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AMERICAN TECHNICAL PUBLISHE RS, INC. HOMEWOOD, ILLINO IS 604304600
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Welding Skills. 3'" Ed ition and CD-ROM contai n welding proced ures commonly practiced in industry. Specific proced ures vary from plant to plant and mu st be perform ed by a qualifi ed person. For max imum safety. always refer to spec ific manufacturer recommendation s; ins urance regulati on s; specific plant procedures; applica ble federal, state, and loc al regul ations; and any authority having ju risdicti on .
American Technical Publishers, Inc. Editnrial StalT Ed itor in Chief: Jo nathan F. Gosse Production Manager: Peter A. Z urlis Tec hnica l Ed ito r: Karen M. Goodfriend Copy Editor: Richard S. S tein III ustration /L ayo ut: Jam es M. Clarke Aimee M. Brucks
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CD 2004 by Ame rican Tec hnical Publi shers. Inc. All right s reserved
3456789 - 04 - 9 8 7 6 5 4 32
Printed in the United States of Ame rica
The author and publisher are grateful fo r the technical in formation and assistan ce prov ided by the [allowing companies, organizations, and individuals:
Airco American Welding Soc iety ASI Robi con Bach arach, Inc. Baker Testi ng Bernard Weld ing Equipme nt Co mpany Bobcat Company, a Unit of Ing ersoll-Rand Boe ing Commercial Airplane Gro up Buehler Ltd . Chrysler Corporatio n Cleave r-Brook s Co lumbus McKinnon Co rpo ration, Indu stria l Products Division The Duriron Co, Inc. E.!. du Pont de Nemours and Co mpany ESAB Welding and Cutting Produ cts Exxon Co mp any Fan uc Robot ics No rth Amer ica Fax itron X-Ra y Corp oration G.A.L. Ga ge Company Harrington Hoi sts, Inc. Haynes International, Inc . Hobart Welder s Ironworkers, Local Unio n 378 Kamw eld Technologies LECO Co rpo ration The Lincoln Elect ric Co mpa ny LOCK- N-STITCH , Inc. LPS Laboratories, Inc. Miller Elec tric Manu facturin g Co mpany Mo tornun, I nc. Nederman , Inc . Osborn Internationa l Pandjiris, Inc. Rath Man ufacturing Sciaky, Inc . Sell stro m Manufacturing Co. SIFCO Selective Plating, Cleveland , OH Smith Eq uipment SPM Instrument, Inc. Stork Technimet, Inc. Therma dy ne Ind ustries, Inc . Thermo GasTech Tiniu s Olsen Testin g Machine Co., Inc . Victor, a Division of Thermadyne Indu str ies, Inc . Wall Colmonoy Co rpora tion Weld Tooling Co rp.
Thoma s J. C lark Ironworkers, Local Union 378 Charlie R. Cramlet E.!. du Pont de Ne mou rs and Co mpany Dave Doner Prairi e State Coll ege Dave He idemann Miller Electric Manufact urin g Company
Thomas P. Heraly Milwaukee Tec hnica l Co llege Ga ry Reed SI FCO Selec tive Platin g Glen Schulte Joli et Junior Co llege Mark Schumann Mill er Electric Manufacturing Company
nt nts
sec tion . 0
ne
1 An Essential Skill
lNhere Weldingis Used . Developmentaf WeldingPr ocesses Wek:1.ing Processes OccuPOtionoiOpportunities on Welding
--::--:-:--:---::-_----:
section .
two
OAW-Equipment
Oxygen f", Welding .AcelyleneF<xWeiding .Sofe HondiingOf
o,tnde<s . Welding Apparatus Ott>er Welding Gases
5
6
7
61
Points to Rem em ber Exercises 67 67
OAW-Flat Position
COtT)'i'1g Q Wek:1 Pool . Adding FilerMeta . Welding Butt.Joi1ts . Welding Other Joints OAW-east Iron. OAW--AJuminum OAW-
----,,_,--------,-
69
Steel
OAW-Other Positions
Horizontal and \tNtico/ Welding . Overhead Welding
85
Points to Remember 86 Exercises 86 Questions for Study a nd Discu ssion __ 88
s ection. t
hre e
8 SMAW-Equipment
ElectricalPrinciples .. Welding Machin e O utput .. Constant-Curr ent WeldingMa chines..Static PowerSour ces ..E ngine-Driv en Power Sources - Welding Machine Ratings. Welding Equipment . Shop Equipme nt .. Pers onal Protec tive Equipment
89
Points to Remembe r 103
103
9 SMAW-Selecting Electrodes
Elecfrcx1es .. IdentifyingElectrcx1es .. Selecting CorrectElectrodes .. Cor1seMngandStoring EIec"odes . Electrode Classification . IoOriobIes of 5electrlg EIec"odes SpecioI EIec"odes
_ 105
Points to Remember Questions for S tudy and Discussion _ 115 116
10sMAw-Striking an Arc
BasicPrinciplesofSustainingaWeldingArc .. CheCking and AdjustingEquipmen' , GrippingtheEIec"ooe . Adjusting the
_ 117
Pointsto Remember 120 Exercises 121 tudy and Discussion _122 Questions for S
Current
123
Points to Rem ember Exercises tudy and Discussion _ Questio ns for S 129 130 131
12sMAw-Flat Position
Weld ccsses .. RootA::::l:ss .. rveareoaie Weld Pass.. CoverPoss ...k:Ji1ts
_
Points to Remember Exercises Questions for Study and Discussion _
133
139 140 146
WeldedhRatPosition ..LcpJoinfs .. T-Joints .. Butt Joi1ts .. Comer Joi1ts .. 9.rfoc:tlg .. S\ofAW Rat Position Problems
13sMAw-Horizonta, Position
Horiz ontal Position Welding . Welding Proced ure . Depositing Beads in Horizonta lPos ition. Welding a Si ngle-Pass Lap Joint in HorizontalPosition . Welding a Multiple-PassT-Joint inHorizontai Position
_
Points to Remember Exercises Questions for S tudy a nd Discussion _
147
148 149 152
14SMAW-Vertical Position
DownhO Welding . UphiI Welding . Uphill Welding _ 0 IfVhi:>ping Motion Uphill Welding with a Weaving Motion . -7018Electrode Welding rechnique
153
Pointsto Remember 155 155 Exercises Questions for Study and Discussion _158
15sMAw-overhead Position
Ove<headWeiding . Ove<head WeldingProcedJe
_
Points to Remember Exercises tudy and Discussion _ Questions for S
159
160 161 162
fo u r
16 GTAW-Equipment
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding .. GTAW C urrent Selection" ConstantCurren t Welding Machin es " Inverter Welding Machines " GTAW Eq uip m en t " G T AW FillerMetals
163
Points to Reme mber Questions for S tudy a nd Discussion _ 176 176
17 GTAW-Procedures
GT AW Consid era tions " Join t Pre p a ra tion .. Weld Backing " G T AW Proc edures" Starling the Arc .. Horizontal Welding Procedure "
_
Points to Reme mber Exercises Questions for S tudy a nd Discussion _
177
185 185 190
vetco Weldin g Proc edure " Overhe ad Welding Procedure " Hot Wire Welding" PulsedGT AW (G T AW-P)
18GTAW-APPlications
Aluminum " stainlessSteel. Copper and CopperA lloV" Ma gn esium" Carbon steel
_
Points to Reme mber Questions for S tudy a nd Discussion _
191
196 196
19 GMAW-Equipment
Gas Metal Arc Welding" GMAW Current Selection .. GMAW Welding
Machines" GMAW Equipment .. GMAW Welding Wire
_
Points to Remember Questions for S tudy an d Discussion _
197
211 212
20GMAW-procedures
Joint Prep ara tion " Weld Backing" GMAW Setup Procedures .. Metal Transfer Modes. GMAW Weld Discontinuities
_
Points to Rem ember Exercises Questions for S tudy and Discussion _
21 3
224 225 230
21 GMAW-Applications
Carbon Steel - Aluminum _ StainlessSteel - Copp er
_
Points to Rem em ber Questions for S tudy a nd Discussion _
231
237 237
_
Points to Rem ember Exercises Questions for Study and Discussion _
239
245 246 248
249 Points to Rem em b er 264 Questions for S tud y and Discussion _264 _ 265 Points to Rem em ber 281 Questions for S tudy and Discussion _28 1 _
24 Surfacing
Surfacing . Wear Types Surfacing Methods . Welding . GTAW ana GMAW Overlays . PAW Weld Overlays . SAW Weld Overlays . Surface Preparation . Weld Overlay FillerMetals . Thermal Spraying
25 Cutting Operations
Cutting Operations . Oxyfuel Cutting Gases T arches. Piercing Holes . Beveling . Cutting Round Stock. Cutting Cast Iron. PIosma Arc Cutting (PAC) . AirCarbonArc CUffing(CAC-A) . SofetyPrecoutions
283
Points to Reme mbe r 294 Exercises 294 Questions for S tudy and Discussion _297 299 318 Points to Remember Questions for S tudy an d Discussion _3 18 _
26 Repair Welding
Evaluating Repair Methods. Mechanical Repair Me thods. Weld Repair Methods . Weld Repair Plans
27 Pipe Welding
Pipe Classification . Pipe Connections . Pipe Joint Preparation . Welding Passes . Pipe Welding Techniques . Pipe Welding Standards Welding Methods . Pipe Weld Testing
319 Points to Reme mber 336 Questions for S tudy and Discussion _ 336
28 Production Welding
Resistance Welding . Stud Welding . Electron Beam Welding ' Friction Welding . Laser Beam Welding . Plasma Arc Weldi ng. Submerged Arc Welding . Electrogas Weld ing. Adhesive Bonding
337
Pointsto Rem ember Questions for S tudy and Discussion _ _ 362 362
363 Pointsto Reme mber 373 Questions for S tudy and Discussion _373
_
30 Plastic Welding
Typesof Plastics . Hot Gas Welding. Heated-Tool Welding . Induction Welding . Friction Welding
375
Pointsto Rem ember 382 Questions for S tudy and Discussion _382
31 Destructive Testing
Destructive TestTypes Tensile Test. Shear Test Bend Test Hardness Test Toughness T Break Tests . Specimen Preparation ResidualStress Management
383
411 41 2
em
2 Nondestructive Examination _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
VwdExamination (VT) . Uq.jd Pene"crot Examination (PT) . Mog>effc Pa1ideExc:rrW1ation(MT) el.Jltrosor'; Ex a ,1Ii lO1iOn(lfT) . Rodogophic ExcrrW'lation (I?T). ElectrOfTXJg1eOC Exa 'Ii IOtiot I (EJ) ProofTesti'>g
Mcro9x>(:>cExaminalion .Cut1hgCTldr.buglGii1<*>g .Mo<r>fngCTld FheGii1<*>g . r.bugl CTldFhdPoislWlg. EtchhgCTldExamina1ion . MoaoscopicExamina1ion .MacroetchhgCTldExamina1ion .Lig1fng
4 13
447 448
3 3 Metallography
Points to Rem ember Questions for S tudy and Discu ssion _
449
463 464
34weld Discontinuities
Weld Stresses . Crocks . Cavities Inclusions Incomplete Fusion and Incomplete Penetration . Incorrect Shape Miscellaneous Discontinuities
465
Points to Remember Questions for S tudy and Discu ssion _ 484 484
485
Points to Remember
f() 1
502
_ 503
Points to Rem ember Questions for S tudy and Discussion _
ffF 510
_ 511
Points to Remember Questions for S tudy an d Discussion _ 535 536
_croce
_ 537
Points to Remember Questions for Study and Discussion _ 554 554
_
Points to Remember Questions for S tudy and Discu ssion _
555
566 566
_ 567
Points to Remember tudy a nd Discussion _ Questions for S 580 580
_ 58 1
Pointsto Remem ber 595 Questions for S tudy an d Discussion _595
597
Pointsto Reme mber 612 Questions for S tudy and Discussion _612
613 Points to Reme mber 623 Questions for S tudy a nd Discussion _624
44welding Symbols
Welding Symbols. Combining Welding Symbols . Nondestructive
_ 625
Points to Reme mber 637 Questions for S tudy and Discussion _637
Examination Symbols
639
6(fJ 6(fJ
_ 661 _
687
709
CD..ROM Contents
Using This CD-ROM Quick Quizzes' Illustrated Glossary Welding Resources Media Clips Reference Material
I~"''''''
u e
Weldin g Skills, 3'" Ed ition, is th e product of a n extensive re vi sion effort to add res s all aspects of the welding trade and th e latest we lding tec hno logy. Now in full co lor, th is co mpre he nsive text has been co mp letely updated and expanded to co ntinue the tra dition of an indu stry- leading in structional tool. A new co ntempo rary de sign, detailed ill ustrations, descri ptive photograph s, and concise te xt enhance the learning pruce ss. Step-by -s tep exercises, c urre nt AWS terminolo gy, key po ints, and in fonnut ive fac toids supplement esse ntial content throughout the text.
Th e Th ird Edition builds on the q uality of previous editions and offers valu abl e new content contributed by Bert J. Moni z. Having over 37 years of experie nce in met all urgy and many facet s of we ldi ng , M r. Mo niz c urre nt ly se rves as M aterials Engineering Co nsu lta nt with the DuPont Company. In his cu rrent po sition, he is involved with selecting materials for construction, fabr ication , and fai lure analysis worldwide . He has taught re lated co urses, autho red book s, and writte n and prese nted se veral papers. His handson knowledge and experti se are reflected throughout the text and in the development of new cha pters
coveri ng:
Repair Welding Me ta llogra phy Weld Disconti nuities Metal Ide nt ifica tion Weldab ility of Common Meta ls Distort ion Control Ma terials and Fab rication Standa rds and Codes T he text beg ins with a n int rodu ct ion to the welding process and we ld ing in ind ustry. Througho ut the text an emphas is is placed on fundame nta l pr inciples of welding processes, equipment , welder performance qualificat ion, a nd we ld evaluat io n a nd testing. T he text also covers th e latest tec hnol ogy in we ld ing metallurgy, metal weldability, distortio n co ntro l, robotics , and material standards and codes. Ch apters in the text ha ve be en organized into eight sections to progressively e nha nce knowledg e and skills . Safet y procedu res and potentia l health and safety hazard s are covered in co ntext with appropriate ca utio ns and warning s. The Appendix contain s reference material pertinent to the we lding trade , and the Glossary provides defi nition s of we lding terms introduced in the text. The Weldin g Skills , 3'" Edition CD-ROM in the bac k of the book is a self-s tudy aid designed to aug ment co nten t in cluded in the text. T he CD-ROM include s a Q uick Quiz" for each section of th e text, an Il lustrated Glo ssary , Medi a Clips, Weld ing Resources, and re lated we lding re ference material. Information about usin g the CD-ROM is incl uded on the last page of the book.
Welding Skill s, 3'" Edition, is one of several high -qu alit y training produc ts ava ilab le from America n Tec hnical Publishers, Inc . To obtain inform ation about related trainin g products, visit the Ameri can Tech web site at www.gozatp.com,
T he Publi sher
section. 0
ne
Introduction to Welding
Weldillg is WI efficient, dependable, fl exible. ami economical mealls of fabrication. Weldillg is widely used ill indust ryas a principal means of fa bricating and repairing metal products. Weldillg call lower production costs by simplif ying design and eliminating costly patterns and machining operations. Weldillg call also be used in repair operations and adding new metal to worn parts. There are many opportunities for welders trained in welding techniques, materials. designs, and applications.
and ji gs and fixture s; and in the con struction of boi lers. furnaces, and railway cars . Welding is also common ty used in the manufactu re of product s for ho usehold use, such as te levision sets, refrigerators. storage cab inets, and di shwash er s . Construc tio n of bridge s and sh ips a ls o commonly require s welding.
Nearly two-thirds ofall welders wo rk in the cons truction. transpo rtat ion eq uipment. fabricated metal products. machinery. and motor vehicle and equipment industries.
CONSTRUCTION
AVIATION
AUTOMOTIVE
/1/('/(/!.I'
continued refinemen ts and va riatio ns of the we ld ing processes d iscov ered in the 1800 s.
WELDING PROCESSES
T he demands of a growing industrial economy during the 1800 s spurred the development of mode rn we ld ing processes. The we lding process to be used for a particular job is de termined by the foll owin g: type of metal s to be joined costs invol ved nature of products to be fabricated production techniques used job locati on ma teria l appearance eq uipme nt availab ility welde r ex perience Welding processes used today are commonly classified as oxyfuel welding, arc welding, and resistance welding. See Figure 1-2.
I"
.~ mixture of ac etylene .= and oxygen produces (J fl ame that is suitable fo r welding and cutting.
l/
tI
.=
The primary du ty of {/
In 18 / 0. Sir Humphrey Davy dis covered that an electric o re could be maintained at will by brin ging two terminals a/high voltage elec tricity near eac h othe r: The length and intensity could he varied by adjusting the voltage of the circuit.
Oxyfuel Welding
Oxyfuel welding (OFW) is a group of
we ld ing processes th at use heat fro m th e co mb us tion of a mi xture of oxyge n and a fuel for welding. Ace tylene , me thy lacetyle ne- pro pad iene stabi lized (MA PP) gas, propan e , na tu ra l gas, hydrogen, or propylene may be used . Th e heat is obtain ed from the co mb ustion of a combustible gas and oxyge n. OFW we lding processes are used with or witho ut filler metal. If filler metal is not used in th e join t, the weld is au to gen ou s . An autog enous weld is a fusion we ld made without filler metal. Oxyace ty le ne we ld ing is the most co mm onl y used oxyfue l process. Oxyacety lene welding ( OAW) is a n oxy f ue l we ldi n g p ro ces s th at use s acetylene as the fuel gas.
FILLER METAL
HEAT FOR WELDING PRODUCED BY COMBUSTION OF OXYGEN AND FUEL [ WELDING TORCH [
Because of its flexibility and mobility, oxyacetylene welding is used in all metalworking industries, but is most commonly used for maintenance and repair work.
Arc Welding
Arc welding (AW) is a group of welding processes that produce coalescence of metals by heating them with an electric arc. The arc is struck between a welding electrode and the base metal. The welding electrode is a component of the welding circuit that terminates at the arc. The joint area is shielded from the atmosphere until it is cool enough to prevent the absorption of harmful impurities from the atmosphere. AW is the most common method of welding metals. AW processes include shielded metal arc we lding (SMAWi, gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), flux cored arc welding (FCAWi, submerged arc welding (SAW), and plasma arc welding (PAW).
WELD
ELECTRODE HOLDER
.=
.~ be modified to allow
jor wider application
of SMAW processes.
Gas Thngsten Arc Welding. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an arc welding process in which a shielding gas protects the arc between a nonconsumable (doe s
An Essential Skill
3
not become part of the weld) tungsten electrode and the weld area. GTAW uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and a shielding gas, usually helium or argon, for welding. The GTAW process can be used to weld using filler metal, or without filler metal to form an autogenous weld. GTAW is widely used for joining thin-wall tubing and depositing the root pass in pipe joints. GTAW produces a very high-quality weldment.
high-quality weld metal with fast deposition rates. The weld surface is smooth with no spatter. SAW is automated and most often used to join thick metals requiring deep penetration, such as in heavy steel plate fabrication.
tI
.=
.~
Gas Metal Arc Welding. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous wire electrode and the weld pool. Argon is used as a shielding gas for nonferrous metals such as alumin um, and carbon dioxide/carbon dioxide mixtures (such as 75125, 98/2) with argon are used as a shielding gas for steels. The GMAW process uses a continuously fed consumable wire, elim inating the need to stop and change electrodes. This has increased the popu larity of GMAW in manufacturing. Flux Cored Arc Welding. Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) is an arc welding process that uses a tub ular electrode with flux in its core. FCAW produces fast, clean welds with excellent appearanee and high deposition rates , and the process can be automated. Like GMAW, the primary benefi t of FCAW over SMAW is the hig her productivity rate possible with the continuous-feed system , which also results in lower production costs . FCAW is commonly used to weld carbon, low-alloy and stainless steels, and cast iron. Typica l applications include fie ld and shop fabrications . Submerged Arc Welding. Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding proces s that uses an arc between a bare metal electrode and the weld pool. The electrode, are, and weld pool are submerged in a granular flux poured on the base metal. SAW is limited to flat or lowcurvature base metals. SAW produces
Plasma Arc Welding. Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process that uses a constricted arc between a noncons umable tungsten electrode and the weld pool (transferred arc), or between the electrode and constricting noz zle (non-transferred arc) . Tran sferred arc PAW produces a deep , narrow, uniform weld zone and is suitable for almost any metal. Transferred arc PAW is used for welding high -strength , t hin metal. Non-transferred arc PAW is typically used for thermal spray ing.
Resistance Welding
Resistance welding (RW) is a group of welding processes in which weld ing occurs from the heat obtained by re sistance to the flow of current through the metals joined . A resistance we ld ing machi ne fu se s meta ls together by heat and pressure . RW is used to make localized (spot) or continuous (seam) joints. An advantage of resistance welding is its adaptability to rapid fusion of seams. RW uses special fixtures and automatic handling equipment for the mas s production of automobile bod ies, electrical equipment, hardware, or other domestic goods. RW can be used for joining almost all steels, stainless stee ls, aluminum alloys , and so me dis simi lar metals .
OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES IN WELDING
The widespread use of welding in American industry provide s a constant source of employment for welders. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, there are approximately 588,000
@o Weldin g Skills
persons employed as welders. Over half of these work in industries that manufacture durable goods such as transportation equipment , machinery, and household products. Many others work for construction firms and repair shops. A growing number of welders are required to operate automated and robotic welding machines .
Employment Outlook
Opportunities for those who desire to become welders differ by occupational specialty. A healthy economy and a need to replace experienced workers who leave the field create a demand for welders . Certified welders, especially those certified in more than one process, have better employment opportunities than non-certified welders. Although many companies have automated some tasks traditionally performed manually, qualified welders are still required . Many automated welding machines and robots require a single operator overseeing multiple operations . However, fabrication and repair applications are still common in the welding industry. See Figure 1-3.
The needforcertified welders continues to grow in the welding
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Figure 1-3. Robotic wetding machines arc pro grammed to perform repetitive welds on mass-produced products and require supervision bv 11 skilled weld ing machine operator.
Training
Training to be a welder is available from different sources. Many schools offer comprehensive welding training programs . Company training programs can vary from a few months of on the-job training to several years of formal training. Apprenticeship programs that include welder training are also available through unions such as the International Association of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforcing Iron Workers or the International Union of Operating Engineers (IUOE). Most employers prefer applicants who have some welding experience and courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, metals, and blueprint reading.
Welders must have good manual dexterity, eyesight, and hand-eye coordination . They should be able to concentrate on detailed work for long periods and must be free of physical disabilities that would prevent them from bending, stooping, or working in awkward positions. Welders must also be able to lift 50 Ib regularly and 100 Ib occasionally. Before being assigned to work where the quality and strength of the weld are critical, a welder generally has to pass a certification test given by an employer, government agency, or inspection authority. See Figure 1-4. Typically, welders are certified by an employer to perform specific welds . Recent efforts by the American Welding Society (AWS) allow certified welders to be listed on a national registry. The national registry assists em ployers in finding employees that have attained a particular skill level.
The American
wa:
An Essential Skill ~
perform
Job Classifications
Welding jobs differ in the de gre e of skill required. Welding machine operators can learn the required procedures in several hours, while welders may need years of on-the-job trainin g to master their craft. A beginning welder usu all y starts on simple produ ction jobs and gradually works up to higher levels of skill with experience. Weld ers mu st ha ve a workin g knowledge of metal propert ies and effects of heat on welded structures. Th ey mus t also have an understanding of how materials are fabricat ed. Welders must be able to read detailed drawings, prepare the work area, control expansio n and contraction forces,
The need for certified welders is g rowing as experienced welders leave the workforce.
read welding symbols, recognize weld defects, and perform all tasks required to fini sh the we ld ing job. A welder may be proficient in several welding task areas or a specific weld ing task. As a rule, the welder is always certified for the specific welding task required . Skill ed welders may, by promotion , become in sp ectors or supe rv iso rs . Some of the principal job titles of welders include the following: Welder Helper. Entry-le vel welder, cle an s slag for Welder, position s work pieces, help s move material s. Welder. Person who performs we lding using the required process. Welder Op erator. Welder who operates automatic welding equipment, such as that found on automobile assembly lines. Pipe Welder. Welder with additional training and certification in welding pipe. Welding Layout lind Set-up Person . Welder with printreading experience. Must prepare workpieces for welding . Some we ld in g personnel ar e required to oversee welder certification, in stru ction , and qu ality con trol. The following supervisory positions require additional trainin g: Welding Inspector. Certifi ed welder who has undergone additional certi fication to work as an inspector. Weldin g Sup ervisor. Per son with good management skills who can effectively run a weld shop and maintain the requ ired we ldi ng sc he dule and qualit y of workmanship. Weld ing supervisors must be knowledgeable about company standards and procedures. Welding Instructor. Person employed by a high school, commun ity college, vocationa l prog ram, or appre ntices hip program. Instructors must be certified to meet AWS standards. Weldin g En gin eer. Person with a co llege degree and profe ssional certification qualified to specify necessary weld requirement s.
@o Welding Skills
I . The co mbus tion of a mixt ure of ace tylene and oxygen produces a flame that is suitable for welding and cutting. 2. The primary duty of a welder using oxyfuel welding is to control and direct heat onto the edges of the metal to be jo ined. 3 . SMAW e lectrodes can be modified to allow for wider application of SMAW processes. 4 . FCAW uses a tubular electrode with flux in its core . 5. The need for certified welders continues to grow in the welding industry. 6. The American Welding Society (AWS) main tains a national registry of cer tified welders to assist emp loyers in find ing employees that have attained a partic ular skill Icvel.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Name some manufacturing appli cation s for which weld ing is commonly used . What is the basis of the arc welding process? Name the three common classifications of welding processes used today. Define aut ogenous weld . What is the most common welding method used for welding metals? What is one difference between FCAW and GMAW? What is tran sferred PAW typically used for? Non-transferred PAW? List training program s that provid e education for weld ers. What are some skills that all welders should have?
An Essential Skill @o
We/dillK Skills
Every year, thousands of welders suffer injuries as a result of accidents that occur because proper safety precautions are notfollowed at the joh site. Accidents occur because of indifference to regulations, lack (II' information, or carelessness. Any injury can he painful and can incapacitate a person, or lead to permanent disability or death. Safety precautions are effective in reducing the occurrence ofac cide nts at the j ob site. Safety means using common sense and avo iding serious accidents; and it has to be obse rved constantly. Established safe ty practices should be fo llo wed at all times. If good safety pra ctices are consistently fo llo wed, an awareness of p roper beha vior is estab lished that usually prevents mistak es.
is usually required and is beneficial for keeping current with company sa fety regulations. Safety meetings are a good wa y for employe es to ke ep c urre nt about potential hazards that have arisen or to inform a supervisor about hazards they have noticed at the job site.
Weekly !illfety meetings are a convenient way for employers to discuss relevant job site safety issues ami concerns .
Figure 2-1. The Occupational Safetv and Health Administration (OS I/A) requ ires enwlovers III provide (J safe work environment fo r emntovees.
all safety requirements of the company. Weekly safety meetings and/or toolbo x talks are also held to di scuss current safety topics and employee safety conce rns, a nd to an sw er any e mploy ee questions. Attendan ce at these meetings
9
Reporting Accidents
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, approximately 26,000 welders per year are injured on the job site. Welders are exposed to health risks every day: the ultraviolet rays of the welding arc can inj ure the eyes or the skin; some gases produced by welding may be toxic and if breathed in may affect the lungs; and welding or cutt ing near t1ammable material s, or welding on co nta iners that hav e held combustible materials, poses a fire risk. Whi le precautions must be take n to prevent injuries, accidents do happen. All accidents should be reported, regardless
of how minor they may be. A small scratch might lead to a serious infection, or a minute particle lodged in the eye could result in a serious eye injury. Prompt attention to any injury usually minimizes the seriousness of the injury. See Figure 2-2. Any job site where physical work is performed should have an established accident reporting procedure, Since this reporting procedure is in the best interest of the worker, it is irresponsible to ignore it or try to avoid reporting an accident. Instead, workers should become fully informed about what should be done and then take immediate action if an accident occurs.
EmP!oyeeSlatus
I Fu'lTima
INJURED
o Parl Tima
D Medical Trealment
0 Oth e, _ _
PERSON ~ -
~NFORMATION
1. Name aTEmplO)'ee 2 . Addr&SS
Social 8ecuntv.
3 Age
29
Occupati"""'~le
2 _ _ Y9a,...
Tome _
HomePhooo.
f
OQO-lf. 3 36 + 5 55-0010
I
I
TIM E OF
ACCI DENT
----+-------,"......... I ~ork~a~lv ty IO il k
7 Dale 01A<:ciden ,
__
~
_ months
I pI'Tl
II' Yes
0 No
LaS1D~w'"
w~
~ PLACE OF
ACCIDENT
""_
8 locallooolAccioofli
9 ~:k~$a~~~ ~
," '
~~~~'~
CAUSE OF ACCIDENT
CIRCUMSTANCES
IMMEDIATE SU P E RV ISO R~
NOTE: ACCIDENT REPORTS MUST BE COMPLETELY FILLED OUT FOR EVERY ACCIDENT AND D~~SS CONTROL OFFtCEWITH IN d . , ; z(24l HOU RS~
Immed_~"'i$Or'. Signa",re
E~Sig~
Ftaure 2-2. All accident report f orm must be filled out to accurately reflect the el'ellIs of llll accident. list injuries. and detail j ob hazards tha t may nee d atten tion .
IO
Work Behavior
Occasionally, workers may engage in what might appear to be harmless pranks . However, there are many recorded incidents where a prank ended in serious injury. Any form of horseplay in a shop is dangerous and can lead to an accident. Most work areas are reasonably safe if proper work precautions are taken, but no one is safe if good work attitudes are ignored.
Confined Spaces
A confined space permit is necessary when repair welding is carried out in specific physical situations. A confined space is a workspace that has any of the following features: I) it is large enough and so configured that a person can bodily enter it and perform assigned work , 2) it has limited or restricted means for entry or exit, or 3) it is not designed for continuous occupancy. Examples of confined spaces inelude tanks, silos, storage bins, hoppers, vaults, pits, and trenches. Specific safety precautions required when working in a
confined space include having a standby person available, guarding openings, using adequate ventilation, and performing oxygen content checks. Welding and cutting operations performed in confined spaces create specific safety hazards. For instance, a leak in welding equipment can displace Iifesupporting oxygen levels . See Appendix. Some gases, such as argon, cannot be detected by smell and in confined or low-ventilated areas build to toxic levels. Welding, flame cutting, or allied processes should never be started unt il safety precautions are addressed. Welding safety procedures are developed to avoid hazards that might be present from welding operations. These include hazards of welding products, fumes and gases, electric shock, noise, heat, bums, and radiation . The welder must be satisfied that the confined space entry procedure and paperwork are satisfactory. If not, the welder has the right to refuse to perform the work until remedial actions are taken. A permit is required when a confined space contains atmospheric hazards that have the potential to cause serious physical harm to a welder. See Appendix . A permit-required confined space is a confined space with one or more of the following characteristics: It contains or has the potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere. It contai ns a material that has the potential to engulf the entrant. It has an internal configuration such that the an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated by inwardly converging walls or by a floor that slopes downward and tapers to a smaller cross section. The confined space contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazard.
When workin g in a confined space, have a s ta nd -by p erson ava ilable to ensure a saf e environment.
A WARNING
An y weld ing e quipme nt malfunctions shall be
report ed to the superv isor.
Confined space permits are issued jor a spe cific period of time . Work must b~
completed in the alloted time or anew permit must be obtained.
Welding Safety
II
A WARNING
Eve n with proper ventilation . a res pirator sho uld be
used when metals thai give
Under any or all of these conditions a permit sys te m is req uired in which worker entry into the confined space is regulated. The employer must develop pro cedures for preparing and iss uing permits to enter, work insid e, and return the confined space to service at the end of the job. Permit-required confined spaces require assessment of entry procedures in compliance with OSHA standard s prior to entry. A non- permit confined space is a co nfined space that doe s not co nta in, or ha ve the potenti al to co ntain, an y hazard s ca pa ble of ca us ing death or serious physical harm. Conditions can change as tasks such as welding occur.
An ex haust system is necessary to keep toxie gases belo w the prescr ibed health limits in areas where much welding is performed. An adequate exhaust system is es pec ially necessary when welding or cutting zinc, brass, bron ze, lead, cadmium, or beryll ium . This includes galvanized steel and metal painted with lead-based painl. Fumes from these materials are toxic and hazardous. Even when ventilation is provided, a respira tor should be used when metals that give off toxic fumes are to be welded. Near the work area, to xic fum es may be breathed in before they can be extracted by the ventilation system. See Figure 2-4.
Ventilation
Welding sho uld only be performed in well-ventilated areas. There must be sufficient movement of air to prevent an
accumulation of toxic fumes Of , possibly, a defi ciency of oxygeo. All wind or air movement (ventilation) should be across the body, not from in front or from behin d. Front- and rear -di rected air movement causes wind tunnels (rolling) in front of the bod y and into the resp iratory tract. Adequate ventilation becomes extremely critical in confined spaces where dangerous fumes, smoke, and du st are lik ely to co llec t. Wh en wor king in a shop, the installed ventilation system is usually not adequate to vent the toxic fumes generated by welding. Additiona l ventilation is required, by the use of either a respirator, fans, or an exhaust system. See Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3. A ventila tion syst em
is required 10 rnl1O I'C tox ic [utnes.
Figure 2-4 . A respirator sho uld b e wort/ whe n welding metals ,hal {,roell/('e toxic [ utnes.
smoke ,
we lding,
(lilt!
dust caused by
12
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Sources
Atomic Nuclei Accelerators
Wavelength
301m
300 m
AM Radio
Longwave Radio
30 km
Nrderman . tnc.
Figure 2-5. The my .I' generutrd by weld ing are harmful to workers. A welder shautd always against the 1I/(/"(1I';011'( (11/(/ infrared rays generated during welding.
Weldin g Sa!'ely @
13
re::::
Eye Protection
Eye protection is essential for welders. Radiation prod uced by weldi ng and cutting may be harmful to the welder. Radi a nt e nergy may be io n iz in g (s uc h as X-r ay s) or non-i oni zin g (such as ul tra viol e t, visible , or in frared light) . Radi ation can burn the skin and damage the eyes. The effects depend on the radi ant energy wave len gth and inte nsity. and e xte nt of exposure . Most arc welding and torch cutting processes produ ce non-ionizing radiation such that eye protection is necessary. A we ld ing arc shou ld o nly be viewed through filter plates that meet the requirements of the Americ an Nati onal Standard s Institute (A NS I) . Z87.1, Practice f or Occupational and Educati onal Eye and Face Protection. Welders should always be alert for reflections from welding arcs. Passersby can be protected by we lding screens, curtains. or remaining an adequate distance from the job.
I lVhetm eldillK at... avs ~ wear safety glasses .= with approved filler pla tes.
Cutt ing and weldin g o pe ra tio ns produce sparks and hot slag that can be projected from the welding surface toward the welder. Proper protection must be used to prevent inj ury to the eye. Eye protecti on is avail able with pre scripti on le nses for we lders who normally wear glasses . Som e welders may prefer to have prescripti on lenses on the safety glasses becau se wearing glasses. safety glasses. and a helm et may be unwi eldy. Helmets . Welders also wear protective we ld ing he lme ts wi th spec ia l filter plates or filter glasses to protect against injury and expo sure to ultraviolet and in frared ray s. He lmet de signs allo w both hands to be used for we ldi ng. Helmets are made to fit over the head. attach to hard hats, or be held by hand. An adj us table he adband inside the helmet provides a comfortable fit. The helmet may be sw ung up when not welding . The hand-held helmet is used by observers. See Figure 2-6.
AUTO DARKENING
FLIP FRONT
FIXED SHADE
COMPACT
Figure 2-6. A welding helmet protects tke welder from infrared and ultra violet rap. and hOI sparks.
14
Welding Skills
Welding helmets should be in good condition since openings or cracks can allow arc light through. A cover plate should be placed on the outside of the filter plat e to protect it from weld spa tte r. T he filter pl at e should he made of tempered gla ss so that it will not shatte r if hit by flyin g object s, Filter plates are mark ed showing the manufac turer, the shade number, and the letter H indica ting they have been treated for impact resistance. Helmets may have fixed or adjustable lenses. Auto-darkening lenses darken in less than a hundred-millionth of a second when arc light strikes the filter. Colored lenses should be examined and replaced if cracked. Lenses come in different shades, depending on the welding to be done. For oxyacetylene cutting operations, a #5 shade may be used. For arc welding at 75 A (amps) to ZOO A, # 10 shades or higher should be used. In general, for welding operations, the rec ommended shades , based on welding current, are as follows: Shade 10 Shade I Z Shade 14 75 A to ZOO A
ZO O A to 400 A
Safety Glasses and Goggles. A welding helm et does not prov ide total protection to a welder, so safe ty glasses andlor goggles should he worn at all time s when welding. Dur ing shielded metal arc welding, a thin cru st (slag) forms on the deposited bead. This slag must he removed from the weld. When remo ving the slag, tiny particl es may be deflected upward. Be cau se o f stresses that build up in the weld, slag may occas iona lly po p off the we ld. Th ese particles ca n cause serious eye injury unless proper eye protection is worn. See Figure Z-7.
operations. a # /0
sha de should be used
Figure 2-7. Saf ety gla sses o r gog gles sho uld alwa ys be w onl (Juring welding to prevent dam age to the eyes resulting f rom defl ected stag .
SAFETY GLASSES
over 400 A
Color ed lense s ar e prot e cted by clear glass or plastic cove r plates. The clear lens is placed ove r the colored lens inside the face plate. During the welding proc ess, s ma ll particles o f metal fly upward fro m the work and may lodge on the lens, distorting the welder's view. However, clear vision is necessary at all times during welding, so the clear plastic cover plate must be replaced when it becomes spattered. Although the methods of inserting cover plates differ among manufacturers, changes can be made ea sily and quickly. The cover plates are inexpensive and ca n be purch ased from any welding supply dealer. Always follow manufacturer reco mmendation for the appropriate lenses and cover plates.
GOGGLES
A WARNING
Proper Clothing
Welders ar e requ ired to wear th e proper prot ecti ve cl othin g to shie ld th em fr om burn s result in g fro m spa rks, spatter, and the harmful ray s e mi tted by weld ing . Wel d er s and workers in the area should wea r protective clot hing made of fire-resistant
Welding Safety
Never look at a welding arc witho ut a we ld ing hel met.
15
[1
~ .= heavy-duty welding
mate rial. Pant cuffs or clothing with open pockets that can catch and retain molte n met al or spa rks sho uld not he worn. Work boots, leath er leggings, and fire-resistant gloves should be worn. Pant legs should be worn over the outside of the boots. Helmets and hand shie lds tha t pro vide pro tectio n for the face, neck, and ears should be worn, as well as a protective head cove ring . Approved work cloth es, a headcap, welding helmet , work boots, and glo ves are requ ired for all ligh tdut y weld ing and c utt ing op erati ons. In add itio n, heavy-dut y we ld ing re qu ires a leather jacket or leather apron and leather gauntlet-type gloves . Work Clothing, Work clothes worn by we lders s ho uld be made of natu ral materials such as leather. wool, or cotton as the se material s have a higher resistance to burn ing. Sy nthetic materials such as polyester should never be worn. as they melt and burn easily, and can cause severe injury to a we lder.
Cov era l ls o r wo r k cloth es s ho uld be heavy e no ug h to prev ent in fr a red a nd ultra viol et ray s fro m penetrat ing to tbe skin. Cuffs on pants sho uld be turned do wn or e liminated and pockets removed to prevent molten meta l from catching in the clo thes. Slee ve s and co ll ar s sho uld be kept buttoned . See Fig ure 2-8. Gloves. Gloves should be worn to protect the hands from ultraviolet rays and spattering hot metal. G love s are also useful when picking up metals that have been welded. The red hot color of metal fades and metal retu rns to its original gray co lor quickl y; however, metal remains hot for some time after welding and cannot be identifi ed as hot simply by looking at it. Gloves should be wom at all times when work ing with meta l that may be hot to prevent the hand s from being burned. Severa l types of gloves are avai lab le for welding. Leath er work glo ves and ga untlet-type gloves bot h prov ide
COLLAR BUTTONED
~ H E LM ET
~~~~,/ HELMET
/ SLEEVE
BU TTONED ~
r /
TYPE
GLOVES
l1r~
Figu re 2-8. The proJ'er protecti ve d otlli/l8 is required to prevent injury or hums ell/ring It'ddill/:.
16
protection. Gloves should be flex ible enough to permit proper hand move ment, yet not so thi n as to allow the heat to penetrate easily. See Figure 2-9. Leather Jackets and Aprons. A leather jacket or apron is recommended when welding, as spatter might cause injury. A leat her a pron offers th e be st protection from ho t s pa tt e r. In situations where there may not be an excessiv e amo unt of me tal spa tt er, suitable cove ralls (fire-retardant) may be worn to protect the clot hing.
Work Boots. Work boots mu st be approved safety shoes or boot s mad e of leather or other approved mater ial, with a reinforced or steel toe to prevent impac t inju ries . Me ta tarsal (in step) pro tec tio n sho uld also be wo rn to pre vent slag material or sparks from drop ping into the shoes . Street shoes must never been worn, regardless of the material from which they are made.
Ear Protection
So me we ld ing o perations, suc h as chipping, peening, air carbon arc gouging, and plasma arc cutting, produce high le vel s of noi se. Engi ne- driven ge nera tors ca n also be noi sy. Excessive noi se affects hearing capability. It may be a temporary loss from which the ears recover if remuved from the noise source. However. if a person is exposed to this same noise for long periods of time, the hearing loss may become permanent. The time required to develop perm an ent hearing loss depends on various factors. Ear plugs or ear muffs must be used when en ginee ring co ntro ls (su ch as shielding) are not e ffective in reducing exce ssive no ise. Ear plugs and ear muffs are supplied by the employe r in sit ua tions whe re workers are exposed to extreme noise. Earplugs are a device inserted into the ear canal to reduce the leve l of noise reac hing the ea rdr um . Earp lugs a re made of moldable rubber, foam, or plastic . Ear muffs are a device worn over the cars to reduce the leve l of noi se reaching the eardrum. See Figure 2- 10. Safe noise levels and levels at which hearin g protection is requ ired are indi cated by regulation s deve loped by the Enviro nmental Protect ion Age ncy (EPA) and OS HA. Ear protect ion device s are rated for noise red uction to maintain permissib le noi se levels . A liaise reduction rating number (N RR) is a number that indicates the noise level reduct ion in decib els (dB).
Gloves
Figure 29
hearing.
WORK
GAUNTLET-TYPE
Figure 2-9. Always wea r glo ves when welding und cutting 10 protect ,I/( ' hands f rom ultraviolet rays
and spatter:
Weldin g Safety
l'
17
Ftgu re 2- 10. Ear pr otection should be us ed for weld ing op erations. .fueli tIS c'hippi'l!:. pUlling , ca rbo n tire air gouging, lI lId plasma arc cutting. IJUIt produce high levels of nois e.
"
EAR PLUG
EAR MUFF
For example, an NRR of 27 means that the noi se level is red uced by 27 dB when tested und er fac to ry cond ition s. If a facto ry has a noi se level of 95 dB, the ex pos ure lim it without ear protection is 4 hr. For workers exposed to those noise levels for an 8 hr shift, ea r protection is required. Ea r plugs com monly have an NRR of about 27, wh ic h wou ld red uce the noi se level from 95 dB to 68 dB. Sixty-eight decibe ls is a moderate intensity and we ll within the per missi ble ex posu re limi t fo r an 8 hr shift, thus reduci ng the danger of hearing impairment. See Figu re 2- 11.
Adeq uate ventilation must be available to remove fume s from the work are a. Where ventilation may be inadequat e, ai r sampling sho uld be used to det erm ine wh ere correcti ve measures are to be app lied. Hazardous substances include those that are combustible, toxic. or corrosive. Hazardous substances may be prese nt in a conta iner havi ng prev iously held any of the followi ng: a volatile liquid that releases potentially hazardous, fla mma ble, and/or toxic vapors at atmo spheric con ditions an acid or alkaline material that reacts with metals to produce hydrogen a nonvolatile liquid or solid that at ordin ary temperatures do es not release potentially hazardous vapors, but does so if the container is heated a du st cloud of fine ly div ided airborn e particles that may still be present in an explosive concentration a flammable or toxic gas
Deafeni ng
Very Loud
Loud
70 60
Moderate
50 40 30 20 10 0
Fain t
Very Faint
92 95 97
100
Ear Plugs = 27 dB Ear Muff s = 32 dB :t: typ ical , varies by manufactu rer Example: A noisy factory ha s a decibel level of 95 dB that with ear plugs can be lowered to 66 dB. which is of moderate intensity but well within per missible exposure times.
y,
1,4
in nrs
t in decibe ls (dB)
or less
used depends upon the substance previously held in the container. The water meth od of cleaning is used when the substa nce is known to be read ily soluble in water. Th e residu e can be removed by completely filling the container with water and draining severa l times . Whe n the substance originally held in th e container is not rea d ily soluble in water, additional methods of
cl eanin g the container are ava ilable. inc lud ing the hot chem ical solutio n, steam , mechanical clean ing, or chemica l clean ing method s. Oc casio na lly, combinations of all methods of cleaning must be used prior to weldi ng or cutting. Care must be taken to protect pe rson ne l and to pre ven t hazardous rea ctio ns whe n co mbi ning cleani ng method s.
Wel din g Safety ~
19
A WARNING
A container that has held unknown subs ta nces should ne ve r be cl ea ned an d welded becnnse unknown safety hazards are invo lved.
Hot Chemical Solution Method. Th e ho t c he m ica l so lut io n met hod use s tr isod iu m phosp hat e (a stro ng was hing powder) or a co mme rc ia l causti c c lea ning co mpou nd di sso lved in hot wa ter. T he c lea ni ng age nts are m ixed wi th h ot wa te r an d added to the co nta iner to be cl eaned. T he co ntain er is th en fi lle d with water and stirred unt il the chemica ls have been cl eaned from the contai ner. Steam Method. The steam method for cl eaning container s uses low-pressure steam and a hot soda or soda ash to remo ve substances. Th e cleaning age nts a re ad ded to th e con tainer a nd the co nta iner is filled with live steam and stirre d unt il the chem icals have been rem oved from the contai ner. Mechanical Cleaning Method. T he mech anical cleaning method is ge nerally used when scaly, dr y, or insolub le re sidues have been left on the surface of the container. Mechanical cleaning ma y be performed by sc raping , sand or gri t bl asting. hi gh-pressure wa te r washing. brushing, filling the con tainer on e-quarter full of cl ean dry sa nd and rolling it on the floor, or any method in wh ich the contam inant can safe ly be d islod ged . Du ring mechanical cleaning, the container should be gro unded to minimi ze th e po ssibility of sta tic cha rge build up and spark charges . Chemical Cleaning Method. The chemical cleaning method is gen era lly used w hen the co ntain er has insoluble deposits or when it cannot be mechanica lly cl eaned. Care must be used in se lecting a chemical solvent; some solvent s may be as hazardous as the de po s it s the y ar e int ended to remove . Wh en selecting c hem ic al so lve n ts , con sult the man ufact urer of the ma terial to be removed. Container s s ho u ld be c he c ke d carefully after an y cl eaning method to ensure that all chemicals have been thoroughly removed from the cont ainer.
As a fin al prec aution afte r cl eaning, a co ntainer sho uld be ve nted and filled with wat er before we ld ing or c utti ng. T he co nta iner sho uld be a rra nged so that the container can be kept fill ed to wit hin a few in ch es of th e po int where the we ldi ng or c u tt ing is to take place, but not interfere with we lding. See Figure 2-12 . When we ld ing o r cutting o n containers, observe the fo llowing safe ty pre ca ut ion s : Vent the container to allow for the release of air pressure or steam du ring we lding . Use a spark-resistive tool to remove heavy sludge or scale when sc raping or hammering. Never use oxy g en to venti lat e a container as it ma y start a fire or cause an ex plos io n.
VENT WATER
LEVE L ~
"'i~lIre 2-12 . Conta iners x/lOuld be partiatlv f ill ed with water before cutting or weldin g.
Never rely on sight or sme ll to determin e the safety o f welding or cutting a clo sed co nta iner. A sm all amo unt of residual flammable liqu id or gas may not be det ect able, but it co uld ca use a n expl o sion . Never weld or c ut drums, ba rre ls, or tanks until the danger of fire or e xplos io n has been eliminated.
20
MSDSs are obtained from the suppliers of welding filler metals, fluxes, and gases. They should be kept on file at a designated loc at ion in the workplace. The information is used to inform and train employees on the safe use of hazardous materi als. See Fig ure 2-13. If an MSDS is not provided, the employer must write to the manufacturer, distributor, or importer to obtain the missing MSDS. An MSDS has no prescribed format but must contain certain information related to the chemical hazard, identificati on , ph ysical and che mica l characteristics, tire hazards, reactivity and health hazard data, handling precautions,
. ~ s heets include dat a .= a /unit n 'ery hoeardOI lS compon ent (' 0111prising 1% or m ore of a material 's conte nt.
I~A.
f_ ~ _
...... I _
lIu n n a ra
~."'fWO
. . ,... .....
--st'''r'l""
1
-
.~ ~~ , U , ,~.~
r 'ilo
r..
_.
'.'.
"""'<loll''''
PREC AUTIONS AND PERSONAL PROTECTI VE EQU IPMEN T REQUIRED
PHYSICAL { CHARACTERISTICS
,"". . . ll
, .. _
......"" _
.....
Figure 2 13. An MSIJS is provided with all chemical containers used ill industry. Bef ore welding such containers. the MSDS /11lut be checked 10 ensure 111m chemicals have been proper ly removed from the container:
Weldin g Safe ty ~
21
and control measures of the hazardou s material. MSDS files must be kept upto-date and well organized to allow quick access to information in an emergency situation. Employees should become familiar with the MSDS for chemicals commonly encountered on the job.
Safety pr ecauti on s for oxyacetyle ne welding cover the proper handling of cylinders, operation of the regulators, use of oxygen and ace tylene, care of welding hoses, testin g for leaks, and lighting a torch. All safety regulations shou ld be followed. CUTTING SAFETY Additionally, all piping and fittings Fires often occur during cutting opera- used to co nvey gases from a cen tra l tions because proper safety precautions supply system to work stations must were not followed. Sparks and falling slag withstand a minimum pressure of 150 can travel great distances and can pass psi. Oxygen piping may be black steel, through cracks in walls or floors out of brass, or co ppe r. Only oi l-free com sight. Persons responsible for perform- pounds shou ld be used on oxygen ing or supervising cutting should observe threaded connections. the following safety precautions: Piping for acetylene must be wrought o Never use a cutti ng torch wh ere iron. After assembly, all piping must be sparks will be a ha zard , suc h as blown out with air or nitrogen to remove near room s containing flammable foreign materials before first use. Observe ma terial s, espec ia lly dippin g or the following basic rules for the safe hanspraying room s. dling of oxyacetylene equipment: o Sweep floor s c lean and wet them o Locate the nearest fire extinguisher before beginn ing cutting. Provide before performing any welding or a bucket or pan containing water cutting opera tion. or sand to catch dripping slag. o Keep oxyacetylene equipment clean, o Use fire-resistant guards, partitions, free of oil, and in good ope rating or scree ns if cutting must be percondition. Neve r handl e cy linders form ed near flammabl e material s with oily or greasy gloves. that cannot be moved. o Keep heat, flame, and sparks away In greasy, dirty, or gaseous atmo sfrom combustibles. pheres, extra precaution s should be o Prevent leaks in oxygen and acetytak en to pre vent ex plos io ns that lene cylinders. ca n res ult from e lectric sparks or o Open cylinder valves slowly. opcn fires durin g cutting or weldo Purge oxygen and ace tylene hoses ing operations. before lighting torch. o Keep flame and sparks away from o Never move cylinders without prooxygen cylinders and hoses. tective caps in place. o Keep combustible materials at least 35' away from any cutting or weldARC WELDING SAFETY ing operatio ns.
Never use oxygen to dust off clothing or workpieces. Ne ver use oxyge n as a substitute for co mpresse d air.
W eM ers arefrequently exposed to hazardous situations. Personal p rotective equipment such as safety shoes. goggles. helmets with protectivelenses. and otherdevicestoprevent
inj ury should always be used.
Arc welding processes include shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTA W), gas metal arc weldin g (GMAW), and flux cored arc welding (FCAW). General safety measures are indicated for these areas since arc welding equipment for each process varies considerably in size and type . Equipment may range from a small portable SMAW machine to a highly
22
mechani zed production spot weld ing machine. Manufacturer recommen dation s should be foll ow ed for the equipment used. See Figure 2-14. Electric shoc k can be fatal. Live electri cal part s s ho u ld not be touch ed. a nd manufacturer in stru ctio ns and a ll reco m me nde d sa fe ty practice s mu st be foll ow ed . Faulty insulation, improper grounding , and incorrect operation and maintenance of e lec tr ica l eq uipme nt are typical sources of danger from electric shock. Use only weldin g machin es that meet recog nize d nati onal standards, suc h as those id ent ified by the Nati on al Electrical Manufacturers Associ ati on (NEMA), NEMA EW-I, Electric Arc Weldin g Pow er Sources .
"
: ~ ~.~.~~~~
..
Proper workpiece connections 10 comp lete a welding circuit prevent electric shock and personal injury.
Figure 2-14. Following common safely p recautions reduce s the chalices of an accident o c cum ne d uring weldi ng.
W elding Safety
23
Always lise insulated electrode holders when weld ing with SMAW to preve nt elec t ric shock a mi injury.
All el ectri cal equi pment and the workpiece should be grounded . T he workpiece lead mu st not be used as a gro und and is used on ly to complete the welding circuit. The correct size leads for the welding application should be used . Su stained overloading causes failure of the welding leads and results in electric shock or fire hazard. All electrica l co nnections should be tight, clea n, dry, and in good condition. Poor connections can overhe at and melt , or produce dan gerous arcs and sparks. Water, grease, or dirt must not be allowed to accumulate on plugs, sockets, or electrical units . Onl y insulated e lectrode holders should be used for SMAW. Semiautomatic welding guns for continuous wire processes should use low-voltage control switches so that high voltage is not brought into the electrode holder in the welder' s hands. In fully auto ma tic equipment, higher vo ltage s are permitt ed because they are inaccessible to the operator during th e normal weldin g sequence.
High open circ uit voltages should be avoided. When seve ral welders are working with arcs o f different pol arity, or when a number of AC machines are being used, the open circuit voltages can be additive and increase the severity of the shock hazard . E lec tro de lead s and workpiece le ad s s ho uld not be co ile d aro u nd we ld ing ma ch in es or th e we lde r. Electrode holders should not be hung wh ere th e y ca n accidentall y come into contact with the other side of the circuit. Electrodes should be removed from the electrod e holder when not in use. Power cables coming into a welding machine should not come into co n-
Welders who fo llow all safetv requirements ensure a saf er work environment for themsel ves and others in the work area.
tact with welding leads. The welding mach ine mu st be kept d ry and if it sho uld become wet it mu st be dried properly by electrical maintenance personnel. In addition, the work area must be kept dry. Welders should never work in water or damp areas becau se water reduc es a weld er 's resistance and increases potential electrical hazards. The welder should stand on a board or insulated platform . The following safety rules are common to most arc welding opera tio ns : Install welding equipment according to pro vision s of the Nat ional Electrical Code" . Use we ldin g machi nes equipped with a power disconnect switch located at or near the machine so the power can be shut off quickl y. Ens ure that the wo rk are a is gro unded . Do not ground to pipelines carrying gases or flamm able liquids. Use proper safety guard s when using press -type welding mach ines. Use suitab le spark shields around equipment when flash welding. Turn OFF the we ldi ng machine , pull the power di sconnect switch, remove the electrode, and hang the e lectrode hold er in its designated place when welding is co mpleted.
24
1 WeidinK Skills
Insp ect welding ca bles for cuts, nicks, or abras ions. Do not pick up pieces of metal that have j ust been welded or heated , Do not ma ke repairs to welding equipment unless power to the machine is OFF. The high voltage of
arc welding machines can cause severe, eve n fatal injuries. Do not change polarity when the machine is und er load. The ma chine should be idled and the circuit open; otherwise, an arc may occur, burning the contac t surface of the switch and severely burning the welder. Do not overload welding leads or operate a mach ine with poor connections. Op erati ng with currents beyond the rated cabl e capacity cau ses overheating . Neatly arrange the welding leads and secure the proper connections. Do not weld on hollow (cored) castings unless they have been properly vented; an explosion may occur.
Combu stible ma teria ls shou ld be removed from the work area, or the location of the work must be at least 35' away from combustib le material s. If ne ithe r is po ssible, combustible s s hould be protected with a cover of fire-resistant mat eri als. A fire extinguis her should be kept near cuttin g and welding operations at all times. If the risk of fire is great, fire watchers should be avail abl e. If po ssibl e, the work area should be enclosed with portable, fire-resistant screens. Welding or cutting should not be done where dangerously reactive or flammable gases arc present.
A CAUTION
Combu stib le materials must he lo c ated at least 35' away from any area where
welding is 10 be done.
ma y result if weld ing or cutt ing ;.'1 performed O il co nta iners that a re no t f ret' of hawrdou s subs ta nces. No container should be presumed to he clean or sufi'. Containers can be made
safe f or weldin g ami cutting provided the necessa ry steps ami safety precautions
are/of/own}.
PREVENTING FIRES
Welding operations expose welders to heat, sparks, and flam e. Precau tio ns should be taken to ensure that the job site is safe and that adequ ate fire prevention strateg ies are in place. Fire may be produced by molten metal, sparks, slag, and hot work surfaces. Sparks may cause fire or explosio n if pre cauti onary mea sure s are not used. Sparks can pass through or beco me lod ged in c rac ks , clothing , pipe holes, and other small openin gs in floors and part ition s. Typical in door co mb us tib le materi al s are floor s, partition s, roofs, a nd building cont ent s, Indoor c om bus tible materials ma y cons is t of wood , pa per, clot hing, plasti cs, and chemical and flammabl e liquid s and gases. Examples of out sid e combustible mate rials arc dry leaves, grass, and brush .
Welding shops should be equipped with a fi re extinguisher tha t is loca ted near the work a rea fo r ('( 1.\")' acce ss in caw' ofjire.
We/dill R Safety ~
25
m . r:!
-
WO O d Paper Rubber
Plastic
Water
Dry chemicals
T he Nationa l Fi re Protectio n Association (NFPA) classifies fires into fiv e ty pes: A, B, C, D, and K. T he classificati on s are based o n the combustible materi al and the type of extinguis her requ ired to put o ut the fire. Exting uis her classifica tions can also be ide ntifie d by co lor and shape. See Fig ure 2-15 .
Class A
A Class A fire may be caused by most co mbustible mater ials, such as woo d, paper, rubber, plastic, and clo th. Class A fires are the most comm on type of fire. A C lass A fi re ex ti ng uis he r is identified by the co lor gree n inside a triangle shape. Class A fires can be extinguished with water or dry chemicals. Carbo n d ioxide , sod ium, and pot assium bicarbonate chemicals should not be used on a Class A fire.
Cloth
Flammable liquids
Dry chemicals
Foam Carbon dioxide
Grea se Gases
Class B
,.
IJJIIII
Electrical
A Class B fire is caused by flammab le liquids, gases, or grease. A Class B fire extinguisher is ide ntified by the color red inside a square. Class B fires ca n be ex ting uished with dry che micals . Foam and carbo n dioxide ex tingu ishers may also be used .
Class C
Combustible Extinguisher metals particular to type of metal Magnesium
- Titaniurn Zirconium Sodium
K
"'i~ u re
* II ----
A C lass C fire is an e lec trica l fire. A Clas s C fire ext inguisher is ident ified by the co lor blue inside a circle. Electrical fires requ ire a non-conducting agen t, such as carbon dioxide o r d ry chemica ls, to ex tinguish them. Foam extinguishers or water should never be used on an electrical fire.
Class D
A Class D fire is caused by combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, or sodium. A Class D fire extinguisher is identified by the co lor yellow inside a star. C las s D fire s cannot be extinguished with a common A, B, or C extingu isher; the chemicals in common
lI S
A. R. C. D. und K.
26
~ Weldin g Skills
extingui shers ca n int ensify the fire , rather than put it out. Dry powder extinguishers are available that are made specifically for metal hazard s.
Class K
A class K fire is ca used by grea se in commercial cooking equipment. Class K fire extingui shers coat the fire with wet or dry chemicals. Common dry chemical extinguishers should be available in case sparks from welding set other materials on fire. The two basic types of dr y chem ica l extinguishe rs are the stored-press ure
and the cartridge op erated . A fir e extinguisher labeled ABC is composed o f dr y chemical s and is capable o f extinguishing class A, B, and C fires. A fire extinguisher labeled either A, B, or C can only extinguish the fire for which it is labeled. Us ing an improper fire extinguisher can have an adverse effect on a fire, making the fire worse rather than extinguishing it. Welders must be particularly aware of the fire hazard s involved in th e metals they are welding and ensure that the proper type( s) of extingui sher are available.
I . Weekly safety meetings are a convenient way for employers to discuss relevant job site safety issues and cnncern s. 2. When workin g in a confined space, have a stand-by person availabl e to ensure a
safe environment.
3 . When welding, always wear safety glasses with approved filter plates. 4. For most arc welding operati ons, a #10 shade should be used . For oxyacety le ne cutting, a #5 shade can be used. 5 . In addition to approved work clothes, heavy-dut y welding requires a leather jacket or apron and leather gau ntlet-type gloves . 6 . Never place jackets or shirts over oxygen or gas cy linders . Gas ca n leak under clothing and start a fire. 7 . Ear protection should be worn when weldin g as the exc ess ive noi se genera ted by welding can affect hearin g. 8. Material safety data sheets include data about every hazardous component comprising I % or more of a material' s content. 9 . Always use insulated electrode holders when welding with SMAW to prevent electric shock and injury .
welding Safety
27
Wha t are some of the main causes of acc idents? Why should all accidents be reported imm ediately? How is it poss ible to become involved in an accid ent when playing aro und in the shop? Wh at may happ en if we lding equipme nt is used without proper instructio n? What should be done if a ma lfunction occ urs in any welding equ ipme nt? What ge neral practice should be followed regardin g ventilatio n when performin g weldin g? Why should used co ntainers be thoroughly clean ed and safety processed before any welding or cuttin g is do ne? Wh y do fires often occ ur during a cutti ng operation? What are some precauti ons that should be taken whe n using a eutting torch? Wh y mu st we lders wear pro per personal prot ecti ve eq uipment when we lding? A dry chemical fire ex tinguisher can be used to ex tinguish which class(es) of fire? What class of fire extinguisher should be used for a fire invol ving burnin g metal? What is the purpose of an MSDS ? Why sho uld a welder never look at an electric arc witho ut eye protection? What determines the co rrec t shade of lens for use during welding? Why sho uld shaded lenses be covered with clea r plast ic lenses? Wh y are safety glasses requ ired when we lding? Wh y should leath er gloves be worn when welding?
28
~ Welding Skills
Engineers and designers consider all/actors in the design ofa weld joint to ensure safety and efficiency. These factors include load requirements 0/ the weld; the adaptability (if the joint for the product being designed or welded; the accessibility of the weld; the type of load 011 the weld; the intended [unction of the structure; gove17ling codes and specifications; and economic considerations such as the cost of preparing the joint. Welded joints are used in virtually every industry. In the building industry. welds are used to join structural elements such as COIUIllIIS, trusses, girders, and other structural components.
WELDING TERMINOLOGY
Before proceeding with any welding operation, we lde rs mu st und erstand common weldin g term s. The base metal is the metal or alloy that is to be welded . An electrode is a component of thc welding circuit that conducts electrical current to the weld area. Electrodes may be co ns umable or nonconsuma ble, depending on the welding process. Some e le ct rodes,
such as tho se used in shie lded met al arc welding, are covered with a flu x co ating . A weld head is a weld that result s from a weld pass. A weld pass is a single pro gression of welding along a weld joint. See Fi gure 3- 1. A sing le pass weld requires only one weld pass. When laying a bead in a mult iple-pass we ld, each weld pass builds on the previous pass. The movement of the heat source
BASE METAL
PASS 2
SINGLE PASS
Figure 3 1. When layillf.: is deposited.
(I
MULTIPLE PASS
0 11
1 1Ie previous
1'1iSS.
The
29
creates ripple s as the weld bead is depo sited . A ripple is the shape withi n the deposited bead caused by the movement of the welding heat source . A crater is a depression in the base metal that is made by the weldin g heat so urce at the ter mination of the weld bead. Joint pen etration is the depth of the weld metal from the weld face into the joi nt. The joi nt penetration measureme nt does not include the weld reinforcement measurement. See Figure 3-2.
Fi~ure 3-2. A crater is II depression made ill the bas e metal by
the we ld ing heat source . Joint p en etration is the depth of the crater within the ba se me tal.
BASE METAL
DIRECTION OF WELDING
...
~
.=
Weld reinforcement is the amount of weld metal in excess of that required to fill the joi nt. Root reinforcement is reinforceme nt on the side opposite the one on which weldin g took place. Face reinforcem ent is reinforcement on the same side as the welding. Th e mot face is the portion of the groove face within the joi nt root. The mot opening is the di stan ce bet ween joint members at the root of the weld before welding. The root opening must be accurate so that excess we lding is not necessary. Weld width is the distance fro m toe to toe across the fac e of the weld. See Figure 3-3.
The weld toe is the point where the weld metal meet s the intersect ion of the base metal and the weld face. Th e toes are the points where the base metal and weld metal meet. The weld face is th e ex posed s urface of th e we ld, bounded by the weld toes on the side on which welding was done . The face may be either co ncave or convex. The weld mot is the area where filler metal inte rsects the base metal and extends the furth est into the weld joint. The actual throat is the shortest distance fro m the face of a fillet weld to the weld root after welding. The effective throat is the mi nimum distance, minu s co nvexity, bet ween th e we ld face and the we ld root. A weld leg is the distance from the joi nt root to the weld toe. The weld leg is the size of a fillet we ld made in lap or T-joints. See Fig ure 3-4 . Filler metal is metal depo sited in a welded, braz ed, or soldere d j oin t during the welding process. Fusion welding is we lding that uses fusion of the base metal or base metal and fi ller metal to make a weld . Fusion welding is the mo st co mmon method of joinin g metals . Welding pro gression conce rns the addit ion of filler metal in a weld j oint root and beyond . A j oint root is the portion of a weld j oint where joint members are the closest to each other. A joint root may be either a point, a line, or an are a. A mot bead is a weld bead that ex tends into or inclu des part or all of the joint root. A root pass is the initial
Figure 3-3. A proper rool open prepared 10 p revent eXCl'H welding . Weld reinforcem ent is weld metal that is mounded across the weld width;
;// 8 mu,\"1 be
-L
T
--.L T-- ROOT
REINFORCEMENT ROOT O PENING
30
Welding Skills
Figure 34. 11 fillet weld can he cross -sectioned to id entify it s various parts.
ACTUAL THROATy EFFECTIVE THROAT WELD FACE WELD LEG
WELD ROOT
JOINT ROOT
weld pass that provides complete penetration through the thickness of the joint member. Several weld beads (multiple-pass weld) may be required to complete a weld. A multiple-pass weld contains two or more weld beads.
WELD JOINTS
A weld joint is the physical configuration at the juncture of the workpieces to be welded. Weld joints must be correctly designed and have adequate root openings to support the loads transferred from one workpiece to another through the welds. See Figure 3-5. The follow ing are some basic considerations in the selection of any weld joint: whether the load will encounter tension, compression, bending, fatigue, or impact stresses how the load is to be applied to the joint, i.e., whether the load is a static, impact, cyclic, or variable load the displacement of the load in relation to the joint the direction from which the load is to be applied to the joint the cost of preparing the joint Weld joint design is based on the strength of the joint, safety requirements, and the service conditions under which the joint must perform. Additionally,
how stresses are to be applied during service, and whether tension, bending, or torsion is a factor, must be considered in joint design. Joint design requirements vary depending on whether the load is static, cyclic, or variable. Joints are also designed for economy or accessibility during construction and inspection. The five basic weld joints used are the butt, T, lap, comer, and edge joints. See Figure 3-6.
Professional welders must have an understanding of welding terminology; processes, and specifications.
31
Static
Impact
MOTION
Cyclic or Variable
- -l
DISPLACEMENT
TRANSVERSE LOAD
LONGITUDINAL LOAD
DIRECTION
.~JlOltld
be' [amiliar with how IO(ld .5 will impact welded joints ami 11";(11 the requirements for making the proper joint selection.
Figu re 3-6. The fi ve basic weld joims ll. H'di llweldillgantlle butt, T, lap. COnlet; and edge.
: ," -
,-"
"
BUTT
CORNER
LAP
T
32
EDGE
~ Welding Skills
Butt Joints
A butt jo int is a we ld j oint in wh ich two workpieces a re se t approx imate ly level to eac h othe r and are positioned edge-to-ed ge . In a butt joint, the weld is made between the ed ge surfaces o f the two sectio ns to be fused . The joint may be ei ther square or grooved . Butt jo ints include sq uare , s ing le be vel , sing le-V, dou bl e -V, s ing le-U , a nd doub le-U butt joi nts . See Fig ure 3-7 . Butt joints are commo nly used in fabricating vessels and subassemblies and for repair operations. Square Butt Joints, The square butt joint is intended primari ly for mat erials that are 3/16" thick or less. Square butt joints req u ire full a nd co mp lete fusion for o ptimum stre ngth. For submerged arc we ld ing, mat e rial s up to %" thick wi th a mi nimum ga p of VB" can be we lded. Th e square butt joint is reaso nab ly strong in static ten sion but is not rec ommended wh en the joint is to be subjec te d to fati gu e or impact loads, es pecially at low temperatures . Preparati on for a squa re butt joint requires matching only the edges of the workp ieces . Square b utt joints are an inexpensive we ld joint opt io n. Single Bevel Butt Joints. A si ng le beve l butt j oint is a parti al pen etrating sing le bevel gro ove w eld . It is welded from one s ide and is generally use d o n metal s n o more tha n 1 / 2" thi ck .
Single-Y Butt Joints. A single- V butt joint is used on metal from a" to s;.." th ick. Prepa rat ion fo r a sing le- V bu tt jo in t is cost ly b e c au se a s pecia l be veling o pe ra tio n a nd mo re f ille r material are required than for a square butt joint. A s in g le- V butt joint is stro ng in stat ic lo ading but , like th e sq ua re butt j o in t, is not parti cul arl y su ita b le w he n s ubjec t to fati gue or impac t load s at the we ld root. Double-V Butt Joints, A doub le-V butt j o int is su ita b le fo r a ll load c o nd it io ns . T he d oubl e -Vi s o fte n spe cified for stoc k that is heavier than meta l u sed f o r a s in g le - V. Hea vy metals that usc a doubl e -V joint a re typi c all y % " thic k or g rea ter. For ma ximum we ld stre ng th, penetrati on mu st be com plete o n both si des . The cost of pre pa ring a dou b le- V j oint is hi gh er th an the sing le- V. but usuall y less filler material is req uired becau se a narrowe r groove a ng le ca n be used. To keep the joint symme trical and w arpage of th e j oint to a minimum, the w e ld b e ad mu st b e a lte rna te d . Th e w el din g s ho u ld b e d on e f irst o n one s id e a nd th en the ot her, wit h the welder alternating sides un til the groove is filled . Single-U Rutt Joints. A sing le-U butt joint meets all ordinary load conditions and is used for work requiring high quality weld s. The sing le-U works well on applicat ion s joining workpieces '/2"
Souu re burt joints should be used with materials :rJ6" 'h ick
or Iess.
Butt Joints
Figure3-7
-,
SQUARE
SINGLE BEVEL
SINGLE-V
DOUBLE-V
SINGLE-U
DOUBLE-U
33
to %" thick. T he sing le-U j oint need s less filler metal tha n the sing le- V or doubl e - V j oint , a nd ge ne rall y, les s war pa ge occurs.
Double-U Butt Joints. A doub le-U butt joint is intend ed for heavy metals %" thick or more on which welding can easily be acco mp lished on both sides. T he double-U jo int can meet all regular load co nditions. Preparation COSIS are higher than for the singlc-U butt joint.
'l-joints can be used for th in or rea so nably thick material s where applied load s subjec t the we ld to lon g itud inal shear. S ince the st re ss d istribution of the joint may not be uniform, this factor sho uld be con sidered whe re severe impact or heavy trans verse load s are e nco unte red. For max imum stre ng th, co ns ide rable weld metal is required.
Single Bevel T-Joints. A single bevel T-jo int can wi ths ta nd a mor e severe load than the square T-joint since it allows for better d istributi on of stresses. It is ge ne rally co nfined to plates '/2" thick or less where we ld ing can only be don e fro m one side. Double Bevel T-Joints. A double bevel T-joint is intended for use where heavy loads are a pplied in both lon gitudi nal and tra nsve rse direc tion s, and whe re we lding ca n be done on both side s. Slngle-J T-Joints. A single-J T-joint is used on plates I " thick or more where welding is limited to one side. It is especially suitable for welding workpieces that are ex posed to seve re loads.
T-Joints
A 'I-jo int is formed when two memb ers ore positioned approximat ely 90 to
olle another:
A Tsj oint is a we ld j oint formed when two wo rkpieces a re position ed at approximately 90 to one ano ther in the form of a T. A T-joint can be made on all stand a rd metal thick nesses . The edge of one workpiece rests on the surface of the base wo rk p iece . Ba si c T -jo ints are sq uare, sing le bevel, dou ble bevel , si ng le-J , a nd do ubl e-J, See Figure 3-8 .
Square T-Joints. A square T-joint can be we lde d o n o ne or both si des an d requires the use of a fillet weld. Squ are
Fig ure 3-8. l -jo ints an' 1I.\"(,e/ 01/ til/ standard /IIe/(ll thicknesses and include square, .Iilll-:le bevel, double bevel .single-l, ami doub le.J,
T-Joints
Figure 3-8
SQUARE
SINGLE BEVEL
DOUBLE BEVEL
SINGLE-J
DOUBLE..J
34
~ Weldillg Skill"
Double-J T-Joints. A double-J T-joint is particularly suitable for heavy plates P/{' thick or more where unusually severe loads are encountered. Joint location should permit welding on both sides.
welding. If the double fillet weld is properly made, its strength is comparable to that of the base metal.
Corner Joints
A corner joint is a joint formed when two workpieces are positioned at an approximate right angle in the shape of an L. Comer joints are used in many applications to join sheet and plate metal sections exposed to general service loads. Common corner joints are flush , half-open, and full-open. See Figure 3-10.
Lap Joints
A lap joint is a weld joint between two overlapping members in parallel planes. A lap joint is one of the strongest joints available, despite the lower unit strength of the filler metal. Lap joints are commonly welded on both sides. An overlap greater than three times the thickness of the thinnest workpiece is recommended . Two basic lap joints are single fillet and double fillet lap joints. See Figure 3-9.
Corner Joints
Figure 3-10
Figure 3-10. Co rne r jo int s a re generally used only where severe loads ar e not encounte red.
Lap Joints
Figure 3-9
FLUSH
SINGLE FILLET
HALF-OPEN
DOUBLE FILLET
Figure 3-9. The single f ill et and douhl e fillet lap joints are the stron gest weld j oints available.
FULL-OPEN
Single Fillet Lap Joints. A single fillet lap joint is very easy to weld. Filler metal is depo sited along the seam on one side of the joint. The strength of the single fillet weld depends on the size of the fillet. Metal up to W' thick can be welded with a single fillet if the loading is not too severe. Double Fillet Lap Joint. A double fillet lap joint can withstand greater loads than the single fillet and is one of the more widely used joints in
Flush Corner Joints. A flush corner joint is designed primarily for welding sheet metal 12 gauge and lighter. It is restricted to light material s because deep penetration is sometimes difficult to achieve, and the joint is able to support only moderate loads . Half-Open Corner Joints. A halfopen comer joint is usually more adaptable for materials heavier than 12 gauge. It is suitable for loads where fatigue or
Joint Design & Welding Term, ~
35
impac t are not too severe and where the welding can only be done from one side . The two edges of the workpieces are shouldered together so there is less tendency to burn through the plates at the co rner. Full-Open Corner Joints. A full-open corner j oint permits we ldi ng on both sides so it produ ces a stro ng joint capable of carrying heavy loads. All metal th ick nesses ca n be we lde d wit h full ope n co rner j oints. A full-open corne r joint provides good stress distribut ion.
steel. A flanged j oint is a joint in which one of the joint members has a !langed edge at the weld j oint.
Edge Joints
Figure 311
saUAREEDGE
"
..."'- - - - _ .,
SINGLE BEVEL EDGE
--~
.....-
WELD TYPES
A we ld type is the cross-se ct io na l shape of the weld after filler met al is added to the joint. The weld type differs from the weld joint in that the weld type indic ates the way in which fill er metal is added while the weld joint is the configuration of the join t members. The weld type used is determined by the we ld joint des ign and de pends on the load requirements of the weld. To maximize weld streng th and econo my, the following basic rules are observed: Minimize edge preparation. Minimizing edge preparation reduces cutting and machining costs. Provide weld access. Allow for access to the weld by we lding machin ery. The welding equipment available for the job must be considered. Minimize filler metal. M inimiz ing filler meta l reduces costs .
71Je weld type used must be designed for the particularjoint to be welded and the load requirements ofthe weld.
Edge Joints
An edge join t is a weld joint form ed when the edge s of two or more paral lel o r nearly parall el members arc joined. The edge j oint is suitab le for plates 1 14" thick or less and can sustain o nly light loads. Edge joints can be co mbined with butt joints or corner joints and the edges can be squared or beveled. See Figure 3-1 1. An edge joint is commonly used to join support structures and short len gth s of st ruc tural
36
~ Weidilll! Skills
Reduce excess heat. Reducing the amount of excess heat applied to the weld area during welding minimizes metallurgical changes of the base metal and filler metal. Minimize the number of welds. Minimizing the number of welds reduces the filler metal required. Additionally, distortion of joint members from heat application is reduced. Size the weld for the thinnest joint member. The size of the weld should not exceed the strength of the thinnest joint member. Joint design selection uses root openings and groove openings that require the least amount of weld metal yet still provide accessibility to the joint. Joint design selection is also influenced by the type of metal to be welded, the lucation of the joint in the weldment, and the required performance of the weld. Weld joints and types are selected for specific applications. Weld types include fillet weld, groove weld, plug or slot weld, surfacing weld, stud weld, spot and seam weld, projection weld, and back weld. See Figure 3-12 .
on the effective throat of the weld. If the load requires an effective throat of 'Ys" or larger, a groove weld should be used, possibly in combination with a fillet weld to provide the required size.
Fillet Welds
A fillet weld is a weld of approximately triangular cross section that joins two surfaces at approximately right angles. Fillet welds may be used for lap, T, or corner joints. Fillet welds are the most commonly used weld type and are preferred over groove welds because they are easier to prepare and are less expensive to complete . Fillet welds may be made from one side (single fillet weld) or both sides (double fillet weld). Fillet weld size is specified by the lengths of the legs of the largest right triangle that may be inscribed within the fillet weld cross section. Fillet welds are commonly used when load stresses are low and the required effective throat is less than %". The strength of the fillet weld is based
Groove Welds A groove weld is a weld made in the groove between the two workpieces to be joined. A groove weld may be square groove, single-groove, or double-groove. A square groove weld is economical, but its use is limited by the thickness of the joint and the service load. A groove weld is adaptable for a variety of joints, most commonly the butt joint. The groove weld should use the smallest root opening and groove angle possible for the job to provide a sound weld using the least amount of filler metal. With a suitable opening and backing strip, square groove weld joints up to 1;,\" thick can be made by SMAW. Square groove weld joints up to 'Is" thick can be made with GMAW, FCAW, and SAW. The root of a square groove weld should not be under tension when the weld is bent under load. Single-groove and double-groove welds are normally used for thick joints . A single-groove weld is a groove weld that is made from one side only. Single-groove welds include singlesquare -groove , single-bevel-groove, sing le- V-groove, single-J-groove, single- V-groove, single -flare-bevelgroove, and single-flare- V-groove. A double-groove weld is a groove weld that is made from both sides. Double-groove welds include doublesquare-groove, double-bevel-groove, double- V-groove, double-J-groove with backing, double-V-groove, double-flare-bevel -groove, and doubleflare -V-groove. The edge of each workpiece must be prepared to provide accessibility for welding and to ensure the desired soundness and strength. The selection of a single-groove weld over a double-groove weld is principally dictated by cost.
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G ro ove w elds are Vety adaptable for a vari ety C!f joints, bur their use is limit ed by the thickn ess of the material.
37
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l1(P_.:i\~FILLET SQUAREGROOVE BEVELGROOVE V-GROOVE Joi
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1,:~r LA~' ,; T~ ' EDGE ~'" CORN~ ~, :-lh~L: '~>'-'(' 1<.1' '%}'.::h'i1rj (i~hh;,\\t\ ~E1
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Figure 3- 12. The basic weld joints are used with applicable weld tYI 'e.{ to meet load requirements.
38
1 Welding Skills
semi-molten condition to form a coating . The surfacing material may be in the form of a powder, rod, cord, or wire. THSP is also called arc spray, flame spray, and plasma spray. Thermal spray hardfacing (non-fusion hardfacing) is the application of a thin layer of materials to the surface in such a way that local melting does not occur.
A plug weld or slot weld is used to join overlapping pieces of metal through circular holes or slots made in one member.
Stud Welds
A stud weld is a weld produced by joining a metal stud or similar part to a workpiece. During the welding process, part of the stud is melted, providing weld reinforcement at the base of the stud. Welding may be done with heat and pressure.
Surfacing Welds
A surfacing weld is a weld applied to a surface, as opposed to a joint, to obtain desired properties or dimensions. Surfacing welds are commonly used to strengthen selected surfaces of a single component, such as an extruder. A surfacing weld applied to increase wear resistance is known as hardfacing or fusion hardfacing. Surfacing welds do not require preparing an actual weld joint. A surfacing weld is different from thermal spraying . Thermal spraying (THSP) is a group of processes in which finely divided metallic or nonmetallic materials are deposited in a molten or
Projection Welds
A projection weld is a resistance weld produced by the heat obtained from the resistance to the flow of welding current. The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by projections, embossments, or intersections. Spot and projection welds are specified in pounds per weld. Seam welds are
Joint Design & Welding Terms ~
39
specified in pou nds per inch of joint strength. A weld strength greater than the strength of the mini mum nugget size should be specified in the design. A nugget is the weld metal that joins the workpieces in spot, seam. or projecti on weld s.
Back Welds
A ba ck weld is a weld made in the weld root opposite the face of the we ld. A back weld is deposited a fter weld ing on the face side of the work piece is comple te d . Back welds are usu ally made to improve the quality of the first pass of weld metal (root pass). This is ac hieved by go uging or grinding out imperfections in the root pass, followed by depositing the back weld .
Welded joints have replaced many parts and structures that previou sly used fasteners or the cas ting process. Mos t we lde d joi nts are subjec ted to loads that require strength and rigidity to prevent failure. Loads in a structure are transferred from member to member through the welds . Welded joints subjected to minimu m loads are co nsidered to be "no-load" we ld s. For example, access covers and panels and safety guards require "no-load" welds. AWS Welding Positions. Weld joi nt selection is also affected by the welding pos ition. The four basic welding positions are flat, horizontal, vertical, a nd ove rhead. See Figure 3-13 . Flat position is the most widely used welding posi tion because welding can be done quickly and easily, and tlat position welding allow s for the greatest co ntro l of the we lding proce ss . In the hor izont al , vertica l, an d ove rhea d posi tio ns, gr avity red uces pe ne tration and filler metal con tro l, which ca n ca use weld defects resulting in weak we lds. Horizo ntal wel ding is difficult becau se th e molten pool has a tendency to sag . Vertical welding is done in a vertical line from the bottom to the top or from the top to bottom of the work piccc s. On thin material , a do wnh ill we ld ing tec hn iq ue is usu all y mo re a pp lica ble. Overhead welding is difficul t becaus e the molten metal sags. A uniform bead with the proper penetration must be sec ured . Small parts are com mon ly welded in flat position for efficiency. However, some large parts that ca nnot be pos itio ned for flat -pos itio n we lding can be co ntro lle d usin g j igs , tack welds, spacers, or consumable inserts. A lack weld is a weld used to hold workp ieces in proper alig nment until the final weld s are made. Subsequent weldi ng on the we ld joint me lts through the tack welds. Spacers provide a gap bet ween the joint members to be tack welded.
WELD DESIGNS
Weld joint design s are governe d by AWS codes and other a ppro pria te codes . For exa mple, in building construction, AWS codes govern structural a nd weld ing mate rials, we ld de tails , processes and techniques. weld quality, and inspection. The design of the st ructura l e lemen ts is gove rne d by American Institut e of Steel Co nstruction (A fSC) specifications. T he weld joint design selected must factor in wind forces. loads. seism ic cond itions, and other conditions that can cause fatigue. Addit ional codes such as the Uniform Building Code and ot her appropriate state and loca l codes may also apply. The designer or engineer is responsible for determining the proper weld desig n to use; however, a welder shou ld be aware of joint desig n requirements in or der to pro duce a weld that better meets the established specifications for the job.
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FLAT (1G)
EDGE
CORNER
HORIZONTAL (2G)
VERTICAL (3G)
OVERHEAD (4G)
Figure 3-13 . The four common welding positions are flat, horir ontat, vertical, and overhead.
After tack welding, the spacers are removed before continuing the weld ing process . Cons umable inserts are melted during the welding process and become part of the filler meta l added to the weld joint.
Joint Preparation. A quality weld is dependent on proper joint preparation. Edges are commonly cut, sawed , or machin ed to provi de good fit -up of part s. Edge preparation for groove welds must also be considered . Fit-up must be consistent through and along the entire joint. The following general
requirements provide for proper joint preparation: Sheet metal and most fillet and lap j oints should be clamped tight for the entire length of the workpiece to be welded . Gaps or bevel s must be accurately controlled over the entire joint. Any variation in a given joint forces the welder to adjust the weld ing speed to avoid meltthrough (burn-through) and to use different electrode manipulations to fill the fit-up variation . Correct groove angle is required for good bead shape and penetration . See Figure 3- 14 .
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followed closely to
pro vide good fit-up during welding.
41
Groove Angle
Figure 3-14
60' ELECTRODE
FULL PENETRATION
Proper groove ang le of 60 to 75 shoo ld be mai ntained . A sufficient bevel is necessary for a quality bead; however, any excess bevel creates additiona l work for the welder and wastes fi ller metal. Filler metal is expen sive , and any variation from th e rec omm ended gro ove angle size contributes to exce ss cost, in both materi al and time , in making a we ld. See Figure 3- 16.
CORRECT
90'
INCOMPLETE PENETRATION
INCORRECT
Figure 3-14. A corn' cl groove angle is essential for a WJO d wel d as it allows tile weld metal to fuffy p en et rate ,11(' rem/ opening,
Ffgure 3- 16. All overly lar ge groove ang le wastes
fill er me tal {lI1l 1 time, r e.f ll lt ing in greater welding costs.
An insufficient bevel prevents the electrode fro m pene trating into the jo int. Deep, narrow beads may lack penetration , and they have a tendency to crack. A wide bevel groove is typically used in pipe welding 10 en sure complele penetration , See Figure 3- 15.
Suffic ient gap is needed for full penetration . Wit hout adequale penetration, a we lded joint cannot with stand the loads imposed on it. A!though proper penetration depend s to so me exte nt on electrode manipul ation, it is essential that the welder provide a corre ct root op enin g to ac hieve full penetration . Sec Figure 3-17 . Either a '/8" root face or a backing strip is required for fast weld in g a nd a go od quality weld . Fea ther-edge preparalions requ ire a slow, co st ly root bead. However, double-V butt joints wit hout a root face are prac tica l when the roo t bead is offset by eas ier edge p re pa rat ion s a nd w he n the ga p ca n be limited to abo ut %2" . See Figure 3- 18.
42
~ Welding Skills
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FiJ:u.-e 3-17. Prope r root 01,e"i"8 size is required in order 10 make 1I sound weld. 17u' root opening size is determined by the wall thickness of the metal.
required root openin g for proper penetration and sufficient weld reinforcement. See Fig ure 3- 19 . Workpiece s should be a ligned edge-to- edg e and end -to-end , and also should lie in the same plane. Suba ssemblies can eliminate some access probl ems. Each we ld jo int typ e has certa in adva ntag es and limitat ion s. Weld ers must be especially aware of the limitations, as the effectiveness of the weld is often contingent on the type of joint that is used as well as the skill of the welder. Load requirements dictate the strength of the required weld s, Weld types are used with the applicable weld joint, and include fillet. groove, plug or slot. and surfacing weld s. Welding Location. Weldin g is performed in the shop or in the field. dependin g upon the size and fabrication requirements of the structure, Small parts, structures, and subassemblies are often we lded in the shop . The shop provides a controlled environment in which welding variables can be closely controlled , Add itionally, fixture s and positioners can be used to move a part or hold a part in position for improved welding produ cti vity.
ROOT FACE
V," ROOT
FACE
BACKING STRIP
Figure 3-18. The p roper mot f ace must be provided for a quality weld.
Joint Access. Sufficie nt access is required for the weldin g equipment and the deposition of filler metal. For example. the large weldin g gun required for flux co red arc we lding limits the access to welds in tight areas, Proper fit-up also ensures that the workpiece s are in correct alignment , have the correct edge preparation , and ha ve the
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Join/ des ign must rake into consideration access to the joint hy t" ' welder:
43
~60'-y
OPENING DIMENSION
RooT ]' ~
I- Y, ~ GROOVE
WELD SIZE
ALIGNMENT
EDGE PREPARATION
ROOT OPENING
FiJ:ure 3- 19. Co rrect alig nme nt, t'dgt' preparation, am/ root opening a rt" necessary fo r I'ro{Jl'r fit- up.
A fix /lire is a device used to mainlain the co rrec t positional relation ship between workpieces as required by print specifica t ions . A p ositione r is a mechanical device that supports and moves work pieces fo r maxi mum loadin g, weld ing, and unloading efficiency. Positioners can be used with hand- and machine-controlled welding machinery. In prod uction settings, positioners and welding equ ipment arc used together fo r maximum we ld ing e ffic iency.
Weld ing is pe rfo rme d in the fie ld whe n the size or fa bri ca tion requ iremen ts of the s tr uc ture prohib il asse m bly in the shop. Welding in the fie ld often re s ults in a dec rea se in wel ding prod ucti vit y because addi tio na l va riables are introduced that ca n influ ence th e fi n is he d we ld . Amb ient temperature . wea t he r, we ldi ng co nd itio ns, and we lde r effiei en ey in the fie ld aff ec t we lding p ro d uc tiv ity.
I . The root pass is the initia l weld pass thai provides complete penetration through the thickness of the jo int me mber. 2 . Square butt joint s should be used prim arily with material s 0/16" thick or less. 3. A do uble-V butt j oi nt is suita ble for all load co nditions. 4 . A T-joi nt is formed whe n two members are positione d approxima tely 90 to one ano ther. 5 . A lap joint is usually welded on both sides of the joint. 6 . Groove welds are very adap table for a variety of joints, but their use is limited by the thickness of the material, 7 . A plug weld or a slot weld is used to join overla pping pieces of metal throug h circu lar holes or slots made in one memb er. 8 . AWS codes are intended as a standard guide by which to design consistent, quality weld joints . 9 . Joint prep aration guide lines must be followed close ly to prov ide goo d fit-up d uri ng we lding .
44
~ lV l'!ding Skills
I . What factors must be con sidered when determinin g the type of joint to use in welding any struc tura l unit? 2. What is a fillet weld? 3 . In what type o f joints are groove welds made? 4 . What is a plu g weld? 5 . W hen is a surfacing we ld used? 6 . W hy are grooved butt joints bette r for welding th ick plates than square butt joi nts? 7 . What are the basic types of T -jo ints? 8. Describe a double fillet lap joint. 9 . Which typ e of corner joint is the stro nge st? 10. What is the toe of a weld? I I . What is the root of a weld? 12. What are so me of the basic prin cipl es that contribute to good j oint-geom et ry? 13 . Wh en are do ub le bevel T -joints normall y used? 14. Which butt joint requires the least amo un t of preparat ion before welding? 15. Wh at is reinforcement of the we ld? 16 . Ho w is the root ope ning size determined ? 17 . Wh y is a prope r groove ang le required? I 8. Ho w is the size of a weld leg determined?
4S
46
~ WeldifiK Skills
section .
two
ui
Oxyacetylene welding does not require electricity and is typically used for maintenance, in body shops, and in the repair (if small parts where other welding processes are too expensive, Oxyacetylene welding can be used to join iron, steel, cast iron, copper, brass, aluminum, bronze, and other metals, Often, dissimilar metals such as steel and cast iron, brass and steel, copper and iron, and brass and cast iron can be joined with oxyacetylene welding. Oxyacetylene welding equipment can also be used for preheating, cutting metal, case hardening, and annealing.
the air and removes any remammg carbon dioxide and water vapor. At the top of each drying cylinder arc specia l cotton filters to prevent particles of for eign matter from being carri ed into the high-pressure lines. The dry, clean , compre ssed air then goe s into rectifyin g or liquefaction columns where the air is cooled and expanded to approximately atmo spheric pressure . As the pressure is lowered, the extremely high-pressure, cold air cools and liquefies.
A mixtu re of oxygen and acetylene is used fo r most welding ami cutting operations.
47
The separa tion of the nitrogen from the oxygen is possible once the air has liquefied becau se nitro gen and oxygen have differen t boilin g points. Nitrogen boils at - 320F (- 195.5C) and oxygen at - 296F (- 182C) . The nitrogen, having a low er boil ing point , eva po rates first, leaving the liquid oxygen at the botto m of the conden ser. The isolated liq uid oxygen passes thr ou gh a heated co il, which cha nge s the liquid oxygen into a gaseous form. After the gas moves thro ugh the heated co il, it is stored in a storage tank. A gas meter mounted betw een the heatin g coil and the storage tank regi ster s the amount of gas entering the sto rage tank. The stored oxygen gas can then be drawn from the storage tank and compressed into receivin g cy linde rs. The electrolytic method is a process that use s water and ele ctri city to isolat e o xyg en . Wat er is a chemical compound con si stin g of o xyg en and hydrogen . By sending an electrical current throu gh a soluti o n of water cont ainin g ca us t ic so da, o xygen is given off at on e termin al plate, and hydrogen at th e o the r. Th e ox yge n, ha vin g be en se parate d from the hyd ro gen , is suita ble for we lding. The elect rol yti c method is a ve ry ex pensive meth od of produ cin g o xygen ; for thi s reason the liquid-air method is more com mo nly used to produ ce commercial oxygen .
Handle oxygen and ace tylene cylinders with care. Neverexpose them to execssive heal and prevent contact with oil and
position . Th is provides a seal to reduce lea kage from the va lve . A protector cap screws onto the neck rin g of the cylinder to protect the valve from damage. The protector cap must always be in place whe n the cy linde r is not in use. See Fig ure 4- 1.
PROTECTOR CAP "
Figure 4-1. A protector Clip ,\ f 'Y (' W,\' Ol/to the neck ring of thr cylinder t il protect the m /l '(' f rom damage when IlOt in use,
Oxygen Cylinders
O xygen cy linde rs a re made from sea mless drawn steel and tested with a water (hydrostatic) pressure of 3360 psi. The cy linde rs a re eq uipped with a high-pressure valve that ca n be opened by turnin g the handwh eel on top of the cylinder. The valve handwheel should a lways be o pe ne d by hand and not with a wre nc h. Th e handwheel mu st be turned slow ly to permit a gradual pre ssure load on th e re gulator. The valve handwheel is turned to full open
grease.
Th ere are three co m mo n s izes of oxygen cy linde rs . The lar ge cy linder holds 244 cubic feet (eu ft) of oxyg en. The la rge s ize is com mo nly used in industrial plants and shops that requ ire large quant ities of ga s. A medium-size cy l inde r ca n co nta in 12 2 c u ft of oxygen and a small cyli nder can hold 80 cu ft. Cy linders are charged with oxygen at a pressu re of 2200 psi at a tem perature of 70 F (2 1C). Gase s expand when heated and contract when coo led, so the oxyge n pressure will increase or decrea se as the temperature cha nges . For example, if a full cylind er of oxygen is a llowed to sta nd outdoors in near-freezin g temperatures, the pressur e of the o xygen will regist er less than 2200 psi. However, none of the oxygen has been lost; coolin g has only reduc ed the pressure of the o xyg en.
48
Weldil1l: Sk ills
Since the pressure of gas varies with the surro und ing temperature, all oxyge n cy lin de rs are equipped with a safety nut that permits the oxy gen to drain s lo w ly if the temperature increases the cylinder pressur e beyond its rated safety load. If a cylinder were exposed to a hot flame, the safety nut would relieve the pressur e before the cylinder reached its ex ploding poin t.
Fi ~un" 4-2. An acetylene cylinder is packed with 1I POro llS material that is saturated \, '; 1}, acetone 10 allow T he s af e storage of neely/me.
ll. WARNING
FUSIBLE PLUGS
Acety lene becomes dangerou s and un stab le if com pressed 10 more than 15 psi of pressure .
Th e cylinder valve is opened with an installed valve hand le. See Figure 4-3. Th e cylinder val ve sho uld ne ver be opened more than one complete tum. It is advisable to open the cylinder only s lightly so the va lve ca n be cl osed qui ckly in case of an emergency.
"'i~ul"c -I-J. Tne acetylene cylinder valve should he open ed 1I';I1t tlU' installed valve handle.
Acetylene Cylinders
To ens ure the safe sto rage of acetylene, th e cy linder is pa ck ed w ith a porous material. Thi s porou s material is satura ted with acet one, which is a chem ical liquid tha t dissol ves or absorbs lar ge qua ntities o f acety lene under pressu res g rea te r than 15 psi witho ut c ha ng ing th e nature of th e gas. The acetylene cylinder is equipped with a fu sible plug that melt s, relieving excess pressure , if the cy linde r is subj ected to any mechanical pre ssur e or undue heat, such as from a tire. See Figu re 4-2 . Ac ety le ne cy linders should never be laid down as the corrosive nature of the ace tone can erode the seals in the tan ks.
When a c o ns iderable a mo unt of weldin g is to be performed in an ar ea, as in indu stry or in a sc ho o l weldin g s ho p, ace ty le ne cy l inde rs are fr equentl y co nnec ted to a mani fold system with pipelines carrying the gas to the welding stations. See Figure 4-4. The demand for ace tylene is usually higher than can be supplied by a
DAlY - Equ ipm en t ~
49
single cylinder, so a manifold system is commonly needed. A multiple cylinder manifold system allows the necessary volume of acetylene to be supplied to tbe work area. Acetylene can be drawn off no faster tban one-seventh the total volume of the cylinder per hour, which is the quickest the acetylene can be released from the acet one linin g in the cylinder. A flash arrestor is also used in the manifold system to preve nt a flashback from re aching the stored cylinders .
Fig ure ..J-..J. Acetylene cylinders lire co nnec ted 10 II ma nifold
system ill arras w he r e II IJi{:h
- 'R,
l J..u r -'-'-+-''Tl
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A backfire is ca used by the flame go ing out s uddenly o n the torch . A backfi re may oc cu r when the tip is touched against the workpiece; if the flame settings are too low; if the tip is dirty, damaged, or loose; or if the tip is overheated . Wh en a torch bac kfires, it could ca use a flashback. A fla sh bac k is a condition in which the flame burns inside the tip, the torch, or the hose. In ca se of a fla shb ack, the oxygen and fuel valves must be immediately closed to prevent possib le explos ion of the cy linders. Flashba ck s are typ ica lly ca used hy malfun ctionin g equipment. If a flashback occurs, the eq uipme nt should be removed from service and a service technician called to correct the problem o r re place the equ ip ment. Hoses sho uld be di scarded after a flashback. The torch tip is reusable, but it should be re move d fro m the torch and thoroughly blown out with air to remove any soot or residue.
A WARNING
Neve r move cyl inde rs with regulator s attac hed . Always remo ve the regulator s and install the pro tect ive ca p prior to movin g .
Flash Arrestors. A fl ash arrestor is a safety devic e that prevent s an explosion or a backfire in the torch or torch head from reaching the regulator and the acety lene cy linder. Two type s of flash arrestors are the torch-m ounted and the reg ulator-mounted . T he torch -mounted flash arrestor is a ch eck valve that pre vent s a reverse gas flow from reaching the cylinder. T he regul at or-m ou nted fla sh arrestor is a combination check valve and flame barr ier. The barrier metal is a porous flam e-retardant materi al that allows gas to flow th rough, but block s out a flam e. Torch-m ounted and regulator-mounted flash arrestors should always be used on fue l hoses and oxygen hoses. Regulator-mounted flas h arrestor s prevent backfires and flashb acks from entering the hoses, and possibly the cylinders.
50
Welding Skills
"i~u ..e 4-6. Cylinders .~/wu ltJ be cha ined a t all limn during use and 'Wh en stored.
ACETYLENE 17 CYLINDERS. v
figure 4-5. To .wfdy mo ve (l cylind e r; tilt the cylinder backward wit h 0 11 hand lind ro ll the cylinder. guidinx the cy linder with the other hand.
WELDING APPARATUS
Never transport a cylinder by dragging, sliding, or rolling it on its side . Avoid striking it against any object that might create a spark, as there may be just enough ga s escaping from the cylinder to cause an explosion. Shut OFF cylinder valves completely before moving cylinders. Do not tamper with or attempt to repair cylinder valves. If valves leak or do not function properly, notify the supplier immediately. Keep valves closed on empty cylinders . Do not usc a hammer or wrench to open cylinder valves. If they cannot be opened by hand or with a T-wrench, noti fy the supplier. Keep cylind ers covered with valve protector caps when not in use. Cylinders should be chained in position at all times during use and when stored . Cylinders in use should be sec ure ly attached to a hand cart, or chained near the work station . See Figure 4-6 . The wel ding apparatus consists of a torch with an assortment of differentsized tips; two lengths of hose , one red for acetylene and the other green for oxygen ; two pre ssure regulators; two cylinders, one containing acetylene and the other oxygen; a welding sparklighter; and a pair of go ggles. See Figure 4-7. Cylinders are typically chained to a two-wheel hand tru ck to permit moving the equipment (0 a desired location. If the cylinders are positioned near the workbench, thcy should be cha ined to a fixed object.
51
Fig u re ~ - 7. Cy linders cnn be chaine d to a two-wheel hand truck for easy transportation,
REGULATORS
HOSES
ACETYLENE CYLINDER
~ OX Y G E N CY LINDER
TORCH
TIP
lWOWHEEL HANOTRUCK
Figure 4-8. A ll oxyacetylene welding tor ch pravidrs comp lete ('ol/lrol (y'/hl' jlan/(' duril1~ welding.
A CAUTION
Cylinders must be properly secured: otherwi se. they may lip over and min the regulators or cause an explosion.
The two primary types of torches are the medium-pressure and the injector. T he medi um -press ure to rch requi res acetylene pressures of I psi to 10 psi. The inject or torch is designed to use acetylene at very low pressures (0 up to I psi). Both types of torches operate when acetylene is supplied from cylinders or medium-press ure generators.
In a medium-pressure torch, the oxygen and acetylene are fed independently to a mixing chamber. after which they tlow out through the tip. In an injec tor torch. the oxygen, as it passes through a sma ll ope ning in the injector nozzle, draws acetylene into the oxygen stream. When small tluctuation s in the oxygen supply occ ur, a corresponding change
52
o@ Welding Skills
occurs in the amount of acetylene drawn. maintaining consiste nt proportions of the two gases wh ile the torc h is in operation. Th e medium-pressure torch is the most co mmo nly used torch . Both typ es of torches are equ ipped with tw o needl e valves ; one regul ates the flo w of oxyge n a t th e torch and the other regul ate s the flow of ace tylene a t the tor ch. A t th e base of the torc h are two fittings for connec ting each hose. To eliminate any chance of interchanging the ho ses. the oxyge n fitting is made with a right- hand thread and the acety lene fitt ing is mad e with a left-hand threa d. Care of Torches. When weld ing is co mple ted. the torch sho uld be properly sec ured to prevent it fro m falling and becoming da maged. Need le valves are especially delica te. and if the torch dro ps and st rikes a hard object. th e needle valves can break ea sily. Nee dle valves may loosen and turn too freely. making it di ffi cult to keep the proper adjustme nt for the required mixture . Whe n the needle va lves loose n. th e packing nuts on the stem of the need le valves shou ld be tightened with a slight tum of a wrench. See Figure 4-9.
Welding Tips
We ldi ng on d iffe ren t th icknesses of me tal is possible because torc he s are equipped with an assortmen t of different size heads, or tips. T he size of the tip is governe d by the di am eter of its op ening. whi ch is mark ed on the tip. Care of Welding Tips. A welding tip is designed to be installed a nd rem oved hy h an d . Freq ue nt to rch use cau ses carbo n to for m in the pa ssage of the tip. Carbon must be removed from the tip regul arl y to ensure the free flow of gas. See Figure 4 - 10. To cl ean a torch tip. foll ow the proced ure: I . File the e nd of the tip flat with a metal file. 2. Insert a properl y-sized tip clea ner into the tip and pull it straig ht out. Repeat until the tip is clean.
Always hung up l/ torch when not in use to prevent it f rom droppin g to tile floor and bein g bent or damaged.
.......
. I
10
NEEDLE VALV E
Figure 4-9. 17,e pa f'k;"g /luts on the .'i Tt'II! of the needle valves are tightened with a correctly jilling wrench.
INSERTTIP CLEANER
OAW - Equipment
53
Regulators
Oxygen and acetylene pressure regulators perform two functions. They contro l the flow of gas from the cy linder to maintain the required working pressure. and they produce a steady flow of gas und er va ryi ng cy linde r pressures. Regulators are equipped with two gauges- a cy linde r pressur e gauge . whic h indicates the actual pressure in the cy linder. and a working-pressure gauge, which shows the work ing. or line. pressure used at the torch. The oxygen cy linder pressure can be as high as 2200 psi . T he req uired work ing pressure for oxyge n is fro m I psi to 25 psi. T he ace tyle ne cylinder pre ssure can be as high as 250 psi. The working pre ssure for acety lene must be between I psi and 12 psi. The regulator must maint ain the proper working pressure. even as the cylinder pressure changes. If the oxygen in the cylinder is under a pressure of 1800 psi and a pressure of 6 psi is needed at the to rch. the reg ulator must mai ntai n a constant pressure of 6 psi even if the cy linder pressure drops to 500 psi. The oxygen cy linder pressure gauge is a graduated sc ale up to 4000 psi. A sec ond scale on the gauge is ca librated to register the co nte nts of the cy linde r in c ub ic feel. T he ox ygen work ing-press ure gauge is graduated in divisions from 0 psi to 60 psi and the acety lene workin g-pressure gauge is gradu ated in divisions from 0 psi to 30 psi. The acetylene working-pressure gauge is usually marked with a warning color above 15 psi. The acety lene cylinder pressure gauge is graduated up to 350 psi or 400 psi. See Figure 4-11. The two types of regulators are the sing le-stage and the two -stage . T he single-stage regulator is typically less expensive than the two-stage type. With the single-stage regulator. there is no intermediate chamber through which gas passes before it enters the low-pressure ch amb er. Th e gas from the cy linde r flows into the regulator and is controlled entirely by the adj usting screw.
Regulators Figure4-11
WORKING PRESSURE
.--:-"
CYLINDER PRESSURE
OXYGEN
WORKING
PRESSUR E ~
CYLINDER PRESSURE
ACETYLENE
Sm;r!l Eti"il'",m l
Fig ure 4-11. Oxygen a nd a cetylene regula tors control the flow of gas 10 be used for welding.
r=I
A si ng le-stage regulator mu st be co ntin uall y adju sted to maintai n correct working pressu re. Th e adj usting screw on a regulator must be released (turned out) before the cy linder valve is opened. If the adj usting screw is not re leased a nd the cy li nde r va lve is opene d. the trem end ous pre ssure of the gas in the cylinder. forced onto the working-pressure gauge. may blowout the screw and damage the regulator. T he adjust ing sc re w is turned to increase or decrease the gas pressure fro m the tor c h to th e re gu lat or by co ntrolli ng the force of a spring on th e fl e x ibl e diap hra gm . Th e di aphragm moves a valve, allow ing gas to flow into the regu lator. As the gas pressure in the regu lator increases, it ben d s the di aphra gm back . cl osin g the va lve. During welding, the regulator reduces the gas pressure behind
54
Welding Skills
the di aphragm and the spri ng open s the va lve, allow ing gas to flow. T he change in internal pressure is registered on the worki ng-p ressure gauge . With the two-stage regulator, the reduction of the cylinder pressure to that req uir ed at the torch is accomplished in two stages. In the fi rst stage, the gas flows from the cyli nder into a high-pr essur e chamber. A spr ing and diaphrag m keep a prede term ined gas pressure in the chamber. For oxygen, the pressure is usuall y 200 psi, and for acetylene, 50 psi. From the high pressure chamber, the gas passes into a redu c ing cha mber. Co ntro l of the pressure in the reduc ing chamber is governed by an adju sting screw. Wh en ace ty le ne a nd oxyge n are mixed correctly and ignited, the flame can reac h te mperatures of 5700 F (3 l 50C) to 6300F (3482C), whic h melts commercial metals so completely that they flow together to form a complete bond without the applica tion of any mechan ical pressure or ham mering. Filler metal is osoally added to the molten metal to build up the jo inl for greater strength. On very thin metals, the edges are ge nerally flanged and melted toge ther. In either case, if the weld is performed correctly, the sectio n whe re the bond is mad e is as strong as the base metal. Ca re of Re gulators. Reg ulators are sensitive ins trume nts and must be treated as soch. A slight jo lt can render a regul ator usel ess. Re gulator s should be handled extremely carefully when being removed from the cyl inder. Never leave a regulator on a bench top or floor for any length of time as it could be moved and dam aged . General guidelines for the care of regulators inclu de the following: Check the adj usting screw before the cylinder valve is turned ON and release it when welding has been compl eted . Never use oil on a regulator. Use only soap or glyceri n to lubricate the adju sting screw.
Do not atte mpt to interchange the oxygen and acety lene reg ulators. If a regu lator does no t fu nc tio n properly, shut OFF the gas supply and have a qual ified service technician check the regulator. Check the regula tor regu larly for cree ping . If the regulator creep s (does not remain at set press ure) , have it repaired immediately. Creeping ca n be see n on the workingpressu re gauge af ter the needle valves on the torch are clo sed. A creeping regulator usually requires tha t the va lve seat or ste m he cha nged . Check the mechan isms regula rly. If the ga uge poi nter fai ls to go bac k 10 the pin when the pressure is released, the mechanism is likely sprung , ca used by pressure ent ering the gauge suddenly. This condition should be repaired . Always ke ep a tigh t co nnectio n between the regulator and the cylinder. If the connection leaks after lightening, close the cylinder valve and re mo ve the reg ula tor. Clean both the inside of the cylinder valve seat and the reg ulator inlet-nipp le seat. If the leak persi sts, the seat and threads are pro bab ly marred, and the regolator must be returned to the manufacturer for repair.
Check Valves
A check valve is a valve that allows the flow of liquid or gas in one direction only. See Figure 4- 12. In welding apparatus, the pressure in the supply hose is higher than the pressure in the torch, allowing a valve disk in the check valve 10 open and re lease the gas into the torch. If the press ure in the torch becomes higher than that in the supply hose, such as when a flashback occurs, the valve disk closes, shutting OFF the supply of gas to the torch. A check valve must be positioned at the torch inlet, and can also be placed at the regulator outle t. The check valve mu st be replaced if a flashback occ urs.
Do no/lubricate the
adjusting screwon a
regulator wit h oil. Use soap or gl.. .ce rin.
OAW - Equipment @o
55
CHECK VALVE
r=I
Never int erchan ge ~ oxygl'lJ and ace tylene .= hoses. Amid dragging the m (we r g reasy floors.
In the United Stales, green (oxygen) and red (ace tylene) a re the standard co lors usedfo r hoses. In Europe. blue is used for oxyg en hoses and oran ge fo r ace tylene hoses. Some parts of the world lise black oXy};('1I host's.
LEFT-HAND THRE AD
NOTCH
ACETYLENE
~NIPPLE
r RIGHT-HAND
OXYGE~
Figure 4 13. T he nut 011 the acetylene connection ha s a notch that runs around the center. d i.l,ti"Kl/i.l'/l ing it f rom ' he 111ft 011 'h e oxy gen
connection.
56
Ca re of Welding Hoses. All hose connection s mu st be tight. Th e connections should be tight ened with a close-fitting wrench to pre vent damage to the nut s. Do not drag the ho se across a greasy floor, as g re as e or oil c an eventua ll y soak into, and erode , th e hose. The hose should not be pulled around sharp objects or across hot metal , and should be po siti on ed so th at it cannot b e ste pped on or dam aged . When we lding h a s been comp le te d , the ho se should be roll ed up and s us pe nde d so that it will not drop to the floor. Also note these additional precautions: All new hose is dusted with talcum powder inside. Th e powder should be blown out with dry air before first usc. Long len gth s of hose te nd to kink. Use the sho rtes t len gth o f hose to properly se rv ice the sho p . Do not try to repair a leakin g hose, replace it with a new hose assembly.
properly shie lded . Go ggles that ha ve a suitable approved colored glass sho uld always be worn. The den sity of the colored lenses should be such that damaging light and heat ray s arc not allowed to pass through to the welder. For most oxyfuel welding, goggles with shade numbers of 4, 5, and 6 are recommend ed . Goggles a lso prote ct the eyes from flying spa rks a nd piec es o f molten metal (spatter). Sec Figu re 4- 15. The Am eri can Welding Society (AWS) produces sta nda rds for eye protect ion that ha ve a dd itio n a l information on the correct shielding for eac h welding operation .
I'~
.~
Protective Clothing
An apron . shop coat, or coveralls should a lways he worn w he n we ld ing w it h oxyacety lene equipment. Sparks commonly shoo t a way from th e molten metal and, unless su ita hle covering is worn, will burn holes in clothes. Sparks that burn through cloth es may al so burn the skin. Under no circumstances s ho uld flammabl e garments be worn when welding. A sma ll spa rk that fall s on flammabl e garments may burst into a rapidl y s preading flam e. A w elding cap should also be wo rn to prevent hot metal particles from fallin g on the hair. A pair of light weight gloves should be worn to prevent burn s. Occasionally the hot end of filler metal or a piece of metal that has been se t down to cool is picked up by mistake, and without gloves, serious bums may result.
Sparklighters
A sparklighter, or striker, is a tool used for igniting the torch . Sec Figure 4- 14. A spa rk lighter should al ways be used to light a to rch . Never use ma tches or lighters to light a torch because the puff of the flam e produced by the ignition of the acetylene flowing from the tip is likely to hum the skin .
tI
c::::::
.~
Nt'I'eY
I'n ~l"cr,<
Goggles
An o x y a c et yl en e fl am e prod u c e s intense light a nd he at rays th at ma y destro y eye tissu e if th e eyes ar e not
I'C I
=
.~
N(" '" use air bto..." through The torch to blow dirt alit! dust [nnn clothing.
DAW - Equipnten!
57
Ffgurc 4-15. Go ggl es with the recommended shade number should always he won! during weldin g.
..
TYPE OF GASWELDING
Gas Welding
Ughl Medium
,
I
PLATE THICKNESS
SHADE NUMBER
less than
~"
4 0r 5
%"' 1 0 'h"
5 or 6
Heavy
over 'h"
6 0r8
Oxygen Cutting
Ught Medium
less than 1" 30r4
1"t06"
over 6"
4 or 5
Heavy
5 or6
MAPP Gas
Acetylene produces a very high flame temperature but is very unstable. MAPP gas has many of the physical properties of ace tylene, but lacks the shock se nsitivity of ace tylene. MAPP gas is the result of a rear ra nge me nt of the molecular structures of acetylene and propane. When the two gases are combin ed , th e ir mol ecul ar s truc ture is changed and a very stable fuel results, with a flame temperatu re nearly co mparable to ace tylene . A lt ho ug h propa ne it sel f is ve ry stable, its low flame temperature limits its capabili tie s for wel d ing. MAPP ga ses can be used for welding if the fuel -to -oxygen ratio is increased to rai se the tem pe ra ture o f th e fla me. Deoxidi zed fille r met al must also be used to ensure a sound weld when using MAPP gas for welding. Generally, a slightly larger welding tip is required with MAPP gas because of its grea ter gas density and slower flame propagat ion rate. The only significant difference is in the flame appearance. A neutral flame for welding will have a longer inner cone than with oxyacet ylene gas.
58
~
Since MAPP gas is not sensitive to shock, it can be stored and shipped in lighte r cy linde rs . Bec au se ace ty lene must be stored in cylinders tilled with a poro us tiller materia l saturated with ace to ne, e mpty ac et y le ne cy li nders weigh about 220 lb. Empty MAPP cylinders weigh only 50 lb. Norm ally, a fi lle d cy linder of ace ty le ne we igh s 240 Ib while a tilled cylinder of MAPP gas weighs 120 lb.
Hydrogen
Th e combination of oxygen and hydrogen generates a low -te mperature flame used primarily for welding thin sections of meta l, usuall y alumin um, on which lo w tem perat ures are required . One of the unusua l characteristics of an oxy hydroge n flame is that the flame is prac tica lly nonlumin ous. Co nse que ntly, it is o ften di fficult to adjust for a neutral flam e. To avoi d welding with an ox idizing flame, the regul ator sho uld be adj ust ed for an accurate hydrogen flow before adjusting the ox yge n. Ox yhydroge n welding is commonly used for underwater we ld ing as it ca n be used at higher pressur es than acety lene.
Weldin g Skills
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Handl e oxygen and ace tyle ne cy linde rs with ca re. Never expos e them to excessive heat and prevent cont act with oi l and grease. Always hang up a torch when not in use to prevent it from dropping to the floor and being bent or dama ged . Be sure the adj usting screw on a regulator is fully released before opening a cyli nder valve. Do not lubricate the adjusting screw on a regulator with oil. Use soap or glycerin. Never interc hange oxyge n and acetylene hoses. Avoid draggi ng them over greasy floor s. Wear prope r goggles and other per sonal protective equipme nt. Never light a torch with a match or a lighter. Never use air blown through the torch to blow dirt and dust from clothing.
I . What safety device s are used to prevent cylind ers from exploding when subjected to intense pressur e? 2. What is the purpose of the protector cap on a cylinder? 3 . How much should the cy linder valve be opened on an ace tylene cylinder? On the oxygen cyli nder? 4. Why is it dangerous to allow grease or oil to come in contact with the oxygen cylinder valve? 5 . What is the function of the needle valves on a weldin g torch? 6 . Why are the oxyge n and acetylene hose fittin gs made with different screw threads? 7. How is the size of a weldin g tip indicated? 8 . What could happen if pliers are used when removing weld ing tips? 9. What is a tip cleaner? When and why should it be used? 10. What is a two- stage pressure regulator? I I. What preca utions should be observed in handlin g a pressure regulator? 12. Why is it dangerous to light a torch with a match or a lighter? 13 . What are the advantages and disadvantages of using MAPP gas? 14. Hydrogen is ofte n used instead of acetylene for what operation ? 15. What welding goggle shade numbers are commonly used for most oxyacetylene welding? 16. What type of protective clo thing is commonly worn when oxyacetylene welding? 17. Name three ways of distinguishing oxyge n hoses from acetylene hoses. Name three ways of distinguishing oxygen fittings fro m acetylene fittin gs. 18. Who is responsible for repairing a damaged regulator? 19 . How are oxygen and acetylene cylinders moved safely?
OAW - Equipment @o
59
60
The welding apparatus must be correctly assembled by the welder to ensure safe operation. A certain sequence must be fo llowed in assemblin g the welding apparatu s to ensure a proper and safe connection. Once the apparatu s is assembled, the torch can be lit and adjusted f or the required welding pressure. Oxygen and acetylene cylinders must be safely stored when I/Ot in use. When stored, cylinders IIl11st be chained in all upright position, with the oxygen cylinders separated from the acetylene cylinders. When in use. cylinders can be secured on a hand truck, chained to a secure object such as a bench in the shop, or secured ill position adjacent to a manifold system.
threads. Always use the proper size wrench to tighten the nuts ; a loose-fitting wrench will eventually wear the corne rs of the regu lator nut s. 3 . Connect the acety le ne regul ator and ho se. Co nnec l the ace tyle ne regulator to the ace tylene cylinde r a nd th e acety le ne hose to the acetyl ene regulato r. 4 . Purge ho ses. Chec k the adj usting
screw on each regulator to ensure
Cyl inders must hi' properly secure d to pre vent damage and possible injury.
that it is released. then open the cylinder valves. Blow out any dirt that may be lodged in th e ho se s by opening the regulator adjustin g screws. Op ening the adju stin g screws slightly will also purge the ho se s of an y re sidual gase s. Promptly cl ose the regul ator adjustin g screws. 5 . Co nnec t ch eck va lves an d hoses to to rc h. To preve nt the reverse flow of gases that would result in a combustible mixture in the welding hose, chec k valves are mounted to the weldin g torch . Under nor mal conditions, gases flow to ward the welding tor ch .
61
1l1' /JaTll-
11I.~mlH'tbl'prol'erlya.\'Semhlt'dlo
e _
'.
safe
operation
OXYGEN
REGULATOR~
before
cracking thecytlnder:
AC ETYLENE REGULATOR
PURGE HOSES
CHECK VALVE
AC ETY LENE ] HO SE
~ OXYGEN
HOSE
62
~ Weldilll1 Skills
Any condition that might cause a reverse flow of gas will close the valve. Check valves shou ld be left in place on the torch when the hos e is detached . Connect the hoses to the check valves mounted on the torch . The red hose is connected to the acetylene check valve mounted on the needle valve fittin g marked AC. The green hose is connected to the che ck valve mounted on the needle valve fitting marked OX. Acetylene hose connections alwa ys have left-hand threads as indicated by the notched nut, and oxygen ho se connect ions have right-hand thr eads. 6. Test for leaks. All new welding apparatus must be tested for leaks before being operated. It is advisable to periodicall y test apparatu s in service to ensure that no leakage has developed . A leaky apparatus is very dang erous as leaking gas may be exposed to a spark and develop into a fire. Add itionally, leaks mean that gas is wasted . To test for leaks, open the oxygen and acetylene cylinder valves and, with the needle valve s on the torch closed , adj ust the regulators to approximately normal work ing pre ssure . Apply soapy water with a brush on the following poin ts: A- Oxyge n cylinder valve B- Acety lene cylinder valve C- Oxygen regulator inlet connection D-Acetylene regulator inlet connection E- Hose connection s at the regulator s and torch F-Oxygen and acetylene needle valves Inspect ea ch point carefull y. Any noises, such as a hissing sound or bubbles, are an indication of leakage . If a leak is detected at a connection, use a wrench to properly tighten the fitting. If tightening does not re medy the leak , shut the ga s pre ssure OFF, open t he connection s, and examine the screw threads.
To ch eck for leakage in the welding hose, adjust the regulators to working presslITC. Submerge the hose in clean, clear water. Check for any bubbles indicating a leak. On sections of welding hose that cannot be sub merged , brush on soapy water and check for bubbles . Welding ho se s sho uld be routinely inspe cted for cuts and worn area s that could eventually leak.
.=
.~
Using the correct size welding tip provi des .m/ficient heat to melt the base metal for the required welding process.
CAUTION
If there is a suspected leak in a cylinder, move the cylinder out-of-doors away from possible sources of ignition and notify the supplier immediately.
63
Fig ure 5-2. 77'e .~i::t' (!{ flit' wddillg lip is determined by II/(' thickness of me tal welded. nit." p ro/' er lip si :e and working I,re: ullre must he selected 10 pr ovide a quality
LAR GE DIAMETER
weld.
MEDI UM
DIAMETE~R~::::'5"l! IIIII,';;;;;;~~
NOTE:TIPS ENLARGED SMA LL DIAMETE R
000
up to
00
1
Y 16
1
2
..
2 2
3
\;
4
~
6
~
8
I>
10
.
and
Metal' Oxygen
Pressuret
'"
5 5
*
7 7
*
m
7 1>
up
9 9
3 3
4 4
6 6
7 7
Acetylene
Pressuret
~ m.
' in psi
A satisfacto ry wel d must have the right amount of penetration and smooth, even, overlapp ing ripples. Unless co ndition s arc opt imized, it is impossible fo r the torch to funct ion the way it should, and a poor weld will result. Ensure that the apparatus , incl uding the hoses, regu lators, chec k valves , torch, and welding tip are properly connected before lightin g the torch .
Lighting Torches
I. Select the correc t welding tip size for the metal to be welded and connect it to the torch. 2 . Stand to one si de a nd open the oxygen and acety lene cy linder va lves s low ly . See F ig ure 5-3. Open the ace tylene cy linder valve ap proxi mate ly one co mplete turn and open the oxygen valve all the way . Do not face th e regu la tor whe n opening the cylinde r valve. Oxygen and acety lene are store d under high pressure. If the gas is perm itted to co me against the reg ulator suddenly, it may cause damage to the equ ipme nt. In addition, a defect in the regulator may cause the gas to blow through, shattering the glass and causing injury to the welder.
Figure 5-3. Stand to one shit" of lilt" reg ulator ope ni,ll: tI cylinde r valve.
I"II t'1l
Stand 10 OI/{' si de before 0 1'' /1;111-: a cyl inder valve and be sure the rrguta tor adjusting screw is f ully released.
3 . Se t th e wo rking pressu re of the oxyge n and acety le ne regul at o r adju sting valves to correspond to the required working pressure of the welding tip bein g used . 4. Turn the acet y len e needl e valve on the tor ch approx imate ly oneha lf turn . 5 . With the spark lighter hel d about I" away from the end of the welding tip, ignite the ace tylene as it leaves the tip. Adjust the acetylene un til the smoke d isappears. See Figure 5-4 .
64
~ lVeldiug Skills
When igniting a torch , keep the tip of the torch fac ing downward. Light ing the torch while it is facing outward or upward could cause injury to work ers nearby.
Ftg ure 5-5. With th e ace ty le ne burning, graduoll v open the oxygen ne edle val ve to ontain tl neutral f lame.
Figure 5-4 . lIo ld the sf1C1 rkliglllu approxima te ly I " from l1Ie tip when lighting Ihe torch;
If the o xyacet ylen e mixture co nsi sts of a slight excess of acetylen e , the fl ame is carburizing, or reducing. A carburizing flam e is a reducin g flame in which there is an excess of fuel gas. The carbon-rich zone extend s a round and beyond the cone. Th is flame can be ea si ly ident ified by the ex istence of three flame zones instead of the usual two foun d in the neutral flame. The end of the bri llia nt white co ne is no longer as well defined, and it is sur ro unded by an intermediate white cone, which has a feathery edge in addition to the usual bluish outer envelope. See Figure 5-6.
A WARNING
Never use a match to light a torch. This procedure brings the fingers too c1Q\C to the lip and the sudden ignition uf the acetylene is likely 10 bum them .
Figure 5-6. All oxidizing fla me is thl' result of till excess of oxygell ill tlie mixture. A slig iu exc't',U of acetvle ne produces a ca rburi:.i"K
j1t/tIIl"
Adjust the torch to a soft. neutralfkun e for welding unless the type ofmeIII I bejug we lded requires II different tYIJe of flame.
65
r@1
.-==
.
A backfire may be ca used by opFlame Cha r acter istics. A flame may be harsh or qu iet. A harsh flame is erating the to rch at lower pressu res produced by too much pressure of both than re qu ired for the weld ing tip gases to the welding tip. A harsh flame used ; touching the welding tip against is undesirable, since it has a tendency the work; overheating the welding tip; to depress the molten surface and cause or by an obstruction in the welding tip. the metal to spatter around the edges If a backfire occurs, shut the needl e of th e weld pool. A harsh flam e is valves and, after remedyin g the cause, noisy and makes it extremely difficult relight the torch . to ac hieve co mple te fus io n with A flas hback is a recess ion of the smoo th, uniform ripples. flame into or back of the mixing chamA quiet flame is just the opposite of a ber in a flam e torch or fla me sp ray harsh flame and is achieved by the cor- torch. A flashback flashes quickly into rect pressure of gases flowing to the tip. the torch and bums inside with a shrill The flame is not a harsh, noisy flame but hissing or squealing noise. If a flashone that per mits a continuous flow of back occurs, clo se the need le va lves the weld pool without any undue spatter. immediately. A flashb ack genera lly is To ensure a soft, quiet, neutral flame, an indication that something is wrong. the weldin g tip must be clean and the A we ldi ng tip may be cl ogged , the correct oxyacetylene mixture used. Even needl e va lve s may be fu nc tio ni ng with the proper proportion of acetylene improperly, or the ace ty lene or oxyand oxygen, a good weld is difficult to ge n pressure may be incorrect. The achieve unless the opening in the tip al- mal fun ction mu st be co rrec ted a nd lows a free flow of ga ses . Any for - dama ged equipme nt repl aced before eign matter in the welding tip restricts rel ighting the tor ch. the heat necessary to melt the metal. Flame Control. As welding progresses, Shutting Off Torches the flame cone should be observed to ens ure that the mixture remai ns con- When welding is completed, the torch sistent. Changes in the flame occur as a mu st be pro pe rly shut off. After the result of slight fluctuations in the flow of torch is shut off, it must be stored propthe gases from the regulators. A slight erly. The hoses must be removed from adjustment to either the oxygen or the the cylinders and hung out of the way. Protector ca ps must be screwed onto acetylene will readju st the flame. During welding, the torch may oc- the cylinders to protect the handwheels casionally "pop." Popping is an indi - and valves. Cylinders must be chained cati o n th at the re is a n in suffici ent and stored safely. Following is the coramo unt of gases flowin g to the weld- rect seque nce of steps for shutting off in g tip . Poppin g can be sto pped by a torch: fur ther opening both the oxygen and I . Close the oxy gen needle valve. ace tylene needl e valves on the torch . 2. Close the ace tylene needle valve . Another cause of poppin g is overheat3 . If the entire welding unit is to be ing of the weld pool by lingerin g, or shut down, shut off both the acetykeepi ng the flame too long in one polene and th e ox yg e n cy linde r sition and not melt ing enough filler valves . metal into the weld pool. 4 . Open the needl e valves until the lines are drained to remove presBackfire and Flashback. When the sure fro m the wo rking pressure flame goes out with a loud pop , it is ga uges . Then promptly close the ca lled a backfire. A backfire is a quick needl e valves. recession of the flame into the welding 5 . Release the adj usti ng screws on tip, typically followed by extinction of the pressure regul ator s. the flame.
66
I. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Cylinders must be properly secured to prevent damage and possible injury. Point the valve outlet nozzle away before cracking the cylinder. Periodically test the welding apparatus for leaks. Use soapy water only. The welding tip size is determined by the thickness of metal welded. Stand to one side before opening a cylinder valve and be sure the regulator adjusting screw is fully released. 6. Adjust the torch to a soft, neutral flame for welding unless the type of metal being welded requires a different type of flame. 7. Prevent conditions that may cause a backfire or flashback. S. Keep the passage in the welding tip clean and flowing freely.
~ Exe rc ises
Testing the Flames
exerCise.
The characteristics of the carburizing and oxidizing flames must be understood for correct adjustment of the neutral flame. To become familiar with the effects of the various flames, complete the following exercise:
I. Obtain a piece of scrap metal. Light the acetylene and tum on the oxygen until a white cone appears on the end of the welding tip enveloped by another fan-shaped cone that has a feathered edge. While wearing goggles, apply the carburizing flame to the metal, holding the point of the white cone close to the metal. Notice that as the metal melts, it has a tendency to boil. This is an indication that carbon is entering the molten metal. After the metal has cooled, the surface will be pitted and very brittle. Open the oxygen needle valve completely. The white cone becomes short and the color changes to a purplish hue. The flame bums with
a roar.
2.
4. Apply the oxidizing flame to the piece of metal, allowing the cone to come in contact with the surface. As the metal melts, numerous sparks are given off and a white foam forms on the surface. After the piece cools, the metal will be shiny. 5 . Adjust the needle valve until the flame is balanced. Apply the neutral name to the piece of metal. The molten metal flows smoothly, with very few sparks.
3.
67
I. Wh y should cylinders be sec ure ly fastened before being used? 2. Why should the cy linder outl et nozzle s be examined clo sely ? 3. What is the proper order for setting up the we lding apparatus? 4 . Why are check valves used ? 5 . What is the proper method of testin g for gas leak s? 6. What governs the size of the welding tip that should be used? 7. Describe the process for lighting and adju stin g the flame for a cutting torch . 8. How far should the acet ylene needl e valve be opened when lighting the torch? 9 . What is an oxidizing flam e? 10. Wh at is a carburizing flam e? II. What is the difference between a neutral flame and a carburizing flame? 12. Wh at are the characteristics of a neutral flam e? 13. What is the d ifference between a ha rsh fla me and a quiet flame ? 14. What are some of the condition s that may ca use a backfire? 15. W hat is mea nt by a flas hback when one is using an oxyacetylene torch? 16. Why are hoses purged after bein g co nnected to the regulators? 17. Wh y should the we lder stand to one side whe n opening cy linder valves? 18. W hat is the last ste p do ne to the reg ulator when shutting off the torc h? 19. What kind of mixture of oxygen and acety lene is required to achieve a neu tral flam e? 20. Wh at happen s whe n an oxidizing flame is used to me lt the metal?
68
Welding Skills
.l n -'''''It"
Welding with an oxyacetylene torch requires practicing a series of operations in a prescrib ed order. These operations involve carrying a weld pool, depositing a weld bead with filler metal, and welding various types ofjoints. In flat position welding, the torch and filler metal are held with the weld joint in the flat position.
LEFT-HANDED WELDER
RIGHT-HANDED WELDER
69
Move the torch j ust fast enough to keep the weld pool active an d f lowing forward.
Use fill er metal with a diam eter equn! to the thicknes s of the base metal.
Bring the inn er cone of the neutral flame to within '18" of the surface of the wor kpiece. Hold the torch still until a molten weld pool form s. then move the weld pool across the workpiece. As the weld pool tra vels forwa rd. rot at e the torch in a circular pattern to form a series of overlapping oval s. Do not mov e the torc h ahead of the weld pool. but slowly work forward. giving the heat a chance to melt the metal. If the flame is moved forward too rapidly. the heat fails to penetrate far enough int o the metal and the metal does not melt sufficiently. If the torch is kept in one position too long. the fl am e will burn a hol e throu gh the met al.
necessary to use filler metal tha t has the same properties as the base metal. Inferior filler metals may contain impurities that make them difficult to use and that create a weak or brittle weld. A good filler metal flows smoothly and readily unites with the base metal without excessive sparking. A poor quality fi ller metal sparks profusely. flows irregularly. and leaves a rough surface filled with punctu res. like pinholes. Filler metals come in a variety of sizes ranging from 1!J.6" to %" in diameter. The size filler metal to use depends largely on the thickness of the base metal. The general rule is to use filler metal with a diameter equa l to the thickness of the base metal. For example. if a VI.' thick metal is to be welded. a 1/ 16" diameter filler metal should be used. Many types of filler metal arc availab le for we lding a varie ty of metals. For example. a mild (low-carbon) steel filler metal is used to weld cast iron. a nick el filler metal for nicke l steel. a bron ze filler metal for bronz ing malleabl e cast iron and othe r dissimilar metals. an a luminum filler metal for alum inum welding. or a coppe r filler metal for co pper produ cts.
Melt a small pool of the base metal and then insert the tip of the filler metal into the weld pool. To ensure proper fusion, the c orre c t diam et er filler metal must be used. If the fille r metal is too large, the heat of the weld pool will be insufficient to melt it. If the filler metal is too small, the heat of the weld pool cannot be absorbed by the filler metal, and a hole will be burned in the workp iece. As the tiller metal melts in the weld pool, advance the torch forward. Concentrate the flame on the bas e metal and not on the filler metal. Do not hold the fill er metal abo ve the weld pool , as the molt en metal will have to drip down to the weld pool. When molten metal falls , it combines with the oxygen of the air and part of it burns up, causing a weak, porous weld. Always dip the filler metal in the center of the weld pool. A be ginning welder may have trouble holding the filler metal steady, which can cause the tiller metal to stick to the base metal. Instead of inserting the filler metal in the middle of the weld pool where the heat is sufficient to melt it readily, the beginning welder may insert it near the edge of the weld pool where the temp era tur e is lower. However, the heat at the edge may not be hot enough to melt the tiller metal. If the filler metal is not melted sufficiently it may stick to the weld. Do not try to je rk tiller metal loose, since such an ac tio n will simply int errupt the welding. In stead, to loosen the fill er metal, play the flam e directly on the tip and the filler metal will be loos ened. While the filler metal is being freed, th e weld po ol will like ly so lidify; therefore, the weld pool must be re-formed befo re moving forward .
po ol about '116" with each complete motion of the torch. An alternate torch movement is a semi circular mot ion . See Figure 6-4. When the filler metal is not in the weld pool, keep the tip ju st inside the outer envelope of the flam e.
. -. '
F tgure 6-4 . The Lorch c all he moved in a circular or semicircu far motion when deposi ting heads in flat position.
CIRCULAR
--1
I
ABOUT V4"
'""""'-./ ~~
SEMICIRCULAR
Maintaining Travel Speed, To secure weld beads of uniform width and height, keep the forward movement of the torch con sistent. If the trav el speed is too slow, the weld pool is carried forward too slowly , it becomes too large , and ma y burn through the metal. If th e travel speed is too rapid, the filler metal does not fuse thoroughly with the base metal but merely sticks on the surface. It will also be impossible to form even ripple s. When the weld pool appears to be getting too large , withdraw the flame slightly so that only the outer envelope of the flame is touching the weld pool. Do not move the flame to one sid e, since such a movem ent allows air to strike the hot metal, oxidizing the metal.
.=
.~
When welding with filler m.etal , mov~ t~e torch In a semiCi rc ular or circular motion .
71
Tack Welds
Workpieces mu st be tacked at regu lar interval s before welding to maintain the root opening. See Figure 6-5. To make a tack we ld, apply the flame to the workpiece until it melts and then add filler metal. Progressive spacing may be used to allow for closing of the root opening. Progressive spacing between the edges of a seam is not commonly used , but if it is specified, allow a gap of about '1 .6" at the starting end of the jo int and approximately Va" at the other end. The space permits the flam e to melt the edges all the way through to the bottom of the wor kp ieces, allowin g fo r co mplete fusion.
Figure 65. Tad welds res tr ict expansion forces ill me/til that is to he welded.
TACK WELD S
a brittle weld, result ing from imprope r flam e adju stment durin g welding or drippin g filler metal excessive me tal han gin g unde rneath the weld , as the result of too much penetrati on caused by mov ing the torch forward too slowly insuffic ic nt penetra tio n, ca use d by mo vin g the tor ch forwa rd too rapidl y When penetration is correct, the underside of the scam should show that fusion has taken place complete ly through the joint. See Figure 6-6.
Ffgure 6-6. WI/ell pene tr ation is correct, complete fusion i,~ evident on tile underside of tile j oint,
~
.=
.~
72
Wil l'l l
using progres-
hole in the end of the joint, caused by not lifting the torch when the end of the weld has been reached uneven weld bead, caused by moving the torch too slowly or too rapidly Oft en , a joint app ea rs to have the correct penetration but still cracks open when tested. Cracks may be caused by one of several problems. such as: improper s pace all owan ce s be tween the edges of the workpieces fillin g th e s pace between th e wo rkp iece s wi t h molten fille r metal without suffic iently melting the edges of the workpieces, which
~ Welding Skills
results in a poor bond between the base metal and the fi lIer metal holding the torch too flat, cau sing the weld pool to lap over an area that has not been properIy melted
Preparing Edges
The edg es of the cas ting sho uld be beveled to a 90 ' groove angle. The V sho uld extend onl y to %" from th e bottom of the brea k. Be veling mak es it easier to build up a sound weld near the bottom and les sens the likelihood of melt-through. Placing carbon backing bars underneath the joint also helps to pre vent the molt en ca st iron fro m running out the seam. Precaution s must be taken to clean the surfaces of the j oint before we lding. The weld area should be cleane d at least I" on both sides of the V or the joint if no groove is made in the metal. Improperl y clean ed surfaces result in poro sity in the weld , even if sufficient flux is used .
Clean ali weldi ng surfaces at least I" around the seam that is to hi' welded.
Postheat cast iron after the weld is completed and then allow it to co o l slowly:
73
weld pool. If infusible slag mixes with iro n ox ide. the weld will co nta in In elu sion s and poro sity .
corrosion .
Wh en we lding he av y aluminum plate 3/ 16" to 3jg" thick , th e edg es sho uld be beveled to form a 90 to 100 V. Allow a V,6" to VB" notched root face. Aluminum that is greater than 3fB" thick should be prepared as a double-V butt jo int with a notched root face. The edges should be beveled to form a 100 to 120 V. See Figure 6-7. As a rule. the lap joint is not recommended for aluminum welding because flu x and oxide may become trapped between the surfac es of the jo int . causing the aluminum to co rrode.
OAW - ALUMINUM
Although the ga s shie lded arc weld ing processe s (GTAW and GMAW) are the mo st practical for welding commercially pure al umin um . oxyacetylene we lding is occasio na lly used. If oxyacety lene we lding must be used on aluminum. care must be taken not to overheat the a luminum, weakening the metal. Th e foll owing co nsiderations must be kept in mind when welding alumi num with an oxyfuel process: Aluminum ha s a rel atively low melting point compared to other metal s. Pure a luminum melts at 122 0F (6600C) . T he thermal conductivity of alumin um is high- almost four times that of stee l. Aluminum co llapses sudden ly into liquid when heated. Since it is light in color, there is practically no indi c atio n whe n the melting point is reached . Molten aluminum oxidi ze s very rapidly. A hea vy coating forms on the surface of the seam , which necess itates the use of a good flux . Aluminum is very flimsy and weak when hot. Care must be taken to support it adequately during weldi ng. Aluminum wel ds should be made in a single pass if possible.
CAUTION
The flame should never
he per mitted
(0
come in
NOTCHES VIS'"
TO 0/'6'" APART
BUTT JOINT
~ 90'~
Joint Designs
In general. the same principles of joi nt design for we lding steel app ly to alumin um . Aluminum fro m '/' 6" to 3 / 16" thick can be welded using a butt j oint, provided the edges are notched with a saw or chisel. Notchin g minim izes the possibility of burning holes through the joint, permits full penetration, and preve nt s loca l distortion . Permanent backi ngs and fillet welded lap joints should not be used w hen we lding aluminum as they may cau se the flu x
74
~ Weidillil Skills
DOUBLE V JOINT
Using Flux
The edges of aluminum to be welded must be thoroughly clean. All grease, oil, and dirt must be removed with an appropriate solvent or by rubbing the surface with steel wool or a wire brush. Since aluminum oxidizes rapidly, a laye r of flux mu st be used to ensure a sound weld . Flux is so ld as a powder, which can be mixed with water to th e c ons is te ncy of a thin paste (approximately two parts flux to one part water). If filler metal is not required, the flux is applied to the joint by mean s of a brush . When fill er metal is used, it is coated with flux by first heating the fill er metal and then dipping it into the flux . On thick sections of metal, it is advisable to coat the base metal as well as the filler metal to ensure complete fusion . Wh en welding is complete, all traces of flux must be wa shed away. Flux that re mains on the weld can cause co rrosion. Flux is removed by washing th e wo rkp ie ce in hot water or by immersing in a 10% cold solution of sul furic acid, followed by rinsing in hot or cold water.
v.." thick or more should be preheated to a temperature of 300 F (149 C) to 500F (260C). Preheating to these temperatures can usually be done by playing the flame of the oxyacetylene torch over the work. For large or complicated parts, preheating is done in a furnace . The preheat ing te mperature mu st no t exceed 500 F (260 C). If the temperature rises above 500 F, the alloy may be weakened or the aluminum may collapse und er its own wei ght. The correct preheating temperature may be determined with a temperatureindicating crayon or by one of the following methods: A mark made on the metal with a carpenter's blue chalk will turn white. A pine stick rubbed on the metal will leave a char mark . No metallic ringing sound is heard if the metal is struck with a hammer.
Selecting Torches
Since aluminum has high thermal conductivity, a welding tip slightly larger than one used for steel of the same thickness should be used . See Figure 6-8. Many welders use hydrogen instead of acetylene when weldin g aluminum, and in many cases thi s is preferabl e, especially for welding light-gauge material. In either case , the torch should be adjusted to a neutral name. Some authorities recommend a slightly reducing flame, but usually a neutral flam e is satisfactory for producing a clean, sound weld. Whether using acetyl ene or hydroge n, th e flame should be adjusted to a low gas velocity to permit a soft flame. The torch angle has much to do with welding speed. Instead of lift ing the name from time to time to avoid melting holes in the metal , th e weldin g torch should be held at a flatter angle to increa se the weldin g spee d . The welding speed should also be increased as the edge of the metal is approached.
ljl
~-
I] .=
.~
.=
.~
Use a neutral or slightly reducing flame [or all alumi num welding.
75
Flgurc 6-~. Tip orifi ce diam eter se lec tion is ba u d 011 tile thickness of the aluminum I" he welded.
Aluminum Thickness'
V,6 Yo 16 V.
%
Oxygen Pressure!
1+
Acetylene Pressuret
.021 .025 .031 .038 .067 .076 .031 .038 .0465 .055 .086 .098
Tip Orifice
Diameter'"
.030 .030 .0465 .055 . 086 . 098 .0465 .055 .067 .076 .110 .1285
I>
In
2 1 -3 2 -4 5-7 6 -8
1
In .
t in psi
.::=
OAW-STEEL
Heavy steel is rarely welded with oxyace tylene unle ss other types of weldin g eq ui pme nt are not ava ilab le. Welding heavy steel with oxyacetylene is much slower and less cost-efficient than other method s. Occ asionall y, it may be necessary to use oxyacetylene weldin g to weld or repai r a structure. When welding steel using OAW, maintain the pro per oxygen and ace tylene pressures. See Fig ure 6-9.
V can have a '/16' or '/ 8" square root face (un beve led) or have th e ed ges feath er ed to a sharp point. Some weldin g jobs require both ed ge s of the joint to be bev e led to form the 60 groove angle, single-V butt j oint. More skill is required to weld a single-V butt joint in horizontal position because there is not a retaining shelf for the bead as there is on a single bevel butt joi nt.
~.-60~
UP TO
"T
-L
V1 6
N
'h"
TO 14 ROOT FACE
*,.
angle,
Ftgurc 6-9. Wh ell w elt/ill l{ st eet maintain ,ht, prop('/" IUYl{l' l/ W I/ I a cety le ne pressures.
IHillK OAlV,
Steel Thickness'
Yo '1' 16 0/ 16 I> '1' . 1
In In.
t in psi
Oxygen Pressuret
2 3 4 6 7 8
Acetylene Pressuret
2 3 4 6 7 8
Tip Orifice
Diameter'
.036 .043 .052 .073 .082 .094
76
The ang le of the filler metal must be changed for eac h pass when we lding a single-V butt joint. The num ber of passes depe nds on the thickness of the metal and the filler metal diame ter. Sufficient pene tration into eac h previous pass is neces sary for complete fusion of the we ld. On wide j oint s. the weld should be finis hed with a cover pass. A cove r pass is made by using a wide weav ing motion that covers the entire area of the de posi ted bead s.
botto m of the V on both sides of the workpiece; then add success ive layers to fill the V. Each successive pass must comp letely penetrat e the previou s passes and the sides of the base metal. The joint ca n be we lded using forehand or backh and welding. Forehand we lding is a we ldi ng techn iqu e in which the torch is directed toward the progress of we ldi ng.
0 11 steel ~H thick or
<>
[
I
V1 6'" TO 'AI" ROOT FACE
Fi~ u re
(I
_ i_
When depositing a we ld in a doub le-V jo int , the wel d sho u ld be built up in layers. It is diffic ult to control the we ld pool a nd sec ure goo d penetration by tryin g to fill the V in one pass . Depo sit one layer near the
77
I. Move the torch ju st fast enough to keep the weld pool active and flowing forward . 2 . Use filler metal with a diamet er equa l to the thickne ss of the base metal. 3 . Do not hold the filler metal so high above the weld pool that the molten metal drips onto the weld pool. 4. When welding with filler metal, move the torch in a semicircular or circ ular motion. 5 . Allow a space between workpieces to compensate for expa nsion forces. 6 . If possible. use ca rbon backi ng bars when welding cast iron. 7 . Clean all weldi ng surfaces at least I" aroun d the seam that is to be welded . 8 . Preheat cast iron to a dull red before welding. 9 . Postheat cast iron after the weld is completed and then allow it to cool slowly. IO. Always usc the recomm ended flux and filler metal when weldin g. I I . Use an 1100, 4043, or 5356 filler metal for weldin g aluminum. 12. When welding aluminum, keep the preheat temperature below 500F (260C). 13 . When weldi ng aluminum, use a slightly larger weldin g tip than is used for steel. 14 . Use a neutral or slightly reducing flame for all aluminum welding . 15. When using a single-V bevel on steel, the groov e angle should be 60. 16. Steel thicker than V8" should be beveled before welding. 17 . On steel Vl' thick or more. do not fill the V in a single pass. Use several passes. 18 . When backhand welding, do not swing the torch ; instead , move the filler metal. 19. A double-V jo int must be used with steel V2" thick or more .
'Ok Exercises
Carrying a Weld Pool without Filler Metal
exerCise
I . Obtain a piece of mild steel '/16" to 1 /8' thick, approxi mately 3" wide, and 5" long. 2 . Be sure the surface is free of oil, dirt, and scale. 3 . Light the torch and adjust it for a neutral name. 4 . Hold the inner cone of the name approximately J /8' from the work and po sition the torch at a 45 ang le to the workpi ece. Move the torch from the right side of the workpiece to the left side, usin g a circular manipulation . Left -handed weld ers should reverse the direction of travel. 5. Maint ain a con si stent travel speed to prevent meltthrou gh in the workpiece. 6. Practice depositing bead s without filler until properly formed bead s are co nsiste ntly prod uced .
78
~ We/dill g Skills
exercise
I. Obta in a piece of mild steel 'lIB" to 'Is" thick, approximately 3" wide, and 5" long. 2 . Be sure the surface is free of oil, dirt, and scale. 3. Light the torch and adjust it for a neutral flame. 4 . Prac tice running consistent straight beads while manipulating the torch and the filler metal at the correct angles. 5. As the torch is withdraw n at the end of the pass , fill the crater by adding filler metal.
exerCise
I. Obtain two pieces of metal '!IB" to '/8" thick, approximately 1'12" wide, and 5" long. 2. Place the workpieces on two firebricks . Space for progressive spacing or tack weld the workpiece s together. 3 . Begin welding at the right end (or the left end if lefthanded), using the same torch and filler motion as when depositing beads with filler. 4 . Work the torch slowly to give the heat a c hance to penetrate the jo int. Add sufficient filler metal to build up the weld about V'6' above the surface. Be sure the weld pool is large enough and the metal is flowing freely before dipping the filler metal. 5 . Maintain a molten weld pool approximately W' to 3fs" wide . 6 . Advance the weld pool about 1/16" with each complete motion of the torch while maintaining a unifor m bead width . 7 . Uniform torch motion will produce s mooth, even ripples.
79
exercise
I . Obta in two pieces of metal with flanged edges. 2 . Place the pieces so the flanged edges are touching. Tack weld the edge s. 3. Hold the torch on one end until a weld pool is formed. 4 . Carefully manipulate the torch to mainta in the pool as the pool is carrie d along the entire joint. 5 . Withdraw the torc h at the end of the joint to prevent burning a hole in the joint.
exerCise
I. Ob tain two pieces of metal and tack wel d to form a co rner joi nt. 2 . Hold the torch on the end of the joint until a weld pool is formed. 3. Ma nipulate the torch to mainta in the weld pool along the entire j oint using a technique similar to that used on the flange joint. 4. Withd raw the torch at the end of the joi nt to prevent burn ing a hole in the joint. 5 . If additiona l buildup is required, filler metal may be added as the weld pool is carried along the joint.
so
~ Weldill K Skills
exerC ise
I . Obtain two pieces of metal 1f 16" to W' thick, approximately PI2" wide, and 4" to 5" long. 2. Lay one workpiece on top of the other, slightly offset, and tack in place to form a lap jo int. 3. Weld the workpieces osing a semicircolar motion of the torch . 4 . While man ipulating the torc h and filler meta l, direct more of the heat to the bottom work piece. This may be accomplished by increasing the duration of the torch mot ion on the bottom workpiece. The top workp iece requires less heat and may overheat if too much heat is applied. 5. Weld one side of the workp iece and then prac tice on the reverse side.
e xerCise
I . Obtain two pieces of metal approximately IfIG ' to li B' thick, 11f{' wide, and 4" to 5" long. 2. Lay one workpiece flat and stand the other on top to form a T-joint. Tack weld the workp ieces, 3. Tilt the tacked workpieces 45 to the work surface and place a firebrick under one side for sopport. 4 . Ho ld the torc h so the welding tip forms an approximately 45 angle to the boltom workpiece. 5. Using the same techni que used when welding a butt joint, keep the inner cone of the flame about IfB' away from the deepest part of the weld. 6. Manipu late the torch constantly while addi ng fille r metal to produce a consistent weld free from undercuts.
FIREBRICK
45 '(
'<
81
exercise
'
I . Obt ain two piece s of cast iron and prepare the edges to be welded. Bevel the joint if necessary and remove all foreign matter from the surface . 2. Slowly heat the entire workpi ece to a dull red. 3. Co nce ntrate the flame near the starting point of the weld until the meta l begins to melt. Keep the torch in the same position as in welding mild stee l. with the inner cone of the flame about VB" to v.." from the seam. 4. When the bottom of the V is thorou ghl y fused. move the flame from side to side. melting down the sides so the molt en met al run s down and combines with the fluid metal in the bottom of the V. Rotate the torch in a circular motion to keep the sides and bottom of the V in a molten condition. If the metal ge ts too hot and tends to run. raise the torch slightly. 5. Once the weld pool is molten. bring the filler metal into the outer envelope of the flame and keep it there until it is fairly hot. When the tiller metal is hot. dip it into the flux. Insert the fluxed end of the filler metal into the molten pool. The heat of the weld pool will melt the filler. The filler metal should remain in the weld pool. Do not dip it into and out of the pool. As the filler metal melts, the molten metal will rise in the groove. When the metal has been built up sli ghtly abo ve th e top surface of the workpiece. move the weld pool forward about I" and repeat the operation. Be sure not to move the weld pool before the sides of the V have been broken down. as this will force the molten weld pool ahead onto the cold metal. 6 . When gas bubbles or white spots appear in the weld pool or at the edges of the seam. add more flu x and play the flame around the specks until the impurities float to the top. Skim these impurities off the weld pool with the filler meta l. Tapping the filler meta l against the bench will remove impurities. 7 . Afte r the we ld is comple ted . po st heat th e entire workp iece to a dull red . All ow the ca sting to cool slowly by co vering with a blanket. 8 . To test the weld sample. place it in a vise . The weld should be flush with the top of the jaw s. Wearing proper eye protection. strike the upper end of the workpi ece with a heavy hamm er until the workpiece breaks. If the metal has been we lded properly. the break should occur in the base metal. not along the welded line.
.""fluX -----'"
82
~ Welding Skills
Welding Aluminum
e xerCise .
I . Obtain two piec es of aluminum and prepar e the workpieces to be welded . 2. Preheat the workpi ece to the proper temperature. 3. Flux the workpieces using the recommended flux. 4 . Pass the flame over the starting point until the flux melts. 5. Scrape the surface with the filler metal at about 3- or 4-second intervals, permitting the filler metal to come clear of the flame each time; otherwi se, it will melt before the base metal. The scraping action indicates when welding should begin without overheating the aluminum. 6 . Using the fore hand welding tech nique, angle the torch at a low angle (le ss than 30 above hori zont al whe n welding thin material). The torch should be moved forward without any side-to-s ide motion . 7 . While moving forward, periodically dip the filler metal into, and withdraw it from, the weld pool. This method of withdrawal closes the weld pool, prevents porosity, and assists the flux in removin g the oxide film. 8. Maintain the same procedure throu ghout weldin g. 9 . A correc t oxyacetylene weld on aluminum will have the necessary penetration with the correct bead ripp le and cont our.
.~
-.
2. Form a butt joint with the beveled edges about '/16" apart and tack together. 3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal position. 4. Start the weld at the left edge of the workpiece if right -hand ed (the right edge if left handed) and bring the edges of the V to a molten state. Hold the end of the filler metal in the outer envelope of the flame so it melts as soon as the weld pool forms. 5 . At the start, concentrate the flame slightly more on the bottom of the V. Once the weld pool is fluid , dip the filler metal into it. As the weld pool moves, direct the flame more on the filler metal and build up the weld pool to the top of the V. As the molten metal fills up the V, move the filler metal slightly from side to side to ensure that the weld metal fuses evenly with the edges of the base metal. 6 . To test the weld, cut off several I" strips. Grind off the surplus weld metal so that the top of the weld (face) is flush with the top of the workpiece (specimen). The grind marks should run len gth wise on the speci men to prev ent premature failure du rin g testing. Place the specimen in the guided bend tester. Apply pressure to the specimen. If the weld is satisfactory, there should be no indications of crac king or fracturing . Use pro per eye protectio n when testing eac h specime n.
OAlV - Flat Position ~ 83
exerCise .
I . Obta in two pieces of '/4" mild steel and bevel the edge s. 2 . Fo rm a butt jo int with the be vel ed edges abo ut 1/ 16" ap art and ta ck toge the r. 3 . Positi on the workpi ece so the we ld joint is in nat positio n.
i16" filler metal. Use the co rrect 4 . Use 3 size tip for the weld.
torch in a semicircular motion and fill the Y. The completed bead should be between '%" and 'h" wide and proj ect s lig ht ly above the surfa ce of th e wo rk piece . Return the flam e to the bottom of the Y, ad vance another Y2" , and ag a in rai se the bead sec tio n to the to p of the V. Co ntinue unt il the weld is finished. 7. To test the we ld, cut off seve ra l I" strips. Grind off the surplus weld metal so that the top of the weld (face) is flu sh with the top of the workpiece (spe cimen). The grind marks should run lengthwise on the specimen to prevent prematu re fai lure during testing. Place the specimen in the guided bend tester. Apply pressure to the specimen. If the weld is satisfactory, there should be no indications of cracking or fracturing. Use proper eye protection when testing each specimen.
5 . Hold the torch at an angle 60 from the vert ical, rather than the 45 angle used for othe r steels. 6 . Direc t the n am e onto the Y and, as the edges begin to melt, dip the tip of the filler metal into the weld pool. Before adding filler metal, ensure that th e si des o f th e Yare th orough ly molten to the bottom of the V. Fill in the bollo m of the Y abo ut 1/ 2", with the weld pool ex te nding upward to one-half the depth of the Y. While the we ld pool is still mol ten , sw ing the
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 . II . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15. 16 . 17 . 18 . 19 .
84
Why is a fi ller metal used in welding? What determ ines the size of the filler metal that should be used ? Where is the till er metal inserted when de positing beads with filler meta l? What happens if the filler metal is too large for the base metal that is being welded? If it is too sma ll? How sho uld the torch be mani pulated when using filler metal on a butt weld? If the metal does not me lt readil y, what is the probable ca use? What hap pens if the torch is moved forward too slow ly? Why sho uld cast iron pieces be preheat ed before welding? Why is flu x necessary when welding cast iron ? What is the melti ng point of alumi num? What type of filler metal is recommen ded for we lding alum inum? How can it be det er mi ned whe n aluminum has reached its preheati ng temperatu re? How are smooth , even ripp les formed in the weld bead? How is the n ux manipulated in ord er to deposit it in the weld? If cast iron has been properly welded. where should the break occur when the co mpleted weld is tes ted ? Why should the edges be beve led when heavy steel is 1 / 8" thick or more? At what angle sho uld the torch be held when weldin g heavy stee l? How should the torch and filler metal be handled in backh and welding? At what ang le? When we lding heavy stee l ove r 1 /2' thick , why usc more than one pass?
~ tveldil/R Skills
Oxyacetylene welding cannot always be done in flat position. Occasionally, workpieces must be welded in the horizontal, vertical, or overhead positions. Welding in flatposition is easier and somew hat[aster than other positions; however, with practice, welding in other positions can be performed easily. Wh en welding in horizontal, vertical, or overhead position, the main obsta cle to obtaining a sound weld is the gravitational pull downward on the molten metal.
the weld pool to become too large. If the we ld pool ge ts too big or too fluid . it could get ou t of con trol and run down the face of the weld . If the weld gets too fluid. pull the flame away slightly so that it does not play directly on the weld pool ,
[I .=
.~
Figu re 7-1. Up hill wd dillM is per [ornwd with (/II uphill pro gression. Do
1/01
10 gel
too larg e.
III hori zont al weld ing. direct/he fla me mo re 0 11 the >llge of the lower workpiece.
OVERHEAD WELDING
O verhead wel ding is m ore d iff icult to perform tha n ho ri zont a l or vert ica l we lding because of the unu sual working position and the skill needed to keep the mo lten we ld pool from dropping off the workpieces.
85
~ @j -
Overhead welding is possible beause molten metal has coh esive (s ticky) qualities, as long as the weld pool does not get too large. Molten metal does not fall from the weld if the weld pool is not allowed to form in complete drops. The amount of heat directed on the joint must be carefully regulated, since excessive heat increases the flow of the molten metal. Use the same semicircu lar motion of the torch for ove rhead welding as for other welding positions. Move the fill er met al slowly in a circular or swinging motion to help keep the weld pool shallow. The movement of the filler metal distributes the molten weld pool and prevents it from fonning large
drops and falling off. See Figure 7-2. If the weld pool becomes too fluid and starts to run, move the torch slightly away from the joint.
Ffgu ..e 72 . Tile fi ller metal mo w's ahead of the tor ch and distribut es the molten weld po ol Q.{ it is
moved.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
.Use a semicircular torch moveme nt for horizontal , vertical, and overhead welding . To maintain contro l and prevent sagg ing, do not allow the weld pool to become too large. If the weld pool becomes too fluid , raise the flame slightly away from the workpieces. In horizontal welding, direct the flame more on the edge of the lower workpiece. On overhead welds, move the filler metal slowly in a circular or swinging motion.
~ Exe rc ises
Welding a Butt Joint in Horizontal Position
exerCise
I . Obtain two pieces of 1 /16" or '/8" mild steel. 2 . Form a butt joint, with a root opening for expansion, and tack toge ther. 3. Position workpiece so the weld joint is in horizonta l positi on . 4 . Start weldin g at the right edge if right-handed (or the left, if left-handed), using a semicircular torch motion. As weld ing progresses, gravity ca n cau se metal to build up on the bottom workp iece . To overcome this tendency, direct the flame longer on the edge of the bottom workp iece and keep the tip of the filler metal nearer to the top workpiece.
86
~
Welding Skills
exercise
mild steel.
2. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 angle and tack tog et her. 3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal position. 4 . Stan welding at the right edge if right-handed (or the left, if left-handed), using a semicircular torch movement. 5 . Hold the torch so the tip forms a 45 angle to the bottom workpiece, and a 45 angle pointing to the end of the weld. 6 . Point the filler metal toward the welding tip at an angle of approximately 30 to the joint root and 15 to 20 to the bottom workpiece. 7. Direct the name evenly over the workpiece. To prevent undercuttin g, add filler metal nearer to the vertical workpi ece.
FILLER METAL
45 '
FILLER METAL
TOP VIEW
END VIEW
exerCise
2. For m a butt joint, with a root opening for expansion, and tack together. 3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in vertical position . 4 . Hold the torch and filler metal at the same angle as in flat position. As welding progresses, vary the torch angle as necessary to control the weld pool. 5. Weld uphill. Start the weld at the bottom edge and work upward, using a semicircular torch motion. Do not allo w the weld pool to become too large or it will run down the face of the weld. 6 . To prevent the weld pool from becoming too fluid , direct more of the name on the filler metal. If the weld pool becomes too fluid, pull the flame away slightly.
