Llovera Da Corte 1

Miguel A. Llovera Da Corte Professor May Advanced Educational Psychology - 583 December 15, 2012

LEARNING STYLES AND LEARNING STRATEGIES: AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Ak, S. (2008). A Conceptual Analysis on the Approaches to Learning. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 8(3), 707-720. Abstract: The concept of approach to learning was first identified by Marton and Saljo in 1976. Numerous researchers have conducted studies on students' approaches to learning since 1976. There appears considerable confusion in the literature concerning the terms cognitive styles and learning styles. Therefore, there is a remarkable ambiguity about the position of the approaches to learning within this conceptual base. In this paper, a comprehensive analysis of the concept of approach to learning is tried. First, the conceptual confusion in the literature on learning styles and the position of the approaches to learning within this conceptual base is discussed. A depth analysis on the concept of approach to learning is presented through discussion of research results in the literature about relationship between the approaches to learning, learning/teaching variables, and learning environments. According to this analysis, approach to learning can be considered as a bridge between the learning environment and cognitive/learning styles. An approach to learning adopted by students is determined by lots of variables such the characteristics of students, learning environment, and learning outcomes. When the relation of students' approaches to learning with these variables is considered it can be argued that the approaches to learning cannot only be seen as mere student-dependent characteristics. Therefore, if proper strategies are applied it might be possible to move students' approaches to learning from a surface to a deeper orientation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] About thirty years ago, researchers began investigating the concept of cognitive style, which deals with how the mind actually functions, such as how it processes information or is affected by each persons perceptions. With all of this work being done in this area, various groups of researchers have developed their own terminology. In some areas of study, this terminology has overlapped, or researchers have used different terms to describe the same concept. This has led to some confusion in the area of learning styles. The term learning styles is used to encompass as many as 18 traits affecting the way a person learns (Dunn and Dunn 1979). Also, some

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researchers use the terms learning styles and learning strategies synonymously. The first identifies general characteristics a person has that makes him/her different from another, while the latter involves the conscious decisions by the learner on how best to approach the acquisition of new material. Dunn, R., and Dunn, K. (1979). Learning Styles/Teaching Styles: should they Can they Be matched? Educational Leadership, (36), 238-244.

Eaves, M. (2011). The relevance of learning styles for international pedagogy in higher education. Teachers & Teaching, 17(6), 677-691. doi:10.1080/13540602.2011.625143 Abstract: As the number of international students and transnational education agreements continue to rise at an unprecedented rate in many countries, an area of research that continues to lag behind is how far students learning styles can adapt to different educational contexts. Learning styles research has recently developed from simplistic yet popular models, subjected to recent heavyweight criticisms concerning their validity and reliability, into more complex conceptual models based on metacognitive concepts, processing strategies and motivation. Research based on the latter models tends to be limited to learning styles comparisons of Asian students, particularly from Confucian Heritage Cultures and Western samples. The findings from both psychometric and non-psychometric studies indicate some cultural differences in learning styles. However, there are growing concerns that the application of learning styles concepts from Western cultures and research may not be valid in non-Western education contexts, due to fundamental differences in learning processes or misinterpretation of international students learning behaviour. This article considers recent developments in the area of learning styles research, including concerns over the validity of popular measures, and their application to international pedagogy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER] In recent years, the continuously changing dynamics of society have forced individuals to learn one or more foreign languages. Learning a foreign language can be an achievable task; however, it requires participants to become active learners as a means of achieving proficiency in a second language. The knowledge that one has of his/her own language can be a deciding factor on how quickly proficiency in a second language is achieved. Evidence suggests that people are

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more inclined to learn a second language when there is a need-to-know, and when the information presented is perceived as interesting and useful.

Evans, C., Cools, E., & Charlesworth, Z. M. (2010). Learning in higher education - how cognitive and learning styles matter. Teaching In Higher Education, 15(4), 467-478. doi:10.1080/13562517.2010.493353 Abstract: The cognitive and learning styles research domain is a highly complex one which has recently been the focus of rigour-relevance debates (Coffield et al. 2004; Evans and Sadler-Smith 2006; Rayner 2006). There is considerable support for the existence and value of style as a construct (Sternberg 1996) even though further work is needed to evidence greater impact on practice. This paper shares the work and experiences of one international research community - the European Learning Styles Information Network (ELSIN) and its attempts to advance understanding of the theory and application of cognitive and learning styles in higher education and other contexts. In so doing it highlights the principles around the development, collation and integration of research as exemplified by the ELSIN experience and considered by other research domains in higher education. Future directions for cognitive and learning styles research within the context of higher education are outlined along with the role of ELSIN in highlighting and leading on these. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] A primary concern in the field of education is how to promote maximum achievement of students. Much research is dedicated to this topic, and theories abound giving probable reason for the success or lack of success of students. As one looks at the great number of theories for student performance, it is evident that no one theory gives a completely accurate explanation for how students gain or retain knowledge. Each theory contributes only partially to understanding the complicated learning process. One such theory is that of learning style preferences. In this area, research has shown that students exhibit higher achievement when instruction correlates with their particular learning style.

