STRICTILY AS PER NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial Intelligence
Definition of knowledge

Large collection of symbols is called as data.

Large collection of data is called as information.
If you have lot of information it is knowledge.
If you have lot of knowledge then you are an intelligent.
If you are an intelligent then you have wisdom.
Knowledge is defined as the piece of information that helps in decision-making.
Intelligence can be defined as the ability to draw useful inferences from the available knowledge.
Wisdom is the maturity of the mind that directs its intelligence to achieve desired goals.

Knowledge Relation: Wisdom

Intelligence

Knowledge

Information

Data

Symbol

1
What is intelligence?
An exact definition of intelligence has proven to be extremely elusive.
Douglas Hofstadler suggests the following characteristics in a list of essential abilities for intelligence.

1.To respond to situations very flexibility.

2.To make sense out of ambiguous or contradictory messages.
3.To recognize the relative importance of different elements of a situation.
4.To find similarities between situations despite differences, which may separate them.
5.To draw distinctions between situations despite similarities, which may link them.

Turing Test: In 1950, Turing published an article in the Mind magazine, which triggered a controversial
topic “Can a machine think”.
Turing proposed an ‘imitation game’ which was later modified to Turing test. In the imitation game
the players are three humans- a male, a female and an interrogator. The interrogator who is shielded from
the other two, asks questions to both of them and based on their typewritten answers determines who is
female. The aim of the male is to imitate the female and deceive the interrogator and the role of female is to
provide replies that would inform the interrogator about her true sex.
Room A Room B

Room C

Turing proposed that if the human interrogator in Room C is not able to identify who is in Room A or in
Room B, then the machine possesses intelligence. Turing considered this is a sufficient test for attributing
thinking capacity to a machine.

As of today, Turing test is the ultimate test a machine must pass in order to be called as intelligent
test.

Importance of Turing test:

It gives a standard for determining intelligence.

It also helps in eliminating any bias in favour of living organism, because the interrogator focuses slowly
on the content of the answers to the questions.

Definitions of Artificial Intelligence:

There is no universal agreement among AI researchers about exactly what constitutes AI.
Various definitions of AI focus on different aspects of this branch of computer science including intelligent
behavior, symbolic process, heuristics and pattern matching.

Some of the definitions of AI:

1.AI is the study of how to make computer do things, which at the moment people do better.
------Elaine Rich.
2. McCarthy coined the term AI in 1956.

2
 Developing computer programs to solve complex problems by applications of processes that analogous
to human reasoning processes.
This definition has 2 major parts: computer solutions for complex problems and processes that are
analogous to human reasoning processes.
A.I is the study of mental faculties through the use of computational models.
3.AI is the study of the computations i.e. possible to perceive, reason and action.

From the perspective of this definition AI differs from most of psychology because of the greater
emphasis on computation and AI differs from most of computers science because of the emphasis on
perception, reasoning and action
4.AI is the part of computer science concerned with designing intelligent computer systems that exhibit the
characteristics we associate with intelligent in human behavior.
--- Arron Barrand Edward A.Feignbaum
5.According to Bruce G Buchanan and Edward shortlife symbolic processing is an essential characteristics
of AI.
AI is the branch of computer science dealing with symbolic, non-algorithmic methods of problem solving.
6. In an encyclopedia article, Bruce G Buchanan includes heuristics as key elements of AI.
AI is the branch of computer science that deals with ways of representing knowledge using symbols rather
than numbers and writes rules of thumb or heuristic methods for processing information.
-----Bruce G Buchanan, encyclopedia Britannica.
A heuristic is a rule of thumb that helps you to determine how is proceed.
7. Another definition of AI focuses on pattern matching techniques.
In simplified terms, AI works with pattern matching methods, which attempt to describe objects,
events or processes in terms of their qualitative features and logical computational relationships.
---Brattle researches corporation, AI and fifth generation computer technologies.
1.what computers can do better than people?
1. Numerical Computation
2. Information Storage
3. Repetitive operations.
4. Computers are just machines.

What people can do better than computer?

1. Intelligence
2. Process
3. Understand
4. Make sense
5. Common sense.

Differences between human brains and computers

Human brains computer

1. Living device.
2. Self-build and creative.
3. Has continuo nature.
4. Limited size.
5. Basic unit is nervous.
6. Storage devices are Electro chemicals in nature.
7. Number punching is slow.
8. Speed of transmission is of order of 50 to
100 meters of sec.
9. Has inducted detective reasoning capabilities.
1. Non living device.
2. Dependent and must be programmed
3. Describe in nature.
4. Unlimited memory size.
5. Basic unit is a ram cell.
6. Store devices are electronic & magnetic.
7. Faster.
8. Speed of transmission is equal to the
Speed of electrons & speed of light.
9. No reasoning power.

3
10. Has an emotion.
11. Has a capacity to learn.
12. Volume is approximately 15 wt.
13. Power consumption 10 wt.
14. Logic adopted is fuzzy logic.
15.most sophisticated device and highly
advanced with respect to intelligence.
10. Dumb and no emotions.
11. Must be programmed.
12. Volume is about 2000wats.
13. Power is 500 watts.
14. Logic adopted is binary logic.
15. Only intention and achieved a
Certain degree of specification.

Areas of AI research (AI and related fields) and its applications:

1.Expert System:
An expert system is a computer program designed to act as an expert in a particular domain also
known as knowledge based system . An expert system is a set of programs that manipulate encoded
knowledge to solve problems in a specialized domain that normally requires human expertise. The system
perform their inference through symbolic computations.

Expert systems are currently designed to assist experts not to replace them. They have proven to be
useful in diverse are as such as medical diagnosis, chemical analysis, and geological exploration and
computer system configuration.
Since the expert system field promises a great deal of practical application and commercial potential in the
near future .it has begun to attract on enormous amount of attention.

2.Natural language processing:

The utility of computer is often limited by communication difficulties. The effective use of a
computer traditionally has involved the use of a programming language or set of commands that you must
use to communicate with the computer. The goal of natural language processing is to enable people and
computers to communicate in a natural (human) language such as English rather in a computer language.
The field of N.L.P is divided into 2 sub fields of : 1. Natural language understanding which investigates
methods of allowing the computer to comprehend instructions given in ordinary English so computers can
understand people more easily.
2. Natural-language generations, which strives to have, computers produce ordinary English language so
that people can understand computers more easily.
3. Speech recognition:
The focus of N.L.P is to enable computers to communicate interactively with English words and
sentences that are typed on paper or displayed on a screen. The primary interactive method of
communication used by human is not reading and writing; it is speech.
The goal of speech recognition research is to allow computers to understand human speech so that they can
hear our voice and recognize the words. We are speaking speech recognition research seeks to advance the
goal of natural language processing by simplifying the process of interactive communication between
people and computers.
4.Computer vision:
It is a simple task to attach a camera to a computer so that the computer can receive visual images .it has
proven to be a far more difficult task. However to interpret those images so that the computers can
understand exactly what it is seeing.
People generally use vision as their primary means of sensing their environmental .we generally see more
than we hear, feel, smell of taste .the goal of computer vision research is to give computers this same
facility for understanding their surroundings.

5. Robotics:

4
 A robot is an Electro mechanical device that can be programmed to perform manual tasks. The
robotic industries association formally defines a robot as “ a re programmable multi functional manipulator
designed to move material, parts, roots or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks”.
Not at all robotics is considered to be the part of AI .a robot that performs only the actions it has been pre
programmed to perform is considered to be a ‘dumb’ robot processing no more intelligence.
An intelligent robot includes some kind of sensory apparatus such as a camera that allows it to respond to
changes in its environment, rather than just to allow instructions ‘mindlessly’.

Intelligent computer assisted instruction (ICAI):

CAI has been in use for many years bringing the power of the computer to bear on the educational process.
now AI methods are being applied to the development of intelligent computer –assisted instruction in an
attempt to create computerized “tutors” that shape their teaching techniques to fit the learning patterns of
individual students.

Automatic programming:
In simple terms programming is the process of telling the computer exactly what you want it to do.
Developing a computer program frequently requires a great deal of time. A program must be designed,
written, tested, debugged and evaluated all as part of the program development process.
The goal of automatic programming is to create special programs that act as intelligent “tool” to assist
programmers and expedite each phase of the programming process. The ultimate aim of automatic
programming is computer system that could develop programs by itself, in response to and in accordance
with the specifications of a program developer.

Planning and decision support:

When you have a goal, either you rely on luck and providence to achieve that goal or you design
and implement a plan .the realization of a complex goal may require the construction of a formal and
detailed plan.
Intelligent planning programs are designed to provide active assistance in the planning process and are
expected to be particularly helpful to managers with decision-making responsibilities.
From the perspective of goals AI can be viewed as part of engineering and part of science. The
engineering goal of AI is to solve real world problems using AI as an armamentarium of ideas about
presenting knowledge; using knowledge and assembling system explain various sorts of intelligence.

Applications of AI should be judged according to whether there is well-defined task, an implemented

program and a set of identifiable principles.
AI can help us to solve difficult real world problems, creating new opportunities in business, engineering
and many other application areas.

Characteristics of AI problems:

1. The problems that AI tackles have combinational explosion of solutions.

2. AI programs manipulate symbolic information to a larger extent, in contrast to conventional programs,
which deal with numeric processing.
3. To cope with the combinational explosion of solutions, AI programs use heuristics to search tree.
4. In order to classify system as an AI program, the fundamental criterion is that it must have vast quantities
of knowledge must be represented in such a form that the system work on it can easily manipulate it.
5. AI programs deal with real life problems to a large extent. The assist humans in taking right decisions.
Just a human expert has the capacity to handle uncertain, incomplete and irrelevant information.
6. A very vital characteristic of an AI program is its ability to learn.

Differences between AI and conventional program.

5
Features AI Programming Conventional Programming (software)

1. Processing type Symbolic Numeric

2. Technique used Heuristic search algorithmic search
3. Solution steps not explicit Precise
4. Answers sought Satisfactory Optional
5. Control/Data separation Separate Intermingled
6. Knowledge Imprecise Precise
7. Modification Frequent Rare
8. Involves Large Knowledge base large database
9. Process Inferential Repetitive

Problems representation in AI:

Before a solution can be found, the prime condition is that the problem must be very precisely
defined.
To build a system to solve a particular problem, we need to do four things.
1. Define the problem precisely: this definition must include precise specifications of what the initial
situations will be as well as what final situations constitute acceptable solutions to the problem.
2. Analyze the problem.
3. Isolate and represent the last knowledge that is necessary to solve the problem.
4. Choose the last problem solving techniques and apply it to the particular problem.

The most common methods of problem representation in AI are

1. State space representation

2. Problem reduction

State space representation:

A set of all possible states for a given problem is known as the state space of the problem. State
space representations are highly beneficial in AI because they provide all possible states, operations and
goals. If the entire state space representation for a problem is given, it is possible to trace the path from the
initial state to the Goal State and identify the sequence of operators necessary for doing it. The major
deficiency of this method is that it is not possible to visualize all states for a given problem. To overcome
the deficiencies of this method, problem reduction technique comes handy.

Example1: Water

Boiled

Boiling
Water
Added coffee Milk powder

Decation Milk

Coffee

Added sugar
Palatable coffee

6
Example2:
A Water Jug Problem: You are given two Jugs, a 4-gallon one and a 3-gallon one. Neither have any
measuring markers on it. There is a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with water. How can you get
exactly 2 gallons of water into the 4-gallon jug?

The state space for this problem can be described as the set of ordered pairs of integers (x, y), such
that x=0, 1,2,3, or 4 and y = 0,1,2, 0r 3; x represents the number of gallons of water in the 4-gallon jug, and
y represents the quality of water in the 3-gallon jug. The Start State is (0,0). The goal state is (2,n) for any
value of n (since the problem does not specify how many gallons need to be in the 3-gallon jug).

1 (x, y) - (4,y) Fill the 4-gallon jug.

If x < 4

2. (x, y) - (x,3) Fill the 3-gallon jug.

If y < 3

3 (x, y) - (x – d, y) Pour some water out of the 4-gallon jug

If x >0

4 (x, y) - (x, y - d) pour some water out of the 3-Gallon jug

If y > 0
5 (x, y) - (0, y) Empty the 4-gallon jug on the ground
If x > 0
6 (x, y) - (x, 0) Empty the 3-gallon jug on the ground
If y > 0
7 (x, y) - (4,y – (4 -x)) pour some water from the 3-Gallon jug in to the
If x + y> 4 and y > 0 4 - gallon jug until the 4 -gallon jug is full.

8 (x, y) - (x-(3-y),3) pour water from the 4 -Gallon jug in to the

If x + y> 3 and x > 0 3 -gallon jug until the 3 -gallon jug is full.

9. (x, y) - (x+y,0) pour all the water from the 3-Gallon jug in to the
If x + y <3 and x > 0 4- gallon jug

10 (x, y) - (x+y,0) pour all the water from the 4-Gallon jug in to the
If x + y < 3 and x > 0 3- gallon jug
11 (0,2) (2,0) pour all 2 gallons from the 3-Gallon jug in to the
4-Gallon jug.
12. (2,y) (0,y) Empty the 2 gallons in the 4.gallons in the 4-gallon jug on the
Ground.

Production rules for the water jug problem.

Gallons of water in the 4-gallon jug. Gallons of water in the 3-gallon jug Rule Applied
0 0 2
0 3 9
3 0 2
3 3
4 2 7
0 2 5 0r 12
2 0 9 or 11

7
 One solution for the water jug problem.

0 0 2
4 0 1
1 3 8
1 0 6
0 1 10
4 1 1
2 3 8
2 0 6

Second solution for the water jug problem

Problem Reduction: In this method a complex problem is broken down or decomposed into a set of
preemptive sub problems. Solutions for these preemptive subprograms are easily obtained. The solutions
for all the sub-problems collectively give the solution for the complex problem.

Example:
We want to evaluate ∫(x2+3x+sin2xcos2x)dx

We can solve this by breaking down into smaller problems.

∫ (X2 + 3x + sin2x cos2x) dx

∫ x2 dx ∫ 3x dx ∫ sin2x cos2x dx

x3 /3 3 x2/2 dx ∫ (1-cos2x)cos2x dx

3 x2 /2 ∫ (cos2x – cos4x) dx

The individual values can be combined (Integrated) to get the final result.

Major components of AI : Any AI system has four major components.

1. Knowledge representation
2. Heuristic search
3. AI programming languages and tools
4. AI hardware

What are the underlying assumption about intelligence.

Newal and Siman proposed some hypothesis
Physical symbol system hypothesis
Physical symbol system consists of set of entities called symbols, with the help of these entities to
make symbol structure (expression). Thus, a symbol structure is composed of a number of instances of
symbols related in some physical way.

8
 A physical symbol system is a machine that produces through time an evolving collection of symbol
structures.

Creation
Modification
Set of operators
Reproduction
Destruction

P.S.S. has the necessary and sufficient means to exhibit intelligence.

Intelligence requires knowledge

Experience gives knowledge

Intelligence requires knowledge

Less desirable properties of knowledge

There appears to be no way to prove or disprove it on logical grounds. So it must be subjected to empirical
validation. We may find that it is false. We may find that the bulk of the evidence says that it is true. But the
only way to determine its truth is by experimentation.
The importance of the physical symbol system hypothesis is twofold. It is a significant theory of
the nature of human intelligence and so is of great interest to psychologists. It also forms the basis of the
belief that it is possible to build programs that can perform intelligent tasks now performed by people.

Properties of AI:

1. Must capture generalization.

2. It must be understood be people, who must provide knowledge to it.
3. It can be easily modified to reflect overview.
4. It can be used in great money situations even if it is totally accurate or computable.
5. It must overcome its own sheer bulk by narrowing down the range of possibilities.

AI Problems Non AI Problems

AI Techniques Non AI Techniques

What is an AI Techniques?

It is voluminous
It is hard to characterize accurately
It is constantly changing
It differs from data by being organized in a way that corresponds to the ways it will be used.

Organization of knowledge is situation dependent

The three important AI Techniques:

9
Search: Provides a way of solving problems for which no more direct approach is available as well as a
frame work into which any direct techniques that are available can be embedded.

Use of knowledge: Provides a way of solving complex problems by exploiting the structures of the objects
that are involved.

Abstraction: Provides a way of separating important features and variations from unimportant ones that
would otherwise overwhelm any process.

Problem Characteristics:

Heuristic search is a very general method applicable to a large class of problems. In order to choose the
most appropriate methods for a particular problem it is necessary to analyze the problem along several key
dimensions.

1. Is the problem decomposable?

2. Can solution steps be ignored or undone?
3. Is the problems universe predicate?
4. Is a good solution to the problem obvious without comparison to all other possible solutions? (Is a
good solution absolute or relative?)
5. Is the solution a state or a path?
6. What is the role of knowledge?
7. Does the task require interaction with a person?

1. Is the problem decomposable?

A decomposable problem: We want to evaluate (x2+3x+sin2xcos2x)dx

We can solve this by breaking down into smaller problems.
∫ (X2 + 3x + sin2x cos2x) dx

∫ x2 dx + ∫ 3x dx + ∫ sin2x cos2x dx

x3 /3 + ∫ 3x dx + ∫ (1-cos2x)cos2x dx

3 x2 /2 + ∫ (cos2x – cos4x) dx

The individual values can be combined (Integrated) to get the final result.
A
A non-decomposable problem: Blocks World problem
C B
A B
On (C, A) On (B, C) and On (A, B) C
Operators available:

1. Clear (x) [ block x has nothing on it]  On(x,table) [ Pick up x and put it on table]
2. Clear(x) and clear(y)  On(x, y) [put x on y]

10
A proposed solution: Decomposition produces two smaller problems

1. Is simple the start state. Simply put B and C.

2. Is not simple. We have to clear off A by removing C before we can pick up A and put it on B this
can be done easily.

1.We now try to combine the two sub-solutions into one solution we fail regardless of which one do first,
we will not be able to so the second. I.e. 1 and 2 are independent.

2. Can solution steps be ignored or undone?

1. Theorem Proving: Suppose we want to prove a mathematical theorem we proceed by first proving a
lemma that we think will be useful. Eventually, we realize that the lemma is not of help at all. Are
we in trouble?

 No. All we have lost is the effort that was spent.

2. The 8 puzzle: The 8-puzzle is a square in which is placed eight square tiles. The remaining 9 th
square is uncovered. Each tile has a number on it. A tile that is adjacent to the blank space can be
slid into that space. A game consists of a starting position and specified into the goal position by
sliding the tiles around.
3. Chess: Suppose we made a wrong move and we realized it a couple of moves later.

We cannot go back to correct the move.

The three problems are of three classes.

1. Ignorable: (Ex: Theorem proving) in which solution steps can be ignored.

2. Recoverable: (Ex: 8-puzzle) in which solution steps can be undone.
3. Irrecoverable: (Ex: Chess) in which solution steps cannot be undone.

Ignorable problems can be solved using a simple control structure that never back tracks.
Recoverable problems can be solved using a simple control structure that backtracks.
A great deal of effort is needed to solve irrecoverable problems.

3. Is the universe predicate?

Predictable – in 8-puzzle (certain outcome)

Unpredictable – in bridge (uncertain outcome)
• Playing bridge: But we can do fairly well since we have available accurate estimates of the
probabilities of each of the possible outcomes.
• Controlling a robot arm: The outcome is uncertain for a variety of reasons. Some one might move
something in to the path of the arm. The gears of the arm might stick. A slight error could cause the
arm to knock over a whole stack of this.
• Helping a lawyer decide how much to defend his client against a murder charge. Here we probably
cannot even list all the possible outcomes, much less assess their probabilities.

4.Is a good solution absolute or relative?

Ex: Consider a database of facts

1. Marcus was a man.
2. Marcus was a pompein

11
 3. Marcus was born in 40 AD
4. All men are mortal
5. All pompeians died whan the volcano erupted in 79 AD
6. No mortal lives longer than 150 years
7. It is now 1998 AD
Question: “Is Marcus alive?”

There are two solutions

First solution is 1. Marcus was a man

2. All men are mortal
3. Marcus us mortal –from 1 and 4
4. Marcus was born in 40 AD
5. It is now 1998 AD
6. Marcus’ age is 1958 year -4 and 5
7. No mortal lives longer than 150 years.
8. Marcus is dead -6 and 7

Second solution is 7. It is now 1998 AD

5.All pompeians died in 79 AD
9. All pompeians are dead now -7 and 5
2. Marcus was a pompiean
10.Marcus is dead -9 and 2

So, to answer the question “Is Marcus alive” we can choose any one of the two solutions. Since each
path will lead to answer. If we do follow one path successfully to the answer there is no reason to go
back and see if some other path might also lead to a solution.

Now consider TSP:

Boston New York Miami Dallas San Fransisco

Boston ----- 250 1450 1700 3000

New York 250 ---- 1200 1500 2900
Miami 1450 1200 ----- 1600 3300
Dallas 1700 1500 1600 ----- 1700
S.F. 3000 2900 3300 1700 -------

Path 1 :

Boston---250---->New York---1450---->Miami---3050---->Dallas---4750---->S.F---7750---->Boston

Path 2 :

Boston---3000---->S.F.---4700---->Dallas---6200---->New York---7400---->Miami---8850---->Boston

We can’t say one path is the shortest one unless we try other paths also.

1. Marcus – any path problems can be solved in a reasonable amount of time.

2. TSP – best path problems_ computationally harder than any path problems.

12
5. Is the solution a state or path?
Natural language understanding:
The bank president ate dish of pasta salad with the fork.

Several components in this sentence, each of which in solution, may have more than one
interpretation. But, the whole sentence must give only meaning.

Source of Ambiguity:
Bank financial institutions (or) side of rivers  only one of these may have a president. Dish
object of the verb ‘eat’, a dish was eaten? The Pasta Salad in the dish was eaten.

Pasta salad – a salad containing pasta.

Dog food – doesn’t normally contain dog.

So some search is required to find the interpretation of the sentence. But these will be anyone
interpolation.

Ex: Water jug problem.

The solution is not just the state (2,0) but the path from (0,0) to (2,0).

6.What are the role of knowledge?

Chess: Knowledge required is very little (a set of rules for legal moves, a control mechanism that
implements an appropriate search procedure, knowledge of good tactics by a perfect program.