OAW- Other Positions ~
87
mild steel.
eXerCiSe
or
1 / 8"
2. Form a butt joint . with a root opening for expansion. and tack together. 3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in overhead position. The weld joint should allow clearance for manipulating the torch. 4. Use the same se mic ircular motion of the torch as other welding positions. Move the filler metal slowly in a c ircular or swinging motion to help keep the weld pool shallow. The movement of the filler metal also distributes the molten weld pool to prevent it from forming large drops and fal ling off. 5 . If the weld pool has a tendency to run, pull the torch slightly away from the surface.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
What can be done to prevent the weld pool from sagging when welding in vertica l position ? At what angle should the torch be held for horizontal welding? How should the torch be moved for vertical. horizontal. and ove rhead welding? In horizontal welding of a butt joint. why should the flame bc directed more on the edge of the lower workpiece? What should be done when welding in vertica l position to prevent the weld pool from becom ing too fluid? Why is overhead welding more difficult to perform than horizontal or vertical welding? How can the weld pool be prevented from dropping off in overhead weldin g? How should the filler metal be manipul ated in overhead weldin g? What ca n be done to prevent undercuttin g of the weld when welding a horizontal T-joint? What ca n be done to maintain a shallow weld pool when weldin g in the overhead position?
88
@o Weldin g Sk ills
section.
th re e
Shielded metal arc welding (SMA IV). sometimes ref erred to as stick welding. is used in the f abrication of many products, including ships. pressure vessels. tanks. automobiles. and appliances, SMAIV weldin g machine s are used to weld light- and heavy-gauge metals of all kinds.
A constant-current weldin g machine is used for SMAW Power to produce a weldin g arc can be static. such as is supplied by a transformer, transformer-rectifier; or inverter; or engine-driven. The power source design is selected based on the requirements of the welding task.
Proper personal protective equipment must be used durin g weldin g to protect the welde r fro m inju ry and to prevent dama ge to the materials or structures being welded.
ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES
When welding usin g SMAW, an electrica l circuit is created . An elect rica l circuit is a path taken by electric current flowing fro m one term inal of the welding machine, through a conductor, and to the other terminal. Current is the amount of electron flow through an electrica l circuit. A conductor is any material through which electricity flows easily. Condu ctors can be found in the form of wire, cable, or bu sbar s. A per son can also act as a conductor of electricity. When welding using the SMAW proce ss, the welding leads serve as co nd ucto rs in the circuit. Resistan ce is the opposition of the material in a co nductor to the passage of electric current, causing the electrical energy to be transform ed into heat. Resi stance is measured in
ohms. An ohm is the basic unit of mea surement of resistance. One ohm is the result of I volt applied across a resista nce that allow s I am pe re to flow through it.
Welding Current
When electr ical current moves through a wire, heat is generated by the resistance of the wire to the flow of electricity. The greater the current flow, the greater the heat generated . The heat generated during the SMAW pro ce ss comes from an arc that deve lops when e lec tr ic it y jumps acro ss an air/ga s gap between the end of an electrode and the base met al. T he a ir/gas gap produ ces a high resistance to the flow of cur re nt. Thi s resi st an ce generates inte ns e he at th at c an ran ge from 6000F (3300C) to IO,OOOF (5500C).
Till' hrat used for SMAW is generated f rom an arc that develops when electricity j umps across all airlKas gap between llu' nulofthe electrode and the base metal. The air/gas gap pm.. duces high resistance
ttl
curmuftow: gener-
89
Welding current ca n be di rect current (DC) or alternating current (AC) . Current has the most e ffec t on the dep th o f penetration into the base metal. Direct current (DC) is an electrical current that flows in one direction only. Thi s means that there is no change in the directio n of curre nt flow. Alt erna ting current (AC) is an electrical current tha t h a s a lte rna ti ng pos it ive a nd negative va lues . In the first (positive) half-cycle, th e curre nt fl o ws in o ne di rection; the curre nt then reverses and for the second (negative) half-cycle flows in the opposite direction. See Figure 8- 1.
An ampere (amp, or A) is a unit of mea sure for elec tric ity that ex presses the qu antit y, or number, of electro ns flowing throu gh a cond ucto r per unit o f time . Ampe rage is th e qu an tit y of electr icity measured. An ammeter is an in strument that mea sure s am pe rage (a mpe res) . T he prim ary vo ltage (i np ut) to a welding machine may be 120 V, 230 V, 460 V, or 600 V. The we lding machin e fram e (chassis) must be we ll grounded si nce primary vo ltages can be ve ry dangerous . Polarity, Polarity is the positive (+ ) or negative (-) state of an o bjec t. Pol arity determines the d irec tion of curre nt flow in a DC c irc uit. Since cur ren t moves in one d irec tion only in a DC circu it, po larit y mu st be se lec ted fo r so me welding operations . DC current used for welding ca n be either direct curre nt electrode negative (DCEN) or direct c urrent ele ctro de pos it ive (DCEP). See Figure 8-2. T he terminology DCEN and DCEP replaces the formerly used te rms st ra ig h t pol arit y (DCEN) and reverse polarit y (DCEP). Polarity is changed by co nnec ting the e lectrode lead to e ithe r th e positive o r negati ve termin al. Wh en the e lec trode le ad is con nec ted to th e negati ve terminal of the we ld ing machine and the workpiece lea d is connect ed to th e pos itive terminal , the pol arity is DCEN. When the electrod e lead is co nnected to the positive te rmin al of the we lding machin e and the workpiece lead is co nnected to the negative term inal, the circuit is DCEP. On some machines, polarity is changed by mo ving a sw itc h or lever o n th e we ldi ng ma c hi ne to DCEN (-) o r DCEP (+) . Polarity is of no consequence in AC welding machines because current is co nstantly changing direction .
Ftgure 8- 1. Direct ("lIrrem flows in one direction only. Alternatin g ("u rn ',,' has positive valu es and negat ive values: Cllrrem fl ows ill one direction . th en re verses and f or III(' second half-cycle flo ws ill the opposite direction .
Current
Figure 8-1
CURRENT _ CURRENT FLOW' y /t
FLOW,>, /
DIRECT CURRE NT
POSITIVE (+) VALUES
O'
270 '
360 '
--I
The rate of change is re ferred to as frequency. Frequency is the number of cycles per seco nd in an AC sine wave. Freq uency is indi cated as 25, 40, 50, or 60 cycles per second. Frequency is mea su red in hert z (Hz) . Hert z (Hz) is th e intern atio na l unit of frequ ency equal to I cycl e per se co nd . In the United States, alternating current is 60 cycles per second (60 Hz).
90
~ Welding Skills
The voltage and current outp ut ofa welding machi ne should be regularly tested to ensure that the proper levels are available jor welding.
Polarity
Figure 8-2
WELDING MACHINE ELECTRODE \
VOLTAGE DISPLAY
e
Miller f:/t>('lrh" Ml m{ac/u r;n /? COlllp.my
Ftgure 8-3. Vollage and current values ("{til be shown Oil a digital displl1Y Or! the from of (I weldin g ma chine,
Polarity determines the locat ion of heat concentration in a welding circuit. With DCEN, more heat is located in the workp iece . With DCEP, more heat is directed to the electrode. The type of we ldi ng to be performed and the electrode used determine the po larity. Electrodes are designed for use with a specific po larity.
Voltage
The force (electromotive force, or emf) or pressure that causes current to flow in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage is the amount of electrical pressure in a circuit. Volta ge doe s not flow, only current flow s. Voltage is measured using a voltmet er. Voltage and current values are commonly shown with a digital disp lay on the front of a welding machine. See Figure 8-3 .
Voltage (force) is similar to the pressure used to make water flow in pipes. In a water system, a pump provid es the pre ssure to make the water flow, whereas in an electrica l circuit a power supply produces the force (voltage) that pushes the current thro ugh the wires. Voltage ha s the most effect on the height and width of the weld depo sit. Voltage drop is the voltage decrease across a componen t due to resistance to the flow of current. Just as the pressure in a water system drops as the distance from the water pump increases, so doe s voltage lessen as the distanc e from the generat or increase s. When there is too gre at a drop, the welding machine cannot supply enou gh current for welding. A voltage drop prob lem is usually associated with using weld ing cables that arc too long or that have been damaged . Open-circuit voltage is the voltage produced when the mach ine is ON and no welding is being done . Open-circu it voltage varies from 50 V to 100 V. Arc voltage (working voltage) is the vo ltage present after an arc is struck and mai ntained . Ar c vo ltage is ge ne ra lly between 18 V and 36 V. See Figure 8-4. An adju stment is provided to vary the o pe n-c ircuit voltage so that welding can be done in different positions. Arc voltage is me asured as cl ose to the welding arc as possible and to measure voltage loss in the circuit.
SMAW - Equipment ~
91
Figure 8-4 . Open -ci rcuit voltage [usually betwee n 50 V (/1/(/ 100 V) is VOIWgl' produce d when the weldillg IIIl1t'hhll' is ON: m'c WJltagl' is
the work ing Wlliage [usuuily he1I 1l'' l'II IR V and 36 V) after W I lire
is snuck.
I"
~5D V TO l DDV
NO ARC
OPENCIRCU IT VOLTAGE
ARC
VOLTAGE DROPS TO 18 V T0 36 V
ARC VOLTAGE
92
1 Weldin g Skills
ing current is low (18 V to 36 V), whereas high current is necessary to produce the heat required for welding, The low voltage and high current used for we lding are not particularly dangerous if proper grounding and insulation are used .
Circuits
The elect rical circuit used for welding starts at the negative term inal of the welding machin e where curre nt is prod uce d , mo ve s th rou gh th e wire o r cable to th e e lectro de , thro ug h th e work, and then returns to the posit ive terminal of the welding machine. See Figure 8-5. Welding machin es used for SMAW provide the current and voltage required for the spec ific welding task.
. ...
Ft gure 8- 6 . \l,f e ldi llg ClIr n' IIr is pro vided bv AC. o r ACllJC output,
nc.
DC
Figure 85. DCN currem, ill which electric Cllr rent flow s from 'he negative terminal (1lhe welding ma chine, mm 'es alflllg the wire' o r cable to the ele c trode, throuRh the wo rk and then relll m,\' 10 the positivi' terminal. is comm onty /lxt'd for SMAW
All welding eq uipment must be maintained and serviced. The welder is responsible fo r checking thefluid levels (water, oil.fuelt
Oil
larJ..... to ensure a tight COIIIl('Ct;Oll and for proper gm wuJing. Loose connections generate heal ami bum leads lind connections.
SMAW - Equipmen t
93
STEEP SLOPE
(f)
t
CUR RENT
--.
a steeply sloping volt -amp curve to cont rol the a rc and welding heat.
A volt-a mp curve is a curve tha t shows how the voltage varies in its relation ship to current between the open circuit (where there is static electrical potential but no current is flowing) and short ci rc uit (w he re th e e lec tro de touches the wo rkpiece) . Wh en usin g a co ns ta nt-c urrent welding machine under normal welding conditions. the open-circu it voltage is between 50 V and 100 V but the output arc we ld ing vo ltage is between
94
~ Welding Skills
18 V and 36 V. By having a high opencircuit voltage, arc starting is easier. As welding progresses, the high voltage drops to the arc (working) voltage. Regardless of the arc length caused by raising or lowering the electrode, the current output does not fluctuate appreciably. The actual arc voltage varies, depending on the length of the arc. To strike an arc, the electrode must be shorted to the workpiece. At the moment of contact (short circuit), the current increases while the voltage drops. As the electrode moves away from the workpiece, the voltage rises to maintain the arc while the current drops to the required working level. If the arc length increases, the arc voltage increases . Conversely, if the arc length decreases, the arc voltage decreases . The welder can vary the arc voltage by lengthening or shortening the arc. During SMAW, whether using AC or DC current, it may be difficult to maintain a consistent arc length. However, with a constant-current machine, there are relatively small changes in current with any changes in arc length. The result is that the welding heat and burn-off rate of the electrode are affected very little, permitting the welder to maintain good control of the weld pool.
current output. See Figure 8-9. Depending on how the leads are plugged in, electrode positive or electrode negative current is supplied.
Figure 8-9. Based on the welding task, the welding leads are plugged into the terminals on the front of the welding machine to supply the desired welding current output,
Transformers
A transformer is an electrical device that changes voltage from one level to another. A transformer produces AC current. A transformer takes power directly from a power supply line and transforms it to the voltage required for welding. Some transformers also have an arc booster switch that supplies an increase in current for easy arc starting as soon as the electrode comes in contact with the work. After the arc is struck, the current automatically returns to the level set for the job.
Transformer- Rectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device contained within a transformer welding machine that changes AC current into DC current. A transformer-rectifier power source is sometimes preferable because it is usually more electrically efficient than an engine-driven power source, and provides quiet operation. Current is controlled by a switching
SMAW - Equipment ~
95
arrangement where one sw itch sets the desir ed c urrent range and a seco nd switch is for fine adj ustment before or during weldin g. Some small rect ifier s are I<1>, but a I<I> rectifier does not provide as smooth an arc as a 3<1> rectifier, See Figure 8- 10.
A half-wa ve rec tifi er produces an u nbal an ced s ine wav e by a llowi ng only the positive half of the sine wave to pass. Current do es no t flow during the negati ve half of th e cycle, result ing in an erratic curre nt ou tput that is usua lly unsuit abl e for weld ing.
Fig ure SIO . A t ra nsformerrectifier ( /O w l' r .HHII'C(' ("(1 1/ he oduptrd f o r {/ varietv of we ldi ll.1; applicat ions .
. -.
.
~ P OW E R
RANGE SWITCH
SWITCH
TERMINAL
tUJ"1 ~ AC
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
FULLWAVE RECTIFIER
,,
3~AC
--'
,,
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
+ 0 -"-INPUT
-'
FULL- WAVE RECTIFIER
OUTPUT
96
1 Weti/lllg Skills
A full-wave rectifier, which uses four diodes in the circuit, produces a sine wave that is smoother than a half-wave rectifier. Additional diodes can be used to pm duce a smoother output. depending on the requirements of the welding job.
been replaced by copper. making the inv erter sma lle r and more compact , but also more ex pe ns ive .
Inverters
An invert er is an electrical device that cha nges DC current into AC current. An inverter power source uses transi stors to convert DC current into highfrequency AC current. An inverter can be designed to produce variable frequency to provide fine-tuned adjustment of the welding arc. See Figure 8-11.
+ P
~
+
o
\J
i\d
G en erators used fo r SM AW are usu ally c o ns tant-c urr e nt , dual -c on trol. With a du al control. the curre nt is adjusted by two co ntrols. One control provid e s a n approximat e, or coars e, current sett ing . The seco nd contro l is usually a rheostat that provides a fine adjustment of the welding current to increase O[ decrease the heat. Some g enerators provide a cho ice between lo w voltage and high open-circuit volt age. A high open-circuit vo ltage with a drooping vo ltage characteris tic is used for SMAW. On du al -cont rol genera tors , th e slo pe o f th e o ut p ut c u rre nt ca n be vari ed to produce a soft or harsh arc. By flattenin g the vo lt -a m p c urv e (increas ing current ), a diggin g arc ca n be o b tained fo r d eeper penetration . With a stee per curve (reduced curre nt
Figure 8-11. i n ve rters run product' va riable [r equencv If) provide fine -tuned adjustment of the welding arc.
Inverters were developed as a more compac t alternative to other portable weld ing machines. Since the size o f the transformer is inversel y proportio nal to th e a p plied fre qu en c y, a n inverter ca n be as mu ch a s 75 % sma ller th an co nve ntio na l weldin g machines. Invert ers requi re less electr ici ty th an co n ve n t io nal weldin g machin es and have a faster resp on se time. Also. the aluminum wind ings of conventional welding machines have
SMAW - Equipment
97
in relation to vo ltage), a soft or qui et arc res ults, whic h is use fu l for we lding light-gauge metals. A ge ne ra to r with dual control allows greate r flex ibilit y for we lding metal s of differen t thi c knesses.
rated load with out excee ding the temperature limits of the insulati on of the compon ent parts. See Figure 8- 13.
300
c:
AC
-c
75
DC
50
10
is
20 25 30
40 50 60 70
in percent
WHEN WELDING WITH SMAW ON A MACHINE WITH A 20% DUlY CYCLE RATED AMPS ARE: DC = 150 A @ 25VDC AC = 225 A @2 5 VAC
2 MIN WELDING
8 MIN RESTING
11,e National Electrical Manuf a cturers A ssociation (NEMA) has set a standard for dltt) cycle based on a / 0 min period. The dllt)'cycle standard expresses the actual operation time that a wdding machine l1U1y be used at its rated ItHili without exceeding the temperatur e limits afth('insulation of the component pa ns.
Duty Cycle
Dil ly cycle is the pe rcentage of tim e
A weld ing mac hine rated at 300 A at 32 Y, 60% duty cycle can put out the rated current at the rated voltage for 6 min out of every III min. T he machine must idle and cool the other 4 min of every 10 min. Some welding machines used for automatic welding are rated at 100% du ty cycle and ca n be run continuous ly without ove rheating.
during a specified period that a welding machine can be operated at its rated load without overheating. The National Elec tr ica l Manu facturers Association (NEMA) has set a standard based on a 10 min period . The III min period expresses the actua l operation time that a welding machine may be used at its
WElDING EQUIPMENT
Welding equipmen t used fo r SMAW mu st be kept in good re pai r. Tool s s ho uld be reg u la rly in spe cted for sig ns of wear or da mage . Required we ldin g equipme nt includes welding cables, e lectrode holders, and work c1amp sllead s. See Figure 8- 14.
9ll
~ Weldin g Sk ills
-.
'
Figure 8-14. Proper welding requires welding equipment such as weldi ng leads , elec trod e holde rs, and workpi ece connections.
WELDING LEADS
ELECTRODE HOLDER
Removable
Clamped
WORKPIECE CONNECTIONS
Welding Leads
Welding leads conduct current to and from the work. One lead runs from the welding ma chine to the electrode holder and the other is attached to the workpiece or the workhench . The lead connec ted to the e lec trode holder is called the electrode lead . The lead connected to the workpiece is call ed the workpiece lead or , incorrectly, th e ground . When the welding machine is ON and the electrode in the electrode holder come s in contact with the workpiece, a circuit is formed , allowing electricity to flow. The correct diameter welding lead for the length of cable specified for the welding machine output must be used. If welding leads are too small for the current , th ey overh eat and pow e r is lost. Larger lead s ar e needed to carry the required current long distances from the welding machine; otherwi se, the re will be an
excessive voltage drop. With smaller diameter welding leads, the recommended length must not be exceeded because voltage drop across the leads lowers the efficiency of the welding . Check with the welding ma chine ma nufacturer for the proper welding lead sizes, and for specific lengths and usage . All welding lead connections should be tight because loo se connections cause the lug, lead, or clamp to overheat. A loose connection may also produce arcing at the connection . Welding leads sho uld be kept clean and should he handled so as to avoid damage to the insulation .
Keep we/ding leads orde rly to prevent themfmmbecoming a ha za rd. Fasten the we/ding leads overhead whenever poss ible. Never kink the welding leads.
Electrode Holders
An electrode hol der is a handle-like tool that holds the electrode during welding . The electrode holder is attached to the e lec tr ode lead during welding. A properly designed electrode holder is essential to good welding.
SMAW - Equipment ~
99
The jaws of the electrode holder must be properly insu lated. Laying an elec trode ho lder with unin sulated jaws o n the w orkbench whi le t he machine is running may ca use a nas h. A welldesig ned electrode holder can be identified by the follow ing features: II is reaso nably light, to redu ce excessive fatigue while we ld ing. II does not heat too rap idly. II is we ll balan ced. It secures and relea se s e lec tro des easily. II is properly insulated .
Tools
To produce a strong weld, the surface of the base metal must be free of foreign matter such as rust. oil, and paint. A wire brush (hand- or tool -powered) is used to clean metal surfaces. After a bead is deposited on the metal. the slag that covers the weld is removed with a chipping hamm er. The chipping operation is followed by additiona l wire brushing. Co mplete remova l of slag is especially important when several passes must be made over a joint. If not removed, slag beco mes tra pped in the weld , and may form gas holes in the bead that result in porosity, which weakens the weld.
Workpiece Connections
The workp iece connection must be fastened to the workpiece or the workbench to provide a complete path for the electrical circuit. A workp iece connection is attached to the workpiece lead to complete the circuit. This type of workpiece connection is removable, making it easier for a we lde r to chan ge locati on s. A workpiece lead can be attached or welded to the workbench using the lug on the end of the lead. Co nnections should be made as close to the welding location as possib le.
Welding Screen
Whe never we ldi ng is done in ar ea s where other people may be working, the we lding operation shou ld be enclo sed with screens so the ultraviolet rays cannot inju re nearby wo rkers. Welding screens ca n be easily co nstructed from lire-resistant canvas painted with black or g ray ultraviolet- pro tect ive pa int. When welding is done in a permanent location, a booth is desirable. A pennanent welding boo th prov ides the items needed to safely comp lete welding.
wctd-
ing screens ,\'0 thr arc doe.c 1101 harm workr rs lU'arh.\:
Ventilation System
Electrodes used for SMAW may emit a great dea l of smoke and fume s, which should not be inhaled. T he smoke and fumes are not harmful if the welding area is properly ventilated. There should be a suction lim or other adequate source of air circulation. Permanent welding booths should be equipped with a sheet-metal hood with an extens ion arm mounted directly above the welding table and an exhaust system to draw out the smoke and fumes. SMAW should not be performed without sufficient movement of air through the room. TIle general recommend ation for adequate ventilat ion is a minimum of 2(XlO cu n of air now per minute per welding machine. If individual movable ex haust hoods ca n be placed near the work, the rate of air flow toward the hood
quate ventilation.
o
100 ~ WeldillR Ski ll.'
Uh rk areas. walkways. ladders, efC, must be kept clear of obstruction s. Welding equipment should 1101 be p ositioned where it obstruct...walkways or other work areas.
Figure 8-15 . Shop tools and equipment assist the welder in maintaining a salt' work environ ment and producing quality welds.
Hand Grinder
Positioner
TOOLS
WELDING SCREEN
VENTILATION SYSTEM
C-CLAMP
ELECTRODE OVEN
should be approximately 100 linear feet per minute in the welding zone. The exhaust hood should never be placed in a manner that draws the gas and fumes across the face of the welder.
be turned down or e liminated and pocket s rem oved to prev ent molten metal from catching in the c lothes . Sl ee ves a nd co lla rs s ho uld be kep t butt oned. Pant legs and shirt sleeves sho uld be short enoug h that they do not bunch around the ankles or wrists. T he head and eyes must be protected from metal pieces or sparks that may be projected fro m a welding surface . Helm ets with shaded lenses are required when performing any weld ing operations . Safety glasse s sho uld be worn under face shields, hoods, and hel mets, and at all times when working in the shop. See Figure 8- 17.
Safe t)' glasses should be worn under face shields, hoods, and helmets. and at all times when wo rking in the shop .
Fi ~u ...e 81 6. Prope r protective clotlli"X mllst 1 1t' Il'On/ W prote ct til e welde r f ro m ultra violet (1 11(/ infrared rays, and sldX produced during II't' Mi"K.
FACE SHIELD
Co veralls or wor k clothing should prevent exposure of the skin to infrared a nd ultraviolet ray s . S yntheti c materi al s s uc h as polye st er sh ould never be worn. Cuffs on pants should
102 0
Welding Skills
===========11
SAFETY GLASSES
Ftgure 817 . Eve protection must be worn at all times when working ;11 the .tIWI' and during welding. ~.
I. The heat used for SMAW is generated from an arc that develops when electricity jumps across an air/gas gap between the end of an electrode and the base metal. The air/gas gap produces high resistance to the current flow, generating intense heat. 2. Polarity affects the amount of heat directed to the workpiece . By changing polarity, heat can be concentrated where it is most needed. 3. The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has set a standard for duty cycle based on a 10 min period. The duty cycle standard expresses the actual operation time that a welding machine may be used at its rated load without exceeding the temperature limits of the insolation of the component parts. 4. Use properly sized welding leads to prevent voltage drop. 5 . Keep welding lead s orderly to prevent them from becoming a hazard. Fasten the welding leads overhead whenever possible. Never kink the welding leads. 6. Use an electrode holder that is completely insulated. 7. When welding near other workers, set up welding screens so the arc does not harm workers nearby. 8. Weld only in areas where there is adequate ventilation. 9. Never look at a welding arc without wearing a welding helmet. 10. Safety glasses shoold be worn under face shields, hoods, and helmets, and at all times when working in the shop .
What is an electrical circuit? What is the difference between AC corrent and DC current? What is polarity? What determines whether the polarity of a welding machine is set for DCEN or DCEP? What is voltage? What instrument is used to measore voltage? What effect does welding polarity have on where heat is directed? What is voltage drop? What effect does it have on welding current? What is meant by open-circuit voltage and arc voltage? What is meant by a constant-current welding machine? What is a volt-amp curve? Why is a transformer-rectifier often preferred for SMAW? How are welding machines rated? What is doty cycle when specifying welding machine ratings? What are some of the reqoirements of an electrode holder? Why is it important to weld only where there is adequate ventilation?
There are many different types and sizes of electrodes, and the correct one must be selected to ensure a quality weld. In general, electrodes are classified intojive types: mild steel, high-carbon steel. alloy steel, cast iron, and nonferrous. Most arc welding is done with electrodes in the mild steel group.
ELECTRODES
An electrode is a component of th e welding circuit that conducts electrical current to the weld area. When current from a welding machine flows through the circuit to the elec trode , an arc is formed between the end of the electrode and the work . The arc melt s the electrode coating, electrode metal , and the base metal. The molten metal of the electrode flows into the crater and form s a solid ifie d bond betw een the two pieces of metal being joined . As the weld solidifies, it forms a slag that slows the cooling rate of the depo sited metal. See Figure 9-1.
" .
\ o
DIRECTION OF WELDING
Ele ctrode s are manufactured to weld different metals , and are al so designed spec ificall y for DC or AC welding machines , A few elec trodes work equally well on either DC or AC El ectrode usage al so depend s on the welding position. Some electrodes are best suited for flat position welding and horizontal fill et welding, while other types may be used in any position. Mild steel elec trode s ar e of two types: shielded or bare. Shielded electrodes have heavy coatings of various sub stances such as cell ulo se sod iu m, cellulose potassium, titania sodium, titania potassium, iron oxide, and iron powder, as well as several oth er ingredients. Each of th e subs tances in the coating is intended to serve a particular function in th e welding proc ess, such as the following : act as a cleaning and deoxidi zing agent in the molten crater release carbo n dioxide to protect the molten metal from atmospheric oxides and nitrides excl ude oxygen and ni trogen because the se co nt ami nants weaken a weld if they come in contact with molten metal form a s lag o ver the d epo sited metal that furth er prote cts the weld until th e metal coo ls suff icie ntly to where it is no longer affected by
105
welding machines and others can only be used with A C welding machines.
ARC
MOLTEN METAL
Figu re 9-1. Moh O! metal from the electrode flows info the crater, [arming a solid ified bond between the
11l'()
pieces
(1" metal.
at mos pheric co nta minat io n. Th e slag also slows the coolin g rate of deposited metal, permitting the formation of a more ductile weld provide easier arc starting, stabilize the arc , and reduce spatter permit bett er pen etration and improve the X-ray quality of the weld
same AWS classification , should have similar weld ing characteri stic s. Most electrodes manufa ctured in the United States are imprinted with an AWS symbol. See Figure 9-2.
Originally, bare e lec tro des were uncoated metal rods; today they are made with a coating . Bare electrodes are rarely used for welding becau se they are difficult to weld with and they produ ce brittl e we lds with lo w strength. Practically all welding is done with shielded electrodes. The coating of some electrodes contain s powd ered iron, which conv erts to steel and becomes a part of the weld deposit. The powdered iron also help s to increase the spee d of welding and impro ve the weld appearance. Low-hyd rogen electrode s have coatings that are high in limestone and other ingredients with a low hydrogen content, such as calcium fluoride, calcium carbonate, magnesium-aluminum si lic a te , a nd ferrou s a ll o ys . Lowhydrogen electrodes are used to weld hi gh -sulfur and medium- or high carbon steels that have a great affinity for hydrogen . Lo w-h ydrogen e lectrod es m ust be used bec au se th ese stee ls re act with hyd ro gen , ca us ing und erbead crackin g in weld s in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) adja cent to the weld.
Figure 9-2. The Ameri can Welding Socletv (AWS) numerical electrode classification identifies the charucseristics and usage of the electrode.
Identifying Electrodes
Electrodes are referred to by manufacturer trade name and by American Welding Society (AWS) classification. These cla ssification s were set up by AWS to establish requirements for electrodes and to ensure uniformity among manufacturers. Electrodes from differe nt manufacturers, if they are in the
106 ~ Welding Ski ffs
AWS classifications assign each type of electrode a specific symbol, such as E-60 10, E-60 12, or E-70 18. The prefix E identifies an electrode for electric arc welding. The first two digits in the symbol designate the minim um allowa ble tensile strength of the depo sited weld metal in thousands of pounds per square inch (psi). For exampl e, the 60 series e lectro de s have a minimum ten sile (pull) strength of 60,000 psi; the 70 series, a strength of 70,000 psi. The third digit of the symbo l indicates possibl e weldi ng positions. The welding position is indicated by either a number I or a number 2. Number I is for an electrode that can be used for welding in any positi on, and number 2 repre sent s an electrode restricted to welding in flat position and horizontal position fillet welds only. The fourth di git of th e sy mbol shows sp ecial characteristics of the electrode, such as type of coating, weld quality, type of arc, or amount of penetration. Th e fourth digit may be any di git between 0 and 8. Bec au se th e weldin g position depends on the
man ufacturer ch ar acteris tics of the electrode coat ing, the third and fourth digits are often viewed together. The fourth -d igi t values in the AWS electrode classification system are: E-XXXO. DCEP. Produces high-quality depo sits with deep penetrati on and flat or c o nc a ve bead s . Cellulose sodium coating . E-XXXI. DCEP or AC. Produces highquality deposits with deep penetration and fIa t to slightly concave beads. Cellulose potassium coating. E-XXX2 . DCE N or AC . Mediumquality deposits, medium arc, med ium penetration, and convex beads. Titania sodium coating. E-XXX3. OCEP, OCEN, or AC. Mediumto high -qual ity depo sits , soft a rc, shallow penetration, and slightly convex bead s. Titania pota ssium coating. E-XXX4 . DCEP, DCEN, or AC. Fast depos ition rat e; deep-groove , fillet , and lap weld s; medium penetration; easy slag removal. Iron powd er, tita ni a coating. E-XXX5. DCEP. High-quality deposits, soft arc, moderate penetration, flat to slightly convex bead , low hydrogen content in weld deposits. Low-hydrogen sodium coating.
E-XXX6. DCEP or AC. High -qu ality deposits, soft arc , mod erate penetration, fIat to slightly convex bead , low hydrogen content in weld deposits. Low-hydrogen potassium coating. E-XXX7. DCEN or AC. Fast fill, fast deposition ra te, medium penetration, low spatter, fIat beads . Iron powder, iron oxide. E-XXX8. DCEP or AC. Fill-freeze , shallow to medium penetration, high deposition, easy slag removal , convex beads . Iron powder, low-hydrogen. An additional letter-number combi nation may also come after the four-digit classification number. An H4 indicates a hydrogen level of less than 4 mIll OOg of electrode. H8 indicates a hydrogen leve l of less than 8 mIll OOg of elec trode. The letter R may follow the hydrogen level if the electrode meets the requirements of the absorbed moisture test. See Figure 9-3. For mild steel, the compl ete classification number E-60 10 would signify an electrode that (a) ha s a minimum tensile strength of 60,000 psi for the as-welded deposited weld metal, (b) is usable in all welding positions, and (c) can be used with DCEP only. Similarly, E-7024 designates an electrode that (a) has a minimum tensi le stre ngth o f
ARC~~f~~
E-7018
TENSILE STRENGTH
JJ
R -
Figure 9-3. Till' electrode iden tification U.H' .V a lette r and num bers combi nation to identify the electrode characteristics.
WELDING POSITION TYPE OF COATING AND CURRENT HYDROGEN : H4: LESS THAN 4 mV100 H8: LESS THAN 8 mV100 MEETS REQUIREMENTS OF ABSORBED MOISTURE TEST
107
70.000 psi, (b) is usab le for weldi ng in flat position and horizontal position fillet welds only, and (c) operates on DCE P, DCEN, or AC and has an iron powder coating. The fourth digit cannot he considered individually; it must he associated with the third digit since together, the third and fourth the digits identify the polarity and position of the electrode. See Figure 9-4. In the past, some e lectrodes were identi fied usin g a co lor co de es tablished by the National Electrical Manufacturers Associati on (NEMA). Thi s identification code is no longer used except for some surfacing electrodes.
considered in selecting an electrodebase metal properties, electrode diameter, joint de sign and fit-up, welding position, welding current and polarity, production efficiency, and service conditio ns. Base Metal Properties, A weld should be at least as strong as the base metal. The electrode used must produce a weld metal with approximately the same mechanical propert ies as the base metal. Electrodes are availab le for welding different classificati ons of metal. Some electrod es are designed to weld carbon steels, others are best suited for low-all oy stee ls, an d some are in tended specifically for special purpose a lloy steels such as c hrome- mo ly. Therefore, before any weldi ng operati o n, th e f irst c on s ide ra tio n is to c heck the che mica l a na lysis of the metal and then select an electrode that is reco mmended for that metal. Never weld on an unident ified metal.
AWS C lassification EXXtO EXX 20 EXX 11 EXX 12 EXX1 3 EXX 14 EXX 24 EXX 15 EXX16 EXX 27 EXX 18 EXX 28
Position *
ALL FLAT, HORIZONTAL ALL ALL ALL ALL FLAT. HORIZONTAL ALL ALL FLAT, HO RIZO NTAL ALL FLAT, HORIZONTAL
ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION
-Weld Characteristics t Deep penet ration , flat or co ncave bead s Deep penetration, flat or concave bead s Medium penetration , convex beads Sha llow penetration , convex beads Medium penetration. fast dep osit Moderate penet ration. co nvex beads Weld
--
currentt
DCEP DCEP, AC DCEN,AC DCEP, DCEN, AC DCEP, DCEN, AC DCEP DCEP.AC DCEP. DCEN,AC DCEP. AC
Coating t Ce llulose sodium Cellulose potassium Titania sodium Tit ania potassi um Iron powder titani a LOW-hydrogen sodium LOW-hydrogen
potassium
Iron powde r iron oxide Iron powde r low-h ydrogen
Fig ure 9-4. nil? third and [nurth digits ill the electrode classification identify the prop er lI'eldi" g position and the weld characteris tics oj the
electrode,
Electrode Diameter. Generally, th e diameter of the electrode should not be larger than the thickne ss of the metal to be welded. Some welders prefer larger electro des because they permit fa ster travel along the joint and thus speed up the welding operation, but this requires cons ide rable skill . It take s approximately half the time to deposit a quantit y of weld metal from '/4" coated mild steel elec trodes th an 3/16 " mild stee l e lectro des . The larger sizes not only mak e high er current use po ssibl e, but require fewer sto ps to c ha ng e the e lec tro de . Fo r economy, the largest pos sible electrode diameter should be used that is practi cal for the work at hand. Wh en making vertical or overhead welds, 3;\6" is the largest diameter electrod e that should be used regardless of th e base metal thi cknes s. La rg er electrodes make it too diffi cult to control the deposited metal. Ordinarily, a fast-f reeze electrode is best for vertical and overhead welding. The d ia m ete r of the el ectrode is also influenced by joint de si gn . On thick metal with a narrow root, a smalldiame ter electro de is used to deposit the root bead to ens ure thorough pen etration at the root of the weld . Su ccess ive pa s se s are th en mad e w ith larger d iameter electrodes , if ne ce ssary. Joint Design and Fit-Up. Joints with ins uffic ie n tly beveled edges require dee p- pe ne trating, fa st-fre eze ele ctrodes. This type of electrode has a diggi ng charac te ris t ic and may require more skillful elec trode manipulation by the welder. Joints with open gap s need a mild, penetrating, fill-freeze electrode that rapid ly br idge s gaps. Welding Position. Th e position of the weld join t must be considered when selecting an electrode. Some electrodes pmduce better results when welding is done in flat position. Other electrodes are desig ned for ve rtica l, hori zontal, and overhead welding. See Figure 9-5.
Figure 9-5. The electrode selected //lust he marched 10 the position o] the weld joint.
Welding Current and Polarity. Electrodes are specified for DCEP, DCEN, or AC current , although so me ele ctrodes work with AC or DC curre nt. To minimi ze po lar ity c o n fus io n, manufacturers now desi gnate straight polarity el ec trodes as DCEN and reverse polarity electrodes as DCEP. Production Efficiency. Deposition rate is important in production work. T he faster a weld can be made, the lower th e cost. Not all electrode s ha ve a high -speed , high-current rating with the ability to produc e sm oot h, even bead ripples. Unles s e lect ro des ar e noted for a fa st deposition ra te, th ey may prove very difficult to handle when used at high -speed tra vel. Service Conditions. The service requi rements of the part bein g we lde d may demand special weld depo sits. For exam ple, high co rr os io n resi stance, du ctility, or high strength ma y be important factors. In such cases, electrodes must be selected that will produce these specific characteristic s.
1
.=
. ~ ;/one 01/ a DC wefding machine. check whether DCEN or DCEP is needed for the particular electrode to be used.
'1" welding
is to he
I] .=
.@
109
Figure 9--6. Use electrodes limit lite stubs have been consumed do wn 10 JI,/ /" to 2# 1 01lg.
elec trodes should be stored separately from other types of electrodes. When storing any type of electrode, do not bump, bend, or step on the electrode s. Damaged or c hipped e lec tro de s are useless and must be disca rded.
'
..... , '/1
ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION
Elec trode s ca n be c lassified by type as mild steel, iron powder, and lowhydrogen. See Figure 9-7. Electrodes are common ly grouped as fast-freeze, fill-freeze, and fast-fill. A fast-freeze electrode is an electrode that produces a snappy, deep-penetrating arc and fast -free zing deposit. Fa stfreeze elec trode s produce littl e slag and fIat bea d s. T hey are used for all-position welding for fabrication and repair work . Th ey are preferred for vertica l and overhead position.
Low-hydrogen electrodes are especia lly vu lnerab le to moistu re. Lowhydrogen electrodes, such as E-70 18, aft e r be i ng re moved fr om the ir mo ist ureproof conta iner, sho uld be st ored in heated drying ovens a t 25 0F to 300F. Stationary and portable drying ovens are often used for storing electrodes at specified ho ldin g te m per a tu res . Low-hydrogen
Weld Resul!s
ALL
Deep penetration , flat beads Shallow penetration, good bead conto ur, minimum spatter, for poor fit-up High deposition , dee p groove sinqtepass welds High deposi tion , deep pene tratio n Low penetration, high spee d High deposition, single and multiple passes Welding of high-sulfur and high-carbon stee ls that tend to develop porosity and crack under weld bead
Fast-freeze
ALL
Fill-Ireeze
Fast-fill
E-6027
FLAT, HORIZONTAL
Fast-fill
E-7014
ALL
F iII ~freeze
E-7024
FLAT, HORIZONTAL
Fast-fill
Fi l l ~ f re eze
Fast-fill
Figure 9-7. AWS classes of electrodes caJ/ he f ur/her ca tego rized h.y type , such several j\lVS classificat ions and having certain weldinR character istics.
(/.1'
mild steel, iron po wder. and low -hydrogen, eac h includ ing
A fi ll-freeze electrode is an electrode that has a moderately forcef ul arc and deposit rate. The arc and deposit rates are between those of the fast-freeze and fast-fi ll e lectrodes. Fill-free ze electrode s hav e comp lete slag coverage and weld bead s with di sti nct , eve n rippl es . Th ey are a genera l-purpose electrode for production shops and are particularly useful for repair work and joint s with poor fit-up. They can be used in all positions, though they are not rec ommended for vertical and overhead welding. A f ast-fill electrode is an iron powder electrode that has a soft arc and fast deposit rate. These electrodes have a heavy slag and produce exceptionally smooth weld beads. They are genera lly used for product io n we lding where all work can be performed in flat posit ion.
-- .
Electrode
Diameter'
."
Amperest
60-90 80- 120 110 160 150 200 175 250 225 300 250 -450 50- 90 80 -1 30 120 - 180 140 220 170 - 250 225 - 325 40 90 80-120 120 190 140- 240 180 -315 225 -350 20 -40 25 -50 30 80 80 120 120 -190 140 24 0 225 300 50 350
Figure 9-8. Mild steel etectroaes a re used fo r many general weld ing operat ions, and currell! settings ~'a ry dt,/lt'mliIlK 0" the si:e of the electrode.
vE-60 10
'""
0/"
l62
V,
0/" ."
vE-6011
:y"
'""
'h2
V,
."
vE6012
'""
'I"
y" V-
0/ " 'h2
V. V'6
E6013
'I"
3/ 16
'I" V.
E6012. The E-6012 e lectrode is a fill-freeze electrode that may be used on either DC or AC welding machines. When it is used on DC welding machines, the current must be set for electrode negative. An E-60 12 e lectrode provides med ium penetration , a quiet are, slight spatter, and dense slag. Although it is considered an all-pos ition electrode, it is more commonly used for flat and horizontal position welds. Th is electrode is especially useful for bridging ga ps o n work with po or fit -up . Higher currents can be used with the E-60 12 electrodes than with any other type of all-position electrode. E6013. The E-6013 electrode is similar to the E-60 12, with a few exceptions. With the E-60 13, slag is removed easily and the arc can be maintai ned more ea sily, especia lly with sma lldiameter electrodes, permitting better
SMAW - Selectin g Electro des
~
I II
operation with lower open-circuit voltage. The bead deposited is noticeably flatte r and smoother but has shallower penetration than the E-60 12 electrode . Although the E-60 13 electrode is used particularly for welding sheet meta l, it has many other app lications. It work s we ll in all positions and it functions be st with AC we lding mac hi ne s. When used wi th DC we ld ing machin es, electrode posit ive or electrode negative may be used.
Electrode
E-6027
Diameter'
0/ "
'I.
Amperest
225 - 300 275 -375 350-450 80 - 110 110 -1 50 140 -190 180 -260 25 0 - 325 300- 400 400-500 90 - 120 120 -150 180-230 250 -300 300-350 350 - 400 400 500
,,;,
"
lil
"
E7014
0/ .. 7/." 'I. 0/ ..
"
lil
"
'lI,
,,;, V.
0/ ..
Fig u re 9- 9. iron powder elec trodes have various cu rre nt .H'lI i ll /: S . depending OI l size. and tire C O II/mo nty II Sl' d for j oints requiring 1Ii1:11 weld strength.
E6027. The E-6027 electrode produces hi gh -qu al it y we lds for hi gh-s pe ed deposition of '.4" and 0/16" hori zont al fille ts ; for groove and fillet welds in the fl at position; and for cover passes o n gro o ve we lds whe re co mple te coverage and good bead appearance a re req uired . DCEN or AC may be used. A drag welding technique is recomme nded to keep the cover over both legs of fillet welds. E-7014. The E-7014 electrode is a fast-fill or fast-freeze electrode used when high speed is nece ssary. E-70 14 electrodes may be used in all positions with DCEP, DCEN, or AC. The E-70 14 electrode deposi ts much more metal than an E-60 12 or E-60 13 type. It is particularly effect ive in downhill welding. E 7024. The E-7024 e lectrode is a fast-ti ll electrode that is exceptionally eco nomy for si ngle- or multi ple-pass welds. It is also exce llent for buildup applications because of its high de position rate and easy slag remova l. The E-7024 is recommended only for flat and horizo ntal pos itio ns, bUI ca n be used with DCEP. DCEN, or AC.
Eft'clrodc '.\' are designed to 1I1('C'1 a range (ifll'eldill g needs. Selection should he'based Oi l thc ' chutuctcristics of the ' metal to be welded.
112
low-Hydrogen Electrodes
Low-hydrogen electrodes are designed for welding high-sul fur and medi umor high-carbon steels. When such steels are welded, they tend to develop cracks under the weld bead because of hydrogen absorpti on from arc atmospheres. Low-hydroge n e lectrodes were developed to prevent the introduction of hydrogen into the weld and HAZ adjacent to the weld. Basic low-hydrogen electrodes are E-70 16 , E-70 18, and E-7028. T he most commonly used low-hydrogen electro de is E-70 18 because of its fast-till capability, reduced crack ing on heavy sec tions, good appearancc, and ability to be used to weld high carbon steels. See Figure 9-10. E-70 16. T he E-70l6 e lectrode is an all-positio n electrode suitable for AC or DCEP. It is especially recommended for welding hardenable steels where no preheat is used, and where stress relieving normally would be required but cannot be perfor med.
1I
E -7 0 18. T he E-70 18 e lectrode is a low -hydrogen electrode , bu t it also contain s iron powder. It is a high speed, fast -dep ositi on -rate elec trode designed to pass the most severe X-ray requirements when applied in all welding positions, using either AC or DCEP. Its weld pool fluidit y permits gases to escape when the lowest current s are used for out-of-position welding. E -7 028. The E-7028 e lec trode is a low-hydrogen electrode with a heavy iron powder covering. The E-7028 is co nsi dered the c ounterpart of the E-70 18, but it is recomm ended for flat and hori zon tal positions only.
Amperest
75 - 105 100 -150 140 - 190 190- 250 250-300 300 -375 70 - 120 100 - 150 120 - 200 200 - 275 275 -350 300 - 400 175 - 250 250 - 325 300 - 400 375-475
E-7016
0/ " :y,.
""
V. E-7018
." % ."
:y,.
V.
5 / 32
3/ 16
'I"
E-7028
';'"
V.
Figure 9-10. LOII'/lydrogeli electrodes are recom mended for steels with high-sulfu r and high-carbon comet/H. Current settings depend 011 the size oj lilt, electrode.
--
- - --------- ---
~-
------ - . --
Variables
Groove bun welds, flat
- .-
-- .
10
(b)
~~~~i~Ilm!mI~l~r,rw;til~~
Yt'1
5 5 9
10
(b)
9
(b)
7 7 5
10
(b)
Groove bun weld s, all positions Fillet welds. flat or hori zontal Fillet we lds . all positions Cu rrent (C)*
v..'1
10
2
6
9 7
6
9
3
9
9
(b)
10
(b)
9
(b)
10
(b)
10
DCEP DC EP DCEN AC AC
5 8
(b)
DC A C
9 8
DC AC
(b)
DC AC
8 8
DC AC
7 7 5
DCEP AC
2
DCEP AC
2
9 9
DCEP A C
(b)
DC AC
(b)
7 8
(b)
B
8 5 5
8
(b)
10
9
9 9 8 7
8
(b)
3
5 5 9 5 5 5 7
3
6 6
9 7
4
9
10
B
10
4 10 B
5
4
7 7
6
7
6 B
9 9
Depth of penetration
Appearance, unde rcutting Soundness Ductili ty Low -temperature imp act strength
10
6 6 6 B
6 B
6 6
7
10
9
10
9
10
9
3
4 4 6
10 10 10
6 4 6 4
10
9
6 B
9 9
10 10
B 4 B
7
10 10
9
10
B
9
(b)
B 2
7
1
6
7 9
10
(b)
10
B
10
B 6
6 B
9
B
10
9
10
B
10
9
9
B
9
9
Slag removal
AallOg IS on a co mp ara tive ba SIS 01 same-Si ze elect rodes WIth 10 as the highest va lue. Ra tings ma y chartge With size
tAWS t DCEP-dlrect currenl electrode positive: OCEN-<lirectcurren t electrode negalive: AC-altema ting curren !; DC-d irect curre nt, eilher palarily (b) Not recommended
0 11
10
Although there are a variety of electrod e classification charts that list the basic charac teristics or differences in e lectro des, man y of the variables encountered in production often require testing to determine the suitability of an electrode for a specific application. By first anal yzin g the variables in terms of their importanc e in a welding situation, considerable time and effort can be saved. The suitability of an electrode for use with certain types of joints, such as groove butt welds and fillet welds, can be rated to help determine the proper electrode to use.
114
The variables have a relative rating ranging from I to 10, with 10 as the highest value and I the lowest. These varia bles and their corres ponding ratings are based on ex perience and are intended primarily as an aid in the electrode selec tion process. For example, if high- sulfur stee l is to be welded, either E- 70 16 o r E-70 18 el ectrodes should be used. If poor fit-up is the problem, electrode E-60 12 is co nsidered the best electrode. If the deposition rate is the primary factor, then either E-6027 or E-7024 is the most suitable.
Welding Skills
Special Electrodes
Special electrod es are used for specific applications, on specific material s, to obtain particular surface charact eristics, or for health and environment reasons. For example, some electrode s are environmentally safe and emit no radiation or radioactive gases; release no cnntaminatiun tn the atmosph ere; and produce no contamination durin g grinding or machining. Some speci al electrodes require very little heat input. Special electrod es are used to allow welding of certain materials, to improve welding tim e and qu alit y in specific applica tions suc h as underwater, extr em e heat, ext re me co ld, or where
the surface to be welded cannot be completely cleaned of dirt, paint, or other materi al. Welding op erati on s such as surfacing and gouging are possible using special electrodes . A variety of special electrodes are available to meet the particular welding requirements of metals such as aluminum, cast iron, nickel , copper, magn esium , titanium , alloy metals, and tool steels. Special electrodes prevent cracking and ernbrittlement and may allow dissimilar metal s to be welded. Special electrodes can be used to build up a base metal surface to allow machining, or to harden the weld for grinding. Speci al e lectrodes can also add corrosion resistance to a weld and allow a weld to be galvanized.
I. Use the correct type of electrode for the weldin g to be done. 2. Some electrodes can only be used when weldin g with DC current; others are only used with AC current. 3 . If welding is to be done using DC current, determin e whether DCEN or DCEP is needed for the particular electrode to be used. 4 . Select an electrode with a diameter that is about one-ha lf the thickness of the met al to be we lded . 5 . Use an electrode until the stub is no longer than I V2" to 2". 6. Store electrodes in a dry plaee where the coatin g ca nnot be damaged.
l' 115
What is the difference between bare and shielded electrodes? Wh y arc bare electro des rarely used? What are the function s of the heavy coa ting on shielded electrodes? What has been don e to ensure unifor mity of electrode specifications? Wh at sym bols have been adop ted to identify different types of elec trodes? Explain the iden tifying symbols of the electrode classifi cat ion E-60 10. What is an all-pos ition electrode? Ho w can the current and pol arity an electrode is designed for be determined? What factors should be taken into conside ration when selecting an electrode for a job? Why are smaller diam eter electrodes used for overhead welding" What precaution s must be taken in stor ing electrodes? What is the spec ific feature of electrodes with coatings co ntaining powdered iron? Wh y arc low-hydr ogen electrodes used ? Wh at are some of the spec ific charac teristics of electrod es desig nated as fast-freeze? Some e lectrodes are classified as fill-freeze . W hat does this mean? For what types of welding are fast-fi ll electrodes intend ed? Wh at is the function of slag in the weld ing process? Ho w does joint design affect the diameter of the electrode used ? What organization is responsible for establishing a standard numerical electrode class ification? Wh ich elect rodes provid e deep pen etration ?
SMAW requ ires mastery of a specific series of ope rations throu gh pra ctice. Once these skills ha ve been acquired, they call be applied all Illy welding job. The first basic SMAW operation is learning to strike lIIl arc and deposit a straight bead.
duces an unstabl e welding arc, reduces penetrat ion, increa ses spatter, causes flat and wide beads, and prevent s the gas shield from protecting the molten pool from atmospheric contamination . If too short an arc is used , the arc doc s not create enough heat to melt the base metal. the electrode has a tendency to stick, penetration is poor, and une ven be ad s with irr egul ar rippl es result. Travel speed . Travel spee d is the rate at which the electrode is moved alon g the weld joint. Factors such as size and type of electrode, current, weld position , and base metal affect the speed of travel necessary for completing a sound weld.
A stable arc is maintained during welding to e"sure the required weld characteristics.
117
Fteu re 10-1. Proper machine set" electrode angle, arc length, tings, (fl/(I travel spee d are necessary ill order 10 susta in ( Ill a rc d uring welding.
..
_
. :
. ~
..
'
. = to weld.
o
r "'-I
.-==
.t:::=
Set thepolarityswitch to the recommended
position
I . In spect the lead connect ion s to make certain they are tight. 2. Make sure the bench top and base metal to be welded arc dry and free from dirt , rust, and grease. 3. Select the proper polarity. 4 . Adj ust the welding machine control unit for the current needed for the selected electrode.
Ffgure 16-2. Equipment for SMA\V includes a welding machine, dectrode, electrode holder. electrode lead . worf,;pier:t' lead; and workpiece connect ion. WELDING MACHINE
ELECTRODE LEAD
ELECTRODE
WORKPIECE LEAD
Do not touch th e we lding ben ch with an uninsulated e lectrode hold er. as this causes a flash. When not in use, hang the electrode holder in the place pro vi ded for it. Gri p the e lectrode holder lightly in the hand. If the electro de hold er is held too tig htly, the hand and arm will tire quickly.
Do not lay the d ectrode holder on the bench while c urrent is flo wing.
tI
.c::::::::
_-==
A CAUTION
Keep combust ible materials away from the we lding area, as flying sparks and spatter may ig nite fla mmable materials.
Figure 10-3. Place the bare end of the elec trode in the d ec/rode holder:
= [I]
.~
.=
mended curren t range and adjust the current as neces sary afte r welding
begins.
Alwavs shut OFF . ~ the welding ma .= chine when leaving the welding bench.
Turn th e curre nt do wn about 5 A and chec k for any differen ces when depositing a bead . Then turn it down anothe r 5 A and ag ain tr y to run a bead . As the current is reduced, it becomes app arent that there is ins uffi cient heat to melt the base metal. Furthermore, as the electrode burn s off, it doe s not fu se with the ba se metal but lies on the surface as spatter, wh ic h easil y sc ra pes off after we ld ing . Re ver se the pro ce ss by gradu all y rai sing the current. Turn the machin e up 5 A in several ste ps and each time run short bead s. As the current is increased, the arc gc ts hotter and th e electrode melts faster.
No specific rules can be given for the final curre nt setting because many factors arc involved, such as the skill of the welder, we lding position, type of metal, and nature of the welding job. The ability to mak e the final adju stment comes with expe rience.
Arc welding equipment must be installed and grounded, with the necessary discon-
I. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Inspect the equipment before starting to weld. Set the polarity switch to the recommended pos ition . Do not lay the electrode holder on the bench while current is flowing. Release the electrode if it sticks to the workpiece. Start with the recommended current range and adjust the current as necessary after welding begins. 6 . Always shut OFF the welding machine when leaving the welding bench.
120
Welding Skills
cl Exercises
Striking the Arc
eXerCiSe
I . Obtain a piece of W ' mild stee l. 2 . Position the workpiece in flat position. 3 . Use '/8" or %2'; E-60 12, E-601 3, or E-7024 electrode . Insert the e lectrode in the el ectrode holder and set the welding mac hine for the correct current. 4. Two methods can be used to strike the arc- the tapping met hod and the scratching method . Th e tapp ing method is preferred by experienced weld ers; how ever, the scratching method is eas ier. In the tapping method, the electrode is brou ght straight down to co ntact the workpiece and is withdrawn instantl y. With the scratching method, the electrode is moved at an ang le in contact with the wor kpiece in a scratching moti on, much like striking a match . Regardl ess of the motion used, upon co ntact with the workpiece, promptly raise the electrode a distance equal to the diameter of the electrode ; oth erwise, the electrode wi ll stick to the wor kpiece . If allow ed to stick with the current flowin g, the electrode becomes red hot. Shou ld the electrode weld fast to the workpi ece, br eak it loose by quickl y twi sting or bending the electrode hold er. If it sho uld fai l to di slodge. disengage the electrode by releas ing it from the electrode DIRECTION holder. TAPPING 5 . Pract ice striking an arc until th e operation ca n be perform ed qui ckl y and ea sily.
START l l
PLATE
. . -_ ! ....
U C~~CT ~
PLATE
OF WELDING
ESTABLISH ARC r
BEGIN WELDING
SCRATCHING
exercise.
3 . Position the workpiece so the lines are in flat position . 4. Deposit a continuous bead ov er each line, moving the electrode from left to right. Hold the electrode in a vertica l position and a ng le the electrode holder slightly toward the end of the weld. Thi s is the travel angle.
END VIEW
1S'TO 25'
""
.::...-.
5 . Move the electrode just rapidly enough so deposited SIDE VIEW metal has time to penetrate into the workpiece . If the current is set properly and the arc is maintained at the correct length, there will be a continuous crackling or frying noise. An arc that is too long makes a humming sound. Too short of an arc makes a popping sound. Notice the action of the molten weld pool and how the trailing edge of the weld pool solidifies as the electrode travels forward. The appearance of the weld pool is an indication of how well a molten metal is clear and bright, it mean s that no molten slag is Slag is brittle and when it flows in the molten metal the weld is edges of the weld bead have a dull, irregular appearance, it means the weld pool. weld is being made. If the mixing with the weld pool. weakened. Normally, if the that slag is being trapped in
---
.-
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
How does arc length affect a weld? Why must the current be adjusted for a particular welding operation? What equipment checks are made before proceedin g to weld? Why should the electrode be cla mped at its extreme end? Why should the electrode holder never be placed on the workbench while the curre nt is ON? What two methods may be used in strikin g an arc? When striking an arc, why should the electrode be withdrawn instantly ? What should be done if thc electrode welds fast to the plate? The arc should be maintained at approximately what length ?
--_......_---
To produce a quality weld, a welder must be able to manipulate the electrode and understand certain weld characteristics. A welder must be knowledgeable about fa ctors that contribute to good quality and poor quality welds. Quality welds are produced by using the correct welding procedures, properly cleaning the weld, and preventing contamination of the weld.
Ffgure 111 . Heat from the arc melts the base metal, [arming a c rat e r ; 1110 wh ich 111 0 / 11'11 ba se metal and fille r metal ClIII flow 10 create 11 quali ty head.
ables. Electrode holden are exposed to extremely highheat Ofl a regular basis. which causes them to deteriorate rapidly. Elec-
Electrode Selection
Electrode selection must take into acco unt the po sition of th e weld , the propertie s of the base metal, the diameter of the electrode, the type of joint, and the current. Different electrodes are manufactured to meet various welding requ irements.
Arc Length
If the arc length is too long, the metal melts off the electrode in large globules that wobbl e as the arc wavers. The se large globules produce a wide, spattered, and irregular bead with insufficient fusion between the bas e meta l and the deposited metal. An arc length that is
123
Maintain a travel
speed that isj ust j(ISC enough 10 produce evenly s/JlICt't! ripples.
too short fails to generate enough heat to melt the base metal properly, producing high , uneven beads with irreg ular ripple s. Deposi tin g we lds usin g too short an arc length also increases the possibility of the electrode stick ing to the workpiece. The arc length require d depends on the s ize of e lectrode use d a nd the welding ta sk . Sma ll-di ame ter elec trode s requ ire a shorter arc length than large-d iameter e lectrode s. For better control of the weld pool, the arc length shou ld typically be approxi mately the diamete r of the electrode. For exa mple, an e lect rode '/8" in di am et er should ha ve an arc len gth of abo ut '/ 8" . A shorter arc length is typica lly used for horizontal, vertical, and overhead welding beeau se it gives bett er con tro l of the weld pool, The proper arc length also prevents impurities from entering a weld. A correct weld bead has the pro per height and w idth a nd unifo rml y spaced ripp les. A long arc length allows the atmosphere to Ilow into the weld area , permitt ing impurities of nitrid es and oxides to form. Additionally, when the arc len gth is too lon g, heat fro m the arc stream is diss ipa ted too rap idl y, causing considerable metal spa tter, See Figu re 11-2. If the arc len gth is too s ho rt, th e bead wi ll ha ve a na rro w width and excessive height.
~ . __ _
Current Selection
For the desired weld characteristics, the correct current (AC, DCEP, DCEN) for a particul ar electrode must be used. If the curre nt is too high , the elec tro de melts too fast and the weld pool is large, irregular, and hard to contro!' Excessive spatter may also occur. When the welding current is too low, there is not enough heat to melt the base metal and the weld pool will be too small. The result is poor fusion , bead s that pile up on the base metal and are irregu lar in shape, and thc electrode can stick to the metal. Too Iow a current setting also cau ses the arc to co ntinually break.
Travel Speed
If the travel speed is too fast, the weld pool does not last long eno ugh and impurities are locked in the weld. The result ing bead is nar row, with po inte d ripples. If the travel speed is too slow, the metal piles up excess ively on the base metal and the bead is high and wide, with straight ripples. The correct travel speed prod uce s a smooth we ld bead with evenly spaced ripples. Sec Figure 11 -3.
F i~ lI l"t" 11 2_ Co rrect arc t""gl" i.f /leee.f.w ry [or "ropa bead [ormillion .
CURRENTTOO LOW
~5:.:I
{("II
011
Ftg ure 11-3. Proper brad [ ormation is de pe ndent /1/(//lY variables. which mlul be controlled to preI 'n l l a poor-quality head,
sun,
Electrode Angle
The e lectrode angle affects the we ld bead shape, particu larly in fillet and deep groove we ld s. The electrode angle is determined by the travel angle and the work angle. Travel angle is an ang le less than 90 betwee n the electrode ax is and a line pe rpendicu lar to the weld axis and in a plane determined by the electrode axis and the weld axis. The travel angle is along the weld axis and varies from 5 to 30 from the vertical, dependin g on we lder pre ference and conditions. Ilh rk angle is an angle less than 90 in a line perpendicular to the workpiece and in a plane determined by the electrode axis and the weld axis. For example, the work angle normally is 90 when making a groove weld in flat position . Ordinarily, a slight angle of the electrode in either direction from the work angle does not affect weld appearance or qu ali ty. However, when underc uts
occ ur in the vertica l plate of a fill et we ld, the ang le of the arc sho uld be lowered and the arc directed more toward the vert ica l plate. Work ang le is especially important in multip le-pass fillet welds. See Figure 11-4.
Tire del"" of 1'< '11 etration sho uld be one-thirdto one-half the total thickness of
the weld bead.
CRATER FORMATION
As the arc co mes in contact wi th the base metal, a crater is formed. A erater is a depression (poo l or poc ket) in the molten base metal made by the arc. The size and depth of a crater de termine th e amou nt of penetration . In general, the depth of penetration shou ld be one-third to one- half the total thickness of the bead, depending on the size of the electrode. See Figure 11-5. To obtai n a so und weld, the me tal deposited from the elec trode must fuse completely with the base metal. Fusion res ults only when the base metal has bee n heated to a mo lten sta te and the
Be sure ttte molten metal fmm the etectmdefi LW !S colI/plt'My with the base metal.
Ft uure 11-4. The corrnt rle ctrade angl e is required 10 make a I'ri'f' er weld.
j ""!"'.....
~WELD A~XI"S-I~Y
GROOVE WELDS
First Pass
Second Pass
Third Pass
molten metal from the electrode readily flows into it. If the arc length is too short, there is insuffic ient heat to form the correct size crater. When the arc length is too long, the heat is not centralized or intense enough to form the desired cra ter.
Figure 115. The deptll of the emte r indicates the {/11l 01l1J( of pe netra tion in the weld.
ELECTRODE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
In a whipping motion, the electrode is struck and held momentarily. It is then moved forward about V4" or 3fs". Just as the weld pool begins to freeze , the e lectrode is moved back into the center of the weld pool and the sequence is repeated . The electrode is moved by pi voting the wrist and not moving the arm while making the pass. Remelting Cr a ters. When starting an electrode, the re is a tend ency for a large globule of metal to falI on the surface of the plate, resulting in little or no penetration. Thi s is particularly a problem when restarting an electrode at the crater from a previously deposited weld. To till the existing crater and obtain proper fusion, strike the arc approximately %" in fro nt of the crater and move the arc back through the crater. See Figure 11 -6. At the back edge of the crater, dip the electrode into the weld pool and continue welding, completely filIing the cra ter and en suring proper penetratinn of the weld .
L STRIKE - --+-W'-i: : ARC HERE
Restart the electrode Y2 ~~ fro m the from edge oj 'he previously m ade crater, m Ol!' 'he arc hack through the crate r to remelt 'h e ,weld pool. and continue welding.
~BASE
METAL
Controlling Craters
An improperly fi lIed crater does not pro du ce the required we ld stre ngth and may cause a weld to fail when a load is appl ied. Occas iona lly, the crater gets too hot and the molten metal has a tendency to run. When this happens, the e lec trode sho uld be lifted slightly and quickly shifted to the side or ahead of the crater. Such a movement reduces the heat, allows the crater to solidify, and stops the deposit of metal from the electrode. The e lec trode is then quickly returned to the crater and the arc shortened . Another method used by welders to control the temperature of the molten weld pool is a whipping motion of the elec trode . The whippi ng-mo tio n tec hniq ue is used with E-60 10 and E-60 I I electrodes and is especialIy he lpfu l whe n we ld ing pieces that have poor fit- up (la rge openings between workpieces). It is also used in overhead and vertical welding to better control the weld pool.
126 ~ Welding Skills
11f
Figure 11-6. To continue a bead, strike the arc !t2.... f rom the front edge of the previa usty deposited weld bead and move the electrode back over the crate r. At the hack edge oj the crater, dip the electrode to remelt and continue with welding, pmjJerfy fiflj llg the crater:
Completel y remove flux from the crater be for e res tarting the arc or discontinuitie s may result with possible poro sity or slag inclusions .
Figure 11-8. Weld int-: with too low current results in poor penetration and causes overlapping.
CORRECT TOE FORMATION
Undercutting and Overlapping. Undercutting is creating a groove in the base metal that is not completely filled by weld metal during the welding process. Undercutting is the result of welding with excess ive current. Exce ssive current leaves a groove in the base metal along both sides of the bead, which greatly reduces the strength of a weld. See Figure 11 -7. Undercutting may also occur when there is insufficient depo sition of metal on a vertical plate. Undercutting can be corrected by slightly changing the electrode angle.
Undercutting
Figure 11-7
PENETRATIO ]
CORRECT
INCORRECT
Arc Blow
UNDERCUT BEAD
EXCESSIVE CURRENT
UNDERCUT
INSUFFICIENT DEPOSITION
Figure 11-7. Undercutt ing is ca used hy excessive currellf and/or insufficient metal depositio n.
Overlapping is extending the weld metal beyond the weld toes. Overl appin g occ urs wh en the cu rren t is set too low. In this instance , the molten me tal is depo sit ed wi thout actually fusing into the base metal , creating a poor quality weld. See Figure 11-8.
Arc blow is a deflection of the welding arc by magnetic forces that occur due to electron llow. When DC current is used, it produce s a magnetic field around the electrode. T he unev en movement of the current causes the arc to dellect from the weld area. Extreme heat can also cause arc blow. Arc blow is a common problem when welding with DC current. Current in a DC welding machine llow s in one direction , which produces a strong magn etism in the metal being welded . Thi s magn etism causes the arc to dellect from the weld area. Arc blow also break s the continuity of the deposited metal, making it necessary to refill the crater. The proces s of refilling the crater slows down the welding and often leav es weak spot s in the weld . Using the proper current setting correc ts or prevents arc blow. Arc blow typically occurs in stee l and metal s that contain iron, but may be encountered in other metals as well. It is also more common in corners and near the end s of the workpiece when the work lead is connected on only one side of the metal.
Pre vent arc blow during welding by usin g A C rather than D C 0 11 jobs where arc Mow may be a problem.
Arc blow usually occ urs fo rward or back ward along the joint but may occa sion ally occur to the sides. See Figurell -9. Arc blow may result when we ld ing toward the workpiece co nnec tion near the end of a joint or in a co rne r. Arc blow ca n also occ ur anyw here near an end or a comer, and can continue to the end of the jo int. As the weld pool nears the en d of a wo rk piece . it becom es more packed and arc blow increases. Arc blow results in inco mp lete fusio n and exc ess ive spatter, If arc blow is severe enoug h, a satis fac tor y weld ca nnot be made. Th e easiest method to reduce or prevent arc blow is to use AC rath er than DC on job s where arc blow may be a problem . Arc blow can a lso be pre ve n ted b y c la mp ing t he
workpiece connection to the end of the work piece . rather than o ne side. Additional measures th at may be taken to preven t arc blow include the follow ing: we ldi ng away from the wo rkpiece con necti o n red uc ing the we ld ing cur rent using the backstep welding technique using the shortest possible arc to overco me the magneti c fie ld
All electrical conductors create a magnetic field when. current is flowin g, which call interfere with welding by creating arc blow. AC current is not affected by arc blo w be cause the currem is constantly changing direction. The reversals in current it/ all AC circu it counteract rite effects of the magnetic fo rce 011 the base metal.
Fta ure 11-9. Arc Mo w is caused I)' the magnetism produ ced hy (/
wehling machine that causes the a rc 10 deflect from the IH.'1d area.
[)C
Arc Blow
Figure 119
WORKPIECE
WORKPIECE CONNECTION
DIRECTIO N OF WELDING
...............
FORCE ON ARC
Cleaning Welds
The layer of slag that covers a deposited bead must be removed after welding. If a multiple-pass weld is required , the slag mu st be removed between each pass . Slag all owed to enter the weld metal will weaken the weld . Additi on all y, finis hing proced ures , such as painting, sho uld not be performed until all slag is removed. See Figure I I- IO. To remove slag from a weld: I. Stri ke the we ld area wi th a chipping hammer. Hammer the bead so the chipping is directed away from the eyes, the face, and the bod y. Do not pound th e bead too hard as the struc ture of the weld may be dama ged . After the slag is loose ne d, drag th e point end of the chipping hammer along the we ld where it j oin s the workpiece to loose n any remaining particle s of s lag. 2. Aft er the chipping hammer, use a stiff wire brush to remove residual slag particles.
Fi~u ..e 11 10. Strike the weld with {/ ('hippi,,}: hammer, and then rJjIJ with a win' brusn /0 remove slag.
A WARNING
Always we a r safely g lass es and required personal pro te cti ve equipmen t when c hippi ng slag .
.= til
.~
Use the proper ele ctrode for each welding op eration. Th e arc length should be approx imately the diam eter o f the ele ctrode. Use the co rrect eurrent for a parti cular elec trode . Maintain a travel speed that is ju st fast en ough to produce evenly spaced rippl es. The depth of penet ration should be one-third to one-half the total thickness of the weld bead. Be sure the molten metal from the electrode fuses completely with the base meta l. Restart the electro de V2" fro m the fro nt edge of the previou sly made crater , move the arc back thro ugh the crater to remelt the we ld pool , and co ntinue welding. 8 . Avo id undercutt ing and ove rla ppi ng of the we ld joint by using th e correct current and elec tro de ang le. 9. Prevent arc blow du ring welding by using AC rath er than DC on j obs wher e arc blow may be a problem. 10 . When cleanin g slag from a weld, direct chipping away from the body, the eyes, and the face.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
~ Exe rc ises
Depositing a Continuous Bead
e XerCiSe
I. Obtain a piece of W' mild steel. 4" wide by 6" long. 2. Position the workpiece in flat pos itio n. 3. With a soapstone. draw a series of lines approxi mately %" apart and the length of the workpiece. 4 . Use Vs"; E-601O. E-6011. E-60l2. or E-6013 electrode. Depo sit continuous bead s along the line s. Start from the left edge and work to the right. 5. After each line has been filled. remove the slag and examine the weld beads.
e xerCise
I . Obtain a piece of V. ' miId steel. 2 . Positi on the workpiece in flat po sition . 3 . With a soap stone , draw a series of lines to form rectangles on the workp iece. 4. Deposit a continu ous bead , moving the electrode from left to right, bottom to top, right to left, and top to bottom. 5 . Maintain correct arc length, travel angle. and travel speed to control bead formati on.
BREAK ARC AND RESTART
exerCise.
I . Obtain a piece of 1;4" mild steel. 2 . Position the workpiece in flat position. 3 . With a soapstone, draw a series of straight lines, divided into 2" sections. 4. Deposit a bead over the first 2" section, then break the arc . 5. Deposit a bead for another 2"; then repeat the practice of breaking the arc and refilling the crater.
I. What factors allow for a quality weld with the proper penetration? 2. What factors must be considered when selecting an electrode? 3 . How is a crater affected when the arc length is too long? What happens when the arc length is too short? 4 . When the arc length is too long, what happens to the metal as it melts from the electrode" 5 . How is it possible to identify a weld that has been made with too long an arc length? 6 . What is likely to happen to the electrode when the arc length is too short? 7 . What are some characteristics of a weld made with too short an arc length? 8. What are some factors that must be considered when determining arc length? 9. In what way does the amount of current affect a weld? 10. What determines the travel speed at which an electrode shou ld be moved? I I. What is a crater? 12. What should be the depth of penetration? I 3 . What should be done when the crater gets too hot and the metal has a tendency to run over the surface? 14. How should an electrode be restarted to fill a crater left from a previou sly deposited weld ? 15. What cau ses undercutting? How can undercutting be prevented? 16. List six ways to prevent arc blow. 17. How should slag from a weld be removed from a workpiece?
_ _ _ _....;~
The eas iest position in which to weld is in flat position. When welding in flat position, the welding speed can be increased, molten metal has less tendency to run, better penetration or the base metal is possible, and the welding operation is less tiringfor the welder. If possible, stru ctures should be positioned so that they can be welded in the easier and mo re effic ient fla t position.
WELD PASSES
Some weld s require mo re than one pass. In a multiple-pass weld, the first pa ss is the root pa ss. Additiona lly, intermediate weld passees) and a cover pass are used for multiple-pass weld ing. So me welding opera tions require the workpieces to be tack welded. A tack weld is used to hold the workpieces in proper alignment until the fina l welds are made. Tack welds are spaced along the joint and must be co nsumed into the joint during welding . Once the joint is tacked, the necessary we ld passes are made . See Figure 12-1.
penetration is ensured if the root bead penetrates the bottom surface of the groove and consumes all tack welds previo us ly made . Penetra tion of the root bead sho uld not exceed fabrica tion code criteria or, if not given, Y16" beyond the bottom surface of the joint. Thoroughly remove slag from the root bead before laying the next pass.
Figure 12~ 1. Weld IN US .\' used for f11 111Iiple -{I(J.Is welding are the ro ot pass, intermediate weld pass(e.l'), and the cove r p ass.
ROOT PASS
Root Pass
A root pass is the initial weld pass that provides comp lete penetration through the thickne ss of the joint member. The root pass (bead) is the first weld pass made and is deposited in the bottom of the root. The root bead is made by moving a small -dia meter electrode straight down into the groove without any weaving motion. The purpose of t he root bead is to join th e two workpieces and fill the root opening . Th e root bead serv es as the base for subseq uent passes , and it must produce comp lete penetration. Complete
When depositing a
roof bead. advance
a small-diameter
electrode along the
groove with
weaving motion.
110
An intermediate weld pass may be used to remove slag inclusions or otherdefec ts from the mot brud.
ljl
~-
Use a slig ht wea ving motion when drposit ing in term edi ate weld passes.
a high current setting and a fast travel speed to blowout any remaining slag or inclusions and to create a quality weld surface for additional passes. The first intermediate weld pass deposits a small amount of filler metal and, when completed, should form a concave bead. The first intermediate weld pass must be thoroughly cleaned before depositing additional weld passes. Additional intermediate weld passes may be needed to fi ll the groove, depending on the thickness of the metal. When deposi ting in termediate we ld passes, a slight weaving mo tion is generally used to ensure proper fusion with the previously depos ited beads and the sid es of the groove joint. When multiple passe s are used, the beads should slightly overlap to ensure a s moo th sur face . Each pass must be thoroughly cleaned of slag before additional passes are made . Interm ediate we ld passes must completely bond to the previous passes, but should not penetrate too deeply to prevent remelting previous passes and weake ning the weld.
adjusted so that the heat is concentrated on the thicker metal. See Figure 12-2. Joints commonly welded in flat position include lap, T, butt, and comer joints.
ANGLE
wo~\r \
,
Vo"
I
1
T
Lap Joints
Figure 12-2. When weidilll-: base metals of diffe rent thicknesses. direct mon' heat to the thicker metal.
Cover Pass
A co ve r pass is the final weld pass deposited . The cover pass provides additional reinforcement to a multiple pa ss we ld and pro vid es a good appearance. The cover pass should not extend heyond the fabrication code criteria or. if not given. more than 1/ 16" above the base metal surface. A wea ving motion is used on the cover pass to obtain the necessary weld width when covering the fi ller passes.
The lap j o int is o ne of the mo st fre quently used joints in flat po s ition welding. It is a relatively simple joint, since no beveling or machining is necess ary. Surfaces to be welded must be clean and evenly ali gned. A la p joint consists of lapping one wo rkpiece over ano ther an d joining. T he amou nt the work pieces shou ld overlap depends on the thickness of the metal and the strength req uired. A fillet weld is used to join the two work pieces. Usuall y the thicker the metal , the greater the amount of overlap needed. When the structure is subjected to heavy bending stresses, it is best to deposit we lds on both sides of the joint. See Figure 12-3.
Lap Joints
Figure 123
ELECTRODE
Whe n weldin g a joint wi t h ba se metals of different thicknesses. keel' the heat concentrated a ll the thicker metal.
Figure 12-3. A lap joint rypim//y does lIot require edxe preparation before welding. WeldillX both: sides of the lap joint provides greater strength.
134
~ Welding Skill s
A lap joint is adaptab le for a variety of new construction work as well as for many types of repairs. For example , a lap joint can be used when joining a series of metal plates together or wh en reinforcing another struc tur al member. Since a lap joint stiffens the structure where the metals are lapped, it is used a great deal in ship bu ildi ng . Wh en an exceptionall y strong lap joint is required, especially on workpieces 3Js" thick or more, a mult iple-pas s fillet weld is recomme nded . Thi s weld has two or more layers of beads along the seam, with each bead lapping over the other.
T-Joints
Figure 12-4
Flguec
12~4 .
The strength of a T-
joint de pe nds on p roper fit -up, the direct ion from which 1I fo rce is applied, and whether a single or do uble fillet joint is used.
FORCE
FORCEFRO~
SINGLE FILLET
T-Joints
A T-joint is frequently used in fabricating straig ht and rolle d shapes. The strength of the joint depends on a close fit-up of the joint edges. A T-joint should not be used on structures subjecte d to heavy stresses from the opposite side of the welded joint. This weakness can be par tiall y overcome by using a double fillet weld. See Figure 12-4. When welding thick metal, or when extra strength is required, a larger fillet is nece ssar y. Fillet welds can be mad e larger by depo siting several passes.
DOUBLE FILLET
1'= I
.=
.~
The edges of an open butt joint are spaced slightly apart , usually 3/3 2" to !j B", to allow for penetration of the filler metal and expansion of the base metal. Generally, a backing bar or block of scrap steel is placed under an open butt joint. See Figure 12-6. A back ing bar prevents the bottom edges from burn ing through .
Butt Joints
A butt joint may be closed, open, or prepared, such as beveled. See Figure 12-5. On a closed butt joint, the edges of fhe two workpieces are in direct contact with each other. A closed butt joint is suitable for welding steel that generally does not exceed 3/16" thick. Thicker metal can be welded, but onl y if the welding machine has sufficient current capa ci ty and if lar ger diameter ele ctrodes are used. On thicker metal, multiple passes are required becau se it is difficult to achieve enough penetration to produce a strong weld with one pass.
Butt Joints
Figure 125
CLOSED
OPEN
~ J-
BEVELED
The edges ojan open butt joint should be spaced abo ut 0/32" to 0/' apart fo r pen etration and joint expansion.
Cons truction equ ipment commo nly uses surfacing welds with SMAW for bu ilding up worn pa rts and producing a hardened su rface.
Ft gure 12-6. A buck ing bur prevents the bottom edges from burning ,h rollX" {/1 1 op en bill! joint.
Wh en weldin g thin stock with a single pass. as in a closed or open butt joint. mo ve th e el ectrode alon g the joint without any wea ving mo tion . Move the electrode slowly eno ugh to a llow the arc sufficien t time to me lt th e metal. Using too slow a trave l speed c a n c a use the a rc to burn throu gh the metal. When a multiple-pass weld is to be mad e in a be vel ed joint , mov e the electrode down in the groove so that it almost touches bot h sides of the joint while depo siti ng the root bead. Move the e lectrod e fast enou gh to ke ep the slag flo wing ba ck on the fin ished weld. If the electrode is not mo ved rapidl y e no ug h. s la g ma y become trapped in the bottom of the weld, preventing prop er fusion. After co mp le ting th e root bead . proce ed with the nece ssary intermedi ate weld passes . Complet e the we ld with a cover pass.
SINGLE-V
ROOT FACE V,6" TO 'hi" ROOT FACE %2" TO Ya"
0/16" OR OVER
-.1
Wh e n the thic kness of the me ta l exceeds '/"", the edges of a butt joi nt should be beve led. Beveling the edges en sure s be tter penetratio n, requi re s less weld metal, and equalizes contrac tion forces. Bevelin g can be done by cutting the edges with a flame torch or by grinding on a grinder. The groove ang le should not exceed 60 to limit the amoun t of contraction that usually result s when the metal coo ls. The ed ge s may be prepared in severa l ways, soch as a single-V, single-V with root face. or double-V with root face. See Figore 12-7. The thickness of the work piece s determin es the ed ge preparation required. For example. on metal 3fs" thick or more, the edges are beveled on both sides.
I
V4'OR OVER
ROOT FACE
.I
Figure 127 . The edges of {I butt joint lire prep ared ;1/ different ways, depending on the thickness of the
metal,
A butt joint is ofte n used w he n jo ined structural pie ce s must have a flat surface, such as in tank s, boil ers, and a vari ety of ma chine parts. See Figure 12-8.
SURFACING
Surfacing is the application of a laye r or layers of material to a surface to obtain desired prop erti es or dim en sion s. Surfacing is commonly per fo rmed in flat posit ion and is used to repair worn surfaces of shafts, wheels, and other machine parts. The worn base metal has a surfacing weld applied, which is then mach ined to specifications. A surfucing weld is a weld applied to a surface, as opposed to a jo int, to obtain desired properties or dimensions. The operation consists of depositing several layers of we lds, one on top of the other, to increase the dimen sion s of a part. See Figure 12-9.
completely ajte r
eachpass. Slag parlido' allowed to re-
LONGITUDIN AL Bu n JOINT
CD BASE METAL
SURFACE WELD APPLIED
Figu re 12-9. SU/:tildIiR welds are used to increase file dimensions of parts.
Corner Joints
An out side corner joint may be used when con structing rectangular objec ts suc h as tanks, metal furniture, and other machin e sections where the outside corner must have a smooth radius. A single pass is usually sufficient for welding corner joints.
@MACHINE DTO SPECIFICATIONS
A worn part is ground down or machined to allow for two layers ojsurjacing to be depos ited on the part . The fi rst layer of depos ited me tal tends to becom e diluted and loses some ofits alloying prop erties when mixed wit h the base metal. Additiona l layer s of su rfacing provide the
required wear properties white ma intaining the part thickness.
Surfacing is performed by depo siting successive weld bead s. Additional filler metal can be added by weaving. Weaving is a welding technique in which the energy source is moved transversely as it pro gresses along the weld joint. Wea ving inc rea se s the bead wi dth . Three wea ve patt ern s commonly used arc the crescent , figur e eig ht, and rotary motion , depending on the position and join t. See Figur e 12-10 . Weaving is also used to provide a smooth weld finish on multipl e pass welds.
SMA W - Flat Position ~ 137
CRE SCENT
FIGURE EIGHT
position to prevent
H eokncss
orf ailure of
ROTARY
the weld.
"~ ~.:Cause;~
Arc too long
Remedy
Shorten arc
._r _.
1
'_'''' s,
Not enough current for size of electrode. Wrong electrode Too much current for electrode. May be moisture in electrode cover Wrong polarity. Too little current Dirty work
Change polarity. Or, increase current Clean work. Remove slag from previous weld Properly ground work
Poor ground
Figure 12-11. A welder should be alert 10 any .S;WIS of a problem dur ing welding , such as instability of the arc or poor penetration, and remedy the situation quickly.
I. Tack we lds are used to keep workpieces in positi on. They mu st be cons umed into the joint during we ld ing. 2. Wh en depositing a root bead, ad vance a sma ll-d iameter elec trode straig ht along the groove with no weav ing motion . 3 . An interm ediate weld pass may be used to rem ove slag inclusions or other defects from the root bead. 4 . Use a slight weaving motion when mak ing interm edi ate weld pass(es). 5 . Wh en welding a j oint with ba se metals of different thi ckn esses, keep the heat co nce ntra ted on the thicker metal. 6 . When welding a lap or Tsjoint. weld the joi nt on both sides if the structure is to be subjected 10 heavy stresses. 7. The edges of an open butt joint should be spaced about 'Y32" to 1/ 8" apart for penetration and joint expansio n. / 16 " thick, bevel the edges 10 o bta in the 8. Whe n we ld ing a butt joint on metal more than 3 prop er penetration . 9. Always remove slag completel y after each pass. Slag part icles allowed to rem ain weaken the weld . 10. Rem ed y welding problem s quickly wh en performing SMAW in flat po siti on to pr event weakness or failure of the weld.
~ Exerc ises
Welding a Single-Pass Lap Joint in Flat Position
I. Obtain two pieces of 3/16" or lf4" mild steel. 2. Form a lap joint and tack together. 3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position. 4 . Use a '/8" electrode and adjust the welding machine for the correct current. 5. Hold the electrode at a 45 angle and deposit a 1;." fillet weld along the joint.
FRONT VIEW
exerCise.
,w OF WELDING
f..i
Ii DIRECTION
6 . Weave the electrode slightly, maintaining the arc for a slightly longer time on the bottom workpiece . 7. Make sure that fusion is complete at the joint root and prevent overlapping on the top workpiece. A weld made with a concave fillet is usually too weak because it lacks sufficient reinforcing metal. A weld with a convex bead has too much waste metal , which adds no strength to the weld.
<45'~ 1 ----.45~
.. .. .
WO R K
ANGLE
ENDVIEW
exerCise.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position. 4. Deposit the root bead by moving the electrode straight down the joint withou t weaving.
S . Clean the weld carefully with a chip hammer and wire brush and deposit the second pass over the root bead.
6 . While welding the second pa ss , weave the el ec trode, pausing for an instant at the top of the weav e to depo sit e xtr a metal on the surface of the upper plate . 7 . Maintain a consi stent bead width along the joint.
FIRST PASS
PAUSE AT TOP OF WEAVE
SECOND PASS
exer Cise
2 . For m a T-joint with the piec es at a 90 angle and tack together. 3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position. 4 . Hold the electrode at a work angle of 4SO and a travel angle of 30 and advance it in a straight line without any weaving motion. Deposit a %" fillet weld.
S. Maintain travel speed to stay ahead of the weld pool.
Concentrate the arc more on the bottom workpi ece to prevent undercuttin g the top workpiece. Watch the crater clo sely to ensure that it form s a properly co ntoure d bead.
FIREBRICK
- 30')1
I
~ T R AV E L
ANGLE
% ~ ~~
141
exe rCise
2. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 angle and tack together. 3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position . 4. Deposit the root bead by moving the electrode straight down the joint without weaving . Remove slag completely. 5 . Hold the electrode at a work angle of 70 and a travel angl e of 30. Depo sit the first intermediate weld pass to partiall y cover the root bead. Remove slag compl etely. 6 . Hold the e lectrode at a 30 work angle and a 30 trav el angle. Deposit the second intermediate weld pass to cover the root bead and partia lly cover the second pass. 7. If more or less weld meta l is requ ired, make add itional passes using different bead configurations . 8. Additional weld metal can be depo sited on a multiple-pass fillet T-joint by weaving the e lec tro de.
FIREBRICK
FIRST PASS
SECOND PASS
THIRD PASS
3 PASS T-FILLET
6 PASS T-FILLET
exercise
.
/
2. Form a butt jo int, with a root opening for expansion and tack toget her. 3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position. 4. Hol d the e lec trode at a work ang le of 90 and a travel angle of 15 to 30. Deposit a bead along the butt jo int. 5 . Let the workpiece cool and then repeat the procedure on the reverse side .
WORK ANGLE
TRAVEL ANGLE
exerCise
2. Form a comer join t with the pieces at a 90 angle and tack together. 3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position . 4 . Hold the electrode at a work angle of 45 and a trave l angle of 30. Deposit a bead along the outside of the jo int. 5. For most corner joints, one bead is sufficie nt. Thick metals may require additional passes to fill the corner.
~7 45' '''" i
WORK
...--- TRAVEL
~"
CO RRECT
FORM
END VIEW
FRONT VIEW
143
exercise
2. Form a butt joint with the beveled edges ground to the same groove angle. 3 . Position the workpiece in a vise or section of angle iron so the weld joint is in flat position. 4. Deposit a small bead on one side. Then deposit a similar bead on the opposite side to prevent the shaft from warp ong . 5 . Use a slight weaving motion on the last pass.
exercise
ST RA IGHT BEA D WEAVING MOTION
.'
1. Obtain a piece of '14" mild steel. 4" wide and 6" long. 2. Draw a series of straight lines on the plate. 3 . Position the workpiece in flat position. 4 . Deposit co ntinuous beads a long the guide lines. Remove slag complete ly. 5 . Practice weaving by depositing a we ld back and forth between the first pair of continuous beads. 6 . Use a different weave motion to fill each section. Ensure that the short beads are fused into the long, straight bead s. 7 . Continue to practice weaving on several plates until a satisfactory plate is comp leted.
Surfacing
I . Ob tai n a pie ce of mild steel. 1/4" thick or more. 3" wide. and 5" loog. 2 . Position the workpiece in nat position. 3. Deposit a layer of straight beads to completely cover the wo rkpiece s urface . Remove slag co mpletely. 4. Deposit a second layer of weaved bead s about '12" wide at right angles to the first layer. Re mo ve slag com plete ly. 5 . De posit a third layer of stra ig ht be ad s at right angles to the second layer. Rem ove slag co mplete ly.
exercise
6 . Depos it a fourth and fifth layer. in the same manner- each layer at right angles to the previous layer. with slag thoro ughly removed before the subsequent layer is add ed .
145
What is an adva ntage of welding in flat position rather than in other positions? How are tack welds used in welding? What is the function of a root pass? What is a cover pass and why is it used? What procedures are foll ow ed whe n welding plates of di fferent thickn esses? When ma king a lap weld, what de termines how much the workpieces should overlap? How ca n undercutting be avoided when welding a lap joint? Why should a double fillet be used on a lap joint ? When should mult iple passes be used on a lap joint? When welding a Tsjoint, why shou ld the arc be directed more to ward the bottom work piece? What is the difference between an open and a closed butt joint ? When is a butt joint used in welding? When should the edges of butt joints be beveled ? What determines the edge preparation required for weldin g a butt joint? Wh at are some co mmon ap plicat ion s of outside corn er welds? How ma ny passes should be made o n an outside corn er weld? How sho uld the edges of rou nd stock be prepared for weldin g? What work angle is used to weld a lap j oint in flat position ? What wor k and travel angles are used when welding a butt joint in flat position ? What welding technique is recommended when makin g a root bead? What work angles are used to weld a multiple-pass fillet T-joint we ld? What is the purp ose of surfacing? What is meant by weav ing? Whe n is a weav ing motion used?
.;..
-:~
On many j obs. welding cannot be performed in flat position. Occasionally. the welding ope ration must be don e while the work is in horizontal position. Welds performed in horizontal position must ha ve a uniform. consistent bead. A fi ll-free ze or fast-freeze electrode should be used.
cause ove rlapping . An overlap occurs whe n the we ld pool run s down to the lower side of the bead and so lid ifies o n the surface w ithout actually pe netrating the base metal. A saggi ng we ld pool usua lly leaves an undercu t on the top side of the we ld scam a nd an improperl y shaped bead. See Figure 13-2. Ove rlaps and undercuts can weaken a we ld .
Do not allow th e
molten weld pool to sal-:lind cause m 'er -
UNDERCUT OVERLAP
Figure 13- 2. Using a short tire length m i"i m i ;: l'.\" the tendency of the weld p ool to sag and ,'a u.lt' o verlapping. Sagging weld pools usuatty leave {/II u nde rcu t arra 01 1 the top side of the seam.
Figure 13-1. 11/ horizontal weld ing, the weld joillf is in horizontal position.
CORRECT
INCORRECT
To we ld in horizon tal po sition, a short arc length should be used , with a slight reduction in current from th at used for welding in flat posit ion . The sho rt a rc le ng th minimi zes the te ndency of the weld pool to sag and
Welding in horizontal position has a high f ailure rate on weld inspection. Mati)' welders thin k ho rizontal position welding is easy
Wilt'llwelding ill horitontol position: li se a lour r U r iding <1t1Tt'1lt und shnnemrc lenKth
than when welding in flat po sition .
and they don ', pay close enough attention to the placem ent ofthe weld.
147
Welding Procedure
When welding in horizontal position, hold the electrode at a work angle of 5 to 10 and a tra vel lingle of 20,
When welding a butt joint in hori zontal pos itio n, hold the e lec tro de at a work ang le of 50 to 100 and a tra vel ang le of 20 0 See Fig ure 13-3.
_ ~
A till- freeze or fast-freeze etectrode sho uld he used for hori zontal we lding. As the elec trode is mo ved in and out of the crater, pau se slig htly ea ch tim e it is returned to the crater. Thi s keeps the crater small and the bead IS less likely to sag .
Ftg u re D -3, Wilen weldin g in _ ho rl:.tmltll position. I/Oid the electrode at tI wort: anKh' of 5 to /0 0 III1tI a tra vel angle of 20 .
: _
WORK ANGLE
.L-~
I.
\
~r
7 1
-\ I ~5' T0 1 0'
DIRECTION OF WELDING
/
TRAVEL . / ANGLE J
~,
20 ' \ - /
SIDEVIEW
TOP VIEW
When dep os it in g th e bead , use a narrow weavin g moti on . Wea ving the electrode distributes heat mor e evenly, furth er redu cin g any tendency for the we ld po ol to sag. See Fig ure 13-4. Kee p the arc length as short as possible. If the force of the arc has a tendency to undercut the workpiece at the top of the bead , slig htly tilt the electrode upward to increa se the up wa rd a ngle.
II s li~ h /
weaving motion wh en
/0 distribute hear mOfe
hori~OI1I{/II/(/,\'i ri(!n
evenly,
In horizontal position welding , the pos ition of the electrode is changed for each pass. The number of passes required depends Ofl the stet'! thickness as \1''11 as the diam eter of the electrode. Sufficient penetration into each adjacent pass is necessary for complete fusion of the weld.
1. When welding in hor izon tal pos itio n, use a lower welding curre nt and shorter arc length tha n when welding in flat position . 2 . Do not allow the molten weld poo l to sag, which ca n result in overlaps and undercut s. 3. When welding in horizontal posi tion, hold the electrode at a work angle of 50 to 100 and a travel angle of 20 0 4 . Use a slight weav ing motion whe n we lding in horizont al posit ion .
tl Exercises
Depositing Straight Beads in Horizontal Position
I. Obtain a piece of 1 /." mild steel. 2. Draw a series of guide lines Vi' apart and the length of the workpiece. 3 . Position the workpiece so the guide lines are in horizontal position. The workpiece may be clamp ed onto a pos itio ner, if avai lable, or tack welded to another workpiece or the workbench . 4 . Adjust the welding machine to the correct current and, with a slight weav ing motion, deposit beads between the guide lines. Start at the left edge of the first guide line and depo sit a bead , working to the right edge .
j
exerCise
GUIDE
L1NES ~
~--~
PASS 2 PASS
5 . Move to the next guide line and reverse the direction of travel for the second bead. 6. Conti nue making beads in reverse directions until uniform beads ca n be made with out overlap ping and undercutting.
WORK ANGLE
exerCise
I , Obtain two pieces of V." mild steel. 2. Form a lap jo int and tack together. 3 , Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal posi tion . 4. Use a 45 work angle and deposit a single bead along the edge with a slight weaving motion . Watch the formation of the bead closely for any undercutting.
USE
WEAVING MOTION
\
45 '
.~
eXerCiSe
3 . Position the work piece so the weld joint is in horizontal position. 4. Angle the electrode to 45 and deposit a root pass alo ng the joint without any weaving motio n. Remove slag comp letely to ensure proper penetration. 5. Angle the electrode to 70 and deposit an intermediate weld pass. Use a slight weaving motion to control heat input, and make sure to penetrate the root bead and the base meta l. A slight weav ing motion shou ld be used for the second pass. Remove slag comple tely. 6 . Angle the electrode to 30 and deposit a third bead, usin g a slig ht weav ing mot io n. T he third be ad should penetrate into the first and second beads, as well as the base metal. Co mplete penetration of the wel d passes mu st be obtained, ot herw ise a weak weld results and the layers may separate.
/>'3Q'
150
WeldillK Skills
exercise
.
I
1. Obtain two pieces of I;." mild stee l and be vel the edge of one piece. 2 . Form a butt jo int, allowing a l/16" ro o t openi ng , and tack together. 3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal position with the beveled piece on top and the piece that is not beve led on the bottom . The flat edge of the nonbeveled workpiece serves as a she lf, helping to prevent the we ld poo l fro m running out of the join t. 4 . Deposit the root pass deep into the joi nt. Remove slag co mplete ly. 5 . Depos it the inte rmediate we ld pass(es) , c lean ing slag from weld after each pass . Each be ad sho uld penetrate the ba se me tal and each previous pas s.
PASS 3
16" ROOT
OPENING
ROOT BEAD
I_
r
\,
PASS 3
~ O T0 1 5
On some welding jobs, both edges of the joint are beveled to / form a 6(P groove angle. This is PASS 3 a sing le- V but t join t. Si nce a single-V butt joint does not proEnd View End View vide a retain ing shelf for the SINGLE BEVEL BUn JOINT SINGLEV Bun JOINT bead, as does a single bevel butt joint, more skill is required to produce a satisfactory weld. On a wide joint, the weld is commonly finished with a cover pass to produce a smooth finish. A wide weaving motion that covers the entire area of the deposited beads is used to make the cover pass.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Why must a low current and a short arc length be used when welding in horizontal position? What can be done to prevent overlaps on hori zontal welds? In what position sho uld the electrode be held for welding horizont al bead s? Why should a weaving motion be used when making horizontal weld s? What determines the numb er of passes that should be made on a weld ? What groove angle is used when beveling the edges for a butt joint? When is a cover pass used? What work angles ar c required for each pas s of a multip le-pass fillet T-joinl weld in horizontal po sition? 9 . What must be done between passes of a multiple-pass fillet T-joint to ensure proper penetration?
Weldillg ill vertical position is freq uently used for the fabrication of structures such as steel buildings, bridg es, tanks, pipelines, ships, and machinery. Whell welding ill vertical position, gravity tends to pull down the molten metal f rom the weld pool. To p revent this fro m happenin g, fas t-freeze or jill-freeze elec trodes should be used. Weld pool con trol call also be ach ieved with prop er electrode manipulation. vertical weldin g is done by depo siting beads using one of two methods, down hill welding or uphill welding.
DOWNHILL WELDING
A vertical weld is a weld with the axis of th e we ld approx ima te ly vertica l. Downh il l welding is we ldi ng with a dow nward progress ion . Do w nhill welding is commonly used for we lding li g ht-ga uge metal because penetration is shallow. Downhill weld ing can be performed rapidl y, which is important in prod uct io n work . Although ge ne ra lly reco mme nded for we ld ing light -gau ge material s because it doe s not ca use melt -th rou gh , do wnh ill we ld ing ean a lso be used for ot her metal thicknesses. In downhill welding, maintain a travel an gle of 15 to 300. See Figu re 14- 1. Start at the top of the joint and mov e dow nward with litt le or no weaving motion . [f a slight weave is necessary, ma nipu late the electrode so the cresce nt of the we ave is at th e to p. On metal \4" thick or more, uphill welding
IS
DOWNHILL WELDING
When w eldin g light -gauge meta l ill vertical position, downhill welding is used to control penetration.
UPHILL WELDING
Uphill welding is weld ing with an upward progression . Uph ill we lding is commo nly used on metal more than '/.' th ick becau se deeper penetrat ion ca n be obtained. Uphill we lding a lso makes it possi ble to create a shelf for success ive layers of bea ds. For up hill we ld ing, sta rt with the e lec trode at a righ t a ng le to the wo rkpi ec e. Pos itio n the e lectrode ho lder unti l the electrode form s a travel an gle of 10 to 15, pointing away from the direction of we ld ing. See Fig ure 14 -2.
153
more common .
When .....elding in vertical position. molten weld mew ! has a tende ncy 10 nm out of
WEAVING MOTION S
t
UPHILL WELDING
Figure 143. A fi gure eight, rotary, or crescent weal'ing motion is used with uphill welding 10 control the width of the weld bead.
The welder should pause at the toes of the weld. Pausing at the toes allows for complete fusion of the weld metal into the joint. The electrode should be moved quickly across the center of the weld to prevent excessive heat buildup.
0" grooved joints. deposit the mOl pass deep into the roo t opening.
I . When we ld ing light-gauge metal in vertica l positi on . downhill welding is used to co ntrol pe ne tra tio n. 2. O n metal !j." thic k or more. uphill wel din g is co mmo nly used to o bta in the required pe net ra tio n. 3 . On grooved joints. deposit the root pass deep into the root opening.
Ok Exercises
Depositing Beads in Vertical Position (Downhill)
I . Obtain a piece of W' mild steel. 2. Draw a series of straight guide lines the length of the workpi ece. 3. Position the workpiece so the guide lines are in vertical position. 4 . Use E-60 12 or E-60 13 electrodes . 5 . Start at the top of the workpiece with the electrode pointed upward at about a 15 to 30 angle. Keep the arc short and move the electrode downward to form the bead. 6. Maint ain a travel speed that is ju st fast e nough to prevent the molten weld pool and slag from running ahead of the crater. Do not use any weaving motion at the start. 7 . Once straight. single beads can be deposited, weave the electrode slightly, with the crest at the top of the crater.
NO WEAVING MOTION
DIRECTION OF WE LDING
DIRECTION OF WELDING
".
15' T0 30'
exe rCise
2. Draw a series of straight guide lines the length of the wo rk piece . 3 . Position the workpiece so the guide lines are in vertical position. 4 . Use E-60 10 or E-60 11 electrodes for the necessary fast-freeze characteristics. 5. Start at the bottom of the workpiece with the electrode at a 10 to 15 aogle. Move the electrode upward using a Whipping motion . 6 . Return the electrode to the crater and repeat the operation, work ing up along the drawn gu ide line to the top of the workpiece . 7 . Do not break the arc while movin g the e lectro de upward. Withdraw it j ust long enough to permit the deposited metal to solidify and form a shelf so additional metal can be depo sited.
GUIDE LINES
WHIPPING
MOTION
DIRECTION OF WELDING
exer Cise
3 . Position the workpiece so the weld jo int is in vertical position. 4. Start at the bottom of the wor kpiece a nd deposit a small root pass wi tho ut any
weav ing motion .
5. Start at the bottom of the workpiece aga in and deposit a cover pass, usi ng a weav ing motion, from the bottom to the top. 6. Ensure that the cover pass completely penctrates the root bead.
WEAVING MOTIONS
exerCi s e .
I. Obtain two pieces of '/.1' mild steel and bevel the edges to form a 60 0 groove angle. 2. Form a butt joint, with a 'A6" root opening, and tack together. 3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in vertical position. 4. Start at the bottom of the workpiece and deposit a root pass. Remove slag completely. 5. Start at the bottom of the workpiece again and deposit an intermediate weld pass(es) as necessary to fill the root opening. Remove slag completely. 6. Finish the weld with a cover pass. Remove slag completely.
PASS 1 ROOT BEAD
exerCi s e .
I . Obtain two pieces of Vl' mild steel. 2. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 0 angle and tack together. 3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in vertical position. 4 . Start at the bottom of the workpiece and deposit a narrow root pass. Remove slag completely. 5 . Start at the bottom of the workpiece again and, using a weaving motion, deposit an intermediate weld pass. Remove slag completely. 6 . On the opposite side , start at the bottom of the workpiece and deposit a narrow root pass . Remove slag completely. 7 . Deposit an intermediate weld pass on the second side. Remove slag completely. 8. Check for complete penetration of each pass. Deposit a cover pass on each side. Remove slag completely.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 . I I. 12 . 13 . 14.
In vertical weldin g, what can be done to prevent the weld pool from sagg ing? Why is downhill weldin g more applicable to light-gauge metal? In what position should the electrode be held in downhill weldin g? What motions should be used in downhill weldin g? How should the electrod e be held when making an uphill weld? What is the advantage of using a whippin g motion on a vertical weld ? How can the width of a bead be increased on an uphill weld? What direction of tra vel provides the most penetrati on when weldin g in vertical pos ition? What types of electrodes are com monly used in vertical weldin g? What kind of weaving motion is used when welding uphill using an E-70 18 electrode'! Which is faster, uphill weldin g or downhill weldin g? What determin es if a weld is in vertical position? What types of elec trodes can be used with a Whipping motion? What is the advantage of using a weavin g motion when weldin g in vertical position?
Welding in overhead position is one of the most difficult welding operations to master. Although overhead welding is similar to fla t position welding in technique. overhead welding is done from (//1 awkward position and is greatly affected by gravity. In overhead position the weld pool has a tendency to drop. making it harder to secure a uniform bead and correct penetration. With practice it is possible to secure welds with the same quality as those made in other positions.
OVERHEAD WELDING
When overhead weldin g, the welder mu st be su re th at th e weld passe s properly fill the weld j oint. Molten metal can eas ily drop from the weld pool, causing uneven, inconsistent weld beads and incomplete penetration . Keep the arc length as short as possible when weldin g in overhead position to prevent molten metal from falling out of the weld pool. Beginning welders should practice welding beads in overhead position until a consistent bead can be laid rep eatedl y. When practi cing welding in ove rhead positi on, a position er is co mmo nly used to sec ure workpieces. The positioner allow s the we lde r to se t th e wor kpiece to any height or position. See Figure 15-1.
When overhead welding, personal protecti ve clothin g and equipment must be worn to protect against falling molten metal , slag, and sparks. A headcap, welding hood. and leather jacket or leather apron and leather sleeves should be worn to prevent slag and sparks from burning the skin. See Figure 15-2. Shirtsleeves should be rolled down and buttoned .
.=
.~
Wllt'll welding ill overhead position, keep the un: length (IS sho rt (IS
pos sible.
Figur e 15-2. Proper personal protective equipment must be worn when pnformillK ove rhead weldi ng to
prevent injury.
159
IJ
Gri p the el ectrode holder so the knuckles of the hand are up and the palm is down. Thi s prevents particles of molten meta l from being caug ht in the palm of the glove and allows spatter to mil off the glove. The electrode holder can be he ld in one hand; however. sometimes welding is easier if it is held with both hand s. See Figure 15-4. To avoid hot meta l spatter. stand to the side rather than directly underne ath the arc. The weight of the electrode lead can be minimized by draping it over a shoulder if welding in a standing position. or over a knee if in a sitting position.
ENDVIEW
Wilen we/ding in overhrud p osition. stand to the side to avoi d injury f rom hot me tal spatter:
--i
... ~
I
"~
,\-10' TO 15'
FRONT VIEW
Drape the electrode lead ova the shoulder if welding in (/ standing position. or 01'('1' (l knee if ill a sitting position.
Figure 15-3. For overhead welding, the electrode should ht' held at (/ work angle of 90 and a trave l W I M' ' of 10 10 15 ,
A WARNING I
Molten metal can fall from the weld when welding in overhead position. Be sure sleeves are rolled down and a protective garme nt with a light-fitting collar is zipped or buttoned up to the neck . Wear a headcap and hea vy-du ty shoes,
11.1''
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
When welding in overhead position. keep the arc length as short as possible. A travel ang le of 10 to 15 shou ld be used for overhead welding. Grip the electrode holder so the knuck les of the hand are up and the palm is down . When welding in overhead position stand to the side to avoid injury from hot metal spatter. Drape the electrode lead over the shoulder if welding in a standing position. or over a knee if in a sitting position .
~ Exe rc ises
Depositing Beads in Overhead Position
eXerCiSe.
I. Obtain a piece of %" mild steel. 2 . Draw a series of guide lines on the workpiece, each line approximately '/2" apart. 3. Position the workpiece so the guide lines are in overhead position. 4. Set current as recommended for overhead welding. Strike an arc and form a weld pool as in flat position welding. Move the electrode along the weld joint, keeping the arc as short as possible. 5. Deposit a series of straight beads with no weaving motion . If necessary to prevent the weld pool from dropping, reduce the current slightly. 6 . Practice depositing beads in one direction, then reverse and practice in the opposite direction. 7. Deposit beads using a weaving motion to fill in the space between the beads.
WEAVING MOTIONS
exerCise.
I . Obtain two pieces of ,;." mild steel and bevel the edges. 2. Form a butt joint, with a V16" root opening for expansion, and tack weld. 3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in overhead position. 4 . Deposit a root pass in the root of the joint. Remove slag completely. S. Deposit an intermediate weld pass(es) to cover the groove faces of the joint. Remove slag completely between passes.
eXerCiSe
3. Posit ion the workpiece so the weld jo int is in ove rhead posi tion. 4. Hold the electrode with a 45 0 work angle and a IS" trave l angle. 5 . Deposit a root pass in the root of the joint. Remove slag completely. 6. Deposit an intermediate weld pass, maki ng sure the weld pene tra tes int o the root bead and the bott om piece . Re move slag completely.
WQRKANGLE
7 . Deposit the cover pass, mak ing sure the weld penetrates into the root bead and the top piece. Remove slag complete ly.
ENDVIEW
exerC ise
2 . Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 0 angle and tack together. 3. Position the workpiece so the weld joi nt is in overhead pos itio n. 4 . Deposit a root pass in the root of the jo int. Remove slag com ple tely. 5 . Deposit an intermediate weld pass and a cover pass . Remove slag completely between passes. Adjust the work angle of the electrode for each pass to ensure complete penetration.
PASS 1
I. 2. 3. 4.
Why is welding in over head positio n more difficult than welding in other positions? What is the recommended travel angle for over head welding? Why sho uld the electrode holder be grasped so that the palm is facing down? What should he done to prevent the weld pool from dropping?
section
f0 ur
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) requires alternating current (AC) or dire ct current (DC). The choice of AC or DC current depends on the metal and weld requirements. Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) welding is commonly used for ferrous metals. AC high-frequency (ACHF) weldin g is com monly used for aluminum and nonferrous metals. The GTAW process was developed in the late 1930s primarily for welding aluminum and magnesium in the aircraft industry. A breakthrough in GIf\W occurred during World War II when ACHF was found to produce high-quality welds on aluminum . At one time, helium was used as a shielding gas, but was later replaced by the less expensive argon.
FILLER METAL
TORCH
WORKPIE CE
more types ofmetal and metal alloys than any other welding process.
Figu re 16-1. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) can be used without fille r metal, although fille r metal may be added to thick metal or to reinforce the joi nt on thin met als.
163
tI
.e
e::::::
A weldin g machine
originailydesignedfor
with SMA lV must be dera ted to protect it f rom thr effeC IJ of ;11temal Imuing tha t ocIH('
Alternating Current
GTAW with AC current is used to we ld alum in um a nd magnesium alloys . A clean ing action occurs with AC current because o f a bombardment of positive charged gas ions that are attracted to the negati ve charged workpiece. Gas ion s. as they strike the workpiece . break the oxide film and dislodge it from the surface. Ge nerally speaking. better results are obtai ned when using AC current to weld aluminum and magnesi um. No other metals require a cleaning action.
Weld in g machine s s pe c if ic a ll y designated for GTAW do not have to be derated. Derating is a lowering of the current output level of an AC weld in g machine when being used for GTAW. I n form a t io n re gard ing the weld ing processes a particu lar machine is rated for can be found on the we lding mac hine nameplate or in the prod uct literatu re. AC we lding machines not specifically designed for GTAW mu st have their output current le ve ls derated when used for GTAW. A weld ing machine ori ginally designed for use wi th SMAW mu st be derated to protect it from th e effect s o f internal heating that oc curs durin g GTAW. De rating is o n ly nece ssary when using AC GTAW. Methods used to de -rate an AC we lding machine are to lower the ra ted output current . lower the duty cycle, or bo th.
Electrode Positive
2
Magn esium up to lfi3" th ick Magne sium over 16" thick Magnesium Castings Aluminum Aluminum Castings
NR
2 2
Brass Alloys
Silver
Low-Carbon Steel .015- to .030Low-Carbon Steel .030" to .125" High-Carbon Steel .015 - to .030"
High -Carbon Steel .030'" or more Deo xidi zed Copper up to .090
H
1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2
NR
2
1
NR
2 2
NR
1 1 1 1 1
NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
Key : 1. Excellent operanon-eest recommendation 2. Good operano n-secood recommendation NR- not recom mended
(II'
1.
2.
Lower the rated output current. Derate the welding machine by 30% from its rated current. For example, a welding machine for SMAW is rated at 200 A, 60% duty cycle . For GTAW, the rated output current is lowered 30% (200 A X .30 = 60 A; 200 - 60 = 140 A). The derated current output is 140 A. With this method, the duty cycle for GTAW is the same as for SMAW. Lower the duty cycle. See Figure 16-3 . Find the duty cycle rating of the welding machine (found on the welding machine nameplate), multiply the rated duty cycle by the predetermined rated amps percentage to find 100% duty cycle for non-GTAW applications ; multiply the non-GTAW rating by 70% to de-rate the amps to 100% duty cycle fur GTAW.
flow of current in the DCEP half of the cycle . If no current flowed in the elec trode positive direction during welding, the partial or complete stoppage of current flow (rectification) would cause the arc to be unstable and possibly extinguish. Alternating current highfrequency (ACHF) welding uses a rapid alternation of electrode negative and electrode positive. The faster alternation of electrode negative and electrode positive during ACHF permits the arc to be maintained without interruption . See Figure 16-4.
ACH F pro vides a combination of the penetrating qualitie s of LJCEN and the cleaning action of
ocer.
75%
Find the duty cycle rating of the welding mach ine in use (found on the welding machine nameplate). Multiply the rated amps by the predetermined percentage to find 100% duty cycle for non-GTAW applications. Multiply by 70% to derate the amps to the 100% duty cycle for GTAW, For example , what is the 100% derated duty cycle for a 200 A, 60% duty cycle welding machine used for non-GTAW applications? Used for AC GTAW applications? 200 x .75 == 150 A (100% duty cycle for non-GTAW applications) 150 x .70 == 105 A (100% duty cycle for AC GTAWapplications)
GTAW-Equipment @o 165
Figure 16-4 . In AC, half of the complete A C cycle is electrode negative and half is electrode positive . Alternating current, high freque ncy (ACHF) combines the beneficial qualities of DCEN and lJ CE/~
.
+
</J
.'
+
f DCEN
+
1--
ONE
CO MPLET E CVC LE -
0..
-c "
0
TIME
</J
0..
< "
TIME
DC
AC
+
[
'"
+
o
'V_
ACHF COMBINES CONCENTRATED HEAT (DCEN) WITH CLEANING ACTION (DCEP) [ DEEP PENETRATION. NORMAL WIDTH
'6
o
L,ii-"~ ",
GTAW PROCESS
0 ,:.
S':I*;t0Y ; ~ + ; ,. il
WELD CHARACTERISTICS
Direct Current
Direct current (DC) is an electrical current that flows in one direction only. Direct current must be electrode negative (DCEN) or electrod e positive (DCEP) . With DCEN , electron flow from the electrode to the workpiece creates heat at the workpiece. With DCEP, electron flo w from the workpiece to the electrode creates heat at the electrode. See
166 o@ Weldin g Skills
Figure 16-5. The term DCEN replaces the term straight polarity. The term DCEP replaces the term reverse polarity.
To p reve nt confus ion ab out termina l con nect ions on the weldin g machine when using DC curr en t, remembe r the abbreviat ions for tw o words, se nator (SEN-Straight Electrode Negativ e) and representati ve (REP-Reverse Electrode Positive).
WELDING MACHINE
ELECTRON FLOW \
Vi6" ELECTRODE
....l.+
Figure 16-5. With DCEN, electron flow from the electrode to the workpiece creates more heat at the workpiece. With DeEp, electron flow from the workpiece to the electrode creates more heat at the ele ctrode.
GAS ION
+
I
FLOW
~ \.:!:J
1#rt-;
G
~ILEC TRON
c~
o
E L E CT RO N
FLOW
HEAT CREATED
AT WORKPIECE
~LOW
DeEN
HEAT CREATED AT ELECTRODE
FLOW ~
GAS ION ~
FLOW
r,.,
r ~,L ECTRON
LOW
'.:!:J
o~ o
E L ECT R O N
FLOW
DeEP
Direct Current Electrode Negative (DCEN). Most ferrous metals are welded using direct current electrode negative (DCEN). Nonferrous metals, except aluminum and magnesium, can als o be welded with DCEN. DCEN is used for weld ing most metal s because it pro duces deep penetration into the metal. When the welding machine is set for DCEN, electron flow is from the electrode to the workpiece, creating con siderable conc en trated heat in the workpiece. Additionally, welding is more rapid, there is less distortion of the base metal, and the weld pool is deeper and narrower than with DCEP. Since more heat is directed at the workpiece, smaller diameter electrodes can be used.
Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP). When the welding machine is se t for direct c urr e nt el e ctrode posit ive (DCEP), the flow of elect rons is from the workpiece to the e lectrode, causing a greater concentration of heat at the electrode. The int en se heat at the electrode with DCEP requires a larger diamete r electrode than DCEN . Fo r example, a 1/ 16" di am eter tungst en electro de normally can co nduct approximately 125 A in a DC EN ci rcu it. However, if DCEP is used with 125 A, th e tip of th e electrode melts off. When welding using DCEP, a v." diameter electrode is required to conduct 125 A of welding current.
.=
i n the GTAW pro cess, DCEN is used [or welding most ferrous metals be -
cause it produces
deep penetrationinto the metal.
GTAW-Equipment @o 167
crAW
The typ e of DC current use d for welding affects the shape of the weld. DC EN results in a narrow, deep penetrating we ld whereas DCE P res ults in a wide a nd sha llow pen etratin g we ld. See Figurc 16-6. For this rea son DCEP is rare ly used in GTAW except in specia l aluminum and magnesium application s. Aluminum and magnesium form an ox ide layer when exposed to the atmosphere. The oxide layer that forms on aluminum has a much higher melting poi nt than the a lu minum to be weld ed and mus t be rem oved before welding can begin. The oxide layer can be removed with a chemical cleaner, by filing, or with a wire brush. DCEP has a cleaning action that more readily removes the oxi de layer. The positive charged ions flowin g from the electro de to th e workpiece strike th e workpiece with enough force to break up the oxide layer.
FiJ:UIT 16-6. The type of DC currelit affects Ihl' .{Iwt,e of IIU' weld. lJCE N pr oduces (I /la rrow, deep weld whereas DCEP [arms tI wide and shallow weld.
OXIDE LAYER
L..--'-....". . . .""""--~ +
DCEN PRODUCES DEEP PENETRATION THROUGH CONCENTRATED HEAT DEEP PENETRATION-NARROW WELD
DCEN
. 1
~..
..;
SHALLOW PENETRATION-WIDE WELD
DCEP
168 l' W"'ding
suus
controls for shielding gas and cooling water flow. GTAW equipment typically includes a torch, a tungsten electrode, and shielding gas. See Figure 16-8.
Torch
A GTAW torch is designed to hold the tungsten electrode, direct the shielding gas to the weld, and allow easy positioning of the torch. Torches can be either air-cooled or water-cooled. Air-cooled torches are designed for welding at low operator duty cycles on light-gauge metals when low current value s are used . Air-cooled torches are generally used for welding up to 200 A. A water -cooled torch uses a stream of water circulating around the torch to prevent overheating. A water c irculator on water-cooled torches pro vide s the flow of cooling water to and from the torch to maintain a safe torch operating temperature . The water cir culator consists of a tank, pump, feed supply line , and return line. The flow rate of cooling water required de pends on the welding operation . Torch manufacturers provide recommended settings for s hie ld ing gas flow and cool ing water flow . Water-cooled torches are recommended when welding requires currents over 200 A. Welding cables conduct welding current and direct the shielding ga s to the torch. The welding cable on a water-cooled torch also tran sports cooling water. A control switch controls the flow of both cur rent and shielding ga s. A timer that maintains gas flow after the weld current is stopped (postflow) is used to protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination . Dependin g on the equipment, control of current and shielding ga s is controlled by finger, hand , or foot. By gradually d ecrea sing the c ur re nt , it is possible to fill the crater and control heat more effectively.
Figure 16-7. A cons tant-currellt welding machine maint ains a nearly cons tant current flow during welding .
Inverter welding machines have a faster reaction time than transformer! rectifier constant-current welding machines because there are no transformers or inductors in the inverter to slow reaction time. Constant-current weld ing machines operate at 50 hertz (Hz) or 60 Hz, requiring one or two cycles to react.
GTAW EQUIPMENT
To make a quality weld, the proper GTAW equipment must be used. A tungsten electrode directs the arc es tabli shed between the welding machine and the workpiece. When GTAW is properly performed, the tungsten electrode does not melt. The workpiece at the arc melts , forming a molten weld pool. Shielding gas, usually argon, protects the weld area against contamination from nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere . The GTAW process can be used to weld with or without filler metal. Thick metals typically require that filler metal be added to fill the joint. Normally, filler metal is not required for thin metals; however, filler metal may be added to thin metals when joint reinforcement is required. GTAW welding machines also include
A water-cooled torch is recommended when using currents OFer 200A. Ensure coo ling water is flowing before welding.
GTAW-Equipm enl
169
WATER CIRCULATOR
.> WORKPiECE
" , " LEAD WORKPiECE CONNECTION
r= I
.=
.~
GOo' nozzles tha t are too small fo r the welding tusk may overheat. c rack. o r deteriorate rapidly.
The tungsten electrod e that supplies the welding current is held rigidly in th e to rch by me an s of a co lle t that screws into the torch. The collet is contained within a collet body that screws into the torch body. A variety of collet sizes arc available so different diameter e lectrodes can be used . The diameter of the tun gsten e lectrode used determine s the size of the collet and collet body required . A gas nozzle is screwed into th e torch head or snapped into place. A properly sized gas no zzle should be used to ensure the correct shielding gas stream. The gas nozzle directs the shielding gas to the weld zone. See Figure 16-9.
Gas nozzle s var y in size and are interchan geabl e to accom moda te a variety of gas flow rates. The required size (orifice diameter) depends on the type and size of the torch and the diameter of the electrode. See Figure 16-10. Some gas nozzles are equipped with a gas lens to eliminate turbulence in the ga s stream. which tends to pull in air and cause weld contamination. Gas lenses hav e a perm eable barrier of concentric fine-mesh stainless steel screens that fit into the gas nozzle. See Figure 16-11.
. ..
TAIL WELD POWER
TORC H BODY
SHIELDING GAS
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
GAS NOZZ LE
AIR-COOLED
GAS NOZZLE
WATER-COOLED
Figure 16-9 . All air-cooled torch is used for weld ing liX/It-gauge metal s. A wate r-coated torch prevents overheating when welding req uires current above 200 A.
Tungsten Electrode
Electrodes used for GTAW are made of tung sten . Tungsten , which has the highest meltin g point of all metals, is virtuall y noncon sumabl e when correct welding procedures are followed. The electrode is used only to create the are, it is not consumed in the weld. See Figure 16-12. Incorrect current , diameter, e xc ess ive current , and/o r el ectrode contamination can result in meltin g or deformat ion of the tungsten electrode.
GTAW-Equipmellt ~ 171
Metal Thickness
1/16
%- %
% -7116
7116 -
Va
0/"
J2 J2
%2 or lh
'h
'I.
" In In .
lh - ;'.
1.: ( 1.'1
Fjg ure 16-11 . A 8(1.\ lens ill the nozite eliminates turbulenc e ill the .{hieldi"X gas stream.
TAIL~
WITHOUT LENS
WITH LENS
f// lIg-
electrode is use d to provide the arc for welding: it is 1/ot consumed ill the weld.
Tungs te n e lec tro de d iame ters are sized by decimal (.0 10". .020", .040") or by fract ion ( '116". 3132", 'Is ", and 5/ 32) . The di ameter of the elec trode selec te d for a weldin g operat io n is determined by the required welding c u rre nt. S ma ll- d ia me te r tun g st en electrodes may be used with low current. Lar ge- d iamete r tu ngsten e lec trodes are req uire d whe n using high current. See Appe ndix. Electrodes can be composed of pure tun gsten or alloyed tungsten . Pure tungsten electrodes are the least expensive and are identi fied with a gree n marking. Pure tungsten e lect rodes are commonly used to weld aluminum and magne sium and are designed for use with AC curr ent.
Alloyed tun gsten electrodes usually contain I % or 2% thorium or zirconium and are co mmonly used o n mild stee l and stainless stee l. One perc ent tho ria tungs ten elect rodes are identified with a ye llow marking. Two percent thori a tungsten ele ctrodes are identified with a red marking. Thori ated tungsten electrod es can g ive o ff hazardous fume s. Always ensure proper vent ilation during welding . Thoriated tungsten electrodes conduct higher currents, provide a more stable arc than a pure tungsten electrode, keep the tip cooler at a give n current le vel , minimi ze movement o f the arc around the electrode tip, permit easier arc starting, and prevent contamination of the elec trode through acc ide ntal contact with the workpiece. Thoriated tungsten elec tro des are d esi gn ed for use with DCE N. A 2 % thoria elec trode is used pri marily for critical sheet metal weldments in the aircraft and aero space indu stries. Although 2% thoria electrodes normally maintain a formed point longer than the I % type , they have little advantage ove r the 1% thoria elec trode for most stee l we lds. Electrode Shape, To produce a qual ity we ld , th e tun gsten e lectrode is pre pa re d t o th e co rrec t s h a pe . A poin te d -en d el ectrode is used with DCE N c urre nt and a he misphericaltip elec trode is used w ith AC current. See Figure 16- I3. The prepared end is
opposite to the end with the color marking to allow for future identification of the electrode . The electrode must also be kept straight to prevent the gas now from bein g off-ce nter from the arc. Stickout. Sti ck out for GTAW is th e len gth of tun gsten e lectrode th at ex tend s beyond th e e nd o f the g as nozzle. The tun gsten electrode stickout must be properly adjusted when welding with GTAW and is determined by the type of weld joint and the position of welding. Typi cally the tung sten electrode should extend \18" to 3/ 16 ' beyo nd the end of th e gas no zzl e for groo ve weld s on butt joints and 1 // ' to 0/8" for fillet welds. Current must be shut OFF when adjusting electrode stickout.
tI
.=
n it! diameter of the electrode selected fora welding operation is det ermined by
current.
Shielding Gas
The primary con sideration in any welding operation is to produ ce a weld that has the same properties as the base metal. Such a weld can only be made if the molten weld pool is completely protected from the atmosphere during the welding process. Shielding gas prevents nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere from entering and co ntam inating th e weld pool. This res ults in we lds that ar c stro nge r, more du ct ile, and more corros ion-resis tant than weld s made by mo st o ther welding processes . S ince the filler metal is not coated with nu x, tra ce s of flu x do not nced to be re movcd from the we ld.
welding conditions.
COLLET
II
til' electrode.
APPROXIMATELY
2'12 TIMES
DIAMETER OF ELECTRODE \
g~
POINTE D END HEM ISPHE RICAL-TI P
DC
AC
CTAW-Equipment ~ 17 3
Shielding gas is required before, during, and after the welding uperation. Before welding, shielding gas is directed to the weld area to displace the air in the weld area. During welding, shielding gas flow continues to protect the weld from atmospheric contamination. After welding, a postflow timer controls the time shielding gas flows after the arc is stopped to protect the weld until it is no longer subject to contamination. Shielding gases used for GTAW are inert gases such as argon or hel ium , or a mixture of argon and helium. See
Figure 16-14. An inert gas is a gas that does not read ily combine with other elements. T he type and amo unt of shielding gas used is determ ined by current, type of weld , base metal, and welding condition s. Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas. Argon is heavier than air, which facilitates efficient coverage of the weld area so less gas is required, which makes it more economical than helium . Argon gas is easier to control in drafty conditions and it is eas ier to establish an arc at lower current setting.
Argon Aluminum Manual Welding Helium Machine Welding Magn esium To V16" Over V16" To Va" Over Va" Mild Stee l Spot Welding Argon-Helium Manual Welding Argon Argon Arqon-Heliurn Argo n-Helium Helium Argon Argon Argon Argon
Better arc starting, cleaning action , and weld quality; lower gas consumption Higher welding speed possible Better weld quality, lower gas flow than required with straight helium Controlled penet ration Excellent cleaning, ease of manipulation, low ga s flow Ease of manipulation, freedom from overheating Produces high quality welds Generally preferred for longer electrode life Better weld nugget contour Ease of starting, lower gas flow Helium addition improves penetration on heavy-gauge metal Better weld pool control, especially for position welding Permits controlled penetration on light-gauge material (up to 14 gauge)
Machine Welding
Higher heat input, high er welding speed possible on heavier gauge metal f----,----,-,----,-----+=-""='--".:=c.::..::=-- ,-----,--------,------,---,-----,----- - ,---------J Argon-Hydrogen Prevents undercutting, produces desirable weld contour at low (95%-5 %) current level, requires less gas flow Helium Argon Argon-Helium Helium Provides highest heat input and deepe st penetration Ease in controlling weld pool , and ensuring adequate penetration and bead contour on light-gauge metal Higher heat input to offset high heat conductivity of heavier gauges Highest heat input for high welding speed on heavy metal sections Low gas flow rate minimiz es turbul ence and air contamination of weld; improved metal transfer ; improved HAZ Better penetration for manual welding of thick sections (inert gas backing required to shield back of weld against contamination) Reduces cracking tendency on cooling ("hot shortness") Less penetration of base metal
Tit anium
Arg on Helium
Argon Argon
Figure 16- 14. Arwm or a mixture of argon-helium may be used as shielding gases for CTAW
Argon is supplied in steel cylinders containing approximately 330 cu ft at a pres sure of 2000 psi . A single- or two-stage pre ssure regulator or a specially designed regulator containing a flowmeter is used to control the gas flow. The flowmeter is calibrated to show the flow of gas in either cubic feet per hour (cfh) or liters per minute (lpm). The flow of argon to the torch is controlled by turning the adjusting screw on the flowmeter. See Figure 16-15. The rate of flow required depends on the weld appl icat ion . A s th e adjusting screw is turned counterclockwise, the gas flow increases and raises a visible stainless steel ball. The flow rate scale on the flowmeter is properly read at the bottom of the ball.
input, a mixture of argon and helium may be used. Different percentages of argon and helium are used to obtain required penetration at the lowest cost.
When welding austenitic stainless steel using GTAl, hydrogen can be added to the shielding gas to reduce oxide [ormation. Nitrogen can be adde d to the shielding gas to increase mechanical properties and reduce pitting in supe r-austenitic and dup lex stainless steels.
samecomposition as
the base metal.
Figure 16-15. A pressure reg ulator and flowmeter control the flow of shielding gas to the torch.
Straig ht helium is les s commonly used as a shielding gas bec ause of its higher cost compared to argon. Establishing an arc with helium is also more difficult than with argon. Hel ium produces deeper weld pen etration, but is lighter than air, requiring more gas to be used for adequate shie lding. When welding metal that requires a higher heat
GTAW-Equipment ~ 175
I . A welding machine originally desi gned for use with SMAW must be derated to prote ct it from the effects of internal heati ng that occurs during GTAW. Deratin g is only necessary when using AC GTAW. 2. ACHF provides a combination of the penetrating qualities of DCEN and the cleaning action of DCEP. 3. In the GTAW process, DCEN is used for weld ing most ferrou s metals because it produces deep penetration into the metal. 4 . DCEP is rarely used in GTAW except in special aluminum and magnesium applications. 5 . A water-co oled tor ch is recommended when using currents over 200 A. Ensure coo ling water is flowing before welding. 6 . Gas nozzle s that are too small for the welding task may overheat, crack, or deteriorate rap idly. 7. The diame ter of the electrode selected for a welding operation is determined by the required weld ing current. 8. Before starting to weld, ensure that the tungsten electrode has the proper stickout beyond the end of the gas nozzle. 9 . The type and amount of shielding gas used is determined by current, type of weld , base metal , and we lding conditions. 10. Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas, and is regulated by a flowmeter. I I. If filler metal is to be used, it must be of the same composition as the base metal.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12.
In GTAW. what type of weldin g machines may be used? Why should an AC welding machine be of the high-frequency type? What polarity is commonly used in GTAW? When DCEP or DCEN current is used in GTAW, what results can be expected with respect to heat distribution ? What determines whether an air-cooled or water-cooled torch is used ? What precauti on(s) should be observed when using a water-cooled torch? Why is it important to use the correct size gas nozzle? What determines the size of the tungsten electrode to be used for welding? What is the recomm ended shape of the tungsten electrode for DC and AC weld ing? What is the function of a flowmeter in a gas regulator assembl y? When using filler metal, how should it be manipulated? When is filler metal used in GTAW?
;..
GTAW can be performed in all pos itions and produces a minimum of weld "flatter. Weld "flatter is greatly reduced or eliminated because no metal passes through the arc. Since GTAW produces a smooth weld surface and little or no metal fini shing is required, there can be a sav ings in production cost. In addition, there is less distortion (if the metal near the weld. However. production cost savings may be offset by lo w productivity and training fo r the additional skills necessary to perform GTAW.
GTAW CONSIDERATIONS
GTAW proc edures must co nside r the base metal, weld joint, weld type, and welding position . Adjustm ents required for GTAW operations include selecting cur rent typ e and level , se lec ting the tun gsten e lectrode , adju sting eoo lingwater flow, selecting the shielding gas, adju sting shielding gas flow rate, and adj usting electrode extension. GTAW can be applied by four basic proce sse s: manual, se miauto matic . mech ani zed , and auto matic. In the man ual process, the operatio n is done by hand. GTAW, similar to OFW, can be performed in either forehand or backhand direction. In the semiautomatic process, the operator controls the speed and direction of travel, while the tiller metal is automatically fed into the weld pool.
In the me ch a nized process , the fi lle r met al fee d, we ld s ize , we ld length, rate of travel, and starting and stopping are controlled by equipment under the ob servation and contro l of the we ld ing o perator. Th e automatic process performs all we lding o pe ratio ns w itho ut co nstant ob servation and adj ustment of the contro ls by an op er ator. In GTAW welding, a shield of inert gas displaces air from the welding area to prevent oxidatiun of the filler metal, weld pool , and surro und ing HAZ , When GTAW is properl y performed. a smooth appearance is prod uced. Since the shie ld ing gas a rou nd th e ar c is tran sparent, a we lder ca n cle arl y observe the weld as it is being made, Addition ally, the completed weld is clean a nd free of th e defect s ofte n e ncou ntere d in SM AW.
.=
AlVS A5. /2/A 5. / 2M, Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten A lloy Electrodes
Joint Preparation
Regardless of the typ e of joint used , proper cleaning of the metal is esse ntial. All oxid at ion , sca le, oil, grea se, dirt, and other fore ign matter must be removed by phy sica l or c hemica l
mean s since there are no flu xi ng
177
agent s a s with SMAW to eliminate contami nants. Ideal j oint preparation is obtained using c utt ing tools suc h a s a lathe for round o r cylindrica l joints or a mi llin g machine for longitudinal preparation s . Probl ems that a rise during GTAW are th e re sult of using improper jo int pr ep aration methods. Man y of the se problems are the direct result of improper grind ing of th e metal.
Grinding wheels designed for specific met al types sho uld be used to e nsure proper me tal preparation prior to welding . Micro-sized abrasive particles can permeate soft metals such as alum inum, and unless rem oved, result in excessive porosity. Grinding wheels must be thoroughly cl eaned before each use . Joint de sign s used with GTAW include the butt joint, lap joint, T-joint, comer joint, and edge joint. See Figure 17-1.
Fteure 17-1. Joint de siens used wilh GTAW include the but t joint, lap joint, Tzjoint, comer joint, and edge j O;II1.
. '_ . _.
Square
\ 6 0 ')
Open
LJ
ROOT FAC E l;8 '" TO W'
Single-V
ROOT FACE
1
rI
(6 0 '/
Ctosed
'( 60~~
Double-V
- 50~
ROOT FACE
_I
T
BUTT
APPROX W'
Beveled
LAP
CORNER
T -JOIN T
178 ~ Welding Skills
EDGE
Butt .Joints. For thin metals, the square butt joint is the easiest to prepare and can be welded with or without filler metal. If the weld is to be made without filler metal, extreme care must be taken to prevent melt-through. To ens ure complete joint penetration, the single-V butt joint is used on metal ranging in thickness from 3/s" to \/2". The groove angle of the joint root should be approximately 60, with a root face of about 'Is" to '/l'. When the thickness of the metal exceeds Yz" and the joint design is such that the weld can be made on both sides, a doubl e-V butt joint is used . With a doubl e-V butt joint th er e is gre ater ass urance of complete penetration of the weld. Lap .Joints. The only spec ial requirement for making a good lap weld is to have the pieces in close contact along the entire length of the joint. The weld ca n be made with or without filler metal. As a rule , a lap joint is not rccommended for mat erial more than '/4" thick T-.Joints. Filler metal must be used to weld T-joints regardl ess of the thickness of the metal. Generally, the weld should be mad e on both sides of the T-joint. The number of passes required depends on the thickness of the metal and the size of the weld to be made. Corner .Joints. When welding a corner j oint on thin met al s up to 'Is" thick , no filler metal is required. With thi ck metal s, filler metal should be used. If the metal ex cee ds 'll', one edge of the joint should be beveled. The number of passe s required for a co rner joint dep end s on th e size of the groove an gl e a nd th e thi ckne ss of the metal. Edge .Joints. An edge joint is suitable only on very light metal. No filler metal is needed to weld an edge joint. Edge jo ints are used to join parallel or nearly parallel workpi eces,
Weld Backing
Many welding jobs require the use of so me s uita b le backin g . On li ght ga uge me tals, backing bars are used to pr event me lt-thro ugh and pro tect the underside of the weld from atmosph eric c o nta m inatio n. On thi c k metal, backin g bars draw some of the heat generated by the intense arc away from the weld . The type of metal used as a backing bar depends on the metal to be welded . Copper bars are suitable for sta inless steel. When welding alumi num or magn esium, stee l or stainless s tee l backin g bars a re needed . A backing bar should be positioned so it does not touch the weld zone. See Figure 17- 2.
re::::: ~
.=
Whell welding light. gauge metals . backing bars can be "sed to preventmelt-through,
Figure 17-2. A backillK bar should be positioned so that it does 110 1 touch the weld zone.
i
L WELD ZONE
I,
BACKING BAR / WITH RECESS
Many weld backings are consumed into the weld. Weld backing should be composed of the same material as the base metal.
When welding using the GTAW process, copper is commonly used as a backing ma terial becau se it does not fus e to thin metals. Copper also provides fast cooling. which helps 10 contro l heat input.
GlAW PROCEDURES
The GTAW procedure is similar to the OFW procedu re. Th e torch is manipulated to distribute the heat evenly in the weld area. Filler metal. if required, is add ed to the we ld pool with an in-and-out motion. The travel angle used depends on the size and type of metal welded. When welding with ACHF current, the electrode must not touch the weld pool a, the electrode could become con taminated. Before start ing to weld w ith GTAW, fo llow the procedure: I . Check all electrical circuit connections to make sure they arc tight. 2 . Check for the proper electrode diameter and gas nozzle size. (Follow manufacturer recommendations.)
3 . Adjust for the proper electrode exten sion. Stickout of the electrode should be 1/ 8" to 3/ 16" beyond the end of the gas nozzle for a butt j oint , \4" to 3fs" for a T-joint, and l/ S" for a come r joint. See Figure 17- 3 . 4 . Chec k the elec trode to be ce rtain that it is firm ly held in the co llet. If the electrode is loose, tighten the collet holder or gas nozzle. Do not overtight en as ove rtightening can strip the threads . 5 . Set the we ldi ng machine fo r the correct current. See Appendi x. 6 . If a wat er- cool ed torch is to be used , turn the water ON . 7 . Set the inert gas to the correct flow. Set the postflow timer.
ELECTRODE EXTENSION
STICKOUT
t
BUTT JOINT T-JOINT CORNER JO INT
Ftaure 17-3. Adjust the electrode extension 10 ensure the prof'a stickout [o r the particular j oint being welded.
the arc. The electrod e should not touch the workp iece to start the arc. Rapidl y make the downward mot ion to begin we ld ing to provid e th e ma ximum amount of gas prot ecti on to the weld zone. Many DC welding machines have a high-frequency start feature. If so, strike the arc in the manner de scribed for ACHF. To stop the arc during welding, swing the electrode back to the horizontal position without touching the weld area . Some machines are equipped with a foot pedal to permit a gradual decrea se of current for filling the crater completely and preventing crater cracks. Welding Butt Joints. Preheat the starting point of the weld by moving the torch in small circles to develop a weld pool. As soon as the we ld po ol becomes fl uid . mov e the tor ch s lo wly and steadily along the joint to deposit a uniform bead. See Figure 17-5. To add filler metal to a butt joint, follow the procedure: I. With the arc at the rear of the weld pool . add filler metal to the leading edge of the weld pool while maint ainin g a 150 push angle between the filler metal and the surface of the work. 2. Remo ve the filler metal from the weld area. 3 . Advance the torch to the leading edge of the weld pool. Repeat this sequence for the entire length of the seam . Welding Lap Joints or T-Joints. To weld a lap j oint , the workpieces must be in close contact. On metal V4" thick or less. the weld can be made with or without tiller metal. Lap joints are typically not used for metal more than Yi' thick. Fill er metal is required wh en welding T-j oint s, regardl ess o f th e thickn ess of the metal. To begin welding, fonn a weld pool o n th e bott om workpiece . A fte r the weld pool is formed. shorten the arc to
GTAIV - Procedures ~ 181
A CAUTION
If usi ng a water-cooled torch . do nOI allow it to contac t the workpi ece wh en the current is ON . Hot welding sases may cause the arc to ju mp from the electrode to the ga s nozz le instead of In the workpi ece.
When starting an arc using DC current, the electrode is lowered until it touches the plate.
- - -.
Whe n sta rting the arc using AC. angle lorch so electrode is lAINabove workp iece. Current will jump gap and establish an arc.
Figure 17-4. WI,ell starting WI lire. the proper a rc length mu st ht.. maintained to produ ce a qualify weld.
_ 0 "-' - _ .
_
~
CD
ADD FILLER METAL
A D D FI LL E R
METAL
I,,
Figure 17-6. Ad vance the torch so that the notch ill tilt' wel d head continues 10 fo rm ah ead of the
torch.
about V16", then rotate the torch directly over the joi nt until the workpieces are jo ined. After welding is started, no further torch rotat ion is necessary. Move the torch along the joi nt with the end of the filler metal ju st above the edge of the top workpiece . When welding a lap j oint, the weld pool forms a V shape . Inside the weld pool a notch is formed. The speed at which this notch progresses determines how fast the torch should be moved. Do not adva nce the torch ahead of the notch . The notch must be completely filled for the entire length of the joint; otherwise, incomplete fusion and penetration of the weld results. See Figure 17-6. Dip the end of the filler metal in and out of the weld pool abo ut every 1 14" of tr ave l. Avoid depositing filler metal on co ld, unm olten base met al. Addi ng a co nsiste nt amo unt of filler meta l ensures that a uniform bead is pro duced .
CD
...' --- DIRECTI ON OF WELDING NOTCH FORMED AHEAD OFTORCH DIP FILLER METALINTO WELD POOL
'- MOVE FILLER METAL IN AND OUT RAPIDLY ABOUT EVERY OF TRAVEL
v.-
Ftgu ..e 178. The p rop er angle s must be maintained when performing downhill and uphill welding.
DIRECTION1 OF WELDING
FILLER METAL
DOWNHILL
Using CTAW
on
downhill thin
--Figure 17-7. Dip the filler metal into the high side at the front of the weld pool when welding a horizontal butt joint.
DIRECTION OF WELDING
t A
UPHILL
30 '
.~
TORCH
While the filler metal is dipped into the weld pool, withdraw the torch slightly to allow the molten metal to solidify, which prevents the weld pool from sagging . Arc length should be approximately the same size as the filler metal diameter.
15' V
FILLER METAL
~WORK ANGLE
When using GTAW in overh ead position . reduce thecurrent5% to J0% from what is used for flat position.
GTAW - Procedures
~ 183
Dip the filler metal in and out of the weld pool as in ot her we ld ing positio ns. A small we ld bead is adv isable s ince it is less affected by gra vity. If th e weld pool ge ts too lar ge, it wi ll drop out of the joint and compl ete penetra tion cannot occur.
CONTINUOUS SEAM
TOP VIEW
SECTION VIEW
Figure 17-10. The pulsed GTAW p rocess p roduces overtopping spot welds that form a continuous seam.
When the current switches to a low level, the welds are allowed to cool and partiall y solidify between deposition of eac h spot weld . The welding co ntrols are set so the spot welds overlap to produce a co ntinuo us weld. Pulsed GTAW can be manual or automatic and can be used with or without fi lle r met al. T he process ca n be used for we ldi ng ve ry thin met al s where critical cont rol of metallurgical factors is necessary. A pul sed cur rent permits mo re tolerance of cdge mi salignment, grea ter variations in backing bar use and fixturing, bett er root penetr ation , and less distortion. With other we ld ing tec hni q ues, a change in current or travel speed must be mad e w he n cha ng ing po siti on s around curved edges to ensure uniform weld appearancc. Pul sed GTAW is more flexibl e when used in different welding position s and, when we lding curved seams or pipes, allows continuous we lding without having to vary trave l speed, vo ltage , or cu rrent.
I . GTAW ca n be used for joining man y metals and alloys in various th icknesses and types of j oint s. 2 . When we lding light -gau ge me tals. backing bar s ca n be used to preven t melt -th rou gh . 3. When using a wa ter-cooled torch , e nsure that the water is O N before wel di ng . 4. Usin g downhill GTAW on thin metal produces an adequate weld with no melt -th rou gh . 5. Dip the fill er metal into the high side at the front edg e o f the weld pool when weld ing a hori zontal bu tt joint. 6 . When using GTAW in overhead position. redu ce the current 5% to 10% from what is used for flat position.
~ Exe rc ises
Depositing Beads on Mild Steel in Flat Position
~ -I
90 '
exercise
I . Obtain a 3/32", 1% thoriatcd tun gsten electrode and prepare a pointcd tip . 2 . Insert the electrode in the torch and adj ust the stickout 'Is" to 3A6" beyond the end of the gas nozzle.
J
Z 12 GAUGE MILD STEEL
WORK ANGLE
DIRECTION OF WELDING
PUSH ANGLE
9 . Positi on the torc h at a 45 wo rk angle with the elect rode 'Is" from thc wor kpiece. 10 . Once the arc is started. raise the torch to a 90 work angle and a 20 push ang le. II . Maintain the arc size wi th a we ld pool a pproxima te ly '18" wid e. For m a co nsiste nt bead across th e work piece. 12. Deposit a se ries of stra ight, co ns istent beads on the workpiece approximatel y 3jg" apa rt.
GTAW - Procedures ~ 185
exercise
I. Complete equip ment se tup and adj ust me nt as in Exerc ise I. 2. Obtain a piece of 12 gauge mild steel, 4" wide and 6" long. 3. Position the workpiece in flat position. 4 . Obtain the recommended filler metal for mild steel. 5. Position the torch at a 45 work angle with the electrode 1/ 8 " from the workpiece. 6. Once the arc is started, establish a weld pool and raise the torch to a 90 work angle and a 20 push angle. Using an in-and-out motion, dip the filler metal into the leading edge of the weld pool. Do not touch the filler metal to the tungsten electrode. 7. Use a small circular motion with the torch. Form a consistent bead, approximately 3/16" wide, and maintain across the workp iece. 8. Deposit a series of straight, consistent beads approximately o/'s" apart.
~-I
eXerCiSe
I. Complete eq uipme nt set up and adjustmen t as in Exerc ise I. 2. Obtain two pieces of 12 gauge mild steel, Ph" wide and 6" long. 3 . Form a butt joint with no root opening, and tack together. 4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position. 5. Obtain the recommended filler metal for mild steel. 6 . Position the torch at a 45 work angle with the electrode 1/ 8" from the workpiece.
90'
WORK ANGLE
DIRECTION OF WELDING
PUSH ANGLE
exercise
7. Once the arc is started, establish a weld pool and raise the torch to a 90 work angle and a 20 push angle . Using an in-and-out motion, dip the filler metal into the leading edge of the weld pool. Do not touch the filler metal to the tungsten electrode. 8 . Use a small circular motion with the torch. Form a consiste nt bead, approximately 0/16" wide, and deposit the bead across the workpiece, using the weld joint as the center of the weld . 9 . The resulting weld should have complete penetration with a 0/,6" bead width .
exercise
I. Complete equipment setup a nd adjustment as in Exercise I. 2. Obtain two pieces of 12 gauge mild steel, Ph " wide and 6" long. 3. Form a lap join t and tack together. 4. Po sition the workpiece so th e weld joint is in hori zontal po sition. 5 . Obtain the recommended filler metal for mild steel. 6. Hold the torch at an 80 0 to 850 work angle and a JS" to 20 0 push ang le. Position the filler metal at a 20 0 angle . 7. Melt the top edge of the workpiece and add filler metal using an in-and-out motion to the leading edge of the weld pool. 8. Maintain a con sistent bead across the workpiece.
20'
80 '-85'
/'
L~=r==
WORK ANGLE
DIRECTIO N OF WELDING
PUSH ANGLE
exerCise
I . Comp lete eq uipment setup and adj ustment as in Exercise I. 2. Obtain two pieces of 12 gauge mild steel, 2" wide and 6" long. 3 . Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 ang le and tack toge ther. 4 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal position. 5. Obta in the recommended filler metal for mild steel. 6 . Hold the torc h at a 45 work angle and a 15 push angle. Position the filler metal at a 20 angle fro m the bottom plate. 7. Establish a weld pool. Weave the torch slightly and, usi ng an in-a nd-out motio n, add filler meta l to the leading edge of the weld pool. 8 . Avo id excessive heat buil du p on the vertical workpiece.
20'
WORK ANGLE
PUSHANGLE \
,------------+-,nt
15 "
'
DIRECTION OF WELDING
PUSH ANGLE
exerCise
I . Complete equipme nt setup and adjustme nt as in Exerc ise I. 2. Obtain two pieces of 12 gauge mild steel, 2" wide and 6" long . 3. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 ang le and tack together. 4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in vertica l posi tion . 5 . Ob tain the recommended filler metal for mild steel. 6. Weld uphill. Start at the bottom of the joint. Hold the torch at a 45 work angle and a 20 push angle. Position the filler metal at a 20 angle, cente red on the joint. Use an in-and-out motion and add filler metal to the leading edge of the weld pool.
DIRECTION OF WELDING
188
WeidillN Skills
exe r C i s e .
1. Obtain a % 2" , pure tungsten electro de a nd in sert the elec tro de in the to rch . Adj us t the sticko ut Vs" to 31ts" beyond the end of the gas nozzle and prepare a spherical tip. To shape the tip, set the weldin g machine to DCEP. Position the torch at a 90 angle and strike an arc on a piece of co pper. A small ball will form on the e nd of the electrode . 2 . Set the we lding machine output to AC. High frequency should be set for continuo us. Weld current remote and contactor control should be ON. 3 . Set the shield ing gas (argon) 10 20 cfm with a postflow time of 15 sec . 4. Set the currenl at 140 A to 150 A. 5 . Obtain a piece o f Vs" aluminum, 4" wide and 6" long. 6 . Clean the aluminum with a clean stainless steel wire bru sh . 7 . Positi on the work piece in flat position . S. Start the we lding arc , us ing the foot control to vary the curre nt. 9 . Hold the lorch at a 90 work a ngle and a 20 push angle. 10 . Melt the aluminum to form a 1 /.' wid e bead weld pool. Use an in-and -out motion and add filler metal to the leading edge of the we ld pool. A slight weaving motion can be used . I I . Fill the crat er at the end of the weld by reducing current with the foot cont rol and cont inuing to add filler metal. 12 . Deposit a se ries of straight, cons iste nt beads on the workpiece appro ximately 'Ya" apart.
eo
e xercise
I . Complete equipme nt setup and adj ustme nt as in Exercise 7. 2 . Obtain six pieces of V s" aluminum. 3. Positi on the aluminum in flat positi on . 4 . Use the procedures for welding mild steel to co mplete a butt jo int, a lap joint, and a T-joi nt on alum inum .
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
What does GTAW stand for? What are some of the advantages of GTAW compared to other weldin g processes? How is the arc started and stopped in GTAW? What is the proper torch angle for welding a butt jo int? What is hot wire weldin g? How are welds produced by the pulsed GTAW process? What kind of meta l(s) can be welded with the GTAW process? Why is joint cleanlin ess more important with GTAW compared to SMAW?
GTAW is used where accurate control ofweld penetration and weld purity are critical, and deposited weld metal must be free of spatte r; allowing metal finishing without cleaning or extensive preparation. Common applications of welding using GTAWare on aluminum, stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, nUignesium. carbon steels, and other metals that cannot be welded satisfactorily using other welding processes. The GTAW welding technique for metals such as aluminum, stainless steel, copper, magnesium, and carbon steel is virtually the some for each Ope of metal. In general, these metals can be welded with GTAW more easily and with better results than by OAW or SMAW. Filler metal used fo r oxyacetylene welding is not suitable fo r use with GTAW. GTAW is commonly used for joining metals in the aerospace and aircraft industries. The low heat input of GTAW permits welding on very thin metal with minimal distortion and/or alteration of base metal properties. GTAW is also used when welding pressure vessels and critical piping systems, such as systems in nuclear power plants, because of its weld penetration and purity.
ALUMINUM
Alu minum is a nonferrou s metal , which means that it contains no iron. Man y type s of pure and alloyed aluminums are available and each has spec ific properti es for spec ific end uses. With advan cement s and improvements in weldin g equipment , weldin g of aluminum has become a more common joining process used in industry. Nonheat-treatable wrou ght aluminum alloys in th e 1000 , 3000 , and 5000 ser ies a re readil y weldabl e . Heat-treatable alloys in the 2000, 6000, a nd 7000 series ca n be welded , but higher welding temperatures and welding speeds are required. Weld cracking in a lloys can be e liminated by using filler metal that has a higher alloy content than that of the base metal.
Welding can be performed in an y position ; however, welding is easier and the qualit y of the completed weld is increased if weldin g is done in flat position. Copper backing bar s should be used whenever possible to minimize di stortion, espec ia lly on light-gau ge metal '/8 " thick or less. In most cases, the torch should be moved in a straight line without a weaving motion . Best results are obtained by using ACHF current with argon as a shielding gas. Welding parameters such as current, electrode diameter, argo n flow rat e. and filler metal diameter. should be set based on the thickness of the aluminum. See Figure 18-1.
1."= I
.=
011
aluminum. nm
arc on a scrap of metal after a long shutdown (overnight) 10 clea r condensetionfrom the shieldinggas lines.
191
GTAW-ALUMINUM
AC currentt Horizontal & Vertical 60 - 80 55- 75 60 - 80 70 - 90 115 -1 35 125 - 145 115 -1 35 115 -1 35 160 - 180 160 - 180 160 - 180 160 - 180 210 - 230 210 - 230 210-230 210 - 230 Overhead
60 - 80 60- 80 60 - 80 70 - 90 120 -1 40 120 - 130 120 - 130 120 - 130 160 - 170 160 - 170 160 - 170 160 - 170 200- 220 200- 220 200 - 220 200 - 220
-cfh
15 - 20 15 -20 15 -20 15 - 20 17-20 17 -20 17- 20 17 - 20 20 20 20 20 25 25 25 25
Ipm
7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 10 10 10 10 12 12 12 12
V,6
Butt Lap
Corner Fillet
Ii>
Butt Lap
Corner Fillet
"
Butt Lap
Corner Fillet
V.
in in.
t amps
I 20
Butt Lap
Corner Fillet
psi (in ioehes per minut e (ipm) or cubic !eel per hour (cfh)]
Figure Ill-I. Weldi" g parameters .{J IlI,,!d be Jet based on aluminum thickness.
STAINLESS STEEL
Stainless stee ls, especially those in the 300 series, are easy to weld with GTAW Eithe r DCEN or AC HF ca n be used. GTAW is part icu la rly adaptable fo r welding light-gau ge stainless steel and high -pressure stain less steel piping. The procedure for welding all types of stainless steels is the sa me . Fill er metals for welding sta inless stee ls are alloye d to prevent crack ing prob lems . When we ldi ng without filler metals, care must be taken to prevent cracking. T he dan ger of cracking is reduced if the metal is preheated to a temperature of 300F ( 148 C) to SOOF (2600C) . Welding parameters such as proper current, electrode diameter, argon now rate, and filler metal diameter, should be set based on the thickne ss of the stainless steel. See Figure 18-2.
for we ldi ng the se meta ls. However, ACHF or DCEP is often recommended for ber yllium copper or for cop per alloys less than .040" thick. Metal more <" thick should be preheated to tha n V approx imate ly 3()()OF (148C) to S()()OF (260C) prior to we lding . A forehand welding technique usually produce s the best results. Weldi ng parameters such as prop er current , electrode diam eter, argon now rate, and filler metal diameter, should be set based on the thickness of the copper or copper alloy. See Figure 18-3 and Figure 18-4. A high-veloci ty ventilating sys tem should be used whe o welding co pper or copper alloys. The fumes from these
metals are toxic.
MAGNESIUM
Th e welding characteristics of magne s ium are co mparab le to th o se of al um i num . Bo t h ha ve hi gh he at co nduct ivity, low melting point , high therma l ex pa nsion , a nd rapid oxi dizatio n. With GTAW, several current var iation s arc po ssible . Using DCEP with helium as a shiel di ng gas pro duces wide weld deposits, higher heat, a large HAZ, and shallow penetration.
GTAW-STAINLESS STEEL
Metal Thickness' Joint Type AC Current! Flat
80 -100 100 -1 20 80 -100 90- 110 100 - 120 110 - 130 100 - 120 110 -130 120 - 140 130 - 150 120 - 140 130 - 150 200 - 250 225- 275 200- 250 225- 275 275- 350 300- 375 275 - 350 300 - 375
Overhead
70- 90 80 - 100 70- 90 80 - 100 90 - 110 100 - 120 90 - 110 100- 120 105 - 125 120 - 140 115 -1 35 120 - 140 150 - 200 175 - 225 150 - 200 175 - 225 200- 250 22 5- 275 200 - 250 225 - 275
Electrode' Diameter
VI6
Vl6
V I6
cfh
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Y,6
Bu Lap
Co rner Fillet
1fJ6
V I6
Y 16
Y16
V I6
1fl6
Vl6
Y 16
"
Bu Lap
Corner Fillet
Y16
Y 16
V.6
V'6 " " " "
iii iii iii iii
iii
Butt Lap
Co rner Fillet
0/ is
Bu Lap
Corner Fillet
V.
Bu Lap
Corne r Fillet
Va
%
0/,. 0/ ,. 0/ ,. 0/ ,.
in in. t amps f 20 psi li n inche s per minut e (ipm) or cubic feet per hour (cf h))
(/11
-GTAW-DEOXIDIZED COPPER
Metal Thickness' Joint Type DCEN! Flat Posit ion
110 -/ 40 130 - 150 110 - 140 130 -1 50 175 200175 200250 275 250 275225 250 225 250 300 325 300 325
Electrode' Diameter
V'6
Y1 6
cfh
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
lft6
Bu Lap
Co rner Fillet
V.6
1fl6
V16
V,6
1fl6
iii
Bu Lap
Corner Fillet
0/"
Bu Lap
Corner Fillet
Va
!k % % %
V.
Bu Lap
Co rner Fillet
In
In .
ta mps
t 20 psi (in inche s per minut e (/pm) or cubic feel pe r hour (clh)]
0/1
MlP--' 'l=. . .
~~ ,~
GTAW-COPPER ALLOYS
_.
V.6
Butt Lap
-~._-~:"".-,., -~ ,~ .0
100 - 120 110 -130 100 -1 30 110 - 130 130 -150 140 - 160 130 - 150 140 - 160 150 - 200 175 -225 150 - 200 175- 225 150 -200 250- 300 175 - 225 175 -225 90-110 100 -120 90 - 110 100 - 120 120 - 140 130 - 150 120 - 140 130- 150 -
--
~.,})",
"''''~:I*')-t
/'
Corner Fillet
V.
Butt Lap
Corner Fillet
..
Butt Lap
Corner Fillet
90-110 100 -120 90 - 110 100 -1 20 120 -140 130 - 150 120 - 140 130- 150 -
V,6
V 16
V'6
V 16
1116
Y1 6,%2
1;16
Y16,
6 6 6 6 7
7
.!2 %2 %2 %2
"
V.
Butt Lap
Corner Fillet
'I"
V. %2 %2
7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9
13 13 13 13 15 15 15 15 17 17 17 17 19 19 19 19
V 16
Y16
Y16
Yt6
%2 %2
"
%2 V. V. V. V.
Va , ~ 6
Ya,. 6 Vs,.6
%,.6
in in .
t amps 1 20 psi lin Inches per minute (ipm) or cubic!eet per hour(cfhl]
Figure 18-t. Welding parameters should be set bas ed on copper a /ltl)' thickness .
should be used when welding with GTAW to prev en t porosity in the weld.
Medium- and highcarbonsteels require prehea t G il d p o stheat ing 10 avoid 10.'15 of toughness and ductility.
ACHF. used with helium, argon, or a mixtu re of shielding ga ses, can join metals from approximately .20" to V. ' thick. Both DCEP and AC current provide excellent cleaning action of the base metal surface . Using DCEN with helium as a shielding ga s produces a deep pe netrating arc but no surface cleaning . DC EN with helium is used for mechanized butt welding of metal up to v." thick without beveling. Welding parameters such as proper current, e lectrode di ameter, argon flow rate , and backing requirements, should be set based on the thickness of the magnesium. See Figur e 18-5.
CARBON STEEL
Carbon steel can be welded using a variety of welding processes. GTAW can be used for welding low- and mediumcarbon and low-a lloy stee ls whe n greater protection of the weld from atmospheric contam inat ion is required. GTAW is typically limited to metals less than '!4" thick. Wh en GTAW is used on carbon stee ls wit ho ut filler
194 @o Weldi ng Skill s
metal, there may be some pitting (porosity) in the we ld. Porosity can be e lim ina ted by li ghtly bru shin g th e jo int with a mixture of aluminum powder and methyl alcohol before weld ing . When fi ller metal is used , it should cont ain deoxidi zers to prevent porosit y. Medium - and high-carbon steels are weldable, but preheat, special welding tech niq ue s, and po stheating are reo quired . Unle ss these prec autions are taken, the welded area loses toughness and ductility. GTAW is rarely used to weld highcarbon steels because the welding ternperature requ ired with GTAW tends to de stroy the mechanical properti es of th e carbon stee l. Common practice wh e n repairing broken parts mad e with high-carbon steels is to use a brazing process where the heat is not sufficient to affect metallurgical structure. Weld ing parameters suc h as proper current, electrode diameter, argon flow rate, and backing requirements, should be set based on the thickness of the carbon steel. See Figure 18-6.
.040
V'6 Y ,6
V,S
V,6
1116 1116
1 116
.064
Fillet Butt
.081
Butt, Corne r,
No backing
Backing bar No backing Backing bar No backing Backing bar No backing
Y"
6 6 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 13 13 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
1;16
V 16
Y" Y"
VVVVVVVV-
."
.10 2
Y"
." ." ." ."
VVVV-
Backing bar
No backing
.128
..
V,
1 pass
2 passes
1 pass
..
Y ..
2 pas se s
in in. t amps (non-dera ted current levels) t 15 psi lin inches per minute (ipm) or cubic feel per ho ur (cf h))
01 1
magnesium thickness.
8 - 10 8 -10 8 - 10 8 - 10
1116
t amps
t 20 psi (in inches per minute (ipm) or cubic feet per hour (cfh )]
(It!
