483F12L04 Orbmech

Orbital Mechanics
Lecture #03 September 8, 2011 ENAE 483/484 project organization Planetary launch and entry overview Energy and velocity in orbit Elliptical orbit parameters Orbital elements Coplanar orbital transfers Noncoplanar transfers Time in orbit Interplanetary trajectories Relative orbital motion (proximity operations)
UNIVERSITY OF
2011 David L. Akin - All rights reserved http://spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu
MARYLAND
Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design
Notes
There will be no live lecture on Tuesday, 9/13 - a lecture video will be posted Looking ahead - under current plans, the following lectures will also be video only
Tuesday, 9/20 Thursday, 9/22 Thursday, 9/29
As always, future plans are subject to change at any time, so keep checking the syllabus at spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu
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Exo-SPHERES Project Team

Systems Integration
Gabriel Charalambides Raymond Russell Terry Van Wormer
Power, Propulsion, and Thermal

Henry Elder Ethan Evans Angela Maki
Mission Planning and Analysis

Justin Brannan Josh Fogel Samuel Lewis
Crew Systems
Loads, Structures, and Mechanisms

Andrei Arevalo Daniel Skeberdis Walter McGee
Avionics and Software

Reuben Abraham Anthony Morales Sanka Perera Sean Hersey Michael Tsu Benjamin Krosner
Pratik Saripalli Sean Li
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Human/Robotic Servicing Project Team

Systems Integration
Donald Clabaugh Bradley Hood Brian Chinn
Power, Propulsion, and Thermal

Richard Burcat Grant Barrett Jamil Shehadeh
Mission Planning and Analysis

Marco Colleluori Elizabeth Lato Lucrecio Alberto
Crew Systems
Jason Niemeyer Sahil Ambani
Loads, Structures, and Mechanisms

David Thoerig Jason Lu William Gross
Avionics and Software

Matthew Westerfield Joseph Chung Alexander Nelson
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Space Launch - The Physics

Minimum orbital altitude is ~200 km
P otential Energy 6 J = + = 1.9 10 kg in orbit rorbit rE kg
Circular orbital velocity there is 7784 m/sec

Kinetic Energy 1 6 J = = 30 10 2 kg in orbit 2 rorbit kg
Total energy per kg in orbit

T otal Energy 6 J = KE + P E = 32 10 kg in orbit kg
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Theoretical Cost to Orbit

Convert to usual energy units
T otal Energy kW hrs 6 J = 32 10 = 8.888 kg in orbit kg kg
Domestic energy costs are ~$0.05/kWhr Theoretical cost to orbit $0.44/kg
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Actual Cost to Orbit

Delta IV Heavy
23,000 kg to LEO $250 M per flight
$10,900/kg of payload Factor of 25,000x higher than theoretical energy costs!
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What About Airplanes?

For an aircraft in level flight,
Weight Lift mg L = , or = Thrust Drag T D
Energy = force x distance, so

Total Energy thrust distance Td gd = = = kg mass m L/D
For an airliner (L/D=25) to equal orbital energy, d=81,000 km (2 roundtrips NY-Sydney)

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Equivalent Airline Costs?

Average economy ticket NY-Sydney roundround-trip (Travelocity 9/3/09) ~$1300 Average passenger (+ luggage) ~100 kg Two round trips = $26/kg
Factor of 60x more than electrical energy costs Factor of 420x less than current launch costs
But you get to refuel at each stop!
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Equivalence to Air Transport

81,000 km ~ twice around the world Voyager - one of only two aircraft to ever circle the world non-stop, non-refueled once!
UNIVERSITY OF Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design
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Orbital Entry - The Physics

32 MJ/kg dissipated by friction with atmosphere over ~8 min = 66kW/kg Pure graphite (carbon) high-temperature material: cp=709 J/kgK Orbital energy would cause temperature gain of 45,000K! (If youre interesting in how this works out, you can take ENAE 791 Launch and Entry Vehicle Design next term...)
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Newtons Law of Gravitation

Inverse square law
GM m F = r2
Since its easier to remember one number,

= GM
If youre looking for local gravitational acceleration,

g= 2 r
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Some Useful Constants

Gravitation constant = GM
Earth: 398,604 km3/sec2 Moon: 4667.9 km3/sec2 Mars: 42,970 km3/sec2 Sun: 1.327x1011 km3/sec2
Planetary radii
rEarth = 6378 km rMoon = 1738 km rMars = 3393 km
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Energy in Orbit
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy Total Energy
2 v 1 K.E. = K.E. = mv 2 = 2 m 2
P.E. m = = P.E. = r m r v2 = Constant = 2 r 2a 2 1 2 <--Vis-Viva Equation v = r a

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Classical Parameters of Elliptical Orbits
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The Classical Orbital Elements
Ref: J. E. Prussing and B. A. Conway, Orbital Mechanics Oxford University Press, 1993 UNIVERSITY OF
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Implications of Vis-Viva
Circular orbit (r=a)
vcircular = r 2 r
Parabolic escape orbit (a tends to infinity)

vescape =
Relationship between circular and parabolic orbits

vescape =
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2vcircular
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The Hohmann Transfer
r2 r1 v1
v2 vapogee
vperigee
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First Maneuver Velocities

Initial vehicle velocity
v1 = r1 r1 2r2 r1 + r2
Needed final velocity

vperigee =
Delta-V
v1 =
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r1
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2r2 1 r1 + r2
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Second Maneuver Velocities

vapogee = r2 r2 2r1 r1 + r2 2r1 r1 + r2

v2 =
Delta-V
v2 =
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r2
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Implications of Hohmann Transfers

Implicit assumption is made that velocity changes instantaneously - impulsive thrust Decent assumption if acceleration ~5 m/sec2 (0.5 gEarth) Lower accelerations result in altitude change during burn lower efficiencies and higher Vs Worst case is continuous infinitesimal thrusting (e.g., ion engines) V between circular coplanar orbits r1 and r2 is
VLow
T hrust
= Vc 1 Vc2 =
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r1
r2
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Limitations on Launch Inclinations
Equator
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Differences in Inclination
Line of Nodes
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Choosing the Wrong Line of Apsides
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Simple Plane Change
v1 vperigee
vapogee
v2 v2
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Optimal Plane Change
vperigee v1 v1
vapogee
v2 v2
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First Maneuver with Plane Change i1

v1 =
r1
2r2 r 1 + r2

vp = r1
Delta-V
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2 + v 2 2v v cos i v1 = v1 1 p 1 p
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Second Maneuver with Plane Change i2

va = r2 2r1 r 1 + r2

v2 =
Delta-V
r2
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2 + v 2 2v v cos i v2 = v2 2 a 2 a
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Sample Plane Change Maneuver
Optimum initial plane change = 2.20 UNIVERSITY OF
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Calculating Time in Orbit
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Time in Orbit
Period of an orbit
P = 2 a3
Mean motion (average angular velocity)

n= a3
Time since pericenter passage M=mean anomaly

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M = nt = E e sin E
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Dealing with the Eccentric Anomaly

Relationship to orbit Relationship to true anomaly
tan = 2
r = a (1 e cos E )
Calculating M from time interval: iterate

Ei+1 = nt + e sin Ei
1+e E tan 1e 2
until it converges
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Example: Time in Orbit

Hohmann transfer from LEO to GEO
h1=300 km --> r1=6378+300=6678 km r2=42240 km
Time of transit (1/2 orbital period)

1 a = (r1 + r2 ) = 24, 459 km 2 P a3 = = = 19, 034 sec = 5h17m14s 2
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ttransit
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Example: Time-based Position

Find the spacecraft position 3 hours after perigee
4 rad = 1.650x10 n= 3 a sec rp e=1 = 0.7270 a = nt + e sin Ej = 1.783 + 0.7270 sin Ej
E=0; 1.783; 2.494; 2.222; 2.361; 2.294; 2.328; 2.311; 2.320; 2.316; 2.318; 2.317; 2.317; 2.317
Ej +1
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Example: Time-based Position (cont.)