Newspaper: Now consider the problem of scanning daily newspaper to decide which are supporting the
democrats and which are supporting the republicans in some upcoming election. Again assuming
unlimited computing power, how much knowledge would be required by a computer trying to solve this
problem? This time the answer is a great deal.

1. The names of the candidates in each party.

2. The fact that if the major thing you want to see done is has taxes lowered, you are probably
supporting republicans.
3. The fact that if the major thing you want to see done is improved education for minority students,
you are probably supporting the democrats.
4. The fact that if you opposed to big government you are probably supporting the republican.
And so on.

These two problems chess and newspaper story understanding, illustrate the difference between the
problems for which a lot of knowledge is important only to constrain the search for solution and those
for which a lot of knowledge is required even to be able to recognize a solution.

7. Does the task require interaction with a person.

Two types of problems.

1. Solitary: The computer is given a problem description and produces an answer with no intermediate
communication and with no demand for an explanation of the reasoning process.

13
 2. Conversational: These are intermediate communication between a person and the computer (either
to provide additional assistance to computer or to provide additional information to the user or
both).

Definition of Production System:

Production system is a mechanism that describes and performs the search process. It consists of

1. A set of rules.
2. One or more knowledge or database.
3. A control strategy that specifies the order of the rules to be applied.
4. A rule applied.

Requirements of a good control strategy:

1. The first requirement is that it can cause motion.

Consider the water jug problem. Suppose we implemented the simple control strategy of
starting each time at the top of the list of rules and choosing the first applicable one.
2. The second requirement is that it be systematic.
The requirement that a control strategy be systematic corresponds to the need for global
motion as well as for local motion.

Production System Characteristics:

We have argued that production systems are a good way to describe the operations that can be performed in
a search for a solution to a problem.

1. Can production systems, like problems, be described by a set of characteristics that shed some light
on how they can easily be implemented?
2. If so, what relationships are there between problem types and the types of production system best
suited to solving the problems?

Definitions of classes of production systems:

A monotonic production system: It is a production system in which the application of a rule never
prevents the later application of another rule that could also have been applied at the time first rule was
selected.

A non-monotonic production system: A non-monotonic production system is one in which this is not true.

Partially commutative production system: A partially commutative production system is a production

system with the property that if the application of a particular sequence of rules transforms state x into state
y then any permutation of those rules that is allowable (i.e. each rules preconditions are satisfied when it is
applied) also transforms state x into state y. Partially commutative, monotonic production systems are
useful for solving ignorable problems.

A commutative production system: A commutative production system is a production system that is both
monotonic and partially commutative.

The significance if these categories of production systems lie in the relationship between the
categories and appropriate implementation strategies.

14
 Monotonic Non-monotonic

Partially Commutative Theorem proving Robot navigation

Non Partially commutative Chemical synthesis Bridge

Partially commutative, monotonic production systems are important from an implementation standpoint
because they can be implemented with out the ability to backtrack to previous states when it is discovered
that an incorrect path has been followed. Although it is often useful to implement such systems with
backtracking in order to guarantee a systematic search, the actual database representing the problem state
need not be restored.
Non-monotonic, partially commutative systems, on the other hand are useful for problems in which
changes occur but can be reversed and in which order of operations is not critical.
Commutative production systems are useful for many problems in which irreversible changes occur.
These are likely to produce the same node many times in the search process.

Searching Techniques

Every AI program has to do the process of searching for the solution steps are not explicit in nature.
This searching is needed for solution steps are not known before hand and have to be found out. Basically
to do a search process the following steps are needed.
1. The initial state description of the problem.
2. A set of legal operators that changes the state.
3. The final or goal state.
The searching process in AI can be broadly classified into two major parts.
1. Brute force searching techniques (Or) Uninformed searching techniques.
2. Heuristic searching techniques (Or) Informed searching techniques.

Brute force searching techniques:

In which, there is no preference is given to the order of successor node generation and selection.
The path selected is blindly or mechanically followed. No information is used to determine the preference
of one child over another. These are commonly used search procedures, which explore all the alternatives,
during the searching process. They don’t have any domain specific knowledge all their need are the initial
state , final state and the set of legal operators. Very important brute force searching techniques are
1. Depth First Search
2. Breadth First Search

Depth first search: This is a very simple type of brute force searching techniques. The search begins by
expanding the initial node i.e. by using an operator generate all successors of the initial node and test them.
This procedure finds whether the goal can be reached or not but the path it has to follow has not been
mentioned. Diving downward into a tree as quickly as possible performs Dfs searches.
Root

A B

15
 D E F I J
G H

Goal State
Algorithm:
Step1: Put the initial node on a list START.
Step2: If START is empty or START = GOAL terminates search.
Step3: Remove the first node from START. Call this node a.
Step4: If (a= GOAL) terminates search with success.
Step5: Else if node a has successors, generate all of them and add them at the beginning
Of START.
Step6: Go to Step 2.
The major draw back of the DFS is the determination of the depth citric with the search has to
proceed this depth is called cut of depth.
The value of cutoff depth is essential because the search will go on and on. If the cutoff depth is
smaller solution may not be found. And if cutoff depth is large time complexity will be more.

Advantages: DFS requires less memory since only the nodes on the current path are stored.
By chance DFS may find a solution with out examining much of the search space at
all.

Breadth First Search (BFS): This is also a brute force search procedure like DFS. We are
searching progresses level by level. Unlike DFS which goes deep into the tree. An operator employed to
generate all possible children of a node. BFS being a brute force search generates all the nodes for
identifying the goal. The amount of time taken for generating these nodes is prepositional to the depth “d”
and branching factor “b” is given by 0(b)

Root

A B

D E F I J
G H

Goal State

ALGORITHM:
Step 1. Put the initial node on a list “START”
Step 2. If START is empty or goal terminate the search.
Step 3. Remove the first node from the Start and call this node “a”
Step 4. If a =”GOAL” terminate search with success

16
Step 5. Else if node “a” has successors generate all of them and add them at the tail of
“START”
Step 6. Go to step 2.
Advantages:
1. BFS will not get trapped exploring a blind alley.
2. If there is a solution then BFS is guaranteed to find it.
3. The amount of time needed to generate all the nodes is considerable because of the time
complexity.
4. Memory constraint is also a major problem because of the space complexity.
5. The searching process remembers all unwanted nodes, which are not practical use for the search
process.

Heuristic Search Techniques: In informed or directed search some information about the problem space is
used to compute a preference among the children for exploration and expansion.
The process of searching can be drastically reduced by the use of heuristics. Heuristic is a
technique that improves the efficiency of search process. Heuristic are approximations used to minimize
the searching process. Generally two categories of problems are used in heuristics.
1. Problems for which know exact algorithms are known & one needs to find an appropriate &
satisfying the solution for example computer vision. Speech recognition.
2. Problems for which exact solutions are known like rebuke cubes & chess.
The following algorithms make use of heuristic evolution
1. Generate & test
2. Hill climbing
3. Best first search
4. A* Algorithm
5. AO* Algorithm
6. Constraint satisfaction
7. Means- ends analysis.

1.Generate and test: The generate & test strategy is the simplest of all the approaches. The generate & test
algorithm is a depth first search procedure – since complete solutions must be generated before they can be
tested. In its most systematic form, it is simply an exhaustive search of the problem space, It is also known
as the British museum algorithm. A reference to a method for finding an object in British museums by
wandering randomly.
Algorithm
Step 1: Generate possible solutions. For some problems this means generating a particular point in the
problem space. For others it means generating a path from a start state.
Step 2: Test to see if these actually a solution by comparing the chosen point or the end point of the chosen
path of the set of acceptable good states.
Step 3: If a solution has been found, quit, otherwise, return to step 1.

Hill Climbing: It is a variant of generate a test in which feed back from the test in which feed back
from the test procedure is used to help the generator decide which direction to move in the search space. In
a pure generate & test procedure the test function response with only a yes or no. But if the test function is
augmented with a heuristic function. That provides a estimate of how close given state is to a goal state.
Hill climbing is often used when a good heuristic function is available for evaluating states. But when no
other useful knowledge is available. This algorithm is also discrete optimization algorithm uses a simple
heuristic function. The amount of distance the node is from the goal node in fact there is a practically no
difference between hill climbing & DFS except that the children of the node that has been expanded are
shorted by the remaining distance nodes.
Root

17
 A B

D E F I J
G H

Goal State
Algorithm:

Step1: Put the initial node on a list START.

Step2: If (START is empty) or (START = GOAL) then terminate the search.
Step3: Remove the first node form the start, call this node ‘a”.
Step4: If ( a = GOAL) terminate search with success.
Step5: ELSE if n ode “a” has successors generate all of them. Find out how form they are from the goal
node. Sort them by the remaining distance from the goal and add them to beginning of the start.
Step6: Go to step 2.

Problems of hill climbing:

Local maximum: A state that is better then all its neighbors but not so when compared to states to
states that are farther away.

Local Maximum

Plateau: The flat area of the search space in which all neighbors have the same value.

Plateau
Ridge: Described as a long and narrow stretch of evaluated ground or a narrow elevation or raised part
running along or across a surface.

18
 Ridge

In order to overcome these problems, adopt one of the following or a combination of the following
methods.

1. Backtracking for local maximum. Backtracking helps in undoing what has been done so far and permits
to try different path to attain the global peak.

2. A big jump is the solution to escape from the plateau. A huge jump is recommended because in a plateau
all neighboring points have the same value.

3. Trying different paths at the same time is the solution for circumventing ridges.

Best first Search: Which is a way of combining the advantages of both depth-first-search and
breadth-first-search in to a single method.
Dfs is good because if allows a solution to be found without all competing branches having to be expanded.
Bfs is good because it does not get trapped on dead end paths. One way of combining the two is to follow a
single path at a time, but switch paths whenever some competing path looks more promising than the
current one does.

In this procedure, the heuristic function used here called an evaluation function is an indicator of
how far the node is from the goal node. Goal nodes have an evaluation function value of zero.

9 D

3 A 8 E

K
6 12 F 1
S
B 14 G 0
5 L Goal
5 I
C 2
M
7
6 J

Search process of best-first search. H

Step Node being Children Available nodes Node chooses

Expanded

1. S A: 3, B: 6, C: 5 A: 3, B: 6, C: 5 A: 3
2. A D: 9, E: 8 B: 6, C: 5, D: 9, E: 8 C: 5
3. C H: 7 B: 6, D: 9,E: 8,H: 7 B: 6
4. B F: 12, G:14 D:9,E:8,H:7,F:12,G:14 H: 7
5. H I: 5, J: 6 D:9,E:8,F:12,G:14,I:5, I: 5
J:6

19
6. I K:1, L:0, M:2 D:9,E:8,F:12,G:14,J:6, search stop
K:1, L:0,M:2 goal is reached

There is an only minor variation between hill climbing and Best FS. In the former we sorted the children of
the first node being generated. Here we have to sort the entire list to identify the next node to be expanded.

The paths found by best first search are likely to give solutions faster because it expands a node that
seems closer to the goal. However there is no guarantee of this.
Algorithm:

Step 1: put initial node on a list start.

Step 2: if (start is empty) or (start =goal) then terminate search.
Step 3: remove the first node from start. Call this node a.
Step 4: if (a = goal) then terminate search with success.
Step 5: else if node ‘ a’ has successors, generate all of them. Find out how far they are from
the goal node. Sort all the children generated so far by the remaining distance from the
goal.
Step 6: name this list as start one.
Step 7: replace start with start one.
Step 8: go to step 2.

A* algorithm: The best first search algorithm that was just presented is a simplification an algorithm
called A* algorithm which was first presented by HART.
A part from the evolution function values one can also bring in cost functions indicate how much resources
like time, energy, money etc. have been spent in reaching a particular node from the start. While evolution
functions deal with the future, cost function deals with the past. Since the cost function values are really
expanded they are more concrete than evolution function values. If it is possible for one to obtain the
evolution function values then A* algorithm can be used. The basic principle is that the sum the cost and
evolution values for a state to get its goodness worth and this is a yard stick instead evolution function
value in best first search. The sum of the evolution function value and the cost along the path leading to that
state is called fitness number. While best first search uses the evolution function value for expanding the
best node A* uses the fitness number for its computations.
14
9
2 D
6

A 13
3 2 8
3 E 18 1
20
2 B 8 4 F 1 K
S 12
23
6 3 G 2 0 20
6 17 14 I L Goal
11 5 2
C 7 2
18
5 21 M
5
7 H 6 6 j

23
Step Node being Children Available nodes Node chooses
Expanded

20
1. S A: 6, B: 8, C: 11 A: 6, B: 8, C: 11 A: 6
2. A D: 14, E: 13 B: 8, C: 11, D: 14, E: 13 B: 8
3. B F: 18,G: 17 C: 11,D: 14,E: 13,F: 18,G: 17 C: 11
4. C H: 18 D: 14,E: 13,F: 18,G: 17,H: 18 E: 13
5. E D: 14,F: 18,G: 17,H: 18 D: 14
6. D F: 18,G:17,H: 18 G: 17
7. G F: 18,H: 18 H: 18
8. H I: 23,J: 23 F:18, I: 23 ,J:23 F: 18
9. F I: 23,J: 23 I: 23
10. I K: 20,L: 20,M: 21 J: 23, K: 20,L: 20,M: 21 L: 20
search
stop
goal is reached
Algorithm:
Step 1: put the initial node on a list start
Step 2: if (start is empty) or (start = goal) terminate search.
Step 3: remove the first node from the start call this node a
Step 4: if (a= goal) terminate search with success.
Step 5: else if node has successors generate all of them estimate the fitness number of the successors by
totaling the evaluation function value and the cost function value and sort the fitness number.
Step 6: name the new list as start 1.
Step 7: replace start with start 1.
Step 8: go to step 2.

Problem Reduction: In this method, a complex problem is broken down or decomposed into a set of
primitive sub problems. Solutions for these primitive sub-problems are easily obtained. The solutions for all
the sub-problems collectively given the solution for the complex problem.
Between the complex problem and the sub-problem, there exist two kinds of relationships, i.e AND
relation and OR relation ship.
In AND relation ship, the solution for the problem is obtained by solving all the sub-
problems.(Remember AND gate truth table condition).
In OR relationship, the solution for the problem is obtained by solving any of the sub-problems.
(Remember AND gate truth table condition).
This is why the structure is called an AND-OR graph.
The problem reduction is used on problems such as theorem proving, symbolic integration and analysis of
industrial schedules.

To describe an algorithm for searching an AND-OR graph, need to exploit a value, call futility. If
the estimated coast of a solution becomes greater than the value of futility, then give up the search. Futility
should be chosen to corresponds to a threshold such that any solution with a cost above it is too expensive
to be practical, even if it could every be found.
A

5 B 3 C 4 D

The AO* ALGORITHM

21
 The problem reduction algorithm we just described is a simplification of an algorithm
described in Martelli and Montanari, Martelli and Montanari and Nilson. Nilsson calls it the AO*
algorithm , the name we assume.
1. Place the start node s on open.
2. Using the search tree constructed thus far, compute the most promising solution tree T
3. Select a node n that is both on open and a part of T. Remove n from open and place it on
closed.
4. If n is a terminal goal node, label n as solved. If the solution of n results in any of n’s
ancestors being solved, label all the ancestors as solved. If the start node s is solved, exit
with success where T is the solution tree. Remove from open all nodes with a solved
ancestor.
5. If n is not a solvable node (operators cannot be applied), label n as unsolvable. If the start
node is labeled as unsolvable, exit with failure. If any of n’s ancestors become unsolvable
because n is, label them unsolvable as well. Remove from open all nodes with unsolvable
ancestors.
6. Otherwise, expand node n generating all of its successors. For each such successor node that
contains more than one sub problem, generate their successors to give individual sub
problems. Attach to each newly generated node a back pointer to its predecessor. Compute
the cost estimate h* for each newly generated node and place all such nodes that do not yet
have descendents on open. Next, recomputed the values of h* at n and each ancestor of n.
7. Return to step 2.

If can be shown that AO* will always find a minimum –cost solution tree if one
exists, provided only that h*(n) <_ h(n), and all are costs are positive. Like A*, the
efficiency depends on how closely h* approximates h.

Constraint satisfaction:

Many problems in AI can be viewed as problems of constraint satisfaction in which the goal is to
discover some problem state that satisfies a given set of constraints. Constraint satisfaction is a search
procedure that operates in a space of constraint sets. The initial state contains the constraints that are
originally given in the problem description. A goal state is any state that has been constrained “enough”,
where enough must be defined for each problem.

Constraint satisfaction is two-step process. First, constraints are discovered and propagated as far as
possible through outs the system.

Algorithm:
1. Propagate available constraints. To do this, first set OPEN to the set of all objects that must have values
assigned to them in a complete solution. Then do until an inconsistency is detected or until OPEN is
empty :
(a) Select an object OB from OPEN. Strengthen as much as possible the set of constraints that apply to
OB.
(b) If this set is different from the set that was assigned the last time OB was examined or if this is the
first time OB has been examined, then add to OPEN all objects that share any constraints with OB

(c) Remove OB from OPEN.

2. If the union of the constraints discovered above defines a solution, then quit and report the solution.

3. If the union of the constraints discovered above defines a contradiction, then return failure.

22
4. If neither of the above occurs, then it is necessary to make a guess at in order to proceed. To do this,
loop until a solution is found or all possible solutions have been eliminated
(a) Select an object whose value is not at determined and select a way of strengthening the constraints on
that object.
(b) recursively invoke constrain satisfaction with the current set of constraints augmented by
the strengthening constraint just selected.

This algorithm apply it in particular problem domain requires the use of two kinds of rules. Rules that
define the way constraints may validly be propagated and rules that suggest guesses when guesses are
necessary.

The solution process proceeds in cycles, at each cycle two significant things are done.
1. Constraints are propagated by using rules that correspond to the properties of
arithmetic.
2. A value is guessed for some letter whose value is not yet determined.
Problem1: S E N D
MORE
=======
MONEY
==========
LET M=1
C3+S+1>9, C3 can be 0 or 1 => S=9 or 8
C3+S+M can be either 9,10 or 11. It is 9 then no carry, If sum is 11 then O=1.
But M is already assigned 1.
So O=0 and C3=0. S=9 or 8.
Let C3=0 & S=9
C2+E+O=N if C2=0, E=N It is wrong.
So c2 =1, 1+E =N.
Let E=2 then N=3
923D
10R2
======
10 3 2 Y R=9 & C1 = 0 wrong
R=8 & C1 = 1 correct
923D
1082
=====
1032Y to get carry D>8 => D= 8 or 9 clash, Similarly E= 3 & 4 clash
Now for E=5 then N=6
956D
10R5
=====
1065Y C2+6+R = 1 5
C2= 0 => R=9 wrong
C2= 1 => R =8
956D
1085
=====
1065Y Now D+5>9=>D>4
D=6 then Y=1 It is wrong
D= 7 then Y=2 It is correct

23
 D= 8 or 9 wrong
Result: 9 5 6 7
1085
=====
10652
Values: S=9,E=5, N=6 , D= 7,
M=1,O=0,R=8,E=5
M=1,O=0,N=6,E= 5,Y=2.

Problem2:

DONALD
GERALD
=========
ROBERT
D+D = C1.T C1+ L+ L = C2.R
C2+A+A = C3.E C3+N+R= C4.B
C4+O+E= C5.O C5+D+G= R

Let us assume that there are no carries then O+E = O => E = 0 or 9.

D+G>=9.
Let D=1 then T= 2.
Let L=3 then R= 6.
Let A=4 then E=8
Now we have to take N and R-values from 5,7,9. But it is not possible. if it we get carry and O+E=0
condition will fail
Consider E=9
C+O+E=0
C4=1; E=9
Let D=1=>T=2;L=3 => R=6
A=4 =>E=8 contradiction
LetD=5 => T=0
1+L+L=R Let L= 8 then 1+8+8 = 17 => R=7 and L=8.
Since E=9; 1+A+A =E=>A=4.
Let B=3 then N+R=B
N+7=B
B should be either 1,2,3 if B=1 means B=11.
N=4 with carry
But A=4.
Let B=2; N=5 But D=5.
So B=3,
D+G+Carry = R
5+G+1 =7
So G=1.
Result: D O N A L D 526485
GERALD 197485
ROBERT 723970
Values:D=5 ;T=0; L=8; R=7;A=4;N=6;B=3;O=2;E=9;G=1.
Problem3:
CROSS 96233
ROADS 62513
DANGER 158746

24
Values: C=9;R=6,O=2;S=3;A=5; D=1;E=4;N=8;G=7.

Means-ends-analysis:
We have presented a collection of search strategies that can reason either forward of backward, but
for a given problem, one direction or the other must be chosen. Often, however, a mixture of the two
directions is appropriate. Such a mixed strategy would make it possible to solve the major parts of a
problem first and then go back and solve the small problems that arise in “gluing” the big pieces together.
A technique known as means-ends analysis allows us to do that.

The means-ends analysis process centers on the detection of differences between the current state
and the Goal State. Once such a difference is isolated, an operator that can reduce the difference must be
found. But perhaps that operator cannot be applied to the current state. So we set up a sub problem of
getting to a state in which it can be applied. The kind of backward chaining in which operators are selected
and then sub-goals are set up to establish the preconditions of the operators is called operator sub-goaling.

Just like the other problem solving techniques we have discussed, means-end- analysis relies on a
set of rules that can transform one problem state into another. These rules are usually not represented as a
left side that describes the conditions that must be met for the rule to be applicable (these conditions are
called the rule’s preconditions) and a right side that describes those aspects of the problem state that will be
changed by the application of the rule.
Algorithm: 1. Compare CURRENT to GOAL. IF there are no differences between them then
return.
2.Otherwise, select the most important difference and reduce it by doing the
following until success or failure is signaled.
(a) Select an as yet untried operator 0 that is applicable to the current difference. If there
are no such operators, them signal failure.
(b) Attempt to apply 0 to CURRENT. Generate descriptions of two states: 0-START, a
state in which 0’s preconditions are satisfied and 0-RESULT, the state that would
result if 0 was applied in 0-START.
(c) If (FIRST-PART MEA(CURRENT, 0-START))
And
(LAST-PART  MEA (0-RESULT, GOAL)
are successful, then signal success and return the result of concatenating
FIRST PART, 0, and LAST-PART.
Ex: Initial state: ( (R & (~PQ)&S)) Goal State:( ((Q V P) & R)&~S)
(R & (~P Q)

(~PQ) & R

(~~P V Q) & R

(P V Q) & R

(Q V P) & R

25
 Knowledge Representation

Knowledge is an intellectual acquaintance with, or perception of, fact or truth. A representation is a

way of describing certain fragments or information so that any reasoning system can easily adopt it for
interfacing purpose. Knowledge representation is a study of ways of how knowledge is actually picturised
and how effectively it resembles the representation of knowledge in human brain.