I . When welding light-gauge meta ls, a cop per backin g bar is usuall y required. 2 . Ensure that there is goo d ventilation when welding copper or copper alloys. Fu mes of these metal s are highl y toxic. 3. Fi ller meta l contai ning deox idizers should be used whe n we lding with GTAW to preven t poros ity in the weld. 4. Medi um- and high-carbon steels require pre hea t and postheating to avo id loss of toughness and ductilit y.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
How can weld cracking in alloys be elimi nated? What preheat temperature should bc used on stainless steel to reduce the danger of cracking? What preheat temperature sho uld be used on cop per workpieces more than l/l'thick? What are some of the properti es of magnesium? What are the benefits of DeEP and ACHF when welding magnesium? What defect may occur when GTAW is used on carbon steels without filler metal?
section
fiv e
~~~~.~ -
The gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process was first used in the early 1920s to increase weld purity and production efficiency. During the early I950s, it was discovered that carbon dioxide could be used as a shielding gas. This discovery, and the development of more versatile continuous consumable wire electrodes (welding wire), increased the popularity of GMAW GMAW equipment consists of a welding gun , wire feeder, and shielding gas. Oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen adversely affect the weld, consequently they must be excluded from the weld area during welding. Inert gases , such as argon and helium, do not react readily with other elements, making them useful as shielding gases for arc welding. A GMAW weld can be applied by the semiautomatic, mechanized, or automatic processes.
for GMA W welding is DCEP. DCEP is the most efficient since the hear is concentrated at the weld pool , providing deep penetration . DCEP also provides greater surface cleaning, which is important when welding mctals that can develop an oxide layer.
A wide range of current values can
A constant-voltag e welding machine with dir ect current electrode positive is most
thicknes ses , which permits welding without having to change welding wire diameter. The correct current to use for a particular joint must often be determined by trial and error. The current selected should b c high enough to allow the desired penetration without cold lapping but low enough to prevent undercutting and melt-through . See Appendix. Once the current is selected, it will be main tained at a constant lev el.
197
DC EN sho u ld no t be used for GMAW because we ld pe netration is shallow and wide ; there is excessive spatter; a nd no surface cleani ng oc curs. DCEN is also ineffective because meta l transfer is erratic and globular. See Figure 19- 1. AC current should not be used with GMAW since burn -offs are une qua l on each hal fc ycle. Welding cu rrent has a grea t effect on the weld deposited usi ng GMAW. The welding cur rent lim its the wire feed speed to a definite range. How ever, it is poss ible to adjust the wire feed speed within the range. For a specific current setting, a high wire feed speed results in a short arc. A low wire fee d spee d contributes to a lo ng arc. A lower feed speed must be used for welding in overhead position than for
welding in flat position to prevent the weld pool from ru nn in g out of the weld area. See Appendix.
Figure 191. DCEP sho uld be u sed fo r GM AW us il provides IJeIter pene tration. DCEN results in low penetration and excessive spatter.
WELDING ~
WIRE
+ ~~ t----FINE SPRA Y
d',
d 6 66 b
i...----~6(l' tb
TRANSFER
WORK
DEEP PENETRATION
DeEP
WORK~
+ ~
LOW PENETRATION
SPATTER
SHALLOW BEAD
DeEN
198 ~ Welding Skills
There are only two basic controls on a constant-voltage welding machine: a rheostat on the welding machine to regulate the voltage, and a rheostat on the wire feeder to control the speed of the wire feed motor. There is no current control on a constant-voltage welding machine: the welding current output is determined by the wire feed speed. A constant-voltage welding ma chine is self-correcti ng with respect to arc length and provides the necessary current required by the load imposed upon it. When welding wire is fed into
the arc at a specific rate, a proportion-
25 15 10 5
t - - - ,,- - - - - - __
VOLTAGE REMAINS NEARLY CONSTANT
ate amount of current is automatically drawn. The operator can change the wire feed speed over a considerable range without affecting stubbing or bum -back of the wire. In other words, the arc length can be set on the welding machine and any variations in nozzle-to-work distance will not produce changes in the arc length. For example, if the arc length becomes shorter than the preselected value, there is an automatic increase of CUfrent and the wire speed automatically adjusts itself to maintain a constant arc length. Similarly, if the arc becomes too long, the current decreases and the welding wire feeds faster. Slope Control. Slope is the shape of the volt-amp curve on a GMAW welding machine. By altering the flat shape of the V/A current, it is possible to control the pinch force on the welding wire, which is particularly important when using short circuiting transfer. With better control of the short circuiting transfer mode, the weld pool can be kept more fluid. Slope control also helps to decrease the sudden current surge that occurs when the electrode initially contacts the workpiece. By slowing the rate of current rise, spatter can be reduced. Some older model welding machines designed for GMAW have a slope control. Newer models have either a fixed slope or a slope reactor control built in.
For
GMAW,
constant- voltage
weddin g mach ine with a nearly fl at volt-ampere cha r-
acteristic main tains a const ant, preset voltage le vel durin g welding.
100
200
CURRENT (I)
Figure 19-2. A constant-voltage welding machine has a nearly flat volt -ampere cur ve.
Many constant-voltage welding machines used for GMAW have an average, "fixed " amount of slope built into the circuit to allow for good short circuiting transfer.
GMAW - Equipment
199
preset, but the welding gun is manually operated. The welde r directs the welding gun along the weld joint, maintaining the proper st icko ut and tr a vel speed . In addi tion to a we lding machine, GMAW equipment consists of a welding gun, wire feeder, and shielding gas. See Figure 19-4. Additi onal equipment may be added to autom ate the system.
Welding Guns
A we lding gun conducts the welding wire, shielding gas, and we lding current to the weld area. For we lding to occu r, the welding gun must maintain electrical contact with the welding wire. A copper-base alloy contact tip within the welding gun con duc ts the welding current to the welding wire. Current is routed through the welding leads to the contac t tip in the we ldi ng gun. Contact tips arc availabl e with different hole sizes, depending on the diameter of the weldin g wire. The welding wire is also fed through the el ectrode lead . The welding leads should be kept as straight as possible to prevent kink ing or flattening of the wire roll guides, and to prev ent stubbing and bird nesting of he wire in the feed er. Shieldi ng gas is transported through a separate hose within the welding lead. A shielding gas conn ection and nozzle on the g un direct the shieldi ng gas to the arc and the weld pool. Cooling of the welding gun is required to prevent o verheating. Cooling is provided by the shielding gas or by water circulating through the gun, or both. The welding lead s must not become kink ed or damaged , as restri cted flow of welding wire or shielding gas may occur. Welding g un par ts include the handl e, co ntact tip , gas nozzle, and trigger. Th e hand le allows easy positioning of the gun by the operator. The contact tip conducts electricity from the welding lead to the welding wire as the welding wire leav es the we lding gun.
__
!:;
40 20
100
CURRENT (I)
150
GMAW EQUIPMENT
GMAW equipment must feed the welding wire at a pre set , controlled speed and provide shielding gas at a consistent rate throu gh the welding gun. The s hie lding ga s co mplete ly cove rs the we ld pool. A GM AW weld can be applied by the semiautomatic, mech ani zed, or autom ati c proce sse s. When se mia utomati c welding is used , the wire feed speed, powe r setting, and gas flow are
200 o WeldillN S kills
.,
FLOWMETER
,I ;~
Figure 194 . G MA W e q u ip me n t COlLI-is/.\' of (J welding machine, wi re feeder, welding 1;UII, and (I .l"hieldin1; gm s up" ly.
SHIELDING GAS
WELD ING
MACHINE ~
WELDING GUN
NDZZL E
Th e gas nozzle directs the flow of shielding gas to the weld . Ga s nozzle size and shape may vary. Welding guns are available witb curved or straig ht nozzles. See Figure 19-5. Th e trigger on the weldin g g un starts and stops welding . When the trigger is pulled , the current, shielding gas flow, and wire feed are activated. T he regulator delivers a steady prese t flow of shield ing ga s to the weld area . The flowmeter indicates the rate o f flo w (pres sure) of shie ld ing g as from the tank to the pressure required by the welding operation . The working pre ssure is c o nve rted into gas flow, which is express ed in cubic feet per hour (cfh) , The amount of shielding ga s required is determined by th e type of welding gun , weld joint, bas e metal, and conditions of the weld area .
CURVED
Mil/a Elntri" Monu}i/Cwrillg C"",I'''''Y
STRAIGHT
/lem",,1 netding E,!"i,>menl C,,"'pIlIlY
For example, welding pe rformed in windy conditions req uires more shielding gas flowi ng to the weld than weld ing perfor med in a weld shop . Semiautomatic Welding Guns. A semiautomatic we ld ing gu n a llows the welder to manually control and direct welding wire to the joint. Semiautomatic welding guns are manufactured in many shapes and sizes. Many factor s determine the correc t semiautomatic welding gun to use for a particular we ld ing task. T he we lding gun and electrode lead are part of the basic welding e lectrical circuit. A weldi ng gun capab le of providing suffic ient curre nt for the welding task must be selected. Sem iauto matic welding guns are rated to operate between 150 A and 750 A. A hand-held semiautomatic welding gun commonly has a curved nozz le. The curved nozzle is used for most wel ding positions and provi des easy access to intricate joints a nd difficult -to-weld pattern s. Nozzles are common ly made of copper because copper can cond uct away the intense heat that builds up near the arc. Nozzles are available wit h orifice d iameters from 'V B " to 7 /B", depending on the size of the weld pool, the gas shielding required , and the weld joint design. A semia uto matic welding gun attaches to the weldi ng cab le, whic h contains the electrode lead, liner, and shielding gas and/or water hoses . Welding wire is fed to the we ld ing gun through a liner. The liner allows the smooth now of we ld ing wire through the we ldi ng ca ble. Semiautomatic welding guns can be air-cooled or water-cooled. The shielding gas and! or water hoses that run through the welding cable prov ide shieldi ng gas and cooling to the weld area. T he trigger on a se m ia uto ma tic welding gun controls the welding wire feed sta rt, the arc, and the shie lding gas flow. The machine contro ls are set and control the actual feed speed. When
the trigger is released, the wire feed, arc, and shielding gas flow stop immediately. A timer is included on some equipme nt to permit the shielding gas to continue to flow for a predetermined time after the arc is stopped to protect the weld as it solidifies. A water-cooled welding gun has two additional connections for Water In and Water Out to control water flow. Automatic Welding Guns. Automatic welding guns have a design similar to sem iautomatic welding gu ns, but the gun is usually mounted to a fixture directly below the wire feeder. The fixture may move the welding gun, the worktable, or both. An automatic welding gun does not usually have a trigger; rather, the we lding gun is energize d from a control pane l or remote pendant. Automatic welding guns may be rated up to 1200 A. An air-cooled welding gun is used for welding at low currents, while a water-cooled welding gun is used for welding at high curre nts. Automat ic wel ding gu ns are typicall y water-cooled because of the high currents and duty cycles at which they ope rate.
Wire Feeder
A wire feeder automatically advances the welding wire from the wire spool to the welding gu n and the arc. The wire feed control panel can be adjusted to vary the wire feed speed. In addition, the control panel usually includes a welding power contact tip and a solenoid to energize the gas flow. The wire feeder can be mounted on the welding mach ine, or positioned elsewhere for conve nience. See Figure 19-6. The wire feeder must be selected to match the power source used for the GMAW app lica tio n. Constant-speed wire feeders are typically used with constant-voltage welding mac hines. When using pulsed spray transfer, a controllable wire feeder may be preferahle.
li ~ -
Ensure that the wire feed speed is set for the current to he used for we/ding .
WIRE SPOOL
Figure 19-7. The d rive rolls and liner in the wire f eeder m U.fl be
l'rtll,er /y aligned to ensure (I consis tent we lding wi re fen! without bird nesting.
Figure 19-6. The wi re f eeder ran he mounted 0 11 the we/ding machine, o r pos itioned elsewhere fo r convenie nce.
A wire feeder consists of an electric motor connected to a gearbox with drive rolls in it. Some systems have four drive roll s; man y systems have only two. In a four-roll system, the lower two rolls drive the wire and have a circumferential V-groove. The upper rolls arc either smooth, knurled , or have a Vgroove in them, depending on the size and type of wire used. The wire feeder may be portable, mounted on the welding machine , or mounted elsewhere to facilitat e weldin g in a large area. The drive rolls and the liner must be properl y sized, based on the welding wire size . The liner must be ali gned closely with the groove in the drive roll, without touching. See Figure 19-7. If the liner and the groove are misaligned, bird nesting can occur. Bird nest ing is the tangling of welding wire in the drive roll as a res ult of misa lig nmen t between the drive roll and the liner or a restrict ion at the gun end. The wire feeder feed s the welding wire through the liner to the welding gun at a specified rate. The wire feeder can be a push, pull, or push-pull type, depending on the location of the drive rollers. In the push type, the welding wire is threaded through the drive roller s and pushed through the weldin g wire lead to the welding gun.
In the pull type , the weldin g wire is fed through the liner and pulled by dri ve rollers located on the weldin g gun. The push-pull type has drive rollers located before and after the liner. The type of wire feeder used is determined by the ch aracteristics of the we ld ing wire . Sma ll-diameter, so ft a lumi num weldin g wire mu st be pull ed th ro ug h the electrod e lead. Large-dia meter e lectrode s often require the push -p ull type feeder for consistent flow of wire . In all type s of wire feeders, the drive rollers increase or decrease speed as adjusted by the welder. The rate of wire speed is express ed in inche s per minute (ipm). An inch button allows the welder to advance or retract the welding wire at a slow speed when changing spools or if a welding wire feeding prob lem occurs. Push Type. The most common wire feeder for stee l is the push type wire feeder. A push type wire feeder consists of drive rolls that guide the welding wire through the wire feeder and then push it through the liner to the welding gun. The the liner can be up to approximately 12' for steel wire or 6' for aluminum wire. The push type wire feeder can handle large-di ameter weldin g wire and hard wire such as carbon and stainless steel in welding conditions where current IS over 250 A.
GMA IV - Equipment
203
Stickout is lilt, distall ce tile welding wire projects f rom the end oftile nod e of tile welding gun.
Tile proper nozzleto -wo rk distan ce must be maintained to ensure adequate shielding ga .\' ('(IV erage.
Pull Type. A pull type wi re feed er is often used fo r mech ani zed a nd automatic we lding. The drive rolls are built into the we lding gun and pull the weld ing w ire from the wire feed er. A pull type wire feeder works best with sma lldiamete r w e ld ing wire (up to abuut .045 " in diamet er) a nd so ft w elding w ire. A pull type wire feeder can be used with any hand-held welding g un. Push-Pull Type. The pu sh -pull ty pe wi re feeder is used fo r driving we lding wire lon g di stan ces and w ith lowstre ng th welding wires. Th e pu sh-pull w ire fe eder has sy nc h ro n o us dri ve motors that push the welding wire from the wire feeder through the liner, and pull it through the welding gun. Stickout. Sti ckout for GMAW is the distance the welding wire projects from the end of the gas nozzle. St ickout influ en ces th e we ld ing curre nt since it changes the preheating of the welding wire. As stickout increases , a higher resista nce value occurs on the len gth of welding wire beyond the contact tip. Th e lon ger th e weld ing wire that is unmelt ed , the more preheating occurs. Lon ge r stie kout lengths require le ss we ld ing current to melt the e lec tro de at a co nstant wire feed speed . S ince the we ldi ng ma chin e is self- reg u la ting. th e c u rre nt output is automati c all y decrea sed. Con versely, if s t ic ko u t de creases, the welding machine must furni sh more c urre nt to burn off the welding wire at the required rate. Sec Figu re 19-8 .
For mo st G MAW appli c ati on s. stickou t should measure from 3/8" to %". Excessive stic kout resu lts in increa sed wire pr eheating . w hic h tends to incre ase the depositi on rate. Ex cessive stic kout may al so produce a ropy appearance in the weld bead. Too little stic ko ut cau ses th e welding wire to fu se to the c o n tac t tip , which d ec reases the life of the tip . As stic kout incr ease s, it may bec ome di fficult to foll ow th e we ld se a m , p art icul arl y w it h s ma ll - d ia me te r w ire . Wh en working with s ma ll -d ia me te r w ire , the co nta ct tip sho uld be Ilush w ith th e g a s nozzl e or rece s sed in the noz zl e . Th e wire , in a near-plastic state between the c ontact tip and the arc , tends to whip a ro und in a so mew hat circ ular pa ttern . Decre asing the stickou t and straightening the welding wire h elp d ecrea se th e a m o u n t of w ire whip . Shielding Gas Th e sh ie ld ing gas u sed has a g re at e f fe c t on the properties of the weld d epo sit. The a ir in th e weld a re a is di spl aced by the shie lding ga s to preve nt it f ro m co n tac t ing the w e ld pool. The arc is then starte d under a blanket of sh ie ld ing g as a nd w elding ca n occur. Since the weld pool is exposed only to th e sh ie lding gas, it is n ot contaminat ed , and st ro ng. dense we ld deposits are obtained . The nozzl e-to-work di st ance of the weld ing gu n must be maintain ed to ensure an ade q ua te shie ldi ng gas cover. Air is made up of 2 1% oxyge n, 78% nitrogen , .94% argon, and .04% other gases (primarily c arbon dioxide). The atmosphere will al so contain a certain amount of water depending on its humidity. T he elements of air that cause difficulties for welding are oxygen, nitrogen , a nd hydrog en. O xyg en is a highl y reacti ve e le me nt a nd re ad ily combines with other elements in a metal or alloy to form ox ides and gases. The
Figure 19-8. Correct wire stickout is necessurv to control the characseris tics of the welding wire in the weld pool.
GAS NOZZLE WELDING WIRE NOZZLETQWORK DISTANCE J-Jl-
n IJ
CONTACT TIP
----.
STICKOUT
- - -l-
oxide-forming characteristic of oxygen ca n be ove rco me by usin g deo xidi zers in the weld metal. Th e effec ts of oxyge n, nit ro gen , and hydrogen on the weld make it essential that they be excluded from the weld area during welding. If deoxidi zers are not provided, oxygen combin es with the iron and form s a compound that can lead to inclusions in the weld, harming the mechanical properties of the metal. As a weld solidifies. the free oxygen in the arc area combines with the carbon of the alloy material, forming ca rbo n mon oxid e. If the carbo n mono xide gas is trapped in the weld, it collects in pockets, causing pores or hollo w spaces in the weld . Deo xidi ze rs s uch a s man gane se and s ilico n combine with oxygen and form a light slag that floats to the top of the weld pool, removing oxygen from the weld. Ni troge n that is in tro du ced into the we ld pool ca use s the most se riou s pr obl em s when weldin g s te e l. When iron is molt en, it is capabl e of taki ng in a relati vel y lar ge am ount of nitrogen . At room temperature, the solubility of nit rogen in iron is very low. During coo ling, the nitrogen precipita tes or comes out of the iron as nit rides. Nitr ide s increa se hardn ess in the iron, but also cause a decrease in d uctilit y a nd impact re si st an ce . T he los s of duct ility o fte n lead s to cracking in and near the weld. In exce ss ive amount s. nitrogen c an also lead to porosity in the we ld. Hydro ge n is ha rmfu l to we ld ing bec ause sma ll amo unt s of hyd rogen in the at mo sp here can ca use a n erratic arc if a llowed to en ter the weld poo l. Hydrogen alsu has an effect on the prop erties of the we ld . Iron ca n hold a relat ively large amuunt of hydro gen when it is mo lte n, but when the iron cools, it can no longer hold d issol ved h ydrogen . As th e we ld metal solidi fies, the hydrogen comes out of so lutio n. Hydroge n tha t beco mes e ntr app ed in th e so lid ify ing
met al and heat -affected zo ne . These pressures lead to minute crack s in the weld metal that can develop into large crack s. Hydrogen also causes defect s kn o wn as fi she ye s a nd underbead cra cking. Atmospheric gases can be excluded using an inert gas for shielding. Inert gases consist of atom s that are stable and do not react re adil y with ot her mate r ia ls, ma king them usefu l as shielding gas for arc welding. Only six el ements, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon, possess the stability required for use as a shie lding gas. Of the six, only argon and helium are available in suflicient quantit ies for weldin g at an economi cal pri ce. See Figure 19-9. Alth ough it is not an inert gas, carbon dioxide gas can also be used for shie lding the we ld are a if compe nsation is made fo r its oxid iz ing ten den ci es. Ca rbon dioxide, argo n, and helium ca n be used in their pure form or mi xed for a spec ific applicat ion .
Carbon Dioxide, Unlike argon or helium ga se s, w hic h are mad e up o f s ingle atoms , carbon dio xi de gas is made up of molecules. Each molecule
con tai ns one carbo n atom and tw o
oxy ge n ato ms. The chemica l formu la for th e ca rbo n di o xide molecul e is CO,. Often, carbon dioxide is referred to simply as "C-O-TWO." Carbon dioxid e is found in most plan ts in flue gases that are given o ff by the burning of natural gas, fuel oil, or cok e. It is a lso obta ined as a byprod uc t o f calc ini ng o pe ra tio ns o f lime kil ns, from the man ufac tur ing of ammonia , and fro m the ferment ation of alco hol. The CO , given off by the manufacturing of ammon ia and th e ferm ent ation of a lco ho l is alm o st 100% pure. The purity of CO, can vary considera bly, depending on the process used to manufacture it. Standards have been established for CO, purity suitable for arc welding. Th e purity specified for
7111! lise of COl as a shielding gas is most effe ctive and least ex pens ive whrn welding steel.
weldin g-grade CO, is a minimum dew point of -40F. Gas of this purity contains approximately .0066% moistu re by weight. Ma nufacturers co mmo nly produce CO, with a dew point as low as _70F. At normal temperatures, CO, is essentially an inert gas. However, when subjec ted to high temper atures, CO, dissoci ates into carbon monoxide and oxygen . In the hi gh temperature o f welding, this dissociation takes place to the extent that 20% to 30% of the gas in the arc area is oxygen (0 ,) . Because of the oxidizing characteristic of CO, gas , the welding wire used with CO , must contai n de oxid izin g clements. The deoxidizing elements have a great affinity for and readily combine with oxygen, prevent ing the oxygen atom s from combining with carbon or iron in the weld metal and produ cin g
low-quality welds. The most comm on deoxidizers used in welding wire are manganese, si licon . a lumi num, titanium, and vanad ium. Ca rbon dioxide may be used for GMAW because it eliminates many of the undesirable characteristics of argon used as a shielding gas . With CO, a broad , deep pen etrati on is obtai ned, making it eas ie r for th e op erator to elimina te weld defects such as lack of penet ration and lack of fusion . Bead contour with CO, is good and there is no tendency toward undercuttin g. Anoth er adva ntage is its rel ati vel y low cost compared to other shielding gases.
Argon
75% He 25%Ar
Argon + 1% 0 2
Stainless Steels
Argon + 5% 0 2
When DCEN, is used. 5% O2 improves arc stability With DCEN, removes oxide surlace on workpiece
Good wetting and increased heat input to counteract high thermal conduct ivity. Ught-gauge metals Oxygen eliminates undercutting tendencies; also removes oxidation High-quality, low-current, out-of-position welding , low spatter Good wetting, decreases fluidity of weld metal Good wetting. decreases fluidity of weld metal Good wetting, decreases fluidity of weld metal Reduces heat-affected zone, improves metal transfer Reduces crack sensitivity Less penetration of base metal. Commonly used as a surfacing material
Magnesium
Coppe r (deoxidized) Low-Carbon Steel (Mild Steei)
Argon
75% He . 25% Ar (Argon)
Inconel Titanium
Silicon Bronze Aluminum Bronze
NOTE : ( ) '" seccoc Choice
K lI ,W' ,f
.m ell
(I.\'
a rgo" and helium a re stable gases that d o 1101 readily rC(lCI with o ther Oftmu, "'lIki,,!: them suitable
(I.{
shielding
206 ~ We/dilll:
sun.
A drawbac k of CO, gas is the tende ncy for the arc to be somewhat violent. Thi s can lead to spatter problem s when welding thin metals where appearance is important. For most application s, spatter is not a major problem and the ad vantage s of CO , as a sh ield ing gas outwe igh its di sad vantages; howev er, w he n preventing spatte r is importan t, an anti-spau er spray ca n be used . Antispalter sprays can be used with GMAW to pre vent spatte r from stic king to the nozzle, gas c up, and base metal. Carbon dio xide is used primarily for mild stee l we lding, alth ough it may be used in other shielding gas mixt ures .
th e a rc a nd lower pen e tration of the we ld . The com bi na tio n of lo wer pen etration and redu ced spatter mak es the use of argo n desirable whe n we lding sheet metal. Straight argon is seldo m used as a shie ld ing gas excep t wh en weldin g m et al s s uc h as a lu m in u m , copper, ni ckel , a nd titani u m . W he n weld ing steel, the use of straight argon leads to undercutting a nd poor bead co ntou r. Additionally, penetrati on with straight argon is shall ow at the bead ed ges and deep at the center of the weld, wh ic h can lead to lac k of fusion at the root of the we ld . Helium. Helium is deri ved from natu ral gas. The process by whic h it is obtained is similar to that of argon . First, th e natural gas is co mp ressed a nd cooled . Helium distills from natural gas at a temperature of --452 F (-269C). Helium is lighter than air and has high th ermal co nd uctiv ity. T he helium arc plasma will expand under heat (therma l ioni zation), reducing the arc den sity. With helium there is a simultaneo us c hange in arc vo ltage wh ere the vo ltage gradie nt of the arc len gth is inc rease d by the d isc ha rge of heat fro m the arc strea m or core. This means that more arc energy is lost in the arc itself and is not transmitted to the work. The result is that, with helium , th er e will be a broader we ld bead than with a rgo n, with re latively sha llow pen etration. (For GTAW, the op posit e is true.) Th e energy lost in the arc also accounts for the higher load voltage for the same arc length that is obtained with helium as opposed to a rgo n. Helium a t tim es has been in short su pp ly d ue to governme ntal restriction s and, therefore , has not been used for welding as much as it might hav e been. Because of its high cost, helium is used primarily for spe cial welding tasks a nd for non ferro us me ta ls suc h as aluminum, magnes ium, and copper. It is a lso used in combination w ith ot he r shie lding gases .
ing gas at a particular current setting; however, " sing the same welding gun with argon as the shielding gas. a lower current setting must typically be used for a 100% duty cycle.
Argon, Argon has been used for many year s as a sh ielding gas. Argon is obtained throu gh the liquefaction and distill at ion of air. To manu facture argo n, ai r is pu t un de r in ten se pressure a nd refri gerated to a very low temperature. Th e temperature is then raised until the various elements in the air are boil ed off. Argon boils off at a te mpe rature of -302 .4F (-I 85.9C). T he res ulting purity of the argo n used for welding is appro ximately 99 .995%. When grea ter puri ty is required , th e g as can be c he m ica lly clea ne d to a purit y o f 99. 999 %. Ar gon has a re lative ly lo w ioni zation pot enti al , w hic h mean s th at the weld ing arc te nds to be more stable when argon is used as the shie lding gas . Argo n is oft en mixed with other gases to im prove their sta b ility. A rgo n re du ces spa tte r, producing a quiet a rc . Since argon has a low ioni zation potential, the arc vo ltage is reduced when an argon mix ture is used as a shie lding gas. This result s in lower power in
tI
.=
.~
Argoll, or II mixture
Argon-Oxygen. To reduce th e poor bead co ntou r and penetrati on obt ain ed with argon when welding on mild steel, o xygen is added to the shielding gas , A sma ll amount of ox yge n added 10 arg o n produce s s ig nifican t chan ges. Normally, oxygen is added in amounts of 1%, 2%, or 5%. Using GMAW welding wire, the amount of oxygen that ca n be used is limit ed to 5 %. Adding oxyge n in amounts g re ater than 5 % may lead to poro sity in the we ld. O xygen imp ro ve s penetrati on by broadening the d eep pen etration fin ger at the center of the weld bead . It also improves bead contour and eliminates the undercutting at the edge of the weld that occurs with pure argon.
Argon-o xygen mi xtures are common
Premi xed argon-CO , costs the same as pure argo n, whereas th e price of CO, is approx ima tely 15% tha t of argon, making it more eco nomical to buy the CO, separately and mix it at the job site o r shop. Mi xture percentages for each gas cylinder are regulated usin g flow meters. Using sep arate gas cyl inders e lim inates th e gas se paratio n that may occur in premi xed cy linde rs. An argo n-C O, shie ld ing gas mi xture is used for w eld in g mild s tee l, lo w-all o y stee l, and. in so me cases. sta inless stee ls. Argon-Helium.CO,. An argon-heliumCO , shield ing ga s mi xture is used for
welding au stenitic, martensitic , and
for we ld ing alloy stee l, carbo n steel , and stainless stee l. Argon-CO,. For some mild steel welding appli cations, welding-grade C O, doe s not provide the required arc characteristics. This is usually evident in the form of spatter in the weld area . Using an ar gon-C0 2 mi xture can usually elim inate the problem . Some welding professionals beli ev e that the mixture sho uld not exceed 25 % C O,; o the rs feel that mixtures with up 10 80% CO, are acc eptable .
ferritic stainless steels. The combin ation of gases provides a uniqu e characteristic to the weld . It is possible to make a weld with very little buildup of the top bead pr o fil e . An argon-helium -Co , mixture is used for applications where a high-crowned weld is detrimental. Gas Flow Rates. For most welding, the gas flow rate is appro ximately 20 cfh to 35 cfh . Th e flo w rate ma y be increased o r decreased . depending on th e typ e and thi ckness o f met al and the particul ar we lding application. See Appendi x. Flow rate settings are not abs olut e. but a starting point in making se ttings. Final adju stments must often be made on a trial-and-error basi s. The correc t sett ings a re determin ed by th e typ e and Ihickness of metal to be welded ; the posit ion o f th e weld; th e shie lding gas used ; the elec trode di am eter ; and the type of joint. Prope r g as sh ie ld ing usuall y reo sults in a rapid, crac kling or sizz ling arc so und . Inadequat e ga s shi elding produ ces a poppin g arc so u nd and re sults in a di scolored weld, poresity, and spatte r. Gas drift may occ ur with high travel speeds or in unusuall y drafty or windy job site cond it io ns aro und th e we ld area. Gas drift commonl y result s in
l nfomunion 0 11 II gll.~ cylinder label typically includes the 1)1)( > oj gtH or mixtu re of gw contained, (l ilt! the manufacturer or supplier lit/me .
inadequ a te gas sh ie ld ing. T he gas no zzl e sho uld be adj us te d fo r pro pe r shielding and outside influ ences should be e liminated by usin g proper wi nd breaks or shields. See Figure 19-10 . T he d ista nce from the work to the gas nozzle is determi ned by the nature of the wel d. T he gas nozzle is usually p la ce d up to 2" fro m th e wo rk . Too m uch space bet ween the g as no zzle and the work red uces the effective ness of the gas shield, while too lillie space may re su lt in excess ive we ld spat ter , whi ch co lle cts on the gas nozzle a nd shorte ns its life.
GMAWWELDING WIRE
Wel di ng w ire fo r GMAW sho u ld be simi lar in co mposition to the base metal. Weldi ng wire design at ion s cor respond to th e we ld in g a pp lic a tio n. Wel d ing wire designa tion s are based on AWS classifi cations . For mi ld steel we ld ing wire, the E identifies it as an electrode and an R identifies it as a rod. The second and third di gits sho w the te nsile strength in psi per thousand, the S ind icat es a so lid ba re w ire, and the fin al sy mbo ls specify a part icular c1assificatiun based on che mica l co mposi tion of the welding wire . See Figure 19-11. Basi c w e ldin g w ir e d iam eters include .020", .030", .035", .045", .052", '/ 16", and VB". Ge nerally, we lding wire of .0 20 " , .0 30 ", o r .03 5" is best fo r we lding th in met al , a lt ho ug h it ca n be used to we ld lo w- a nd medium carbon stee l a nd med iu m -thic kn ess, high -stren gth/l ow-all oy (HSLA) stee l. Me d iu m-thic kness met al normall y requi res .04 5" or 1/ 16" diam e ter wel din g w ire. For thick metal, '/H" welding wire is usu a lly recom mended . See Fig ure 19 - 12. The w eld in g po sit ion to be used is a fact or that mu st be co ns idered wh en se lec ting weld ing wire. For ve rtical or overhead we ldi ng , sma lldiamet er wires are mor e acceptab le th an large- di a met er wires .
DIRECTION OF WIND
en sure I I quality weld. Check the wire manuj actu reI" rccom mendations fo r corT('('/ wire diometer.....
WINDBREAK
Figure 19-10. High travel sp eeds und windy conditions can cause the shieldin g gas to drift awa y from the arc. wi ndbreaks or movin g the l/o:.: le closer 10 the weld CCIII help control drift.
~lI1lrr
Weldill!: wire is selected to match the composition of tile metal to he welded. Welt/ing wire de.5;/:1I01;0 1l.{ a re blued on A\VS classifica tions.
~ .
ER-60S-1 Silicon deoxidized wire for low- and medium-carbon stee ls. Can be used with eithe r CO2. argon, or argon-C02 mix tures. Perfor ms best on kille d stee ls Prem ium quality wire containing AI. Zr, and Ti in addition to silicon and manganese deoxi dizers. Can ER-60S-2
be used with CO 2 argon-C02. or ar90n-02. Reco mmended for pipe welding and heavy vessel
construction Used for high-quality we lding either with CO2. ar90n -02, or argon-C0 2mixtures. Prod uce s medium-quality welds in rimmed steels and high-qu ality welds in se mi-killed stee ls Low-alloy wire for carbon steel s, low-alloy steels. and high-strength. low-alloy steels General-purpose welding of low- to medium-carbon steels. Has a silicon co ntent high enough to permit its use in either C02 argon02 mixtures, or a mixtu re of the two
I
Co ntai ns higher ma nganese and silicon levels and has more powerful deo xidizing characteristic s for weld ing over rust and scale or where stringent cleaning prac tices cannot be followed Contains alu minum and is desig ned for sing le or multiple pass we lding of rimmed, semi-killed , or killed mild steel s. Suitable to weld stee ls having rusty or dirty surfaces. Normally used with CO2 gases
.1f7'~lMlf1;' ;.~'~;~ ":{:l:~ ;'+-~J:' : ;+~~) ~f; f:-~ rt:{" 'i"r ~&:ari~<~ alj~ nr:h.;{~ia~i'J~~ ; ,.t':~~',s.1:1::'~",~",L~'}f..","l.::~:: , . ',. , '."
M
";,.
" ,.
..
~-
::
-..
,.
/,
,.
<'~,,!
~. ~
, . .....
,,' ,
-..'.
.~
For weld ing type s 304 , 308, 32 1, 347 For welding typ es 301, 304 For we lding ty pes 309 and straight chromium grades when heat treat ment is not possible Also for 304-c lad For weldin g types 310, 304-e lad, and hard enable stee ls For weldin g 3 16 For we lding types 321 and 347 whe re maximum co rrosion res istance is required
op~~ a n
ECuSi (Silicon Bronze) ECu AIA 1 (Al umi num Bronze) ECu (Deo xidized Copper) ECuAIA2 (Aluminum Bronze) ECuAIB (Aluminum Bronze)
Ffg u re 19-1 1. Weldi,,!: wire should be of a similar ma terial to the base metal and mU.{1 be chosen deIJe1ldi n!: 011 Ihe I),/'e of weld ing perfo rmed,
10
be
025 .03 1 .037 .050 .062 .078 .125 .125 .187 .187 .250 .250
H
.030 .030 .035 .035 .035 .035 .035 .045 .035 .045 .045 .052
30- 50 40- 60 65- 85 80 - 100 90 - 110 110-1 30 140 -160 180 -200 140 -1 60 180-200 140 -1 60 180 - 200
NOTE : Gas flow rate s will vary from values shown bas ed on the type 01metal we lded Shielding gas CO 2 welding grade Wire slickoul_V. to ~it in in. t in cu bic feel per ho ur (cfh) fin in./mi n
Figure 19-12. The requi red weld ing wire diameter is based position of welding.
0 11
I . DCEP provides deep penetrat ion and excelle nt cleaning action . 2. For GMAW, a con stant -voltage welding machi ne with a nearly flat volt-ampere characteristic maint ains a constant, preset voltage leve l during we ldin g. 3. Ensure that the wire feed speed is set for the current that is to be used for welding. 4. Stickout is the distance the welding wire proj ects from the end of the nozzle of the welding g un . 5 . The prop er nozzle-Io-wo rk distanc e must be maintained to ensure an adequate shielding gas
6. 7. 8. 9.
cover. The use of CO, as a shielding gas is most effective and least ex pensive when welding stee l. Argon, or a mixture of argon and oxygen , produ ces the most effect ive results when we lding aluminum and stainless stee l. For most weldin g, the gas flow rate is approximately 20 cfh to 35 cfh. The correct diamet er wire must be used to ensure a qualit y weld. Check the wire manufacturer recom mendations for correct wire dia meters.
I. 2. 3. 4.
What are some of the specific advantages of GMAW? Why is DCEP current used for GMAW? What results can be expected if DCEN current is used? How do es a cons tant-v oltage welding machine differ from a constant -current welding
machin e ?
5. What is the advantage of using a constant-voltage welding machine for GMAW ? 6. Wh at is meant by slope control? 7. What are the clements that make up air ? 8. Why is oxygen generally a harmful element in welding? 9. Why do es nitrogen cause the most serious problems in welding? 10. When is argon or an argon -a, mixture cons idered the ideal gas for shielding? I I. When is CO 2 better for shielding than an inert gas? 12 . How is it possible to determine the proper gas flow for shielding? 13 . What happens if the gas flow is allow ed to drift from the weld area? 14. What factors must be taken into consideration in selecting the correct diam eter (size) welding wire? 15. How is the weldin g wire fed to the weld ing gun? 16. What determines the rate at which the wire feed should be set? 17 . Why is the correct sticko ut important?
GMAW is a relatively fast welding process with higher deposition rates than SMA W. Many welding applications that were once only performed with SMAWare now being completed with the GMAW process. Pipelines. railroad cars. automobiles. and heavy equipment manuf acturing are industries that use GMAW more commonly than SMAW for many welding jo bs. When performing GMAW welding outdoo rs. wind protection may be needed to protect the shielding gases fro m being blown away from the weld area. Since GMAW has deep penetrating characteristics. narrower beveled j oint designs can be used.
GMAWPROCEDURES
GMAW was developed to increase the spee d at whic h weld metal could he deposited . Alt houg h GM AW ca n be fu lly automated, it is mo st ofte n se mia utomated. When the semiautomatic process is used , the wire feed , power setting. and gas flow are preset, but thc welding gun is manually operated . Th e op erator pro vid e s manual travel and guida nce of the we ld ing gun, directs the welding gun over the weld sea m, and maint ains the correct wire stickout di stan ce and s pee d . GMAW has the following advantages over other welding procedures: No flux or slag and little spatter are produced, minimizing cleanup time and resultin g in a savings in total welding cost, Less time is required to train an operator. Weld ers who are proficient in other welding processes can easily mas te r G MAW. T he pri mar y duty is to monitor the angle of the welding gun, the trave l speed, and the wire stickout.
No starting and stopping to change e le ctrodes is required , reduc ing welding time and e liminating a co mmon cause of weld failures. Weld ing that sta rts and sto ps frequently, such as SMAW, commonly results in slag inclusions, cold lapping, and crater cracking. Better metallurgical benefits are imparted to the weld area because of the high travel speed. A faster travel speed results in a narrower HAZ. There is also less grain growth, less heat transfer in the base metal, and reduced distortion . G MAW is more e conomica l for weldin g light-gauge mctal whe n short circuiting transfer is used, A narrow beveled joi nt can be used becau se of th e deep pen etra ting ca pabili ties of GM AW, red uci ng the size of fillet welds.
The GMAlV process was developed during WorldWar11. when a cost-effective and efficient method ofwelding thick metals , such a s
GMAW is a f aster
welding p rocess than
213
Con sequently, groove JOint s formed with GMAW have smaller root faces and root openin gs.
Butt Joints. A butt joint typically re-
CMA W is I I versatile welding process that allo ws fast dep osition (m different metal thicknesses.
Groove joints used fi"CMAWhm'esmall rootfaces, small root openings. and a narrow g ron ve aIJKIt~, all of which redu ce the joint arm, requiring less weld metal.
Joint Preparation
Joint preparation is recommended to aid in penetration of the weld and weld reinforcement control. For GMAW, beveling the edges is usually desirable for butt joints thicker than \f.{' if complete root penetration is desired. For thin metals, a square bott jo int is best. Generally. the joint design recommended for other arc welding processes can be osed for GMAW. However, some joint modifications may be reqoired to compensate for the operating characteristics of GMAW. These modifications produce a narrower, more penetrating arc than SMAW. Se e Figure 20-1.
quires more welding skill than other joints. When makin g butt joints. distortion and residual stress must be prevented by using the proper fit-up and joint edge preparation. Butt joints have very good mechanical strength if properl y prepared . Lap Joints. A lap joint is commonly used for man y welding application s. In a lap joint, the surfaces of the metals to be joined overla p one another. The degree of ove rlap is determined by the thickness of the metal. Lap joints are usuall y we lded with fillet welds, which results in a weld with good mech ani cal properties, especially when welded on both sides. T-Joints. T-joint s generally require little. if any, edge preparation . Edges of a T-joint may be left square or may be prepared by grinding or machining. A T-joint typically requires a fillet weld. Edge Joints. Edge j o int s are commonly used when the finished weld will no t be e xposed to ex cess load s or heavy impact. The edges of the metal to be welded may be left square or beveled by grinding or machining. The groov es c re ate d by beveling allow prop er penetrati on of the weld metal.
Ff gure 20-1. GMA W pro duces a na rrower weld bead and deeper penetration than SMA1, requiring a smalle r nmt fa ce and root
-.l..
T
-.l..
T
op ening.
SMAW
,,," DIAMETER--I
I
BEADWtDTH
GMAW
--I
1--.035" DIAMETER
l 00 A
.------.:._ II
SMAW
PENETRATION
GMAW
214 0
Welding Skills
Corner Joints . Corner joints also requi re littl e , if any, edge prepa ration. After a corner jo int is welded, the edges are ground smoot h to impart an attractive appearance to the finished weld .
Weld Backing
When using GMAW, we ld backing is hel pful to obtain a sound weld at the rool. Backin g is used when co mplete weld penetr ation is req uired. Back ing conducts heat away from the joint and for ms a mold or da m to prevent the molten metal from running through the joi nt being welded. There are several types of mat eri al used for bac king : steel or copper blocks, strips, and bars; carbon blocks; or fired clay. The material most common ly used for backings with GMAW are copper or steel.
better shield ing gas protect ion . O n ga uged metal , it is so metimes necessary to weld with the work inclined 100 to 20 0 Wh en the work is inclined, welding is performed downhill. Downhill welding has a tend ency to flatten the bead and increase the trave l speed. The welding wire must be properly aligned in relation to the joint. The welding wire should be on the centerline of the joint fo r most butt join ts if the workpi eces to be jo ined are of equal thickness. If the workpieces are unequal in thickn ess, the welding wire may be moved toward the thicker metal. Correct work angle and travel ang le ens ure correct we ld bead formation . See Figure 20-2. The trave l angle may be a posh angle or a drag angle depending upon the pos ition of the welding gun. If the welding gun is angled back towa rd the beginning of the weld, the trave l angle is ca lled a drag ang le. A drag angle is an angle where the electrode is pointing in the direction oppo site of welding. If the welding gun is pointing ahead toward the end of the weld, the travel angle is ca lled a push ang le. A pu sh ang le is a travel ang le where the electrode is angle d to point in the direction of welding.
(111.1: /1'
Ffgure 20 -2. The co rrec t wo rk a nd tra vel angie are neeesso rv f or co rrec t weld hea d [ ormation,
DIRECTION OF WELDING
FtLLETWELD
-25'
WORKANGLE ~~
TRAVEL ANGLE
DIRECTION OF WELDING
GMAW - Procedures
l' 215
Ensure thas the COli ta ct tub e a nd gas no zzle orifices a re clean to prevent clogg ing. which restricts wire feed and shielding gas flow:
When the welding gun is ahead of the weld. it is referred to as pulling the we ld metal. I f the welding gun is behind the weld. it is said to be pushing the weld metal. Generally, the penetration of bead s de posi ted by pulling the we lding gun is greater than by pushing the welding gun. In addition. since the welder can see the weld crater more eas ily by pulling the weld, high quality we lds ca n be prod uced more consistently. Pushing the weld permits the use of higher welding speeds and produ ce s le ss pen etrati on and w ide r welds. See Figure 20-3 .
Use the correct size gas nozzle for the diame ter of welding wire used. Ens ure tha t the we ldi ng w ire is pro pe rly threade d th rou gh the weld ing gun. Ensure that the contact tube and gas nozzle or ifices are clean. Blow out the welding gun occasionally since with use it becomes clogged with du st, restri ct ing the wire feed and shie lding gas flow.
Se t the pred etermined w ire fee d speed on the wire feeder co ntro l. E nsu re tha t sh ie ld ing gas a nd wate r coolant so urces are on and adj usted on the feeder co ntro l. Check for wear on contact tip. With use. tips wear out and must be repl aced.
Ftgu r e 20- .'. Pullill g th e we ld (d rag ang le] is preferred for welding thick me tals, while Illl.\'lIill1-: IIIl' weld (push angle] is used for
Jigill -g a ugl' metals,
DRAG ANGLE
<,
PULLING
During any welding ope ration. certain we ldi ng co ndi tions may hav e to be changed. Welders should be fami liar with common welding variables and the required changes that must be made dur ing welding. See Figure 20-4.
PUSH ANG LE
<,
4
PUSHING
Stickout can be adjusted to alter the Cllrrent and voltage conducted to the arc. A sho rter sticko ut creat es a hotter arc; a longer sticko ut reduces penetration 011 thin metals.
216
WELDING VARIABLES
Change Required
Deeper Penetration
Arc Voltage
Travel Speed
Gas Type
Shallow
Penetration Larg er
Decreaset (3)
Decrease (1)
Drag (2)
Increase (3)
Bead
Flatter, Wider
Increase (1)
Bead
Faster Deposition rate Slower Deposition rate
Decrease (3)
Smaller (5)
Larger (5)
Key: (1) First choice. (2) seccoc crcce. (3) Third choice. (4) Fourth choice . (5) Fifth choice sa me adjustment IS required for wire teed speed t When these variables are changed. the wire Iced speed must be adjusted so that the welding current remains consta nt
Figure 20-4 . Wl'ldil1 f{ conditions mllY change during welding, H'C/U; ,.;,,}; adjusnnents 10 Il'd dinK variables.
contact
is necessary 10 start
arc.
Welding a Joint
7 ln general. the GMAW welding procedure foll ows a definite sequence regardless o f the type of welding that is bei ng done . For welding a j o int with GMAW, fo llow the pro cedu re:
I . Set the vo ltag e , wire feed , and shield ing gas flow to the standard conditions for the required type of welding. 2 . Adjust the welding wire to the proper sti ckout. 3. Stan the arc and move the weldin g gun at a uniform speed, maintain ing the proper work ang le. If the arc is not started properly, th e welding wire may stick or free ze to the work. If the welding wire sticks or freezes, shut OFF the machine and remove the welding wire from the joint. 4 . Move th e welding g un alo ng the joint usin g the pushing or pulling techniqu e. As th e welding gun is moved, keep the welding wire at the leading edge of the weld pool. Be sure the welding wire is centered in the shielding gas to ensure adequ ate shielding. A slight wea vin g m oti on is helpf ul to ens u re compl ete penetrati on .
GMA IV - Procedu res ~ 217
tI
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.~
5.
Re lease the tr igge r at the en d of the weld to stop the wire feed and interrupt the we lding cur rent. Always kee p the we lding gun ove r th e we ld until th e shie ld ing gas stops !lowing to protect the weld pool until it solidifies. 6 . Prop erly shut do wn the we lding mach in e wh en we ld ing is complet ed: a. Turn OFF wire speed co ntro l. b. Shut OFF shielding gas !low at cy linde rs . c . Squeeze we lding gun trigger to bleed the lines. d . Shut OFF welding mach ine. e . Han g up welding gun.
1 "8I
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~
practical fo r welding in all pOSitIOnS, especially for vertical , hori zontal, and overhead welding where control of the weld pool is more difficult . Short circuiting tran sfer produces shallow weld penetration. Short circuiting tran sfer is co mmo nly used at cu rre nt level s below 200 A and with we lding wire diameters of .045" or less. Thin welding wire produces a weld pool that remains re latively s mall and easily mana ged, makin g all-pos ition weldin g possible. At the start of the cycle, the welding wire melts into a small glo hule . An e lectro mag netic pin ch force squeezes the drop from the welding wire. Pinch force is a squeezing power common to all cur rent ca rr iers . Th e amount and suddenness of the pin ch is co ntro lled by the welding machine . As the molten weld ing wire is transferred to the weld, the drop touches the weld pool before it has broken away from the advancing weldin g wire and the circuit is shorted, extingui shing the arc. Once the drop of molten wire breaks contact with the unmelted welding wire, the arc reignites. Sho rting of the arc pinpoints the effective heat. Shortin g occurs fr om 20 to 200 times a second ac cording to preset controls. The result is a small, relati vely cool weld pool that reduces melt-through. Intricate welds are possible in most positions. See Figure 20-6. In short circuiting transfer, the shielding gas mixture consists of 75% argon, to control spatter, and 25% car bon dioxid e, both of which provide increased heat for hi gher speeds . How ever, straight CO , is also used whe re bead contour is not particularly important but good penetration is essential.
Short circuiting transfer allows thin sections of metal to be welded more easily. Short circuiting transfer is a meta l tran sfer mode in which molten metal from co nsumable welding wire is de pos ited dur ing repeated short circuits. Short circuiting tran sfer is the easi est, most common transfer mode used. It is
Spray Transfer
Spray transf er is a metal transfer mode in which molten welding wire is propelled axially across the arc in small dropl ets. Very fine droplets or particles of we lding wi re are rapidly proj ected
through the arc to the workpiece in the direction in which the we lding gun is po inted . Th e droplets are eq ua l to or smaller than the diameter of the welding wire. While in the process of transferrin g th rou gh the we ld ing ar e , the metal particles do not interrupt the flow o f current and there is a nearly constant spmy of metal. Spray tra nsfe r requires a high curre nt den sity. S pray tr an sfer o ccurs aro und 250 A and may requi re 300 A to 400 A. With the higher current, the arc becomes a steady, quiet column with a we ll- defi ned, narro w, incandescent , cone-shape d core within whic h metal tran sfer tak es plac e. See Figure 20-7. The use of argo n or a mixture of argon and oxygen (minimum 80% argon) is also necessar y as a shie ld ing gas for spray transfer. Argo n produces a pinching effect on the molten tip of the electrode, permi tting only small dro plets to form and tran sfer during the we ld ing proce ss. Sp ray tran sfer is particul arl y useful for welding heav y-gau ge metal.
With high heat input, thi ck wel ding wire melt s readil y and dee p we ld pe net rat io n becomes possible. Since indi vidual d rop lets are small, the arc is stable a nd ca n be directed where re q uired .
Figure 20-7. Spray transfer nccurs when \'to'y fin e drop lets of welding wire tire projected through the a rc to the workpiece.
ARC
0"-0
WELDING WIRE
produce a steady:
SPRAY TRANSFER
quiet orc with a we ll- defined core within which metal transfer takes place.
Figu re 20-6. Short circuiting transfer is practical for all welding pos itions. especially where contro l of the weld pool is difficult.
It is part icul arl y appro pria te fo r welding heavy-gau ge metal. It is not practical for welding light-gauge metal becau se it results in melt-through . Using a longer stickout with spray tran sfer allo ws for higher dep ositi on rate s. T he welding wire has a longer preheat time before entering the arc so there is less amperage needed to melt the wire, and fas ter travel speeds are possible. If sticko ut is excessive. reduced pen etration may occur. Travel s pee d a nd pe ne tr a ti o n ra tes mu st be mo nito red to ensure th at proper pe netration is takin g place.
Its use is genera lly restricted to where low heat input is desired and to welding thin sections of metal.
ARC"
Globular Transfer
Globular tran sf er is th e tran sfer of molten metal in lar ge droplets from th e weldin g wire to th e workpiece acro ss an arc . Globul ar tran sfer occurs when the welding cu rrent is low or is below the tran sition current. The transition current range ex tends from the minimum value where th e heat melts the weldin g wire to the point where the high curre nt valu e induces spray tran sfer. Only a few drops are transferred per seco nd at low current values , whereas many small drops are tran sferred when high current values are used . In g lo bu lar tr an s fer. th e molten ball at th e tip o f th e we lding wire g rows unti l its di am et er is two or three times the diameter of the welding wire before it sepa rates and tran sfers across the arc to the wo rkpiece. See Figu re 20-8 . As the globule moves across the arc, it ass umes an irregular shape and a rotar y mo tio n because of th e ph ysi cal forces of the arc. This frequently causes the globule to reconnect with the welding w ire and the wo rkpiece. caus ing the arc to extinguish and then reignite . The result is poor arc stability. poor penetration , a nd excess ive spatte r. As a re sult, gl obul ar transfer is not very effective for most GMAW operations.
220 ~ Welding Skills
GLOBULAR TRANSFER
Figure 20-101. 1/1 /{ Iolm lar transfer. the molt en drop grows to two or three times the diameter (~r the welding wire before scparuting lind transferring to the workpiece.
a peak current in the spray transfer current range and a minimum CUITe n t value in the globular transfer current range . Current values lower than the transition level arc needed when welding under heat tran sfer co nditions that are inadequate fo r spray tran sfer. For example, when performin g outof-position welding, high current results in a weld pool that ca nnot be retain ed in pos it io n unl e ss the me ta l bein g we lded has ade q uate thermal conduct ivit y, and uses the proper j oint and plate thickn ess. Pulsed spray transfer is achieved by pulsing the current back and forth between the spray tran sfer and globular transfer c urrent rang es. See Figure 20-9. For example. welding machine A put s out a current in the globular transfer range and welding machine B puts out a current in the spray transfer ran ge. Th e two outputs are combined to produce a simple pul sed output by e lectrically switching back and forth between the two currents.
For the given welding wire deposited by pulsed spray tran sfer, all the advantage s of spray transfer are available at average current levels that range from the minimum level possible with continuous spray tran sfer down to lev els low in the globular tran sfer ran ge. Pul sed spray tr an s fer pro vide s many feature s not pr e vi ou sl y available with othe r we lding processes:
The heat input ran ge br idges the gap between and laps over into the heat input ranges available from the sPI1lY transfer and short circuiting arc processes. Into its lower heat input ran ge , the pul sed spray tr ansfer process brin gs the ad vantage s of the continuou s spray transfer pro cess. In addition. due to lower heat input , the use of spray transfer is e xtended g reat ly into poor heat transfer ar eas, mainl y related to welding out -of-position and on thinner materials. The area of overlap with the spray
transfer proc ess occur s because a
WELDING MACHINE A
.... Z
o
::::l
w a: a:
TRANSITION CURRENT
WELDING MACHINE B
larger di amet er electro de, having a high er tran sition current, lea ves the continuou s spra y and ente rs the pulsed spray ran ge at a higher cur re nt than a sma ller electrode . Further, the usc of a lar ger diame te r e lect ro de can be continu ed do wn to a current va lue co nsiderably bel ow the tran sition curre nt associate d wi th usin g a s ma ller diam eter electrode.
TIME
Fi gu re 20-9. t' utsed .f/'m y t ransfer occ urs as 'he
cll rre ll1 is pulsed hack and [ar th between the spray transfer and the X/fllm/ar tran sfe r ellrre", ranges.
Tran sfer o n ly occurs durin g th e spray mode. Globular tran sfer is suppr essed becau se in suffici ent tim e is allowe d for globular tran sfer to occur. Co nverse ly, at the peak cur rent level, spray tran sfer is ensured by allowin g more than sufficient time for tran sfer
to occur.
Th e pul sed spray tran sfer process prod uces a higher ratio of heat input to metal deposi tion. perm its the use of a co mpletely inert gas shield where necessar y, and is essentially free from spatter. Th e pul sed spray tran sfer proce ss is characteri zed by a uniformity of root penetration that is co mparable to GTAW; becau se of thi s feature, the process ma y permit om ission of weld backin g in some cases.
GMAW - Procedu res o 221
The pu lsed spray tran sfer proc ess will not displace the short circuiting transfer process in those areas where the short circuitin g transfer process is applicable and more economical.
Pulsed Spray Transfer Welding Machines. The welding mach ine used for pul sed spr ay tran sfe r is a co ns tant vo ltage mach ine that co mbines a standard, 3l1>, full -wave unit wi th a Ill>, half-w ave un it. T he 3l1> unit is the background unit and the Ill> unit is the pul s ing uni t. T he se uni ts are co nne cted in parall e l but commutate (fo rm a unidirecti onal curre nt) in operation. The waveform of the pulsing current output determines the sequence of metal transfer. See Figure 20-10 . The units are made to switch back a nd forth in opera tio n by means of the varyi ng output voltage of the pulsing uni t. Th e diod e rectifiers in each unit alternately permit or block the passage of cu rren t dep endi ng upon whethe r there is a posit ive or negative voltage difference across their termi nals. When the pulse is OFF or its voltage is less than th e back ground vo lt age, th e d iode rectifi e rs of the background unit pass the full value of
the instanta neo us curre nt. Conve rsely, when the pulse vo ltage exceeds the back gro und vo ltage, bl ocki ng the back ground diode rectifi ers, the pulse diode rectifiers pass the fu ll value of the instantaneous current. Operation of the welding machi ne for pulsed spray transfer is similar to th at of co nventi onal co nstan t-voltage we lding mac hine s. Th e pul se peak vo ltage is determined by the welding wire type and diameter. The wire feeder is set at a value that produces the required current and is determi ned by the type and diameter of welding wire. The meters on the welding machine display the average voltage and the average curren t. See Ap pendix .
GMAWWELD DISCONTINUITIES
GMAW, like any other fonn of welding, must be controlled properly to produce cons istently high quality we lds. Welds should be analyzed to preve nt repeated weld defect s. Common discontinuit ies, such as cold lap, porosity, crater cracks, insuffic ient penetration, excessive penetration, and whiskers, may be encountered when using GMAW.
Figure 20-10. Ttie output currellt waveform of ttie pulsed .\pra y transfer we/din g machine det ermines the metal trailsfe r sequence,
u
CD
PULSE PEAK CURRENT
-_
SPRAY TRANSFER CURRENT RANG E
~. ~~ ~
T RANSITION CU RRENT
~~~
- --_ . . -
IZ
a: a: ;:)
o
TIME
Cold Lap
Cold lap usually occurs when the arc do es not mel t th e ba se metal sufficiently, causing the weld pool to flow into unwelded base metal. See Figure 20-11. Often , if the weld pool is allowed to become too large , cold lap re sults. Fo r prope r fu sion , tbe arc should be kept at the leading edge of the weld pool. Prop er arc placement prevents the weld pool from becoming too large and flowing ahead of the welding arc. To prevent cold lap, the size of the weld pool can be reduced by increasin g the trav el speed or reducing the wire feed speed.
moisture in the shielding gas; rust, paint, dirt, or oil on the base metal; or an excessive tip-to-work distance. Although porosity is categorized as surface or subsurface, it can occur throughout th e weld area. See Figure 20-12.
I]
~
.~
Cold UJp occurs if the arc does not melt the basemetal sufficiently.
Figure 20-12 . Porosity can oc cur throughout the weld area and is categorized as surfa ce or sub su rface porosity.
SUBSURFACE POROSITY
Stork Tectinimei. Inc
.~ surface porosity.
propergas shielding.
Crater Cracks
The prim ary cause of crater cracks is removing the welding gun and th e shielding gas before the weld pool has so lidified. Other po ssibl e causes of crate r cracks are moisture in the shielding gas ; rust, paint, dirt, or oil on the base me tal ; and exce ssive tip-to-work distance. See Figure 20- 13.
Figure 20 13. Crater cracks can occur if the welding Nun is removed bef ore the weld pool has solidified.
Figure 20-1 1. Cold lap occurs whe n the a rc does not melt the base me/a! suffic iently.
Poros ity
Generally, surface porosity is the direct res ult of atmos pheric contamination. Atmospheric con tami nation occurs if the shielding gas level is set either too low or too high. If the shielding gas level is too low, the air in the arc area is not fully displaced; if the shielding gas flow is too high, air turbulence is generated which prevents complete shielding. On occasion, porosity occurs if welding is performed in a wind y area. Without a protective wind shield the shielding gas envelop e may be blown away, expo sing the molt en weld pool to the con taminating effects of the air. Subsurface poro sity is ca used by remo val of -the welding gun and the shielding gas befor e th e weld pool ha s soli dified ;
Lack of Penetration
Lack of penetration (insufficient penetration) is due to a low heat input in the weld area or failure to keep the arc properly located on the leading edge of the weld pool. If the heat input is too low, increase the wire feed speed to achieve a higher current. See Figure 20-14.
.~
Do not rl~m O l'e the weld ing gu nfrom the weld area until the weld pool has solidi fled; otherwise, cracks may develop.
Ftgure 20- 14. Lack oj penetration elm result [rom low hrat illp UI 10 the weld a rea or (l failure to keep the arc located properly Oil tile teuding edge oj the weld pool.
Whiskers
Whi skers are short lengths of electrode wire sticking through the we ld joint. Wh iske rs are caused by pu sh ing the wire past the leading edge of the weld pool. A small section of wire protrudes inside the joint and becomes weld ed to the deposited metal. To remedy this defect . redu ce the travel speed, increase the tip-to-work distance slightly, or reduce the wire feed speed.
Excessive Penetration
Excessive penetrati on (melt-through) is cau sed by excessive heat in the we ld zo ne. Excessive penetration result s in a weld bead that protrudes be low the bott om of the joint. See Figure 20- 15. Redu cing the wire feed spee d lo wers the curre nt and less heat is gene rated. eliminating excessive penetration . Excessive pe ne tratio n ca n al so be prevented by increasing the travel speed. If the root o pening in the joint is too wide, melt-throu gh may result. A wide root ope ning can be compen sat ed for by increasing stickout and weaving the we lding g un.
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EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
Stor k r ,.,-/mill/,'I, /II<.'.
F ig u re 20-1 5. Red uci ng the wi re [eed speed lind increasing the tra vel .~/,eed run preven t excessive penetration.
I . GMAW is a faster weld ing process than SMAW and is easy to learn . 2 . Groove joints used with GMAW have smaller root face s, smaller root openings, and a narrower included angle , all of which reduce the joint area to require less weld metal. 3 . Keep the welding gun prop erl y positioned to en sure a uniform weld with prop er penetration . 4. Ensure that the co ntact tub e and gas nozzle orifi ces are cle an to prevent clogging, which restri cts wire feed and shielding gas flow. 5 . Do not remove the we lding gu n from the we ld area until the weld poo l has so lidified. Th e shiel ding gas prevent s cracks from developing in the molten weld pool. 6 . Short circ uiting transfer we lding is best for welding light-gau ge metal s. 7 . High current is used with spray transfer to produce a steady, quiet arc with a well-defined core within which metal tran sfer take s place. S. Cold lap occur s if the arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently. 9. Check the weld for surface porosity. Surface porosity is usually caused by improper gas shielding. 10. Do not remove the welding gun from the weld area until the weld pool has solidified; otherwise, cracks may develop. I I. Lack of penetration or excessiv e penetration is the result of failure to co ntro l heat input.
(0
224 ~ Weldin g Skills
Exercises
Depositing Beads on Mild Steel in Flat Position
eXerCiS e
I . Obta in a .035", E-70 S-3 welding wire. 2 . Insert the welding wire in the we lding gu n and set wire stickout to Vl ' to 3/ S". 3 . Set the welding machine outp ut for DeEP. 4 . Set the current at 100 A to 120 A; set voltage at 19 V to 2 1 V. 5. Set the shielding gas (ca rbon dioxide) at 20 cfh. 6. Obtain a piece of mild steel 'YIo" to 1;4" thick and 4" to
6" long.
7 . Pos ition the workpiece in flat position . 8 . Set the wire feed control so that the ammeter reads betwee n I00 A and 120 A. To obtain the correct reading, have ano ther perso n observe the current whil e welding is being performed . 9 . Set the voltage to 26 V to 28 V using the same procedure. I O. Position the we lding gun at a 90 work angle and a 10 to 15 drag angle. II. Adj ust the voltage until wire feed s prope rly and the bead is 'Yto" wide and VB' high. 12 . Deposit a series of straight, consistent beads approximate ly 3fs" apart.
WORK ANGLE DRAG ANGLE
GMA W - Procedures
225
. .. ... .. .. . . ...
exercise
.~
..
I . Complete equipment set up and adjustme n t as in Exercise 1. 2 . Obta in a piece of mild steel long .
1 / 4"
3. Position the workp iece in flat position. 4 . Position the welding gun at a 90 work angle and a J0 0 to 15 drag ang le to deposit a bead '1<" from the edge of the workpiece. The bead should be 5/ 16 " wide and VB" high. 5 . Depos it a secon d bead overlapping the first by hal f. Use an 80 to 90 work angle and a J0 0 to 15 drag angle . 6 . Deposit consistent , overlapping beads until th e workpiece is covered.
exerCise
I. Complete equipment setup and adjustment as in Exercise I. 2. Obtain two pieces of mild steel :i6' to W' thick, I 'h" wide, and 6" long. 3. Form a butt joint, with a %2" to VB" root opening, and tack weld. 4 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position. 5 . Position the welding gun at a 90 work angle and a I0 drag angle. 6. Use a slight weaving motion to control the weld pool and a travel speed that allows for co mplete penetration. 7 . Maintain the electrode on the leading edge of the weld pool to prevent whisker s. 8 . If excessive penetration occurs, lengthen the elec trode extension, dec rease the current, and/or adjust the voltage for a smoo th arc.
exerCise.
I . Complete equipment setup and adju stment as in Exercise I. 2 . Obtain two pieces of mild steel IW' wide, and 6" long.
3/ 16"
to '/l' thick,
3 . Form a lap joint and tack together. 4 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position .
5. Position the welding gun at a 45 work angle and a 10 to 15 drag angle. Use a slight weaving motion.
6. The bead face should be flat to slightly convex.
DRAG ANGLE
45'
WORK ANGLE
eXe r CiSe
I . Co mplete eq uipme nt se tup a nd adj ustme nt as in Exe rcise I. 2. Obtain two pieces of mild steel ts" to W' thick, Ph" wide, and 6" long. 3 . Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 angle and tack toge ther. 4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal position . 5 . Position the weld ing gun at a 45 work angle and a 10 to 15 drag angle. Deposit the first pass on both sides of the T-joinl. 6 . Position the weld ing gun at a 55 work angle and a 10 to 15 dra g angle. Deposit the seco nd pass on both sides of the T-joint overlapping the first pass by half. 7 . Position the weldin g gun at a 35 work angle aod a 10 to 15 drag angle. Deposit the third pass on both sides of the T-joint overl appin g the first and second passes.
Pass 1
Pass 2
Pass 3
WORK ANGLE
exerCise.
I. Complete equipment setup and adjustment as in Exercise I. 2 . Obtain two pieces of mild steel 3/16" to I;." thick, 2" wide, and 6" long. 3 . Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 angle and tack together. 4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in vertical position. 5. Position the welding gun at a 45 work angle and a 10 to 20 drag angle. 6 . Weld downhill using a slight weaving motion . Pause at the toes of the weld to prevent undercutting .
exerCise.
I. Complete equipment setup and adjustment as in Exercise I. 2. Obtain two pieces of mild steel 3/16" to 'Ii' thick, 2" wide, and 6" long. 3. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 angle and tack together. 4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in overhead position. 5 . Position the welding gun at a 45 work angle and a 5 to 10 drag angle. Deposit the first pass on both sides of the T-joint. 6 . Position the welding gun at a 500 work angle and a 5 to 10 drag angle . Deposit the second pass on both sides of the T-joint using a slight weaving motion. 7 . Position the welding gun at a 40 work angle and a 5 to 10 drag angle. Deposit the third pass on both sides of the T-joint using a slight weaving motion .
40'
exercise
e'
3/ 16 "
2. Form the proper joint and tack together. 3 . Position the workpi ece so the weld joint is in proper position . 4 . Set voltage, wire feed speed, and shielding gas flow. See Appendi x. 5 . Angle the welding gun to a 15 drag angle with a wire stickout of V2" to %". 6 . Use the pushin g technique. Use the procedures for weldin g mild steel to complete a butt joint, a lap joint, and a T-joint on aluminum.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I.
How does GMAW differ from GTAW? At what work angle should the welding gun be held for horizontal fillet welding? At what work angle should the welding gun be held for flat fillet welding? What determines whether a pullin g or pushing technique should be used ? What is the difference between spray transfer and globular transfer? Why is globular transfer ineffecti ve for welding heavy-gauge meta ls? What is meant by short circuiting transfer? For what type of welding is this most effective? What is the probable cause for the formation of cold laps in a weld? What should be don e to prevent surface porosity in a weld? How ca n crater porosity or cracks bc prevented? What should bc done if weld penetration is insufficient?
230
l'
Weldi nK Skill.'
GMAW has become an accepted process for joining all types of meta Is. Production welding can be easily mechanized with GMAW, substantially reducing manufacturing costs. Generally, the same type of equipment and welding techniques apply to all metals when welding with GMAW. GMAW can be used to weld carbon steel, aluminum, stainless steel, and copper. Welding parameters such as edge preparation, electrode diameter, shielding gas flow rate, proper current, and electrode feed speed are set based on weld requirements.
CARBON STEEL
Carbon steels can be welded uSIng s hort circui ting transfer and spray transfer. Edge preparation and joint design requirements vary depending on the thickness of the carbon steel. Steel from .035" to 1/ 8 " thick can be butt welded with no edge preparation. When welding a square butt joint on thin steel, a root opening of V16" or less is recommended . For wider openings, short circuiting transfer should be used because relatively large gaps at the root opening are more easily bridged without excessive penetration. A butt joint with no edge preparation and a 1116" to
3 / 32"
be used for carbon steel 3/16" to %" thick. Two passes are generally required to ensure complete penetration and to fill the joint. Beveling is required on steel more than W' thick. A single-V or double- V bevel with a 50 to 60 groove angle is used for carbon steel up to I" thick. A V-groove with a root opening of V:d' to %2" is necessary on carbon steel
thicker than I ". See Figure 21-1. The sequence of bead deposits for multiple pass welds is similar to SMAW. Shielding gases used with GMAW are straight CO, or an AriCO, mixture. For short circuiting transfer on carbon steels and low-alloy steel s, a 75% Ar125% CO 2 mixture is preferred. The Ar/C0 2 mixture improves arc stability and minimizes spatter. A mixture of Argon and 5% to 10% CO 2 may also be used, and results in deeper penetration with faster welding speeds . Carbon steel welding with spray transfer can be performed us ing a 95% to 98% Ar/2% to 5% 0 , mixture . Adding oxygen to the shielding gas mixture provides a more stable are, minimi zes undercutting, and permits faster travel speeds . Straight CO, may be used for high-speed production welding ; however, straight CO 2 doe s not provide a true spray transfer, but has characteristics similar to globular transfer. Straight CO 2 is typically used for globular transfer, allowing high productivity rates.
231
.. ..
~ ~
... . .
~35' TO '4'
T
- -II-- v ,,'
BUITJOINT
Ii-
-=:=J--=:J
BUITJOINT
, GREA TER
-LTHAN 1,4"
Welding parameter s such as electrode diameter. proper current and voltage. wire feed speed. and shielding gas flow are set based on the carbon steel thickn ess. See Figure 2 1-2 .
ALUMINUM
Joint design for aluminum is similar to that for steel. However. a narrow er roo t opening and lower welding curren t are reco mme nded du e to the higher fluidit y of the metal. Generally. a luminum '/ 8 " thi ck or mor e can be welded using GMAW. However. some we lders may be able to we ld thinner sectio ns. Argo n gas is the preferred shielding gas fo r GMAW on alum inum up to I" thick becau se it provide s better met al tran sfer and arc stability with less spatter. In flat positio n we lding of 1100 and 3003 aluminum. the addit ion of a small amou nt of ox yg en to the argo n increases spray transfer a nd improve s co alescen ce (flow of metal s together) . Wh en welding aluminum bet ween 1" and 2" t hick . a mixture of 90 % ArlI 0% He prov ides the hi gh er heat inpu t possib le wi th helium and the good clean ing action ob ta ined wit h argo n.
/11 the GMA \V process. a consumable win' electrode is fed into tI weld pool tha t is protected by (I shielding gas that complctrlv covers ttw weld pool.
Electrode
,030 ,030 ,035 ,035 ,035 ,035 ,035 ,045 ,035 ,045 ,035 ,045
Diilm!!te~ :~ ~ "
Travel Speed
12 - 20 18 - 22 35 - 40 35-40 30 - 35 25 - 30 20 -25 27 -32 14 - 19 18 - 22 11 - 15 12 - 18
Figure 21-2. Weld inJ: parameters should he set bas ed on carbon steel thickn ess.
Using short circuiti ng transfer on alum inum produces a cold er arc than is produced with spray transfer, permitting the weld pool to solidify rapidly , This action is especially useful for vertical , overhead, and horizontal welding, and for welding thin aluminum , When using GMAW in vertical position , a downhill tec hnique is pre ferred , Welding parameters such as edge preparation , electrode diameter, argon flow, proper cur rent and voltage, and el ectrod e feed spe ed for s ho rt circuiting transfer should be set ba sed on alumin um thickne ss , See Fig ure 21 -3, Spray transfer on aluminum is especially suitable for thick sections, With spray transfer, more heat is produced to melt the electrode and the base metal, Vertical , hori zontal , and overhead
welds are typica lly more difficult with spray tran sfer than with short circuiting tran sfer. Welding parameters such as edge preparation, electrode diameter, argon flow, proper current and voltage, and electrode feed speed for spray transfer should be set based on alum inum thic kness, See Figure 2 1-4,
A rgo n gas is the prefe rred shielding gas for GMA W on alumin um up to 1"
thick because it pro -
STAINLESS STEEL
Stai nless stee l was initially deve loped to prevent rusting and corrosion that occured wi th carbon steel, Stain les s steel is produced to a hig her quality level than carbon steel s and has fewer impurit ies, making it a reliable materia l for welding, On stainless steel l/l' thick or more, the weld ing gun sho uld be moved back-and-forth with a s light side- to- side mov ement.
GMAW - Applications
233
Voltage
30 15 15 15
40 50 60 90
15 15 15 15
tight Butt
Fillet or
tight Butt
Fillet or
tight Butt
tin c1h
I in amps in votls II in Ip!Tl (approximale)
Fia u re 21-3. Weldi ,,!: parame ters for short circuiting transf er
01 1
thin
0IUIII ; II I1111
011
aluminu m thickness.
Voltage
0/ ..
35
180
24
.250
%0
0/ ..
40 35
250 220
26 24
Single-Y butt
Y16
40
280
27
.375
40
260
26
V16
50
270
26
Single-Y butt
50
310
27
(75' grooveangle
Y16" root face). No
V16
50
300
27
'"
volts
0 11
01 1
Th in stainles s steel is best welded with a slig ht back-and-forth mot ion along the joint. See Figure 21-5. The forehand technique is generally used for welding stainless steel.
SIDETOSIDE MOTION
DIRECTION OF WELDIN G
Quality welds can be produced on stainless steel using the spray transfer process with a '116" diameter electrode and high current. DCEP with Argon and I % to 2% 0 2 may be used for spray transfer on stainless steel. Welding parameters such as edge preparation, electrode diamet er, shieldin g gas flow , proper curre nt, electrode feed speed , welding spe ed, and welding passes for spray transfer should be set based on stainless steel thickn ess. See Figure 21-7 . Copper backing bars should be used when welding stainless stee l up to '11 6" thick. Precaution s mu st b e taken to prevent air from reaching the undersid e of the weld while the weld pool is solidifying becau se oxygen and nitrogen in the air will embrittle the weld. To prevent air from contacting the underside of the weld, an 'argon back-up gas is often used.
When using GMA W on stainless steels, proper ventilation is necessary to remove the fu mes emitted.
COPPER
Figure 21-5. When usi ng GMAW to wel d stainless
steel plates, (/ slight weaving mot ion is used.
Man y of the ch aracteri stic s of stainless steel, such as its corros ion resistance, sensitivity to heat, and low thermal and e lec trical conductivity, can be controlled once a welder understands how weldin g affec ts the se characteri stics. Properl y identifying the type of stainless steel and its particul ar characteri stics is nece ssary to determine which characteristics to contro l during welding . When using GMAW on stainless steels, proper ventilation is neces sary due to the fumes given off by the metal. Short circuiting transfer can be used on thin stainless steel in overh ead or vert ical posit ion. Welding parameters suc h as edge preparation , elect rode diameter, shie ld ing gas flow , proper current and voltage, elec trode feed speed, welding spee d, and welding pa sse s for short circuiting transfer should be set based on stainless steel thickness. See Figure 21-6 .
Using GMAW on copper is usually restricted to the deoxidized types of copper. Welding electrolytic copper is not advisable because of the potential for embrittlement exhibited by such welds. Argon is preferred as the shielding gas for thin copper. For copper I" thick or more, a mixture of 65% He/35% Ar is recommended. Steel backing bars are required for welding copper '18" thick or less. Preheating is not necessary for copper Va" thick or le ss. Preheating at 400 F (204C) is advisabl e on sec tions 3/8 " thick or mo re. Welding parameters such as ed ge preparation, elec tro de diameter, proper current and voltage, electrode feed speed , and weld in g speed should be set based on copp er thicknes s. See Figure 21-8.
Steel backing bars are req uired for welding copper %"
thick or less.
Filler metals tha t can be used to weld copper are specified in ANS/IAWS A5.6. Specification s for Covered Copper and Coppe r Alloy Arc Welding Electro des.
Metal Thickness"
.063 .063 .078 .078 .093 .125
lOin.
Electrode Diameter'
.030 .030 .030 .030 .030 .030
Gas Flowt
12- 30 12 - 30 12- 30 12 - 30 12 - 30 12 - 30
DCEP Current*
85 85 90 90 105 125
Voltage
15 15 15 15 17 17
fillet or lap
Squa re Bun Non-positioned
fillet or lap
Non -positioned
Iillet or lap
t in volts
II
*in amps
in ipm
t cO 2 in clh
Oil
stainless stee l
~'''oilld
be set base d
0"
Edge Preparation
Squa re butt with backing
Electrode Diameter*
V16
Gas Flow
351
DCEP Current*
200 - 250
Voltage
24
.250
V,6
351
250 -300
25- 26
150 - 200
15
.375
Y1&
(1%- 2)
275 -325
25- 26
225-250
20
root face
.500
""
" "
(1%-0 2)
300- 350
26-27
75 -85
3-4
.750
Single-V butt (90 ' groove angle) Y '6" root face Single-V butt (90 ' groove angle) 1/16" root face
(1%- 2)
350 -375
25- 27
85 -95
5 -6
1.000
In In.
t m cth ~ in amps
(1%-02)
350 -375
25 -27
85 -95
7 -8
Flg ure 21-7. WehlinK parameters f or spray transf er 0" swill/en steel should be set based on stainless steel thickness.
COPPER
DCEP
.
Voltag,,* 27 26 26 27 27 27 27 Electrode Feed Speed 200 135 150 150 170 165 180 Welding Speed 30 20 20 14 14 12 10
Electrode Diameter'
V,6
currentt
310 460 500 500 550 540 600
.<>
Squa re Butt Doubl e bevel, 90 ' groove angle , 0/16" root face Doubl e bevel , 90 ' groove ang le, 0/16" root face Doub le bevel , 90 ' groove angle, Y,," root face Dou ble beve l, 90' groove angle, V .." root face
"
32
"
.<> .<>
In lfI .
011
COf'PeT thickness.
I. Welding parameters are set based on the thickness of the metal used. 2. Argo n gas is the preferred shielding gas for GM AW on aluminum up to I" thick because it provides better metal tran sfer and arc stability with less spatter. 3 . When using GMAW on sta inless stee ls, proper ve ntilation is necessary to rem ove the fumes emitte d. 4 . Steel backin g bars are required for welding copper '/8" thick or less. 5 . Preheating cop per at 400F (204C) is adv isable on sect ions %" thick or more.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
When welding ca rbon steels, what thickness range may be butt we lded with no edge prepa ration') What type of joi nt is required for carbon stee l greater than I" thick? What shielding gas mixture is recommended for welding carbon stee ls? Why is spray transfe r preferred for welding thick sections of alumi num? Which technique should be used for GMAW in vertical position ? Wh at type of backin g is requi red when welding stainless steel? What type of backing is required when welding co pper? Wh en sho uld preh eating be used on co pper?
GMAW - Applications
237
sec t i o n
six
The fl ux cored arc welding (FCAW) process was developed in the 1950.1'. It is an arc welding process similar to GMAW in that it uses a continuously fe d electrode. FCAW has become more commonly used as a result of developments and improvements in welding machines. wire feed systems, andfluxes. Welding guns equipped with fum e extractors have also improved FCAW welding conditions. FCAW can be used to weld carbon steels, low-alloy steels, various stainless steels. and some cast irons. Self-shielded fl ux cored arc welding (FCAW-S) is a variation of FCAW in which the shielding gas is provided solely by the flux materia l within the electrode. FCAW-S is commonly used on medium thicknesses ofmetal and can be used for all-position welding. Gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G) is an FCAW variation that produces high-quality welds at a lower cost and with less effort than SMA IV. FCAW-G generally pro duces a deeper penetrating weld than FCAW-S.
of the electrode consum ed during the welding process. This reduced the cost of the welding process by eliminati ng the need for additional shie lding gas an d its accompanyi ng eq ui pment. Shield ing gas is used in the FCAW-G proce ss for increased penetrati on and filler metal deposition . The two var iatio ns for app lying FCAW are self-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCA W-S) and gas-shie lded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G).
Self-sh ielded fl ux
Fi~ul"e 22-1. I" I:CAW-S, a tubular electrode containing fl ux ingredi('flU is used to produce II gaseous shie ld around till' wel d pool .
FCAW EQUIPMENT
CONTACT TIP FLUX COR ED ELECTRODE FLUX CORE GAS EOUS SLAG
~ " ~
o
0
o o o o o o
MOLT EN METAL
( FCA W-G) is a n FCAW va r ia tio n in wh ich the s hie ld ing is o bta ine d from both the CO, gas flowing from the gas no zzl e a nd from the flux core of the electrode. FCAW-G is commonly performed in flat or horizontal po sition . With sma ll-diame ter electrodes, vertical or ove rhea d welding ma y be possible.
Advantages of FCAW
Th e FC AW process co mb ines the be st qualities of SMAW, SAW, and GMAW. FC AW use s fl ux age nts th at di ssol ve ox ides and remove detrim ental material s fro m the weld area. The FCAW proce ss provides the we lde r with the capabilit y to weld c o n tin oo us ly for lon g period s. FCAW produce s a quality weld with less effort than SMAW, and is more flexible than SAW. Some additional benefit s of FCAW include the foll owing: re q u ires le ss precl eaning than GM AW prod uces less distortion than SMAW p rod uce s smooth, unifo rm be ad s wit h an ex ce lle nt weld appea ra nce has a high deposit ion rat e is ca pa ble of relativel y high tra vel s pe e ds weld s a variety of steels and a wide ran ge o f metal thi ckn esses
FCA lV produces a qual it y we ld at lower ( 'OJ' with less effort 'han SMA ~V. nd is more flexible than SAW
Equ ip me nt for FC AW is si milar to that used for GM AW. A we lding machine, welding gun, wire feeder, and flux cored elec tro de a re required . Add itio na lly, for FCAW-G, shielding gas and a shielding gas supply sys tem are required. Th e welding equipment can be desig ned for se m ia uto ma tic or mechanized op eration. With se m ia uto ma tic equipment, the welder moves a hand held we lding gun along the we ld joint. With mechanized equipment, the o pe ra tor m ak e s eq u ip me nt adj us tme nts as required while o bse rv ing the welding operatio n. See Fig ure 22-2 . So me FCAW wires give off fluorides which ca n bu m the skin and irritate the nostril s a nd eyes. Re spiratory eq uipment mu st be used . Stand ard sho p ventilation systems may not be capable of elimi natin g the s mo ke produ ced by FCAW welding. A fum e extrac tion system is used to protect workers and to remove smoke from the wo rk area. A fume extractor may be attached to a flexible ho se arm th at ca n be mo ved near the wo rk are a or to a separa te ve ntilation sys tem within the sho p. See Figure 22 -3. Wh er e smoke an d fumes are not a problem for other workers, the welder may use a per son al ve ntila tion sys tem to protect again st fumes. Specially designed we ld ing guns are a lso av a ila ble th at have a built-in vent ilation sys te m to ev ac uate smo ke from the weld area, prot ecting the weldin g process and providin g ma ximum visibility. FCAW-S ma y be used in the field und er windy cond itio ns that will remove the smoke from the we ld area.
FI"xcored arc welding (FCAlV) is "sed for many of the same weldin g applicalion s that use gas metal arc we/din g (GMAlV) or shielded metal arc weld-
ing (SMA IV). IVilh FCAIV, higher deposition m I l'S are p ossibl e, 'here is flO stub loss, and less time is wasted switching electrodes.
Figure 22-2. FCAn' equipment consists of a DC welding muvhinr. (I wire feeder, weldin g cables, and a weldin!: g un, Additionally. " flowmeter. xhj(,/ ding ga.~ regulator, and sliiddillg gas are required for f"CAWG.
Welding Machines
Weld ing machi ne s used for FCAW mu st be ca pa ble of th e hi gh er currents and voltages requ ired co mpared to GMAW. Ty pica lly, a DC current . co nsta nt-v oltage we lding machine is used for both FCAW-S and FCAW-G. See Figure 22-4. A co nstant-voltage we ld ing ma c hi ne can ma intain a co nstant arc
A I >CCWTl'1I1, constantvoltu ge welding 1/1(/ clti nc is tYl'icall.v II ,H '" f o r FCAW-S and FCAW-G.
lengt h, delivering more current to the wor k to melt the elec trode faster and mo re co nsistently than othe r we lding mach ines. When using AC current, a
c ons tant-c urrent weldin g machi ne is
within
(I
.\)'.\'1(' 11I
in a sho/,_
commonly used. Weld requirem ent s dete rmine the type of welding machine selected for a particular application. The welding machine must be able to handle the largest size and type electrode required for the application. Large-diameter flux cored electrodes can require up to 650 A.
Flux Cored Arc Weld il1M (FCAW)
l' 241
Figure 22-4. The welding machine used f or fl ux cored arc welding is tYf)icafly a cons tant-voltage wetd ing machine, similar to that used [ar GM;\\.
visibility of the weld and reduce air pollution of the welding environment, but also add weight and bulk to the welding gun . Properly set fume extractors do not remove shielding gas from the weld area. Shielding gas, if used, is controlled by the same type of equipment used for GMAW.
Welding Gun
The welding gun selected is determined by the type of FCAW process used, and the highest current required for welding.
The flux in a flux cored electrode includes ionizers to s tabiliz e the ar e, deoxidizers to purge the deposits of gas and slag, and other metals to produc e strong, ductile, and tough weld deposits.
The welding gun selected is determined by the FCA W process (FCAW-S or FCAW-G) being used, and the highest current required for welding. The welding gun must be capable of delivering the electrode, current, and shielding gas, to the weld area; and circulating cooling water (if required) through the system. The types of welding guns available include pistol grip, air-cooled, and water-cooled. Pistol grip welding guns provide for straighter feeding of large-diameter electrode wire than other types of welding guns. Air-cooled welding guns are used with low current and low duty cycles . Water-cooled welding guns are used when welding with high current or high duty cycles . Generally, welding applications that require greater than 600 A require a water-cooled gun and a water-coolant system to prevent overheating. A welding gun used for FCAW-S requires a metal shield to protect the welder from heat and spatter from the weld metal. FCAW-S welding guns do not have a shielding gas nozzle, allowing greater access to the weld joint. See Figure 22-5. Some FCAW welding guns have fume extractors to remove smoke and/ or toxic fumes caused by the welding process. Fume extractors increase the
Ftgure 22-5 . An FeA W-S weld ing gun has an insuiated no zzl e rip, a metal shield to pro tect the welder f rom slag and spat/cr. and a trigger 10 start and stop welding.
. _.
AWS Classification EXXT-l EXXT-2 EXXT-3 EXXT-4 EXXT-5 EXXT-6 EXXT-7 EXXT-8 EXXT-l 0 EXXT-l 1 EXXT-G EXXT-GS
Welding Current ,
"
Shielding A,CO, A,-CO, None Non e A,- CO, None None None None None
Single o r MUltil1le Pass Multiple Single Single Multiple Multipl e Multiple Multiple Multiple Sinqle Multiple Multiale Single
Figure 22-6. Electrodes are etas!lifted by a letter lind number comhination. which reflects the ideal conditions under which the electrode should be " sed.
DC EP DCEP DCEP DCEP DCEPOR DCEN DCEP DCEN DCEN DCEN DCE N
Ionizers in the flux stabilize the arc. Deoxidizers purge the weld deposit of gas and slag. Other metals in the flux help to produce stro ng, duc tile , and tough weld deposits. As the flux generates the gas shield, it also produ ces a slag cover ing that retard s the cool ing rate and protect s the weld deposit from contaminants as it solidifies. Care must be taken when welding multiple pass welds to prevent buildup of deoxidi zin g age nts in the we ld . Buildup of deoxidizing age nts can result in lower ductility of the weld. The e lectrode size and base metal thickn ess determine weldi ng par ameters such as current, wire feed speed, and shie lding gas flow required . See Figure 22-7. FCAW-S requires higher current level s than othe r weld ing processes. Proper e lectrode extens io n must be used throu ghout welding to maintain the requ ired current. Proper elec trode ex tensio n allo ws the e lectro de to be preheated as it passes through the contact tip, melting the flux material and producing the shielding gas . Proper e lectrode e xten sion is based on the specifica tions for a part icul ar appli cation. If imp roper electro de ex tensio n is used , the flux will not be properl y preheated and will not melt as it reaches the arc. Improper elec trode extension can also Icad ,to porosity in the weld.
,
A flux cored electrode can be used with or without CO, as a shielding gas, with DCEP or DCEN, and for single or multiple pass welding in either flat or horizont al positi on , de pending on the type of electrode used. Alth ough most FCAW is performed using DCEP, some electrode s may be designed specifically for use with DCEN . Carbon dioxide is used as a shielding gas for FCAW, and many electrodes are manufactured specifically for use with CO" If an argon shield ing gas mixture is specified, the electrode used must be compatible, If an electrode not specifica lly designed for use with a shielding gas mixture is used, deoxidizers could remain in weld deposit , producin g an unacc ept ab le weld .
tiple pass welds. can' must he taken to pre\' l'111 buildup ofdeox idizing agents ill the weld. Bu ildu p of deoxidizin g agen ts elm result ;11 lower ductility ofthe weld.
Are
Wire
$Ili!;ilplng
35 35 35 35 35 35 35 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 2 5 -30 25 -35 20 -30 15 -20 18 - 20 14 - 18 14 - 18
,
V. % \I, %
%
24 - 26 24 - 28 24 -28 28 - 30 25 - 28 25 - 28 25 - 28
100 - 12 0 120 -1 50 120-1 50 180 - 210 150 - 170 150 -1 70 150 - 170
,
1 1 1 1 2-3 2 -3 5 -6
% t0 1% % to 1 % % t0 1Y2
Electrode Size *
3 Fililt Position , ,
ili_
:
.
27 29 26 30 25 32 33 34
Horizontal Position 3
(currentrt
.045
V16
~l5:!l!'l!"1!1~" JY2tf,!g~~
150 17 5 175 2 00 175 300 22 5 275 325 375 3 15 45 0 22 - 26 25 - 28 24 - 26 26 30 22 24 25- 30
(voltage)
22 - 25 24 -27
%
'In m
22 24 24 25 23 25 26 28 -
17 5 17 5 225 225 25 23
29 25
-
t in amps t in ipm lor FCAW-G. in cubic feet per hour (cfh) 1 lor groove and f illet welds . Material thickness also indicates Iillet si ze . Use V g roove tor W' and thicker doubre-v for '1:/ ' and thicker
2 weld ing gra de CO 2 3 appl ies 10 groove, bead. o r fillet welds in posit ion s how n 4 cur re nt ra nge ca n be expanded. Higher currents can be us ed . especially w ith automat ic trav el 5 voltag e ra nge ca n be expanded. It will incre ase whe n hig he r electrode-to-work dista nc e is used
Figure 22-7 . Flux cored arc welding conditions must be properly main tained; and are determined by the electrode size and the materia l thickness.
Wire Feeder
The wire feeder used with FCAW is de, tennined by the wire feed speed and the size of the electrode. The wire feeder pro vide s a constant. pre set feed speed into the welding arc. As with GMAW. the wire feed speed determines the weld, ing current that a constant-voltage weld, in g machine suppli es, Increasin g or decreasing the wire feed speed on the wire feeder changes the welding current. For some applications , a con stan t, current welding machin e may be used with a voltage-sen sing wire feeder that varies the wire feed speed depending upon th e ar c length between the unmelted electrod e and the base metal. A pu sh ty pe wire feeder is most commonly used because of the rigid, ity of the flu x cored electro de. The wire feede r dri ve roll s used for flux core d eleclrodes greater than '116" in diam eter are knurled to prevent slippage when resistance from long or bent welding cables occurs. Wire feeder s may be equipped with two or four drive rolls, Constant-speed
A CAUTION
Elec trodes se lec ted for FCAW must be co mpa t ible with the shie lding gas used .
wire feeders typically hav e two drive roll s that grasp the electrode and push it through the welding gun. Wh en a large-diameter electrode is required , a four-drive-roll wire feeder is commonly used . A four-drive-roll wire feeder pro' vide s smooth feedi ng of the electrode by providing a straightening effect.
Shielding Gas
Carbon dioxid e is commonly used as a shielding gas because it yields deep pen, etration, has good impact properties, and produces less smoke and fume s Ihan other gases. CO 2 is also one of the least expen sive shield ing ga ses available, makin g it a cos t-e ffec tive ga s for FCAW,G . Required gas flo w rates vary dep ending on Ihe electrode type, electrode exten sion , joint de si gn, air movement around the weld, etc. Gas now rates can range from 35 cfh to 45 efb , Shielding gas cy linders , a regul a, tor and gas flowmeter, and welding cabl e s to deliver the sh ie ld ing gas (and coolant if required) ar e used to deliver the shielding gas to the weld
to he used with CO2 and are intended for hif.{h current densities.
area. A water-coolant system may be used whe n we lding at cu rre nt lev els above 500 A to pre vent high temperatures from developin g durin g welding. The flowmeter should be regu larly inspected to prevent ic ing up at hig h now rates. High volum e regulators or heater-equipped regu lators help prevent icing up as wel l. Ici ng up of the regulator ca n allow moisture to ent er the weld area and cause poro sity. G as mi xture s s uc h as a n argo nca rbon dioxide (Ar-CO,) mixture may be used for FCAW. A common mixture is 75 % Ar and 25% CO, . An Ar-CO , mixture may be used for out-of-position we ldin g and when high tensi le and yield strengths are required. An Ar-CO, mixture provides better arc characteristic s for out-of-position welding. When welding on stainless steel using FCAW, a 98% Ar/2% a, shielding gas mixture may be used. Th e ex te rnall y supplied shielding gas mixture works with ga s prod uced by the nu x cored electrode to shield the arc.
Argon and other gases are odorless. Odorle ss gases may go undetected and di splace oxygen in enclosed spaces . Always check for leaks prior to use and use proper ve nti lati o n w he n usin g shielding gases.
FCAW APPLICATIONS
FCA W co mbines the produ cti on e ffici enc y of GMAW and the pen et ration and depositi on rate s of SM AW. In additi on, FCAW is useful w he n shielding gas is unav ailabl e. Th e most c om mo n application of FCAW is struc tura l fabrication . High deposition rates achieved in a single pass mak e FCAW popular in the railroad, shipbuilding, and aut om oti ve indu stri es. FCAW can be used in all position s with th e prop er e lect rode a nd require d shielding gas. FCAW can be used to weld carbon steels , low -alloy stee ls, various stainless stee ls, and some cast irons.
\VIW flstraight CO , is "o f used as a s!lieid;118 gasfor FCAlV, Cl com mo" gas mixture is 75% Ar125CJc. COy
I . Self-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-S) is an FCAW variation in whieh shielding gas is provided exclusively by the flu x within the electrode . 2 . Gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G) is an FCAW variation in which the shielding is obtain ed from both the CO, gas flo wing from the gas no zzle and from material cont ained within the flux core of the electrode. 3 . FCAW produces a qua lity weld at lower cost with less effort than SMAW, and is mor e tlexibl e than SAW. 4 . A DC c urr ent, co nstant-voltage we ld ing machine is typi ca lly use d fo r FC AW-S and FCA W-G. 5 . T he we lding gun selected is det ermined by the type of FCA W process use d. and the highest current required for weldin g. 6 . Th e flu x in a flu x co red elec trode includes ionizers to stabilize the arc, deoxidi zers to purge the deposits of gas and slag, and other metals to produce high strength, duct ility, and toughness in weld deposits. 7 . Ca re must be taken to prevent buildup of deoxidizin g agent s in the weld. Buildu p of deoxidi zing agents can result in lower ductil ity of the weld. 8 . Flux cored e lec trodes are typ ically designed to be used with CO, and are intended for high curre nt de nsities. 9. When straight CO, is not used as a shieldi ng gas for FCAW, a common gas mixture is 75% Ar/25% CO" ~
'. Exercises
Depositing Beads on Mild Steel in Flat Position
I. 2. 3. 4. 5.
exercjse
Obtain a 3/d', E70T-I flux cored electrode. Feed the electrode through the wire feeder to the welding gun and set the electrode extension between 1" and llf2". Set the welding machine output for DeEP. Set the shielding gas (carbon dioxide) at 40 cfh, Set the wire feed control so that the ammeter reads between 390 A and 410 A. To obtain the correct reading, have another person observe the current while welding is being performed. Set the voltage to 26 V to 28 V using the same procedure as in step 5. Obtain a piece of mild steel Vz" to I" thick, 4" wide, and 6" long. Position the workpiece in flat position. Position the welding gun at a 90 work angle and a 200 to 30 drag angle.
6. 7. 8. 9.
10. Maintain a bead that is approximately s;." wide and l/S" to II," high . II . Deposit a series of straight, consistent beads approximately "Is" apart.
END VIEW
FRONT VIEW
(WORK ANGLE)
(DRAG ANGLE)
246
Weldin!! Skills
exerCise
Complete equipment setup and adj ustment as in Exercise I. Obtain two pieces of mild steel %" to I" thick, 2" wide, and 6" long. Form a lap joint and tack together. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position. Position the welding gun at a 45 work angle and a 20 drag angle. Deposit the first pass on both sides of the lap joint. Use a weaving motion and depo sit the second pass on both sides of the lap jo int. Pause at the toes of the weld to prevent undercutting. Depo sit the third pass on both sides of the joint using the same procedure as for the second pas s.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
45 '
/"
i ! 1------,-------" 1
END VIEW (WORK ANGLE) FRONT VIEW (DRAG ANGLE)
0 247
exerCise.
I. Complete equipment setup and adjustment as in Exercise I. 2. Obtain two pieces of mild steel %" to I" thick, 2" wide, and 6" long. 3. Form a T-joint with the workpieces at a 90 0 angle and tack together. 4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal position. 5. Position the welding gun at a 45 work angle and a 20 drag angle and deposit the first pass on both sides of the T-joint. 6. Position the welding gun one electrode diameter below the bottom toe of the root bead and deposit the second pass on both sides of the T-joint using a 50 0 to 60 work angle and a 20 drag angle. 7. Deposit the third pass on both sides of the T-joint using a 30 to 40 work angle and a 20 drag angle.
30T040'
\
Pass 1 Pass 2 ENDVIEW (WORK ANGLE) Pass 3
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
What is the basic difference between FCAW and GMAW? What type of welding machine is most commonly used for FCAW? How does flux protect the weld metal from contaminants? Why is the push-type wire feeder used for FCAW? What equipment is required for the FCAW-S process? Why must buildup be prevented when using flux cored electrodes? What equipment is required for the FCAW-G process? Why is CO 2 preferred as a shielding gas for FCAW-G? How are electrodes selected for FCAW-G?
Brazing and soldering differ fro m welding in that jo ining occu rs when fi ller metal is added at temperatures below the melting point of the metals j oined. Soldering also uses nonf errous fi ller metals with melting tempera tures below 840F (450C). Braze welding is slightly different f rom conventional brazing. In braze welding. fill er metal is deposited in standard weld joints. Capillary action is not afactor in distribution of the fill er metal. Braze we/ding is adaptable for joining or repairing metals such as cast iron, malleable iron. copper; and brass. Braze welding can also be used to join dissimilar metals such as cast iron and steel.
BRAZING
Bra zing (B ) is a group of joining pro-
cesse s that produce a coalescence of metals using nonferrous filler metals that have a meltin g point below that of the base metal. Filler metals suitable for brazing are those that begin to melt, or cbange to a liquid state, above 840F (450 C). During brazing, the jo ined metals remain in a solid state. Filler metal is distributed between the closely lilted surfaces of the joint by capillary action. Capillary action is the force that distributes liquid filler metal throu gh surface tension betwee n the faying surfaces of the joint. The faying .surface is the point of contact betwee n two members to be joi ned. Most metal s can be brazed, including co pper and cop per alloys , stainless stee ls. magn esiu m a lloys, alumi n um alloys. carbon and low-alloy steels. cast irons, titanium and titanium alloys. and zirco nium and zirconium alloys. Brazing is also used for j oining di ssimilar met als. One excepti on is that copper and copper alloys cannot be brazed directly to aluminum or aluminum alloys. Most brazed jo ints have a relati vely high ten sile strength. but they do not possess the full strength properties produ ced by other welding techniques.
A charac te ristic of brazing is that the properties of the HAZ are not impa ired during brazing because lower bonding temperatures are used than in welding. For so und bra zed joints the followin g requirements must be met : Use proper joint design to allow capillary action of the filler metal and adequate surface area. Use proper surface preparation to ens ure wetting of sur faces by the filler metal. Use co rrec t fluxes for a co ntro lled atm osphere and to pre vent surface ox ida tio n. Use co rrect fille r met al, whic h should meet AWS standards when possibl e. Use prop er heat ing equipment to provide spec ified brazi ng temperature and heat distribution . Addit ion all y, for br azin g, the fol lowin g criteria arc necessary: Parts are joined without melting of the base metal. Fill er me tal be gin s to melt abo ve 840 F (45 0C) . Filler metal wets the base metal and is drawn into. or held in. the joint by capillary act ion.
249
Use the lowest effective brazing temperatures to minimize grain growth, warpage, ami hardness reduction.
Brazing filler metal must be molten before it flows into a joint. The melting temperature of filler metals varies depending on the type of filler metal. Filler metal must have a liquidus temperature lower than the solidus temperature of the base metal. Liquidus temperature is the temperature at which a metal is completely molten. Solidus temperature is the highest temperature that a metal can reach and remain in a solid state. The lowest effective brazing temperatures possible should be used to minimize the effects of heat on the base metal. Excess heat on the base metal can cause grain growth, warpage, and hardness reduction.
Joint Design
Joint design/or bra zing is ba sed on the adh esiv e qualities of thefiller metal and on joint clearance.
Joint design is based on adhesive qualities of the filler metal. Two joints used for brazing are the lap joint and butt joint. A lap joint is commonly used because it offers a large surface area for
the greatest strength. For maximum efficiency, the overlap should equal or exceed three times the thickness of the thinnest member. The main drawback of a lap joint is that metal thickness at the joint is increased. For joint design purposes, T-joints and comer joints are treated as butt joints. A butt joint does not provide the same strength as a lap joint because its cross-sectional area is equal only to the cross-sectional area of the thinnest member. Higher strengths can be achieved by scarfing the edges; however, greater care is required to prepare the joint and keep the pieces aligned. The strength of a butt joint can be improved using a sleeve. See Figure 23-1. Joint design is also based on joint clearance. Joint clearance has a major effect on the mechanical properties of a brazed joint. Surfaces that fit too tightly together hinder the flow of molten filler metal.
Ftgure 23-1. Lap joints and butt joints are used for brazing. Edges of the joint may be scarfed to at rain higher joint strength.
.. .-.
LAP
t d
SCARFED EDGE
SLEEVE
Low Stress
t
BUTT
f
High Stress
Surfaces that fit too loosely at the joint prevent the full effects of capillary action , lea ving voids and poor distribution of filler metal. Adeq uate joint clearance is in the range between .001" and .010". Recommended joint clearances vary with the type of filler metal used. See Figure 23-2. When welding dissimilar metals, particular attention must be paid to joint design, as all metals ha ve different expansion rates . Vary ing expansion rates must be considered if parts are to be clamped , fitted to gether, or restrained in a jig.
or wire brushing. The method used depends on the contaminants, the joint design, and type of metal to be brazed. When cleaning the surface, prevent wearing the faying surfaces too smooth. If the faying surfaces are too smooth, filler metal will not be ab le to effectively wet the joint. Smooth sur faces can be roughened by rubbing with a 3D-grit (coarse) or 40-grit emery cloth. Brazing shou ld be performed as soon as the metal is cleaned to prevent contaminat ion from atmos pheric exposure or handling.
Surfaces to be brazed m ust he completely free of oil. grease, dirt, and oxide.
a
BA1Si
Fig ure 23~2. An ac cu rate join t cl earan ce is necessary for opti mum strength of brazed joints.
BCuP
BAg BAu
BCu BCuZn
BMg BNi
.002 - .008 .008- .010 .001 - .005 .002 - .005 .001 - .0021 .002 - .005 .000 - .0021 .000 - .0021 .002 - .005 .004- .010 .002 - .005 .000 - .002
For la len th less than %" For lap len th reater than Y4" No flux and flux brazing Flux brazin Gas phase (atmos phere) braz ing Flux brazing Gas phase (atmosphere) braz ing Gas phase (atmosphere) braz ing Flux brazing Flux braz ing Flux or gas phase (atmosphere) brazing Free flowin g or gas phase (atmosphere) brazing
in in. t joint clearanc e on the radius when rings, plugs , or tubular members are used. Use recommended clearance on the diameter to preven t excessive clearance when all the clearance is on one side. Exces sive clea rance produ ces voids espec ially in gas phase bra zing ; for maximum strength , use a press fit of .001 in .lin . of diameter
251
Alway....use an approprime filler metal and flux that is recommended for the metal to he bra-rd.
ox ide during the brazing process. Flu x is not inte nde d to rem ove co nta mina tio n th at is already pre sent on metal, such as din , grease, and oil. See Figure 23-3. A stopoffis a material used to outline areas tha t are not to be br a zed . Stopoffs co nsist of various compounds made into slurries that effectively preve nt the ingress of filler metal. Th e flu x used for bra zin g must readily promote th e fluidity of the fille r metal. Equally important is its surface te nsion, since thi s affects the wettabilit y of the base metal a nd its flow in the joint. Fi na lly, a flux mu st last lon g e no ug h to cou nterac t a ny react ive e ffe c ts de v elo ped d uring br a zing. Some bra zing filler me tal s a re preeoated with a flu x. Flux is a vaila ble in powd er, paste , o r liquid fo rm . Flu xe s mu st be se lect ed to su it a parti cu lar metal. Paste flu x a nd powder flux a re co m mo nly
used fo r bra zi ng. Past e fl u x can be a pp lied to a joi nt before b razing and pro vides good adherence. Powder flux is sprinkled on the joint or applied to the heat ed end of th e filler me tal by d ipping the fi lle r me tal into the flux co nta ine r. Se e Figure 23-4 . A liquid flu x is use d mostl y fo r tor ch brazing. The fuel gas is passed throu gh the liquid f1o x, whi ch carries the flu x along and dep osit s it wherever the flam e is appli ed . Con trolled A tmos p he re, A contro lled atmo sphe re may also be used to preve nt the for ma tio n of o xides dur in g bra zing. In a controlled atmos phere, a gas is co nt inuo usly su pp lie d to a fu rn ace a nd c irc u lat ed a t s lig h t ly higher than atmospheric pressures. Th e ga s use d ma y consi st of hi gh -purity h yd ro g en , c a r b o n di o xide , c a r b o n mon oxid e, nitrogen , argo n, ammo nia, or so me form of co rnbus ted fue l gas.
BRAZING FLUX
AWS Brazing Flux '
1
Base Metals
All brazeable aluminum alloys All brazeable magnesiu m alloys All except those listed under 1, 2, and 4
Filler Metals!
BAtSi
Useful Range*
700 -1 190 900 - 1200
Flux Agent
Chlorides Fluorid es Chloride s Fluorides Boric Acid Borates Fluorides Fluoroborates Wetting Agent Boric Acid
Available as:
Powder Powder
BMg
3A
BCuP, BAg
1050 -1600
3B
All except those listed under 1, 2, and 4 Aluminum bronze, aluminum brass and iron or nickel base alloys containing minor amounts of AI andlor Ti All except those listed under 1, 2, and 4
1350 - 2100
Berates
Fluorid es Fluoroborates Wetting Agent Chlorides Fluorides Borates Wetting Agent Borax Boric Acid Borates Wetting Agent
BAg (ail) BCuP (Copper based ailoys only) Same as 3B (exeluding BAg-1 through- 7)
1050 - 1600
Powder Paste
5
flux type No.
I recommended
1400 - 2200
" F
Flgure 23-3 . Flux prevents the fo rmation of oxide o r other undesirable substance s duri ng brazing. hut does not remove contamination 111m is al ready present 01 1 tlu- me tal.
252 ~
have suffic ie nt homogeneity and stability to minimi ze separation by Iiquation (se pa ratio n of the so lid and liquid porti on) and not be excessive ly volatile be capable of produ cing a brazed j oint to meet service requirement s s uch as strength and corros ion resis tance
Ffuure 23..... 7( J apply II po wder fl ux. heat the fi ller metal and dil1 it ;1110 tile flux. f1ud:iIlK sure the filler metal is tlwwlIglJJy coated.
Filler metal s may be designated by commercial name s or AWS classification symbols. The AWS class ification consists of the letter B, which identifies it as bra zing filler metal , fo llowed by the chemical symbols of the metallic e lements included in the filler metal. See Figure 23 -5. Di git s foll owin g a dash are shown after the chemical symbols to designate specific filler metals within the gro up. Filler Metal Application. Brazing filler metal and flux can be applied manually after the work is heated, or pre-plac ed in a suitable position before the work is heated. Rod and wire are generally used for manual fac e-feedin g. Pre-pl aced filler metals are usually in the form of rings, washers, formed wire, shims, and powder. and are located near the joint to ensure a uniform flow of filler metal int o the join ing s urfaces . A lt houg h pre-pl aced fill er met al s ca n be used in manual brazing, they are more com monly used for production work in furnace, induct ion , or dip brazing.
..
Figure 23-5. Til t' AWS c! os,I'Uie,l " [iller metals hy the symho! of the metallic elements film /II"(' illdl/finl ill Ille filler metal.
Manual Brazing
I.
tI
.e=
e:::::::
T he heat required for manua l brazing met hod s is typica lly applied using a ga s torc h. T he gas mixture can be oxy ac e ty le ne, a ir -ga s, gas-oxyge n, ox yhydrogen, or MAPP-oxygen. The gas mixture used depend s on the thermal conductivity, type, and thickness of the metal to be brazed. See Figure 23-6.
Determine the most suitable joint for the work to be brazed. Review safety practices per ANSI Z49 .1, Safety in Welding and Curting. This incl udes ass essing the need for perso na l protec tive equipment, assessing ventilation requirement s, revi ewing relevant MSDS s, and assess ing potenti al hazards such as fires. Remove dirt , grease, oil , and oxides from surfaces to be brazed.
2.
3.
4.
brazing,
Oxyacety lene or MAPP-oxygen is generally more ver satile becau se its he at can be co ntrolled over a wide temperature range. With either of these gas mixtures, a slightly reducin g flame is required . Only the outer enve lope of the flame a nd not the inn er con e should be applied to the wor k. The air-gas torch provides the lowest heat a nd has greate r applicatio n in br azin g light -gauge me tals. Air-gas mixtures may use air at atmo sphe ric pre ssu re a nd c ity ga s o r an a i race ty lene mi xture. A gas-oxygen mixture uses oxygen and city gas, bott led gas, pro pane , or buta ne. The gas-ox ygen mixture produces a high flame temperature and is effective where higher brazing heat is req uired. An oxyhydroge n mixture, due to the low heat it produ ces, is used for bra zing alumi num and other non ferrous metals. The low temperature prevent, overheating and the hydrogen provides a clean ing action and shielding during the braz ing process. For bra zi ng a p p lica tio ns on mo st met al s , follow the procedure:
Se lect the correct flux and apply it to both the workp ieces and the filler metal by brushing, dipping, spri nkling, or spraying. 5 . Assem ble the workpieces and keep them in a lig nme nt using clamps, fixtur es, or ji gs. Do not apply excessive pressure because eno ug h c le arance bet we en the faying surfaces must exist to al~) Iow a free flow of filler me 6 . Preh eat the entire wo rk area to a uni form bra zin g te mpe rat ure by play in g a torch over the workpie ce surface. 7 . Once the flux is completely fluid, touch the filler metal to the joint Keep applying filler metal until it fl o ws co mplete ly th rou gh the joint. Use a slig htly red uc ing flame and do not apply the inner cone of the flame di rectly to the filler metal or the workpiece. 8 . Clea n the brazed jo int to remove flux residue or debri s. 9. Visually inspect the brazed joint T he joi nt should be free from grease, paint, oil, oxide film, and stopoff. The part should retain dimensional conformance and there should be no visible interruption to the flow of filler metal. There should be no cracks or porosity. Visu al ins pection ca nno t detect intern al discont inuities. The procedure specification will indicate s peci fic non dest ru cti ve pro cedures that must be performed.
254
Welding Skill"
Bra zin g using silver filler metals can be used for high stress application s that may be subjected to system vibration, and expansion and contraction that occurs on heating and cool ing. See Fig ure 23-7.
Production Brazing
Although torch brazing can be mechanized for production purposes, high er production rat es are usually accomplished using furnace heating, induction bra zin g, resist an ce brazin g, or dipbrazing techniques. Production brazing methods ens ure accurate heat control and high -quality bra zed jo ints.
FILLER METAL MELTS AND FLOWS FLUX FILLER METAL
With furnac e heating, parts to be braz ed are positioned on tray s, which are then placed in a gas, electric, or oil-tired furnace. Flux is generally used on the parts , unless the furnace atmo sphere performs the function of a fl ux, or if cleaning of the brazed surfaces is not possible due to design compl exities. The correct atmo sphere mu st be used in a furnac e and is det ermined by th e type of ba se metal and filler metal used. See Figure 23-8. With induction brazing, the work piece is placed near an induct ion coil. As current flows t hr o u gh the coil , the resistance of the coi l to the flow of cu rrent causes in stant heating to occur. The parts are placed in an AC current field , but do not becom e part of the circuit. Induction brazing is commonly used for high-volume manufacturing appli cations. Induction braz ing provides rapid heating ; however, it is difficult to obtain a uniform heating rate. See Figure 23-9. Resistance brazin g is similar to spot welding where heat is generated by the passage of low -voltage current
Figure 23-8 . Pre -placed filler metals are generally used for prod uction brazing in a furnace .
BRAZ ED JO INT
CONVEYOR
--~
HIGH-FREOUEN CY INDUCTION COIL
Figure 23-9. In ind uction bra zing , current flows through an induction coil. Resistance of the coil to the flow of current creates the
necessary heal.
255
t hro ug h ca rbo n e lec tro des th at are cla mped around the work. In resistance brazing , current flows through the parts being brazed and the parts become part o f the e lec trica l c irc uit. Re si stance brazing is used with pre-pl aced flu x and for low-volu me produ ct ion applica tions. Se e Figure 23- 10.
Ftgure 2310 , ln resistance brazing, ('urn' llt 1'11.\'.\'(',\' through ca rbo" elect rodes cla mped aroun d the work.
Flux Removal
Once brazing is co mpleted, flux residue must be removed to prevent corros ion fro m de veloping in the brazed joint. Flux residue has a g las s-like surface appearance . Fl ux resi d ue can be removed by washing the part in hot water. In so me inst an ces , th e joint can be immersed in cold water befor e it has completel y co o led from the brazin g temperature. Th e thermal shoc k of the co ld wa ter will usu all y crac k off the fl ux resi d ue. Fo r heav y res id ue, a chemical dip is so metimes used. Wire o r fib er bru shing, steam jet cleaning, o r bl ast c lea ning are a lso effective means of removing heavy residu es or of remo ving flu x resid ue fro m lar ge objects. On some so ft metals such as aluminum, resid ue mu st be rem oved mec hanicall y and the n cl ean ed with fluid to ensu re re mova l of small flux par ticles that may hav e become em-) "--bedded in the surface .
WATER COOLANT
CARBON ELECTRODE
FILLER METAL
One dip-brazing method co nsists of immersin g parts in a bath of molten br azing metal. Th e brazing metal is contained in an ex ternally heal ed cruci ble. See Figure 23- 11. Dip -brazing is limited to small asse m blie s suc h as wire co nnections or metal strips that can eas ily be held in fixtures. A sec o nd dip-b razing method invo lves the placement of parts in a molten salt bath. Th e salt bath is heated eith er by passin g e lec trica l current throu gh the bath o r by he at ing t he out s ide o f th e co nta iner.
BRAZE WELDING
Braze weld ing (B W) is a j ommg proce ss th at produces a coa le sce nce of metal s with filler metal s that begin to melt at te m peratur e s above 840' F (450C), below the melting point of the met als joined, and in which the filler me tal is not distributed int o the joint by capillary ac tion.
Fteure 23-11. In dip-hra t ing , parts tire immersed in molten brazing metal inside til l e.\Jer nallv heated crucible,
"",_=5~_(~~~J;: OINT
C RUCIBLE ~
l
o
oa 0 a
HEAT APPLIED
256 ~
welding Skills
The braze welding procedure usually must be qualified . Eight basic steps ar e requ ired to perform braze welding . For braze welding , follow the pro cedure: I. Clean the surfaces to be bra zed thoroughl y with a stiff wire brush. Remove all scale , dirt , or grea se; otherwi se the braze will not stick. If a surface has oil or grease on it, remove these subst ance s by heating the area to a bright red to bum them off. 2. On thick sections, especially when repairing castings, bevel the edges to form a 900 single-V. Edges can be beveled by chipping, mach ining, filing, or grinding. Arrange the work in flat position. Adj ust the torch to a neutral name then ge ntly heat the surface s of the weld area. The surfaces should not be melted , but only heated to a dull red (tinning temperature). Heat the brazing filler metal and dip it in the nux . (This step is not necessary if the filler metal has been pr ellu xed .) When heating filler metal, do not apply the inner cone of the nam e directly to the rod. At the start, concentrate the flame on the base metal until the base metal begins to turn red . Mel t a s mall amount of bra zing filler metal onto the surface and allow it to spread along the entire seam. The flow of this thin film of filler metal is known as tinning. Unless the surfaces are tinned properl y, braze weldin g cannot be carried out success fully. If the base metal is too hot, filler metal bubbles or runs like drops of water on a warm stove. If the base metal is not hot enough, filler metal forms into balls that roll off the base metal as water would if placed on a greasy surface. When the ' base metal is the proper temperature, the liller metal spreads out evenly.
7.
Once the base metal is tinned sufficient ly, deposit the prop er size beads over the joint. Use a slight circular motion with the torch and deposit the beads as in regular fusion welding with a fille r metal. Continually dip the filler metal in the flux as the weld progresses forward . See Figure 23-12.
bra ze
. = welding.
Figure 23-12. Use a sligh t ci rcular motion with the torch when brare welding a nd depo sit the beads using fill er metal.
3. 4.
8.
5.
6.
If the pieces to be we lded ar e groo ved , use sev eral passe s to fill the groove. On the firs t pass, e ns ure that the tinning action takes place along the entire bottom surface of th e groove and about halfway up on each side. The number of tinning pa sses to be made depends on the depth of the groove. When depositin g several pas ses, be sure that each pass is fused into the pre vious one .
[I]
When making a braze weld with the work in vertical position, first build up a slight shelf at the bottom . The shelf acts as a support for additional filler metal. As the weld is carried upward , swing the llame from side to side to ma intai n uniform tinning and to produce an even bead.
.=
257
CAUTION
When bra zin g or bra ze welding, mak e sure thai the base met al is not allowed 10 o verheat.
Use a nrutrul f lame unl ess otherwis e specified. Use a circular torch motion.
sufficient. The heat of the name or the arc is sufficient to bring the surface of the cast iron to a temperature at which the fille r metal will bond to the cast iron. The filler metal ductility compensates for the brittleness of the cast iron, and the weld and adjacent area of the base metal arc machinabl e after the weld is completed. Braze welding broken cast iron is acceptable if a color difference between the filler metal and the cast iron is not object ionable.
applied by dipping the heated filler metal into the powdered nu x. The tlux adheres to th e sur face of the fi lle r me tal and ca n the n be transfe rred to the weld. Another method of applying tlux is to dissolve the tlux in boiling water and bru sh it on the filler metal before welding is started.
SOLDERING
Soldering (S) is a group of joining processes that produce a co alescence of metal and nonferrous filler metal that has a melting poi nt below that of the base metal. Filler metals su itable for soldering are those that are completely molten below 840F (450C). In solderin g, the joined metals remain in a so lid state and filler metal is distributed between the closely filled surfaces of the joi nt by capillary action. In both brazing and soldering, wetting and ca pillary action occur; however, in soldering, a small amount of all oyin g oc curs betw een th e ba se metal and the filler metal (solder). A major benefit of soldering is that low temperature s are involv ed , with a minimum effect on base metal properties . Many low-temperature heatin g
)
Do IIO! braze weld a me tal that wi ll be subj ected to high tem perat ures or high stre sses.
-~
.-
~--,-
COPPER-ZINC FILLER ... . . , .METAL FOR BRAZE WELDING Approximate Chemical Composiliont ' Min Tensile Strength ' Uquidus Temperature
~
~~~~Jmmn~~~~
60 60 50 39
38
1 1
1 10
40
40 50 60
Figure 23-13. A copper-zinc filler metal is common ly used [or braze welding .
methods can be used in soldering with high reliability. Soldering is the primary method of making joints in electrical and electronic circuits . It is also commonly used in the sheet metal and plumbing industries. Precautions that must be followed for soldering include the following: Parts to be soldered must have the proper fit-up so that solder can travel by capillary action along the joint. Solder will cease to flow where gaps occur in the workpiece. Parts to be soldered must be clean because solder will not stick to dirt, oil , or oxide-coatings on the surface. Dirt and grease can be removed with a cleaning solvent. Steel wool or an abrasive cloth is used to eliminate the oxide. Application of a flux completes the cleaning process and keeps the metal free from oxide during heating and soldering. Parts must be held together during soldering so there is no movement. Movement during heating causes the pieces to be misaligned . The slightest disturbance to solder causes it to solidify without forming an optimum bond, resulting in a weak joint. Parts to be soldered must have a suitable joint design to withstand the necessary load imposed on the joint. A lap joint is a satisfactory joint for most purposes. Parts must be washed in hot water after soldering to eliminate the corrosive action of the flux .
melting range from about 370F (lSSOC), for a mixture of 70% tin and 30% lead, to about 590F (3 10C) for a 5% tin and 95% lead mixture. See Figure 23-14. The most common general-purpose solder is known as half-and-half or SO/SO solder. It contains 50% lead and 50% tin and melts at approximately 471F (244C). Alloys with a low tin content have higher melting points and do not flow as readily as high-tin alloys. Solders with a high tin content have better wetting properties and produce less cracking. Solders are available as bar, cake, solid wire, flux-core wire, ribbon, or paste. Flux-core wire solder has an acid or rosin flux in the center of the wire. With SO/SO solders, no additional flux is needed. Special solders are available for welding aluminum and where special characteristics are required of the soldered joint. Tin-zinc solders are intended primarily for joining aluminum. A tin-antimony solder is designed to solder food-handling vessels where lead contamination must be prevented . Lead-silver solders are used for ap plications in which strength at elevated temperatures is required.
.=
Do not allow the parts to move during soldering while the solder is molten.
Flux
Just as in brazing, a flux is required for most soldering applications. The flux prevents the formation of oxides during soldering and increases the wetting action so the solder can flow more freely. General-purpose fluxes can be used on most metals . Fluxes are classified as corrosive or noncorrosive . Rosin is the most common noncorrosive flux . Zinc chloride is the most frequently used corrosive flux. Although the corrosive types are most effective, they must be washed away from the metal after soldering . They should never be used for electrical or electronics work . Zinc chloride is prepared by adding small pieces of zinc to muriatic (commercial
A WARNING I
When diluting acid, always add the acid to the water. Pouring water into the acid may result in a violent ami dangerous
action .
-.
-- -
Composition-
--
--
Melting Ranget
Alloy Grade
8 11961 8 11951 8 11941 8 1170 81163 81162 81160 81150 81145 81140-A 81140-8 8 1135-A 8 1135-8 81130-A 8 1130-8 81125-A 81125-8 81120-A 8 1120-8 8 11 15 -A 8 11 1O 8 11 10-8 8 115 8112 8 b51 Ag l .5 Ag2.5 Ag5.5
Sn
96.2 95.2 94.2 69.5 - 71.5 62.5 - 63.5 61.5 - 62.5 59.5 61.5 49.5 - 51.5 44.5 - 46.5 39.5 - 41.5 39.5 - 41.5 34.5 - 36.5 34.5 - 36.5 29.5 - 31.5 29 .5 - 3 1.5 24.5 26.5 24 .5 -26.5 19.5 - 21.5 19.5 - 21.5 14.5 -1 6.5 9.0 - 11.0 9.0 11.0 4.5 - 5.5 1.5 - 2 .5 94.0 mill .75 - 1.25 .25 .25
Pb
.10 .10 .10 28.5 -30.5 36.5 34.5 39.0 49.0 54 .0 59 .0 59.5 64.0 62.7 69 .0 67.9 74.0 74.2 79.0 78.5 64 89 .5 87 .8 94.5 97.5 .20 97.1 96 .85 93.85
Sb
.12 .12 .12 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 1.8 - 2 .4 50 1.6 - 2.0 .50 1.1 1.5 .50 .8 -1 .2 .50 .50 .20 .50 .50 4.5 - 5.5 .40 .40 .40 .40
Ag
3.4 - 3.8 4.4 4.8 5.4 - 5 .8 .015 .015 1.75 - 2 .25 .015 .015 .015 .0 15 .015 .015 .015 .015 .015 .0 15 .0 15 .015 .015 .015 .015 1.7 2 .4 .015 .015 .015 1.3 - 1.7 2.3 2 .7 5.0- 6.0
Solidus
of
430 430 430 361 36 1 354 361 361 36 1 36 1 365 361 365 36 1 365 361 365 361 363 437 514 514 586 601 450 588 580 580
C
Liquidus
of
430 473 536 377 36 1 372 374 42 1 441 460 448 447 470 491 482 511 504 531 517 554 576 570 594 611 464 588 580 716
C
22 1 22 1 221 183 183 179 183 183 183 183 185 183 185 183 185 183 185 183 164 225 268 268 308 316 233 309 304 304
221 245 280 193 183 189 190 216 227 238 231 247 243 255 25 0 266 263 277 270 290 302 299 312 322 240 309 304 380
limits are % max . unless shown as a range or stated OthelWise t temperatures given are approx, mate and for inlormallOfl only 1 cootaes Jess than.2% lead (Pb)
Figure 23-1-1.
Solder.~
hydroch loric) acid unt il the zinc no longer di ssol ves. The cut , or killed , acid is then diluted with an equal quantity of water.
Heating Devices
In an y so lde ring op eration , both workpieces must be hot enough to melt the so lder. A strong bond is achieved o nly if th e molten sol der spreads evenly over the surface. A number of device s-soldering coppe rs. e lec tric solde ring devices, and gas torchesare available for heating. The type used depends on the size and confi guration of the assemb ly to be so lde red. See Figure 23- 16.
It; WARNING )
When zinc is dissolved in
Soldering Coppers . A soldering copper is a tool that consists of a copper or steel heating tip fastened to a rod with a wood en handl e. Th ese copper s vary in size and have head s forged in several shapes . Generally. a lightwei ght
260 0
Welding Skills
JOGGLE
GROOVED
SINGLE
DOUBLE
Figure 23-15. Joint designs for soldered seams (I re determined by the strength requirements of the joint.
copper is used for solderin g light-gauge metal and a heavyweight copper is used for soldering heavy- gauge metal. Using a lightweight soldering copper on heavy metal does not produce enough heat to adequately heat the metal or allow the solde r to flow smoothly. Soldering coppers are heated either in a furnace or with a blowtorch. The point of a so ld ering copper must be covered with a thin coat of solder. Overheating or failing to keep the copper clean causes the point to become covered with oxide. The process of replacing this coat of solder is called tinning . To tin copper: I . File each side of the point until all oxide and pit s are removed . 2. 3. Heat the soldering copper until it is hot enough to me lt solder. Rub the point of th e so ld ering copper on a block of ammonium chloride (s al ammoniac) and apply solder while rubbing. Ammonium chloride helps clean the point
of the so lde r ing copper. Another method of applying solder is to dip the point of the soldering copper in a liquid or paste flux and then apply the so lder. 4. Remove excess sol der by wiping the soldering copper wi th a clean cloth .
Electric Soldering Devices. Electric soldering irons and penci ls are often more co nvenient than so ldering coppers becau se they maintain uniform heat. Electric soldering devices vary in size from 25 W to 550 W. Lightweight. low-voltage irons with replac eable heating e lement s and tips are called soldering pencils and are used for electrical and electronic work. An electric so ldering gun is al so very popular for electronic soldering work. Electric soldering gun s produce instant heat at the tip of a long. small point when the trigger is pulled . On some so ldering guns . th e trigger also turns on a light. which focu ses at the point.
Figure 23-16. A nu mber of de vices a re ava ilable to p ro vide the necessary heat f or sold ering,
" .
"--
", ~
turned on and adjusted until a neutral flame result s. The length of the flame is controlled by the amount of gas and air allowed to flow to the tip.
~HEATING TIP
SOLDERING COPPER
Sm ith Equipment
Figure 23-17. A
copper pipe.
Bottled-gas torches are also used for soldering, especially when a stationary torch is not available. The bottled-gas torch must be operated with care . Follow manufacturer instructions carefully.
TORCH TIP
Soldering Techniques
The soldering technique required is determined by the size and configuration of the joint. Common manual soldering techniques are seam soldering and sweat soldering. See Figure 23-18 . Seam Soldering. In seam soldering, a layer of solder is depo sited along the out side edge of the joint. To solder a seam di rectly, place the flu xed workpieces together and tack weld the seam in several places. Tacking is done by holding the soldering copper on the metal until the flux begins to sizzle. Apply a small amount of solder directly in front of the soldering copper point. The metal should be hot enough to melt the solder. Do not apply the solder to the soldering copper. Once the workpiece is tack welded, start at one end of the seam and heat th e metal. Apply solder as needed in front of the soldering copper point. If necessary, pre ss each newly sold ered section together.
Gas Torches. Some soldering operations are very difficult, or impossible, to perform with a soldering copper or iron. For such soldering tasks, a flame is used as the heat source. The flame can be produced with a gas torch. The gases used depend on the nature of the task. The most efficient, safe, and versatile gas torch is one that uses a variety of gases such as acetylene, MAPP, natural gas , propane , and compressed air. A ga s torch used for soldering is equipped with changeable tips that can produ ce a range of flame si zes. A gas-air torch has two needle valves; one valve controls the gas pressure and the other controls the compressed air. See Figure 23-17 . To light a gas-air torch , the gas-needle valve is opened slightly and the gas is ignited with a sparklighter. Then the air valve is
4.
SOLDER
Place the flat side of a heated copper on one end of the seam. To avoid smearing the exposed surface s of the metal with solder, remove any excess solder on the copper by quickly wiping the point with a damp cloth be fore placing it on the joint. As the solder between the two surfaces begins to melt and !low out from the edges, press down on the metal with a punch. Draw the copper slowly along the seam and follow with the punch . Do not move the copper faster than the solder melts.
5.
SEAM SOLDERING
SOLDER ING COPPER
SWEAT SOLDERING
Figure 2318. In seam soldering, a layer of solder run s al ong the outside edge of the joint. In swe al solderin g, two piece s are joined without any solde r being visible.
Sweat Soldering . Sweat soldering is a process whe reby two surfaces are soldered together without allow ing the so lder to be see n. To perform sweat soldering, follow the procedure: I . Coat the workpiece to be soldered with fl ux after all dirt, oil, grease , and oxide have been removed.
2. Apply a uniform coating of solder to each of the surfaces to be joined. Place the surfaces together with the soldered sides in contact.
3.
Non-wetting and de-wetting. Non wetting occurs when the solder fails to wet the metal , which retains its original color. De-wetting occurs when solde r flow s across the meta l, but is pulled back into globules, leaving a dirty, di scolored-looking surface. Both are indication s of improper precleaning or !lux select ion . Overheating or underheating . Overheating is exhibited by burned fluxes and oxides on th e so lde r joint. 7 is exhibited by poor !low of solder into the joint. They are both indicative of poor bonding between the solder and the joint.
Brazing
Use the lowest effective brazing temperatures to minimize grain growth, warpage, and hardness reduction. 2 . Joint design for brazing is based on the adhesive qua lities of the filler metal and on joint clearance. 3. Surfaees to be bra zed must be eompletely free of oil, grease, dirt, and oxide. 4. Always use an appropriate filler metal and flux that is recommended for the metal to be bra zed. 5 . When usin g oxyaeetylene or MAPP-oxygen gas mixtures, heat the surfaces with the outer envelope of the flame and not the inner cone. 6 . Remove all !lux residue afte r the brazing operat ion is comp leted . I.
Braze Welding
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. Use a qua lified proeedure for braze we lding. Clean surfaees thoroughly before applying the filler metal. Be sure the surfaces are properly tinned before depositing bead s. Use a neutral !lame unle ss otherwise specified. Use a eircular toreh motion. Do not braze weld a metal that will be subjected to high temperatures or high stresses.
Soldering
I. 2. 3. 4. Parts to be soldered mus t be clean and their surfaces should fit closely toget her. Do not allow the parts to move during soldering while the solder is molten. Wash the soldered work in hot water to eli minate the corrosive action of the !lux. Be sure the soldering heat is adequate for the soldering job to be done .
Why is a lap joint better than a butt joint for brazing? Why is joint c1earanee an important factor in brazing? What procedure should be used in cleaning surfaces to be bra zed? Why is a !lux needed for brazing? Why should all !lux residue be removed after brazing is completed? What do the AWS cla ssification symbols for brazing filler metal represent ? How should the torch flame be app lied to the work to carry out a brazing operation? What is meant by liquidus and solidus tem peratures? What is the diffe rence between braze we lding and bra zing? What are some of the advantages of braze welding? When should bra ze weld ing not be used? What kind of filler meta l is needed for braze welding? How should !lux be app lied ? When is a surface hot enough for braze welding? During the solde ring proce ss, why should parts be held firml y in place? What is meant by tinning eopper? How does seam soldering differ from sweat soldering?
cin
Surfac ing is one of the most eco nomical methods of extending the life of machine parts. too ls. and construction equipment. The surfacing process applies a hard. wear-resistant layer of material to surfa ces or edges (if' worn -out part s. The proc ess may involve buildin g up worn shafts, gears. or cutting edges of tools. Many types of wear can be corrected with surfacing.
Surfacing can be applied by welding or thermal spraying. Surfacing can correct many types of abrasion. erosion. adh esion. and surface fatigue problems. Arc welding pm cesses used to apply weld overlays include SMAW, GTAW, GMA W, PAW, and SAW,' OAW ('(In also be used. Thermal spraying methods used to apply weld ove rlays include plasma spraying. flame spraying, high -velocity oxyfu el (HVOF) flam e sp raying. spray and f use. and arc spraying.
SURFACING
Su rfacing is the application of a layer or layers of material to a surface to obtain desired prop erti es or dim ension s. Surfac ing is used on new comp onent s and for repairs. Surfacing may also be used to correct improper joint pre paratio n and poor joint fit-up. Wh en designing new com pone nts . surfacing is used if the expected wear is concentrated to a small area that can be welded. When a welding process is use d fo r surfaci ng. the surfacing material must crea te a metallurgical bond with the base metal. Metallurgical bond is the joining of two co mpone nts by ato mic fu si on. Depending o n th e weldabi lity of the base metal. preheating. interpass tem perature co ntrol. and postheating ma y be req uired. When used for repair work , surfacing helps retain the ductility of the base metal, while prov iding a surface resistant to abrasive wear. See Figure 24-1. Surfacing to improve wear resistance is
for corrosion resistance is used if mechani cal rebuil ding o r repl acem ent of the part is not cost-effective, and if plating is not an effective method of restoring dim en sion s.
2~ - 1. Surfacing is us ed hem)' equip ment 10 retain tile d uctility of the base metal, while
Figure
011
p rovidjll ,~
10
\Vi/h slIIjttc ing welds , the surfacing material creates (/ nwtullurgical bond withthe base metal. With thermal spray coating , the bond is mechanical.
265
Surfacing need only be applied to surfaces that may wear exc essively if not prot ected. Contact surfaces, screw ni g ht edges, journal beari ng s , sea lwi pe d areas, hammer tips , and shear edge s are some exa mples . Section s of a co mpo nent tha t do not wear do not require surfacing. On shovel or bucket teet h and items subject to hea vy wear, su rfacin g creates re g ion s th at allow abrasi ve ma terial to become trapped so tha t the abras ive material becomes a wea r surface agai nst itself. T he area and thi ckne ss of the applied surfaci ng mu st be minimi zed to redu ce di stortion . With high hardness dep os its, it is usually not po ssible to appl y more than two laye rs without cracking . If the desired thickness of the hard material is inadequate, a soft metal b uild up is used to min im ize cracking before the final hard deposit is applied.
breakdown of the abrasive body. Erosion ca n occur in movi ng liquids containing abrasive particles. If the liquid is corrosive , th e form of damage is erosion-corros ion. Ar ea s in whic h eros io n can occur in clude coal a nd a re chute s , and slurry pipelines. Weldin g and thermal spray coa ting may be used to co mbat erosion.
WEAR TYPES
Materi als and part s in service may be subjected to many types of wea r. Most wear ca n be repa ired by surfac ing; however, not every ty pe of surfac ing process may be applied to every type of wear. T he spec ific wear type must be determined befo re specifying a surfa cin g method. Wear types that materials and parts in serv ice may be subjected to are eros io n (low -s tre ss abrasio n) , go ug ing ( hig h-stress abr as io n), so lid particl e im pingemen t, liq uid impi nge me nt, c a vitatio n, slurry erosion, f re tting , adhc s ive wear and ga lli ng , pitt ing and spa ll ing, impac t dam age , a nd brinell in g.
Liquid Impingement
Erosion (low-stress abrasio n) is a form of abrasive wear in which the force of all abrasive against the surface ca uses thr remo val of surface material.
Liquid impin gem ent is progres si ve material removal from a surface by the striking action of a liquid. The removal of material may be aggravated by corro s ive liqui ds. Liq ui d impingem ent occurs in stea m turbin e vanes and fans that exhaust liquid droplets.
266 ~ WelditlMSkills
Both welding and thermal spray coating may be used to fight liquid impingement. The corrosiveness of the liquid may influence the surfacing process used. When liquid impingement is cau sed by liquid droplets, a rubber lining may be used because it provides better protection from repeated impact without damage.
Fretting
Fretting is surface damage between two materials, usually metal, caused by oscillatory movement between the surfaces. Fretting produces oxide debris and leads to pitting and , eventually, fatigue failure . Fretting commonly occurs on bolted components subjected to repetitive stresses, and can occur in loose-fitting bearings; metal parts in vibrating contact; and gears and sheaves at the setscrews. Welding and thermal spray coating may be used to combat fretting.
Cavitation
Cavitation is surface damage caused by collapsing vapor bubbles in a flowing liquid . The vapor bubbles form because of changes in flow velocity and/or direction , or a reduction in the cross section of the flow passage. An increase in pressure at a location causes the bubbles to collapse. The collapsing bubbles give rise to shock waves or minute explosions that cause contact stresses on the metal surface. Repetitive shock waves or explosions lead to spalling and pitting of the surface. Cavitation is common in pumps and engine cylinde rs and can occur in ship propellers, pump impellers, and casings. Welding may be used to combat cavitation. Thermal spraying should not be used.
together and subse quent shea ring of minute areas of two surfaces that slide ac ross each other under p ressure.
Slurry Erosion
Slurry erosion is the progressive loss of material from a surface caused by slurry moving over the surface. Slurry is a mixture of solid particles in a liquid. If the slurry is corrosive, erosion of material from the base metal is accelerated. Areas in which slurry erosion can occur include slurry pipelines and pumps, and oil well downhole equipment. Welding and thermal spray coating may be used to combat some types of slurry erosion. When slurry is corrosive, the surfacing material must provide corrosion resistance.
ASl R,,!>im n
Conveyor systems are exposed to many types ofwear including fretting , which results from repetitive stresses, ami adhesive wear, which results from parts sliding across each other.
Surfacing
~ 267
Ga lling is a co ndition that occ urs when excess ive fric tio n, ca used by ru bbing of high spots on the surface, result s in locali zed welding with subsequent spa lling (formation of surface slive rs) and further roughening of the rubbing surfaces. Galling is a result of an improper mati ng combi natio n betwee n components, and not a failure of anyo ne component. Ga lling may resu lt in seizure of a com ponent. Examples of compo nents that gall incl ude valve trim, engi ne camsbafts , and threaded connections. Galling may be combated using we lding. Therma l spraying shou ld not be used .
Brinellin g occ urs in whee ls or rail s, ro ll ing e leme nt bea rings, and ca ms. Wel di ng may be use d to combat brine ll ing . Therma l spraying should not be used .
SURFACING METHODS
Surfacing methods used to repa ir and com bat wear are welding and thenna! sprayi ng. See Figure 24-2. Spray and fuse is a surfac ing variation that combines traits of both we lding and thermal s pray ing. Surfaci ng by we lding creates fusion with the base metal. Surfac ing by therma l sprayi ng ap plies a coating to a surface that is mechanically bonded to the base metal and does not fuse with it. Spray and fuse is a method of improving wear or corrosion resistan ce th at incl udes e leme nts of both surfacing weld and thermal spraying. M an y co ns uma bles ca n be used for weld overlay and thermal spraying, but a few co nsuma ble typ es are most often used to correct most wear problems.
Pitting (Spalling)
ljl
~ -
Pitting or spalling is the f orming oflocalized cavities in metal resulting from cormsion. repetitive sliding or rol ling surface stresses. or poor electroplating.
Pillin g (spalling) is the forming of loc a lized ca vities in met al re sultin g from co rros io n, repe titive s lid ing or roll iog surface stresses, or poo r electroplating. Pitting leads to subs urface fati gue crac king . Pittin g appears on the surface as cav itie s. depres sion s, or flakes. Pittin g can occ u r in c a m path s, gea r teeth , rolling element racewa ys, and sproc kets . Wel din g may be used to co mbat pittin g or spalling, but the typ e of mate ria l used must be ca refully selected. Thermal spraying should not be used.
Welding
Welding processes arc commonly used to apply a weld overlay to produce the desired propen ies on the surface of the metal. Weld ove rlay is the application of surfac ing usi ng a we lding process that crea tes a metallurgical bond with the base metal through melting of the surfacing metal. Welding is also used to apply wea r-res istant or corrosionres istant alloy s as an overlay to the surface of a metal. Weld ove rlay can only be use d on metal combinations that ca n be joi ned by we lding . On ly th e second layer o f a weld dep osit pro vid es the in te nde d wear propenies beca use the first layer is diluted by the base metal. Dilution is a chan ge in the co mpos ition of welding filler metal in the weld deposit caused by melted base metal. The amount of dilution varies dependin g on the welding process used. See Figure 24-3.
that creates
metallurgical bond
Impact Damage
Impact damage is removal of material from and da mage to a surface caused by repetitive colli sion s or imp act between two surfaces. Impact damage can occ ur in hamm erh eads, riveting tool s, and pneumatic drill s. Welding may be used to minimize impact damage. Thermal spraying should not be used .
Brinelling
Brin ellin g is locali zed plastic deformati on or surface denting cau sed by repeated lo cal impact o r ov erload.
268 ~ Welding Skills
OVE~~L~YM~THODS ...
DesctiptiDn
Examples
~~
Surfacing Mejhods
pa rticles sliding in chutes packing cartons that run on shaft ing sandy soi l being plowed abrasive material be ing cut rollers run ning on dirty tracks ba ll mills for grinding minerals
weld ing
heavily-loaded metal sliding systems in dirty environments gy rato ry crusher parts ham me r mill hammers jaw cr ushers
abrasive blast ing aircraft operating in sand or dirt cyclo ne separators steam turbine vanes
Liquid Impingement
prog ressive loss of mate rial caused by air bubbles of a liquid collaps ing nea r su rface prog ressive loss of mate rial ca used by a slurry
ship prope llers pump impellers and cas ings ultrason ic cleaners slurry pipe lines and pumps oil well downhole equipment mud pu mps well pumps ag itato rs gea rs and sheaves held on shafts with setscrews bearings loose-fitt ing on shafts drive coup ling components meta l parts in vibrat ing contact bo lted components subjec ted to repet itive stress
weld ing
Slur ry Erosion
Fretting
osci llatory movem ent with little displace me nt produces oxide deb ris leads to pitting and fatigue failure
localized da mage in solid-state welding between sliding surfaces leading to material transfer between surfaces
weld ing t
bushings drive cha ins actuato rs heavi ly loaded sliding members austen itic sta inless stee l gate valves weld ing
when slurry IScortosrve. must have adequate corrosion resistance t determine prop er consumable by trial & error
-*._~---_.
-.-
-_.
--
Wear Type
Description
~xa~ P,les
Surfacing Methods
weldi ng
cam paths
rolli ng eleme nt raceways
Impact Damage
ham merheads
welding
whee ls or rails
rolling elem ent bearings and cams
Brinnelling
Fi~1I1'"e
10
242. Pa rts ill se n-ice are commonly suhjected 1(1 [our l.\1'CS of wear: ab rasion, erosion, adhe sion, and slit/ace fatigue. Surfa cing overlays repair wea r call be app lied by welding and thermal spraying .
ZONE2
} FACING
ZONE 1: Base metal diluted by zone 2 ZONE 2: Facing diluted by base metal ZONE 3: Minimal dilution 40 . , -- - - - - - - - - - - -
--,
30 f -0
--==
s i5
20 10 0
OAW
"
SMAW
GTAW
GMAW
PAW
SAW
Figure 243. /)i/lltioll varies with the type of welding proce ss used for .m rfclcillK.
ljl
~-
H H d overlay may be ap p lied using the OAW, SMAIV, GTA\V, GMA\V, SAIV, or PAW
processes.
Dilution is ge ne ra lly a reduction in th e a ll oy c ont ent of the weld depo si t s ince the melted base meta l, with low er alloy cont ent, is incorporat ed into the melted fi ller meta l, changin g th e c o m p os i t io n of the deposited metal.
A one-layer deposit may be possible if it is carefully applied by the welder and if a welding process that causes little me ltin g of the bas e met a l, suc h as OAW, is used. Weld overla y may be applied using OAW, SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, SAW, and PAW processes.
OAW Weld Overlays. An OAW weld ov e rlay is widel y used on stee ls where maximu m hardness and min imum crack susceptibility are required. An OAW weld overlay can be applied to most materi als, exc ept for copper alloys. T he ba se metal sur face mu st be preheated to produ ce a swe atin g c ondition on the s ur fac e . Durin g preheating, the tip of the surfacing filler metal is held on the fringe of the flame until the metal has been sufficie ntly heated . Th e filler met al is then mo ved int o the ce nte r of the flame and melted . Filler metal is deposit ed using a reg u la r fo re ha nd we ld ing te chn iq ue with a slig ht weaving motion. Generally, a slightly reducing flame is recomm end ed , as this adds carbon to the deposit. Filler metal used for OAW weld overl ay should be composed of low-meltin gpoint, high -carbon metal. The deposition rate with OAW is not as high as with other processes ; however , OAW minimi zes fusion of the base metal. The reduced fusion of the base metal minimizes dilution and loss of hardn ess of the surfac ing alloy. OAW is not used for copper alloys because with copper a greater loss of aluminum or silico n by oxidatio n occ urs compa red with arc we lding processes, resulting in a softer deposit. The absence of steep thermal gradients in OAW reduces cra cking or spalling of the weld overlay becau se thermal stresse s ar e reduced . OAW weld overlays are a useful technique for depositing weld overlays on small parts such as engine valves, plowshares, and tools. One layer may be sufficient. SMAW Weld Overlays. Weld overlays a re com mo n ly applied usin g SMAW because of its high deposition rate and relatively low dilution. It also is wid el y used fo r s urfac ing large areas or for heavy parts that normally would require excess ive time to heat
with an oxyace ty lene flame . SMAW weld overlays are especially suitable fo r mang a nese stee l and other stee l alloys where heat buildup must be restricted. The surface of the base metal must be thoroughl y clean ed before surfacing; however, cleanliness in SMAW is not as stringent as in other processes. Although some poro sity and cracking may be present, such di scontinuiti es are usually acc ept abl e in the seve re types of applications for which SMAW is used . The se severe applica tio ns , such as earth moving equipmen t and mining equipment, require thick ove rlays. It is ge nera lly necessary to appl y seve ra l layers of surfacing to achieve the intended surface hardness. See Figure 24-4.
(lJ ear th
Either AC current or DC current can be used to produce a satisfactory weld overlay. To properly apply weld overlay using SMAW, follow the procedure: I. Remove all rust, scale, and other foreign matter from the surface. 2. Set cur rent j ust high enough to provide suf fic ie nt heat to maintain the arc yet preve nt dilution. 3 . Position the workpiece so the section to be surface d is in flat position. Most surfac ing electrodes are designed for use in flat position only.
r= I
.=
.~
maintain a medium
arc length and do 1101 allow till' elec trode coaling 10ctmlacl the base metal.
4 . Maintain a medi um arc length and do not allow the e lectrode to touch the base metal. Wh en making the deposit , use a stra ig h t or weaving motion . A weaving or w hipp ing mot io n sho uld be used on thin metals. A weaving mo tio n is preferred whe n on ly a thin bead deposit is requ ired . The width of the weaved bead should not be more than Vl' . A whipping act ion is ofte n used whe n sur fac ing an area a lo ng a thin edge . The arc is held ove r the heavy portion and then whipped out to the thin edg e. In this manner, a shallow depo sit is made before the heat builds up eno ugh in the ba se metal to burn thro ugh. 5. Remove slag from the surface after eac h pass. 6 . Man ip ulate th e el ectrod e c arefully to secure adequ ate pen etrat io n into pre viou s passe s. Hold th e elec tro de over th e deposit ed bead mome nta ril y to allow heat to build up in the adjoining beads. Thi s pro cedure also minimi ze s u ndercu tt ing.
pass.
GTAW produces a clean depo sit with a high rate of deposition. However, the high heat input results in steep thermal grad ients, causing dil ution and loss of hardness in the weld overlay coupled with increased crack ing susce ptibility from high thermal stresses. GTAW is often used whe re thin overlays are required . GTAW is particularl y effective in applying cobalt-base alloys . S urfac ing with GTAW ord ina rily requi res very little preheating. Since the heat buildup is minimal, there is less distortion and very little of the base metal is affected by the heat of welding. GMAW is not as widely used for surfacing as the other ar c we lding pro ce sses. However, with its co ntinuous wire feed, GMAW is faster than GTAW and prod uces exce llent weld over lays. GMAW also allows for high deposition rates and low d ilution of the surfacing. A variety of special filler metals are availabl e for practicall y eve ry surfacing operation. Composite filler metal is typically used. Composi te filler metals, suc h as flu x-cored electrodes . co nsist of a tubular steel shell with metallic powde rs o r fin e par ticles of hard compounds incorporated into the center or into the coa ting .
compos iuo n. Th ey are c lass ified as high-alloy materials and have varying degrees of impact-resistance, abra sionresis tance , and co rros ion-resistance . The s ur fac ing application required should be determined before selecting the metal powder to he used.
relat ively dee p penetration of the submerged arc we ld with its protective flux cove ring usuall y develops intense heat in the weld area. Great er precautions must be taken to provide suitable preheat and postheating for stress relief. Very often. the full strength of the surfacing material is attained only by depositing two or more layers. With SAW, the initial weld layer frequently becomes diluted when fused into the base metal and an additional layer is usually necessary to ensure the desired surface.
Surface Preparation
Base metal preparation for weld overlay depends on the required qualit y of the finished surface. For dilly work, such as guide plates, coke chute s. lIT power shovels, where some degree of surface porosity or inclusions may be tolerated, loose scale, dirt, or other foreign substances should be removed by wire brushing, grindin g, or sandblasting. For critical work such as valve seats, pump shafts, or coating rolls where no porosity or inclusions are permitted, the base metal must be prepared by machining or grinding to bright metal; otherwise, surface irregulariti es can lead to gas vo ids and inclu sion s. All forei gn matter such as grease, oxides, or dirt must be rem oved co mplete ly. The surface may also be scrubbed with meth anol. Handling of the component after preparation shou ld be minimized because even fingerprints can interfere with good wetting action during surfacing.
Figure uses a
IIIIlR.l Il'1I
The power source used for PAW weld over lay s cons is ts of a conventional DCEN power supply unit. A second DC unit is connected between the tungsten electrode and the arc-constricting orifice to support a nontransferred arc. The second power supply supplements the heat of the transferred arc and serves as a pilot arc to start the transferred arc. Argon gas is used to form the plasma as well as the shielding.
resistance to the surface. Filler metals may be bar e met al or w ire; coate d elect rode ; flux-co red electrode; metal powd er ; or metal-cerm et, self-fluxing powder. See Figure 24-6.
Surfacing @o 273
OR
E Fe 5-B
60
R Fe CroAt
OR
E Fe CroAt
58
high-stress abrasion resistance for - heavily-loaded metal - metal sliding systems in dirty environments low-stress abrasion resistance metal-to-metal wear
OR
ENi Cr-C
35-56
deposits that must be machined - shafts - running in packing - ash handling equipment metal-to-metal wear
OR
ECo Cr-A
38-47
low-stress abrasion resistance elevated temperatures corrosive environments high-stress and gouging abrasion resistance for - crushers - earth-moving equipment
Composite material
RWC 20/30
OR
EWC 20/30
60
Figure 24-6. Filla metals may be bare metal or wire; coated electrode; flux-cored electrode; metal powder; or metal-cermet. self-fluxing powder.
AWS specifications identify filler metals for surfacing applications. The AWS designation uses chemical symbols to describe the main elements, such as RNiCr-A. An R prefix stands for bare wire or rod, which does not normally conduct current. An E prefix stands for electrode, which can conduct current. The A, B, and C suffixes identify a specific alloy within the group. The type of filler metal used depends on the requirements of the weld metal applied . AWS specifications do not encompass most tool steel and alloy steel filler metals used for surfacing; trade names are used instead. Thermal stresses may develop in a surfacing deposit as it contracts during cooling. Coupled with constraint
and the limited ductility of some filler metals, cracking of the deposit may result. Preheating the base metal helps minimize cracking, and in some cases hardness of the deposit may be compromised to reduce cracking. In most surfacing deposits (except those used for sealing purposes) , some cracking is expected and is of little concern.
Thermal Spraying
/
Thermal spraying (THSP) is a group of processes in which finely divided metallic or nonmetallic materials are deposited in a molten or semi molten condition to form a coating. The thermal spray coating material may be a powder, ceramic, rod, or wire.
Th e most imp orta nt as pec t of thermal spray ing is correct prepa ra tion o f the co mponent. It must be cle aned and rou gh ed . but sha rp co rners sho uld be a vo ide d . S o me pr eheatin g ma y he necessary depending on the alloy content of the component. Spraying should be performed immediatel y after th e component is clean ed . If the compo nent is not spra ye d immediatel y. it sho uld be protec te d from th e atmosphere by wrapp ing it in paper co ntaining a va por- phase co rrosio n inhibit or. Th e fir st pass sho uld be applied as soon as pos sibl e afte r the part is prepared and as quickly as possible. Additional coat s may be a pp lied more slowly. Th e surface of the compo nent d oe s not he a t up appreci abl y during therm al spraying as it does during welding bu t a uniform tem perature mu st be maintained through out the co mpo ne nt during surfacing. Distortion during thermal spraying is minimal. Thermal spraying is don e with a special spray gun and . typi cally, 20 gauge to 3/16" d iame ter wire. Spray guns can spray abo ut 4 Ib to 12 Ib of metal per hou r. Larger guns are usually mounted o n a fi xt u re a n d are d e si gn ed for sprayi ng large machi ne compo ne nts . A therm al spray gun co nsists of two majo r parts : th e p o wer un it a nd th e gas head . The power un it feeds th e coating material into the nozzle of the gun. T he no zzl e has a cente r orifice
through which the co at ing mat eri al is fed . Aro und the o rif ice are a number o f gas jets that pro vide the flam e and the air strea m. As the coating materi al comes through the orifice, it is melt ed and at omi zed by the fl ame. The gas head controls the flow of oxygen , fuel gas. and compress ed air. The fine molten particles are pick ed up by the a ir strea m and proj ect ed against the wo rk. A h op pe r mo un te d on the torch bod y feeds po wd ered coating ma teria l (metal alloy) into the ga s stream while the operator control s th e flow of th e powdered alloy. Th e alloy parti cles become molten as th ey a re sp rayed throu gh the flame and onto th e workpiece. See Figur e 24-7.
Il Sl'{J
to build up shafts.
Figur e 2-l 7. All osyacetvtene metal .Vlmy torch has a mounted hopper that feeds powdered metal alloy into the gas stream . The metal particles mel' as they are sp rayed tllrollJ;:h the fla me lind a re f used to the wor kpiece.
COOLANT WATER
""'- -
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
/f
AWARNING 1
Ve n tilation is necessary In remove dust partic les and fumes that are extre mely haza rdous to an operator' s health. If posi tive ventilation is not possible. the ope rator should wear a respirator.
The most commonly used gas for the oxyfue l flam e is acety le ne, which is capable of producing temperatures exceeding 5600F (3094C). Hydrogen or propane may be used for metal s that melt at a lower temperature. Thermal spraying processes include plasma spmying, flam e spray ing, high-ve locity o xyfu el (H YO F) flam e sp ray ing , spray and fuse, and arc spraying. See Figure 24-8 . Plasma Spraying. Plasma spraying is a thermal spraying process in which a plasma torch is used as a heat source for meltin g and propelling the surfacing material to the work piece . Plasma spray is the most commonly used form uf thermal spraying. Plasma spray uses a co nfined high -cu rrent electri c arc and an inert gas such as argon to produ ce a hi gh -pre ssure s trea m of hot ioni zed gas called plasm a. The gas is directed through the nozzle and an arc is struck between the electrode and the noz zle. As the gas
passes thro ugh the arc, it is ioni zed, forming a stream of plasma with temperatures that reach as high as 30,OOO'F. A coating materia l is fed into the plasm a st rea m, me lte d , a nd is propell ed to the workpi ece at approximatel y 400 fe et pe r seco nd ( fps) . Coatings applied by the plasma spray method are den ser, but mor e costly, than those applied by flame spraying. See Figure 24-9.
\\'u/l C"I",,,,IO)"
80.\" stream curries rhl' metal powder mrfllcillg materia! f rom a hopper to the elect rode holder. 71t(' powder moves info the are' stream. is melted, ami [uses to the base metal.
{/1/
l lrg m /
Bond Strength"
Porosity!
Cost
Plasma Spraying
43 0- 1000
Mid-range
Flame Spraying
600-1 000
10-20
Low
> 10,000
<5
High
600-1 000
Mid- range
Arc Spraying
600-1000
Mid- range
in psi tin%
Figure 2~-8. Th erm al spraying processes include pl asma spraying, jll/mt' spraying, high-velocity OX)fuel (H VO F) flame spraying , spra y and fu se, and a rc .\ 'p l'llying .
The temperature for plasma spraying is much higher than that of flame spraying and coating materials that have high melting points can be applied using plasma spray ing. Most inorganic materials that melt without decomposition can also be used. The coating material to be sprayed is a powder that is suspended in a carrier gas and carried to the plasma spray gun. The high-temperature plasma immediately melts the powdered metal and propels it to the surface of the workpiece . Since inert gas and high gas tem peratures are used, the mechanical and metallurgical properties of the coatings are generally soperior to either type of flame spraying, and bond and tensile strengths are higher. Flame Spraying. Flame spraying is a thermal spraying process that uses an oxyfuel gas flame as a source of heat for melting the coating material. Two variations of flame spraying exist. One uses metal in wire form and is sometimes referred to as metallizing . The other uses materials in powder form . In both variations, the coating material is fed through a gun and a nozzle and melted in the oxyfuel gas flame . Flame spraying can be applied manually or automatically. Flame spraying allows hard, thin coatings to be deposited quickly and uniformly. Deposits range from .0 1" (.25 mm) to .08" (2 mm) thick. The coatings are porous and usually brittle. They do not resist excessive mechanical abuse. A wire, powder, or rod coating material is introduced into a stream of fuel gas , usually oxygen and acetylene, which atomizes the material, allowing it to be propelled by a stream of air to the surface. Compressed air is used for atomizing and propelling the material to the workpiece . A torch is used with the proper flame setting, and the trigger is pressed to propel the material to the surface. See Figure 24-10.
Figure 24-10. In flame spraying a torch is used with the proper flume setting, lind a trigger is pressed to propel the coating to the surface.
Wire spray materials are metals that can be made into flexible wire that will melt in an oxyacetylene flame. Wire spray materials are eommonly zinc, aluminum, carbon steel, 300 series stainless steel, bronze, or molybdenum. Flame spraying with wire spray materials is used to coat metals for rust protec tion, for heavy rebuilding, or to restore dimensions. It is not used on parts that are subject to rigorous ser vice conditions. Powder spray materials include carbides, high-alloy steels, stainless steel, cobalt alloys, and ceramics. Powder spray machines are usually more complex than other flame spraying equipment and are used for more sophisticated work. Rod spray materials are usually ceramics such as aluminum oxide, chromium oxide, and zirconium. Other, more appropriate methods of applying ceramics are available and are generally more widely used because they usuall y provide a better coating spray. High- Velocity Oxyfuel (HVOF) Flame Spraying. High-velocity oxyfuel (HYOF) flame spraying is quite different from other thermal spraying processes. In the HYOF flame spraying process, a mixture of oxygen and a combustible gas, such as acety lene, is fed into the barrel of a spray gun with a charge of surfacing powder. The mixture is ignited and the detonation wave accelerates the powder to
Surfacing ~ 277
the workpiece while heating it close to or ahove its melting point. The cycle is repeated many times a second. The nois e level is extremely high, and the process must be performed in a soundproof room . HVO F flame spray ing is most successfu l in applying dense , hard, carbide, and oxide coatings to cri tical areas of precision components . Since the hase meta l surface is seldom heated ahove 300F ( 150C) , the component can be fab ricated a nd fully heat-treated prior to coating . Spray and Fuse (Spraywelding) . Spray and fuse (spraywelding) is a two step thermal spray process in which a thermal spray coating is deposi ted and subsequently fused by heating with a torch or by placing the part in a furnace. Spray and fuse is a variation of flame spraying in which the coating material is fused after application. The spray and fuse proces s contains characteristics of both weld overlay and thermal spray coating and prov ides helter corrosion resistance with less effort. Spray and fuse coating materials are usually made of nickel or cohalt self-fluxing alloys that contain silicon
or boron that are sprayed onto a part. The sprayed mate rial is then fused to the base metal with a torch or furnace at a tem pe rature between 1875P (I024C) and 2000F (1093 C). The spray and fuse process creates a smooth, nonporous, welded, hard surface that can be ground and lapped to a low RMS fini sh . Tungsten carbide particles are added for increased wear resistance. The fusion process permits the fluxing additives of silicon and boron to react with oxid e films on the surface and with powder pa rt icl es. This allow s them to wet and in terdiffuse with the base metal. Arc Spraying. Particle s deposited with an arc spray unit are hotter and more flu id than those spraye d with o xyace tylene spr ayin g equipment. The heat required to melt the wire is generated by an e lect ric arc instead of oxyacetyl ene . The ar e, whic h reache s a temperatu re of app roximately 7000F (3870C), produ ces a stronger bond with the surface because the highl y heated particles can create belter fusion with lower oxide content. See Figure 24-11 .
