DAN PEDOE GEOMETRY A COMPREHENSIVE COURSEGEOMETRY A COMPREHENSIVE COURSE Dan Pedoe Professor Emeritus, Mathematics University of Minnesota DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. NEW YORKTo William, Nadine, Susan, Simon, Oliver and Ian Coypright © 1970 by Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved under Pan American and International Copyright Conventions. Published in Canada by General Publishing Company, Ltd., 30 Lesmill Road, Don Mills, Toronto, Ontario. Published in the United Kingdom by Constable and Com- pany, Ltd., 10 Orange Street, London WC2H 7EG. This Dover edition, first published in 1988, is an un- abridged, corrected republication of the work first published by the Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1970, under the title A Course of Geometry for Colleges and Universities. Manufactured in the United States of America Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pedoe, Daniel. ; {Course of geometry for colleges and universities] Geometry, a comprehensive course / by Dan Pedoe. Pp. cm. Reprint. Originally published: A course of geometry for colleges and universities. London : Cambridge University Press, 1970. Bibliography: p. Includes index. ISBN 0-486-65812-0 (pbk.) 1. Geometry. 1. Title. QA445.P43 1988 88-18691 516—del9 CIPCONTENTS Preface p.XI Chapter 0: Preliminary Notions 0.1 The Euclidean plane, p. 1. 0.2 The affine plane, p. 5. 0.3Notation, p.6. 0.4 Com- plex numbers, p. 7. 0.5 The Argand diagram, p. 8. 0.6 The conjugate of a complex number, p. 9. 0.7 The triangle inequality, p. 10. Exercises, p. I]. 0.8 De Moivre’s theorem, p. I. Exercises, p. 13. 0.9 Real and imaginary in geometry, p. 14, 0.10 Equi- valence relations, p. 14. Exercises, p. 15. 0.11 Mappings, or transformations, p. 15. 0.12 Products of mappings, p. 16. Exercises, p. 18. 0.13 Linear algebra, p. 19. Chapter I: Vectors 1.1 Vectors in the Euclidean (and affine) plane, p. 20. 1.2 Addition of bound vectors, p. 21. 1.3 Vector spaces, p. 23. 1.4 Linear dependence, p. 23. Exercises, p. 24. 2.1 Notation, p. 25. 3.1 Points on a line, theorems I, II, Ill, IV, p. 25. 3.2 First applications, p. 27. 3.3 The centroid of a triangle, p. 28. Exercises, p. 28. 4.1 Theorem of Menelaus, p. 28. 4.2 Barycentric coordinates, p. 30. 4.3 Theorem of Ceva, p. 31. 4.4 Example, p. 32. Exercises, p. 32. 5.1 The parallel case of the Desargues theorem, p. 33. 5.2 The Desargues theorem, p. 34. Exercises, p. 35. 6.1 Reciprocal figures, p. 35. Exercises, p. 37. 7.1 Inner products in Euclidean space of two dimensions, p. 37. 7.2 Example, p. 38. 7.3 The nine-point circle, p. 39. Exercises, p. 40. 8.1 The supplement of vectors in a plane, p. 41. 8.2 Example, p.42. 8.3 Orthologic triangles, p. 42. Exercises, p. 44. 9.1 The exterior product of two vectors, p. 44. 9.2 Geometrical interpretation of exterior product, p. 45. 9.3 A criterion for colline- arity, p. 45. Exercises, p. 46. 9.4 Application of the criterion, p. 46. 9.5 The parallel case of Pappus’ theorem, p. 47. Exercise, p. 48. 10.1 A necessary and sufficient condition for the concurrency of three lines, p. 48. 10.2 The theorem itself, p. 49. 10.3 Application of the concurrency conditions, p. 50. Exercises, p. 51. IL.1 The exterior product of three vectors, p. 52. 11.2 Applications, p. 53. 11.3 Example, p. 54. Exercises, p. 55. Chapter IT: Circles 12.1 The nine-point circle, p. 56. Exercises, p. 59. 13.1 The centers of similitude of two circles, p. 59. Exercises, p. 62. 14.1 Reflexions in a line, p. 62, 14.2 Product of reflexions in intersecting lines, p. 63. 14.3 Product of reflexions in parallel lines, [Vv]vi CONTENTS p. 64. Exercises, p. 65. 14.4 Example, p. 65. Exercise, p. 66. 15.1 Applications of reflexions to minimum problems, p. 66. 16.1 Product of rotations, p. 67. Exer- cises, p. 68. 17.1 Another application of reflexions, p. 68, 18.1 The power of a point with respect to a circle, p. 71. 18.2 Geometrical interpretation of the power of a point, p. 71. 18.3 The Apollonius circle of two points, p. 72. Exercises, p. 73. 19.1 Harmonic division, p. 74. Exercises, p. 75. 20.1 Inversion, p. 75. 20.2 A property of inverse points, p. 76. Exercises, p. 76. 20.3 Inversion in a line, p. 77. 20.4 A construction for inverse points, p. 77. 20.5 Extending a segment with a pair of compasses, p. 78. Exercises, p. 78. 21.1 Inverses of lines and circles, p. 78. Exercises, p. 80. 22.1 The angle of intersection of two circles, p.81. 22.2 Inversion preserves angles, p. 83. 22.3 Example, p. 83. Exercises, p. 84. 22.4 Another look at the angle of intersection, p. 84. 23.1 The effect of inversion on length, p. 85. 23.2 The cross-ratio of points on a line, p. 86. 23.3 The inverse of the center of a circle, p. 86. 23.4 Two celebrated theorems, p. 87. 24.1 An extension of Ptolemy’s theorem, p. 89. 24.2 Fermat's principle and Snell’s law, p. 91. Exercises, p. 93. 24.3 The Fermat problem, p. 93. Exercises, p.94. 25.1 A fixed point theorem, p. 95. 25.2 The inverse of a circle and a pair of inverse points, p. 96. Exercises, p. 96. 25.3 Circles into concentric circles, p. 97. 25.4 The Steiner porism, p. 98. 25.5 The Steiner formula, p. 99. Exercises, p. 100. 26.1 The problem of Apollonius, p. 101. Exercises, p. 105. Chapter II: Coaxal Systems of Circles 27.1 Pencils of circles, p. 106, 27.2 Pencil of circles as a locus, p. 107. Exercises, p. 108, 27.3 The radical axis of two circles, p. 108. Exercises, p. 108. 27.4 Justification of the term: coaxal system, p. 109, Exercise, p. 109. 27.5 Determination of a coaxal system, p. 109. Exercises, p. 110. 28.1 A theorem on radical axes, p. 110. 28.2 The circle orthogonal to three given circles, p. 111. Exercises, p. 113. 28.3 Another proof of the nine-point circle theorem, p. 113. 28.4 Clerk Maxwell's derivation of reciprocal figures, p. 114, 29.1 Canonical form for the equation of a coaxal system, p. 116. 29.2 The intersecting type of coaxal system, p. 117. 29.3 The tangent type of coaxal system, p. 118. 29.4 The non-intersecting type of coaxal system, p. 118. 29.5 Polar systems of coaxal circles, p. 119. Exercises, p. 121. 30.1 The inverse of a coaxal system, p. 121. Exercises, p. 122. 31.1 Geometry of the compasses, p. 122. 31.2 Deter- mination of the center of the circle through three points, p. 123. Exercise, p. 124. 32.1 Constructions with a disk, p. 124. Exercises, p. 125. Chapter IV: The Representation of Circles by Points in Space of Three Dimensions 33.1 Vectors in Euclidean and affine space of three dimensions, p. 126. 33.2 The sum of two vectors, p. 127. 33.3 Linear dependence, p. 128, 33.4 Points on a line, p. 129.CONTENTS va 33.5 Points in a plane, p. 129. Exercises, p. 131. 34.1 Inner products in Euclidean space of three dimensions, p. 132. 35.1 The polar plane of a point, p. 135. Exercises, p. 137, 36.1 The representation of circles by points of Es, p. 138. 36.2 The representa- tion of a coaxal system, p. 139. Exercises, p. 140. 36.3 Deductions from the representa- tion, p. 141. Exercises, p. 144, 37.1 Orthogonal circles and conjugate points, p. 144, 37.2 Polar lines and polar coaxal systems, p. 146. 37.3 Bundles of circles, p. 147. Exercises, p. 148. 38.1 Circles which cut three given circles at equal angles, p. 149. 39.1 The representation of inversion, p. 151. Exercises, p. 152. 40.1 An algebra of circles, p. 153, 40.2 An inner product for two circles, p. 155. 40.3 A theorem of Descartes, p. 157. Exercises, p. 159. Chapter V: Mappings of the Euclidean Plane 41.1 Translations, p. 160, 41.2 Rotations, p. 160. 41.3 Reflexions, p. 161. 41.4 In- version, p. 162. 41.5 Central dilatations, p. 162. Exercises, p. 163. 42.1 Isometries, p. 164. 42.2 Coordinate transformations, p. 164. Exercises, p. 166. 43.1 The main theorem on isometries of the Gauss plane, p. 166. 43.2 An auxiliary theorem, p. 166. 43.3 Isometries are collineations, p. 167. 43.4 Isometries and parallel lines, p. 167. 43.5 Determination of an isometry, p. 168. 43.6 An auxiliary theorem, p. 169. Exer- cises, p. 170. 44.1 Subgroups, p. 171. 44.2 Conditions for a subgroup, p. 171. 44,3 Cosets, p. 171. 44.4 The identity of cosets, p. 172. 44.5 Right and left cosets, p. 173. Exercises, p. 174. 45,1 Conjugate and normal subgroups, p. 174, 45.2 An equivalent definition of normal subgroup, p. 174. 45.3 Subgroups of index two, p. 175. 45.4 Isomorphisms, p. 175. 45.5 Automorphisms, p. 175, Exercises, p. 176. 46.1 Translations, p. 176, 46.2 Dilative rotations, p. 177. 46.3 Central dilatations, p. 177. 46.4 Group property of isometries, p. 177. Exercises, p. 179. 47.1 Similarity trans- formations, p. 179, 47.2 Main theorem for similitudes, p. 181. 47.3 An auxiliary theorem, p. 181, 47.4 Similitudes are collineations, p. 181. 47.5 Similitudes and parallel lines, p. 182, 47.6 Determination of a similitude, p. 182. 47.7 An auxiliary theorem, p. 182. 47.8 Group property of similitudes, p. 182. 47.9 Condition for direct similarity, p. 182. 47.10 Orientation, p. 183. Exercises, p. 183. 48.1 The group of translations, p. 184, 48.2 The fixed points of a mapping, p. 185. 48.3 The fixed point of a direct isometry, p. 185, 48.4 Direct isometries and rotations, p. 186. 48.5 Rotation groups, p. 187. Exercises, p. 188. 49.1 The fixed points of indirect isometries, p. 188. 49.2 Indirect isometries as reflexions, p. 189. 49.3 Canonical form for reflexions, p. 190. Exercises, p. 192. 50.1 Involutory isometries, p. 192. 50.2 The composition of two reflexions, p. 192. $0.3 Opposite isometries without fixed points, p. 193, 50.4 Hjelmslev’s theorem, p. 195. 50.5 Direct and opposite similitudes, p. 197. Exercises, p. 198. 51.1 Line reflexions, p. 199. 51.2 Condition