A knowledge representation system should provide ways of representing complex knowledge and
should possess the following characteristics.

1. The representation scheme should have a set of well-defined syntax and semantics. This help in
representing various kinds of knowledge.
2. The knowledge representation scheme should have a good expression capacity. A good expressive
capability will catalyze the inference mechanism in its reasoning process.
3. From the computer system point of view, the representation must be efficient. By this we mean that
it should use only limited resources with out compromising on the expressive power.

Representations and mappings:

In order to solve the complex problems encountered in AI, one needs both a large amount of
knowledge and some mechanisms for manipulating that knowledge to create solutions to new problems.
A variety ways of representing knowledge have been exploited in AI programs.

Facts: truths in some relevant world. These are the things we want to represent.
Representations: Representations of facts in some choose formalism. These are the things we will
actually be able to manipulate.

One way to think of structuring these entities is as two levels:

The knowledge level: The knowledge level at which facts are described.
The symbol level: The symbol level at which representations of objects at the knowledge level are
defined in terms of symbols that can be manipulated by programs.

Facts Internal Representation

English English
Understanding generation
English Representation

Mappings between Facts and Representation

We will call these links representation mappings. The forward representation mapping maps from
facts to representations. The backward representation mapping goes other way from representation to facts.
One representation of facts is so common that it deserves special mention. Natural language
(particularly English) sentences. Regardless of the representation for facts that we use in a program, we
may also need to be concerned with an English representation of those facts in order to facilitate getting

26
information in to and out of the system. In this case we must also have mapping functions from English
sentences to the representation we are actually going to use and from is back to sentences,

Consider the English sentence:

Spot is a dog.

The fact represented by that English sentence can also be represented in logic as:

Dog (Spot)

Suppose that we also have a logical representation of the fact that all dogs have tails:

∀ x: dog (x)-- has tail (x)

Then using the deductive mechanism of logic, we may generate the new representation object:

Has tail (spot)

Using appropriate backward mapping function we could then generate the English sentence:

Spot has a tail.

It is important to keep in mind that usually the available mapping functions are not one-to-one. In
fact, they are often not even functions but rather many-to-many relations. This particularly of the mapping
involving English representations of facts. For example the two sentences “All dogs have tails” and “Every
dog has a tail” could both represent the same fact, namely that every dog has at least one tail. On the other
hand the former could represent either the fact that every dog has at least one tail or the fact that each dog
has several tails. The latter may represent whither the fact that every dog has at least one tail or the fact that
there is a tail that every dog has. As we will see shortly, when we try to convert English sentences in to
some other representation, such as logical propositions, we must first decide what facts the sentences
represent and then convert those facts in to the new representation.

Approaches to knowledge in a particular domain should possess the following four properties.

Representational Adequacy: The ability to represent all the kinds.

2.Relationships among Attributes: The attributes that we use to describe objects are themselves entities
that we represent. There are four properties. (1) Inverse 2) Existence in an is a hierarchy (3) Techniques
reasoning about values (4) Single valued attributes.

1.Inverses: Entities in the world are related to each other in many different way us. But as soon as we
decide to describe those relation ships as attributes, we commit to a perspective in which we focus on one
object and look for binary relation ships between it and others. We used the attributes instance, is a, and
team. Each of those was being described and terminating at the object representing the value of the
specified attribute. In many cases, it is important to represent this other view of relationships. There are
two good ways to do this. The first is to represent both relation ships in a single representation that ignores
focus.
Ex: Team = (Sagar, cricket) The second approach is to use attributes that focus on a single entity but
to use them in pairs, one the inverse of the other,
• One associated with sagar: Team = Cricket
• One associated with cricket: Team member = Sagar.

27
2. Existence in an is_a hierarchy: Just as there are classes of objects and specialized subsets of those
classes, there are attributes and specialization of attributes. These are generalization - specialization
relationships are important for attributes for the same reason that they are important for other concepts -
they support inheritance.

3. Techniques for reasoning about values: Some times values of attributes are specified explicitly when
acknowledge base is created. But often the reasoning system must reason about values it has not been
given explicitly. Several kinds of information can play a role in this reasoning.

 Information about the type of the value.

Ex:Length must be a number.
 Constraints on the value often stated in terms of related entities.
Ex: Age of a person cannot be greater than the age of person’s parent.
 Rules for computing the value when it is needed. These rules are called backward rules. Such
rules have also been called if needed rules
 Rules describe should taken if a value every became known. These rules are called forward rules
or sometimes if added rules.

4. Single valued attributes: A specific but very useful kind of attributes is one that is guaranteed to take a
unique value. Knowledge - representation systems have taken several different approaches to providing
support for single - valued attributes.

 Introduce an explicit notation for temporal interval. If two different values are ever
asserted for the same temporal interval, signal a contradiction automatically.

 Assume that the only temporal interval that is of interest is now so if a new value is
asserted. Replace the old value.

 Provide no explicit support.

3.Choosing the granularity of representation: Regardless of the particular representation formalism, we
choose, it is necessary to answer the question “ At what level of details should the world be represented”.
Another way this question is often phrased is “ what should be our primitives?” should there be a small
number of low-level ones or should there be a larger number covering a range of granularities?

The major advantage of converting all statements into a representation in terms of a small set of
primitives is that the written only in terms of the primitives rather than in terms of the many ways in which
the knowledge may originally have appeared. Several AI programs including those described by schank
and Abelsan and woks are based on knowledge bases described in terms of a small number of low-level
primitives. There are several arguments against the use of low-level primitives. One is the simple high
level facts may require a lot of storage when broken down into primitives. A second but related problem is
that if knowledge is initially presented to the system in a relatively high level form such as English, and
then substantial work must be done to reduce the knowledge into primitive form. A third problem with the
use of low-level primitives is that in many domains; it is not at all clear what the premises should be.
Ex: John spotted Sue.
Who spotted Sue?.
Here the direct answer to the question is ‘yes’.
Did John see Sue?.
The obvious answer that we may give is “yes”.
But for AI to reason it out we need to add a fact: Spotted(x,y)sow(x,y).
Here we break the idea of spotting into more primitive concept of seeing.

28
 1. Representing sets of objects: It is important to be able to represent sets of objects for several
reasons. One is that there are some properties that are true of sets that are not true of the individual
members of a set. There are two ways to state a definition of a set and its elements. The first is to
list the members. Such a specification is called an extensional definition. The second is to provide
a rule that when a particular object is evaluated, returns true or false depending on where the object
is in the set or not. Such a rule is called an intensional definition. While it is trivial to determine
whether two sets are identical if extensional descriptions are used, it may be very difficult to do so
using intension descriptions. Intensional representations have two important properties that
extensional an lack. The first is they can be used to describe infinite sets and sets not all of whole
elements are explicitly known. Thus we can describe intentionally such sets as prime numbers. The
second thing we can do with intensional descriptions is to allow them to depend on parameter that
can change, such as time or spatial location.

The advantages that an intensional definition has over the extensional definition are:

1. intensional representations can be used to describe infinite sets and sets not
all of whose elements are explicitly known.
Ex: sets of prime numbers or kings of England.
2. intentional definition allows us to depend on parameters that can change.
Ex: the president of the united states used to be a pemocrot.

5. Finding the right structures as needed: In fact, in order to have access to the right structure for describing
a particular situation, it is necessary to solve all of the following problems.
1. How to perform an initial selection of the most appropriate structure
2. How to fill in appropriate details from the current situation.
3. How to find a better structure if the one chosen initially terms cut not to be appropriate.
4. What to do if none of the available structures is appropriate.
5. When to create and remember a new structure.

General-purpose method for solving all these problems. Some knowledge representation techniques
solve it of them. In this section we survey some solutions to two of these problems. Now to select an
initial structure to consider and how to find a better structure if one terms out not to be a good match.
1. Selecting an initial structure: Selecting candidate knowledge structures to match a particular problem-
solving situation is a hard problem. There are several ways in which it can be done. Their important
approaches are the following.

1. Index the structures directly by the significant English words that can be used to
describe them.
Disadvantages:
a. many words may have several different meanings.
Ex: I. john flew to newyork.
II. john flew the kite.
“flew” here had different meaning in two different contexts.

b. it is useful only when there is an English description of the problem.

2. Consider each major concept as a pointer to all of the structures in which it might be
involved.
Ex:
I. the concept steak might point to two scripts, one for restaurant and the
other for supermarket.

29
 II. The concept bill might point to as restaurant script or a shopping script.
We take the intersection of these sets get the, structure that involves all
the content words.

Disadvantages:
I. if the problem contains extraneous concepts then the intersection will result as
empty.
II.. It may require a great deal of computation to compute all the possible sets and
then to interest them.
3. Locate one major clue in the problem description and use if to select an initial
structure.
Disadvantages:
I. We can’t identify a major clue in some situation.
II. It is difficult to anticipate which clues are important and which are not.
2. Revising the choice when necessary: Depending on the representation we are using, the details of the
matching process will vary. If may require variables to be bound to objects. If may require attributes to
have their values. Compared in any case, if values that satisfy the required restrictions as imposed by the
knowledge structure can be found, they are put into the appropriate places in the structures. If no
appropriate structure can be found them a new structure must be selected. The way in which the attempt to
instantiated this first structure failed may provide useful can as to which one to try next if on the other hand,
appropriate values can be found, them the current structure can be taken to be appropriate for describing the
current situation.

FRAME PROBLEM

Frame problem is a problem of representing the facts that change as well as those that do not change.
For ex. Consider a table with plant on it under a window. Suppose we move it to the center of the room.
Here we must infer that plant is now in the center, but the window is not.
Frame axioms are used to describe all the things that do not change when an operator is applied in state to
goto another state say n+1.
Ex: colour(x,y,s1) ^move (x,s1,s2)  colour(x,y,s2)
This axiom says that an object x has a colour y in state 1. moving x from state 1 to state 2 will not change
the color of the object x.
once a change of state occurs how we undo the changes if we need to back track the two ways that
are provided are
I. Do not modify the initial state description. At each node, simply store an
indication of the specific change that should be made. In order to refer to
the current state, we start from the initial state and look back all the nodes
on the path from start state to current state.
II. Make the changes to the initial state as they occur but every node where a
change takes place, gives what to do to undo the move or change if we
need to back track.

Different kinds knowledge:

Simple relational knowledge.
Inheritable knowledge.
Inferential knowledge.
Procedural knowledge.
Epistemology.
Meta knowledge

30
 One can represent information about an object or an event by means of a database manipulated
about an object or an event by means of a database management system even though holds information,
do not hold the facility for representing and manipulating of facts like

All carnivorous have sharp teeth.

Cheetah is a carnivore.

Hence cheetah has sharp teeth from the first two statements, the last one can be informed. In a DBMS
until one specifies that cheetah has a sharp tooth. It is not possible to get this information.

Database Knowledge Base

1. Collection of data representing facts 1. Has information at higher level of

2. Large volume of data and facts change
over time
3. Operates on a single object
4. Updates are performed by clerical
personnel
5. Correctness of facts can be determined
by comparing the data value with real
world observations
6. All information needed to be explicitly
stated
7. Maintained for operational purpose
8. Represented by relational or network
hierarchical model
9. Predominant way of interaction is by
transaction programs and report
generators
Abstraction
2. Significantly smaller than
database and changes are gradual
3. Operates on a class of objects
rather than a single object
4. Updates are performed by domain
experts
5. Correctness in a sense is very
elusive
6. Has the power of inferencing
7. Used for data analysis and
planning
8. Knowledge representation is by
logic or rules or frames or
semantic rules.
9. Has to have a consultation with
the system and provide needed
data to obtain the solution

Different kinds of knowledge representations:

Declarative representation of knowledge: This controversy raged in 1970’s where in there was a heavy
debate on which type of representation should be used in AI programs.

A Declarative representation declares every piece of knowledge and permits the reasoning system to
use the rules of inference like modus ponens, modus tokens, etc., to come out with new piece of
information.

Ex: All Carnivorous have sharp teeth.

Cheetah is a carnivore.

This can be represented using a declarative representation as

∀ x (carnivore(x) sharp teeth(x))

Carnivore (cheetah)

31
Using these two representations, it is possible to deduce that “cheetah has sharp teeth”.

Advantages: 1. Declarative approaches are flexible.

2. Each piece of knowledge is an independent chunk on its own. Hence modularity is higher.
3. It is enough that you represent the knowledge only once.

For all x (carnivore (x)sharp teeth (x))

The variable x engulfs on wide variety of animals, which are carnivorous in nature.

Procedural representation of knowledge: This represents knowledge as procedures and the

inferencing mechanism manipulates these procedures to arrive at the result.

Procedure carnivore (x);

If (x = cheetah) then return true else return false
End procedure carnivore (x)

Procedure sharp_teeth (x);

If carnivore (x) then return true else return false
End procedure sharp_teeth (x)

Advantages: Procedural representations also have many advantages. First and foremost, heuristic
knowledge can be easily represented which is vital. Secondly, one has the control over search, which is
not available in declarative knowledge representation.

A knowledge representation scheme should have both procedural and declarative

schemes for effective organization of the knowledge base.

Knowledge may be declarative or procedural. Procedural knowledge is compiled knowledge

related to the performance of some task. For example, the steps used to solve and algebraic equation are
expressed as procedural knowledge. Declarative knowledge on the other hand is passive knowledge
expressed as statements of facts about the world. Personnel data in a database is typical of declarative
knowledge such data are explicit pieces of independent knowledge. We define knowledge as justified
belief.

Two other knowledge terms, which we shall use occasionally, is epistemology and meta
knowledge.

Epistemology is the study of the nature knowledge whereas meta knowledge is

knowledge that is what we know.
Different kinds of widely known knowledge representation:

1. Semantic Nets 2. Frames 3. Conceptual dependency 4. Scripts

Semantic Networks: Network representations provide a means of structuring and exhibiting the
structure in knowledge. In a network, pieces of knowledge are clustered together into coherent semantic
groups. Networks also provide a more natural way to map to and from natural language than do other
representation schemes. Network representation gives a pictorial presentation of objects, their attributes
and the relationships that exist between them and other entities. These are also known as associative
networks. Associative networks are directed graph with label nodes and arcs or arrows. A semantic
network or semantic net is a structure for representing knowledge as a pattern of interconnected nodes
and arcs. It is also defined as a graphical representation of knowledge. The knowledge used in

32
 constructing a network is based on selected domain primitives for objects and relations as well as some
general primitives.

Knowledge is defined as the piece of information that helps in decision-making.

Intelligence can be defined as the ability to draw useful inferences from the available
knowledge.
Wisdom is the maturity of the mind that directs its intelligence to achieve desired goals.

Knowledge Relation: Wisdom

Intelligence
ms sexists and that node have to center to all of them.

Individual or instance nodes explicitly state that they are specific instances of a generic node. HCL
Horizon-III is an individual node because it is a very specific instance of the mini-computer system.

Bharathiar
Line-printer Mini-computer HCL
University
system Horizon-III
Computer Center

30

Dumb-terminal
Hammer-bank

Bharathiar
University Y keyboard monitor
Coimbatore

1. Generic node to generic node

Is-a
Two-wheeler Moving-vehicle

2. Individual node to generic node

HCL Horizon III Is-a Mini-computer system

An is-a link is a special type of link because it provides facilities to link a generic node and a
generic node and individual node and a generic node.

Another major feature of the is-a link is that it generates hierarchical structure with the network.

33
 This is a link has another major property which is called inheritance. The property of inheritance is
that the properties, which a most a generic node possesses, are transmitted to various specific instances of
the generic node.

Reasoning using semantic networks: Reasoning using semantic networks is an easy task. All that has to be
done is to specify the start node. From the initial node, other nodes are pursued using the links until the
final node is reached. To answer the question “What is the speed of the line printer?” from the above figure.

The reasoning mechanism first finds the node of line printer. It identifies the arc that has the
characteristics speed since it points to the value 300, the answer is 30.

The ‘is a’ link structure can be easily represented using predicate logic. Road vehicle is a land
vehicle.

∀x: road-vehicle (x) land-vehicle (x)

1. Marcus is a man
Man (Marcus) (in predicate logic)

Marcus man (in semantic net)

Partitioned Semantic net: Suppose we want to represent simple quantified expressions in semantic nets.
One way to do this is to partition the semantic net into a hierarchical set of spaces, each of which
corresponds to the scope of one or more variables.

Ex:- The dog bit the mail carrier.

Dog Bite Mail-carrier

Isa isa isa
assailant victim

d b m

The nodes dog, bite and mail carrier represent the class of dog, biting and mail carriers respectively, while
the nodes d, b and m represent a particular biting and a particular mail carrier. This fact can be easily be
represented by a single net with no partitioning.
But now suppose that we want to represent the fact

Every dog has bitten a mail carrier.

SA
GS Dogs Bite Mail carrier

Isa isa isa

Assailant 34 victim
 g d b m

To represent this fact, it is necessary to encode the scope of the universally quantified x. The node g stands
for the assertion given above. Node g is an instance of the special class GS of general statement about the
world. Every element of GS has as least two attributes. A form, which states the relation that is being
asserted, and one or more ∀ connections, one for each of the universally quantified variables. There is only
one such variable d., which and stand for any element of the class dogs. The other two variables in the
form, b and m are under stood to be existentially quantified. In other words, for every dog d, there exists a
betting event b, and mail Carrie n, such that d is the assailant of b and m is the victim.

Every dog in town has bitten the constable

SA

Dogs Bite Constable

GS

Town-Dogs

Isa isa
g
C
d Assailant b victim

In this net, the node c representing the victim lies out side the form of the general statement. Thus it is not
viewed as an existentially quantified variable whose value may depend on the value of d, instead it is
interpreted as standing for a specific entity. (in this case, a particular constant), just as do other nodes in a
standard, non partitioned.

Every dog has bitten every mail carrier

SA
Dogs Bite Mail-carrier

isa isa isa

assailant victim
d b m

GS g

35
Would be represented. In this case, g has two ∀links, one pointing to d, which represents any dog, and one
pointing to m, representing any mail carrier.
An inclusion hierarchy relates the spaces of a partitioned semantic net to each other For example, in
above space SI is included in space SA. Whenever a search process operates in a partitioned semantic net,
it can explore nodes and arcs in the space from which it starts and in other spaces that contain the starting
point, but it cannot go downwards, except in special circumstances, such as when a form are is being
traversed. So, returning to above figure, from node d it can be determined that d must be a dog. But if we
were to start at the node dogs and search for all known instances of dogs by traversing is a links, we would
not find d since it and the link to it are in the space SI, Which is at a lower level than space SA, which
Contains Dog’s. This is important, since d does not stand for a particular dog; it is merely a variable that
can be instantiated with a value that represents a dog.

Example:
Every batter hit a ball. Forall x: Batter(x)  there exist:Ball(Y)and hit(x,y)

SA
GS Batter Hit Ball

Isa isa isa

g B H B
Assailant victim

All the batters like the pitcher. For all x: Batter(x)like(pitcher)

Batters Like Pitcher

GS

Isa isa
g
P
B Assailant L victim

36
Conceptual Graphs: A conceptual graph is a graphical portrayal of a mental perception, which consists of
basic of primitive concepts and relationships that exists between the concepts. A single conceptual graph is
roughly equivalent to a graphical diagram of a natural language sentence where the words are depicted as
concepts and relationships. Conceptual graphs may be regarded as formal building blocks for associative
networks which when linked together in a coherent way, from a more complex knowledge structure. A
concept may be individual or generic.

Ex : “Joe is eating soup with a spoon”

Joe and food(soup) are individual (objects)
Eat and spoon are generic

Joe agent object Food : soup

ea
t

Instrument

Spoon
Conceptual graphs offer the means to represent natural language statements accurately and to perform many
forms of inference found in common sense reasoning.

Frames : Frames were first introduced by Marvin Minsky (1975) and a data structure to represent a mental
model of a stereotypical situation such as driving a car, attending a meeting or eating in a restaurant.
Frames are general record like structures, which consist of a collection of slots and slot values. The
slots may be of any size and any type. Slots typically have names and any number of values.
A frame can be defined as a data structure that has slots for various objects and collection of frames
consists of expectations for a given situation.
A frame structure provides facilities for describing objects, facts about situations, procedures on
what to when a situation is encountered because of these facilities a frame provides, frames are used to
represent the two types of knowledge. Declarative/factual and procedural.
Ex :

Name : Computer Centre Name of the frame

Air-condition Stationary cupboard Slots in the frame

Computer Dumb-terminal

Printer Dumb-terminal

Declarative and Procedural frames: A frame that merely contains description about objects is called a
declarative type/factual/situational frame.

37
 Name :AC unit

Model
Capacity Name : Computer Center

Power cons Name: stationary

AC unit Stationary cupboard cupboard

Name: computer Computer Dumb terminal Length

Model Breadth
CPU Printer Dumb terminal

Memory Height

Name: printer Name: terminal

Model Monitor type

speed Keyboard type
Font quality

A part from the declarative part in a frame, it is also possible to attach slots, which explain
how to perform things. In other words it is possible to have procedural knowledge represented in a frame.
Such frames which have procedural knowledge embedded in it are called action procedure frames. The
action frame has the following slots.
1. Actor slot: which holds information about who is performing the activity.
2. Object slot : this frame information about the item to be operated on
3. Source slot: source slot holds information from where the action has to begin.
4. Destination slot: holds information about the place where action has to end.
5. Task slot: This generates the necessary sub-frames required to perform the operation.