Figure 24-11. Arc spraying equipment p rod uce s coatings with g reater hand stre ngth and lower ox ide content than coatings with oxyacetylene spraying guns ,
INSULATED HOUS ING REFLECTOR PLATE
BASE METAL
SPRAY DEPOSIT
GAS -
.....~J
Gas es used for flame spraying are acetylene. methvlacetylene-propadiene (MAP?). p ropane, and propylene. Hyd rogen 'na....' b e used to sp ray metals such as tin, zinc, and aluminum that have a low melting point.
Surfacing ~ 279
~ tI
reduce porosity usually results in hard, brittle, and hi ghly oxidized coatings that ar e likely to fail in service. Oxidation normally occurs within the melting flame and as the metal particles fly to the surface. Generally, lillie oxidation takes place as the metal is melted unle ss the gas-fuel mixture is oxidi zing . The mo st common causes of oxidation ar e ov erheating o f the coating , excessive use of oxygen, and spraying at too great a distance from the workpiece. To protect against oxidation. metal s can be a lu m in ized or coated with a nickel chromium deposit and then heat treated.
(1/1(/
Wht'll surfacing using an automated plasma sprayer: wire feed. limO/till ofspray, gas oxygen pressure, and othe r parameters lire preprogrannned by the operator.
Postt reatme nt s applied afte r thermal spraying include sealing 10 prevent corros ion and/or lengt hen the se n-ice life of a part; diffusing to provide co rros ion resis tance ; and surface fi nishing. Surface fi nishing pro cesses include machinin g, grinding. buffing (poli shing ), and abra sive tumbling.
2S0
Welding Skills
I . With surfacing welds, the surfac ing material crea tes a metallurgical hond with the base metal. With thermal spray coating, the bond is mechanical. 2. Erosion (low- stress abra sion) is a form of abrasive wear in which the force of an abrasive again st the surface cau ses the removal of surface material. 3. Adhesive wear is the removal of metal from a surface by welding together and subsequent shearing of minute areas of two surfaces that slide across each other under pressure. 4 . Pitting or spa lling is the forming of localized cavi ties in meta l result ing from co rros ion, repeti tive sliding or rolling surface stresses, or poor electroplating. 5. Weld overlay is the application of surfacing material using a welding process that creates a metallurgica l bond with the base metal throu gh meltin g of the surfaci ng metal. 6 . Wel d ove rlay may be appli ed usin g the OAW, SM AW, GTAW, GMAW, SAW, or PAW pro cesse s. 7 . Use a minimum amount of heat when surfacing using SMAW. 8. When applying surfacing with SMAW, maintain a medium arc length and do not allow the electrode coa ling to contact the base metal. 9 . Whcn depositin g surfacing welds, remo ve slag after each pass. 10. Consumables may be bare filler metal or wire; coated electrode; flux-co red electrode; metal powder; or meta l-cermet, self-fluxing powder. I I . Properly clea ning and roughing the part surface ensures that thermal spray coa ting can he successfully applied . 12. When thermal spraying flat surfaces, the surfacing gun is moved back and forth to allow a full, uniform deposit. Thermal spraying should begin beyond one edge of the area to be covered and continue beyond the oppo site end.
What is surfacing? What benefit s does surfac ing provide when used for repair work? What types of wear do parts encounter in service? What is solid partiele impingement? What is pitting? What are the two common surfacing overlay meth ods? What is diluti on? What surface defects can occur on critical work if the surface is not properl y prepared? Why should surfacing be done in flat position ? How should the torch be manipulated when surfacing large objects with SMAW where a high depo sition rate is required? I I. What is the most commonly used form of thermal spraying? 12. When is high-velocit y oxy fuel (HVO F) flame spraying comm onl y used ?
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
~)
Cutting operations are methods of rough or final preparation of shapes and edges of metals fo r welding. Gouging is related to cutting and refers to excavation of metal from the surface in preparation for welding. Safety considerations are an integral part of any cutting operation. Cutting may be controlled manually or with mechanized equipment. In manual cutting. a torch is manipulated over the area to be cut. In machine cutting. the torch is guided entirely by automatic controls. The cutting process used depends largely on the kind of metal to be cut or the cost of the operation. Common cutting processes used are oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC). plasma arc cutting (PAC). and air carbon arc cutting (CAC-A).
The cutting of metal occurs when ferrous metals are subjected to rapid oxidation. When a piece of stee l is left expo sed to the atmo sphere, a c he m ica l reaction (ru sting) tak e s place . Rust is the result of oxygen in the air unitin g with the metal, ca using it to oxidize. Occurring naturally, the rustin g process is ver y slow. But if metal is heated to its ignition temperature it oxidizes and ru sts much faster. The intense heat causes the mixture of oxides and metal to melt. The mixture is swept away by the flow o f oxygen, resulting in a cutting action. The width of the resulting cut is called the kerf. The oxygen used for cutting must be 99 % pure. Efficienc y and cutting speed ar e reduced with lesser oxygen purity. Iron and low -carbon steel can be readily cut. Steels with greater carbon content must be preheated to prevent them from cracking or cooling. Cas t iron is not easily cut because of its high carbon content. Stainless steels cannot be cut becau se chromium ox ide is formed on the surface, which resists meltin g and shields the metal surface.
283
Co ppe r and a lu mi num fo rm similar high -m elting-point oxides and in addition possess high thermal co nductivity, making it diffic ult for them to be heated sufficiently.
savings. Acetylene gas is the gas most commonly used for OFe. Because oxyge n and ace tylene are the most co mmon gases used in OFC, oxyacetylene equipment and procedures are depicted.
Torches
For the rap id cu tting of metal to be possible, it is nece ssary to use a cutting torch th at will heat the iron or steel to a certain temperature and then"direct the oxygen onto the heated section to perform the cutting action. See Figure 25 -2.
VI" ,,,r,
art' readily available and eas y to transport.
<I
OrYlll'l'ly {e/w rutting is commonly performed 01/ the j oh site since oXYKell and acetylene
Figu re 252. OFC is used to mpidly cut metal b~' subjecting l/ hea ted section of met al to (I blast of oxygen thaI pro duces tke cutt ing action.
The cutting torc h has conventional ox ygen and acetylene needle valves. These are used to control the flow of oxygen and acety lene when heating the metal. Some cutting torches have two oxygen needle valves for fine adjustment of the neutral flame . The cutting tip is co mpo sed of an orifice in the center surrounded by several smaller orifices (preheat holes). The center orifice permits the flow of the cutting oxyge n and the smaller ho les are for the preheat ing flame. See Figure 25-3. A cutting torch differs from a regular welding torch in that it has an additional lever to co ntrol the oxygen discharged through the center orifice .
"'i J:un~ 25-3. All ox ygen cutting torch has 0 1/1.' oXYKt'l1 ne ed le valve an d one acetylene needle valve. The torch ti" includes the cutting O.1:Y1:"'I hole and se veral preheat holes.
PREHE AT HOLES
A number of different tip sizes are prov ided for cutting metals of varying thicknesses. In addition, special tips are made for other purposes , such as for clean ing metal; cutting rusty, scaly, or painted surfaces; rivet washing; etc. It is possib le to convert a welding torch into a CUlling torch by repl ac ing the mixing head with a CUlling allachment. Oxygen and Acetylene Pressures, The correc t oxygen a nd ace ty lene prcssures to bc used depend upon the tip size used, the type of cutting to be pcrformed, and the thickness of the metal to be CU t. Sec Fig ure 25-4. Always co nsu lt ma nufacturer recommendation s as to the proper oxygen and ace ty lene pre ssu re settings for a particular torch and tip. The given oxygcn
pressure cannot always be strictly followed because cutting co nditions are not the same for every metal.
Piercing Holes
For steel up to .{' thick, hold the torch ove r the area where the hole is to be cut until thc name has heated a small, round spot. Gradually press down the oxygen lever and at the same time raise thc tip slightly. A small, round hole is quickly pierced through the mctal. See /2' Figure 25-5 . Fo r stee l more than 1 thick, move the torch slow ly in a circular moti on as the oxygen le ve r is depressed to pierce the metal. Wh en la rge r hol es an d ci rcu lar shapes are requ ired, trace the shapes with a soapstone. If the holes are located away from the edge of the wo rkpiece,
tI
.=
. ~ and acetylene pressures to be used depend upon the tip size used. the type of ( ' /I tting /0 be performed. and the thickn ess of the metal to he Cllt .
Metal Thickness
V. % V,
Y,
Oxygen Pressuret
30 30 40 40 50 45 50 45 60 50 55 60 70
Acetylene Pressure t
1
1V,
3 4 5 6 7
In In .
2 3 4 5 6
8
4 5
6
10
t in psi
Figure 25-4. The ('orn 'l"I OX)'Xe l1 and acetvtene pressure lilliS' he used when cutting meta ls; cor rect press urt'''' Me determined bv the tip site and the thickness of tlir met al to be cut.
CUlling Operations
0:
285
first pierce a small hole near the desired area, and then start the cut from the hole, gradually working to the drawn line and continuing around the outline. See Figure 25-6 .
Figure 25-5. A cutting torch can be used to pierce (J hole through metal.
~. _ _ . _
_
LARGE HOLE
CIRCULAR SHAPE
Figure 25-6. The cutting rool must be held steady when cutting circles and large curves.
Beveling
To make a bevel cut on steel , incline the head of the torch to the desired angle rather than holding it vertically. An even bevel may be made by resting the edge of the torch tip on the workpiece a, a support, or by clamping a piece of angle iron across the workpiece. A cutting machine can also be set to automatically cut the proper beveled edge . See Figure 25-7.
'"
neutral flame . Hold the torch with the inner cone of the heatingflame about 06" above the metal untila spot is heated to a bright red. Move the cutting torch just fast enough to make a fast but continuous cut. If the cut does not go through the
metal, start the cutting process overagain.
Random grades of scrap , such as co unterwe ights , gra te bars, and floor plate s, present greater difficulty in cutting and require more gas, a wider kerf, and correspondingly, a slowe r cutting speed. If the cut is stopped on a heav y section of cast iron or heavy steel, it is extremely difficult to start again. The oxygen pressure and acetylene pre ssure needed for cutting ca st iron depend upon the tip size used and the thickness of the cast iron. Alway s con sult manufacturer recommendations for the proper oxygen and acetylene pressure settings for cutting ca st iron. See Figure 25-9 . Excess heat , sparks, and slag ar e generated when cu tt ing cast iron . Proper person al protective equipment is required when c utt ing . Weldin g gloves are essential, and a firebrick or suitable torch rest is de sirable.
Flgure 25-8. Wilen cutting round stu ck , sta rr 90 fro m the lOp edge. Then f ollow around the conto ur of the ba r:
~
.=
.~
For high-sp eed cutling of nonferrous meta ls, pla sma arc cutting is the most
effective.
Ffuure 25-9.
Th e OXYNt' 1l an d
ace ty le ne pre.\"sure settings re quired f o r cut ting ( ' {/ .I'1 iron ar r de/ermined by the tip size lind the thickness of the ('<H ( iron.
L-3
1'h
2 3 4 6 8 10
50 60
to 8
70
80
90
110
L-4
120
150
8 to 10
12
in in.
t in Ib
170
Cutting Operation s
:0 287
water int o stea m, and sim ilarly, the plasma torch supplies energy to a gas to change it into plasma. As plasma returns to a gaseous state, the heat is released. When cutting aluminum and stainless stee l, be st resu lts ar e o btai ned with an argo n- hydroge n or nitrogenhydrogen gas mixture. Air has proven to be the most efficie nt gas for use with plasma cu tt ing; however, oxygen can also be used. Ca rbon stee ls require an ox idizing gas . Manual PAC
tl] .=
~
lt11'la,m W arc cutting. set the polarity 10 direel current electrode neg ative.
Figure 25-10. The ptasma arc ("U/f inK I'roce.~.\ is 0111' of the bes t " ;K" " ~I't'f'd cutti ng proc esses for nonferrous metal s and S /d ;lI /('.U steels.
Plasm a is often co nsi de red the fourth state of matter. The other three are ga s, liquid , and solid. Pla sma results when a ga s is heated to a high temperature and changes into positive ions, neutral atom s, and negative electrons. When matter changes from one state to another, latent heat is generated. Latent heat is required to change
In a plasma arc cutting torch. the tip of the e lec trode is loc at ed within the no zzl e . T he no zzl e has a relati vel y sma ll o pe ning (o rifice), whi ch co nst ric ts th e arc . T he gas mu st flo w through the arc where it is heated to the pla sm a te mpe rature ran ge. Since the gas cannot expand due to the construction of the nozzl e , it is forced through the op ening. and emerges at an extrem ely high velocity and hotter than any n am e. This heat melts any known metal and its velocity blasts the molten metal throu gh the plate cre ating a kerf. See Figure 25- 11.
ORIFICE GAS
ELECTRODE (CATHODE)
GAS NOZZLE
PLASMA ARC ~
}' I
I'!W'fII(f
C(/ II
Becau se the maximum tran sfer of heat to wo rk is essen tia l in cutt ing, plasma arc torches use a transferred arc (the workpiece itself becomes an electrode in the electrical ci rcuit) . Th e workpiece is subjected to both plasma heat and arc heal. Precise control of the plasma jet can be obtained by controlling the variables-current, voltage, type of gas, gas velocity, and gas flow (cfh), The power supply for PAC is a special rectifier-type with an open- circuit rating of 400 V. DCEN is also used. A control unit automatically control s the sequence of operations-pilot are, gas flow, and carriage travel. A water pressure input of 60 psi to 80 psi for gas cutt ing and 100 psi for air cutt ing is necessary to keep the torch cool.
rem ote control panel, the control unit perform s all ON-OFF and sequencing functions. The coo ling water must also be turned ON or the water-now interlock will block the starti ng circuit.
Mechanical PAC
To make a proper plasma arc cut, the pow er supply and the gas flow must be adj usted to the appropriate settings. See Figure 25- 12. When the operator pu she s the START button on the
A plasma cutt ing tool is commo nly used f or accurately cutting circles and large cun 'es.
Type
Insert*
'h 'h
Power
Gas Flow
25 70 25 18 8 25 200 30 20 12 200 50 35 25
4 x 8 4 x 8 5 x 10 8 x 16 8 4 4 5 5 6 4 5 6 6
x 16
'"
V.
V. 'h 'h
y" y"
Stainless steel
2%
4
'h 'h
1%
x 8
x 8 x 10 x 10
Aluminum
2'h
4
V.
x 12
x x x x
Carbon steel
,n In. t 'pm ~ dra met ee
kW II clt1 65% a rgon. 35% hydroge n mullipo rt orifice
1
1'h
'Yi. 'h
'" 'Yi.
'Yi.
130 N2 130 N2 10 H2 175 N2 15 H2 175 N2 15 H2 100' 100 ' 100 ' 150 ' 200 ' 250 300 350 350
mmure
mU.~1
((I
l/
Cutting Operations
289
To make a mechanized cut, the operator locate s the center of the torch about '//' above the s urface of the workpiece to be cut and push es the START button. Current flows from the high-frequ enc y generator to establi sh the pilot arc between the workpiece and the cathode in the nozzle. Gas starts to flow, and welding current flows from the power supply. The pilot arc sets up an ionized path for the cutting arc . As soon as the cutting arc is established, the high-frequency pilot arc is shut OFF, and the carr iage start s to move. See Figure 25-13 .
When the cutting operation is completed, the arc goes out automatically becau se there is no ground to sustain it and the contro l unit stops the carria ge, opens the main contactor, and shuts OFF the gas flow.
Figure 25-13. A semiautomat ic pla sma arc cutt ing unit is co mmonly use d to ensure an e\'etl cut 10 tlie
metal.
~~~~f.!!' ~~ __.
~~mIlf'iI~~
90 150 200 250 350
600
Electrode Diameter i . .
DeEP
".
AC
Air Pressure
:\1
200 300 500 600 40 80 40 80 40 80 80 80 80 80 80 280 550 280 550 280 550 550 550 550 550 550
0/ 32
0/,.
150 200 400 450 600 1000 1200 1600 150 200 300 400 180 250 400 500 150 200 300 400
V,
0/, .
% 'h %
800 1200
Figure 2514. The cut ting air pressur e and power settings are determined by the size electrode used for air ca rbon ar c cu tting,
Electrodes used for air carbon arc cutting are plain or copper-clad carbon-graphite electrodes . Plain carbon-graphite electrodes are less expensive, but copper-clad carbon graphite electrodes last longer, carry higher currents, and produce more uniform cuts . Electrode holders are specially designed for air carbon arc cutting. See Figure 25-15. Air carbon arc cutting is used to cut metal, to gouge out cracks , to remove risers and pads from castings , to remove inferior welds, and to backgouge and prepare grooves for welding. Air carbon arc cutting is used when slightly ragged edges are not objectionable. The cut area is small, and since metal is melted and removed quickly, the surrounding area does not reach high temperature s. This reduces the tendency toward distortion and cracking. Air carbon arc cutting may be used for alumimum alloys, copper alloys, carbon steels, cast irons, nickels, alloys, and stainless steels . It is not recommended for titanium or zirconium. After air carbon arc cutting, but before welding, grinding must be used to remove the surface that has picked up carbon.
Gouging
Gouging is a cutting process that re-
the surface.
moves metal by melting or burning off a portion of the base metal to form a bevel or groove. The depth and contour of the groove are controlled by the electrode angle and travel speed. For a narrow, deep groove, a steep electrode angle and slow speed are used . A tlat electrode angle and fast speed produce a wide, shallow groove. The width of the groove is also intluenced by the diameter of the electrode . During all gouging operations, using the proper travel speed produces a smooth, hissing sound. The electrode holder should be gripped so that a maximum of 6" of electrode extends from the electrode holder to the work. For aluminum alloys the distance should be reduced to 4". Hold the electrode holder so the electrode slopes back from the direction of travel. The jet air stream should be behind the electrode. Maintain a short arc and travel fast enough to keep up with metal removal. The arc must provide sufficient clearance so the compressed air blast can sweep beneath the electrode and remove all molten metal. Gouging in tlat position is typically performed toward the left (as the work is viewed). The electrode holder should be held perpendicular to the direction of travel , with the electrode pointing to the left. The air jet orifices should be under the electrode and should follow the electrode. See Figure 25-16.
tI
.=
.~
Use plain or copperclad carbon-grap~ite rods when cutting metals with the air carbon arc process.
Figure 25-15. The carbon -graphite electrode must be held in a spe cial electrode holder designed for air carbon arc cutting.
FiRUI'"C 25-16. Whe" go ug illg ill fl at position. the electrode hole/a is he ld so tha t t ire electrode slo p es ha ck fro m th e d irect ion of travel.
~~
[ AIR JET OR IFICES FOLLOW ELECTRODE
~:'r.~"""_
For goug ing in ve rt ica l posi t ron. ho ld the electro de hold er perpendic ular to the workpiece and move downward. The air jet orifices should follow the electrode so that gravity ass ists in removing the molten metal. See Figure 25- 17.
Ftg ure 25- 17. ln vertica t posi tion goug ing. the electrode holder is held perp endicu lar to the workpiece and the air je t orifices fo l1011' the electrode, pl'rm itt ing gravity to removr the 11101[1'11 IIIt,tIIl.
......-
Fig ure 25-18. Gou ging in horizontal po sit ion can be performed fro m either the lef t or the rigtu. n i l' air jet or ifices sho uld al ways follow the electrode.
Cutting
The cu tt ing techniqu e is the same as gougi ng except that the e lec trode is held at a steeper ang le and is directed at a point that perm its the tip of the electrode to pierce the metal being cut. For CU lling thick, nonferrous metals, hold the elect rode in vert ical position with a push angle of 45 and, with the air je t above it, move the arc up and down through the metal with a sawing motion . Gouging in hori zontal posiu on ca n be do ne by movin g the el ect rod e to either the right or the left. When traveli ng to the right, hold the e lec tro de ho lder perpend icul ar to the direct ion of travel, with the electrode po inting toward the rig ht, the release lever in the dow nwa rd position, and the air jet orifices following the electrode . When tra velin g to the left , reve rse the position of the electrode holder so the air jet orifices are under the electrode, the relea se lever is o n to p, and the electrode face s toward the left. See Figure 25 - 18.
WARNING
To prevent accidental fire , do not perform CUlling o pe ration s ncar com bust ible materials.
Washing
Wa sh in g is a pr oce ss of re mov ing me ta l fro m large areas, suc h as removal of surfacing and of riser pads on ca stings. When using air carbon arc cutting for washing, weave the electro de fro m s ide to side in a forward dir ection to the depth desired. A push angle of 55 is recomm ended, with the air je t orifice follow ing the e lectrode. The steadiness of the operator de termine s the smoothne ss of the surface produ ced. See Figu re 25- 19.
Washing
Figure 25-19
ELECTRODE HOLDER \
Fig ure 2520. When beveling a plate. hold the electrode at a 45 angle.
ELECTRODE
~::;1:::~~~
Figure 2S . Weave the electrode fro m side when washing with air carbon arc.
M19
to
side
Beveling
Fo r beveling , hold the electrode at approx imately a 45 angle, with the o xygen blast between the electrode and the metal surface. Draw the electrode smoothly along the edge being bev el ed . Se e Figure 25 -20 .
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
In any cutting operation, a large amount of me tal alway s falls to the floor. Turn pant cuffs down over the shoes to prevent molten metal from lodging inside the cuffs or shoes. Be sur e there are no combustible materials near the work area when performing cutting operations. When an excess ive amo unt of cutting is to be
done, sand should be sprinkled over a concrete floor to prevent the molten metal from heating the concrete so that it crack s and causes particle s to fly upward. Another alternative is to cut over a workbench tra y partially filled with sand . If the bench lacks a tra y, a sand-filled pan can be placed on the floor. Eye protection mu st alw ays be worn to protect against sparks and cut metal that may pop from the surface and project upward s. Fumes are a potential health hazard. Cutt ing processes, such as plasma arc cutting and air carbon arc cuttin g, may require additional respiratory protection to protect the welder from the high volume of du st , smoke, and fumes pro duced by these pr oce ss e s. Exhau st ve ntilat io n mu st be available when working in enclosed or semienclose d areas . Some cutting proce sses generate huge amounts of noi se, and in the se cases, ear prote ction must be worn .
I . The correct oxygen and acetylene pressures to be used depend upon the tip size used, the type of cutt ing to be performed. and the thic kness of the meta l to be cut. 2 . When cutting cast iron, adj ust the pre heating fla me so it is slightly carburizing. 3. For high-speed cutting of non ferrous meta ls, plasma arc cutting is the most effective. 4 . In plasma arc cutti ng, set the po larity to direct current electrode negative. 5. Use plain or cop per-clad car bon-grap hite rods when cutting metals with the air car bon arc process.
~ Exe rc ises
Cutting Steel Using Oxyfuel Cutting...
I . Obtain a piece of mild stee l.
2 . Use a soapsto ne to draw a line on the workp iece about s;." from one edge.
exerCise
3. Pos ition the workpiece so the line clears the edge of the welding bench.
When an exceptionally straig ht cut is desired, clamp a bar across the wor kpiece alongside the cutting line to act as a guide for the torch. 4. Turn ON the acetylene needl e valve and light the gas with a spa rklig hter as for welding. Turn ON the oxygen valve and adj ust it for a neut ral flame. The neutral flame is used to bring the me ta l to a kindling temperature. In the case of plain carbon steel, for examp le, the kindl ing tem perature is between 1400F (760C) and 1600F (87 1C). 5 . Observe the nature of the cutting fla me by pressing dow n the oxygen co ntro l lev er. Wh en th e oxygen pressure lever is depressed, additional adjustm ent s may be needed to keep the preh eating cone burn ing with a neutra l flam e. 6. Grasp the tor ch handle in suc h a way as to per mit insta nt access to the oxygen control lever. Th e valve is usually opera ted with either the thumb o r forefinger. Hold the torc h steady to ensure ma king a clean. straight cut. If the tip is allowed to waver from side to side, a wide kerf is formed, which results in a rough cut, slower cutti ng speed, and grea ter oxygen co nsump tion. To help keep the torch steady, suppor t the e lbow or forearm.
294
Smitlt q ..ipm~nJ
Welding Skills
exerCise
7. Start the cut at the edge of the workpiece. Hold the torch with the tip vertical to the surface of the metal and the inner cone of the heating flame approximately 1/1 6" above the line. Hold the torch steady until a spot in the metal has been heated to a bright red. 8. Gradually press down the oxygen pressure lever and move the torch forward slowly along the line. The torch should be moved just rapidly enough to ensure a fast but continuous cut. A shower of sparks falling from the underside of the cut indicates that penetration is complete and the cut is proceeding correctly. 9. If the cut does not seem to penetrate the metal, close the oxygen pressure lever and reheat the metal until it is a bright red again. If the edges of the cut appear to melt and have a very ragged appearance, the metal is not burning through and the torch is being moved too slowly. 10. Initially, the workpieces may stick together, even when the cut has penetrated through. This is due to the slag produced by the cutting flowing across the workpiece. Slag is not a serious problem because it is quite brittle, and a slight blow with the hammer will separate cut sections . 1 1. It may occasionally be necessary to start the cut in frorn the edge of the plate. If so, hold the preheating flame slightly longer on the metal; then raise the cutting nozzle about 112" and depress the oxygen lever. When a hole is cut through, lower the torch to its normal position and proceed with the cut in the usual manner.
exercise
2 . Use a soapstone to draw a line on the workpiece about %" from one edge . 3. Position the workp iece so the line clears the edge of the welding bench.
I
I
...L
;1"\
Move torch with swinging motion
~TO'
Move torch along cut
~NEUTRAL
FLAME
FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW
4 . Light the torch and adj ust the preheating flame so that it shows an excess of acetylene. 5. The excess acetylene, as indicated by the length of the white cone , must be varied to best suit the grade and thickness of the cas t iron to be cut. Experience is the best guide ; however , it generally varies from little or no excess of ace ty lene for extreme ly thin workpieces to an excess of a I" to 2" white cone for thick workpieces, 6 . Bring the tip of the torch to the starting point. Hold the torch at an angle of approxim ately 40 to 50 and heat a spot about 'h" in diameter to a molten condition. 7 . With the end of the preheating cone about 3110" from the metal, start to move the torch and open the high-pressure cutting valve. A swinging motion may be required for thick metals . If adjustments to the Ilame are needed, they should be made with the high-pressure valve wide open to avoid any change in the character of the flame during the cutting operation. S. Grad ually bring the torch along the line of the cut, continuing the swinging motion. As the cut progresses, grad ually straighten the torch to an angle of 65 to 70 to ensure thorough penetration. Co ntinue the swinging motion along the entire length of the cut. 9. On thick workpieces, ensure that there is sufficient heat to allow the cut to proceed without interruption. On thin workpieces, it is easy to lose the cut as the surface of the metal cools too rapidly and only a slight groove is made with the flame . Restart a cut by heat ing a sma ll circle as prev iously described. Gradually raise the torch and incline it to cut away the lower port ion of the workpiece. Proceed as before, with the exposed side of the cutting groove appearing bright. Co ntinue to cut until finis hed.
What causes metal to rust? What principle makes possible the cutting of metal by OFC? How does a cutting torch differ from a welding torch? What determines the oxygen and acetylene pressure that must be used for cutting? What aids may be used to facilitate an even cut? How can it be determined that the cut is penetrating through the metal? What is the position of the torch when cutting round stock? How is it possible to make a bevel cut with a cutting torch? Describe the operation for piercing small holes with a cutting torch. What type of flame is used for cutting cast iron, assuming a good grade of iron? How is the torch held when cutting cast iron? What torch motion is used for cutting cast iron? What is meant by PAC? What types of metals can be cut by PAC? What type of electrode is used in the. CAC-A process? What causes the removal of molten metal when using CAC-A? What does the term washing mean when using CAC-A? What are some of the precautions that should be observed before engaging in any cutting operation?
Repair welding is a method of restoring components that have failed or have lost their ability to perform as designed. All repair options, usually mechanical repair and weld repair, must be evaluated after identifying the cause offailure . Distortion, flammability, and related safety concerns may prevent the use of repair welding. When repair welding is appropriate, a repair welding plan must be prepared that complies with relevant repair codes and safety requirements.
repair, the leaking area must be cut out and an insert plate welded flush with the tank wall. See Figure 26-1.
Failure Analysis
Failure analysis provides an accurate explanation of the cause of a failure or loss of performance. Failure analysis techniques consist of failure modes and effects analysis, physical failure analysis, and root cause failure analysis.
considering repair
methods. Some repair methods ma y not be effective on certain fai lures.
".-
"'''1'''
.. .
..
TANK
Root cause fail ure a na lysis id entifies and links 'he three
Root cause failure analysis uses failure modes and effects analysis or physical failure analysis to determine the root cau se of fa ilure . Overall, root cause fai lu re ana lys is ide ntifies and lin ks thre e level s of de ficienc y that lead to fa ilures: technica l causes that lead to equipment unre liabi lity human cau ses that lead to tec hnica l ca uses system operations ca use s that lead 10 human causes
Once the technical cause is identified, human behavior and system operations causes that contribute to the root cause of failure can be dete rmined. Once the root cause of the failure is determined, a repair plan can be established. Mechanical repa ir and we ld repa ir are two options for conducting repair welding.
~~'~
PEELING
CLEAVAGE
JOINT FAILURE
I I
0=
.~
M ec ha nica l repair methods do not ere at e a met all urg ica l bond with the surface that is being repaired.
Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive bonding is th e joining of parts with an adhe si ve placed betwee n th e fa ying (matin g) surfa ces , wh ich produ ce s an adhe sive bond . A satisfac tory adhe sive bond requ ires close contact between the surface s to be j oin ed . Adh esive bonded par ts normally have a high resistance to shear and tension stresses because the entire surface are a of th e join t contributes to th e strength of the bond. On the other hand, adhes ive bonded parts e xhibit relatively low resistance to clea vage and pee ling . T hus, if the load is conc en trated at the end of the bond, the joint may start to fail from the loaded end , leadin g to incremental separation into the body of the joint ("unzipping"). To minimi ze or eliminate the negati ve effect s of peelin g or cl eavage, adhe si ve bonding may be comb ined with an additional mechanical fastening method s uch as riveting. Ri veting coupled with adhes ive bond ing al so increases th e fat igu e str eng th. See Figure 26- 2.
.=
Adhesive banding is
Surface Preparation . A clean, dry surface is necessary for a quality adhesive bond. Joint failure commonly occurs because of inad equ ate cle aning. Surface cleanliness may be ev aluated by pouring a small quantity of water over the cleaned surface. If the water breaks into individual droplets, some contamination is present. If the water uniformly covers the surface in a thin layer, the surface is c lean. Surface preparation methods for adhesive bonding are abrasiv e cleaning , so lve nt cleaning, and chemical con version . Abrasiv e cleaning includes sandblastin g, sanding, and wir e brushin g. Abrasive c leaning is used to remove heavy layers of rust or other deposits. Solvent cleaning includes hot alkalin e wa shing, solve nt wiping, and vapor degreasing. When using solvent cleaning, the solvents must be properly dispo sed of once c lea ning is fini sh ed . Chemical conversio n includes anodizing and pho sphatin g.
with an adhesive that is placed between the faying (ma ting ) surfaces, producing an adhesive hondo
Repair WeldinK
301
Adhesive Application, Adhesives are selected ba sed o n the service requi rement s of the bo nd ed pa rt and the permitted ap plicatio n me thod s , See Fi g ur e 26- 3, E poxy phe nol ic ad hes ives for m stron g bo nds and have good moisture reten tion, making them suitable for joining some metal s, glass , and phe nolic resi ns, Pol yacrylate es ter s are not suitable for structural joi nts but may be used as press ure-se nsitive tape ,
A n ad hes ive s up p lier is a go od source of technica l advi ce on adhesive se lec tio n, To make any recommendation , the adhes ive sup plie r m ust be pro vided the fo llowing informa tion: how the part is expec ted to perform mech anically thermal history of the materials being joi ned expected service temperature, in- , el uding any temperature cycling
moderate strength aluminum, copper. and steel strong but brittle jewelry, electronic components high tensile strength, low peel strength, and moisture- and chemical-resistant widely used for metals, ceramics. and rigid plastics
strength retention from 300' F (l S0'C) to SOO'F (2S0'C)
Cyanoacrylate
Epoxy-phenolic
some metals. aluminum, steel, glass, and phenolic resins flexible with impact resistance metals and some plastics good room temperature strength and toughness aluminum and copper develops strong bond
1 hr at 3S0' F (17S' C)
Polyamide
Polyester
Polyhydroxyether
limited load bearing ability, but high impact strength and moisture resistance most types of materials
01 1
Manual adhesive application (using brus hes , rollers, and squeeze bottles) is th e simp lest met ho d of applyi ng adhesives. Adequate ventilation is required, and personal protective equipme nt mu st be used to pre vent skin co ntac t with the adhes ive. After the adhesiv e is applied , the part s ar e brou ght into co ntact with each other and the adhesive is allowed to cure. Curing is a process that converts the adhesive from its applied conditi on to its final so lid state. Curing occ urs by solvent evaporation or by c he mical reacti on bet ween two or more che mical components. For exam ple , co ntac t ce ments cure by so lvent eva pora tio n, whereas epoxy and ureth ane adhesives cure by chemi cal
reacti on.
Heat andlor pressure may be used to assist curing. The adhesive supplier should set the limits of using heat and pressure for a particular product. Excessive heat andlor pressure may result in a n unacceptabl e bond. Exce ssive pressure causes adhesive to be squeezed out of the bond area, leading to a starved joint. A starved joint is a joint that contains insufficient adhesive to create an opt imum bond . Insufficien t co ntac t pressu re lead s to an excessively thick adhesive bond lin e, increasin g the prob ability of a major flaw d ev el op ing within the bond , whi ch ca n e ve ntua lly cau se join t separation.
St itching pin s are in stall ed alo ng the crack in a continuous, ove rlapping pattern . Th e spe c ial th read s on the stitching pin s grip the side wa lls of the drilled and tapped holes and draw the sides togeth er rathe r than spread them apart as norm al threads do. Cold mecbani cal repair is appropri ate for repairing metals that are difficult to weld, such as cast iron. Welding on cast iron at temperatures ab o ve 1000 F often ca uses mor e prohl em s than it solves. Cold mechanical repair prevents those probl em s. Co ld mechanical repair can also be used on fabricated metal parts that may be difficult to replace or where welding may cause distorti on. Co ld mechani cal repair is commonl y used on met al s s uc h as gray iron, ductil e iron , aluminum, bron ze, ste el, and fabri cat ed stee l sec tions. Some appl icat ions include eng ine block s and head s, pumps , compressors , machine tool s, and gear boxes . Lock s, stitching pins, and tooling are manufactured by companies that specialize in cold mechanical repair. Some repairs can be done with j ust the stitching pins or the locks. See Figure 26-4. For repa irs requi rin g both lock s and stitching pins, follow the procedure: I. Determine the extent of cracki ng by liquid penetrant (PT) or magnetic particl e (MT) examination. Drill the hole pattern s tran sver se to the crack along its length using the preci sion -drill fixture s.
Cold mechunicul repair is a repair
me th od thut consis ts of lo cks mid stitching pins ins/ailed into the surface of a cracked me ta l part 10 add strength ac ross the
2.
3. Drive the locks into the hole pattern to lock the opposite sides of the crack togeth er.
crack.
5.
. '
replace.
HOLE PATTE RN
{.;'\ 3
\V PATTERN
~~
ALO NG CRAC K
~k
~
M AC H I N ED
FLUSH W IT H SURFAC E
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,
Electroplating
Electroplating is the appl icat ion of a th in, hard , chro me coating to repair minor dama ge. The coating is typically between 5 mil and 10 mil thick. The part is masked with a nonconducting co mpo und suc h as wax to scree n area s not to be plated . Th e part is then placed in an electro plati ng tank that co nta ins e lec tro plat ing solut io n. An electric current is applied , with the part as the negativ e electrode in the circuit, so that metal (plating) is deposited on the part. Heavier platin g thickness ca n be achieved by applying a copper flash pl ate a nd c rea ting the bul k o f th e buildup (up to '/16") with electroplated nick el. Wh en e lec tro pla t ing is intended to produce wear resi stance, a thin layer of electroplate is used . Elec tro plat ing redu ces the fatigue st re ng th of rotati ng or recipro catin g equipme nt s uch as shafts. Fat igue strength can be restored by peening the
Electroplating is the .~ application of a thin. = hord . chrome ('(Kltin/-: to repair mil/or damage.
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=
~
pa rt before e lectro pla ting , and baking the part a fter electroplati ng . Baking should be performed for 4 hr at 350F ( 175C) or higher. Electroplating may also be used for minor rep airs by mean s o f selective plat ing. Selective plating is a form of electroplating used for touch-up repairs o n wo rn or damaged parts . Selective plating can be performed in the field or in the shop to repair nick s, scratches, o r ding s in rolls , bearing journal s, wear surfaces, or oil seal surfaces . See Figure 26 -5 . An a no de satura ted w it h specia l plating so lutio n is used for se lective platin g. A rectified AC pow er supply is co nnected to the workpiece and the plating anode. Selecti ve platin g is acc ompli shed by the relati ve moti on of the solution-soaked anode and the workpiece . A varie ty of plating types is ava ilable; however, hard nickel and nickel alloy platin g are most co mmon.
304 @
Welding Skill"
SWf(l Cf'S
of PlJnS
coating
C UI 10
mltSI
be properly under-
CORRECT
CO RNER
-,
EDGE
Ffgure 26-5. Selective plming may be used ill 'he field or repair shop to repair nicks. scr atches, or dings 0" wear surface s.
INCORRECT
Th e depth of und er cuttin g determines the fini shed deposit th ickn ess. Some rep airs may require und ercutting as deep as 50 mil to remove scoring or other dam age . Thermal spray coatings can also be a pp lied usin g th e s pra y and fu se meth od . Spray and fuse coatings ca n be used to rem ove or pre vent porosity. Spray and fuse coatings can be made relatively thick, from 20 mil to 80 mil, and there is some metall urgical bonding with the base metal. Abrasive particles may be incorporated into the coating to provide wear resistance. A disadvanta ge of the spray and fuse process is that the base metal is subjected to high temperatures, which may affect its mechanical properties.
lil ~-
COaling material. in
the form of rod. p o w d e r, o r wire, melts or becomes plastic ;11 the 'I('tI1ing cycle and does not degrade when heated can !J(, usn! as (J the rmal spray coating .
Blend Grinding
Blend grinding is a mechanical repair method in which a thinn ed, pitted, or cracked region of a part is prepared to create a gradual transition with the unaffected surface. The smooth transition reduces stress that might lead to fai lure in service. Two specific conditions must be addressed before blend grinding is used : design thickness and the corrosion allowan ce of the structure.
Repair Welding
'1
305
Blend grinding nUl Y be used to avoid weld repair when the remaining thickness of a structure provides adequate strength.
Design thickness is the thickness of metal required to support the load on a part. Most parts are built with a thickness in excess of their design thickness because the product forms used to fabricate them, such as plate and pipe, are available in standard thicknesses . The designer selects the nearest available thic kness above the design th ickness . Corrosion allowance is an addi tional thic kness of metal above the design thickness that allows for metal loss from corrosion or wear without red ucing the design thickness. The corrosion allowance is based on the anticipated severity of the enviro nment in which the part is to ope rate. For example, a part having a Vs" corrosion allowance may withstand a general corrosion rate of 20 millyr for approximately 6 yr before repair or replacement may be necessary. Blend grinding may be applied to restore the wall of a storage tank that exhibits a sharp ring of corrosion. Blend grinding eliminates the oeed for weld repair, provided the metal thickness in the corroded ring is above the m in imum requi red for t he service loads. See Figure 26-7 .
TANK DEVELOPS GROOVE OF CORROSION AROUND WALL FROM STO RA~E OF CORROSIVE LIQUID (
Wall thickness checks are performed using ultrasonic thickness measurements to measure the extent of the area to be ground . There must be an adequate wall thick ness in the tank to ensure a successful blend grinding operation . Blend grinding is useful when weld repair is too difficult or unsafe, as in a storage tank that contains flammable vapors. Precautions must be taken to prevent sparks during grinding and to '"'" ensure that confined space entry pro- ) cedures are followed . A wall thickness check is performed using ultrasonic thickness measurements to map and measure the extent of the area to be repaired, and the available wall thickness in the area.
Figure 26-7 . Blend grinding can be used to repair tank s in which corrosion has de veloped, and is an adequate repair if the remain ing tank wall has sufficient struc t ura l strength . Blend grinding helps to prevent weld repair buildup on the surface.
TAN~
COR RODED AT
WATERLlN~j
When fatigue stresses are a factor, the location of the weld repair must be in a region away from a change in section thickness, where the stress concentration is highest. See Figure 26-8. Preheating , posthea ting, and distortion cont rol requiremeot s must be detailed in the repair plan. The structural weld repair technique must minimi ze distortion and prevent the introduction of excessive residual stresses. If the repair is greater than W' thick or the joint is highly restrained, low-hydrogen electrodes should be used. A fillet weld joint is commonly a highl y restrained joint and the toe should be undercut when a fillet weld joint is to be used in fatigue or high stress applicatio ns.
. .. ~
.
ROT ATION
( I
\J------.J('c:=J
FRACTURED SHAFT
WELD NEW STUB HERE ROTATION
lA" RADIUS
Q~~!_J~=R:E:DESI GNED
SHAFT
SMOOTHLY POLISHED
ROTA TION
(: ::::1icMINIM~M
Surfacing Weld Repair
~.
Surfacing weld repai r is the applica tion of a layer, or layers, of weld metal to restore corro ded, worn, or cavitated
components to extend their useful life. Surfacing weld repair can be used for many appli cati ons, The co mpatibility of the base metal and the s urfaci ng material determines which surfac ing weld repair technique to use. As with structu ral weld re pair, preheatin g , po stheatin g , and di st ortion con tro l must be detailed in the repair plan. Surfacing weld repair may be done in the shop or in the field and may be perform ed automat ically or manually. Autom ati c surfaci ng we ld re pa ir is typically performed on large corroded areas that must be rebuilt. Automatic surfaci ng welding machines have one or two GMAW head s and depo sit metal on the vertical inside surface. The welding heads are mounted on a boom that rotates around a centerline and makes the metal deposi ts on the inside diameter of the corroded surface. Many automatic surfacing weld repair machines are portabl e enough to be used in the field as well. For manual surfacing repair in the field , SMAW is preferred, however, OFW proc esses can also be used because the equipment is portable. The thickness of the surfacing weld repair should not be greater than twice the amount of wear. For hard deposits, each layer sho uld be as thin as possible to prevent cracking, and no more than two passes sh ould be mad e. A single pass is adequ ate if diluti on between the surfacing and the component can be minimized. Surfacing weld rep air shou ld not be app lied ove r an existing deposit that has partially worn away. A worn deposit must be completely removed by grinding. SMAW or FCAW may be used after a worn depo sit is co mplete ly ground away, and for applications in which the same component is resurfaced o n a regular basis. GMAW is used with autom atic or semiautomatic processes . GTAWand PAW arc typically only used on small component. ' because they are more expensive, take longer to apply, and there is less availability of wires.
r =I
.=
.~
The compatibility of the base metal and the surfac ing materia/ determines which surfacing weld repa ir technique 10 UM' .
Wa f/p ap er in g and sleeving are special ired repair welding p roc esse s and a re tess commonly used than ot he r repair welding processes.
OAW is used for bronze bearing surfaci ng weld repair. Only one pass of weld metal is required, which helps minimi ze distortion. However, if the repair is being don e to improve corrosion resistance, the level of dilution by the base metal must be determined to ensure that one pass is adequate. If dilution of the surfacing weld could be a problem, a second pass may be required. Peening is used to minimi ze distortion and cross chec king in surfac ing deposits. Crosschecking is a series of parall el cracks about '/2" apart that occur in brittl e deposits (with hardness greater than HRC 50) as they under go stress relief. Peening is done by battering the surface with a blunt-no sed hamm er while the temperature exceeds JOOOF (540C) . Peening compresses the surface and reduces residual tensile stresses . For manual repair weld processe s, the welder deposits 6" of surfacing and then peens the surface. Pitting can occur from underbead cracking if surfacing weld repair is appli ed to heat-treatable steels without sufficient preheating and postheating . To prevent hardening of the base metal durin g surfacing weld repair, the base metal must be preheated to the appropriate temperature. Preheat temperature must be maintained throughout the procedure , and the component must be blanket-cool ed after surfacing weld repair is completed. Aluminum bronze surfacing welds are used to restore plungers in pumps, rams in extrusion presses, and rings on hydraulic ram s. An aluminum bronze surfac ing weld wears fast er than the hardened stee l sleeve it contacts , but can be replaced mo re easily. Alumi num bronze s can also be used to repair weld worn bron ze bearings in hea vy machinery, and to overlay cast iron gears and sheaves .
welded to a corro de d surface. The corrosion -resistant sheets are usually mad e of nickel alloy. GMAW is commonl y used for wallpapering using short circuiting transfer or pulsed spray transfer. An intermittent fillet weld is used with adjac ent sheets overlapping one another. A continuous fill et weld is made between the new sheet and the pre viou sly installed sheet. See Figure 26- 9. Continuo us fill et weld s are requ ired around the entire outer edge of the corrosion -resistant sheet so that no leakage occ urs . If she e ts larger than I sq ft are used, spot weld s or plu g weld s sh ou l d be made in the middle of each sheet to provide additional reinforcement.
Figure 26-9. Corrosion-resistant sheets are overlapped. with a fillet weld made between flnv and prev iously installed sheets, 10 repair (I corroded surface.
Sleeving
Sle eving is a weld repair method that appli es surfacing to badly worn shafts by welding snug- fitting semicircular form s to cov er the shaft surfac e. Half sleev es are usually mad e of a wearresistant cobalt alloy. Transverse shrinkage tends to pull the half sleeves tightly down on the shaft when sleeves are longitudinally welded to one another. Longitudinal relief grooves are cut into the shaft to prevent heat buildup that might lead to crackin g where the half sleeves arc welded together.
Wallpapering
Wallpapering is a weld repair method that uses thin, usuall y '116" , sheets of corros ion- re sis tant material that are
Per AIVS. D/ ./ . Structural Welding CodcSteel. whenperforming repairs 10 an existing stm ctllre. all modifications mllst meet design requirements specifiedby the engineer. The engineer must prepare a comprehensive plan (weld repair plan) fo r all repair work to be performed.
Repa ir C od es. Weld repair ma y be governed by a code, in whi ch case it is necessary to foll ow the applicable requirements, or risk penalties for violation of the code . Som e codes addre ss rep air welding requirement s as a speci fic subjec t and ot hers requi re welding qualification s that apply to both new and repair welding . Codes dealing spec ifica lly with repairs are sometimes called in-service inspecti on and repair codes. All repair codes require qu ali fied we ldi ng procedures, qualified welders, and proof that welders are qualified to perform the required procedures. Most codes rely on ASME Section IX and AWS D 1.1 to describe the requ irements for qualifi ed weldin g procedures and welders. Nondestru ctive e xa mination must be performed by qualifi ed ex am ine rs , and th e results interpr eted by inspecto rs qu alified in the ap pl icab le code . T he followin g spec ific types of equip ment are cove red by repair codes : Bridges, steel-frame buildin gs, and ships may only be repaired with spe c ia l authori zation . Structu ral steel and bridges are built in acco rdan ce with American Weldin g Society Codes . Th e repa ir work must be designe d: a pproved . Wel der s must be qualified according to the code used ; and the work must also be inspected. Writt en weldin g procedures are required . Tran sport ation equipment and co ntainers, such as railroad locomotives and rail road car whee ls, high strength, low-alloy steel truck frames, and compressed gas containers are not usually weld repaired. Weldin g is only permitted with specia l permission and approva l.
A documented repair we ld ing plun " "1.\'/ be created before (>l'eI)' job.
Determining Nece ssfty of Repairs Part/equipment Fabrication drawing numbers Identify failure mode Repair options Repair Codes Name of code Determining Type of Repair Requirements for stress analysis Base Metal Base metal identification Effect of welding on mechanical propertie s Heat treatment requirements after repair Cleaning requirements before welding Special disassembly procedures Controll ing Distortion Effect of welding on distortion Special alignment methods to minimize distortion Special repair weld sequence to reduce distortion Special support/bracing during weld repair Joint Profile Access of welder and filler metal to repair area Method of defect/crack excavation Method of checking for total defect/crack removal Final surface preparation before repair Weld ing Personnel and Equipment Method of qualifying welders Welding equipment Backup welders and support personnel Special safety requirements Repair Procedures Welding process Gas shielding Filler metal type and diameter Tack welds or buttering Number of passes (if surfacing repair) Welding position Welding technique Preheatlint erpass temperatu re control Peening Postheating or cooling method Repair Wrap-up Inspection Testing of repair Final machining/su rfacing treatment Cleanup Reassembly
Figure 26-10 . A weld repair pla n detail s all required stl'/H to successfulty complete a repair weld.
Aircraft may be repaired by welding , under stringent controls. The welde r performing rep airs on aircraft should be certified in accordance with MI L-T-50 120 , Test s; Aircraft and Missile Operators Certification. The we lde r mu st be qualified for the type of metal being welded, the welding process to be used, and the cate gory of parts invo lved. Furthermore, the welder should be qualified in accordance with the requirements of the Federal Aviation Ad ministrati on (FAA) guide lines contained in two appli cable documents: Accep tab le Meth ods, Techniques and Practices- Aircraft Inspection and Repa ir, and the Air Frame and Power Plant Mec ha nics A ir Frame Handbook . These document s provide precautio nary information, techn iques, practices, and meth ods that may be used in repair welding. Alt ern ative techniques mu st be approve d by the FAA. The late st ver si on o f any sta ndard or co de sho uld al ways be used . S tric t reg ulation of re pa ir welding for aircraft is required because many aircraft parts are made of materials heat-tre ated to obtain high strength. Weldin g repair may compromi se their mech ani c al properti es. Rot ating equi pme nt s uch as tur bines, generators, and large engines are generally covered by cas ua lty insurance. Weld repair is performed o nly after approval of a writte n we ldi ng proc edure by the in surance co mpany. Fired boil ers and pressure vesse ls are covered by various repair codes. Boilers and pressure vessels are covered by AN SIIN B-23, Nationa l Board Inspection Code. Additionally, pressure vessels are covered by API 510, Pressure Vessel Inspection Code; Materials, Inspection, Rating;
Repair; and Alteration. An authori zed ins pec tor (A I) mu st be invo lved or give approva l dur ing repairs and alterations. Th e rep air firm co ntacts the ju risdict ional auth ority, the insurer, and the owner of the boiler or pressure vesse l to en su re that the method and extent of repair is approved before making the repair. Stora ge tank repairs are covered by API 653 , Tank Inspection, Repair. Alteratio n, a nd Reconst ructi on , and pipin g repa irs b y API 570 , Piping Inspection, Repa ir, Al teration, and Rerating, All welding procedu res and welders mu st be qualified in accordance with ASM E Sect ion IX, Welding and Brazing Qua lifi cations. Som e co mpanies spe cia lize in the rep air and a lteratio n of boi lers and pressure vessels. Th ey are authorized by the appropriate j urisdi ctio nal authority; possess a current ASM E code sy mbol stamp cove ring the scope of the repair work; or have a current National Board " R" repai r code symbol stamp. Analysis of operating stresses may be required to en sure tha t ade qua te weld metal is applied .
attempting a weld repair /0 determin e the weidability of the metal and the ope of repa ir that should
be performed.
WARNING
Neve r pe rfor m weld repair o n an unidentified base me tal.
Chemical analysis requires that drillings be taken from the item and provides an accurate composition of the base metal. X- ray fluorescence ana lys is can iden tify many types of alloys . Even when the chemical analysis or materi al ty pe is known . the hardness may no t be indi cat ed. Hardn ess is a key indicator of mech anical properties for carbon and alloy steels. Heat treat ment may be requ ired after wel d repa ir to restore the part to its optimum mechanical condition, particularly with mach ine ry compo ne nts, whic h are usu all y q ue nch ed and tempe red to high strength level s.
Support or bracin g d uring we ld rep air is required on co mplex or large j obs to ens ure the pa rts und er repair do not move and are free of unnecessary forces. The supports or braces are necessary to align the parts and should not interfere while the weld repair is being mad e. It may be nece ssary to tempora rily tack we ld the support s or braces to the structural members to support the load.
Joint Profiles
The repair area must be accessible by the we lde r an d the welding elec trode or filler metal. Oth er wise. mak ing the repair is di ffi cult and the cha nce of success fully repairing the area is low. Acc ess to the repair area mu st allow the most comfortable welding position. Root opening and backgou ging requirem ent s mu st be spe c ifie d to achieve a full-pen etration weld. If the back side of the weld cannot be backgouged, a backing bar may be required. The groo ve angle should be the minimum possible to reduce the amount of weld metal added, but should be sufficient to allow room to manipulate the electrode at the root of the repair. When weld repairing casting defects. the groove angle depend s on the alloy. The groove angle is opened up with cast austenitic stainless steels compared with cast steels because the former are more pron e to ho t cracking . Buttering the sides of the joint may be necessary with cast austenitic stainless stee ls to overcome suscep tibility to hot crac king. Low heat input is also beneficial. Nickel alloys are eve n more suscept ible to hot cracking than austenitic stainless steels. and the groove ang le may be opened up even furth er.
Distortion Control
The effec t of heat and residual stresses on tolerances and other critical dimens ions mu st be es tima ted before weld repair. D urin g we ld re pa ir, speci a l alignment methods may be requ ired to monitor d istortio n, coupled with specia l sup po rts or br acing and spe cial rep air seq uences to redu ce distortion . For repai r of mechanical equipment, align ment marker s may be used . An alignm ent ma rker is a ce nter punch mark made ac ross the joint in var ious locati ons. Alignment markers are useful in precise repair work to maintain dimensional co ntro l or alignme nt during weld ing. Whe n re pairing shafts. a dial indicator may be used to measure distortion. Intermi tten t we lding and back-step we lding are used to red uce distorti on . Intermitt e nt weld ing an d back- ste p weld ing help balance out stresses and the effects of heat in the repair.
Pa AIVS. DJ .J. Structural Wctding CodeSteel. the old weld is rem oved by grinding, ma chining, chipping. or gouging. Additionally bef ore weld repair methods are perfo rmed. the surface of the structure to be repa ired must be thoroughly cle aned offo reign matter, including paint to at least 2" f rom the root of the weld.
air carbon arc goug ing can introduce ca rbon into the surface and the HAZ. By clos ely watching the joint surface , it is possible to sec if cracks are spreading. Metals that requi re preheatin g in weldin g require the same preheat conditions during cutting or gouging. Testing for Defect and C r a ck Removal. Liquid penetrant examination is the most common method of checking for crack s. All liquid penetrant re sidues mu st be rem ov ed after ex am ination by w ip ing with a ra g soaked in a suita ble so lvent for so lvent removable penetrant or with water for water was hable penetrant. Final surface preparation before repair is requ ired when the surface produced by cutting or go uging is not as smooth as desired, or has been contaminated. Unless the resulting groove is smooth without und ercutting or contamination, grindin g or machining may be required. Grindin g mu st achie ve bri ght metal without excessive heat buildup. If machining is used, all fluids must be cleaned off the surface. After grinding or machining, the surface is carefully inspect ed for cracks and oxide particles to ensure they are removed. If magnetic particle or liquid penetrant examination is required, the surface must be cleaned one final time before testing.
from the heat of welding. Nickel allo ys c rack wh en ex posed to s u lfur co mpo unds s uc h as gr ease o r o il. Sta inless stee ls crac k when ex posed to zin c, such as from co nta mina te d grinding wheels. The imm ediate work area must be cleaned of all dirt, grease, paint, galvani zin g, or any other coating. Th e method of cleaning depends on the material to be removed. For most construction and production equipment, steam cle aning is used . If steam cleaning is inadequate, solvent cleaning may be used, provided proper dispo sal condi tions are establi shed . For sma ll component s, acid or so lve nt dipping may be advisable. Acids must be completely removed from the base metal after dipping to prevent excessive corrosion. Mechani cal cl eanin g methods inc lude grinding with discs or whe el s, power wire brushing, and blast cleaning with abrasives. Blast cleaning with abrasives is very effective, but the abrasive must not be recycled or contamination can return. Blast cleaning is oft en the only way of re mo ving zinc conta minati on bec au se grindin g and po wer wire brushing only smear the zinc over the surface . Where zinc is a specific contaminant, the dithizone test for residual zinc must be carried out. It is important to perform the dithizone test to check for cleanli ness when performing repair welding on carbon steels, stainless steels, nickel alloy s, or heat-resistant castings . Disassembly. Co mponents that ar c sensitive to the heat of welding must be protected or di sas sembled . Instru ment tubing. wirin g, lubrication lines, and critical surfaces must not interfere with the repair and must not be ex pos ed to damage by heat , sparks, or weld spatter. Disassembly may requ ire skilled mech anics ex perience d with the eq uipme nt. Sh eet met al baffles may be used to protect adjacent machinery and fir eproof cl oth may be used to protect critical surfaces.
After the crack is removed. g rind ing is required to smooth the surface. Nondr structive examination mllst be used to en-
Preheating. T he preh eatin g rat e depends on the amount of metal involved. For large sect ions of met al, the tem perature rise in the component should not be grea ter than 100F/hr and the ent ire section thickness of the area to be repaired must be at the preheat tempera ture fo r V2 hr before star ting the repair. Based on the service conditions to whic h the co mpo nent is ex posed, it may be necessary to per for m a bake-out. A bake-out is a temperaturecontrol process used on a cas ting to remove hydrogen and other co ntaminant s that co uld cause cracking during welding. A typical bake-out would be performed a t 600 F (3 16C) to 800F (426 C) for 4 hr to 8 hr. Peening is done by battering the surface with a blunt-nosed hammer, while the temperature is greater than IOOOF (540 C), to compress the surface and reduc e residual tensil e stresses . When manual welding, the welder deposits 6" of weld metal and then peen s the welded area.
Welding Process. The welding process is selected tn achieve a so und repair co nsistent with the conditions at the time of repair. For these reasons, OAW and SMAW are often preferred for field weld repairs. Stri nger (straig ht) beads are preferred ove r weave beads to reduce heat input. When ever possible, the j oint should be welded in the flat (I G) posi tion to produce the most effective weld qua lity. Th e fille r met al must be se lected for optim um weldability. A smaller diamet er is prefe rred to reduce heat input , whic h is bene ficial in reducing di stortion . Tack welds may be required to maintain alignment of the joints. Tack welds should be performed to the same qualified procedures as the main repair weld. If not, they must be ground away and the gro und area inspect ed for cra cks using liquid pen et rant ex amination. Buttering may be used to avoid the need for preheat or postheat. When performing a surfacing repair, the minimum number of passes necessary to meet dilution requi rement s is preferable. Postheating. Postheat ing may be required afte r weld repa ir to res to re mechanical properti es. Postheating is required to stress-re lieve the rep air weld and redu ce d isto rtio n. In some cases. slow coo ling und er a blan ket may serve to stress-relieve the part so that a complete postheating cycle is not required. The problem with a com plete postheating cycle is the poss ibility of further dis tortion. Weld Repair Equipment. Weldi ng equipme nt req uired for we ld rep airs must be readil y avai lable to pre vent delays to the work. Standby equipment is also required. Equipme nt required for weld repair includes electrode holders, grinders, wire feeders, and welding ca bles . Su ffic ient power sources must be available to power all necessary equipm ent. If the job runs around
Weld repairs are commonly perform ed ill the fiel d. WefdillK equipment must be available to complete weld repairs with a minimum ofdowntime fo r the equipment.
the clock , pro vision s for lighting and personnel co mfort (such as windbreaks or covers) sho uld be provide d . Wind and rai n are two conditions that adve rsely affect fie ld we ldi ng. Wh en GMAW and GTAW processes are used o uts ide , the y ar e restri ct ed to full y sheltered location s since it takes very littl e wind to disturb them. Welding mat eri al s mu st al so be readily avai labl e for the entire job. Welding ma teri als that are need ed include filler met als, insert s, reinforcement, fu el for pr eh eat and interpass te mpe rature co ntro l, shie lding gases. a nd fuel for e ng ine-powe red we lding machines. Welding Support Personnel. Trained we lde rs and as sistants sho uld be capabl e of performing the e ntire j ob. The re should be a sufficie nt number of welders av a ilable to perform th e we ld repair and , if nece ssary, th ey should be rotated to main tain quality output. For code rep ai rs, the welder
must be formall y qu ali fied to the applicabl e welding procedures. For noncode work, welders should be qualified to a mock-up. A mock-lip is a simulation of the re pa ir area on wh ich the welder perform s wo rk in the ex pec ted position of the rep air. Safety Requirements. Sp eci al sa fety requirements mu st be met whe n perfor ming weld rep air, Sa fe ty requ irements incl ude co nfi ne d space entry procedure s, proper g rou nding, a nd co rrectly sized we lding cables. Co nfined spaces ca n co ntai n lifethreat ening atmos phere s such as oxygen deficiency, combustible gases, and/ or tox ic gases, and ca n cause entrap ment. Oxygen deficiency is ca used by the displacement of oxyge n as welding take s place, the co mbustion or oxi dation process, oxygen being abso rbed by the vessel by corrosion, and/or oxygen being con sum ed by bacterial ac tion. Oxygen-deficient air can result in inj ury or death . See Figure 26-11.
Ffgure 26-11 . Oxy gen -defi ci ent atmospheres in confilled spaces call cause life-threate ning condi tions.
lliLOxygen Content'
19.5 15-1 9.5
Decreased ability to work strenuously. May impair condition and induce ea rly symptoms in persons with coronary, pulmonary, or circulatory problems
Respiration exertion and pulse increases. Impaired
12-14
10 -11
8- 9
6-7
4-5
.. values are approximate and vary with state 01healthand physical activities t % by volume * at atmospheric pressure
Repair Weldin g
315
Before e nte ring a permit-required confined space , an e ntry permit mu st be posted at the e ntrance or otherwise made ava ilable to e ntrants. The permit mu st be signed by the e ntry supe rv isor. A signed entry permit verities that pre-ent ry prepara tions have been co mpleted and that the space is safe to e nte r. See Fig ure 26- 12. T he work piece co nnec tion must be coonec ted to the wo rkpiece with go od electric al co otact. T he workpiece lead should make a finn , pos itive co nnec tion with the wel ding po we r so urce . Th e placement of the workpiece connection determines arc charac teristics and prevents or minimi zes arc blow. Wel din g ca bles mu st be sized corrcctl y for the j ob. A hot cable indica tes the ca ble is too sma ll, or the connec tion s a re in ad equ ate . In a ll c ases, weld ing cables mu st not be used if the in su lation become s dam aged or the connection s become hot.
perform surface repairs on sea ls. A formal inspection brief should be prepared with the types of nondestruct ive examinat ion s req uired. Exa m ine rs mu st be qualified if required by specific codes; the acce pta nce criteria of the governing code must be used. Testing of a repair weld may involve a pressure test such a' a hydrostatic test A pressure test is not mandatory unless specifically required by the applicable code. Other procedures may be substituted if approved by the authorized inspector or code. Examples of alternate tests incl ude 100 % radiography of repair welds; liquid penetrant exami nation or magnetic part icle examination of all welds not radiographed; or a se nsitive leak test such a' a vacuum box test. Cleanup, Cleanup inclu des removal of stro ng backs or ot hcr c la mps, and smooth grinding of the locations where such item s were attac hed . Th e ground ar ea sho uld be in sp ected wi th liq uid penetrant exa mination or magneti c particle examination to e nsure it contains no crac ks or other defects, G round areas that requ ire wcld re pair s must follow exactl y the sa me we ld proced ure as the rep air itse lf. incl uding preheat and int erpass te mp erature contro l if necessar y. A ll we ld stubs, we ld spatte r, slag, a nd ot her residues must be re moved . Gri ndi ng du st mus t be removed since it is abrasive and may infilt ra te working joints a nd bearings, creating future problems. Reassem bl y is required for piece s of machinery taken apart for repair wel ding . Particular attention mu st be pa id to proper fit -up. If necessary, rem ac hining or gr ind ing may be nece ssary to re store proper fit-up or alignme nt. All ot her ite ms such as lubri cati o n li ne s. ca ble. a nd co ndu it should be reassem bled. Once all wrapup procedu res ha ve bce n co mpl eted, th e re pa ired machin e ry sho uld be give n an operatio nal test before being ret urned to service .
Many repairs of in-place storage tanks are perfo rmed hy compan ies specializing ill such repairs. Repair methods mllst be approved by the authority having jurisdiction and the insurer of the sto rage tank. When repairs are made to a p ressure vessel, a Form R-I . Report of Welded Repair or Alteration must he signed by the inspector who autho rized the repai rs and by the contractor performing the repairs. Copies must be sent to the proper slate authorities. and must be retain ed by the vessel owner and the authorized inspector:
[Juring welding . the quality of the repair should he continna tly chec ked to prevent problems during the f ormal inspection at the cmnpletion ofthe job.
Inspecting Weld Repairs. Inspect ion sho uld be do ne in form all y during th e re pai r and forma lly at the end of th e repair. During we ldi ng , the quality of th e repa ir s hou ld be con tin ua lly checked to catc h and correct problems before the formal in specti on . The final weld s should be smooth and without not ch es, a nd re inforc ing, if used, should blend smoo thly into the existing structure . G rind ing may be necessary to main ta in smoo th contou rs and to
316
0 We/dil/Ii Skills
_~ Confined Space
~ Hazardous Area
IPermit No.
4672 555 11
All COPIES OF PERMITWlLl BE POSTED AT JOB SITE UNTIL JOB IS COMPLETED. PERMIT GOOD ONLY ON DATE(S) INDICATED. SITE LOCATION and OESCRIPTIO N PERMIT SPACE HAZARDS _ _ Oxyg en def iciency _ _ Oxygen enri chment (indicate specif ic hazard s with initials) (less than 19.5%) (greater than 23.5%) (greater than 10% of LEL) (meets or exceeds LEL) (greater than PEL)
--
Mechanical Hazard s
10/ 2 7:00 AM
to to
10/4 3:00PM
- -
Other:
BOLD DENOTES MINIMUM REQUIRE MENTS TO BE COMPLETED AND REVIEWED PRIOR TO ENTRY REQUIREMENTS COMPLETED Loc k OutJOe-.energ izelTag-out Line(s) Broken- Capp ed-Blanked Purge-Flush and Vent Ventilation Secure Ar ea (Po st and Flag) Breathing Apparatu s DATE TIME REQUIREMENTS COMPLETED
DATE
TIME
Resuscitator-Inhalator 1 0 /4 Standby Safety Personnel Note: Items that do not apply enter N/A in the blank.
10/4
1 0 /4 1 0/4
1 Qi1.-
10/4 10/4
QMQ
** RECORD CONTINUOUS MONITORING RESULTS EVERY 2 HOURS CONTINUOUS MONITORING ' Permissible 1 0/4 TEST(S) TO BE TAKEN Entry Level 20 .5 20.6 20 .7 20.5 20 .5 PERCENT OF OXYGEN 19.5% to 23.5% LOWER FLA MMA BLE U MIT CARBON MONOXIDE Aromatic Hydrocart:lOn Hydrogen Cyanide Hydrogen Sulfide Sulfur Dioxide Ammonia Unde r 10% 35 PPM + 1 PPM+ 5 PPM" 4PPM* (Skin) 10PPM + 15 PPM" 2PPM+ 5 PPM ' 35 PPM"
.lL -'L - ..Q.- ..Q.- .a; ~ ..Q.- - .z., ...L 2- ...L -N/A -NlA -l ....L L L ....L - N/A ----'L ...2--"L
_ ,_
- - ----
------
- -- --- ---
, Short-te rm exposure limit: Employee can work in area up to 15 min. + 8 hr time weighted avg: Employee can work in area 8 hr (longer with appropria te respiratory protection). REMARKS: GAS TESTER NAM E & CHECK #
1 NSTRUMENTISj USED
Marty James
Industrial Sc ientif ic
15A
SAFETY STANDBY PERSON IS REQUIRE D FOR ALL CONFINED SPACE WORK SAFETY STANDBY PERSON(S) CHECK # NAME OF SAFETY STANDBY PERSON(S) CHECK #
~.te Washington
3312 _ 3318
Tony Linder
SUPERVISOR AUTHORIZING ENTRY
-.LI\~ I'J"",,"
dOCllll1ellt.~
I. An understanding of how a part failed is necessary before considering repair methods. Some repair methods may not be effective on certain failures . 2 . Root cause failure analysis identifies and links the three levels of deficiency that lead to failures: technical, human, and system. 3 . Mechanical repair methods do not create a metallurgical bond with the surface that is being repaired . 4. Adhesive bonding is the joining of parts with an adhesive that is placed between the faying (mating) surfaces, producing an adhesive bond . 5 . Cold mechanical repair is a repair method that consists of locks and stitching pins installed into the surface of a cracked metal part to add strengt h across the crack . 6 . Electroplating is the application of a thin, hard, chrome coating to repair minor damage. 7 . Selective plating is a form of electroplating used for touch- up repairs that can be performed in the field or in the shop . 8. Coating material, in the form of rod, powder, or wire, melts or becomes plastic in the heating cycle and does not degrade when heated can be used as a thermal spray coating. 9. Blend grinding may be used to avoid weld repair when the remaining thickness of a structure provides adequate strength . 10. The compatibility of the base metal and the surfacing material determines which surfacing weld repair technique to use. I I. Wallpapering and sleeving are specialized repair welding processes and are less commonly used than other repair welding processes . 12. A documented repair welding plan must be created before every job. 13. The base metal must be identified before attempting a weld repair to determine the weldability of the metal and the type of repair that should be performed. 14. After the crack is removed, grinding is required to smooth the surface. Nondestructive examination must be used to ensure cracks have been removed. 15. During welding, the quality of the repair should be continually checked to prevent problems during the formal inspection at the completion of the job.
\)
What are the three levels of deficiency analyzed by root cause failure analysis? When are mechanical repa irs required rather than repair welding? What is adhesive bonding? Why must an adhesive bonded joint be allowed to cure? On what type of metal is cold mechanical repa ir primarily used? What is electroplating? What type of bond is produced between thermal spray coating and the base metal? Why must thermal spray coatings be applied to smooth base metals and not sharp corners? What conditions must be present in order to use blend grinding as a repair option? What are the two major types of weld repair? What is the benefit of peening a surface? What welding process is commonly used for wallpapering? Why is it important to know the type of base metal before attemptiug a weld repair? Why is cleaning of the surface so important to repair welding? What common types of inspection are used to inspect weld repairs?
--
Pipe is used to transport oil, gas, and water in a system. Pipe is also used to transport chemicals (nitrogen. air) or utilities. Pipe is used extensively fo r piping systems in buildings, refin eries, and industrial plants. The use of pipe has gained acceptance in construction and ofte n takes the place of beams, channels, or angle iron. Pipe is commercially available in a wide range of diameters, wall thicknesses, and lengths. Welding is the easiest, most common method ofjoining sections ofpipe. Pipe welding eliminates complicated threaded j oint designs, permits free flow of liquids, and reduces installation costs. Welding is f ective cost-cuttin g technique in joining noncriti cal low-p ressure piping fo r also a practical and ef refrigeration or HVAC systems. Welded j oints are not designed to be disassembled. Repair or replacement requires removal of a section by cutting.
PIPE CLASSIFICATION
Pipe for mo st applicati on s is made from sta in less stee l or low -carbon stee l. S pec ial applica tio ns may use ch rom e-m ol y stee l. nickel stee l, wrought steel, low-alloy steel, copper, a lumi num , o r br ass p iping . Pip e is se lec ted ba sed o n th e wo rking load pr essure an d the material to be co ntro lled in the pipe. For examp le, steam lines in a nuclear pow er plant must be strong e noug h to withs ta nd high press ures without the possibilit y of fai lure ca used by defective welds
or corrosion.
and ASME c lass ify pipe thickne ss usin g nomin al in side di ameter as required by load requirements. Tb e nomina l inside diame ter is determined using standard weig ht pipe. The three sta nda rd pipe wei gh ts are sta nda rd (STD), extra-strong (XS) , and doubl e ext ra- st ron g (XXS) . As the wall thickn ess of ex tra -s tro ng pipe and dou ble extra-strong pipe is increased , the in side diamete r is re duced . Th e
outside diame ter rem ains cons tant in
A CAUTION
Determine ce rtification
requirements for welders
before procee ding with any pipe welding ap pli cat ion .
Pipe dimension is determined using the nominal pipe size (NPS). For pipe 14" and larger in di am eter, the NPS is the sa me as th e outs ide diameter. Pip e wall th ic kn es s is s p e c if ie d usin g one of two standards: ANSI or A STM I ASM E. ANSI cla ssifies pipe thi ckn esses usin g schedule numbers (S ch edul e 40, 60, 80, etc .). ASTM
pipe cla ssifications. See Appendix . For example, pipe witb an NPS of 3" has an ou ts ide d iame ter of 3.5". Standard pipe has an inside diam eter of 3.06 8" . Extra-s tro ng pipe has a n in sid e di am et er of 2 .9" . Doubl e extra -strong pipe bas an in side diameter of 2.3". See Figure 27-1. Pipe can be classified as thin-wall or thick-wall. Thin -wall pipe has a wa ll thickness from \1{' to 0/16". Thick-wall pipe has a wall thickne ss greater than 5/16".
319
STANDARD
y,
l"
~~3~ii
.215
SCNEDULE SCHEDULE
40
60
.095
.119 .126
.269 .364
.493
%
Y,
%
.622 .824 1.04 9 1.380 1.610 2 .067 2.4 69 3 .068 3.5 48 4.026 5.047 6.065
7 ,9B1
.109 .113 .133 .140 .145 .154 .203 .216 .226 .237 .258 .280 .322 .365 .406
.147 .154
.179
.957 1.278 1.5 00 1.939 2.323 2.900 3 .364 3 .826 4.81 3 5 .761 7.625 9 .750 11 .750
1!4
1% 2
2%
1.660 1.900 2 .375 2 .875 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.563 6.625 8.625 10.750 12.750
.191
3Y ..
4 5 6 8 10 12
in in. t bw gau ge
10.020 12 .000
Figure 27-1. The inside diam eter of pip e chan ges as the wall thickness increases.
.E e::::::
Th e wall thi ckn ess of the pip e to be welded det ermines the joint preparation required. Thin-wa ll pipe with a wall thickness of 'Is" or less does uot commonly require edge preparati on or beveling. Pipe with a wall thickness greater than VB" usually requires edge preparation. See Figu re 27-2.
PIPE CONNECTIONS
Weldin g is the most common method of j oini n g la rg e- diam et e r pip e. Welded pipe co nnec tio ns caus e less restric tion to the flo w of mat eri als in the pip e . When prop erl y welded. there is no gap between pipe sections and joint stre ngth is co nsistent with
Figure 27-2 . Thick -wall pip e has a wall thickness Kremer than M6'~ Wallthicknc.\-.\-e.\ ora ~"req u ire som e edge p reparat ion .
r
.C
;;
14
';
f
GREATER THAN
UP T~ 0/,,'
THIN-WALL
[r: :aKkJ
THICK-WALL WITH EDGE PREPARATION
the surround ing sections of pipe . Welded jo int s may be made with butt-welded fillin gs or socket fillings. See Figure 27- 3. Butt-welded fittings require ed ge preparation of th e pipe with a maximum 3/ 16" root opening . T he groove angle should be between 70 and 80. A backing ring is recomme nded for butt-welded pipe with a wa ll thickness ove r %" . Socket fill ings joi n pipe and fittings using sleeves that are we lded, brazed, or so lde red. A socket fitting does not require edge preparat ion . Socket fittings are used on pipe with less than 2" outside diameter (00).
tiki."
c
..
1h2" TO %2'''
PIPE
SOCKET FtTTING
Figure 27- 4. Root openings, ang les. and j oint pre/w rm ;OIH m ry for both thin- wall and thick wall "if/e.
Single-V
Sing le-U
~!7
OVER Vlt;'" ROOT
75 '
FACE
""6 "
L
ROOT FACE :rr" TO Ye'"
J-HI-
I i '
Th in-Wall Pipe
Th ick-Wall Pipe
EDGE PREPARATIONS
Pipe Welding
321
A WARNING
Improper fit-up in piping can lead to catastrophic failure of a pipe, especially
in high-pressure piping.
In add ition, various joint preparati on s may be re quired to e ns ure proper penetration during welding. The groove face ca n be altered to a llow access a nd to limit th e a mo unt of filler metal requ ired without co mpromising weld strength. Joint preparation is determined by pipe wall thickn ess, pipe composition, and the welding process used . Sm all -diameter pipe s with wall thicknesses less than '18" are commonly welded without any joint preparation . Th e ends are simply butt ed together with a small separation to ensure complete fusion. Most pipe with wall thicknesses over l/ S" req ui re some joi nt prep arati on. Pipe we ld ing technique s are affected by pipe dimensions, locat ion , requirements of the pipe and the weld, and welding equipment available. The following steps are used to prepare pipe for welding:
I. Select proper joint design for the job. 2. Clean the joint surface. 3. Align and fit-up the pipe jo ints. 4. Tack weld the pipe sections together.
A cutting torch can be used to bevel the edges if joint pre par ati on must take place at a job site where a beveling machi ne is not availab le . See Figure 27-5.
Figure 275. An oxyacetylene beveling mac hine can be used to bevel pipe.
Joint Design
Join t desig n specificatio ns va ry de pending on the size and co mpositio n of the pip e and the thickness of the pipe wall. However, a single-V groove is used for most thick-wall pipe welding. The joint edges must be smooth and free of defects and contaminants. Edges should be worked with a wire brush, if necessary, to remove defects or discontinuities and contaminants. Pipe typicall y arrives from the supplier already prepared and beveled to standard specifications. A bevel can be cut or ground in the field; however, this meth od is time-consuming and is less acc urate tha n machine-bevelin g. Whether performed at the supplier's or at the shop, bevelin g of the joint is usuall y don e with an oxya ce ty le ne bevelin g machine or pipe machine .
322 ~ We/dillg Skills
M a th. ) , D<-arman
Figure 276. Line -up clumps lrold pip e .\'(' 1'1;0 /15 securely ill pos ition while tack welds are made.
A con sumabl e ins ert provides the prope r open ing of the weld joint and becomes part of the weld. Consumable insert rings are used to ensure an accurate root ope ning be fo re weld ing . Con sumable in sert ring s are placed when the pipe is tack weld ed. Whe n the root pass is deposited, the insert ring is consumed into, and becomes part of, the completed weld . Five classes and compositions of inserts are available for use as required by spe cific jobs. The clas sification numbers refer to AWS classes of cons umable inserts. Cla ss I is A-s haped, or in verted-T, and extends beneath both pipe on the oppos ite side. Class 2 is J-shaped and extend s under one pipe on the opposite side. Classes 3 and 5 are rectangular. Class 4 is Y-shaped, extending to bot h sides on the welding side. See Fig ure 27-7. Spacers may be used to pro vide a gap between the joint until the joint is tack welded . The spacers are removed before welding. Backing rings are commonl y use d in the GTAW proces s. Backing rings have spacers attached to a ring whic h fit s in th e pipe before welding. Liners or backing rings can be fitted into the pipe before welding . Liners and backi ng ring s assi st in secur ing penet ration without burning through the surface. Liners and backing ring s also
prevent spatter and slag from entering the pipe at the joint. Backing rings are useful in maintaining pipe alignment and preventing metal slag and spatter from entering the pipe at the joint. See Figure 27-8.
Figure 27-8 . Back i ng rings are fitted inside the pipe before welding and keep the sections oj pipe aligned. preventing slag and spat ter penetration.
~ B AC K I N G
RING
68' TO 70'
CLASS 1
CLASS3AND5
CLASS 2
CLASS 4
Figure 27-7. Consumable insert rings are categorized by class and may be used to maintain an accurate roo t opening before welding,
Pipe Welding
323
.=
fore welding.
Welding is the most common method of joining pipe. Pipe welding is usedfo r lIum y applications including piping ill commer cial H VA C sy stems and high-p ress ure steam lilies in nuclear po wer plants.
WELDING PASSES
Weldi ng passe s are used to fill the groove to the specified depth . Welding codes and sta ndards pub licati ons specify the requi red depth of we lds. Weld in g co des and specifica tions should be followed closely. Most gas tungsten arc pipe welding standards requ ire co mplete root penetration with uniform welds and allow for few, if any, defects. The passes used for pipe welding are the root pass, intermediate weld pass(es), and the cover pass.
Tack Welding
A tack we ld keeps the joi nt members from moving out of their required posit ion s duri ng we lding . T he pi pes to be j oin ed must be prop erly fitted and can be held in position with a pipe j ig. A pip e jig is a device that hold s section s of pipe or fittings before tack welding. Once the pipe jo ints are properly aligned, they are tac k welded to hold the alignment during welding. For most pipe welding, four evenly spaced tack welds are made around the pipe. Tack weld s should typic all y be about 'Il" to s;." long. Tack welds should penetrate to the roo t of the groove, since they will become part of the root bead. To make a tack weld , the electrode is inclined 10 to 15. The arc is strnck in the jo int slightly ahead of where the tack weld is to be made. Th e arc is then quickly length ened to stabilize it and give it time to form a protecti ve gas shield. A sliding motion is used after the elec trode has been lightl y pushed into the joi nt. If the electrode sticks, it shou ld be w igg led slig htly bnt kep t buried in the groo ve. When the tack we ld is co m ple te d, the e lectro de is pulled away. Thi s procedure produ ces a s tro ng and fully pen etratin g tack weld. See Figure 27-9 .
12 O'CLOCK
Root Pass
A mol pa ss is the initial weld pass that provides complete penetration through the thickness of the j oint member. The current is set to provide maximum penetration without excessive weld metal deposited on the inside of the pipe. The root pass deposits weld metal in the root of the weld as a "keyhole". The keyhole is formed by the penetration of the root pass. A properly deposited root pass (root bead) should penetrate to the root and leave a solid bead below the surface with a slight crown that does not exceed approximately V 16" or the maximum allowed by the governing code. An improper root bead is cause for the entire weld to be rejected. The success of a pipe weld depends on the correct penetration of the root bead because it form s the base upon which successive layers are made. Subsequent weld pa,ses cannot compensate for a defective root bead. Som e und ercutting may occ ur on the face of the groove, but undercutting is not objectionable since it will be elimin ated by success ive passes. See Figure 27- 10. Th ere may be times when the root opening will vary due to poor fit-up. If the root opening is narrow, the speed of travel and e lec trode ang le should be redu ced. Wh er e a wi de ned root opening exists, the travel speed should be increased .
Tile root pa ss should completely penetrate into the root ofthe joint.
Fi ~ur e 27-9. Tack we lds are used to IIO /d prop erly aligned pipes ill position.
9 O'CLOC"~K~_
e O'ClOCK
KEYHOLE
Figure 27-10. A properly depos ited roo! pass [orms a crown on the inside of the pipe. A keyho le is
formed if the root pass is stopped and must he fitted when welding starts again,
' --
1fle" MAX
KEYHOLE
Ftgu r e 27- 12. In ter m ed ia te weld passes arc used to build up the weld and fill the joint, creating a st rong , sound weld.
ROOT PASS
CROSS SECTION
o the The term intermediate weld pass replaces formerly used terms hot pass and fi ll
pass. Intermediate weldpass identifies each pass deposited a j ter the m ot pass and be-
~~
ROOT PASS
CROSS SECTION
Figur e 27-11. The [irst intermediate weld pass jills the undercut keyhole created hy the root pass.
Pipe Welding
325
Cover Pass
A pipe weld should be fi nishe d with a final co ver pass .
A cover pass is the final weld pass deposited. The cover pass provides maximum reinforcement to the weld j oint and gives the weld a neat appeara nce. Th e cover pass should ha ve a slight crown extending abo ut V16" above the surface of the pipe. The cover pass is usually made using a weaving motion to provide a complete co ver for and a neat appearance to the weld . A slant or se mici rc ular moti on can be used ; however, it must be w ide eno ug h to cove r the entire weld joint. The cove r pass also provides the weld reinforcement required for strength and protection. See Figure 27- 13.
Cove r Pass
160 - 180
the ideal current is within lI1e ranges show n. The best quality is obtained at the lower end of each range t in amps t Weld root pass at 24 to 26 arc volts and 10 to 16 ipm arc speed
l UI
Figur e 27-14. Electrode size is reco mmended based the weld IJa.u lind required weld strengt h.
Ftg u r e 27-13. Th e fili al cover pa ss adds reinfo rce me nt to the weld and provides a 1Iet uppear ClIICl:',
COVER PASS
\\----L~~.L
'A," CROWN
ROOT PASS
CROSS SECTION
ROOT PASS
KEYHOLE
COVER PASS
COVER PASS
Downhill Welding
Downhill welding is used to weld thin-wa ll pipe. Sma ll-d iamete r pipe is typically welde d with GTAW or GMAW. Downhill welding is preferred fo r we ldi ng cross-co untry pipel ines because it is a fast welding technique. Afte r th e pipes are sec urely tack welded, a root pass is depo sited completely arou nd the joi nt. The electrode is held in approximately the same position as when making the tack welds.
Electrodes
Most shielded metal arc pipe welding is done with E-60 I0 or E-60 11 electrodes, exce pt where high strength weld s are required . Wh en hi gh strengths are needed, es pec ially on low-all oy stee l pipe, electrodes in the E-70XX series are used. See Figure 27-14 .
Figur e 2715. Pipe welders must be certified in specific pipe weld j oint positions .
The arc is struck slightly ahead of the weld to preheat the area where the weld bead will be started. After the arc has stabilized, the electrode is lowered into the root openin g and moved along the groove. Intermediate weld passes are usually made with a side-to-side (weaving) motion and consist only of a light bead deposit. The electrode should pause at the end of each stroke to ensure good fusion at each edge of the weld. As the electrode reaches the bottom of the weld a semicircular or horseshoe weave is used . See Figure 27-16. Intermediate weld passes are made with the same diamet er electrode used for th e root bead but with slightly higher current.
For downhill welding, follow the procedure: I . Deposit four tack welds to hold the pipe in alignment. 2 . Start welding the root pass in the 12 o'clock posit ion. 3. Carry th e root pass weld down ward to the 6 o'clock position . 4 . Follow same procedure on the other side of the pipe. See Figure 27-17. If the electrode sticks and fai ls (0 glide smoothly because of built-up heat, a slight side-to-s ide osc illating motion will usually correct the problem . After the root pass is completed , additional wel d pa sses are deposited. The number of passe s depend s on the thickness of the pipe.
~_ _, /
HORSESHOE WEAVE
Figu re 27-16. Two motio ns used to make intermediate weld passes are the side-to-side (weaving) motion and the horseshoe wea ve.
Pipe Welding
327
Figure 27-17. Downhill weldillg is nJ/lwl /11l/y used to weld thin -wall
pipe,
12 O'CLOCK
9 O'CLOCK
- ---/if-
- ,-
3 0 'CLOCK
CD
WE LD FOUR TACKS
'0! O N O PPOS IT E S ID E
A CAUTION
When restartin g the arc, completely tie together the welded sec tion with the next section.
together.
One problem encountered in downhill weldin g is controlling the heat input. Lack of heat input co ntro l is es pec ia lly a probl em whe n weldin g sma ll-d iame te r pip e where heat does not di ssipate fas t enough and exces sive heat buil ds up in the weld zo ne. Heat in put can usu all y be re g ul ated using a small diamete r e lectrode and reducing the curre nt setting. Another problem in downhill welding is maintaining proper control of the weld pool. The molten metal tends to flo w downward in the same dir ection the arc is mo vin g. If the flow is not co ntro lle d , pen etration cannot be achi eved and s lag becomes entrapped in th e molten metal , produ c ing slag inclu sion s in the weld. Sla g inclusion is only a problem when welding with
SMAW. Co ntro l of the molten weld pool is accompli shed using a fast travel speed a nd a hi gh -current se tt ing to keep the arc ahead of the weld pool. Starting and Stopping. There is a certai n amount of starting and stopping du r ing we ld ing d ue to the need to c hange e lec trodes o r weld po sition . Wh en we lding must be stopped and then restarted . the ends of each weld bead must be tied together. To restart a weld . the arc is struck about Vz" back of the bead and then mov ed forw ard with a long arc . As soon as the arc is stabilized, the electrode is momentarily buried in the crat er of the last bead to regenerate the molt en weld pool. The electrode is then rais ed slig htly and the weld co nti nue d. When the weld
328
Weldin g Skills
approaches the end and must be tied into the other deposited bead , the electrode is moved up the sloping side of the previous bead , and th e directiou of travel is briefly reversed after the molten pool blend s smoothly between the two beads. The arc is then wit hdrawn quickly by flicking the electrode downward and away from the center.
Uphill Welding
Uphill weld ing is used for we ldi ng thick- wall pipe. Welding progresses upward on one side of the pipe an d then upward on the opposite side. See Fig ure 27 -18 . For uphill welding , follo w the procedure:
I . Weld four tacks to hold the pipe in alignment. 2 . Start welding the root pass in the 6 o'clock position. 3 . Carry th e weld upward to th e 12 o 'clock position. 4 . Follow the same procedu re on the opposite side . As in downhill welding, tack welds are used to maintain alignm ent of the pipes. The root pass is depo sited ju st back of the bottom , or 6 0 ' cloc k, po sition . The arc is struck a he ad o f the 6 o'clock position and a long arc is maintained for a s hort peri od to preheat the surface; then it is brou ght back to the weld area and weldin g is be gun.
12 O'CLO CK
~-"f
JA" LON G
Figu re 27- IH. Uphill we lding is used to weld thick -wall pipe . Uphill welding s ta rts at th e 6 n ' clock position lind works upward Oil ho th sides of the pipe.
9 O'CLOCK
- -l3f-
- - 3D'CLOCK
"
6 O'CLOCK
rz-. o
While the root pass is being deposited, no electrode weaving motion is nece ssary. The electrode is simply advanced at an angle of SO to 10 with a slow and uniform movement along the joint. As the electrode approaches the upper part of the pipe , the molten metal beg ins to flow downward at a fas ter rate. A slight whipping motion help s to control the weld pool and pre vent metal flow. After the root pass is comp leted , one or mor e int erm ediate weld pass layers are deposited followed by the final cover pass.
joint while the pipe remains stationary. S ince the pipe is not rotated, the weld in g ha s to be don e in variou s po sition s-fl at, horizontal , vertical, and overhead. See Figure 27-20 .
Roll Welding
Roll welding is a welding procedure that app lie s heat and pressure to interlock the faying sur faces of the weld. Roll welding is usua lly performed with GMAW using a handhel d welding gun . The roll welding method requ ir es that two o r more sections of pipe be lined up and tack welded . Special pipe clamps hold the pipe in alignment until they are tacked. See Figure 27-19 . The weld is then compl eted in flat po sition while helper s rotate the pipe. After the short pip e section s are welded, they are plaeed in line with the existing or pre viou sly installed pip e and welded in a stationary position .
Figure 27-19. Pipe damps are used to hold pipe in alig nme nt until tack welds are made .
The lincoln EleClri(' CompWly
Figu re 27 -20. Position welding requires tliat the pipe he welded in various positions aro und stationary pipe .
PIPE CLAMP
Welder Certification
Certification of we lder s is based on the proficiency of the welder making welds in specific positions. Pipe weld joint positions are identified as test positions. Because pipe weld s are usually groove welds , they are identified by the letter G, for groove weld. Test po sitions are I G, 2G, 5G , 6G, and 6GR. There is no 3G or 4G test position in pipe welding. The axis of the pipe may vary 15 for the IG, 2G, and 5G test positions, but only 5 for the 6G and 6GR positions. See Figure 27-21.
Position Welding
Position weldin g (stove pipe welding) con si st s of lining up each sectio n, length by length, and welding each
330
Weldin g Skills
PIPE ROTATED\
og
MULTIPLE WELDING POSITION (5G)
PIPE NOT . ROTATED--RESTR ICTER RING
1S'
PIPE NOT ROTATED
2G
INCLINED POSITION 6G
PIPE ROTATED
N O Tj
Figure 27-21. Tile American Weldi ng Society (AWS) lias identified weld positions f or pipe and Tubing welding as test 1'0, \";(;011.\ I G. 20, 50. 6G, and 6GR.
IG Position. Test position IG is the nat welding test position. The axis of the pipe is in horizontal position. The axis of the weld is in nat position. The weld is comp leted in flat posi tio n as the pipe is rotated. The axis of the pipe should be with in 15 above or below the horizontal. Test position IG qualifies a welder to weld in flat position. 2G Position. Test position 2G is the horizontal position. The axis of the pipe is in vertical position and the axi s of the weld is in horizontal position. The weld is compl eted in vertical position . The axis should be within 15 on any side o f vertical. Test po sition 2G qualifies a welder to weld in flat and horizontal positi ons. 5G Position. Test position 5G is the multiple welding test po sition . The axis of the pipe is in horizontal position. The axis of the weld is in vertical position. but the pipe is not turned or rolled durin g welding. The weld is completed in flat. vertical, or overhead fixed pos ition s. Th e axis should be within 15 above or below the horizontal. Test po sition 5G qualifies a welder to weld in flat, vertical . and overhead pos itions .
6G Position. Test posi tion 6G is the inclined position. The pipe is fixed in pos it ion an d is not rotated d uring welding . The weld is completed with the axis of the pipe at a 45 angle 5. The axis of the pipe is set and the pipe is not rotated while welding. 6GR Position. Test position 6GR is mu lt iple position welding with a restriction ring. Restricted accessibility is often added by placing a restric tion ring near the weld. Test posi tion 6GR requires the axis of the pipe to be positioned at a 45 angle. So. The pipe is fixed in position and is not rotated during welding.
WELDING METHODS
Welding methods used for pipe are the same as are used for other welding processes. The method used depends on the pipe material, diamet er, and function of the piping system. The composition of the pipe determines the filler metal and welding proc ess used . For examp le, welding stainless stee l pipe with a 3fs" wall thickness requires deep penetration. Pipe in a critical applic ation may be purged with shielding gas. GTAW is used to ensure weld purity.
Most pipe welding is done with either SMAW or GMAW. The advantage of GMAW over S MAW is tha t wit h GMAW. no slag occur s in the we ld . A lso . the ga s pro tection shield over the weld area preve nt s at mospheric co nta mi na tio n of the we ld . S ince GMAW requires no slag removal. less welding time is required. The re is no s ig n ific a nt d ifference in weld in g te c h niq ues and procedures between SMAW and GMAW. General description s of pipe welding processes apply to both SMAW and GMAW. GTAW ma y be used wh en sho p welding small-diameter pipes. GTAW is also so metimes used to dep osit the root bead of large-d iameter pipe jobs. Pipe we ldi ng is co mmonly performed using ma nua l. semiauto matic. mech anized , or automatic welding.
we lde r co ntro ls th e we ld ing gun manually. See Figure 27-22 . Commo n semiautomatic weldi ng processe s are GMAW and FCAW.
Manual Welding
Manu al we/din g i s we lding w it h a torch . weld ing gun or electrode holder. held and manipulated by hand. Manual we ld ing usin g OAW wa s co mm onl y used for man y years to weld pip e. It worked we ll for thin-wall pipe. but thick-wall pipe required too much time and was difficult to weld. Although not co mmon ly used. some thin-wall pipe is still welded with OAW. SMAW is a manual welding process co mmo nly used for welding pip e because of the flexibility and mobilit y of the equipment. and the accessibility to the weld area.
Figu re 27-22. Gas metal arc welding is oft en used 10 join small-diameter pipe "h ill' the welder controls the weldi nM g un.
Mechanized Welding
M echanized weldin g is a weldi ng proc ess in which the we lding process is aut omat ic . but the op e rato r must mak e pro cess adj us tme nts manu ally. In mech ani zed we ld ing , the mac hine controls the welding gun. The welding gun move s along the weld at a set height. If the seam is not flat or straight. the operator must adjust the equipment. The o pera to r mus t o bse rve the progress of the we ld ing g un or electrod e holder and make adjustments as necessar y.
Semiautomatic Welding
Se m iautomatic weldin g i s manu al we lding with eq uipment that co ntro ls one or more welding condi tions automaticall y. Se miauto ma tic we lding req uires a we lder to manua lly we ld while equipment controls one or more welding co ndition(s). A co nstant voltage we ld ing machine provid e s th e pow er and a wire feed er deli vers the electrode to the weld pool while the
Automatic Welding
Auto matic welding is a we lding process that requires minim al observa tion of the welding process by the operator and no manual adj ustme nt of the controls. The welding equipment automatica lly contro ls one or mo re we lding conditi on (s). T he auto ma tic we lding system moni tor s the arc vo ltage and adj usts the height of the welding gun from the ba se metal to ma int ain a
332
Welding Skills
consistent distance and a quality weld. Most large diameter (24" and over) pipe is welded using an automat ic GMAW process. Automatic GMAW machines speed up the weld ing process and produce welds without slag inclusions, which are a con stant problem with SMAW. Unlike conventional pipe welding procedures where the root bead is depo sited externally, in automatic welding the root pass is depo sited inside the pipe . A special bevel is made on the pipe for thi s purpose . Se e Figure 27 -23. Usually, four welding head s mounted on an internal line-up clamp are used to make the int ernal root bead in a single pass. The internal welding unit is self-propelled along the inside of the pipe and held in place at the weld site by c lamp shoes . Welding heads are positioned preci sely over the joints by means of special aligner block s. Onc e the unit is correctly po sitioned, the next sec tio n of pipe is sli pped over the reach rod of the un it. The joint is properl y spaced a nd ano ther set of clamp shoes is actuated to hold th e joint in plac e for welding . A contro l box mounted on the handle of th e reach rod co ntro ls the start ing and stopping of weldin g. Each welding head weld s a 90 arc. All welds are made downhill with two head s moving clockwi se an d the other two moving counterclockwi se. Shielding gas for internal welding con si sts of 75% argon and 25 % CO 2 .
External Welding. The external welding proce ss includes a root pass , inter mediate weld pass , and cover pa ss . Passes are made with special welding units that travel aro und the extern al perimet er of the pipe on pre-positioned circumferential pipe bands . Two welding machine s, sometimes referred to as bug s, move simultaneously on the pipe . See Figure 27-24. One bug starts at the 12 o'clock position and travel s downward to 6 o'clock. The other bug starts at the 3 0 ' clock position and stops at the 9 o'clock position. The bug is then moved to the 12 0' clock position to complete the pass at the horizontal. External welds are made with 100% CO2 because it has a higher deposition rate and better penetrating qualities.
ItHd J;w/i/lg Co rp
Destructive Testing
Destructive testing is used primarily in the qualification of welding procedure s and are often used to test welder performance. In destruc tive testing, a test speci men is analyzed using the tensile
test or the guided bend test. A test specimen is a section of welded metal that includes the weld area. In the tensile test, the test specimen is subjec ted to force in opposit e di rect ion s. The tensi le stre ng th ac hiev ed is co mpa red with weld strength requirements. See Figure 27-25 . In the gu ided ben d test, a test specimen is used in a guided bend tester to identi fy points of fail ure when the test specimen is subjected to a bending force . The gu ide d be nd test requires two test speci mens, a face bend specimen and a root bend specimen.
LI~-----":""
I 3 ,4"
,----1A"
MACHINE MINIMUM AMOUNT TO OBTAIN PLANE PARALLEL
FACES OVER
~"
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-0
W IDE REDUCED
~---....::....I
SECTION
lY
TENSILE TEST
FACE BEND ROOT BEND FACE BEND
I
T
' 1>"
----.i
- U'17" -j
GUIDED BEND TEST SPECIMEN
-,T
ROOT BEND
334
Weidill l{ Skills
Th e face-bend specimen is checke d for inc om plete penetrati on , porosit y, incl us io ns , o r oth er defec ts . Th e spec ime n is placed in the g uided bend tester w ith the face side do wn. The root-bend spec imen is tested for complete penetration . The speci men is placed in the guid ed bend te ster with the roo t side down. After bending, the test specimen is inspec ted for cra cks.
Nondestructive exam inati on meth od s include liquid penetrant, radiographic, ultrason ic, and vis ua l e xa mina lio n. See Figure 27 -26.
Nondestructive Examination
Nondestructive examina tion (NDE) is the devel o pment and application of methods to exa mine materials or com ponents in way s th at do not impair their usefulness or serviceability. No nde st ru c ti ve e xam ina tio n is used to determine we ld quality without affectin g perform ance of the we ld. NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Method
Acoustic emission
A welder mus t he able to weld pipefrom various positions around the pipe since most pipe cannot be rotated.
Letter Desionation
AET ET LT MT NRT PT PRT RT UT
r~-
Visual'
'methods
VT
pipe
use<llorlestmg
wek:Is
1101
Pipe Weldin g
335
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Small-diamet er pipe with a wall thickness of less than 1/ 8" is typically not beveled. Tack weld ed pipes should be properly aligned before welding . The root pass should co mpletely penetrate into the root of the joint. Inter mediate weld passes are used to fill the joint. A pipe weld should be finished with a final cover pass. Downhill welding should be used to weld thin-wall pipe. Uphill we ldi ng should be used on thick -wa ll pipe. In uphill welding. the root pass should be started j ust back of the 6 o'clock positioo . The ends of the we ld mu st always be tied togeth er. Mo st pipe weldi ng jobs require that the welder be certified .
How is thin-wall pipe distinguished from thick-wall pipe? As a ru le, how many tack welds are made on pipe? What is the functio n of a hacking ring? If the electrode sticks in the groove when makin g a tack weld. what shou ld he done? Wh y is a proper root ope ning very important in pipe welding? What is a root pass? What is the function of the first intermediate weld pass? What is the function of the co ver pass? Why is a whipping action of the electrode sometimes used? Why should each layer start and stop at different point s? What electrode motions are used to make intermediate weld passes? The exte rna l we ldi ng process includes what passes? Which electrodes are used for most shielded metal arc pipe we lding? How is welding performed when started at the 6 o'clock positio n? What is the difference between uphill and downhi ll welding? What are some of the problems that may be encountered in down hill weldin g? Downhill welding is used for welding what kind of pipe? How are the ends of a weld tied together ? At what ang le should the electrode be held for downh ill welding? What is the starting position for thin-wall pipe welded with the downhill technique? Wh y do pipe we lder s usually have to mee t cer tification requirements?
336 0
weldi ng Skills
Production welding ref ers to welding techniques used ill the fab rication of goods ill mass production. lndustri es invol ved ill manufacturing use welding processes that allow the joining of metal rapidly and automa tically. Since production techniques depend 0 11 the nature of the goods made, the weldin g process and equipm ent used vary [rom one industry to another: Special weldin g machin es are (iftell designed for a particular industry. All aircraft company may need a spotwelde r designed to join ce rtain types of a luminum structures, while all auto mo tive ma nufacturer lIIay require a resistance-type sea m welder specially made to weld structural steel. Other applications nUlY require a stud-welding gun to fas ten studs Oil metal components. Weldill g processes used fo r production welding include resistan ce welding (RW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), stud welding, electron beam welding (EBW),friction welding (FRW). laser beam welding (LBW). plasma arc welding (PAW). submerged arc welding (SAW). ultrasonic welding (USW). elect rogas welding (EGW). and adhesive bonding (A B). Other welding pmcesses that lIlay be used fo r production welding are explosion welding (EXW). fo rge welding (FOW). roll welding (ROW). and cold welding (eW).
RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance we lding (RW) is the most commonly used of the production welding processes. Resistance welding (RW) is a group of welding processes in which fusion occurs from the heat obtained by resistance to the flow of welding current through the metals joined. All RW processes are based upon the foll owing funda mental principles: Heat is ge nerated by the resistance of the workpieces to be joined to the passage of a heavy electrical current. Th e heat at the junc tu re of the workpieces changes the metal to a plastic state.
Wh en the wo rkpieces, heated to a plastic state, are combined with the co rrec t amount of pressure, fusion takes place .
RW machiner y is similar whe ther the machine is a si mple or co mplex design. The main difference is the type of jaw s or electrodes that hold the object to be welded. See Figure 28-1. A standard resistance we lde r ha s four principal elements : The frame is the main body of the machine. which differs in size and shape for stationary and port able type s. Th e el ectri cal c irc ui t, which in cludes a step-down transformer that
337
reduces voltage and proportionally increases current to provide the necessary heat at the point of welding. The electrodes include the mecha nism for making and holding contact at the weld area . The timing controls use switches that regulate the amount of current, current duration, and the contact period .
The most common types of RW are spot welding, seam welding, projection welding, multiple-impulse welding, flash welding , and upset welding.
Spol Welding
Spot welding is the most commonly used RW process. The material to be joined is placed between two electrodes, pressure is applied, and a charge of electricity is sent from one electrode, through the material, to the other electrode. There are three stages in making a spot weld. First, the electrodes are brought together against the metal and
pressure is applied before the current is turned ON. Next , the current is turned ON for a short time. The third step is the hold time, in which the current is turned OFF but the pressure continues. The hold time fuses the metal while it is cooling. Spot welding usually leaves slight depressions on the metal that are undesirable on the " show side" of the finished product. Depressions can be minimized using large-diameter elec-\ trode tips on the " show side" . ) Spotwelders are made for both direct current and alternating current. The amount of current must be controlled. Too little current produces a light tack and provides insufficient strength to the weld. Too much current causes excessive heat. To dissipate the heat and cool the weld as quickly as possible to prevent overheating, the electrodes that conduct the current and apply the pressure for spot welding are water-cooled. The electrodes are made of low-resistance copper alloy and are usually hollow
FiJ.,JUrl' 28-1. RW machinery is simifa" whether the machine is a simple or complex design.
ELECTRODE
PunJjiri.l, Inc.
must be kept cl ean and in the correct shape to produce good results. For example, if a '; ." dia, e lec tro de faee is allowed to increase to 3/ 8" by wear or mushroomin g , th e cont act area is doubled and , co rres pondingly, the current den sit y decreases. A cur rent density d ecrease resul ts in weak w elds unless the dec rease is co mpensa ted for by an inc rea se in current setting. Ad ditional fac tors tha t cause poor welds are mi sali gnment o f e le c tro des , im prope r elec trode pressure, and convex or con ca ve e lec trode surfaces. Two basic types of spo twe lders are sing le-s po t and multiple- spot. A sing le -s po t has two long horizontal horns, eac h holding a sing le electrode, with the upper ann providing the moving action. Multiple-spot spotw e lde rs have a series of hydraulic- or air-operated weldi ng guns mounted in a frame work or header but usc a common (or bar) mandrel for th e lower electrode. The g uns ar e co n ne c ted by flexible bands to individual transformers or to a co m mo n bu sbar attached to the transformer. Two or four guns can be attac hed to a tr an sforme r. Alt ho ug h man y sp o t welders a re stationary, portabl e spotwelders are becoming more po p u la r. A portabl e spotwelde r, or spo t-weldi ng gun, consists of a welding head co nnected to the transformer by flexibl e cables. Th e jaws of the we lding head can be opera te d m anu all y. p neumati cally, or hydra ulica lly. The se lf-contai ne d po rt able sp ot welder cont ain s a buil t-in timer, electrod e cont act ors , a nd tran sform er, and requires onl y a 115 V power connection. S ee Fi gure 28 - 2 . With thi s appa ra tus, spo t w eld s can be m ade on irregul arly shaped objects. A selfconta ined portabl e spo twc ld e r is especiall y suitab le for shee t metal and auto body weldi ng.
Figure 28-2. A setf- co ntuined po rta ble spotwelder contains II built-in tim er, electrode COlI!a clo r.\", and a transf ormer:
multiple-spot welds.
Spotwelders a re u sed e xtensivel y for welding stee l. When equipped with an electronic timer. spotwelders can be used for other co mmercial metals such as aluminum , co p pe r, and sta in le ss stee l. They are al so very effective for welding galvanized metal.
Seam Welding
Seam welding is similar to spot weldin g exc ept that the weld s o verl ap, making a co ntinuo us weld sea m . In seam welding, the met al pi eces pa ss between roll er-typ e electrodes. As the electrodes revolve, the c urre nt is automatically turned ON and OFF at interva ls co r res po nd ing to th e speed at which the part s mo ve . With prope r control, it is possible to obtain airtight sea ms su ita ble for co ntainers suc h as barr el s, wate r heaters, and fuel tan ks. Wh en a n int ermitt ent c ur re nt is used and the spo t we lds are not overlapped lon g en ou gh to produce a continuous weld , the proc ess is referred to as roller spo t we ld ing . See Fi gure 28 -3. Seam welding is an effective welding method becau se of its sho rt current c ycle . The roll ers may be co oled to prevent overheating, with consequent wh eel dressing and replacement problem s redu ced to a min imum. Cooling is accompli shed by internally circulating
Sl'lI11/
weldin g pro-
dUCl' S (/
wate r or by an external spray of water o ver th e e lec t ro de roll ers. See Fig ure 28-4 . Since the heat input is low, very little of th e weld ed area is hard ened , and the yield point is not materially affected . Very lillie grain growth tak es place durin g se a m welding. wh ich mak e s sea m weldin g appli c able to corros ion-resistant alloys such as ferritic stainless steels and other ferr itic stainless stee ls whos e met al propertie s are mod ified by gra in growth.
Projection Welding
Proj ect ion we ld ing (P lV) is a welding process that produces a weld using heat obtain ed from resi stance of the workpiece to the welding current. The PW process is similar to spot welding. The point where welding is to be performed has one or mor e projection s that have been formed by embossing, sta mping, ca sting, or machining. The PW process consists of placing the proje ction s in contact with the workpiece and aligning them bet ween the electrod es. See Figur e 28-5. Th e projections serve to concentrate the welding heat at the weld area and cause fusion without requiring high current. Single or multiple projection s can be welded simultaneously.
Flg urc 28-3. III a con tinuous spot weld. welds 11111.\"1 be ctosetv spaced 10 p rol'i.1l> a ll a irt igltt sealll. I II
intermittent .~I'(/t welding, II sea m weld i.\" produce d in which the spot welds art' spaced apart, ) / ROLLERS - CLOSELY A SPACEo
...-
CONTINUOUS CURRENT
BEFORE WELDING
INTERMITTENT CURRENT
Figure 28-4. Seam weldillg is lIlI advantageous welding method because of its short currenl cyc le. Tilt' rollers lila)' be cooled 10 pre~ \' (' 111 overheating,
MOLTEN PROJECTIONS FUSE TO FORMWELO
AFTER WELDING
F ig ure 285 . 1/1 /, W. p roj ec tio /ls ctJ llcellfrale heal [ ram the resis tance to the weldin g current.
Th ere are many variables involved in PW such as metal thickness, type of met a l. a nd numbe r of p roj ectio ns, which make it impossible to predetermine the correc t curre nt setting and pres sure required. Only by trial runs follow ed by care ful inspection can proper control settings be established. Not all metal s can be welded with PW. Brass a nd co ppe r do not len d thernsel ves to PW because brass and coppe r projec tio ns usu all y colla pse under pressure. Aluminum PW is limited to extruded part s (shapes formed by forcing metal through a die) . However, ga lvanized iron and tin plate, as well as most other light-gauge steels, can be succ ess fully welded with PW. PW is also wide ly used for attac hing fasteners to structural members.
Figur e 2K-h. In multiple -impulse welding, the nlrH ,,,t is regulated by precise electronic COil/mi .
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
Multiple-Impulse Welding
Multiple-impulse weldin g is a form of resistance welding in which welds are made with repeated electrical impulses. In regular spot welding, interruption of the flow of welding current is controlled manually; with multiple-impulse welding the current is regu lated electroni cally to go on and off a given number of times during the making of one weld. See Figure 28-6 . Multiple-impul se welding permits thicker materials to be spot- welde d. The int errupted current helps keep electrodes cooler, minimizing electrode distortion and reducing the tendency of the weld to spark, as well as increasing the life of the electrode.
Flash Welding
Flas h we ld ing (F W) is a resi stance welding process that produ ces a weld at the faying surfaces of a joint by the intense heat of an arc that occurs when the work pieces are co ntacted and by the appl ication of press ure after heating. The weld is completed by a rapid upsettin g of the workpieces.
Th e work pieces to be joined are clamped in copper alloy dies shaped to fit each piece that conducts the electric current to the work. The ends of the two workpieces are moved together until an arc is established. The flashing action across the ga p, cau sed by very high current densities at small contact points between th e wo rkpi eces, melts th e metal, forcibly expels material from the joint, and creates fusion as the two molten ends are moved together. See Figure 28-7. The current is turned OFF as soon as the fusing action is completed. For some operations the dies are watercoo led to dissipate the heat fro m the welded area. Parts to be flash weld ed must be prec isel y a ligned. Misali gnment results in a poor joint and produce s uneven heat and tele scopin g of one piece over another. FW is used to butt - or miter -weld sheet, bar, rod, tub ing, and extruded sec tions. It has almos t unlim ited ap plication for both ferrous and nonferro us meta ls , but it is no t ge ne ra lly reco mme nded for weldin g cast iro n, lead , or zinc alloy s.
Ftgure 28 -7. In F\V. an intense arcing -s-caused by the elec trica l current flo wing through the 1\1"(' wo rk p ieces be ing broug hr 10geth er-s-melt s the metal lind ere ates fusion.
..
-. :
CLAMPING ELECTRODES
STO PPED
CURRENT FLOW
A problem in FW is the bulge (flash) or increa sed size that re sults at the weld. If the profile of the finish area of the weld must be smooth, then the flash must be removed by grinding or machining after weldin g.
identical to FW, the basic difference is that less current is used and more time mu st be allo wed for the weld to be completed. See Figure 28-8 .
Upset Welding
Upset weldin g (U W) is a resist ance welding process that produces a weld on the faying surfaces by the heat obtain ed from resistance to the flow of current through the surface contact areas while under constant pressure. The metal s to be weld ed are brou ght into contact under pressure, an electric CUfrent is passed through them, and the edges are softened and fused together. UW differs from FW in th at constant pressure is applied during the he atin g proce ss, which e limina tes flashing. The heat generated at the point of contact result s entirely from resistan ce . A ltho ug h the operation and control of the UW process is almost
342 ~ Welding Skill s
Ffgure 28-8. UlV involves { JiIS Sing hi gh c urre nt throu gh ,he workpiece s while continuous pres sure is applied.
CLAMPING ELECTRODES
CURRE NT FLOW
Fig ure 2810. The gas tungsten arc spot welding no zzl e nlll he shaped or machined for a variety (!!' wel ding j obs.
NOZZLE
WORKP IECES
-.
.= ~
~
th e diameter of t he electrode . The blunt point help s to prevent the arc from wandering . If the end of the electrode balls excessively after only a few welds ha ve been made, it is usually an indication of excessive current , dirty material , or insufficient shielding gas. Helium used as a sh ielding gas produces greater penetration than ar gon, although argon produce s a larger weld diameter. Gas flow should be set at approximately 6 cubic feet per hour (cfh).
retracts, establishing an arc. The arc is extingui shed at th e end of a preset length of time. The welding gun is usually preset at the factory to provide an arc length of 1/ 16 ", whi ch is satisfactory for most weld ing applications. The current required for welding is determined by the thi ckness of the metal to be weld ed. The major effect of inc rea sing the current when both workpiec es ar e approximat el y the same thickness is to increa se penetration. However, it also tends to increase the weld diameter. Increasing the current when th e bottom workpi ece is con siderably hea vie r th an the top wo rkpiece re sults in an inc rea se in weld diameter with little or no increase in penetration. See Figure 28-1 1.
Manu al gas tungsten arc spot welding can be pe rformed using automatic sequencing controls to set the gas and waterflo w rates, control arc star ting and intervals. and provide necessa ry postweld shielding gas and wate r flow.
Figure 28-12. Good surfa ce Cot/ tact is important to ma k ing a sound spot weld.
INCREASED PENETRATION
IMPROPER FIT-UP
Weld time is set on the dial of the control panel. The dial is calibrated in 60ths of a second and is adjustable from 0 sec to 6 sec. The effect of increasing the weld time is to increase the weld diameter. However, by increasing the weld diameter, penetration is also increased. Mill scale, oil, grease, dirt, paint, and other foreign materials on or between the contacting surfaces prevent good contact and reduce weld strength. The space between the two contacting surfaces resulting from these surface conditions or poor fit-up acts as a barrier to heat transfer and prevents the weld from penetrating into the bottom workpiece. Consequently, good surface contact is important for sound welds . See Figure 28-12 .
Gas tungsten arc spot welding can be done from one side only so the bottom workpiece must have sufficient rigidity to permit the two workpieces to be brought into contact with pres sure applied by the welding gun. If the thickne ss, size, or shape of the bottom workpiece is such that it does not provide enough rigidity, then some form of backing is required. Backing may be either steel or copper.
automaticall y begin to n ow. See Figure 28-13 . The ope rator simply keeps the weld co ncentrated in the designated area of the workpiece and maintain s the proper tra vel speed.
Ftgure 28-13. With a portable GMA \V we ld ing gun. the gas. current, ami wire fee d uutomasicaliv begin to flow when the trigger is pressed.
Nelson Method
Th e Nelson method uses a nux and a ce ra mic guide o r fe r ru le . Welding equ ipmenl co nsis ts of a welding gun, a lim ing device thai co ntrols the DC we lding c urre nt, s pec ia lly de sign ed studs, and ce ramic ferrules. Stud s are available in a variety of shapes, sizes, and types to meet many ap plications. The studs have a recess in the welding e nd, whic h con ta ins th e fl ux. The flu x acts as an a rc stabi lizer and a de o x idi z in g age nt. A n indi vid ual porcel ain ferrule is used with each stud when weld ing. T he ferrule is the most import ant part of the operation beca use it concentrates the heat , acts (w it h th e flu x) to prevent air from cont actin g the molten metal , co nfines th e molte n me ta l to the weld ar ea , shields the glare of the arc, and prevents charring of the workpiece through which the stud is being welded. A stud is loaded into the chuck of the welding gun and a ferrule is positioned over the stud. When the trigger is dep ressed , the current energizes a solenoid coil, which lifts the stud away from the workpiece, causing an arc that melt s the end of the stud and the area on th e wor kpi ece . A limin g device shuts the curre nt O FF at the proper time. The solenoid releases the stud, a spring action plunges the stud into the weld pool, and the we ld is made. See Figure 28- 14.
Mech anized GMAW uses welding equipment that performs the welding operation under the constant observation and contro l of the o perator. The weld ing head is stationary rather than portable . Th e we ld ing head is either mounted on a carriage that travels over the workpiece or it is in a fixed position and the work pieces 10 be weld ed are moved beneath the unit. Automati c GM AW uses we lding equipment th at perfo rms the e ntire we ld ing o pe ratio n w ith out co ns tant observation and adj ustment of the control s by the operator. The controls are set to the spec ifie d we lding schedule and the mac hine performs the entire operation .
Graham Method
The Graham method uses a small cylindrical tip on the joi ning face of the stud. The di ameter and len gth of the tip vary with Ihe diameter of the stud a nd th e workp iece . Th e Graham method o pe rates on AC c ur rent and requires an air source that can supply about 85 tb of air pressure. The welding gun is air-operated with a collet (to hold the stud) attached to the end of a piston rod . Co nstant air pressure holds the stud away from the
STUD WELDING
Stud weld ing is a form of electric arc weldin g. Stud we lding is a term used for the process of joining a metal stud, or s im ilar part, to a workpie ce. Two method s of stud welding have been developed, the Nelson method and the Graham method , each with a different prin cipl e of operation . 346 @' Weldin g Skills
. .
CHUCK STUD
Ftgure 2&-14 . A stud is loaded into the chuctc of the gun and a fer rule is positioned orer me stud. Af ,/'1: stud contacts the workpiece, un (Ire is star ted that melts the
end of the stu d and an a rea 011 the workpiece to which the Mud is welded.
GUN POSITIONED
ARC CREATED
CHUCK
STUD
FERRULE
workpiece until it is sufficiently heated; then air pressure drives the stud against th e wo rkpiece . Wh cn the small tip touches the workpiece, a high-curren t, low-voltage discharge results, creatin g an arc that melts the entire area of the stud and the corresponding area of the work. Arcing time is about one milli second (.00 1 sec); thus a weld is completed with little heat penetration, no distortion, and practically no fillet. The stud is driven at a velocity of about 31" per second and the explosive action as it meets the workpiece clea ns the area to be welded . A minimum workp iece
thickness of .02" is preferred, particularly if no marking on the reverse side is required. See Figure 28- 15. Both meth ods of stud welding are adaptable for welding most ferrous and nonferrous metals, (heir alloys, or any com bination of them .
Ftgu r e 28 15. 0 11 CO il tact. ionization takes place, cleaning both surfa ces. All arc results that melts the [u ll diame ter of the stud and a co rresp ondi ng a rea of the workpiece. A sharp hlow drives tile two together, compteung the weld.
-fJ ARC
ARC MELTS STUD AND WORK AREA
PREi
URE
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_ I
<,
/
EBW is a fusion process where a high power-density beam of electrons isfocuscd on the area to be joined.
would qu ickly oxidi ze at thi s tempe rature if it we re ex posed to normal atm os phere, we ldi ng mu st be done in a vac uum c hambe r. Therefor e, a vacuum chamber is necessary to prevent the electro ns from co lliding with molecul es of air that would make the el ectron s sc atte r and lose thei r kin etic ene rg y. EBW can be used to j oin metal s that range from thin foil to 2" thick. It is part icul arl y adaptabl e for welding refractory metal s such as tun gsten , molybdenum, columbium, and tantalum, and metal s that ox idize readily, such as titan ium, be ryllium, and zirconium" It can also be used to j oin dissimilar metal s, a luminum, standard stee ls, and ceramics.
EBW Processes
Electron beam welding is done using either of two processes: the vacuum chamber process or the beam-in-air process . The vacuum chambe r process uses a controlled vacuum environment where the welding gun and the workpieces are enclosed. See Figure 28-16. Because the vac uum chamber is fre e from atmospheric co nta minants, the vacuum chamber proces s produces a cleaner weld without a shielding gas. The weld is more pre cise because the beam is much narrower in the vacuum chamber.
to the energy input, but it is relatively narrow. EBW is chemically clean and facilitates welding without contamination of the work-piece. Using the beamin-air process allows greater welding speed than GTAW. EBW is often as soci ated wi th the joining of difficult-to-weld metal s. It is used in aerospace fabrication where new metal s require more e xact in g joining characteristic s; however , ad aptation of the process to commercial appli cation s is increas ing . There is every indication that thi s gro wth will continu e. One of the major limitations of EBW using the vacuum ch amber process is that the piece must be small enough to fit into the vacuum chamber. This limitation is being reduced to so me extent because large chambers ar c now manufactured to accommodate a variety of product sizes. Another limitation is that when the workpiece is in the chamber in a vacuum it becomes inaccessible. It mu st be manipulated using special control s.
Sciaky. It,,' .
EBW Equipment
An electron gun consists of a filament, cathode, anode , and focusing co il. The electrons emitted from the heated filament carry a negative charge and are repelled by the cathode and attracted by the anode. Th e ele ctro n s pas s through the anode and then throu gh a magnetic field gen erated by the electromagnetic focu sin g coil. An opt ical viewing or num eri cal control sy ste m determine s the path o f th e electron beam centerline to the weld area. See Fig ure 28-1 7. By varying the current to the focusing coil, the op erator can focu s the beam for g un- to-w o r k di stan ce s ranging from '/2" to 25". The electron beam can be co ntro lled with a focusing coil to produce a spot diameter of less than .00 5".
Production Weldi ng :) 349
The beam -in-air proces s uses a gun that has a vacuum ch amber that surrounds the area wh ere el ectron s exit from the welding gun; weldin g is done in the open atmosphere. To shield the weld area from atmospheric contami nants, argon is used as a shielding gas. T he we lds produ ced by the beamin-a ir proce ss ar e simi la r to we lds made using GTAW. EB W has se vera l advantages over oth er pro cesse s. It welds with a lo w total-energy input. Workpiece distortion and effects on th e prope rtie s of th e workpiece are reduced. The weld size and location can be controlled relative
!r
GUN HOUSING ELECTRON BEAM
FILAMENT
~ E L E C T RO N
BEAM GUN
ANODE
MAGNETIC LENS
MAGNETIC LENS SHUTTER OPT ICAL VIEWING SYSTEM WATER CONNECT ION
, , , , , i:
"
, :u_....._---, ,
, , ,
, , , ,
, '~~ , , ,
DEFLECTION COIL
""~\
Figure 28-17. In the electron beam column, file electron s pass through an aperture in the anode and then through a magnetic f ield generated by the electromagnetic focusing coil. An optical viewing system provides a line of sight down the path of the electron beam centerline to the weld area.
A vacuum chamber has heavy glass windows to permit viewing the work. A work table in the chamber is arranged so it can be operated either manually or electrically along the xand y-axes. T-slots are provided on the table to attach fixtures or workpieces for welding. A vacuum pumping system is designed to clean and dry the vacuum chamber in a relatively short time. The capacity of the pump required is determined by the volume and area of the vacuum chamber and the time required to evacuate the chamber. The pumping equipment is usually completely automatic once setup is completed. Necessary electrical controls include setup controls and operating controls . Setup control s include instruments required for the initial setup of the welding operation, such as meters for beam voltage, beam current, focusing current, and filament current. Operating controls consist of stop-and-start sequence, high-voltage adjustment, focusing adjustment, filament activation, and work table motion.
or weld area is viewed by opening the shutter only when the beam current is turned OFF. If the shutter is opened when the beam current is ON, the optical system can be severely damaged. After all controls and settings have been checked and all switching made operative, welding is begun by turning the sequence start switch to the ON position. The weld is made automatically.
FRICTION WELDING
Friction welding (FRW) is a welding pro-
-
.=
EBW Procedure
The workpiece is positioned on the work carriage in the vacuum chamber. The electron gun and the work-to-gun distance are aligned manually and visually using the optical system. Work travel or welding gun travel, depending on the type of welding facility used, is aligned. The vacuum chamber is then closed. Vacuum controls are started and the chamber is pumped down to the required vacuum, which is prescribed in the weld schedule. Beam voltage, beam current, filament current , and focusing current
controls are set ba sed on the weld schedule. The weld schedule is usually determined by a welding engineer. Once the control settings have been checked , the beam current is switched ON for an instant and OFF again for a weld spot alignment check. The weld
cess that joins two metal parts that rotate or are in relative motion with respect to one another when they are brought into contact and pressure is applied between them. Friction, or inertia, welding is a process where stored kinetic energy is used to generate the required heat for fusion. The two workpieces to be joined are aligned end to end. One is held stationary by a chuck or a fixture, and the other is clamped in a rotating spindle. The rotating workpiece is brought up to a certain speed to develop sufficient energy. The drive source is disconnected and the pieces are brought into contact under a computed thrust load. At this point , the kinetic energy contained in the rotating mass converts to frictional heat. The metal at and immediately behind the interface is softened, permitting fusion to take place between the workpieces. FRW has several advantages over conventional FW or UW. It produces improved welds at higher speed and lower cost, less electrical current is required, and costly copper fixtures are eliminated. With FRW there is less shortening of the components , which often occurs with FW or UW. Additionally, the HAZ near the weld is confined to a very narrow band. See Figure 28-18 . FRW can be used to weld dissimilar as well as similar metals. Weld strength is normally equal to that of the original metals.
to
blind.
o ~_--"' O ~i'---'"
GEAR TO SHAFTS
HAZ
, r HAZ
HUBTO BELL
minimized . It is po s sible to we ld heat-treated a lloy s wi thout affecting their heat-treated condition, and the weld can be held in the hand immediately after welding is completed. LBW can be used to join dissimilar metals such as co pper, nickel, tungsten. aluminum. stainless steel, titanium. and columbium . Add iti on ally, the laser beam ca n pas s throu gh tran sparent subs ta nces with out affectin g them, mak ing it possible to weld metal s that are sealed in g lass or pla stic. Because the heat so urce is a light beam, atmospheric cont amination of the weld joint is not a problem . LBW is used in the aerospace and el ectro n ic indu stri es where ex treme control of th e we ld is req uired . A major limitation of LBW is its shallow penetration . The durat ion of the beam is usually about .002 sec, with a pulse rate of one to 10 pulses per second. As each point of the beam hits the workpiece, a spot is me lted that reso lidifies in microseconds . The weld line consi st s of a serie s of round, so lid, o verlapping weld pool s . The workpiece is moved beneath the beam or the energy source is moved across the weld . The beam is focu sed on to the workpiece usin g an opti cal syste m and the welding energy is controlled by a switc h.
process that pro : duces coa lescence with the heal from a laser beam impinging 011 the joint.
ruby it s red co lo r because they absorb green light from ex te rn al light sources. When the atoms ab sorb thi s light ene rgy, so me of the ir electrons are ex cited . Thus, gree n light is said to pump th e c h ro mium atom s to a higher energy state. The excited atom s e ventua lly re turn to the ir ori ginal sta te . A s th ey do , a portion of the extra energy the y pr eviousl y abs or be d (as gr een light) is g iven off in the form of red fluorescen t light. When the red light emitted by on e exci ted atom hits another excited atom, the second atom giv es off addition a l red ligh t. Th e additional re d li gh t is in phase w ith the collidin g red light wave, increa sing th e inte ns ity of the light. In oth er wo rds, the red li ght from th e fi rst ato m is amplified becau se more red light exactly like it is produced . By using a very intense green light to exc ite the chromium atom s in the ruby rod, a larger number of its atom s can be exci ted and the chance s of colli sion s are increased . To further enhan ce thi s effect , the parallel ends and the sides of the rod are mirrored tu bounc e the red light back and forth within the rod. When a certain critical intens ity of pumping is reached (the th reshold ene rgy ), the chain rea ction co ll isio ns become numerous eno ugh to cause a bur st of red light. T he lens at the front end of the rod is only a partial reflector. allowing the burst of light to escape throu gh it. See Figure 28-19 .
PAW uses an electric arc that is highly intensified hy the injection (~f gas into the arc stream, wh ich results in a jet ofhigh current density:
. .. ~
- TUNGST EN ELECTRODE CENT RAL PLASMA CORE
Figure 2M- 20. PAW uses {/ ('01tral plasma core of ex trem e temperature surrounded hy a sheath of cool gas.
Fig ure 28-19. The LBlV machine ha s a concentrated beam that is fo cused on the workpiece with all optica! system.
Production Weldi ng
:1 353
In some respects, PAW may be considered an extension of GTAW. Th e main difference is that in PAW, the arc column is constr icted . T his constr iction produces a much higher heat transfer rate . The arc plasma actually becomes a jet of high current density. The pl asma gas, upon strik ing the workpiece, cut s or keyholes, entirely through the workpiece, producing a sm all hole th at is carried along the weld . During thi s cutting act ion , the melted metal in front of the arc flows around the arc column, then is drawn together imm ediately behind the hole by surface ten sion force s, reforming in a weld bead .
Plasma arc weldin g can be used to weld sta inless steels, ca rbon steels, Mon el", . tnconet", titanium, aluminum. copper, and brass allo ys. Filler metal is typi cally not needed; however, a continuous filler wire can be added.
PAW Equipment A regular heavy -duty DC rec tifier is used as the power sourc e for PAW. A special control con sole is required to prov ide the neces sary operating controls . A water-cool ing pump is usually needed to ensure a controlled flow of cooling water to the torch at a regulated pressure. Proper cooling prolongs the life of the electrode and the nozzle. See Figure 28-21.
WATER SUPPLY
SHIELDING GAS
CONTROL CONSOLE
F igure 2821. Tilt' PAW welding ci rcuit includes welding cables, and torch,
(J
DC power source, control console. wate r supply, plasma gas and shielding gas supply,
Torches specially designed for PAW can be hand-h eld or mounted for stationary or mechanized applications. See Figure 28-22. Th e shielding gas supply should be ei ther argon or helium.
In some applications, argon is used as th e plasm a gas a nd he lium as th e shielding gas. However, in many operations argon is used for both shielding and generating the plasma arc.
tlt'.figllt'd f or [J AW
Figure 28-22 . To rches spe cially ClIII be hand"del or mounted for stationary or mechanirrd appli cations.
HAND-HELD
PLASMA TORCH
MOUNTED
Thrmt(1 1Arr. Q
d"';~UHl
the cent er of the we ld, develo ping a weak area. Very little edge preparation is necessary on metal less than 'h" thick. Generall y, backing is esse ntia l when welding thick steel. Welding positions arc limited because of the large amount of fluid molten metal. The di fference between SAW and GMAW is that no ine rt shielding gas is required. The welding gun is pointed over the we ld area and the tr igger is pre ssed. As soo n as th e t ri gger is pr e sse d, the we ldi ng wire is ener- ) gized and th e arc is sta rted . At the sa me time , flux begi ns to fl ow. Weldin g is then carried out in the same mann er as GMAW.
tI
.e
No ine rt shielding gas is required f or SAW e::::::: S;/I ('(' th e flux complete ly su rrounds the
electric arc.
mati c pro('e,fS
Figure 2824. The welding unit used with the (lUIO is .\'et up /0 movr (w eI' the weld area at a con /rolled speed,
{111
2823. A cutaway ,jew of SAW machine shows how the g ranulated flux shields the weldill,': action and covers tile molten metal.
Fi~u n=
FLUX FEED TUBE FLUX SHELF, SOU D SLAG WELDING JOINT '\ GROUND CLAMP
~ \:N~ED
RUNOFF TAB BACKING
WELD METAL
SAW Equipment
The welding equipment required for SAW includes a power source , wire feed and drive assembly, welding gun , and flux deliver y system. Any regular GMAW DC weld ing machine can be adapted for SAW. Since SAW is usually automated , the power source must be capable of an output and a duty cycle th at c an match the operation be in g perform ed . T he metal thi ckness dic tates the required current. Light-gauge metal requires as little as 300 A, while thick metals may require 1000A or more. A co nsta nt-vo ltage power source sets the voltage and holds it relati vely constant. Current is determined by the feed speed of the electrode wire. As the wire feed speed is increased, more current is required to bum off the wire. Conversely, when the wire feed speed is decreased, less current is required, With a co nstant-c urr ent power sou rce, a voltage -se nsing wire feeder may be used . A voltage-s ens ing wire feeder increa ses the speed of the wire feed motor when the arc voltage increases and reduces the spee d of the wire feed motor when the voltage decreases, maintaining a fairly constant arc voltage and len gth . Howe ver, it does not provide a consistent deposition rate. Wire feed systems used for GMAW or FCAW ca n be used for SAW, provided they can feed the required wire size at the proper speed. For semiautomatic SAW, a standard wi re feeder is normally used. When using a constantcurrent power source, special wire feeders that change feed rates in response to arc voltage changes are sometimes used. Burnback controls may be used for both semiautomatic and automatic SAW to pr ev ent the e le c trode wire from sticking to the weld pool at the end of the weld. The welding wire should be clipped to a sharp po int as clo se to the flux cone as possible. Once the voltage and current are set, the welding gun is' positioned over the jo int. As the welding wi re is fed into th e weld zon e, th e
welding gun depo sit s the granulated flux over the weld pool and completely shields the welding action . The arc is not visible since it is buried in the flux, thu s there is no flash or spatter. The portion of the granul ar flux immediately aro und the ar c fu ses and covers the molten metal, but after it has solidified, it can be tapped off easily with a ch ipping hammer. Flux can be deli vered to the weld pool by either the gravity fe ed or forced-ai r feed method . The gravity feed method is de si gn ed for shortduration weld s that are easily accessible. It is limited by the amount of flux that the operator can handle in the flux
canister.
The forced-air flux feedin g method is common ly used for semiautomatic weld ing. A conventional wir e-feeding unit feeds the welding wire to the weld pool. A pressurized storage tank that holds approximately 100 lb of flux and a hand -held weldin g gun with a highpres sure air feed attac hment are also used. An air supply is attached to the flux storage tank. The tank 's regulator adjusts the pressure that feeds the flux through the tubin g to the weldin g gun and the weld pool.
An automatic submerged arc welding machine is designed to move ova the weld area white depositing the weld in.f7at position.
Production Welding
>= 357
ULTRASONIC WELDING
US lV is a process where vibra tory energ)' disp erses the mo isture. ox ide, and surfa ce irregularities between the pieces, thereby bringing the surfaces into dose (xmlact to fonn a permanent bond
Ultraso nic weldin g (USW) is a welding process that produces a weld by applying high-frequency vibratory energy to workpieces that are held together under pre ssure . Theoretically, if two workpie ces with perfectly smooth surfaces are brought into clo se co ntac t, the metal atoms of one workpiece will unite with the atoms of the other piece to form a permanent bond . However, regardl ess of how smoo th suc h surfaces are a sound metalli c hond normall y doe s not occ ur becau se it is impossible to prepare surfaces that are absolut ely smooth. Whatever method is used to smooth surfaces, they still possess peaks and valleys (as seen by a microscope). As a result, only the peaks of the workpieces th at come into close contact unit e, produ cing no bo nd in th e va lleys . Also, smooth surfaces are never completely clean . Oxygen molecules from the atmosphere react with the metal to form oxides. These oxides attract water vapor, forming a film of moisture on the ox idized metal surface. Both the moi sture and ox ide fi lm a lso ac t as barriers to pre vent close cont act.
In USW, to ove rco me the bar riers to fusion , the interface be tween the wo rk pieces is plast ica lly de formed. Thi s is don e by mean s of vibra tory energy, which disperses moisture and ox ide and level s an irreg ular surface to bring the surfaces of hoth workpieces i nto c los e contac t and fo rm a solid bond . Vibratory e nergy is ge nerated by a tra nsducer. See Figure 28-2 5.
USW Equipment
The welding equipment used for USW con sists of two units: a power source or frequency converter, which converts 60 Hz line power into high-frequency electrical power; and a transducer. The co mpo nents to be j oin ed are simply cl amped bet ween a we ldi ng tip and supporting anvil with just enough pressure to hold them in close contact.
USW Procedure
High -frequency vib ratory en er gy is tran smitted to the joint for a required peri od . Bondin g is accom plis hed without applying external heat or addin g filler met al. Weld ing var ia bles such as power, clamping for ce, weld
Ffgure 28-25. An ultrasonic cantinuous-seam welder is of ten used f or complete seal ing of rompo"e llis use d ill elect ronics.
.
CLAMPING FORCE APPLIED ~ THROUGH MOUN T ~VIBRATORY
ENERGY ~
.,....- TIP
TRANSDUCER
COUPLER
ANVIL
358 0
time for spot welds or welding rate for continuous-seam welds can be preset and the cycle completed automatically. A switch lowers the welding head, applies the clamping force, and starts the flow of ultrasonic energy. Successful USW depends on the proper relationship between welding variables, which is usually determined experimentally for each app lication . Clamping force may vary from a few gram s for very thin metals to several thousand pound s for thick metals. Weld time may range from .005 sec to I sec for spot welding and a few feet per minute (fpm) to 400 fpm for continuous-seam welding. The high-frequency electrical input to the transducer may vary from a fraction of a watt to several kilowatts . USW is particularly adaptable for joining electrical and electronic components, hermetic sealing of materials and devices , spl icing metallic foil , welding alnminum wire and sheet, and fabricating nuclear fuel elements. Spot welds or continuous-seam welds can be made on a variety of metals ranging in thickness from .00017" (alum inum foil) to .10". Thick sheet and plate can be welded if the machine is specifically designed for them. High-strength bonds are possible on similar and dissimilar metal combinations.
The welding head is suspended from an elevator mechanism that provides automatic control of the vertical travel speed during welding. This mechanism raises the welding head automatically at the same rate as the advancing weld metal. The welding head is self-aligning and can follow any alignment irregularity in the metal or in the joint. Once the equipment is positioned on the joint, welding is completely automatic . The wire feed speed and the current levels remain constant. At the end of the weld, the process stops automatically. The EGW technique is especially adaptable for shipbuilding and fabrication of storage tanks and large-diameter pipes.
ADHESIVE BONDING
Adhesive bonding (AB) is used to join parts with an adhesive placed between the faying (mating) surfaces. AB is useful for joining dissimilar metals, plastics, and composites in manufacturing and repair operations. AB can be used to reduce the number of fasteners required and to strengthen joints prone to failure from vibration. See Figure 28-26.
ELECTROGAS WELDING
Electrogas welding (EGW) is a welding process that uses an arc between a filler metal electrode and the weld pool , using approx imately vertical welding and a backing bar to control the weld metal. EGW can be used with or without shielding gas and without exerting pre ssure on the weld. EGW uses a ga s-shielded metal arc and is de signed for single-pass welding of vertical joints on steel ranging in thickness from 3/8 " to 11/ 2".
Thin metal s subject to heat di stortion can be joined with adhesives. For example, auto body panels joined with adhe sives do not ha ve depre ssi on s ca used by resista nce we ld ing heat. Wor kp iece joi nt dimen si on s do not affect bonding stre ngth. Thin metals can be joined with thick metals. Adhesives fill the voids between workpieees without bre akin g surface contours. The flex ibility of adhesives also allow s distortion without failure . Joint types for AB require large contact areas for adhe sion, as in braziog and so ldering. AB requires proper surface prepa ration . applica tion, and curing procedures. Th e fay ing sur faces mu st be clean and free of forei gn matter. Adhesi ve s are se lected by the mat erial and a pp lic a tion of the part s to be joined . See Figure 28 -2 7. Adhesiv e application processes ca n be manual , se m ia uto ma tic , me chan ized , a uto mat ic, and robo tic, dependi ng on the equipment avai lable. Equipme nt re quired for ad hesive bonding varies depending on application and curing
meth od s. Adhesi ves ar e c ure d by ch emic al ac tion using ca ta lys t cure (two parts) , evaporatio n, ultraviolet (UV) light, heat, pressure, or both heat and press ure. Adhesives are available in various viscosities . Viscos ity is the resi stance of a subs ta nce to flow in a fluid or semi-fluid state. Low-viscosity adhesives are liquid in form, and Ilow readily into small spaces. High-vi scosity adhesives range from ge ls to plastic-like forms. '\ In some application s, an adhe sive ) functions as a sealant. A sealant is a product used to sea l, fill vo ids, and waterp roof parts. Adhesive selection is based on the material and application of the parts to be joined.
Adhesive Types
Adh esiv es can be bro ad ly cl assifi ed by chemi ca l content or ba se as acryli c, anaerobic, cyanoacrylate, epoxy, hot me lt, po lyurethan e, polys ulfide, s ilic one, so lve nt- bas e, or wat er-base adhesiv es.
ADHESIVE BONDING
Adhesive
Viscosity
VoidFilling
Flexibility
Heat Resistance
Cold
Resistance
Water Resistance
Tw o-part
Acrylic O ne-parI (UVor Heat cure) One -par t One -part Med ium
1 0 Fast
Medium
Good
Poor to Fair
Good Good
Poor 1 0
Fair
Good Good
Fair
Good Good
Fair
Good Good
Goo d
Good Good
Fair
Good
Fair
Medium
Fast
Low Low
Medium to High High Medium High High Low to Medium Low to Medium
011
Poor to
Fa ir
Good
Two-pa ri
One-pa rt (heal cure) One -part On e-pa rt Two-pa rt O ne-pa rt Two-part On e-part Two-part One-part One -part
Slow to Medium Fast Med ium Med ium Medium Med ium Med ium
Excellent
Fai r
Fair
Fair
Good
Fair
Good Good
Fai r
Good
Fair
Exce llent
Fair to
Good
Excellent Excellent Poor to Fair Poor to Fair
Good Good
Excellent
Good
Excellent Excell ent
Good
Good
Exce llent
Good
Excellent
Good
Fair
Good
Poor to Fair
Good
Fair
Good
Fair
10
Good
Poo r
Good
Poor
Good
Poor to Fair
be joined.
An acrylic is a one-part UV (heat cure), or a two-part adhesive that can be used on a variety of materials. It has a fast setting time and excellent tlexibility. An anaerobic adhesive is a one-part adhesive or sealant that cures due to the absence of air which has been displaced between mated parts. Low -viscosity anaerobic adhesives are commonly used for locking metal parts together such as screws, nuts, and other fasteners. High-viscosity anaerobic adhesives are used for joining parts that have large gaps between faying surfaces . A cyanoacrylate adhesive is a one -part adhesive that cures instantly by reacting to trace surface moisture to bond mated parts. Cyanoacrylate adhesives have common names such as instant glue or super glue and have a low resistance to high temperatures, moisture, vibration, and shock. Epoxy is a two-part adhesive that cures when resin and hardener are combined. Some epoxies are heat-cured . A hot melt adhesive is thermoplastic material that is applied in a molten state and cures to a solid state when cooled . A hot melt adhesive is not as strong as epoxy but is very fast setting. Polyurethane is a one- or two-part adhesive with excellent flexibility that cures by evaporation, catalyst, or heat. A polysulfide adhesive is a one- or twopart adhesive or sealant that cures by evaporation or catalyst. It is commonly used in the aerospace and building materials industry. Silicone is a one- or two-part adhesive or sealant that cures by evaporation or catalyst. It has high temperature resistance and excellent sealing characteristics. A solvent-base adhesive is a one-part adhesive with a rubber or plastic base that cures by solvent evaporation. It is commonly used as contact cement for bonding large surface areas and lamination applications. A water-base adhesive is a one-part adhesive that cures by water evaporation .
A water-base adhesive is low in flexibility and is primarily used for wood and paper products.
Explosion Welding
Explosion welding (EXW) is a welding process that produces a weld by extreme impact of the metals through controlled detonation . Coalescence occurs from the explosive force of the impact on the heated surface . EXW forms a strong bond between many metals, including dissimilar metals that cannot be joined by arc welding. EXW is commonly used for cladding steel with thinner metals.
Forge Welding
Forge welding (FOW) is a welding process that produces a weld by heating the meta ls to welding temperature and applying forceful blows to cause deformation at the faying surfaces. FOW is one of the oldest welding procedures, commonly used by blacksmiths for joining metals. The metals are heated to a red-hot temperature and a hammer and anvil are used to deform the surface. Flux is often applied to aid in bonding the joint.
Roll Welding
Roll welding (ROW) produces a weld by applying heat and pressure using rollers to cause deformation at the faying surfaces. ROW is similar to forge welding except that the weld is formed by rollers rather than a hammer. ROW is commonly used for welding pipe and for cladding mild- or low-alloy steel with high-alloy steel.
Production Welding :@: 361
Cold Welding
Cold welding (C W) is a welding process in whic h a weld is produced using pre ssu re at room temper atur e to ca use de for mati on at the jo int. Coalescen ce occ urs becau se of the pressure th at is applied . Surface ox ides
and co nta mina nts mu st be re moved before CW takes place. Powe r brushing is the bes t met hod to clean the surface. Many soft meta ls tha t cannot be welded, as well as many dissimilar metals such as aluminum and coppe r or iron and co ppe r, can be joined usin g Cw.
I. Spot welding is a form of RW with wide application in industry. 2 . Spotwelders are available to produce sing le spot welds or multiple spot welds . 3 . Seam welding produces a series of overlapping spot welds, thereby making a continuous-weld seam. 4 . In multiple-impulse welding, the current is regulated to go on and off a number of times during the welding proce ss. 5 . When gas tungsten arc spot welding , set the current based on the thickness of the metal to be spot welded. 6. EBW is a fusion process where a high-power-density beam of electrons is focused on the area to be joined. 7. In FRW, heat resulting from the parts being rotated together is used to fuse the pieces. 8. Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding process that produces coalescence with the heat from a laser beam impinging on the jo int 9. PAW uses an electric arc that is highly intens ified by the injection of gas into the arc stream, which results in a jet of high curren t density . 10. In SAW, the electric arc is comple tely hidden beneath a flux . II. No inert shielding gas is requ ired for SAW si nce the flux completely surrounds the
electric arc.
12. USW is a proce ss where vibratory energy disperses the moisture, oxide, and surface irregularities between the workpieces, thereby bringing the surfaces into close contact to form a permanent bond .
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12.
What is the basic principl e of resistance welding ? What is projection weldin g? What is meant by multipl e-impulse welding? How does upset weldin g differ from flash weldin g? What is the advantage of gas tungsten arc spot welding over conventional resistance spot welding? What are some adva ntages and limitations of electron beam weldin g? What is the principle of friction welding? In laser beam welding, how is the high-intensity laser light beam generated? How does PAW differ from regular GTAW? What is SAW and what are some of its advantages? How is fusion of metal accomplished in ultrasonic welding ? Wha t are some advanta ges of adhe sive bonding?
Automation in production welding offers greater efficiency and weld quality control to manufacturers and fabricators. Automation requires that some or all of the steps of an operation be performed in sequellce by electronic or mechanical means. Many welding processes can be automated for production welding that requires consistent, rapidly repeated welds. Automatic welding is most commonly used in automation systems. Automation in production welding can be broadly classified as fixed automation and flexible automation. Fixed automation uses mechani cally directed movement s of the torch and workpiece. Flexible automation uses programmable movements of a robotic torch and the workpiece. Automated welding equipment is used to achieve the accuracy and speed needed in a production environment.
Fixe d auto ma tio n eq uipme nt uses mech ani ca l and e lectrical mean s to guide the torch and the workpiece. Fixed autom at ion equipment provides more arc-on time, better accuracy and speed, and lower cost than manual welding processes. The torch may be fixed and the workpiece moved about the torch, such as on a pipe weld; or the workpiece may be fixed and the torch moved, such as on a seamer. See Figure 29- 1.
Ftg u re 29-1. Fix ed a utomation equipment is des igne d for a speFIXED cific p ro t/Ile'lion
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Si nce the weld ing e qu ip me nt is mechanic al, the opera tor must adju st the mechanical path to make changes to the torch movem en t. Adjustme nts requi re time to re too l the equipment for the next weld. The single-purpose design of the equipment makes intricate welding ap plica tions pro hibitive if not imposs ible . Fixed automation welding sy stems eq uipme nt com monl y include s operator con tro ls, a torch positioner/holder, and a workpiece po sitio ner/holder. Operator Contr ols, Operator controls are used to start and stop the weld ing cy cle . T he operato r co ntro ls may be conn ect ed to a pro gr ammabl e lo gic contro ller (PLC), which in turn control s the positi oner s and the weldi ng equipment. The PLC sequences through the weld cycle , co ntro lling wh en to move the torch , start the arc , feed the wire, and turn on the shielding gas, as well as other welding sequences. Some welding equipment uses internal con trol s rath er than PLCs to control the weldi ng equipment.
A torch positioner is
a sramer keeps the torch on (/ linear path along the joint wrd maintains a constant speed.
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Workpiece positioners can be controlled manuall y, pneumaticall y, or hydraulica lly. The workpiece positi oner may rotate or tilt by means of an elec tric motor that allows eas ier access to the weld sea m.
The pu rpose ofautomation is to reduce rnanufuctu ring costs bv increasing pro ductivity and quality.
A robot is a programmed pa th device used to position th e torch "JIllat times the workpiece.
Torch Positioner/Holder. Fixed automation equipment such as seamers and orbital welders use a torch position er, or holder. A torch positioner is a fixedpath mechanical apparatus that moves the torch in a specified path. A seamer is design ed to we ld linear seams in rolled tubes or nat plates. When a torch positioner is used on a seamer, it keeps the torc h on a linear path along the j oint and maintains a constant rate of speed. See Figure 29-2. A PLC or some other auto mated control ler is typically used to direct the weld seq uence. Workpiece Positioner/Holder. T he de si gn o f a wo rk p iece pos itione r/ holder needs to be quite sophisticated and elaborate to ensure that the simple path required by th e tor ch can be maintained . T he wor kpiece positioner must hold the work pieces without interferin g with the path of the torch.
than fle xi ble au tomati on equipment. T he bigg est advantage that fle xible automation has over fixed automation is the reprogrammability of the robot mov ement, allowing for varied move ment of the robot. This feature makes it easier and quicker to change weld settings , locati on s, and workpiece position s. Th e robot is capable of stor ing weld programs, which can quickly be changed, permitti ng a variety of parts and welds to be efficiently mad e by one robot. In the pa st , fle xible auto mation equipment was much more expensive th an fixed automation equipment. However, with the incr ea sed variety and availability of flexible automation systems , the costs have become comparable. A flexible automation system typically incurs additional costs for the fixture designs and tooling associated with flexible automation systems. An additional cost to the user s of flexible automation systems is the cost associated with training. Operators, programmers, and maintenance per sonnel all must be trained in the proper use of the robot. In each case , the most efficient and beneficial training is to train process experts- we lders - on how to operate and program the robot. The components of a robot welding system (robot cell) used for flexible automation consist of a robot controller, robot manipulator, teach pendant, operator controls, and workpiece positioner. Robot Con t roller. The robo t controller pro vides the control for the servomo tors a nd communica tes with th e we lding equipme nt and other equipment in the sys te m . A servomoto r is an AC or DC motor with encoder feedback to indicate how far the motor has rotated. AC servomotors provide higher speeds and torqu es than DC servomotor s and are the preferred method of control for robotic sys tems . With encoder feedba ck technology, AC servomotors prov ide faster an d more
accurate movement than the stepper motors used in the past. Stepper motor s would rotat e 3600 in stepped increments, with an accuracy of .5. AC servomotors can be controlled with an accuracy of . 1, without the need for the complex dri ving circuits associated with stepper motors. The robot controll er directs the starting and stopping of the servomotors as well as the rate of speed and acceleration of each se rvomotor. See Figure 29-3. The robot controller not only controls mov em ent of the manipulator s from point to point but also controls the path of the torch from point to point. Controlled mo vement path s may be linear (straight line) or circular (curved line).
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controls the move ment of the manipulator from point to point ami the path of the torch from paint to po int .
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A robot controller may control more than the servomotor in the manipulator. it may also control servomotors in the wo rkpi ece po sition er and other equipment in the robot ce ll. Some robot cont rollers can control as many as 16 se rvomo tors simultaneo us ly for a sy nchronized motion . The robot controll er must accelerate and decelerate each servomotor individually to maintain the controlled path at the tool center point (TC P). Advanced software and digital hard ware are typically required to conti nually adj ust the ser vom otors to the co rrect speed, accel eration, and decel er ati on.
The robot monipulator is the mbot arm and consists ofa base and severollinks and joints (o r a.res).
operation. An articulated co nfiguration allows the arm link and wrist j oints to be sma ll a nd co mpact. A s ma ll and co mpact jo int can be eas ily maneuvered into tight areas .
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A reach pe nda nt is the inpu t me th od that the robot programmer uses to ere art' robot movement programs.
Robot Manipulator, Th e ro bo t manipulator is the robot arm. A servomotor moves the robot manipulator from one point to another. Th e rob ot manipulator con sists of a ba se and sev eral links and joints. The base provides the mounting for the robot manipulator, much like a human torso. The links are the arm structures, similar to a human upper arm and forearm. The joints slide and rotate to allow the movements of the links, ju st like the human shoulde r, elbow, or wrist. Th e joints of the robot manipulator are referred to as ax is joints. Thu s, a six-axi s robot will have six ax is j oint s. Th e robot manipulator is the most important part of the robot cell design . Manipulators can be found in man y different configur ations, s iz es, a nd speeds. Early robot manipulators, such as the rectilinear robot manipul ator, were designed for easy control. These robot manipulators were large and slow, but eas y to design and contro l. Rectilin ear robot manipulators are still used for so me spo t welding applic ation s, but are limited in their access to va rio us we lding posit ion s. T he most co mmo n con fi guration fo r a weld ing ro bot is a six-ax is articul ated rob ot manipulator driven by AC servomotors. See Figure 29-4. The se rvo motor provide s the s peed and rep eatabi lit y needed fur the welding
Figure 29... A common config uration fo r a welding robot is a six -axis articulated robot manipulator:
Welding ma nipula tors are usually only req uired to lift small, light loads, but they must be able to move the loads qui ckl y and with hi gh rep eat abil ity. Most manipulators can return to a programmed point within app roximately .004 ", which gives the man ipulator a .004" repeatability factor. Teach Pendant. The teach pendant and the robot controller are the brains of the robot welding system. A leach pendant is the device that the rob ot programmer uses to create ro bo t movement programs. See Figure 29-5. The programmer uses the teach pendant to move th e ma ni p ulato r in e ithe r the axis plane or the Cartesian coordinate plan e. Se e Figure 29-6. Axis motion is creat ed by each axi s se rvo motor indiv idu all y creatin g mov ement to
posr tron the T CP at th e point programmed. Points in the Cartesian plane are found using the Cartesian coordinate system. The Cartesian coordinate system is a syste m of locating points in space define d by perpendicular planes . The Cart esian coordinate system uses a three-dimensional box with a horizontal X direction, a vertical Y direction, and a depth Z direct ion. The robot controller control s all of the axis servomoto rs simultaneously in order to maintain a straight-line X, Y, or Z direction when moving the man ipulator. This type of motion allow s the programmer to easily position the TCP to the point programmed because the movement is similar to that of a human welde r.
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AXIS MOTION
Figure 29 6 . Robot manipulator move me nt is produced by axis motion specified using the Ca rtesian coordinate system.
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
z+
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
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z-
Figure 295 . The teach pendant is the input method that the robot program mer uses to move the robot and create robot programs.
Three method s of programming, or teaching, a robot are the lead through metho d, off- line programming, and the walk through method. The lead through method is used for teach ing most robots. Off-line program m ing req uires an experienced p rogramme r. Walk through programming is rarely used any longer.
New er robot sys te ms use off-l ine programming softw are to create robot programs. Off-line pro grammin g software is run on a PC, which simulates the robot work cell. See Figure 29-7. When the program is com plete, the programmer do wnload s the pro gram to the robot to be ver ified and
Automation & Robotic Welding :@: 367
run . This type of programming re duces the amount of downtime needed to program or modify a robot. Operator Controls. Operator controls are the switches and buttons used by the operator to control the operational sequence of the robot. These control s set the robot into automatic mode or teach mode . The operator may use these controls to initiate or change welding cycles or programs. Some manufacturers refer to the operator controls as start stations because the robot operational sequence is started from the se panels using a start pu shbutton. The most important part of the operator controls is the emergency stop button. Each operator control panel must have an emergency stop button to stop the robot immediately in case of a dangerous situation. Workpiece Positioner. The addition of workpiece positioners allows more efficient positioning of the weld joints for higher speeds and better weld quality. See Figure 29-8. Due to the simple paths of th e torch positioner, the workpiece positioners/holders can become quite sophisticated and elaborate. They need to hold the workpieces without interfering with the path of
Figure 29-7. 0i rline prcgromming softwa re is used to create robot pr og ra ms IIU/I rep licate the mo tions a robotic system must mak e.
the torch system. Some workpiece holders are manually operated whil e others are pneumatically or hydraulically controlled. Some workpiece positioners may be controlled by the robot controller. These systems provide a tightly integrated robotic system that allows the programmer infinite positions for the workpiece. Some systems allow the
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Figure 29-8. \lhrkpie("C posuioners all ow more efficient positioning of the weld j oints f or higher speeds and bette r weld qualilY.
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workpiece positioner to move at the same time that the robot is moving and still maintain a straight line or circular welding path. Thi s typ e of moti on is sometimes referre d to as synchronized motion . The motion is similar to holding a clipboard in one hand and a penc il in the other hand and drawin g a perfectly straight line . Adaptive Controls. The robot system may include optional equipment to aid in adapting the robot control s to particular weld eovironment factors. Robot s cannot see . feel , or hear lik e a human weld er. If the operator or tooling cannot plac e the part to the same position repeatedl y. equipment capable of adj usting the we ld is needed. Ad justments may be made to the welding pro cess or to the motion path of the roboti c system. Adju stments are made throu gh a robot interface. The addition of a robot interface creates a close coupling between the robot controller and the welding equipment. The robot ioterfac e provides the communication path for the robot control ler to the welding power source. gas solenoid. and wire feeder. Man y robot inte rfac es are capab le of adjustin g the weldi ng par ameter s to maintain a co nstant voltage at the weldi ng arc. Co ns ta nt- vo ltage weldin g co ntro ls adapt to the changing conditions of the we ld by continu ally monitoring th e weld voltage and adju stin g the welding current to maintain a set arc length . The se types of systems are used in most robotic GMAW welding process es . A con stant- voltage weld controller c an adapt th e pr oc e ss to o vercome small deviations in the weld joint. Similar controls are used in the robotic pul sed GM AW proc ess . Some adva nce d ada ptive co ntroll ers e limi nate the need for an interface panel and provide all the necessar y inputs and outputs to the robot system. In adaptive pulsed GMAW, several of the pulsed parameters must be manua lly changed in ord er to mainta in a
co ns ta nt arc len gth . Process adjustment s are the preferred method for ada pting the robo tic welding syste m to en viroomental de viati on s, as the y usually do oot affect the welding cycle time of the robotic system. Some weldin g e nviro nme nts require greater adju stments than can be obtained through the welding process parameters. These welding environments require adju stments to the motion path of the robotic system through a touch sensor system. A touch sensor system can identify the amount of deviation from the position to which the workpiece was initi all y pro grammed. Touch sensors use a probe or the welding w ire to tou ch the surface of the wo rkpiece to identify the de viati on from the programmed point. When the deviation is identified, the robot co ntroller alters the original programmed points to match the workpiece deviation. The laser location system uses a laser beam to locate the workpiece instead of a probe or the welding wire. A laser location system reduces errors cau sed by bending of the probe or the welding wire . The application of tou ch sensors slows the cycle time of the weld program, which is generally not acceptable in high-production facilities. However, the tooling needed to maintain the weld joint in position and within tolerance may be prohib itively costly to the weld producer. These cost factors may force the weld producer to slow the weld cycle and introduce a touch sensor into the system. Thru arc se am trackers and laser seam trackers help identify any dev iations of the weld scam while the robot is we lding . Wo rkpiece wa rpage during the we ld ing proc ess ca us es the welding seam to move. creatin g a deviat io n fr om the o rig inally pro grammed welding path. Thru arc seam tra ckers identify these deviation s by monitoring the we lding current and voltage. As the weldin g torch weaves
welding powersource.
gas so lenoid, and
wire feeder.
Th e majority of arc welding rob ot s are d esign ed for the GMA \V process. which provides arc control ond filler wire control
alon g the weld j oint, the current and voltage change, ca using a specific pattern of increased current and voltage. The seam trac ke r fo llo ws the pattern and adj usts the weld path to repeat the patt ern of a " known good weld." The thru arc sea m tracker monitors the deviation s in current and voltage by weaving along the weld joi nt during welding and sending sig na ls (current and voltage measurements) to the ro bot contro lle r. The we ave pattern m ust be programmed int o th e robo t by the pro grammer. Whil e the weave pattern allo ws the robot to relearn the program a nd a lte r it s tr aje ct ory to maintain a quality weld, the weaving action s lows the welding process and may cau se undercut to the joint. La ser seam trackers use a laser beam to sweep ac ross the weld path looking for weld seam deviations. Laser seam trackers do not need to weave the welding wire along the weld joint, which allows for an increased weldiog speed and reduced chance of uodercut from the weaving action . The la ser sys tems require more care and maioteoance to prevent dama ge to the optical laser len s and receiv er. Roboti c GTAW and PAW sys tems may also include motorized torch adjustments. Th ese sys tems monitor the arc voltage and adjust the height of the torch by moving the torch up and down on a slide mounted betwee n the torch mount and the torch. Th ese sys tems usually add bulk to the torc h and thu s redu ce the ability to access certain weld joints.
Th e pow er so urce used is typically the same type of power source used for semiautomatic welding. The wire feeder is modifi ed to accommodate the sequence comm ands needed for the automated welding process. Robotic systems use torches and a shielding gas system specifically designed to be mounted and operated on a robot manipulator. Torch mountin g includes breakaway plates or crash detect ion mounts so the torch breaks away or the robot stops if the torch hits something while moving. Torch mounts protect the robot manipulator fro m severe damage. Many robot co ntro llers provi de the signals for the gas solenoid, wire feed speed, a nd we ld ing vo ltage through arc start and arc end param eters programmed into the co ntroller. These signal s need to be commun icated to the welding equipment. Some welding system s integrate the power source, wire feeder, and shielding gas system into one pie ce of equipment. For example, submerg ed arc flux delivery and recovery sys tems are adde d to the robotic system to pro vide solid flu x for SAW. Extra equi pm ent, suc h as add itional torches or multiple shielding gas system s, may be required for so me automati c welding processes. The American Welding Society maintain s sta ndard AWS / NEM A D16.21 D 16. 2M , Guide for Components of Robotic lind Automa tic Arc We lding Ins tallations , whic h det ails the components wit hin ro botic and automatic welding systems .
simultaneously.