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Hall, E. (2005). Learning styles -- is there an evidence base for this popular idea?. Education Review, 19(1), 49-56. Abstract: The idea that it is possible to raise attainment and improve behavior by teaching according to individual learners' styles is a popular one; but is it grounded in reliable research evidence? Elaine Hall reports on work by a team from the University of Newcastle examining the claims made for learning styles. There are both pitfalls and potential for teachers and the useful aspects need to be placed in context with other key ideas of "personalised education" and "learning to learn". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] It would seem logical that educators could provide adequate instruction to promote successful learning for all of their students by teaching to individual learning styles. Yet, some other theories and research show that teachers predominantly teach to one learning style (auditory), and so those students with other learning style preferences tend to be less successful, and, over the course of their education, show a transition toward a predominantly auditory style.

Heffernan, T., Morrison, M., Basu, P., & Sweeney, A. (2010). Cultural differences, learning styles and transnational education. Journal Of Higher Education Policy & Management, 32(1), 27-39. doi:10.1080/13600800903440535 Abstract: Australian universities have been active participants in the transnational education market over the past twenty years. Many Australian universities have structured various forms of franchising arrangements with universities and other education providers, particularly with educational institutions in China. However, the cultural differences between Australia and China are substantial; furthermore, research has shown that Chinese students have unique characteristics that differentiate them from Western students. Nevertheless, Australian universities develop and implement programs in China with limited understanding of these differences. Consequently, to administer these programs better academics need to understand the differences that might exist in Chinese student cohorts. One area of possible difference is learning styles. Hence, the aim of this study was to explore the differences in learning styles between business students in China and Australia. The results suggest that there are substantial differences in learning styles between the two countries. Consequently, program managers need to consider these differences when structuring course offerings for students in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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It is important to take into account peoples thinking styles in designing programs. Most instructors are best at teaching people who match their own styles of thinking and learningand tend to overestimate the extent to which their students share their own styles (Merriam, 2007). Investigation shows that teachers instruct the way they learned, believing that this is the easiest or right way (Dunn and Dunn, 1979). Therefore, it seems logical to state that teachers, as a product of an auditory educational system, as a majority, continue molding students into the same learning style. Dunn, R., and Dunn, K. (1979). Learning Styles/Teaching Styles: should they Can they Be matched? Educational Leadership, (36), 238-244. Merriam, S. B. (2007). Memory, Cognition, and the Brain. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide, (15), 391-410.

Landrum, T. J., & McDuffie, K. A. (2010). Learning Styles in the Age of Differentiated Instruction. Exceptionality, 18(1), 6-17. doi:10.1080/09362830903462441 Abstract: The concept of learning styles has tremendous logical and intuitive appeal, and educators' desire to focus on learning styles is understandable. Recently, a growing emphasis on differentiated instruction may have further increased teachers' tendency to look at learning styles as an instructionally relevant variable when individualizing instruction in increasingly heterogeneous classrooms. We discuss the overlapping concepts of individualized instruction and differentiated instruction, briefly review the evidence base for learning styles, and argue that instruction should indeed be individualized and differentiated. We conclude that there is insufficient evidence, however, to support learning styles as an instructionally useful concept when planning and delivering appropriately individualized and differentiated instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Although the concept of learning styles is helpful, it cannot be used to solve all learning problems. However, if teachers and students can be shown how to identify and how best to work

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with the different perceptual learning styles, perhaps one will be able to evidence less frustration on the part of teachers and, for the students, more success.

Mestre, L. (2006). Accommodating Diverse Learning Styles in an Online Environment. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 46(2), 27-32. Abstract: The article focuses on the importance of providing optimal learning experiences in an online environment for librarians and instructors. It outlines four of the common theories and models used to explain how students' learning styles vary such as the single learningstyle continuum and the multidimensional learning style. It discusses the implications of the theory of field dependence and field dependence cognitive styles for cross-cultural learning and its impacts on a user's information processing.

Online and weekend programs (fast-track programs) have been designed to teach individuals leadership and decision-making theories, rather than the philosophical, pedagogical, and foundational aspects of adult learning. These programs have also prompted instructors to detach themselves from their traditional duties of classroom instruction. However, it is important to recognize that a few instructors stay connected with their virtual students, and a small percentage of these instructors find methods to interact with their students as a means of ensuring that all online content is accessible based on Universal Design Principles.

Mestre, L. S. (2010). Matching Up Learning Styles with Learning Objects: What's Effective?. Journal Of Library Administration, 50(7/8), 808-829. doi:10.1080/01930826.2010.488975 Abstract: Online instruction is quite prevalent on campuses and within libraries. Librarians are engaged in the creation of learning objects that can either be linked to or embedded within course-management systems. But are those instructional tools designed to best accommodate diverse learners or are they constructed to reflect the teaching and learning style of the designer? Results from a study (a survey of librarians, student usability studies, and interviews) document both considerations made in the creation of learning objects, and the effectiveness of learning objects from students' perspectives. The findings may be useful for future modifications of these tools (e.g., tutorials, videos, podcasts, and PowerPoints). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The evident lack of faculty investment observed in many online completion programs is supported by the belief that students can do everything on their own and that the vast amount of online resources available can answer most, if not all, of their questions.

Riener, C., & Willingham, D. (2010). The Myth of Learning Styles. Change, 42(5), 32-35. Abstract: The article discusses the reasons on the prevalence of learning styles beliefs. It explains various claims at the center of learning-styles theory including the claims that different modes of learning in different students could be improved by matching one's teaching with the preferred learning modes, that teachers should take these differences of learners into account, and that learning could be improved by matching the mode of instruction to the preferred learning style of the student. It notes that learning-styles theory has persisted because it has succeeded in becoming a common knowledge and more of its general claims are true. It also explores the reason why college educators need to address the direct costs of the learning-styles myth. Another reason for teachers not teaching to individual learning styles is a lack of understanding the concept of perceptual learning styles and how to provide instruction and activities appropriate for different styles. Teachers would need to have access to training, mentors, and actual programs where teaching to individual learning styles in a classroom has been instituted and proven effective.

Romanelli, F., Bird, E., & Ryan, M. (2009). Learning Styles: A Review of Theory, Application, and Best Practices. American Journal Of Pharmaceutical Education, 73(1), 1-5. Abstract: The article examines the various learning style instruments and their potential use and limitations. It describes learning style as the characteristic cognitive, effective, and psychosocial behaviors that indicate the students' perception, interaction, and response to learning environment. It suggests that teachers must create concentrated efforts to teach in a multi-style fashion that both reaches the greatest extent of students and challenges all students to grow as learners.

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Cognitive learning strategies include repetition of words, key word recognition, and notetaking. Repetition seems to be an effective method for people with short-term memory deficiencies. Metacognitive strategies are those in which a plan of action is decided upon prior to the exposure to the material, thus it is not so much a surprise or quick action as to how to deal with this new material. This could be of use to Second Language teachers by explaining to their students different ways of dealing with new material encountered and providing practice. Last but not least, socioaffective strategies deal with learning by interacting with others. This could be of great value to second language learners as the teacher provides more conversational opportunities utilizing situation cards, simulation/gaming, among others.

Sze, S. (2009). Learning Style and The Special Needs Child. Journal Of Instructional Psychology, 36(4), 360-362. Abstract: In order for a teacher to teach their students well they need to know their students and their learning styles. They need to know the best strategies of teaching in order to help them to become better learners. When the teacher accommodates their teaching to those students helps to level the playing field in the classroom. Leveling the playing field gives special education students a better chance of being successful inside and outside the classroom. Students, especially younger students, do not know or recognize their learning styles and therefore it is the educator's job to find those preferred styles and help accommodate their teaching to those styles (VanKlaveren, K., Buck-land, T., & Williamson, J. (2002). Once students realize their learning style and know how to make things fit their needs, they will become more proficient learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Researchers in the field of Educational Psychology have been investigating the concept of cognitive abilities/cognitive style, which deals with how the mind actually functions and how it process and retains information. This processing is dependent upon individual characteristics as well as sociological and environmental factors. Evidence suggests that some individuals

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experience learning difficulties when transitioning from childhood to adolescence. These difficulties are frequently associated with learning disabilities.

Zacharis, N. Z. (2011). The effect of learning style on preference for web-based courses and learning outcomes. British Journal Of Educational Technology, 42(5), 790-800. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01104.x Abstract: As the number of courses offered online increases rapidly, it is important for teachers and institutions to identify specific learner characteristics of successful online students. This paper reports on a study that compared an online group of freshmen computer science majors with an equivalent on-campus group to find if their individual learning styles play a role in the selection of course delivery mode (online or face to face) and in their academic achievement. No significant statistical differences were detected in learning styles and learning performance between the two groups. Implications for teaching practice and design of learning activities that resulted from this study are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] A substantial proliferation in the number of online programs designed for working adults, who are willing to teach themselves how to apply knowledge to real life, practical situations, has forced many institutions to dilute the curriculum of their programs. As a result of this dilution, higher educational institutions credibility and brand reputation has been reduced. Our society is moving towards a trend that deviates from the traditional promotion of quality education. The actual higher educational system displays inconsistencies in the responsibilities among institutions for inculcating skills and promoting learning.