MAJOR

Concepts

LINGUISTICS

Linguistics is the systematic and scientific study of human language

STAGES OF LINGUISTIC ENQUIRY

There are three stages of Linguistic enquiry distinguished by the linguist Noam Chomsky 1. Linguist begin by observing the way in which people use language. 2. Then they provide a description of language use. 3. Finally when all the data has been analyzed, an explanation.

Linguistics always trying to answer the really basic questions about language: What is language? How does language work? What do all languages have in common? Why do languages change? How do we learn to speak?

TOWARDS MODREN LINGUISTICS

In late 18th centuryLinguistics first developed as a subject in its own right. Before this.Language had been the interest of philosophers and grammarians in western world.

SIR WILLIAM JONES (1746-1794)

Sir William Jones in 1786Delivered a paper demonstrating structural similarities of ancient Indian language Sanskrit and Greek, Celtic, Latin and Germanic. Comparative linguistics became the dominant branch.

MODREN LINGUISTIC FIGURES

It is the combined influence of Saussure and Chomsky that the study of language has become increasingly important.

SAUSSURE (1857-1913)

Swiss linguist. Studied IndoEuropean languages His most famous book, Course in General Linguistics, was actually put together after his death by former students based on lecture notes from his courses.

NOAM CHOMSKY (1928- )

American Linguist Credited with being the father of modern linguistics. Dominates contemporary linguistics. His first important volume, Syntactic Structures, published in 1957. Constantly challenged the linguistic enquiry and even own work.

SOME MAJOR CONCEPTS IN LINGUISTICS

Sign, Signifier, Signified (Semiotics) Substance and form Langue and parole Synchronic and diachronic linguistics Competence and performance Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

SIGN, SIGNIFIER, SIGNIFIED (SEMIOTICS)

Sign The way in which meaning is communicated, symbolically. Language is made up of signs and every sign has two sides (like a coin or a sheet of paper, both sides of which are inseparable) The signifier Signifier is the image. The "shape" of a word, its phonic component, i.e. the sequence of graphemes (letters), e.g., <"c">-<"a">-<"t">, or phonemes (speech sounds), e.g. /kt/. The signified Signified is the concept behind the image. The ideational component, the concept or object that appears in our minds when we hear or read the signifier e.g. a small domesticated feline (a mental concept).

EXAMPLE:

SUBSTANCE AND FORM

Substance
All distinct sounds communicate. and scripts produced to

Form
The organization of language

Substance carry form.

Example:
ROCK- PAPER- SCISSORS

LANGUE VS. PAROLE

Langue
The system of a language exists in a speech community, in the collectivity; it is shared by all the speakers of that speech community

Parole
An individuals use of the system of langue

EXAMPLE:

LANGUE
1.

PAROLE
1.

2. 3.

4. 5.
6.

7.

8.
9.

It is stable and institutionalised. It is passive. It is general for the community. It is an abstraction. It is a collective instrument. It is a set of conventions and habits handed down to next generation readymade. It is language as a speaker is expected to use. It is fixed. It is a potential form of language.

2. 3.
4.

5.

6.

7. 8.
9.

It is mobile and personal. It is active. It is individual. It is concrete manifestation. It is not a collective instrument. It is diverse and multicoloured. It is language in actual use. It is free. It is an actualised form of language.

SYNCHRONY VS. DIACHRONY

Synchrony
Studying a language as a complete system at a particular point of time

Diachrony
Studying a language at two different points of time; relating two different stages of a language

EXAMPLE:

COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE

Competence
Persons intuitive knowledge of the rules and structure of his language as a native speaker

Performance
Actual use of these rules and structure

COMPETANCE

PERFORMANCE

Knowledge possessed by native users of a language which enables them to speak and understand their language fluently This knowledge is internalized within speaker Something they are not necessarily aware of possessing

The practical execution of those abilities in terms of actual speaking and writing

EXAMPLE:

SYNTAGMATIC AND PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS

Syntagmatic relations
The sequential characteristics of language. Syntagmatic relations are relations on an horizontal axis between elements, in a sentence.

Paradigmatic relations
The substitutional relationship which a linguistic unit has with other units. Paradigmatic relations are relations on an vertical level and look at all the possible elements that could come at the place of a certain element.

EXAMPLE: