A dark, cone shaped muscular organ found in
the thoracic cavity
• Size of clenched fist, weighs from 350 to 450
grams in average adult
• Located between the lungs with its apex slightly
orientated to the left.
• Consists of for chambers: 2 upper thin-walled
atria and two lower thick-walled ventricles.
• The septum separates the right chambers from
the left chambers.
 THE HEART- VALVES
• Bicuspid valve: Between left atrium and
left ventricle.
• Tricuspid valve: Between right atrium and
right ventricle is tricuspid valve
• Semilunar valves: at the base of the aorta
and pulmonary artery
 HEART-NODES
• Sino-atrial node: a group of specialised
cells located in the right atrial wall (near
the entrance of the anterior vena cava).
Acts as pacemaker which initiates the
heartbeat. SA node generates a wave of
excitatory impulses which spread to the
two atria causing them to contract
simultaneously.
 HEART-NODES
• Atrio-ventricular node (AVN): lies at the
base of atrium.
• Impulses from AVN are conducted by
specialised muscle fibres (bundle of His
and Purkinje fibres)to the ventricular walls.
• This causes the contraction of both
ventricles to pump the blood out of the
heart.
 THE HEART
• The right ventricle pumps the blood into
the pulmonary artery that carries the blood
to the lungs.
• The left ventricle which is thicker and more
muscular pumps the blood into the aorta
to be distributed to different parts of the
body.
DIRECTION OF BLOOD FLOW
 CARDIAC CYCLE
• Is the series of events that occur during
one complete heartbeat. It includes
systole (contraction) and diastole
(relaxation) of both the atria and the
ventricles.
• Normal blood pressure cannot exceed
140/90 mm Hg. 140 (systolic reading), 90
(diastolic reading).
• The average heart rate is about 72
heartbeats per minute.
 MOVEMENT OF BLOOD IN VEIN
• Pressure from the heart is decreasing as the
blood reaches veins. It is not sufficient to force
blood back into the heart.
• Blood in the vein has to move against
gravitational pull.
• When body moves, the skeletal muscles around
the veins contract and press on the vein that
causes the valves to open. When the muscles
relax, the valve will be closed. This prevents the
back flow of blood.
• The opened valves force blood to move toward
the heart.
 DISCUSSION
• List out the factors that may caused the
elevation in the rate of heart beat.
• Explain how such factors can affect the
rate of heart beat.
c. In fight and flight situation (adrenaline)
d. When a person gets excited
e. An increase in the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide.
f. When body temperature is elevated
 REGULATORY MECHANISM OF
BLOOD PRESSURE
• Baroreceptors a stretch-sensitive receptor
located in the walls of the aorta and carotid
arteries.
• Increase in blood pressure: Baroreceptors are
stretched, impulses are sent to the
cardiovascular control centre in the medulla
oblongata of the brain. From there impulses are
sent via parasympathetic nerve to the heart and
slow down the blood pressure
 REGULATORY MECHANISM OF
BLOOD PRESSURE
• Decrease in blood pressure: Increases the
simulation of SAN by sympathetic nerve.
The contraction of the cardiac muscles of
the heart and the smooth muscles of the
arteries will also increase. Blood pressure
will return to its normal level.
• A person’s blood pressure can be
measured by sphygmomanometer.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS IN FISH,
AMPHIBIANS AND HUMANS
 FISH
• A fish has single closed
circulatory system.
• Fish has a heart consisting of
two separates chambers,
atrium and ventricle.
• Deoxygenated blood enters
the atrium and then ventricle
• Ventricle pumps blood to the
capillaries of the gills where
gaseous exchange occurs
• Oxygenated blood then flows
directly to the body tissues.
AMPHIBIANS
• Gaseous exchange occurs
through lungs and skins
• Double closed circulatory
system (pulmonary and
systemic)
• The heart has three
chambers (two atria, one
ventricle)
• Oxygenated blood is
mixed with deoxygenated
blood in the ventricle.
• Blood contains lower
levels of oxygen but
sufficient to meet the
requirements of
amphibians.
 MAMMALS
• Have double closed circulatory
system (pulmonary and
systemic)
• Mammals have 4 chambers of
heart.
• Acts as two separated pumps.
• Oxygenated blood is
separated from deoxygenated
blood.
• Supplies oxygen and nutrient-
rich blood rapidly to the body
tissues.
• Separation of right and left
chambers prevent the high
blood pressure from damaging
the fine capillaries.
BLOOD CLOTTING
MECHANISM
BLOOD CLOTTING
MECHANISM
BLOOD CLOTTING
MECHANISM
BLOOD CLOTTING
 FORMATION OF THE
INTERSTITIAL FLUID
• Formed by higher hydrostatic pressure at the
arterial end of the capillaries.
• The high pressure forces some fluid out
through the capillary walls into the
intercellular spaces between the cells.
• Once the fluid leaves the capillary walls, it is
called interstitial or tissue fluid
• Composition of the interstitial fluid is similar
to the blood plasma except for it has no
erythrocytes, platelets or large protein
molecules.
 IMPORTANCE OF
INTERSTITIAL FLUID
• Forms the internal environment
• Bathes the cells and supplies oxygen and
nutrients through diffusion
• Carbon dioxide and waste products such
as urea diffuse from the cells into the
interstitial fluid
• Homeostatic processes help in keeping
the internal environment within the normal
range.
 FATE OF THE INTERSTITIAL
FLUID
• 90% flows back into the venous end of the
capillary system where the hydrostatic
pressure is low. The remaining 10% of the
interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic
capillaries and is called lymph.
• Excess of interstitial fluid caused oedema
– tissue swelling
 FORMATION OF
INTERSTITIAL FLUID
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