Ex :

Name: cleaning the jet of carburetor

Expert: actor

Carburetor: Object

Scooter: source Scooter: destination

Remove carburetor: task1 Fix carburetor: task3

Clean nozzle: task2

38
 The generic frame merely describes that, the expert in order to clean the nozzle of the scooter has to
merely perform, the following operations:

Removing the carburetor from the scooter

Opening it up to expose all parts
Cleaning the nozzle
Refitting it in the scooter.
Here source and destination is scooter.

Reasoning using frames: The task of action frames is to provide facility for procedural attachment and help
transforming from initial to goal state. It also helps in breaking the entire problem in to sub-tasks, which
can be described as top-down methodology. It is possible for one to represent any tasks using these action
frames.

Reasoning using frames is done by instantiation. Instantiation process begins when the given
situation is batches with frames that already exist. The reasoning process tries to match the frame with the
situation and latter fills up slots for which values must be assigned. The values assigned to the slot depict a
particular situation and but this reasoning process tries to move from one frame to another to match the
current situation. This process builds up a wide network of frames, there by facilitating one to build a
knowledge base for representing knowledge about common sense.

Frame-based representation language:

Frame representations have become popular enough that special high level frame-based
representation language have been developed. Most of languages use LISP as the host language. They
typically have functions to create access, modify updates and display frames.

Implementation of frame structures: One way to implement frames is with property lists. An atom is used as
the frame name and slots are given as properties. Facets and values with in slots become lists of lists for the
slot property.

Putprop ‘train((type(value passenger))

(class(value first second sleeper))
(food(restaurant(value hot-meals))
(fast-food(value cold snacks)))’ land transport)

39
 Another way to implement frames is with an association list ( an-a-list), that is, a list of sub lists
where each sub list contains a key and one or more corresponding values. The same train frame would be
represented using an a-list as

(set Q train ‘((AKO land transport)

(type(value passenger))
(class(value first second sleeper))
(food(restaurant(value hot-meals))
(fast-food(value cold snacks)))

It is also possible to represent frame like structures using Object oriented programming extensions
to LISP languages such as Flavors.

Scripts: Scripts are another structures representation scheme introduced by “Roger Schank” (1977). They
are used to represent sequences of commonly accruing events. They were originally developed to capture
the meanings of stories or to understand natural language test.

A script is a predefined frame-like structure, which contains expectations, inferences and other
knowledge that is relevant to a stereotypical situation.

Frames represented a general knowledge representation structure, which can accommodate all kinds
of knowledge. Scripts on the other hand help exclusive in representing stereotype events that takes place in
day-to-day activity.

Some such events are

1. Going to hotel, eating something, paying the bill and exiting.

2. Going to theatre, getting a ticket, viewing the film and leaving.
3. Going to super market, with a list of items to be purchased, putting the items needed on a trolley,
paying for them.
4. Leaving home for office in a two-wheeler, parking the two-wheeler at the railway station, boarding
the train to the place of work and going to the place of work.
5. Going the bank for with drawl, filling the with drawl slip/check, presenting to the cashier, getting
the money and leaving the bank.

All the situations are stereotype in nature and specific properties of the restricted domain can be
exploited with special purpose structures.

A script is a knowledge representation structure that is extensively used for describing stereo
typed sequences of action. It is a special case of frame structure. These are interested for capturing
situations in which behavior is very stylized. Scripts tell people what can happen in a situation, what
events follow and what role every actor plays. It is possible to visualize the same and scripts present a
way of representing them effectively what a reasoning mechanism exactly understand what happens at
that situation.

Reasoning with Scripts: Reasoning in a script begins with the creation of a partially filled script named
to meet the current situation. Next a known script which matches the current situation is recalled from
memory. The script name, preconditions or other key words provide index values with which to search
for the appropriate script. An inference is accomplished by filling in slots with inherited and defaults
values that satisfy certain conditions.

Advantages:

40
1. Permits one to identify what scenes must have been proceed when an event takes place.
2. It is possible using scripts to describe each and every event to the minutest detail so that enough
light is thrown on implicitly mentioned events.
3. Scripts provide a natural way of providing a single interpretation from a variety of observations.
4. Scripts are used in natural language understanding system and serve their purpose effectively in
areas for which they are applied.

Disadvantages:

1. It is difficult to share knowledge across scripts what is happening in a script is true only for that
script.
2. Scripts are designed to represent knowledge in stereo type situations only and hence cannot be
generalized.

Important components:

1. Entry condition: Basic conditions that must be fulfilled. Here customer is hungry and has money to
pay for the eatables.
2. Result: Presents the situations, which describe what, happens after the script has occurred. Here, the
customer after satisfying his hungry is no hungrier. The amount of money he has is reduced and the
owner of the restaurant has now more money. Captional results can also be stated here like the
customer is pleased with the quality of food, quality of service etc., or can be displeased.
3. Properties: These indicate the objects that ate existing in the script. In a restaurant on has tables,
chairs, menu, food money, etc..
4. Roles: What various characters play is brought under the slot of roles. These characters are
implicitly involved but some of them play an explicit role. For example waiter and cashier play an
explicit role where the cook and owner are implicitly involved.
5. Track: Represents a specific instance of a Scenegeneric pattern. Restaurant
1: Entering the restaurant is a specific instance of a
hotel. Customer enter into the restaurant .
This slot permits one to inherit the characteristics ofCustomer
the generic node. restaurant
PTRANS
6. Scenes: Sequences of activities are describedCustomer
in detail.scans the tables.
Script: Going to a restaurant Customer ATTEND eyes to the tables
Ex1: Going to a restaurant
Entry Conditions: Customer is hungry Customer decides where to sit.
Customer has money Customer MBUILD to sit there
Owner has food Scene 2: Ordering the food
Ex 2 : Going
Props: Food,totables,
super menu,
marketmoney Customer
Sceneasks for menu.
1: Enter market Customer MTRANS for menu
Roles: 1.Explicit: customer,
Script: Going to a super market waiter, Waiter Shopper
brings it.Ptrans
WaiterintoPTRANS
marketthe menu
Track: Super market cashier Customer decides choice
Shopper Ptrans shopping of food.cart to shopper
2.Implicit:Owner,Coocker
Roles: Implicit Roles: Owner of supermarket.Customer SceneMBUILD
2: Shop for choice
itemsof food
Track: Restaurant Producer of items. Customer orders that food. Customer
Shopper MOVES shopper MTRANS that food.
through aisles
Results:Explicit
Customer is not hungry
Roles: Shopper,attendants, Scene 3: Eating the food
Shopper ATTENDS eyes to display items
Owner has more money
Clerks, cashier. Cook gave food to waiter.
Shopper PtransCook ATRANS
items food cart
to shoppers’ to waiter.
Customer has less money
Entry Conditions : Shopper needs groceries Waiter gave the food
Scene 3 : Check out to customer.
Owner
food market open has less food. Waiter ATRANS ShopperfoodMOVES
to customer.
to check out stand
Prop : Shopping cart, display aisles, Customer eats the food
Shopper ATTENDSwith a spoon.
eyes to charges
market items, checkout stands, cashier, money Customer INGESTS
Shopper Atrans moneya to
the food with spoon.
cashier
Results : Shopper has less money Scene 4: Paying the bill
Sacker Atrans bags to shopper
Shopper has grocery items Customer
Sceneasks for bill.
4 : Exit Customer MTRANS for bill.
market
Market has less grocery items Waiter brings it. Waiter
Shopper Ptrans PTRANS it. to exit to market
shopper
Market has more money Customer gave a check to waiter.
Customer ATRANS a check to waiter.
Waiter brings the balance amount.
41
Waiter PTRANS the balance amount.
Customer gave tip to waiter. Customer ATRANS to him
Customer moves out. Customer PTRANS out .
Conceptual Dependency (CD): Conceptual dependency is a theory of how to represent the kind of
knowledge about events that is usually contained in natural sentences. The goal is to represent the
knowledge in a way that

 Facilitates drawing interference from the sentences.

 Is independent of the language in which the sentences were originally stated.

The theory was first described in Schank 1973 and was further developed in Schank 1975. It has been
implemented in a variety of programs that read and understand natural language text. Unlike semantic
nets provide only a structure in to which nodes representing information at any level can be placed.
Conceptual dependency provides both structure and a specific set of primitives, at a particular level of
granularity out of which representations of particular pieces of information can be constructed.

Conceptual dependency (CD) is a theory of natural language processing which mainly deals
with representation of semantics of a language. The main motivation for the development of CD as a
knowledge representation techniques are given below.

To construct computer programs that can understand natural language.

To make inferences from the statements and also to identify conditions in which two sentences can
have similar meaning.
To provide facilities for the system to take part in dialogues and answer questions.
To provide a necessary plank that sentences in one language can be easily translated into other
languages.
To provide means of representation which are language dependent.

Knowledge is represented in CD by elements what are called as conceptual structures.

Apart from the primitive CD actions one has to make use of the six following categories of objects

1. PP’s (Picture producers) : Only physical objects are physical procedures.

2. Acts : Actions are done by an actor to an object.

STRICTILY AS PER ANDHRA UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS

a. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

b. For

M.C.A 2nd Year 1st Semester

AND
1. M.Sc 1st Year 2nd Semester

42
LOGIC

Logic can be defined as a scientific study of the process of reasoning and the system of rules and
procedures that help in the reasoning process.

Basically, the logic process takes in some information (called premises) and produces some outputs
(called Conclusions).

Logic is basically classified into two categories.

1. Propositional logic 2. Predicate logic

Propositional logic: This is the simplest form of logic. Here all statements made are called propositions. A
proposition in propositional logic takes only two values, i.e. either the proposition is True or it is False.

Ex : Rubber is a good conductor of electricity. (False)

Diamond is a hard material. (True)

There are two kinds of propositions. They are atomic propositions (also called simple propositions)
and molecule propositions (also called compound propositions).

Combining one or more atomic propositions using a set of logical connective forms molecular
propositions.

Ex : “Baskar is a golfer” is an atomic proposition.

“Baskar is a golfer and Ravi is not a doctor” is a molecular proposition because it is formed from
two atomic propositions connected by the logical connectives AND and NOT.

Molecular propositions are much more useful than atomic propositions because real world problems
involve more of molecular propositions.

Syntax of propositional logic :

1. ~A (Negation of A)
2. A & B (Conjunction of A with B)
3. A v B (Inclusive disjunction of A with B)
4. A B (A implies B)
5. A B (Material bi-conditional of A with B)
6. A B (Exclusive disjunction of A with B)
7. A B (Joint denial of A with B)
8. A B (Disjoint denial of A with B)

Semantics of logical propositions: A clear meaning of the logical propositions can be arrived at by
constructing appropriate truth tables for the molecular propositions.

Truth table :

43
 A B ~A ~B AvB A&B AB A B A+B A|B A B

T T F F T T T T F F F
F T T F T F T F T T F
T F F T T F F F T T F
F F T T F F T T F T T

Logical equivalences :

1. A ~~A, A&A
2. A&B B&A
3. AvB BvA
4. (A&(B&C)) ((A&B)&C)
5. (Av(BvC)) ((AvB)vC)
6. (A&(BvC)) ((A&B)v(A&C))
7. (Av(B&C)) ((AvB)&(AvC))
8. ~(A&B) ~Av ~B
9. ~(AvB) ~A& ~B
10. AB ~AvB, ~(A& ~B), (~B ~A)
11. A(BC) ((AB)C)
12. A B (A&B)v(~A& ~B), (AB)&(BA)

Tautologies: Propositions that are true for all possible combinations of truth values of their atomic parts are
called tautologies. This implies that a tautology is always true.
Ex : ((A&(AB))B) is a tautology.

A B AB A&(AB) (A&(AB))B

T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F F F T

Contradiction: Whenever the truth value of a sentence is always false for all combinations of its constituents,
then the sentence is called contradiction. Ex : A & ~A.

Contingent: A statement is called a contingent if its truth table has both true and fales as its output. Ex : A
B.

Normal forms in prepositional logic: There are two major Normal forms of statements in prepositional logic.
They are Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) and Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF).

Ex: "all employees of the AI software co. are programmers " might be written in FOPL as
For all x(AI ,software -co-employee cx)->programmer(x))
Ai software-co-employee (jm)
Programmer (jim) 1.all students in computer science must take pascal.
2.john is a computer science major.

44
Propositional logic works fine in situations where the result is either true or false but not both .however
there are many real life situations that cannot be treated this way. in order to over come this deficiency, first
order logic or predicate logic uses three additional notions .These are predicates ,terms and quantifiers.
Predicates: a predicate is defined as a relation that binds 2 atoms together.

Ex: Bhaskar likes Aero planes is represented as

Likes (baskar, aero planes)
Here likes is a predicate that likes 2 atoms "baskar" and aero planes.

The symbols and rules of combination of a predicate logic are:

(1). Predicate symbol : Rama loves sita Love(Rama,Sita) Here love is a predicate symbol.
(2). Constant symbol : Here constant symbols are Ram,Sita
(3). Variable symbol : X loves Y Here X&Y are variable symbols.
(4). Function symbol : These symbols are used to represent special type of relation ship or mapping.
It is also possible to have a function as an arguement.
Ravi's father is rani's mother is represented as father (father(ravi),rani)
Here rani is a predicate and father ravi is a function.
Constant,variables and functions are referred to as terms and predicates and reffered to as atomic formulas.
The statements in predicate logic are termed as well formed formulas i.e WFFs. A predicate with no
variable is called a ground atom.
Connectives : The formula in predicate calculus can be combined to form more complex formula using
several connectives. OR connective( V), AND connective ( ^), Implies connective ( ) Negation
connective(¬).

Quantifiers: a quantifier is a symbol that permits one to declare or identify the range or scope of the
variables in a logical expression.
There are 2 basic quantifiers used in logic. they are universal quantifiers (for all) and existential quantifier.
If a is variable then for all a is read as 1. for all a 2.for each a 3.for every a
Similarly if a is a variable then there exists a is read as 1.there exists a 2. for some 3. for every a

Variables:
Free and bound variables: a variable in a formula is free if and only if the occurrence is outside the scope of
a quantifier having the variable.
A variable is also free in a formula if at least one occurrence of it is free.
For all x there exists y (A(x, y,z)) and for all z (B(y, z))--------(1)
In this formula, the variable z is free in the first portion for all x there exists y (A(x, y, z))
A variable is a formula is bound if and only if its occurrence is with in the scope of the quantifier .a variable
is also bound in situations where at least one occurrence of it is bound.
Ex: for all x (A(x)->B(x))
In this formula, the quantifier for all applies over the entire formula.
(A(x)->B(x)) then the scope of the quantifier is A(x)->B(x)
any change in the quantifier has an effect on both A(x) and B(X).
hence the variable x is bound .
Normal forms in predicate logic: in predicate logic, one normal form is there .i.e called prefix normal form .
a formula A in predicate logic is said to be in prefix normal form if it has the form
(Q1, x1)(Q2,,x2)……….(Qn, xn)B
Where Qixi is either a for all or there exists and B is formula without any quantifier.
Convert the formula for all x(A(x)->there exists y(B(x, y)) in to prefix normal form
Sol: for all x(A(x)->there exists y B(x,y))

=for all x (~A(x)or there exist y ((B(x,y))

45
=for all x there exists y (~(A(x)orB(x,y))->PNF.

Syntax for FOPL:

Connectives: there are 5 connective symbols .~, &, or, -> ,<->.

Quantifiers: there are 2 quantifier symbols .for all ,there exists.

Constants: constants are fixed value term that belong to a given domain of discourse.

Variables: variables are terms that can assume different values over a given domain.

Functions: function symbols denote relations defined on domains.

Predicates: predicate symbol denotes relations or functional mappings from the elements of a domain D to
the values true or false.
Capital letters and capitalized words are used to represent the predicates.
Constants, variables and functions are referred to as terms and predicates are referred to as atomic formulas
or atoms.
Symbols left and right parenthesis, square brackets braces and the periods are used for punctuation in
symbolic expressions.
Ex:1. all employees earning $1400 or more per year pay taxes .

For all x(E(x)& GE(i(x),1400))->T(x))

2.some employees are sick today. There exists (E(y)->delta(y)).

Semantics for FOPL:

WFF(Well Formed Formulas): A language such as predicate calculus is defined by its syntax. To specify
a syntax we must specify the alphabet of the symbols to be used in the language of how these symbols are
put together to form legitimate(valid) expression in the language. The legitimate expression of the
predicate calculus are called WFF.
Properties of WFF: (1).Equivalence: Not(Not X) is equivalent X.
(2). Demorgans theorem: Not(x & y) = notx Vnot y.
(3). Distributive property:
(4). Commulative property:
(5). Associative property.
(6). Constrapositive: xy =not xnot y.

Clause form: A clause is defined as a WFF consisting of a disjunction of literals. The resolution process
when it is applicable is applied to pair of parents and producer a new clause.

Conversion to clasual form: one method we shall examine is called resolution of requires that all
statements to be converted into a normalized clasual form .we define a clause as the disjunction of a
number of literal. A ground clause is one in which no variables occur in the expression .A horn clause is a
clause with at most one positive literal.
To transform a sentence into clasual form requires the following steps:
1. Eliminate all implication and equivalence symbols.
2. Move negation symbols into individual atoms.
3. Rename variables if necessary so that all remaining quantifiers have different variable assignments.
4. Replace existentially quantified variables with special functions and eliminates the corresponding
quantifiers.

46
5. Drop all universal quantifiers and put the remaining expression info CNF(disjunctions are moved down
to literals).
6. Drop all conjunction symbols writing each clause previously converted by the conjunction on a separate
line.
We describe the process of eliminating the existential quantifiers thru a substitution process. This process
requires that all such variables are replaced by something called skolem functions, arbitrary functions
which can always assume a correct value required of an existentially quantified variable.

Example in prepositional logic:∃ u :∀ v: ∀ x :∃ y: p (f(u), v, x, y)->Q(u, v, y)

The skolem form is ∀ v :∀x: p(f(q),v, x, g(v, x))->Q(a ,v, g(v, x))

Convert expression into clasual form

∃ x: ∀ y (∀z p(f(x),y, z)→(∃ u Q(x, u)& ∃ v (R(y, v))

We have after application of step 1

∃ x: ∀ y (¬∀ z p(f(x),y,z)or ∃ uQ(x, u)&( ∃y R(y, u)))

After application of step2 we obtain

∃ x ∀ y (∃ z ¬p(f(z),y, z)or(∃ u Q(x, )&( ∃ v)R(y, v)))

After application of step 4 (step 3 is not required)

∀ y (¬p(f(a),y, g(y)or (Q(a, h(y &R(y,1(y)))

After application of step 5 the result is

∀ y: ((¬p (f(a),y, g(y)or Q(a, h(y))&( ¬p(f(a),y, g(y) or R(y,1(y))

Finally , after application of step 6 we obtain the clasual form

¬p(f(a),y, g(y) or (Q(a, h(y))

¬p(f(a),y, g(y) or R(y,1(y))

Example in Predicate logic: Suppose we know that “all Romans who know marcus either hate Caesar or
think that any one who hates any one is crazy”.

∀x: [Roman (x)∧know(x,marcus)] → [hate(x,Caesar) ∨ (∀y: ∃z:hate(y,z) →thinkcrazy(x,y))]

1. Eliminate implies symbol using the fact that a → b = ¬a∨b.

47
∀x: ¬ [Roman (x)∧know(x,marcus)] ∨ [hate(x,Caesar) ∨ (∀y: ¬( ∃z:hate(y,z) ∨ thinkcrazy(x,y))]

2. Reduce the scope of each ¬ to a single term.

∀x: [¬ Roman (x) ∨ ¬know(x,marcus)] ∨ [hate(x,Caesar) ∨ (∀y: ∀z: ¬hate(y,z) ∨ thinkcrazy(x,y))]

∴¬(a ∧b) =¬a∨ ¬ b. ¬∃x:p(x) = ∀x: ¬ p(x) .

3. Standardize variables so that each quantifier binds a unique variable. Since variables are just dummy
names, this process cannot affect the truth value of the wff.

∀x:P(x) ∨ ∀x:Q(x) = ∀x:P(x) ∨ ∀y:Q(y)

4. Move all quantifiers to the left of the formula with out changing their relative order.

∀x: ∀y: ∀z: [¬ Roman (x) ∨¬know(x,marcus)] ∨ [hate(x,Caesar) ∨ ¬hate(y,z) ∨ thinkcrazy(x,y))]

5. Eliminate existential quantifiers.

In our example, there are no existential quantifiers at step 4. There is no need to eliminate that
quantifiers. If that quantifiers occurs then use skolem functions to eliminate that quantifiers.

6. Drop the prefix.

From (4).
[¬ Roman (x) ∨¬know(x,marcus)] ∨ [hate(x,Caesar) ∨ ¬hate(y,z) ∨ thinkcrazy(x,y))]

7. Convert the matrix into a conjunction of disjuncts. In our problem that are no (ands) disjuncts. So use
associative property.

(a∨b) ∨c = a∨(b ∨c).

¬ Roman (x) ∨¬know(x,marcus) ∨ hate(x,Caesar) ∨ ¬hate(y,z) ∨ thinkcrazy(x,y).

Unification: Unification is a procedure that compares two literals & discovers whether there exists a set of
substitutions that makes them identified.
Any substitution that makes 2 or more expressions equal is called a unifier for the expressions.
applying a substitution to an expression E produces an instance E' of E where E'=E. given 2 expressions are
unifiable, such as expressions c1,c2 with a unifier B with C1B=C2,we say that B is most general unifier
(mgu) if any other unifier & is an existence of B. for ex: 2 unifiers for the literals p(u, b, v) and p(a, x y)
are & ={a/u, b/x, c/y} and B={a/u, b/x, c/v, c/y}.
Unification can sometimes be applied to literals with in the same single clause. When an mgu exists such
that 2 or more literals with in a clause are unified, the clause remaining after deletion of all but one of the
unified literals is called a factor of the original clause.
The basic idea of unification is very simple. to attempt to unify 2 literals, we first check if their initial
predicate symbols are the same, if so we can proceed otherwise there is no way they can be unified,
regardless of their arguments.
Unification has deep mathematical roots and is a useful in many AI programs. for ex: theorem proving and
natural language parser.
Algorithm:
1.If l1, l2 are both variables or constants then

48
 a) If l1, l2 are identical then return NIL.
b) Else if l1 is a variable the if l1 occurs in l2 then return {fail} , else return (l2/l1}
c) Else if l2 is a variable then if l2 occurs in l1 then return {fail} ,else return (l1/l2}.
d) Else return {fail}.
2. If the initial predicate symbols in l1, l2 are not identical then return {fail}.
3. If l1 , l2 have a different no. of arguments then return {fail}
4. Set subset to Nil (At the end of this procedure, subset will contain all the substitutions use to unify l1 , l2.
5. For i<-1 to no. of arguments in l1.
a) Call unify with the I th argument of l1 and the I th argument of l2 putting result in s.
b) If s contains fail then return {fail}.
c) If s is not equal to nil then
1.Apply s to the remainder of both l1, l2
2. Subset = append (s, subset).
3. Return subset.

Resolution: Robinson in 1965 introduced the resolution principle, which can be directly applied to any set
of clauses.The principle is " Given any two clauses A, B if there is a literal p1 in A which has a
complementing literal p2 in B, delete p1 ,p2 from A,B and strut a disjunction of the remaining clauses .the
clause so constructed is called the resolvent of A,B .

Resolution in propositional logic:

EX: A: P V Q V R , B:~P V Q V R C: ~Q V R
P V Q VR ~P V Q V R

QVR ~Q V R

R
EX:2 A: P V Q V R B:~P V R ; C:~Q D: ~R
X = Q V R Resolvent of A &B .
Y=R Resolvent of X &C.
Z = Nil Resolvent of Y & D.
The resolution procedure is a simple iterative process. At each step two clauses, called the parent clause are
compared (resolved) yielding a new clause that has been inferred from them. The new clause represents
ways that the 2 parent’s clauses interact with each other.
Resolution work on the principle of identity complementary literals in 2 clauses and deleting them there by
forming a new literal . the process is simple and straight forward when one has identical literals . In other
words for clauses containing no variables resolution is easy. When there are variables the problem becomes
complicated and the necessities one to make proper substitutions.
There are 3 major types of substitutions
1. Substitution of a variable by a constant.
2. Substitution of a variable by another variable.
3. Substitution of a variable by a function that does not contain the same variable.
Algorithm: 1. Convert all the statements of F to clause form.
2. Negate P and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of clauses obtained in 1.
3. Repeat until either a contradiction is found, no progress can be made, or a predetermined
amount
of effort has been expended.
a) Select 2 clauses. call these the parent clauses.
b) Resolve them together. The resolving will be the disjunction of all the literals of both parent
clauses with appropriate substitution performed & with the following exception. If there is 1 pair of literals
T1,T2 such that one of the parent clause contains T1 and the other contains T2 and if T1,T2 are unifiable

49
then neither T1,T2 should appear in the resolving. We call T1,T2 complementary literals.use the
substitution produced by the unification top create the resolving if there is more than 1 pair of
complementary literals, only pair should be omitted from the resolvent.
c) if the resolvent is the empty clause , then a contradiction has been found. if it is not, then add it to the set
of clauses available to the procedure .

Resolution in predicate calculus:

Theorem proving using resolution.

There are two basic methods of theorem proving.
Method1: Start with the given axioms, use the rules of inference and prove the theorem.
Method2: Prove that the negation of the result cannot be true.
The second method is commonly known as theorem proving using refutation. The methodology for that is
Step1. Find the negation of the result to be proved.
Step2. Add it as a valid statement to the given set of statements.
Step3. Perform resolution on these statements until a contradiction is encountered.
Step4. Conclude that the contradiction is due to the assumed negation of the result.
Step5. So the negated assumption that is false or the result to be proved is true.
The following simple example will show how these two methods help in theorem proving.
Example:
Given that a) ∀x [Physician (x)- known-surgery (x)]
b) Physician (Bhaskar)
Prove that knows- surgery (Bhaskar)
Proof Using method 1:
Modus ponens states that if there is an axiom of the form PQ and another of the form P, and Q
logically follows. Assuming Physician (Bhaskar) as P and [physician (x) knows-surgery (x)] as Q the
result knows-surgery (bhaskar) logically follows.

Proof Using Method2:

Assume the negation of the result
¬ Knows-surgery (Bhaskar) ………(1)
The given axioms are
Physician (Bhaskar) ……(2)
∀x [Physician (x)  knows-surgery(x)] ……………. (3)

Equation 3 can be written as

¬ Physician (x) V knowns-surgery (x) (4)
(the quantifier is universal. If it had been existential, the skolem function has to be used.)
In Eq(4), substitute x= Bhaskar. So we have
¬ Physician (Bhaskar) V knows-surgery (Bhaskar) (5)
Resolving Eq (1) and (5) , we have
¬ Physician (Bhaskar) (6)
Resolving Eq(2) and (6) we have a contradiction.

This contradiction was due to the assumption that was made. i.e the negation of the result . Hence the
negation of the result is false or the result is true.
marcus is died.
Ex2: 1. Steve only likes easy courses.
∀x: easycourse(x)likes(x,Steve)
2. Science courses are hard.

50
 Hard(science courses)
3. All the courses in the basketweaving department are easy.
∀x: basketweaving dept(x) → easy(x).
4. BK301 is a basket weaving course.
Basketweaving course(Bk301).
From(1) ∀x: ¬easycourse(x) V likes(x,steve) ---------(5).
From (3) ∀x: ¬basketweaving dept(x) V easy(x). ---------(6).
Resolvent from (5) and (6) ¬basketweaving dept(x) V likes(x,steve)-------(7).
Resolvent from (4) and (7) likes(Bk301,steve) x/Bk301.
∴Steve would like Bk301.
Refutation Method: Assume steve does not Bk301
¬ likes(x,steve)
5
¬easycourse(x)
6

¬basketweaving dept(x)
4
Nil

So our assumption is wrong

So Steve likes Bk301.
Exampe3: John likes all kinds of food…………..∀x: food(x)likes(x,John)………(1)
Apples are food……………………………………. Food(apples)
Chicken is food……………………………………. Food(chicken)
Anything any one eats and is not killed by is food… ∀x: ∀y: [person(y)^ eats(y,x)^ ~killed(y)]  food(x)
..(2)
Bill eats peanuts and is still alive…………………..eats(peanuts,bill)^ ~killed(bill)………(3)
Eats(x,bill)person(bill)
Sue eats everything that bill eats…………………∀x: eats(x,bill) eats(x,sue) ….(4)

From (1)……~food(x)Vlikes(x,john)…………..(5)
From (2)….~[ person(y)^ eats(y,x)^ ~killed(y)] V food(x)……..(6)
From(3) ….~eats(peanuts,bill)V person(x)
From (4) …..~eats(x,bill)v eat(x,sue)

Resolvent(5) and (6) likes(x,steve)V ~ person(y) V~eats(x,y) V killed(y)…..(7)

Here we substitute x= peanuts and y = Bill.
Resolvent (3) and (7) likes(peanuts,john) V ~ person(Bill)
From stmt 5 person(bill)…………………………………………………………..(8)
Resolvent from (7) and (8) likes(peanuts , John)
So John likes peanuts.
Refutation Method:
Assume John does not likes peanuts.
~likes(peanuts,john)
5
~food(x)
6

51
 ~person(y) V ~eats(peanuts ,y) V killed(y)
3

~person(bill)
8
Nil
Note: Additional knowledge that Bill is a person. We can justify the knowledge because Bill eats peanuts
&still alive.
So Bill is a person.

So our assumption is wrong.

So John likes peanuts.

Several types of resolution are depending on the number and types of parents. Some of them.
Binary resolution: 2 clauses having complementary literals are combined as disjunct to produce a single a
clause after deleting the complementary literals.
~p(x,a) or q(x) and ~q(b) or r (x)
~p(b,a) or r (b)
Unit resulting resolution: a number of clauses are resolved simultaneously to produce a unit clause. All
except one of the clauses are unit clauses and that one clause has exactly one more literal than the number
of unit clause.
Linear resolution : when each resolved clause ci is a parent to the clause ci+1 (i=1,2,…n-1) the process is
called linear resolution.
Linear in resolution: if one of the parents in a linear resolution is always from the original set of clauses
(the Bi) we have linear resolution .

Limitation of logic as acknowledge representation scheme:

1.logic and theorem proving techniques are monotonic in nature. The derived axioms hold good under all
circumstances. Real world is never monotonic for information obtained is seldom complete.
2.logic does not provide facilities for handling uncertainty. Every information it deals has to either correct
or incorrect but never partially.
3.codificaiton of the problem in logic is a tough task and requires considerable effort on the part of the user.
4.even though various techniques do exist for speeding resolution, it takes considerable amount of time to
prove statements in logic.
5.one major constraint in logic is that unless you are sure that a solution exists, the search will not terminate
.we will be going on adding clause after but the solution will be still elusive.

Forward versus Backward Reasoning:

The object of a search procedure is to discover a path through a problem space from an initial
configuration to a goal state. There are actually two directions in which such a search could
proceed.

Forward, from the start states

Backward, from the goal states.

The production system model of the search process provides an easy way of
viewing forward and backward reasoning as systematic processes.

52
Forward reasoning from initial states:
1. Root: A tree of move sequences, that might be solutions, is built by starting with
the initial configuration at the root of the tree.
2. Generate of the next level: The next level of the tree is generated by building a tree
by finding all the rules whose left sides are matched against the current state(root
node) and the right sides are to generate new nodes by creating new configuration.
Generate next level by taking each node generated at the previous level and
continue the above reasoning forward till a configuration matches the goal state.
Back ward reasoning from the goal states:
1. Root: A tree of move sequences, that might be solutions, is built by starting with
the goal configuration at the root of the tree.
2. Generate the next level: The next level of the tree is generated by finding all the
rules
whose right sides match the root node. The left sides are used to use to generate
the new nodes, representing new goal states to achieve. Generate the next level of
the tree by taking each node at the previous level and continuing the above
reasoning until a node that matches the initial state is generated. It is often called
goal-directed reasoning.

It does not make much difference whether we reason forward or

backward, about the same number of paths will be explored in either case. But this is not
always true. Depending on the topology of the problem space, if may be significantly
more efficient to search in one direction rather than the other.
Four factors influence the question of whether it is better to reason forward or backward.

(1) Are there more possible start states or goal states?

Count the number of start states of goal states. Move from the smaller set of states to
larger set of states.
(2) In which direction is the branching factor greater?
Find the direction in which the branching facto is low and proceed in that direction.
(3) Will the program be asked to justify its reasoning process to a user?
If the program is asked to justify its reasoning process then proceed in the direction
that corresponds more closely with the way the user think.
(4) If it is the arrival of a new fact, forward reasoning make sense. If it is a
Query to which a response is desired, backward reasoning is more natural.
Example:
1. To solve the problem of symbolic integration, it is better to reason forward.
2. For the problem of proving theorems, is would be much better to reason backward.

Principle:

Forward rules, which encode knowledge about how to respond to certain input
configurations.

Backward rules, which encode knowledge about how to achieve particular goals.

Forward and backward chaining rule systems:

Forward-chaining rule system:

1. Instead of starting from the goal state, we start the search by incoming data.
2. In this, left sides of rules are matched against the state description.

53
 3. If they match, we apply if and a new state generated will be represented at the right
side.
This process repeats until the goal state is reached.
4. Matching is more complex than backward ones.

Backward-chaining rule system:

1. In this, we start the search from the goal state as an initial state and make a move to
the state we want.
2. The number of state computed to generate are said to be chain of links.
3. If one state, in the path is removed the entire path will be collapsed.

PROLOG is an example of backward – chaining system.

We can also search both forward from the start state and backward from the goal
simultaneously until two paths meet some where in between. This strategy is called bi-
directional search. It seems appealing if the number of nodes at each step grows
exponentially with the number of steps that have been taken. In fact, many successful AI
applications have been written using a combination of forward and backward reasoning
and most AI programming environments provide explicit support for such hybride
reasoning.

Non-Monotonic Reasoning Systems

Monotonic NonMonotonic
1. It is complete with respect to It is incomplete.
the domain of interest.

2. It is consistent. It is not consistent.

3. New facts can be added only when New facts will contradict and invalidate
they are consistent with the facts the old knowledge
that have already been as sorted.

A monotonic reasoning system cannot work effectively in real life environments because
Information available is always incomplete.
As process goes by situation change and so are the solutions. Default assumptions are made in order to
reduce the search time and for quick arrival of solutions.

Basic concepts of non-monotonic reasoning systems:

AI systems provide solutions for those problems whose facts and rules of inference are explicitly stored in
the database and knowledge base. But as mentioned above the data and knowledge are incomplete in nature
and generally default assumptions are made.
Non-monotonic reasoning systems are more complex then monotonic reasoning systems. Monotonic
reasoning systems generally do not provide facilities for altering facts, deleting rules it will have an adverse
effect on the reasoning process.
One of major systems that has been implemented using non-monotonic reasoning system with dependency.
Directed back tracking is the Truth maintenance system of Doyle.
Dependency -directed back tracking helps to great deal in nom monotonic reasoning systems. A monotonic
system evades contradictions .a contradiction occurs when the system finds that the new state discovered is
inconsistent with the existing ones.

54
TMS: TMS also known as belief revision and revision maintenance are companion components to
inference systems. The main job of the TMS is to maintain consistency of the knowledge being used by the
problem solves and not to perform any inference functions. The TMS also gives the inference component
the latitude to perform non-monotonic inferences. When new discovers are made, this more recent
information can displace previous conclusions that are no longer valid .in this way the set of beliefs
available to the problem solver will continue to be current and consistent.
Diagram:

Inference Engine Tell TMS

Ask

Knowledge

Architecture of the problem solver with a TMS

The role played by the TMS a part of the problem solver. the inference engine solves domain problems
based on its current belief set, while the TMS maintains the currently active belief set .the updating process
is incremented .after each inference ,information is exchanged between the 2 components .the IE tells the
TMS what the deductions has made. The TMS in turn, asks questions about current beliefs and reasons for
failures. It maintains a consistent set of beliefs for the I.e. to work with even if now knowledge is added &
removed.
The TMS maintains complete records of reasons of justifications for beliefs. Each proposition having at
least 1 valid justification is made a part of current belief set. Statements lacking acceptable justifications are
excluded from this set. When a contradiction is discovered the statements responsible for the contradiction
are identified & an appropriate one is retracted. This in turn may result in other retractions & additions. The
procedure used tp perform this process is called dependency back tracking.
The TMS maintains records to reflect retractions and additions & that will always know its current belief
set. The records are maintained in the form of dependency network. The node in the network represents KB
entries such as premises, conclusions, inference rules and the like. Attached to the nodes are justifications,
which represent steps from which the node was derived. Nodes in the belief set must have valid
justifications. a premise is a fundamental belief which is assumed to be always true. Premises need no
justifications. They form a base from which all other currently active nodes can be explained in terms of
valid justifications.

Premises Assumptions Datum Justification

There are 2 types of justifications records maintained for nodes. Support lists (SL) and conceptual
dependencies. SL’s are the most common type. They provide the supporting justifications for nodes. The
data structure used for the SL contains 2 lists of other dependent node names on in list and an out list.
(SL <inlist><out list>)
CP justifications are used less frequently than the SLS. They justify a node as a type of valid hypothetical
argument.
(CP<consequent><in hypothesis><out hypothesis>)

55
Example for truth maintenance system.

TMS maintains the consistency of the knowledge being used by the problem solves.
It maintains the currently active belief set.
It maintains the records of reasons of justification for beliefs.
Records are maintained in the form of dependency network.

Example: ABC murder story.

Initially Abbot is believed to be the primary suspect the reason is non-monotonic. The three
assertions believed initially are.
 Suspect Abbot (Abbot is the primary suspect)
 Beneficiary Abbot (Abbot is a beneficiary of the victim)
 Alibi Abbot (abbot was at on Albony hotel at that time.)

Representation in TMS:
A TMS dependency network offer a purely syntactic,domain-independent way to represent belief
and change it consistently.

Suspect Abbot [IN] ] supported belief

Justification

Beneficiary Abbot Alibi Abbot

Justification:

1. The assertion ”Suspect Abbot” has an associated TMS justification. An arrow to the assertion it
supports connects the justification.
2. Assertions in a TMS dependency network are believed when they have a valid justification.
3. Each justification has two parts:
a. An IN-list [connected to justification by ‘+’]
b. An OUT-list [connected to justification by ‘-‘]
2. If the assertion corresponding to the node should be believed, then in the TMS it is labeled IN.
3. If there is no reason to believe the assertion, then it is labeled OUT.

Premise Justification: Premise justifications are always considered to valid. Premises need no
justifications.

Labeling task of a TMS: The labeling task of a TMS is to label each node so that three major criteria of
dependency network are met.
1. Consistency
2. Well-founded-ness
3. Resolving contradictions.

Ex .1: Consistency criterions:

The following two cases show how consistency is maintained while changing Abbot’s state.

Case(i). Abbot is beneficiary. We have no further justification for this fact. We simply accept it.
The following figure shows a consistent labeling for the network with premise justification.

56
 Suspect Abbot[IN]

+ _

Beneficiary Alibi Abbot[Out]

Abbot[IN] Empty IN and OUT lists

Labeled nodes with premise Justification.

Case (ii): If abbots alibi is obtained, then some more justifications are added. Then consistency is
maintained in the following ways, by making the following inclusions.

Abbott was registered is a hotel Premise justification So IN

Hotel is far away Premise justification. SO IN
Register might be forged Lacks any justification. SO OUT
Above 3, shows that “Suspect about” no longer has a justification SO OUT

Suspect Abbot[OUT]

+ _

Beneficiary Alibi Abbot[IN]

Abbot[IN]

Registered Abbot[in] Far away[in] Register forged[OUT]

Charged labeling

Well-Founded ness criterion: (1) It is defined as the proper grounding of a chain of justifications on
a set of nodes that do not themselves depend on the nodes they support.

(2) For example : Cabot justification for his alibi that he was at a ski show is hardly valid.

The only support for the alibi of attending the ski show is that Cabot is telling the truth.---------(1)
The only support for his telling the truth, would be if we knew he was at the ski show.----------(2)

Above (1) and (2) statements show a chain of IN- List links to support the “Alibi Cabot “ Node.
So, In such cases the node should be labeled Out for well-founded ness.

Suspect Cabot [IN]

57
 +

Beneficiary Cabot [IN] Alibi Cabot [OUT] +

+ TellsTruthCabot [OUT]

Cabot Justification --- Well Founded ness.

Resolving Contradictions Criterion:

(1) A contradiction in TMS is a state of the database explicitly declared to be undesirable.

(2) Example: In our example, a contradiction occurs if we do not have at least one murder
suspect or If there are suspects other than Abbot, Babbitt, Cabot.

Contradiction [out]

Suspect Abbot Suspect Babbit Suspect Cabot Other suspect

(3) Initially there is no valid justification for other suspects so, contradiction is labeled OUT.
(4) Suppose Cabot was seen on T.V that he was at the ski slopes, then is causes “Alibi Cabot”
node to be labeled IN. So, it makes ‘ Suspect Cabot’ node to be labeled OUT.
(5) The above point gives a valid justification for contradiction and hence is labeled IN.

Contradiction [IN]

Alibi Abbot Alibi Babbit Alibi Cabot[IN] Other suspects

(6) The job of TMS is to determine how the contradiction can be made OUT. I.e the
justification should be made invalid.
(7) Non monotonic justifications can be invalidated, by asserting some fact whose absence is
required by the justification
(8) That is we should install a justification that should be valid only as long as it needs to be.

58
 (9) A TMS have algorithms to create such justifications, which is called Abductive justification.

Default reasoning:
Default reasoning is one type of non-monotonic reasoning, which treats conclusions as, believed
until a better reason is found to believe something else.
Two different approaches to deal with non-monotonic system are:
(1) Non- monotonic logic (2) Default logic
(1) Non-monotonic logic: Non-monotonic logic is one in which the language of FOPL is augmented with a
modal operator m, which can be read as “is consistent”.
Non-monotonic Logic defines the set of theorems that can be derived from a set of WFF’s A to be
the intersection of the sets of theorems that results from the various ways in which the WFF’s of A might be
combined.
A Λ MB  B
¬A Λ MB  B
We conclude:
MB  B.
(2) Default Logic:

Another form of uncertainty occurs as a result of in complete knowledge .one way human’s deal
with this problem is by making plausible default assumptions. That is we make assumptions, which
typically hold but may have to be retracted if new information is obtained to the contrary.
Default reasoning is another form of non-monotonic reasoning .it eliminates the need to explicitly store all
the facts regarding a situation. Reiter 1980 develops a theory of default reasoning within the context of
traditional logics .a default is expressed as

A (x): M (b1 (x)…Mbk (x)

C (x)

Where a (x) is a precondition wff for the conclusion wff c (x) M is a consistency operator and the bi (x) are
conditions, each of which must be separately consistent with the Kb for the conclusion c (x) to hold.
Default theories consist of a set of axioms and set of default inference rules with schemata. The theorems
derivable from a default system are those that follow from first order logic and the assumptions assumed
from the default rules. Suppose a Kb contains only the statements
Bird (x): Mfly (x)/fly (x)
A default proof of fly is possible.but if KB also contains the clause. Ostrich (tweety).
Ostrich (x)->~fly (x)
Fly (tweety) would be blocked since the default is now in consistent. Default rules are especially useful in
hierarchal kB.because the default rules are transitive property inheritance becomes possible.
Transitivity can also be a problem in Kb with many default rules. Rule interactions can make presentations
very complex.
Two kinds of non-monotonic reasoning that can defined in these logics are:
1. Abduction 2. Inheritance

1. Abduction: Abductive reasoning is described “ Given two WFF’s (A  B) & (B) for
any expressions A & B , if lit is consistent to assume A then do so”.
Example: Suppose it is given that “people who have had too much to drink tend to stagger
when they walk”. Then “we may conclude that a person who is staggering is drunk” though
this may be incorrect sometimes.
So we make a conclusion only if it is consistent enough to assume it.

59
 2. Inheritance: Inheritance is another form of non-monotonic reasoning which inherit
attribute values from a prototype description of a class to the individualsentities that
belong to a class.
Default rules are useful hierarchical knowledge bases. Because the default rules are
transitive, property inheritance becomes possible.

Minimalist Reasoning:
Minimalist reasoning follows the idea that “there are many fewer true statements than false ones. If
something is true and relevant it makes sense to assume that is has been entered into our knowledgebase.
Therefore, assume that the only true statements are those that necessarily must be true in order to maintain
the consistency of knowledge base”.
Two kinds of minimalist reasoning are:
(4) Closed world assumption (CWA).
(5) Circumscription.
Closed world assumption: Another form of assumption made with regard to incomplete knowledge, is
more global in nature than single defaults. This type of assumption is useful in application where most of
the facts are and it is, therefore, reasonable to assume that if a proposition cannot be proven, it is false. This
is known as the closed world assumption with failure as negation. This means that in a kb if the ground
literal p(a) is not provable, then ~p(a) is assumed to hold true. CWA is another form of non-monotonic
reasoning. CWA is essentially the formalism under which prolog operates and prolog has been shown to be
effective in numerous application.

Disadvantages: 1. A knowledge base augmented with CWA is not consistent.

2. CWA assumptions are not always true in the world.
3. CWA forces completion of a knowledge base by adding the negation assertion ¬P whenever it is
consistent to do so. But the assignment of a property to some predicate P and its complement to the
negation of P may be arbitrary.
Predicate completion: Limiting default assumptions to only portions of a KB can be achieved through the
use of completion or circumscription formulas. Unlike CWA, these formulas apply only to specified
predicates and not globally to the whole KB.
Completion formulas are axioms which are added to a kb to restrict the applicability of specific predicates,
if it is known that only certain objects should satisfy given predicates, formulas which make this knowledge
explicit are added to the kb. T his technique also requires the addition of the unique names assumption ie
formulas which state that distinguished named entities in the KB are unique.
As an ex: of predicate completion, suppose we have the following
kb.owns(joe,food)
,student(hoe),owns(jill,chevy),student(jill),owns(sam,bike),programmer(Sam),student(Mary).
If it is known that joe is the only person who owns a ford, this fact can be made explicit with the following
completion formula.
For all (x)(owns (x,ford)->equal (x,joe)-----(1)
I n addition, we add the inequality formula ~equal (a,joe)---(2)
Which has the meaning that this is true for all constants, which are different from joe. Likewise, if it is
known that mary also has a ford and only mary and joe have fords, the completion and corresponding
inequality formulas in this case would be for all owns (ford,x)->equal(x,joe) or equal (x,mary)
~Equal (a, joe)
~Equal (a,mary)
In addition, we add another statement ~owns (jill, ford)

1..~Owns (x, food) or equal (x, joe)

2. ~Equal (a,joe)

60
3.owns(jill,ford) from 1 & 3 we get equal (jill,joe)----(4)
from 2 & 4 [ ]->nil

Circumscription: Circumscription is another form of minimalist reasoning introduced by john Mc carthy

(1980) . It is similar to predicate completion in that all objects that can be shown to have same property p
are in fact the only objects that satisfy p.
CWA does not capture all of the idea. If has two limitations:
3. CWA operates on individual predicates with out considering the interactions
among predicates that are there in the knowledge base.
4. CWA assumes that all predicates have all of their instances listed. But this is not
true in many knowledge-based systems.
Circumscription overcomes that above limitations.

To explain what is a circumscription considers a day-to-day activity. We have our house on a 2

wheeler go to the railway station, park out vehicle, board the train to our destination, reach the destination
and attend the college.office. Here the system that works for the solution to a problem in this case is
expected to recognize certain ground conditions such as :
1.There is no fuel in the 2 wheeler
2.Two-wheeler is in a good condition
3.There is no block able during your travel
4.train journey is safe etc.
In fact, it is not possible to consider all the qualifications that needs to be included to minimize time and
solution space, we make certain explicit assumptions that if there is something that is not mentioned, it need
not be taken into consideration, so far the above problem one need not bother about the factors. Practically
if corresponds to minimization of objects under consideration. In short, in any problem one considers only
those existences is required for getting the clear picture of the solution. This principle of avoiding all
unnecessary details and taking into account only that is absolutely called as circumscription. This method is
based on the use of completion formula.

Modal logic: The standard approach is to use a modal logic such as defined in Hintikkal 1962.modal logic
extend the expressions of classical logic by permitting the notions of possibility, necessity obligation, belief
and the like. a number of different modal logics have been formalized and inference rules comparable to
propositional and predicate logic are available to permit different forms of non monotonic reasoning.
Modal logics are derived as extensions of PL and FOPL by adding modal operators and axioms to express
the meanings and relations for concepts such as consistency, possibility, necessity obligation, belief, known
truths and temporal situations like past, present and future .the operators take predicate as arguments and
are denoted and so on.
Modal logic are classified by the types of modality they express .for ex: alethic logic are concerned with
necessity and possibility denotic logics with what is obligatory or permissible, epistemic logic’s with belief
and knowledge and temporal logics with tense modifiers like sometimes, always, what has been, what will
be or what is.
Temporal logic: Temporal logic use modal operators in relation to concepts of time, such as past, present,
future some times, always, precedes, succeeds as so on .an ex: of 2 operators which correspond to necessity
and possibility are always A and some times (S).
A(Q)->s Q (If always Q then sometimes Q)
AQ->Q (if always Q then Q)
Q->SQ(if Q then sometimes Q)
SQ->~A~Q (if sometimes Q THEN NOT ALWAYS NOT q)
EX: tweety flies (present tense)
P(tweety flies) past tense: tweety flew
F(tweety flies) future tense:tweety will fly
Fp(tweety flies) future perfect tense:tweety will have flown.

61
The semantics of a temporal logic is closely related to the frame problem. The frame problem is the
problem of managing changes, which occur from one situation to another cr from frame to frame as in a
moving sequence.
Fuzzy logic: fuzzy logic was introduced to generalize and extent the expressiveness of traditional logics.
Fuzzy logic is based on fuzzy set theory, which permits partial set membership.
Lofti azadeh of university of california , Berkely first introduced fuzzy sets in 1965.his objectives were to
generalise the notions of a set and positions to accommodate the type of fuzziness or vagueness. Since its
introduction in 1965, much research has been conducted in fuzzy set theory and logic. As a possibility
distributions fuzzy static’s, fuzzy random variables and fuzzy set functions.
Fuzzy predicates such small, large, young, safe, much large than seen. Fuzzy quantifier such as most,
means, few, several often usually. Fuzzy probabilities expressed as quite possible. Almost impossible.
Fuzzy truth values such as very, quite, extremely, somewhat, and slightly.
Fuzzy sets associated with the ability to use linguistic variables. Linguistic variables provide a link between
a natural quantification such as fuzzy propositions. A linguistics variable is a variable that assumes a value
consisting of words or sentences rather than numbers.
A formula, more elegant def. Of linguistic variable is one, which is based on language theory concepts for
this; we define a linguistic variable as the quintuple.
(x,T(x),U,G,M)
Where as x is the name of variable (AGE)
T(x) is the terminal set of x (very young, young, not young ,not old)
U is the universe of the discourse (years of life)
G is a set of syntactic rules, the grammar that generates the values of x and M is semantic rule, which
associates each value of x with its meaning M (x), a fuzzy subset of U.

FUZZY SET: You have asked by your friends to arrange for a small party what does small mean’s it
possible for us exactly to identify certain characteristics that tell that the party is small. If you are a fluent
small has one meaning and if you belong to middle income flow income group, the word small has a
different meaning.
Hence, one can say that sets for which the boundary is ill defined are called fuzzy sets.
Operations on fuzzy sets are somewhat similar to the operations of standard set theory they are also
intuitively acceptable.
~ ~
A= B if and only if u A(x)=u B(x) for all x belongs u equality

~ subset of ~
A B if and only if u A(x)<=u B(x) for all x belongs to u containment

µ A and B(x)=min(x)( µ A(x), µ B(x)) intersection .

µ A or B (x)=max {µ A (x), µ B (x)} union

µ A or (x)=1-µ A (x). Compliment set.

A part from these basic operations fuzzy set theory provides the following additional operations called
hedges for the purpose of handling fuzziness in effective way.
Dilation: The dilation of ~ is defined as Dil( ~)=[µ A(x)]1/2 ∀ x in µ .
A ( A)
Concentration: The concentration of ~ is defined as con( ~)=[µ A(x)]2 ∀ x in µ.
A (A)

Normalization: The normalization of ~ is defined as Normal (~ )= µ A(x)/max(µ A(x)) ∀ x in µ.

62
 A (A)

Intensification: The intensification of ~ is defined as int ( ~ )=a*[µ A (x)]2 ∀ in µ.

A (A)

DIAGRAMS :

Reasoning with fuzzy logic: the characteristic function for fuzzy sets provides a direct linkage to fuzzy
logic. The degree of membership of x in ~A corresponds to the truth-value of the statement x is a member
of ~A where ~A defines some propositional or predicate class.
Generalized modus ponens for fuzzy sets have been proposed by a number of researches. They differ from
the standard modus ponens in that statements, which are characterized by fuzzy sets, are permitted and the
conclusion need not be identical to the implicand in the implication.

Premise: This banana is very yellow.

Implication: If a banana is yellow then the banana is ripe.
Conclusion: This banana is very ripe.
Now let x & y be two universes and let ~ and ~ be fuzzy sets in x & x*y respectively. Define fuzzy
A B
Relations ~ (x), ~ (x , y) and ~ (y) in x ,x*y and y respectively. Then the compositional rule of
RA R B RC
Inference is the solution of the relational equation.
~ ~ (x) O ~ (x,y)=max x min(u A(x), u B (x,y) } where the symbol O signifies the composition
R C y= R A R
Of ~ & ~ . As an example let x=y={1,2,3,4}
A B
~
A ={little}={(1/1),(2/.6),(3/.2),(4.0)}
~
R =approximately equal , a fuzzy relation defined by
Y 1 2 3 4
1 1 .5 0 0
~ 2 .5 1 .5 0
R 3 0 .5 1 .5
4 0 0 5 1
Then applying the max_min composition rule ~ max min{u (x),u (x,y)}
R= x A R
=max
x{min(1,1),(.6,.5),(.2,0),(0,0),min[(1,.5),(.6,1)(.2,.5)

63
 (0,0)],min[(1,0),(.6,.5),(.2,1),(0,.5)]min[(1,0),(.6,0),(.2,.5),(0,1)]}
max {[1,.5,0,0],[.5,.6,.2,0],[0,.5,.2,0],[0,0,.2.0]}
x
={[1],[.6],[.5],[.2]}
there fore the solution is ~
R C (y) ={(1,1),(2/.6),(3/.5),(4/.2)}

Probability Based Reasoning :

In the previous section, we saw that the non-monotonic reasoning systems have some influence in
the development of AI based systems. Where it takes for granted that certain parameters exist or known
with certainly, solutions can be found out. Belief revision takes place whenever one encounters a piece of
information that decreases the belief on the fact. The source for all the uncertainties is the real world. The
following sources constitute the major chunks of uncertainties.

Most information is not obtained personally but got from sources on which one has lot of belief.
Uncertainty prevails when the source does not send information in time or the information provided is not
understood.

In laboratory experiments one takes it for granted that the equipment is properly calibrated and error free. If
the equipment is faulty, the picture one gets about the situation is not correct which loads to uncertainty.

In judicial courts we would have seen or hard delivering judgements acquitting for 1.lack of evidence
2.lack of certainty in evidence they’re by giving the benefit of doubt to the accused.
We are interested in examining the geological evidence at a particular location to determine whether that
would be a good place to dig to find a desired mineral. If we know the prior probabilities of finding each of
the various minerals and we know the probabilities that if a mineral is present then certain physical
characteristics will be observed.
To handle the uncertain data, probability is oldest technique available. Probabilistic reasoning is some times
used when out comes unpredictable.
Bayes theorem: Bayes theorem is used for the computation of probabilities, this theorem provides a
method for reasoning about partial beliefs. Here every event that is happening or likely to happen is
quantified dictate how these numerical values are to be calculated. This method introduced by Clergyman
Thomas bates in the 18 century. This form of reasoning depends on the use of conditional probabilities of
specified events when it is known that other events have occurred. for 2 events H & E with the probability
p(E)>0 the condition probability of events H, given event E has occurred is defined as .

P (H/E)=P (H&E)/P (E).--------(1)

Read this expression as the probability of hypothesis H given that we have observed evidence.

The conditional probability of event E given that event H occurred can likewise be written as
P(E/H)=P(H&E)/P(H)----------(2)

From Eq1 & Eq 2 We get P(H/E)=P(E/H)*P(H) / P(E)----------------(3)

64
This equation expresses the notion that probability of event H occurring when it is known that event E
occurred is the same as the probability that E occurs when it is known that H occurred, multiplied by the
ratio of the probabilities of the 2 events H, E occurring.

The probability of an arbitrary event B can always be expressed as

P (B)=P (B&A)+P (B&~A) = P (B/A)+ P (B/~A) P (~A)

Using this result 3 we can be written as P (H/E)=P (E/H) P (H) / P (E/H) P (H)+P (E/~H) P (~H)

The above equation can be generalized for an arbitrary no. of hypothesis Hi i=1,2……k thus suppose the
Hi partition the universe, i.e. the Hi are naturally exclusive .then for any evidence E1
We have P (E)=∑k P (E & Hi)= ∑k P (E/Hi) P (Hi)
I=1 I=1
And hence P(Hi/E)=P(E/Hi)P(Hi)/ ∑k P(E/Hj)P(Hj)
J=1

Where P(Hi/E)= the probability that hypothesis Hi is true given evidence E.

P(E/Hi)= the probability that we will observe evidence Egiven that hypothesis I is true.
P(Hi) = the a priori probability that hypothesis I is true in the absence of any specific
evidence. These probabilities are called prior probabilities of priors.
K = the number of possible hyphthesis.
Disadvantages:
(1) The knowledge acquisition problem is insurmountable; too many probabilities
are to be provided.
(2) The space required to store all the probabilities is large.
(3) The time required to compute the probabilities is large.

Problem: consider an indescent bulb-manufacturing unit. here machines M1,M2,M3 make 30%,30%,40%
of the total bulbs .of their o/p lets assume that 2%,3%,4% are defective .a bulb is drawn at random and is
found defective. What is the probability that the bulb is made by machine M1, M2, and M3.
Solution: let E1, E2, E3 be the events that a bulb selected at random is made by M1, M2, M3 .let Q denote
that it is defective prob(E1)=0.3,prob(E2)=0.3 and prob(E3)=0.4 given data .
These represent the prior probabilities
Prob of drawing a defective bulb made by M1=prob(Q/E1)=0.02
Prob of drawing a defective bulb made by M2=prob(Q/E2)=0.03
Prob of drawing a defective bulb made by M3=prob(Q/E3)=0.04
These values are the posterior prob’s
Prob(E1/Q)=prob(E1)*prob(Q/E1)/summation from i=1 to 3 prob(Ei)*prob(Q/Ei)
=(0.3)*(0.02/(0.03*0.2)+(o.o3*0.3)+(0.04*0.4)
=0.1935
similarly prob (E2/Q)=0.3*0.03/(0.03*0.2)+(0.03*0.3)+(0.04*0.4)
=0.2903
prob E3/Q=(1-(prob(E1/Q)+prob(E2/Q))
=0.5162.
BAYESIAN NETWORKS: Network representations of knowledge have been used to graphically exhibit
the interdependencies, which exist between related pieces of knowledge. Much work has been done in this
area to develop a formal syntax and semantics for such representations. Network representations for
uncertain dependencies are further motivated by observations made earlier. If we wish to represent
uncertain knowledge related to a set of propositional variables x1……xn by their joint distribution P(x1…
….xn) It will require some 2n entries to store the distribution explicitly .further more, a determination of
any one of the marginal probabilities xi requires summing p(x1……xn)over the remaining n-1 variables.

65
Clearly the time and storage requirements for such computations quickly become impractical inferring with
such large no.s of prob’s does not appear to model the human process either. on the contrary, humans tend
to single out only a few propositions which are known to be casually linked when reasoning with certain
beliefs. This metaphor leads quite naturally be a form of network representations.
To represent casual relationships between the propositional variables x1…..x6 one can write the joint
probability p(x1……x6) by inspecting as a product of conditional prob’s.

P(x1,……x5)=p(x5/x2,x3)p(x4/x1,x2)p(x5/x1))p(x2/x1)p(x1)
Diagram:

X1

X2 X3

X4 X5

Ex2:
A Bayes network is directed acyalic graph whose nodes are labeled by random variable. Bayes network are
some times called causal networks because the areas connecting the nodes can be though of as representing
causal relationship.
To construct a Bayesian network for a given set of variable, we draw arcs from cause variable to
immediate effects. We preserve the formalism and rely on the modularity of the world. We are trying to
model. Consider an example:
S: Sprinkler was on last night
W: Grass is wet
R: It rained last night
We can write MYCIN style rules that described predictive relationships among these three events.
IF: The sprinkler was on last night then there is evidence that the grass will be wet this morning.

Sprinkle Rain
r

Wet

Taken alone, this rule may accurately describe the world. But consider a second rule:
IF: the grass is wet this morning then there is evidence that it rained last night.
Taken alone , this rule makes sense when rain is the most common source of water on the grass.

Rainy Season

66
 Sprinkle Rain
r

Wet

There are two different ways that propositions can influence the likelihood of each other. The first is
that causes influence the likelihood of their symptoms; the second is that observing a symptom affects the
likelihood of all of its possible causes. The basic idea behind the Bayesian network structure is to make a
clear distinction between these two kinds of influence.
DEMPSTER SHAFER THEORY : The Bayesian approach depends on the use of known prior and likely
prob’s to compute conditional prob’s .The dempster Shafer approach on the other hand is a generalization
of classical prob theory which permits the assignment of prob’masses (beliefs) to all subsets of the
universe and not just to the basic element.
A generalization theory has been proposed by Arthur Dempster 1968 and extended by his student Glenn
shafer (1976). It has come to be known as the Dempster theory of evidence. The theory is based on the
notion that separate prob masses may be assigned to all subsets of a universe of discourse rather than just to
indivisible single members are required in traditional prob theory.
In the Dempster, we assume a universe of discourse µ and a set correspond to n propositions exactly one of
which is true . The propositions are assumed to be exhaustive and mutually exclusive let 2 µ denote all
subsets of U including the empty set and u itself
M:2 pow u->[0,1]
∑m m(A)=1.
A⊆µ
The function m defines a prob distribution on 2 pow u it represents the measure of belief committed exactly
to A .a belief function, Bel corresponding to specific m for the set A is defined as the sum of beliefs
committed to every subset of A by m. Bel(A) is a measure of the total support or belief committed to the set
A and sets a minimum value for its likelihood .
Bel(A)=summation over B subset of a m (B).
The Dempster ,a belief interval can also be defined for a subset A .It is represented as the sub internal
[BEL(a),p(a)]OF [0,1].Bel(A) is also called the support of A and p(A)=1-Bel(~A) the plausibility of
(A).when evidence is available from two or more independent knowledge sources Bel 1,BEL 2 one would
like to pool the evidence to reduce the uncertainty .for this dempster has provided such has combining
function denoted as bel1 o bel 2 the total prob mass committed to C.
C= summation over Ai and Bj m1(Ai)m2(Bj)
The sum in above equation must be normalized to account for the fact that some intersections Ai and Bj
=pie will have positive prob which must be discarded .the final form of dempster of combination is then
given by
m1om2=summation over Ai and Bj =C mi(Ai)m2(Bj)/summation over Ai and Bj not to 0m1(Ai)m2(Bj)
where the summations are taken overall I and j.
AD_HOC methods: The SO_called ad_hoc methods of dealing with uncertainty are methods, which have
no formal theoretical basis. Although they are usually patterned after probabilistic concepts. These methods
typically have an intuitive, if not a theoretical, appeal. They are chosen over formal methods as a pragmatic
solution to a particular problem. When the formal methods impose difficult or impossible conditions.
Different ad_hoc procedures have been employed successfully in a no. Of AI systems, particularly in expert
system. ad_hoc methods have been used in a large no. of knowledge base systems more than have the more
formal methods. This is largely because of the difficulties encountered in acquiring large no. of reliable
probabilities related to the given domain and to the complexities of the calculations.
Heuristic methods: Heuristic methods are based on the use of procedures, rules and the other forms of
encoded knowledge to achieve specified heuristics; one of several alternative conclusions may be chosen
through the strength of positive versus negative evidence presented in form of justifications and

67
endorsements. The endorsement weights employed in such systems need not be numeric. Some form of
ordering a preference selection scheme must be used.

Reasoning using certainty factors: Probability based reasoning adopted bayes theorem for
handling uncertainty, unfortunately, to apply bayes theorem one, needs to estimate a priori and conditional
probableties which are difficult to be calculated in many domains. Hence, to circumvent this problem, the
developers of MYSIN system adopted certainty factors.

A certainty factor (CF) is a numerical estimate of the belief or disbelief on a conclusion in the
presence of a set of evidence. Various methods of using CF’s have been adopted, Typical of them are as
under.

1. Use a scale from 0 to 1 where 0 represents total disbelief and 1 stands for total belief. Other
values
between 0 to 1 represent varying degrees of belief and disbelief.

2 2. MYCIN’s CF representation is one scale from –1 to +1. The value of 0 stands for unknown. In
Expert systems, every production rule has a certainty factor associated with it. The values of the
CF
are determined by the domain expert who creates the knowledge base.

A certainty Factor(CF[h, e]) is defined in terms of two components:

(i) MB[(h, e)]: a measure (between 0 and 1) of belief in hypothesis h given
the evidence e. MB measure the extent to which the evidence supports
the hypothesis. It is zero if the evidence fails to support the hypothesis.
(ii) MD[h, e]: a measure (between 0 & 1) of disbelief in hypothesis h given
the evidence e . MD measure the extent to which the evidence supports
the negation of the hypothesis. It is zero if the evidence supports the
hypothesis.
We can define the certainty factor as
F[h,e]= MB[h,e}- MD[h,e].

Matching

Matching is a basic function that is required in almost all A.I programs. It is an essential part of
more complex operations such as search and control. In many programs it is known that matching
consumes a large fraction of the processing time.

Matching is the process of comparing two or more structures to discover their likeness or
differences. The structures may represent a wide range of objects including physical entities, words or
phrases in some language, complete classes of things, general concepts, relations between complex entities
and the like . The representations will be given in one or more of the formalisms like FOPL, networks or
some other scheme and matching will involve comparing the component parts of such structures.

Matching is used in a variety of programs for different reasons. It may serve to control the sequence
of operations, to identify or classify objects, to determine the best of a number of different alternatives or to
retrieve items from a database. It is an essential operation in such diverse programs as speech recognition,
natural language understanding, vision, learning, automated reasoning, planning, automatic programming
and expert system as well as many others.

68
Matching is just process of comparing two structures or patterns for equality. The match fails if the patterns
differ in any aspect.
Different types of matching are:
(1). Indexing
(2). Matching with variables.
(3). Complex and Approximate Matching
(4). Conflict resolution.

(i) Indexing: Incase of indexing we use the current state as an index into the rules in order to select
the matching ones. Consider chess. Here we assign a number to each board position. Then we use
a hosting function to treat the number as an index into the rules.

(ii) Matching with variables: In this case we try to match many rules against many elements in the
state description simultaneously. One efficient algorithm is RETE, which gains efficiency from 3
major sources these sources are:

(b) The temporal natural of the date. Any rule should into make changes radically but must add
one or two elements, or delete one or two.
(c) Structural similarity in rules. There may be a situation where some rules may or two
conditions other conditions being the same.

For Example:
Mammal (x) -> jaugqr (x)
Feline (x)
Carnivours (x)
Has – stripes (x)
Now if we consider a tiger all the first 3 conditions are same but the 4th one changes, instead
of has spots (x) we have

Has - stripes (x)

Here we need repeat the rules again. RETE stores these similar structures in memory so that
they can be shared.

Persistence variable binding consistency

For Example:

(ii) son (x,y) ^ son (y,z) -> grandparent (x,z)

(iii) Son (mary,joe)
(iv) Son (Bill, Bob)

Here the rules (ii) & (iii) can be matched but must satisfy the values of y.

(iii) Complex & Approximate Matching: An approximate matching is one, which is used when the
preconditions approximately match the current situation.

Consider an example of a dialogue between ELIZA & a user. Here ELIZA ill try to match the left side of
the rule again the users last sentence and use the correct right side to generate a response. Let us consider
the following ELIZA rules:

(X me Y) -> (X you Y)

69
 (I remember X) -> (who do remember X just now?)
(My {Family-member} is Y) -> (Who else in your family is Y?)

Suppose the use says, “ I remember Mary” How ELIZA will try to match the above response to the left
hand side of the given rules. It finds that it matches to the first rule & now it takes the right hand side and
asks “ why do remember Mary just now?”

This is how the conversation proceeds taking into consideration the approximate matching.

(iv) Conflict Resolution: Conflict Resolution is a strategy in which we incorporate the decision making
into the matching process. We have three basic approaches.

(b) Preference based on Rules

(c) Preference based on Objects
(d) Preference based on states.

(a) Preference Based on Rules: Here we consider the rules in the order they are given or we give
some priority to special case rules. There are two ways in which a matcher will try to decide
how one rule is more general than the others. This allows us in decreasing the search size by
more general rules. The two ways are:

1. If one rule contains all the preconditions that another rule has and some additional then
Second rule is more general they the first.
2. If one rule contains preconditions with variables and the other contains the same
A precondition with constants then the first rule is more general.

(b) Preference based on Object: Here we use keywords to match into the rules consider the
example of ELIZA. It takes specific keywords form the user’s response and tries to match
the keywords with the given rules. Like previously it uses the “remember” keyword to
match the L.H.S. rule.

(c) Preference Based on States: In this case we fire all the rules that are waiting they lead us to
some states. Using a heuristic function we can decide which state is the best.

Partial matching: For many AI applications complete matching between two or more structures is in
appropriate. For example, input representations of speech waveforms or visual scenes may have been
corrupted by noise or other unwanted distortions. In such cases, we do not want to reject the input out of
hand. Our systems should be more tolerant of such commonly occurring problems. Instead, we want our
systems to be able to find an acceptable or best match between the input and some reference description.

The RETE Matching algorithm:

A typical system will contain a Knowledge Base which contains structures representing the domain
expert’s knowledge in the form of rules or productions, a working memory which holds parameters
for the current problem, and an inference engine with rule interpreter which determines which rules
are applicable for the current problem.

The basic inference cycle of a production system is match, select, and execute as indicated in figure.
These operations are performed as follows:

I User Interface
Interface Engine Match

70
 O

Select
Working Knowledge
memory table Execute

Match: During the match portion of the cycle, the conditions in the left hand side(LHS) of the rules
in the knowledge base are matched against the contents of working memory to determine which
rules have their LHS conditions satisfied with consistent bindings to working memory terms. Rules
which are found to be applicable (that match) are put in a conflict set.

Select: From the conflict set, one of the rules is selected to execute. The selection strategy
may depend on regency of usage, specificity of the rule, or other criteria.

Execute: The rule selected from the conflict set is executed by carrying out the action or
conclusion part of the rule, the right hand side (RHS) of the rule. This may involve an I/O operation,
adding, removing or changing clauses in working Memory or simply causing a halt.

The above cycle is repeated until no rules are put in the conflict set or until a stopping
condition is reached.
A typical knowledge base will contain hundreds or even thousands of rules and each rule
will contain several (perhaps as many as ten or more) conditions. Working memories typically
contain hundreds of clauses as well. Consequently, exhaustive matching of all rules and their LHS
conditions against working-memory clauses may require tens of thousands of comparisons. This
accounts for the claim made in the introductory paragraph that as much as 90& of the computing
time for such systems can be related to matching operations.
To eliminate the need to perform thousands of matches per cycle, an efficient match
algorithm called RETE has been developed (Forgy, 1982). It was initially developed as part of the
OPS family of programming languages (Brownston, et al., 1985). This algorithm uses several novel
features, including methods to avoid repetitive matching on successive cycles. The main timesaving
features of RETE are as follows.
Advantages:

a. In most expert systems, the contents of working memory change very little from cycle to
cycle.
b. Many rules in a knowledge base will have the same conditions occurring in their LHS.
c. The temporal nature of data.
d. Structural similarity in rules.
e. Persistence of variable binding consistency.

PROLOG

The name PROLOG was taken from the phrase “PROgramming in LOGic” .The language was originally
developed in 1972 by Alain Colmerouer and P.Roussel at the university of Marseilles in France. Prolog is
unique in its ability to infer facts and conclusions form other facts.
Prolog has been successful as an AI programming language for the following reasons.

71
1.The syntax and semantics of prolog are very close to formal logic. by this time , It must be clear to you
that most AI program reason using logic.

2. Prolog language has in it a built in inference engine and automatic backtracking facility. This helps in
efficient implementation of various search strategies.

3. This language has high productivity and easy of program maintenance.

4. Prolog language is based on the universal formalism of Horn Clause.

5. Because of the inherent AND parallelism, prolog language can be implemented with ease on parallel
machines.

6. The clauses of prolog have a procedural and declarative meaning. Because of this understanding of the
language is easier.

7.In prolog, each clause can be executed separately as though it is a separate program. Hence modular
programming and testing is possible.

Horn clause consists of a set of statements joined by logical Ands

Procedural languages A.I languages

(Basic,cobol,pascal) (prolog,lisp)

1.use previously defined procedures use heuristic to solve problems.

to solve problems.

2.most efficient at numerical processing. Most efficient at formal reasoning.

3.systems created and maintained by programmers. Systems developed and maintained by

knowledge engineers.
4.use structured programming. Interactive and cyclic developments.

The main part of a prolog program consists of a collection of knowledge about a specific subject. This
collection is called a database and this database is expressed in facts and rules.
Turbo prolog permits you to describe facts as symbolic relationships.
Ex: The right speaker is dead.
This same fact can be expressed in turbo prolog as
Is (right_speaker, dead)
This factual expression in prolog is called a clause. Notice the period at the end of the clause.
In this ex: right speakers and dead are objects.
The word “is” is the relation in this ex. relation is a name that defines the way in which a collection of
objects.
The entire expression before the period in each case is called a predicate. A predicate is a function with a
value of true or false predicates express a property or relationship .the word before the parenthesis is name
of relation. The elements with in the parenthesis are the arguments of the predicate, which may be objects
or variables.
Clauses
|
Facts rules
|
Predicates period

72
 |
relations arguments
arguments
|
objects variables.

A rule is an expression that indicates the truth of a particular fact depends upon one or more other facts.
Consider this ex: if there is a body stiffness or pain in the joints.
AND there is sensitivity to infections.
Then there is probably a vitamin C deficiency.
This rule could be expressed as the following turbo prolog clause.
Hypothesis (vit_deficiency ) if
Symptom (arthrities ) and symptom (infection_senstivity)

Notice the general form of the prolog rule. The conclusion is stated first and is followed by the word if.
Every rule has a conclusion is stated and antecedent rules are important part of any programming short
hand has been developed for expressing rules. in this abbreviated form the previous rule becomes:
Hypothesis (vitc_deficiency ):-
Symptom (arthrities)
Symptom (infection_Senstivity)
The :-operator is called a break a comma expression and relationship and semicolon expresses an or
relationship.
The process of using rules and facts to solve a problem is called formal reasoning.
A turbo prolog program consists of 2 or more sections. The main body of the program, the clause section
contains the clause and consists of facts and rules. The relationships used in the clauses of the clause
section are defined in the predicate section. Each relation in each clause must have a corresponding
predicate definition in the predicates section predicate definition in the pre dicta section does not end with a
period. The domains section also is apart of most turbo prolog programs .If defines the type of each object.
The domain section turbo prolog controls the typing of object.
6 basic object types are available to the user.
Character.
Integer.
Real.
String.
Symbol
File.
Character –single character (enclosed between single quotation marks)
Integer-integer from -32768 to 32767
Real- floating point number (lE-307 to 1E-308)
String –character sequence (enclosed between double quotation marks)
Symbol- character sequences of letters numbers and under series with the first character a lower case letter
File-symbolic file name.

In a turbo prolog program the sections should always be in the following.

1.domains. 2. Predicates 3. Clauses.
Variables:
A variable name must begin with a capital letter and may be from 1 t o250 characters long. Except for the
first character in the name you may use uppercase or lower case letters, digits o the under line character.
Names should be meaningful.
Bound & free variables: if a variable has a value at a particular time it is said to be bound or instantiated .if
a variable does not have a value at a particular time is said to be free or uninstantiated.

73
Anonymous variables: The anonymous variable stands for all values while in a goal it is satisfied if at least
one value correspond to it.
Backtracking: One of the most important principles of prolog execution is backtracking. The solution of the
compound goal proceeds from left to right. If any condition in the chain fails, prolog back tracking to the
previous condition tries to prove it again to see if the failed condition will succeed with the new binding.
Prolog moves relentlessly forward and backward through the conditions, trying every available binding in
an attempt to get the goal to succeed in as many as possible.

Input & Output operators:

Turbo prolog has 3 output predicates.
Write.
Write device.
Write f.

The write predicate:

Go:-hypothesis (patient, disease),write(patient, ”probably has “,”disease”,.”),n1.
The write predicate displays the values of these variables in an English like sentence.
Charlie probably has german measles.

(Since patient = Charlie; disease = germane measles)

The general form of the write predicate is write (E1,E2,………En)
Where E1,E2,…….En represent prolog variables or objects of the standard domain .the write predicate
executes immediately and always evaluates as true. You can mix objects and variables in the arguments .
Test: write (“this is an example “)
Write (“of multiple write statements “)
Displays
This is an ex: of multiple write statements.
nl:- now return to the nl after the write predicate .this is a built in predicating the new line function .This
function writes a carriage return and a line feed in the output.
Write (“this is an example”)
Write (“of multiple write statements”)
Write (“this is an example “,”\n”)
Write (“of multiple write statements)
Displays
This is an example:
Of multiple write statement?
Turbo prolog provides 3 back slash commands. \n, \t, \b
Backslash commands must appear inside of either single or double quotations marks nl, write “\n”) write
\n)are equal.

Write device: Any O/P to the display can be directed instead to a printer or a file .to redirect O/P uses the
write device built-in predicate.
Write device (print)
Write (“this will on the printer”)
Write device (screen)

Writef predicate:
Some times you may wish to format o/p for ex: you may want the decimal points in a table to be
aligned with turbo prolog, you can use the writef built in predicate to force alignment of numbers a text.
Writef (format E1, E2…En)
The variable format is a control code of the type.

74
% - m.p
-Hyphen forcing the left justification, default is right just
m minimum field width .
p precision of a decimal floating point number.
Writef (“%-10#%5.0$3.2\n”, an, 3, 3.1)
Displays (fan#23$3.10)
Input operators:
Turbo prolog provides several built in I/P predicates for this ex:
Readln string or symbol
Read char character
Read int integer.
Read real real
Inkey,
Key pressed

The readln predicate: The readln predicate permits a user to read any string symbol into a variable.

Ex: readln(replay)
Replay (‘”yes”)
Read predicate: The read car predicate permits a user to read any character in to variable.
Ex: readchar(replay)
Replay =’y’
The read int. predicate can be used to read an integer value to a variable.
Ex: read int (Age)
Read real: The read real predicate can be used to read floating point numbers into a variable.
Ex: read real (price)
Price=12.50
Inkey: The inkey predicate reads a single character from the I/p the predicate form is inkey (char)
If there is no i/p the predicate fails. Otherwise the character is returned bound to the char.
Key pressed: key pressed predicate to determine whether has been pressed with out a character being
returned.
Controlling execution predicates.

Fail predicate: In prolog, forcing a rule to fail under certain conditions is a type of control and is essential
to goal programming. Failure can be the forced In any rule by using the built in fail predicate. The fail
forces back tracking in an attempt to unify with another clauses. Whenever this predicate is invoked the
goal being proved immediately fails, and back tracking is initiated .the predicate has no arguments, so
failing of the fail predicate is not dependent on variable binding .the predicate always fails.
Ex: 1 go: -
Test,
Write (“you will never get here”)
Test: -
Fail.
Here goal: go
False
Here the write predicate will never be executed.
2.go:
Write (“you will get here”)
Test
Test:-
Fail
Here goal: go

75
You will get here
False

The Cut predicate: The cut is one of the most important and one of the most complex features of prolog.
The primary purpose of the cut is to prevent or block backtracking based on a specified condition. The cut
predicate is specified as an exclamation point. If has no argument the cut predicate succeeds and once it
succeeds, it acts a fence, effectively blocking any back tracking beyond the cut. If any premise beyond the
cut fails, prolog cans only back track as far as the cut to try another path.

The basic purpose of the cut is to eliminate certain search path is in the problem space, you can
think of the paths through the database as the limbs of a tree. If you get cut on one limb and discover
failure, you normally can move back towards the trunk, find another limb and start moving outward again
the cut act like a fence where it is placed in the program you cannot back beyond the cut.

The cut can be used for any or all of 3 purposes.

1. To terminate the search for any further solutions to a goal. Once a particular rule has been tested.

2. To terminate the search for any further solutions to a goal once a particular rule has been forced to fail
with
the fail predicate.

3.To eliminate paths in the database to speed up execution .the cut is not always the best solution.

Types of cuts: there are 2 types of cuts in prolog namely.

Green cut & red cut: the green cut is used to force binding to be retained, once the right abuse is reached
green cuts are used to express determination.

The red type of cut is used to omit explicit conditions. Cuts improve the clarity and efficiency of
most programs of the 2 types of cut, the green cut is the more acceptable type. You can often use the not
predicate instead of the red cut.

EX: state (tamlnadu)

State (kerala)
State (A.P)
State (U.P)
State (karnataka)
State (M.P)
State (S);
Write (“do u belong to”)
Write (S)
Write (“&”)
Readln (Reply)
Reply =”yes”
!
Write (“so u belong to “)
Write (S)
Output: do u belong to tamilnadu ?
No
Do u belong to kerala ?
No
Do u belong to A.P

76
 No
Do u belong to U.P
Yes
So u belong to U.P
Quality operator: =
Comparison operator: <, >, =, <=, >=, -, =, <>
Arithmetic operator: +, -, *, %, mod, div, +(positive),-(negative)

Recursion: Recursion is one of the prologs most important Execution control technique. If often is used
with the fail or cut predicate. Recursion is a technique in which some thing is defined in terms of itself. In
prolog recursion is the technique of using a clause to invoke copy of it-self.

Ex: If you specify the goal as count (1) you should see the following output -> 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 true
Contains a copy itself.
Count (~)
(Statements)
Count (NN)
Program: Predicates
Count (integer)
Clauses
Count (9).
Count (N): -
Write (“ “, N).
NN=N+1.
Count (NN).

The repeat predicate: One predicate that uses recursion is the repeat predicate. Although repeat is not a
built – in predicate it is so important that you will probably want to add it to many programs its format is

Repeat
Repeat:-
Repeat
The repeat predicate is useful for forcing a program to generate alternate solutions through back
tracking. When the repeat predicate is used in a rule, the predicate always succeeds .if a later premise
causes failure of the rule, or log will back tracking to the repeat predicate.
Basic rules of recursion:
1.a program must include some method of terminating the recursion loop.
2.variable binding in a rule of fact apply only to the current layer.
3.in most applications the recursive procedure should do its work on the way down.
Recursion is not always the best programming choice. Recursion complex and the flow of execution is not
always easy to follow.

Length (list, length): The length utility simply measures the list, reporting either how long it is ,which lists
are of a specified length or whether a specified list has the specified length.
Length([],0).
Length([|Tail],len):-
Length(Tail,len1).
Len = Len1+1.
Location (Position, list, object): This predicate can either find the location of the specified object, find the
object at the location or confirm the presence of the object at the position.

77
 Location (Num, list, item):-
Sides (Pos, item, list),
Length (pos, N), Num=N+1.

Insert, Extract, Replace: These three utilities share a common argument pattern.
(Object, location, list, new list)

Insert (object, location, list, new list): The insert utility differs from append in it allows you to select the
location in the list for doing your insertion.
Insert (Item, l, list, [item | list]):-!
Insert (item, loc [Head | rest], [head | Rest 1]:-
Loc1 = Loc-1, insert (item, loc1, rest, rest1).
Replace (object, location, list, new list): The replace utility goes to the specified location and substitutes
the specified object for the object at location.
Replace (item, l,[-|Rest],[Item | Rest]):-!
Extract (object, location, list, new list); The extract utility shortens the list by removing the item of the
specified location.
APPEND: (List, list, list). Using append, you can add an element to a list. Since an empty list is still a
list, this means you can use append to build a list from scratch.
Append ([], L, L).
Append ([X|L1], L2, [X|L3]: -
Append (L1, L2, L3).

DELETE (Object, list, new list): Deleting an object from a list is also a recursive process.

Delete (X, [X|List2], List2)

Delete (X, [Other| Rem], [Other\Rem1]):-
Delete (X, Rem, Rem1).
Dup (List): The dup utility simply checks for the presence of duplicate elements. If all you want to do is
check, it is help full.

Dup ([]): -! Fail.

Dup ([H|T]): -
Member (H, T)!
Dup ([_| T):-
Dup (T), !.
Reverse (list,list): As its name suggests, the reverse utility takes a specified list and reverses the order of its
elements.
Reverse ([],[]).
Reverse ([H|T],newlist):-
Reverse (T, L2),
Append (L2,[H},newlist).
Notice that no cut markers are included in the utility. Optimizing it for large lists would require a cut in the
null lists rules and in the append null list rules.
Shift (list,list): This utility puts the head of a list at the end shifting all elements one position to the
left.
For a left shift ([1,2,3]) becomes ([2,3,1]).
Lshift([H|T],newlist):-
Append (T,[H],newlist).
For a right shift ([1,2,3]) becomes [3,1,2].
Rshift(oldlist,[H|T]):-
Append (t,[H],oldlist).

78
Simple problems: LENGTH OF THE LIST.
Program:
Domains
List = integer*
Predicates
Length_of (list, integer)
Clauses
Length-of ([],0).
Length-of ([-|],l):-
Length-of [(T,Taj] length),
L= Taillength+1.
Result:
Goal: length_of([1,2,3],l)
L=3.

/*TO SEE IF A STRING IS IN THE LIST OR NOT*/

Domains
Object=symbol
list=object*
Predicates
Member (object,list)
Clauses
Member (X,[ X|_] ).
Member (X,[_| Tail] ):-
Member (X, Tail).

Goal: Member( Ram, [Ram,Sam,Krishna] )

True
1 solution
/*TO DELETE AN ITEM*/

domains
integerlist= integers*
item = integer
predicates
delete ( Item, [ Item | Tail ],Tail ).

delete ( Item, [ X | Tail ], [ X| Tail 1 ]:-

delete ( Item, Tail 1 ).

Goal: delete ( Anand, [ Anand,Rajesh,krishna,Praveen ], 1 )

L=[ “Rajesh”, “Krishna”, “Praveen”]

1 solution.

/* ADDING AN ELEMENT TO THE LIST */

79
Domains
objectlist = symbol *
item = symbol

Predicates

add ( symbol, objectlist, objectlist )

Clauses

add ( X, list, list ):- List = [ X | List ].

Result:
Goal: add(vijay,[giri,vamsi,koti])

L=[vijay,giri,vamsi,koti].

* SUM OF INTEGER LIST * /

Domains
List = integer *
Sum = integer
Predicates
sum_of_list ( list, sum )
Clauses
sum_of_list ( [], 0 ).
sum_of_list ([head| tail],sum):-
sum_of_list (tail,addtail),sum=head+addtail.
Result: sum_of_list([ ],sum)
Sum=0;
Sum-of-list([1,2,3,4,5],sum)
Sum= 15.

/*CALCULATE FACTORIAL*/
Domains
X,factx = integer
Predicates
factorial(x,Factx)
Clauses
factorial (1,1).
factorial (x,Factx):-
Y=x-1, factorial (y,Facty),Factx=x*Facty.
Result:
Goal: factorial (5,x)
X= 120
/* APPENDING TWO LISTS*/
Domains
objects = integer

80
 list=integer*
item=integer
Predicates
append(list,item,list)
Clauses
Append ([], item, list).
Append ([h|list1], item,[h|list3]):-
Append (list1,item, list3).
Result:
Goal: append ([Rajesh, Mahesh],[Divya, Deepthi],l).
L=[rajesh, Mahesh, divya, deepthi].