Automatic welding equipment includes a welding po wer source. wireferdet; torch, and shield ing gas syste m,
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Figure 29-9 . The GMAlV process provides arc co nlrol and ji lin wire ctmlml 10 'he robot sim ultaneously:
The GMAW proc ess in automated weldin g is slightly different from the GMAW process in manu al weld ing. Th e goa ls in automati c we lding ar e high travel speed with maximum weld pene trati on and minimum weld spatter. The main welding parameter that must be controlled is the weld travel speed. In manua l weld ing, weld travel speed s rar ely exceed 15 inches per minute (i pm). In automatic weldi ng, manufacturers strive for 30 ipm to 40 ipm and with special GMAW processes may attain 50 ipm to 60 ipm. To achieve these goals in a practice setting, some of the GMAW welding paramerer s must be adjusted to opti mize the weld. The angle of the torch must be adj usted to a 15 push angle to a llow for maximum pen etrati on at maximum weld travel speeds. The wire fee d spee d a nd th e we ld ing voltage must be adj usted for the ma teria l to be welded and the weld joint to produce a GMAW spray tra nsfer arc at manual weldi ng trave l speeds . Afte r a good arc at manual weldi ng travel speeds is achieved, the weld travel speed ca n be increased to produ ction speed levels. These weld parameters offer the speed and deposition rate of the GMAW spray transfer process with the penetration and contro l of GMAW short circuit ing tran sfer. Th e arc produces a distinctive sound that some have termed a "GMAW production spray."
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Robotic we lding ('q uip me nt (' W I b e dangerous, always follow the .w~rety requirements [ound in rlU' Robotic Industries Association ( RIA) standard ANSI/RIA RIS.rM, Ind ustrial Ro bots and Robo t Sy st em s -Sa fe ty Requirements.
Figu r e 2910. Prote ction from the robot work area is provided by perimeter guarding de vices to p re vent access to the safe guarded sp ace without CO/l scions action,
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from all personnel not operating or teaching the robot. The safeg uarded space cannot be smaller than the restricted space. T he ANSI/RIA standard call s for proper training of all personnel. Training includes safeguard training, teacher
training, operator training, maintenance
training , and installer training. The end user of the robot and robot system is responsible fo r training their employees and maintaining training docu mentation . With proper training and protection , robot system hazards can
be significantly reduced or eliminated. Guidelines for the level s of quali fication and safety and health con sideration s may be fo und in AWS D I6.4, Specifi cation [or the Qualification of Robotic Arc Welding Personnel. The American Welding Society also publishes AWS DI6 .3M/DI6. 3, Risk Asses sment Guide .for Roboti c Arc Welding, which includes guidelines for risk as se ssmen t, robot classi fication , and potential hazards primarily associated with arc welding robots and robotic arc welding systems.
372
Welding Skill s
I . A torch positioner is a fixed-path mechanical apparatus that moves the torch in a specified path . 2. A robot is a programm ed path device used to position the torch, and at times the workpiece. 3 . The robot controller control s the movem ent of the manipulator from point to point and the path of the torch from point to point. 4 . The robot manipulator is the robot arm and consists of a base and several links and j oints (or axes). 5 . A teach penda nt is the inpu t method that the robot programmer uses to create move ment prog rams. 6. The robot interface provides the communication path for the robot co ntroller to the weldin g power source , gas solenoid, and wire feed er. 7. The major ity of arc weldin g robots are designed for the GMAW process, which provides arc control and filler wire control simultaneously. 8. Autom atic welding equipment includes a weldin g power source, wire feeder, torch , and shielding gas sys tem. 9. Robotic welding equipment ca n be dangerous, always follow the safety requirements found in the Robotic Industries Assoc iation (RIA) standard ANS I/RIA RI 5.06. Industrial Robots and Robot Systems-Safety Requi rements.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
What are the two categories of automation? What manual welding process is most commonly adapted for robot ic welding? What is the purpose of torch mounts') Why is fixed automatio n preferable to manual welding processes? What are the co mponents of a robotic welding syste m? What are the two torch motion patterns? Why is a robot interface added to a robotic welding system? How does the mechanical movement of the robot pose hazards to opera tors, programmers, and other person nel? 9. How are personnel protec ted from the hazards posed by the robot?
Welding is often used to fasten parts in the fabrication of plastic products. Welding can be used for assembling such products as storage tanks, boxes, and other containers. Instal/ation of plastic pipe and ductwork with welding is also common. The manufacture of many custom plastic products is made possible by plastic welding techniques.
TYPES OF PLASTICS
Most plastics are ide ntified by trad e name s or by the principal compound from which they are made. Plastics are broadly grouped as thermosetting plastics and thermopl astics. Thermosettin g plastics soften only o nce whe n ex po se d to he at. On ce th ermose tt in g p lastic s ha ve been mo lde d int o a part icu lar shape and cured (hardened), no subsequent heating can soften the m ag ain. Thermosetting plastics are not weldable. They a re joine d by mech ani c al me th od s, principally adhesive bond ing. Typical thermos etting plastics are ureas, pheno lics, me la mi nes , pol yest ers, silicon es, epoxie s, and urethanes. T he rmo pla stics ca n rep ea tedl y so fte n whe n heat is a ppli ed . Th ese plastic s can easily be we lded. There a re ma ny kind s of the rm opl asti cs, such as acry lic s, polysty re nes, poly am ide s, pol yfl uorides , an d viny ls. Generally the more common thermopla stics used where we ld ing is in vo lve d are pol yeth yle ne, pol yvin yl chlor ide (PVC) , a nd pol yp rop ylen e. Welding these types of plastics pro du ces sea ms tha t are as stro ng or
stro ng e r th an th e mat eri al s bein g bonded . Compressed a ir is best for weldin g PVC and several other types of plast ics. Both the ga s and compressed air are contro lled by regul ator s to pro vid e the co rrect pressure flow. See Figure 30- 1.
Ftgu re 30-1. The welding gas used is determined by the 1)1'" of thermoptasric material to be
welded.
Weldi l'g
Welding
Temperature'
525 550 575 600 500 575
Gas
Air Nitrogen Nitrogen Air Nitrogen Air
cure a proper we ld joint, Inte rlocking tire co rners pro d uces til l' best results
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in metal welding. with one significant difference. In metal welding. a sharply defined melting point develops and the base material and fille r materi al melt and n ow together to form th e we ld joint. However, plastics are poo r heat conductors. and consequently they do not read ily melt and n ow. To achieve a perm anent bond. the filler materi al and base materials must be heated to a point at which the materials will fuse together, but not so high that the plastic decomposes.
Joint Preparation
The types of joints used in plastic welding are the same as those used in metal welding -butt, come r, edge. lap, and T. The edges of the joints are beveled to prov ide a sufficient area on which to fo rm a good bond . T he bev eled edges should have a groo ve angle of .." 60 with a root opening between V and 1 116" , a lthough the root openi ng may be deeper if a larger filIer material is requi red . See Figure 30-2. /
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com er, edge. lap , ami T-llre the same as ,110.\'1' used fo r welding metal.
ROOT OPENING
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So me plastic materials. such as vinyl. produce He l gas or obnox ious odo rs. Pol yvinyl ch loride produces poisonous fumes. Precautions must be taken to avoid inhaling these fumes. If necessary. a respirator should he used.
ROOT OP ENING
Double Bevel
Single Bevel
Double Fille t
Welding Procedure
Select the correct shape tip and insert in the gun. Guns should be able to supply a temperature varying from 400F (204C) to 600F (3 16C) or more (up to 925' F 1496C]). Different materials and differe nt plastic thicknesses have differing heat requirements. Se t the air or gas pressure according to the plast ic man ufacturer's recommendations. Although the wattage of the heating element determines the range of hea t, the air or gas pressure determin es the actual amount of heat at the tip. See Figure 30-3.
from the base material nor will it be possib le to pry the filler materi al out of th e we ld when coo led. A crosssec tio n of the tes t we ld also reveals whether complete penetra tion has occurred. See Fig ure 30-4 . Plas tic we lding should always be done in a well-ventilated area. Follow the manu facturer's recommendat ions for safe practices when weldin g specific types of plastics. The basic welding processes used for plastic welding are hot gas, heated-tool, and induction. With some restrictions, friction welding ca n also be used.
a well-ve ntila ted area. If a ventilation systemis110 1 in place. portable ventilating equipment should be used to ensu re adeq uate vent ilu tiu n
during weldin g.
Air Pressure! Temperature* 2-3 400 2-3 410 2 %-3% 430 540 3-4 3-4 600 4- 5 700 800 4 '/2-5 '12 5-6 860 56 900
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CORRECT
Figu re 30-" A cross-section cut through (l te.,'t weld snows the 1HIIOU fll of penetration that has occurred.
Note: Three-heal unrt with a rotary heal seector SWItch: (ioW) low - 340 W, Medium - 460W, HlQh-600 W
'''"
Fig u re 3(k'. The air or Km I',.e.~"," re selling deter mines ,IIl' ClII/O/lllt of heat at the lip duri ng weldin/:.
INCORRECT-NO BOND
MATERIAL IS CHARRED
/) 0 riot allow t Ill> surface to char or
Duri ng the welding cycle, 3 psi to 5 psi of pressure should be applied to ensure weld integrit y. Exerting exce ssive pressure on the filler materia l may cau se excessive stretch ing, particu larly when weld ing vinyl. The length of the filler used should be the same as the length of the weld. Equally impo rta nt is to avo id overhe ating the weld area as the filler material and the base mater ial can char and discolor, res ulti ng in a n un acce pta ble we ld . Underheati ng is a lso objectionab le since it produces a cold weld that has poor tens ile strength. Check the weld by bendi ng a test we ld 90 . If the we ld is made properly, the weld beads will not separate
di sco /Of:
INCORRECT-BURNED WELD
onto the surface of the material being bonded. The gun permits the use of several different tips for different we lding operation s. The type of tip used depends on the plastic welding app lication. Four types of tips are designed for high-speed wel d in g: tac ke r, ro und, flat, and Vshaped. The increased speed of a highspeed tip is achi eved by the design of the tip, wh ich holds the filler ma teri al and applies the needed pressure as the we ld is mad e. A tack er tip is used for tack we lding. See Figure 30-5.
and minimizes the chances of lack of fusion, which may occur with multiple passes of round strips. See Figure 30-6. Th e hand fee d operati on for welding plastic is as follow s: I . Hold the tip of the gun abo ut 3ft6" to '/2" away from the start of the we ld and begin a fan ning motion. Place the filler material in a vertical positio n so the heat from the gun is di rected on bo th the filler material and the base mater ial. 2. When both the base mater ial and the fille r materia l become tacky. press the filler firmly into the jo int and bend it back at a slant with the point away fro m the direction of we ld ing . 3 . As the g u n is moved along the sea m, co ntinue to exert pressure on the filler material to force it into the groove. Main tain a constant fanning motion at a 45 angle so both the tiller material and the joint ar ea a re he ate d equa lly . W hen we lding heavy-ga uge plast ic with filler ma terial. most of the heat shou ld be d irec ted on the joint.
Figure 30-5 . Severa l types oj tips are avaitabte fo r not RaJ welding of plastic.
0" _
"
"
"
TACK ER
ROU ND
FLAT
V-SHA PED
High-Speed Welding
The speed of making welds can be substantially increased using the high-speed welding process. As-welded, round, and triangular filler materials are often used for high-speed welding. Filler material must be cut into the required lengths, with one or two inches allowed for trimming. See Figure 30-7. The high-speed welding procedure is as follows: I. Insert the filler materi al into the high- speed tip. Start the weld by holding the tool at a 90 angle and tamp ing the broad shoe of the tip on the surface until the first inch of the filler adheres firml y to the base material. Hold the high-speed welding tool at a 45 angle to the work and press the end of the filler into the weld. Feed the filler material manually until the weld bead has been sufficiently started. 2. Ma intain an angl e of 45 whil e movi ng forward along the seam. Once the welding operation is under way, a firm downward pre ssure of 3 lb to 5 lb is placed on the gun to automatically feed the filler material into the preheated tube . 3. Keep the gun mov ing at a sufficient speed. Correct speed can be observed by the formation of flow lines on both sides of the filler material. Insufficient speed causes the filler material to stretch because of built-up excessi ve heat. Thi s condition can be correc ted with a quick tamping motion of the shoe as used in starting the weld.
Useajanning motion to ensure un ifo rm heal distributionover
the fi ller rod and the edges ofthe joint.
HOLD GUN 16 TO W' FROM START OF ~ WELD. HEAT BASE AND PLASTIC IZED FILLER MATER IAL
PRESS FILLER FIRMLY INTO JO INT AND BEND BACK AWAY FROM WELDING
Figure 306. When the base material and the filler ma terial become tacky, press the filler firmly into the joint, continuing to heat the area and exert pressure as the weldi ng p rog resses .
Parts to be join ed hy high-spee d welding shou ld be jirmly damped to prevent movement out of position.
II
' 0
! r HIGH-SPEED TOOL
START OF WELD
DOWNWARD PRESSURE
BROAD SHOE
START OF WELD
f7\
\.0
HOLD TOOL AT 90' ANGLE TO SURFACE AND TAMP BROAD SHOE O F TIP ON SURFACE UNTIL STRIP ADHER ES TO BASE PLASTICIZED STRIP BROAD SHOE
I.
END OF WELD
{;;\ LIFT TOOL UNTIL STRIP PULLS TH ROUGH FEEDER ~ TUBE. CUT STRIP WITH SPECIALLY DESIGNED KNIFE
('(I ll
In' used f or lligll"spad wd di"K to hold the f itter material in the correct pos ition ; however. the p mp a procedure
Tack Welding
Tack welding is used to fuse mate rials together prior to welding in order to eliminate the use of clamps or fixtures. A tacker tip is used for tack we lding and is used with all type s of joints to be welded . See Figure 30-8.
Ftgurc 30-8. Common lack welding techniques used to eliminate 'he need fo r clumps and fixtures during weld inK include continuous flI ckillg and .1'1'01 tac k i ng ,
HEATED-TOOL WELDING
In the heated-too l (heated surface) we lding process , heat for we lding is generated in a hot tool. The edges to be joined are heated to the proper temperatu re, then brought into contact and allowed to cool under pre ssure. The edges of the plastic sheet are softened with so me heat-producing unit such as an electrical strip or bar heater, hot plate, or resistance-coil heater. The hea ter shou ld be aluminum or nickel since hot steel and copper have a tende ncy to deco mpose plastic . T he heated-tool welding techni que is commonly used fo r jo ining sectio ns of pip e and tubing and in the asse mbly of many molded articles.
CONTINUOUS TACKING
As a rule. welds made by the induction process are not as strong as those obtain ed by other heating method s.
FRICTION WELDING
Fr icti on weldin g. or sp in- we ld ing . consists of rubbing the surfaces of the parts to be joined until sufficient heat is developed to bring them to a fusing temperature. Pressure is then applied and maintained until the unit is cooled. In friction welding. one piece is held in a fixed. locked position and the oth er is rotated . When sufficient melt occurs. the spi nning is stopped a nd the pr essure is incre ased to squeeze out air bubbles and di stribute the softened plastic uniforml y between the surfaces. The principal advantages of friction weld ing are the speed and simpli city of the process. However, friction welding is limited to circular areas and sma ll items. Somet imes friction welding produces a flashing out of soft material beyond the weld area. but usually the excess !lashing can be directed to the interior of the part if the weld is properl y designed . Ex cess !lashin g can also be avoided by preventing the parts from overheating and by maintaining the proper pressure .
INDUCTION WELDING
In indu cti on weld ing. or sonic welding, heat is ge ne ra ted by ca us ing a high-frequency current to flow into a metal insert placed between the areas to be j oined. Alth ou gh in d uc tio n welding is one of the fastest methods of joinin g plastic. its greates t limit ation is that the metal inse rt must remain in the weld. Met al inse rts us ua lly co nsist of metalli c fo il, wire coi l, wire sc ree n. metalli c conducting particles. or some other config uratio n of co nduc tive met al. Insert s must be placed in the interface so they are not ex pos ed to air; otherwise, rapid heating is induced. which may cause the insert s to disintegrate. Fusion occurs only in the area immediately ncar the insert. When' the edges become soft. uniform pre ssure is applied to bond them together.
A tack weld ('(III he used ill plastic welding to eliminate the needfor clamps andfixtures.
I. Bevel all edges to secure a proper weld joint. Interlocking the corners produces the best results on corners. 2. Use a filler material of the same composition as the base material. 3 . Use a fanning motion to ensure uniform heat distribution over the filler material and the edges of the joint. 4. Do not allow the surface to char or discolor. 5 . Weld plastics only in a well-ventilated area. If a ventilation system is not in place. portable ventilating equipment should be used to ensure adequate ventilation during welding.
\ )
What is the main difference between plast ic welding and metal welding? Why are thermosetting plastics not weldable? At what range of temperatures are plastics generally welded? What governs the degree of heat that is to be used in plastic welding? What is the particu lar advantage of using triangular filler material over round? How far from the surface should the gun be held when welding plastics? Why is a fan ning motion necessary in manipulating the gun over the weld joint? Why should excessive pressure on the filler material be avoided? What happens if insufficient heat is used when a welder is making a plastic weld? What test can determine if a weld is made properly? What precautions should be taken when welding plastics? How does the high-speed plastic welding technique differ from the regular hot gas welding technique? When using high-speed welding, why should the filler material not be allowed to remain in the feeder tube? 14. How is the heated-tool welding technique accomplished? 15. What is one of the main limitations of induction plastic welding? 16. How are plastic joints bonded by friction welding?
382
Welding Skills
se ctio n
S eve n
Destructive testing involves taking sample portions of a welded structure and subjecting them to loads until they fa il. The nature of the test is dictated by the service requirements of the fi nished product. Destructive testing is performed on welds to qualify both welders and welding procedures; to develop manufacturing quality control acceptance specifications; and to determine if electrodes and fi ller metals meet the requirements of the specifications. Destructive testing is also used to measure residual stresses associated with welds. Several types of standardized destructi ve tests are used. Destructive test types and the Iocationts} of specimens in the weld joint are indicated in the controlling fabri cation code or standard. Specimen preparation techniques are necessary for reliable test results.
Requirem ent s vary between fabrica tion codes and standards so that test spec ime ns are not alw ay s the same, nor are they taken from the same locat ions in a test weld . It is essential that the current edi tion of the controllin g fabrication co de or standa rd be followed when making test welds and test specimens, and when co nducting destructive tests. Destructi ve tests consis t of ten sile, shear, bend , hardness, tough ness, and break tests.
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The C/lrrellf edition oj the co ntroll ing fabrication code or s tan da rd mu st be followed when making test welds and test specimens. and when conducting destructive tests.
Tensile Test
A tensile test is a destructive test that measures the effects of a tensile force on a material. Tensile testing involves the placement of a weld specimen in a universal testing machine and pullin g the piece unt il it breaks. Tensile force occurs when a mechanical load is applied axially (parallel to the axis) to stretch a test specimen. See Figure 3 1-1.
383
Figure 311 . A uni versal testi ng machine is used w perform a tensile test 0/1 weld specimens. .weh as a boll . to determine the tensile strength of tile welds.
Th e spec ime n is c ut e ither from an all -weld area or from a we lded butt j oint for plate and pipe. The specime n for an all-weld area should conform to specific dimensions and it should be cut from the welded section so its redu ced a rea contains only we ld metal. See Figure 3 1-2. The transition from the ends of the ten sile spec imen to the redo ced section is either shouldere d or made with\ a fill et. Sho ulde rs and fill et s mini ) mi ze stress conce ntra tio ns. T h is is parti cul arly important for brittl e material s becaose they are mor e likel y to fail ca tastro phically at a region of high stress co nce ntration. T he longitud inal ax is of the specimen and the spec imen grips are symmetrical along
REDUCED AREA
DISTANCE OF ~
~ b~ 1J ~-~= :q
FILLET GAUGE LENGTH
DIAMETER OR WIDTH
\1
O F WIDEST
EDGE OF FACE WELD
FILLET
w = 11f.t ' 0 0 1"IFT DOES NOT EXCEED 1" THIS SECTION MACHIN ED. W=1 "'O.01'"I F T PREFE RABLY BY MILLING EXCEEDS" f = A SURFACE CONTROL SYMBOL
/(""'
....;:.-::: ~ /
,.. '" ,.. , t '0 d,.. . ~ ...-: ,
,..v / ,
..
/ . .- 1/ ,/ : "
~ ,
1/: ,.
:,.. l ,
r
C
PLATE
10" APPROXIMATELY
~ ' r : ,..
~./. J/ /' "
. Wi
v.,j
:0 o//IF-== ~~~
THIS SECTION MACHINED. PREFERABLY BY MILLING
FOR GAS WELDING. OM IT BACKING. DOTTED LINES SHOW POSITION FROM WHICH SPECIMEN SHALL BE MACHINED
~ 5' -
-+1
5 '--1
PIPE
BUTT JOINT
Fi ~ure 31-2 . A fith'l is IHn / on tile tens ile test specimen 10 remove stress concentrations. Spe cimen s for all -weld areas must cOf/ fo rtll 10 specif ic dimensions. Butt wdd.~ art' used [or teneit e tests (/ 1/ p/at e lind pipe.
the longitudinal ax is of support to avoid the introduction of bending loads during the test. The gauge length (distance over which the elongation mea surement is made) is always less than the di stance between the shoulder s. The most common gauge lengths are 2" and 8". The gauge length is nor mally marked on the speci men using a pair of center punch marks spaced a pre scribed di stance apart. The gauge marks are always an equal distance from the center of the length of the reduced section. The weld in a welded tensile specimen is always located at the center. Before the specimen is placed in the tensile machine, an accurate mea surement should be taken of the gauge length. Data recorded from weld tensile tests on a welding procedure qualification record (PQR) are maximum load, tensile strength, and failure location. In certain cases, percent elongation and percent reduction of area are also reported. In addition to qualifying welding procedures and welders, the tensile test also provides information on the loadbearing capaciti es, join t efficiencies, strain-hardening properties, and duc tility of welded joints. Tensile test results provide quantitative data that can be compared or analy zed and used in the design of welded struct ures. Fracture surface appearance at the failure location provides information on the presence and effects of discontinuities such as incomplete fusion , incomp lete joint penetra tion , porosity, inclusions, and cracking. A tensile test machine is a testing machine composed of two major components that are the means of applying the load to the specimen and the mean s of measuring the applied load. Some machines are designed for one type of testing only, for example machines that test chain and wire. Universal testing machines apply loads to test specim ens in tension or compression.
In a univers al testing mach ine, the loa d is ap plied mechanically to the speci me n by means of a screw a nd gears, or it is appli ed hydraulically. The applied load is mea sured by a dynamometer (load cell) for mechani cally driven machines and by a Bourdon tube for hydraulically driv en machines. A load cell is a device that uses the elastic deformation of a spring or diaphragm that is calibrated to indicate the mechanical load applied to the specimen. A Bourdon tube is a coiled flui d-conta ining tube that straightens out as the intema l pressure on the fluid is increased. The motion of the tube is used to rotate a po inter over a scale that is calibrated to read the hydrau lic load applied to the specimen . Tensile speci mens are usua lly dogbone shaped in that the central portion of the specimen is reduced in cross section compared with the two ends. This shape causes the test specimen to fail in the narrower central portion rather than at the ends , where the gripping devices affect the stress configuration. Tens ile specimens have a ro und cross section (round specimen) or a rectangular cro ss sect ion (rec tangular specimen). In general, tensile speci me ns ob tained from welded joints are rectangular, unless taken from locations where it is not possible to obtain a spec imen with a rectangular cross sec tion, such as when testing filler metals . The shape of the ends of the specimen is determined by the spec imen gripping device that is used. The ends of round specimen s are either pla in, shouldered, or threaded . Rectangular specimen s ar e genera lly made with plain ends , but occasionally pin end s are used. A pin end is a rectangular specimen that contains a hole for a pin bearing. See Figure 31-3. The tensile test procedure con sists o f fixing the specimen firmly in the grip s of the testing machine . An extensometer, which is a device fo r
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Tensile specimens obtained frvmwelded joints art' typically rectungulat; unless takenjnnn a locution where it is not pos sible to obta in a sample (if rectangular cross section.
mea suring th e ex te ns io n o r e longation of the test spe cime n, is fitted to the spec imen across its gauge length. See Fig ure 3 1-4. The specimen is stretched to failure at some steady rate. Unless otherwise specified, the rate of straining is between .05" and .5" per min. Differences in the rate of stra ining could result in te stin g inco ns iste nc ies. Te ns ile test procedu re is described in ASTM E 8, Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials. As the test specimen is stretched, a load-extension (stres s-st rai n) curve is pl ott e d ; th e ex te nsome ter is removed befor e the speci me n breaks. See Figure 3 1-5. The lo ad-e xten si on c urve s ho ws load and extension limit s for metals. Point A is the proportional limit. The proportional limit is the maximum stress at which stress is directl y propo rtion al to strain. Between point s A and B, the line starts to curve. Up to point B, the tensile speci men will return to its original length if the load is remo ved. Point B is the elastic limit.
Ftgure .113. A variety of tens ile l'IIlI,\' may he used to ensu re that the testing machine se cur ely and uniform ly x rip s the test ,Hlmp!e.
test specimen
T t'~'li"K
Figure 3 1-4. All e.t tell,Hlme le r measures the zrtension or elongation of the tension tes t specimen,
The tensile strength of metals is typically high, with tensile strengths of60,OOO psi or 70,000 psi common. A large machine would be needed to test a [uli-size part: so small test specimens are tested instead. A section is cut and tested, and the result is multiplied by a size ratio to fi nd the tensile strength equivalent.
PLAIN
END
SHOULDERED END
THREADED END
ROUND
PLAIN
PIN
END
RECTANGULAR
END
386
F-..,
G
Figure 31-5. The loud -extension curve shows the load and exten sion limits for metals .
G C
w
if)
a;
UJ
9
o
EXTENSION (STRAIN)
EXTENSION (STRAIN)
Elastic limit is the maximum stress to which a material is subjected without any permanent strain remaining after stress is completely remo ved. Beyond point B, strain is perman ent , or th e s trai n in the spe c im e n is plastic. Plastic strain is strain that remains permanent after the stress is removed. Beyond point B, the shape of the curve varies for different metals. Low- and medium-carbon stee ls show a jog in their curve, which peaks at point C, or the yield point. Yieldpoint is the location on the stress-strain curve
where an increase in strain occurs with-
out an increase in stress . Yield point beh avior leads to Luders bands (ripples) on the test specimen. Stretcher strains (elongated markings) are observ ed in low-carbon steel pre ssings when deformed to the yield point. Yield point behavior is only exhibited by low- and med ium-carbon steels. Between points C and D the curve falls, ind ica ting a pla stic stra in. The curv e continues down to point E, the lower yield point. The curve eventually regai ns its upward mo vemen t and peaks at point F. Point F is the ultimate ten sil e stre ngth. Ultimate tensile strength is a measure of the maximum stress (load) that a metal can withstand.
Between points F and G, the specimen begins to neck down or develop a pronounced wai st. Point G is the po int of failure , the point at which fracture occurs. With all materials , the slope of the load-extension curve decreases and peaks at point F, with failure occurring at point G. With brittle metals, fracture may occur while the load is increasin g toward point F. When the tensil e test is completed, the broken specimen is removed from the testing mach ine. The percent of elongation can be found by fitting the broken ends of the two pieces together and measuring the new gauge length . The new, increased gauge length and the reduced diameter at the narrowest point are measu red. Measurement can be made on either sid e of the break. See Figure 31-6 .
REDUCTION OF
f
'
C:OSSSECT~~
- -,/
~ ']"
~ 4G~~~-GE----
Figure 316. The increased gauge length and reduced diameter at the narrowest point are measured and used to calculate the percent oj elongation and the pacem of red uction in area.
Tensile Strength Measurement. The actual ten sile strength is found by dividing the maximum load needed to break the piece by the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The cross-sectional area is determined by multiplying the width of the bar by its thickness. Tensile strength is an imprecise value because the original cross-sectional area is not the same as the reduced cross-sectional area that actually exists at the maximum load. Tensile strength is measured in thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi) or megapascals (MPa). The standard 1/2" diameter tensile specimen is referred to as a "50S" because a diameter of .505" has an area of .2" . To permit easy calculation of stress from loads , specimen diameters of .505", .357", .252", .160" , and .13" are convenient because computing of stress or strength may be done using the multiplying factors 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100, respectively. For rectangular
specimens the cross-sectional area is calculated from the product of the width and thickness of the specimen.
711e manufacturer of a base metal typi cally performs tensile testing and reports the results.
For example, what is the percent elongation of a tensile specimen that has an initial gauge length of 2" and a final length of 2.45"'1
%E =
2.45 -2
2
x 100
%E = -xIOO
.45
2
Percent elongation is calculated/ from the gauge length. The longer the gauge length, the less the effect necking down of the specimen has on final length, resulting in lower a percent elongation. When the gauge length is made equal to k,!A, where k is a constant equal to 4.47 and A is equal to the cross-sectional area of the specimen, the percent elongation value remains practically constant for different gauge lengths. The most common gauge length in tensile testing is 2". To find percent reduction of area of a tensile specimen, apply the formula :
%RA
where
= Do -
Df x 100 Do
%RA
Do
Df
100
Percent Elongation and Percent Reduction Measurement. Percent elongation and percent reduction of area are measures of the ductility of a tensile
specimen. Measurements are used to calculate the percentage of elongation and reduction in area of a material. They indicate the amount of plastic deformation prior to fractore of the test specimen. To find percent elongation of a tensile test specimen, apply the formula:
%E Lf-LgXIOO Lg
For example , what is the percent reduction of area of a tensile specimen with an original diameter of .505" and a reduced diameter of .350"'1
%RA
.505-.350 x 100
.505
%RA = .155 x 100 .505 %RA = .307 x 100 %RA= 30.7%
where
% E = percent elongation
Lf
= final
length
Lg = gauge length
100 = constant
388
Round tensile specimens must be used to calculate percent reduction of area. Rectangular specimens have significant rounding of their corners during the test, making measurement of the cross-sectional area less accurate .
Welding Skills
Failure location is the region of the specimen at which final failure occurs. Failure location is categorized as base metal, heat-affected zone (HAZ), or weld. Failure location is recorded on the PQR. Fabrication codes and standards usually require that failure location be in the base metal and not in the HAZ or in the weld. Percent elongation and percent reduction in area values are not usually provided for routine weld testing because the bend test is most often used to indicate ductility.
Shear Test
A shear test is used to determine the shear strength of fillet welds, brazed joints, and spot welds. Shear occurs when some force causes a material to separate, parallel to the load . An acceptable shear strength is usually at least 60% of the minimum specified tensile strength of the base metal. A shear test specimen is prepared to prevent it from rotating during the test. If the specimen were to rotate, interference from other types of stresses would be introduced into the test. A fillet weld shear test is a shear test in which a tensile load is placed on a fillet weld specimen so that the load shears the fillet weld in a longitudinal or a transverse direction. The longitudinal test measures the longitudinal shear strength of the specimen for loads parallel to the axis of the weld. The transverse test measures the transverse shear strength of the specimen for loads normal to the axis of the weld. To prevent rotation and bending stresses during testing, transverse shear specimens are tested as double lap joints. The two shear test types are tension shear test and peel test.
Tension Shear Test. A tension shear test is a shear test in which a prepared specimen is pulled to failure in a tensile testing machine. Specimens can be pulled from fillet welded, brazed, or spot-welded assemblies . The shear strength of the material is calculated from the load at failure. To check the shear strength of a transverse weld, a specimen is prepared, placed in a tensile testing machine, and pulled until it breaks . Dividing the maximum load in pounds by twice the width of the specimen will indicate the shearing strength in pounds per linear inch. If the shearing strength in pounds per square inch (psi) is desired, the shearing strength in pounds per linear inch is divided by the throat dimension of the weld. The types of tension shear test are the brazed joint tension shear test and the spot-weld tension shear test. The brazed joint tension shear test is a shear test that determines the strength offiller metal in a brazed joint. The specimen is composed of two single '/R" thick sheets joined by brazing with a tiller metal. The parts should be fixtured during brazing to maintain accurate specimen alignment. The shear strength of the tiller metal is calculated from the tensile load at failure di vided by the brazed area. The spot-weld tension shear lest is a shear test that determines the strength of arc welds and resistance spot welds. The specimen is made by overlapping materials of suitable size
and creating an arc or resistance spot weld in the center of the overlapped area. The load on the weld causes bending and rotation of the weld , resulting in failure around the edges of sheet thicknesses less than about .040". On thicker sheets, the base metal resists bending and the spot will fail at or near the weld. With specimen thicknesses of . 19" or larger, the grips of the test machine are offset to reduce loading on the weld.
Destru ctive Testing }: 389
Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding ,p)r shear test specimen dimensions, test fixtures, and evaluation methods.
di scontinuities in welding procedure quali ficati on or welder performance qualification bend tests. The most common bend test used for groove welds is the guided bend test.
Bend test specimens allow inspection of all shit's of a weld joint to determine the ductility and plastic def ormati on capa bilities ofa weld.
TEST SPECIMEN
Peel Test. A peel test is a shear test in which a specimen is gripped in a vise and then bent and peel ed ap art with pincers to reveal the weld . Th e peel test is an inexpensive alternative to the spot-weld tension shear test. The weld size is measured and compared to that required for the joint. If the weld size is equal to or exceeds the standard size for the design, the production weld is acceptable. The peel test may not be suitable for high-strength base metal or for thick sheets of metal. See Figure 31-7.
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Bend testin g is an eco nomical way of j udging weld quality to qual ify u procedure or welder:
Bend Test
A bend test is a destructive test used to determine the ductility of a weld by bending a welded specime n around a standardized mandrel. Bend tests provide qualitative information for a specific procedure qualification record (PQR) on the acceptability of a weld . Bend tests are also used for welder performance qua lification (WPQ) . Bend tests provide information on the plastic deformation capabil ity of a welded joint. The plastic deformation capability is shown through the ability of the weld to resist tearing. The weld orientation and the bend location must be specified for bend tests. A bend test may also reveal discontinuities on the surface and can be used to expose incomplete fusion and delamination. Fabrication codes and standards specify the maximum allowable size for
Guided Bend Test. A guided bend test is a bend test in which a rectangular piece of welded metal is bent around a U-shaped die and forced into a U shape. The weld and the HAZ must be completely within the bent portion of the specimen after testing. The guided bend test is the most commonly used ductility test for groove welds, surfacing welds, and fillet welds. Guided bend te st fi xt ures ca n be bottom guided or bottom ejecting. The bottom guided bend fixture is designed to support the specimen in the die as it is bent. The bottom ejecting guided bend fixture allows the specimen to be
ejected from the die after it is bent. Both types of testing are described in ASTM E 190 , Meth od fo r Guided Bend Test for Ductility of Welds. See Figure 3 1-8. Two specimens must be used for the guided bend test. A face-bend specimen is used to check the quality of fusion, or whet he r the weld is free of defect s such as porosity a nd inclusions. A root -bend specime n is used to check thc de gree of weld penetration. See Figure 3 1-9. To perform a face-bend test, the test specimen is placed in a tcst jig with the weld face down and forc ed by a plunger into a U- shape d die . The specimen is substantially bent through 180. but when it is removed from the die the spec ime n wi ll spring back slightly and no longer exhibit a perfect 180 bend. The specimen is removed
and evaluated. If upon examination crac ks greater than '/s" appear in any direction , the we ld is con sidered to have failed. The localized overstrain on the convex side or the U-shaped bend reveal s the presence of we ld defec ts such as lack of fusion. The convex side of the specimen is inspect ed for slag inclus ions , poro sit y, and c rac ks . If these exceed the requireme nts of the applicable fabrication code or standard, the weld must be rejected . In a root-bend test, the test specimen is placed in a jig with the root down, or in the reverse position of the face-bend piece. To be an acce ptable we ld, the specimen must show no cracks.
is the most co mmonly used ductility test f or grvoV(' welds. surfac ing welds, andfilter welds.
o grinding When preparing guided bend test coupons, and polishing may make it hard
10
distingui sh the location ofthe weld. An acid etch may be needed to (ocate the weld area.
l'iJ!;ure 31-8. Gui ded !J('//d test fixlu res ma y be bottom guided or bot tom ejecting,
BonOM GUIDED
BonOM EJECTING
Destructive Testing
:0
391
Figure 31-9. Face -bend and mo /hend specimens are specifi ed fo r pipe and plate, Fac e-bend specimens check the quality of f usion and roo t -bend spe ci mens check the degree of weld penetration.
THESE EDGES MAY BE FLAME CUT AND MAY BE MACHINED OR NOT (AS DESIRED)
T -=~~~~=[}Et:::~~~::::=:::JIT
1O".J
WELD REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE MACHINED FLUSH WITH BASE MATERIAL 'AI'" MIN MATERIAL ------------- --- --- ---- ---- --- -- - ----, TO BE REMOVED
~~====-';;;;;;:====~~ MAC~:.~-~~~SH-~~~~-~-~-~-~~:E-~ETA:
WELD REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE
10
,I~ ~~NR~~6\~~L
TO BE REMOVED
Wraparound Guided Bend Test. A wraparound guided bend test is a bend test in which a specimen is bent around a st at iona ry man d rel a spec ifie d amo unt to expose weld discontinuities. O ne e nd of the specimen is fixed to prevent it from sliding during bending and a roller is used to force the specimen to bend around the mandrel. The weld and the HAZ must be completely within the bent portion of the speci men after testing. The test specimen is removed from the bend fixture whe n the ou ter ro ll has moved 180 0 from the starting po int. See Figure 3 1- 10. T he ben d location may be on the face. the root, or the side. A face-bend test is made with the weld face in tension. A root-bend test is made with the we ld root in tension . A side- bend test
392 ~ Welding
is made with the weld cross section in ten sion. Side-bend tests are useful for exposi ng d iscon tinuitie s near th e mid-thickness of the weld that might not be see n in face- or roo t-bend te sts. Side-bend spec imens are normally used for relatively thick sections (over 'Ys"). See Figure 3 1-1 I. Transverse face -bend s pec ime ns have a longitudinal axis that is perpendicul ar to the we ld and bent with the w eld face in ten s ion . Long itud ina l face- bend spec ime ns ha ve a longit udin al axis that is parallel to the we ld and bent with the weld face in tension. Transverse root -bend spec imens have a longitudinal axis that is perpen dic ular to the weld and ben t with the root surface of th e we ld in ten sion . Longitudinal root-bend specimens have
sun,
Figure 31 10. A wraparound guided hem l fest use s a roller to ensure that the specimen bends to the correct radius around the
mandrel.
~
~ TH I CKN ESS
(T)
MANDREL
CLAMP
a longitudinal axis that is parallel to the weld and bent with the root surface of the weld in tension. Transverse side-bend specimens have a longitudinal axis that is perpendicular to the weld and is bent with the SUfface that sho ws the most significant discontinuities in tension. Transverse side-bend specimens are used for plate or pipe that is too thick for a face-bend or root-bend specimen and are recommended for welds with a narrow fusion zone. If the thickness of single- or double-groove joints is more than 11 12" , the specimen may be cut into equal strips between 3/l' and IV2" wide, which are then bent to the required radiu s determined in the bend test. The length of a surfacing weld specimen is perpendicular to the weld direction for transverse bend specimens and parallel to the weld direction for longitudinal bend specimens. A minimal amount of surfacing weld is removed from the face-bend specimen surface to obtain a smooth surface. The minimum thickness of surfacing after finishing is Y s".
FACE
APPLIED PRESSURE
ROOT
FACE
APPLIED PRESSURE
ROOT
APPLIED PRESSURE CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF WELD
1I!f':~.J-.."
SIDE
"
Figure 31-11. The bend location in (J guided bend test nw )' he on the [ace , the root, or the side of the specimen.
T he spe c ime n thi ckne ss and be nd radius are chosen according to the ductility o f the met al being tested . Mo st qu alificatio n tests of low-carbo n ste el req uire that the spe ci me n be be nt around a mandrel having a diameter four times the thickness of the spec ime n. Ca lcu latio n of stra in in the guided bend test or wraparound bend test on the outs ide surface of a bend spec imen is given, approx imately, by the follo wing for mu la:
e= -
metal. A more severe test of the weld resu lts, and failure may occur because the weld me ta l duc ti lity is e xceed ed and not beca use of a defect in the weld. See Fig ure 3 1-12. When test in g we lds in d iss im ila r st re ng t h m et al s, suc h as med iumcarbo n stee l or lo w- ca rbon stee l, the uneq ual stre ngt h ca pa bilities of the m eta ls may c a use th e s pec i me n to slide sideways in the g uided bend te';;t f ixture .
lOOt
-
2 R+t where
e == strain, in perce nt
t
+ .375
Low -carbo n steel we lds ca n eas ily achieve the II % strain value. Ho wever, if weld defects are present, the bend test specimens will consistently fail. Wh e n the deposit ed wel d me ta l is stronge r than the base met al, bending wi ll beg in in the base metal, resulting in more bending there and little, if any, bending in the weld meta l. In this situation the severes t test region is the fusio n zone be twee n th e we ld and th e base metal. When the dep o sited we ld metal is weaker tha n the ba se metal, ben d ing begin s in the weld, resu lting in more be ndi ng in the we ld tha n in the base
394
STRONGER WELD
EXCESSIVE WELO ZONE STRAIN
WEAKER WELD
}'i ~ ure 3112. Problems associa ted with the guided bend test relate 10 the relative strengths of the weld and bast' metal, lind the applied loads duri llK resting.
Welding Skills
Hardness Test
The hardness of a material is its resistance to deformation (particularly permanent deformation), indentation, or scratching. A hardness test is a destructive test used to determine the relative hardness of the weld area as compared with the hase metal. See Figure 31-13 .
~~
I
~ _.
Budd,", Lid
Figure 3113. A hardness test is performed usin g a hardness teste r, such as a mi crohordness tester, to determine the relativ e hardness of the weld area as compa red with the base metal.
Hardness testing can provide information on metallurgical changes caused by welding . In alloy steels or medium-carbon steels, a high hardness value in the HAZ might indicate insufficient preheating or postheating. Welding may significantly reduce the HAZ hardness in cold -worked or age-hardened alloys by annealing or over-aging, respectively, which re duces the overall strength of the joint. Indentation hardness testing is most often applied to weld testing and uses the surface impression produced by a standardized-shape indenter and standardized load to determine hardness. The depth or size of the impression is measured to obtain the hardness value for the test specimen. Indentation hardness tests for welds consist of Brinell , Rockw ell , and Vickers tests, which provide information on the bulk properties of the metal, and microhardness tests, which provide information on the weld and the HAZ in the metal. Converting hardness numbers hetween different tests must be done carefully.
Hardness testing is sometimes used instead of the more expensive tensile testing methods in heat-treating operations since comparable results can be obtained. Hardness tests are a widely used quality control tool in metal proces sing operations such as heat treatment because they are sensitive, rapid , and relatively nondestructive. Hardness tests are less commonly used for welds because the critical area for hardness testing , the HAZ, requires special preparation. Additionally, hardness testing does not provide adequate information on the physical quality of the weld compared with other tests such as the guided bend test. Hardness is indicated by values obtained from various hardness testing machines.
BrineU Hardness Test. The Brinell hardness test is an indentation hardness test that uses a machine to press a 10 mm diameter, hardened steel ball into the surface of a test specimen. The Brinell hardness test is used to determine base metal hardness. The load must remain on the specimen 15 sec for ferrous materials and 30 sec for nonferrous materials. Sufficient time is required for adequate flow of the material being tested; otherwise the read ings will be in error. See Figure 31-14. Hardness is calculated by dividing the load by the area of the curved surface of the indentation. The Brinell hardness number is found by measuring the diameter of the indentation and then finding the corresponding hardness number on a calibrated chart. The test is described in ASTM E 10, Brinell Hardness Testing of Metallic Materials.
Hardness testing, although considered destructive, does not necessarily require that the specimen be
is thus convenient
and relatively rapid.
GAUGE
I.
PLUNGER INDENTER TEST SPECIMEN ANVIL HANDWHEEL
OIL PRESSURE
~ ~_-ll--+_P ~ UMP
Th e Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation of any hardn ess test, so that it indicates an avemge hardness value over many grains of the metal. Consequent ly, the Brine ll hardness test is the least affected by surface irregularity or inhomogeneity. Sometime s it is nece ssary to grind a Oat spot on the surface to improve the diam etrical measurement. The Brinell test is not suitable for very thin, case-hardened, or hanl-faced 'l components. J
ELEVATING \L-'-'-'----~ SCREW Figure 3 1- 14. A Ilrinell hardness fest applies a loud f or a specific period and C/lU Sf' .\' WI inde ntation ill the metal ' /1lI1 is used to calc ulate hardness.
The Brinell hardness number fo llowed by the abbre viation HB indicates a hardness value made under sta ndard cond it ions usi n g a 10 mm d iamet er ha rden ed stee l ball , a 30 00 kg load , a nd an indentat ion time of 15 sec to 30 see. Howe ve r, the load applied to the steel ball depends on the type of metal under te st. A 500 kg steel ba ll is used for alum inu m casti ngs and a 3000 kg stee l ba ll is used for ferrous me ta ls . T he d iamete r of the indentation is measur ed to .05 m m usin g a low-magnificat io n portab le microscope. Care mu st be taken to mea sure tbe exac t diameter of the indentati on a nd not the appare nt d iamete r ca used by edge effects that result in a ridge or depression enc ircl ing the true indentation . See Figure 31- 15. A code is used when other test conditi on s are required . For example, 75 HB 10/500/30 indicates a Brinell hardne ss number of 75 obtained in a te st using a 10 m m diameter hardened stee l ball with a 500 kg load app lied for 30 seconds. For ex tremely hard metals, a tun gsten carbide ba ll is substituted for the steel ball, allowing read ings as high as 650 HB.
396 @o We/ding Ski lls
DIAMETER
SOFT METAL
ENCIRCLING RIDGE
DIAMETER
HARD METAL
Ffgure 3 1-15. Careful mea suremelll ,mISt be taken after a Brinel! hardness test to accuratetv determine the si:e of indentations ;/1 soft ami hurd metals.
Rockwell Hardness Test. The Rockwell hardness test is an indentation hardness test that uses two loads, supplied sequentially. to form an indentation on a metal test specimen to determine hardness. The Roc k well hard ne s s te st is the mo st commonly used and versa tile hardness test. The Rockwell ha rd ness test is com mo n ly used for weld and base metal measuremen t. T he Rockwe ll testing machine has a variety of attachm ents that enable it to me asure th e hardness of a wide rang e of materials.
A '/16" diameter steel ball and a 120-diamond cone are the two types of indenters. A minor load of 10 kg is applied that helps seat the indenter and remove the effect of surface irregularities. A major load, which varies from 60 kg to 150 kg, is then applied. See Figure 31-16. The amount of the major load determines the type of indenter used. For example, a steel ball is used with the 60 kg load and a diamond cone with the 150 kg load . The difference in depth of indentation between the major and minor loads provides the Rockwell hardness number. This number is taken directly from the dial on the machine. The Rockwell hardness test is de scribed in ASTM E 18, Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness 'd' Metallic Materials. Several types of Rockwell hardness scales are used for measuring hardness. T he designation system has a hardness number followed by HR, followed by another letter that indicates the specific Rockwell scale. The two most common scales are Rockwell B (HRB) and Rockwell C (HRC).
The Rockwell B scale uses a '/16" diameter steel ball and a 100 kg load for relatively soft materials . It is used on annealed low-carbon steel, which may exhibit a hardness of approximately 85 HRB. The Rockwell C scale uses a diamond cone and a 150 kg load for relatively hard materials. For example, a quenched and tempered medium-carbon, low -alloy steel usually exhibits hardness between 30 HRC and 45 HRC, depending on the tempering temperature. See Appendix. For Rockwell hardness testing, both sides of the test specimen must be clean, scale-free, dry, and parallel. Special jigs help support round or oversize test specimens to ensure immobility during the test. Vickers Hardness Test. The Vickers hardness test is an indentation hard ness test that uses an indenter with a 136 0 square-base diamond cone , and that may be used to test hardness in the base metal and weld metal. The applied load varies from I kg to 120 kg. The Vickers hardness number is determined from the load divided by the surface area of the indentation.
MAJOR~ \
LOAD
MINOR LOA D ~
INDENTER~ ~ ~ TEST
SPECIMEN ~
ii o
MINOR LOAD APPLIED . ELEVATING SCREW -
LOAD
WITHDRAWN
\ i
DIAL IS IDLE
ANVIL
CD
DIAL IS IDLE
Figure 31-16. The Rockwell hardne ss test uses two toads. a mino r road and a major load, which are applied sequentially to determine hardness.
To conduct a Vickers hardness test, the specimen is placed on an anvil and raised by a screw until it is close to the point of the indenter. The starting lever is tripped, allowing the load to be slowly applied to the indenter. The load is released, the anvil lowered, and a filar micro scope is used to measure the diagonals of the square indentation to .OO I mm. Diagonal measurements are averaged to obtain the Vickers hardness number, which is followed by the letters HV. The Vickers hardness test is described in ASTM E 92, Vickers Hardness Testing of Metallic Materials. Th e Vick er s hardness te st allows e xtrem e ly accurate read ing s to be tak en . Addition ally, one type of indenter cov ers all types of meta ls and surface treatments. However, test specimen preparation is cri tica l because a poor surfac e fin ish makes the mea surement of the diagonals extre mely difficult. A fin e e me ry fini sh is t he coarsest face allowable. Microhardness Test. A microha rdness test is a type of inden tation hardness test that uses light loads of less than 200g . Mi ero hardne ss tests are at the opposite end of the scale to the Brinell or Rockwell hardness tests. A polished surface, coupled with the ligh t loads, allow s the hardn e ss of indiv idual grains of meta l or ot her microconstituents to be measured, To cond uct a microhardness test, the test speci men is placed unde r the microscope of th e mierohardness tester. The area of interest is positioned at the intersection of the cross wires . The indenter is swung into place and the load appli ed for a set period . The load is then removed, the microscope swung back , and the length of the diagonals of the indentation mea sured. The microhardness reading is obtained from the mea surem ents and from a c hart. Microhardne ss te stin g is described in ASTM E 384, Test Method for Microhardness of Metals. Microhardne ss testing of welds is usually done on ground and polished, or ground, polished, and etched cross
398
section s of a weld. Measurements can be made in any specific area, but they are mo st freque ntly made as a series of regularly spaced indentation s across the base metal. HAZ. and weld metal for single- or multiple-pass welds. The space between readin gs is usually between V16' and V8". See Figure 31-17.
~ :J
QUARTER THICKNESS TRAVERSE
............
'
CENTER TRAVERSE
Figure 3 1~ 17 . Micr oliardnrss t1Il'llsu re ments ar e taken al regular inter vals across II ground . polished, and etched cross section of u weld.
Regular conversion between different hardness scales should be avoided unless there is a large amount of experience and data available to justify making such correlations. Indentation hardness readings are based on a combination of propertie s such as friction. elasticity. and viscosity of the indenter and the specimen. The se vary with the type of specimen and test. The distribution of plastic strain in the test specimen. which is caused by the particular type of indenter. is also an important factor. Separate convers ion tabl es are requ ired for different a lloy famili es. ASTM E 140, Standard Hardness Conversion Tables f or Metals (Relationship between Brin ell Hardn ess, Vick ers Ha rdness, Rockwell Hardn ess, Rockwell Sup erficial Hardn es s, and Knoop Hardness), co ntains hardness co nversion table s for se ve ral major families of alloy s. Pocket-si ze conversion charts supplied by ve ndors are usually an extrac t from the steels portion of ASTM E 140. See Appendix.
Weidilll( Sk ills
Toughness Tests
Toughness tests measure the ability of material s to ab sorb e ne rgy at hi gh strain rat es and deform plastically rather than fracture in a brittle manner, particularly in the presence of stress raiser s such as cracks and notche s, A roughness test is a dynamic test in which a specimen is broken by a single b low and the en ergy absorbe d in breaking the piece is measured in footpounds (ft-lb). The purpose of the test is to co mpa re the tou ghness of the weld metal with the base metaL It is especially significant in determining wheth er any of the mechanical prop erties of the base metal have been destroyed due to weldin g, Toughness of welds is an important property because structural metals must be able to deform and give warning of impending failure, Th e mech ani c al prope rtie s o f a metal arc strongly affected by the rate of straining. A metal tested at a low strain ra te may br eak with a large amount of strain (elo ngat ion), but a metal tested at a high strain rate may break with little or no elongation. The metal is tough and ductile at the low strain rate and is brittle at the high strain rate, See Figure 31-18, Toughn ess is also affec ted by the test temperature and presence of stress raisers in the specimen. The toughness
of certain metal s de cr eases sign if icantly below a characte ristic tem perature. Stress raisers in weld s, such as a sharp chan ge in we ld profile at thc surface or internal inclu sion s, may decrease toughnes s, Toughness tests include the Charpy V-notch test, plane -strain fracture toughness test, and nil-ductility transition temperature test. Charpy V-Notch Test. The Churpy v-notch test is a toughness test that uses the en ergy produced by a dynami c load, and measures the energy needed to break a small machine-notched test speci men. The Charpy specimen is a sq uare-s haped bar cont ainin g a ma chined V-shaped notch, T he purpose of the notch in the test specime n is to facilitate fr acture in a co ntro lled locat ion , Th e result ing measurem ent is an indi cator of toughne ss. A Charpy V-notch test is performed in a universal pendulum impact tester. See Figur e 31-19 . The specim en is placed horizontally again st the two supports at the bottom of the tester. The pendulum is rai se d to a sta ndard height , giving it a potenti al energy of 240 ft-lb [325 joules (J)] , The pendulum is released and the specime n is struc k and broken as th e pendulum swings through its arc, The swi ng of the pendulum after it strikes the specimen indic ates the energy absorbed on impact a nd is me asured in fo ot pound s or joul es. When struck by the pendulum, tough ma terials absorb a si e eni fi cant a mo u nt of energy a nd brittl e mat erials fractu re with re lativel y littl e ene rgy absorbed. Tou gh materi al s ca us e th e pendulum to travel a shorter di stan ce after striking the test spec imen. With br ittl e materi al s, the pendulum tra vel s a longer distance after impact.
I'~
:E=I
1'.' ~
machine-
I/o(e
lin!testspecimen:
'" a:
t;;
so
ur
.'
Ffgure 31-18 . Metal tested at (J low strain rare is ductile compared with the .willie metal tested at (/ hiRh strain rate.
ASTM 23, Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials. girl'S requirements for the Charpy v-notch test, which is the most commo1l impact test used.
Ftgu r e 31-19. The Charpv Vnotch test requ ires rery small specimens, allowing for millt iple orientations of a test to be per formed Oil a part. The swing (d the pendulum after strikillX the spe cimen indicates the cncrgv absorbed on impa ct .
et==="=-~::;":'::<45'
program s it is often necessary to check for properties in orientations that would exh ibit the lowest toughness. For example, with plate products, a test specimen with a tran sverse orientation usually exhibits lower quality, or lower mechanical properties . With welds, specimens that have notch locations in the weld metal, HAZ, or base metal may exh ib it signi ficantly different notch . toughness values . See Figure 3 1-20. ",
V,NOTCH CENTERED
..
~~'
, - ,
-- ' -'~i'-
/ / ' '
-u u
~/
WELDED SAMPLE
BASE~7'
ANVIL SPECIMEN
Figure 31 20. Cha rry v-no tch test sp ecimens ma chined fro m differ ent locations in a weld ma.. . exhibit dif feren t notch toughness rallies.
The behavior of metals in Charpy V-notch testing is dependent on the rate of loading, test temperature, and type of notch. These variables make it difficult to translate the absorb ed energy values into design criteria. Nevertheless, the long history of Charpy V-notch testing allow s acceptance or rejection limits to be placed on large quantities o f materials . For e xamp le , some specification s require a minimum Charpy V-notch requirement for steel products of 15 ft-lb at the minimum expected service temperature. However, th is does not mean that a test specimen exhibiting 60 ft-Ib is four times tougher than the minimum. The main value of the Charpy V-notch test is as a criterion of acceptance of material when reliable service behavior has been established,
Notch toughness testing requirements depend on the specific fabrication code or standard. When applicable in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, they are known as supplementary essential variables. For example, notch toughness testing may be required for carbon and low-alloy steel equip ment subject to cooling in service, such as through operation upsets or auto-refrigeration. Auto-refrigeration is cooling that occurs when gas expands, as in the sudden release of gas from a pipe or piece of equipment. Materials whose properties are enhanced by heat treatment may also require notch toughness testing. Notch toughness values may be altered with an increase in heat input during welding. Conditions that may contribute to higher heat input include higher welding heat input; higher maximum interpass temperature; longer postheat time at temperature; reduction in base metal thickness; change to an uphill progression in vertical welding; change from stringer bead to weave bead welding ; and the physical location of specimens taken from some pipe test samples . A welding procedure specification must be established that accounts for these variables to ensure that the notch toughness properties of the weld metal and HAZ are not reduced. Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness Test. The plane-strain fracture toughness test is a toughness test that measures the resistance of metals to brittle fracture propagation in the presence of stress raisers such as weld defects. High stress concentrations may occur at the tips of internal di scontinuities (such as lack of fusion) in some metals and produce a running (brittle) crack. The fracture toughness of a metal at a given temperature is proportional to the stress level, measured in thousand pounds per square inch (ksi) or megapascals (MPa) , and the square root of the crack length, measured in inches or meters. The unit of measure
for fracture toughness is ksifu (ksi root inch). Plane-strain fracture toughness test data are used in the design of structures, as when determining the allowable internal size of a discontinuity that might lead to a catastrophic failure . Various types and sizes of speci mens are used in the plane-strain fracture toughness test. A compact tension specimen is a block contain ing a machined notch that is placed in a fatigue-testing machine to produce a small fatigue crack at the root of the machined notch . The tip of the fatigue crack extending from the root of the machined notch is a localized region of high stress intensity. The test specimen is pulled to failure in a testing machine and the load is plotted against the opening of the notch . The load and crack extension at the sudden failure of the test specimen are measured and used to calculate the fracture toughness of the material. The test method is described in ASTM E 399, Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness Testing of Metallic Materials. Fracture toughness testing is used to determine the critical stress intensity, which is a measure of the resistance of a metal to brittle fracture propagation in the presence of flaws and cracks . Pressure vessels , storage tanks, airplanes , and ships are examples of structures that are designed and manufactured in accordance with fracture toughness principles.
Nil Ductility Transition Temperature Test. The nil ductility transition (NDT) temperature test is a toughness test that measures the temperature at which the fracture behavior of a metal changes from ductile to brittle in the presence of a stress raiser. This temperature is sometimes referred to as the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT). Some metals, especially carbon and low-alloy steels, show a sharp transition in toughness when temperature decreases.
Destructive Testing :@: 4tH
Urcok tests are also rapid methods of 0 .\' sessillK weld quality and may he called out hy specific industries.
The change in toughness capability may be the controlling factor in determining a metal' s serviceability. Carbon steels lose ductility below a certain temperature, leading to brittleness. Large stee l sto rag e ta nks have failed ca tastrophically in cold weather because the NOT temperature of the plate material was higher than the atmospheric tem perature at the time of failure. Th e Cha rpy V-notc h test and the drop weight test are used to determine th e NOT temperatu re. T he Cha rpy V-notch test determines the NOT temperature by testing specimens over a range of temperatures. The results are plotted as impa ct strength aga inst test temperature. The drop weight test is a more reliable method than the Charpy V-not ch test for measuring NOT. The specimen is a slab or plate that is up to 'YaH thick. A weld bead made from a brittle alloy is laid down the center of the plate. The plate is brought to the test temperature and placed in the test fixture. It is supported along both ends parall el to the weld, with the weld side facing down . A weight located vertica lly above the center of the plate is allow ed to drop, causing the plate to bend .
Cracking of the weld bead is initiated at 3 of bend. After that point the weld bead co ntinues to crack, which initiates a fracture in the plate. To ensure the strain induced in the plate is elastic, a stop is placed below the weld bead. The stop limits the amount of deflection of the plate to 5 of bend. See Figure 3 1-2 1. If the tem per atu re of the plate is below the NOT temperature, the crack ) runs and the plate breaks in two . At any temperature above the NOT tempera tu re, the crac k sto ps be fore it sprea ds throu gh the plate. Th e NOT temp erature is the lowest temperature at whi ch the plate will not break in two. The drop weight test is described in ASTM E 208, Drop Weight Test 10 Determine Nil Ductility Transition Temperature of Ferritic Steels.
WE IGHT DROPPED
FIXTURE
~
5 BEND --.....L STOP TO ENSURE ELASTi C STRAIN. A STOP is PLACED TO LIMIT DEFLECTION TO 5' OF BEND
Ftgure 31-21. The dro p weight le st is tl reliable indicator fo r measur ing NDT tempe rature.
Break Tests
Break tests are a rapid and convenient method of eva luating certain types of welds and are used for welder qualification . Break tes ts include the nick break test and the fillet weld break test.
Electromechonicol tensile testing machines can he used to perform tension, comp resSiOIl , andjlcx tests on a specimen.
Nick-Break Test. The nick-break test is conducted by saw cutting a small notch in a weld assembly or specimen, followed by breaking it with hammer blow s, stretching, or bending. A test specimen is prepared and placed on supporting members. A load is applied to the specimen until it breaks. The surface of the fracture is then exam ined for defects such as porosity, slag inclusions, overlaps, etc. See Figure 31-22.
For a more accurate check of the weld, the fractured pieces should be subjected to an etch test. The nick-break test is used primarily in the pipeline industry, as described in American Petroleum Institute (API) standards such as API Standard 1104, Standard for Welding Pipeline and Related Facilities. The nick-break test may also be used to evaluate fu sion welds, flash butt welds, pressure welds, or friction welds in pipe or plate.
Fig ure 3 1-22. A nick -break test
CI"L\j.\/S
of notching
11
welded
FLAME CUT
CD
SAW CUT A NOTCH IN A WELD ASSEMB LY OR SPECIME N , ,---,STRIKE SPECIMEN ON BOTH SIDES
Specimens for nick -break te sting are either a full-size welded piece or a spec imen cut from a full -si ze pi ece . Tbe weld region is notched and then firmly supported at one or both ends. Once the specimen is supported, it is fractured by a hammer blow. One side is hit twi ce and then the specimen is turned 180 0 and the other side is hit twice. This proc edure is continued until th e spec ime n breaks. Alternatively, the specimen may be fractured by load ing in ten sion or by thre e point loading on a universal te sting machine. The method of breaking the spec ime n is not significant because the sole purpo se of the nick-break test is to cau se failure through the weld zone to determine the presence of discontinuities or defe cts. Slag inclusions on steel may have a glass -like appearance or a dark contoured appearance . T he nick -break fracture will travel from the cut metal to the slag inclu sion and through the center of the inclusion. The loc ation o f a s lag inclu sion is sometimes smooth becau se the slag has been dislodged by the force of the hammer blows breaking the specimen. It is useful to match the two broken specimens tog ether and rotate in good li ght to identify di scontinuitie s. Sometime s discontinuities arc easier to read on the fra cture surface than the other matching side . Poro sity may be spherical or cylin drical in shape and may be isolated or groupe d in clu st ers. Th e key to th e identification of porosity is the shape and the absence of nonmetallic solid material. Poros ity ha s a bright white or s ilve ry appearance on steel if it is not e xpos ed to th e atmo sphere . Surface-connected porosity usually has a black oxide appearance. The sound metal surface has a gray color without void s. The ob servation of incomplete fusion depends on the joint design. If the joint is a single- V groove, base metal
404 ~ WeldinK Skills
incomplete fusio n would be plana r in shape, showing the area on the groove face that is not fused . In some cases the grind mark s on the original groove face can be identified . It is helpful to pla ce the two bro ken ni ck -break spec ime ns to gether and ide ntify the location of the first weld pass and the last, as well as the weld reinforcement area. If th e di sco ntinuity is located on th e groove> fac e or between weld pas se s and ~ planar in shape, it co uld be incomplete fu sion . Inc o mp le te joint pen etration is easy to identify in that it is always located at the weld root and is planar in sha pe . Incompl et e joint penetration ca n be detected in the nick-break specimen before it is brok en . Th e broken ni ck -break spec imen shows how deep the incomplete j oint penetration extend s into the weld metal. On steel , incomplete joint penetration is black to bluish in color. In steel, cracks are flat and have a silvery color if they occur after welding is completed. If the fractured surfa ce of a crack s hows a blu e oxide color, the metal cracked before the final weld passes were completed and the crack surface was heated to the temper color range by subsequent weld passes.
Fillet Weld Break Test. A fillet weld break test is a break test in which the specimen is tested with the weld root in tension. The fillet weld break test is used for the qualification of welders and is the only test required to qualify as a tack welder in accordance with AWS 01.1,
Structural Weldil1 K Code-Stee l. Tack welding is a vital part of many fabrications such as fabrication of pressure vessel s or structures . Exce pt for fully automatic welding o per ations, most con struction codes or stan da rds have qualification rules for tack welders. A high-heat-input, mechanized proces s may be selected for the welding application, but the tack weld may be applied manually leading to very rapid
cooling and a brittle, crack-sensitive structure, commonly at the root of the weld. Subsequent weld passes with the high-heat-input process do not remove the cracks, but help them propagate further into the base met al and/or weld metal. Poorly applied tack weld s are also the cau se of entrapped slag, porosity, lack of penetration, and cracks. If the WPS is qualified with preheating and postheating, the tack weld should be similarly qualified within the ran ge spec ified . Most con struction codes require tack welds of any length 10 follow a qualifi ed WPS for the following reasons: tack weld is to be removed or left in place tack weld is attaching a component to the piece to be welded tack weld is incorporated into the weld as a tack in the root
Figure ]1-23. The fi lle t weld break lest is used by em inspeclor to qualify lad: II"eM.f.
LOAD APPLIED UNTI L SPECIMEN BREAKS
TACK WELDS
Groove Welds
When using groo ve weld specimens. specific information must be record ed to document the results of the testing . When a double -groove weld specimen is used, identification stamps must be used to mark the side of the joint from which the test spec imen was tak en . Samples may be removed from specific locations in groove weld test plates and pipes to ensure representative specimens are obtained. See Figure 3 1-24. Groove weld specimens include tension specimens, root-and face-b end specimens, hardness specimens, fracture toughness specimens, and nick-break specimens.
To perform the fillet weld break test, a welder places a filIet weld on one side of a T-joint specimen. The specimen is placed in a press and bent to produce fracture at or near the weld. Th e fracture surface is examined for ev ide nce of fusion with the root and absence of incomplete fusion or porosity larger than %2" in its greates t dimension. See Figure 3 1-23.
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
Fabrication codes and standards indicate how to obtain sp ecimen s from welds for mechanical testing. Good s pe c ime n preparation en sures that und esirable surface features are not introduced that have an undesirable effect on th e test results. Mechanical test specimen preparation is described in AWS B4.0, Standa rd Methods Jar Mechanical Testing oj Welds. Spec imen prepar ation may vary acco rding to the type of weld . Safety practices must be followed when preparin g specimens to prevent injury from grinding wheels, hot surfaces, or sharp edges.
Tension Specimens. Tension specimens for groove welds may be rectangular or round . Deep machine cut s or surface tear s must be avoided during sur face preparation as they can cause invalid test results. Imperfections that are present in the gauge length that are incidental to welding do not need to be removed. Rectangular specimens may be taken from plate or from tubing greater than 2" diameter and with wall thi ckn ess greater than 3fs". The weld orientation may be longitudinal or transverse. For tubing les s th an 2" di ameter, onl y a full- section spe cim en may be tested .
Destructive Testing
>= 405
Ffgure 3124. Spec imen.'! fo r destructlve testing are bala nced 10 obta in representative samples and results throughout groove-
plate.
IMPACT SPECIMENS AND WELD METAL TENSION SPECIMENS, WHEN REOUIRED SIDEBEND SPECIMEN
if!
DISCARD
GROOVEWELDED PLATE
FACEBEND SPECIMEN
GROOVEWELDED PIPE
ROUND T ENSION
S PEC I ME NS ~
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A~
When the thickness of the test weld is greater th an the ca pac ity of the test equipment, the weld may be di vided through its thickness into as many specimens as necessary to cover the full weld thickness and still maintain the specimen size within the equipment capacity. Usually, the results of partial-thickness specimen s are averaged to determine the properties of the full-thickness joint. For speci me ns taken tran sversel y to the centerline of the weld, only the ultimate tensile strength is determined because of possible material or structural inhomogeneities. Round, all-weld metal specimens with the largest possible diameter that ca n be machined from a location are 14' diused. Specim ens smaller than 1 ameter should not be used unless there is no other way to obtain the sample. Minor variations in the surface finish and test mach ine alignment may lead to irrep rodu cible result s due to the small size of the sample. Bend Specimens. Bend specimens are used for welding procedure qualification and weld er performance qualifi cation tests. Similar preparation requirements are usually specific to groove weld and surfaci ng weld bend specimens. Bend spec imens are prepared by cutting the weld metal and the base metal to form a rectan gular cross-section specimen. At least VB" of material must be mechanically removed from thermally cut surfaces to prevent the influence of heat on the test results. Longitudinal surfaces may be no rougher than 125 microinches (3 micron s). Grin ding or sanding marks should run parallel to the directi on of bending to prevent them from acting as stress raisers that can lead to premature failure. Additionally, the corners of the specimen should be radiused to relieve excess ive stresses . Weld re info rce me nt and backin g must be removed to be flush with the specimen surfac e. For welder performance qualific ation testing, undercut s may be rem oved , provided sufficient
material remains to maint ain the re-
quired spec ime n dim en sion s. Wh en testing weld joint s between base metals that have differin g thicknesses, the spec ime n is redu ced to a cons ta nt thickness using the thinner base metal. The surfaces pe rpendicular to the weld axi s are desi gnated as the sides of the spec imen. The othe r two surfaces are designated as the face or root surfaces . Transverse weld specimens may have the side, face, or root of the weld as the bend surface. Longitudinal weld specimens may have the face or the root of the weld as the bend surface. The acceptability of a bend specimen is based on the size and/or number of defects that appear on the bend surface. The main purpose of the bend test for welding procedure qualificati on is to determine the ductility of a sound weld. Governing fabrication codes or specifications dictate exact acceptance or rejection criteria. A discontinuity does not becom e a defect until it exceeds the limits allowed by the relevant code. A Project Engineer can ignore discontinuities that are less than the maximum, but all discontinuities must be recorded. AWS D l.l, Structurai Welding Code-s-Steel, allows a total accumulation of discontinui ties of % 2'. With the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, bend specimens may have no open defects in the weld or the HAZ exceeding lis" measured in any direction on the convex face after bending.
BUEHl.ER
RlU'hl, rLl J
Destructive Testing 0
407
Etching may be required to determine whether the discontinu ity is in the weld or the HAZ. Open discontinuities on the corners of specimens during testing are not considered unless there is evidence that they result from lack of fusion, slag inclu sion s, or other internal weld discontin uities. Hardness Specimens. Hardness specimens for groove welds and surfacing welds are grouud, machined, or polished depending on the type of hardness test to be performed. Surface preparation requi rements become increasingly stringent as the size and de pth of the indentat ion decreases . At the very minimum, it is necessary to remove rust and scale from the surface. Excessive heat m ust be avo ided when pre paring the test area of the spec imen. Weld metal hardness tests are only permitted either on we ld joi nt cross section samples or on local areas of we ld reinforcement that are ground smooth before testing. The edge of the ind e ntati o n m ust be no cl oser than three times the majo r dimension of the indentation from the edge of the ground area of the reinforcement on wel ded assemblies . Specimen s mu st be supported to prevent rocking under the
Figure 3125. A mi nimum separation offou r diameters (4 d) fo r the Brineil hardness test lind 2V2 diagonals (2Vz [)J fo r the Vickers hardness test must he main tained to pr event distu rban ces bet ween the base m etal and we ld m eta l zones.
tester. It may be necessary to grind the backside of the spec imen to make it flat. The indenter should be perpendicular to the specimen. With a round specimen such as bar, it is usually necessary to grind a small area flat to make a test. The sp ecimen must be thick enough so that an anvil effect (bulge) does not appear on the opposite side when the indentation is made. For the Rockwell and Brinell hardness tests, \ I the speci men should be at least times as thick as the depth of the impression. For the Vickers hardness test, the test specime n sho uld be one and one-half times as thick. For eva luation of weld metal hardness, the edge of the indentation must be within the weld metal and no closer than VB" from the weld metal interface with the base metal. The minimum sp ac ing between ind e n ta t io n s de pends on the type of test. If th e indentations are too close toget her, there will be disturbed zones of metal. Th e minimum separatio n between indentations shou ld be four diameters (4 d center to center) for the Bri nell and Rockwell hardness tests and two and o ne -ha lf diagonals (2 '/2 0 center to cen ter) for the Vickers hardness test. See Figure 31- 25 .
IV
d -
4d c============.;~============t--d
MINIMUM SEPARATION OF INDENTATION S
d = diameter D diagonal
Mor e than o ne reading mu st be taken to a llow for surface irre gularities and test spec imen inhomogeneity. The mini mum numb er of readings requ ired for a specific test is determin ed by e xpe rie nce. Fo r the Brinell te st , three read ings are usuall y taken and av eraged . For th e Rockwell and Vickers tests, three to five readings are usuall y taken and averaged . Fracture Toughness Specimens. Fracture toughn ess tests may be perform ed to indicate the performance of the hase metal , the HAZ, or the weld metal. A fracture toughness test uses a specimen that has a notch cu t into it. The specimen is then tested to determine the fracture strength of the metal. When the tes t is perform ed on the hase metal or in the HAZ, the location of the not ch is spec ified to be in the applicable region of the j oint. Wh en the test is performed on the weld metal, the width of the we ld metal must be equal to or greater than the thickness of the specimen. Wh en spec ime ns fr om doublegroove weld s are used , ide ntification letters or numbers are stamped on the spec ime n to indi cate the s ide of the joi nt from which the test spec imen was taken. T he locati on of identifica tion stamps must not influence the failure of the speci me n by crea ting a notch effec t. Fracture tou ghn ess specime ns for groove welds are made for Charpy V-notch te st s, plan e-st rain fra cture toughness tests, and drop weight tests. The geometry and surface area of the notch are critical. Machining and finishing operati ons on the notch must adhere to applicabl e ASTM test standard s. Nonstandard meth od s of notch prep arat ion such as saw cutting may see m to be easier or chea per, but they int roduce va riables into the test that co uld affect test re sult s, and must never be used . Nick-Break Specimens. Nick- brea k spec imens fo r groove weld s are prepared by mach ine c utti ng or flam e
cutting. The joint and base metal are cut to form a rectangular cross section. Th e weld is notch ed with a hacksaw, band saw, or thin abrasive wheel. Small we ld asse mblies may be tes ted usin g the eomplete asse mbly as the specimen. The notch is made at the weld edges to a depth of approximately 1 /s" and into the we ld rein for cement to a depth of approximat ely 1/ 16" .
Fillet Welds
Fillet weld specimens include tension she a r s pec ime ns , bend spec ime ns , nick -break spec ime ns, and hardness spec imens. Tension Shear Specimens. Tensi on shea r specimens for fillet we lds con s is t of lon g itudin al she ar stre ng t h s pec ime ns and trans verse s hear streng th spe c ime ns . Both typ e s are se ns itive to prepar ation procedure s. The stress concentration at the root of transverse fillet welds increases with increasing root opening and variations in root opening may lead to incon sistent test results. Both tran sverse and longitudinal specimens are sensitive to HAZ cracking, undercut, and bead surface contour. The longitudinal edges of tra nsverse te st spec ime ns should be mac hi ned to e limi nate crack effec ts and to pro vide smoo th surfaces. Corners should be lightl y rounded. A longitudinal shear strength specimen is made usin g two identical welded specimens that are machined and tack welded to gether to prev ent bending during testing . The surface contour and size of the fillet welds must meet applicable fabri cation codes or standa rds . A transver se ten sion shear specimen is made by cutting from plate con taining lap-welded patches on both sides. Wider plate widths may be used to obtain mu lti pl e te st spec imens. When multiple specimens are prepared fro m a sing le we lde d asse mb ly, the re sults for each indi vidual spec ime n are reported.
Destru ctive Testin g
:0
409
Prop er perso na l protective equipment including eye lind ear protecti on and co rrectlv tinted goggles must be WOnt to obsene welding.
Bend Specimens. Bend specimens for fillet welds are prepared for the longitudinal guided bend test or the wraparou nd guided bend test. T he be nd spec ime n is prepared by makin g two fillet welds on a T-joint and machining the specimen to allow acco mmodat ion in the test jig. The specimen is positioned in the test jig and bent at ambient temperature . Deformation should occur in 30 sec to 2 min. Nic k- Brea k S pe ci mens. Nick-break specimens for fillet welds can be prepared for pi pe branc h we ld s. pipe sleeve we lds , and pla te fi llet we lds. Pipe br an ch we ld nic k-break spec imen s are mac hine c ut or flame cut samples taken from the crotch (point) area and at 90 from the crotch area . Nick-bre ak s peci me ns are a pprox imately 2" wide and 3" long. Pipe sleeve weld nick-b reak specimen s can be either flame cut or machine cut. Sp ec im en s are eq ua ll y spaced around the circumference of the pipe and must be at least 3" wide and 6" long. Plate fill et we ld speci mens can be either flam e cut or machine cut from th e lap joint. Fille t we ld spec ime ns must be at least 3" wide and 6" long. Hardness Specimens. Hardness specimens for fillet welds are prepared similarly to hardness specimens for groove weld s. S pec ime ns fo r fille t we lds may be grou nd, machin ed , or pol ished , depending on the hard ness test to be performed. Rust and scale must be removed from the surface. Excessive heat must be avoided when preparing the tes t area of the specimen. Specimen s must be supported to preven t roc kin g during testing . If necessary, grind the backside of the specimen flat to prevent roc king.
or e lectrica l item s. In areas wh ere grinding, burn ing, or welding are performed, there is a potential for toxic or flammabl e atmo sp he res that ca n be hazardou s to the skin, eyes, and hearing. Such areas should not be entered without pro per authori zation. Pro per perso na l protec tive equipment must be worn, including eye and ear pro tec tio n and correc tly tint ed glasses to observe welding in prog ress. Personnel should watch for trip pin v hazar ds and imp ro pe r hose co nnections. Electrica l cab les and hoses that may be lying loose on a floor can be a tripping hazard. Hoses under pressure can break loose and inflict injury.
of mea suring the stress ill mat erials produ ced by man uf acturing process es such as welding.
The Mathar-Soete drilling tec hnique lim! the Gunnert drilling technique ar e th e two types of ho le-drilling methods used to measure residual stresses.
Welding Skills
Hole-Drilling Method
The hole-drillin g method is performed per ASTM E 837 , Method fo r Determining Residual Stresses by the HoleDrilling Strain-Gauge Method. A special three-elem ent stra in gauge rosette is placed on the specimen to be tested and. using a milling guide, a VI." or Vs" diameter hole is drilled on the geometric ce nter of the strain gauge rosette to a dept h equal to the hole diameter. The relieved strains measured by the three radially oriented elements of the strain gauge provide information to calculate the maximum and minimum principal residual stresse s and their orientati on. The hole-drilling method requires that a blind hole be drilled into a specim en or co mpo nent. Ho we ver, th e
semi-destructive if, as in many cases, it does not impair the structural integrit y of the component, or if the hole can be welded up without introdu cing detrimental residu al stresses. See Figure 3 1-26.
Figure 3 1-26. The hole -drilling
me tho d is sem i-destructive if it does 1I0t impa ir the structural integrity of the component.
hole-drillin g me th od is co ns ide re d
I . The current edition of the con trolling fabrication code or standard must be followed when makin g test weld s and test specimens, and when conducting destructi ve tests. 2. Tensile specimens obtained from welded joints are typically rectan gular. unless taken from a location where it is not possible to obtain a sample of rectangular cross section. 3 . Bend testing is an economical way of judging weld quality to qua lify a procedure or welder. 4 . Th e guided bend test is the most commonly used ductility test for groove weld s, surfac ing welds, and fillet welds. 5 . Hardness testing, although considered destructive. does not necessarily require that the specimen be cut into piece s, and is thus convenient and relati vely rapid. 6 . Toughness testing requirements depend on the specific applicable fabrication code or standard. 7 . Th e Charpy V-notch test uses the energy produced by a dyn ami c load , and measu res the energy needed to break a small machin e-notched test spec imen. 8. Break tests are also rapid methods of assessing weld quality and may be called out by specific indu stries. 9. Specimen preparation must pro vide a smoo th surface for testing. Nicks or sharp edges are undesirable because they introduee local stress raisers that might cau se prema ture failure. 10. Proper personal protective equipment, including eye and ear protection and correctly tinted gogg les must be worn to observe weldin g. I I . Residu al stress measurement is a method of measurin g the stress in materials produ ced by manufacturing processes such as welding.
What artificial value is created for metal s that do not ex hibit a yield point ? Which has a lower value in a tensile test, yield point or ultimate tensile strength? What are the two measures of duc tility obtained in a tensile test? What types of welds are usually assessed in a shear test? A peel test can be applied to what type of weld? Is a bend test a qualit ative or quantitative assessment method ? What is a common test used for qua lifyi ng we lding procedures and we lders? What types of weld orientatio ns may be specified in a bend test? What types of ben d locations may be specified in a bend test? Why is hardness testing com monly used to meas ure properties of materials? What is the most co mmo n method of hardness testing? What are the main types of indentation hardness tests? Wh at are static and dynam ic co nd itions durin g toughne ss testing? What is the most common toughness test for welded samples? Is a material with a Charpy value of 60 ft-Ib four times tougher Ihan a material with a Charpy value of 15 ft-lb? 16 . What is the name used 10 describe the transition of a material from ductile to brittle behavior and vice ve rsa?
) -.-/
Nondestructive examination is used to evaluate a part or weldment without destroying it or necessarily remov ing the pari fro m service. Nondestructive examination discloses common surfa ce and internal defects that occur with improper welding procedures or practices. A variety of testing devices are available that provide effective data about the reliability of a weldment. These devices are often more convenient to use than regular destructive testing techniques, particularly on large and costly welded units.
indication interpreted to be cau sed by a discontinui ty at a location where no di scontinuity actually ex is ts. Fa lse indicat ion s arc nonrelevant indi cations. Sec Fig ure 32- 1. A defect is one or more indications whos e agg reg ate size, shape, ori entation, or location fail to meet the acceptance criteria of the applicable fabrication code or staodard. Defects are cause for rejection of the part o r co mponent. NDE is performed by an exa miner, w ith the resul ts eva luated by an inspecto r. Qualification and certification requ ire me nts fo r exami ne rs and inspectors ar e describe d in the appl icab le fabrication code or standard. An examine r is a person who is qualified , or q ual ified and ce rtified, to co nduct ce rtain types of NDE processes. Examiners are quali fied an d ce rtified to Ame rica n Society of No nde structive Testin g (AS NT) Recommend ed Standard SNT-TCIA. An inspector is a perso n who is qualified, or qualified and certified, to apply the result s of ND E fla w c harac te riza tio n to dete rmi ne whether the flaws meet the acce ptance crite ria of the app lica ble fab ricat ion code or standard. See Appendix.
413
.=
he relevant Irrquiring
evaluation by nondestructive testing), nonrelrvant (rejection is not necessary after evaluation). or false ( I/O discontinu itv actually exists).
tI
.=
Nondestructiverxomi-
processes.
p rt'l
qualified to internondestructi ve examina tion res ults according to the conlrollillg code or S tlllldurdfor III(' job.
Figu re 32-1. Nondestructi ve examination is used to detect discontinuities in welds and determine if they are accep table or must he rejected.
NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
I
j
False indication noted
I I
Relevant indication noted
I
j
Evaluation of weld (per applicable fabrication standard or code)
I
I
Nonrelevant
I
Relevant
I
Accept weld
[{1
Reject weld
IRl
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Common nondestructive cxamincuion methods a re visual, liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, ultrason ic, radiographic, and electromagnetic.
Visual examination is used to check surface condition; alignment of mating surfaces; conformance of the weld shape to a specific code or stan dard; and to locate leakage. Visual examination may be used before, during, or after welding.
VT is generally used to det ermine surface condition, alignment of mating surfaces, conformance to specific shape, or to locate leakage. Direct VT requires sufficient access to place the eye within 24" of the surface to he examined, and at an angle of not less than 30 to the surface to be examined. Mirrors are used to improve the angle of vision . Optical aid s such as a magnifying glass can be used to as sist in improv ing the quality of examinations. VT requires illumination with natural or supplemental white light at a minimum level of 50 fc (footc andles). The light source used, a verification report, and the VT tec hnique used are docu mented in the examiner's report. The limitation of visual examination is that there is no way to detect internal defects in the weld area. The weld may appear satisfactory, yet cr ac ks, porosity, slag inclusions, or exc es sive grain gro wth ma y be pre sen t in th e weld. VT is done before welding, during welding, and after weldin g.
Visual Examination Before Welding Visual examination before welding consists of verifying the condition of materials to be welded, the conformity of partially assembled or tack welded parts, and the physical setup of the welding equipment. Condition of Materials. The condition of the materials to be welded is veri fied by checking for scabs, seams , scale, and other harmful conditions on the base metal surface and for laminations in cut edges of plate . Conformance with specified dimensions is done by measurement and comparison with the specification drawing.
Conformity of Parts . Conformity of partially assembled or tack welded parts is verified after they are in position for welding. Joint dimensions, joint preparation, tack welds, and clamping must not impair the quality of the welded joint and must meet tolerances shown on the drawing. Joint dimensions include root spacing and offset. Joint preparation must ensure that rust, dirt, oil, paint, and other contaminants are removed from the weld area before welding. Welding Equipment Setup. The physical setup of the welding equipment is verified by examining the condition of cables and connectors, how the cables are affixed to the welding machine, and how the ground cables are affixed to the work. Tack welds and clamps must maintain the root opening to ensure adequate penetration and alignment. Improper setup may lead to wasted power and erratic behavior during welding, caused by the following: Loose connections at the power
source , work connector, or elec-
Root Pass Examination. Root pass examination is done to ensure the quality of the root pass. The root pass is inspected for cracks, porosity, or blowholes, all of which sbould be ground out before continuation of welding. VT is used to check that slag deposits have been removed by chipping , grinding, or gouging before welding on the opposite side of the groove. The root opening must be examined as root pass welding progresses because it may close up from the effects of thermal expansion and lead to lack of penetration. This is especially important for branch and angle joints that arc more difficult to inspect after the weld has been completed. Welding Parameter Verification. Altering the welding parameters can affect weld quality features such as penetration or dilution. Portable meters are used to ensure compliance with specified welding current and polarity. Compliance with preheat and interpass temperature control parameters ensures that the metal temperatures are achieved by heat soaking and not by rapid surface heating. All welders assigned to the welding job or joint should be identified and their qualifications checked for conformance to the job requirements. If the welder docs not appear to have the necessary skill for the job, the inspector can, in consultation with the supervisor, request that the welder pass requalification tests. Welding Sequence Monitoring. Welding sequence monitoring ensures that welding is first done on the most restrained joints or, whenever possible, allowing restrained joints a small amount
Nondestructive Examination : 415
trode holder Poor quality repair splices in the cable or a cable with broken strands Undersized cable for the required current or duty cycle Excessively long cables that cause an abnormal voltage drop
of mo vement and a meas ure of stress relaxation. The proper welding sequence helps prevent warpage and distortion.
Weld Bead Quality Checking. Weld bead qu ali ty c hec king may be done usin g a wo rkma ns hip sta nda rd . A workmanship standa rd is a section of a joint similar to the one in manu facture in which portions of eac h succes sive we ld pass are shown . Eaeh bead of the produ cti on we ld may be co mpared with the corres ponding bead of the workmanship standard. Multiplepass weld bead s are exa mined for ev idence of ropy. piled-up beads. or bead
Ftgure 322 . A lI'orkml1nsh ip
.~la,,(/tl Y(/jllh' II .\jl.\.I"e.\x/" t"" (if l"e
rollover, which could trap slag. See Figure 32-2. Sinee workmanship standards usu all y rep re sent id ea l co nd itio ns , there must be allowances for production tolerances.
Visual Examination After Welding Visual examination is performed after welding or repair welding to confirm the dimensional accuracy. weld appearance. and base metal integrity of the material., VT is also used to verify application.of postwelding procedures. VT for repair welding ensures that a part meets the requirements of the original fabrication .
.. _ .
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MACRO SA MPLE
~
DUPLI CATE FILLET W ELDON OTHER SIDE
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TACK MACRO SAMPLE TO PLATE WITH ETCH ED SURFACE UP POLISH AND ETCH SURFACE
BUTT JOINT
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2" MINIMUM
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MACR O SAMPLE
1'" MINIMUM
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TJOINT
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TACK MACRO SAM PLE TO PLATE W ITH ETCHED SURFACE OUT
41(,
Weldi,,~ Skills
Dimensional Accuracy. Confirmation of dimensional accuracy eusures that distortion is within acceptable limits and that all welding has been done in accordance with the drawing. Weld reinforcement in groove and fillet welds is checked to ensure that it complies with the applicable fabrication code or standard. Weld dimensions are checked with a weld gauge. A weld gauge is a device for measuring the size and shape of welds . T he re are various kinds of weld gauges. See Figure 32-3. Weld Appearance. Weld appearance is e xam ined for evidence of transverse cracks, toe cracks, crater cracks, surface porosity. incomplete root penetration, undercut, underfill, overlap, joint misalignment, incompl ete joint penetration, excessive or insufficient weld reinforcement, and excessive penetration. Some weld regions are more susceptible to discontinuities. Edges where fillet welds blend into base metal are susceptible to toe cracking and must be closely examined. Cracks are likely to be found in areas of starts and stops in the welding process and in welds with high restraint. Intermittent fillet welds are susceptible to crater cracks. Undercut that exceeds specification limits must be repaired by blend grinding, or in extreme situations, more filler metal must be added. Base Metal Integrity. Base metal integrity must be maintained in areas where temporary attachments are welded on and subsequently removed, such as fitup lugs, handling lugs, and machining blocks. After removal of these items, the attachment areas at the base metal must be ground smooth , and pits or tears must be filled with filler metal and ground. If indicated in the welding pro cedure, preheat, interpass temperature control, and postheating are required when thermal cutting or welding is done in attachment areas. Arc strikes and spatter mu st be removed in accordance with fabrication code or standard requirements.
Ftgure 32~3. A wel d gauge a l lows the dim ens ions (~f a weld to he verified by the exami ner.
FILLET LEG
To determine size of a concave fillet weld, place gauge against str ucture and slide po inter out until it touches the face of fillet weld
To determine reinforcement of a groove weld, place gauge so that reinforcement comes between legs of gauge and slide pointer out until it touches the fac e of gro ove weld
G.AL Gal'/' Coml'ony
me thod for detecting di scontinuities open to the surface. However, it cannot be used on materials with excessively parous surfaces, such as sintered metals. Liquid penetrant examination uses the force of capillary action, which draws the liquids into all surface defects. See Figur e 32-4.
Figure 32-4. Capillary actio" occurs 11'11('11 a liquid , where it is ;1/ comact with a solid, is elevated 0" depressed.
GLASS SLIDES
Figu re 32-5. A portable visible-penet rant. soh'ell1-) removable PT kit i.f useful in determ inin g illdico/ tions when the testin g needs 10 be done til a remote loca tio".
'--------'t: CAPILLARY
ACT ION FORCES LIQUID UP BETWEEN SLIDES
Liquid penet rant examination is used 10 detect defects open to the surface, particularly in nonfe rrous metals such as alu minum, which cannot be examine d by magnetic particle testing.
A developer is a material that is applied to the test surface to accelerate bleedout and enhan ce the contras t of indic ation s. Capillary action again assists the blotting action of the developer as it draws penetrant from the discontinuity. The penetrant appears on the surface as an indication corresponding to the location of the discontinuity. To produce the best visibility of indications . liquid penetrant contains either a colored dye easily visible in white light. or a lluorescent dye visible under black (ultraviolet) light. Liquid penetrant dyes visible in white light are available in a variety of colors. althou gh red is most common. Some liquid penetrants have dual sensitivity, meaning they are visible in white light or black light. To perform liquid penetrant examination (PT), follow the procedure: I . Clean the surface to be examined. 2. Dry the surface to be exa mined. 3 . Apply penetrant to the surface. Allow sufficie nt time for penetrant to see p into discontinuities. 4 . Remove ex ce ss penetrant from surface. 5 . Apply developer to draw penetrant back to the surface. 6 . Visually examine the part to locate pen etrant ind ica tions th at have form ed in the developer coating. On ce ex am ina tio n is co mp le te d. the part can be cleaned to remove the penetrant and de vel oper residue. See Figure 32-6.
Figure 32-6. Liquid penetrant examination consists of six steps. f ollowed in a set sequence to ensure accuracy and reproducibility.
~ C L EA N E R
CD
DRY SURFACE
(4\ REMOVE
CD
The method of applying and developing fluorescent dyes is the same as for liquid dye penetrants; however, the tluorescent penetrant must be viewed under nltraviolet (black) light. Ultraviolet light causes the penetrants to tluoresce (glow) to a yellow-green color, which is a more clearly defined color than regular dye
penetrants . Fluorescence is the emission
of visible radiation by a substance as a result of, and only during, the absorption of black light radiation. Surface Precleaning. The surface of a part must be completely clean and dry before administering liquid penetrant
examination. Surface precleaning opens up surface discontinuities to penetration. Precleaning methods are detergent cleaning, vapor degreasing, steam cleaning, solvent cleaning, ultrasonic cleaning, rust and scale removal, paint removal, and etching. Precleaning methods that close up surface discontinuities must not be used. Cleaning chemicals, such as sulfur and chlorine, must not have an adverse effect on the materials of construction. Nickel alloys may be damaged by degreasers containing sulfur; titanium alloys and stainless steels are affected
.~ must be completely
by de greasers contai nin g c h lo rine . Cracking ma y re sult if degr ea ser s are not co mplete ly re moved from test areas that are subs equently ex posed to heat or high-temperature se rv ice .
Penetrant Application. Penetrant application is don e by immersion , spraying, or swabbing (brushing) on dry parts over the areas to be examined . The surface of the we ldme nt is coated wi th a thin film of the pen etrant, which is allowed DWELL TIME
Material Form Type of Discontinuity
Porosity
to remain on the surface for a pre detennined amount of time , known as the dw ell time. Dwell time is the total time penetrant is in con tact with the co mpon ent surface, including a pplica tio n and dra in times. See Figure 32-7. Dwell time is direct ly related to the size and sh a pe of ant ic ipated di sco nti n uities since discontinuity size determines the . . For examp ' t /IIg ' ht rate 0 r pen etration C, cracks req uire more tha n 30 mi n fo r
Water-Washable Penetration
Time*t
SolventRemoved Penetration
Time *t
5- 15 5-1 5
NR
3 3
7
Welds All
Castings Extrusion s & Forgi ngs
Cracks
Fatigue C rack s Poro sity
30 30 30
NR
15 15
NR
Magnesium
Welds All
Casti ngs Extru sion s & Forgings
30 30 30
NR
30 30
NR
3 3 5 5 3 3
7
5 5 5
7
5
7 7 7 7 7 10
Steel
Welds All
Castings
Cracks
Fatigue Crack s Porosity
60 60 30
NR
10 10
NR
10 20 20 20 30 5' 5'
10
3 3
7
Pla stic
Glass
Carbide-tipped
Tool s Titanium &
15 15 30 5- 30 5-30 30 30 30
NR
10 10 10 5 5 5 5 20 20-30 240
3 3 3 5 5 3 3 5 15 240
All
Stress or Intergranul ar
Corrosion
NR
((I
penetration if an adequate indication is to be achieved. On the other hand, gross discontinuities may be suitably penetrated in 3 min to 5 min. After allowing time for the penetrant to flow into the defects, the part is wiped clean. Only the penetrant in the defects remains . Ambient temperature and humidity can affect dwell time. Generally, the higher the ambient temperature, the shorter the dwell time. Excessively high temperature or excessively low humidity can cause penetrant to dry too rapidly. This makes the subs equent steps of PT difficult, if not impossible. For reliable PT, the penetrant must remain wet. In some cases rewetting of the test surface is required. If penetrant has been allowed to dry, the test must be started again, beginning with surface preparation . Heating the part is not recommended . Although heating of the part accelerates penetration and shortens dwell time, it also causes evaporation of penetrant and reduces sensitivity.
Solvent-removable penetrants require a solvent designated by the penetrant manufacturer for effective penetrant removal. Solvents should not be substituted without consulting the manufacturer. Excess penetrant is first wiped from the test surface with clean , lint-free , solvent-dampened towel s. Solvent is never applied directly to the surface because it might wash out or dilute the penetrant in a discontinuity. Developer Application. After the penetrant ha s been su ff ic ie ntly wiped clean, an absorbent material called a developer is applied to the weldment and allowed to remain until the liquid from the imperfection flows into the developer. Developer application con sists of coating the test surface with a material to accelerate bleedout and enhance indication contrast. Developer acts as a blotting agent, accentuating the presence of penetrant in a discontinuity . Developer also serves as a color-contrast background for the dye. Developer cau ses the penetrant within a discontinuity to seep over a greater area so that the size of the indication in the developer is larger than the actual size of the discontinuity. See Figure 32-8. Once the developer is applied , the dye clearly outlines any defect s. Developer is selected according to the manufacturer's recommendation for the type of penetrant used.
Dwell time is determined by the type of anticipated discontinuities and the recommendation of the penetrant manufacturer.
Penetrant Removal. Penetrant removal must ensure that all penetrant is removed from the surface without disturbing any penetrant that has entered a discontinuity. Penetrant removal is done after dwell time is complete, or after dwell time plus emulsification time. Complete penetrant removal is required to prevent the formation of false indications. Penetrants used in water-rinsable PT have a built-in emulsifier to permit removal of the penetrant with a water rinse. Water-rinsable penetrants are sometime s call ed self-emul sifiable penetrants . Post-e mulsified penetrants are removed with a water rinse after completion of dwell time plu s emulsification time. Light scrubbing may be required for complete penetrant removal.
PENETRANT
Figure 32-8. Developer causes the penetrant 1 0 bleed within the discontinu ity, causing it to seep over a gre ater area , nlaking the in dication appear larger than the actual disco ntinuity.
PT Examination. Examination of the test surface occur s after sufficient developing time has been allowed. Developing time is the elapsed time between the application of the developer and the examination of the part . Insuffi cient dev eloping time doe s not allow indications to fully devel op . Exce ssive developing time causes indicat ions to blur or di stort. Co rrec t developing tim e dep end s on the developer used . Generall y, de ve loping time is about half of dwell time.
Mag netic pa rticle examinatio n may be 1I.\""d on a magnetic stainless steel to locat e hoi cracks near the surface of the weld.
False or nonrelevant PT indications occur when the surface contour of the weld contains sharp depressions between weld beads that interfere with complete cleaning and compl ete penetrant removal. Such surfaces should be ground smooth before examination. Since smooth grinding may not be co st -effective , other NDE methods may be preferred. Diffused or weak indications appearing over a larger area are usually false indic ations and indicative of improper cleaning. Nonrel evant indication s are cau sed by surface discontinuities from the fabrication proce ss o r part ge ome try, which have no bearin g on the service life of a component. Nonrelevant indication s may appear o n press fit , keyed, splined, or riveted obje cts, or on castin gs conta ining an adhere nt scale or burned-on sand. Relevant indications are cau sed by discontinuities. Rel evant indications are categorized as continuous line, intermittent or broken line, small dots. or round. Indication s may also be categori zed as faint or gross, depending on their dimen sion s. See Figure 32-9. Relevant indication s must be evaluated against the requirements of the applicabl e fabrication code or standard.
Ftgure 32-9. Rele vant indica tiolls!l.lll;nllJ .w:l,t'rulctllexories: continuous line, intermittent or broke" fine. small dots. or round.
." ," . -.
- "
. ..
. . - -.
...
CONTINUOUS LINE
FAINT
GROSS
All possibilities that the indication is nonrelevant or false are first eliminated, after which the cause of the indication may be determined . It is then determined whether the indication is allowable per the applicable fabrication code or standard.
SPECIMEN
Figure 32 -10. Magnetic particle examination consists of magnetizing the area to he examined and applyinR magnetic particle s to the surface.
MAGNETIC FIELD
amination is used to detectsurfaceor nearsurface discontinuity indications in ferro ( ; \ YOKE ENERGIZED TO FORM MAGNET IC FIELD IN SPECIMEN
ma gneti c metals.
Magnetic sensitivity is greatest for surface discontinuities, but diminishes rapidly for subsurface discontinuities with increasing depth. Typical discontinuities detected by MT include cracks, overlap, and laminations.
Nondestructive Examination ) 423
Maximum se ns itivity w ith MT is obtained from linear discontinuities orien ted pe rpe nd ic ular to the line s of magnet ic flux , Fo r thi s reaso n, each area should be examined twice, with the lines of mag netic flux during the second exami nation approx imately perpendicul ar to the lines of flu x durin g the first examination. See Figure 32- 11.
Figure 32 -11. Mox im um sensitivity is obtained when the lilies oj magnetic flux ore perpendicu lor to the ori entation of thl' dis continuity.
material s are influen ced by mag netic fields. A fe rromag netic material is a mat eri a l tha t can be mag ne tized or strongly attracted by a mag netic fie ld. Ferromag netic materials include carbon and low -a lloy ste els; martensiti c an d ferritic stainless steels; and tool steels, When a magnetic field is established in a piece o f ferro magn et ic mat erial containing one or more discontinuities, minute magnetic poles are set up at the d iscontin uit ie s. Dis co nt inuity s ites have a stronger attraction for magnetic particles than the surroundi ng area of material. A magnetic particle is a finely divided fe rro magnetic material that is capable of being individu all y magnetized and attrac ted to distort ion in a magnetic fie ld. When a part with discontinu ities is magnetized, a magnetic leakage field is produ ced at the discont inuities. The magnetic leakage fie ld is the magnetic fie ld that leaves or ent ers the surface of a part at a discontinuity or change
in sectio n co nfig ura tion of a magnetic
circuit. See Fi g ure 32 - 12. Mag netic particles co ngregate at leak age field s and indicate the approximate shape of a discontinui ty. Ma gn eti zing c urre nt used for MT is circular or longitudinal.
~.o
~
0 ,- -0;--;
. .. ..
/ : : :' :: :',
Figure 32 -12 . A dis rup tion ill the mag ne tic field cause." {f magnetic leakage fie ld as the magnetic fie ld lilies ente r or leave 1I discontinuity, resulting i ll an accumulation of magnetic particles til tile location of the discontinuity.
Weldillg Skills
A prod is a set of hand-held electrodes used to transmit the magnetizing current from the source to the material being inspected. Prods are used where the size or location of the part does not permit the use of contact heads . The magnetic field is distorted by the interaction of the fields produced by the prods.
Figure 32-13 . Circula r magnetiration is prod uc ed by contact heads. prods. and ce n tral con d ucto rs.
~CONTACT
CURRENT /
PART
HEAD (HEADSHOT)
1
CIRCULAR FIELD
CENTRAL CONDUCTOR
PART
Longitudlnal Magnetization. Longitudinal magnetization is a magnetic field produced when the current-carrying conductor is coiled and the magnetic field is parallel to the axis of the coil. The magnetic field strength produced within a coil increases in proportion to the number of loops within the coil. Longitudinal magnetization is achieved by coil or yoke . See Figure 32-14. A coil is used when the length of the part is several times larger than its diameter. The coil is constructed by wrapping the electrical wire around the pan. A yo ke is a temporary horseshoe magnet made of soft. low-retentivity iron that is magneti zed by a small wire wound around the hori zontal bar. When current is passed through the wire . th e magnetic flux lines flowing between the head s of the yoke in contact with the pall induces a magnetic field in the pall. No current flows through the pall with the coil or yoke methods. With hoth circular magnetization and lon gitudin al magnetization. the mag netic field orientation must be perpendicular or nearly perpendicular to the discontinuities to produce indications. The best results are obtained when the magneti c field is at right angles to the di scontinu ity and the current n ow is parallel to the discontinuity.
Figure 3214.
(/ coil or y oke.
l.ongitudinat
eo
e_
e . e
~MAGNETIC
FIELD
CURRENT YOKE
applied and excess magnetic particles removed. If the current is turned off before excess particles are removed, the only indications remaining will be those held by the residual magnetic field. The residual magnetization method is an MT examination technique in which magnetic particles are appl ied after the magnetizing force has been disconnected. The residual method relies on the amount of residual magnetism retained in the test specimen . The accuracy and sensitivity of the residual method depends on the strength of the residual magnetic field. The residual method cannot be used on materials with low retentivity, such as low-alloy steel. Retentivity is the ability of a material to retain a portion of the applied magnetic field after the magnetizing force has been removed . The dry magnetization method is an MT examination technique in which the magnetic particles are in a dry powder form. Tbe wet magnetization method is an MT examination tecbniqne in whicb the magnetic particles are suspended in a liquid medium. Particles for the wet magnetic method are available in red or black. Red improves visibility on dark surfaces. Sensitivity of the wet method may be increased by coating the magnetic particles with a dye that fluoresces brilliantly under ultraviolet (black) light. Demagnetization. Demagnetization is the elimination or reduction of residual magnetism created by MT. Demagnetization is only necessary if the residual field interferes with subsequent machining operations or arc welding, or on structures where sensitive instruments may be affected. Demagnetization is mandatory for engine and machine parts that have been strongly magnetized. Filings, grindings, and chips resulting from operational wear are attracted to magnetized parts and interfere with performance. Demagnetization is also mandatory- in aircraft construction for all steel parts in close proximity to the compass.
Magnetic powder may be applied by th e dry magnetization method or the wet magnetization method.
4"
-rr:-i ~8B"
A C
Figure 32-15. For efficient coverage of welds when using the prod method, prods must be crisscrossed and spaced appropriately.
(20 CM)
WELD
Yoke Method. The yoke method is a dry continuous method of MT for detection of surface discontinuities. When the energized yoke is placed on the part, the flux flowing from the
Demagnetization is mandatory for parts in critical service , such as engines and aircraft, that have been stronglymagnetized. Filings. grindings, and chips resultingfmmoperational wear are attracted to magneti zed parts and interfere with performance.
yoke's north pole, throu gh the part, to the south pole induces a local longitu dinal field in the part. If magnetic powder is applied sparingly to the ar ea betw een the poles, surface discontinuity indi cations are ea sily seen. However, the magn etic fie ld produced by the yoke does not lie entirely wi thin the par t. An external field is present that is a deterrent to locating subsurfac e di scontinuities. After the test surface is prepared , the yoke is positioned o n the surface and the current is turned on. Magnetic powder is lightly dusted on the surface being examined and the excess removed with a gentle air stream . The parti cle pattern is observed for indications. After examination is complete, the current is turned o ff. The e xamina tion procedure is rep eated with the yo ke turned at approximately a right angle to its former position. The yoke is then re pos itioned over the next area with s uffic ie nt ov erlap to en sure 100% co ver age of the area to be examined. After ex amina tio n and recordin g of discont inuities, the test surface is com pletely wiped clean with a cloth.
Magnetic particle lest indications are commonty preserved with the MT results. The most common method of preserving indi-
cations is the transparent rape transfer technique. Othe r methods that may be used are the lacq uer tran sf er techn ique and the nonfluorescent orflu orescrn t photographic techniq ues.
Exami~tion
&u;.., Tnt/tlIt
A cracked truck suspension ;.'1 tested b)' magne tic particle examination. The magnetic yoke is attached 10 the failed part am /the yellow magnetic powder is drawn 10 , and identif i es. the crack.
Magneti c particle examination ind ications are examined after the magnetic particles have been allowed to interact with any disconti nuitie s. For MT examination fo llow the procedure: I. Identi fy ind icat ion s. 2 . Reject false indications. 3 . Interpret rele vant indications according to applica ble fabrica tion code or standard to determine if they are cause for rejection or repair. 4 . Record re levant ind ication s. Crack types detected by MT are crater crack s, tran sver se cra cks, and toe cracks. MT indic ations for crack-type di scontinuiti e s a re sha rply defi ned , tightly held, and usually heavily bui lt up with powder. The deeper the crack , th e heavier th e magn etic powd er buildup. Crater cracks can be a single lin e in any direction or star-shaped. MT indic ation s for subs urface crack s a re fu zzi er a nd their s ha rpne ss decreases with an increase in crack depth below the surface. Th e magn eti c powder patt ern s of subsurface porosity detected by MT are fu zzy and not pronounc ed , yet are readily distingui shed from ind ication s of surface porosity. MT det ect s slag incl usions as a pattern similar to subsurface porosity when high magnetizing field strength is used. Incompl ete fusion appears as an accumulation of powder at the edge of a weld. The pattern is sharper the nearer the discontinuity is to the surface. Incomplete fusion is rarely visible at the surface and so the magnet ic powder indication will not be clear and sharp.
Incomple te pe netration may ex hib it a mag ne tic po wde r pattern si m ilar to a subs urface c rack. lt will be wide and fuzzy, but the pa tte rn sho uld be linear. M T may produce fa lse indic atio ns that have no sig nificance for we ld q uality. Fal se indi cat ions arc mostly att ributed to ph y si c al co nto ur e ffects or magne tic characteristic cha nges. Physica l co ntour effects include a cha nge in section thickness or a hole in a part. Thc magn e tic particle patte rns for ph ys ical co ntour effects are usuall y easy to identify by th eir loc ati on and the sha pe of the part at the location. MT is not recommended for d iss imilar met al welds . When two materia ls wit h diffe ring ma gn eti c properti es are joined, such as carbon stee l we lde d w it h au st eniti c s ta in les s stee l filler metal, an indi c a ti on de vel ops at the junction. The ind icatio n is diffi cu lt to di stinguish from a crack.
path . Th e sound beam is re flected back when it encounters an interruption in the continuity of a material. T he rellccted bea m is detected and an alyzed to define the presence and loc atio n of the discontinuity. See Figure 32-16.
Figure 32-16. Ultrasonic examinetion ra n h(' 1 /.let! to j iml .l'IIh.l'wj i./{('
ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION
tun
If a high -frequen cy vibration is sent through a sound piece of metal , a signal will travel through the met al to the other s ide, be rellect ed back , and be shown on a calibrated sc ree n of an oscilloscopc. An y di scont in uit ics wit hin a struc ture interrupt the sig na l a nd refleer it back soo ne r th an the sig na l of the so und pie ce of m ateri al, The rellection is sho wn o n th e o scill oscope scree n a nd i nd icates the de pth of th e de fect. Onl y o ne s ide of the we ld me nt need s to be tested. The primary purpo se of UT for welds is to det ect laminar di scont inu ities such as cracks or lack of fusion that might be more diffi cult to de tec t with o the r NDE techniques. A laminar discontinuity is a di scontinuity that is relati vely thin and flat. UT can also be used to detect lam inatio ns , shr inkage vo ids, po ro sity, s lag incl usion s, incomplete joint penetration, and othe r discon tinuiti es in we lds . With the pro per technique, th e position a nd depth of thc di scontinuity can be determined, an d in some cases, the size o f the discontinui ty. All types of joints can be evaluated by UT and the size and location of defects can be measu red . Nondestructive Examinatio n ::: 429
the UT procedure. If the search unit is to be placed on the weld itself, removal of the weld reinforcement by grinding may be necessary. Weld spatter, slag, or other irregularities must be removed where the search unit might contact them. UT Electronic Components. Electronic components required for UT intlude: An electroni c signal ge nera tor- to provide bursts of alternating voltage A sending tran sdu cer (c rys tal) to emit a beam of ultrasonic wa ves when the AC voltage is applied A receiving tran sdu cer to convert the sound waves to AC voltage (the receiving tran sduc er and the sending tran sducer may be combined). An electron ic device to amplify and demodulate or otherwise change the signal from the receiving transducer An elec tron ic timer to control the operation A CRT display to characterize or record the output from the test piece. The CRT disp lay uses A-scan presentation. Sec Figure 32-17.
~
SIGNAL GENERATOR (PULSER) ELECTR ON IC TIMER AMPLIFIER DEMODULATOR SWEEP DELAY ATTENUATOR / SWEEP LENGTH CATHOD E RAY TUBE (CRT)
Figure 32- 17. The bll.\ .;c equipment components required for UT are (/ signul g t' lIt' m tlJ/; sending and recei ving transducers, {III amplif ier/demodulat or. a CRT display, and (1/1 electronic timer.
A-scan presentation is a method of data pre sentation using a horizontal base line that indicates distance or time, and a vertical deflection from the base line that indicates relative amplitude of th e returni ng signa l. Th e sc ree n is graduated in both horizontal and vertical directi ons to facilitate measurement of pulse display s. Ultrasonic Waves. Ultra soni c waves (vibrations) can be passed through partic es that make up liquids, solids, and gases. Ultrasonic waves are above the audibl e range , with fre q ue nc ies o f about 22.5 kHz and higher. Ultrasonic waves used in weld testing are longitudinal waves and she ar waves . See Fig ure 32- 18.
NOTE: INTERNAL ARROWS REPRESENT THE PHYSICAL MO VEMENT OF PARTICLES WITHIN THE MATERIAL
A shear wave is a tran sverse wave that represents wave motion in which the particle oscillation is perpendi cular to wave propagation di rection. Shear waves are more easily dispersed than lon gitu dinal wav es a nd onl y trav el through solids, since they cannot be propagated in liquid s or gases. Shear waves have a lower velocity that allows easier el ectronic timing and greater sensitivity to small indications. Shear waves are more effective than longitudinal wave s at det ecting weld di scontinuities because they can furnish three-dimen sional coordinates for discontinuity location, orientation, and characteristic s. Shear wave sensitivity is about double longitudinal wave sensiti vity for th e same frequency and search unit size. Longit udina l wa ves and shear waves compl ement one anoth er in weld testing . The bas e metal zo nes adjacent to a weld are first tested with longitudinal wave s to ensure that the base metal does not contain disconti nuiti es that would interfere with shear wave evaluation of the weld.
Ultrasonic waves
used in weld testing
LONGITUDINAL WAVES
SHEAR WAVES
Figure 32-Ut Longitudinal waves and shear waves are Iypically used for ultraso nic weld testi ng.
A longitudinal wave is a compression wave that represents wave motion in which the particle oscillation is in the same dir ect ion as wave prop agation . Longitudinal waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
ind icated by the echo amplitude and time . The pu lse -echo mode produces repeated burst s of high -frequency sound from the crystal with a time interval between burst s to receive signals from the test piec e and from any di scont inuitie s in th e we ld or base met al. Ea ch pul se sets off a wave of mechanical vibration s. The initi al distortion and subseq ue nt vibration s of the crystal are fed to the amplifier and cau se a pip on the CRT. The ultrasonic unit senses reflected impul ses. amp lifies them. and presents them as spikes. called pips. on the CRT. Th e horizontal location of a reflector pip on the screen. such as from a flaw. is pro port ional to the di sta nce the so und ha s traveled in the tes t piece . This makes it possib le to determi ne the location of rellectors suc h as llaw s by using horizontal screen grad uations as a distance-measuri ng ru ler. Calibration Standards. Reliable informati on can be o btai ne d abou t th e speci me n o n the CRT by co mpa ring signals from the specimen with those obtai ned from spec ia lly mach ined blocks. known as calibrat ion standards . A calibration standard is a calibration blo ck or a reference block . A ca lib ration b lo ck is a piece of material of specified composition, heat treatment, geometric form , and surface fini sh. by which ultrasonic equipment can be assessed and calibrated for the exa minatio n of mat erial of the same ge ne ra l c o nd it io n, A c alibration bl ock may be a s im ple ste p wedge of a particular mat erial to allow the time base to be calibrated for accurate thickness measurement. A ca libration block may a lso he a more co mplex blo ck, a ll o w ing ca libration of time base, search unit angle, reso lution, index , and o ther feat ure s, A refe rence block is a test piece of the same material, shape, and sig nificant dimensions as a particular object under examination, and which may contain natural or artificial discontinuities or defects .
432 ~ We/dillK Skills
the we ld . A guide is then placed so th at when the heel of the se lec ted angle probe is butted a ga ins t the guide , the probe index is on the scanning line. Flexible mag netic strips are useful guides for magn etic material s such as stee l. See Fig ure 32- 19.
~.
-,
- ;;-
'---v-"'-v-1
FULL SKIP " - - REINFOR CEMENT
AA
~
Fig u re 32-20. UT of the fusion face and the weld b ody cons ists of examining ' he ell/ ire weld 1 '01ume, ~dl ;dl is a f ull skip dista nce plus one -half the weld reinforcement widt h.
TEST ANGLE
AA
TEST ANGLE DEFECT SIGNAL
The initial probe angle for the weld bo dy sc an de pe nds upo n th e we ld bevel ang le. For maxi mu m response, the probe angle selected should meet any sid ew all lack of fusion at right ang les . The requi red angle is calculated by dividing the we ld beve l angle by 2 and subtrac ting from 90 . For a weld bevel angle of 60 the probe angle is 60 (90 - 6% = 60).
Ultrason ic Ex a m ina ti on of Fusion Fa ce and Weld Bod y. Ultrasonic examination of the fusion face and the weld body requires exa mining the entire weld vo lume. The probe is positioned to produce full skip distance to the nearest edge of the weld reinforcement. The probe index is located at a distance from the weld centerline equal to full skip distance plus one- half the full we ld rei nfo rceme nt wid th. T he base metal is marked with two lines, parallel to the weld centerline, on both sides of the weld. The lines are at half skip and full skip distances and mark the boundaries of the scanning pattern. See Figure 32-20.
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
(RT)
Radiographic examination (RT) is the use of X rays or nuclear radiation (gamma rays) to detect var iou s typ es of intern al and ex terna l discontinuiti es in mat erial. RT images are prese nted on a recording mediu m. RT requires a source of radia tion, a recording device enclosed in a light-tight holder, a qualified radio grapher to produce a satisfactory e xposure , and an exam ine r qua lified to interpret radiographs. RT is used extensively to examine we lds for internal discon tinuities by exposing them to penetrating radia tion.
Nondestructive Examination :: 433
pleted. For this reason, RT is commonly performed at night or Oil weekends when fewer personnel will be affected.
SPECI~
Figure 32-21. The tess material abso rbs radiation. but less absorption takes place where there is a void, leading to darker areas ('" tlse processed radiograph.
tI
.=
~
Rudiographicfitm is ptucrd 0 11 the oppo site side of the test specimen 10 reco rd the internal image of the component.
,-----
Tilt' radi og rapher 1111Ut consider all pa rts of the image, including areas thai may he unavoidably distort ed. 10 ens ure correct interpretation of tile radiog raph.
Radiographic film is placed on the opposit e side of the test specim en to record thc internal image of the com ponent. The recording medium can be photographi c film, se ns itize d paper, a fluore scent screen, or an electronic radiation detector. Phot ographic film is the most commonl y used method . Since more radi ati on pas se s throu gh thin sections or locations co ntainin g void s, the co rres po nd ing areas of the film are darker. The relative po siti oning of the so urce and film in relation to the part or weld affec ts the sharpness , density, and co ntrast of the rad iograph. Th e radiog rap h image quality is affected by image enlargement, image sharpness, and image distortion. Im age di sto rtion occurs when the plane of the part and the plane of the film are not parallel. To minimi ze image distortion, the radiation beam must be directed in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the film. If distortion of the film image is unavoidable, the radiographer must take into consideration that all parts of the image are distorted; otherwi se, the radi ograph may be incorrectly interpreted . See Figure 32-22.
I _ _t,
SOURCE
Ft gure 32-22 . tmag e distort ion occurs when the ptane of the film is IIOT perpendicular /0 the radia uon beam.
PART
in.
.33 .75
1
mm
B
2 3 5 B
19 25 50 75 125 200
t approximate
Ga m ma ra ys a re pro du ced from portabl e sources and are used exten sively for field-test ing of welds. The gamma ray source is made as sma ll as possible in the shape of a cy linder whose diameter and length are approximately equal. The cylindrical shape permit. the use of any surface of the source as the focal spot since all surfaces, as viewed from the test specimen. are equal in area. The wavelength of the gamma rays (energy level) is determined by the nature of the source. Gamma rays have different ranges of energy and different thickness limitations for materials examined. See Figure 32-24.
Nondestructive Exa minat ion :@: 435
Figure 3224. Radiois% pe,l" have different IWI X l ',\ (~r energy. making tltrtn suitable fo r differ ent ,hhfm(',\" .\ "t'.\ ' of 1I1l'1lI!.'".
in.
.5 2.5 .5- 3.5 2-9
mm
12-65 12 90 50 230
Coba lt-60
app rcemate
Iridium-1 92 is equivalent to the output of an gOO kV X-ray machine. It is used for the rad iog raphy of steel. The radioisotope is supplied in the form of a capsul e. The relatively low-energy radiation and hig h spec ific gravity of iridiu m- 192 co mb ine to make it an easily s h ie lded, s tro ng radia tio n so urc e wi th a sma ll foca l spot size. Ce sium- I37 is equivalent to the output of a 1000 kV X-ray machine. Th e radioiso tope is supplied in the form of a capsule and is used on a limited scale for low-density metals such as aluminum. Cobalt-60 is equiva lent to the output of a 2(X lO kV X-ra y machin e. Cobalt-60 is used for the radiography of steel, coppe r, bra ss, an d o ther medi um-densi ty me tal s. Because of its penetr atin g radi ation, cobalt-60 req uires thick shie lding with result ing we ight and hand ling di fficulty.
Isotope C a m er a . The isot ope camera consists of the equ ipment need ed for sa fe handling a nd s to rage o f an is otope source. Image Quality Indicator (IQI). An
imag e 'lilalit)' indicator (IQI) is a device or co mbi nation of devic es whose demo nst rated im age de term ine s radi ograph ic qualit y and se nsitivity. T he im age o r im ages de mo ns tra ted by an IQ I pr o vid e vi s ua l data, quanti ta tive da ta, or bo th to determine the radiograp hic qu ali ty. An IQ I is not intended for use in ju dgin g size of, or acce ptabl e limits for, discontinuitie s. An lQ I is al so ca lle d a pen etram eter, o r penny. Eac h IQ I is iden ti fi ed by a n iden ti ficat io n number that gives th e max im u m thi ckness of materia l for whic h the IQI is norm all y us ed . See Figure 32-25 . The lQI is placed on the source side of the part to provide a built-in disco ntinuity o f know n thick ne ss conta ining three hole diameters. The IQl measures the abili ty of the RT technique to show contra st (IQ I thic kness) a nd de finition (hole images) . Shim stock is sometimes used in RT of we ld s because the area of interest (the weld ) is thicker than the part thickne ss. S hi ms are se le c ted so that the t hickne ss of the s h im(s) equal s the thic kne ss added to the specime n by the we ld in the area of interest. Shim stock is p laced underneath the IQI. be tween it and the part. In this way, the im age of the IQI is projected through a thickness o f materi al eq ua l to the thi ckn e ss in the area of interest. T he shim stoc k len gth and width arc grea ter than those of the IQl. See Fig ure 32-26.
II
"T"t:
11 Hole Diameter!
.01O .010 .010 .013 .015 .018 .020 .023 .025 .030
2T Hole Diameter!
.020 .020 .020 .025 .030 .035 .040 .045 .050 .060
4T Hole Diameter!
.040 .040 .040 .050 .060 .070 .080 .090 .100 .120
determines the radiographic qualily tevet tsensitivity}: nit! I QI ,hid .1/l' U (" T");s 2% of the thickness rif
v.
'Yo V2
% % %
1.1
1.2 1.5
.005 .008 .010 .013 .015 .018 .020 .023 .025 .030
Dellned as the thickness ollhe malarial (TAll upon wtuch the thickness 01the 1 0 1is ba sed. For welds . Tm sha ll be the thickness 01100 strength member I in ''1. t 101 thiCkness Hole size required by standard coes not correspood directly 10 10 number or 101 thickness
NOTES:
Chart extends in increments.
v....' increments up to 2lh" , then in 12" increments up to 8". and then in 1"
1II(1)'
br 1I.H!d TO compensate for ,he addi tional rhic knl'H of a II'l'Id compared with the base metal.
101(PENNY)
SHIM STOCK
'\:F ILM
Nondestructiv e Examination :: 437
Nondestruct ive examination is of tell used f or stmcl ure,f thai ml/.H remain ;11 service both du ring and after testing.
Lead Identification Markers. Lead identificat ion marker s are placed on the source side of the part to provide a clear record of the test or test location. These marke rs consist of a letter and numbers and mu st not int erfere with subsequent interpr etation of the ra diograph by mask ing potentia l indi cations. Film Type. The film type selected is base d on the need for radiog raphs of specific co ntrast and defi nition qual ity. RT film consists of thin. transparent plastic shee ting coated on one or both sides with an emulsion of gelatin, approximately .00 I" thick. containing very fine crystals of silver bromide. When exposed to X rays, gamma rays, or visible light, silver bromide crystals undergo a reaction that makes the m more susceptible to the chemical process of develop ing that converts them to black-metallic silver. The greater the a mou nt of ex pos ure, the greater the blackening effect on deve lopment.
Some RT methods for weld s include single-wa ll RT for plate, pipe. or tubirig; double-wa ll RT for pipe or tubi n~ less than 114" ID (inside diameter); andx; double-wall RT for pipe or tubing from 114" to 2'12" 10. RT exposure setup conditions are ba sed on th e following factors that influence the radio graphic image fo rmation : Obtainin g best co verage of the weld in the shortest expos ure time Detec ting im age di scontinuities most like ly to be pre sent Usin g multip le perpendi cular expo sures ra ther th an on e or more ang led exposures to cover a ll areas of interest Using single- or double-wall exposure s with a pipe we ld Ad herin g to all radiation sa fe ty re quire ment s Single-Wall RT for Plate and Pipe or Tubing. Single-wall RT for plate, pipe, or tubing welds is relatively simple to achi eve becau se the crit ical areas of the weld are clearly defi ned in terms of their length . width . and thick ness. See Figure 32-27. The film is placed in direct contact with the part on the side opposite to the source with an exposure angle of 90 . Si ngle-w all RT should be used whenever possible for flat or c ircular obj ect s. Subject contrast is small and exposure calculation is relativ ely simple. Double- Wall RT for Pipe or Tubing Less than I lAW ID. Double-wall RT for pipe o r tubin g we lds le s s than I W' 10 is don e with an elliptical shot. An e lliptic al shot involves placing the so urce at an an gle less than 90 to the pla ne o f the part to view th e fu ll c irc umfe re nce of the we ld on the film as an e llipse . The exact a ng le is determined by the pipe or tu bin g d ia mete r. T hre e e llipt ical expo sure s s ho uld be made to provide suffici ent co ve rage. See Figu re 32-28 .
Figure 32-27. Single -wall NT for plate, p ljU! , or tubing is relati vely eusv 10 achieve becaus e tile critical ar cus of the weld ar e dearly defin ed .
. .. ..
PLATE
~PRIMARY BEAM
1--- -
DISTORTION. IMAGE MISALIGNMENT DUE TO DETAIL GEOMETRY AND DIVERSIONARY BEAM ALIGNMENT
1 -+-
" - FILM PLACEMENT I " OVERLAP- SINGLE WALL LEAD BACKING J TO STOP BACKSCATTER
PIPE OR TUBING
Double" Wall RT for Pipe or Thbing l'Aw to 2W" ID. Double-wall RT for pipe or tubing welds from 114" to 2Vi' ID is done with a 15 elliptical shot. As with pipe or tubing less than 114" diameter. two IQl s should be used. Six elliptical
shots provide sufficient coverage of the entire circumference and reveal discontinuity orientation. In addition. two 90 opposing, superimposed shots should be taken to show discontinuities in the perpendicular position. See Figure 32-29.
Nondestruc tive Examina tion :@: 439
Double-Wall Radiographic Examination for Pipe and Tubing Less Than 1Y." 10
Figure 32-28
EXACT ANGLE DETERMINED BY PIPE O R TUBING DIAMETER
ANGLE DETE RMINED BY TUB E DIAM ETER TO PROJECT TOP PORTION OF W ELD OUTSID E OF BOnOM PORTION 101 PLACE ME NT SIZE= 2% DO UBLEWALL \ 1 01 PLACEMENT SIZE= 2% SINGLE-WALL
Figure 3228. The ,\'(11/1"("(' angte fo r dauhle-wall RT of pil'e or ltlhing less tlian 11/4" ID is de/ermined hy the pipe or tubing JI> portion of the weld projects outside of tile ho /fo!/l port ion.
10
2 lOis REOUIRED : ONE 2% OF DOUB LE-WALL ONE 2% OF SINGL EWALL DOUBLE-WALL 101 \
,.;,
z
~
1--15" \ II ~/r~<
'"
If5
SING LE-WALL IQI
/
FILM CO NTACTS SIDEWALL \.- AREA OF INTEREST
1W' TO 2lh:"I D
Figu re 32-29. RT of 1';1'(' or tubing from J If,'" to 2 /12" If) requ ires
if
15 ellipticol
,\"h Ol
To evaluate a radiograph, follow the procedure ; I . Co mpare the identification of the radiograph aga inst accompanying record s for accuracy. 2 . Det erm ine the weld desi gn a nd wel ding procedure used . 3. Determin e the radiographic set-up procedure and the co rrec tness of tech nique attr ibutes . 4 . Review film under optimum viewing co nditions. 5. Identify any film artifacts (see belo w) and requ est re-rad iogr aph y if necessary. 6 . Identi fy any surface marks or unso und ness on the part not associated with the weld and verify their type and presence . 7 . Evaluate and propose disposition of di scontinuities revealed in the radiograph. S. Prepare complete radiographic report. RT for fill et weld s is difficult to se t up and int erpret. Fillet weld RT require s a gre at degree of skill and in-depth know led ge of the welding conditions. Also, it is diffi cult to place the film ideally to obtain good resolution of di sc ontinuitie s in fillet we lds. Th er efore, RT is not usuall y viable For fillet welds.
Identification of Discontinuities
RT reveal s both surface and subs urface we ld d iscontin uit ies in cl ud ing crac ks and incomp lete fusion; slag inclus io ns and tun gsten inclu sion s; porosity and worm holes; incomplete joint penetratio n; undercut; exc ess ive we ld re info rce me nt; an d insufficie nt weld reinforcement. RT docs not reveal very narrow di scontinu iti es that are not closely aligned (parallel) to the weld. Crac ks appear as fine dark lines of sig nificant len gth , but without gre at width. Som e crater cracks may be dete cte d by RT if o f s ufficie nt s ize. Cracks may not be detected if they are small or not aligned with the beam .
Incompl ete fusion has a similar appearance to cracks, but usually appears at the boundary between the weld and base metal. Slag inclusion s usuall y appear as irregularly shaped dark area s and have so me width . Slag inclusions are ge nerall y observed at the junctions between weld passes. Tungsten inclusions appear as highly co ntraste d light areas (white spo ts). Po ros ity appears as nearly ro und voids recognizable as dark spots whose radiographic co ntras t varies directl y with the diameter of the pores. Wormholes appear as dark rectangles if their lon g axis is perpendi cul ar to the beam and as concentric circles if the long axis is parallel to the beam . Incompl ete joint penetration is ob served as a very narrow dark line near the cent er of the weld . Undercut appears as a dark zone of varying width along the edge of the fusion zon e. The darkness or den sity of the line is an indicator of the depth of the undercut. Exc essi ve weld reinforcement is seen as a lighter zonc along the center of the weld se a m. Th ere is a sha rp change in image den sity where the reinforcement meets the base metal, and the edge of the reinforcement image is usuall y irregul ar. Insuffici ent we ld reinforcement is seen as the opposi te of excessive weld reinforcement. that is, a darker zone along the center of the weld scam. The change in image density is not as pronoun ced as with excessive weld rein forcement, Arti facts, An artifact is a nonrelevant indi c ati on th at ap pears o n a radi ograph. Artifacts may occur during exposure or during handling or processing of the film , if handling or processin g has been don e improperl y. Artifact s a lso may occur becau se of vario us ca uses in cludin g e lec trostatic di scharge, pressure marks, and film pro ce ssin g defects . Arti fa ct s mu st be avoid ed .
Nondestructive Examina tion :@: 441
\.
Elec trosta tic di scharge duri ng film handling exposes the film to light and causes an easily recognized pattern of sharp b lack lines on th e rad iograph. Press ur e mark s resu lt from loc ali zed pr essure on pre-processed fi lm whe n the film is being processed . F ilm p ro c e ss ing d efe ct s le ad to many kinds of artifacts. Colore d stai ns or blisters may result from an improper acid stop bath applicatioo . Streaks may result fro m improper agit ati on duriog devel opmeot. Fogging may he cau sed by overexposure of film to a sa felight lamp before fixing or by using old film . Sta ins may be c aused by improperly m ixe d or ex ha usted so lu t io ns , an d water marks can resu lt fro m handl ing pa rtia lly dried film . Fi ngerp rints are cause d by imprope r handling of film. Scratches result from ro ug h handling, espec ially during pro cessing when the emulsion is soft. Ch emi cal fog may be ca use d by o ve rdeve lop ing .
Coils
Figure 32-30
COIL
(I ~
SPECIMEN
ENCIRCLING
SPECIMEN
ergy is used to detect surface 1I11l1 internal quality of we lds in electro magnetic testing.
INSIDE
Figure 32-30. Incomplete fusion ma), be detected in tubing as if passes through (11/ endrl'!i/lX coil or an insid e c(I;1 during electromagnetic exa mina tion.
An encircling coil is wound so that the test specimen passes through the center of the coil, causing the eddy currents to flow around the rod or tube being tested. The specimen must be centered in the coil for accurate test results. This is because the flow of eddy currents is zero at the center of the rod. An inside coil is used to test steam generator tubes . Inside coils pass through the inside of tubing and eddy currents flow around the tubing . For accurate test results, the coil and the test specimen should be close together. The eddy current path is distorted by the presence of a discontinuity. The distortion is measured by a change in the associated electromagnetic field. Such changes have an effect on the exciting coil or other eoil(s) used for sensing the electromagnetic field adjacent to the part. For example , the change in flow of eddy currents caused by incomplete fusion can be detected as the tubing passes through the coil. When fusion within the weld is complete, the eddy current flow is symmetrical. As a section containing incomplete fusion passes through the coil, the eddy current flow is impeded and changed in direction, causing a significant change in the associated electromagnetic field, which is detected on the measuring equipment.
display. The generator supplies excitation current to the inspection coil and a synchronizing signal to the phase shifter, which provides switching signals to the detector. The probe may be an external coil, as used for tubing inspection.
ET Equipment Calibration. An equipment calibration standard is a test piece that contains typical discontinuities that demonstrate that calibration equipment is detecting the discontinuities for which the part is being inspected. Equipment calibration standards for ET contain natural or artificial discontinuities. The discontinuities in the calibration standards can accurately reproduce the exact change in the electromagnetic characteristics expected when production items containing discontinuities are tested. Equipment calibration standards are necessary because ET does not detect discontinuities, but rather the effect they have on the electromagnetic properties of the part being inspected. It is necessary to correlate the change in electromagnetic properties with the cause of the change. Equipment calibration standards are used to facilitate the initial adjustment or calibration of the test equipment and to periodically check on the reproducibility of the
measurements.
For electromagnetic examination, the induced voltage of the exciting coil or the adjacent coil is used to monitor the condition ofthe part being inspected.
ET Procedures. ET procedures reference the type of equipment calibration standards that are required. Electromagnetic examination procedures must be standardized, often using full-scale or mock-up calibration standards with simulated discontinuities . Equipment calibration standards must meet the following requirements : Conform to the applicable specification . Be easily fabricated . Be reproducible in precisely graduated sizes. Produce an indication on the ET tester that closely resembles those produced by natural discontinuities.
.=
.~
Ele ctromagne tic (~X amination procedure s must be standardized, often usingfull-scale or mo ck -lip ca lib ra tion standards with simulated discontinuities.
Pmo! leslillg is 1I,\ 'ed 10 demonstrate the ubilily (iflll(' welded s/nu" ture 10 ca rry loads equal to or ill exce. . . . of Iht' amicil'aled service
conditions.
PROOF TESTING
Proof testing is the application of specifi c loads to welded structures, without failure or perm anent deformation. to assess their mech anical integrity. Proof tests are usually designed to subject parts to stresses exceeding those anticipated du ring service, but ma intained below or at the specified yield strength of the metal. Proof testing is used to demonstrate the ability of the welded structure to carry load s equal to or in excess of the anticipated service conditions. Proof tests must be desig ned by an eng inee r familiar with in -u se requirement s, a nd co ns is t of hydrostatic testin g. pneuma tic testing, spin testing, lea k testing, vacuum box testing, and aco ustic emission testin g.
Hydrostatic Testing
Hydrostatic testing (hydrotest ing } is proof testing of closed contain ers such as vessels, tanks . and piping systems by fillin g them with water and apply ing a predetermined test pressure. Hydro static testin g is the most common type of proof test. Adequate venting must be ensured during hydrostati c testin g to prevent co llapse (sucking in) of the tank . See Figure 32-32. For components built to the ASM E Boi ler and Pressure Vessel Code , this pressure is 150% of design pressure. Fo r othe r components, the te st press ur e may be ba sed upon a fixed percentage of the minimum yield stre ngth. Afte r a fixed holdi ng time, the co ntainer is ins pec ted for soundness by visually check ing for leakage, or by monit oring the hydrostatic test pressure for any drop. Op en co ntainers suc h as sto rage tank s ma y a ls o be hydro st ati ca ll y te sted by fillin g them with wa te r; ships or barges may be tested by partially submerg ing them in water. T he hydro stat ic pre ssure exe rted aga in st an y bound ar y is go ve rned by the head of wa ter.
Ftaurc 3231. To inspect tongitudiuul weld q lll//i(', in welded {,iJl t , or tubing. an energizing co;1 (/mJ (/ deft'I'lor coil a re required.
Ade q uate ve nting 11I1lS t be ens ured du ri ng hydro static testing 1 0 prevent colhII' ll' (sucking in) of
the rank.
Th e DC co il is energized at high curre nt levels to magnetically saturate the pipe or tubing, improving penetration of the eddy current and cancelin g the effects of magnetic variables. This type of inspection is effective in detecting mo st types of lon gitudinal weld di scontinuities. su ch as ope n weld s, weld crac ks , and hot c rac ks . Many discontinuities may be detected at relativel y high speeds (speeds of 300 ftf min are common) . The speed must be constant to within I0%.
444
Figure 3232. When performing hydrostatic testing on an atmo spheric pressure stora g e tank. there mu.I'! he adequate venting to prevent the tank from collapse (.l"Uckillg ill) when it is drained.
ATMOSPHERIC VENT NOZZLE MAX. FILL = 2" ABOVE TOP ANGLE O R TOP TANGENT LINE
WATER SOUR CE
Three ques tio ns to consider before using hydrostatic testing are (J) whether the f ounda tion or support is strong enough to hold the container fi lled with wale,; (2) whether energy in the fo rm of comp ressed air can build up in the container. and (3) whether there is adequate notch toughness to ensure that sma ll leaks or discontinuities will not propagate into a catas trophic f ailure.
esp eciall y important if the foundatio n and support container were originally de signed to hold a gas or light -weight liquid. Are there any pocket s where energy can bu ild np in the form of a compressed gas ? Pocke ts ma y include high points in the system that are difficult to compl etely fill with
water.
WARNING I
During pne umat ic tes ting, large amou nts of energy may be s tored in co mpress ed air or gas in a large vo lume or under high pressu re, or both . A s mall leak or rupture can easily grow into a catastrophic failure, and can endanger life and adjacent property.
stainless steel equipment where stagnant water may lead to microbiologically induced corrosion . Fabrication codes and standards usually allow a maximum time of 72 hr for water to be left in stainless steel equipment.
Spin Testing
Pneumatic Testing
Pneumatic testing must be used with care (0 prevent a catastrophic fa ilure caused by release of the stored energy.
Pneum ati c testing is a pro of te st in which air is pressurized inside a closed vessel to reveal leaks. Pneumatic testing must be used with care to prevent a catastrophic failure from release of the stored energy. Pneumatic testing is usually performed on small units that can be submerged in water during testing. The presence of air bubbles is a convenient leak indicator and immersion in water is an effective energy absorber in case the component fails. Pneumatic testing may be applied to equipm ent such as equipm ent mounted on foundations not able to support the weight associated with hydrostatic tests, and to equipment where water or liquid may be harmful and cannot be removed, for example a plate-fin heat exchanger. Pneumatic testing acceptance is based on freedo m from leakage. Small leaks are seldom detected without some indicating devices. If a unit cannot be submerged in water, spraying it with a soap or detergent solution and checking for bubbl es is an effective alternative for determining the location of leaks. This procedure is called an air-soap test. If both pneumatic testing and hydrostatic testing are to be done, the pneumatic test should be carried out first. If done in reverse order, there is a possibilit y that the larger water molecules from the hydrostatic test will locate and block fine leak passages and prevent them being discovered by the smaller air molecules during the pneumatic test.
Spin testing is proof testing of rotating machinery done by spinni ng it at speeds above design values to develop de sire d s tres ses from ce ntr ifu ga l forces. Visua l and other nondestructive test in g plus dimen sio nal measure ments are employed to determine the acceptability of the parts. Spin test ing is conducted in a safe enclosure such as a speciall y construc ted pit in case the co mponent should rupture.
Vacuum Box Testing
VaCllllm box testing is the applicat ion of a partial vac uum to one side of a struct ure and exam ining for the presence of leaks. The test invo lve s appl yin g soap or detergent so lution to an area such as a longitudinal weld, placin g a transparent hox with an adequa te seal over the area to be exa mined, and e vac uating th e box to achi eve partial vacuu m o f not le ss than 2 psi. The area is exami ned for bubbl es, which are the sign of a leak. Vacuum box testing is quick and convenie nt.
Acoast ic emission tes tin g (AE) is a pro o f test that co ns ists of detecting acous tic signals produ ced by pla sti c deformation or crack forma tion du rin g mech an ical loadin g or th ermal stress ing of metals. Tran sducer s strategic ally placed on a structure are activated by arriving acoustic signals and allo w the locations of di scontinuities to be identified . Once the discontinuity location is identified, it must be examined by other techniques such as RT or UT to describe and measure it.
I . A flaw is not necessarily a defect. A flaw may be relevant (requiring evaluation by nondestructive testing), nonrel evant (rejection is not necessary after evaluation), or false (no discontinuity actually exists). 2. Nondestru ctive examination is perform ed by an examiner, who is a person qualified to conduct specific NDE proce sses. 3 . An inspector is a person qualified to interpret nonde structive exam ination results accord ing to the controlling code or standard for the job. 4 . Common nondestructive examination methods are visual , liquid pen etrant, magnetic particle, ultr asoni c, radiographic, and electromagnetic. 5. Visual ex amination is used to check surface condition ; alignment of mating surfaces; co nform anc e of the weld shape to a specific cod e or standard; and to locatc leakage. Visual examination may be used before, durin g, or after weldin g. 6 . Liquid penetrant examination is used to dete ct defects open to the surface, partic ularly in nonferro us metals such as aluminum. 7 . The surface of a part must be completely clean and dry before administering liquid penetrant
examination.
8 . Magnetic particle examination is used to detect surface or near- surface discont inuit y indications in ferromagnetic metals. 9. A ma gne tic fi eld ma y be induced in a part by c irc ula r ma gneti zation o r lon gitudinal ma gn et ization . 10. Magnetic powder may be applied by the dry magnetization method or the wet magnetizat ion method . I I . Demagnetization is mandatory for parts in critical service, such as engines and aircraft, that have been strongly magnet ized. Filings, grindin gs, and chips resulting from operational wear are attra cted to magnetized parts and interfere with performance. 12. Ultraso nic waves used in weld testing are longitudin al waves and shear waves. 13 . Radiograph ic film is placed on the oppos ite side of the test speci men to record the internal image of the component. 14. Electromagnetic energy is used to detect surface and internal qualit y of welds in electromagnetic examination.
15. Electromagnet ic testing procedur es must be standardized, often using full -scale or mock-up calibration standards with simulated discontinuities. 16 . Proof testing is used to demonstrate the ability of the welded structure to carry loads equal to or in excess of the anticipat ed service condit ions. 17. Adequate venting must be ens ured during hydrostatic testing to prevent coll apse (sucking in) of the tank. 18. Pneumat ic testing must be used with care to prevent a catastrophic failure caused by release of stored energy.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 . I I.
Can visual examination be used to find every type of cracking tbat a weld may exh ibit? What types of checks may be performed on meta l before welding using visual examination ? Why is visual exami nation important during we lding? After we lding, how sho uld visual examinat ion be appl ied to di mensional acc uracy, we ld appearance , and base metal integrity? What is the difference between penetrant and devel oper in liqu id pe netrant examinatio n? Why must defec ts be open at the surface for liquid penetrant exa minat ion to be effect ive? What is dwell time ? Wh y is arc ing unde sirabl e when prod s are used for magn etic partic le ex amination? Wh at is the purpose of co uplant used in ultrasoni c examination? Wh y is radiographic examination co mmonly used to assess weld qu ality? What types of artifacts may be present in radiograph s that detract from accurate assessment of we ld qua lity?
Metallography is the visual examination of the microscopicfeatures ofmetal or weld surfaces that have been specially prepared by cutting, grinding, polishing, and etching. Metallography is used in failure analysis and as a quality control tool for production. In failure analysis, metallography is used to compare the actual weld quality with the specification and to reveal contributing causes of the failure. When used as a quality control tool, the tested specimen must be representative of the overall weld. The control specimen is then compared against set standards. Metallography may reveal cracking at an improperly made tack weld that progresses through subsequent weld passes. Metallography includes microscopic examination and macroscopic examination used to analyze discontinuities, weld passes and location, and metallurgical structure of the weld.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Microscopic examination is concerned
with the microscopic features of material surfaces. The putpose of microscopic examination is to look for clues as to how a metal was made and/or how it performed under load or working conditions. Microscopic examination is con-
ducted at high magnification. Small specimens, representative of the component, are required. The sequence of steps
in microscopic examination consists of
thin-wall tubing, may be required to preserve the specimen from damage so that the essential features are not destroyed. For rough grinding, sequential cutting may be performed to obtain a suitably sized specimen . Rough grinding removes coarse material and features that result from the cutting process.
Microscopic examination c onsists of c utting and ro ug h g rind ing ; mounting ami fine g rinding;
Specimen Orientation. The specimen orientation is selected to obtain a representative section of the joint. The most
common specimen orientation is transverse. It can be used to investigate weld
cutting and rough grinding; mounting and fine grinding; rough and final polishing; and etching and examination.
profile, weld width, weld penetration (depth of fusion), weld reinforcement, and weld area. If a transverse section is not cut exactly perpendicular to the plane of the weld, errors in weld penetration and weld area measurement may be introduced. Except in the most severe eases, errors introduced in sectioning are likely to be lower than sampling errors from variability along the
449
length of the weld. Transverse sections may be supplemented by longitudinal sections. If add itio na l deta ils are requi red, other s pec ime n orie nta tions may be necessary. See Figure 33- 1.
where precision cuts are required. If a diamond-tipped cutoff whee l is used, the rough grinding steps are bypassed. See Figure 33-2.
Cutting. Cutting is the most commo n meth od of obtai ning specimens from a co mponent. Large spec imens must be re duced in si ze us ing fl a me or plasma cutting. Subsequent cutting is accom plished using a power hack saw, ba nd saw, abrasive cutoff whee l, or dia mond-tipped cutoff wheel. Power hacksaws or band sa ws are used on speci mens that are too large or awkward to cut usin g an abras ive cutoff wheel. Abrasive cutoff wheels are used to obt ain specimens that are clo se to the final size. Diamond-tipped cutoff whee ls are used on sma ll specimens
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Figure 33- 1. Erro rs in measuremell1 ma y be introduced when a ,ral1.H'{'r,\" e section is 1101 tak en {'Xactly perpendicular to the plane of the weld.
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Overheating is microstructural damage or change caused by cutting operations. Flame or plasma cutting must be performed at a distance of 3Js" to liz" away from the area to be examined to prevent overheating, so that final cutting can be done with less damaging techniques. Cutoff wheels and saws use a coolant at the cutting surface to prevent overheating. Materials with hardness values greater than 35 HRC may require the use of an abrasive cutoff wheel or a diamond-tipped cutoff wheel for cutting operations. Subsurface deformation is microstructural damage or change produced by cutting and that occurs below the surface of the specimen. Coarse cutting tools and heavy applications of force increase subsurface deformation that must be removed by grinding to prevent false interpretations of the microstructure.
ing resin is based on a combination of factors. Fine grinding prepares the mount for the final stages of specimen preparation. Hot Mounting. Hot mounting is usually performed in a mounting press that encapsulates the specimen with a thermosetting resin under pressure and at an elevated temperature. See Figure 33-3. The specimen is placed face down in a vertical, cylindrical mold in the mounting press. A predetermined amount of thermosetting resin is poured into the mold and the mold is closed. The temperature is raised and pressure is maintained while the resin cures, making the resin hard and strong. After the mold cools, the mount is removed from the mold.
Rough Grinding. Rough grinding prepares specimens for mounting by removing subsurface deformation, unnecessary roughness, and flash or scale caused by cutting operations. Specimens are ground flat on a wet abrasive belt sander using an SO-grit or l50-grit belt, or they are machined flat in a milling machine. When a diamond-tipped wheel is used to make the final cut, rough grinding is usually unnecessary.
Ftgure 33-3. Mounting presses use compression and heat to en consulate l it e specimen in a plas tic mounting resin.
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A suitable mounting resin must cure at a temperature and pressure that does not alter the microstructure of the specimen. The mounting resin selected must resist chemical attack by the etchant, which is applied to the face of the mount to reveal microstructural features . The mounting resin must provide good adhesion to the edges of the specimen to prevent rounding of the edges and entry of lubricant or etchant during specimen preparation. Lubricant or etch ant that enters the mount
Metallography ~ 451
during preparati on wi ll flo w o ut afte r final preparation and cause stai ning of the spec imen as it dri es. Th e mounting resin mu st fill pores and c re v ices on thc ex pos ed facc of the spe cim en to prevent staining . It must also be elect rica lly conductive if electrolytic poli shi ng or etc hin g is to be used. If side view s of the specimen are required , the mounting resin mu st be transp arent. Sec Figure 33-4. Cold Mounting, Cold mounting is an alternative 10 hot mounting and is performed when the specimen is too large
fo r thc mount in g pr ess or w he n th e heal invo lve d mi ght alte r th e microstruc ture. Cold mounting is performed in a vacuum to remove a ir bubbles from the mount. Room temperature and atmos pheric pres sure mu st be maint aincd wh en pcrformin g co ld mounting usin g a ther moplast ic resin.
Mounting is used to con veniently !lold the specimen, to mount multiple specimens. Gild 10 More and label specimens. Mounting also protects the edges of the specimen and provides the proper specimen orientation.
MOUNTING RESINS
Molding Conditions Plastic
Phenolic molding powder Acryli c
Type
HeatDistortion
Transparency
Chemical Resistance
Not resistant to strong ac ids or alkalis
Thermosett ing
t40
Opaque
(polymethyl methacrylate)
moldin g powde r
Therm oplastic
150
4000
none
65
Water white
Epoxy
casting resin Therm osettlnqt
20-40
24 hr
60'
Fair resistance to most alkalis and acids; poor resistance to nitric and glacial acetic acids
Not resistant to strong acids and alkalis
Diallyl
molding compound For mvar* Thermosettinq' "
160
2500
6min
150
Opaque
Thermoplastic
220
4000
none
75
60
Opaque
t in psi t de termined by melllod in ASTM 0648-56, et a fibe r stre ss of 264lb1in.l wood fil led grade , pre ler ably with k:lw filler con tent liquid epoK)' resin with an aliphatic enure hardener depends on curing schedule (can be as high as 110' C WIth heal Ctlring )
diallyl phl ha lale polymer WI1 h a mi nefa l filler
It stabili zed ndged PVC It must nol exce ed 2OO 'C
F iJ.:ure .13 4.
M Oll lltill g
resins
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10
he acceptable.
Fine Grinding. Fine grinding is the last stage before poli shin g of the mount. It cons ists of ab ra di ng the mount on a se ries of successively fi ne r abrasive pape rs. Before fine grinding. any resin on the face of the specime n or any remaining burrs o n th e ed ges a re remo ved by a 120-grit abras ive paper or clo th . During fine grinding, a series of wat e r-lubricat ed pap er s, ranging from 240- grit to 600- grit , are used . The mount is lightl y washed between abrasive papers or belts to prevent carryover of co arse r abrasi ve material. Two co m mo nly used typ es of fine grinding are four-stage belt sanding and four-stage w hee l grind ing. Four-stage belt sa nd ing uses an assem bly of fo ur strips of abrasive pape r of increa si ng fi ne ne ss. The mount ed spec ime n is moved up and down o n each grade of paper without rocking the mount. Th e mounted spec im e n is abraded backward and forward with out rotation until all sanding mark s from the previous coarser abrasive paper have been elimi nated . See Figure 33-5.
With either four-stage belt sand ing o r four- stage w he e l g r ind ing, the amo unt of time spe nt on eac h abrasive material is increased as finer grades of mat erial ar e use d. Excessive sand ing with any grade of abrasive pape r must be avoid ed as it may cause subsurface deformation that cannot be eliminated by subseque nt grades of abrasi ve paper and that lead s to artifac ts. Th e mount is thoroughly washed and dried after fine grinding is completed . The direction of grind ing is changed 90 with each change o f abrasive paper, so that co mple te rem ov al of the pre viou s grind ing marks is ac h ieved. See Figure 33-6 .
Figure 33-5. Grinding ill four-stage bel t gr inding starts with 2-10-1:ril and finishes 1\';,11 600-l:ril /1(/l'er.
Four-st age w hee l grind ing is performed on a grinding wheel by changing the abra sive mat eri al at each stage to eliminate success ively fi ner scra tches. Ample water lubrica tion must be used to pre vent overheating.
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Micm .l n ,p;c exam ination procedures are typical!." performed ill ala" hy trained technicians.
Fjgure 33-6. The mount is rotated 90 0 and thoroug hly wa shed between successive papers to pre vent carryover of abrasive materials.
DIRECTION OF GRIND ING 320-GRIT ABRAS IVE 400-GRIT ABRAS IVE 600-GR IT ABRAS IVE
Rough Polishing. Rough polishing is a polishing process that is performed on a series of rotating wheels covered with a low-nap cloth (cloth containing a small amount of fiber). Successively finer grades of diamond rouge (polishing powder) are applied to each wheel, usually starting at 45 Il size. The grades usually decrease from 30 Il to 6 Il to 1 u. A small amount of lubricant is applied to the cloth to prevent overheating of the mount. The mount is washed with liquid soap and water, alcohol, or acetone between each polishing to prevent carryover of diamond
rouge.
of the specimen surface using tools such as energy-dispersive X-ray analysis or electron probe microanalysis. Automatic Polishing. Automatic pol ishing is a process that establishes a complex motion for the mount relative to the rotation of the polishing wheel. The rough and final polishing steps are performed in an automatic polishing machine . The machine setting is determined from operator experience. Automatic polishing is used for large batches of repetitive work , for radio active specimens, and for poli shing techniques that add corrosives to the wheel. See Figure 33-7.
Final Polishing. Final polishing is similar to rough polishing , but during final poli shing very light hand pressure is applied to the mount. After washing and drying in a current of warm air , the mount is examined under a metallurgical microscope for scratches. If the mount is scratch-free, it is ready for etching and examination under a metallurgical microscope. Final polishing is done by rubbing the mount against a medium-nap cloth that has a .3 Il to .05 Il alumina slurry applied to it. If the specimen surface is to be subjected to microanalysis, alumina should not be used. The presence of alumina during microanalys is may lead to misinterpretation of the results of the microanalysis . Microanalysis is chemical analysis of extreme ly small regions
454
< .
UCO Co rl'0 mlion
Electrolytic and Chemical Polishing. Electrolytic polishing and chemical polishing are methods of preparation that bypass the rough and final polishing
0 Weldin g Skills
stages. Electrolytic polishing is a polishing process in which the mount is the anode (connected to the positive terrninal) in an electrolytic solution and current is pa ssed from a metal cathode (connected to the negative terminal). The current is passed through the electrolytic solution between the anode and the cathode. Th e current removes the rou gh peaks on the speci men surface. If the gra in struc ture is homogeneou s and single-phase (consisting of one crystallographic component), a mirror-polished surface is obtained. See Figure 33-8.
Che mic al polishing is a poli shing proc ess that uses chemi cal reactions to remove th e rough peaks on the spec imen surfac e. The mount is immersed in a spec ific chemical that dissolve s the high peaks on the speci men to produce a mirror-polished finish. Che mical poli shing is similar to electrolytic polishing in that it removes the rough peaks on the specimen surfacc and produces a mirror-polished surface .
removes nm gh peaks 011 a specim en 11';111 the flow of C/lrr ell! between till anode and II cathode.
;II /:
POLISHED SURFACE
Metallography
~ 455
Etchin g nften re quires t!lc ' use of strong acids. ami all saf et y precautions must he observed. AJ~ way.... add acid to water when diluting. not vice versa .
Th e spec ime n is then thorou ghl y degreased, dried, and prepared for etching. Etching is the last stage before examination. Etchants selectively dissolve speci fic microstructural components. giving the as-polished surface a relief appearance. Etchants are se lected to di stingui sh va ri ous mi crostructural component s to provide the best view of the microstructural feature s. Etching is usually performed hy immersion. The specimen is immersed with th e poli shed face upward in a small dish of etching solution, which is genlly swirl ed . The spec ime n is removed when a bloom appears. A bloom is a slight haze that appears on the surface of the specimen and is evidence of the first appearance of the microstructure. See Figure 33-9.
Flgure 33-9. For optim um i'iewill!: of the m icrostrllcturt. the mOllllr is etched unt il a "'Ollm (If'J'< 'a H 011 the surface.
AWARNING~
Alway s add add t tl water whe n diluti ng. Nitri c acid ca uses stains and severe burn s. Wash affec ted a reas with water immediatel y if the nitric acid mix ture to uches the ski n.
When [ocu . . ing the metallurgical microscop e, cm llClct between tile lens ami tile spec imen mu.... t be avoided to pre vent surface damllKc' to the
mounted specimen.
If necessary, further etching may be performed after examination under a microscope to strengthen any details . However, over-etching may cause loss of contrast. After etching , the specimen is thorou ghly rinsed in running water. Then aceton e or alcohol is sprayed over the surface. The excess is allowed to run off against a cloth that is held at one side of the specimen. The specimen is then dried in a stream of hot air. The specimen should be etched and tin e polished at least twice to remove flowed metal from the surface.
Specimen Examination. Metallurgical microscope examination uses light refl ected from the specime n surface to e xamin e micro stru ctural detail s. The surface of the specimen must be widely sca nned to gain a repre sentative view of the microstructure . Detail s are re vealed becau se et ching atta ck s the gra ins of metal at different rate s , whi ch re sult s in variou s shading e ffects. The proper amount of etching is required for optimum vi ewing of the microstructure. Improper amount s of etching lead to overetchin g or underetching, resulting in false effects. See Figure 33- 10. The etched spec ime n is placed in a metallurgical microscope and examined at low -power ma gni ficati on of 25x or 50 x to obtain an over all impre ssion of the microstructure. It is then ex amined at increasing magnification s o f IOOx to IOOOx to reveal fine detail. High er magnification s up to 2500x cannot be achi e ved within the air space avai lable between the lens and the specimen . Higher magnification s require the use of water or oil immersion. A small amount of water or oil is daubed on the obj ective len s, which is lowered towards the specimen. If water or oil imme rsion is to be followed by lower magnification work, the water or oil is removed from the specime n and the mount may require repolishing and reetchin g. Surface films on some alloy s may require that specimens are repolished and re -etched several times to remove the affected surface layer and reveal their true structure. When focu sing the metallurgical microscope, contact betw een the lens and the spec imen must be avoided to prevent surface damage to the mounted specimen. The micro scope is focu sed in two steps. First, the microscope stage is gradually moved tow ard the objective lens using the coar se adjustment. Second, when the image appears, the focus ing is completed usin g the fine adju stment.
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Figure 33-10. Properly etched spe cimens reveal true microstructural f eatures when viewed hy a metullurgivul microscop e.
Metallurgical microscopes vary from small benchtop units to larger units that have thei r own frame work. Some are equipped with a video camera and monitor that are used to view microstructures. See Figure 33- 11. A me tallog raplt is a metallurgical micro scop e equipped to photograph microstructures and produce photomicrogr aph s. Photomi cro graph s are photographs of microstructures.
Interpretation probl em s such as arti facts and surfa ce films may hinder metallurgical mi croscopic ex aminatio n. An artifact doe s not correspond to the true microstru ctur e and occ urs during metallographic spec ime n preparation . Artifacts result hom incompl ete removal of a thin surface layer that has been affected by the specimen preparation proce ss. For example, overheating
Figu re 33-11. TIl(' benchtop met allurgical microscope is commollly used for specitnan ex amination.
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during cutting may give the false impression that the specimen was heattre ated .
Specimens may need to he repolished and re-etched if interpretation problems occur du ring preparation.
Illumination. Different types of illumination e nha nce the appearance of the microstructural ch aracteri stics of the spec im e ns . These include brightfield illum ination . d arkfield illum ination, polarized illumination, and Nomarski illumination. See Figure 33 - 12.
Brightfield illumination is an illumination process in wh ic h the s ur fa ce feature s perpendic ular to the o pt ical axi s of t he m ic ro sc o pe appear the
brightes t. Brightfield illumination is the most common form o f illu m inat ion used wi th a me tallurgica l microscope. The surface of the spe c imen is placed perpendicular to the optical axi s of the m icroscope and a white light is used. Darkfield illumination is an illumination process that illuminates the specimen at suffic ient obliqueness (a narrow angle to the s urface) so that the contra st is com plete ly reversed from that obtained with bri ghtfield illum ination. Those area, that are bright in brightfield will be dark in darkfield and vice versa. Darkfield illum ination is useful for highlighting microstructural feature s (inclu sions, g ra in bound aries , a nd cracks) that are dark and difficult to distingui sh under brightfie ld illumination.
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brigiufietd. dark-
field, p olarized. lind Nomarski may be "sed 10 nvrat microst ructural features.
POLARIZED
NOMARSKI
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Weldillg Skills
Polarized illamination is an illumination process that reveals microstructural features in metals that are optically anisotropic. Optically anisotropic describes a microstructural feature in which the microstructure has optical properties that vary with changes in the viewing direction. The light is polarized by placing a polarizer in front of the condenser lens of the microscope and placing an analyzer behind the eyepiece. A polarizer is a device into which normal light passes and from which polarized light emerges. Nomarski illumination is an illumination process that illuminates the specimen using polarized light that is separated into two beams by a biprism. A biprism is two uniaxial, doublerefracting crystals. The beams are reflected back through the biprism off of the specimen surface . The biprism combines the beams into one beam, which is run though an analyzer and viewed through an eyepiece. Images produced are three-dimensional and vary in color. This variation in dimension and color is used to identify metals and their various phases .
Specimen Preparation
Specimen preparation for macro scopic examination consists of removing a slice, by flame cutting or sawing, in the plane to be examined. Fabrication codes and standards may indicate where cuts must be taken to produce acceptable specimens for macroscopic examination.
affectedzone.
MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Macroscopic examination is used to reveal the general structure of large areas of a specimen because they might not be revealed under the higher magnifications used in microscopic examination. Macroscopic examination is performed with the naked eye or at magnifications up to lOx using a binocular microscope. Larger specimens are used for macroscopic examination than are used for microscopic examination. A specimen for macroscopic examination is usually an entire section through a component. These specimens are used to reveal gross elements of fabrication quality, such as size of weld. Macroscopic examination consists of specimen preparation; rough and fine grinding; and macroetching and examination. Photography may be used to document macroscopic examination.
and requires the use of macroetchants. Macroetchants are deep etchants that are intended to develop gross features such as weld solidification structures. Macroetchants are designed to attack metal more deeply and more quickly than metallographic etchants. See Figure 33-13. Different etchants, such as hydrochloric acid, ammonium hydroxideperoxide, or nitric acid, are used to reveal specific types of microstructural details. After the etching process, the specimen is ready for examination in a metallurgical microscope. See Appendix. A hydrochloric acid solution should contain equal parts by volume of concentrated hydrochloric (muriatic) acid and water. Immerse the weld in the
Macroscopic examination may be used to examine specimens with large test surface areas.
~ ~ -
Macros copic ex amination consists ofspecimen preparation; rough and fine grinding; and macroetching and examination.
Metallagraphy @o 459
boiling reagent. Hydrochloric acid will etch unpoli shed surfaces . It usually e nlarges gas pock et s and disso lve s slag inclusion s, enlarg ing the resulting cavities .
An ammonium hydroxide-peroxide solution should co ntain one part am monium per sulfate (so lid) and nin e parts water by weight. Vigorou sly rub the surface of the weld with cotton saturated with the ammonium per sulfate reagent at roo m temperature. Nitric acid etches rapidly and should only be used on poli shed surfaces . It will show the refined zone as well as the metal zone. Mix one part concentrated nitr ic acid to three part s water by vo lume. Eithe r apply the rea gent
to the surface of the weld with a glass stirring rod at room temperature or immerse the weld in boiling reagent, provided the room is well ventilated. After etching, wash the weld immediately in clear, hot water. Rem ove exc ess water. Dip the etched surface in ethyl alcohol : th en rem ove a nd dry it in a steady blast of warm air. An iodin e a nd pot assium iod id e solution is obtained by mixing one part powdered iodine (solid) to 12 parts of a so lutio n o f pota ssium iod id e by weight. The pota ssium iodide solution should co nsist of one part potassium iodide to five parts water by weight. Brush the surface of the weld with this reagent at room temperature.
Flgure 33 13. Macroetciuuus are dn'l' rtchants intended to develop gross features such as weld .1 '0 tidificanon structures.
MACROETCHANTS
Etching Solution
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Surface Preparation'
Comments
Swab; macroetch brings out fusion line, heat -affected zone, reheated zones, columnar zones Swab; macroetch brings out fusion line, heat-affected zone, reheated zones, columnar zones; scrub gently underrunning water to remove any black residue
Immerse; highlights part ially
15 mL HN0 3 + 85 mL H20 + 5 mL methanol or ethanol 8 mL HN0 3 + 2 9 picric aci d + 10 9 (NH3),S,o. + 109 citri c acid + 10 drops (.5 mL) benzalkonium chloride + 1500 mL H2O
Aluminum Alloys Tucker's reagent, 45 mL HCI + 15 mL HN 0 3 + 15 mL HF (48%) + 25 mL H2O Poulton's reagent, 60 mL HCI + 30 mL HN 0 3 + 5 mL HF (48 %) + 5 mL H2O
Copper and Copper Allays
A,B
A, B
A. B
A,B
Immerse; general macro- and rnlcro etch ; increase HN0 3 and reduce HF to bring out the fine structures in weldrn errts
Macroetching. Macroetching is usually performed by gently daubing the sample with the macroetchant or by immersing smaller specimens in the macroetchant and gently swirling. Higher temperatures accelerate the etching rate. Prolonged etching is avoided because it leads to darkening of the specimen . which obscures detail. When the structural fea tures are developed. the specimen is immediately rinsed in warm running water. During rinsing, the surface should be scrubbed with a soft bristle brush to remove deposits formed during macroetching. Deposits may contain residual macroetchant and may lead to localized overetching if the macroetchant is not thoroughly removed. The washed specimen is dried by squirting it with alcohol or acetone, which is allowed to drain into a cloth that is held at one side of the mount, and then drying the specimen in a current of warm air. The surface must be preserved as quickly as possible after drying, once it has been determined that the amount of macroetching is adequate . Preservation consists of coating the surface with a clear lacquer. If the surface is not preserved it will oxidize and darken with time and lose surface features. Examination. Examination of macroetched samples may be performed with the naked eye or under a binocular microscope. A binocular microscope is a light microscope that provides a lowmagnification, three-dimensional view of the surface. A binocular microscope is limited to a magnification of 30x to SOx for most work. The magnification of a binocular microscope is limited by the required depth of field. Depth orfield is the total depth of the image that can be maintained in focus within a lens. The rougher the surfaces of a weld or its macroetched face, the lower the useful magnification and the greater the depth of field required. Macroscopic examination is described in ASTM E 381 , Macroetch Testing, Inspection, and Rating or Steel Products, Comprising Bars, Billets, Blooms, and Forgings.
Photomacrography is the documentation of macroetched samples using photography. Photomacrography is performed using an overhead digital camera. A ruler is placed alongside the specimen to indicate scale . The roughened surface attained through macroetching must be in focus to achieve adequate resolution. Resolution is controlled by the depth of field of the lens. Depth of field is controlled by three factors: the focal length of the lens, the aperture (area) of the lens, and the distance between the surface and the lens. Depth of field varies as the inverse square of the focal length. For example, if the focal length is reduced by one half; the depth of field increases by a factor of four. Depth of field doubles as the aperture setting (f-stop number of the lens) doubles. The f-stop indicates the aperture size of the lens . Depth of field is proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from the lens. For example, if the aperture size of the lens is increased by a factor of three, the depth of field increases by a factor of nine.
Lighting
Lighting has the greatest overall effect on the appearance of a surface. Proper use of lighting sources and lighting methods permits key features and morphology of the specimen to be revealed. The four types of lighting sources are spotlight, diffused light, reflected light, and flash light. See Figure 33-14. A spotlight is an intense lighting source that uses a single bulb in a reflector. Diffused light is a lighting source that use s a semi -opaque screen (such as ground glass) to diffuse the light source, reduce glare, and soften harsh details. Reflected light is a lighting source that bounces light off a white card, wall, or ceiling. The effect produced is similar to the effect produced by diffused light. A flashlight is a lighting source that provides a pulse of very intense light. A flashlight is the best light source (next to direct sunlight) for color photography of uneven surfaces .
features.
Metallography @o 461
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DIFFUSED SEMIOPAQUE SCREEN
J1tahligllt.
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SPOTLIGHT
DIFFUSED LIGHT
WHITE CARD
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REFLECTED LIGHT
J
FLASHLIGHT
REFLECTED LIGHT
The four types of lightin g methods are main lighting, fill lighting, backlight ing, an d bu ildup lightin g. These light ing met hods use com bin ation s of the four types of light sources to achieve the des ired lighting effect. Main lighting is a primary ligh ting method that uses a light source at avertical angle of 40 to 60 to the subject. Fill lighting is a lighting method that uses a small region of a brighter light to increase detail on a dark area of a subject.
462 ~ Welding Skills
The light source for till lighting may be spo tlig ht, diffused light, or re flected light. Backli ghting is a lighting method that uses a diffused light source to eliminate or soften shadow detail. A light box (lighted ground-glass screen) behind the specimen is the most commo n diffused light so urce for backligh ting. Buildup lig hting is a lightin g method that combines (adding or deleting) light sources to achieve the desired ligh ting effect. See Figure 33- 15.
Figure 33-15. P roper selection and U .H ' of fiX/u jrlK met hod s permits key fe at ures 0 11 a fracture surface 10 be revealed .
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CAMERA " :
40'-60'
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I . T he stages of meta llography include cutting and rough grinding, mounting and fine grinding. rough and fina l polishing, and etching and examination. 2. Etching often requires the use of strong acid s, and all safety precaut ions must be observed. Always add acid to water when dilut ing, not vice versa. 3. When focusin g the metallurg ical microscope, contact betwee n the lens and the specimen must be avo ided to prevent surfac e damage to the mounted spec imen. 4. When examining metallographic sample s under a metallurgical microscope , illumin ation technique s such as brightfield, darkfi eld, polarized, and Nomarski may be used to reveal microstructural features. 5 . Macroscopi c examination may be used to exa mine spec imens with large test surface areas. 6 . Macroscop ic examinatio n co nsists of spec imen prep arati on ; rou gh and fine gri ndi ng ; and macro etching and examination. 7. Magnifi cation, resolution , and lighti ng are the three most important method s of photo graphy used for documenting macroscopic examin ation feature s.
Metallography ~ 463
I . What types of weld attributes may be studied using metallography? 2 . Why must overheating be avoided when cutting specimens for metallographic examination? 3. What is the minimum distance the heat source must be kept from the area of interest when burning is used to remove specimens? 4. What is the purpose of rough grinding for metallographic examination? 5. What is macroscopic examination? 6. Why are successively finer stages of grinding and polishing used to prepare a specimen for metallographic examination? 7. Why must a polished specimen be etched before examination under a metallurgical microscope? 8 . What is the difference between microetchants and macroetchants? 9. What type of light does a metallurgical microscope use? 10. How does the magnification range of a metallurgical microscope compare with that of a binocular microscope? I I. What is the meaning of depth of field when used in the examination of macroscopic specimens?
Weld discontinuities are interruptions in the structure of a weld and are not necessarily weld defec ts. Weld discontinuities are caused by poor weld design, improper welding p rocedures, and improper welder techniques. Weld discontinuities are grouped according to their nature. Weld defects are weld discontinuities that fa il to meet the requirements ofthe codes or standards by which the weld is made. A weld defect requires that the weld be rejected, or repaired and reexamined. Weld defects are not permitted by controlling codes or standards because they can lead 10 premature failure. Various nondestructive examination (NDE) techniques are used to detect weld defe cts and discontinuities and measure their size and orientation.
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
A weld discontinuity is an interrupti on in the typical structure of a weld. Weld discon tinuities ca n occur in the we ld metal, the heat-affected zo ne (HAZ), or the base metal. Their location var ies dep ending upon the type of weld. A weld discontinu ity is not always conside red a defect. Th e tran s ition poi nt be twee n a disco ntinuity and a defect depe nds upon the fabricat ion standard or code that co ntro ls the we lded joint design and qu alit y. D isco nt inuit ies ar e de te cted hy nond estruc ti ve exa mina t io n ( NDE). Th e most co mmo n N DE techn iqu es used a re vis ua l exam ination (V T) , mag netic particle exami nat io n (MT) , liqu id penetra nt examinatio n (PT), radiog raphic examinatio n (RT), and ultraso nic examination (U T) . The most appli cabl e N DE techniqu e or techniques are selected to locate and measure the s ize a nd o rientatio n of th e disco nt in uity. Th e di scontinuity si ze and o rie ntat io n are the n compared with wha t is a llowable in the appli-
cabl e fabricat ion standa rd or co de to decide whethe r the di scontinuity is a defect and whether the weld should be acc epted or rejected .
A discontinuit y is an int erruption in the structu re of a weld . D ;SC0 1l1i,, uities are 1101 always
defec ts.
Weld Defects
Weld defect s res u lt from weld discontinuiti es that by thei r nature or their acc umulated effec t are unahl e to meet the minimu m acceptable requiremen ts of the applicab le fa brication standard or code. An unacceptabl e discontinuity under certain se rvice co nditi on s ma y be acceptabl e in a le ss demanding service or in another metal. Refer to the requirement s of the fabrica tio n co de or standard that governs the quality of the we lded jo int under considera tion. See Figure 34-1. A weld defect requires rejec tion of the part.
Discontinuities art' classified (IS deject s when tlu'y exceed the min imum re qui re me1lts permitted by the controlling code or standard.
o A discontinuity
;.'1 a crack, flaw: or imperfection in a base material or weld metal. Discontinuities are classified b)' their 11(1 rure (how they alter stresses in the weld) and by their shape. which encompasses their orienta tion with respect 10 the workingstress and their location with respect to the weld.
465
Types of Defect
None allowed [except shallow cra ter cracks in the cover pass with max imum length of ~1 Incomplete Penet ration at root pass Maximum ot t " in length in 12'" of weld , or 8% of weld length it less tha n 12" Maximum individual length of 1'" Maximum individual length of 2'" Maximum accumulated Ieogth 01 3'" in 12'" of continuous weld Maximum ct t " in length in 12" of weld . or 8% of weld length if Jess than 12"" Max imum ind ividual length ot t " Max imum individual length of 2" Maximum accumulated length of 2" in 12" of conlinuous weld Pipe Max im u m Dia mete r Defect less than 20/." 0 0 Y~'" greater than or equal to 20/,'" 0 0 Y,'" Max im u m Tot al Win2"
Nooe Allowed
None Allowed
None Allowed
None Allowed
None Allowed
None Allowed
Non e Allowed
None Allowed
None Allowed
None Allowed
Ment hrou gh
'"
Not Covered
Internal Concavity
If density 01 radiographic image of internal concavity is less tha n base met al, any length is allowable. If more dense, the n see burn-t hroug h above Ma ximum dept h Ya2" or 12 lf.o% wall thickness, wh ic hever is smaller. o Ma ximum 2" length or % wall thickn ess, wh ich ever is less, for depth of 1/"." to lh;o" o r 6% to 12'12% of wall thickn ess, whichever is less
o Maximum length is 2" and width V1S" o Maximum total length 2" in 12" of weld . Parallel slag lines are co nsidered sepa rate if width of eithe r excee ds ~". Isolated Slag Inclusions: Maxim um widt h WI"an d lh" length in 12" of weld . No mo re than 4 isolated inc lusions of ~" maximum wid th.
Shall not reduce weld thickness to less than thinne r mate rial. Contour of conca vity shall be smoo th For horizo ntal butt joints : maximum depth 'h2'" For vertical butt joints: maximum depth Yr.,"
Not Covere d
~" or 10%
Maximum Material Thickness Slag Length less than or equal to %" '/ ~" %" to 2 V~R %It Y," great er than 2Y~R Maximum length of tt in 12t t length
Mat eri al Thi ckn es s less than or equa l to %" 0/." to 2Vl' grea ter than 2 Y~R
%tt
Y,"
___
.-l-~
~~
10 0 % X -Ray, Random X- Ray, a nd S pot X- R ay a re q uality level d e signations u sed whe n o ther NDE me lhods 01eva luation are used t t '" weld thickness t T '" thinner m ateria l thickness w = weld width I s e e U HT-20 fo r special heat- treated ferritic steels , joint category A 00 joint categories B , C . and D
by the ASME p re ssure vessel and ANSI p iping codes a nd are a lso u se d
Figure J4~1. Fabrication standards and codes govern tile acceptahte qllality of a Ire/Jed jo int. and are the determinin g [actor ill 'he acceptance or rej ection oj a weld . See Appendix,
Weld Stresses
Weld stresses "UIY be
et/cecf discontinuities.
letll/in,:: tof ailure UII der load.
Weld stresses may be increased or concentrated in a specific area by defec ts. Weld stres ses are mag nified when discontinuities reduce the cross-sectional area of the weld that is avai lab le to support the load. T he average stress on a weld is in direct proportion to the reduction of the load-bearing cro sssectional area ca used by the disconti nuit y. The lowe r the load-bearin g cross-sec tiona l area, the high er the
stress. If the load-bearing cross-sectional area of a weld is reduced sufficiently, structural failure may occur under load. See Figure 34-2. Concentrated weld stresses occur at discont inuitie s that create abrupt cha nges of geo metry, result ing in a notch effect. A notch effect is a stressco ncentrating condition caused by an abrupt cha nge in section thickness or in co ntinu ity of the struc ture. The sharper the change of geometry in the
466
0 Welding Skills
notch effect , the greater the stress concentration. Tensile stresses perpe ndicular to the notch and she ar stresses parallel to the notch are concentrated at the tip of the notch . Extremely high stress concentrations can develop at extremel y sharp not che s created by pla nar-type di scontinuities s uch as cracks, lamination s, or incomplete fusion. Such di scontinuit ie s may lead to catastrophic fracture in service. See Figure 34-3 .
[ec tion that can occur ;11 welds. Cracks sho uld always he remo ved beca use they reduce the strength of the weld.
Discontin uities th at concentrate stresses are usually more detrim ental than discont inuities that amplify stress. Weld discontinuity types are cracks, cavities, inclusions, incomplete fusion and incomplete penetration, incorrect shape, and miscellaneous discont inuities.
CRACKS
A crack is a fracture -type discontinuity characterized by a sharp tip and a high ratio of length to width , and width to open ing di splacement. Cr ack s are the mo st serious di sc ontinuities in we ldments a nd are not perm itted in fabr icat io n sta ndard s and codes . Cracks are not per mitted becau se they create signil1cant stress concentrat ions at thei r tips . See Fig ure 34-4. When crack ing is observed during welding, it must be remo ved before weldi ng co nti nues . Wel d metal that is deposited over a crack can result in extension of the crack into newly depo sited weld metal.
Fi~un'
Ffgure 3-1-2. If the load- bea ring area of a weld is .u ifficit'tIl1 y reduced . structural failure may occur when the part is place d under load.
LOAD
SHARP STRESS CONCENTRATION PRODUCED AT CRACK . LEADING TO PREMATURE FAILURE UNDER LOAD
mOf e del -
rimen tal ' ha ll discontinuities I1WI amplify stresses. and may lead /0 catastrophic fra cture ami failu re ill service.
t
LOAD SMOOTH TRAN SITION BElWEEN WELD AND BAS E METAL MEANS THAT STRESS AMPLIF ICATION IS MINIMIZED AND PART DOES NOT FAIL PREMATURELY UNDER LOAD LOAD
t
LOAD
t
We'ld Discontinuities :: 467
Figure 34-4. Cracks are flOT permined ill metal because they create \'ign!f/can{ stress concentrations at their tips. Cracks must he removed before welding contin ues .
Prehe at Reliev e residual st resses mec hanic ally Highl y rigid joi nt Minimize shrinkage st resses using back- step o r block weldi ng sequence Change we lding cu rrent and travel speed We ld with covered electrode , DCEN; butter th e joi nt faces prior to we lding Change to new electrode ; prope rly store and maintain electrodes to prevent moisture and damage Reduce root opening; build up edg es wit h weld metal Increase electrode size ; raise weld ing current; red uce travel speed Use low-sulfur filler metal Ch ange to balanced welding on both sides of joint Fill c rater before extinguishi ng the arc; use a welding cu rrent decay device when te rminating the w eld bead
Excessive dilution
Defective electrodes Poor fit-up Small weld bead High -su lfur base metal Angu lar distor tion Crate r crack ing
Heat.AffecledZqne
Hydrogen in welding atmosphere Hot cracking Low ductility High residual stresses High hardenability Br ittle phases in the microstructure Use low-hydrogen welding process ; preh eat and hold for 2 hr after wel ding or posth eat immediately Use low heat input; deposit thin layer s; change ba se metal Use preheat; anneal bas e met al Redes ign the w eldment; chan ge welding sequence ; app ly intermediate stress-relief heat treatment Preheat; increase heat input ; heat treat withou t cooling to room temperature Solution heat treat pr ior to weld ing
Cracks may occur in the weld, the HAZ, or the base metal when the localized stress exceeds the ultimate strength of the metal. Cracks are classified as hot crack s or cold cracks, and may be longitudinal or transvers e in their orientation . A hot crack is a crack formed at temperatures near the completion of solidification. A cold crack is a crack that develop s after solidification is complete. Hot cracks propagate between the grains of metal, and cold cracks propagate both between and through the grains of the metal. A lon gitudinal crack is a crack with its major axi s oriented approximately parallel to the weld axis. A transverse crack is a crack with its major axis ori ented approximately perpendicular to the weld axis . See Figure 34-5. Crack s are clas sified according to their location in the weld . Crack types in welds are throat cracks, crater cracks, tran sverse c racks, underbead cracks, lamellar tearing, toe and root cracks, fissures, and liquid metal embrittlement.
Crack Types
Figure 345
C RAT ER CRACK (HOT CRACK)
Figure 34-5. Cracks arc classified acco rding to their location in the weld.
Throat Cracks
Throat cracks are lon gitudi nal cracks in the middl e of the surface (throat) of a weld, exte nd ing toward the root of the weld . Throat cracks are hot cracks that are co nfined to the center of the weld. Throat cracks may be the extensio n through success ive weld pa sses of a crac k that started in the first pass (root pass), A throat crack that starts in th e root pass a nd is no t rem o ved o r co mplete ly rem elted before dep ositi on of the next pass tends to progress into it and then to each succeeding pass, unti I it appears at the surface. Final extension of the crack to the surface may also occur during cooling after welding has been co mpleted. See Figure 34-6.
metal. Th e we ld g roo ve dimen si on s mu st be adj usted to allow depo sition of a sufficient amount of filler metal to overcome excess ive joint restraint. The welding process variables must be adjusted to permit correct weld bead size for the joint thickness, sufficie nt heat input , and optimum travel speed to preve nt e xce ssiv e stresses during so lidification . Th ese ma y also be ac hieved by fact ors suc h as usin g a more du ctile fill er meta l a nd red uc ing cooling rate through application of preheat.
Crater Cracks
Crater cracks are sta r-s ha pe d cracks w h ic h e xtend from th e c rate r of th e weld to the edg e o f th e weld. Crat e r c rac ks may be the starti ng point fo r throat cracks, particularly when in the c rater formed at th e co mple tio n o f a weld . Crater cracks are hot crack s formed by improperl y endin g th e welding arc in the crater of the weld . When the crater is formed el sewhere (for in stance , when an e lec trode is chan ged). the crack may be welded out w he n ope rat io n resumes . If not , fine star-shaped cracks are observed at variou s location s. Crater crac ks are most often found in materials with high co effic ie nts of e xpansion such as au stenitic stainless steels. See Figure 34-7. Crater cracks are mo st commonly detected by VT. Crater cracks are clearly visibl e to the naked eye as star-sha ped fissu res in the sm all crate r fo rme d at the terminat ion of a we ld pass.
.l~ -7. Crate r cr acks an ' IIot cracks /o r/l/('(/ f rom imprope r termination (~f the wl'1dillg arc in the crater of th e weld. Crater cracks a re commonty found in materials with (/ high coefficient of expansion.
Throat Cracks
Figure 34-6
THR OAT CRACK EXTEND S THROUGH WELD AS FILLER PASSES ARE AD DED
Figure J..l6. Throat cracks are longitudinal crack s that start ;1/ the root bead and extend throu gh the weld as filler / 1(IH e .f lire added.
Thro at c racks are de tected by visual examination or liquid pen etrant examination. Throat c rac ks appear as relativel y lon g, strai ght cracks al on g the centerline of the weld . VT is often an ad equate method o f detection because throat cracks a re relati vel y wide di scont inuiti es . Throat Crack Prevention. Thro at cracks a re pre vented by usin g jo in t desig ns that redu ce joint res traint a nd e xcessive stresses in so lid ifying we ld
Figure
469
Crater Crack Prevention. Crater cracks are pre vented by properly terminating th e weld . Method s used to pr event cracks include back -stepping the arc into previ ously solidified material befo re breakin g it. using a foot ped al to allow decay of the arc; filling craters to a slightly co nvex shape prior to breaking the arc; or using a run -off tab. A run-off tab is a piece of met al of the same compos ition and thickn ess as the base metal that is tacked to the metal to allow the we ld to be completed. The run-off tab is later removed by cutting it off. See Figure 34-8.
Figure 34-8. A mil-off tab is lack welded to rl/(, pla tes 10 he welded to allow welding 10 rim ojf onto it to prevent crater cracks from form ing ill the weld.
using an inc orrect fill er metal compo sition, rapid cooling, or a weld that is too small for the part bein g j oined. Depending on the situation, tran sverse cracks may be eliminated by using the proper filler metal co mposition, higher welding current or preheat , or a larger filler metal and final weld dimension. re specti vel y.
Underbead Crocks
Unde rbea d cracks are c rac ks in the HAZ that generally do not extend to the surface of the base met al. Unde rbead cracks may be lon gitudinal o r tran sverse, depending on the direction of the principal s tresses in th e weldment. Underbe ad crac ks are co ld cracks and are usually short and discontinuou s. See Figure 34-9 .
Run-off Tabs
Figure 348
PLATES BEING WELDED
.
RUNOFF TAB
..
UNDERBEAD CRACK
Transverse Crocks
Trans verse cracks are cracks in a weld perpendicul ar to the axis of the we ld and so metimes ex tending beyond the weld int o the base metal. Tran sverse cracks are cold crack s resulting from high res traint ac ting on low ductility weld metal. Transverse cracks in steel we ld ments are usually rel ated to hydrogen em britt le me nt. Tr an sver se cracks are detected by VT. PT. and MT as tight . relatively straight cracks perpendi cul ar to the weld axi s. Transverse Crack Prevention. Transverse crack prevention depends on the specific welding situation. For example. transverse cracks may be caused by
470 l' Weldin g Skill"
Figure 34-9. Unde rbead crack.. ~ me cold cracks that fo rm in the heat-affected zone, and gene rattv do not ex tend to the surface of the base met al.
Unde rbead c racks are hydrogen cracks that occ ur in steels susce ptible to hydrogen e mbritt le me nt during welding. Dissol ved hydrogen . whi ch is relea sed fro m the electrode or from the base metal, combines with martensite formed in the HAZ during rapid cooling, creating a narrow region that is extremely br ittle and se ns itive (0 c rac king from re sidual stresses. Underbead c rac ks are det ected by UT or RT because the crack is usually
below the surface and immediatel y adjacent the weld. Because of their tightness and s hort len gth , underbead cracks may be difficult to detect. Underbead Crack Prevention. Underbead cracks are prevented by avoiding hydrogen cre ation in stee ls that ar e susce ptible to hydrogen embrittlement. Welding conditions that encourage hydro gen creation include poor she lte ring of outdoor wor k that permit s rain, snow, or condensation to contact welded areas. Underbead crack prevention is achieved by using lowhydrogen electrodes to join susceptible steels and excluding moisture from electrodes. A dr ying pro cedure mu st be used to remove moisture that can absorb into the coatings on some types of electrodes when exposed to humid atmospheres. Th e pro cedure involves storing electrodes in a low-temperature oven, preh eatin g th e s urface before weld ing to remov e moi sture, and postheating immediately to encourage hydrogen to escape. See Figure 34- 10.
Lamellar T earing
Lam ellar T earing is a subs urface terrac e and s te p-like crack pattern in wrought steel base metal oriented parallel to the base metal working direction. Lame llar tearin g is cau sed by tensile stresses in the base metal from welding in a directi on perpend icul ar to the working directi on, acting upon nonm e talli c in clu si on s in th e ba se metal parall el to the wor ki ng di rection. Nonmet allic inclusions consist of metalli c oxides, sulfides, and silica tes that are held in steel. Nonmetallic inclusions are formed durin g solidification in the stee lmaking process from addit ives to the melt or contamination from refractory in the mold . Hot or co ld wo rking elon gat es nonmetall ic inclusions in the working direction if they are plastic at the working temperature. Th e net result of the elon gated nonmetall ic incl usio ns is to decrease through-thi ckn ess ductility. This result s in lamellar tearin g parallel to the direction of the inclusi ons. Lam ell ar tearing is most likel y to occur when we lding stee l plate using groove welds , fillet welds, or co mbinatioos of them . T-joints may be especi ally s usc e ptib le to lam ell ar tearin g. See Figure 34- 11. Th e two members of a T-joint are located at approximately right angle s to eac h other in the form of a T. Under these conditions, high ten sil e stresses ca n develop perpe ndicular to the midplane of the stee l plate . Th e magnitude of the tensile stresses depends on the size of the we ld, the welding procedure, and the amount of joint res traint imposed by the weldin g design . La mella r tearin g detecti on is diffi cult because it usuall y does not bre ak to the surface. RT and UT are the most applica ble meth ods fo r de tec tio n of la me lla r tearing , whic h has th e ap pearan ce of ste p-like, jagged cracking, with eac h step nearly parallel to the midpl ane of the plate.
Weld Discontinuities :) 471
Figure 34-10. Low-hydrogen elec tro des can !Jell' prevent und erbead cracking. Moistu re is remo ved f rom electrodes befor e use by storing the electrodes
i n all o vell .
Ftgure 3~11. Lamellar tear ing is caused by welding stresses in the ba se me tal perpendicular 10 the working direction,
The chalice of lamellar tearing can be reduced bv using the correct material, joint design, 'welding process. and fill er metal. Preheating and buttering the jo int can also help reduce the risk oftearing.
T "dlll;""" . Inc.
Lamellar Tearing Prevention. Lamellar tearing is prevented most reliably by the use o f spec ia lly pro ce ssed stee l product s that do not contain elongated nonmetallic inclusions. Such steel products are used in critica l applicati on s where lamellar tearing is detrimental. Other methods of reducing lamellar tearing in regular steel products rely on reducti on of the stress in the welded joint. Sec Figure 34- 12. These methods include changing the location and /or design of the weld joint to minimi ze through-thickness strains; using a lower stren gth weld metal; reducing hydro gen in the weld ; using preheat and interpass temperatures of at least 200F; and peening the weld bead immediately after completion of a weld pass.
Th e mmt effective Win' of preventing lamellar tea rill; L~ 10 redesign the weld joint to minimize stresses (III the joint.
Toe cracks and root cracks have similar causes but different appearanc es. Toe cracks are cracks that proceed from the weld toe into th e HAZ and base metal. The weld toe is the j unction of th e we ld face and ba se met al. Root cracks are cracks that proceed into the base metal fro m th e root of a fille t weld. Toe cracks and root cracks are ge nera lly co ld cr acks and initiate in regions of high residual stress. See Figure 34- 13. Toe cracks ar e ge nerally caused by stresses from thermal shrinkage acting D n a brittle HAZ. Toe cracks are identified by VT, PT, and MT, and from their location at th e weld toe. Root cracks are difficult to detect unless they have propagat ed through to the opposite side of the base metal. Toe and Root Crack Prevention. Toe and root crack prevention requires welding procedu res and techni que s th at eliminate embrittlement or exces sive stresses in the HAZ of the base metal. With hard en abl e stee ls. toe and roo t crack prevention may be achieve d by retarding the cooling rate of the base metal and HAZ with high preheat, or by stress relief after welding with postheat.
Figure
3~12.
CORNER JOINT
Figure 3.$-13. T oe cracks proceed fro m the weld foe into tile heat affected =:0 11(' and base meta l. Root cracks initiate if! regions of hiK'1 residual stress.
TOE CRACK
HAZ
GROOVE
FILLET
em britt leme nt may be detected by PT as a relati vely wide. jagged crack revea led un der magn ificat ion . Liquid Metal Embrittlement Prevention. Liquid met al c mbri tt le me nt is pr e vented by avoidin g suscep tib le braze-base metal co uples or by ensuring cleanline ss of the j oint surfaces before welding or brazing. For exa mple. when welding ga lvanized steel to austen itic stainless steel. all zinc must be removed by grit blasting a minimum of W' (13 mm) from the joi nt face to ensure tbat the zinc does not melt and mix with the austenitic stainless steel. resulting in liquid meta l embri ttlement. Liquid metal emb rittlement susceptibility may be assessed prio r to we lding or brazing by testing combinations of weld mc tal and base mctal under simulated joint restraint conditions.
Figul"e ~~l". Liqu id metal emb ritt lement commo nly occurs ;1/ certain IH,e.~ of metals. usually where (l part is exposed to excess stre ss.
Brazes are a co mmon cause of liquid metal embri ttleme nt in susce ptible alloys. Fo r examp le, man y nickel alloys, when in a stressed condition, may crack from liquid meta l embrittlement in co ntact with molt en brazing mctal. Liq uid metal embritt lcme nt ma y also occur during we lding from contami nation of a base metal by other metals. For example, when weldi ng auste nitic stain less stee ls to ga lva nized stee ls, zinc co ntaminat ion may ca use liquid me ta l embritt lement of the austenitic stainle ss stee l ba se metal. The zinc contamination may be introduced by gri nd ing d us t or direct co ntact between the two metal s, such as whc n we lding auste nitic stainless stee l to ga lva nized carbon stee l. Liq uid metal
CAVITIES
Cav ities are we ld discontinuities consisting o f rou nded ho les of various types, either within the weld or at the surface of the weld. Two causes of cavities are gas entrapment during solidification of the weld or contraction (suckback) of the weld during solidification, wbic h ca nnot be replaced by molten metal. Poros ity and worm holes are cav ity ty pes for med by gascs .
Weld Discontinuities
1: 473
Shrinkage void s are a cav ity type formed by contraction of the weld metal during solidification. See Figure 34-15 . Cavities are usually less serious than crack s be cau se their ro unded shape causes significantly lower stress concentration than cracks. Fabrication standard s and codes allow certa in type s of cavities such as porosity, depending on their size, number, and orientation.
straight line. The number and size of the pores and their linear distr ibution with respect to the axis of the weld usually define linear porosity. Linea r porosity generally occurs in the root pass.
Porosity
Figure 34-16
Ftgure 34 -15 . Sh ri nkage voi ds are II cavi ty type fo rmed by n m traction (.m ckbClck' of the .... etd metal during sol idific ation.
.,
SHRINKAGE ) VOID CAUSED BY CONTRACTION (SUCKBACK)
.Porosity
Poro sit y co ns ists o f ca vity-t ype di scontinuiti es for med by gas entrapment during solidificati on. See Figure 34- 16. Porosity may be surface porosity or subsurface porosi ty. Surface porosity (blowholes) cons ists of discrete spherica l pit s on the surface of the weld. Surface porosity is formed if disso lved gases ca nnot fu lly esca pe before the weld metal solidifies. Surface porosity may be det rimental to fatigue strength if ali gned in a direction perpendicu lar to the direction of stresses. Subsurface porosity con sists of discre te spherical holes within the body of a weld . Subsurface poro sity distribution is classified as uniformly scattered , clu ster , or linear. Uniformly scattered poro sity exhibits a un iform di stribution of pores throug hout the weld metal, with size varying from almost microscopic to 1/a" in diameter. Cl uster porosity voids occur in th e fo rm of clusters separated by co nsiderab le lengths of pore-free weld metal. C lu ster porosity is assoc ia te d with changes in we ld ing conditions , such as stopping or starting of the arc. Linear porosity is charac terized by an acc umu lation of pores in a rel ativel y
474 ~ WeidillK Skills
--_
Figure 34-16. POIv .I"i/)' is for med hy gas entrapmen t within the weld during solidification !f di,\.I"OII'('d ga.\es canno l fully escap e before tlu : metal solidifies.
Primary causes of porosi ty are dirt, rust, and moisture on the surface of the base metal; on the welding consumables; and in the welding equipment. Porosity is usually the least harmful type of weld discontinuity. Many fabrication standards and codes provide comparison charts that show the amount of porosity that may be acceptable. When porosity exceed s the amount allowable, it must be ground out and repaired. Porosity is detected by RT for internal p0ro sity and by VT or PT for surface porosity. With RT, internal porosity has the appearance of sharply defined dark shadows of rounded contour. Porosity Prevention. Poros ity is prevented by improving we lding hou sekee ping co nditions that ca n cause the porosity. Good houseke eping incl udes the use of clean materials and well-maintained equipment. Also, avoiding the use
of excessive current and arc lengths can prevent porosity. High currents and excessive arc lengths may cause high consumption of the deoxidizing elements in the covering of shielded metal arc electrodes, leavi ng insufficient quantitie s available to combine with the gases in the molten metal during cooling. S pec ifi c met hods of preventi ng poro sity depend on the type of welding process. For examp le, cha nging we lding con ditions such as gas now rate and ga s pu rit y for gas shielded processes co mpe nsates fo r im proper arc len gth, weld ing curre nt, or electrode man ipulation. Reducing trave l s pe ed ma y a lso dec re ase poro si ty. See Figure 34- 17.
Wormhole Prevention. Wormholes are preve nted by methods that are similar to those that prevent porosity.
Shrinkage Voids
Shrinkage voids (pipe or hollow bead) are cav it y- type d iscon ti nu iti es normally formed by shrinkage during solidification and are usually in the form of long cav ities parallel to the root of the weld . Shrinkage voids are detected by RT. Shrinkage Void Prevention , Shrinkage voids arc preve nted by provi ding suffic ient heat input to maintai n molten filler metal to all areas of a weld durin g solidi fication.
Wormholes
Wormhol es are e longa ted or tubula r cavities caused by exces sive entrapped gas. Wormho les are detect ed by RT where th ey ha ve th e appearance o f sharp ly defined da rk shadows of rounded or elongated contour, depending on the orientation of the wormholes,
INCLUSIONS
Inclu sions arc entrapped foreign solid material in deposited weld meta l, such as slag or nu x, tungsten, or oxide. Inclusion types are slag incl usions, oxide inclusions, and tungsten inclusions. See Appe ndix.
Inclusions consist of foreign matter in the
from
weld metal, either the base metal. fille r metal. or mmCOII.'iIllI111hle elect rod e.
Figure 34- 17. Poros ity prevention methods lire de term ined by the type of welding process; correcth'e measures are based 0 11 the Iypt' of problem thai has occurr ed.
Preventive Measure
Use lOW-hydrogen welding process; use tiller metals high in deoxidizers; increase shielding gas flow Use preh eat or incr ea se heat input
Clean joint faces and adjacent surfaces Use specially cleaned and packaged filler wire,
and store it in cl ean area Change we lding co nditions and tech niques
Use coppe r-silicon filler metal ; reduce heat input Use E6010 electrodes and manipulate the arc heat to volatilize the zinc ahead of the molten
we ld pool
Use recommended procedu res for baking and storing electrodes Preheat the base metal Use electrodes with basic slagging reactions
Slag Inclusions
Slag inclu sions are nonm etallic mate rials that are formed by slag reactions and trapped in a weld. Slag is nonm etallic product resulting from mutual disso lution (c he mica l reactions) of flu x and nonmet all ic im puri ties in some we ldi ng and brazing processes. Sl ag inclusions ca n occ ur between passes or at the groove face . See Figure 3418. Slag inclusions may occur in welds made by flux shielde d we ldi ng processes suc h as SM AW, FC AW, and SAW. Slag inclusions have a lower specific gravity than the surrounding metal and usually rise to the surface of molten met al , unl e ss th e y become e ntrapp ed in the weld metal.
Figure ,34-18. SIcIR
ill c",,~iom
(Ire
,d aR reactions thai are napped ill a weld. SlaR inclusions call orrur h l'IIW'C'1/ ptHH'S or (1/ the
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face.
.
6
.
SLAG INCLU SIONS BETWEEN PASSES
Slag inclusions can be preve nted by using we/ding techniques that produce a smooth weld. using the co rrect current and travel speed, removing slag between each pass, and using wire brushing or light chipp ing 011 bun joints or grinding 011 more difficult joints.
Multipl e-pass welds are more prone to slag inclusions than single-pass welds becau se slag from the precedin g pass, if not completely removed, will become entrapped in the subsequent pass. Slag inclusion s are de tec ted by RT where they appear as dark lines, more or less interru pted, parallel to the edges of the weld. Slag inclusions are usually elongated and rounded, and run in the direction of the axi s of the we ld. Sl ag inclusions can be continuous, intermittent , or randomly spaced. Slag Inclusion Prevention. Slag inclusions are pre vented by us ing prop er welding prep aration , suc h as thoro ug hly removin g slag from the weld and cleanin g the weld groove between each pass of a multiple-pass weld. Failure to thoroughly remove slag between each pass increases the probabil ity of slag entrapment and the produ ction of a defective weld. Slag may be removed from the weld surface by chipping, wire brushing, grinding, or air arc gouging. See Figure 34- 19. Complet e a nd e ff ic ie nt s lag re moval requires that eac h weld bead be properly contoured and blend smoothly into the adjace nt bead or base metal. Sm all weld bead s coo l more rapidl y than large ones, which tends to make slag remo val eas ier from small beads. Con ca ve or fl at beads th at bl end smoothly into the base meta l or an y adjo ining beads minimi ze undercutting and avoid a sharp notch along the edge of the bead where slag cou ld stick .
. Preventive Measure .-
Fleure 3+-19. 51dR inclusion prevention nm be achieved throug h : proper dellJlill,s: of the weld RTOO\'e bef ore de/lm;,illg additional weld beads. Slag mllY he removed from 'he surface I,y chipping, wire brushing, g rinding, o r air arc
gOllg i llg_
Clean surface and previous weld bead Power wire brush the previous weld bead Avoid conta ct between the electrode and the work; use larger electrode Increase groove angle of joint Provide proper gas shielding Reposition work to prevent loss of slag control Change electrode or flux to improve slag control Use undamaged electrodes
Oxide Inclusions
Oxide inclusions are particles of surface oxides on the base metal or weld filler metal that have not melted and mix with the weld metal. Oxide inclusions occur when welding metals that have tenacious surface oxide films, such as stainless steels, aluminum alloys, and titanium alloys. Oxide inclusions are detected by RT. Oxide Inclusion Prevention. Oxide inclusion prevention is achieved by cleaning out the joint and weld area thoroughly before welding. See Figure 34-20. The weld area should be thoroughly cleaned after each pass using a wire brush.
other types of inclusions, tungsten inclusions are generally detected using RT, where they appear as isolated, sharp, irregular shapes .
Figure 34-21. Tungsten inclusions are particles found in the weld metal as a result of the nanconsuntable tungsten electrode coming in contact with the work
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. , I
Tungsten Inclusion Prevention. Tungsten inclusions are prevented at the weld start using superimposed highfrequency current for arc starting and a copper striker plate. Tungsten inclusions may be minimized by using thoriated tungsten or zirconium-tungsten electrodes and less current or larger electrodes, and by keeping the tungsten electrode out of the molten weld pool.
Figure 34 -20. Oxide inclusions can he prevented by cleaning out the joint and weld area thoroughly before welding.
Tungsten Inclusions
Tungsten inclusions are particles from the nonconsumable tungsten electrode that enter the weld. See Figure 34-21 . The occasional contact between the electrode and the work or the molten metal may transfer particles of the tungsten into the weld deposit. A limited number of tungsten inclusions may be acceptable according to the applicable fabrication standard or code, but it will depend on the thickness of the part being welded. Tungsten inclusions are detected by VT or RT. VT is used for tungsten inclusions at the surface. However, as with most
tian are [aund in areas with incomplete melting between the base meta! and the weld metal, Incom plete fusion is less desirable than in completepenetration.
Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete fusion is a lack of union (fu-
sion) between adjacent weld passes or base metal. Incomplete fusion may be caused by failure to raise the temperature of the surface layers of base metal or previously deposited weld metal to the melting temperature . Incomplete fusion is usually elongated in the direction of welding, with either sharp or rounded edges . See Figure 34-22.
Weld Discontinuities :@ 477
Ffg ure 34-22. Incomplet e fusion resu lts when adjacent passes fail to meld propl'rly. II call be caused by a failure to suf f ic iently raise the temperature of the .fur/ace layers of thr bO.H' metal or deposited me tal.
INCOMPLETE FUSION
StNGLE BEVEL
DOUBLE BEVEL
GROOVE
FILLET
incomplete fusion occurs more commonly with some welding processes than with others . For exa mple, the reduced heat input in the short circuiting transfer mode of GMAW results in low penetration into the base metal. This may be desirable on thin-gauge materials and for out-of-position welding. but may resull in incomplete fusion. especially in the root area or along groove faces. incomplete fusion leads to undesirable stresses and its admissibility is severely restricted in most fabrication standards and codes. incomplete fusion can be detected by RT as a thin. dark line with sharply defined edges. Dependi ng on the orientation of the defect with respect to the X-ray beam, the line may tend to be wavy a nd d iffuse . However, so me codes may not permit RT as a means of qualifying welders when using GMAW short circuiting transfer on test welds. Incomplete Fusion Prevention. in co mp lete fusion is prevent ed by ensuring an adeq uate surface temperature to raise the temperature of the surface
478
Weldin g Skil l ,
layers to the meltin g point, which allows the deposited metal to fuse with th e surface bel ow it. T his may be achieved by reducing travel speed. increasing welding current or increasing elec trode diameter, using joint des ign to allow elec trode acce ssib ility to all surfaces within the joint , use of proper e lectrode ang le, and reduci ng the effects of arc blow. See Figure 34-23 .
Incomplete Penetration
Incomp lete penetration is a condition in
a groove weld in which weld metal does not extend through the joint thickness. in arc welding. the arc is established between the electrode and closest part of the base metal. All other areas of the base metal rece ive heat principally by conduction. if the region of base metal closest to the elec trode is a considerable distance from the joint root. heat conduction may be insufficient to attain adequate temperature to achieve fusion of the root. See Figure 34-24.
.;Pt~tl[~rtt;
Insufficient heat input Incorrect electrode posit ion Weld metal running ahead of the arc Trapped oxides or slag on weld groove or weld face
.~
Figure 34-23. Incompl ete fusio n pr eventi on can be en sured using 'he pr oper weld ing parame ters.
.-
,
JO INT PENETRATION GROOVE WELD SIZES
Incomplete penetration may occur when a groove is welded from one side only if the root face dimension is too great, if the root opening is too small , or if the groove angle of the V-groove is too small, even with an adequate root opening and a satisfactory joint design. Incomplete penetration may also be caused by electrodes that are too large or that have a tendency to bridge ; or by using ab normall y high r ates of trave l or insufficient welding current.
Figure 34 24. i ncomplete joint penetration occurs whe n weld metal does not p en etra te comp letely th rough the joint thick ness. II ran occur when the base metal is a considerable distance f rom the heal of the electrode.
INCORRECT SHAPE
An incorrect shape in a weld includes any weld discontinuity that produces an unacceptable weld profile or dimensional nonconformance and that ad versely influ enc es performance of the weld under load. An insufficient crosssectional area of a weld may result in a weld that is unable to support a load, or ma y allow a stress-conce ntrating notch, leading to fracture. Incorre ct shape discontinuities are undercut , overlap, excess ive weld reinforcement, underfill, conca ve root sur face , and melt-through.
Incomplete penetration is not always undesirabl e because some weld joints are designed for partial penetration . The applicable fabrication stan dards and codes indicate permissible levels of incomplete penetration. Incomplete penetration is detected by RT, where it app ear s as a dark , {ontinuou s or intermitt ent lin e in the middle of the weld .
Incorrect shapes, such as undercut, overlap, excess weld reinf o rcement, un derfill, concave roof surface. and meltthrough, produce an unac ceptable weld profile.
Figure 34-25. Usin g a pr ope r joint design. call help ensu re that inco mplete joint pen etration docs not occur ill a weld.
Problem
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~~
Exce ssively thick root face or insufficient root opening Insufficient heat input Slag flooding ahead of arc Electrode diameter too large Misalignm ent of second side weld Failure to backgoug e when specified Bridging of root opening
- .
~
Ji'reventive.Measure
0/ '"
_
.- .
-.
Use proper joint geometry Follow welding procedure Adjust electrod e or work position Use smaller electrode or increase root opening Improve visibility or backgoug e weld Backgoug e to sound metal if required in welding procedure specification Use wider root openi ng or smaller electrode in root pass
Undercut
Undercut is a groovc melted into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld root and left unfilled by weld metal. See Figure 34-26. Faulty electrode manipu lation, excessive welding current, excessive arc length, excessive travel speed , and arc blow cause undercut. Undercut of a completed weld is undesirable because it produces a stress concentration that reduces impact strength and fatigue resistance. Undercut is detected by VT in groove or fillet welds. VT is the simplest and most effective way of detecting and measuring undercut against the particular fabrication code. RT may also detect undercut in groove welds, where it appears as a dark line, sometimes broad and diffuse, along the edge of the weld. Undercut Prevention. Undercut is p revented by th e followin g meth od s: pau sing at each side of the weld b ead wh en u sing the w eave bead technique; using proper electrod e angle s; usin g proper welding current for electrode size and welding position; red ucing ar c length; reducing travel speed; and reduc ing the effects of arc blow. Sec Appendix. Undercut of the sidewalls of a welding groove will in no way affect the completed weld if it is removed before the next bead is deposited in that location . A well -rounded chipping tool or
480 @o Welding Skills
grinding wheel will be required to remove the undercut. If the undercut is slight, how ever, it is possibl e for the welder to estimate how deeply the weld will penetrate and fill the undercut with the next pass.
Undercut
Figure 34-26
Figure 3426. Undercut occurs whCII a groove is melted into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe and is left unfi lled by weld metal.
Underc ut is sometimes repaire d by gri nd ing and b le nd ing or we lding. Grind ing should be performed with a pencil-type grinder. and the grindi ng ma rks sho u ld be tra ns verse to the length of the we ld w ith a 250 micro inch finish or better.
Overlap
Overlap is protrusion o f weld metal built up beyond the weld toe or we ld root. Ove rlap is an area of incomplete fusion tha t creates a stress co nce ntration and can initiate premature fai lure under load . See Fig ure 34-27 . Overlap is de tected by VT. Ove rlap is co nsidered a defect that must be removed by grinding accord ing to the appl icable fabrication sta ndard or code.
.-
. .
WELD FACE
Ftgure .~-1-2ft Excess weld rein[orcement. while 1101 1I severe discontin uity. ('(III excess ivetv stiffen II section of metal, ("(IIIS ;"K stress concentrations lit II,e base, 11 is ats o more ex pe ns ive due 10 the increased (/ ",0 11I11 of filler 11/('((// ne eded, and c a ll ha ve W / ohjccti onahle (l1 ,/w a rance.
ROOT REINFORCEMENT
Overlap
Figure 34-27
Over la p Prevention. Overlap is preve nted by using a high er travel speed or weldi ng c urrent, reducing the electrode d iameter. or c ha ngi ng the electrode ang le so tha t the force of the arc wi ll not push molt en we ld met al over unfused sectio ns of ba se me ta l. See Appendix .
171l' most common reason f or overlap is welding with the Cll rrellt set too low: If overlap occurs.firs t check fo r 'he proper current level.
Fi ller metal added to make a we ld m ust be as thick as th e ba se metal. S lightly thicker filler met al is usually pennined to allow for discontinuitie s and to avoid the cost penalty associated with grin ding the we ld metal tl ush with the base metal. Excess weld rei nforcement, though not as severe as ove rla p. is undes irable because it thicke ns and stiffe ns the section and es tablishes a stre ss concentration at the junction with the base metal. The stress -concentrating effect is more severe for fillet welds than for bun welds. Excess weld reinforcement is economically unsound and objectionable from the appearance point of view.
Weld Discontinuities ): 4tH
Fabrication standards and codes usually limit the allowable amount of ex cess weld rei nforceme nt. Var io us weld ing codes impose a ma ximu m amo unt of reinforce men t for the thickn ess of th e m at e rial being we lde d . Th icknesses may vary from Y16" to 7/ 32". Excess we ld reinforcem ent is det ected by VT. If co ns ide red a defect, it mu st be rem oved by grind ing . Excess Weld Reinforcement Prevention. Excess we ld reinforcement is preve nted by use o f the co rrec t we ld ing curre nt, proper weld ing techn ique, a nd appropriate number of weld passes to fill the jo int.
Underfill
Figure 3429
UNDERFILL
Figure 34. 29. Underfill is a discontinuity that r.r tends betaw the adjace nt surface of the bast' metal.
Underfill
Underfill is a disco ntinui ty in whic h
the we ld face or root surface ex te nds belo w the adjace nt surface of the base met al. U nde rf ill reduce s the c rosssectio na l are a of th e weld bel o w th e a mount req u ire d in th e desi gn . S ee Fig ure 34- 29. Undc rli ll tends to oc cur primaril y in the flat pos itio n in fill et wel d ing and in th e 5G and 6G pipe groove we ldi ng po sitio ns . U nde rfill creates a reg ion susceptibl e to structura l failure fro m insufficient cross section to support the load. In fillet weld s, underfill is ex h ibi te d by a less than norm al throat as measured by the length of the leg. Underlill is detected by VT. Underfill Prevention. Underfill is preven ted by reducing we ldi ng c ur re nt a nd vo ltage, reducing arc len gth an d arc travel speed, and adding sufficient fi ller met al.
C o n ca ve Root Surface Prevention. Co ncave root surfaces are prevent ed in butt welds by reduc ing the root opening of the weld.
MeltThrough
Melt -through also called burn -th rou gh , is a di scontinuity that occurs in butt welds whe n the arc melt s throu gh the bottom of the we ld . Melt-th rou gh is differen t than rnel t-thru, whic h is visible root reinforce ment produced in a joint that is welded fro m one side. See Figu re 34-30. Melt -thru is o ften spec ified ; melt-through is a discontinuity or defect. Melt-through is detected by RT as a re gion of excessi ve thi c kn ess (lower den si ty ) in the region o f th e we ld root.
MeltThrough Prevention, Me ltthroug h is prevented in bu tt we lds by reduc ing the weldi ng c urrent and width of the root ope ning, and by increasing the arc travel spee d .
MISCELLANEOUS DISCONTINUITIES
M iscell an eou s d isco ntinu ities incl ude weld discontinuities that do not fit into ot he r catego ries of d iscon tinuiti es . Miscell an eous d iscontinu iti es incl ude arc strikes and spatte r,
Arc Strikes
, I
Figure 34-31
Figure 34-31. An arc strike results when the electrode strikes the base metal Juring welding, and it can degrade base metal properties.
ARC STRIKE
WELD MELT-THROUGH
Spatter
MELT-THROUGH (CONVEX ROOT SURFACE)
Figure 34-30. Meu-througti is a discontinuity produced in (/ joint when the arc melts through the bottom of the weld.
Spatter is a discontinnity that occurs when metal particles are expelled during fusion welding and do not form part of the weld. Spatter appears as droplets of solidified weld metal on the base metal adjacent to the weld. See Figure 34-32. Spatter detection is achieved by VT.
Arc Strikes
An arc strike is a discontinuity that results from arcing of the electrode and consists of any localized remelted metal, heat-affected metal, or change in the surface profile of any base metal. Arc strikes may be depressions or marks that occur on the surface of the weld by the welder accidentally striking the electrode on the base metal adjacent to the weld. Arc strikes may degrade base metal properties on hardenable steels like medium-carbon steels or low-alloy steels and may form a region of brittle martensite from the rapid quenching effect of the high temperature. See Figure 34-31. Arc strike detection is achieved by VT. Some fabrication standards and codes require arc strikes to be ground to a smooth contour and inspected to ensure soundness by an appropriate NDE test such as PT or MT. Are Strike Prevention. Arc strikes are prevented for certain types of work, such as pipe, by placing protective wrappings around the part to prevent accidental contact with the electrode.
Spatter
Figure 34-32
Figure 34-32. Spatter appears as droplets of solidified weld metal on the base metal adjacent to the
weld.
Arc strikes may degrade base metal properties on hardenable steels like me di um-c arb on steels or low-alloy
steels and may[arm
Spatter Prevention. Spatter can be reduced or prevented by reducing the welding current, reducing the effect of arc blow, reducing the arc length, and ensuring the use of clean and undamaged electrodes. See Appendix. Anti-spatter spray is available for prevention of spatter for many welding applications.
I . A discontinuity is an interruption in the structure of a weld. Discontinuities are not always defect s. 2. Disco ntinuities are cla ssified as defects when they exceed the minim um requirements permitted by the contro lling code or standard. 3. Weld stresses may be concentrated or enhanced by the presence of disco ntinuities. leadin g to failure under load . 4 . Cracks are fractu re-type discontin uities and are not permitted in fabrication standards and co de s. 5. Cracks arc classifi ed acco rding to their location in tbe weld. 6. Cavities are rounded discontinuities within a weld or at the surface. The most common type of cavi ty is porosity. 7 . Inclu sions co nsist of foreign matter in the weld metal. ei the r from the base metal. filler metal. or noncon sum able e lectrode . 8 . Incompl ete fusion and incompl ete penetration are found in areas with incomplete meltin g between the base metal and the weld metal. Incomplete fusion is less desirable than incomplete penetration . 9 . Incorrect shapes. such as undercut. overlap. excess weld reinforcement . underfill. co ncave root surface. and melt -through. produc e an unacceptable weld profile. 10. Arc stri kes may degrade base metal properties on hardenable stee ls like medium-carbon steels or low-alloy steels and may form a region of brittle marten site from the rapid quench ing effect of the high temperature.
How ca n weld joint design be adj usted to prevent throat cracks? How do crater crac ks form ? How ca n crater cracks be prevented" What causes toe cracks? How ca n toe and root cracks be prevented? What are the two main types of porosity? What ca n be done to reduce porosity in a weld ? What are slag inclu sions? How ca n slag inclu sions be prevented in multipl e pass welds? What cau ses tungsten inclu sions ? Which process is more likely to produce incomplete fusion: SMAW or GMAW in short circuiting mode. and why? What causes incomplete penetration ? What is overlap. and how ca n it be prevented? What is melt-through. and how can it be prevented" Why are arc strikes detrimental to medium-carbon or low-alloy steels?
Welding procedure qualification encompasses not only the legal requirements of the applicable fa brication standard or code, but also the directions for making a consistent weld. Welding procedure qualif ication variables aff ect the weld and must be specified. Welding procedure qualification determines, by prepa ration and testing of standani specimens, whether welding in accordance with a welding procedure specification ( IVPS) will produce sound welds and adequate jo int prop erties. A IVPS provides fo rmal documentation fo r all qualified welding variables. A procedure qualification record (PQR) determines, by preparation and testing of standa rds specimens, whether welding in accordance with a IVPS will produce sound welds and adequatejoint properties. Much of the data required by the PQR is the same information required in the IVPS.
joint. Weldin g procedure qualifi cati on variables must be indicated in the welding procedure qualification record . Esse ntia l variables are listed in th e a pplic ab le fabri cation sta nda rd or code . Weldin g procedure qualifi cati on variables for arc we lding may co nsist of any or all of the following: we lding process joint design
base meta l
filler metal welding position preheat, interpass temperature control , and po stheating shielding gas
electrical cha racteristic s
welding technique Oxyfuel welding, braz ing, surfacing weld, and resistance wel ding req uire add itional we lding procedure qu alifica tion var iab les.
Welding Processes
Certain we lding processe s can not be used with specific metals because the we lding pro cess used may affec t the weldability of the metal. For exa mple, titanium alloys are not typically welded
485
.=
.~
thr welding proce dure specification ( 1V PS) and the ,m)cedure qualifivation record (PQR,.
tI
.=
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Weld ing procedure qualification variab ies a re welding parameters 'hat affeet the integrity ofa weld joint and m U.{1 be indicated in the PQR.
by flu x s hie lde d we lding pro ce sses such as SMAW. Tita nium alloys are most often welded by gas shie lde d welding processes suc h as G MAW, GTAW, or RW.
Welding procedu re specifications are typically developed by a welding engineer who has previous experience with the pa rticular weldparameters. and who uses recomm endations by supplie rs of welding equipment such as the base metal, weldin g machine, and filler metals. The welding procedure specification mu st also meet applicable codes.
Joint Design
Joint design is elll
example ofa proce-
A WARNING
Glo ves are not usually worn whe n gr ind ing. The hand can he dra wn into the gri nde r if the glove gels ca ugh t.
Joint design is the sha pe, dimension s, and configuration of the joint. The joint is the junction of members or the edges of me mbers that are to be joined. An effec tive joint design achi ev es welding at minimal cos t. Th e joint design influ ences how much filler metal may be required to fill a joint, and the ease of ad ding filler metal. Welding procedure variables that affect joint design are weld typ e, edge preparation, and backgou g iog .
Weld Type. Weld type is the cross-sectional s hape of the weld aft er filler metal is added to the joint. Basic weld type s are groove weld and fillet weld . Each weld type ca n have severa l differen t co nfig urations. Edge Preparation. Edge Preparation is the prep ar ation of th e wo rkpiec e edges by cutt ing, cleaning, o r o ther methods. All fillet weld configurations can be made without additional ed ge preparation . Three groove weld configurations can be made without additional edge pr ep aration . The y are sq ua re g roo ve , flare V-groov e, and flare bevel groove . Ed ge preparation is done by shea ring, therm al cutting, grindi ng , machin ing, or backgougin g. Shearing is the partin g of material when one blade forces the material past an opposing blad e. Shearing produces a sq uare groove. Shearing is the most econo mica l method of edge preparation and is used for sheet metal.
Thermal (flame) cutting co nsists of a group of processes that remove metal by rapid oxi dat ion. Thermal cutting is th e most co mmon met ho d of ed ge preparation, and is used for most work with thickness greater than sheet metal. Th erm al cutt ing is ve rsa tile and economi cal and may be man ipulated to produce both sq uare ed ges and added bevels. The heat produced by thermal cutting may alter the metallurgical structure of so me metal s . In suc h cases, the therm ally cut surface mu st be dr essed by grindi ng ( 0 remove a minimum o f '/ 8" of affect ed ba se met al before any weldin g is perfo rmed. Grinding is the mechanical removal of me tal from the surface using hard, brittle grains of an abras ive material. Grinding is usually perform ed with a grinding whee l. Grinding is used for med ium thicknesse s of mat eri al and may be tooled up to provid e reproducible geometries. See Figure 35- 1. Machining is preci se shaping to a desired profile using special tools to remov e material. Machining is used on thick-wall components to prepare J- and U-grooves and on circular components of all diam eters and wall thicknesses. Machinin g is an accurate, final method of edge prep aration .
Grinding
Figure 351
Figure 35-1. Grinding is used fo r medium thicknesses of material 10 remove metal fm m the surface.
Backgouging. Backgouging is the removal of weld metal and base metal from the weld root side of a welded joint to facilitate complete fusion and complete joint penetration when welding on that side is completed. Backgouging is done when joints are welded from both sides and is used to produce final joints free from cracks and other un sound conditions. The backgouging method must be indicated on drawings when joints are to be welded from both sides. If backgouging require s an inspec tion method other than visual, the method should be indicated on the drawings. Methods of backgouging include chipping, grinding, air carbon arc gouging, or oxyfuel gouging . See Figure 35-2.
Base Metal Material Specifications. A base metal material specification is the chemical composition or indu stry specification of the ba se metal. Any special condition of the base metal , such as heat treatment, cold working, or special cleaning must be indicated if it affects the metal's weldability, or if welding alters the base metal properties . For example, localized welding reduces the strength of a cold-worked metal in the heat-affected zon e. The fact that the metal is cold-worked must be indicated on the drawings . Base Metal Weldability Classifications. The base metal weldability classification is an alphanumeric system that groups base metals with similar welding characteristics . A welding procedure that provides excellent results with one base metal classification may prove completely inadequate with another classification. The base metal classification system assigns a number to a base metal according to its chemical composition, weldability, and mechanical properties .
Base metals are gro uped hy weld-
ability classifications
to reduce the number of procedure qualification variables.Base metals with the same weldability classificalion may he substiluted for one another with no effect.
Base Metal
The base metal(s) must be properly identified. Two methods may be used: the base metal material specification and the base metal weldability classification. T he base metal thickness range is also indicated .
HOLDER ~
AIR STREAM
WELD
BASE METAL
In the AS ME Bo iler and Pressur e Vesse l Code , base metal we lda bi lity classificatio n consists of P-numbers assigned to base metals to ind icate their characteristics. P-numbers are described in Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Metal s with the same P-numb er are cove red under the same WPS . For example, P I materials are low-carbon stee ls th at ge ne ra lly do not requ ire pre heat. P4 ma teria ls are speci fic chrome-moly steels that requ ire preheat to appro ximately 300F. Welding pro cedures are qu alifi ed by grouping base metals according to their P-number, which redu ces the number of welding procedure qualifications required. See Figure 35-3 . Base Metal Thickness Ranges. The base metal thickness range is a pro cedu re qualifi cation variable that indicates the range of base metal thicknesses covered in the procedure qualification record. For pipe, the pipe diameter range and pipe wall thickness must be indicated. In most cases, base metal thickness range is Vi,," or 'YJ6' to 2T, where T is the thickness of the test sample weld.
Fi gure _'5-3. Psnumh er s reduce the tnunhrr of welding procedures that "'liM hi' developed hy Xrolll'ing metuls mat IWI'e similar weldubilitv characteristics.
Filler Metal
Filler metal variables that must be considere d are filler meta l specification, filler metal usability classification, filler metal dia meter, and filler metal quantity. A separate filler metal descripti on is required for tack welding. Filler Metal Specifications, Filler metal specification is identification of fill er metal by AWS number or other specification desi gn ation . If required by the applica ble fabrication standard or code, more detail s may be needed. Addition al required inform ati on may includ e manofactu rer ; heat; lot or batch number of th e filler met a l or oth er we lding co ns uma b le; a nd the result s of supplementary identifi cation s uc h as X-ray fl uo rescence (X RF) ana lysis. Filler Metal Usability Classifications. The fi ller metal usability classification is an a lphanumeric method of gro uping fill er met als with si milar cha racteristic s. In AWS spec ifications and the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, fill er metal s are given F- numbers to indi cat e the ir gro uping. Filler meta ls
PNUMBERS
Spec. No. SA-36 SA-53' SA-53' SA-lOS SA-l06 Al08 Al34 SA-182! SA-182! SA-182! A211 SA-234 SA-234 SA-240 SA-335 SA-387 SA-516 API5L Embedded Type & Grade Welding PNo. 1 1 1 1 1
-
B razing PNo.
Product Form Plate ERW Pipe Smls Pipe Pipe Flange Smrs Pipe Bar Welded Pioe
Foroinu
B 1018 CW A285 B Fll , CI. 2 F22, CI. 1 F304L A570 Gr. 30 WPB WP5 Tvoe 304L P22 11,CI. 1 Grade 60 Grade B
4 SA 8
1 5B 8 SA 4 1
C-Mn-Si C-Mn
Foraina Foroino < 5" Welded Pine Pioe Fittino Pine Plate Smls Pine Plate Plate Smlslwelded
Sa~53 specilicahoos have same UNS Number, but are ditferenl prod uct form s 1 Materials have same scececeeco number, but ditJerenl nominal com positions.
with the same usability cla ssification (F-numbers) generally may be substituted fo r on e anothe r, redu cing the number of welding procedure specification s required . For ferrou s we ld metal, analysis numbers, or A-numbers, are additio nally assigned to furth er seg regate F-numbe rs . A-numbers, whi ch ran ge from 1-1 2, repre sent cl ass ifieations of ferrou s weld metal analys is for procedure qualification . A-numbers arc essential variables for mo st welding proce sses. Filler met als with the same usability cla ssification and the same A-numbers may be welde d with the same welding procedure. See Figure 35-4 . Filler metal s with the same usability classification and different A-number require a new WPS to be quali fied. Filler Metal Diameter. The fill er metal diameter influences welding current requir ements and joint penetration
abilit y. If the root openin g is too tight, the groo ve an gl e too narro w, o r th e filler metal diameter too large , th e welding electrode will not be able to depo s it th e weld metal at th e roo t. Small-diameter filler metal is ofte n required for the root pass to eliminate the chances of incompl ete pen etrat ion , to prevent melt-through, and for heat control. Small-diamet er filler metal s also require less current than larger diameter filler metal. Filler metal diameter(s) required for weldin g diffe re nt thi ck nesse s of metal in different positions ar e also indicated. Filler Metal Quantity. Fill er metal quantity is the deposi ted weld metal thi ckn ess range for groove o r fill et weld s. Filler metal quantity is usuall y indicated by a sketch showi ng the location of each weld pass in the j oint. Th e correct amount of deposited we ld metal achie ve s the required joi nt
Filler metals are grouped h.v usability classification to reduce the number (~f procedure qualification variables. Filla metals with th e same usability classifica tion ma y he substituted for one another with no effect .
A- AND F-NUMBERS
A-Numbers
A-Number 1 2 3 4 Type a/Weld Deposit Mild Steel Carbon-Moly Cr-Mo (.4% to 2%) Cr-Mo (2% to 6%)
Anatysls
Figure 35-4. A - IIlId F- numbers redu ce the number wel d ing procedures that mu,\'1 be devel oped by g rouping filler me tals thai have similar characteristics.
o r
C'
.15 .15 .15 .15
ce.50 .40 2 2 - 6
Mo'
Ni*
Mn' 1 1 1 2
. .
F-Number 1 2 3 4 5 6
, ..
.- --
SFA-5.1 and 5.5 SFA-5.4 SFA-5. 1 and 5.5 SFA-5. 1 and 5.5 SFA-5. 1 and 5.5 SFA-5.4 l ath er than au stenitic and duolex) SFA-5.4 (auste nitic and duolex) SFA-5.9 SFA-5. 17 SFA-5.18 SFA-5.20 Aluminum Copper Nickel Titanium Zirconium Weld Overlay
2X 3X 4X 5X 6X 7X
In
EXX 20, EXX 22, EXX 24, EXX 27, EXX 28 EXX 25, EXX 26 EX XI2,EXX I 3,EX XI4,EXXI 9 EXX 10, EXX 11 EXX 15, EXX 16, EXX 18, EXX 48 EXX 15 EXX 16 EXX 15 EXX 16 GTAW ERXX FXX-EX X SAW ERXXS-X GMAW EXXT-X FCAW GTAW ER 4043 ER CuNi GTAW ENiC rFe-3 SMAW ERT i-7 GTAW ERZ r3 GTAW EXXX-X SMAW
percent (%)
stre ng th. Ove rwe ldi ng (e xcess fill er metal) not only increa ses cost, but may also create an und esirabl e stress conce ntrat ion at the toe of the weld . See Fig ure 35 -5. Meth od s of minimizing fill er metal qu antity include redu cin g the root opening; using a root face on groove weld s; decreasin g the gro ove angle; using sing le-U grooves; or lI Sing double- V or double-U grooves.
Fi"urI'35-S. Ustne the appropriate " design ensures '" joint Ihe use of the proper amount offi ller metal.
~
.- .
..
-_
-. .
Tack Welding. Tack we lding is used to te mporaril y j oi n parts in pro per alignment until the final weld is made. Im properl y mad e or imp roperl y removed tack we lds may affect the inte grit y of th e fi na l we ld . Tack welding may req uire the use of designated procedure s as indi c at ed in the we lding procedure specificatio n. See Figure 35-6 .
TACK WELDS L _-
Figure 35- 6. Tack welding m/HI co mp ly willi the welding procedure specification if it is incorporated ;1/10 the fin al weld.
Welding Position
Singte-V
Groove
Double-V
Groove
GROOVE WELD
MORE FILLER METAL { LESS FILLER METAL
% V
v' L
FILLET WELD
To calculate the weight of fi ller metal, mullip ly the cross-sectional area of the joint by the length of the weld, and mulli ply the result by the den sity of the filler metal. Poo r fit-up counteracts the optimizing benefits of the desirable filler metal q uantity thro ug ho ut a joint. Poor fitup is a com mon probl em with full- or partial-penetration fillet welds in T-joints fabricated in the hori zontal position . However, welding in a more diffi cult positi on ma y qualify a less difficu lt po siti on .
490
Welding position is the relationship of the weld pool , joint, and base metals. Weldin g positions are flat , horizontal, overhead , and vert ical. Weld er accessibility must be con sidered whe n des ig ning th e j o int and th e asse mb ly pattern to permit a comfortable working environment for the welder. To achieve the best qua lity we ld, a welder must be able to access the joints from both s ides after all areas to be welded ha ve been co mple te ly as se mb led and tack we lde d . Th e sequence of assembly may be adj usted to improv e welder acce ssibili ty. Some welds canoot be acc essed fro m both sides (box co lumns or small-diameter pip ing ). Suc h joints are inaccessib le and require o ne-side d welding . See Figure 35-7 . When o ne-si ded welding is done, backing material or consumable inserts can be used to ensu re complete penetration on the backside of the weld. When backin g material or co nsumable inserts are not desired or feasible, open root welding must be done. Open root we ld ing requires a higher welding skill than welding with backing and
also requires good fit -up and joint preparation. Care must be taken to achieve the proper root weld without excessive penetration (excessive root reinforcement).
BACKING
reduce residual stress, or further improve toughness. The postheating procedure must be indicated either in the welding procedure specification or on a separate document, such as a shop heat -treating traveler. Postheating procedure requirements include rate of heating and cooling of the structure; time at temperature; and location of weld joint(s) to be postheated.
Shielding Gas
The shielding gas provides a gaseous protecti ve atmosphere that prevents or reduces atmospheric contamination of the molten weld as it solidifies and cools. Shielding gas efficiency relates to the ability of a shielding gas to displace the atmosphere from the arc area. Shielding efficiency depends on shielding gas purity; the design of the nozzle; the distance from the nozzle to the work; the internal diameter or size of the nozzle; the gas flow rate ; and side drafts.
BOX COLUMN
CONSUMABLE INSERT
SMALL-DIAMETER PIPE
Figure 35-7. Welder accessibility is a key consideration in creating a sound jo int. If a joint is inaccessible, backing material or consumable inserts can be used to ensure complete penetration.
Electrical Characteristics
Electrical characteristics should be documented when the welding involves the use of electric current. Electrical characteristics include current type, current level, polarity, and arc voltage. The proper current type and polarity must be defined in the welding procedure.
Welding Technique
The welding technique includes welding procedure details that are controlled by the welder or welding operator. Welding technique parameters include heat input, travel speed, interpass cleaning, and peening. Heat Input. The heat input influences the weldability or as-welded properties of specific metals. Heat input de tails must be indicated whenever the heat input could influence the metal properties of the finished weld joint.
Welding Procedure Qualification ~ 491
Alloys, such as nickel alloy s, that are se nsitive to hot cracking require heat input contro ls. Wh en heat inp ut co ntrols are required, details such as using a straight bead or a weav e bead must be spec ified. A straight bead is a type of we ld be ad made witho ut an y apprec iable weaving motion . A wea ve bead is a type of we ld bead made with tran sverse oscillation. Using a straight bead or a weave bead can lead to e ither a redu ction or an increase in heat input, respectively. Either bead type may be accep table for certain types of metals. Many nickel alloys prefer a lower heat input , while chro me- mo ly steels prefer higher heat input. Travel Speed. The travel speed used must be consistent throughout the jo int to prevent alteri ng the weld properties. Too Iow a travel speed may cause excessive heat input and impair the properties of a jo int. Too fast a travel speed lead s to a la ck of complete fus io n. Documentation of the acceptable travel speed range is alway s mandatory for au tomatic we ldi ng processe s and often ma nda to ry fo r se mia uto matic we lding processes. Interpass Cleaning. Interpas s cleaning is required to remove slag from the weld metal and to prepare it for the next pass. In e ffec tive in terpass cleaning may leave slag inclu sions in the co mpleted weld and lead to rejection of the weld. Int e rp ass c lea ni ng meth od s in clude grinding, chipping, or wire bru sh ing . Interp ass cle ani ng method s are docu mented for welding processes that leave a slag residue, for examp le SMAW. See figure 35-8. Peening. Peening is the mec ha nical worki ng of we ld met al usin g impact hlow s. Peening reduces the effect s of excessive res idual stress es and distortion . Peen ing is used o n highl y re s tra ined or thick we lds to avo id wa rping or crack ing of the we ld or base metal. Peening must be performed
492 ~ Welding Skills
immediatel y after comp letion of a be ad len gth (a ppro ximately 9"), as soon as the we ld has solidified. Peening is never applied to a root pass or ca p pass. De tails of peenin g must be speci fied to ensure co rrec t application of the met hud .
"lOW'
Ftuure 35-8. tnterpass cleaning is requ ired to reslag fro m the weld and prevent slag j"c1I/.~iOlIS.
Brazing Temperature Ranges. Hrazillg temperat ure range is the temperature range within which the base metal is heated to enable fi ller metal to wet the base metal and form a brazed joint. The te mperature range must melt the filler metal at a temperat ure below the melting point of the base metal(s). Filler metals for brazing arc those that melt at temperatures above 8400F (450C) .
uon
{l
[orni.
Com p,my
_
Manua l
Brazing Process
B razing Equ ipment
Mechanized
Aulomahc
BRAZING CONDITIONS
BASE ME TAL:
Identification
Thickne ss Ot her
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8 M No.
_ Prepa ration _
FILLER METAL :
FM No. AWS ClaSSifiCation
Fo<m
FLUX; AWS Type
ATMOSPHERE: AW S Type
_
_
_
Melhod 01 Application
Other
Ot her
_
_
TEMPERATU RE, TIME, FUElGAS ' POS TBRAZE CLEAN ING: POS TB RAZE H EAT TRE ATMENT, OTHER JOINT:
Type
Clearance
_ _ _
_ _ _ _
~
UTS
Oth.,
JO INT SKETCH
Brazing Flux. Brazing nux is intended to prevent or inhibit the formation of oxide s during brazin g. Brazing atmospheres include combus ted fuel gas , hydrogen, or vacuum. Brazing flu x const itue nts include borax. chloride, fluorides, or any co mbination of these with oth er che micals. The chemicals within the tlux are the age nts that prevent or remove the oxides or other unde sirab le substa nces during brazin g.
vertical upfl ow, and hori zont al. Basic brazin g positions for pipe are horizontal , vertical do wn flow , and vertical upflow. See Figure 35- 10. In the vertical downtl ow and vertical upflow positions, the joint fac es are verti cal and capillary now of the filler metal is up and down, respectively. In the horizontal position for plate or pipe, the joint faces are also vertical, but the capillary no w of the filler metal is horizontal. Brazing Time. The brazin g time requi re ment mus t be req ua lified if it ex ceeds or fa ils to meet the brazing time indicated for the qualification test by a prescribed percentage.
Brazing Joint Designs and Clearances, The two basic joints used for brazing are the lap j oint and the butt joint. The lap joint is the most commonly used because it offers a large surface area for the greatest strength. Joint design is also based on joint clearance. Joint clearance has a major effect on the mechanical properties of a bra zed joi nt. Adequate joint clearance should fall in the range between .00 I" and .0 I0". Recommended joint clearances vary with the type of fi ller meta l and the thickne ss of the base metal. Bra zing joint design and clearance influence the strength of a brazed joint. Changes to joint design and clearance outside of tabulated values require requalifi cation .
Brazing Positions. The brazing position. if altered, requires requ alification. with certain exceptions. Basic brazi ng positions for plate are nat, vertical downflow,
Test
Pipe
Brazing
Position Flat Flow Vertical Downflow Vertical Upflow Horizontal Flow Horizontal Flow Vertical Down flow Vertical Upflow
Vertical
Upflow
Horizontal Flow
Horizontal Flow
Vertical Oownflow
Vertical Upflow
X X X X X X X
X X
Plate
X X X
Pipe
FiJ.:urc ]5((1. Tilt' posi tion of the test brarement may 'il/alif }' one or mo /"(' brazing positions.
dilution with the base metal. Different we ldi ng processes creat e different amounts of dilution . To overcome dilution, additional surfacing weld passes or modification of the welding procedure may be required . Th e che mical composition of the surfacing weld must be maintai ned on the surface layers, with out excessive dilution. The measured chemical composition of the surfacin g depo sit must be within a prescribed percentage of the actual chemical compositio n of the base metal. It may be necessary to reduce heat input to reduce dilution.
applicat ion to en sure repeatabili ty by properl y trained weld ers and welding operators. The WPS pro vide s formal docum entation for all welding qualificati on vari abl es. Th e WPS is the "recipe" that must be foll owed whe n makin g the weld. Information regarding test specifications and procedures are detailed in ANSI /AWS B2.l , Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification. As part of the proc edure for qualificati on , form s are co mpleted that specify a ll welding di rectives and requirements (We ld ing Procedure Sp ecificati on s). See Appendix. Fabrication standards and codes require an em p loyer to pr epare and qualify welding proc edure specification s relev ant to all fabri cation wor k. Th e st anda rds and co des define the detail s to be included in a WP S and refer only to the welding variables of the specific process that affect qualification. The user is allowed to determine what other varia bles and information should be includ ed in the WPS. Wel ding pro ced ur e s pec ifica tio n items include WPS details, WPS variables, WI'S conformance, WI'S developm ent, and standard WPS s.
WPS Details
WPS details desc ribe all the welding qualification variables required by the applicable fabrication standard or code. The WI'S details may be brief or long and detailed . Fabricatio n standards and co des usually conta in sugges ted WI'S fo rms o n wh ic h to doc ume nt qualifi cati on variables and other relevant information. For complex welded struct ures, the suggested WI'S forms must be supplemented with additional not es or in struction s, or new WI'S form s are dev ised to suit specific requirem ent s. See Appendix. A WI'S provides direc tio n to the welder or welding opera tor and is an important control document. The WI'S
Welding Procedure Qualificat ion :@: 495
sential variables.
is given a specific reference number and mu st be signed by an authorized person, such as the fabricator' s quality assu ra nce manager, hefore release for production welding, Responsibility for the content. qu alifi cation status. and use of a WPS rests with the employer.
or codes reference the ASME Boiler and Pres sure Vessel Co de. Section IX, Qualification Standard [or welding
and Braring Procedures - Welders, Bra zers, and Weldillg and Bra zin g Operators.
All fabrication codes and standa rds indicate a specific level of conformance to welding perform an ce or procedure qualifica tion that must be met. Sect ion IX of the ASM E Boil er and Pre ssure Vessel Code requires the manufacturer or co ntractor to take responsibility for performing qualification testing of welding procedures for the wcldments to be built under the code and for the performance of the welders who will carry out the welding. Section IX also requires the manufacturer or contractor to maintain an accurate, certi ficd record of the results obtained during welding, as well as during procedure and performance qualification tests. Records must be available to authorized inspectors.
Essential variables are purumete rs which, i] changed. could alter the me dUlJlical properties (~{1he we ld. Requal!{t ClI1;OIl of lil e nnv
WPS Development
WPS development is gen erally the responsibility of the contractor in a given production shop. Th e end user or their representati ve spec ifies the properties desired in wcldments in acco rdance with a code. spec if icatio n, or special de si gn requirements. The contract or then develops a welding procedure that will produce the spec ified results. if a relevant procedure does not a lready e x is t. Certain fa bri cation codes and sta nda rds require we ld ing proce dure qualifi cation , w h ic h is a pr equ alification test for welding and is an exception to the ge neral requirements for WPS dev el opment.
ljl
~-
S /lpple ml'lltaryesselltial variahles are pa ramctcrs which affect the impact properties
[toughness ] of the
weld. Requalificat ion ofthr lIew variables is required.
~ til
No nessential variables an' para meters which. ijclllmged. do not alter the mechanical properties ofthe weld and do na t requ ire requ alification of the weld.
WPS Conformance
Conformance w ith the WPS is required to meet the applicable fabrication standard or code. Many fabrication standards
When th e th ickn ess to be we lded is outside the qualified range Most codes provide for an unlimited thi ckness test
Wh en cha nging fro m a doub le-welded joint or a joint using backing material to an ope n root. and vice versa Th e addition or deletion of a consuma ble insert
Pipe diameter
Usua lly not requir ed Some codes per mit procedu re qu alification on plate to satisfy the req uirements for welding on pipe
When the diameter of piping or tubinq is reduced below speci fied limits. Sm aller pipe diam eters gen erally requ ire more sophisticated techniques , equ ipmen t, and skills
Usuall y not req uire d for changes involving electrode s or welding materials adapted for the changed electrical cha racteristics Someti mes requ ired for change from AC to DC, or vice versa, or from one pola rity to the other When electro de classificat ion is changed When the diam eter is incre ased beyond allowa ble ranges specified in th e relevant code
Usua lly not required for changes involving simila r elec trodes or we lding materi als ad apted for the changed elec trical characteristics Wh en electrod e cl assificat ion group ing is changed Sometimes when the electrode diamete r is increased beyond spec ified limits Usually not req uired Whe n the change exceeds the limits of the position(s) qualified or a cha nge in progression
Weldin g current When the current is outside the range qual ified Position or progression or both Usuall y not requ ired . but de sirable
When a marked change is made in the manner of filler metal deposition ; e.g., from a small bea d to large bead or weave arrangement or from an annealing pass to a no-annealing-pa ss arrangement, or vice versa
General requirements lor requa llhca tlOn 01welding procedu res and weloe r pertonnance. Not lo r use by Inspect or to det ermine oecessev 01requ allhcall on. Inspecto rs must reference the app licable code or standard lor the work bein g inspec ted.
---------- - - --------
- --- -- -
Posthe ating
General requirements for requalificalion of welding procedu res and welder performance. Not lor use by inspector to determine necessity of requalitic ation. Inspectors must reference the applicable code Of standard for the work being inspected.
...Figure 35-11. Essential welding variables require requalification if they are cnanged.
is documentation of the welding variables used to p rodu ce an acceptable lest wekl an d the les t results co nd uc te d on the weld to qua lify a WPS.
ing var iables use d to produce an accept ab le test weld and the test result s co nd uc te d on the weld to q ualify a WPS . A procedure qua lification record determines, by preparation and testing of standards specimens, whether welding in accordance with a WPS will produ ce so und welds and adequate joint properties. Th e te st results are do cumented in a procedure qualifi cation record (PQR). To support a WPS . it is necessary to te st a nd ce rti fy th e res u lts in a PQR. This is done by making the welds described in the WPS. machining them into te st sa mp le s, and testin g th e samples in accordance with the applicable fabrication code and standard,
PQR Details
Much of the data required by the PQR is the sa me as the informati on referenced in the WPS. All essential variables and, when a pplicable, supple me ntal essent ial variables , mu st be included . Nonessent ial variables are optional, but when included must be acc urate, The data on the front sheet of the PQR and the WPS wi ll often look very similar. A PQR records exact data of what actu all y took place duri ng the test. A WPS lists a range of allowable variables. The back of the PQR is a record
of the mech anical te st re su lts. Mechanical tests that may be used include th e ten si Ie te s t, gui ded bend test, tou ghne ss te st (w he n requ ired) , and fill et we ld test (w hen required). See Append ix. A change in an y variable bey ond the allowable limits of the applicable fabr ication standard or code requires requalification of the WPS with a new PQR . Any c hange within a llowable limits requires only documentation in a revised WPS . Th e app licable fabrication code or sta nda rd provide s ge ne ra l g uidance and spec ific accepta nce- rejection criteria for evaluating test results. Minimum ten sile st re ng t h, ma xi mum number of inclusions, or the per missible level of other discontinuities may be s pec i fie d . The acce pta b ility of properti es or condition s is based on en g in eerin g judgment a nd is es peciall y important for service at high or low temperature, or in corrosiv e envi ronments. PQRs vary for the typ e of welding process. In some cases the type of fabrication may requi re mockup test s or may allow th e use of a prequ alified WPS .
PQR develop me nt encompasses welding a sample j oint within the appl ica ble 1 10rameters ofthe WPS. testing the j oint, and recording thl' results.
PQR Steps
The steps involved in PQR are welding a sample joint within the parameters of the WPS qualification variables; testing the sample joint using sta ndard ized protocol s; and recordin g the test results in the PQR.
Weldin!: a Sample Joint. Weldin g a sample joint is usually done using pipe or plate samples. with a welding joint made to the qu al ification va ria bles indicat ed in the WPS. Th e type , size, and thickness of the test sample are governed by the type, size, and thickness of the base metal to be welded in production . and by the nature of the pieces to be removed for test specimen pre pa ra tio n. Test speci me n require ments are usually indicated in the applicable fabrication standard or code . Testing a Sample Joint. Sample joint testing is performed on test specimens that have been remo ved from th e sample weld joint. The type and number of test spec imens depend s on the requirements of the applica ble fabrication standard or code. In most cases, the test spec imens used are for tensile testing and guided bend resting. Exact testin g requirem ent s are indicated in the applicabl e fabricati on standard or code . Test spe ci mens mad e fro m fillet welds are usually subjected 10 tensileshear testin g and macroetch ing. Testing deter mines the strength, ductil ity, soundness, and adequacy of fusion of the welds. Nondestru ctive examination (NOEl of the sa mple j oints is usually pre ferred before they ar e sectioned for test speci me n pr ep ar ation . Specific NOE procedures may be a requirement of the appli cable fabri cation standard or code. If a fabricator has qualified a welding procedure, and at some later date wishes to make modi fications in that procedure, it may be necessary to conduct requalification tests. Requalification tests establish that the modifi ed weldin g procedure wi ll pr odu ce sa tis fac to ry re sults. Requalification tests are not usually required when only minor details of the origi nal procedure are change d. They are requ ired , however, if the changes might alter the properties of the resulting
welds. The applicable fabrication standard or co de pro vid es gu idance o n whethe r requa lifica tio n tes ts are required. Recording Test Results. Recordin g test results in the PQR is done when the qualifier is satisfied that the results are accurate. The PQR is signed to certify the test result s. If the test result s meet the requirements of a job specification, the supported WPS may be issued for production welding. A PQR is a certified record of a qualification test and should not be revised. If information needs to be added later. it can be ad de d in th e form of a supplement or attachment. Additional qualification tests may be required if an empl oyer lat er wishes to mak e changes to a WPS. A PQR may support several WPSs. and a WPS may be supported by several PQRs. If changes becom e necessary in an establi shed and qualifi ed WPS, additional qualification tests may be needed to determine wheth er the modifi ed WPS will yield satisfactory results. The applicable fabrication standard or code determines if requalification is needed.
Several PQRs can s uppo rt a s ingle WPS, lint! several W I'S,,' can be sup1'0l't{J(/ hy a single PQR.
.e=
.e
A p1'('(fuu/ijied WPS is a WPS that complies with a .\pecijk fabrication code or standard and requires 110 qualification testing.
Mock-up tests are used to simulate actua l welding j obs under diffunlt or
tubcshret joints.
of the a pp licable fabricati on sta nda rd or co de fo r the welding va riables defined . The wri tten WPS is a reco rd o f mate ri a ls a nd welding proc edure qu ali f icati on var ia b les th at dem on stra te s tha t th e j oint welding procedure meet s th e requirements for prequal ified s ta tus . For A WS D I . I , Structural Weldill g Code - Steel, this work is done under the requirements of AWS D 1.1. Welding procedure qualification tests need not be made if the requirements are followed in detail. The employe r mu st acce pt re sp onsibility for th e use of prequ alifi ed WPS s . The use o f prequali fied welding procedures does not guarantee sa tisfactory prod ucti on we lds . The qu ality o f all producti on we lds should be verified by ND E during and after welding. A sta nda rd WPS is a type of pre qualified WPS . A standard WPS is one de veloped throug h analy si s o f tho usands of qualifi ed we ld ing procedures that prov ide restr icted ran ges of we lding variab les to ensure a hi gh probabilit y of success ful app lication by e nd users. Standa rd WPSs are approved for some fahri cation co des . suc h as for sheet met al. Mock-up Tests. Mock -up tests are used to simulate ac tual producti on we ld ing co nditions in ce rta in typ es o f fabrication jobs. usuall y under diffi cult or restricted welding co nd itio ns. Mock-up tests ve rify that proper too ling and inspection have been se lecte d . Ce rtain variab les such as joint geo metry. we ld ing position . and access ib ility m a y not be con s idered a s qualification variables. Often. the on ly way to gauge their effe ct is with mock up s . Fa bricatio n standards a nd codes do not usually requ ire the fa brication of moc k- Ups for destru cti ve exami nation unless they are to dem onstrate tha t th e we ld ing procedures will produce the spec ifie d welds. For e xa mp le, al th o ug h mo ck -up test s arc used to verify weldin g procedures for heat ex-
ch an ger tube-tubesheet joints , the mock -up tests must be suppo rted by a qualified WPS . Mock-up tests are a useful met hod of demo nstrat ing ex pected quality levels under difficult or restricted welding co nditions. See Figure 35- 12.
tl
IIIOf : k -lI p
test
ensure prope r tool ing and techniques are selected. suc h (I .{ fo r heat exchanger tube-tubeshr es joints,
Brazing J'QR. Brazin g procedure qualificat ion testing co ns ists of var iou s des tructive tests on test spec ime ns obtained from braze sa mp les made to th e applicab le brazing proc edure specifi cat ion. Test results arc recorded on the Brazing Procedure Qualification Record and certified by the witnessing co ntrac to r representati ve. Resistance Welding PQR. Resistan ce wel ding procedure q uali fication tests vary a nd de pend la rgel y o n th e type of wo rk to be produ ced . When th e we lded part is sm all, th e p ro cedure may be qualified by making a number of fini shed pieces and test ing them to de struction und er serv ice cond itions, either simulated or real. In other cases. re sistance welds can he made in tes t specime ns that arc tested in ten sion or shea r, or in spected for other propertie s suc h as su rface appearan ce and so undness. A p ro cedure qu ali fi cati on record determ ines . by preparati on a nd testing of sta nda rds spec ime ns . w het he r welding in accordance with a WPS will produce sou nd weld s and ade q ua te joint properties. Much of the data required by the PQR is the same as the information referenced in the WPS .
I . Qualifi ed welding procedures consist o r the welding procedure spec ifica tion (WPS) and the procedure qualificat ion record (PQ R). 2. Welding procedu re qualific ation variables are welding param eters that affect the integrity or a weld joint and must be indicated in the PQR. 3. Joint design is an example of a procedure qualificati on variable and may enco mpass weld type, edge preparati on, and meth od of preparing the edge . 4 . Base metals are gro uped by weldability classi ficat io ns to redu ce the number of procedure qua lification variab les. Base metals with the same weldabi lity classification may be substituted for one ann ther with no effect. 5. Filler metals are grouped by usability classification to reduce the num ber of procedure qualification variables. Filler metals with the same usabilit y cl assification may be substituted for one another with no effect. 6 . A WPS includes essential, supplementary essential , and nonessential variables . 7. Essential variables are parameters which, if changed, could alter the mechani cal propertie s of the weld . Requalification of the new variables is required . 8. Suppl ement ary esse ntial variables are param eters which affect the impact properties (toughness) of the weld. Requalification of the new variables is required. 9 . Nonesse ntial variables are parameters which, if changed. do not alter the mec hanical pro perties of the weld and do not requir e requ alific ation of the weld. 10. A procedure qualification record (PQR) is documentation of the welding variables used to produce an acceptable test weld and the test results conducted on the weld to qualify a WPS. I I. PQR development encompasses welding a sample joint within the applicable param eter s of the WPS, testing the j oint, and recordin g the results. 12. Several PQRs can support a single WPS, and several WPSs can be supported by a single PQR. 13. A prequ alified WPS is a WPS that complies with a spec ific fabric ation code or standard and requi res no qualification testing. 14 . Mock-up tests are used to simulate actual welding jobs under difficult or restric ted conditions, suc h as for heat exc hanger tube-tubeshee t jo ints.
I . What is one benefit of using an effective joint design? 2. What is the difference between base metal material specification and base metal weldability classification? 3. What is the range of base metal thicknesses covered in a welding procedure specification?
4. What is the difference between filler metal specification and filler metal usability classification? 5. Why are small-diameter electrodes preferable to large-diameter electrodes? 6. What is one benefit of postheating? 7. Why does a straight bead provide less heat input to a weld than a weave head? 8 . What are the effects of travel speeds that are too slow? Travel speeds that are too fast? 9. What is the effect of ineffective interpass cleaning? 10. What WPS variables require documentation in the WPS? I I . What are the three steps required in creating a PQR? 12. How is a mock-up test useful when supported by a qualified WPS?
502
1 Welding Skills
The welde r performance qualification (WPQ) test demonstrates a welder 's ability to produce welds that meet a qualified welding procedure. Welder performan ce qualification tests are used to assess whether a welder has the required level of skill to produce a sound weld to the pa rameters of the applicable welding procedure specification (WPS). The employer is responsible for ensuring that welder performan ce qualification tests meet the requirements of the applicable febrication standard or code. Fabrication standa rds and codes contain similar methods of qualifyin g welders. welding operators. and tack welders. but differ in the requirement details. Welder performan ce qualification (WPQ) tests must be made in the most difficult position encountered in production. However, WPQ test results cannot predict how an indi vidual will perfo rm on a particular production weld. The quality of production welds should be determined by inspection both durin g and f ollowing completion of welding.
welds, and has recorded the succ essful results of a test in accordance with accepted standard s. Welder registration is the act of approving a copy of the welder's certification document by an appropriate authority.
A welder perf or mance qualification (WP Q) d emon strates II welde r's ability to pro duce welds to me et the applicable welding procedu re specifica tion (WPS).
AWS DI . J. Structural Welding CodeSteel. is an example oj a standa rd that contains qualification requirements for welders. welding operators, 01"/ tack welders. Performance qualification requir ement s are found in Section 4. Qualification, Pari C, Performance Qualification:
503
Qualification unde r .~ a ile [ahrication code .= or standard does not necessarily qua/if\' a welder 10 weld under another code or S1a l1dard, even though the qualification tests 01 'pear 10 be identical.
Th e g ove rni ng sta ndard or c o de should be con sulted for specific details. Requirements for the ASME Boi ler and Pressu re Ve ssel Code, AWS Stru ctural Weldill g Code-Stee l, AW S Struc tural Weldillg Code-Sheet Stee l, and API CmS-' Country Pipeline Weldillg are typi ca lly speci fied. Qu alifi cation under one fabr ication code or standa rd does not nec essarily qualify a we lde r to weld under anothe r code or sta ndar d. even though the qu alification tests appe ar to be identical.
weld in acco rd a nce w ith one qu alified WPS is al so qu alifi ed to weld in a cc ordanc e with oth er qua lified WPS s using th e sa me w eld in g proce ss, within the limits o f the indicated esse nti a l w eld in g va ria bles . A qual ifi ed w el d er is gi ve n a n ide ntify ing number, lett er, or symbo l that is used to iden tify his or her wo rk. The qu ali fication expires if the we lder d o c s no t we ld for a pe riod of s ix months or mor e. Moreover, if there is reason to quest ion the we lde r's abi lity to make we lds mee ti ng spec ification s. his or hcr qu alific at ion sh a ll be co ns ide re d ex p ire d .
Strurtura! weldin g co d,' WPQ requirements are con tained ill AWS 1>/./ , Structural Welding Code-s-
Steel.
A PQR mll st include the essential welding variables. the range qualified. the type of test, ami the lest results.
Qualificati on is required in each position used. In the case of vertical positio n. uphill or dow nhill travel is qualified. Welders are qualified for all electrodes within a gro up designation (u sa bi li ty cl a ssifi cati o n) . Different combinations of electrode and shielding gas mu st be qu alifi ed separately. If any of the procedure qu alifi cation variables are cha nged . the procedure must be requa lified under the new variables. See Figure 36- 1. Check with the fabricati on co de and spec ification for actual ess ential variabl es.
Electr ode classificat ion Electrod e size Increase in filler metal strength Melting rate/current/wir e feed speed Type of coating Coa ting thickn ess Use of flux (for SAW)
PRODUCT-SPECIFIC WPQs
Prod uct -spe cifi c weld er performan ce qual ification tests arc 1110st commonl y done for plate and structural member welding, pipe welding. sheet metal welding, and brazing . Welder performance quali fication s test the most difficult positions that will be encountered in production for welding and brazing. Qualification in a more difficult position usuall y also qu alifies fo r welding or brazing in less difficu lt positions. A welder who qualities in vertical, horizontal, or overhead positions is usually also co nsidered qualifi ed for we lding or brazin g in fl at po siti on . Qualification on a groove weld test will normally qualify thai welder for the production of fillet welds in the same position. The applicable fabrication standard or code dictates the exact limits on production weldin g and brazing qualification test position s.
Position
Change in position For vertical welding: uphill vs. downhill ; downhill vs. uphill Welding from both side s to welding from one side only (for square butt joints)
tI
.=
Shielding Gas Type of shielding gas (for GMAW and GTAW) Flow rate (for GMAW and GTAW) Current
Current level/wir e feed speed/melting rate Type of welding curr ent , polar ity
Base Metal
Joint Design
Root opening of square butt join ts AIVS V 1.1. Structural Welding Code-
Steel, Table 4./0. Weld er and Weld ing Operator Qualification: Number and Type ofSpecimens ami Range of Thickness and Diameter Qualified. specifies the type of test wetds. metal thickness, number of'specimens. and the qualified dimensions fo r production welding.
Welding of
_ _ _
Bead Number
Voltage
Speed
Figu re 36-2. WPQ tests to meet API I J() 4 (Ire usually perfo rmed in the fie ld.
A welder pe rforman ce qualification test qualifies a welder based on the essential variables spec ified on the welding performance qualification record.
506
Welding Skills
Groove weld qualifications usually qualify the welder to weld both fillet welds and groove weld s in the pos itions qualified . Fillet weld qualifications limit the welder to fillet welding in only the position qualified and other spec ified position s of less difficulty. WPQ samples for gro ove and fillet weld s are taken from key location s in the test j oint.
min imum thickn ess qu ali fied is often the thickness used durin g qualification. See Figure 36-3.
A WPQ for bra zing req uires that a joint be made ;11 a p OSi l ;OI1 simi lar 10 thu t required ill p roduction. Brazing operators must be able 10 operat e machinerv or brazing equipment according to the brazing procedu re specification. .
Welder Performance
:0
507
Qualification
Oualllfed 'WllT d
Jomt
Thlcl<ness'
r~~lll Test'
Th ickness
Bend
tested
Arc spot weld and arc seam we ld, Arc spo t weld, she et to supporting member Flat Flat
Thickness
sheet to
supporting member
tes ted
Twist
Flat
supporting member
Th ickness tested
Bend
to supporting member
Arc seam weld, sheet to sheet Flat Ho rizontal Vert ical Overhead Flat Flat, Horizontal Flat , Hori zontal, Vert ical Flat, Hor izontal, Overhead Fillet we lded lap jo int, sheet to sheet, or sheet to supporting member T hickness tested
Horizontal
Hori zontal
Thickness tested
Bend
and
thicker
Bend
Flat Flat , Hori zontal Flat, Horizo ntal, Vert ica l Flat, Hori zont al, Ove rhead
Th ickness tested
Bend
and
thicker
Flat Flat, Horizontal Flat, Hori zont al , Vertical Flat, Hor izonta l, Ove rhead
Fille t welded T- or lap jo int, sheet to sheet, or sheet to supporting mem ber
Th ickness tested
and
thicker
Bend
Thickness tested
and
thic ker
Bend
Fla t Flat, Ho rizontal Flat, Ho rizontal , Ver tica l Flat , Hori zontal , Ove rhead
Flare-bevel-groove we ld, sheet to sheet, or sheet to suppo rti ng member; or Flare- V-groove weld , sheet to sheet
T hickness tested
and
thicker
Bend
and
thicker
Bend
Flat Flat , Hori zont al Flat, Horizontal, Vert ica l Flat, Horizontal, Overhead
Flare -V-groove we ld, sheet to sheet; or Flare-bevel-groove weld , sheet to sheet, or sheet to supporting member
Thickness tested
and
thicker
Bend
Figure .' 6--'_ For sheet steel welding. the position, weld joint, and thicknes s that are tested are typicall y the only variables for which the welder is qua lified, per test.
.'
Bun JOINT SCARF JOINT
LAP JOINT
RABBET JOINT
Figure
36-~.
(l IJ(J
1. A welder performance qualification (WPQJ demonstrates a we lder' s ab ility to produce welds to mee t the app licable WPS. 2 . Qualification under one fabrication code or standard doe s not necessarily qualify a welder to weld under another code or sta ndard, even though the qualification test s appear to be identical. 3. A PQR must include the essential welding variables, the range qualified, the type of tests, and the test result s. 4. Structural welding code WPQ requirements are contained in AWS D 1.1, Stru ctural Welding Code-Steel. 5 . The WPQ must be developed for the most difficult position expected during welding or brazing.
I. 2. 3. 4.
Who is responsib le for ensurin g that qua lification of welders meets app licab le codes? What is the difference between welder performan ce qualification and welder certification? Are welders who meet the requirements for fillet welds automatically approved for groo ve welds? When qualifying for pipe, in what position should the welder be qualified?
sec t ion
e ig ht
Welding Technology
Welding metallurgy is the study of the effect of welding on the metallurgical structure of weld joints. Heat input during welding produces rapid heating, very high temperatures, and rapid cooling. The physical properties of the metal determine the response 10 the heat of welding. Mechanical properties (if the metal, residual stresses, and corrosion resistance of metal are also affected by the heat of welding.
METALLURGICAL STRUCTURE
Metallurgy is the study of the influence
of crysta l and grain structure of metals on the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of metals. The crystal structure and grain structure of metals is known collectively as the metallu rgical str ucture . Metal lu rgical structure is the arrangeme nt of atoms in repeatin g pat ter ns within a metal. The crystal structure is preserved in the grain structure of metals. The crystal structure may change as a metal is heated or cooled. or if the composition of the metal changes.
one of three types: face-centered cubic, bod y-cent ered cub ic, or close-packed hexagonal. See Fig ure 37-1. The atomic arrangeme nts in the differe nt crys tal struc tures lead to significa nt differences in the behav ior of metals. Some metals, such as steel, may exhibit different crystal structures at di fferent temp cralures.
Grain Structure
Metals do not exist as a single crystal, but as a large number of grains. A grain is an assembly of crysta ls having different orientations of their crystal compon en ts. G rain struc ture deve lop s as metal s solidify from the molten state . The first alums to solidify develop the characteristic c rystal structure of the meta l. Each solid crystal nucleus that forms develops its own orientation within the structure. The crystals grow by de vel oping offs hoots , but retain thei r orien tation with respect to the
Crystal Structure
A crystal s truc ture is a specific ar-
Crystal structure is 1I
rangement of atoms in an ord erly and repeating three-dimensional pattern. All metals exhibit a cry stal structure. Although 14 types of crystal structures are possible in nature. most metals exhibi t
specifk: arrangement ofthe buildingbloch cif"Ultter(alOmr) ill CUI orderly and repeating lit ree -dimensional
pattern.
SII
other nuclei. The solidifying structures are called dendrites. As the dendrit es grow, they fill the space between themse lves w ith offshoots and bran che s until their extremities meet other dendrites. The dendrites continue to gro w until the space between them is completely fi lled and solidifi cation is complete . See Figure 37-2.
Grain Structure
Figure 37-2
D
<:>
I ~ CLUSTER
OF NUCLE I
-o
./
a
NUCLEU S FORMS (FIRST STAGE)
Heat Input
Heat input is the most important elementfor welding. Heat (heat input) is required to melt the bas e metal and fille r metal du ring welding.
Heat is th e mo st important ele ment needed for welding. Heat (heat input) is required to melt the base metal and fill er metal during weld ing. Heat in p ut is the amount of heat applied to thc filler metal and the base metal surface at the required rate to form a weld pool , plus the add itional heat required to compe nsa te for heat that is conducted away from the weld. Heat input durin g weld ing produce s rapid heating, ver y hi gh temperatures, and rapid cooling. See Figure 37-3. The most common source of heat input in fusion welding is the electric arc. Oth er so urces of heat input, such as burning oxygen and acetylene (oxyfuel welding), are also used. Controlling heat input is essential when welding because the heat inpu t may affect the structure and properties of metals.
DENDR ITE
Figure 37-2. The gra in slrue /ure of crystals develops from the sol idif icat ion an d growth of man)' nuc lei that f orm and grow (/ .1' molten metal cools.
Figure 37-1. A x atoms cool from a liquid 10 a solid state. they are arranged into (lile of three crystal slruc ture patterns: body-centered cubic, f ace -centered cub ic, o r cl ose-p acked he xa gon al.
" 7i
/;
,
7i
.1;
I I~ - - -
"li
J
'1:J--
- O~
- 1-- - - ;
y :
o
- - - -,--
:>
1 ;---- ,0 ---
J
,,--,_ _ _ _ CJ
BODY-CENTERED CUBIC
FACE-CENTERED CUBIC
a:
w c, ::;;
RAPID COOLING {
!;(
a:
W I-
TIME
Figure 373. Heal input durin}: wddin!: produces rapid heatin g. ~'e,!' high temperatures, atld rapid co oling.
Seventy percent to 85% of the heat generated in SMAW is used in making the weld. Most of the rem aining heat is used to melt the base metal adjacent to the we ld joint. T he perce ntage of heat used to melt the filler metal varies with the welding proce ss, welding proced ure, base met al , and joint design . Additi onal heat is lost through heating the electrodes and flu x, through weld spatter, and through conv ection to the surrounding atmos phe re. Calculating Heat Input. Heat input is measured in j oul es per linear inch of we ld. The heat input produce d by a mov ing electri c arc is calculated using the follo wing eq uation:
Heat input whe re IYV IYV x IYC x 60 tVTS
Heating Rate. Heating rate is the rate of temperature cha nge of a weld joint over time fr om room temperature to the welding temperature. Th e hea ting rate is intluenced by heat input, thermal conductivity, and the mass of the joint area . Heat input exceeds heat loss during welding and the base metal bec omes halt er. The temperature of the wor k near the arc rises and as soon as the arc move s on, the temperature begin s to fall. If the weld pool becomes large and unman ageabl e , it ca n be cooled by reducing the current or breaking the arc, thus reducing heat input or cutting it off completely. The maximum temperature achieved in a weld mu st be sufficient to ca use melting of the base metal at the weld face. Th e amou nt by which the te mperature must exceed the melting point of the filler metal depends on the welding process. The tim e the met al is at the maximum temperature can influence properti es of both the tiller metal and the base metal. Cooling Rate. The cooling rate is the rate of temperature change of a weld joint over time from the welding tem per ature to room temper atu re . Weld joint coolin g take s pl ace at a mu ch faster rate than any quench ing process in heat treatment, The coo ling rate rapidl y dec reases with distance fro m the we ld, bec au se the surro unding base metal acts as an effec tive heat sink. The cooling rate is governed by factors such as heat loss, thermal condu ctivity of the base metal, and the amount o f preh eat and interpass temp eratur e control required. Preheat is the heating of the joint area to a predetermined temperature in order to slow the coo ling rat e. Interpa ss temp erature cont rol is maintainin g th e temper ature ra ng e within the weld betw een weld passes until welding is complete. Dependin g o n the type of meta l be ing welded , interpass temperature co ntrol may have an upper limit, a lower limit, or both.
weldi ng Metallu rgy ~ 513
IYC
60
= welding voltage (in V) = welding current (ill A) = constant (to convert min to sec)
IVIS = welding travel spe w (in inl rnin) Wh at is the heat inp ut whe n using SMAW at 29 V, 300 A, and a travel speed of l 8"/min?
Heat input WV x IYC x 60 1Y7:5
29 x 300 x 60 18
Heat input
effect on themetallurgical slnlcture. T71e coo/ ing rate is determined by the steel composition and must be controlled to prevent embrittlement ill susceptible compositions.
Us ing th e proper preh eat temp erature, coupled with WI upper lim it 0 11 interpass tem perature control. helps maintain the cooling rate below the critical cooling rate. preventing loss of toughness.
Th e three key re gions of a weld are the weld metal , the base metal, and the heat-affected zone.
Wh en usin g mediu m-c ar bon an d low-all oy stee ls, the rate of co oling must be controlled to maintain toughness of the heat- affected zone. T here is a critica l coolin g rate for eac h type of stee l, which , if exceeded, lead s to loss of to ughnes s. Using th e pro per preheat temperature, co upled with an upper limi t on interpass tem perature control. helps maintain the cooling rate below the critica l cooling rate. The cooling rate of a weld also depends on the number of weld passes required . The root bead has the greatest preheating effect on the weld joint. The change in the cooling rate between subsequent passes is less significant. Forced cooling may be used to accelerate coolin g . Forced cooli ng is rapid cooling of a solidified weld joint betw een passes usin g water. Forced cooling is ofte n used becau se it increases produ ction. Forced cooling is most common with stainless steels, but is also used on other alloys. Abnorm al stresse s and other detrimental effects may be exert ed on the joint inte grity when forced cooling is used. Slow Cooling of Steel. When stee l is slow coo led from a high temperatu re, metallurgical structure changes occ ur under conditions of thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium is a steady-s tate condition in which time is available for the diffusion of atoms. Austenite (which has a face-centered cubic crystal structure) transforms on cooling to a mixture of ferrite (which has a body-centered cubic structure) and iron carbide. Iron carbide is a co mpound formed from carbon that diffuses out of the austenite and comb ines with some of the ferrite. Slow cooling is used in heat treatment processes such as annealing that are designed to soften steel.
Rapid Cooling of Steel. Rapid cooling is used to stre ng the n stee l. The stee l is heated to a high temp eratu re to produce austenite-a process called austenitizing-and then rapidly cooled, or qu en ch ed . Wh en stee l is rapidly coo led , an eq uilib r ium-de pe nde nt structure change has no time to occur. Th e stee l is then hea ted to an intermediate temperature, or tempered, to restore suffic ient ductility while maintaini ng a stro nger, harder product. Weld ing prod uce s me tallurg ical structure changes similar to the quenching stage of heat treat me nt. Consequentl y, as the carbon content of steel increases, the welding proced ure must be manipulated to "cushion" the effect of quenching. This is achieved by preheatin g or blanket coo ling. Steel may also be tempered after welding using po stheating, which reduces hardn ess and residual stresses .
WELD REGIONS
The heat of welding creates three regions, with different metallurgical structures, within a weld joint. These regions are we ld metal , heat-affe ct ed zo ne (HAZ), and base metal. See Figure 37-4. Additiona lly, surfac ing and butt erin g procedures create regions with properties similar to the weld metal, HAZ, or base metal.
BASE METAL
L_==~_~,~~=";'~
FUSION / BOUNDARY. /
Figu re 3 7-4. The heat of welding c retltn thr ee regions of metallurgical structures. weld metal. heataffected zone (HAL), and base metal.
Weld Metal
Weld metal is the portion of a fusion weld that is completely melted during welding. Weld metal consists of solidified weld tiller metal resulting from the addition of filler metal to the joint, plus a small amount of melted base metal at its boundaries, which creates the weld interface. The weld interface is the boundary between the weld metal and the base metal in a fusion weld. The melted base metal contributes to dilution if a filler metal of different composition is used. Dilution modifies the chemical composition of filler metal because of mixing with the base metal or previously applied weld metal in the weld bead . Dissimilar metal welding is the joining of two metals of different composition using a compatible filler metal to ensure the weld meets required properties. The amount of dilution varies with the heat input of the welding process. The greater the heat input required by the welding process, the greater the opportunity for dilution in the weld metal. For SMAW in horizontal position, a dilution rate of 30% is used to calculate the deposited weld metal composition. In this case, 70% of the completed weld bead is supplied by the filler metal and 15% is supplied by each of the base metals. See Figure 37-5.
If alloy 400 (67% nickel, 32% copper) and 304 stainless steel (8% nickel, 18% chromium, 74% iron) are welded with ENiCrFe-2 (70% nickel , 15% chromium, 8% iron) filler metal, the diluted composition of the weld metal can be found by multiplying the filler metal composition by 70%, multiplying the base metal composition by 15%, and finally adding the corresponding amounts . Contribution to weld metal by ENiCrFe-2 filler metal: 70% x 70% nickel = 49% nickel 70% x 15% chromium = 10.5%
chromium 70% x 8% iron = 5.6% iron
Contribution to weld metal by alloy 400 base metal: 15% x 67% nickel = 10% nickel
dilution
Contribution to weld metal by 304 stainless steel base metal: 15% x 8% nickel = 1.2% nickel
dilution
= 2.7%
I]
.=
~
dilution
f&-=o.
15%OFWELD J METAL SUPPLIED BY BASE METALS
The calculated composition of the weld metal is obtained by adding the filler metal contribution to the base metal contributions. For example: (49% + 10% + 1.2%) = 60.2% nickel (10.5% + 2.7%) = 13.2% chromium (5.6% +11.1%) = 16.7% iron plus 4.8% copper The composition does not equal 100% because minor percentages of chemical elements in the base metal and filler metal are not included in the calculation. In a multiple-pass weld, the root bead is diluted equally by the base metals being welded. Subsequent passes are diluted partially by the base metal and partially by the previous weld bead.
The amount of di iution varies with the heat input of the welding process. The greater the heat input required by the welding process, the greater the opportunityfor dilution in the weld metal.
Figure 37-5. When welding dissimilar metals, the chemical composition of the weld is made up of metal supplied by both the filler metal and the base metal.
nil'
row baml of ba se
metal adja cent to the wel d j oint, M O SI problems that occur durin g weldi ng oc cur in ttte HAZ
T he heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a narrow band of base metal adjacent to the weld joint whose propertie s andlo r me tallurgical structure are a lte red by the heat of we lding. With ca rbon steels. metallurgical structure changes ca n occur in any region of the base metal that exceeds l350F (732 C) . With heat treated a lum inum alloys , any regi on heated above 600F (3 15 C) experience s metallurgica l structure tran sformation. Welding a heat-treated aluminum alloy creates an HAZ that may be weaker and mo re susce ptible to failure under serv ice loads. The width of the HAZ is proportion al to the amount of heat input during welding , and varies with the welding process used . It may extend from .06" to .25" into the base metal.
t\l'O
or
Base Metal
The base metal is the metal, aft er welding, that has not been structurally altered by e xp osure to he at. Th e boundary between the base metal and the HAZ depends o n the temperature at whic h metallurgical struc ture tran sformati on begin s for any speci fic metal and is dependen t on we lding temper ature.
Surfacing
.=
.~
II is us ualtvnecessarv 10 apply 1\~'O layers ({ s urf acing weld 10 o vercome dilution and a lia ;" the requ ired
weu r o r co r ro si o n res istance /JITJ/ JC'r lies.
Surfaci ng can be ap plied us ing the SMAW, GTAW, and GMAW arc we lding processes . Surfaci ng ca n also be applied using OFW or b razi ng . Arc weldi ng processe s genera lly produce the most di lution. It is usuall y neces sa ry to a pply two layers of surfaci ng we ld to overco me d ilution and ensure the seco nd layer has the required chemical co mpos it io n o r othe r propert ie s. See Figure 37 -6 . A surfac ing weld is applie d to a sur face, as opposed to a joint, to obtain th e desired properties or dim en sion s.
SM AW prod uces high deposi tio n rates with some dilution. Surface cleanlin ess req ui rem en ts are less stringe nt th an other processes. So me po ro sit y and cracking may occur but are acceptable for applications in which SMAW surfaci ng is used . GTAW produces very clean deposits with relatively low deposition rates. The surface mu st be thoro ughl y cl eaned . T he hi gh heat input po ssibl e with GTAW increa ses the ten den cy for dilution and crack ing because of stresses from expansio n and contrac tion. G MAW produ ces high de pos itio n rat e s w it h lo w d ilu tio n; ho we ver , GM AW is not wide ly used for surfacin g . A fl u x-cored e lectrode may be subs tituted for bare wire . OFW produces a lower deposition rate compared with other processes, but prod uces the least di lution . The lower te mpe rature grad ient created in an O FW surfacing we ld reduces cracking or spa lling becau se thermal stress is reduced . OFW is use d to surface steel w hen maximu m hardne ss and minim um cracki ng are req uired , for example at a sealing face .
Buttering
Bu tt ering is a surfac ing we ld van ation that app lies su rfac ing met al on one or more jo int surfaces to provide co mpatible base me tal for subse quent
completion of the weld . A sig ni ficant difference in me lting temperature s between two ba se metal s or between a weld metal and a base metal may cause the metal with the lower melting temperat ure to ru p tur e from shri nkage stresses as it so lidities and cools. T he probl em may be so lved by butt ering th e face of th e higher me lting base meta l with a tiller metal of an int ermediatc meltin g temperature, reducing the me lting temperature d iffere ntial betwee n the two metals. The weld is then ma de betwe en th e buttered face an d the ot her base metal. Buttering is also used to elimi nate th e need for preheat and postheating whe n we ld ing two components, such as a medi um-carbon steel fixt ure that is we lded to a low-car bon steel parI. The medium-carbon steel fix ture is buttered with austenitic stainless steel tiller
metal and postheated to res tore toughne ss. T he buttered ca rbon stee l ma y be welded to the low-carbon steel without preheat or pos theating be cause austen itic stainless steel does not require preheat or postheating. See Figure 37-7 .
Buttering is a method of applyin g II layer of metal to o lle side ofa weld jo intso that both " aires of a joint n lll
be welded together
without needing 10 preheat and/or pOSI heat the entire joint.
Buttering
Figure 37-7
~'~~"","ma
!
SURFACED (BUTT ERED) WITH E309 STAINLESS STEE L (US ING APP LICA BLE PREHEAT AND POSTHEATING) BUTT ERED SURFACE
"~~~\~---~
LOW-CARB ON STEEL BUTTERED JOINT EDGE
Melting Point
Me lting point is the te mperature at whic h a met al passe s from a so lid state to a liqu id (mo lte n) state. Pure me tal s po ssess a s pec ific melt in g point and pass fro m solid to liquid at a constant temperat ure. Alloys me lt wi th in a temperatu re range tha t depend s on the alloy composition. The range of temperatures is bounded by the solidus and the liquidus. Solidus is the highest temperature at which an alloy is completely solid. Liquidus is the lowest temperature at which an alloy is completely molten. Melti ng begi ns at the solidus and is complete at the liquidus . Metals with low melting temperatures can be welde d with low-temperature heat sources. See Figure 37-8 .
usually expre ssed as the coefficient of linear expan sion (length) . Coefficient of linear expansion is the change in the un it dimen sions of a ma terial caused by a 10 rise in temperatu re. See Fig ure 37-10. To calcu late linea r expansio n, apply the formula :
c = Ld
/',T
where
0c)
For example , what is the coefficie nt of linear expa nsion of a 10" steel bar that increases to 10.00- 1625" whe n its temperature is increased from I OOOF to I 100F ?
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansio n is a meas ure of the cha nge in dime nsio n of a member caused by heating or coo ling. Dimensional changes can occur in the length, width, andlor thickness. See Figure 37-9. The amount of thermal ex pa nsion is
c=
C
Ld /',T
.0001625 100 F
C = .00000 1625" / o F
HEATING
COO LING
{
I
COMPLETELY MO LTEN :::>
c,
a:
SOLIDIFICATION BEGINS (SOLIDS FIRST APPEAR)
LIQUIDUS
...
i< a:
w
:;;
IW
SOLIDUS
ALLOY COMPOSITION
FiJ.:lIl'"l' 37-1'1. Till' so lidus and liquidus bra cket the boundary tempe ratures between which an all oy is part iall y molten.
518 0
Welding Skills
, , ,'
l
>, ,
"
Metals expand at different rates for the same temperature increase. Alumin um has the greatest expansion, increasing its dimensions almost twice as much as steel over a comparahle temperature range. Thermal expansion in welding influences warpage control and fixture design and placement for the welding of similar and dissimilar metals .
,
~
Specific Heat
Specific heat is the ratio of the quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of a unit mass of metal by 10 , compared with the amount of heat req uired to raise the same mass of water hy the same temperature . Specific heat is a way of comparing the amo unt of heat required to melt various metals . A metal with a low melting point and high specific heat requires as much heat input to melt as a metal with high melting point and low specific heat. Aluminum, with a low melting point and high specific heat, requires almost the same amount of heat to melt as steel, which exhibits a higher melting point but lower specific heat.
Figure 379. Thermal expansion occurs in the length, the width, and/or the thickness.
~II()Y
Aluminum 1100 Alum inum 3003 Alum inum, pu re Alum inum 6061 Alum inum 7075 Alumi num 356 .0 Copper, pure Copper, oxygen-free Brass, 85% Brass , 80% Brass, 70% Man anese Bronze Phoso hor Bronze, 8% 70-30 Coppe r-Nickel 90- 10 Coppe r-Nickel Aluminum Bronze Iron ure Mild Steel (.2%CI Med ium Carbon Steel (.4%C\ 304 Stain less Steel Nickel. oure
,Expanllilm*;.
13.1 12.8 13.1 13.0 12 .9 11.8 9.16 9.83 10.4 10.6 11.1 11.7 10.1 9.00 9.50 9.11 6.5 6.5 6.3 9.16 7.39 7 .77 639 6.28 7.67 4 .67 10.9 3.25 1.11 7.89
g~~~t;
Thermal Conductivity
The rmal conductivity is the rate at which metal transmits heat. In weld ing, the rmal conductivity provides a measure for the heat inp ut required to compensate for the rate at which he at is conduc ted away from the weld. Copper has a high thermal conductiv ity and is difficult to weld with low-temperature heat sources. Austenit ic stainless steel, with one -eighth the thermal conductivity of copper, requires a significantl y lower heat input. The high thermal conductiv ity of copper makes it an excellent backing for welding. The rapid conduction of heat through copper backing prevents it from sticking to weld metal. Welding Metatlurgy
~
Monel lnconelw
Haste llov C Haste llov X T itan ium Silver Zircon ium Invar Gold
In mcromcnes per Inch per degree Fahrenheit
519
Electrical Conductivity
Mechanicalproperties describe tile beha vior of metals under mechanical loads and inclu de
strength. toughne ss. hardness. ductility. !atiglu'. creep. and
1II11lleahilit.\:
Electrical co nduc tiv ity is th e ra te at which e lectric curre nt flows thro ugh a metal. T he hi gh er the e lec trical co nducti vity of the me tal , the more eas ily current flow s through it. Electrical co nductivity decrease s as te mperat ure inc reases, but room tem peratu re values of elect rica l con ductivity may be used for co mpa rison between met al s. Electrical resistivity (resistivity) is the electrical resistance of a unit volume of a material. Res ist ivity is the reciprocal of electrical co nduct ivity. Resistivity is the co m mo n me thod o f ex p ress in g e lectrical conductivity. Metals with low resistivity (h igh e lectrical co nd uctivity ) are more conducive to resistance we lding .
Magnetism
Magnetism is the ab ility of a metal to be attracted by a m ag net , or to develop residu al mag ne tism w he n placed in a magnetic or electrical field. T his property is al so known as ferromag ne tis m. Most steels are magnetic and may co ntain residual magnetism that can occur during magnetic particl e in spection or from liftin g wi th a ma gnet. Parts ma y need to be demagn eti zed before we ld ing to pre vent problem s suc h as arc blow during welding . Arc b low cau ses the welding arc to dellect from its normal pat h because of magne tic force s.
Strength
Strength is the ability of a metal to resist d eformation from mechanical force s exert ed on it. Deposited filler metal is usually stronger than the base metal s it joins. It is necessary to usc only the minimum amount of filler metal specified. Excess till er metal ma y be detrimental and exaggerate residua l stress problems. Proper ly executed we ld test specimens do not fail in the we ld metal or HAZ when mechanically tested, but fail in the base metal. See Figure 37-11. In a structure, weld s are classified as primary or secondary. A primary weld is a weld that is an integral part of a structure and that directly tr an sfers a load. A primary weld mu st poss ess or exceed the stre ngth of th e stru ctural members . A secondary weld is a weld used to hold joint members and subassemblies together. Secondary welds are subj ected to less stress and less load than primary welds .
Oxidation
Oxidation is the co mbination of a metal with oxygen in the air to form metal oxide. Every metal form s a thin oxide layer at room temperature. As temperatures increase, the oxide layer thickens. At we lding temperature, steps must be ta ken to remove the met al oxide layer to prevent it from interferin g with we ld qualit y. Usi ng nux-coated filler metals and inert gas we lding preve nts ox ides from entering the weld area.
520 @o Welding Skills
W ELD
C-----Q'---~-""-':ffili
BEFORE TEST
Figure 37-12. For this reason, fabrication code s do not permit crack s or crack -like discontinuities. Welding proc edures for s tee ls in specific applications may require impact testing requirement s to ensure that th ere is no loss of tou ghne ss in the HAZ. Impact tes tin g is spec ial testing performed on small, not ched spe cimen s, to simulate a stre ss con centra-
tion effect.
Toughness
Figure 37-12
Figure 37 -12. Tough steel will absorb (/ sudden load, rattier than
crack catastrophically.
LACK OF FUS ION (C RAC K-LIKE
Figure 37-11. Weld mecha nical test samples sho uld [ait in the base metal.
m
1
, ; " , -,-,-,,,-,-,--_
"
The strength properties of the metal bein g weld ed shou ld be known, so that a strong, safe structure can be built. Likewise , wh en th e stre ng th of th e weld is known as compared to the base metal , a weld joint strong enough to do the job can be produ ced .
L Jl . "m"
. , t
AT TOE OF WELD
D , ISCONTINUITY)
' ,u p
'--
'Q',,
t ~
TOUGHNESS DEFORMS
Toughness
Tou ghness is the ability of a metal to absorb energy, such as impact loads , and deform rather than crack or fail catastrophically. Toughness is one of the most important metal mechanical properties. Weld procedures are designed to maintain toughne ss of the weld. When heat-treatabl e st ee ls a re weld ed , th e rapid cooling rat e may cause an undesirable decrease in toughness of the HAZ. Proper method s of maintaining tou ghn ess must be used, such as prehe at, interpass temperature control, or postheating . Toughness is difficult to measure, but with steels, toughne ss correlates inversely with hardness, which is relatively easy to measure. High hardn ess in the HAZ may indicate low toughness in stee ls . Cr ac k- like di scontinui tie s may provide a stress conc entration 'effect that causes the crack to propagate rapidl y when a lo ad is appli ed. See
Hardness
Hardness is the resi stance of a material to deformation , indentation, or scratching. Hardness testin g is one of the most widely used testing procedures becau se it is rapid , e as y to use, and often nondestructive . Hardne ss is most often measured using indentation hardness tests, such as the Brinell test, the Rockwell test, or the Vickers test. On steel, hardness can be used to estimate the toughnes s of a weld joint, e specially where preh eat, int erpa ss temperature co ntro l, and /or po st heating are used to en sure int egrity. See Figure 37- 13. It can also be used to predict scratching or scuffing resistance of a material.
We/dinK Metallurgy ~ 521
F i~un' .17- 13. Hardn ess t raverse made across a steel weld joint indicates whethe r there is a loss of toughness in tile heat uJf eeled :'Ol/ l ' .
Hardness
Figure 3713
HEAT-AFF ECTED ZO NE
or when molten zinc contacts stainless steel. If ga lva nized steel is we lded to sta inless, the zinc adjacent to the weld region must be removed by sandblasting prior to welding. Embrittlement often occurs by pe ne trat io n o f 'he embrittling species into the grains of the meta l (interg ranular penetration ).
(/)
c: -c
z c
ffJ
Fatigue
Fatigue is failure of a material operating under alternat ing (cyclic) stresses at a value below the tensile strength of the material. Fatigue is a problem that affect s the service life of any component 'h at moves, rotates, vibrates, or is s ubj ec t to the rma l cy cl ing. For ex ample, a piston rod or an axle undergoes rapid and co mp le te rev er sal of stresses fro m tension to co mpress ion. Approximately 90% of all failure s in e ng ineer ing co mpo ne nts are fatigue -related. Fatigue problem s may be se ve re in welded structures since mo st weld ed j oints hav e poor fati gue strength and fin ite fatigue life because of thei r shape, res id ual st ress es, and discontinuiti es. All wc lding introduces stress concentrations into a weld, reducing fatigue strength; the effect is highest when the load is applied transversally to the weld. Fatigue crack ing initiates in the toe of the weld where stress concentrations are highest. Features that increase the strength of the weld, such as additional we ld bea ds or inclusio n of stiffeners, increase stress co ncentratio n and furthe r re duce fatig ue life . For this reaso n, att emp ting to fix a part that has fai led in fa tig ue by add ing a we ld bead , o r re info rc ing wi th stiffeners weld ed to the structure, has the opposite effect and furth er reduces the life of 'h e part. Although the weld itself is stro nger und er static load, we ld disco nti nuit ies, co upled w ith the add itional stress co ncentration, more than offset any stre ng the ning effect. See Figure 37- 14 .
u,
> W
~ f---~--'---"-/
~ L-
WITH POSTHEATING
HIGH HARDN ESS IN HEAT-AFF ECTED ZON E
~ w z o
u,
c:
> ~ L-
~ f----_
WITHOUT POSTHEATING
Ductility
Ductility is a measure of 'h e ability of a metal yield plastically under load, rath er th an fra ctu re. H igh-ductility metals. suc h as co pper, deform as the load o n th c me ta l is inc rea sed , eventually failing. Low-ductility metals, such as cast iron, deform only slig htly and fail sudde nly as the load is increased . Duct il it y is meas ure d in tensi le test sa mples by perc en ta ge elo ngatio n to fai lure , or percentage reducti on of area to failure .
'0
Embriltlement
Emb rittleme nt is the co mplete loss of ductility and toughn ess of a metal, so that it fractures when a small load is applied. Embrittlement may be caused by applying the wron g brazin g metal
522 0
Weldin g Skills
......
FORCE APPLIED
UN DER CUT ~
. l .FORCE APPLIED
~FORCEAPPlI ED-~-'"
YIELD STRESS
(f) (f)
ACTUAL STRESS
a:
t:i
TEN SION
COMPRESSION
~~I-~+-\o"-~ APPLIED
STRESS TIME
Cii
w
z a:
(f) (f)
'"
w
t-
29,000
a:
(f)
14,000
10'
10'
10'
107
ENDURANCE (CYCLES)
Fillet welds are particu lar ly prone to fai lure by fatig ue. During coo ling of a fill et we ld , the toe de vel op s a m icrocrack abo ut .005" deep. T he microcrack can grow into a full-sca le fatigue crack and lead to premature fai lure. See Figure 37-15 .
at high temperatures. Creep-resi stant alloys are used for high-temperature strength in pet roleum refi ning, steam power generation, and other industries. Selecting the wrong filler metal or base metal may lead to premature failure from creep.
Fig ure 37- 15. Fill et welds are prone 10 f at igue f ail ure. During cooling, a .o1/( JII croc k can grow illto a f atigue crack and lead to premature [ailur e. as cooling call cansr the crack 10 spread.
Malleability
Malleability is the ability of a metal to be deformed by compressive forc es witho ut developing defects suc h as those encou ntered in rolling, pressing, or forging .
Mechanical Force
Mec han ica l properties are characteris tic res ponses of mate rial s to mechanical forces . A load is an external mec hanica l force app lied to a component. Standard term s used to desc ribe the mech anical properti es of solid meta ls incl ude stress and strain. See Figu re 37-16 .
If des ign improvement is not possible, it may be necessary to use postweld improvement techniques such as gr inding, peen ing, or GTAW pl asma dressing of a fillet weld toe to remove microc rack ing . Pos t-we ld improvements can increase fatigue life signifi cant ly, but must not introd uce surface notch into the part . Fatig ue fa ilures in we lds are prevented by des igning welds away from cr itical regio ns of high stress concentration . Welding in an area of high stress concentration is a leading cause of failure of rotating shafts . Th e area of high stress is where the shaft transitio ns to lar ge r diame ter. Weld ing or rebui lding by welding in a high stress concentration area. such as to rebu ild a worn shaft, will lead to failure within a short per iod. The shaft must be rebuilt so that welding is ca rried out in locations away from the region of highest stress .
STRESS
FORCE APPLIED
MATERIAL DEFOR MS
Creep
Creep is slow, plastic e longat ion that occurs during ex tended serv ice under load above a specific temperature for that metal. Structural metals undergo creep
524 ~ Wel"ill~ Skills
STRAIN
Ftgure 37- 16. Stress ;.1' the internal resistance of (I material to {Ill extern ally appli ed load . St ress is measured as the " pplied load over all area. Strain is lite accompanving clumge in dimensions when a lo ad indu ces stress in (l mate rial.
Stress. Stress is the internal resistance of a material to an externally applied load. Stress is measured in terms of load divided by area. Every machine part or structural member is designed to safely withstand a certain amount of stress. Strain. Strain is the accompanying change in dimensions when a load induces stress in a material. Strain is either elastic or plastic. Elastic strain occurs when a material is capab le of returning to its original dimensions after removal of the load. For example, a spring with a normal load returns to its original length when the load is removed. Plastic strain occurs when a material is permanently deformed by the load . For example, an overloaded spring will develop a permanent set or an increase in length. As the load is steadily increased, a point is reached where the strain changes from elastic to plastic. A static load is a load that remains constant. An example of a static load is a constant amount of water stored in a storage tank. An impact load is a load that is applied suddenly or intermittently. An example of an impact load is the action of a pile driver setting a pile. A cyclical (variable) load is a load that varies with time and rate, but without the sudden change that occurs with an impact load. An example of a variable load is a revolving camshaft with a varying compressive and tensile load applied. Mechanical Force Application. Mechanical force can be applied by five different methods: tension, compression, shear, torsion. and flexing. Combinations of methods may be applied under actual load conditions. See Figure 37- 17. Tension (tensile stress) is stress caused by two equal forces acting on the same axial line to pull an object apart. The magnitude of the stress depends on the amount of load placed on the object and the cross-sectional area of the object. The same load causes greater stress to an object with a small cross-sectional area than to an object with a large crosssectional area.
Tensile strength is a measure of the maximum stress that a material can resist under tensile stress. Tensile stresses work to pull a material apart. The tensile strength of a metal is a primary factor to be considered in the evaluation of the metal. To find tensile stress, apply the formula :
A where
Sf = tensile stress (in lb/sq in.)
. Sf
= -
F
A
For example, what is the tensile stress of an SOOO lb force applied to a square steel rod with a cross-sectional area of .50 sq in.?
A Sf = 8000 .50 Sf = 16,000 lb/sq in.
F Sf = -
Compression (compressive stress) is stress caused by two equal forces acting on the same axial line to crush an object. The deformation caused by com pression consists of an increase in the cross-sectional area and a decrease in the original length of the object. Compressive strength is the ability of a material to resist being crushed. Nonmetallic materials , like brick, have high compressive strength compared to their tensile strength. To find compressive stress, apply the formula:
Sc = where
Mechanicalforce may
For example, what is the compressive stress of a 120,000 Ib force applied to a rectangular cast iron bar with a crosssectional area of 6 sq in."
Sc = F A
ural stress.
Welding Metallurgy
~ 525
Figure 3717. A mechanical load may he applied using five different methods : tension, cornpression. she a r, tor s ion, 1I11l1 flexing ,
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
... -
OBJECT IS STRETCHED
f}i-~~ .9 ----::
INCREASED FORCE INCREASED } FORCE
Tension
OBJECT IS COMPRESSED
"\
E"~:-U-A-L------l~----"
FORCE
Comp ression
FORC E ~
EOUALAND PARALLEL
====ill=::::;~ _
FORCE ~
~OBJECT I S
SHEARED
Shear
COUNTERCLOCKWISE FORCE
r /
CYLINDRICAL SHAFT
J
{
CLOCKWISE FORCE
OBJECT IS TWISTED
Torsion
PERPENDICULAR FORCE
~ l
t
Flexing
~REACTI ON
FORCE
~REACTI O N
FORCE
- , OBJECT IS BENT
NO DIMENSIO N CHANGE
DIMENSIONAL CHANGE
526
We/dinK Skills
The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of an object under tension or compression. It is measured as the ratio of stress to strain for tensile or compre ssive forces that are within the elast ic limit. Modulus of elasticity is an index of the ability of a solid material to deform when an external force is applied and then return to its original size and shape after the external force is removed. The less a material deform s under a given stres s, the higher its modulus of elasticity. Th e modulus of elasticity does not measure the amount of stretch a pa rticular metal can take before breaking or deform ing . It indicates how much stre ss is required to de form metal a giv en amount. See Figure 37- 18. By checking the modulu s of elasticity, the welder can ascertain the co mparative stiffness of different mat erial s. Rig idity (or stiffnes s) is an important cons ide rati o n for many machine and structural applications. To find modu lus of elasticity, apply the formula :
E = Ss
Sn
where
E = modulus of elas ticity in millions of pounds per square inch (10 " psi) Ss = stre ss in pounds per square
inch (psi)
511 = strain in inch per inch (in .lin.)
For example, what is the modulu s of elasticity of a I" square piece of metal subjected to 40,000 Ib of ten sion (stress) and exhibiting .001 in./in. strain?
E= Ss
Sn
E= 40 x 10' psi
Shear (shear stress) is stress caused by two equal and parallel forces acting upon an object from oppo site directions. Shear stresses tend to cause one side of the object to slide in relation to the other side. Shear stress placed
1-1"-1
STARTING LENGTH
30 ,000 psi TENSILE STR ESS
~ ELASTIC STRAIN
REG ION MODULUS OF ELAST ICITY APPLIES
Weldinl( Metallurgy
~ 527
ST RAIN (ELONGATION)
1 001"
1 -
NEW LENGTH
110
dimensions .
on the cross-sectional area of an object is parallel to the force . The stre ngth of materials under a shearing stress is less than under a ten sil e stre ss or a com p re ss ive stress . To find she a r stress , appl y the formula:
F S,' = A or f -= S\' . xA
where
Ss F A
= shearing stress (in Ib/sq in.) = force (in 1b) = area (in sq in.)
For e xa m p le, a .750" hol e is to be p unc he d in a stee l pl a te .5" thi ck. What is the required force of the press if th e ultim at e stre ng th of th e steel plate in shea r is 42 ,000 Ib/sq in.? T he shea r c ross-sec tional a rea (A) is eq ua l to the ci rcumference o f the hole times th e thi ckness of the pl at e (3. 14 x .750 x .5 = 1.1775 ).
F =Ss x A
forc e overco me s th e react ion force . Bending stress is a co mbination of tensile stress and co mpressive stress. Bending strength is a co mbination of tensile and co mpressive forces, and is a property that measures resistance 10 bending or deflection in the direction that the load is app lied . Bend ing stress is common ly associated with beams a nd co lu mns. The deformatio n ca used by bending stress changes th e sha pe o f the objec t a nd cre ate s a de flect ion . To fin d bend ing stres s, ap ply the form ula :
Sb
Me Z
w here
Sb e bending stress (in Ib/sq in.) M ;;;; maximum bending movement (in in-Ib) c = distance from neutral axis to farthest point in cross section
F = 42,000 x 1.1775
(in in.)
Z ;;;; section modu lus (in cu in.)
r =I .
.=
IV ddill g emile.' sig nificant stresses ill joints. resulting i ll sllrinktlgt' stresses lind
residual stresses ,IUl!
lIlay lead 10 cracking.
F =49,455Ih Torsion (torsional st ress ) is stress caused by two forces acting in opposite twi stin g direc tion s, Shafts used to tran sfer rot ar y motio n are subj ec t to torsion al stress. Th e shafts are twi sted b y excess ive torqu e, ex p ressed in in ch -p ound s (in- Ib ). Torque is the product of the applied forc e (F) time s the distance (L) from the ce nte r of the app lication. Torsi on al strength is the measure of a material' s ability to withstand forc es that ca use it to twist. To fin d torqu e. ap ply the form ula:
T=F xL
For e x a m p le, w h a t is t he bending stress of a I" so lid shaft subjected to a bending mom ent of 1400 in.-Ib? The di st ance from th e neutral a xis to the cross-sectional area is .5". and the section modulus is .049 .
Sb = Me Z 1400 x .5 Sb= - - .049 Sb = 14.285.7143
Sb
where
F = foree (in 1 h) L;;;; distance (in in.)
T = torque (in in-Ib)
For exam ple, whal is the torque of a 160 Ib force ap plied over a distance of 12"?
T = F xL T = 160 x 12 T = 1920 in-Ih
Shrinkage Stress
Shrinkag e s tress is s tre ss that occurs in weld fi ller met al as it cools. co ntracts, and so lid ifies. Th e so lid ifying
fi ller metal is relatively weak and has difficulty accommodat ing the stresses that result from shrinkage. Add itio nally, the last part of weld filler metal to solidify contains the lowest melting point constituents, increasing the weakness of the weld. See Figure 37- 19.
temperature in order to create sufficient volume of weld metal to accommodate shrinkage stresses without cracking.
Residual Stress
Residual stress is stress that occurs in a joint member or material after welding has been c o mp le te d, result ing fro m the rma l or mec hanica l co nd itions. Almost eve ry fabrication pro ce ss intro duc e s resi dual stress into meta ls. Residual stress from weld ing is often significantly higher than other fab rica tion processes. Residual stress may also be introd uced into pari s by post-fabricat ion procedures such as installat io n and ass em bl y, occas iona l service overload s. ground settlement, and repair or modifi cation . As so lidified we ld metal coo ls to room temperature, the stresses within it increase and eventually exceed the yield strength of the base metal and the HAZ. Yield strength is the level of stress within a metal that is sufficient to cause plastic flow. Residual stress may cause co ld crac ki ng or d istort ion if the we lde d structure deform s to accommodate it. Cold crack ing may be delaye d hour s or even days after the weld is finished. Distortion is the undesirable dimensional change of a fabrication. Distortion leads to out-of-specifica tion di men sions or shape. See Figur e 37-20.
Figure 37-19. Shri"kllge {If the weld during solidifimt;OII imposes severe stress on rile weld when it is ill
11
Shrinkage stress problems are made worse when contaminants react with the solidifying weld fi ller metal to form weak or brittle microconstituents, or when the joint restrains (stiffens) the base metal, hampering shrinkage of the solidifying weld metal. Shrinkage stresses can cause hot cracks (hot cracking). Contamination of the weld metal or excess ive he at input durin g we ldin g increases the susceptibility of the part to hot cracks. Nickel alloys may hot crack from the presence of even trace amounls of sulfur on the surface. Copper alloys may hot crac k from excessive heat input. Hot cracks may also occur if insufficient weld metal is added to a joint. When we ld ing hea vy-wall pip e, th e wall th ickness d ictates whet her it is possib le to radi ograph or dye c heck the root bead of we ld fille r met al to monitor its quality and decide whether any re pa irs are req uired . Excessive shrinkag e stress es in heavy-wall pipe may cause a root bead to crack as it cools to ambient temperature from restraint in the joint. Thus, in heavy-wall pipe. it is necessary to make several weld passes befor e cooling to ambient
Res id ual stresse... ,tu ut h(' controlled durin g welding and duri ng po stprodu c tio n procedures. such as installation and assembly, (0 prevent defects such as cold c ra d:.i llK and distortion,
We ldill~ Metallurgy
l' 529
Ftgure 37-20. Res idua! st ress leads to many prahle ms. such as d isto rti o n o r !O.\.I of [atig ue strength.
Distortion
Figure 3720
INTENDED DESIGN
Residual stresses
may be reduced usinX intermittentwelding, low heat input
TSECTION DISTORTION/
welding.postheating.
or peening
Residual Stress Reduction. To accommodate residual stresses and prevent distortion, welding procedures are designed to balance residual stresses across different parts of the weld. Methods of reducing residual stress include intermittent welding; low heat input welding with the use of heat sink and restraints; posrheating: peening; and vibratory stress relief. Intermittent welding is a stressreduction technique in which the continuity of the weld is broken by recurring spaces between welds . Intermittent welding minimizes the heat input to the weld and lessens distortion. See Figure 37-21.
ACTUAL RESULT
Residual stresses in welds must be controlled to prevent the occurrence ofdistortion in the weldment; prematurefailure ofthe weldment, or both.
.- .
..
Low heat input welding is a stre ssreduction technique that decreases the amount of heat applied to the weld . Low heat input welding might require a change in welding process, such as using GMAW instead of GTAW welding . Alternatively, a heat sink may be used to rapidly remove heat from the welded region, such as by using a cop per backing bar. A restraint is a clamp or fixture used to reduce distortion by preventing movement of the weld during cooling, but which does not nec essarily reduce residual stress . See Figure 37 -22 .
Postheating is the reheating of the weld area to a high temperature, holding for a predetermined time at temperature, and cooling at a specified rate. Postheating is used to pr event cold cracking from residual stres ses. Postheating also stres s-relieves the joint, reducing the possihility of distortion or cracking in service. With steels, postheating additionally tempers (softens and toughens) the weld. Postheating is often specified in conjunction with preheat and interpass temperature control. Peening using a ball peen hammer relieves stresses in the metal by help ing the metal stretch (yield) as it cools. See Figure 37-23 . Peening reduces residual stress in the surface layers of a weld. Peening is performed for each weld pass immediately after solidifica tion with impact blows. Peening induces compre ssive stres ses and improves resi stance to fatigue failure. Peening is not a s ubs t itute for the postheating required to restore toughness to a weld joint.
Figure 37-23 . Peen ing reli eves in ferna l st res ses ill a we ld an d he lp s the welded joint stre tch as it cools.
Figure 37-22. Copper backing ba rs red uce hea t and warpage of the weld area . Clamp s and fixtures are used to hold pieces [irmtv together in positio n /0 pre vent distortion.
Vibratory stress relief is the appli cation of subresonant vibration during welding to control distortion , or after cooling to provide stres s relief. Subreson.ant vibration i s vibration frequency less than the resonant frequency of the weld. Vibratory stress relief may control distortion during welding, but does not offer any significant stress relief. It should not be substituted for any specified preheat, interpass temperature control , or postheating procedure.
Welding Metalturgy @ 531
Residual Stress
We ld joints with high resid ua l stress may be susceptible to corrosion in specifi c environment s. Such we lds are stress- relieved whe n necessary to prevent premature failure . Weld repair or burn ing is not pe rmitted on stress reli e ved eq uipme nt unl ess a we lding procedure that incorporates stress relief is used. See Figore 37-24.
Chemical Inhomogeneity
Weldi ng c reates chemical inho mogeneity, or segregation, in the weld joint. Chemi cal inhomogeneity is any disturbance in the chemica l composition g radie nt of a metal. Chemica l in homogeneity leads to a loss of che mica l resistance in corrosion-resistant alloys. C orro sion -re si st ant alloy s mu st be we lded with filler metals that do not
reduce their corro sion resistance.
Excessive Hardness
An excessive ly hard HAZ, prod uced by rapid co o ling fro m we ld ing, may crac k in ce rtai n chemica l e nv iro nments. Hard HAZs are also susceptible to hydroge n-ass isted cr ackin g from corrosion in service. Hydrogen-assisted crackin g is loss of toughness in steels re sulting fro m hyd ro gen atom s cre ate d at the surface of the me tal by corrosio n th at diffu se in to the HAZ and the base metal. Hyd ro gen di ffusio n interfe res with the metal' s ability to yie ld unde r stress , redu ci ng its d uc tility and tou ghn ess. When a corrosion reaction produces hydrogen atoms on the metal surface, the hyd roge n atoms may or may not combine with one another. If they combine, hydrogen molecu le s ar e produced, which harmlessly dissipate from the metal surface. If they do not combine, the hydrogen atoms are extremely active a nd diffuse int o the met al to ca use hydrogen -ass isted cracking. So me spec ies co nta ined in corrosive environments, called poisons, are very harm ful becau se they prevent, or " poison," the recombination of hydroge n a to ms to hyd ro gen mo lec ules . Poi son s incl ude sulfides suc h as hydrogen sulfide. Sulfide stress cracking is a form of hyd rogen -ass isted cracking that is a problem in the oil and gas prod uction industry . So lfide stress cracking is ca used by the pre senc e of hyd ro ge n s ulfide . S usce pt ib ility of stee ls to hyd ro gen -assi st ed cracking increases with hardn ess of the steel.
All rxrrssivrlv hard H AZ. produced by rapid coolin x fro m welding. mllY crack ;11 certain chemical
('1I\ .j rml/1/l'IIl.\' .
When similar base metals are welded, filler metal with a chemical composition si mi lar to or slightly more co rrosionresi st an t than the ba se met al should be used. Wh en dissim ilar metal s are we lde d, the fill er met al must exceed the co rro sion resi stance of both meta ls. Dilutio n or segregatio n must not result in red uced corrosion resistance of the joint. Segregation. Segregation is an y co ncentrat ion of alloying che mical ele men ts in a specific region of a metal. Segregat ion ca n be an increased co nce ntration or a depleti on of che mica l e lements in the reg io n. For example, mol ybd enum is added to sta inle ss stee ls to improve their resi st an ce to chloride-containing environments. When stainless steel base metal that co ntains 4.5% molybdenum is joi ned, matchin g ti ller meta l with 4.5 % mo lybdenu m is not sufficient. Mo lyd enum segregation oc curs in th e we ld be ad . leadi ng to sma ll mo lybden um -d epleted regions wit h infer ior corrosio n resist an ce. In this instance. filler metal with a molybden um content higher than 4.5% must be used to compensate for seg regation.
532 ~ We/dillg Skills
equipmen t should not he wel ded witliau t a procedure mat includes postheating ,
- 125
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CAUSTIC %, BY W EIGHT
D D
CARBON STEEL - NO STRESS RELIEF NECESSA RY STRESS RELIEF FOR WELD S AN D BENDS
Welding operations can signijicantlyajfect the corrosion resistance ofmeta l. How the
welding process will affect the corrosion resistance ofthe metal must be considered beforea particularmetalisselected. Stressreliefmustbe performed on metalswhose. corrosion resistance may be affected during welding.
In environments containing poisons, ca rbon and low-alloy steels re quire proper preheat and postheating to reduce hardness in the HAZ to a val ue below Rockwell C 22 (22 HRC). Weld repairs that do not use adequate preheat and postheating may c reate an HAZ wit h excessive hardness .
Welding Metallurgy l' 533
Undesirable Microstructure
A micros tr ucture is the appearance of the metallurgical structure of metals when they are specia lly prepared to reveal their featur es. See Figure 37 -25 . Microstructure is examin ed on po lished and etched sa mples of metals , with a metallurgica l microscope producing magnification from 100X to IOOOX. The metall urgical struc ture of weld joints is revealed by examining their microstructure. Undesirable microstructure is the creation, thro ugh the heat of welding, of microstructures that are preferentially attacked in a corrosive environment. For example, 304 or 3 16 stainless steels may deve lop an undesirab le microstructure in the HAZ, known as sensitizat ion, during weld ing. If conditions
Chromium carbide within stainless steel reduces the corrosion resistance ofthe stainless steel. The redu ced corrosion res istance of the stainless steel re sults in a line of deep c orrosion in the HAZ when it is exposed to certain corrosive environments.
are favorable for sensitization , chromium and carbon within the stainless 'steel combine rapidly in the temperature range of 800 F (425 C) to 1500F (815 C) , and most rapidly at 1200F (650C). Chromium carbide within stainless steel reduces the corrosion resistance of the stainless stee l. The reduced corrosion resi stance of the stainless steel results in a line of deep corrosion in the HAZ when it is exposed to certain corrosive environments. An extra-low-carbon grade of 304 or 316, such as 304L or 3l6L, or specially formulated grade s that are immune to sensitization should be used . In the extra-low-carbon grades, the carbon content is reduced to a level that is insufficient to combine with the chromium in the metal.
Ftgure 37-25. A metallurgical microstructure is the app earance of the metallurgical structure (~r m etal wh en specia lly prepared to reveal its featu res.
COARSE GRA IN STRUCTUR E OF HAZ ADJACENT TO WELD RECRYSTALLIZED MICROSTRUCTURE OF HAZ (FINE GRA IN)
l. Crystal structure is a specific arrangement of the building blocks of matter (atom s) in an orderly and repeatin g three- dime nsional pattern . 2. Heat input is the most importa nt element for welding. Heat (heat input) is required to melt the base metal and filler metal durin g welding. 3. Using the proper preheat tempe rat ure, coupled with an upper limit on interpass temp erature co ntro l, help s maint ain the cooling rate below the criti cal coo ling rate, preventing loss of toughness. 4. The thr ee key regions of a weld are the weld metal, the base met al, and the heataffected zo ne. 5. The amount of dilution varies with the heat input of the welding process. The greater the heat input required by the welding process, the greater the opportunity for dilution in the weld metal. 6. The HAZ is a narrow band of base metal adjacent to the weld jo int. Most problems that occur during welding occur in the HAZ. 7. It is usually necessary to apply two layers of surfacing weld to overcome dilution and atta in the required wear or corrosion resistance properties. 8. Buttering is a method of applying a layer of metal to one side of a weld joint so that both halves of a jo int can be welded together without needing to preheat and/or postheat the entire joi nt. 9. Physical properties of metal incl ude melting point, thermal expansion, specific heat, thermal condu ctivity, electrical conductivity, magnetism, and ox idation. 10. Mechani cal propertie s describe the behavior of metal s under mechani cal loads and include strength, toughness , hardne ss, ductility, fatigue, creep, and malleabili ty. I I. Mechan ical force may be appli ed by ten sion , compress ion, shear stress, torsion, or tle xural stress. 12. Welding creates significant stresses in joints, resulting in shrinkage stresses and residual stresses that may lead to cracki ng. 13 . Residual stresses may be reduced using intermitt ent welding, low heat input welding, postheating, or peening. 14. Welding creates c hemical inhomogeneity in the weld jo int, which leads to a loss of chemica l resistance. 15 . An excessive ly hard HAZ, produ ced by rapid coolin g from welding, may crac k in spec ific chemica l environments. I 6 . Chromium carbide within stainless steel reduces the corrosion resistance of the stainless steel. The reduced corro sion resistance of the stainl ess steel result s in a line of deep corrosion in the HAZ when it is exposed to certain corrosive environments.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
When doe s the grain structure of a meta l begin to deve lop ? What is the value of heat input with a welding current of 400 A at 45 V and a travel speed of l2"/min ? What is the effect of preheat on the coo ling rate of the weld? What is the effect of the heat of welding in the HAZ of an alloy that has been heat-treated? Why must two layers of surfacing weld be used when applied using arc welding processes? Why is copper a good material for use as a backin g material? What is the differen ce between strength and toughness?
Metal identification verifies as-received base metals and jiller metals meet specifications. Metal identification is also required when the materials test report has been lost or physical identification markin gs have disappeared because of environmental lVear. For critical weldin g 1V0rk, supplementary metal identification may be required to verify conformance with purchase specifications. Metals used in fab rication are typically specified on the weld prints. If a metal is not specified, qualified personnel must determine the metal to be used. Welders may be required 10 identify approp riate metals without assistance fro m qualified personnel during maintenance and repair tasks. Many metal products such as pipe or plate are often purchased and stored f or f uture use. Metals and filler metals can be identified before welding using visual identification. qualitative identification, semiquantitative identification, and quantitative identification .
MANUFACTURER PAPERWORK
Manufacturer and supplier paper work provide s the initial means of check ing specifica tio n com pliance . Paperwork is ph ysica l ce rt ificatio n or documentation provided by a product manufactur cr or supplier. Pape rwor k may be ha rd co py or soft co py (c o m puterized ). The paperwork supplied by the manufacturer includes a materi als test report (MT R), product an al ysi s, and ce rtifica te of co mpliance (COC).
a certificate of analysis (COA). Although an MTR is not formally required for all types of ASM E code-approv ed metals used for code wo rk, man y co m panies req uire that an MTR accompan y the me ta l. An MTR allow s the end user to ensure that th e meta l meet s spec ified chemical co mposition and mechanical property requirements.
paperwork
10
Iden-
lifr their products: materials test re port, pmduct analvsis, and certificate (d" compliance.
Product Analysis
A product analysis is a chemical report that a parti cul ar metal. such as tubi ng or piping, is made from a particular heat of metal. Product analyses ensure that substitutions have not been made during processing of the metal. Product analyses are called out as supplemental requ ireme nts in ASTM spec ifications.
537
Certificate of Compliance
A certificate of compliance (CaC) is a stateme nt by a manufacturer, without suppo rti ng docum entation , that the supplied metal meets spec ifications. A cac co nta ins no test reports; it only states that, from the records, the manufac ture r is co nfide nt no subs titutions have been made. A cac can be issued for any metal.
tI
A materials 1I01lC0 I1 ~ fon nance report helps .= the end user document probtems ill rcceived mat erials so that problem areas nm hi' identifi ed. correefed. and pre vented in thefuture.
VISUAL IDENTIFICATION
Visual identification is metal identification that consists of checking the appearance of the base metal or filler metal for key feature s that identify the metal type. Visual identification is performed by ch eckin g th e appearance , color, nameplate, and markin gs of the metal.
Appearance
The appearance and sha pe of a metal may indicate the type of metal. Appearance includes the fonn and dimensions of metal components and parts. A hotrolled structural shape in a steel-frame building would be low -carbon steel. A rai l would be identified by it s shape as high-carbo n steel. Many machine parts for light- and medi um-duty indu strial eq uipm ent and agricu ltural equipment are made of cast iron. Casting s for heavy -duty wo rk such as brake pre sses are commonly made of med iu m-carbon stee l.
}/arri"xum Hoi.\1.\'.
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Materials can he identified hy color and appearance, by stenciled 0/1 the end of the me tal.
II
nameplate, or hy markings
538
Figure 381 . A materials 1/OfICOt I formance report is a form created by the receiver offill' mewl to audi t manufacturer paperwork regard ing .w PI'Jied metals.
Reported by
Color
The co lor of a metal is any spec ific hue that the met al typically exhibits. Some metal s are relatively ea sy to dis tinguish by their color. Co ppe r is redd ish in color and easily identifiable. See Figure 38-2. Heat tint from heat-treating operations and sur face scales a nd tarn ishes from
exposure to the e nvironme nt may hide a metal' s true color. To be sure of the true color , a s mall a rea of the surface mu st be cleaned by filin g or rubbin g with coarse abrasive paper. Color identificat io n mu st not be used on metals that have suffered corrosion or oxidation that has re sulted in surface color changes. See Figure 38-3.
Visual h/elllificotioll includes appearance, colo r. nameplate. amimarkings 10 det ermine ke.v fe atures that id entify the metal typ e.
Figllfl' 38-2. Color is one ke.\! fea tur e thut ('(11/ he use d to visu al ly idnlt ~f\' /I1 ef(/ /.~ m e" (I.\' coppe r.
forgings, the stamped impression is produced with a metal die. The impres.sion is usua lly located on the out side surface of the forging and con sists of the ASTM or other materials standard, the pressure and temperature rating, and the forge sho p logo. Fasteners are identifi ed by an embos sed or stamped marking on either end of the fastener. Space is limited on fasteners, so a code is used to identify the standa rds org ani zation and manufacturer. See Figure 38-4 . The Industrial Fasteners Institute publishes a list of fastener manufacturers' logos. Metal marki ngs con s ist of foundry marks, co lor-coding , and stencil marking.
Nameplate
Fabricated eq uipme nt, suc h as heat exchangers or press ure vesse ls, must have a plaq ue or namepl ate fixed to the ex terior. The namepl ate identifies the des ign, pressure and temperatur e rating, test pressure, and material s of construction. The namepl ate must not be covered, damaged, or removed during the life of the equipment.
Markings
Markings may be embossed, stamped, stenciled, or attached to a part. Stamping and embossing are surface identification markings created by mechanical deformation on wrought prod ucts . On
Fig u re 38 -4. All embossed marking 011 the head or other end of (I [as tener i.~ ""l' method of idennjving fastene rs.
Figure .:m-3.
MewJ.~
fled
istic
/l1le /
C(Jlor.~
Colo r
Red or Reddi sh Co pper, >85 Copper Alloys
Metal
90% Cu/10% Ni (Copper-nickel) Bronzes and Gold Brasses Lead, Zlnc , and Zln c Alloys Aluminum Stainless Steels
Ca rbo n and Low-alloy Steels, 70% Cu/30 % Ni (Copper-Nickel)
Bluish or Dark Gray Silvery White with soft luster Silverv White with briaht luster
Gray W hite or G ray
Foundry Marks. A f oundry mark is an identification markin g embossed on the exterior of castings. Foundry marks are incorporated into the casting mold. Identifi cation inform ation includes the ASTM g rade number, foundry nam e o r lo go , heat number, and foundr y sho rt ha nd de scription for the alloy. Wh en identifyin g cast ings by th eir foundry mark s, the manufacturer's alloy codes must be known. See Figure 38- 5 .
stored at a parti cu lar location, there is no universal col or-coding sys te m. To retain the co lor-codi ng sys tem, met al must be cut from the end opposite the co lored end. Sec Figur e 38-6. Stencil Marking. Stencil marking is an identification marking that con sists of continuous or rep eat ed ink markin gs on the metal. Stencil markin gs indicate allo y type , conformance to standards , and the dimen sions of the metal. Stencil marking s are rep eat ed at regul ar intervals alon g the metal so the identification is not lost when the metal is cut or sectio ned. Sten cil markings are not permanent and may degrade during servic e or if stored outdoo rs. Some che mica l e leme nts found in mat erial s used for co lo r-cod ing or stencil marking are pot enti all y harm ful. Chlorine (Cl), sulfur (S), and zinc (Z n) are so me pot entially harmful chemical elem ent s th at may be present. These chemical elements may cause catastrophic cracking in Sll SCCPtib lc alloys such as sta inless steel or high nickel alloy. Cracking is likel y to occur when the paint or marking mat erial on th e metal is exposed to the heat of welding. to high-t emperatur e se rv ice. or to co rros ive enviro nment s in service . Mark ing mat er ial s tha t are use d o n s us ce pt ible alloys mu st c o nta in lo w quantitie s (me asured in parts per million, or ppm ) of harmful chemical e leme nts. No more than 250 ppm is allowabl e.
Flgure 38-5. Foundry marks arc idl'lllijicatio/i markings that lire embossed Oil the exterio r of castings.
Color-Coding. Colo r-co ding is an identification marking that con sists of co lored stripes painted o n one end of metal to allow for pe rmane nt storage or temporary sto rage and subseque nt retri eval from a met al se rv ice center or a user 's storeroom. Color-coding syste ms mu st clearly identify each metal. Since color-coding is set up to identify specific metal s
Color
White Red Yellow Yellow and Brown Red a nd Brown Red a nd Whit e Gree n and Whi te
AISI-SAE Designation
4640 Molybdenum Steel 3125 Nickel-Chromium Steel 3325 Nickel-Chromi um Steel 5 120 Chro mium Steel 6 115 Chromium-Vanadium Stee l 7260 Tungsten Steel 9255 Silico n-Ma nganese
Color
Green and Pink Pink Orange and Black Black White and Brown Brown and Aluminum Bronze
Fig ure 3M-fl. Color-coding allows cas)' and rapid identif ication of metals.
Material ma rkings are based 011 the materials designations assigned by classifi ca tion soc ieties such as the Americun lron and Steel Institute (A ISI). the Society of Automotive En g ineers (SA E) . or th e American Societyfor Testing and Materials (A STM).
Markin g material s s hould be removed from the are a of the meta l to be welded, bra zed, or soldered using an approved solvent. A marker with a fiber tip may be used to mark a metal. Becau se markers leave no solid residue that may lead to cra ckin g, a solveot is oot needed for removal.
of Curie temperatures. The effect of temperature on mag netic prop ert ies is illust rated in alloy 400 (Mo nel" 400), which is slightly magnetic at ambient temperature . Mone l" 400 is nonmagnetic if its tempera ture is raised above the boiling point of water. Mag netic behavior of some metals may change with mechanical process ing. For exa mple, 302 and 304 stainless steels, noomagnetic in the annealed (soft) conditio n, become increasingly magnetic as they are cold- worked.
--
MAGNETIC FORCE
---
- -- - -
- -
Strong Attraction:
QUALITATIVE IDENTIFICATION
Qualitative identification is metal identification by a qualified person to confirm the identity of an unknown metal. Qualitative ident ification has a relatively high degree of certainty for many applica tions. Qua litat ive identifi cat ion techniques include magnetic response testing, chisel testing, torch testing, and file testing.
Carbon Steel s Cast Irons Gray Ductile Malleable Cobalt Iron- Silicon Alloys (.05% Si to 4.5% Si) Iron-Cobalt Alloys Iron-Molybd enum Alloys Low-Alloy Steels Nickel Stainless Stee ls Ferritic Martensitic (400 series) Martensi tic precipitation hardening Tool Steels
Weak Attraction: Stainle ss Steels Cast 300 series Cold-wo rked 302 Cold-wor ked 304 308 weld metal 309 weld metal 329 Monel 400 (beco mes nonmagnetic in boiling water)
strong attraction.
110
weok attraction. or attraction. The catego ry of mag ne tic re'\lIOIl.H! allows the unknown metal To hl' placed
No Attraction : Alloy 20 types Com mercia lly pure nonferrous metals (except nickel and coba lt) Coppe r-Nickels Hastelloys" Incoloys" lnconelslKl Stainle ss Steels Austenitic (other 300 series) Stellits"
Ftgure 38-7. Mew ls call be idi'lIlijit'd alltl grouped by II/( magnetic f orce 'hey produce.
Minor micro structural differences between ca st and wrought stainless steels can alter magnetic behavior. For example, E308 or ER308 filler metal for welding nonmagnet ic, 304 stainless steel is slightly magnetic . The composit ion of the fill er metal mu st be sli ghtly magnetic to prevent hot cracking of the weld durin g cooling. Despite th ese minor compli cations , magnetic response testing is a convenient and rapid method of qualitative ident ificat ion .
metal is an indication of the metal 's hardness. The continuity of the chip indicates the metal 's toughnes s. Long and curled chips result from mild steel and soft metal s suc h as aluminum. Shurt, broken chips result from cast steel. High -carbon steels do not break easily and sample ch ips are di fficult to obtain .
Torch Testing
Torch testing is a qualitative identification method that identifi es a metal by the melting rat e, the appearance of the metal when heat is applied, and the action of the molten met al. See Figure 38- 9. Th es e factors provide clues to the identity of the metal. Torch testing requires heating a small area of the surface of the unknown metal with a high-temperature oxyacetylene flame to cause local melting. To distinguish aluminum from magnesium , appl y a torch to the filin gs. Magnesium burn s with a sparking white flame .
Figure 388. Metal can he iden tified by the Iype of chips that result duri ng chiseling.
Chisel Testing
Chisel testing is a qualitative identification method that identifi es metal by the shape of the chip s it produ ce s. Chisel testing con sists of producing a chip by striking the edge or corner of the unknown metal with a chisel and hammer. Meta l can be ide ntified by the type of ch ip s that result during chise ling. See Figure 38-8. The ease with which the chip break s from the
TypeofCnlp
Continuo us, easil y removed Fragmented small pieces, easily removed Fragm ented or continuous, hard to remo ve
Tvpe;dtMlitEltHlI
Ductile Brittle Brittle
flo\>.~ible.ll.le,taI;Type
Aluminum , Low-Carbon Steel, Malleable Iron Gray Cast Iron
"
HighCarbon Steel
Melting; Rate
Slow, melts only afte r sufficient heat input Fast, melt s with little heat input Slow, melts only after sufficient heat input Faster, melts with relatively little heat input Boils whil e meltin g
.-
'"
,RO$sible:fIIIl!tal :rype
Aluminum Zinc
Figu re 38-9. Torch testing idenufles a metal by the melting rate and the app earance of the metal after hearin g.
ETP Copper
Deoxidized Co pper
Leaded Copper
of standards, Semi-
quantitative identijication methods include dens ity testi ng. spark testing. chemicul SIJ ot testing. thermoelec tric potential sorting, and optical emission spectroscopy.
When using the torch test, care must be tak en to prevent da magin g the sample. Heat input required to heat the sa mp le varies depend ing o n the type of metal being tested. If aluminum and zinc are being separated, the aluminum wi ll not melt until suff icient heat has been applied beca use of its high thermal co nd uctivity, whereas with zinc a sharp comer will melt quick ly because zinc is not a good the rma l co nd uctor. In the case of leaded co pper alloys, the surface will boil as the lead co mes off.
SEMI-QUANTITATIVE IDENTIFICATION
Se mi-q uan titativ e identifi cation is
met al id entifi cat ion by appl yin g a ph ysi c a l sti m u lus to a n unkn o wn metal to produce a signal that is interpreted against a set o f standards. Se miqu an t itativ e id ent ifi cation method s supported by d ocumentation may be used in a formal qu ality co ntro l program . Semi-quantitative identifi cation meth ods incl ude de nsity testing. spark testin g, chemica l spot testin g, therm oelectric potential sorting, electrica l resisti vity testin g, and optical emission sp ectro scopy.
File Testing
Fil e testing is a qu alitative ident ilication method in which a file is used to indicate the hard ness o f steel compared with that of the file. File testing co ns ists of assessing the degr ee o f bite when a sharp mill file is draw n across th e su rface or edge of th e u nknow n metal. See Figure 38 - 10. T he file test prov ides a rap id a nd a p prox im ate method of estima ting the hardness of stee l. The easier the degree of bite, the so fter the steel. The hard ness of stee l is a useful indicator of its weldabi lity. The tile test must be used with ca ution and only by qu ali fied perso nne l.
Density Testing
Density testing is a semi-q uantitative
identifi cation method that measures the density of an unk no wn metal. Density is measured by obtaining a small specime n o f metal (liz" cube ), a length of tine wire, an analytica l balance, a small bench to stradd le the analytical balance pan , and a 250 ml beaker that is filled app ro xim at el y tw o-thirds full of di stilled wa ter.
Possible Steel Type Mild (Low-Carbon) Steel Medium-Carbon Steel High Alloy Steel-High Carbon Steel
Unhardened Tool Steel Hardened Tool Steel
Carbide Tool
Ffgu ..e _ , g lO. File testing COfI.{i.{fS of aH e.u; IIK the degree of bite when a skarp mill file is drawn across tile surface or edge of 111e UIIA IIO W II metal.
Dirt and foreign matter are thoroughl y remo ved from the surface of the specimen. The specimen is washed with ac eton e and allowed to dry fo r 2 min to 3 min . Th e specimen is then weighed on an anal ytical balance to .001 g. The fine wire is also weighed to .0 0 1 g. T he beaker containing the distilled wat er is placed on th e small bench that straddles the balance pan. One end of the fine wire is tied firmly around th e metal spec imen. The other end is attached to the balance hook so that the metal specimen is suspended and totall y immersed in the distilled water. The metal specimen is reweighed when it is completely immersed in the distilled water. See Figure 38- 11. The density of a metal is found by applying the following formula :
For example: What is the den sity of a specimen (l em cube) of 304 stainless steel that weighs 18 .102 g in air, and weighs 15.960 g in the di stilled water of an anal ytical balance, and that ha s a fine wire that weighs . 15 1 g?
D=
D=
= 7.89 g/cnr'
where
D
The four den sity gro upings for met als are very high den sity, high density, averag e density, and low density. From the figured value of density, metal s arc placed in one of the groupings. Depending on the separation of their den sit y values, metals within the sa me gro up are di stinguish ed from each other by checking the figured densities against a table of known den sity values. See Figure 38-12.
Me ta ls are categorized as one (?f fo ur dens ity groupings , very high den sity, high density, average density: and low dell sity. based on their fig ured dens ity value.
FIN E W IRE
I I
[ 1WATER %1
BA LANCE CAS E
vr l I
BALANCE PAN
Figure 38-11. Metals can be identified by measuring the density of the metal wilh {Ill analytical balance.
Ftgure 3H- 12. Figured density.. valu es ('(III be us ed to place a metal in one of four groupings .
Grouping
Metals Gold Iridium Osmium Palladium Platinum Rhodium Ruthenium Tantalum Tungsten Uranium (depleted) Molybd enum Silver Nickel alloys Stainless steels Steels TIn Zinc
12 to 22
High Density
9_8 tol1 _ 9
Average Density
6t09 -7
Low Density
1 to 5_9
Aluminum Magnesium Alum inum alloys Magnesium Beryllium alloys Beryllium alloys Titan ium Titanium alloys
Metal 1. W rought Iron 2. Machi ne Stee l (AISI 1020) 3. Carbon Too l Stee l 4. Gray Cast Iron 5. Whi te Cast Iron 6. Annealed Ma ll. Iron 7 . High-Speed Steel (18-4 -1) 8. Austenitic Ma nga nese Ste el 9. Sta inless Stee l (Type 410) 10. Tungsten-Chromium Die Stee l 11. Nitrided Nitralloy 12. Stellit .,.. 13 . Cemented Tungsten Ca rbide 14. Nickel 15 . Copper, Brass, and Aluminum
Stream Volume Large Large Moderately large Small Very small Moderate Small Moderately large Moderate Small Large (curved) Very small Extremely small Very srnant None
Relative
len th "
65
Color of Stream Straw White White Red Red Red Red White Straw Red White Orange Light Orange Orange
Color of Bursts
Quantity of Bursts
Nature of Bursts
70
55 25 20 30 60 45
50 35
55 10
2
10
Very few Forked White Few Forked Fine, repeating White Very many Straw Many Fine, repeating Straw Few Fine, repeating Straw Many Fine, repeating Straw Extremely few Forked White Fine, repeating Many Moderate White Forked Many Strawt Fine. repeatingt White Moderate Forked Orange None Light Orange None Orange None None
WMe
;. actual length varies with grinding wheel, pressure. etc . blue-whil e spurts t some wavy streaks
Fij.\url' 38-13. Spar k char ts are com pare d with spark: .\ tream charac teristics to identify unkno wn metals.
Spark testing heat treats the surface layer of the metal, leading to localized hardening and po ssible cracking. Stock is discarded any closer than 1 !4" from the area of contact with the grinding wheel because of possib le failure. Spark Test Preparation. The area of metal selected for spark testing must be free of scale and representative of the chemical composition of the metal. Before conducting a spark test, the grinding whee l is cleaned wit h a diamond wheel dresser to remove particles of metal from previous tests . If these particles are not removed, the spark stream of the specimen being examined would be contaminated by sparks from previous tests. Small , portab le grinders are most often used for spark testing, because they can be transported to the fie ld. Stationary grinders may be used if convenient. See Figure 38-14. T he pressure between the grinding wheel and the specimen must be sufficient to maintain steady contact. The spark stream sbould be given off approx imately I ft horizo ntally and at right angles to the line of vision. The tester mu st have a c lear, unobstruc te d view of the spark stream. Condition s for spark testing must be standardized and testing s hou ld be conducted in diffuse daylight, no t bright sunlight or darkness. Tbe spark shou ld be tested away from air d rafts that may cause the tail of the spark stream to hook, which lead s to an erroneous in terp re tation. Grinding Wheel Rotation. Tbe speed of the wheel in feet per minute (fpm) equals the circumference in inches multiplied by the revolutions per minute at which the whee l turns, divided by 12. To provide a satis factory spark stream, the gr inding wheel mus t rotate at high speeds (15,000 fpmor greater) and mu st be hard (for example, 40 grain alumina wheel).
Figuring wheel rotation. Is a rotation speed of 16,000 rpm suitab le for a 2" diameter portable grinder?
C = ",I
where
C = Circumference of wheel
If
= pi (3.t42)
1l: WARNING
Prot ecti ve gogg les and prot ective clothing must be worn when spark test ing .
d = diameter
C=3 .142x2
C
= 6.248"
12
s = C xR
where
S = Speed of wbeel (in fpm) C = Circumference of wheel (in in.) R = Rotation speed (rpm)
12
= co nsta nt
6.284 x 16,000 12
s=
A grinding wheel is used f or spa rk testing and should be kept clean to prevent ccnuami nants f rom interfering with the spark stre am .
Ft gure 38-1~. Spark testing is most O};('II performed using portable grinders, but stationarv grinde rs may also "1' used.
DIRECTION OF WHEEL ROTATION
~ S PA R K
,/
VISE
~SPARK STREAM
STATIONARY
Spark Stream Identification . The spa rk stream mu st be cl osel y examined for it s charact eri sti c feature s . Characteristic features include carrier line s, forks. burst s, and arrowheads . A ca rrie r lin e is an inc and escent (glowing) stre ak that traces the trajectory (path) of each particle (spark). A f o rk is a simple branching of the carrier line , A burst is a complex
548 ~ W("dill~ Skills
branching of the ca rr ier line. An arrowhead is a terminati on of the carrier line in the shape of an arrow head. See Fig ure 38 - 15. By learnin g to identify the different portions of the spark stream, and by making test s o n known sa mples, it is pos sible to acquire sufficient experience to make relatively accurate determination of the metal being investigated.
Ffgure 38-15. Ch aracteristic fe atures of spark streams include ca rrier lilie s, forks. bIlT.H.{ , and arrowheads.
SPECIMEN DIRECTION OF WHEEL ROTA TION GRINDER
~CARRIER LINE
~ FORK ~ARROWHEAD
Some rea gents used in chemical spot testinl: kits are strong acids or alkalis ami should be handled with care.
The most common chemical spot test is the e lec trograph ic che m ica l s po t test. In electrograp hic che mica l spot testing. a metal surface is first prepared by dressing it with a file or emery paper to remove scale o r unnecessary rou ghne ss, after which the metal surface is degreased . A filter paper welted with mea sur ed drop s of chemical reagent is placed on the metal surface. Th e unknown metal (anode) is electrica lly co nnected to the positive termi nal of a 6 VDC batter y. An aluminum cathode. connected to the negative terminal of the battery. is pressed aga inst the wet filter pap er. Th is con nection co mpletes the electrical circuit and allows curre nt to now until the cathode is removed and the ci rcuit is di sco nnected . See Fig ure 38- 16.
Metal td entificanon @.: 549
Fig u re
/ ~4~iii":;~
vo ltage generated by the junction of the two metal s allows a significantly greater amount of heat to be generated, whic h increases sens itivity. To carry out ide ntification, the unknown metal is put in co ntact with a heated pro be. T he th er moelectric po tential generated is indicated on a digital or analog readout. This value of thermoelec tric potential is compared wi th values obtained under identical condition s using known metal samples . T hermoe lectric pote ntial so rt ing is describ ed in ASTM E977, Standard P rac ti ce for Thermoe lec tric M etal Sorti ng , Null Point Method . The nu ll p oin t method is an alternative method of thermoelectric pote ntia l sorting . The null point method is used for identifying an unknown metal or di st ingui shing it from other metals. In the null point met hod, a know n standard speci men and a probe are electrically connected and the deflection of the meter caused by the resulting potential is recorded. The resulting potential is calibrated to read zero on a meter. An unknown metal that is the same as the know n specimen will produce no deflection of the meter. If the unknow n met al is differe nt from th e known specimen, the meter will deflect to either side of zero .
The filter paper, which is soaked in a sma ll amount of the metal solution, is lifted fro m the surface. Measure d drops of a second chemical reagent are applied to the wet filter paper, causing a co lor change. The color of the filter paper identifies the metal. Supplementary reagents may be applied to the filter paper to cau se additional co lor chan ges, whi ch fur ther id en tify the metal. When the test is compl ete, the metal surface is thoroughly cleaned to remove excess chemical reage nt.
A WARNING
Avoid acc idental contac t with hot meta l surfaces duri ng the rmoele ct ric potentia l sorti ng',
For materials over .1" thick, the instrument is self-compensating. For materials less than .1" thick, the tester must apply a correction factor based on the metal thickness. The instrument is also sensitive to the area of metal beneath the probe . Two differing mea surements may be displayed on different parts of a component exhibiting different thicknesses, such as a casting. The tester must calibrate the instrument readings against known metal samples to prevent misinterpretation of the data. The electrical resistivity method provides rapid metal sorting or identification. The relatively small probe head of the electrical resistivity instrument allows it to be used for examining hard to reach areas such as the internal com ponents of valves.
when it is arced by an electric current. An optical emission spectrometer is an instrnment used for optical emission spectroscopy that is placed on the surface of an unknown metal. A small area of the surface is intermittently sparked by striking an arc between the surface and a tungsten electrode using a power source of 25 V to 40 V. When the electric arc is struck on a metal surface, the light emitted is composed of various wavelengths. The chemical elements in the metal determine the component wavelengths produced. The intensity of each component wavelength is proportional to the concentration of its corresponding chemical element. See Figure 38-17 . All light emitted from the arc is passed through a glass prism, which diffracts it into its component wavelengths. Diffraction is a modification of light in which the rays appear to be deflected to produce fringes of parallel light and dark colored bands. The separated wavelengths are viewed as a series of lines of varying intensity and color.
ELECTRIC ARC
The wavelength lines arc compared with those obtained from standard cleme nts. A camera that is connected to the ey epiece of the opti cal emission spectrometer permanently records the lines. The camera imp roves the sensitivity of the instrument because it records line s that arc too faint for det ection by th e human ey e . The camera also records the lines from the ultra violet spectru m. Th e chemical clements detectable by optical emiss ion spectroscopy arc limited to those elements that have observable lig ht wavelengths after diffract ion and are not vapori zed by the heat of the arc . Low percentage s of chemical clement s may be undetected if the line obtained by diffraction is faint. Optical e miss ion spectroscopy can detect ni ckel. chromium. molybdenum. titanium , man ganese , vanadium, copper, zinc , tungsten, magnesiu m, cobalt , lead, and niobium .
QUANTITATIVE IDENTIFICATION
Quantitative identification me thods sepa rate and identifv metals hy mcasuring the am ounts of chemica! elements present if! a metal.
Qu antitati ve ident ification methods separate and identify metal s by mea suring the amounts of chemical clement s pre sent in a me tal. Although quant itative identification methods do not analyze for every chemi cal c lement that may be present, they are often comprehensive enough to iden tify unknown meta ls with a high de gree of accuracy .
Nonde structive quantitative iden tification instruments are more costly th an se mi-quantitative identification instruments. However, printed report s may be obtained and data archived to provide documentation required in a formal quality assurance program. Quantitative identification methods include X-ray fluore scence spectrograph y and chemica l analys is.
"
....
Radia tion d etection de vices should be used as requ ired to monitor radiation levels when performing X-ray jluorescence pro cedures.
small size of the contact area causes the excitation beam to miss part of the surface , resulting in lower than ex pected re adin gs . Small sec tions of metal such as filler metal must be cUI into small pieces and banded together to provide an adequate cross-sectional area for the probe.
552
detector thaI
ol -- - - -- ENERGY LEVEL
ENERGY DISPERSIVE
LITHIUM CRYSTAL GAMMA RAYS ORX.RAYS \
\\.\
I
"\."
\
J'
/
-'
s: ,
oL--
WAVELENGTH
WAVELENGT H DISPERSIVE
Th e X-ray flu orescence instrument mu st be sta nda rd ized regularly to a llo w fo r radi oac ti ve dec ay o f th e radi oi sotope. Radioactive decay results in a decrea se in emission and a correspond in g ly lo we r fl uo re sc e nt X-ray count. Standardization is carried out by c a lib ra ting on a metal sa m p le of kn own c o m pos itio n. The X- ray flu ore scen ce spec trography method measures the percentages of titanium , vanadium , c h ro mi u m , manganese, iron , cobalt , nickel, copper, niobium, mo lybdenum. a nd tun gste n in a met al. A major limitation of X- ray flu ore scen ce spectrog ra phy, as wi th a ll technique s, is th at it cannot measure c a rbo n percentage . Thu s, it cannot di stin gui sh between variou s
carbon stee ls and low-carbon or regu lar g ra de a us te n itic s ta in less stee ls. Chemi c al an al ysi s mu st be used to
A WARNING
Adeq uate precautions against
e xpos ure lu rad iat ion must be tak en when using X-ray fluorescen ce eq uipment.
measure carbon .
Chemical Analysis
Chemical analysis is a destructive quantit ati ve identification method th at re quires removal of a small sa mple ( 1 g to 2 g) of metal for chemical anal ysis of its constituent e lements. Chemical analysi s is destruct ive and time-co nsuming and is used when auditi ng of a product is required or the analy sis mu st be chec ked again st a material s test re po rt (MT R) . Wet c he m ical a na lysis is the only method of obtain ing the amount of ca rbon pre sent in an a lloy.
Me tal Identification ::@: 553
Welding filler metals (wire or rod) and electrodes use a mixt ure of ma rk ing syste ms. Filler met al a nd electrodes are identifie d by markin gs that are attached, sta mped, or stenciled on filler metal s. Identifi cati on markin g s on bare w ire usuall y con sist of the AWS de si gn ati on printed o n a p aper tag glued to one or both ends of the wire. On large-d ia meter nonfe r rou s fille r me tal , id enti f icat io n m arki ng s are
stamped o n the f ille r me tal. Iden tifi cation markings on covered elect rodes co nsist of the AWS designation stencile d on th e fl ux coati ng a t o ne e nd of the filler met al. In all cases, additio nal ide ntific at io n is provided on a label attached to the co ntaine r or spool holding the ele ct rod e or fill er met al. So me marking prod ucts may be potentiall y harm ful to me tals. Care must be take n to ident ify harm ful marking prod ucts and thoro ughly remove the m before we ldi ng, brazin g, or so lde ring.
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. 8.
Manufacturers supply three type s of paperwork to iden tify their product s: materials test report, product an alysis, and ce rt ifica te of compliance . A materi als non conformance report helps the end user documen t probl ems in rec e ived materials so that problem areas can be identified, corrected, and prevented in the future . Visual ide ntifica tion includes appearance, color, nam eplate, and mar kin gs to de termine key features that identify the met al type. Magn etic force is categori zed as stro ng attraction , weak attraction , or no attraction. The category o f magnetic re sponse allows the unknown metal to be placed into a specific identification grouping . Semi -quantitative identificat ion method s use a ph ysical stimulu s to provid e a sig nal that may be compared w ith a set of sta ndards . Semi-quantitative identification methods include den sit y testing, spa rk testing, ch emical spot testing, thermoel ectric potential so rting. and optical emiss io n spec trosco py. Metal s are ca tegorize d as one of fo ur density gro upings, vcry high den sit y, high den sity, a verage densit y, a nd low den sit y, based on their figured densit y valu e. Quantitati ve identification method s se pa rate and identify met al s by measuring the amounts of c he m ica l ele ments present in a metal. Filler met al s are identified by paper labels or identification markings stamped on one end of the filler metal.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 .
554
Wh at type of infor ma tio n is contained in an MTR'! Wh at is a certifica te of co mpliance (COC)? Wh en should visua l identifi cation by color not be used? Wh at in formation is incl uded in a foundry marking '! W ha t ch a nge in the we ld ing process ca n affect the ma gn eti c res po nse of me tal s'! Me ta l ca n bc placed into which four de ns ity group ings'! What are the four primary characteristics of a spark stream'! What is the most co mmo n type of che mical spo t test'! What is an impo rta nt ele men t that X-ray fluorescen ce spec trog raphy (X RF) fails to detect '! How are we ld ing filler metal s identified '!
Welding Sk ills
Weldability is the capacity of a metal to be welded, under imposed fabrication conditions, into a specific, suitably designed structure that performs satisfactorily in the intended service. Carbon is the principal alloying element that effects the weldability of carbon steels. Alloying elements also have an effect on preheat and postheating in alloy steels. Factors that affect the weldability of carbon and alloy steels must be considered to ensure the desired quality during fabrication .
Low-carbon steels contain up to .3% carbon and up to 1.2% manganese" They are not strengthened by heat treatment but may be surface hardened by carburizi ng. Low-carbon steels are used for structural applications such as huilding framework, pressure vessels, and automobile bodies. Nickel steels are low-carbon steels that contain 2% to 9% nickel for service at low temperatures for applications
from 32F (OC) to - 320F (-195C) . Nickel steels are used for storage tanks for liquefied hydrocarbon gases and machinery designed for use in cold climates" Medium-carbon steels contain .3% to .6% carbon and .6% to I"65% manganese" Medium-carbon steels are stronger than low-carbon steels. They form high hardness martensite in the HAZ when rapidly cooled and arc susceptible to hydrogen cracking . They may require heat treatment after welding to achieve the specified strength and hardness" Wear resistance may be improved by surface treatments such as chrome plating or nitriding. The surface coating must be removed by grinding if any weld repair is to be performed. Medium-carbon steels are used in machinery parts such as tractors, derricks, and pumps" High-carbon steels contain more than .6% carbon. High-carbon steels arc usually not welded. They arc used for their hardness and strength, especially where a cutting edge is required, such as on drill bits and files.
555
tI
.~
.=
0,1> #'~
. '"
0'
~o' iY~
~ ~
'\. ~
'"'"
."
~Q.
<::-0 ~q, ~
#'t'
Ni!Of low
temp . loughness
i l110
11 1 e prin cipal benefits of al loy steels OI't' r carbon steels are higher strength and greater capacitv f or streng thening ill th ick sect io ns ihardenabilitv}.
Free-machining steels are low-carbon steels that contain small amounts of sulfur. phosphorus, or lead, which are added to improve their maehinabili ty. Freemachin ing stee ls are used where high production machining is required. Alloy steels contain specified quantiti es of alloyi ng elements other than carbon and ma nga nese. Alloy stee ls are grouped according to thei r alloy ing elements. The presence of one or more alloying elements in alloy steels leads to better mechan ical pro perties than carbon steels. The principal benefit s of alloy steels over carbo n steels are higher strength and greater capacity for strengthening in thick sect ions (harde nability). Alloy steels con sist of low -all oy stee ls, chrome-moly stee ls. and austenitic manganese stee ls. Low-alloy steels are medium-carbon steels that contain small percentages of nickel. chromium. and molybdenum to
achieve optimum mechanical prop erties in the quenched and tempered condition. The wear resistance of low-alloy steels may be improved by surface treatments such as chrome plating or nitriding. The hardened surface coating must be remov ed by gr indi ng if an y we ld rep air is to be performed . Low -a lloy stee ls are used for mechanical component s suc h as shafts and mac hi ne ry where high strength aod tougho ess are requ ired, particularly where the section thickness exceeds 2" . Chrome-moly steels contain approximately .2% carbon, .5% to 9% chromium (Cr). and .5% to I% molybdenum (Mo). Scaling resistance increases as the chromium co ntent is increased . Mo lybdenum increases st re ngt h at e levated temperatures and provides resistance to graphitization. Graphitization is the formation of iron carbide that results in loss of du ct il it y. T he carbo n co nte nt of
chrome-moly steels is kept below .2% to maintain weldability. Chrome-moly steels are widely used for piping and ves sel s op erating at temperatures up to IaaaoF (537 C) in the petroleum refining indu stry and in steam power gene rat ion . Chrome-moly stee ls are identified by their nominal percentages of chromium and molybdenum, for example I V.Cr-V2Mo, or 2 V.Cr- l Mo. See Appendix . Austenitic manganese steels contain 11 % to 14% manganese and .7 % to 1.4% carbon . Au stenitic manganese stee ls are nonmagnet ic alloy steels noted for high strength , exce llent ductility, toughness, and outstanding wear resistance. Austeniti c manganese steels arc used for crushing, earth-mo ving, and material handling equipment; railroad track part s; and electrical equipment whe re nonmagnetic properties are important.
uniform in composition throughout the cros s section and is suitable for applications involving carburi zin g and heat treating.
Figure 392. The steel deoxida tion practice il!/lIlCII('('S the type 0)' ,lI c e! produced.
KILLED
SEMIKILLED
POURING HEIGHT ~ ..
Steel Deoxidation
Steel deoxidation is the process of remo ving a controll ed amount of oxygen from steel during steelmaking. The deoxidation practice determines the amount of deoxidation performed and the basic steel type that is produced . Steel deoxidation result s in four type s of steel: killed , se mikilled , rimmed , and capped. See Figure 39-2. Killed steel is steel that is completely deoxidized during steel production by addin g silicon or alum inum in the furnace ladle or to the mold . Aluminum and si lico n ca use the steel to solid ify quietly and suppress (kill) the gas evolution that would result from combining carbon and oxy gen and formin g carbon monoxide. Kill ed stee l is homogeneous, has a smooth surfac e, and conta ins no blowhol es. Killed steels are co m mo nly used wh er e improved strength and tou ghness are important. Semikilled steel is steel in which deoxidizer s only partiall y kill the oxygen carbon reaction . Semikilled steel is more
ENTRAPPED GAS
The
deoxidation
practice determines
the amount ofdeoxidation performed and the basic steel type produced.
RIMMED
CAPPED
Rimmed steel is steel with little or no deoxidizer addition. The molten metal briskly bubble s a s o x yge n evolves from it when it is poured into a mold . Th e evo lving ox ygen rea ct s with the carbon at the boundar y between the solidified metal adjacent to the mold and th e remain in g molt en
Weldability of Carbon & Alloy Steels 1 557
metal, forming carbon monox ide gas. This react ion causes the outer rim of the solidified metal to be very low in ca rbon and , co nsequently, very ductile. Rimmed steel may be rolled to produce a very sound surface and is used for sheet prod ucts such as automobile bodies . Capped steel is a variation of rimmed steel, providing a surface condition similar to rimmed steel, but other prop erties are intermediate bet ween rimmed steel and semikilled steel.
Hydrogen crack ing is often located below the surface and may run be detected by com mon nonde-
Hydrogen Cracking. Hydrogen cracking is caused by atomic hydrogen that may be present on carbon and alloy steels. Sources of atomic hydrogen are organic material such as grease; chemically bonded or absorbed water in the electrode coat ing; and moisture on the steel surface at the weld location. Atomic hydrogen is created at welding te mpe rat ure and diffu ses rapidly into molten weld metal. As the weld metal solidifies. the hydro gen tries to escape be cau se so lid ified metal accommodates significantly less hydrogen than liquid metal. Some hydrogen esca pes into the atmosphere; however, some hydrogen escapes into the HAZ. Martensite form ed in the HAZ by rapid cooling of the weld is extremely susce ptible to embrittlement from the hydrogen that esca pes into it. Hydrogen crac king occurs when the bri ttle martensite fails to yield (stretch) to accommodate the residu al stresses that develop as the weld cools. Hydrogen crac king may occur several days after the weld has cooled. Hydrogen cracking is often located below the surface and may not be detected by co mmon nonde structi ve ex a minat io n tech niqu es. See Figure 39-3. Meth od s of prev enting hydrogen cracking are: usin g lo w-h ydrogen e lec t ro des a nd sto ring e lectrodes in a lo wtemperature oven
WELD
Figur e 39 -3 . Hydro gen crack ing 1II0 y not be detected by nondestructive examinauon because it rommOllly occurs below the surface.
Steels with a low carbon equivalent typically have exceLlent weldabiiity. As the carbon equivalent rises above.4, the susceptibility to underbead cracking increases.
Ca rbon steel with a carbon equivalent less than .4% is weldable without preheat or postheating, depending on joint member thickness. For alloy steels, the carbon equivalent is found by applying the formula:
CE =
a
10
Carbon Equivalent. Carbon equivalent is a formula based on the chemical composition of a steel, which provides a numerical value to indicate whether preheat and postheating are required. The greater the numerical value of carbon equivalent, the greater the tendency for cold cracking and the greater the need for preheat and postheating. Carbon is the most significant alloying element that is added to iron in steels, contributing to overall strength and hardness. Other alloying elements contribute to hardness, but to a lesser extent than carbon. The carbon equivalent is the sum of the carbon percentage , plus the weighted percentages of each alloying element on martensite formation. With carbon steels, manganese is the only other element whose influence is weighted. For alloy steels, the weightings of individual alloying elements are added . The higher the carbon equivalent, the greater the need for preheat and postheating to prevent embrittlement by martensite. To find the carbon equivalent for carbon steels , apply the formula :
CE =C+
where CE = carbon equivalent
Joint Member Thickness. Joint member thickness also influences preheat. With increasing joint member thickness, the preheat temperature must be increased to reduce the cooling rate and the tendency to form martensite. Since the ductility of martensite depends on its hardness, which is a func tion of the carbon content of the steel, the formula for calculating preheat is based upon the thickness of the steel and its carbon content: p= 1000(C -.ll)+ 1St
where
Mn 6
percent carbon
For example, what is the carbon equivalent of a steel that contains .28% C and .7% Mn?
CE =%C+ %MIl 6
For example, what is the preheat temperature for a joint 2" thick made of steel containing .35% carbon? p= 1000(.35 -.11)+ IS(2) p= 1000x .24+36 p = 240 + 36 P = 276F As a rule, preheat is usually unnecessary for steels with a carbon content less than .2% if the joint thickness is less than: I YzN. for wrought pressure vessel plate ')iN , for wrought pipe 1;2", for castings However, the weld area should always be heated to hand warmth before welding .
.7 CE = .2S+ -
Heat Requirements. Heat requirements inel ude preheat, interpass temperature control, and postheating. Preheat heats
Weldahility of Carbon & Alloy Steels @o 559
T emperature
IIIILH
he
maintained between the 1II;I1;m llm and 11/ { U;lII l1m interpass tempera tures f or each s ucceeding welding pass.
the base metal to a relatively low temperature be fore weld ing starts . Th e main purpose of preheat is to lower the coo ling rate of the weld. thus allowing slower wi thdrawal of heat fro m the weld area. which lessens the tend ency for marten site to form. Consequently. there is less likelihood for a hard zone to deve lop in the surro und ing we ld area than if a weld joint is made without pre heat. Pre heat prevent s co ld cracks . reduces hardness in the HAZ, reduces residual stresses. and reduces distor tion. Preheat also bums grease. oil. and scale out of the joint. ensuring a elean welding surface and allowing a more rapid welding speed. Preheat can be acco mpli shed by mov ing an oxy acety le ne llam e ove r the surface or by plac ing the part in a heati ng furnace. Sec Figure 39-4. Preheat temperat ures for carbon steel range from 200F (93C) to 700F (371 C) , dependi ng on the carbon content. The greater the carbon content. the higher the preheat temperature.
Figure ]9-4. A n m ll// OI/ preheat method is to t1/OI'e till oxyacetylelle flame m'er the .m rfill'e of tl/l' meta l.
produced by the weldin g process is often a more economica l method of maint aining interpa ss temperature. Using a high current and slow travel rate causes considerable heat to build up in the metal . slowing the rate of cooling after welding and pre venting martensite from forming near the we ld area . In multip le-pass we lding. the first pass preheats the base metal. Heat from the second pass tempers the base metal adjacent to the first pass. Each successive pass produces enough heat to prevent hardening caused by rapid cooling. The interpass temperature must be carefu lly regu lated. Minimum and maximum int erpass temperatures ar e ge nera lly spec ified for multipl e-pass welds. Temperature must be maintained bet ween the minimum and maximum int erpass temperatures for eac h succeeding welding pass. On small parts. the temperature during welding can increa se to undesirable levels. A welder must allow time for the workpiece to coo l betwee n weld passes. Po stheating is a stre ss-relief treatment for welding medi um- and highca rbon ste e ls. Post heating is as important as preheat. Although preheat controls the cooling rate. the possibility of stresses be ing locked int o the weld area is always a factor. Postheating is especially necessary for thick metal or when the part is restrained in a jig or fixture durin g welding. Unless stresses are removed. cracks may develop. or the part may becom e distorted when it cools completely, especially during machini ng o pera tions. Postheating temperatures for stress relief should be in the range of 9000F (482 C) to 1250F (677C). The postheating period normally runs about I hr per inch of metal thickne ss.
The interpass temperature is the temperature of the we ld area between passes of a mu ltip le -pas s we ld . Fo r most steels. the large vo lume of heat
560 ~ Welding Skills
Weldabil ity decreases with incr eased carbnn content, and the need for preheat and postheating increases with increased carbon content. See Figure 39-5. Low-Carbon Steels. Low-carbo n stee ls that con tain less than .2% carbon and less than I% manganese (carbon equivalent .36) are weldable without pr eh eat or po sth e at ing whe n j oint thickn ess is less than I" and joint restraint is not severe. Low-carbon steels ca n be we lded by arc welding and OF W pro ce sses. Low-carbon stee ls are the eas ies t to we ld since no special we lding preparations are necessary. For SM AW, E60XX filler metal is suitable provided there is sufficient weld metal in the joint to provi de adequate strength. T he ehoice of filler metal is determin ed by dep th of penetrati on. typ e of current, position of the weld, joint design , and deposition rate. When slightly higher stre ngth filler metal is de sirable , or low-hydrogen filler metal s are necessa ry, E70XX reg ular or E70XX lowhydrogen fill er metal s must be used. See Appendix. When using GMAW or GTAW, filler meta l selection depends on the deox idation practice of the steel. Rimmed or eapped stee ls create porous we lds unless the filler metal conta ins deoxidizers. A suitable filler metal for these applications is ER70S-2 . For killed or sem ikill ed stee ls , in add iti on to ER70S-2, E70S-6 or E70S-7 filler metal may be used .
OFW requires steel tiller metal that matches the strength of the base metal. Type R45 dep osits low-carbon stee l we ld met al. Hi gh er stre ngth R60 is used to we ld low-carbon stee ls wit h tensile strengths from 50 ksi to 65 ksi. Medium-Carbon Steels. As the carbo n co ntent increa ses beyond .3% and the
manganese content increases to 1.4%
(carbon equivalent .53), susceptibility to hydrogen crackin g increases so that welding with low-hydrogen tiller metal is necessary. Neverthel ess, steels co ntaining about .3% carbon and a relatively low manganese content have good weldability. However, a pronounced change in weldability occu rs when the carbon content is in the .3% to .5% range. As the carbon co ntent of the ste el is increased, the welding procedure must be altered to prevent the formation of hard martensite in the HAZ. The required preheat temperature increases as the carbon equivalent incr eases. With a carbon equivalent between .45% and .60 %, a preheat temperature bet ween 200 0P (93C) and 400F (2 (WC) is required, dep ending on j oint thi ckne ss. Th e interpass temperature should equal the preh eat temperature . Postheating be tween I 100 F (593 C) and l 250F (677 C) is recomm ended imm ediately after welding. If postheating is not possible, the temperature of the joint should be maintained after welding at slightly above the specified preheat temperature for 2 hr to 3 hr per inch of thickness to promote the diffusion of hydrogen into the base metal from the weld bead.
CARBON STEELS
Steel
Low-Carbon Medium-Carbon
High-Carbon
Carbon Content
Upto .3%
.3% 1 0 .6%
.6% or Higher
Weldability
Excellent Fair Poor
Uses
Piping Industrial Fabrication Machine Parts Railroad Track Lengths Machine Dies
Ft gure 39 -5. weldabili tv de c rensrs with increased carbon ("(mh''ll, utul the need for preheat and po srJIt ' llting increases wittv increased ca rbon cOIltell1,
Lo w-hydrogen filler m etal should he used when weldin g medium -carb on steels .
Low -hydrogen fi ller metals withironpowder coatings usually min imi ze crac king when welding highcarbon steel.
Mo st medium -carbon steels are relativel y easy to weld by arc and gas welding process es. For SMAW, E7018 or E7024 filler metal is frequen tly used becau se they have a high tensi le strength and less tendency to prod uce underbead cracking, particularly when no preheat can be applied . However, medium-carbon steels mu st typically be preheated and/or postheated. E6012 or E6020 tiller metal can also be used if precau tions are taken and the cool ing rate is sufficiently slowed to prevent excessive hardening of the weld. For GTAW and GMAW, any of the ER70S-X series filler metals may be used if precautions are taken to prevent hydrogen entry into the weld from rusty or contaminated surfaces or from contaminated sh ield ing gases. For OFW, a high- strength tiller metal that matches the strength of the base metal, such as R60 or R65, should be used. High -Carbon Steels. High-carbon steels are significantly more difficult to weld than other carbon steels and arc not usually welded. They form hard martensite wh en quenc hed and arc extremely sensitiv e to cracking. When high-carbon steel s mu st be welded , high-strength fill er metals in the E80XX, E90XX, or E IOOXX groups are preferred because they minimize underbead cracking. Preheat must also be used to pr event cracking. T he postweld cooling rate must be kept as slow as possible.
Stainless steel filler metals such as the E3 10- 15 type are frequently recornmended for welding high-carbon steels because of their high ductility, provided weld strength is not an issue. Low -hydrogen filler metals with iron-powder coating s produce a ductile weld with minimum penetration. Free-Machining Steels. Free-machining steels have poor weldability because they are susceptible to hot cra cking from the formation of low-melting-point sulfur- and phosphoru s-contain ing compounds. Lead in free-machining steels can melt during welding, emitting weld fumes and creating a health hazard. Lead may also cause porosity and embrittlement under certain welding conditions. Free-machining steels are not usuall y welded unle ss absolutely nece ssary. Certain precautions must be taken if free-machining steels must be welded. For SMAW, low-hydrogen filler me tals of the EXXX- 18 group are used . For FCAW or GMAW, the same type of electrode as for the correspo nding regular grade (non-free-machining ) steel is used. GTAW is not normally used to weld free-machining steels. A low welding current is used to minimize dilution, porosity, and cracking; however, the low welding current leads to reduced welding spee d. Th e work area must be adequately ventilated when welding free -machining steel s that contain lead . Low-Alloy Steels. Low-alloy steels are welded by arc welding and gas welding processes if they have been annealed or normalized. They are then quenched and tempered to achieve the desired properties. If quenching or tempering is not possible-for example, with complex parts where distortion might occurpreheat at 600 F (315C) or higher is used. High preheat temperatures slow the cooling rate, allowing the formation of soft bainite rathe r than hard martensite , and permitting handling of the part between welding and postheating.
lil ~ -
Free -machin ing steels are not usually welded unless spe cial precautions are taken.
Filler metals used for welding carb on and alloy steels are selecte d based on the metal comp osition and the desired prop er ties of the metal after welding .
562
Welding Skills
The recommended preheat temperature is about 50 F (28 C) above the temperature at which martensite begins to form on cooling. The preheat temperature may also be influenced by the thickness of the joint, alloy composition, and joint restraint. Both preheat and postheating prevent weld crack s caused by shrinkage stresses . By reducing the rate of cooling, the stresses are distributed more evenly throughout the weld and released while the metal is still hot. When the proper preheat temperature cannot be determined, the clip test can be used as a quick check. The clip test is not applicable to thin steels but produces good results on sections up to o/s" thick. The clip test involves welding a piece of low-carbon steel to the steel workpiece that is being checked for preheat temperature . A convex fillet weld is made using an electrode and welding current similar to those required for the welding job. The weld is allowed to cool for 5 min and then the welder, wearing safety glasses, hammers the lug until it breaks off. If the lug breaks through the weld after a number of blows, the test indicates that no serious underbead cracking will result when welding is carried out in the same manner at normal room temperature. If the lug breaks and pulls out some of the base metal , the test indicates that the particular steel must be preheated. See Figure 39-6. Low-alloy, high-strength filler metals E70XX, E80XX, E90XX, and EIOOXX are used for welding lowalloy, chrome-moly, and nickel steels when full strength is required. In addition to the standard symbols, low-alloy, high-strength steel filler metals carry a suffix in the form of a letter and a final digit. The letter indicates the chemical composition of the deposited metal. The final digit designates the exact composition of the broad chemical classifications. Low-alloy, high-strength steel arc welding filler metals are designated as
E701O-Al, E8016-B2, etc. When welding any alloy steel, contact the filler metal manufacturer for proper filler metal selection. The reaction of filler metals to heat treatment for alloy steels must match the reaction of the base metal. The carbon, phosphorus, and sulfur contents of the filler metal are generally maintained at low values to reduce hot cracking susceptibility and improve weld metal ductility. Filler metals with comparable composition but lower carbon content may he satisfactory where lower joint strength is acceptable.
The recommended preheat temperature for low-alloy steels is about 50 F (28 C) abo ve the tempera rure at which martensite begins toform Oil cooling.
Before welding any allo.v steel.check with the manufacturer for thepmperfiller metal.
Clip Test
Figure 39-6
Figure 39-6. The need for pI'' !le{/tinR may he indicated hy the eli" test,
TEST SAMPLE
BASEMETA~ REMAINS
INTACT
BASEMETA~
FAI~
Chrome-Moly Steels. Chrome-moly steels are air-hardening and form martensite on cooling . The martensite is relatively soft because of the low carbon content, but all chrome-moly steels require preheat, interpass temperature control, and postheating to produce a tough weld joint. See Figure 39-7. Preheat and postheating temperatures vary depending on the alloy content of the
Weldability of Carbon & Alloy Steels ~ 563
steel. Postheating for chrome-moly steels is usually compl eted immediately after welding. Postheating temperatures for chromemoly steels are higher than for carbon and low-alloy steels, hecaus e chromemol y stee ls are more cree p- resistant and require higher temperatures to cause them to yield . A postheating tempe rat ure of 1300F (704 C) to 1350F (732C) is commonly used. Chrome-moly steels may be joined by arc welding processes. A low welding curre nt and rapid welding speed should be used, without extensive preheat. Care must be taken to prevent an excessive amount of base metal from mixing into the weld. Some preheat is advisable to reduce underbead cracking . Posth cating is recommended for stress relief. When an interrupted welding proce dure is required-for example , to radiogr aph th e partiall y completed joint in a heavy-wall pipe-the welding should not be interrupted until a di stance equal to one-thi rd the wall thickness has been welded , or not less than two weld passes for pipe less than I thick . These precaution s prevent
N
crac king of the partially complete d joint from residual stresses as it cools in 'order 10 be radiographed. Filler metal s must match the base metal compo sition, except that carbon content slightly lower than that of the base metal is needed to reduce cracking susce ptibility. To limit the number of filler metal s required when several chrome-moly steels are used on one job, filler metals of the same or slightly higher alloy content can be used. For example, 1'4 Cr-Y2 Mo tiller metals can be used for welding Y2 Cr-Y2 Mo and l l4 Cr-Y2 Mo. For SMAW, low -hydrogen filler metal s are used. See Figure 39- 8. Stainless steel filler metals E309 and E310 may be used for minor repair welding of chrome-moly steels. They are preferred for applications where the weld joint cannot be postheated. Stainless steel fille r metal s are weak er than chromemoly electrodes and possess excellent as-welded ductility, yielding easily and relieving the majority of residual stresses. However, the selection of a stainless steel filler metal must be made carefully, especially if the weld joint is operating in cyclic temperature service where premature failure might occur.
Figure J9 7. The requi red preheaTing Temperature for chromemoly sTeel s varies according to the a lloy conten I.
7F
%C r-%Mo 1Cr- Y2Mo 1%Cr %Mo 2C r-%Mo 2%C r-1 Mo
~c
rom)'
'f'
Over l '
(25mm)
'C
149 149
100 250
38 121
93 149
300 300
300
149
350
177
350
177
3Cr-1Mo
5C r-V2Mo 7Cr- %Mo
350
177
400
204
400
204
Welding W ith low-hydrogen covered electrodes t Maximum carbon content 01.15% . For higher carbon steels, preheallemperalu re should be increased 100' F 1 0 200 F (38C to 93C). Lower preheat tem peratures may be used with gas tun gsten arc welding.
SMAWt
EB01X-B1 EB01X-B2 or E701X-B2l E901X-B3 or EB01 X-B3l
FCAWS
E7XTS-A1 0r EBXT1-A1 EBXTX-B2 or EBXTX-B2l or EBXTX-B2H E9XT X-B3 or E9XTX-B3l or E9XTXB3H
SAW'
FBXX-EXXX-B1 FBXX-EXXX-B2 or FBXX-EXXX-B2H
Figu re 39-8. Fill er metals f o r wekling chrome-moly steels /lIdY be sliKluly more alloyed in order (0 minimire (Ill' number of filler /tI('fal ()p e.{ required,
1Cr-YzMo, 1%Cr-Y2Mo
21f4Cr-1Mo
3Cr 1Mo SCr-'hMo
F9XXE XXX-B3
..
..
ES02-1Xli or EB01X-B6 or EB01X-B6l E7Cr-1Xli or E801XB7 or EB01X-B7l ESO S-1Xli or EB01XBB or EB01XBBl E901X-B9
..
..
F9XX-EXXX-B6 or F9XXE XXXB 6H
ERS02 11 0r ERBOX-B6
ES02T-1 or 2 or E6XTS-B6
7Cr-'hMo
9Cr-1 Mo 9Cr-1Mo
F9XX-EXXX-BB
and
V+N b+N
by weldmg process
ER90X-B9
F9XX-EXXX-B9
t per ANSI/AWS AS.28, Specification for Low -Alloy Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc Welding (unless ind icated)
per AN SI/AW S AS.5, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrodes (unless ind icated)
per ANSI/AWS A5.29 , Speci fication for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding (use w ith CO 2 or Ar-CO l mixture)
I per ANSI/AWS A5. 23, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding - no match . consider high er alloy than base metal no match , use between 2 V~Cr- 1 Mo and 5Cr'h Mo tt per AN SI/AWS AS.9. Specification for Bare S tainless Stee l Welding Electrodes and Rods U per ANSIIAWS A5.4 , Speci fICation for Covered Corrosion- Resistan t Chromium and Chromium-Nickel S teel Welding Electrodes
Nickel Steels. To weld nickel stee ls where the tensile strength of the weld must be equal to that of the base metal, low-alloy nick el filler metals in the E80XX series are genera lly used . Examp les are E80 16-C I, E80 18-C2, and E80 18-C3. On thick metal , preheat to a dull red is genera lly advi sable. Austenitic Manganese Steels. Au steni ti c ma ngan ese stee ls require care when welding as they experience loss of ductility when reheated. A low welding curre nt and ra pid we ldi ng speed must be used, wit hout extensive preheat. Care must be taken to prevent an exeessive amount of base metal from mixing into the weld . A slight preh eat is advisable to reduce underbead cracking . Postheat ing is recommended for stress relief. Use the followi ng guidelines to ensure quality welds when welding austenitic manganese stee l:
V the joi nt and clean the surfaces carefu lly and thoroughly. Use the lowest possible current to preve nt the for mati on of a brittl e zo ne next to the weld. Use a s ta in less stee l 18 - 8 ty pe e lec tro de .
Use the lowes t pos sible (' 111'''('111 when welding austen itic manganese steel.
Other types o f till er meta ls used for we ldin g au stenit ic man ganese stee l arc mo ly bde n um- copper-ma nga ne se and ni ckel -man g an e se . Ho weve r, more skill is needed to produce good welds with these ti ller metals. Do not we ld in a locali zed area fo r a n ex tended time unless the tem perature of the metal is below 750F (399C). Use temperature-indicating crayons to determi ne temperature by marking the ba se me tal 3jg" to \1,," fro m the we ld. T he welder should be able to place a hand within 6" to 8" of the weld at any time . If necessar y, place we t rags on
Weldability of Carbon & Alloy Steels ~ 565
areas adjacent to the weld to control heat. The high thermal expansion of austenitic manganese steel may cause re sidual stresses to develop as the
weld cools , and cracks may develop during contraction. To reduce cracking, peen each weld pass when it is completed.
I . Carbon steels include low-carbon steels, medium-carbon steels, and high-carbon steels . The weldability of carbon steels decreases as the carbon content increases. 2 . The principal benefits of alloy steels over carbon steels are higher strength and greater capacity for strengthening in thick sections (hardenability). 3 . The deoxidation practice determines the amount of deoxidation performed and the basic steel type produced. 4. Steels that are susceptible to cracking must be preheated to reduce the rate of cooling and decrease the possibility of martensite formation. 5. Hydrogen cracking is often located below the surface and may not be detected by common nondestructive examination techniques. 6. Low-hydrogen filler metals should be used when welding medium-carbon steels. 7. Low-hydrogen filler metals with iron powder coatings usually minimize cracking in welding high -carbon steel. 8. Free-machining steels are not usually welded unless special precautions are taken. 9. Temperature must be maintained between the minimum and maximum interpass temperatures for each succeding welding pass. 10. The recommended preheat temperature for low-alloy steels is about 50F (28 C) above the temperature at which martensite begins to form on cooling. I I . Before welding any alloy steel, check with the manufacturer for the proper filler metal. 12. Use the lowest possible current when welding austenitic manganese steel.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
When is steel classified as medium-carbon steel? What is the difference between killed and semikilled steel? Why is some form of preheat recommended when arc welding alloy steels? What are some of the basic characteristics of austenitic manganese steel ? What is the function of postheating? At what temperature should postheating be done? What type of filler metal is required for welding medium-carbon steel? Why arc high-carbon steels more difficult to weld? What is the purpose of a clip test and how is it conducted? Why must the lowest possible current be used when welding austenitic manganese steel?
Tool steels and cast irons are metals that require special consideration when welding. Tool steels are the most highly alloyed steels and in genera l are the hardest and strongest steels available. In most cases, the welding of /001 steels encompasses the repair of tools or dies that have been hardened and machined /0 fina l shape and have failed by wear, chipping, or cracking. Cast irons are alloys of iron with significant amounts of carbon and silicon, and occasionally other elements. The primary consideration f or joining cast irons is to accommodate their poor weldability. the principal cause of which is their high carbon content.
Water hardening tool steels. Group W. arc high-carbon steels that contain between .6% and 1.4% carbon . plus small amounts of chromium and vanadium to increase hardenability and mainta in fine
grain size to improve toughness. Water hardening tool steels are the least costly and have many app lications. Co ld wo rk to ol stee ls (Groups 0 , A. and 0) ge ne ra lly co ntai n between I % and 2 % carbo n, a nd ca n ran ge from .5 % to 2.35 % for so me alloys . Co ld work too l steel s have alloy compo sitions de si gn ed to provid e moderate-to-hi gh harde na bility and good dimensional stability during heat treatment. They have hig h wear resistance, and poor-to-fai r toughness . Co ld work too l stee ls begin to soften at temperatures above 400 F (204C) and arc ge nera lly limited to wor king temperatures below 900F (482C) . T he majority of tool applications can be served by one or more co ld work too l steels. Shock res isting tool steels. Group S, have a rel atively low carbon con tent-between .4 % carbo n and .65 % carbon-and contain man ganese , silico n. tungsten . a nd molybdenum . Shock resisting tool steels are used in applications involving impact load ing be cause of their high s tre ng th and tou ghness under repea ted shock and lo w-to-med ium wear resistance .
567
Tool steels lire the most highly alloyed steels ami in R (' fJcrat a re fJI(' hurdeM and st ron g est steels a vai lab le,
-, I
"
'
,
Group D, wear resistanc e
<
, ,
Group S, shock resistance Group W, water hardening Group 0, oil hardening
Figure 40- 1. Tool steel g roup.I' cons ist of water hardening, cold work , shock resistin g, hot work, tngh -speed, mold, (ind special purpose.
TOOL STEELS
ToolSteel GrollP"
Group W Group 0 Group A Group D Group S Grou p H Group T Group M Group L Group P Gro up F
common Use
Cutlery, forging dies, and hammers Dies and punches Dies, punches, and forming rolls Long run dies and brick molds Chisels, rivet sets, and structural applications High stressed components and hightemperature extrusion dies Cutting too ls and high-temp erature structural components Cutting tools Arbors, cams, and chucks Dies and molds Burnishing tools and tube-drawing
<
Tough core and hard and wear resistant surface Wear resistant to moderate temper atures Minimum distortion and cracking on quenching High hardnes s and excellent wear resistan ce Excellent toughne ss and high strength Good resistance to softening at elevated temperatures and good toughn ess High hardenab ility and high hardn ess High hardenability and high hard ness High toughne ss and good strength Low hardness and low resistance to work hardening Tough core, hard surface , and galling resistance
Figu re 40-2. Diversification of properties an d characteristics infl uence the number 111/(1 type of uses of tool stee ls.
Hot work tool steels, Gro up H, have a medi um ca rbon COnlent-,35 % carbon to .45% carbon-with chromi um , tungsten, molybdenum. and vana dium added for total alloying between 6% and 25 %, The alloy ing eleme nts co ntribut e 10 good hard en ability, tou gh ness. and resistan ce to softening (re d hardness) on co nti nuo us ex pos ure up to IOOOF (538C). Red hardness is the capacity to resist softe ning in the red heat temperature range. Hot work tool steels are used for hot die work. High -speed tool stee ls, Gro ups T and M, have high carbo n co ntent and relative ly lar ge amounts of ex pe nsive alloying elements, particularly tungsten (Group T ) and molybdenum (Gro up M). They are resistant to softening up to 1000F (540C) but have relatively low tou ghn ess. High -speed too l stee ls are used for high-speed cutting operations because the alloy carbides in their met allurgi cal struc t ure allow th e se stee ls to maintain their cutting edge at high temperatures. Mold steels and special purpose tool stee ls, Groups L and P, and Gro up F, are minor tool steel groups whose properties are tail ored to specific applicatio ns . Mold s tee ls ha ve a lo w 10 me di um carbon co ntenl and co ntain chromium an d nickel as the principal alloying elements for a total alloy content of 1.5% to 5%. Mold steels exhibit low hardnes s a nd lo w re sist ance to work hard enin g in the annealed (softened) co nditio n, whi ch facilitates the formation of mold impressions for cold hobbing operation s. Sp ecial purpose too l stee ls co nta in sma ll amounts of chro mium, van adium, and nickel and are used in appli cations requiring good strength. toughness, scratch resistance, and ga lli ng resistance .
to final shape and have failed by wea r, chipping, o r c rac king . Tool s o r di es may also be welded to alter the tool or die to accommodate desi gn change s. Due to their high ca rbon and alloy content, they are ex treme ly prone to hydro gen cracking in the HAZ if rapidly cooled. If high heat input and slow cooling are used to counteract cracking, the weld may be too soft. Welding procedur es must be ca refully controlled . Preheat and Postheating Requirements. Tool steels arc always preheated for weldin g. The requ ired prehe at tem perature depend s on the spec ific alloy. heat-treated co nd it io n, a nd sec t io n thickness. When preheating a hardened tool steel, the pre heat temper atu re should not exce ed the tempering tem perature of the tool steel. or it will soften. The preh eat temperature s ho u ld be maintained between weld passes. After we lding, th e workpiece sho uld be cooled to about 150F (65C) and immediately po st heat ed at the recommended temp erature. See Figur e 40-3. Welding Processe s, The weldin g process for tool stee ls mu st be ca refu lly se lecte d to produ ce a qu ality we ld , Weldin g processes that ca n be used for tool steels include SMAW, FCAW, and GMAW. SMAW is the most versatile for rep air welding small are as. La rge areas ma y be more ec o no mica lly weld ed with FCAW o r GMAW. OFW sho uld not be used for tool stee ls because it is too slow and introduces excessive heat into the base metal, leading to distortion , softe ning of hardened metal, embrittlement of annealed metal, or cracking . Filler Metals. Filler metals used for tool steels must be carefully selected to ensure a qua lity we ld, Filler meta ls for weldi ng tool stee ls fa ll into three catego ries: match ing, low-a lloy steel, and soft. Filler metals that produce deposits matching the basic tool steel type should be used because the y produ ce a surface that matches the wear resistan ce
Weldahility (if Tool Steels & Cast Irons l' 569
OFW should not be used for 10 0 1 .\'/ 1'1. >1 .'1 because it is tooslow and introduces excessive heat into the base metal. leading ( 0
cracking.
of the tool steel. However, filler metals are not available to match all tool steel composi tions. Although an exact match may not always be available, using manufacturer trade name products and their recommended procedures usually produces a qual ity weld . When matching filler metal is not available, tiller metals that produce deposit compositions similar to low-alloy
steel may be used as they exhibit moderate hardne ss. Toughness may be improved by peening. Soft filler metals such as stainless steels, nickel, nickel-copper alloys, and copper-nickel alloys may be used to build up worn parts, followed by a hard wear-resi stant deposit that matches the base tool steel composition. Using a soft buildup material minimizes cracking .
Figure 40-3. The req uired p reheat temperature f o r tool ste el s dep ends on the sp ecific allo y, heat-treated cond ition, and metal thi ckne ss.
.
Type:
;aroi!P
Waterhardening
lise Me tal Preheat t!!ehe:at iDpP'lllii . "-aml Tempering ()e~OS~ "... .lItId:. ; ': e' J:UH P ~ Ill1tl~ Ienmllf;\tMro HR<?::: l?os.t
't'. n
SEI
II
en
Wl,W2 Sl S5 S7 01 06 A2
A4
250-450 (121-232) 300-500 (149-260) 300-500 (149-260) 300-500 (149-260) 300-400 (149-204) 300-400 (149-204 ) 300-400 (149--204) 300-400 (149--204) 700--900 (371-482) 700--1000 (37 1-538) 950--1050 (510-566) 950--1050 (510-566) 950--1050 (510-566) 950 - 1050 (510--566) 800--1000 (428-538)
50-64 40--58 50--60 47-58 57-62 58-63 57-62 5<H32 5<H31 38-56 60--65 60--65 60--65 60--66 28-42
250-450 (121-232) 300--500 (149-260) 300-500 (149-260) 300-500 (149-260) 300-400 (149-204) 300--400 (149-204) 300-400 (149--204) 300-400 (149-204) 700--900 (371-482) 700-1000 (37 1-538) 950--1050 (510-566) 950--1050 (510--566) 950--1050 (510--566) 950 -1050 (510--566) 800- 1000 (428-538)
350--650 (177-343) 400--1200 (20<H349) 350--600 (177-426) 400--1100 (204--21 ) 350--500 (177- 260) 350-600 (177-316) 350--1000 (177-538) 350--600 (177-426) 400--1000 (204-538) 1000--1200 (536--<>49) 1000--11OO (538-593) 1000- 1100 (538-593) 1000- 1100 (538-593) 1000--1100 (538-593) 900--1100 (480--595)
56-62 52-56 52-56 52-56 56--<>1 56--1 56-61 60--62 58-60 48-54 60--63 60--63 60--63 61-64 28-37
F (C) t hardne ss varies with heat input and cooling rate t after pos theating and temper ing, varies with heat input and coo ling rate doubl e temp er
Repair Welding. Repair welding requires adequate preparation . Preparation for repair s requires first grinding the damaged area to a uniform depth to allow for buildup of a deposit with the required hardness and wear resistance. A groove depth of Y8" is common. Small weld passes are used to fill the groove. The bead size of the final pass should be adjusted so that the repair is as close as possible to final size to minimize the final gri nding op eration . Welding is done in nat position with minimum heat input. Intermittent weldin g is used on symmetrical repair s to ensure uniform heat distribution. The weld should be c lea ned freque ntly by chipp ing and bru shin g . Warpage and distortion are
counterac ted by preheat and peenin g. When repairing the cutting edge of a tool or die, the edge to be welded should be grooved approximately 45 for sufficient depth . See Figure 40-4 .
-' . '
Figure 40-4. The buildup area is grooved when repair welding tool steels to allow sufficient metal to he deposited.
PREPARED SURFACE
Prepared Edge
Prepared Edge
Cast irons are used for wear and corrosimi resistance and [ar general application s where go od
castabilityis needed.
Cast irons are used for wear and corrosion resistance and for general applications where good castability is needed. C ast irons ar e grouped according to their metallurgical structure into gray irons, white irons, malleabl e irons, ductile irons, compacted graphite irons, and alloy irons. See Figure 40 -5. A gray iron microstructure consists of pearlite (iron carbide and ferrite) , ferrite, or martensite. All three types of gray iron microstructure s contain an even distribution of graphite flakes . The graphite flakes make gray irons extremely brittle but also provide for the highest damping capacity of any engineering material, high temperature scaling resistance, and thermal shock resi stance. Gray iron is the most widely used ca st iron. Gray iron can be identified by its dark gray, porous structure on the fracture face. When using the spark test to identify gray iron, short, brick-red
streamers are given off that follow a straight line and have numerous fine, repeating yellow spa rklers. Gray iron is relatively easy to arc weld. Gray irons are used for ba ses and supports for moving components to dampen vibrations; in pre ssure applic atio ns such as cylinder block s; fo r wear-resistant and scuff-resi stant materials in cylinder sleeves; and for general municipal application s such as manhole covers and hydrants. White irons are formed when carbon does not precipitate as graphite during solidification but combines with iron or alloying clements such as molybdenum, chromium, or vanadium to form iron carbide or allo y carbide. This combining occurs because of fast cooling of the molten metal in the mold. Thu s, white iron can he formed if the mold contains coolers that accelerate the cooling rate . The carbides make white iron extremely hard, wear-resistant, and brittle.
. -' .
L
Ni-Hard Parabaloy
White Iron
Duriron
Silicon Iron
Gray Iron
Class 40
Malleable Iron
or
Ductile Iron
Austenitic Iron
Ni-Resist
Ftgu re 40-5. Cast irons are grou ped according compacted graphite iron s, wul alloy iron s,
10
their metallurgical structure into Rrtly irons , white irons, malleable irons, ductile irons,
572
White irons have a fine, silvery white, silky, cry stallin e fra cture face . Wh en spark tested, white iron shows short, red streame rs . There are few er sparklers than in gray ca st iron and the se are small and repeating. Welding is not recommended for white irons. White iron is used for wear plates. Mall eable iron s are a du ctil e for m of iron produced by heat treating white iro n. Malleable iron can be welded . However, the metal must not be heated above its critical tempe rature (approximately 1382F [750C]). If it is heated abov e th e critic al temperature, th e metal revert s to the original characteristics of white iron. Heat treatmen t tran sforms graphite flake s into nodule s, leading to in creased du ctility. Improved ductility creates man y uses for mall eabl e iron . Thes e includ e axl e and differ ential hou sin gs, cams hafts , and crankshafts in automobiles; and gears, chain links, sproc ke ts, and el e vator bracket s in convey ing equipme nt. Malleable irons exhibit a white crystalline fracture face with a dark cente r. A spark test shows a moderate num ber of short, straw-ye llow streame rs with numerous sparklers that are small and repeatin g. Ductil e iron s co nta in amo unts of carbon and silicon similar to gray irons, but differ in the shape of the graphite con stituent , In ductil e iron, the graph ite is sphe ro idal (nod ular) in shape, rather than in the form of flakes. Ductile iron is also called spheroidal graphite (SG) iron or nodular iron. Sph eroidi zation of the graphite is achi eved by adding small amounts of
magnesium or cerium to molten iron
Ductile irons can be arc welded, provided adequate preheat and postbeating are used; otherwi se, some of the original properties are lost. Ductile iron is used for many structural applications, particularly those requiring strength and toughness, and combines good machinability at low cost. Ductile iron is used for items such as crankshafts, front wheel spindle supports, steering knuckles, and pumps. Piping such as culvert, sewer, and pressure pipe is another application for ductile irons. Compacted graphite iron exhibits a graphite shape between that of the flakes in gray iron and the spheroids in ductile iron. Compacted graphite irons are produced by adding spec ific elements to the molten metal in a way similar to ductile irons. The resulting grapbite is in the form of interconnected flakes with blunted edge s and a rel ati ve ly sho rt span . Tbe intermediate shape of the graphite results in a combination of properties between gray and du ctil e iron . Compacted graphite irons are used for specific applications , such as disc brake rotors and diesel engine heads. Alloy irons are cast irons that contain one or more added alloying elements, such as chromium, nickel, copper, molybdenum , vanadium, and silicon, to a total of up to 30% of the final composition. The three subgroups of alloy irons are abrasion -resistant irons, corrosion resistant irons, and heat-resistant irons.
before it cool s and solidifies. Tbe cos t o f th e e le me nts added to th e iro n make s du ctil e iro n more ex pe ns ive, but pro longe d heat treatment is not required, so that its cost is comparable to mall eabl e iron . Grade for gr ade, ductile iron has strength equi valent to gray iron , but ductil e iron has signif icantly greate r e longa tion.
Ductile irons (Ire commonty used for pumps ill indus trial applications.
Wefdabili ty
Cast f rons
1 573
Abra sion-resistant iron s are alloys of white iron and include the Ni-Hard" (nickel-co ntaining) irons and the chro mium irons. Abrasion-resistant irons are used for abras ive materi als han dlin g, as in slur ry pumps, gri nd ing equipment , a nd mud pump liners in well drillin g. Co rros io n-resistan t iro ns may be nickel -containin g type s such as th e Ni-Re sist" series or silicon-containing types suc h as th e Duriron" se ries . Nickel -containing types arc used in many corros ion-resistant applica tions, such as pump impellers and casings for seawater, acids, and sour gas. Siliconcontainin g types arc brittle but possess
exceptional corrosion resistance and
are used for pumps, agitators, mixing nozzles, and val ves. Heat-resistant irons are gray or ductile irons conta ining alloying elements to improve hig h-temp era ture strength and oxidation resistance. They are used fo r turbine diaphragms , valves , and nozzle rings; manifolds and valve guides for heavy-duty engines; burner nozzles; glass molds; and valve scats for engines. Most alloy irons can be arc welded, but precautions must be taken during preheat and po stheatin g to pr event compro mising de sired metallurgica l properties.
The feasibility of repairing cast irons that have been in se rvice depend s on the service conditions. For example, it is generally not recommended to repair weld gray iron castings that are subject to repeated heating and cooling in normal service, especially if the temperature ran ge exceeds 400 F (204C). Unless cast iron is used as filler metal, the different coefticient of expansion between the weld metal and filler metal causes stresses that lead to cracking. Mech ani cal j oinin g techniques or braze welding arc ofte n effective alternatives to welding on cast irons. Mechanical joining methods may be used for joining cast iron if pressure reten tion is not a concern. The principal mechan ical joining method for cast irons is cold mechanical repair. Parameters that must be consid ered before welding cast irons include joint preparation, heat requirement s, welding processes, filler metals, repa iring cracked ca stings , and studding brok en castings .
Joint Preparation. Cast iron must be comp letely cleaned of contaminants aroun d the weld area hefore welding. Joint preparat ion must ensure that the filler metal can thoroughly bond to the base metal. All casting skin and foreign matter must be removed from the joint surface and adjacent areas. Where possible, the castin g is heated uniformly using an ox yace ty lene torch at 700F (371C) for 30 min, or less than 30 min at IOOOF (538C). Graphite on the surface of gray iron ca n be oxi dize d by searing the surface with an oxidizing flame or by heating the casting with a strongly decarburi zing flame, followed by wire brushing to remove debris. To prepare cas t iron for we ld ing, grind a narrow strip along each edge of the joint to remove the surface film or casti ng skin. V the edges of the weld area. On metal less than 3/16" thick, no V is nece ssary. On me tal 31 16" to 3/8 " thick, a single-V joint is required with a groove ang le of appro ximate ly 60 . Metal % " thick or more requires a
tI
.=
.~
All cas ting skin lind fo reign ma iler must be removed fro m the join t surface a nd adjacen t a reas of caM i rons before welding.
double -V joint with a V ,6" to %2" root face. The groove angle should be 60. See Figure 40-6.
. I
NO V REQUIRED
LESS THAN
3/ 16 "
THICK
SINGLEV BUTT JOINT
3/16 "
TO %" THICK
casting is allowed to cool slowly from the welding temperature. Slo w cooling may be achi eved by covering the casting with an insulatin g blanket, vermiculite, or sand. If slow cooling is not possible, posth eating is required. When it is impos sibl e to preheat the workpiece, the weld temperature can be controlled by depositing short weld beads 2" to 3" long. After a bead is depo sited , allow it to cool until it can be tou ched with the ha nd. Co nsecutive beads should not be started until the previous bead has cooled sufficiently. As the weld bead cools, peen it by striking it lightly with a hammer. Peening helps to tighten the weld and reli eve stress on the cast iron. Peen ing can be done only on the machinable weld deposi t and heat affected zon e, not on the ent ire ca sting . Se e Figure 40 -7.
A CAUTION
Never pos theat cast iro n a bove a dull red co lor or a bove a tem pe ra ture of 12000F (649 C) .
Figure 407. Peen ing helps to relieve stresses when. welding cast iron.
Heat Requirements. Preheat and po stheating help minimize crac ki ng and relieve residual stress. The preheat tempe rat ure depen ds on the type of cast iron, its mass, the welding process, and the welding filler metal. The preheat temperature should be monitored with a contact pyrometer, temperatureindicatin g crayon, or thermocouple to en sure accuracy. With large or com plex castings, the preheat rate must be slow and unifor m to prevent cracking from unequal expansion. The casting should be maintained at a constant temperature until the weld is compl eted . If possible, preheat the entire welded sect ion with an oxyacetyle ne torch . When a high preh eat tempera ture such as 1200F (649C) is used, postheating ma y not be necessary if the
Postheating is mandatory to stressrelieve fully restrained welds or welds intended for seve re service. Posth eating is performed immediatel y aft er welding by increasing the temperature to 1000F (538C) to I 150F (621C), followed by holding the casting at temperature for ab out I hr per inch of thi ckn ess. The coo ling rat e mu st be kept to 50F (10C) per hour until the casting re ac hes 700F (3 7 1C ). Postheatin g slows the cooling rate, reduces ha rdne ss in the weld, and improves the machinabil ity of the HAZ.
Weldahi lity of Tool Stee ls & Cast frons
575
Filler metals usedfor welding cast irons can be composed of nickel alloy; carbon steel. or cast iron.
Welding Processes. Welding proce sses that can be used for cast irons include SMAW, G M AW, FCAW, and OFW , Brazing is used for some applications; sold ering is not commonly used . SMAW is the most vers atile process and can usc all types of filler metals. GMAW with short circuiting transfer is suitable for joining ductile iron. Because of the relatively low heat input with GMAW, the hard portion of the HAZ is confined to a thin film next to the weld metal, so that the strength and ductility of the weld joint are about the sam e as the base metal. OFW requires extensive heat input during preheat and welding. The high heat input is a limitation of OFW when welding finished or semi-finished castings because it may distort the metal. However, the slower cooling rate lessens the tendency toward brittl eness. A high preheat temperature of II OO ' F (593'C) to 1200' F (649C) is required for OFW to compensate for the low welding heat obtained during OFW. Buttering is used to provide good weld joint ductility and eliminates the need for postheating for the entire completed joint. Buttering places the HAZ of the welded joint in the buttered layer rather than in the cast iron. A layer of weld metal about .03" thick is deposited (buttered ) on the joint faces andthe part is immediately postheated. Filler Metals. Filler metals used for weldin g cast iron s can be nickel al loy, carbon steel, or cast iron. Copper alloy filler metals are used for bra ze welding cast iron. Nickel alloy filler metal s may also be used fo r buttering . Filler metal s that match the base metal may be used, although a fill er metal that minimizes cra cking should alway s be used. The composition of the filler metal used to weld cast iron varies dep ending on the requirements of the weld . See Figure 40-8. Factors that influence filler metal selection for cast iron include the following :
type of cast iron, mechanical properties desired in the joint .the need for the filler metal to deform pla sti call y and relieve weld ing stress es machinability of the joint color matching between the ba se metal and the filler metal allowabl e dilution cost Ni ckel alloy fill er metal s are specially designed for welding cast irons. Th ey dilute with the ba se metal and expand on cooling to minimi ze solidi fica tion shrinkage and reduce residual stre ss. Nickel alloy fill er metals are machinable . The use of nickel alloy fill er metals reduces preheat to mini mal values, except in highly restrained sections. Peening of the hot weld bead helps to reduce re sidual stresses and maintain dim en sion s, Two common nickel alloy filler metals are : ENi-Ci (nick el) filler metal. DCEP or AC, general-purpo se welding , used for thin and medium cast iron sec tions, ca stings with low pho sphorus content, and where little or no preheat is used . ENi-FeC I (nickel-iron ) filler metal. DCEP or AC, for welding heavy cast iron sections, high-phosphorus castings, high-ni ckel alloy castings where high -strength welds are required, and for welding nodular iron. Carbon steel filler metal s are nonmachinable and are used primarily to repair small, cosmetic castin g defe ct s with SMAW, where a fair color match is acceptable and machining is not of major concern. Carbon steel filler metals are prone to embrittlement tram carbon pickup by dilution with the base metal and sho uld not be used where the joint is loaded in tension or bend ing. The welding procedure is design ed to minimi ze heat input to keep dilution to an acceptable level. Carbon steel filler metal s consist of a low -carbon stee l core and a heavy coating that melts at low temperatures,
allowing a low weldin g current. Carbon steel filler metals leave a very hard deposit and ar e used on ly when the welded sectio n is not to be machined afterward . Nonmachinab le carbon steel filler me tals produce a tight and nonporous weld, making them ideal for repairing motor blocks, tra nsmission cases, compressor blocks, pulley wh ee ls, pump parts, mower wheels , and other similar structures. Cast iron filler metals are also nonmachinable and have limi ted ap plication for repair welding of gray iron
and ductile iron castings. Cast iron filler meta ls are most often used for SMAW or OFW. For SMAW, east iron filler meta ls have the composition of gray iron and are used to repair gray iron casti ngs . For OFW, filler metal com positions matching gray iron or dnctile iron are used, with other elements added to improve specific properties . A flux is also req uired with OFW to increase fluidity and remove slag that form s in the weld pool. Extensive heat inpnt is req uired before, during , and after welding to prevent cracking.
Extensive heat input is required before . du ring, and after welding cast iran to prevent cracking.
Descrlptlon 93 Ni 95 Ni 53 Ni-45 Fe
Figure 40 8. Filler m eta ls for welding or brare welding cast iron are selected based Oil the requirements of the weld and the lj)elding process,
mCltEl ALLOY J'llL'iRb!STAJ.~L _ ~ _ ' ~ _____ ~_'~h ERNi- CI ENi-CI, ENi- CI-A ENi Fe-CI, ENiFe-CI-A ENiFeT 3-CI ENiCu-A ENiC u-B ERNi FeMn-CI ENiFeT3-CI ERNiFeMn-CI ER NiFeMn -CI ENi FeMn-C I
GMAW SMAW SMAW FCAW SMAW SMAW GMAW SAW SAW GTAW SMAW
53 Ni-45 Fe-4.5 Mn 55 Ni- 40 Cu-4 Fe 65 Ni-30 Cu-4 Fe 44 Ni-44 Fe-12 Mn 53 Ni45 Fe-4 .5 Mn 44 Ni-44 Fe-12 Mn 44 Ni-44 Fe-12 Mn 44 Ni-44 Fe-12 Mn
Cll:RBglJ~EEL:Fll,.Y1R METALS
Carbon Steel Carbon Steel Carbon Stee l Covered Cove red Bare ESt E7018 E70S-2
.
,
SMAW SMAW GMAW
CAST IRON FILLER META !;!; ;_, We lding Rod We lding Rod Welding Rod RCI RCI-A RCI-B
. -
Low-fum ing Brass Low-fum ing Brass Nickel-Brass Copper-Tin Copper-Tin Copp er-Aluml num Copp er-Aluminum
COPPERA1.LOV:F1LL.ER'METALS Weld ing Rod Welding Rod Welding Rod Covered Bare Covered Bare RCuZn-B RC uZnC RBCuZn-D ECuSn -A ERCuSn-A ECu AI-A2 ERCuAI-A2 OAW OAW OAW SMAW GMAW SMAW GMAW
OAW, oxyacetylene welding, SMAW. shielded meta l arc welding, GMAW. gas meta l arc weldln q: SAW, submerged arc weldmg, GTAW, gas tungsten arc welding t Incollu x 5 and Inca/lux 6 are proprieta ry fluxes from Spec ial Meta ls. Inc.
577
The co rrec t current setti ng for cast iron we lding shou ld alway s be used. The correct current is co mmonly suggested by the filler metal manufacturer. Gene rally, the current setting for welding cast iron is lower than for weldin g ca rbo n stee l. Th e heat applied to cast iron during welding must be kept to a minimum. To ensure that only the minimum heat nec essary is used , always use small-diameter tiller metal s. Welders seldom use filler metals greater than VB" in diameter. For SMAW. weldin g current should be as low as possible hut within the man ufactu rer 's recommended range fo r cons istent, smoo th o peratio n. desired bead co ntour, and goo d fusio n. When welding in vertical position, current should be reduced by about 25%. Whcn wc lding in overhead position, current sho uld be redu ccd by abo ut 15%. For FCAW and GMAW of cast iron , as -de pos ite d nickel alloy filler metal compositions are similar to those used with SMAW. Co pper alloy fi ller metal s are used for bra ze welding cast iron , The j oint is soft and ductile when hot and yields during cooli ng, so that res idual stress is redu ced . To perform braze weldi ng , a brazing filler metal is deposited into the weld j oint. Th ere is no melti ng of the base metal adjacent to the joint. After the surface is heated, a thin layer of tiller metal is added to the surface to help ensure a sat isfacto ry bond . A welding tip with high heat output at low gas pre ssure should be used to provide a soft Ilame that will not blow the flux away from the joint. After braze welding, the metal sho uld be cooled slo wly to preve nt white cast iron from forming. The deposited met al is mach inable bu t does not provide a color match. The quality of braze welding with copper alloy filler metals de pends upon the followin g: using wide grooves thoroughly cleaning joints of moistu re, grease, oil, and dirt before weldin g
578 @o Weldillg Skills
using a preheat temperature between 250F (150C) and 400 F (20SOC) . using the lowest possible current for good bo nding welding at a fast speed to minimize dil utio n prev en ting puddling cooling the part slow ly after bra ze we lding Three common tiller metals for brazing cast iron are ECuSn-A and ECuSn-C (copper-tin class ification), and ECuAIA2 (co pper- aluminum cl assifi cati on ). The main difference between ECuSn-A and ECuSn-C is the amount of tin they contain, The ECuSn-C tiller metal has a higher percent age of tin (8 %) than ECuSn-A filler metal (5%), thereby produ cin g we lds wi th greate r hardn ess, ten sil e stre ng th, and yie ld stre ngth. Both arc used with DCEP and normally require that the area to be brazed be preheated to 400F (205C) . Th e ECuAl-A2 fill er met al ha s a relat ivel y low melting point and high deposition rate at lower current, which permits fast weldin g. A faster welding speed minimi zes distortion and the forma tion of white cast iron in the we ld zo ne . T he te nsi le strengt h and yie ld stre ngt h of the depo sit s is nearl y dou ble that of co pper-tin de posits,
Repairing Cracked Castings. If a crack in a castin g is to be weld ed. V the crac k approx imate ly 1/ 8" to 3/16" deep with a diamond-p oint chisel or with a grinder. On sections that are less than 3/16" thick , V only on e-hal f the thickness of the cast iron. Fine. hair line cracks in a ca stin g ca n be made more vis ible by rubbin g a pi ece of white chalk over the surface, The chalk leaves a visible line where the crack is locat ed . C racks have a tenden cy to extend during welding because of heat expansion. To prevent crack expansion, drill a Ys" hole a short distance beyond each end of the crack. Start the weld about lis"~ before the end of the crack and weld back to the hole, filling the hole; then move slightly
t beyond the hol e . Next, mo ve to the other end of the crack and repeat. Co ntinue to alterna te the weld on each end, ; limiting the length of eac h weld to I" to I Y2" on thin cas t iron and 2" to 3" on thick cast iron . Allow each sec tion of weld to cool before starting the next section and peen each short bead . For a crack near the edge of the part, grind open the crack to allow for adequat e filler me tal access . Weld back from the drilled hole to the start of the crack (the edge of the part). If the crack is longe r than I" or 2", use skip welding, otherwise use continuous welding. See Figure 40 -9. Studding Broken Castings. When a casting is I Y2" thick or more and is subjected to heavy stresses, stee l studs are used to stren gthen the joint. Stu dding is not advisable on castings less than I V2" th ic k because it le nds to weaken rather than strengthen the join t. To apply studs, V the crack and drill and tap YI" or 3;8" holes in the casting at right angles to the sides of the V. Space the holes so the center-to-center distance is equal to three [0 six times the diameter of the stud. Sc rew the studs into the tapped holes. The th readed end of the studs sho uld be abo ut '/8" to % " in
length and sh o uld project approx imately YI" to %" above the cast ing. See Figu re 40 - 10. Deposit beads arou nd the base of the stu ds, we lding the m thorooghly to the cast ing. Remove the slag and deposit add itiona l layers of beads to fill the V.
~
- . I
;11 ca st iron, holes li n ' d ril led to prevent cracks from ex tending
during welding
WELDING SEQUENCE
Ftgu re 40-10. Studding ma y he use d to stre ngt hen the joint when wel ding castings subjected to heavy stresses.
3x TO 6x DIA QF STUD
I. Too l stee ls are the most highly alloyed steels and in ge neral are the hardest and strongest steels ava ilab le. 2 . OFW should not be used for tool steels becau se it is too slow and introduces excessive heat into the base metal , lead ing to distort ion, softening of hardened metal, emb rittlement of annea led metal, or crackin g. 3 . Cas t irons are used for wear and corrosion resistance and for general applications where good castability is needed. 4. All casting skin and foreign matter must be removed from the joi nt surface and adjacent areas of cast irons before welding. 5 . Filler metals used for welding cast irons can be composed of nickel alloy, carbon steel, or cast
iron .
6 . Extensive heat input is required before, during, and after welding cast iron to prevent cracking.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
What are some basic characteristics of water hardenin g tool steels? What alloying elements arc added to carbon in hot work tool steels? To what total alloying amount? How should the joints be prepared for welding cas t iron? What can be done to make fine cracks in cas tings more visible? How can cracks in cas tings be preve nted from spreadi ng? What type of tiller metal is used for welding the various types of cast iron?
Welding Technology
Stainless steels owe their corrosion resistance to the presence of chromium. Other amounts of alloy ing elements are added for additional prop erties. Stainless steels contain fr om 12% to 30 % chromium plus other alloying elements, such as up to 25% nickel and up to 6.5% molybdenum. Stainless steels consist offive groups named for their metallurgical structure: austenitic, martensitic, ferritic, duplex, and precipitation hardening. The weldability o] stainless steels depends on their metallurgical structure. Welding of stainless steels is also influenced by physical properties and the need f or cleanin g and j oint preparation. Specifi c welding cond itions for stainless steels are dictated by the specific alloy f amil y and will influence factors such as heat input during welding, preheat, and postheatin g.
low -temperature toughness. They can not be hardened by quenching and are only strengthened and hardened by cold working. Austenitic stainless steels have varying amounts of Cr and Ni. Th e basic austenitic stainless steel compo sition is 18% Cr and 8% Ni although amounts can ran ge from 16% to 26% C r and 3.5% to 37% Ni. The austenitic structure is achieved by the addi tion of nickel. Other elements that contribute to the au stenitic structure are manganese and nitrogen. Carbon contributes to the austeniti c structure , but it is not use d in large amount s because it reduces corrosion resistance. Compared with marten sitic stainless steels, austenitic stainless steels are relati vel y weak. Solution annealing heat treatm ent is used primarily to improve corrosion resi stance. Stress-relief heat treatment, conducted at low temperatures, usually causes distortion and loss of corrosion resi stance. Mol ybd enum is added to austenitic stainless steels to
581
lil ~
Stainless steels are used for thei r heat resistance, corro sion resista nce, and 1() w -t e mp e ratu re toughness .
improve corrosron resistance. Sta ndard grades of austenitic stainless steels are the 200 and 300 series. The basic austenitic stainless steel is type 302. See Figure 41-1. Martensitic stainless steels contain up to 18% chromium and up to 1.5% carbon. They are air hardened and tempered
to develop high strength and wear resistance. Martensitic stainless steels contain no alloying elements other than chromium and have the lowest corrosion resistance of the stainless steels. The basic martensitic stainless steel is type 410. See Figure 41-2 .
3028
Si added to inc rease scali ng resistance
314
Si increased for highest heat resistance
304lN
N added to increase streng th
- 310.3108
Mo re C r & Ni for even better heat resistance
t
309.3098
Cr&Ni
increased for heat resistance
302
I+-
general purpose 1B 8
--+
replace Ni
.L
304N
N added to incr ease stren gth
304l
I+-
303
3038e
better corrosion
resistance in
welded structures
--+
--+
304H
Higher C for creep stren gth
305
Ni inc reased to lower wo rk ha rde ning
384
--+
347
321
:-
l
32 1H Higher C for cr eep stre ngt h
301
C r& Ni lowered to increase work hardeni ng
201
!-t
Ni
316H
Higher C for creep strength
<,
Nitronlc se ries Mn & N for wear, stre ngth, & corrosion resistan ce
316LN
C reduced, N added to increase streng1h
316l
C reduced for as -we lded corrosion resistance
316N
316
Moadded 1 0 increase
corrosion
resistance
--+
318F
S & P added to improve machinability
254SMO
Mo raised for
317l
317
More Mo & Cr added for better co rrosion resistan ce
pitting
resistance
Fig ure 41- 1. A ustenitic stainless steels are nonma gnetic and are strengthened and harden ed h)' cold work.
410
General purpose 12 Cr alloy
~
414
Ni added for better corrosion resi stan ce
!
422
Mo, V. Wadded for strength & toughness to
!
403
Close composition control for turbines and highly stressed parts
!
420
Increased C to improve mechanical properties
~
44DC
C increased tor highest hardness. Cr increased for co rrosion resistan ce
416
P & S increased to improve machinability
1200'F
!
431
Cr increased Ni added for better corrosion resistance. Good mechanical properties
!
420F
P & S increased 10 improve machinability
!
4165e Se added for bener machinability
!
440B Cdecreased
slightly 10
improve toughness
!
440A
C decreased slightly to
further
imp rove toughness
Figure 41~2. Mart f'l/si/k stainless steels may be quenched of alf stainless ,I'f(,I'/.I',
(// /(J
tempered to improve their stren gth, and they hav e the lo west cor rosion resis tance
Fenitic stainless steels contain more chromium than mart en sitic stainless steels, which improve s their corro sion resistanc e. Ferriti c stainless steels cannot be hardened by quenching and tempering. They are used chiefly for their corro sion and scaling resistance. Ferritic stainless steels are divided into regul ar ferr itics and low-in terstitial feni tics. The basic ferritic stainless steel is type 430. See Figure 41- 3. Duplex stainless steels are compo site materials whose metallurgical structure consists of approximately equal quantit ies of austenite and ferrite. The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved by maintaining a balance of the austenite and ferrite. Properly balanced dupl ex stainless steels possess certain desirable qualities that austenitic and ferritic stainless steels do not. For example , duplex stainless stee ls
have higher stre ngth and ch loride stress-cracking resistance than austen itic stainless steels. They also have better fabricability and toughness than ferriti c stainless stee ls. Heat treatment and fabricat ion practices for duplex stainless steels must be carefully controlled or significant loss of toughne ss and/or corrosion resistance may occur. The addition of between . 15% N and .25% N helps ensure a balance between austenite and ferrite in duplex stainless steels, especially during welding . The basic duplex stainless steel is type 329. However, alloying additions, particularly nitrogen, have been carefully controlled to yield a second generation of duplex stainless steel s with better control of austenite to fenite balance during welding operations. These second-generation alloys include types 2205 and 2307 . See Figure 41-4.
Weldabilily or Stainles s Steels ~ 583
430
Ge neral purpose 17 Cr alloy
~
442
Cr incr eased to imp rove
!
429
Slightly less Cr
!
409
Lowest Cr , primari ly used for automotive
L
434
Me added for improv ed co rrosio n resistance in auto tri m
430F P&S
adde d for improve d ma chinab ility
scaling
resistance
exhaust systems
!
446
Highest Cr for best scaling resistance
!
405
Lower Cr plus AI for good weldability
!
430F Se
Sa added for better machined surfaces
!
436
Nj, Nb, & Ta added
Figure U -J. Ferritic stainless steels a re reknivetv low strength altovs that
('(1111/(1 1
-. .
329
3Ae60
First genera tion dup lex steels. Composition balanced for 50/50 austenite/ferrite structure
1
Chemistry controlled for improved stability of structure
2507
1
I+Second generation dup lex steels. Compos ition balanced for 50150 au stenite/ferrite structure
22Q5
z.
F. rralium 255
~
than other stainless steels. They are relativ el y weak and so rt when quen ched from the so lutio n annealing temper ature. After ma chining , workin g, or stamping to the desired shape, they are pre ci pit ati on harden ed to achieve th e desired strength and hardness with very little distortion or scaling. The lower the precipitation hardening temperature, the high er th e stre ng th, but stren gth is achiev ed with a lo ss of toughn es s. Higher precipitati on hardening temperatures redu ce stre ngth but incre ase toughne ss . Pr ecipitati on hardenin g stainless steels fall into three subgro ups: marten sitic, se mi-austen itic, and austenitic. See Figure 4 1-5. Cast stainless stee ls exhibit the variou s metallurgi cal structures or th eir wrou ght stainle ss stee l equivalents. Ca st stainless stee ls are identifi ed by alph anumeric desi gn ati on s such as CF-3M or HK -40 .
Pr ecip itation hard ening sta inless stee ls are specially alloy ed sta inless steels that are heat-treated by precipitation hardening to much higher strengths
584 ~ We/din g Ski lls
Precip itation hardening stainless steels erhibi t the highest strengths of all stainless steels.
Cast stainless steels may have a martensitic, ferritic , or dup lex met allur gica l str uctu re, T he y a re d iv ided int o corrosi on-res istant (C series) and heatresista nt ( H se ries). See Figure 4 1-6 . Corrosion-resista nt castings are designated by the uppe rcase letter C, fo llowed by a lette r th at ind icate s th e appro ximate alloy co nte nt. The high er the lette r (with A co nsidered the lowest an d Z co nside red the highest), the greater the alloy co ntent. Numbers and letters following a dash ind ica te carbon content and the prese nce of alloying ele me nts . Hea t-re si stant casting s include a range of alloy compositions that include stainless steels and nick el alloys. Heatresistant cas tings are designaled by the letter H fo llow ed by a lette r indicating the a p prox ima te a lloy co nlent. The higher the letter, the greater the percentage of alloy ing elements.
Effect of Physical Properties. The coeffi cient of therm al expa nsion of martcn sitic and ferritic stainless stee ls is appro ximately equal to that of carbon stee l. Con sequ entl y, the allowances for th ermal e xpansio n are pract icall y the same as those for carbon steel. Austenitic stainless sleels have about a 50% to 60 % greater coe flic ient of thermal e xpa nsion tha n car bon stee l, a nd a rc therefore more prone to distort ion during we ldi ng or heal treatm ent.
ellill~
hea t
to improve
properti es
17-4PH
17-7PH
Balance d suuct
10 improv e
cross-section
toog hness
15-5PH
solution anneal and quench fabricate
precipitatiOn harden
MARTENSITIC
SEMI-AUSTENITIC
AUSTENITIC
-.
.
Marteositic
Note: Wrought equ ivalent alloys indicated on right -hand side of box
HA
t9Cr l Mol More Femlic
c-
Duplex CD -4MCu
HC
3OC,'
Add Ni lor austeortic strccta re
'"
Balanced Ni..(;r
""'Co
Martensitic CA- 1S
More er
..
'"
HX
66N,17C More Ni
HE
/28C rl ONi
Batarcec
cornpcsrtr
HW
I60NI12Cr\ MoreNi
HF
/2QCrl ONi
More Ni
302.
CF-8
Lower C
J04
HU
39Ni18Crl More Ni
HH 1&2
l26Cr12Nil More Ni
309
~
CF-3
304L
Add ...
Md Ni,Cu
CF-8M
316
Lower C
CN-7M
AIloy 20
HT
1 35Ni17Cr\ MoreNi
HK
31.
26Cr2QNil More Ni
.""
330
HP
CF-3M
316L
CG-8M
3 17
HL
'","",en
More Ni, Cr
",N..en
Figu re 4 1-6. Cast stainless stee ls exhib it the me tallurgical struc ture of their wrought cou nte rparts and are divided into co rros ion-resista nt IIml heat -resistant types.
When welding stainless steels, usln g chill plates made of copper helps COIl duct heat awayfront the weld area . reducin g the unfavorable effects of heat 011 the alloy.
The thermal cond uctivity of ferritic and martensitic stainless steels is approximately 50% that of carbon steel, and that of au ste nitic stainless stee ls is about 33%. Consequently, heat is cond ucted away more slowly. As a result, stainless steels take longer to cool. This can be a particular problem when welding thingauge steels since there is greater danger of burning through the metal. Unfavorable effects of heat can be reduced substant ially by using chi ll plates. A chill plate is a metal plate used to prevent overhea ting during
welding . The use of chill plates, such as copper plates, helps conduct heat away from the weld area. Jigs and fixtures sho uld be used whenever possib le, especially for austenitic stai nless steel s, When stainless steels are held in a jig or fixture during cool ing, warp ing and dist orti on are practically el iminated. If a j ig or fixture cannot be used , spec ial welding procedures are necessary to counteract expansion forces. A common practice is to use intermittent weld ing or back-step weld ing.
Cleaning and Joint Preparation, Cleaning and joint preparation are critical to ensuring a quality weld. Surface contaminants affec t stainless stee l weld s 10 a greate r degree than carbon and alloy steel welds. The surface of the weld arca must also be co mpletely cleaned of all hydroc arbon -con ta ining co nta mina nts such as oi ls, or chloride -containing cl ea ning fluids. Co nta mination fro m grease and oil mu st be pre vented so that c orr os io n re si st a nc e is not re duced th rou gh ca rbo n pickup during welding. In addition to bru shin g with a clean stainless steel wire brush, other acceptable methods of surface preparation include blasting with clean sand or grit, a nd ma chinin g or grind ing with chloride- free cutt ing fluid . The area 10 be cleaned must include the weld groove and adj acent faces for at least ~" on each side of the groove. Cleaning a wider area is recommended for plate thicker than 'lis". The surfaces of part s to be resistance weld ed, spot welded, or seam welded must also be cleaned . Th e degr ee of c lea ning depends on the welding process. For example , s pec ia l ca re is req uired for cleaning surfaces for gas shielded welding because of the absence of flux, which acts as a cleaning age nt. Ca rbon co ntamination can adversely affect the metallurgical structure. corrosion resistance, or both. Clean stainless steel wire brushes must be used to prevent carbon and iron pickup, Thorough post-weld wire brushing is used to remove welding slag after welding. Removal of Heal Tint (Heal Discoloration), Stainless steels obtain their corros ion resistance fro m a surface film composed largely of chromium and oxygen (chromium oxide). The film forms spontaneously in air or water on alloys that contain more than 10% chromium. The quality of the film must be preserved during fabrication. The physical appearance of the chromi um ox ide film does ' not necessarily indicate the overall corrosion resistance of the alloy.
When stainless steel eq uipme nt is welded . the chro mium ox ide film adjace nt to the weld th ickens from the locali zed heat ing effect and changes color due 10 diffraction of light. T he color change is known as heat tint. The presen ce of he at tint often prompt s qu est ion s a bo ut q ua lity fro m rece ivers of stainless steel equ ipment. Althou gh he at tint may cause a s light overall chromium dep leti on in th e surface film, it do es not usuall y co mp rom ise the abil ity of the surface film to pro vide corros ion resistance, unless the stainless steel provi des borderline co rrosion resistance in the expected service environment. In highl y co rro s ive se rvice e nv iro nme nts , it might be necessary 10 use a more corro sio n-re si s ta nt s ta in le ss stee l or nickel alloy. See Fig ure 41 -7.
Heal lim may cause a sliKhl overall chromi utn deplet ion ill tlu: surfacefihn. but
it does
I/O!
usually
resistance.
Figure Heat tint is formed O il sta inless sled during welding b ill does II ot usually compromise lilt' cor rosion resistance (if 'h e stainless steel .
" -7.
It may be difficult to remove heal tint, es pec ially from ins ide corners. Grind ing may be used , but is ofte n im pra ctica l or e xpe ns ive . Co mme rcia l stainless stee l chem ical cl eaners are available that typicall y cons ist of a past e th at is pa inted on th e we ld seam and allowed to soak for 10 min to 15 min, after which it is removed wi th a stainless steel wire bru sh.
lVeld"bili')" oj Stainless Steels ~ 587
Arc Welding Processes. Arc welding proce sses that ca n be used for stainless stee ls include SMAW. GTAW, GMAW. and SAW. OFW is sometimes used for welding 19-9auge and lighter sta inless stee l sheet s. For SAW. a flux suitab le fo r sta in less stee l we ldi ng must be se lected . GTAW or GMAW is used to we ld stainless steel because of the ease with which welds can be made. GTAW and GMAW do not significantly reduce the corros ion-res istant properties of stainless steel. See Figu re 4 1-8. GTAW is mostly used for thin sections of stainless steel. A 2% thoriated tungsten electrode is used and is ground to a taper. Argon is norma lly used as the shielding gas.
Joint Design . For thin metal, the flan ge-type joint is probably the most suitable design. Slightl y thicke r sheets up to 1/ 8 " may use a bu tt joint. For pl ates th icker tha n Ifs" . the ed ge s shou ld be beve led to form a V so fusio n ca n be obt ained th ro ug h to the bottom of the weld . Filler Metals. Filler metal selection for stainless steel welding depends on the ba se metal. Not every stainless steel has a matching weld filler metal, but th er e are usually se veral choice s of filler metal for we lding any particular stai nless stee l. The alloy conten t of the tiller metal shou ld be higher than or the same as that of the base metal to co mpen sate for expec ted alloy loss. A columb iumbearing filler metal must be used for both the columbium (Type 347) and the titanium (Type 321 ) stabilized grades of sta inle ss stee l. C bro mium-nicke l filler metals are often used to weld chromium-grade stain le ss stee ls because they provide a ductile weld metal. Covered filler metals for SMAW mu st be stored in heat ed ove ns at 3000F becau se they arc low-hydrogen fi ller metals a nd are susc e ptible to moi sture pickup , Stain less steel tiller metals arc identified differently from carbon steel filler meta ls. For exam ple, a standard 18-8 filler metal for AC/DC current is designated as E308 - 16. The prefix E indicates the filler meta l is an arc welding electrode. The next three digit s are the AISI symbols for a particular type of metal. Thu s. 30 8 re presents a met al conta ini ng 18% chrom ium and 8% nickel. The last two digits following the dash may be either 15 or 16; the I indicates all-position welding, and the 5 or 6 speci fies the type of cove ring and app licable welding current. The 5 designates a lime-coated filler metal. The lime type can be used only with DCEP. The 6 indicate s a titan ium-type covering. The titanium-type can be used with AC and DCEP, See Figure 4 1-9.
Figure -4 1-8. GTAlV and GAIA\\' welding processes are preferred for wefdil/X stainless steel because Ihey minimitr heat input and IleI!, retain the tlu'fal's corrosion-r esis tant properties.
GMAW is used for thi ck stai nless steel s. Spray tra nsfe r is used for flat posit ion weldi ng and req uire s argo n shielding with 2% to 5% oxygen or special mixtures. When welding thin stainless steel with GMAW, short circuiting transfer can be used, in which case 90% Hef7.5% Ar/2.5 % CO 2 (tri-mix) is the best choice and provides the best weld appearance. Wh en welding ex tra-Iowcarbon grades of sta inless stee l, or if the stainless steel is used in a highly corrosi ve environment. Ar-C0 2 mixture s should not be used and the CO 2 leve l must be kept low enough so that the corrosion resistance of the material is not affected .
588 ~ Welding Skill s
SteefGrade
Al.!S:rENITIC
201, 202 301, 302, 304, 305 , 308 309 310,314 316 321,347,348
Stainless
f':ilIer Metal
308 -15, 308 -16 308-15,308-16 309-15 , 309 -16 310 -15,310-16 316-15,316-16 347-15,347-16 410-15,410-16 430-15, 430-16 446-15, 446-16
fERRITIC
405,409 430, 434, 436, 442 446
Welding Cnrrent. Both AC and DC current can be used for arc welding stainless steel. DC EP produces deeper weld penetration and a more consistent fu sion when used on stainless steel sheets and light plates. Since stainless steels hav e a lower melting point than carbon stee l, at least 20 % less current is recommended than would ordinarily he used for carhon steel. The low thermal conductivity of stainless steel localizes the heat from the arc along the weld. further reducing current requirements. Welding Technique. To produce quality welds, square butt joints should be used for stainless steel sheets IS-gauge and less and are fitted up with no gap. Heavier gauge sheets and plates are fitted up with a beveled joint edge preparation and a gap to allow penetration. Metals must be free from scale, grease, and dirt to prevent weld contamination . To begin arc welding , the tiller metal is touched to the work and quickly withdrawn a short distance (enough to maintain the proper arc). To mainta in the are, the filler metal should be fed continuously into the molten weld pool to compensate for metal depo sited, and moved rapidly and continuously in the direction of welding. To finish the weld or break the are, the filler metal should be held close to the work to sho rte n the are, then moved quickly back over the fini shed bead. To reduce weld oxi dation and porosity, the arc should be kept as short as possible during welding. Too long an arc is inefficient and increases spattering . After welding, all slag and sca le should be completely removed from the weld bead and the adjacent ba se metal. Scal e or oxide can be removed by grinding, pickling, or sandblasting . Discoloration (heat tint) should be removed if required in the specification. . Light weld discoloration may be re moved electrolytically. When grinding, refinish with progressively finer grits.
Weldahility of Stainless Steels ~ 589
- -'MA RTENSITIC, ,
408,410,414,416,420 431 410-15,410-16 430-15 ,430-16
Figu re 41-9. Electrode s for welding stainless steels (Ire typically identified by their A /Sf classifica tion .
Selecting the proper filler metal for stainless steel is, in most cases, a more critical cho ice than with carhon steel because of th e number of types and grades of stainless steel and the varying degrees of se verity of heat , corrosio n media, etc., to which the weld joint will be suhjeeted . Sel ecting the right filler metal for satisfactory results requires analyzing all of the conditions that apply to a particular job. To determine the right type and size of filler metal for a given set of conditions, the following factors mu st be considered: c he m ical composition of the base metal to be welded dimen sions of the section to be welded type of welding current required welding position(s) to be used fit-up of the section to be weld ed specifi c properties of the weld deposit specific fabrication code requirements Filler metal s must be selected carefully becau se of th e high cost of the material to be welded , The stainless steel weld must have tensile strength , du ctility, and corrosion re si stance equivalent to the base metal.
\Vhl'llll'elding stainless steel. lise a short arc with only a sl;ght weaving motion.
lil ~ -
In IIl'hillll'eldillg of stainless steel. amid unv whipping action ofthe filler metal. 111 stead. lise a motion ill the form ofa V.
4
The smoother and cleaner the surface of any stainless part, the better the corro sion resistanc e. Wh en we ld ing a butt j oint in flat po sition , the c urre nt se lecte d sho uld be high enough to ensure ample pen et ra tio n w ith good wash-up o n the sides. When several beads are required, use a number of sma ll we ld beads to fill the groove, rather than one or two large beads . A short arc sho uld be main tain ed , and any weavi ng should be limited to 2\6 times the filler metal diameter. The fill er metal should be held vertica l or slightly tilted in the direction of travel. A very slight tilt is only used with smalldiameter fille r metal s. In genera l, the correct filler metal position is one that produces a clean weld pool that solidifie s uniformly as the work pro gresses. The movement of the filler metal across the weld pool controls the flow of metal and slag. A crescent weave bead should be used. Horizontal fillet welds and lap welds require a machine setting high enough to provid e a well-shaped bead and penetration to the root of the joint. If too Iowa current is used , it is difficult to control the arc in the joint, and a convex bead with poor fusion results. Wh en tw o work pi ec es o f eq ual thi ckness are bein g welded , the fill er metal should be held an equ al distance from eac h face and tilted slightly in the direction of travel. If one wo rkpiece is thinner than the other, the filler metal sho uld be pointed toward the thi ck er wo rk piece . Welding butt joints in uphill position ca n be accom plished wi th a reduced current compared to that used in flat position for a given filler metal diameter. Oscill ating and whipping motion s are not re commended but in st ead a motion in the form of a V may be used for the first pass. The point of the V is the root of the joint. Hesitating momen taril y at the V en sures adequate penetration and allows slag to move to the
surfac e. The arc is then brought out on one side of the V about VB" and immediatel y returned to the root of the j oint. After the pause at the root, the procedure is repeated on the other side of the weld. Filler metals with a diameter o f 3/16" may be use d o n wo rkpieces thick enough to rapidl y di ssip ate heat, but %2" diameter filler metal s arc the generally acc epted maximu m size for thin work piece s. St ringer bead s are recom men de d when wel di ng in overhead posit io n, since attempts to ca rry a large molte n we ld pool re sult in an irreg ula r convex bead. The welding machine should be set properl y and a shor t arc main tained to provide good penetration of the base metal.
E BOO
ui
a: => ~ a: 600 w
Q.
Figure 4 110 . Sensitization is the p reci pitati on of chromium carbides ill me HAZ of tilt' weld in stainless steels (Ifill iran-chromium alloys, which leads to toss of CO/ TO sian resistance ill certain clurnical
l 'II V; I'Olll11 l 'II ! S.
I-
:;; 400 w
. 0
200
10
15
20
APPEARANCE OF WELD IN CORROSIVE ENVIRON MENT
TIME (SEC)
crac king increa se as the carbon co ntent of martensit ie stainless steels increases . Marten siti c sta inless stee ls require preheat, interpass tempera ture co ntro l, and posth eating. Prehe at and interpass temperature s ar e from 450F (232C) to 550F (287C). Precautions must be tak en to prev ent the in tro d uc t io n of hydrogen into the we ld. T he preh eat te mpe ra ture ran ge indicated is not sufficient ly high to prevent marten site for ma tio n or to reduce the hardness of the HAZ , so that po stheatin g mu st be performed immediately to tough en the marten sit e and reduc e re sidua l stress es . Postheating is conducted between t 200F (649C) and 1400F (760 C), followed by slow cooling . When welding martcnsitic stainless steels such as types 403 , 410 , 414 , and 420, type 4 10 fill er metal is used . When matching carbon content is desire d, typ e 42 0 may be we lded wit h type 420 filler metal. Au stenitic stainless stee l filler metals such as type s 308, 309, or 3 10 are also used to weld martensitic stainless steels. These filler metals provide good as- we ld ed tou ghnes s wh en a hi gh strength weld deposit is not req uired. Weld beads of the se fille r metal s 'may be used when prehea t and posth eatin g are not possibl e.
Assistance in selecting the pmperfi ller me tal f or a particular welding operation CllII br found in documents published by the American Welding Socie ty.AWS A5.0 I, Filler Metal
Procurement Guidelines. and FMC. Filler Metal Comparison Charts , are two useful ref erences published by AWS.
Ferritlc Stainless Steels. Ferritic stainless steels are weldable except for type 430F, which contains sulfur to make it free-mach ining. Ferritic stainless stee ls do not harden o n qu en ching and d o not require preheat. However, preh eat between 30 0 F ( 149 C) and 4 501' (232C) may be beneficial in red ucing residual stress in highly restrained joints. Postheating is unn ece ssary. If the service application requi res it, ferritic stainless steels must be so lution annea led aft er weldin g to red issol ve chrom ium ca rbides and res tore corrosion resistance . Solution ann ealing is carried out between 14001' (760C) and 1500 F (815C) , and is followed by rapid quenching. Grai n growth is a problem with all ferri tic stainless stee ls, parti cularly the su bg ro u p of lo w-interstiti al fer rit ic stainles s stee ls. Grain growth oc curs in the HAZ during welding, lead ing to lo ss o f tou ghn e ss. Grain g row th is minimi zed by limitin g the in te rpass temperature to the lowest practical level
lVeldahility of Stain less Steels ~ 591
above the preheat temperature. Toughness can be improved by cold work ing the weld . Ferritic stainless steels with high chrom ium content, such as types 430, 434, 442, and 446, form chromium carbides and sensiti ze at grain boundaries in the HAZ. Ferritic stainless steels can be arc welded by GTAW, GMAW, and FCAW. Welding processes that tend to increase carbon pickup are not recommended . This would include OFW, carbon are , and GMAW with CO, shielding gas. Matching ferritic stainless steel, austenitic stainless steel , and nickel alloy filler metal are used . Matching ferritic stainless steel filler metal s are com monly available as type 409 and type 430, and are available as solid and nux cored electrode . Ferritic stainless steels can be joined to themselve s or to other metals using austeniti c stainless stee l fill er metal s. Type 309 and type 3 10 stainless steel arc most often used. Nickel alloy filler metals such as ENiCrFe -3 can also be used (with SMAW). The advantage of aust enitic stainless steel filler metals and nickel alloy filler metal s is better as-w elded toughne ss than mat ching Ierritic stainl ess steel filler metal s. Austenitic Stainless Steels. Austenitic stainless steels arc weldable except for type 303 and type 303Se, which contain sulfur and selenium, respectively, to make them free -machining. Austenitic stainless stee ls do not harden on qu enchin g and do not require preheat or po stheating to improve th eir mec hanic a l prop erties . However, coldworked austeniti c stainless steel will lose strength in the HAZ when welded. Auste nitic stainless steels are susceptibl e to hot cracking. A completely austeniti c metallurgical structure possesses ins ufficient ductility when solidifying from the molten state and may hot crack from an inability to accom modate shrinkage stres s. Thus, filler metals used to weld austenitic stainless stee ls must have modified chemical
592 ~ weld ing Skills
compositions to produce a small amount of ferrite in the metallurgical structure, which counteracts hot crac king . T he che mical composition adj us tme nt is indicated by the ferrite numh er of the filler metal. Filler metal suppliers indicate a ferrite number (FN) on electrodes and wire used for weldin g austenitic stainless steels. A ferrite number between 2FN and l2 FN is required when welding austenitic stainless steels. The low er the FN, the less the amount of ferrite . Fe rrite mak es a weld slightly magnetic . Au steniti c stainless stee ls can he welded using mo st arc welding pro cesse s, inclu ding GM AW, GTAW, SMAW, FCAW, PAW, and SAW. OFW is infrequ ently used, but may be used when arc welding equi pment is not available. In general, the deposited weld metal composition should nearly match the base metal composition when welding austenitic stainless steels to themselves. Other austenitic stainless stee l filler metals may be used provided the selected filler metal has suitable corrosion resistance, mechanical properties, or both. Alternate filler metals are usually more highly alloyed than the base metal to provid e superior corrosion resi stance . Consumable inserts are available for welding austenitic stainless steels. They are used as preplaced filler metal in the root opening for the first weld pass, and are completely fused into the root of the joint. Consumable inserts should not be used where the presence of a crevice between the insert and the base metal
creates a condition for corrosion.
Austenitic sta inless stee ls require less heat input and less current than carbon ste el because of th eir low er meltin g point and hi gh er e lect rica l resistivity. Their high coeffi cient of thermal expan sion coupled with low thermal conductivity increases the possihility for distortion and warpage. When welding austeniti c stainless steels less than '!4" thick, di stortion or warpage may
be a se rio us problem . Rigid fix turing of the workpi eces can help control distorti on of th in shee ts du rin g we ld ing . Metals more than 14" thick may req uire spec ial we lding tec hniq ues to co unteract di st ort ion . Back-st ep we ld ing a nd interm ittent we lding help overcome the problems of di stort ion and war page. Stress relief heat treatment is not recommended for austenitic stainless steels . St ress re lie f heat tr e atment betwe en 1200 F (649C) and 1600F (87 1C) ca n result in significa nt distorti on and loss of co rrosion resistan ce from sensitizati on. However, a low-temperature stress reli ef heat tr e atment betw e en 400F (204C) and 800 F (427"C) helps improve dimensional sta bility and help s red uce peak stresses, bu t does not redu ce co rros io n resi st an ce . T h is he at treatm e nt is so metimes performed on items th at mu st be stra ig ht, suc h as shafts , by suspe nding them vertica lly at temperature for man y hours. With a us te n itic s ta in le ss s te e ls , se n sitiza tio n oc c ur s bet we en 800 F (427"C) and 1500F (8 16C) , and most rapidly abo ve I200F (649C ). W he n hea ted to the sens itizatio n tempe ratur e range, carbon and ch romium in the alloy com bine to form chromium carbide, red uci ng co rro sio n res ista nc e. To pre ve n t se ns it iza t io n w he n welding austenitic stainless stee ls, low ca rbo n sta in less stee l grades or du al m arked s ta in less st ee l g ra d es are used . Low-carbon g ra des ha ve th e su ffix letter L in the ir de signation, for examp le 304 L or 3 16L. Their carbon co n te nt is red uced to p re vent c hromium ca rbide precipitation duri ng the tem perate-time cyele of we ldi ng o perations . Dual -m ark ed sta inless steel s suc h as 304 / 30 4 L o r 3 16/3 16L a re also low in ca rbon to pr even t se ns itiza tion. but co nta in nitroge n to co unterac t the strength loss from the lower ca rbon content. Dual-marked stainless ste e ls ex h ib it th e su pe rio r mech ani cal properties of the higher carbon grade and the superior co rrosion res istance of
th e low er ca r bo n g ra de, A no the r method of preventing se nsitiz ation is to use auste nitic sta inless stee ls, suc h as 32 1 and 347 , whic h co ntai n alloying e le men ts th at co un te rac t the formation of chro miu m c arbide an d a re resistant to se nsitization. Duplex Stainless Steels. Wel din g of dup lex stain less stee ls can up se t the balance of au st enite a nd ferrite, le ad ing to loss of co rros io n resistance a nd lo ss of tou ghn ess in th e HAZ . T he we ld ing pro cedure must not a llow an imba la nc e by in cre as in g the fe rri te co ntent o f the HAZ . To prevent prob lems , w eld with low heat input a nd co ntro l the co o ling rat e. Low heat input mi nim izes dwell time in the " red heat" temperature zone . Co ntro lling the co oling rate pre vents the form ati on o f exc essive ferrit e (with rapid cooling) or excess ive austenite (w ith slow cooling). T he ma xim um interpass te mpe rat ure should be 240 F ( 116C ) for thin metal and 300F (\49C) for thick metal , to promote the proper coo lin g rat e . Prehe at a nd po sth e ating are not usu all y performed on du plex sta inless stee ls. Duplex stainless steels can be welded using any arc welding process. Dupl ex stainless steels should alway s be welded with filler meta l add ed . With out fill er metal, the we ld and the HAZ co nta io too much ferrite and the j oint properties are inad equate. Autogen ou s we lds should not be used . Matching filler metal is usua lly recom mended . In some cases filler metal s with mor e ch romium a nd mol ybd enum than the base metal may be used to enhance co rrosion resistance. Fo r each we lding job a nd type o f duplex sta inless stee l, it is necessar y to de vel op the a ppro pria te we lding pro cedure and techn iqu e. Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels, Martensitic a nd se mi-austenitic precipitation hardening sta inless stee ls are weldable without prehea t. Au sten iti c precipitati on hard ening sta in less steels a re susce ptible to hot c rack ing and have poor weld abi lity. If maximum
wetdabitity of Stainless Steels : 593
strength is required in martensitic and semi-austenitic precipitation hardening stainless steels, matching tiller metal is required and the complete heat treatment cycle must be repeated. If the complete cycle cannot be repeated, the parts should be solution annealed before welding and precipitation hardened after. For martensitic precipitation hardening stainless steels, a repeat of the precipitation hardening after welding may be adequate to restore mechanical properties. If full strength is not required, ductile 309 or 310 austenitic stainless steel or nickel alloy filler metal may be used on martensitic precipitation hardening stainless steels. Follow manufacturer instruct ions when welding precipitation hardening stainless steels. Nickel alloy or austenitic stainless steel filler metals are normally used for welding austenitic precipitation hardening stainless steels.
Stainless steel weldahility varies depending on the metallurgical structure. Service requirel1Ienl .1" (~r the stainless steel m ust be co ns idered when developi ng welding procedures.
Cast Stainless Steels. Weldability of cast stainless steels varies according to their metallurgical structure; guideline s for the corresponding wrought alloy s should be followed. Cast stainless steels are usually welded to repair casting defects or damage from service . Heatresistant cast stainless steels that have been in service at elevated temperatures tend to lose ductility and may crack during welding. High-temperature solution annealing heat treatment at 2000F (I093C) should be performed prior to welding to restore as-cast ductility. Solution annealing di ssolves alloy carbides that precipitate during service at elevated temperature and cause the reduction in ductility. Regular carbon grades of corrosionresistant cast stainless steels that require remedial welding to repair casting defects must be solution annealed after welding to fully restore corrosion resistance. Regular carbon grades that include CF -8 or CF-8M sensitize on welding. Solution annealing of finish -machined castings may lead to distortion so that remedial welding must be carried out before final machining. Cast stainless steels are more prone to hot cracking than cast steel so the weld bevel angle should be wider than that used for cast steels. It is common to have a bevel angle up to 90 for cast stainless steels ver sus the 45 that is common for cast steel s. Low heat input also helps reduc e hot cracking . Becau se of the tendency of cast stainless steels toward hot cracking, it may be nece ssary to butt er the weld bevel for certain types of repair s.
I . Stainless steels are used for their heat resistance, corro sion resistance, and low-temperature toughn ess. 2. Wrought stainless steels are usually identified by a three-digit AISI designation, such as 410 or 316 . 3 . When welding stainless steels, using chill plates made of copper help s conduct heat awa y from the weld area, reducing the unfavorable effects of heat on the alloy. 4 . Heat tint may cause a slight overa ll chrom ium depletion in the surface film, but it doe s not usually compromi se the ability of the surface film to provide corrosion resistance . 5 . When welding stainless steel , use a short arc with only a slight weaving motion . 6 . In uphill welding of stainless steel, avoid any whipping action of the filler metal. Instead, use a motion in the form of a V.
I. 2. 3. 4.
How are stainless steels classified? What are the qualities of stainless steel that make this metal so valuable ? Why are chill plates frequently used when welding stainle ss steel? Why is less current required in welding stainless steel?
596
Weldillii Sk ills
Nonferrous metals include nickel alloys, coppe r alloys, aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, and titaIlium alloys. Nickel is incorporated as a major or minor constituent ill approximately 3000 alloys. Nickel alloys are generally easy to weld provided the joint is clean. Copper alloys are wrought or cast and consist of several families of alloys. Copper and copper alloys are difficult to weld because tif their high thermal conductivity, high coefficient of thermal expansion, hot cracking susceptibility, and high fluidity. Aluminum alloys can be wrought or cast, and contain various elements added to produce alloys with specific properties. Aluminum alloys are generally easy to weld. Magnesium is the lightest commercial metal and is alloyed with many chemical elements. This results in high strength-to-weight ratio metals that are easy to weld. Titanium alloys are grouped according 10 their metallurgical structure and are difficult to weld bemuse ofthe need for high purity.
Joint Cleanliness. Joint cleanl iness is the sing le mos t imp ort ant requirement for weldin g nickel alloys . Nickel alloys are extremely sensitive to cracking from contamination. Sulfur, present in grease and oil, is particularl y harmful to nickel. Oxides can inhibit wetting, prevent fusion of the base met al and filler metal , and can cause subsurface inclusions and poor bead co nto ur. A regi on approx imat el y I" on both sides of the joint sho uld be thoroughl y deg reased to preve nt contaminatio n by sulfur, and mecha nic ally cl eaned to rem o ve o xid es before welding. Me chanical cle aning is accompli sh ed by grindin g, abra si ve blastin g, or machining and pickling . Distortion. Di st orti on is po ssible in nickel alloys because of their relatively low therma l co nduc tivity, Low therm al co nduct ivity ca uses heat to be reta ined in the we ld rath er than be dissipat ed into the base metal. The exceptio n IS
597
Nickel alfo.....s are ex -
tremely sensitive 10 cracking f rom contamination. an d the jO;1I t mu st be thoroughly clean ed before welding .
~1T1n'_~_"'~1T1n'_7'''
L L
1 304L, 316L
It
I
Copper- 1 Nickels i
-..,
More Fe for economy 70-3O -Cu-Ni 90-10-Cu-Ni r = r n" " r n = " " , High nickel: Incoloy1" 825 Hastelloy!' G-3O Carpenter 2OC8-3 '--_ _--._ _- ' (Cn-7M) Low nickel: AI-6XN 904L Sanicro 28 25-6Mo
More Cu tor economy , HastelloY""C-4 {C4Cj Hastellof!!' C22 ' -_ _--._ _- - ' Inconcrff 625 (CW-6MC) Mo for resistance to reducing agents Crlor heat & corrosion resistance Nickel 200 (CZ-l00) Nickel 201 Mo lor resistance to reducing acids Hastelloyl82 (N12M-1N12M2)
Hastello~X RA333 , Inconer 600 Incone~617 Inconer718 InoonerX-750
Monel 400 (M-35) Monel K500 Cu for general corrosion resistance Fe for s ectal ro erties (low expansion, magnetic)
0""""0
Ni-Fe
Invar, or Nilo 36 Maraging steels
Corrosion resistant
Heat/creep resistant
'----,---'-------'
Inoolo~800 Incolo~ 800HT A-286
Decreasing
'----,--- - - '
L
1304,316 ,310,330
(J
commercially pure nickel, wh ich has relatively high thermal conduc tiv ity. However, since the coefficients of thermal expansion of nickel alloys are similar to those of carbon steels and low-alloy steels, the welding of nickel alloys does not present significant distortion problems. Nickel-iron alloys are an exception because they have very low coefficients of thermal expans ion. Heat Requirements. Since nickel alloy s are sen sitive to hig h heat input, low heat input shou ld be used when welding nickel alloys. High heat input can lead to hot cracking, loss of corrosion resistance, or both . If hot cracking is anticipate d, such as might occur in a high ly restrained joint, the welding technique is mod ified to decrease heat input, or a welding process with
598 ~ Weldin~ Skills
lower heat input is substituted. Preheat is not required for nickel alloys ; however, the joi nt area is heated to about 60F (16C) to eliminate moisture condensation that could lead to porosity. The intcrpass temperature should be low to minim ize tota l heat input. Cooling methods that reduce the interpass temperature should not introduce contaminants that cause weld metal cracking. Posthcating is not required to restore mechan ical properties, except for precipitation hardening alloys. Alloys that sensitize when welded may require postheating consisting of solution annealing and quenching to restore corrosion resistance. Welding Processes. Almost all arc welding processes can be used for welding nickel alloys; however, SMAW, GTAW,
and GMAW are the most common processes used. Not all arc welding processes are applicable to every alloy because of metallurgical characteristics andlor availability of suitable filler metals. OFW should only be used when arc welding equipment is not available. The welding of nickel alloys is similar to the welding of austenitic stainless steels except that cleanliness requirements are more stringent and groove openings are increased to allow for the lower penetration of nickel alloys. Filler Metals. Filler metals for welding nickel alloys should have a chemical composition that is similar to the base metal. Covered filler metals for SMAW normally contain additions of deoxidizing elements such as titanium, manganese, and columbium to prevent weld metal cracking. Precipitation hardenable filler metal will respond to the precipitation hardening treatment used for the base metal. However, the response is usually less pronounced and the weld joint is generally lower in strength than the base metal after the precipitation hardening treatment. Fluxes are available for SAW for many nickel alloys. The flux composition must be suited to both the filler metal and the base metal. An improper flux can cause slag adherence, inclusions, poor weld bead contour, and undesirable changes in weld metal composition.
than .050" (IS-gauge) thick; GTAW is best used on thin gauges. No preheat is necessary to weld Monel" or Inconel", The procedure for welding Monel" or Inconel" is as follows: 1. Remove the thin, dark-colored oxide film from around the area to be welded. The oxide can be removed by grinding, sandblasting, rubbing with emery cloth, or pickling. 2. Use a heavily coated filler metal specially designed for welding Monel") and Inconel'". Use DCEP current. 3. Hold the filler metal at a travel angle of about 20 from the vertical and ahead of the weld pool when welding in flat position, as it is easier to control the molten flux and to estimate slag trappings. To make welds in other positions, hold the filler metal at approximately a right angle to the workpiece . 4. Withdraw the filler metal slowly from the crater to permit a blanket of flame to cover the crater, protecting it from oxidation while the metal solidifies. 5. Use a minimum of weaving to prevent depositing wide weld beads.
I]
.=
.~
Remove the oxide film/rom the surface to he welded and use heavily coated filler metal specially de-
Commercially pure coppers are wrought or cast and are usn! primarily for their high electrical conductivity.
hi gh e lec tric al co nd uc tivity. Cas t commercially pure coppers have lower electrical and thermal conductivity than equivalent wrought alloys because the elements that must be added to ensure a sound cas ting, such as silicon, decrea se co nductivity. Commerc ia ll y pure coppers are soft, weak , and very ductile. They include oxygen-free coppers, deoxidi zed co ppers, and tough pitch coppers. Beryllium cop pers are wrought and cas t copper alloys that co ntain sma ll amounts of beryllium . Beryllium coppers are prec ipitation hardened to extrem e ly high lev el s of te nsi le a nd fati gue strength, comparable to lowalloy stee ls. Small amounts of cobalt or nickel may be added to refin e the grain size.
Brasses are wrought alloys of copper and zinc. with 5% to 50% zinc content. Some brasses also co ntain other e lements. Brasses are the most pop ular and least ex pensive of the copper alloys. T hey display a wide range of mechanical properties, arc easy to work, have a pleasing color, and exhibit good corrosion resistance. Brasses consist or alpha and beta brasses, tin brasses, and leaded brasses. Cast ing brasses contain spec ific allo ying e le me nts to impro ve the ir castability and strength beyond that of regul ar wrought brasses. They consist of combinations of tin, lead, iron, manganese, aluminum, and nickel. Casting bra sses ca n be poured int o co mplex shapes with low porosity and good mechanica l properti es.
Everdur Tombasi l
70Cuf3QNi
8OCull0Ni
Ni jar
corros,on
resistance
Sn f()( strengltl
Copper
"""","free
#'!:...,~
1-"~-"", '"
' "-;; Red brass
Muntz metal Naval brass Admiralty brass Lea dod brass
-AO~ '3-';;:J'~
sire ..,.,
Be""
"
Brass
Various element s to improve caslability and streng th
Modified Copper
l eaded brass
Manganese bronze
Figure 422. MallY copper alloy ... ha ve lead ed equivalents ttun contain a ,u I/all
amollnt
Tin bronzes (phos phor bronzes) are wrought and cas t alloys o f copper and tin. T in bro nzes co nta in fro m 1.25 % to 10 % tin, plus lead, zinc. nickel , and phospho rus . Phosphorus ca n be added as a deox idizer in cas tings to im prove soundness and cleanliness. Tin bronzes have hi gh stre ng th, good tou ghness , high co rros ion resistanc e. a nd a lo w coe fficie nt o f fri cti on , making them suita b le fo r bearin gs operating under high loads. Aluminum bron ze s a re wrought and cas t alloys of co ppe r that contain bet w een 7% and 13 .5 % a lum in u m , plus sma ll a mo u n ts o f ma ng a nese, nic kel , a nd iron . A lu min um bronzes have good strengt h and excellent corros ion a nd wear res istance. Nick el is added to alumin um bro nzes to further improve co rrosio n res istance . A lumi nu m b ron zes are used fo r bu shing s and corro sion-resi stant parts. S ilic o n bron zes a re w ro ug ht and cas t allo ys of copper that co ntain between I % and 5% silicon and additions of man gane se, iron , and z inc . Some wro ught and cast silico n bronzes ha ve lead ed eq u iv a le nts . S ilico n bron ze s hav e hi gh stre ng th sim ila r to ca rbo n stee l, good tou ghness, a nd exce lle n t co rrosio n resi st an ce . T hey a re used fo r bearings, an d pum p a nd va lve com ponents. Copper-nicke ls are wroug ht and cast alloys of co ppe r co nta ining up to 30 % nick el , plus mino r add itio ns o f iron, c hro m iu m, tin , or beryllium . Iron is added for increased resistance to erosioncor ro sion in water. Eros ion-c orrosion is the detrimental effect of ve locity or turbulence in a corros ive e nviro nment. Co pper-nickels ha ve moderate strength and better corros io n resi stance th an othe r co ppe r alloys. T hey are used for seawate r co mpo ne nts.
('0111111011/.1'
Nicke l-s ilvers are wro ught and cast alloys of copper that contain between 5% a nd 4 5 % zinc, a nd fro m 5% to 30 % nickel. Nickel has a strong decolorizing effect on copper-zinc alloys (brasses) . With greater than 20 % nickel, the color turns to silver-white and the alloy takes on a brilliant poli sh . Nicke l-silvers are used for va lve trim , zippers, and camera parts.
Copper is resistant
10
oxidation, moisture.
and some organicchemicals. making it usejul for electrical conductors. wafer tubing. heat exchangers. and chemical equipment.
Filler Metals. Copper alloys are generally welded with matching filler metals. Filler metals that can be used to weld copper alloys include covered and bare filler metal. These may be used to weld copper alloys to themselves or to other metals. Many of these filler metals meet AWS classifications. Silver alloys and copper-phosphorus fi lle r metals are most commonly used for brazing copper alloys. See Figure 42-3.
to hot crack ing, es pecially with less than 7% aluminum . Alloys with higher al uminum content are weldable with adequate preheat. Copper-nickels have thermal and electrica l conducti viti es similar to ca rbon stee l and are relatively easy to weld. Cleanliness is essentia l and preheat is not required. Nickel-silvers are similar to bra sses because of their high zinc content and should be brazed rather than welded. Com me rcia lly Pure Cop pers. Commercially pure coppers require preheat from 250 0 r (121 C ) to rooo-r (538C), depend ing on joint thickness. High- strength anneal-resistant coppers are welded with less preheat than is requi red for other co mmerc ially pure coppers to preserve their strength.
Name
Copper Silico n Bronze Phosphor Bro nze Phospho r Bronze Copper-Nickel Aluminum Bronze Aluminum Bronze
Covered'
ECu ECuSi ECuSn -A ECuSn- C ECuN i ECuAI-A2 ECuAI-B ECuN iAI ECuM nNiAI
Baret
ERCu ERCuSi-A ERCuSn -A ERCuSn-A ERCu Ni ERCuAI-Al ERCuAI-A2 ERCuAIA3 ERCuN iAI ERCuMnNiAI RBCuZ nA RBCuZn-B RBCuZn C RBCuZN-D
AN SIJAWS A5 _6 . 5peafication tor Covered Copper and Coppe r Alloy Arc Welding Electrodes t AN S IJA W S A5. l , Specification forCcpper and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes. AN SVAWS AS.S, Specification for Filler Mefals lor Brazing and Braze Welding
Oxygen-free coppers a re welded as rapidl y as po ssible to minimiz e ox ygen pickup. Deoxidized co ppers are the most commonly used type of copper for fabrication by welding. Deoxidized copper is susceptible to oxygen pickup and requires silicon-containing filler metal to minimize the effects of oxygen pickup . Since co ppe r ha s a very high coefficient of expan sion , precautions mu st be taken to prevent contracti on of the j oint. Ji gs and fixtures mu st be u sed to prevent movement during c ooling . However, e ven when jigs are used, contraction forces c an cause cracking during cooling. Special coated metal arc filler metals have been developed to weld sheet co ppe r. The most common are ph o sphor bronze (EC uSn-A) and aluminum bro nz e (EC uA I-A) . The j oint desi gn used for deoxidized coppers mu st include a rel atively large root opening and groove angle . Tight joints shou ld be avoided to prevent buckling, poor penetration, sla g inclusions, undercuttin g, and porosity. Copper backing strips arc often ad visable. Tou gh pitch co ppers contain a uniform di stribution o f cop pe r ox ide, which is insufficient to affect ductility, but can c au se problems when w eldin g. When heated a b o ve 1680F (916C) for prolonged periods, the copper oxide tends to migrate to the grain boundaries, leading to a reduction in strength and ductility. Additionally, the copper absorbs ca rbon monoxide and hydrogen , w hic h react wi th the copper oxid e a nd rel ea se c arbon dioxide and water vapor. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are not soluble in copper and exert pressure between the grains, producin g internal cracking and e mbritt le me nt. Tough pitch c o ppe rs are not re co m me nde d fo r gas weldin g becau se gas welding c a us es e m b ritt le rn e n t: brazing o r so lde ri ng sho u ld be used . However, some weld s can be made with SMAW in s itua t io ns w he re ten sile
stre ng th requirements a re e xtre me ly lo w (1 9, 0 00 p si or le ss), provided a high welding c ur re nt a nd high tr av el speed are used. The high current a nd travel speed do not allow embrittlement to develop.
A WARNING
When wel ding brass, e nsure proper ventilation
of the work area to remove
Beryllium Coppers, Beryllium coppers form an oxide film that inhibits wetting and fusion during welding. An ab solutely clean joint su rfac e is re quired and may be achi ev ed by abrading the surface. Beryllium co ppers are welded in the soft annealed condition and then precipitation hardened to ach ie ve the required strength . Brasses, Since the application of heat tends to vaporize zinc, arc welding on brass is diffi cult. When zinc volatilizes, the zi nc fum es a nd oxide s o fte n obsc ur e vis io n and make welding hard to perform. Furthermore, the form ation of oxides produces a dirty surface that ruin s the wetting properties of the mol ten metal. To arc weld brasses, us e heavily coated phosphor-bronze filler metal s and make s m a ll d eposits o f metal. Preheat should be eliminated and a lower welding current used. Zinc va po rs ca n be minimi zed by decreasin g or eliminating preheat, or by u sin g lower weldin g current s. High-zinc brasses have lower thermal conductivity and require less preheat than low-zinc brasses.
tI
Tin Bronzes. Since the thermal conductivity of tin bronze is similar to that of stee l, it ca n be easil y welded. Wh en using SMAW, a heavily coated phosphorbronze fill er metal sho u ld be u sed, with DCEP current. The metal mu st be abso lutely clean to en sure a sound weld . Tin bronzes are very susce ptib le to hot cracking. To prevent hot cracking, tin bronzes should be preheated to betw een 30 0 F (149 C ) and 400 F (204C). Hi gh welding c urr e nts a nd high travel speed s are used a nd each weld pass is peened.
Weldability of Nonf errous Metals @o 603
CAUTION
To kee p ai rbor ne conce ntration s of berylli um within allo wable limit s. proper safety precaution s must be ta ken when melting. welding. Ilame cutting. polish ing, huffi ng, grind ing. and machin ing berylli um coppers.
are identified by the 3XXX series. such as allo y 3003 . Cast aluminum-silicon a lloys are identified by th e 3XX.X series , for ex ample alloy 356 .0 . See Figure 42-4. Temp er designations are alphanumeric notat ions tha t indicate the final condition of co ld-work ed (H) or heattreated (T) metal. A number following the letter indicates the condit ion. Temper designation is separated from the alloy identific ation number by a hyphen. For example, 3003-H2 designates quarter hard aluminum manganese alloy.
-. .
8XX ,X
8XXX
Other AI Allo ys
3XXX eg -3003
7XXX
eg-707 5
7XX .X
Zn lo r high strength
Alumi num
5i
4XXX 4XX .X
Mg ror moderate
strength
6XXX
..-606'
PH
Strengthening Mechanism: P H prOClptla l1Ofl hardefling
3XX.X eg-356.0
A3560
SH solution hardening
CW cold WOrking
C(l/1.\1~ 1
(1 ~1'11 icll
is identifi ed hy
(l
(!{ numbers.
Appearance. The appearance of alu minum aft er welding is oft en of great importance. GMAW an d GTAW can pro vid e th e best as-w elded bead a ppearance. Welded parts may be g iven a chemi cal or electrochemical (anodic) surface treatment to pro vid e corros ion resistance , coloring, or both. All flu x must be remo ved fro m brazed , so ldered, or we lded joints prior to surface treatment. Fill er metal s that contain a large amount of silicon dar ken during anodic treatmen t. Cleaning Requirements. Cl eaning requirements for aluminum alloy s a re stringent becau se, during we lding, the naturall y formed aluminum oxide surface film thick en s and becomes a hin dr anc e . T he sur f ace film mu st b e remov ed befor e fus io n or res is tance welding, and mu st be pre vented from re-for m ing by mean s of an inert ga s shield or by pressure bet ween the joint surfaces. [I' the surface film is not remo ved, sma ll parti cl e s of un m elted oxide will be trapp ed in the weld, causing a reducti on in du ctility, lack of fusion, and weld cracking. The aluminum o xide sur face film may be removed electrically, me ch ani cally, or c he mica lly. Elec tric al cl ean ing occurs during we lding. The surface film is blasted away by cathod ic bombardm ent dur ing the positive half-cycl e of th e sine wave , mak in g e lect ric a l c le an ing a g o od m ethod of in sit u c le a ning . M ech ani c al cl eanin g is us u a lly don e im med iate ly be fore we ld ing by sc ra p ing th e su rface u sin g a c lea n st ai n less steel w ire b ru sh wi th light pressure to prevent burn ishing or contamin atin g th e s u rf a ce . C he mic a l cl ean ing requires a che mical so lutio n to di ssol ve th e sur fac e fi lm . C he m ical attack of the met al mu st be prevented during cleaning by minimizing expos ure time in the solution and , after we ld ing, by immediate removal of residual flux.
Heat Requirements. The high th ermal c o nd uc ti vi ty and high th ermal expansion coefficient of alum inu m influence its weldability. Aluminum a lloys conduct heat three to five tim es fast er than steel so that more heat input is required tha n for steel , e ven th o ug h th e m elt ing point of a lu m inum is significantly lower than that of s te e l. Preheat is oft en required fo r thi ck joints, but mu st not e xceed 4000F (204 C ) to pr e vent de trimental effects to the weld joint. Hi gh sp ee d weldin g proce ss e s w ith hi gh heat input, such as GMAW, are favorable for aluminum welding . Th e high th erm al co nd uctivity of a lum inu m is beneficial in all -position welding be cau se th e rapid cooling of th e we ld, coupled with its surface ten sion whe n molten , re sults in rapid solid ification. Dis tortion in aluminum alloys during we ld ing is a bou t twi ce as grea t as when welding stee l. The amoun t of di stortion is inversely proportional to the speed of welding. Addition all y, a vo lu me sh r in k a g e of about 6% , which occurs during so lid ificat ion , in creas es the c h a n ce of ho t c rac k ing in full y re strain ed joints . Fi xtures for we ld ing aluminu m alloys mu st b e d e sign ed to ac co m mo da te both e xp ans io n and contraction , a nd y et maintain th e proper ge o me tr ic po sition for w elding . Welding Processes. The welding processes commonl y used for aluminum are GTAW, G M AW, and resi st an ce welding. GTAW is used for thin jo ints. AC current is ge nerally used becau se it pro vides a cleaning action on the po sitive half-cycle of the sine wave. Argon is commonly used when welding aluminum and is used at a low flow rate . He li u m in c rease s penetration , bu t a higher flow rate is required. Filler metal must be c lean and free of oxide; otherwise, the we ld will be porous. GMAW is appli ed to thick j oi nt s and is much fa ster than GTAW. Pure argon is normall y used for shie ld ing.
TJl(' sutfucefilm must he removedfrom aluminum alloys before fusion or res istance welding . ami must he
The filler metal must be kept clean to prevent porosity. All aluminum alloys may be resistance welded. Filler Metals. Filler metals for welding aluminum alloys are classified by the same four-digit system used to designate wrought and cast aluminu m alloys. Filler metals for joining aluminum alloys fa ll in to th e lX XX , 2X XX , 3XXX, 4XXX , or 5XXX groups. The IXXX and 4XXX groups are the only
two reco mmended for oxyacetylene welding. Filler metal selection for welding' alum inum depends on a number of factors, including base metal composition, strength requirements, ductility req uirements, color match after anodizing , corrosion resistance, and cracking tendency. Generally, one type of filler metal usually satisfies severa l requirements for a specific alloy. See Figure 42-5.
S54.0,:35~,0;
~19.0J,33M,
:~.0;A3~tMI:
CS55,O
~'j,\)i jl12:4,
~35;0
-696i1;, Wtl.rVOO5 ' :'6009'" '6905 60(;;l;61O:1;' s'w' :i~"~9 I$~ 0'.,0:'" ' :6!64'-620:1 ",,2.0 . :: 60 l:.~l::i 1:.0.51'
.
~,t
.'
,.
~,
1060,1070,
1080 , 1350
ER4 145
ER5356e .f,g
ER5356e ,f,g
ER404Sd.e ER4043d.e
ER4145 ER4043 d,e ER4043e ER4043e ER4043
e
ER4043e
ER4043 e ER4145 ER4043 d e ER4043 e " ER4043 e,' ER53561,i ER53569 ER53569 ER5356'
ER4 145
ER414S h
ER4 145
ER414S h ER41 4S
h
ER4043d ,e
ER4145
ER5356e ,f,g
ER5356e ,l,g
20 14 ,2036
ER4043 e
ER5356' ER5356' ER5356' ER53569 ER5356 9 ER5356 i ER5356' ER53569 ER535B' ER4043 e ER5356 ' ER5356'
ER4043 e ER5356' ER5356' ER5356' ER5 183 9 ER5356 9 ER5356' ER5356' ER55569 ER5356 eJ ,i
2219
3004, Ale . 3004
ER2319
ER414Se ,f
ER4043e ER40 43 e ER4043
e "
ER4 145
ER4043
ER4043
e
ER4043 d ,e,j
B005,6061, 610 1,6151 , 6201 ,6351, 695 1 6009,6010, 6070 7004,7005, 7039,710.0 7 12 .0 511 .0, 512.0 , 5 13,0,514.0,
ER4 145
ER4043 e ER5356 9
ER4043 e,',J
ER4145
535,0
ER4 145 e ,1
356 .0, A3 56.0 , 357 .0, A357.0, 4 13.0 ,443.0 A444.0 319.0,333.0, 354.0. 355 .0, C355.0
ER4043 e,k
ER4 145 h
ER4 145 e l ,k
a . Se rvice corcmcns may hmlt the cooce of hiler meters . FIller metals ER 5183 , ER 5356 , ER5556 . and ER5654 ar e not ,ecommend ed lo r sustained elevale d l empe ml urn serv IC e b. For ga s shielded a rc weldi ng pr ocesses onl y. For OAW ER l1 88. ERl l00 , ER4Q43 , ER404 7 , and ER4 145 filler mela ls a re used c. WIl ere no filler me tal is iisl ed. Ihe base meta l co mbinalion is no l rec ommen de d 101welding d . ER4 145 may be used fo r some applications e. ER 5183 , ER5356 , ER5564, ER5 556, and ER56 54 may blo used . They may provide improve d Color match aft er anodizing trea tmen l . highesl weld duc tih1y , and higher weld slre ng th. ER5554 is suitable lo r s usta ined elevated-Iem peralure ser vice 1. ER4 04 3 may be used fo r some appliealions g , ER5 183, ER5356, or ER5556 may be used h. ER23 19 may be used fo r some applicalions to supp iy high slrenglh when the we ldmen l is po stweld solution heal- treated and aged i. ER404 7 may be used for some app lications. j . ER4643 pl ov;des high slr eng lh in 'h- and lhicker groove welds in 6XXX a lloys w hen po stweld solu tion heal-lreal ed an d ag ed k, Filter meta l of me sam e com position as jne base mela l may be used .
Figure 425...
.-
- -5154, 525 4
EA5356 e.1.g ER5356e.'g
-~----
--
-- .
1060, 1070, 1080, 1350
_.-
Base Metal
5086
5083
5052, 5652
ER404~1I
5005 , 5050
ER11W.t
ER11QO-l
2219
2014, 2036
ER4 145
ER5356 11 ER5356 9
ER53569
ER5356 11
ER1188d.~
ER4!l4J<'
ER4 145
ER4 145"
ER11W 1
ER4043"
ER5356!1 ER53569
ER535&
ER53 5&
ER5356 11
ER404 3e .g
i ER5356....
ER4 145
22 19
ER4043'"
ER5356 l1 ER5356
1 "
ER4043<l.
ER2319"
3004 ,
Ale. 3004
ER5356')
5005. 5050
5052,5652
5083 5086
ER53569 ER5356\1
ER5 18;3Q
ER5356d .lI
ER5654'.i
ER5356" ER5654'
ER5356'
5154.5254
III 'W!S
for I reldi" x aluminum alloys are setectrd for 'he (w e of base metal to be welde d.
Magnesium alloys are identified by a four -part numb ering system indicating chemical composition and temper designation . See Figure 42-6. Th e temp er designation of mag nesium alloys is included in the alloy designation and is similar to the codes used to describe aluminum alloys. For example, T6 describes a temper which is solutio n treated and artifici ally aged (precipitat ion harden ed ).
ljl
Care must he taken when preparing or repairing magnesium. Magnesium can heal
10
~-
and thorium , plu s small am ounts of zirconium to refi ne the grain size. The se co nd gro up has bett er properties at higher temperatures, is more difficult to produce. and is much more expensive.
607
DASH
IAlz19111CI-IT161
'-v-'
SECOND PART /
'-v-'
"- FOURTH PART
Arst Part
seeencsart
Indicates the amounts of the two principal alloying elements
,
'
Fourth Part
Disti nguishes between different alloys with the same percentages of the two principal alloying elements
A-Aluminum E-Rare Earth Elem ents H-Thorium K-Zircon ium M-Manganese Q-Si lver S-Silicon T-Tin Z-Zinc Two main alloying elements in order of decreasing percentage or alphabetically if per centages are equ al
H10 and H11 -Sfiqhtly strain hardened H23, H24, and H26-Strain
Whole numbers Letters of alphabet except I and 0 hardened and partially annealed T4-80lulion heat-treated T5-Precipitation hardened only 16-Solution heat-treated and precipitation hardened IS-Solution heat -treated, cold worked , and precipitation hardened
Percentages of the two main alloying elements and arranged in same order as alloy designations in first part
Figure 42-6 . The designations [or m ag nes ium alloys consist of a [our-part num be ring system.
Weldability factors that mus t be considered before welding magnesium include surfac e preparation , heat requirements, we lding processe s, and filler metals, Surface Preparation. Surface preparation is required to remove the oxide film before welding magnesium. The surface fi lm thickens as the temperature increase s, becoming a hindrance to welding , The su rface must be thoroughl y degreased to remove sur face pr eservatives and then chemically or mechanically cleaned to remove the oxid e film. Variou s ch emical cleaning so lu t io ns can be used, For critical work, chemical cleaning is followed by me chani ca l cleaning with a clean stainless stee l wire brush, using light pressure to prevent gouging,
608 ~ Welding Skills
Heat Requirements. Heat requirements for welding ma gnesium alloys are di ctated by their high thermal conductivity and high coeffic ient of thermal expansion , Becau se of th es e factors , thick work pieces and highly restrain ed joints generally require p reheat to prevent weld cracking, Welding Processes, GTAW and GMAW are commonly used for welding mag nesium. GTAW is generally used for thin sections and GMAW for medium to thick sectio ns. Argon is the most common shielding gas, but argon-helium mixtures are also used , Most wrought alloy s can be readily resistance spot welded, In resistance spot welding, the metal is molten for a very short time and the cooling rate is very high, so there is little time for harmful metallurgical changes to occur.
Filler Metals. Filler metals with a lower melliog point and a larger freezing range than the base met al provide good weldability and minimize weld crack ing in magnesium alloys. See Figure 42-7.
Titanium alloys are groupe d into alpha. alpha-beta. and beta alloys acco rding to their metallu rgical structure . Alpha alloy s are ge ne rall y the lo we st s tre ng t h. Alph a-bet a all o ys have highe r strength than alpha alloys and are annealed or preci pitati on hardened. Bet a allo ys de velop ex tre me ly high stren gths thro ugh cold working o r precipitation hardenin g. Alpha tit anium a lloys co ns ist o f three gro ups: commerciall y pure titanium, alph a alloy s. and near-alpha alloy s. C o m merc ia ll y pure tit anium contains very small amounts of interstitial elements. An interstitial element
Fi~u re 42-7. Filler 11/('10 1.1" wifh 11 /011' ('1" melliuK !,OiIlT and larger jrt'I''dIlX rang e than tlie hase metal
WROUGHT MAGNESIUM ALLOYS AZl0A AZ31B AZ61A AZ80A ZK21A HK31A HM21A HM31A M1A
X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X
CAST MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
AM100A AZ63A AZ81A AZ91A AZ92A EK41A EZ33A HK31A HZ32A K1A QH21A ZE41A ZH62A ZK51A ZK61A
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X
AN$ lfAWSA 519, SpecificatJOfllot MagneSIum A lloy Welding Electrodes and Rods
Stainless steel wire brushes sho uld be used to r(w/(Jl'eresidues from titanium alloys.
is a che mica l eleme nt add ed in small amounts. who se ato mic size is significa ntly less than the maj or ele ments present in the metal. The prim ary difference between the various grades of co mme rcially pure titanium is the interstitial eleme nt co ntent. Alloys with high er pu rit y (grades I and 2) ha ve lo wer s tre ng t h an d lo we r hardn e ss than allo ys of lo wer purity (grades 3 and 4). A lph a and near-alpha alloys have improved strength over co mmercially pure titanium and have high-temperature strength. See Figu re 42-8 . Alph a-beta titani um a lloys can be stre ngt he ne d by so lutio n tr eatm en t a nd pr ecipitati on hard enin g to ac hieve high st rengt hs. Beta titanium alloys are heat-treated to high strength levels by so lutio n treatm ent and precipitatio n hardening. Beta alloys also ha ve exce ptio na l wo rk hardenin g cha racteri sti cs.
. -. . ~
Ti-5AI-2.5Sn
Grade 6
AI. II 1 01"
Ti-6AI-4V
G_ 5
Grade s 1-4
reseta """""'"
"' l~
Ti-Pd
G_, 7and 11
Fi gu r e U S . Titani um alto.....s p rovide a combina tion of light weigh t and rekui vetv high streng th,
Titanium is thef ourth most abundant metal, but the difficulty in extracting it results in increased cost.
Cleaning and Shielding Requirements. C le a ning a nd shie ld ing requirements before and dur ing welding ar e of param oun t impo rtance whe n we ldi ng ti tanium all oys. Con tam inatio n by im puri ties such as ox ygen or nitrogen must be carefu lly co ntrolled to prevent britt le we lds . Oil , fi nge rprints, grea se. paint, and other foreign matt er sho uld be re mo ved usin g a su itabl e so l ve nt c leani ng met ho d . C hloride-cont ai nin g so lve nts lea ve re sidues that can cause cracking . Hydrocarbo n resid ues can result in oil contaminat ion a nd e mb ritt le me nl. On ly s tai n less ste e l wire bru she s should be used to re mov e residues. Welding Processes. Welding processes used to we ld tita nium alloy s are GTAW. GMAW, electron beam welding, laser beam welding, or resistance welding. Preheat is not required for titanium all oys. Welding must be performed with an inert shie lding gas such as argon to prevent oxyge n and nit rogen pickup. The argo n shield mus t be maintained
GMA IV is comnuml y used for welding a lumin um because wt'ld illg run be performed
rapidly. kel'pillM 11l'(/1 input low.
on all metal surfaces above a temperature of IOOOF (538C). The shielding gas used must be free of harmful contaminants and must completely envelop both sides of the metal, both during welding and as the weld cools . The metal as it cools from welding temperature must also be protected by a trailing shield. See Figure 42-9 .
Alpha Titanium Alloys. Alpha titanium alloys have good weldability because they are ductile. Welding or brazing operations have little effect on the mechanical properties of annealed material. Commercially pure titanium is usually welded with a filler metal one grade below that of the base metal because welding operations lead to slight pickup of oxygen and nitrogen. For example, grade 2 titanium (.25 % 0) is welded with grade I titanium filler metal (.18% 0). Alpha-Beta Titanium Alloys. Alpha beta titanium alloys may undergo harmful strength, ductility, and toughness changes when welded . Ti-6AI-4V has the best weldability of the alphabeta alloys and can be welded in either the annealed condition or the partially precipitation hardened condition. Precipitation hardening may be completed during postweld stress-relief heat treatment. Alpha-beta titanium alloys may suffer significant mechanical property loss during welding. Alpha-beta titanium alloys may be welded with commercially pure titanium filler metals to increase joint ductility. Beta Titanium Alloys. Beta titanium alloys are weldable in either the annealed or the heat -treated condition . Weld joints have good ductility but relatively low strengths as welded . Beta titanium alloys are welded with matching filler metals. They are not usually heat-treated after welding , because even though filler metals match the base metals in chemical composition , their response to heat treatment is different.
'=::Jl.iii~ TITANI U M
Figure 429. The metal co oling Fum welding rem perature must also he pro tected by a trailing shield.
DIRECTION OF WELDING
:::::::::::::::::1
Brazing. Brazing may be performed on titanium alloys. Brazing has very little effect on the properties of alpha alloys. The mechanical properties of alpha-beta alloys can be severely reduced by brazing. The brazing temperature must be below 1650F (899 C) to prevent reduction in mechanical properties. Beta alloys are unaffected when used in the annealed condition .
I. Nickel alloys are extremely sensitive to cracking from contamination, and the joint must be thoro ughly cl eaned befo re we lding. 2. Rem ove the oxide film fro m the surface to be welded and use heavil y coated filler metals spec ially designed for Mon el@and lnc onel " . 3 . Commercially pure coppers are wrought or cast and are used primarily for their high electrical co nd uctivity. 4 . Use heavil y coated phosphor-bron ze filler metal s when welding tin bron ze and make small depo sits of beads at a time. 5 . The surface film must he removed from aluminum alloys before fusion or resistance weld ing. and must be prevented from re-forming by mean s of an inert gas shield or by pressure between the joint surfaces. 6 . Th e best weldahility is achi eved with magnesium alloys that contain a luminum and zinc, rare ea rth eleme nts, or thorium . 7 . Stainless stee l wire bru shes should be used to remo ve residues from titanium all oys.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I.
What is the copper cont ent of commercially pure coppers? Brass is an allo y co nsisting of what elements? What are the principal allo ying ingredient s in bronze? Wh at is fluidit y? What are some of the outsta nding prop erties of aluminum? Why sho uld the surface film be rem oved before welding on aluminum? Whi ch alloy ing eleme nts prov ide the best we ldability when added to magne sium? Why mu st titanium alloy s be absolutely clean before and dur ing welding? Why docs distorti on occ ur in nickel allo ys? What must be done to the surface of Monel " and lnconel " before welding? When welding Monel " or Inconel " , what type of current should be used?
~U'.''l'.r1..-.....n.
,(
-"'"
Distortion Contr
Distortion is the undesirable dimensional change of a f abrication. Distortion occurs because of 11 01 ' uniform expansion and contraction of weld metal and adja cent base metal f rom the welding process. Distortion makes it difficult to maintain proper fit -up as welding progresses. Expensive remedial work may be required to correct a job after completion. Distortion [rom welding also contributes to residual stresses. Distortion is controlled by the welding procedure, and by restraints and heat shaping used to accommodat e shrinkage. Fabrication codes and standards ha ve requirements fo r maximum allowable distortion .
DISTORTION
Distortion is the undesirable dimensional change of a fabrication . Distortion is related to the direction of the weld and varies with the weld joint configuration . Distortion in welding arises from weld met al shrinkage and base metal shrinkage that accompany cooling. Distortion and shrinkage lead to high residual stresses in the metal. The part may be forced out of alignment as residual stresses in the weld joint ease and cause the part to move.
adju sting to the new volume requirement s. On ly those stresses that exceed the yield strength are relieved by this accommodation . By the time the weld reaches ambient temperature-assuming it is completely restrained by the base metal and cannot move-the weld contains locked -in tensile stresses approximately equal to its yield strength. Shrinkage in weld metal may be transverse or longitudinal . Transverse shrinkage is shrinkage that occurs perpendicular to the weld axis. Transverse shrinkage dep ends o n the volume of weld metal, plus the amount of the root opening. Som e shrinkage will occur whether or not the joi nt is made with a root opening. Longitud ina l shrinkage is shrinkage that occ urs parallel to the weld axis. See Figure 43-1. Groove Welds . Several weld passes are ofte n necessary to complete a groov e weld. The root pass creates little or no distortion , but restrain s the two compon ents bein g joined . As the second pass solidifies , it shrinks, but the solidified root pass offers restraint (no movement ). so that the shrinkage must
613
Distortion of wekled
.Hr uctll rl' .' i is eithe r
trans verse (at C)O" to 111(.' weld axis) or lonXillU/illal (alo ng the len gth of the weld luis).
occur within the sec ond pass and toward its upper surface . Succes sive passes are larger and wider and there is a greater mass of weld metal shrinking. For groove weld s in carbon steel with a 60 groove angle, the transverse shrinkag e rate is typi cally 1/1 6" to 1/ 8" per weld pass.
Fleure 43-1. Distortion is caused by"wel d SlJrillktIKt'. which ca n he I rwl.n'n .r!' (T) or longitudin al (L).
~
DISTORTED WORKPIECE
LONGITUDINAL
DISTORTED WORKPIECE
.- ". .
- "
"
..
WORKPI ECE
TRANSVERSE
Figure 4J2. Residual stresses ill grnovr welds cause trmurerse and longitudinal dist ortion,
Each new pass goes through a solidifying shrinkage cycle as it cools, with the previous pa ss acting as restraint. The weld works like a hinge: the weld root is the hinge pin, and the face s of the joint (the flat parts of the hinge) are drawn to one another with the shrinkage of each pass. The result is tran sverse shrinkage . In a groove weld. the joint is also strained in tension in the longitudinal direction . Th e resulting di stortion is observed as longitudin al co ntraction of the weld. Longitudinal shrinkage is less of a problem in groove welds than transverse shrinkage. See Figure 43-2.
Distortion in weld parts CCIll be controlled by setting parts out o f position so that the effects
of welding pull the parts into alignment. or by welding partsin their corred position and
Fillet Weld s. Distortion in fillet welds is more compl ex than in groove welds. It results partiall y from the location of the center of gravity of the workpieces in relation to the fillet weld. A single fillet weld create s transver se shrinkage. For fillet weld s in carbon steel, the transverse shrinkage rate is 1/ 32" per weld pass (where the leg length of the weld does not exceed three-quarters of the ba se metal thi ckness). When the root pass is laid, the work pieces being joined bec om e integral with one another. As more passes are laid, there is more shrinkage at the face of the fillet than at the root , because the face receives a greater amount of filler metal. To ac commodat e the weld metal shrinkage, the workpieces being joined move to ward o ne a no ther. c rea ting tra nsverse shri nkage. The grea ter the number of weld passes, the greater the distortion. See Figure 43-3. A double fi lle t wel d. if properl y made , do e s not ex h ibit tr an sverse shrinkage . Howe ver, it is still susceptibl e to longitudinal shrinkage. If the fillet weld of the T-joint is above the center of gravity of a welded structure , the metal distorts longitudinally upward at its end s. If the fillet weld is below the center of gravity, it distorts longitudinally downward at its ends. See Figure 43-4.
WORKPIECE ~I
DISTORTED WORKPIECE
[--"1
WO RKP IECE ~
DISTORTED WORKPIECE
Ftgure 43-3. Wh en weld heads a rc deposited in a single fillet weld, shrinkage occurs at the face of the fill et because of the amount of filler metal deposited.
SINGLE PASS
MULTIPLE PA SS
-. .
J.
'"
CENTER OF GRAVITY
-~~OUBLE
WELD
FILLET
tha t develop in the weld metal as it cools, increase distortion in the base metal.
DISTORTION CONTROL
Distortion may cause poor fit-up dur ing fabricat ion and lead to undes irable stresses. Distortion control is necessary to overcome poor fit-up and und esirable stresses, and to meet specific dimensional requirements . Fabrication codes and standards have requirements for maximum allowable distortion. Distortion contro l incl udes method s to minimize or eliminate di stortion to
Distortion Cont rol :@; 615
~ @J -
meet code requirements. Modifying the welding prucedure, using special welding techniques, usin g mechanical re straints, and heat sha ping are methods that can help control di stortion.
Welding Procedures
T he we lding proced ure may he modified to min imize or co ntro l distortio n. Welding procedures that may be modi fied to prevent di stortion include fitup and e dge preparation; preheat; welding pro cess and travel speed; weld metal depos ite d ; an d we ld passes.
A square groo ve on thin metal s reduces di storti on but d o cs not co m p le te ly eliminate it. On sheet metal, tack weld s arc light. On very th in m eta l. s ma ll , close ly spaced tack we lds arc the onl y means of contro lling di stortion. After tack we lding , th e en tire joint shou ld be lig ht ly hammered before we lding. On very thin material (26-gauge and thinner), almost continuous tack weld s may be required.
Pmperfit-up is essen-
nmtml distortion.
Fit-up and Edge Preparation, Proper fit - up a nd edge pre pa rati on hel p e nsure that the correct a mo unt of we ld metal is used in a joint. If gaps occ ur in a joint, the we lder mus t slow down to fill them . u sing more fi ller metal than speci fied and increasing contrac tion across the joint. Ensure tha t th e joint has the proper fit- up and that the correct edge preparatio n is used to e limi na te the need for e xcessive fille r metal and increased joint co ntrac tio n. Underc ut spo ts in butt jo ints can be filled by we ld buildup on the edge of the bas e metal before welding to im prove poor fit -up . Joint preparation cannot be manipulated for fillet we lds as it can for gruove we lds . For a butt joint, a m in imu m root opening of V s" is desired. A 60 groove an g le allows for comp lete pe ne trat ion at the root yet req uires mi nima l we ld metal. For thick metal, increasing the root opening to 3 ;\6" allows the groo ve angle to be de creased. Alternatively, a J -groove ma y be used to reduce the amount of weld metal re quired . A doub le- V-groove may be used , w hich reduces by half the amo unt o f we ld me tal ne ce ssa ry co mpa red w ith a single- V. See Figure 43-5 . If the root opening is increased and the g roo ve an gle is red uc ed, th e a mount o f metal deposited at the root and at th e face of th e weld is more equal. reducing tra nsverse shr inkage.