E = 2.317
r = a(1 e cos E ) = 12, 387 km 1+e E tan = tan = = 160 deg 2 1e 2
Have to be sure to get the position in the proper quadrant - since the time is less than 1/2 the period, the spacecraft has yet to reach apogee --> 0<<180
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Basic Orbital Parameters

Semi-latus rectum (or parameter)
p = a(1 e )
2
Radial distance as function of orbital position

p r= 1 + e cos
Periapse and apoapse distances

rp = a(1 e) ra = a(1 + e) h= p
Angular momentum
h=rv
UNIVERSITY OF Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design
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Velocity Components in Orbit

p r= 1 + e cos p(e sin d dr d p dt ) vr = = = dt dt 1 + e cos (1 + e cos )2
pe sin d vr = (1 + e cos )2 dt
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2 d r p dt e sin 1 + e cos = vr = r p h = r v
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Velocity Components in Orbit (cont.)

h= r v d h = rv cos = r r dt =r
2 d
dt
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Patched Conics
Simple approximation to multi-body motion (e.g., traveling from Earth orbit through solar orbit into Martian orbit) Treats multibody problem as hand-offs between gravitating bodies --> reduces analysis to sequential two-body problems Caveat Emptor: There are a number of formal methods to perform patched conic analysis. The approach presented here is a very simple, convenient, and not altogether accurate method for performing this calculation. Results will be accurate to a few percent, which is adequate at this level of design analysis.
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Example: Lunar Orbit Insertion

v2 is velocity of moon around Earth Moon overtakes spacecraft with velocity of (v2-vapogee) This is the velocity of the spacecraft relative to the moon while it is effectively infinitely far away (before lunar gravity accelerates it) = hyperbolic excess velocity
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Planetary Approach Analysis

Spacecraft has vh hyperbolic excess velocity, which fixes total energy of approach orbit Vis-viva provides velocity of approach
v=
2 vh
2 v2 vh = = 2 r 2a 2
Choose transfer orbit such that approach is tangent to desired final orbit at periapse
v =
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2 + r
2 vh
2 + r
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Patched Conic - Lunar Approach

Lunar orbital velocity around the Earth
vm = = rm km 398, 604 = 1.018 384, 400 sec
Apogee velocity of Earth transfer orbit from initial 400 km low Earth orbit
va = vm 2r1 = 1.018 r1 + rm km 6778 = 0.134 6778 + 384, 400 sec
Velocity difference between spacecraft infinitely far away and moon (hyperbolic excess velocity)
vh = vm va = vm
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km = 1.018 0.134 = 0.884 sec
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Patched Conic - Lunar Orbit Insertion

The spacecraft is now in a hyperbolic orbit of the moon. The velocity it will have at the perilune point tangent to the desired 100 km low lunar orbit is
vpm =
2 vh
2m + = rLLO
1.0182
km 2(4667.9) = 2.451 + 1878 sec
The required delta-V to slow down into low lunar orbit is

v = vpm vcm = 2.451 km 4667.9 = 0.874 1878 sec
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V Requirements for Lunar Missions

To: Low Earth Lunar Orbit Transfer From: Orbit Low Earth 3.107 Orbit km/sec Lunar Transfer Orbit Low Lunar Orbit Lunar Descent Orbit Lunar Landing 3.107 km/sec 0.837 km/sec 0.022 km/sec 2.890 km/sec 2.312 km/sec Low Lunar Orbit Lunar Descent Orbit Lunar Landing
0.837 km/sec 0.022 km/sec
3.140 km/sec
2.684 km/sec
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LOI V Based on Landing Site
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LOI V Including Loiter Effects
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Interplanetary Pork Chop Plots

Summarize a number of critical parameters
Date of departure Date of arrival Hyperbolic energy (C3) Transfer geometry
Launch vehicle determines available C3 based on window, payload mass

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Hills Equations (Proximity Operations)

= 3n x + 2 ny + adx x = 2 nx + ady y
2 z = n z + ad z
Ref: J. E. Prussing and B. A. Conway, Orbital Mechanics Oxford University Press, 1993
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Clohessy-Wiltshire (CW) Equations

sin(nt ) 2 o + [1 cos(nt)] y o x (t ) = [ 4 3cos(nt )]x o + x n n
2 4sin( nt) 3nt o y (t ) = 6[sin( nt) nt] x o + y o [1 cos( nt)] x o + y n n
z o z( t) = zo cos(nt ) + sin( nt) n
o sin(nt ) z( t) = zo n sin( nt) + z

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V-Bar Approach
Ref: Collins, Meissinger, and Bell, Small Orbit Transfer Vehicle (OTV) for On-Orbit Satellite Servicing and Resupply, 15th USU Small Satellite Conference, 2001 UNIVERSITY OF Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design
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R-Bar Approach
Approach from along the radius vector (Rbar) Gravity gradients decelerate spacecraft approach velocity - low contamination approach Used for Mir, ISS docking approaches
Ref: Collins, Meissinger, and Bell, Small Orbit Transfer Vehicle (OTV) for On-Orbit Satellite Servicing and Resupply, 15th USU Small Satellite Conference, 2001 Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design
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References for This Lecture

Wernher von Braun, The Mars Project University of Illinois Press, 1962 William Tyrrell Thomson, Introduction to Space Dynamics Dover Publications, 1986 Francis J. Hale, Introduction to Space Flight PrenticeHall, 1994 William E. Wiesel, Spaceflight Dynamics MacGrawHill, 1997 J. E. Prussing and B. A. Conway, Orbital Mechanics Oxford University Press, 1993
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Orbital Mechanics

2011 David L. Akin - All rights reserved http://spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Exo-SPHERES Project Team

Power, Propulsion, and Thermal

Mission Planning and Analysis

Loads, Structures, and Mechanisms

Avionics and Software

Pratik Saripalli Sean Li

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Human/Robotic Servicing Project Team

Power, Propulsion, and Thermal

Mission Planning and Analysis

Loads, Structures, and Mechanisms

Avionics and Software

Space Launch - The Physics

Circular orbital velocity there is 7784 m/sec

Total energy per kg in orbit

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Theoretical Cost to Orbit

Domestic energy costs are ~$0.05/kWhr Theoretical cost to orbit $0.44/kg

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Actual Cost to Orbit

$10,900/kg of payload Factor of 25,000x higher than theoretical energy costs!

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

What About Airplanes?

Energy = force x distance, so

For an airliner (L/D=25) to equal orbital energy, d=81,000 km (2 roundtrips NY-Sydney)

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Equivalent Airline Costs?

But you get to refuel at each stop!

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Equivalence to Air Transport

Orbital Entry - The Physics

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Newtons Law of Gravitation

Since its easier to remember one number,

If youre looking for local gravitational acceleration,

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Some Useful Constants

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

P.E. m = = P.E. = r m r v2 = Constant = 2 r 2a 2 1 2 <--Vis-Viva Equation v = r a

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Classical Parameters of Elliptical Orbits

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

The Classical Orbital Elements

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Parabolic escape orbit (a tends to infinity)

Relationship between circular and parabolic orbits

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

The Hohmann Transfer

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

First Maneuver Velocities

Needed final velocity

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Second Maneuver Velocities

Needed final velocity

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Implications of Hohmann Transfers

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design

Limitations on Launch Inclinations

Orbital Mechanics ENAE 483/788D - Principles of Space Systems Design