LISP

LISP (List Processing) is an AI programming language developed by John Mc Carthy in late 1950.Lisp is a
symbolic processing language that represents information in lists and manipulates these lists to derive
information. Till today different dialects of lisp language have been developed .the foundations of these
dialects remain the same while the syntax and functionality show a marked change.
LISP DIALECTS
S. No Dialects Developed by
1 Common Lisp Gold Hill computers
2 Franz Lisp Franz Inc
3 Inter Lisp Xerox
4 Mu lisp Microsoft Inc ,the software house
5 Portable standard Lisp University of Utah
6 Vax lisp Digital equipment corp.
7 X lisp Blue users group
8 Zeta lisp LMI, symbolic, Xerox

Features of LISP:

81
 1. LISP is the equivalence of form between programs and data in language, which
allows data structures to be executed as programs and programs to be modified as
data.
2. LISP is heavy reliance an recursion as a control structures, rather than iteration
(looping) that is common in most programming language.
3. LISP has an interpreter which implies that the debugging facilities would be
unmatched by any compiled language.
4. LISP encourages the use of dynamic data structures which leads to design of a
flexible system.
5. LISP macro facility allows new languages to be defined and embedded within the
LISP system.

Preliminaries of Lisp: LISP language is exclusively used for manipulating lists. The major characteristic is
that the basic elements are treated as symbols irrespective of whether they are numeric or alphanumeric.
The basic data element in lisp, An atom is indivisible. Lisp has 2 basic types of atoms. No’s and symbols.
Numbers represent numerical values. Any type of number such as positive or negative integers, floating
point or decimals are acceptable. Symbols represent alpha numeric character symbols can be a combination
of alphabets and numerical
(apple orange grapes mango)
(millimeter container decimeter meter)
(78 65 71 70 68)
(Bullock_ cart (Hercules atlas hero)(tvs 50 kelvinator mofa))
Such a combination of lists within lists are called “nested” or “multiple” or “complex” list. Only 1 thing to
be mind is that the number of parenthesis, opening and closing must be same,. If not, the system will flash
an error message. Because if the parenthesis problem, lisp is jovially referred as a language that has “Lots
of Infuriating stupid parentheses”.

LISP FUNCTIONS: A lisp program is a collection of small routines, which define simple
functions . In order that complex functions may be written; the language comes with a set of basic functions
called primitives. These primitives serve commonly required operations. a part from these primitives ,lisp
permits you to define your own functions. Because of this independence, lisp is highly flexible since tailor
made functions are defined and manipulated, modularity is high. Lisp uses prefix notations for its
operations. The basic primitives of lisp are classified as:
1. Arithmetic primitives
2. Boolean primitives
3. List manipulation primitives

1. Arithmetic primitives: + addition,- subtraction ,* multiplication ,/ division / |+adds | to its argument to

the the power specified by its second argument. Quotient and remainder together give the result of division
between integers, recipe gives the reciprocal, max and min return the maximum and minimum of their
argument.

(+ 6 2) =>8 ; (* 6 2)=>12
(- 6 2) =>4; (/ 6 2)=>3
(Remainder 14 3)=>2 ;(Recip(5))=>.2 ;max( 8 3 9 )=>9 (min 8 3 9)=>3

Boolean primitives: these primitives provides a result which is Boolean in nature i.e. true or false. Some of
them require only 1 argument while others more than 1.
Some such primitives are:
1. Atom : the purpose is to find out whether the element is an atom or not
Ex:(ATOM RAMAN)=>T

82
(ATOM 26)=>Nil
2.Number p: determines if the atom is a number or not.
Ex: (number p raman)=>nil ;(numberp 20)=>T
3.list p: determines if the input is a list or not.
Ex: (list p (25 35 46 75) =>T
(List p raman )=>NIL
4. Zero p:to find out whether the number is zero or not
Ex:(zero 26)=>nil ;(zerop 0)=>T
5.Odd p;to find out whether the i/p is odd.
Ex:(ODD p 65)=>T ;(ODD p 60)=>Nil
6.even p;to find out whether th i/p is even or not
Ex: (even p 78)=>T;(EVENP 89)=>nil
7.equaL P; To find out whether the given lists are equal
Ex: (equal ‘(janaki raman sarukesi )’(janiki raman sarukesi) =>T
(Equal ‘(75 67 94)’(4 3 65 987)
8.greater p: to find out the 1 is greater than the second
Ex: (greater p ’46 ’86)=>nil
Ex: (greater p ’86 ’46)=>T
9.lesser p: to find out whether 1 is lesser than the 2.

List manipulation of primitives: The purpose of list manipulation primitives are for 1.creating a new
list 2 . Modifying an existing list with addition, deletion or replacement of an atom 3. Extracting portions of
LIST
For these lisp provides some primitives and well specified functions can be developed from these .in lisp
values are assigned to variables by set Q property .the primitive has 2 arguments, the 1 being the variable &
the second, the value to be assigned to the variable. The value could be an atom or list itself.
Ex: 1 (SET Q A 22) when evaluated assigns 22 to variable A.
2. (Set q TV ‘onida) would assign TV=ONIDA whenever.
3. (Set pressure-1 22) would assign pressure-1 =22
(Set q pressure 2 pressure1) would assign pressure 2 =22
Set q pressure ‘ pressure 1 would assign to pressure 2=pressure 1
List construction: lists are constructed using CONS primitive. Cons primitive adds new element to the front
of the existing list. This primitive needs 2 arguments and returns a single list.
Ex:1.((CONS ‘p ‘(Q R S )) =>(P Q R S )

2. (CONS ‘RAM ‘(LAXMAN, GOPI, RAJ))

=>(RAM,LAXMAN, GOPI, RAJ )

3. (SET Q A ‘(B C D ))
(SET Q X ’(X Y Z))
(Cons A X)
=>(B C D X Y Z)
While the cons primitive adds a new list to the front the existing list, the primitive append adds it to tail of
the existing list.

Extracting portions of a list:

Extracting portions of a list pertains to decomposing the list and getting an atom out of it. For this
purpose, LISP provides two major primitives. They are CAR and CDR.

The CAR primitive returns the first element of list.

EX: 1. (CAR ‘(RAM LAXMAN BHARATH SHATRUGHNAN))  RAM

83
 (CAR ‘((32 36) (56 54) (67 31) 67 87 89))  (32 36)

The CDR Primitive returns the list excluding the first element.
Ex: 1. (CDR ‘(RAM LAKSHMAN BHARATH SHATRUGHNAN))
(LAKSHMAN BHARATH SHATRUGHNAN)
2. (CDR ‘((32 36) (56 54) (67 31) (67 87 89))
((56 54) (67 31) 67 87 89)

Using these two list-manipulating primitives it is possible to extract any porting of the list. For example
if we would like to get the element BHARATH from the list given as follows:
( RAM LAKSHMAN BHARATH SHATRUGHANAN)
we will have to adopt the following method.
Step 1: Break the list into two using CDR function.
(CDR ‘(RAM LAKSHMAN BHARATH SHATRUGHNAN)
(LAKSHMAN BHARATH SHATRUGHAN)
Step 2: Apply CDR primitive again to remove LAKSHMAN out of the list.
(CDR’ (LAKSHMAN BHARATH SHATRUGHNAN))
(BHARATH SHATRUGHNAN)
Step 3: Apply CAR function on the list to get the element BHARATH.
(CAR ‘ (BHARATH SHATRUGHNAN))
(BHARATH)
The entire operation can be written as a single LISP statement as
(CAR (CDR (CDR ‘(RAM LAKSHMAN BHARATH SHATRUGHNAN))))
One important point to note is that CAR and CDR primitives’ operatives operate on lists only.
When you try to operate them on individual atoms, the system will flash an error message.

Example: When you try to evaluate the LISP statement

(CDR (CAR ‘(35 46 76 98 24)), an error message is flashed.
Apart from these primitives, there exist other functions for operations on LISP. Some of them
are:
1. LENGTH : A LISP function to find the length of the list
2.REVERSE : A function to reverse the given length
3. LAST : To return the last element of the list
4. LOCATE : To identify where a particular element exists in the list
5. REPLACE replaces a particular element in the list.
So far, we have discussed about primitives a LISP dialect provides. In the initial sections of the chapter,
we had pointed out that LISP provides facilities for defining our own functions. Let’s examine how it is
done.

Defining functions & conditions: The functions named define is used to define functions. it
requires 3 arguments . 1 The new function name 2. The parameter for the function 3. The functions body or
lisp code, which perform the desired function on operations.
Syntax: (define name (parm1, parm2, , , ,) body)
Define does not evaluate its arguments .if simply builds a function which may be called like any other
function.
Ex: we define a function named average to compute the average of 3 no’s
->(Define average ((n1, n2, n3)( / (+ n1 n2 n3)3)
Average
->
->(Average (10, 20, 30)
20

84
->
The condition (cond): Predicates are 2 way to make tests in program & take different actions based on the
outcome of the test. We need some construct to permit branching.
Syntax: (cond (<test1><action>)
(<test2<action>)….. <testn><action>)

Each (<testi><action>)I=1…k is called a clause. Each clause consists of a test portion and an action result
portion.
Ex: find the max of 2 numbers
->(defun Maximum2(a, b)
(cond((> a b) a)
( t b)))
Maximum2
->
Note the t in the second clause preceding b. This forces last clause to be evaluated when the first clause is
(nil) (not).
->Maximum2 (234 320)
->320
Find maximum of 3 numbers
->(Defun Maximum3 (a b c )
(cond((>a b) (cond((>a c) a)( t c)))
((> b c) b ) (t c)))
Maximum 3
->
->Maximum3 (20 30 25)
30
->
Logical functions: Like predicate, logical functions may also be used for flow of control. The
basic logical operations are AND, OR , NOT. Not is the simplest, it takes one argument & returns if the
argument to nil.
Input, output and local variables: The operations we need for this are performed with the input-output
functions. The most commonly used i/o functions are read, print, print, princ, terpri and format.

Read: Read takes no argument

- >(+5 (read))
6(enter through key board)
Print: takes 1 argument. it prints the argument as it is received and then return the argument.

Ex: ->(print (a b c))

ABC
ABC
->(Print “hello there”)
“Hello there”
“Hello there”

prinl: It is the same as print except that the new line characters and space are not provided.

->(Print ‘(hello))(print ‘(hello))

(Hello)(Hello)

princ: We can avoid the double quotation makes in the output by using the printing function princ. it is
same as prinl except it does not print the unwanted quotation marks.

85
->(princ “hello there”)
hello there “hello there “
->

Terpri: Tt takes no arguments .it introduces a new line (carriage return and line feed) wherever it appears
and then return nil.

Format: The format function permits us to create cleaner output then is possible with just the basic printing
functions.
->(Format <destination><string>)
Destination specifies where the o/p is to be directed. String is the desired o/p string but intermixed with
format directives, which specify how watch argument is to be represented.
Directives appear in the same string in same order the argument is to be printed. Each directive is preceded
with a tilde character (~) to identify, it as a directive.

~^ the argument is printed through princ were used.

~S the argument is printed through prinl were used.

~D the argument which must be an integer is printed as a decimal number.

~F the argument must be a floating-point number is printed as a decimal floating point number.

~C the argument is printed as character

~% a new line is printed.

Ex: suppose x=3.0 ;y=9.42

>format t “circle radius =~2f ~% circle area=~3f”x

“Circle radius =3.0

Circle area=9.42”
->Ex: program find area of a circle
(defun circle-area()
(terpri)
(princ “please enter the radius”
(Set Q radius read))
(princ “the area of the circle is”)
(princ (*3.1416 radius )
(terpri)
circle-area
->(circle-area)
please enter the radius 4
the area of the circle :50.2656
->
Iteration: we introduce a structured form of iteration with the DO construct, which is some what like the
while loop in pascal.
The do statement has the form
(DO (<var1, val1><var-update1>)
<Var2 val2><var-update2>)

86
(<Test1><return-value>)
(<S-expression >)
The S expressions forming the body of the construct are optional
Ex:-> (defun factorial (n)
(Do ((count n (-count 1))
(Product n (*product (-count 1))
((Equal 0 count) product)))
Factorial
->
Recursion: For many problems, recursion is the natural method of solution. Such problems occur
frequently in mathematical logic and the use of recursion will often result in programs that are both elegant
& simple. A recursion function is one which cal itself successively to reduce a problem to a sequence of
simple steps. Recursion requires a stopping condition and a recursive step.
We illustrate with a recursive version of factorial. The recursive step in factorial is the product of n and
factorial (n-1) .the stop condition is reached when n=0.
-_(defun factorial (n)
(cond ((zero p n)1)
(t (*n(factorial(- n 1))))
Factorial
->Factorial (6)
720
->
Property lists: one of the unique and most useful features of lisp an AI language is the ability to assign
properties atoms. Property list functions permit one to assign such properties to an atom and to retrieve,
replace them as required.
The function putprop assigns properties to an atom .it takes 3 arguments: An object name can atom, a
proper or attribute name ,and property or attribute value. For ex: to assign properties to a car, we can assign
properties such as make year, color and style with the following statements.
Syntax: (putprop object value attribute)
Ex: (putprop ‘car ‘ford’ make)=>ford
(Putprop ‘car 1988 ‘year)=>1988
(Putprop ‘car ‘red’ color)=>red
getprop: to retrieve a property value, such as the color of car we use the function get, which also takes the 2
arguments object and attribute.
Syntax: (get object attribute)
Ex: (get ‘car ‘ color )=>red
(get ‘car ‘ year )=>1998
remprop:this function is used to remove the properties .it takes 2 arguments object & attribute .
syntax: (remprop object attribute)
ex: (remprop ‘car ‘ color)=>red
setf:the new function setf is same as setq except it is more general.it is an assignment function which also
takes 2 arguments, the first of which may be either an atom or an access function (CRA,CDR,get) and the
second the value to be assigned .
arrays: single or multiple dimension arrays may be defined in lisp using the make-array function.the items
tored in the array may be any lisp object.
(self myarray (make-array(10)))
#A(00000000)
Mapping functions:
Map car: Mapcar is one of several mapping functions provided in lisp to apply some function successively
to one or more lists of elements. the first argument of mapcar is a function and the remaining arguments are
lists of elements to which the named function is applied. The result of applying the function to successive
members of the lists are placed in a new list which is returned.

87
Ex;1-> (map car ‘1+’(5 10 15 20 25)
(6 11 16 21 26)
->
2->(map car ‘+’ (123456)’( 1 2 3 4 ))
2468
->
lambda functions: LISP provides a method of writing unnamed or anonymous functions that are evaluated
only when they are encountered in a program. Such functions are called lambda functions.
(lambda (arguments)<function body>)
ex:(lambda (x)(* x x x))
(lambda(5) (* 5 5 5))=>125
otherwise ->(defun cub_lsit(lst)
(map car #’(lambda (x)(for all x x x ))lst))
CUBE_LIST
->(cube list (1 2 3 4 )
(182764)
+ to indicate that the following item is a function. This is equivalent to preceding the function with a single
quotation mark(‘).

Master of Computer Applications 2.1.5.

II Year I semester Syllabus

Instruction: 3 Periods /week Sessional Marks: 25

Univ.-Exam: 3 Hours Univ-Exam-Marks: 75

1. Introduction to AI: AI problems, Underlying assumptions, what is an AI technique? Criteria for

success, Problem spaces, Search, State space representation of several problems.

2. Heuristic Search Techniques. Generate and test, Hill climbing, Breadth first search, Problem
reduction, Constraint satisfaction, Means-ends analysis, Dependency directed backtracking.

3. Knowledge Representation Issues and Representation using Predicate Logic. Declarative Vs

Procedural knowledge, representation and mappings, knowledge representation issues, predicate

88
 logic vocabulary, Representing simple facts in logic, Computable functions and predicates,
Conversion of WFFs to clause form, Resolution, Matching-Unification algorithm.

4. Representing Knowledge using Rules Logic programming, Forward Vs Backward reasoning,

Matching -RETE matching algorithm, approximate matching,. Symbolic reasoning under
uncertainty-Introduction to non-monotonic reasoning. Logics for non-monotonic reasoning.
Statistical reasoning- Certainty factors, Bayesian networks, Dempster-shafer theory, Fuzzy logic

5. Knowledge Representation using Slot and Filler Structures,: Frame problem semantic nets,
Frames-property inheritance, multiple Inheritance tangled hierarchies, CD representation and
Scripts.

6. PROLOG: - Facts, Rules, Control Predicates, Recursion in PROLOG,

M.Sc Computer Science (1.2.4)

I Year II semester Syllabus

Instruction: 3 Periods Sessional Marks: 25

Univ-Exam: 3 Hours Univ.Exam Marks: 75

1. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence: Overview of AI - Definition of AI, Relationship between AI

Systems and other computing systems, Comparison between AI Programming and other
conventional programming, AI and related fields, key issues in AI Research, AI Problems -
Examples, Problem spaces, Production systems and characteristics, knowledge - general concepts.

2. Knowledge Representation: Approaches to knowledge representation, Issues in knowledge

representation, formal systems - basic concepts, Symbolic logics-Syntax and semantics of FOPL,
Properties of w.f.f, clausal forms, Resolution principle, Examples of Resolution, Structural
Knowledge - graphics, frames, C.D's and scripts, probabilistic reasoning - Bayesian Networks,

89
 Dampster - Shafer theory, Non Monotonic Reasoning - TMS, Model and Temporal logics, Fuzzy
sets & Fuzzy logics.

3. Knowledge organization and Manipulation: Search and control strategies - Examples of research
problems, uniformed search techniques, informed and Heuristic search techniques, Matching
Techniques - Structures used in Matching, Measures of matching, partial matching, Fuzzy Matching
Algorithms and RETE Matching Algorithm.

4. AI Languages: LISP - Basic list manipulation functions, predicates, Conditionals,

Input, Output and local variables, Iteration and Recursion in LISP, Property lists and Arrays.
PROLOG - Introduction, facts, questions, variables, conjunctions, syntax of character, Operators,
equality, matching, arithmetic expressions, Goals, Back tracking, cut predicates, Input and Output
operations.

TEXT BOOKS:

Artificial Intelligence by Elaine RICH and Kevin Knight – TMH

Introduction to Turbo PROLOG Carl Towsrehd (BPB)
Introduction to AI & Expert Systems by O.W. Patternson - PHI
Artificial Intelligence by N J Nilsson HARCOURT ASIA (Pvt) Ltd.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

Programming Prolog by Clockson & Mellish - Narosa

Artificial Intelligence by P.H Winston – AWL

90
 Questions:

1. Define Artificial Intelligence. What are its techniques and its related fields (applications).
2. Distinguish between Human brain and Computers.
3. Distinguish between Artificial Intelligence programming and Conventional programming (Software
programming).**
4. Define state space representation and give an example of state space representation (water jug problem,
chess problem)
5. State the problem things and its characteristics.
6. What are the various characteristics that are considered in solving a problem? Explain.**
Or
Explain what are the key dimensions to analyze the problem
7. How to represent a problem in state space? Give good state space representation for “Tower of Hanoi”
problem.
8. What is production system? Describe its suitability to perform state space search.**
9. Write blind or uninformed or brute-force searching techniques (Dfs and Bfs).
10. Write heuristic search techniques (Generate and Test, hill climbing, Best first search, A*, AO*or And Or
graph algorithms)**
11. Describe the constraint satisfaction procedure and solve the following problems:
SEND + MORE=MONEY, CROSS+ROAD=DANGER,DONALD+ZERALD = ROBERT.
12. Explain the Means – end analysis.
13. Distinguish between Declarative knowledge representations and procedural knowledge representations
with suitable example.
14. Describe the Key issues in knowledge representation
15. Describe the knowledge representation using semantic nets
16. Construct partitioned semantic net representations for the following statements.
(a). Every batter hit a ball
(b). All the batters like the pitch
17. Describe the knowledge representation using frames.
18. Describe the knowledge representation using scripts with suitable example.
19. Construct a script for going to a restaurant or super market or movie or an interview or college.
20. Describe the knowledge representation using conceptual dependencies.
21. Show a conceptual dependence representation of the sentence: I gave the man a Red Book
22. What are the advantages of predicate logic over prepositional logic
23. Write the rules for transform a sentence into clausal form (canonical form).
24. Represent the following facts in FOPL and convert them into clause form. Use resolution techniques to
find that Ravi is spy.
One of Raman, Ravi, Raghu and Ramesh is spy.
Raman is not spy.
Spies wear light colored dresses and do not attract attention of others.
Raghu was wearing a dark colored suit.
Ramesh was the center of attention of that evening..
25. Assume the following facts.
Steve only likes easy courses.
Science courses are hard.
All the courses in the basket-wearing department are easy.
BK301 is a basket-weaving course.
Use resolution to answer the question.
26. Write Unification algorithm and explain it by taking suitable example.**
27. With suitable example explain how TMS works.**
28. Probability reasoning theorem-Bayesean theorem and Bayesean Networks.
29. Probability reasoning theorem- Dampster-Shafer theory.

91
30. Fuzzy reasoning, Fuzzy sets, Fuzzy algorithm and RETE matching algorithm.
31. Write partial matching or fuzzy matching or RETE matching algorithms.**
32. Discuss various features available in Lisp to support AI Technique
33. Write basic list manipulation functions and input and out put operators in LISP.
34. Explain the difference between iteration and recursion in LISP.**
35. Write property list operators in LISP.
36. Write basic input and output operators in PROLOG.
37. Write predicate conditional operators (Fail, Recursion, cut) in PROLOG.**

Short notes:

1. Define Intelligence and Knowledge

2. Define Physical symbol synthesis.
3. Problem reduction
4. Production system characteristics.
5. Searches
6. Properties of W.F.F
7. Resolution principle & Algorithm**
8. Unification
9. Semantic nets
10. Frames
11. Conceptual Dependencies
12. Default reasoning
13. Circumscriptions
14. Closed world Assumptions (CWA)
15. Completion Formulas
16. Fuzzy logic
17. Linguistic variables
18. Heuristic functions
19. Ad-hoc methods
20. Matching
21. Backtracking

92