/\MAX~
x::
("( 11/
Fig u re ~O5 . 8 11ft joint fi l -II/' and edg e preparation be altered to help control distortion.
Preheat. Pro pe rly applied preheat can hel p red uce we ld d istortion a nd re sid ua l stre sses becau se it lowers the temperature g ra d ie n ts in the metal around the weld . On steel , preheat also reduces the tendenc y for cracking in the HAZ or the weld metal.
Welding Process and Travel Speed. The welding process used can influence di stortion . Automati c and se miautomati c welding processe s use higher travel spee ds and greater deposition rat es per pa ss than manual welding proc esses, resulting in less distortion. Additionally, with automatic welding processes, progressive shrinkage of the weld as it cools (which occurs in manual weld ing durin g the interval between each weld pass) is eliminated. When usin g manual welding processes, GMAW produces less distortion than GTAW, and PAW produce s less distortion than GMAW. In addition, with PAW, thicker metals can be welded than can be welded with GTAW or GMAW. Oxyfu el we lding proces ses produce more distortion than arc weldin g processes because heating of the base metal is slow and more heat is required to offset the heat loss from diffusion. Weld metal should be depo sited in the shortest possible time to minimi ze heat input. Increasing the travel speed reduces the amount of base metal affected by the welding heat and reduces distortion. Weld Metal Deposited. The greater the amoun t of weld metal deposited in a joint, the greater the chance of shrinkage. To minimize shrinkage, onl y the required amount of weld metal should be used . The effective throat in a fillet weld determin es the weld joint strength. A fillet weld that yields an effective throat size that is ju st s uffic ie nt for the strength requ ired by the we ld design is preferred. In a butt joint, excess weld metal in a highly convex bead does not increase the allowable strength of the weld in the design code, but does increase shrinkage and di stortion . See Fig ure 43-6. Weld Passes. Shrinkage in a weld is cum ulative . T he mor e we ld pa sse s mad e, the more shri nkage occurs; A few passes made with a large-diameter fi lle r metal ar e pre ferabl e to man y
passes made with a small-diameter tiller metal. Making few er pa sses also reduces welding time, which reduces the amount of heat at the weld so less expansion of the metal surrounding the weld occurs .
. -. . ~
L
: J
SUFFICIENT
WELD BEAD ~:
RESULTING DISTORTION
GROOVE WELD
! fr ~ DISTORTION RESULTING ! j
r !I'~\ EXCESS WELD
METAL
Welding Techniques
Variou s welding techniques may be used to balance shrinkage stresses and control di stort ion . Typ ica l welding technique s used include back- step welding and intermittent welding. Back-Step Welding. Back-step welding is a welding pro ces s in which weld passes are mad e in the dir ect ion opposite to the progre ss of weldin g. Each weld pass lock s the workpi eces bein g joined. The greatest amou nt of metal ex pa ns io n oc cur s wh en th e firs t weld bead is deposit ed . Metal expand s le ss with e ach suc cess ive we ld bead be c au se of th e lo ckin g effect o f pre viou s back -step we lds . See Fig ure 43-7. Bac k-s tep we ld ing cannot be performed with aut om ati c welding proce sses.
111e greatest amount of metal expansion
occurs when thejirst weld head is deposited. Metal expands less with each suc cessive weld bead because (~r the lock ing effect oj previous back-step welds.
Distortion Control
:1 617
paHe ,~
are mo(/(' ;11 the d irect ion opposite 10 the prog ression of
1 I'('/d;I/ 1: .
Intermittent we lding may be used to reduce the amount of weld metal required and must be allowed by the desig n cod e. Intermittent we ld ing is not used wh ere corros io n is an iss ue beca use intermitte nt fillet weld s cr eate crev ices that may allow co rro sives to ente r the weld area.
r= I
Mechan ical restraints ~ cause u buildup of in.= ternai stresses in the wekl to tilt' point that tilt' .vie'" stress of tile weld is exceeded.
Intermittent Weldin!:. Intermittent welding is an allernative to back- step we lding . Int ermittent we lding is performed by depositing weld metal in evenly spaced increments. On aT-joint, welds are alternated on eitber side of the joint. Three short (usually l ") weld beads ar e mad e, and then two longer beads (3x the length of the short beads) are made on th e other s ide of the T-joint. Th e direction of welding should remain the same throu ghout the process, but it is not necessary for the direction to be oppos ite to the general progr ession , as wi th ba ck- step welding. Se e Figure 43-8.
Figure 13-8. I II intermittent we ld ing , weld metal is deposit ed ill evenly spaced increments,
Strongbacks. A strongback is a mechanical restraint device that is attached to on e side of a we ld j oint to hold workpieccs in alignm ent during weld ing. For example, cylindrical shell plates that have been o ver-ro lled have seam s that are peaked (pointed inward ) before weldin g is started. The strongback prevents angular misalignment during weld-
DIRECTION
OF WELDING : >
ing and preve nts further pea king as a result of welding, while leaving the joint free to shrink transversely. Strongbacks may be used to pull the bent struc ture int o alig nme nt. Flame heating ca n then be sys tematic ally appli ed to th e res tr ain ed member. A straig htedge , sca le, o r dial ind ica to r ma y be used to determine the movement ac hieved. The part must remain in the desired shape after it has cooled and the ex terna l restraint has been removed . The mechanical restra int is only remov ed after the part has cooled to room temperature.
Back-to-Back Positioning. Back-toba ck positioning is a mechani cal restraint method that places identical weldments back -to -ba ck and clamps them together. The welds are completed and both weldments are allowed to cool be for e th e clamps are released. Th e weldments counteract each other and cance l out distortion. See Figure 43-9.
used with heat shaping . Four ba sic heating patterns are used when heat shaping : line-, spo t-, Y-, and blockheating. See Figure 43-10. The line-heating pattern can be used on metal plate. The metal is heated on the convex (high) side that is to be bent down . A slightly oscillating torch follows the line, with the oscillations about as wide as the metal thi ckness. Th e torch progresses acro ss the metal at a constant speed to bring the plate to temperature . See Figure 40-1 I. Movement in a line -heating pattern progress es in a linear fashion with relatively little width compared to its length .
Thefour basic heating patterns used when heat shaping metals (Ire the line-, spot-, V-, and blockhearing.
---. -.
C-CLAMPS
Figure 43-9. Back-to-beck positioning counterac ts shrinka ge ill two identical components.
LINE HEATING
SPOT HEATING
Prebending. Prebending is a mechani cal restraint method that relie s on loc ating workpi eces out of position before welding so that welding shrinkage stresses pull the workpieces into position . Prebending may be achieved by modify in g th e fit -up or using clamps to pre-sprin g parts before they are welded. The clamps are removed after welding . Residual stresse s in the part cause the part to straighten.
V-HEATING
BLOCK HEATING
Heat Shaping
Heat shaping is the application of localized heating to cau se movement of a distorted part and restore its dimensions. Heat shaping is applied usin g an ox yacet ylene flame . Heat shaping requi re s temperature monitoring and measurem ent of th e mo vem ent achieved . In some cases, movement may be assisted with mech an ical de vices. For complete correction of distortion , mechani cal restraints may be
FLAT POSITION
DIR ECTION OF MOVEM ENT OF PART
Heat shaping is the application ojloculired heal ing to cause movement of a dis torted part and re store its dimensions.
HORIZONTAL POSITION
The spot-heating pattern concentrate s heat in one area in a circular motion and is applied with little. if any. forward motion. The V-heating pattern starts at one point and moves in a linear fashion along a marked axis, weav ing back and forth. becoming progressively wider. The blockheating pattern moves in a linear fashion,
Ftgurc B - I2 . Hea t shaping of
structural steel sections uses combinations (if v- (/",1 block-hea ting
patterns 10 CleMen ' straightening,
weaving back and forth to create a rectangular area. Th e V- and block -heating patterns can be used on structural steel shapes such as channel beams , l-beams, and angles. See Figure 43-1 2. The pattern s are alternately appli ed to achieve straightening. Two torches may be applied oppo site one another in specific cases.
VHEATING PATIERN
CHANNEL BEA MS
K.HEATING PA TIERN
it. CAUTION
When a materia l is being heat shaped. its stren gth is redu ced . If the materi al is under load . the e ffects of red uced streng th on the mate rial's ability to support 1 00Id.\ must he determined : other wise , ca tas trophic failure ma y occ ur.
VHEATING PATIERN BLOCK.HEATlNG .... PATIERN / /
I-BEAMS
620
1 WeldillK Skills
To perform heat sha ping, th e area to be heat shape d is marked with soapst o ne, paint stick , or other marking material that is in sen siti ve to heat. When heat shaping stainle ss steels and ni ckel allo y s, the marking material mu st co nta in minimal amounts (le ss than 250 parts per million) of chlorides, sulfur, or oth er harmful eleme nts s uch as z inc; otherwi se , crac king may occur durin g heat applic ation . The oxyacetylene torch is ignited and the flam e adjusted. A localized area is qui ckl y heat ed, with th e point of th e flame far enough above the surface to prevent the surface from melting. T he torch is weaved slightly, but not advanced in a heating pattern until the starting point reache s the specified temperature. Heat is progressi vely applied to the marked area, maintaining the desired temperature at the poin t of the flame. The flame is not backtracked over any area already hea ted . A temperature-indicatin g crayon or a co ntac t pyrometer may be used to monitor the te m pe ra ture .
A j ig or fixt ure must be used to restra in parts in position to control distortion d uring welding.
Distortion may occur when welding pipe branch connections. Distortion ca n be tran sverse shr inkag e of a gro o ve weld in adjoining pipe sec tions or unbalanced sh rinkage in b ran ch welds. Transvers e shrinkage of a groove weld causes a reduction in the overall length of the pipe. fn most cases, carbon stee l shrinkage is approximately 'h6", plus or minus 1 /.'2", per butt joint. C arbon stee l shrinkage should be allowed for in the overall length of the piping assembly. Branch we lds c a n cau se piping to bow du e to shrinkag e on one s ide. Branch weld s mu st be welded in sequ ence to m inimi ze di stortion of the pipe. The branche s furth e st fro m the center of the pipe assembly are welded fir st bec aus e they cause less distortion. If the pipe is bent because of we lds at the first two branche s, the third bran ch welding will stra ig hte n th e pipe. Se e Figure 4 3-14. Di stortion may occur during the placem ent of nozzles on eq uipme nt, such as on small-diameter heat exc hangers, because the shell thickness is generally less than %". Distortion increases as the metal cro ss sec tion (shell thickn ess) becomes thinner. Distortion on equipment nozzles appears as a flat spot on the she ll wh er e th e no zzle is we lde d. Distortion also causes the nozzle to sink into the shell. When welding to thin parts, an internal mechanical restraint, such as a jack , sho uld be used to pr e vent th e shell from collaps ing.
Distortion Control
>= 621
Ftgure 43-U. Flu ,\'1J patches on thin surfaces may be welded without distortion using WI intermittent wdd;I/g technique (Ifill ,\ 1ightly dished jlu.\ '/1 patch.
FIRST WELD DIRECTIDN SECDND WELD DIRECTIDN
- t (THICKNESS
DF METAL)
START
~U
PATCH
I (APPRDXIMATELY)
B RE A K --"-'-;-@iiZil~ ;;;;;;_ _
WELD
TACK WELDS
DISHING
FINISH
ROUND
THIRD WELD DIRECTlDN PA TCH PATCH
NOTE WHEN USING SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING, ENSURE THE WELD CAN BE CD MPLETED ARD UND CD RNERS WITHDUT STOPPING
OVAL
THIRD WELD DIRECTID N /
FINISH
TACKWELDS~----"qt
FIFTH WELD DIRECTIDN ----
~ r l
~~~':;;~~;;~~~I;:::!)
.
)T
SECDNDWELD DIRECTIDN
RECTANGLE
RESIDUAL STRESS
Residual stress is loc ked -in stress in ma ter ia ls th at occurs as a re sult of manu fac tu rin g proc es se s s uc h as casti ng , we ldi ng , for m in g , or heat
stresses as thei r
presence ge ne rally goes unreco gnized wail fa ilure occurs.
trea tm e nt. Residu a l stresses ca n be detrimental to metals, both alone and under norm al service stresses, and can co ntri bute to fa ti g ue and other mechanic al failure, Residual stresses can also lead to stress corrosion cracking
of some materials in spec ific corrosive env iro nme nts . Fo r exa mp le. welded ca rbo n st ee l eq uipme nt a nd pipin g o perating in hot caus tic se rvice must be given stress relief heat treatment to prevent cau stic stress cracking at the weld. The presence of residual stresses generally goes unrec ogni zed. so welders must be cautious to protect against them before they occ ur.
-.
Ftu ure "]1". Balanced welding of branch welds reduces l il t' 1('1/dencv of pipo W distort .
Residual stress and distortion control requiremrnts for many welding applications are detailed ill AWSARE 7, Residual Stress and Distortion . Other stcnulards and emit's ma y also lIpply, depending Oil/he locale ,
I . Distortion in wclding is caus ed by shrinkage in the wcld metal and the base metal that occurs during cooling and by creating restraint thai exceeds the yie ld streng th of the material. 2. Distorti on of welded struct ures is either transve rse (at 90 to the weld ax is) or longitud inal (along the length of the weld axis) . 3 . Modifyin g thc welding procedure. usin g spec ia l welding techniques. usin g mechanical restraints. or heat shaping can help contro l distortion . 4 . Proper fit-up is ess ential on thi n metal s. Closely spaced lack weld s must be used to co ntrol distortion. 5 . Th e g rea tes t amount of meta l ex pans ion occurs whe n the first we ld bead is laid. Metal ex pands less with each successive weld bead because of the locking effect of previous back-step weld s. 6 . Mechanical restraints cause a buildup of interna l stresses in the weld 10 the point that the yield stress of the weld is exceeded. 7 . Th e four basic heating pattern s used when heat shaping metal s arc the line -, spot-, V-. and block-heatin g patt ern s. 8. Heat shaping is the application of localiz ed heat to a structure to cause beneficial movement of a pari to counteract distorti on. 9. To co mpletely correct distort ion . mechani cal restra ints may be used with heat sha ping. 10 . We lders must protect against residual stresses as their presence ge nerally goes unreco g nized until failure occurs .
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
How does the heat of welding cau se distortion ? What happ en s to molt en weld metal as it cools that contributes to distortion? In what two dire ctions does weld metal shrinkage occur? How does preh eat help to redu ce distortion? Wh y is it important to use only the minimum thickness of weld filler metal prescribed by the applicable fabri cation code') Is distortion mo re likely to occur in multiple-pass welds or single-pass weld s') What is the differen ce between back-step welding and intermittent welding as distortion prevention methods? Name two methods of mechanical restraint used to pre vent distortion. What is heat shaping?
~~'hl'W.'
II.
Welding ymb I
Welding Technology
When fa bricating metal products, a welder may lise a print that details product specifications. The print specifies where welds are to be located, the Ope ofjoints and correct weld sizes. Inform ation is indicated by a set of svmbols that have been standardized by the American Welding Society (AWS).
WELDING SYMBOLS
A welding symbol is a graphical representatio n of the specifications for producing a welded joint. A welding symbol has instructions attached as to the type of weld required, the location of the weld, whether it is a field weld or a shop weld, and other referen ce data that are necessary to do a complete welding job. Welding symbols may be very complex and carry a large amount of information, or they may be quite simple. The welding symbol is designed so that specific information has a designated location on the symbol. See Appendix.
weld, the size of the we ld bead , the len gth of the weld, how we ld bea ds are to be finished, and often, what type of welding process is to be used . All welding symbol data are indicated with geometric figures , num er ical va lues , and abbrevi at ions.
A welding symbol is (l graphical rep resenta tion of the sp l'djica lions [ or producing II welded john.
Reference Line
The foundati on of the we lding sy mbol is a reference line with an arrow at one end. The arrow points to the location of the weld. Instruct ions regarding the type of weld are indicated either above or below the reference line. See Figure 44-1. Also included is reference data such as the surface contour of the
REFERENCE LINE ' \ REFERENCE ____ DATA- - .
~
instructions regarding the '.'pl' of weld an' indica ted either above o r belo w she n:fnl'll(,(, line.
Ft a ure "~-I . Till' [oundation of the welding .~.\'II1 IJOI is 1I reference line with lUI arrow ar one end.
LOCATION OFWELD
625
Figure 44-2. Types of welds are fil let. plug, spot or projection, seam, and groove . Groove welds can he subdivided by the particular shape of the hUH joint.
..
o
FILLET PLUG OR SLOT SPOT OR PROJECTION SEAM
II
SQUARE GROOVE
V
V-GROOVE
BEVEL GROOVE
Y
U-GROOVE
J-GROOVE
II
FLARE-BEVEL GROOVE
FLARE-V GROOVE
Symbol Location
The anmv side is the surface that is in the direct lim' ofvision.(1f the welda 17w other side is the opposite surface f?f the joint.
The location of the weld symbol on the reference line specifies on which side of a joint a weld is to be made. Weld location is designated by running the arrowhead of the refe rence line to the joint. The arrow can be directed to either side
of a joint and can extend upward or downward. A weld is said to be on either the "arrow side" or the "other side" of a joint. The arrow side is the surface that is in the direct line of vision of the welder. The other side is the oppo site surface of the joint. See Figure 44-3.
Figure 443. Location of the weld symbol on the reference line-s-on the arrow side or on the other side-determines where the weld is to he made.
"OTHER SIDE"
"ARROW SIDE"
ARROW LOCATION
If the weld is to be made on the arrow side, the appropriate weld symbol is placed below the reference line . If the weld is to be located on the other side of the joint, the weld symbol is placed above the reference line. When both sides of the joint are to be welded, the same weld symbol appears above and below the reference line. A more comp lete treatme nt of sy mbo ls as they apply to a ll form s of man ual an d mech ani zed we ld ing can be found in AWS A2.4, Standard Symbo ls for Weldin g, Bra zing , and Nondestructiv e Examination, published by the American Welding Society. See Appendi x. The only exception to the indication of weld location on the reference line is in spot and seam weldin g. With spot or seam welds . the arrowh ead is run to the centerline of the weld seam and the a pprop riate weld sy mbo l centered above or below the refer ence line. See Figure 44- 4. If no arrow side or other side is important , the sym bol is placed astride the reference line to indicate this condition. On beveled jo ints. it is often necessary to show which weld part is to be beveled. In such cases, the arrow points with a definite break toward the part to be beveled. See Figure 44-5 . Information on welding symbols is placed 10 read from left to right along the reference line in accordance with the conventions of drafting .
---.
-
..
be
beveled.
r;ro.ffiro~~m TO BE BEVELED
-,
Symbol
I
Weld
SINGLE BEVEL
Symbol
Weld
DOUBLE BEVEL
Fillet, bevel, J-groove , an d f1arebeve l groove we ld sy mbols are show n with the perpend icular leg always to the left of the weld symbo l. Sec Figure 44-6.
44 -6. For [i llrt, bevel. ./. lind ft are -bevrt groove joints. the pe rpendic ular !l',t: ai II'II Y.\"appears to the teft ofth(' weld
';I'OlJl>(' .
I'i~ u rc
symbol.
V
FILLET BEVEL
JGROOVE
FLARE-BEVEL
le
ARROW SIDE
Figure 44-4. For a .W"W " weld symbol. the arrow is rim fo the centerline of the weld seam , witts the appro pria te , {YII/hol above or below tlie reference line. If side is not important. the s).m bol is placed (/.\"/1';(/" rite reference line.
Welding Symbols
1 627
Fillet Welds
The leg size (width) of a fillet weld is shown to the left of the weld symbol and is expressed in fractions, decimals, or metric units (mm). When both sides of a fillet are to be welded and the welds differ in dimensions, both are dimensioned. Both welds are also dimensioned if the welds have the same dimension. Where a note appears on a drawing that governs the size of a fillet weld, no dimensions are usually shown on the symbol. See Figure 44-8. The length of the weld is shown to the right of the weld symbol by numerical values represent ing the actual required len gth . Wh en a fillet we ld wi th un equal legs is required, the size of both legs is placed to the left of the weld symbol with a note for cla rific atio n.
During fabrication of a product, it may be necessary to make more than one type of weld on a joint. Thus, a joint may require bo th a fillet and dou h le-b eve l groove we ld . W hen more than o ne type of weld is requi red, a symbol is shown for each weld. Sec Figure 44-7.
Figure ....-7. A jo ;1II 1//01 requires mo re ,!Jl/1/ Olle 1.\1)(' of weld i.f representrd by a combined weld .\ )m bo l.
. - ..
DOUB LE BEVEL GROOV E FILLET WELD
Symbol
Weld
o
<; SINGLE BEVE L GROOV E
DOUBL E FILLET WELD
0 11
ply a gi ven requ ireme nt to all items 011 the p rint. Spec ific notes apply a gi ven requirement to II specific item em the p rint.
Symbol
Weld
Intermittent Fille t Welds. The len gth and pitch increme nts of intermi ttent fillet we lds are show n to the righ t of the we ld symbo l. Th e first fig ure represe nts the length of the weld section and the second figure represe nts the pitch (center-to-ce nter spacing) between the welds. See Figure 44-9. Groove Welds
There are severa l typ es of groove welds that may requ ire partial or complete penetration. and a particu lar bevel depth. See Figure 44 -10. Their effective throa t sizes (in fractions, decimals, or millimeters) are as follows: For single-groove and symmetrical doubl e-groove we lds that ex te nd com pletely throu gh the weld parts being joined, no size is included on the welding symbol.
Wl'!d .\'!Jl)"ijimtion is comm unicate d to the welder hy the welding symbo ls used on the prints.
-"
.
LEG SIZE
n 8V'.0/~
/ [
WELD LENGTH
Figure 44-8. The 11' 1-: .~ ;::e ( lI'idtil) of tl /{' fil let weld is expressed (I.{ tI fraction. decimal . or metric unit to the l el l of 'he weld symbol. The lel/glh is indicat ed hy Ow actual 11I11/1(' 1'; ('(/1 value 10 the ri!{h t (~r the weld svmhol.
10 '
PARTA
-~ %. ~Symbol Weld Symbol Weld SINGLE FILLET WITH UNEQUAL LEGS UNEQUAL DOUBLE FILLE T
. - .. .
PITCH (10) ~
Figure ~ -9. The 1t'II1-:th and I'ilcll increments of intermittent welds lire SI IO II'II to the r(~ h, of the weld
.sy mho l.
6-10
\
l
Symbol
Weld
WELD SECTION LENGTH
For groove weld s that exte nd o nly partly through the we ld parts being joined, or on non sym me trical double-groove joints, the effective throat (we ld size) is sho wn inparentheses to th e le ft of the we ld sy mbo l.
A di men sio n no t in parenthe se s when placed to the left of the weld symbo l indi cates th e depth of the bevel only. When both the effecti ve throat and bevel depth are indicated, the groove beve l depth is located to the left of the effective throat size.
Weld il1M Sy m bo ls ~ 629
The root opening of a square butt joint is shown inside the weld symbol. The groove angle of a bevel is indicated inside the weld symbol. The weld symbol for the bevel can be placed above or below the refere nce line. The arrow is pointed al the joint to be beveled. See Figure 44-11. The size of a flare-groove weld is considered to extend only to the tangent points as indicated by dimen sional lines. See Figure 44-12.
Fig ure ~IO. Groove welds may requi re I'tlrlill l or comptete penetrafirm ami a certain here! depth.
. - ..
/
.
EFFECTIVE THROAT INDICATED IN PARENTHESES TO LEFT OF WELD SYMBOL [ EFFECTIVE THROAT
;--_<_ 2>8_) 3
r
Symbol
38"
Weld
PARTIAL PENETRATION
Symbol
COMPLETE PENETRATION
Weld
r>;
_-.1
WELD PENETRATES TO REQUIRED DEPTH
Symbol
DEPTH OF BEVEL
Weld
630
1 Welding Skills
- ..
1I6 6 1 / F"""T1::T/ / : ~OOT OPENING INDICATED INSIDE WELD SYMBOL
Figure 44 11. Tile mol opening of a .\qlttlre butt joint is indicated inside the weld symbol. The gro ove angle of {/ beve led groo ve j oiru can hi' ind icared dhow o r below th e reference tine .
Symbol
GROOVE ANGLE INDICATED INSIDE WELD SYMBOL, ABOVE -~~"c.... O R BELOW REFERENCE LINE
Symbol
Weld
..
Symbol
Weld
FlARE-V-GROOVE
Symbol
Weld
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE
WeldiflR Symbols ~ 63 1
Figure .... ~ 13 . I'lu X wetd tocauons a re shown ill l'a ryi"x positions around the welt! .~ymhoJ.
- .,
DEPTH OF FILLING
Symbol SIZE
Weld
~~-r'-
'" , --1
3"
rt---+---~
Symbol PITCH
Weld
to th e left o f the we ld sy mbo l. Th e len gth of the we ld sea m is place d to the right of the weld symbol. The piteh of intermitt ent seam welds is shown to the right of the length dimensio n. See Fig ure 44- 15.
. .. .
~~WELDING
\ \.. PITCH SIZE
PROCESS
SIZE DESIGNATION
STRENGTH (IN LB PER SPOT WELD)
Seam Welds
Sea m welds are dime nsio ned either by size or by strength. Locat ion and designa tio n of sizes are similar to those used for fillet welds. Size is designated as the widt h of the we ld in fractions, decim als, or millim eters, and is shown
632 ~ Welding Skills
PITC7
, 0 (6)
STRENGTH DESIGNATION
Ftgure 44-14. Spot ~1"('Jd des igtuuions incl ude size, strength. spacing. and number of .I'II0{ welds.
. - .,
SIZE DESIGNATION
.=
E ' e:=
Welds to he mode in th e field (n ot in a shop or at the place (~f initial construction) are shown hya darkened triangula r flag at the juncture of the reference lim' and a rrow.
STRENGTH DESIGNATION
Figure 44-15. Seam weld des ignat ions inclu de size.
strength, length REFERENCE TAIL FIELD SYMBOL FLAG REFERENCE TAIL
Figure 44-17. Ttie field weld sym hot is placed at a right angle to the reference line at the junction with the arrow. The jield weld sy mhol always [aces the reference tail.
Th e strength of th e weld , when used , is located to the left of the weld symbol, and is expressed as the mini mum acceptab le s he ar stre ngth in pounds per linear inch.
REFERENCE LINE
Reference Tail
The reference tail is included only when a particu lar welding specification. procedure, reference , weld, or cutting process needs to be called out; otherwise, it is omitted. This information is often in the limn of symbols. See Figure 44-18.
. . ..
.
WELD ALL-AROUND SYMBOL
Symbol
Figure 44-16. ;\ small ci rcle app ears where the
llrro w ("oll llcel s
Weld
the ref e rence line to denote weld -all -aroun d.
Ffgu rc 44-18 . The ref erence tail is used whrn some specifi c detail or
weld I'rOt'l',\ '.\' is requ i r ed.
REFERENCE TAIL
<~
Abbrev iations in the tail may also call out some specifications or welding processes that are included on some other part of the print. See Appendix.
A back weld and a backing weld refer to a weld made on the opposite side of the regular weld. A back weld is made after the groove weld has been deposited . Ba ck we lds a re occas io na lly specified to ensure adeq uate penetration and provide additional strength to a joint. This particular sym bol is included opposite the weld symbol. Backing we lds are made befo re a groove weld is depos ited to prevent excessive penetration of the weld metal. No dimen sion s of back or backing weld s ex cept hei ght o f re inforce me nt are shown on the welding symbol. See Figure 44-20.
When complete joint penetration of the weld throu gh the metal is requi red in welds made from one side only, a special melt-thru weld symbol is placed opposite the regular we ld sy mb ol. No dimension of melt-thru, except height of reinforcement, is shown on the welding symbol. See Figure 44-2 1.
. _.
...
--- --
-----
~-------
-----
-- - - -----Concave
LEITER C
H
SYMBOL Convex
G M
R
U
Rolling
Unspecified
/ / / / / /
lfC
It..
I1G
~
I1R
It.,
/ / / / / /
I1 c I1
H
I1G
I?i.
11.
l1u
/ / / / / /
V ro V r.;
L1G
'k.
~
i1u
I
Symbol
L
j
If.
/ FLAT CONTOUR OBTAINED ~ BY GRINDING WELD
Weld
Figure 44-19 . A filii. concave, or convex symbol added 10 tilt' welding symbol indicates how the surf ace should be contoured.
- . .
Figure 44-20. The back or backing weld symb ol is included opposite the weld symbol, with a note in eluded in the reference tail.
GROOVE WELD
Weld
GROOVE WELD
Weld
- ,.
HEIGHT OF ROOT REINFORCEMENT " , MELT-THRU SYMBOL OPPOSITE OFWELD SYMBOL
Figure 44-21. A melt-thru symbol indicates that com plete joint penctration of/he weld is requiredfrom one side on ty:
/
Weld
v,
Symbol
FILLET JOINT
Weld
Surfacing Welds
Welds whose surfaces must be built up by single- or multiple-pass welding are de noted by a surfacing weld symbol. The he igh t of the built -up surface is indicated by a dimension placed to the left of the surfac ing symbol. See Figure 44-22. Th e extent, location, and ori entation of the area to be built up are normally indicated on the drawing.
on a se pa rate reference line o f the welding symbol or as a separate NDE sy mbo l. Whether the NDE method is specitied on the same refere nce line as the weld symbol or on a separate reference line. the order of operations is the same as for multiple welding operations. The re fe rence lin e furt hest fro m the arrowhead indicates the last operation to be perfo rmed. The operation on the reference line neare st the arrowh ead is performed first. When used separately, NDE symbols incl ude an arrow, reference line, exa mination letter designation , d im e nsion s, are as, number of examinations, supplementary symbols, tail, and specifications and other references . See Appendix.
Joi~UR.' -U-22. A XWfill"ill~ wdcl .~Jm htll,llj,h th(' requ irC'clclilllC'tl s;OI I placed 10 the h11 . illt!imf('x that .wr[lIC t' S are to he built 1//1 hy wekling.
,... ..
..
.
/
Symbol
r
Weld JOINT BUILDUP
AREA TO BE SURFACED
'I.
Symbol
PART SURFACING
Weld
1. A welding symbol is a graphical representation of the specifications for producing a welded joint. 2 . Instructions regarding the type of weld are indicated either above or below the reference line. 3. The arrow side is the surface that is in the direct line of vision of the welder. The other side is the opposite surface of the joint. 4. When more than one type of weld is reqnired, a symbol is shown for each weld. 5. Welds to be made in the field (not in a shop or at the place of initial construction) are shown by a darkened triangular !lag at the juncture of the reference line and arrow. 6. Nondestructive examination (NOE) symbols are symbols that specify examination methods and requirements to verify weld quality.
1. What is meant by the arrow side of the welding symbo l? 2 . What is meant by the other side of the welding symhol ? 3. Indicate the meaning of the followi ng welding symbols.
v
5. The se symbols represent what weld specifications?
'f,
I
/
Welding Symbols ~ 637
7 . Draw completed welding symbols, including necessary information, to describ e the following weld s.
VT
V,
10. Using thc appropriate table in thc appendix, identify thc parts of the mastcr welding symbol shown.
11
Materials and fabrication standards and codes provide a common language for ensuring consistency among products of various manufacturers. Purchase orders for materials must refer to materials standards. Certification accompanying products must be checked to ensure that the materials conform to indicated standards. Fabrication standards and codes ensure that materials and welded products meet specified mechanical property and quality requirements. Quality requirements specified in materials and fabrication standards and codes are accepted by manufacturers, suppliers, and users as the basis for ordering and fabricating materials. The steps involved in specifying, procuring, andfabricating materials are addressed by materials andfabrication standards and codes. Quality requirements for welding are based on the possible risks and consequences offailure ofthe equipment or component. Quality requirements for welding are established by industry groups and ensure the necessary quality at a reasonable cost.
MATERIALS STANDARDS
Materials standards are classified according to the kind of information they contain. Various organizations are responsible for the development of materials standards. Materials standards are developed and reviewed by qualified people organized into committees of producers, end users, and general interest groups.
A specification is a type of standard that indicates the technical and commercial requirements for a product. Material requirements are most often described by means of specifications. For example, ASTM A36 is a specification for structural steel members used in riveted, bolted, or welded construction of bridges and buildings, and for general structural purposes. ASTM A36 indicates acceptable methods of manufacture and minimum acceptable properties of structural steel members. A recommended practice is a type of standard that provides instructions for performing one or more repetitive technical functions . For example, ASTM E 165 is a recommended practice for conducting liquid penetrant testing. ASTM E 165 indicates standard test parameters that should be followed to allow comparison between liquid penetrant tests performed on different welds or other items.
639
Materials standards and codes are devel oped by consensus (agreement ) be tween parties representing producers, end users, and gen-
Figure 45-1. Materials standards are clll.\'.I'ijied ns .I'pl'cijkatiOlI.I', recommended practices. and code s.
MATERIALS STANDARDS
I
Specificat io ns Indicate technical and commercial requirements for a product Recommended Practices Provide instructions for pertorming a technical function
I
Codes Mandatory standards used by a [urisdictional body
Codes a re manda lory standards that IUlI'e bee n adopted hy a jurisdict ional body
A code is a type of standard that is mandatory and is used by a juri sdictional body. A code indicates what "shall" be done rather than what "may" be done . For example, ASME (Ameri can Society of Mecha nical Engineers) International administers the code for pressure piping. The code for pressure piping covers specific types of piping, such as for steam or petroleum products, and contains regulations for the design and fabrication of piping for the specific service catego ry to achieve safe and reliable operation.
Standards Development
Standards typ es include specifications. revonnnemled prac-
Two ('1}('S of activity in s tan dards c r eation art.' new standards development aml ex is ting sta n-
Standards are developed by standards committees, Standards committees consist of a balanced representation of producers, end users, and certain general interest groups to represent all interested parties. See Figure 45-2. Balanced representation ensures that standa rds are created that are acceptable to all representatives. Standards committees meet regularl y, generally every six months, to consider actions on standards for which they are respon sible . Actions on standard s include new standards deve lopment or revision of existing standards.
dards revision.
New Standards Development. New standards developm ent is initiated by task groups within standards committees. New standards deve lopment is a relatively slow and de liberate process. The
objective is to create documents that are acceptable to the majority of producers and end users whose businesses are affected by them . Task groups develop draft documents. Draft docum ents are the starting poiot for new standards . The applicable standards committee review s the draft document and suggestion s for improvement arc balloted by the comm ittee. Balloting is a forma l method of documenting and voting upon the reviewers' sugg estions. Once the draft document is revised according to the ballot , the task group is disbanded . Th e revised draft standard becomes the responsibility of the standards committee. See Figure 45-3. It is not necessary to ballot all reviewer s' sugges tions. For example, editorial content item s a nd nonrelevant technical suggestions are not necessarily balloted. Editorial content items are propo sed segments of a standard that do not affect technical co ntent. Nonrelevant techni cal suggestions are propo sed segments of a sta ndard which, although techni cal, are not within the scope of the standard. Several ballot s are usuall y required before a draft standard is ready for review out side the standards committee . Outside review is also done through balloting. Supplementary review(s) may result in the standard being returned to the comm ittee for further work, and so on.
640
Welding Skills
Figure 45-2. Standards committees cons ist of a balanced representation (~r!,mducers, end users, and certain general interest groups to represe nt aI/ interested pa rties.
I
Producers Require standards to produce or sell products End Users Require standards to conduct occupation
I
General Interest Groups Require standards to pursue technical or commercial developments or to protect the public
I
Standards Committee Authorizes task group
I
Task Group Develops draft document
I
Task Group Review Ballots to define and improve draft documents Reviews all suggested changes Develops draft standards
Ffgure 45-3. The objective of ne w standards development is the creation of docu ments that are acceptubie 10 the majority of prod ucers and users whose business is affected hy them.
Existing Standards Revision. Existing standards revision is the job of the responsihle committee . If necessary, responsibility may be transferred to another comm ittee more closely aligned with the contents of the standard.
Standards mu st be reviewed regu larly to maintain their relevance to current technical and commercial practic es. The formal time interval for standards review varies from two years to five years , although review may be carri ed out whene ver there is anythin g signifi cant to addre ss. The proce ss for existing standards revision is similar to that for new standards development. However, existing standards revision is usually confi ned to specifi c segments of the existing standard that may have become irrelevant or obsolete through chan ges in technical or commercial practices. The specific segments are revised and balloted . See Figure 45-4 . The balloting process for exi sting standards revision is mor e rapid than new standards development becau se fewer parts of the existin g standard are reviewed . If the entire standard is acceptable without changes, it is reissued as a reaffirmed standard. If the standard is mod ified , it is issued as a revised standard. Reaffirmed or revised standards carry the most curre nt date or revision numb er. The latest issue of any standard superce des pr eviou s issues. Thi s rule app lies to most, but not necessaril y all, standards. Work with the late st issue of any standard, unless oth erw ise direct ed .
Materials & Fabrication Standa rds & Codes :@: 64 1
Figu re 45-4.
ci.~/iflg
standards re-
segments ofWI existing standard that mav have become irrelevant or ob solete throug h cha nges ill technica l o r co mmercial practices.
r
Stand ard up for review
I
Sta ndard mark ed up with propo sed chang es
T
Disapprove Propo sed changes ballo ted Abstain Approve No acti on taken
Non-persuasive
~
Disapproval Withdrawn
p ersuasive
Committee votes on chang es
Disapproval Maintained
User Enquiry
A user enquiry is a formal procedure developed by standa rds committees and code -creating organizations to help users interpret issues and offer suggestions. The intent of all user enquiry procedure s is to maintain a channel of officia l comrnunication between a standard- or codewriting committee and end users on questions or problems arising from the use of a standard or code. User enquiry procedure s include scope, purpose , content, and proposed reply. Scope identifies the segment of the standard or code relevantto the enquiry. One item is addressed per enquiry. Purpose states the intent of the user enquiry-for example, to obt ain an interpretation of a code requireme nt or to request revision of a particular segment of a standard .
642 1 Weldillg Skills
Users who wish / 0 make recommendations fo r revisions to standards usually do so through an approved query fonn or data fO/1l1 supplied b)' the standardsorguniiatlon:
Content lists relevant paragraphs, figures, sketches, and tables in the code or standard that bear upon the user enquiry, with comp lete documentation to permit the standards committee to quickly and fully understand the enquiry. Technical justification must be provided if the user wants to obtain revision of the standard or code. Proposed reply to the user enquiry should be indicated when necessary. For example, when a revision of a particular segment of the standard is requested, the wording of a proposed revision must be supplied by the end user proposing the change.
The result of a user enquiry may be a temporary addendum to the standard or code to per mit usage of the suggested modification. Temporary adde nda contain a time limit for the proposed modification before it is formally balloted as a revision to the current version of the standard or code.
worldwide . ASTM intern ational standards used for base metals in welding contain information on the manufacturing practices and performance characteristics of ma te ria ls in various product forms such as plate, bar, pipe, and rod.
dards that (Ire appli cabl e in their home COW l/ I)' only. or, as in the case of ASTM lnterno tion al, th at have been adopted worldw ide.
ASfM International Standards Designation. The ASTM International standards designation is based on a letter-number combination, such as A36 or 8 315. If the standard is tentative (issued on a trial basis), the year is followed by the letter T. If the standard is revised a second time in the same year, the date is followed by the letter a. if it is revised a third time in the same year, the date is followed by the letter b, etc. If the standard is a metric equivalent of another standard, the serial number is followed by an M. A metric equivalent standard is a version of a standard in which all the units are indicated in metric (SI) values. See Figure 45-5. Embedded des ignations arc uni qu e material s identification s that are part of the standard. In most cases, an embedded designation must be coup led with ASTM International or ot her specification number to unique ly defi ne a mater ial. ASTM International and other materials standards usua lly refer to several different materials that are described by the prefix, grade, type, or class followed by a unique designation. For example, ASTM A 193 is a specification for alloy and stainless steel bo lting materials. However, to specify ASTM A I93 alone is not enough. ASTM A 193 incl udes embedded mate rials such as: Grade 87 (high-s trength, low-alloy steel) Grade 88 class I (304 annealed stainless steel) Grade 88 class 2 (304 cold worked stain less steel)
tI
.=
.~ groups write malerials sta ndards an d codes. but the largest set cf standanlsis produced by A.S7M lnternational (ASIM).
Variou s
industrv
ONE TO FOUR DIGIT NUMBER LETTER M INDICA/ ES METRIC VERSION / DASH LETTER INDICATING VERSION REVISED AGAIN IN SAME YEAR (a, b, C, etc)
A~TM
(1/1 (I
Unified Numbering System. The unified numbering system (UNS) is a common embedded designation system that unifies all families of metals and alloys. The UNS uniquely identifies the chemi cal composition of alloys that have been fixed by other specification bodies. If the alloy is proprietary (produced by a limited number of suppliers). the chemical compos ition is established by the producer. The UNS consists of a capital lettcr followed by five numbers, The capital lett er identi fies the a lloy famil y and. where possible. the live numbers are related to the pre-UNS designation of the alloy. See Figure 45-6.
disseminates information on cars. trucks. aircraft. space vehicles. marine equipment. and engines of all sizes. SAE and AMS standards are administered by SAE and describe quality levels required for end use. AMS standards generally contain the most stringent quality requ irements of any standards because tbey define the requirements for use in extremely critical services. AMS standards may be used in applications outside of the aerospace industry where stringent quality requirements j ustify the additional cost. For example. critical forgings for extreme cyclic (fatigue) applicatio ns may require materials manufac tured to AMS specifications because the high degree of internal cleanliness required of materials that meet AMS spec ifications ensures high fatigue resistance.
The Society of Automotive Engi neers (SAE) and Aerospace Material Specifications (AMS) follow standards for engineering material s used in on- and off-road vehicles. aircraft, and spacecraft. The SAE is a major source of technical information and expertise used in designing, building. maintaining. and operating self-propelled vehicles. whether land-, sea-, air-. or spacebased. SAE collects. organizes. stores. and
Vl9pNurr!lJlIr
Axxxxx
Cxxxxx
",.
TYPll of Melal ..
~ ." 4"'~
Exxxxx Fxxxxx
Gxxxxx
Hxxxxx Jxxxxx
Kxxxxx
Lxxxxx
Mxxxxx
Nxxxxx
Pxxxxx
Rxxxxx
Sxxxxx
Aluminum and Aluminum alloys Copper and Copper alloys Rare Earth and similar meta ls and alloys Cast Irons AISI and SAE Carbons and alloy Steels AISI and SAE H~Steels Cast Steels (except tool stee ls) Miscellaneous Steels and ferrous alloys Low meltina metals and alloys Miscellaneous nonferrous metals and alloys Nickel and Nickel alloys Precious metals and alloys Reactive and refractory metals and alloys, Heat and corrosion resistant steels (inc luding stainless) Valve Steels, and Iron-base "superalloys" Tool Steel s. wrought and cast Welding filler metals Zinc and Zinc alloys
Figure 45-6. The unified numbering system C0I1Si.I".\' of a capital let ter f ollowed by five nu mbers. The capita! lette r identifies the alloy jamily and the five numbers indicall' the pl"l ' UNS designation of the alloy.
Txxxxx Wxxxxx
Zxxxxx
AWS standards also cover welding consumables. Filler metals are one category of welding co nsumables. Must commercial filler metals are identified by an AWS designation . Whenever possible, welding consumabl es should be referred to by AWS designation s rather than commercial names. Welding consumable requirements are standardized by AWS in a series of spec ifications based on the material family. For example, AWS A5~ I describes standard carbon steel covered arc weldin g e le ctro des . Embedded weldin g consumables are identified by letter-number designations within each specification. AWS specifications indicat e ch ernical compositions of materials and mech anical properties of the deposited weld metal using standardized welding procedures in a specified joint detail to produce weld specime ns for testing. When required, specifi cations may also indicate other properties such as toughness or an acceptable amount of poros~ ity, Mo st specifications include usability parameters such as the weld position for which the filler metal is designed, welding current that should be used , and in
the case of covered electrodes, the type of coating. Size and packaging information is also pro vided. AWS publication FMC: Filler Metal Compari son Charts, lists commercial name s for AWS fi ller metal designations. See Figure 45 ~ 7 ~ The AWS identification of welding filler metals co ns ists of letters and numbers. The letters include R for rod , E for electrode, RB for rod or wire , and ER for electrode rod or wire. Rod is welding wire that is cut and straightened. Rod may be flux -coated or bare . Electrodes may be flux cored (tubular), con sisting of a metal sheath packed with fluxes and alloyin g cl em ent s. Flux es, when used separate ly from filler metals, are also c lassified. Sinc e the welding con sumable identifications embedded within AWS spec ifications are unique, they are often referred to without their spec ificatio n number , such as E70l8 or ER3 0 8 ~
E6010
SOURCE AIR UQUIDE CANADA INC.
Aireo Filler Metals
PRODUCT LA 6010 AFM 60 10 AWA6010 EASYARC 10, EASYARC 10+ AS S-6010 Thyssen Cel 70, Bohler Fox Cel CARBO RC 3 CHAMPION E6010 CELLUTHERME West Area XL-6l0, ZIP 10-T, West Hode 600/10 Pipeweld 6010 SUREWELD 10-P, SUREWELD AP-l00 Cellocord P, PT FON E 51 A. FON E 51 AT HILCO Pipeweld 6010 PIPEMASTER 60 S-6010 D INDURA 6010 WELD NAmui.... m W~lJing Sociny
American Filler Metals Company American Welding Alloys Arcweld Products, Ltd. Askaynak Kaynak Teknigi Sanayi Ticaret A.S. Bohler Thyssen Welding USA, Inc.
CARBO-WELD Schweissmaterial1en GmbH
Ind
Iding Cor
Figure 457. AWS puhticution FMC: Filler Metal Comparison Charts, lists commercial names for AWS filler metal designations.
ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code materi als utilize selected ASTM and AWS specifications for base metals and welding consumables, but with minor changes to those specifications where they are too broad for boiler and pressure vessel applications. ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code -appro ved material s and welding consumables are assigned the prefix letter S to indicate approval. Only ASM E Co de- approve d materials and welding consumables may be used for fabrication or repair of equipment built to the ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
646 ~ Welding Skills
ASM E Pressure Piping Code materials carry ASTM and AWS specificati on s for b ase met al s and we ldi ng con surnable s, re spe cti vel y. Spec ific ASME press ure piping codes indicate which ASTM and AWS specifications are approved. The ASME International Boiler and Pres sure Vessel Code con sists of l l Sections. Each Section covers aspects of design. fabrication and inspection. care and operation. materials specifi cation s, non de str ucti ve te stin g. and we ld ing and brazing qualificat io ns . Som e Section s co ns ist of sub-pa rts known as Divisions.
The ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is unique in that it requires third-party inspection independent of the fabricator and the user. Inspectors are commissioned by examination by the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NB). These authorized inspectors (AI) are employed by inspection agencies such as insurance compa nies or jurisdictional authorities. Users who are qualified to carry out pressure vessel fabrication and repair submit applications to have their own third-party inspectors, or owner-user inspectors. A company must exhibit a quality control system and quality manual before fabricating a boiler or pressure vessel. The quality control system is audited by the authorized inspection agency and either the jurisdictional authority or the National Board. Based on successful audit of the fabricator's quality system, ASME International may issue the fabricator a Certificate of Anthorization and a code symbol stamp. The authorized inspection agency is involved in monitoring fabrication and field erection of boilers and pressure vessels. The AI must be satisfied that all applicable provisions of the ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code have been followed before allowing the fabricator to apply its code symbol stamp to the vessel nameplate. Manufacturers and contractors who regularly build or install pressure vessels or pressure piping are required to have an ASME International symbol stamp, indicating they have been approved by ASME International as an authorized manufacturer of the type of equipment specified. Symbol stamps consist of letters designating the type of construction permitted.
Specificationfor Drill Pipe, coversdrillpipe. Casing is used to structurally restrain the walls of oil wells or gas wells, to exclude undesirable fluids, and to confine oil or gas to subsurface layers. Tubing is used within the casing of oil wells to conduct oil and gas to ground level. API 5CT, Specification for Casing and Tubing, covers casing and tubing. Line pipe (transmission pipe) is welded or seamless pipe used principally for conveying gas and oil. API 5L, Specification for Line Pipe, covers line pipe.
:0
647
Figure -15-8. The Canadian SUmdards Asso c iation (CS A) develops standards and certification require mefll .{ used thn mgllOlil CUII(U/('.
CANADIAN STANDARDS
Number
CSA W47.1 CSAW47.2 CSAWl17.1 CSAW178 CSA W55.3 CSA S244 CSAW59 C SA W48 CSA W 186
Title
"Certification of Companies for Fusion Welding of Steel Structures" "Aluminum Welding Qualification Code"
"C ode for Safety in Welding and Cutting (Requirements for Welding Operato rs)"
"Qualification Code for Weldin lnsoecfion Oroanizat ions" "Resistance Welding Qualification Code for Fabricators of Structural Members Used in Buildings " "Welded Aluminum Design andWorkmanship (Inert Gas Shielded Arc Process)"
"Welded Stee l Construction (Metal Arc Welding)" "Weldino Electrodes"
European st andards are produced by the European Standards Council (CEN ) and are known as Euronorms. Euronorm s ha ve the prefi x le tte rs EN. Euronorms replace the standards of the individual countries of the European Community with s ing le document s for specific items suc h as vario us ba se me ta ls and filler metals .
for low-carbon ste e l in a part to be we lded may lead to fai lure becau se the pre sence of sulfur or se leni um in the free-machining steel leads to hot cracking. The spec ified base metal and filler metal type s indicated in welding proce dure qualifi cation record s must be used . w ith no substitutions .
STANDARDS COMPARISON
Standard
*
Type
Tit(El
Description
Resistance welded Slight ly higher car bon contact than Grade A Not to fine-grain steelmaking practice Seamless Balanc e of strength and welda bllity Made to fine-gra in stee lmaking pract ice
Uses
ASTM A53
"Pipe, Stee l, Black and Hot Dipped , Spec ificat ion Zinc Coa ted , We lded and Seamless" "Seamless Ca rbon Stee l Pipe for Specification High -Temp erature Service"
ASTM A106
Grade B
Cr itical service
Certification
A certification is a notarized statement provided by a supplier verifying that a product meets the specification under which it is sold. Certification types include mill test report, product analysis, certificate of compliance, and filler metal approval. A mill test report (MTR), or certificate of analysis (COA), is certification issued by the primary manufacturer (mill) verifying the chemical analysis and mechanical test properties of stock obtained from a starting ingot or billet of metal. The MTR is reviewed when the order is received. An MTR allows the receiver to check that the materials meet specifications. MTRs do not cost extra when requested in the original purchase order. Product analysis is supplementary certification that a partic ular product form is fabricated from a specific billet of metal. Produ ct ana lysis is performed on item s such as tubing or pipe fittings to ensure that substitutions have not been made d uring processing of the metal. Testing procedures for product ana lysis are usually destructive, and components that are tested in order to generate a product analysis must be discarded . Product ana lyses may be included in the certifi cation as a supp lemental require men t in ASTM spec ifications at addi tional cost. Product ana lyses are req uired only at the discretion of the user. A certificate of compliance (CaC) is a statement that a material meets the specifications to which it was purchased.
A certificate of compliance ha s little value un less the supp lier has an acceptable quality program that verities that the acce ptance steps are valid and have been performed. Filler metal approval is the process of testi ng samples of as-received filler metal to certify confo rmance to a specification, An approved inspector witnesses we lding of test plates using electrodes se lected at random and mechanical property tests carried out on sam ples of the test we ldmcnts.Approvals are granted for filler metals based on the results of the tests . The approved inspector places the approved product on a qualifi ed prod ucts list (QPL). Retention of filler metal on the approved lists ma y be subject to annua l tests. Filler metal approvals inclu de covered electrodes; submerged arc electrode wire with flu x co mbinations; and flux cored arc we lding electro des with gas combinations.
A certification is a
notarized statement
that a materia! meets
specifications.
A mill test report is a ce rtification tha t provides results of chemical l1IuJ me chnnical propert y tests to indicate the
ma teria! meets specijications.
MTR Segments
MTR segmen ts indicate the conformance of a material to the standard. The se include chem ical analysi s, m echanica l properties, met hod of manu facture, and spec ial requirements. Eac h MTR segment is c hecked aga inst the standard it refere nces to ens ure the materials are as specified . Incoming materials are examined to ensu re that their mark ings and dimensions conform to the standard.
Materials & Fabrication Standards & Codes :: 649
When required by codes or standa rds, it is necessar y to ve rify that received material s co nform to the rele vant MTR or product analysis. MTRs and product analyses are turned over to the responsible organi zatiun after verificatiun or maintained on file. Sec Figure 45 -10 . To verify conformance to the MTR or prod uct anal ysis, follo w the procedure: I . Verify that heal number(s) match the heat numbers recorded on the materi al s. 2. Ver ify that the che mical compositions are within the limitation s indicated by the materials specification. 3. Verify that mechanical properties arc within the limitations indicated by the materials specific ation. 4. Verify that special tests and supplementary requirements co nform to the material s spec ification.
Figure 45-1t). When required hy codes or standards, it is necessary 10 ver({y that received materials conform 10 the rete vans MTR or product analvsis.
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.
Mill Test Report
'Ma terial Test Report J .J . Metals Com pa ny Houston, TX Reference Number : Date: 02J08I2003 Cuslome r Name: SCorerite Fillin gs. Inc. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ItemDala - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - nem Descripl~on Heat Code Heal Number 1 150 lap JOInt SA 1Q5 4H7 3891 7 \..!.I
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Si
Mn
P
0,009
S
001
Cr
1lO
A1
Cu
Ni Mo
0,120 0020
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CE
0.034 02 40
Tensile Sirengttl
Eloog .
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6830
R,d
Hardness
soot
Pounds
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46.110
74.675
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150-1 60
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1. 2. 3. 4.
heat numbers match heat numbers on material chemica l compos ition conforms to materials specif ication mechanical properti es conform to materials specification special tests and supplementary requirements conform to material s specification
Figure 45-11. Secondary verification consists of supplementary inspection techniques and may include verification of the marking or tab 0 11 each pie ce of filler metal, the filler metal diameter, and if required for critical applications, supplementa ry chemical analysis.
1. Certification
Verify box description matches order exactly. Product must be labeled with manufacturer, heat (or lot) number, address Verify description on body or tab conforms to specified AWS identification. Container must be properly sealed Verify correct diameter X-ray fluorescence (XRF)"
2. Appearance
3. Measurement 4. Chemistry
* if applicable
tank leakage or rupture may lead to significant loss of life and property damage . Pressure vessel and storage tank codes are written for the fabrication of boilers and pressure vessels, nuclear plants, storage tanks, and compressed gas containment systems. Additional in-service inspection and repair codes address repair of boilers, pressure vessels, and storage tanks that have been . . In service. Boilers and Pressure Vessels. Boilers and pressure vessels, and items classified as pressure vessels, such as heat exchangers, must meet the requirements of the ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code in their design and fahrication. Many countries outside the USA and Canada recognize and accept the ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, but an equal number of other countries accept only their own national code. A Manufacturing Data Report (MDR) is a legal document signed by the representatives of the manufacturer and the manufacturer's authorized inspection agency. An MDR certifies that all details ofdesign, material,construction, and workmanship conform to the ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Fabrication stan dards and codes may be grouped into pressure vessels and storage tanks, piping systems. construction, transportation, and machinery.
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Pre ssurr vesse l fab rication requirements are 1)1'ically co vered under the ASME Internationa! Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
A WARNING
Ac ids sho uld be handled in accordance with written procedures to prevent personal injury and equipment damage .
Man y states require that an ASM E symbol stamped pressure vessel be registe red with the Nati on al Board. The pressure vessel is ass igned a number, known as the National Board number. The Natio nal Board number is shown on the MDR and o n the vesse l name plate. The manu facturer sends two copies of the MDR to the National Board, which keep s one on file and sends the othe r to the state whe re the pre ssure vessel will be installed. A pressure vessel loses its ASME Interna tional Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code identity if the MDR is missing and cannot be replaced. or if the nameplate is obliterated. Depending on the j urisdictional authority, such a vessel may need to be replaced. A nameplate must always be clearly visible. With an insulated vessel, a cutout should be made to ensure visibility. Do not paint over a nameplate or otherwise obliterate it. Information should be resto red to a nameplate should it be removed or otherwise de leted. The acid etc hing tec hnique often reveals information that has been stamped on sheet metal. The acid etching techniqu e co nsists of grinding. etching, and neutralizing. Stamped information is revealed using a pencil grinder to very lightly grind the surface of the nameplate to reveal the information.
To etch a surface, the vessel is gently swabbed with a suitable acidic solution. After etching, excess acid is neutralized and removed by thoroughly flushing the surface with water. Sufficient water must flow over the surface to remove all traces of acid both from the nameplate and from the surface of the equipment. By alternating grind ing and etching, the nameplate stamping is made readable again. It may be nece ssary to experiment with the acid etching technique using a piece of a luminum or stain less stee l sheet meta l containing stamped ide ntificat ions. The acid etching techn iq ue is a viable method of restori ng damaged stamped ide ntification tags on motors. tanks, and other item s of equi pment. Repairs to boile rs and pressure vessels are covered by in-ser vice inspection and repair cod es, National Boa rd Inspection Code (NB IC), or API 510. dependin g on which code is recognized by the state in which the work is done . The purpo se of in-ser vice inspection and repair codes is to mainta in the integrity of pressure boilers and pressure vessels after they have been placed in service by provid ing rules and guidelines for inspection after installation. repa ir, alteratio n, and rer ating. Alteration is any repair that does not restore a mech anica l co mpo nent to its origi nal de sig n. Reratin g is revision of the allowab le design parameters of a mechanical componen t from the original design arising from forma l study of its curren t condition. Rerating a pressure vessel results in changes to the design pressure and temperature, which must be recorded on the nameplate. Any welding done on the pre ssure boundary of a pressure vessel is subject to the requirements of the applicab le inservice inspection and rep air code . A pre ssur e boundary is a physical envelope that contain s the working pressure of a piece of eq uipment. Welding in a plug or perform ing a weld repair to a heat exc hanger tube-to- tubes heet j oint is classified as a pressure vesse l repair
becau se it involv es welding directl y on a pr essure boundary of the heat e xchange r. See Figure 45- 12. Rep air organizat ions that make repairs or alterations wi ll usuall y have an " R" or " NR" symbo l stamp iss ued by the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
a failure , nuclear plant codes impose the strictes t certi ficati on req uire me nts o n materials and the traceabil ity of all ma terials to the point of origin. Storage Tanks. Storage tank s co nsist of aboveground storage tank s and elevated storage tank s. Abo veground storage tank s usuall y contain various fluid s, suc h as petrol eum product s and chemical so lutions. and usuall y rest on a concrete slab or dunnage. Dunnage is a series of steel I-beam s parallel to one another. Elevated storage tanks contain wat er, and ma y co ntain petrol eum produ cts, and rest on stee l towers. A ll storage tank cod es and sta nd ards refe r to Sectio n IX o f th e ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for we lding qualifica tion. Abo veground storage ta nks are designed and fabricated based on the pressure of the tank. API ST D 620 , Design lind Construction (if Large. Welded, Lo w Pressure Storage Tanks, covers the design and construction of field-weld ed pressure tanks used for storage of petroleum intermediates and finished products und er a pressure of 15 psig or less (low pressure). API STO 650, Welded Steel Tanks fo r Oil Storage. covers the material. design . fabricati on , erec tion. a nd testin g requirements for vertical, cylindrical welded steel storage tanks that are above grou nd and not subject to internal pressure. Fabrication requirements for elevated stee l tanks are described in th e jo int American Wate rwork s A ssociatio n (AWWA) and Am erican National Standards Institute (ANSI) ANSIIAWWA D I DO, Standardjor Welded Steel Tanksfor ""lfer Storage. TIle joint standard provides a purchase specification to facilit ate the manufacture and procurernent of welded steel tanks for the storage of water. Aboveground storage tank repair is covered in in-service inspe c tion and repair code API STD 653, Tallk Inspection, Repair. A/teration. and Reconstruction. API 653 is based on accumulated knowledge of owners, manufacturers, and repairers of steel storage tanks. API 653 provides guidance in the inspecti on , repai r, alteration, and
Materials & Fabrication Standards & Codes ::@: 653
"'iJ,::url' 4512. Repairs made to /I 11m! exchanger tube to.rubesheet joint are classified as pres.mre vessel repain because they involve wel d ing di rectly 0 11 a
prr ssurr boundary of the heu t exchanger:
Nuclear Plants. Nuclear plant co mponents such as nuclear reactors and materials used in nucl ear plants are cove red by the pro vision s o f Section III of the ASM E Intern ational Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the Nuclear Regulatory Co mmission Specification, Quality Assu ra nce Criteria [or Nu cl ear Pow er
reconstruction of steel aboveground storage tanks used in the petroleum and chemical industries. Welding requirements are based on equivalence standard API 650. Compressed Gas Equipment. The Compressed Gas Association (CGA) develops compressed gas equ ipment standar ds . CGA C-3, Standards for Weldillg 0 11 ThinWalled, Steel Containers, covers welding requirements in the manufacture and repair of Departmen t of Tra nsportatio n (Oaf) compressed cylinders.
Repair, Alteration, and Rerating of 111Servi ce Piping Sys tems. API 570 is also applicahle to AS ME B31 .3, Pro cess Piping, and other pressure piping code sec tions. API 570 establishes requirements and guidelines that allow ow ners and users of pipi ng systems to maintain the safety and integrity of the piping systems that have been placed into service. All repair and alteration welding must be done in accorda nce with ASME B3 1.3, or the code to which the piping system was built.
Piping Systems
Piping sys tems, like pressure vesse ls, may transport flamm able, toxic, or corrosive liquid s. Piping systems are usually mor e susce ptible to ca tas tro phic failure co nse quences compared with pressure vesse ls or tanks becau se piping systems contai n many joints and often con sist of long exposed run s that may be subject to mech anical abu se . Piping system design , fabrication, and repair are co vered by codes that encom pass pressure pipin g, line piping, and water pipin g. Pressure Piping, Pressure piping in thermal and nuclear power plants, refineries. and chemical plants is designed and fabricated in accordance with ASME B31, Code for Pressure Piping. Pressure piping is usually medium - to thick-wall (described by schedule) and medium- to large-size (described by diameter). The ASME Code for Pressure Piping is divided into seven Sections applicable to different end-use categories of pressure plp mg. Wel din g proced ures and qu al ifications vary acco rding to the applica ble Section of the ASME Code for Pressure Piping. Welding procedures and qualifications are generally in accordance with Section IX of ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code unless other codes or qualification s are referred to. Pressure piping repair is covered by in-service inspection and repair code API 570 , Piping Insp ection Code: Insp ection, 654 @o Wl'!dillg Skills
Line Piping (Cross Country Piping). Line piping co ns ists of tran sm ission and distr ibution pipin g that tran sport s fuel gases. crude petroleum, and pet roleum products. Transmission piping is medium - to high -st rength steel, relatively thin -wall and large-di amete r, and conveys produ cts fro m locations of producti on to intermediate faciliti es. Distribution p ipillg is ca rbon- steel, standard-si ze pip e of sma ll diameter that conveys produ cts from intermediate faciliti es to co nsumers. Tran smi ssion pipin g welding re quires spec ial techn iques and procedures and is gove rned by API 1104. API 1104 applies to arc welding and oxyfuel weldin g of piping used in the co mpression, pumpin g, and transmission of fuel gases , crude petroleum, and petroleum products. API 1104 prese nts methods for the production of accep table welds by qu al ified we lde rs using quali fied we lding proced ures, mate ria ls, an d equipmen t. It also co ntains acce ptability standards and standards for repair of weld defects. API I 104 also applies to distribution piping where applicable. Line piping repair and maintenance are covered in API Recommended Practice 1107. The primary purpose of API Recommended Practice 1107 is safety. It prohibits unsafe practices and warns against practi ces for which caution is necessary. API Recomm ended Practice 1107 includes methods for the inspection and repair of welds. and for installin g appurtenanc es on loaded piping systems.
Water Piping. Water piping is made of low -carbon steel. AWWA C206: Field Welding of Steel llilter Pipe, covers the welding o f circumferenti al joints as well as the fabrication and installation of specials and accessories, Th e ma ximum thickness of piping covered by AWWA C206 is 1\".
supplementary rules applicable to statica lly load ed struc tures , dynamically loaded structures, and tubul ar structures. Sheet Metal. Sheet metal is metal that is lis" th ick or less, corresponding to a gauge number of II or higher. The higher the number, the thinner the gauge. Under norma l manual or se miauto matic welding conditions, sheet metal as thin as .0 35" o r rou ghl y 20-gauge ca n be welded. There are two sheet metal we lding codes, which apply to structural and nonstructural app lications,
Construction
Cons truc tio n ap plica tio ns of welding encompass structural steel and aluminum used for buildings and highway bridges; reinforcing stee l for concrete; and sheet meta l. Welded j oint types and confi gurations in co nstruc tion applications are critical to the integrity of the component. Ca tastrophic failure may cau se loss of life, injury, and costly related damage. Structural Steel. Structural steel fabrication practices for construct ing buildin gs and edifi ces are co mprehensively regulated to prevent unsafe conditions during or after cons tru ction. St eel bui ldin gs welded in most cities in Nort h America are covered by codes and specifications. Many large cities publish their own specific co des, while others fo llow AWS D 1.1 , Stru ctural Welding Code-Stee l. AWS Dl.I covers welding requirements for any type of welded structure made from commonl y used ca rbon and low-alloy structural steels. AWS D 1.I does not apply to base metals less than 1/8 " thick. Additionally, it contains allowable unit stresses, structural details, workmanship standards, inspection procedure s, and acceptance criteria. AWS D 1.I contains section s devoted exclu sivel y to buildings (static loading), bridges (dynamic loading), and tubular structures. Structural Aluminum. Structural aluminum is used for its lightn ess coupled with its stre ngth and atmos phe ric corrosion resi stance. Welding requirements for structural aluminum are co ntained in AWS D 1.2, Stractural Welding CodeAluminum. AWS DI.2 contains general rules for the regula tion of welding in aluminum cons truc tio n plu s additio nal,
Th~
AlVS DJ .I. Structura l Weld ing Code- Steel. contains sections devoted excl usively to buildings.
AWS DI .3, Structural Welding CodeShee t Stee l, covers require me nts for we lding shee t stee l having a min imum specifi ed yield point no greater than 80 ksi. AWS DI.3 covers sheet steel with or without zinc coat ing (galvanizing). The weldin g may invol ve connecti on s o f sheet or strip steel to thicker support ing structural members, in which case provisions of AWS DI.I , Structural Welding Code-Steel, also apply. AWS D9.1 , Sheet Met al Weldin g Code, covers nonstructural sheet metal req uirem ents. AWS D9 .1 provides requirements for welding carbon stee l,
Materials & Fabri cation Standards & Codes @; 655
low-alloy stee l, austenitic and ferritic stainless steel, aluminum, copper, and nickel allo y sheet steels. AWS D9. I provid es requirements for non structura l fabrication and erection of sheet meta l by weldin g and braze welding for heating, ventilating , and a ir conditioning systems; architectural usage; food processing equipment; and similar application s. Where differenti al air pressure s of more than 120" (30 kPa) of water or structural requirements are involved other standards are to be used . ' Reinforcing Steel. Reinforcing steel is high-carbon steel rod used to reinforce concrete for structural applications and is manufactured to ASTM A6 15. AWS D1.4, Structural Weldillg Code - Reinforcing Ste el, covers requirements for welding reinforcing steel in most reinforced concrete app licatio ns. AWS D 1.4 contains regulations for welding reinforcing steel, and provides acceptable criteria for such welds. Highway Bridges. High way brid ge welding is under the jurisdiction of the stale or provincial department of transportation, either by refere nce to, or by direct copy of AWS D I.5, Bridge We/ding Code. AWS D 1.5 is a joint standard of the American Associat ion of State Highway and Tran spo rtation Officials (AAS HTO) and the AWS. AWS DI.5 cov ers w eldin g requirement s for AASHTO welded highway bridges made from carbon and low-alloy steels. Failurecritical members of a bridge may require spec ial standards of welded workmanship only by organi zations bavin g the proper per sonnel , ex perie nce , procedures, knowledge, and equipm ent. A fa ilure-critical member is a tension member or component wbose failure would likely result in collap se of the structure. Many states supplement the AASHTO and AWS requirements with tbeir own additio nal standards. Some states require welder s to be examined year ly and be certified by tbe state to work on bridges . Some slates maintain rosters of certified welders.
656 ~ Wdding Skills
Transportation
Tb e transportat ion indu stry repre sent s a di verse set of end use s for welded products. Welded joints in tra nsportalion equipment are subject to ten sile , compressive , torsi onal , bending, and shear stresses, in add ition to fati gu e stresses because of loadin g and mot ion. Transport ation welding is not as regulated as weldin g in other industry segments, wi tb the exception of ce rta in typ es of tran sport ation where there is significant opportunity for catastrophe in the event of failure. Tran sportation weldin g standards and codes co ver automobi les and trucks, railroad cars and locomotives. aircraft and aero space vehicles, ships and barges. shipping containers, and underwater welding . Automobiles and Trucks. Automobi le and truck welding is usually carried out by resistance we lding and robotic arc welding. See Figure 45- I3. For high product ion rates suc h as automo bile and truck subassemb lies, multiple spot welding machines are used. Welding specifications for resistance and arc welding are covered in joint standards created by the SAE and tbe AWS. AWS Recommended Practice D8.7, Automotive Weld Qualit}~ Resistance Spot WeldinK. covers quality requirements for resistance spot welding of common automoti ve sheet steel systems, excluding high-strength low-alloy steel. AWS D8.8, A uto moti ve Fram es Weld Quality- Arc We/dillK defines practical tolerance s for good fit-up in order to achieve satisfactory weld quality in automotive structural parts j oined by roboti c we lding . Metal stampings and press-formed parts must be made to produce weld joint fit-up within tbe allowances of the specification. Railroad Cars and Locomotives. Repair of railroad cars and locomotives is in accordance with AWS DI5. 1, Railroad We/dillg Specification- Cars and Locomotives. AWS D 15. 1 is join tly deve loped with the Association of Amer ican Railroads (AAR) . Part [ covers specific
requirement s for welding in the railroad industry. Part II covers specific req uirements for we ld ing on railroad freight cars oth er than tank car s. Welding on freight cars is performed as required in Part I exce pt as specifically detail ed in Part II. T he rules for welding on tank s in tank ca rs are co vered by the ASME Intern at ional Boiler and Pressur e Vessel Cod e. Part III of AWS 015.1 cove rs specific requirements for welding locomotive s with em phasis on the we lding of base metals less than '18" thick.
U ,I'l/ -
Aircraft and Aerospace Vehicles. The United States Dep artment of De fen se (DOD) standard. MIL-ST D-195, Qualificatio ns of Aircraft. Missile, and Aerosplice Fusion Welders. establi shes the procedure for we lders and welding operators engaged in the fabrication of component s I(Jr aircraft, missiles, and other aerospace equipment by fusion weldin g processes. T he standa rd is applicabl e when requ ired in the contracting docu ments, or when invoked in the absence of a specified welder qualification document. MIL -STD -195 covers many weldin g proce sses, metal s, and level s of proficiency for testing welders. Qua lification to this standard is performed under th e su pe rv is io n o f gov ern me nt inspec tors . Ships and Barges. Ship and barge we lding req uirement s are cove red by jurisdi cti on s o r insu rance co mpa nies . T he Am eri can Bureau of Shipping (A BS)
issue s Rules fo r Building lind Classing Steel Vessels. one section of which cov ers welding requireme nts. These rules are required for ships registered and insured in the United States. ABS also approves specific we ld ing consumabl es in Ap proved Welding: Electrodes, Wire-Flux, and Wire-Gas Combinati ons. Man y insurance co mpanies also publish spec ifications that cover welding. All United States fede ra l gove rnment vessels arc covered by codes issued by the U.S . Co ast Guard or the Navships Division, Departm ent of Defense. Their requirements are covered, respectivel y, in Marine Engine ering Regulations, subchapt er F, Part 57 , Weldin g and Brazing ; and Fabrication. Welding. and Inspection of Ships Hulls. Navship s 0900-000-1000 . AWS 0 3.5, Guide for Steel Hull Welding, provides information on practical methods to weld stee l hull s for ships, barges, mobil e offshore dri lling unit s, and other marine vessels. The guide pro vides information on weldability of steel plates , shapes, ca stin gs, and for gin gs. Hull con struction is discussed in term s of preparation of materials, erection and fitting, and distortion contro l. AWS 0 3.7, Guide for Aluminum Hull Welding. provides infonnation on we ldin g aluminum hull s and re la ted ship structures. It applies chielly to the we lding of aluminum hulls that are over 30' in length and made of sheet and plate 0/16" thick or more. The d istinction is made because there are different requirements for weldin g thin (less than 0/'6" ) and thick (greater than \4" ) aluminum. Shipping Containers, Shipping co ntainers are used to transport gas under high pressure and for tanks carrying liquid petroleum and similar products. The fabrication of shipping containers is under strict regulation because of the serious consequen ces of failure . Th e United State s Governm ent publishes the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), which includes standards that govern the fabrication o f s hi p ping con ta iners . T he applicable standards are 49 CF R 178.345,
Mater ials & Fabricati on Standa rds & Codes
>= 657
General Design and Construction Requirements; and 49 CFR 178.337Specification MC 331, Cargo Tank Motor Vehicles. Underwater Welding. Underwater welding can be performed in wet or dry environments. Wet underwater welding (welding in the wet) is done under fully immersed conditions and produces relatively poor quality welds that are intended fur temporary applications. Dry underwater welding (welding in the dry) is achieved by creating a local underwater environment frcc of water in which to perform welding. High quality welds arc possible with dry underwater welding. See Figure 45- 14. AWS 03.6, Specification [or Underwater Welding, covers the requirements for wet and dry underwater welding. Weld quality categories (classes) arc linked to weld quality requirements. Class A is for welds comparable in quality to above-water welding. Class B is for less critical applications. Class C is
for applications where load bearing is not a primary consideration. Class 0 is for when it is necessary to meet the requirements of another designated code or specification.
Welders who want 10 advance in the underwater welding field must currently be or become trained, certified divers.
Heavy Machinery
Heavy machinery is subject to rotation, vibration, sudden (impact) or slow application of large loads, and load reversals (fatigue). There are no codes that cover welding of heavy machinery. However, AWS publishes standards that cover the welding of overhead cranes and material handling equipment, machine tools, earthmoving and construction equipment, and rotating equipment. AWS standards for heavy machinery welding indicate minimum requirements for welded fabrication of the types of equipment covered.
Figure 45-14. Hi{?h quality welds are possible with dry underwater
welding,
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658 0
Welding Skills
Overhead Cranes and Material Handling Equipment. Overhead cranes and material handling equ ipment weldin g uses plate girder s and other welded plate structures rather than rolled beams normally used in fabri cating s tee l for bridges and huildings. Overhead cranes and material handling equipment are subject to vibration and moving loads. Service conditions and the associated fully reversihle loading to which cranes and equipment are exposed results in a large number of load cycles in a relatively short period and local bending stresses of sig nifica nt levels. AWS D 14.1, Specification fo r Welding Industrial Mill Cranes and Other Mat erial Handling Equipment, covers base metals, filler metal s, joint de sign s, and qualification of weld ers and welding operators who work on overhead cranes and material handling equipment. Machine Tools. Machine tool welding is covered in AWS DI4.2, Specification J{Jr Metal Cuttin g Machine Tool Weldments, which detail s requirements for the manufacture and repair of machine tool components. including structur es and ca stin gs, Filler metal s are recommended for the applicable base
metals and include carbon steels, lowalloy steels, and a uste nitic sta inless steels. Joint designs and unit stresses are provided for fillet and groove welds.
Earthmoving and Construction Equipment. Earthmoving and construction equipment we lding is covered in AWS DI4.3, Specification for Welding Earthmoving and Construction Equip ment, which applies to all structural welds used in such equipment. AWS D14.3 reflects welding practices used by manufacturers within the industry and incorporate s various methods that have been prov en successful by individual manufacturers. No restrictions are placed on the use of any welding process or procedure, pro vided the weld produced meets the qualification requirements of the specification. Rotating Equipment. Rotating equipment welding, such as on fans, pumps, and cnmpressors, is covered in AWS D 14.6, Specification J{Jr Welding of Rotating Elements of Equipment. The standard covers base metals; welding processes: filler metals; welding procedur e and performance quafification; fabrication requirements; inspection and quality control; and modification and repair.
I. Materials standards and codes are developed by consensus (agreement) among parties representing producers, end users, and general interest groups. 2. Codes are mandatory standard s that have been adopted by a jurisdictional body. 3. Standard s types include specifi cations, recommended practices, and codes. 4. Two types of activity in standards creation are new standards development and existing standards
reVI SIOn .
5. Various industry groups write materials standards and code s, but the largest set of standards is produced by ASTM International (ASTM). 6. Standard s pertaining to welding are published by AWS and cover welding processes, filler metals, and health . 7. Purchase orders for materials refer to applicable materials standards and codes. 8. A certification is a notarized statement that a material meets specification s. 9. A mill test report is a certification that provides results of chemical and mechanical property tests to indicate the material meets specifications. 10. Fabrication standards and codes may be grouped into pressure vessels and storage tanks, piping systems, construction, transportation, and machinery.
I. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. II . 12.
What types of groups must interact in order to create an effective industry standard? What is the difference between a specification and a recommended practice ? What is the difference between a standard and a code? What organization is the largest source of materials standards? Explain each of the components for an ASTM material designated as A193-97 grade B7 (i.e., A, 193, 97, and grade B7). Why is it necessary to indicate not only the ASTM standard number for a material but also the embedded grade, type, or class? What are the AWS prefixes for rod, electrode, rod or wire, and electrode rod or wire? How is an ASM E material identified compared with an equivalent ASTM material? How is an ASME filler metal identified compared with an equivalent AWS material? What is the difference between a certifica tion and a mill test report? Does a certificate of compliance provide numerical information on analysis or properties of a material? What type of information is contained in a manufacturing data report for a pressure vessel?
pp ndix
Standard Weld ing Terminology Master Chart of Welding and Joining Proc esses Master Chart of Allied Processes AWS Welding Symbol Cha rt-Basic Weld ing Symbols AWS Welding Symbol Cha rt-Typ ic a l Welding S ymbols Misc ellaneous Weld Defects Potential Effects of Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres Weld Defect Evaluation Guide Nondestructive Exa mination NDE Examination Symbol Spark Chart Brinell Hardn ess Numbers Low-Alloy, High -Strength Electrodes Unit Prefixes Welding Symbol Electrode Selection Chart Rockwell Hardn ess Conversion Table Millimeter a nd Dec imal Inch Equivalents Welding Procedure Specific ation Proc ed ure Qua lification Rec ord Perfo rma nce Qualification T est Record AISI-SAE Designation System ASTM Specifications for Chrome-Moly Steel Products Decimal Inch Eq uivalents List of Microetchants Numeric al List of Etch ants Letter Sizes Pipe Fittings a nd Va lves Drilled Holes Drill Sizes Standard Series Threads-Grad ed Pitches Preferred Metric Screw Threads
66 1
662
663 664
665
666
667 667 668 670 670 670 671 671 671 672 672
673
674 675 676 678
679
680 680 68 1 682
683
684 685 685 686 686
. . '.. ...
.
Gas weld ing Stick we lding TIG welding MIG welding Short arc Spray arc
jij~ ,
... .
0/
.
0/
...
...
Arc gap, electrode gap Arc gas Back-upbar Blowhole, gas pocket, or worm hole Burn-through Cap pass Cold lap Contacttube Cup or gas cup Downhand Edge-flange we ld Fill pass or filler pass Filler bead Flame cutting or gas cutting Ground clamp, Welding ground, or work connection Grou nd lead or work lead Included angle Joint opening Land Machine welding Metallizing Molten weld poo l Nondestru ctive evaluation or Nondestructive testing Parent metal Postweld heat treatment Puddle or we ld oudc le Root gap Shoulder Shrinkage stress Skip weld Silver soldering Softsolder Hard solder Suck- back Vertical down Vertical up Wash pass
Arc length Orifice gas Backing or backing bar Porosity Melt-thr ough Cover pass Incomplete fusion Contact tip Gas nozzle Flat position welding Edge weld in a flanged butt joint Intermediate weld pass Intermediate weldbead Oxygen cutting
Workpiece connection Workpiece lead Groove angle Root opening Rootface Mechanized welding Thermal spraying We ld pool Nondestructive examination Base metal Posth eating We ld pool Root opening Root face Residual stress Intermittent weld Brazing Solder Brazing filler metal Unde rtill Downhill Uphill Cover pass
RESISTANCE WELplNG IRWl flash welding pressure-controlled resistance welding projection welding resistance seam welding highfrequency seam welding induction seam welding mash seam welding resistance spot welding upset welding high-frequency induction FW RW-PC PW RSEW RSEW-HF RSEW-I RSEW-MS RSW UW UW-HF UW-I
SOLDERING IS) dip soldering furnace soldering induction soldering infrared soldering iron soldering resistance soldering torch soldering ultrasonic soldering pressure gas soldering DS FS IS IRS INS RS TS USS WS
-.
V
SOUp STATE WELDING ISSWl coextrusion welding cold welding diffusion welding hot isostatic pressure welding explosion welding forge welding friction welding direct drive friction welding friction stir welding inertia friction welding hot pressure welding roll welding CEW CW DFW HIPW EXW FOW FRW FRW-DD FSW FRW-I HPW ROW USW
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING IOFWl air acetylene welding oxyacetylene welding oxyhydrogen welding pressure gas welding AAW OAW OHW PGW
~-'-''"
OTHER WELDING AND JOINING adhesive bonding AB braze welding BW arc braze welding ABW carbon arc braze welding CABW electron beam braze welding EBBW exothermic braze welding EXBW flow brazing FLB flow welding FLOW laser beam braze welding LBBW EBW electron beam welding high vacuum EBWHV EBW-MV medium vacuum EBW-NW nonvacuum ESW electroslag welding consumable guide electroslag welding ESWCG IW induction welding LBW laser beam welding PEW percussion welding TW thermite welding
American Weldinx SO<'l'('/)'
BRAZING IBI block brazing diffusion brazing dip brazing exothermic brazing furnace brazing induction brazing infrared brazing resistance brazing torch brazing twin car:t>0n arc brazing BB DFB DB EXB FB 18 IRB RB
TB
TCAB
ALLIED PROCESSES
OXYGEN CUTTING IOC) flux cutting metal powder cutting oxyfuel gas cutting oxacetylene cutting oxyhydrogen cutting oxynatural gas cutting oxypropane cutting oxygen arc cutting oxygen gouging oxygen lance cutting OC-F OC-P OFC OFC-A OFC-H OFC-N OFC-P OAC OG OlC
HIGH ENERGY BEAM CUTTING electron beam cutting laser beam cutting air evaporative inert gas oxygen EBC LBC LBC-A lBC-EV lBC-IG lBC-O
ARC CUTTING lAC) carbon arc cutting air carbon arc cutting gas metal arc cutting gas tungsten arc cutting plasma arc cutting shielded metal arc cutting CAC CAC-A GMAC GTAC PAC SMAC
""""
.......'--'on
_
/
F11Jol
.....
.....
LJ LJ
Not
/ / v
t\
O1tIer Side
/ a / 0 / /
Not
_ ..
Uoed
......
@
Not
...... / e
:e
Not
-no
<>
_ ..
<>
Not
""""Ing
.....
-,
<>0
Uoed
Not
/
:@:
"-
Not
Uoed
Not
"-
ED
Both Sides
NoAm:NtSide Of OtherSide
~
Not
Uoed
No<
Uoed
Uoed
Uoed
Not
usee
No<
S9"""'"
"""
Uoed
-.
No<
~
No<
"""
U
/
/
usee .....v
:;c
Uoed
G..,... J
""..-
.............
Sc-'''''
"""
A
Y
/ ~/
'c
//
<, -----LA /
Both Sides
Not
Uoed
"
X -,
Not
--f-A
Not
-.
"-
Ie
-,
//
//
Not
//
)(
Nol
IE
Not
-,
-,
Nol
Uoed
Uoed
Uoed
Uoed
Uoed
usee
Supplementary Symbols
Mott ",",
WIlld-All-Around
Rlle lW.ld
r
...Ing_ I_
---Y'
1
~
F1uo1t
/
ConI"",
~.)
Contour Symbol
G""",. We< . S ;,e Depth 01Bevel;
--~ ~
(
Groove Ang le; Included Angl e 01 Cou ntersink for Plug Welds Root Opening; Depth of R iling for Plug
~p
.... Jot..
Welding
\
"""" of Joint
Com. "
Conco..
v:
Size or Strength
Aete~
Tail (May
"""" d
_\
/1
Como< Jotnl
Be Omined-.l
When
l ) :.1
..... Jot nl
(f.~~' ~ ~=eId
Center SpaCIng ) 01WeldS
S,""",
"
t __ _
/ J')K i- -(j?
t1 I,
L a- _
d_
I,
. .:. d WoIOng_
SyrrtIoI
~_~ /\'1 ,
Reference
is Not Used )
~N)
i~k:.
?:~
Arrow
Con nect ing Reference Line to Arrow Side Men be r of Jo int or ArrCNiSide
V- a_
01..Ic:ln:
~
Weld -
Stud , Plu g, Slot , o r ProJection We lds Eleme nts in This Area Remain As Shown When Tail and Arrow a re Rev ersed ~ Wel d Symbols Sha ll Be Contained. _ Wit hin Ihe l ength ot me Rel e rence line
S,_
of Joint
T-JoInt
.... JoInt
=\ "
"""" d
~_ d _
~1'~~--c!
Y , '
I,'
~_ ;!:,:"'"~.ion
.~,{{'~'~'~" J{"
--
-J om'
Proceu Abbrevl8t:1oM
Where process abbreviations are to be included in the tU 01 ee welding syTTD:ll, reference is made to Table " Designation 01 Well:Mg
a- _
ArrowSide 01Joinl
II
--.
"""" d
Syn-bol
~ :;:;:;:; :;;;;j
~ ~m~ ::~
,, /
I'
L """" _ ,see d
Arrowof Welding SyrrboI
JOOt-
,o V. , 1
Ap pendix ~ 665
--~
0rrisIi0n of IengIh indiaUes that wekt extenDs between ebt'upe e:t'l8nges In ctr-:tion or . . <iI...... i8d
/ lenglh ~
1/16 4
Pitch (ds&anCe
between c:entet&) ~
sae
-~Ieg)
sae
-./'12 V
..I
'12 t\..3'6
r """(~inaomonl>
between oent8tI)
_~
Size (tlarreler
=. . .~
RSW
=>------T-v
, . operation
OR - - - - - - - - - -
-- - - ----
~)
l\: \ V
.
/,,,
v----T-<=------- ---C>
l\:
=~~
,...........
IengIh
""'-
/ ' '12 0
L-...
seuere-arceve Welding Symbol
. ,.-.1
J
<, __;
",,-
-----.",. ~
Size or
~ PItch
.....
~J
I'IV 1,,1411". , /
Flare-Bevel -Groove Weldi ng Symbol
_-l ~
size
weld si;z:e
~ ::ng
12 (112)
Weld sil8 \
~
/
Weld
alze- - . /
Groove angle
-~
Deplt> "
(114) : ;
<,
11'11C 1
r>:
""' ""-
_ e.....
l\:
I;f'
7~
....-~-~Of
/
.,.
~~
Melt Thru Symbol
_-.-/
Joint wi th Back in g
~7
Joint with Space r
~ L
Rool: i8ll ilOlcen l8liit
Flu sh Con tou r Symbol
.........
'R' indicatesbacking
~
l?'G "-.....
_-
~
Double bevel groove
/'
11 should be understoodthat theseCharts are intended only as shopaids. The only complete andofficial presentation of the standard weldIng symbols Is In/A2.4.
Problem
. . --.
MISCELLANEOUS WELD DEFECTS --- . Remedy . J:Iin ~1.UllM ..~ .,.. '
~ ~
-~
-~
~-
---- *
-~
-~
--- -
-~
..-
Pause at each side of the we ld bead when using a weaving techn iqu e; use pro per electrode angles Redu ce we lding current (use proper cur rent for electrode size and welding posi tion) Redu ce arc length Redu ce travel spe ed Redu ce effects of arc blow ; reset workpiece connections
Arc blow We lding current set too high Arc length too long Wet , dirty, or damaged elect rode
Redu ce effects of arc blow ; reset wo rkp iece connections Redu ce welding current (use prope r current for electrod e size and we lding position ) Redu ce arc length Prop erly maintain and sto re electro des
OxY!l!>n,""iltentt
19.5 15-1 9.5
Minimum pe rmi ssible oxygen level Decreased ab ility to work stre nuo us ly. May impa ir co nd ition and induce earl y sympto ms in pe rson s wit h coronary, pulmon ary, or circulat or y pr obl em s Respiration exertion a nd pulse increases. Im pa ir ed
12 -1 4
10- 11
8 -9
6-7
4- 5
* values are approximate and vary with state of health and physical act ivities t % by volume . t at atmospher ic pressure
Appendix @o 667
---
rrJ::' 'oct01
l~.
.-....
e-
P8nettabQn
l..adIolF_at
~IloceOft>e-.
--
PreSSYT8 Vesaola
.... eo-.o
----Spo;>! XRaf
_
N o ~
.... eo-.o
Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping (per ANS I Piping Code)
Ma.unum 01 11>0' 0120% 01wall 1l'oic:knMs. arnaIer Mil""""'" IengIIl of 1 ',0;" ., 6 " _kl None ~ lor longI!uOnaI _ Ids MIl......" or ...... or2O"IOio of _ Itw:kness.
wr.::_, ..
: ;::-~~~::.
Notc;o..e""d
$hall not AIduce _
~....,
.... eo-.o
1M........ Concevy
Stud not fedu(:e _ ttw:l<ness '" jess than lhllV'l8l' maleRal. ConSour of COfIC8Yify _ . be
Shall not 'educe _10 ~ kllellS man ItWlnef matenaI ConIour orCOfIC8Yify $/VIn be
"'""'"
Undera.Il at roal pas
"'""'"
Y","
......
1hIcI<_ '" _
than
.-....
Maxilnum depth of 'hz'"Of 25 ' 01_ lhicl<ness. whi<:heYe<is smallef None allowed lor longi tudinal bull joInlS
Malerial
Max imum
Slag Irduslons
elonga ted ,
Thickrw>ss
".cepI as ~".
SIaiI Length
W
,~,
Maxim......lengl h 01 ~ TO where Tt is Ihicl<nau oImalerial, ... !h ",' MaxImum Ma x"""", total ""'91" of T' on6 - _ !eng !"
of
a-
MaxImum l""lllh ol2Tl and wKlltlI"""". 01 ",'o<"1TI Mu,mum tOlai lengtn 01 4Tl on6 - _kl
Puros lty
, Ma ., mu m ind,v,dua l s ize s ha ll be smaller 01 Y,tt or v,,' (or 'htt o r ~ t - separat ion) Tna lan g lh o f an dc cApta Ne cluster s ha ll not e xce ed l he les s er ol t " or
'I.-
ar
Maxomum '!ITI or ,,,' , wn icn ever is les s , gre atest d imension ot ind ivid ua l pore ' Maximum 10tal area 3 X a rea 01 ma x,mu m s ingle a llowable po re lor any sq ua re inch of weld
'M aximum 'l,TI or '!fI ' , who:;hever is le ss . groa tes t d ,men slOn of ioo lVldua l pore ' Max imu m tOlal area 3 X a rea 01 max imum s ing le allowall ie pore lor any s qua re ,ne h ot w
{For piping or elongated Met .rial Thi ck ne " .o- Io less ' ha n 1" 1"'0 less 'han 2" 2" 10 less than 3'" 3" to 1es5 1han 4Maxi mu m Hei g ht
'
poros~y
use slag ,ncluSion cr ite ria ) Th in ne r Ma t'l Th lckne l . (TI l less 'han or eq.ual to 'I," g 'I" '.' tMn 'I," to Y," 9'eol'" lM n v,- to W gr"I'" lha n 1Sa"", u E.cesa _ Max imum He ighl
..."
'
,~'
Mat. rla l Thl c knes . ~" to less than , I ' to leu tMn 2" 2" 10 loss than 3" 3" to lOSStha n 4-
..
'
'
,~'
Thi nn e ' Mat 'l Th ick ness. (TI ) less lhan or eq ua l '0 'I.9' ''''181' ",an '1 , - to 1'," g' eatenhan W' to 1 ~ greal... than 1-
Maxim um Height
... .w
'I .."
,.' .. .."'
E~SSI'o'eRoot
PenelralJOn
-0-.
" -
Thi d<_
"81"''''''
""" ,-,
w
rtessorat
YIol'o<'\Io"
. . .' ""
,-' ,-'
'
.....I..... m
...,.
V .'
Ae,"""cemem
\Iolt 0<"'"
I'ooItOt'\lo"
",
'
,-,
InSIde diameters of COI'I'\pOIJeflt al ends 10 bo jooned rnJSt be a ligned engonee""Q design and wetdongprocedurtl N the extemaJ IIOJrtaces 01 tile two ~ are not ~. tile weld shal be 1ap<Ir1ld_
'"""*'
IWI Of~
~ -~
and wetdong procedure II tile external SUffaces of tile two ~ are not &19*1. 1M weld S/Illi DOl.aptIred befween the lWOsurlaces
.... C-oo
.... eo-.o
Nocoa_"""",",~ """"""Ps.~
n<9>SOt ...........
',._'T .
f __ I _UHT-20b'
'JOO"I~"
,OO\Iox......
.......
N o _ ~ ~overIaps~f'od9<I$
_x-Mo,_5poI x.....,_qoooIrIy_~_..,
--
.... "'"""""
.. _
.... eo-.o
~_
__
_
JOO"I~ll.c._O
Qefecr
~
pipelines
' (pet
~
APl$\cqWl
. . ..
"
l:o~'ltr~~:ID
None Allowed
(per ASME~Umr1)'
Power Boilers
Cracks
None allow ed (exce pt shallow cra ter c racks in the co ve, pass w ith maximum length of %;," ) Maximum of 1" in len gth in 12" of we ld , or 8% of we ld length if less than' 2" Maximum iodiv idualle ngth of '" Maximu m indiv idual l ngfh of 2" Max imu m accumu lated length of 3" in 12" 01continuous weld
Non.. A llowed
al rool pass
Non a Allowed
None Allowed
None Allo we d
None Allowe d
at root pas s
Lac k of Fusional sidewa ll or betwee n beads, "co ld lap'
None Allowed
None A llowe d
None Allow ed
None Allowe d
Melt-thro ugh
No t Cove red
Sha ll nol redu ce we ld t ~i c ~ n e s s to tess than thin ne, malerial. C o~lour 01 concavity shatt be smoo th
Not Covered
, For hori:wn tal 00" jo ints : ma .imum dept h FO f vert ica l bu~ j oi~ts' maxim um dep th 'k ,"
'm'
Maleri"l Thi ck ne ss le ss I han or equa l to h " ' ," to 2'1, greater l han 2'1," Ma x,mu m fength of It in
'I,'
'Al t
y,"
'hI f
,,'
wio 2Y,"
greate r I han 2'1.
Y ,"
ratt le "i)th
Poro sity
Sp he'i<;al' Ma ximum di mension ,,. " or 25% of wall thic knass , whIC hever is le ss Clusl er: Max imum area of \'2' dia mel er with ma ximum ind iv idua l po re di mension of 'I ,," , Max imum 17"enqtn in 12" weld Hollow Bead: Max imum length '1>"_ Max imum 2" lenglh in 12" weld with individual discontin uitie s excee ding 'I," in lengl h sep ara ted by af km sl 2"
For ahgned [Oun doo ind ication s, t he s u m ma t lo~ of diame te rs le ss 111a~ t in 12t1lengt~ Max imum individu al size shan be the sma ller of y,t T or 0/ ",, " : Of W t or 'l. if 1" separat ion The len gth 01 an acceplable c1u sler shall nol excee d l he lesser of 1" or ztt
For al1 grllld rou nde d ,nd icatio ns, the sum malion of diame te rs less than t in 121T l en gt~ Maximum ind ividual en e sha ll be t he smaller of W T or %> ' :
Of 'Atl or 'I,' il l " sepa ratiOrl The le n gt~ 01 an acceplable cluste r shall not exceed the lesser of 1" or 2I t
Material Thickness less T han or equat to 'h" greater Iha n '1>" to 1" gre ate r t ~a n 1"
Ho riUlnlal J oi n t Ma xim u m
w ""
w-
;,,,"
0/ ,," y,"
Mat er ial Thickness greater l han '1' ,," 1 0 'Ii" grea ter l ha~ 1'2'1 0 1 grealer than 1" to 2" greate r than 2" to 3" greate r U'an 3" to 4"
Misalignmant
Max ,mum 'I,." Any greater offset , provided it is caused by dime nsiona l variat ions, shan be eQually dislr ibute d afOund Ihe circumf erence of the pipe
Vertical misalignment tess l han or equal To10%t1 Of Y,.", whichever is farger Horizontal misalignment fess than or equal to 20%It 01upper plate, with ". " macrrem
Mat e,i al Thickness less T~ an or equal 10 'Ii" grea te r than y," to 'Y ," greate ' than :Yo"to 1'1.1" grea te r th an 1 \'2" to 2 2 " le sser of'
'l,oTt or YO"
'.'
'."
'I,t'
'I"
Yot'
'lil t or 'I,"
Maximu m of 2" in any 12" or 8% o f weld le rlgT h excl uding h igh-low corxlifion R ights of Reje cTion - ' Sinc e ND E me thod s give limite<:t i~ di ca l io ns , the Company may reject welds w~ich appe ar to me el thes e standard s 01 acc eptabil ity, if in its opin ion T ha d epTh01 the d efecT ma y be d eTr imen Ta l to Ihe su anglh 01 wel d."
de ,
No t C overe d
NOICove red
Genera l
No fi pp les , grooves, ab rupl ridg es, and valleys to avoid stress risers
ohon. ,s ed
"""" 00 .... ""'" " rI whM "'" . r NDE """",,"' ''' ...."'"~Mn .''' o,eO
, T . ,h""""m01er",lrtl d<nollS
J w . wold wOjrtl , ",., UKT-20IOf spec ial hoaH reatori 'o"'ie st ools
Appendix ~ 669
NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Method Letter Desianation AET ET LT MT NR T PT PRT RT UT
h
TAIL
SPECIFICATION OR OTHERREFERENCES
~~E'NLOE
EXAMINE -
(N) All-AROUND
" _ }
, e ~~ \ L
r O BE
EXAMIN ED
Ultrasonic"
Visual'
-meecos used tortesting pipe welds
VT
Metal
Stream Volume Large Large Moderately large Small Very small Moderate Small Moderately large Moderate Small Large (curved) Very small Extreme ly sma ll Very small' None
Color of Stream
Nature of Bursts
1. Wrought Iron
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Machine Ste el (AISI 1020 ) Carbon Tool Ste el Gray Cast Iron Whi te Ca st Iron Annea led Ma ll. Iron High-Speed Steel (18-4- 1) Austen itic Manganese Stee l Sta inless Steel (Type 4 10) Timqsten -Ch rorniurn Die Stee l Nit rided Nitralloy Stellit ee Cemented Tungsten Ca rbide Nickel Copper. Brass. and Alum inum
Forked Forked Very many Fine, repeating Fine, repeating Straw Many Straw Few Fine, repeating Fine, repeating Straw Many Straw Extremely few Forked Many Fine, repeati ng White Straw White Mod erate Forked Strawt Fine, repeatingt Red Many Moderate Forked White White Ora nge Orange None Light Orange Light Orange None Ora nge Orange None None White White Red Red Red Red White
Straw
actual length vanes WIthgrindIng wheel . pressure. etc . blue-white spurts some wavy streaks
2.00 2.05 2.10 2.15 2.20 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50
2.55
158 150 143 136 130 124 119 114 109 104 100 96 .3
92 .6
316 300 286 272 260 248 238 228 218 208 200 193 185 178 171 165 159 154 148 143 138 134 129 125 121 117 114 110 107 104 101 97.8
95 .0
47 3
450 428 408 390 372 356 341 327 312 30 1 289 278 267 257 248 239 230 222 215 207 200 194 188 182 176 170 165 160 156 151 147 142 138 135 131 127 124 121 117
632 600 572 544 520 496 476 456 436 416 400 385 370 356 343 330 318 307 296 286 276 267 258 250 242 234 227 220 214 207 20 1 196 190 184 180 174 170 165 161 156
788 750 714 681 650 621 593 568 545 522 500 482 462 445 42 9 4 13 398 384 371 358 346 334 324 313 303 293 284 276 267 259 252 244 238 23 1 22 5 218 212 207 201 196
945 89 9 856 817 780 745 7 12 682 653 627 601 578 555 534 514 495 477 461 444 429 415 401 388 375 363 352 341 331 321 311 302 293 285 277 269 262 255 248 24 1 235
4. 25 4.30
33 .6
32. 8
4.35
4 .40
4.4 5 4.50
4.55 4.60
61.0 59.6
58 .2
4.65 4.70
4.75
27 .1 26 .5 25 .9 25 .4
24.8
56 .8 55 .6 54.2 53 .0 51.8 50 .8
49 .6
83.3 81.4 79 .6
77 .8 76 .1
134 131 128 125 122 119 116 114 111 108 106 104 102
99 .2
167 164 160 156 153 149 145 142 139 136 133 130 127 124 122 119 117 114 112 109 107 105 103 101 98.5 96.5 95 .0 92 .5 90.8
89 .2
4.80
4 .85 4 .90
2.60
2.65
2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95 3.00 3.05 3.10 3.15 3.20
3.25
89 .0 85.7 82 .6 79.6 76 .8
74 .1
74 .4
4 .95 5.0 0
5 .05 5 .10
SAO
5.45
5.50
3.30 3.35
3.40 3 .45
5.55 5.60
5.65 5.70
19.3 18.9
16.6 18.2 17.8
38 .6 37 .8
37.2 36.4
78 .8 77.2 75 .6
74 .4
72 .8 7 1.2
35 .6 35.0 34.4 33 .6 33 .0
32,4
53 .5 52.5 51.5
50 .5
50.3 48 .9
47. 5
46.1
5.75 5 .80
5 .65 5 .90
44 .9
43.6
78 .0 76.7 75 .3 73.8
..
Typ!!JSlIffill
E-701 8-Al E-801 6-B2 E-801 8-B2L E-8016-Cl E-801 8-Cl E-801 8-C2 E-8018- C3 E-901 6-B3 E-9018B3 L E-l 0016-D2
Api?liI!llJj~~ .
Carbon and molybdenum steels
C hromium-molybdenum
Welding
Mega
Kilo
Th ousand
M
k
steels
Hecto
Deka
Hundred
Ten
Tenth
h d d
Nickel steels
Oed
Centi
Hundredth
Chromium- molybdenum
Milli
Micro
Thousandth
Millionth
c m
~
steels
Manganese-m olybdenum
steels
Appendix ~ 671
WELDING SYMBOL
CO NTO UR SYMBOL ROO T OP ENING , FILL DEPTH FOR PLUG AN D SLOT WELDS " ' \ GROOVE WELD SIZ E PREP ARATI O N DEPTH , SIZE OR STR ENGTH FOR C ERTAIN WELDS \ SPECIFICATION , PROCESS , OR OTHER REFERENCE ~ TA IL OMITIED WHEN REFERENCE NOT USED _ ,...
~
1\ ,
FINISH SYM BOL GROOVE ANGLE; GROOV E ANG LE O F CO UNTER S INK FO R PLUG WELDS
{
()
(f)
{I
iii
f-
R ffi w}
Q.UJ ~
0 - }
I"9
~g
~UJ
BA SIC WE LD SYMBO L OR DETAIL REFERENCE (
N(
)
~ ELEME NTS IN THI S A REA REMAIN AS SHOWN WHEN TA ll AN D ARROW AR E REVE RSED
- -+I
--
-Variables
- -
- - - - - --Electrode ctasst
-- - - --------- ---_..
l1li 9 6 9 7
DC AC
Groove butt weld s, flat W') Groove butt welds, all posit ions %")
Fill et wel ds, flat or horizonta l Fille t welds , all po sitions
5 9 3 9
DCEP AC
3 5 8 6
DCEN AC
8 8 7 7
DC AC
10
(b)
9
(b)
7 7 5 8
DCEP AC
9 6 9 6
DCEP AC
10
(b )
10
(b)
10
2
10
DCEP
9
(b) DC AC (b)
10
(b) DC AC
9
(b) DCEP AC (b)
10
(b) DC AC (b)
Current (Clt:
Thin mate rial ( Y4''')
Heavy plate or highly restrained joi nt High-sulfur or off- analysis ste el Depo sition rate Depth of pene tration
5 8
(b) 4
7 8
(b) 4
8 8 5 5 6 8 3
4 4
9 8 3 5 5
8 8 3 6 6
7 7 5
2
9
8
(b)
10
9
4
9 9
8 7
8
(b)
9
6 7
10
8
10
4
6 8
10
6 6 6 8
9
6 6 7 8
7 7
Appearance, undercutting
So undness Ducti lity Low -temperatu re im pact strength Low spatte r loss Poor fit-up Welder appeal Slag rem oval
9
5 5 5 7 8
10
9
10
9
7 6 8
10
8 5
10
9
10
9
9 9
10 8
10 10
10 6
4
10 10
8
4
10 10
9
4
1
6 7
2
7 6 8
10
(b)
9 9
10 8
10
8
9
(b)
10
8 6
9
8
10
9
10
9
6
4
8 7
9
8
9 9
Rating IS00 a corope renve basis of same-s ue electrodes W ith 10 as the highest value. Ratings may change With size t AW S t DCEP--direct cu rrent electrode posi tive: DCEN--direct current elec trode negative: AG-altema llng current: De-direct cu rrent, either polarity (b) Not recommended
. . -_. -.
. .
--
.
-
Rockwell
.B
'DO kg! 'lf16" ball
100 99 98 97
96
I Superficial Rockwell
E
' 0 0 kg! Va" ball
Vickers
Hardness
Knoop , Brinell
Hardness Hardness 50 0 g! 3000 g!
A
60 kg!
1ST
'5 kg! v'a" ball 93.1 92 .8 92.5
92 .1
30T
30 kg!
1;'6" ball
45T
45 kg! Y16" ball 729 7 19 709 699 689 67.9 66.9 65 .9 64.8 63.8 62.8 61.8 60 .8 59.8 58.8 57.8 56.8 55 .8 54 .8 53 .8 52.8 51.8 50.8 49.8
48 .8
Hardness
500 kg! 10mm ball 20 1 195 189 184 179 175 171 167 163 160 157 154 l SI 148 14 5 142 140 137 135 133 130 128 126 124 122 120 118 116 114 112 110 109 108 106 104 102 100 99 98 96 95 94 92 91 90 89 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 80
diamond
61.5 60.9 60.2 59 .5 58 .9 58 .3 57.6 57 .0 56 .4 55 .8 55.2
54.6 54.0
9 1.8 91.5 91.2 90.8 90.5 90 .2 89 .9 89.5 89.2 88.9 88 .6 88.2 87.9 87.6 87.3 86.9 86 .6 86.3 86 .0 85.6 85.3 85.0 84.7 84.3 84.0 83.7 83.4 83.0 82.7 82. 4 82.1 81 .8 81.4
81. 1
80 .4 79 .8
79 .1 78.4
240 234 228 222 216 210 205 200 195 190 185 180 176 172 169 165 162 159 156 153 150 147 144 141 139 137 135 132 130 127 125 123 121 119 117 116 114 112 110 108 107 106 104 103 101 100 -
95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46
53 .4 52 .8 52 .3 51.7
5 1.1
73. 8 73 .1
72.4 7 1.8
47 .3
46.8 46.3 45 .8
45.3 44 .8 44 .3
43 .8
100
99 .5 99 .0 98 .0 97 .5 97 .0 96 .0 95.5 95.0 94 .5 93 .5 93 .0 92 .5 92 .0 91.0 90 .5 90.0 89 .5 89.0 88 .0 87.5 87 .0 86 .5 85.5 85 .0 84 .5
47.8 46 .8 45 .8
44 .8 43 .8
63.7 63 .1 62 .4 61.7
6 1.0
42 .8 4 1.8
40 .8
43 .3 42 .8 42 .3
41.8 41.4
60 .4
139 137 135 133 131 129 127 125 124 122 120 118 117 115 114 112 111 110 109 108 107 106 105 104 103
40.9 40.4
40.0
80. 8 80 .5
80 .1
79.8 79 .5
79 .2
78 .8 78 .5 78.2
77 .9 77 .5 77. 2 76 .9
51.0 50.3
49 .7 49.0
76.6 76 .2 75 .9 75.6
48 .3 47 .7 47 .0
Appendix ~ 673
..
-- --- _._- ~
Rockwell
...
B
100 kg! Y,6" ball 45 44 43 42 41
40
A
60 kg!
diamond
.. E
100 kg! Ye" ball 84.0 83.5 82.5 82.0 81.5 81.0 80.0
79.5 79.0
15T
15 kg! Yta" ball 75.3
74 .9
30T
30 kg!
Y~,ball
45T
45 kg! V,S" baH 17.7 16.7 15.7
14.7
ilnd over
Hardness Hardness 1000 lbs 3000 g! 500 kg! squ are inch 10mm ball 10mm ball
32.9
32.4
46.3
45.7
74.6 74.3 74.0 73.6 73.3 73.0 72.7 72.3 72.0 71.7 71.4
71.0
13.6 12.6 11.6 10.6 9.6 8.6 7.6 6.6 5.6 4.6 3.6 2.6
79 78
77.
76 75 75 74 73 72 72 71 70 69 69
68
39
38
37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30
93 92 91 90 89 88 87
27.0 26.6
70.7
70.4
67
-.
mm
.
In
mm '%0 '%0
27/50
fIlm
In
= .01969 = .02 04 7
= .02 126 = .02 205 = .02 283
1 2 3 4
= .0 39 37 = .0 78 74 = .118 11 = .1574 8 = .19685 = .23622 = .27559 = .31496 = .35433 = .39370 = .43307 = .47244 = .5 118 1 = .55118 = .590 55 = .629 92 = .66929 = .708 66 = .748 03 = .7 8740 = .8 2677 = .8 66 14 = .9055 1 = .94 488 = .98425
mm
51 52 53 54
mm
76 77 78 79
. -._- - .
In
= 2.00787 = 2.04724 = 2.08661 = 2.12598 = 2. 16535 = 2.20472 = 2.24409 = 2. 28346 = 2.322 83 = 2.36220 = 2.40 157 = 2.44094 = 2.48031 = 2.51968 = 2.55905 = 2.59842 = 2. 6 3779 = 2.67716 = 2.71653 = 2.75590 = 2.79527 = 2.83464 = 2.8740 1 = 2.91338 = 2 .95275
= 2.99212 = 3 .03 149 = 3 .07086 = 3 .11023 = 3 .14960 = 3.18897 = 3 .22834 = 3 .26771 = 3 .30708 = 3 .34645 = 3 .38582 = 3.42519 = 3.46456 = 3 .50393 = 3 .54330 = 3. 5826 7 = 3 .62204 = 3. 66141 = 3 .70078 = 3 .74015 = 3.77952 = 3 .81889 = 3.85826 = 3 .89763 = 3 .93700
51,0 = .003 94 %0 = .00472 71,0 = .00 551 8/ 50 = .00630 %0 = .00 70 9 ' %0 = .0078 7 11; 50 = .008 66 ' % 0 = .0094 5 ' '\'50 = .0 1024 10/ 50 = .0 1102
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
= 1.18110 = 1.22047 = 1.2 5984 = 1.29921 = 1.33858 = 1.37795 = 1.4 1732 = 1.45669 = 1.49606 = 1.53543 = 1.57480 = 1.61417 = 1.65354 = 1.69291 = 1.73228 = 1.771 65 = 1.8 1102 = 1.85039 = 1.88976 = 1.929 13 = 1.96850
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
= .02756 = .02835
.02 913
3%0 =
"Y50 "Y50
= .0 118 1 = .0 1260
41;50 = .03228
4%0
= .03622
25.4 mm = 1"
Form A.7.1
Type -
Man ual
Semiautomatic
Auto matic
Mechanized (
ves (
No (
Grou p
To material number
Group
Mate rial spec. type and grade Base metal thickness range : Groove Deposited we ld metal th ickness range
Fille r me tal F no . Spec. no . (AWS) Elect ro de-flux (Class)
_ _ _ _ _
_
Yes (
No ( _
Up (
Dow n ( _ _
Interpass temp., max (continuous or spec ial heating, whe re applicable, shou ld be recorded)
_
_
_
_ _
T ungsten electrode , type and size Mode of meta l transfer for GMAW: Electrode wire feed speed range : Stringer bead ( Oscilletlon Standoff distance Multiple Oth er Filler metal
We ld layer (s) Ty pe & po lari ty Amp range
Current
Volt rang e
Proc ess
Class
Dia.
Travel speed ran ge e.g., Rem arks, c omments, hot wi re addition , techniqu e, torch angle, etc.
Approved for Production by Employer No te: Tho se items that are not applicab le should be marked N.A .
Form A.7.2
Page 1 012
Single
Double weld
HEATPOSlWELOTREATMENT (2.6.6)
_ Tem p. Time _
Groove angle
Radiu s (J -U)
Other
_ _
_ Flow rate ) Absolute pressure ( ) _ _
) No (
To To
I Method
_
_ _ _
To materia l no .
Group no . Thickness
Diameter (pipe )
To grou p no .
_
Other
_
_
Standoff distanc e Tr ansf er mode (GMAW) Elect rod e d iameter tungst en Ty pe tun g sten electr od e
_ _ _
_ _
Class .
Class .
Other
_
_
Weave w idth _ Weave wi dth _ _
TECHNIQUE (2.6.9)
_ Osci llation freq uency Dwel l time Stri ng o r weave bead
No (
Fillet
Do wn (
Multiple-pass or single pass (per side) Nu mb er of electrodes Peening Electro d e spacing Arc timing (SW) PAW : Conventional ( Interpass cleaning : ) Key hole (
PREHEAT (2.6.5)
Preheat tem p. ac tual min . Interpass temp.. actual max. _ _
Lift (
)
Pass
no.
Amps
Volts
Slo pe in ducti on
Note: Those items that are not app lica ble should be ma rked N.A .
Form A.7.2
TENSILE TEST SPECIMENS: SUGGESTED PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD
Page 2 01 2
paR No.
Type:
Groove (
Area :
Spec imen n o .
Width . in.
T h ic kn e ss. in .
Ib
UTS , psi
GUIDED BEND TEST SPEC IMENS SPECIMEN SIZE: T ype Result T ype Result
S tud I
4. 5.
2. 3.
SHEAR TEST RESUL TS FILLETS: 1. 2.
_ _
3 .=====
4.
_ HAZ
Speci me n location :
Te st results:
WM = we ld meta l;
8M = base metal ;
Welding
position
Spec imen
location
area (percent)
IF APPLICABLE
RESULTS
Hardness tests : (
Torque ( Proof test ( ) psi )
Values
Acceptable ( I
Acceptable ( )
Unac ceptab le (
Unacceptable (
We cert ify t hat the state me nts in thi s Rec ord are co rrect and tha t the test we lds wer e pr ep ared . we lde d. and tested in accordance with the req ui remen ts of th e Ame ric an Welding Soc iety Standa rd fo r Welding Procedu re and Pertermance Qualification (AWS 82 83)
App endix
677
Form A.7.3
Name Soc ial sec uri ty number : Proces s(es) Test base metal speci ficat io n
Materi al n um ber
Autom ati c ( To
To
Mechanized (
No DC No No
)
) )
WELDMENT THICKNESS (T) Diarn et er ts) IT) Bar size I T) _ Butt Spliced b utt ( ) I)
_
1G I
'GI
FILLET: Pipe I Plate I
'F I
, FI
2F { 2F (
3F I 3F {
SF (
4F (
Other (desc ribe) Test resu lts : Vis ua l test Bend test Macro test Tension test Rad io graphic tes t Penetrant l est QUALIFIED FOA: PROCESSES GROOVE: Pi pe lG ( Plale ,G{ Re bar ic ( FILLET: Pipe Plal e Reba r IF I IF ( IF ( ) ) ) N/A I N/A I N/ A I N/A I N/ A I N/A I
Pass Pas s Pass Pass Pass ( ( ( ( (
Pass (
2G 2G 2G
I I I
5G ( 3G I 3G I 4F I 3F I 3F (
6G 4G 4G
I I I
6GA I
_ _
2F I 2F I 2F (
5F { 4F I 4F {
T M in
Weld cladding ( )
Po sitio n (s)
Clad Min
Consumable insert ( ) Back ing type ( Uphill I ) Downhill I ) Single side ( ) Double side ( ) No bac ki ng ( ) Short circuiting I ) I ) Spray I ) Pulsed Spray I Reinforc ing bar - bult ( ) or Sp liced bu tt ( ) The above na med pe rson is qualified for th e wel di ng pr ocess(es) use d i n thi s test with in the lim its o f essent ial variab les i ncl ud ing mate ria ls and fi lter meta l variab les of the AW S Sta ndard for Welding Pro cedure and Perf ormance Qua li fica tio n (AWS 82. 1). Date tes ted _ Signed by Q ua lifier _
..
Carbon steels 10xx - Plain carbon (1% Mn max) 11xx - Resulturized 12xx - Resulfurized and rephosphorized 15xx - Plain carbon (L O O% Mn to 1,65% Mn max) Manganese steels 13xx - L75% Mn Nickel steels 23xx - 3,5% Ni 25xx - 5% Ni Nickel'i:hromium steels 31xx - 1,25% Ni; ,65% Cr and ,80% Cr 32xx - 1,75% Ni; L07% Cr 33xx - 350% Ni; 1,50% Cr and 1,57% Cr 34xx - 3,00% Ni; ,77% Cr Molybdenum steels 40xx - ,20% Mo and ,25% Mo 44xx - A O% Mo and ,52% Mo Chromium-molybdenum steels 41xx .50% Cr, .80% Cr, and .95% Cr; .12% Mo, .20% Mo, .25% Mo, and .30% Mo Nickel'i:hromium-molybdenum steels
93xx - 3.25% Ni; 1.20% Cr, .12% Mo 94xx - A5% Ni; AO% Cr; .12% Mo 97xx - .55% Ni; .20% Cr; .20% Mo 98xx - 1.00% Ni; .80% Cr, .25% Mo Nickel-molybdenum steels .85% Ni and 1.82% Ni; .20% Mo and .25% Mo 48xx - 3.50% Ni; .25% Mo Chromium steels 46xx .27% Cr, A O% Cr, .50% Cr, and .65% Cr 51xx - .80% Cr, .87% Cr, .92% Cr, .95% Cr, 1.00% Cr, and 1.05% Cr Chromium steels } 50xxx - .50% Cr C LOO% min 51xxx - 1.02% Cr 52xxx - 1 A 5% Cr Chromium-vanadium steels .60% Cr, .80% Cr, and .95% Cr; .10% V and .15% V min Tungsten-chromium steel 61xx 72xx - L75% W; 0.75% Cr Silicon-manganese stee ls 92xx - 1AO% Si and 2.00% Si; .65% Mn, .82% Mn, and .85% Mn; 0% Cr and .65% Cr High-strength low-alloy steels 9xx - Various SAE grades Boron steels xxBxx - B denotes boron steel Leaded steels xxLxx - L denotes leaded steel 50xx -
43xx - 1.82% Ni; .50% Cr and .80% Cr; .25% Mo 43BVxx - 1.82% Ni; .50% Cr; .12% Mo and .25% Mo; .03% V min 47xx - 1.05% Ni; A5% Cr; .20% Mo and .35% Mo 81 xx - .30% Ni; AO% Cr; .12% Mo 86xx - .55% Ni; .50% Cr; .20% Mo 87xx - .55% Ni; .50% Cr, .25% Mo 88xx - .55% Ni; .50% Cr; .35% Mo
Appendix ~ 679
Forgings
A182- F2 A182 -F12 A336- F12
T\l~!?es
A2 13-T2
Pipe
A335-P2 A369FP2 A426CP2 A335-P12 A369FP12 A426CP 12 A33 5-Pl1 A369FP 11
A426-CP1 1
Casti ngs
A356-G R5
Plale
A387 -Gr2
1 Crlh Mo
A213--T12
A199-T l1 A200-Tl l A213-T11 A199-T22 A200-T22 A2 13-T22 A199-T 21 A200-T21 A2 13-T2 1 A 199T5 A200-T 5 A213-T5
A2 13-T5b
A213-T 5c
A217-WC6 /11
A356-G r6
A387-Gr2
1V 4Cr-1hMo
A182- Fl 1/Fl 1A
A336- Fl 1/F11A
A387-Gr l 1
21/.Cr-' Me
A182- F22/f22a
A336-F22/F22A A182-F 21 A336-F 21/F21A A 182-F5IFsa A336- F5IF5A
A356-Grl0
3 Cr-l Mo
A426CP 21
A335-P5 A369 -FP5 A426-CP5
A335P5b A426 CP5b
A335-P 5c
A217C5
A387Gr2 1
5 Cr-lh Me
A387-Gr5
5 Cr- lh MaSi
5 C r-1hMaTi
A 182-F7
A217-C 12
A38 7-G r7
7 Cr-'h Mo
A335-P7 A369 -FP7 A426-CP7 A335P9 A369FP9 A426-CP9 A335P9 1 A369 FP91
9 c r-t Me
A387Gr9
A387-Gr9 1
Fraction
1/ ..
Decimal
0 .0 15 625 0 .03125 0 .04 6875 0 .0625 0 .078125 0 .0 9375 0 .109375 0 .1 25 0 .14062 5 0 . 15625 0 .171 875 0 .1875 0 .2031 25 0 .2187 5 0 .2343 75
fraction
17/ 64
Decimal
0 .265625 0 .2 8 12 5 0 .2968 75 0 .3 125 0 .32 8 125 0 .34375 0 .359375 0 .375 0 .390625 0 .4 062 5 0 .42 1875 0 .4 3 75 0 .453125 0 .4 6875 0.484375
Fraction
3%4
Decimal
0 .5 15625 0 .53125 0 .5468 75 0 .5 62 5 0 .578125 0 .59375 0 .609375 0 .625 0 .64 0625 0 .65625 0 .6 71875 0 .6875 0 .703125 0 .71 875 0 .73 4375
Fraction
47 / 64
2%2
5%4
Decimal
0 .765625 0 .781 2 5 0 .796875 0 .8 12 5 0 .8 281 25 0 .84375 0 .859375 0 .875 0 .890625 0 .9062 5 0 .921875 0 .9375 0 .953125 0 .96875 0 .9 8 43 75
V 32
%2
1% 4 5/16
'1i:32
35/ 64 9/16 3%4 19/ 32 39/ 64
%4
1;' 6
%4 %2
7 /..
2%4
1% 2
2:Y..
'Is %4 %2
1''164
%
2% 4
%
4%4
%
57/ 64 29/ 32 59/ 64
'%2
27/ 64 7/ 16 29/ 64
2%2
4%4
:Y,.
':Y..
''Y16
4%4
2%2
47/ 64
' 0/'6
6%4 31;3 2
%2 ' %4
'% 2
3% 4
6%4
LIST OF MICROETCHANTS'
-
Common 'Name for Etchant Nital or Picral Nital Nital Oxalic Fry's Viella's Glyceregia
Acetic-nitric-water
ASTM E407 No. t 74a, 76 74a 74a 13b 79 80 87 134 143 13c 23 88 25 94,87 98c 163 192 66 3 119 113 74d 200 44 8b
Ni, Ni-Cu, and Ni-Fe Ni-Mo Ni-Cr-Mo (Alloy C-276) NI-Cr-Mo (all other) Ni-Fe-Cr-Mo (Alloy 20 Cb3) Ni-Fe-Cr-Mo (all other) Ni and Fe base superalloys W, Mo Ta, Cb Ti
lr
AI Mg Pb Sn,Sn-Pb linc Cu alloys Cu-ln
Nital
Chromic-sodium sulfate
. Exercise extreme caution in handling all chemicals, especially HF. Followsafetyprecautions described in ASTM E407. t See numerical list of etchants
Composition
2 ml HF 3 ml HCI 5 ml HNO, 190 ml water 10 ml H,PO , 90 ml water 10 g oxalic acid 100 ml water 5 ml HCI 95 ml ethanol (95%) or methanol (95%) 50 ml NH,OH 20 to 50 ml H,O, (3%) O to 50 ml water 30 ml HF 15 ml HNO, 30 ml HCI 1 to 5 ml HNO, 100 ml ethanol (95%) or methanol (95%) 5 g picric acid 8 g CuCI, 20 ml HCI 6 ml HNO, 200 ml ethanol (95%) or methanol (95%) 10 g picric acid 10 ml ethanol (95%) or methanol (95%) 40 ml HCI 5 g CuC ~ 30 ml water 25 ml ethanol (95%) or methanol (95%) 5 ml HCI 1 g picric acid 100 ml ethanol (95%) or methanol (95%) 5 g FeCI, 5 drops HCI 100 ml water 10 ml HNO, 20 to 50 ml HCI 30 ml glycerin
Procedure
(a) Immerse 10 to 20 sec. Wash in stream of warm water. Reveals general structure . (b) Dilute with four parts water-<:olor constituents -mix fresh. (b) Electrolytic at 1 V to 8 V for 5 to 10 sec. Electrolytic at 6 V. (b) 1 min (c) 2 to 3 sec Electrolytic at 6 V for 10 to 20 sec.
8 13
23
44
Use fresh. Peroxide content varies directly with copper content of alloy to be etched. Swab or immerse up to 1 min. Fiim on etched alumininurn bronze removed by No. 82. Swab 3 to 10 sec or immerse to 2 min.
66
74
Etching rate is increased , selectivity decreased with increased percentage of HNO, . (a) Immerse a few seconds to a minute . (d) Swab or immerse several minutes. Immerse 1 to 2 sec at a time and immediately rinse with methanol. Repeat as often as necessary. Long immersion times result in copper deposition on surface .
75
76
Composition given will saturate the solution with picric acid. Immerse a few seconds to a minute or more. Swab a few seconds to a minute.
79
80
Swab or immerse a few seconds to 15 min. Reaction may be accelerated by adding a few drops of 3% H,O,.
82
Immerse 5 to 10 sec.
87
682
Welding Skills
Etellllnt
88
~ll,\l!~\ll~
"
::'.
PTocedure
10 ml HNO, 20 ml HCI 30 ml water 2 g CuCI, 40 ml HCI 40 to 80 ml ethanol (95%) or methanol (95%) 10 g K,Fe(CN), 10 g KOH or NaOH 100 ml water
94
98
Warning: Extremely poisonous hydrogen cyanide given off. Use hood. Poisonous by ingestion as well as contact.
To discard, neutralize (or turn basic) with ammonia and flush down acid drain with water. Use fresh. (c) Swab 5 to 60 sec. Immersion will produce a stain etch. Follow with water rinse, alcohol rinse, dry. 113 15 ml acetic acid 15 ml HNO, 60 ml glycerin 1 ml HNO, 20 ml acetic acid 60 ml diethylene glycol 20 ml water 70 ml H,PO, 30 ml water 0.01 to 1 g CrG, 100 ml HCI 30 ml H,SO, 30 ml HF 3 to 5 drops H,O, (30%) 30 ml water 1 to 3 ml HF 2 to 6 ml HNO, 100 ml water A- 40 g CrG, 3 g NaSO, 200 ml water Use fresh solution at 80C (175F),
119
Electrolytic for 5 V to 10 V for 5 to 60 sec. Polishes at high currents. Allow solution to age a few minutes before using. Swab or immerse a few seconds to a few minutes. Immerse 5 to 60 sec. Use this solution for alternate etch and polishing.
192
Swab 3 to 10 sec or immerse 10 to 30 sec. HF attacks and HNO, brightens the surface of titanium. Make concentation changes on this basis. Immerse in Solution A with gentle agitation for several seconds. Rinse in Solution B.
200
;OBit!:
A B C 0 E .2 34 .238 ,242 .246 ,250 .257
ra a
R
G
H I J
K
L
M
N
v
W X
S
T U
0 P
Y
Z
F
*in in.
Appendix ~ 683
SP1GOT
BELL &
SPlOOf
eeu e
FW<GED SCREW<
SPIGOT
BEU&
BUSHING
--D-
REDUCING FLANGE
-D-
CAP
-J
REDUCING CROSS
STRAIGHT-SIZE CROSS
++ +++
~
+"+
~
---3
BUll PLUG
-P
--K]
0
((:
PIPE PLUG
1i 1i
-If'--.JI- --f'-J~
{>I- -{>t- ~
C ROSSOVER
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App endix
685
STANDARD SERIES THREADS NOMINAL DIAMETER o (.0600) 1 (.0730) 2 (.0860) 3 (.0990) 4 (.1120) 5 (. 1250) 6 (. 1380) 8 (.1640) 10 (.1900) 12 (.2 160) 64 56 48 40 40 32 32 24 24 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 No . 53 No . 50
No. 47
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Diameter' 1.25 1.6 2.05 2.5 3.3 4.2 5.0 6.8 8.5 10.30 14 .00
M20 x 2.5 M24 x 3 M30 x 3.5 M3 6 x 4 M42 x 4 .5 M48 x 5 M56 x 5.5 M64 x 6 M72 x 6 M80 x 6 M90 x 6 Ml 00 x 6
Diameter" 17.5 2 1.0 26.5 32.0 37 .5 43.0 50.5 58.0 66 .0 74.0 84 .0 94.0
M36 x 2
M72 x 2 M80 x 2
M9 0 x 2
Ml 00 x 2
Glossary
alt ernating current (AC): An electrical current that has alternating positive and negative values. See current.
amme te r: An instrument that measure s amperage
acety lene: A colorless gas with a very distinctive. nauseating odor that is highly combustible when mixed with oxygen. Unstable at pressures above 15 psi. Used in oxyacetylene welding. See oxyacetylene welding. acoust ic emission testing (AE): A proof test that consists of detecting acoustic signals produced by plastic deformation or crack formation during mechanical loading or thermal stressing of metals. acrylic: A one-part UV (heat-core) or two-part adhesive that can be used on a variety of materials. actu al throat: The shortest distance from the face of a fillet weld to the weld root after we lding. See weld fa ce. adhesive bond ing: The joi ning of parts with an adhesive placed bet ween the faying (mating) surfaces, which produces an adhesive bond. adhesive wea r: The removal of metal from a sorface by welding together and subsequent shearing of minute areas of two surfaces that slide across each other under pressure.
(amperes). amperage : The quantity of electricity measured. ampere (a m p or A) : A unit of mea sure for electricity that expresses the quantity, or numb er, of electrons fl owing th rou gh a co nduc tor per u nit of time . See conductor. a nae robic adhesive: A one-part adhesive or sealant that cures due to the absence of air which has been displaced between mated parts. a ngle beam : A vibrating pulse wave traveling other than perpendicular to the surface. annealing: Heat treatment process that softens a metal by heating it to a suitable temperature, holding it at that temperatore, and cooling it at a suitable rate. arc hlow: A deflection of the welding arc hy magnetic forces that occor along the electric flow. arc strike: A discontinuity that results from arcing of the electrode and consists of any localized remelted metal, heat-affected metal. or change in the surface profile of any base metal. a rc voltag e (wor king voltage) : The voltage present after an arc is struck and maintained. a rc weld ing (AW): A group of processes that produce coalescence of the metals by healing them with an electric arc. armature: The part of the generator that rotates with the shaft and delivers the electricity. a r rowhead: A termination of the carrier line in the shape of an arrowhead. arrow side: The surface that is in the direct line of vision of the welder. artifact: A nonre levant indication that appe ars on a radiograph.
air carbon arc cutting (CAC A) : A cutting process in which the cutting of metals is accomplished by melting with the heat of an arc between a carbon electrode and the base metal. air cut time: The time that a piece of equipment spends inthe nonproductive activity of moving fromone weld
to another.
alignme nt ma r ker : A center punch mark made across the joint in various locations. alloy : Metal that consi sts of more than one chemical element. w ith at least one of the elements being a pore metal. alteration: Any repair that does not restore a mechanical component to its original design.
687
A-scan presentation: A method of data presentation using a horizontal base line that indicates distance or time, and a vertical deflection from the base line that indicates relative amplitude of the returning signal. autogenous weld : A fusion weld made without filler metal. au to- refr igeration: Coolin g that occurs when gas expands, as in the sudden release of gas from a pipe or piece of equipment. a xis: Strai ght line around which a geometric figur e is gener ated.
hake-out: A temperature-control process used on a casting to remove ~ydrogen and other contaminants that could cause cracking during welding. balloting: A formal method of documenting and voting upon the reviewers' suggestions. bar: Round-, square-, or rectangular -shaped structural steel. See structural steel. base metal: The metal or alloy that is to be welded. base metal material specification: The chemical composition or industry specification of the base metal. base metal thickness range: A procedure qualification variable that indicates the range of base metal thicknesses covered in the procedure qualification record. base metal weldability classification: An alphanumeric system that groups base metals with similar welding characteristics. bead: Narrow layer or layer s of met al depo sited on the base metal as an electrode melts. See base metal and elec trode. beam: I-shaped structural steel. See structural steel. bending strength : A combination of tensile and compressive forces, and is a property that measures resistance to hending or deflection in the direction that the load is applied. bending stress: See flex ural stress. bend test : A destructive test used to determine the ductility of a weld by bending a welded specimen around a standardized mandrel. bevel: Sloped edge of an object running from surface to surface. binocular microscope: A light micro scope that provides a low-magnification, three-dimensional V Iew of the surface . biprism: Two uniaxial double-refracting crystals. bird nesting: The tangling of welding wire in the drive roll as a result of misalignment between the drive roll and the liner. blend grinding: A mechanical repair method in which a thinned, pitted, or cracked region of a part is smoothed to create a gentle transition with the unaffected surface. blind hole : Drilled hole that does not pass through. blind rivet: Rivet with a hollow shank that joins two parts with access from one side. See rivet and shank.
backlire: A quick recession of the flame into the welding tip, typically followed by extinction of the flame. backgouging: The removal of weld metal and base metal from the weld root side of a welded joint to facilitate complete fusion and complete joint penetration when welding on that side is completed. backhand welding: A welding technique in which the torch is directed opposite to the progress of welding. backing symbol: Supplementary symbol indicated hy a rectangle on the opposite side of the groove weld symbol on the reference line. See supplementary symbol. backing weld: A weld made at the back of a single groove weld which is deposit ed before any welding on the opposite side is done. backlighting: A lighting method that uses a diffused light source to eliminate or soften shadow detail. back (transverse) pitch: Distance from the center of one row of rivets to the center of the adjacent row of rivets. See rivet. back-step welding: A welding process in which weld passe s are mad e in the dir ection opposite to the progress of welding. back-to-hack positioning: A mechanical restraint method that places identi cal weldments back-to-ba ek and clamps them together. back weld : A weld made in the weld root opposite the face of the weld.
688
Welding Skills
bloom: A slight haze that appears on tbe surface of the spec ime n and is ev idence of the first appearance of the microstructure. bourdon tube: A coiled fluid-co ntaining tube that straightens out as the internal pressure on the fluid is increased. brazed joint tension shea r test: A shear test that determines the strength of filler metal in a brazed jo int. braze welding (BW) : A j oin ing process that produ ces a coa lesce nce o f metals with filler metals that begin to melt at temperatures above 840 F (4S0 C j, be low the mel ting po int of the metal s joined , and in which the filler metal is not di stributed into the jo int by capillary action. brazing (B ): A group of joining processes that produce a coalesce nce of meta ls using nonferrous filler metals that have a melting point below that of the base metal. brazing symbol: Graphic symbol that shows braze locations and spec ificat ions on prints. brazing temperature range: T he temperatu re ran ge wi t hin w hic h the base metal is heated to e na ble the fi lle r metal to we t the base met al and fo rm a brazed joint. break line: Line that shows internal featur es or avoids show ing continuous features. brightlield illumination : An illuminati on pro cess in which the surface features perpe ndic ular to the optical axis of the microscope appear the brightest. Brinell bardness test: An indentation hardness test that uses a machine to press a 10 mrn diameter. hardened stee l ball into the surface of a test specimen. brinnelling: Localized plas tic deformation or surface denting ca used by repeated local impact or over load. brittleness: Lack of ductili ty in a metal. See ductility. broken-out section: Partia l section view which appears to have been broken nut of the object. See section view. buildup lighting: A lightin g method that combines (adding or de leting) light so urces to achi eve the desired lighting effect. burst: A complex branchin g of the carrier line. buttering: A surfacing weld variation that app lies surfacing metal on one or more joint surfaces to provide compatible base metal for subsequent completion of the weld . butt joint: A weld joint in which two workp ieces are set approx imately level to eac h other and are pos itioned edge-to-edge . See II'<,/d joint. calibration block: A piece of material of specified composition. heat trea tment. geometric form. and surface finish. by which ultrason ic eq uipment ca n be assessed and ca librated for the examination of mater ial of the same general co ndition. calibration standard: A ca libration block or a referencc block . capillary action: The force that distributes liqui d fill er metal through surface tension betwee n the faying surfaces of the j oint. carbon equivalent; A for mula based o n the chem ica l co mpos ition of a steel, which provi des a numer ica l value to indicat e whether preheat and postheating are require d. carburizing: Case- hardening process for low -carbon steels that uses an environment with sufficie nt carbon potent ial and a tem perature above the upper critical temperature. See case hardening. carhurizing flame: A redu cing flam e in which there is an excess of fuel gas. carrier line : An incandescent (glowing) streak that traces the trajecto ry (path) of eac h particle (spark) . cartesian coordinate system: A sys tem of locating points in space defined by perpe ndicular planes. case hardening: Process of hardening low-carbon or mild stee ls by adding carbon, nitrogen, or a combination of carbon and nitrogen to the outer surface, forming a hard. thin outer shell. cast: Metal heated to its liquid state and poured into a mold. whe re it cools and reso lidi fies. casting alloy: Allo y poured into a sand or permanent metal mold. See alloy. cavitation: Surface damage ca used by collapsing vapor buhbles in a flowing liquid. certificate of analysis (COA ): See m ill tes t report. certifieate of compliance (COC): A sta tement by a manufacturer. w ithout supporti ng documentation. that the supp lied meta l meets specifications. certification: A notarized statement provided by a supplier verifying that a product mee ts the spec ification under which it is sold. cbamfer: Sloped edge of an objec t running from surface to side . See edge.
Glossary :@; 689
channel : C- shape d structural steel used in conjunction with other structur al shapes as support members or combined to serve as an I beam. See stru ctural steel. charpy: Impact test specimen supported horizontally between two anvils with the pendulum allowed to strike opposite the notch . Charpy V-notch test: A toughne ss test that uses the energy produced by a dynamic load, and measure s the energy needed to break a small machine-notched test specimen. check valve: A valve that allows the flow of liquid or gas in one direc tion only. chemical analysis : A destructive quantitative identification method that requires removal of a small sample (I g to 2 g) of metal for chemical analysis of its constitue nt elements. chemical inhomogeneity: Any disturbance in the chemical composition gradi ent of a metal. chemical polishing: A polishing process that uses chemical reactions to remove the rough peak s on the specimen surface. chemical properties: Properties of metals that are directly related to molecular composition and pertaining to th e chemical reactivity of metals and the surro unding environment. chemical spot testing: A semi-quantitative identification method that uses chemicals that react when placed on certain types of metal s. chill plate: A metal plate used to prevent overheating during welding. chisel testing: A qualitative identification method that identifi es metal by the shape of the chips it produces. circular magnetization: A concentric magnetic field produced by a straight conductor, such as a piece of wire, carrying an electrical current. code: A type of standard that is mandatory and is used by a jurisdictional bod y. coefficient of thermal expansion: The change in unit dimension , such as length , cau sed by a 10 rise in temperature. cold crack: A crac k that develops aft er so lidification is complet e. cold mechanical repair: A mechanical repair method that consis ts of spanning a cra ck in a failed part with struc tural repair component s anchored into sound base metal on both sides of the crack .
cold worked: Metal that is hammered, rolled , or drawn through a die . . color-coding: An identification marking that consi sts of colored str ipes painted on one end of metal to allow for permanent storage or temporary storage and subsequent retrieval from a metal service cent er or a user's storeroom. color test: Metal identification test that identifies metal s by their color. combined weld symbols: Weld symbols used when the weld joint, weld type, and weld ing operation require more information than ca n be specified with one weld symbol. See weld symbol, weld j oint, and weld type. commntator: The part of an armature that connects the armature to the insulated copper bars on which the bru shes ride. compression : Stre ss caused by two equal forc es actin g on the same axial line to crush an object. See stress and axis. compressive strength: The ability of a metal to resist being crushed. concave: Cur ved inward. concave root surface: A depression in the weld extending below the surface of the adjacent ba se metal caused by an underfill in the root pass of a weld. condnctor: Any material through whi ch electri city flows easily. confined space: A space large eno ugh and so configured that an employee can phy sicall y enter and perform as signed work, ha s limited or restricted means for entry and exit, and is not de signed for continuous employee occupancy. constant-cnrrent welding machine: A welding machine in which a steady supply of current is produced over a wide range of welding volta ges cau sed by changes in arc length. constant pitch: Standard screw thread serie s with a set number of threads per inch regardless of diameter. See standard series. constant potential: Generation of a stable voltage regardless of the current output produced by the welding machine. consumable insert: Spacer that provid es proper opening of a weld joint and becomes part of the filler metal during welding. See weld joint.
consumable insert sy m bol: Supple me ntary symbo l indicated by a square on the oppo site side of a groove weld on the referen ce line. See supplem entary' sy mbol and groo l'e weld. continuous magnetization metbod: An MT examination technique in which the magnetic part icles are applied while the magnetizing force is ma intained . contour sym bol: Suppleme ntary symbol indicated by a horizontal lin e or arc parallel to the we ld symbol, which specifies the shape of thc co mpleted we ld . See supplementary sy m bol and weld symbol. convex: Curve d outward. cooling rate: T he ra te o f temperature c ha nge o f a we ld joint over tim e fro m the we ld ing temperature to room te mperat ure. corner joint: A j oint form ed whe n two wo rkpieces are po sitioned at an approximate right angle in the shape of an L. corrosion: Combin ing metals with elements in the environmen t tha t lead s to de terioration of the metal. cnrrosion aUowance: An additional thickness of metal above the design thickn ess that allows for metal loss fr om corrosion or wear without reducing the design thickness. cou n te r bored bole: Enla rge d and recessed hol e with square sho ulders. counterdrilled hole: Hole with a cone-shap ed opening be low the outer surface. coun te r sin k : Tool that produces a co untersunk hole. See
crosschecking: A series of pa ra lle l cracks about 'h " a part that occur in brittl e deposits (with hardness greate r than HR C 50) as they undergo stress re lief. cryogenic properties: Abi lity of a metal to resist failo re when subjected to very low tempera tures . crystal (t r a nsd u ce r) : The piezoe lectric e lement in a search unit that converts e lectrical e nergy to ultrasoni c e nergy and vice ve rsa. crystal structure: A spec ific arrangement of atoms in an orde rly and rep eating three-dimen sion al pa ttern. cubic foot: 1' _0" x 1'-0" x 1'-0" or 172 8 c u in. cubic inch: I" x I" x I" or its equivalent. Curie temperature: The temperature of magnetic transforma tion, abo ve which a metal is non ma gnetic , and below which it is magnetic. curing: A process that converts the adhesive from its applied co nditio n to the final solid state. current: The amount of electron flow through an electrica l c ircuit. See cond uctor. cutting plane line: Lin e that shows where an obj ect is imagined to be cut in order to view intern al features. cyaniding: Process of hard enin g low-carbon stee l by hea ting it in sodium cyanide or potass ium cyanide. cyanoacrylate adhesive: A one-part ad hesive that cures instantl y by reacting to trace surface moistu re to bond mated parts. cyclical lead: A load that varies with time and rate, but without the sudden change that occurs with an impact load.
countersunk hole.
cou ntersu nk hol e: Hole with a con e-shaped opening or rece ss at the outer surface . See countersink . couplant: A liq uid subs ta nce used bet ween the searc h unit and the test surface to pe rm it or imp rove the tran sm ission of ult rasoni c energy. cover pass: T he final weld pass deposited . crack: A fracture-type d iscontinu ity characteriz ed by a sharp tip and a high ratio of length to width, and width to opeoing displ acem en t. cr a ter: A depress ion in the base metal that is made by the we lding heat source at the termination of the weld bead . See base metal. creep: Slow plastic e longation that occurs duri ng extended service und er load above a specific tem pe ratu re for that metal. See strain. cr it ica l temperature: Tem pe rature above whic h steel m ust be heated so it will harden when qu en ched .
darkfield illumination : An illumina tion process tha t illuminates the sp ecimen at suf fic ie nt ob lique ness (a narrow an gle to th e surface) so that th e co ntrast is co m p le te ly re versed fro m t hat ob ta i ne d w ith brightfie ld illuminati on . defect: O ne or more indications whose aggregat e size . shape, orie ntation, loc ation , or properties fail to meet the acceptance criteria of the a pplicable fabric ation code or standard. demagnetization: The elimination or red uct ion of residua l magn etism created by MT. density testing: A se m i-q uantitative identificat ion method that measures the den sity of an unkn own metal.
Glossary ~ 691
depth of fusion : Di stance from the fu sion fac e to the weld interface. See fu sion f ace and weld interface. derating: A low er ing o f the c urrent output level of an AC we ld ing machin e when being used for GTAW. design th ickn ess: Th e thickness of metal required to support the load on a part . destructive testiug: Any type of testing that damages the test part (spec ime n) . developer: A mat erial that is applied to the test surfac e to accel erate bl eedout and e nh a nc e the co ntrast of indi cations. developing time: The elapsed time between the application of the developer and the examination of the part. diffraction: A modification of light in which the ray s app ear to be deflected to produce fring es of parallel light and dark colore d band s. diffused light: A lighting source that uses a semi-opaque scree n (such as ground gla ss) to diffu se the light source, redu ce glare, and soften harsh detail s. dilution: A change in the co mposition of welding filler metal in the weld deposit ca used by melted base metal. direct current (D C): An electrica l current that flow s in on e dir ection only. See current. direct current electrode negative (DCENj: Flow of c urrent fro m electrode (- ) to work (+). See electrode. direct current electrode positive (DC EP) : Flow of current from work (-) to electrode (+ ). See electrode. dissimilar metal welding: The joining of two metal s of different co mpos ition usin g a compatib le tiller metal to ens ure the weld meets required properties.
double-J-groove weld: Groove weld having joint members grooved in a J shape on both sides with the weld made from both sides . See groo ve weld. double-square-groove weld: Groove we ld having squareedged joint member s with the weld mad e tram both sides. See groove weld. double-If-groove weld: Groo ve weld having joint members grooved in a U shape on hoth sides with the weld made from both sides. See groove weld. double- V-groove weld : Groove weld havin g j oint member s angled on both sides with the weld mad e from both sides . See groove weld . downhill welding: Welding with a downward progression. See vertical welding. drag: Lag between the top of the cUI and the bottom as cutting proceeds. drag angle: The angle where the electrode is pointing in the direction opposite of welding. drill: Round hole in a material produced by a twist drill. dry magnetization metbod: An MT examination techniqu e in which the ma gnetic particles are in a dry powder form. ductility: A measure of the ability of a met al to yield pla stically under load , rather than fracture. dunnage: A series of stee l I-beam s parallel to one another. dnty cycle: The percentage of time during a spec ified test period that a weldin g machine can be operat ed at its rated load without overheating. dwell time: The total time penetrant is in contact with the co m pone nt su rfac e, including ap plic atio n and drain tim es. dynamic electricity: E lectricity in motion in an electric current. See current.
ear muffs: A device worn over the ears to reduce the level of noise rea ching the eardrum. earplugs: A devic e inserted into the ear canal to reduce the level of noise reachin g the eardrum. eddy current: An electrical curre nt caused to flow in a conductor by the time or space var iation, or both, of an appli ed magn etic field.
edge joint: Weld joint formed wheo the edges of two or more parallel or nearly parallel workpiece s are joined . See weld joint. ed ge preparation : The preparation of the work piece edges by cutting, clea ning, or other methods. effective throat: The minimum distance between the weld face and the we ld root, minus convexity. elastic deformation: Ability of a metal to return to its original size and shape after loading and unloading , elastic limit (yield): The maximum stress to which a material is subjected without any permanent strain remaining after stress is co mpletely removed . electrical circuit: Path taken by electric current flowing from one terminal of the welding machine, through a conductor, and to the other terminal. See current and conductor. elect rica l conductivity: The rate at whic h electric current flows through a metal. electrica l properties: Ability of a metal to conduct or resist electricity or the now of electrons. electrical resistivity (resistivity): The electrical resistance of a unit volume of a material. electrical resistivity testing: A semi-quantitative identilication method that uses differences in electrical resistivity to identify metals. electrode: A component of the welding circuit that conducts electrical current to the weld area . See weld bead. elect rode angle: The angle at which the electrode is held during the welding process. electrode holder: A handle-like tool that holds the electrode during welding. See electrode. electrogas welding (EG W): A welding process that uses an arc between a filler metal electrode and the weld pool, using approximately vertical we lding and a backing bar to control the molten weld metal. elect ro lytic polishing: A poli shin g process in which the mount is the anode (co nnec ted to the posi tive term inal) in an elec tro lytic solutio n and curre nt is passed from a meta l ca thode (con nected to the negative terminal) . electromagnetic exa mination (ET): An NDE method that uses elec tromagnetic energy having frequencies less than visible light to yield information on the quality of the part being tested. electron beam welding (EBW) : A welding process that produces coa lescence with a concentrate d beam ,
composed pr imarily of high-velocity electrons, impinging on the joint. electroplating: The application of a thin, hard chrome coating to repair minor damage. embrittlement: The comp lete loss of ductility and toughness of a metal. so that it fractures when a sma ll load is applied. epoxy: A two-part adhesive that cures when res in and hardener are combined. equipment calihration standard : A test piece that contains typical discontinuities that demon strate that calibration equipment is detecting the discontinuities for which the part is being inspected. erosion (low-stress abrasion): A form of abrasive wear in which the force of an abrasive and the surface causes the removal of surface material.
essential variable: A we lding qual ification variable which, if altered, shall be considered to affect the mechanical properties of the weld. etching: The controlled selective attack on a metal surface for revealing the microstructural detail of a polished spec imen. examiner: A person who is qualifi ed, or quali fied and certified, to conduct certain types of NDE processes. excess weld reinforcement: Weld metal built up in excess of the quantity required to till a joint. explosion welding (EXW) : A welding process that produces a weld by extreme impact of the metals through controlled detonation .
face reinforcement: Reinforcement on the same side as the welding . See filler metal.
failure-critical member: A tension member or component whose failure would likely result in collapse of the structure. failure mod es and ettects an alysis: A failure analysis process that provides a diagnosis of the technical cause of failure using experience gained from previous failures.
Glossary ~ 693
fa lse indi ca tion: An NDE indication interpreted to be caused by a discontinuity at a location where no discontinuity actually exists. fast-fill electrode: An iron powder electrode that has a soft arc and fast deposit rate. See electrode. fast-freeze electrode : An electrode that produces a snappy, deep-penetrating arc and fast-freezing deposit. See electrode. fatigue: Failure of a material operating under alternating (cyclic) stresses at a value below the tensile strength of the material. fa tigue strength: Property of a metal to resist variou s kinds of rapidl y alternat ing stresses. See stress. fay ing surface: Part of the joint member which is in full contact prior to welding. See cap illary action. ferromagnetic material: A material that can be magne tized or strongly attracted by a magnetic field. ferrous metal: Any metal with iron as a major alloying element. field rivet: Rivet placed in the field. See rivet. tield weld symbol : Supplementary symbol indicated by a triangular flag rising from the intersection of the arrow and reference line , whi ch spec ifie s the welding operation is to be completed in the field at the location of final installation. See supplementary sy mb ol. file testing: A qualitative identification method in which a file is used to indicate the hardn ess of steel com pared with that of the file. filler mefal: Metal depo sited in a welded, brazed , or soldered joint during the welding process. filler metal approval : The process of testing samp les of as-rece ived filler metal to certify conformance to a specification. filler metal quantity: The depo sited weld metal thick ness range for groove or fillet welds. filler metal specification: Identifi cation of filler meta l by AWS number or other specification designation. filler metal usability classification: An alphanumer ic method of grouping fill er metal s with similar characteristics. fillet weld: A weld type of approximately triangular cross section joining two surfaces at approximately right angles. See weld type . fillet weld break test: A break test in which the specimen is tested with the weld root in tension.
694 o@ Welding Skills
fillet weld leg: Distance from the joint root to the weld toe. See joint root. fillet weld leg size: Dimension from the root of a weld to the toes of a weld after welding. See fillet weld leg. fillet weld shear test: A shear test in which a tensile load is placed on a fillet weld specimen so that the load shears the fillet weld in a longitudinal or a transverse direction. fill-freeze electrode: An electrode that has a moderately forceful arc and deposit rate. The rate is between those of the fast-freeze and fast-fill electrodes. See electrode. fill lighting: A lighting method that uses a small region of a brighter light to increase detail on a dark area of a subject. fitting: Standard conn ection used to join two or more pieces of pipe. fit-up : The positioning of pipe with other pipe or fittings before welding. flxed automation system : A system that uses machines designed for a single production function. fixture : A device used to maintain the correct positional relationship betw een workpieces as required by print specifications. flame spraying: A thermal spraying process that uses an oxyfuel gas flame as a source of heat for melting the coating material. flanged joint: A joint in which one of the joint members has a flanged edge at the weld joint. flash arrestor: A safety device that prevents an explosion or a backfire in the torch or torch head from reaching the regulator and the acetylen e cylinder. flashback: A recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber in a flame torch or flame spray torch. flashlight: A lighting source that provides a pulse of very intense light. flash welding (FW): A resistance welding process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of a joint by the intense heat of an arc that occurs when the workpieces are contacted and by the application of pressure after heating has been substantially completed. flaw (indication): A discontinuity that can be detected through NDE techniques . flexible automation system: A system that uses programmable movements of the torch and sometimes the workpiece . flexural (bending) stress: Stress caused by equal forces acting perpendicular to the horizontal axis of an object.
fluidity: A measure of the viscosity or flowability of a liquid or molten solid. fluorescence: The ability of certain atoms to emit light when they are exposed to external radiation of shorter wavelengths . flush patch: A patch applied to a component that provide s a smooth transition between the component and the patch. flux : A material that hinders or prevents the formation of oxides and other undesirable substances in molten metal. flux cored arc welding (FCAW): An arc welding pro cess that uses a tubular electrode with flux in its core, forced cooling: Rapid cooling of a solidified weld joint between passe s using wat er. forehand welding: A welding technique in which the torch is directed toward the progress of welding. forged: Metal formed by a mechanical or hydraulic press with or without heal. forge welding (FOW): A welding process that produces a weld by heating the metal s to welding temperature and applying forceful blows to cause deformation at the faying surfaces. fork : A simple branching of the carrier line . foundry mark: An identification marking embossed on the exterior of castings. fracture test: Metal identification test that breaks the metal sample to check for du ctility and grain size. See ductility. frequency : The number of cycles per second in an AC sine wave . fretting: Surface damage between two materials, usu ally metal , caused by oscillatory movement between the surfaces . friction welding (FRW): A welding process that joins two metal parts that rotate or are in relative motion with respect to one another when they are brought into contact and pressure is appli ed between them. full skip: One complete reflection of the ultrasonic beam. fusion: Meltin g together of filler metal and base metal. See filler metal and base metal. fusion face : Surface of the base metal that is melted during welding. See fusion. fusion welding: Welding that uses fusion of the base metal to make a weld.
galling: A condition that occurs when excessive friction , caused by rubbing of high spots on the surface, results in localized welding with subsequent spalling (formation of surface slivers) and furth er roughening of the rubbing surfaces. gas metal arc welding (GMAW): An arc we lding pro cess that uses an arc betw een a continuous wire electrode and the weld pool. gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G): An FCAW variation in which the shield ing is obtained from both the CO 2 gas flowing from the noz zle and from the flux core of the electrode. gas tungsten arc spot welding: An arc welding process that produces locali zed fusion similar to resistance spot welding hut doe s not require accessibility to both sides of the joint. gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW): An arc welding pro cess in which a shielding gas protects the arc between a nonconsumable (does not become part of the weld) tungsten electrode and the weld area. See electrode. globular transfer: The transfer of molt en metal in large droplets from the welding wir e to the workpi ece across an arc. gouging: A cutting process that removes metal by melting or burning off a portion of the base metal to form a bevel or groove. gouging (high-stress ahrasion): A severe form of abrasive wear in which the force between an abrasive body and the wearing surface is large enough to macroscopi cally gouge, groove, or deeply scratch the surface. grain: Individual crystal in a metal that has multiple cry stals . See crystal. grain structure: Pattern of the grains in a metal. See
grain.
graphitization: The formation of iron carbide that results in loss of ductility. grinding: The mechanical removal of metal from the surface using hard , brittle grains of an abrasive material. grip: Effective holding length of a rivet. See rivet. groove face: Surface of the joint memher included in the groove of the weld. groove weld: A weld type mad e in the groove between the two workpieces to be joined. See weld typ e.
Glossary 1 695
grounding device (ground): Co nnection betwe en weld ing cable and we ld parts in the weldin g circuit. guided bend test: A bend test in which a rectangular piece of we lde d met al is bent aro und a U-shaped die and forced into a U shape.
image quality indicator (IQI): A device or combination of devices who se demonstrated image determines radiographic qualit y and sensitivity. impact damage: Removal of material from and dama ge to a surface caused by repetiti ve collisions or impact between two surfaces. im pact load: Load that is applied suddenly or intermit tently. Sec load.
hardfacing: Application of filler metals which pro vide a coating to protect the base metal from wear cau sed by impact, abrasion , erosion, or from oth er wear. See filler metal and base metal. hardness: Th e resistance of a material to deformation, indent ation, or scratc hing. heat-affected znne (HAZ) : A narrow band of base metal adj acent to the weld joint who se properties and/or metallur gical structure are altered by the heat of welding. See base meta l and mecha nical prop erty. heating rate: Th e rate of temp erature change of a weld joint ove r time from room tempe rature to the welding temperature. heat inpnt: The amount of heat applied to the filler metal and the base metal surface at the required rate to form a weld pool , plus the additional heat required to compensate for heat that is conducted away from the weld. heat shaping: The application of localized heating to cause movem ent of a distorted part and restore its dim ensions. hertz (Hz): The international unit of frequency equal to I cycle per second. high-carbnn steel: Steel with a carbon range of 0.45 % to 0.75 %. hot crack: A crac k formed at temperatures near the completion of solidification. hot melt adhesive: Thermoplastic material that is appli ed in a molten state and cures to a solid state when cooled. hydrogen-assisted cracking: Loss of toughn ess in steels resultin g from hydro gen atom s created at the surface of the metal by corros ion that diffu se into the HAZ and the base metal. hydrostatic te sting (hydrotesting) : Pro of testing of clo sed container s suc h as vessels, tanks, and piping systems by filling them with water and applying a predetermined test pressure.
696 ~ Welding Skills
impact strength: Ability of a metal to re sist load s that are applied suddenly and often at high velocity. impact testing: S pec ia l te sting performed on small, notched specimens, to simulat e a stress co nce ntration effe ct. inclusion: Entrapped foreign solid material in depo sited weld metal, such as slag or flux , tung sten , or oxide. incomplete fusion: A lack of union (fusion) between adjacent weld passes or base metal. incomplete penetration : A condition in a groove weld in whic h weld metal does not extend through the joint thickness. inert gas : A ga s tha t do cs not readily co mbine with other clements. inspector: A per son who is qualified , or qualified and certified, to appl y the results of NDE flaw characterization to determine whether the flaw s meet the acceptance criteria of the applicable fabricati on code or standard. intergranular penetration: Penetra tion of molten metal along the grain boundaries of the base metal that leads to embrittlement of the base metal. intermediate weld pass : A sing le pro gre ssion of welding subsequent to the roo t pass and before the cover pa ss. intermittent welding: A stress -red uction technique in which the continuity of the weld is broken by recurring spaces between weld s. intermittent welds: Short sections of fillet welds applied at specified intervals on the weld part. See fille t weld. interpass temperature: Weld area temperature between passes of a multiple-pass weld . See weld pass. interpass temperature control: Maintaining the temperature range within the weld between weld passes until weldin g is complete.
interstitial clem en t: A c hemica l eleme nt adde d in sma ll amo unts. whose atomic size is sig nifica ntly less than the major e lements present in the metal. in ve r te r: An elec trica l de vice tha t cha nge s DC current into AC c urrent.
liquid impingement: Progressive material removal fro m a surface by the striki ng act ion of a liquid . liquid penetrant examination (IYr): An NDE tec hniq ue th at uses dyes suspended in high -fl uid ity liq uid s to pe net rat e so lid mat eri al s and ind ica te the prese nce of disconti nuit ies. liquidus: T he lowest temperature at wh ich an alloy is completely molten. liquidus temperature: The melti ng temperature of a filler metal.
j oin t design: The shape , dimensio ns, and configuration of the joint. joint penetration: T he dept h of the we ld metal fro m the we ld face into the joint. joint root: The porti on of a weld joint where joint members are the closest to each other.
kerf: The widt h of the cut metal. killed steel: Stee l th at is completely deoxidi zed during steel production by adding silicon or alum inum in the furnace ladle or to the mo ld.
lamella r tearing: A subsurface terrace and step-like crack pattern in wrought steel base metal oriented parallel to the base metal working direction. laminar di scontinuity: A discontinui ty that is re lative ly thin and flat. lap joint: A we ld jo int betwee n two ove rlap pi ng work pieces in parallel planes. See weld joint. large rivets: Rivets with a sha nk 2" or greater in diam e ter, See rivet and shank. laser beam welding (LBW): A we lding process that produces coalescence with the heat from a laser beam impin gin g on the joint.
machinable electrode: Electrode whose deposits are soft and ductile enough so that they can ea sily be machined after wel ding. See electrode. machining: Precise shapi ng to a desired profile using special tool s to remove material. macroetchants: Dee p etchants that are intended to develop gross features such as we ld solidifica tion struc tures. m agnetic field: Th e space within and arou nd a magnetize d part or conductor carryi ng c urrent in whic h a magnetic force is exerted. Glossary ~ 697
magnetic leakage field: The magnetic field that leaves or enters the surface of a part at a discontinuity or change in section configuration of a magnetic circuit. magnetic particle: A finely divided ferromagnetic material that is capable of being individually magnetized and attracted to distortion in a magnetic field. magnetic particle examination (MT): An NOE method that uses a strong magnetizing current and a finely divided powder to detect defects. magnetic response testing: A qualitative identification method in which a magnet is laid on the sutface of an unknown metal to test for a magnetic force. magnetism: The ability of a metal to be attracted by a magnet , or to develop residual magnetism when placed in a magnetic or electrical field. main lighting: A primary lighting method that uses a light source at a vertical angle of 40 0 to 600 to the subject. malleability: Ability of a metal to be deformed by compressive forces without developing defects such as those encountered in rolling, pressing, or forging. manufacturing data report (MDR): A legal document signed by the representatives of the manufacturer and the manufacturer's authorized inspection agency. margin: Distance from the edge of a plate to the centerline of the nearest row of rivets. See rivet. material safety data sheet (MSDS): Printed material that includes data about every hazardous component comprising I % or more of a material 's content and used hy a manufacturer, importer, or distributor to relay chemical hazard information to the employee. materials nonconformance report: A form created by the receiver of the metal to audit manufacturer paperwork regarding supplied metals. materials test report (MTR): A certified statement issued by the primary manufacturer indicating the chemical analysis and mechanical properties of the metal. mechanical hond: The joining of two components by locking, compression, or surface tension. mechanical property: A property of metal that describes the behavior of metals under applied loads. mechanical repair: A repair weld process that consists of methods that do not create a metallurgical bond between the restored parts or at the restored surface.
698 ~ Welding Skills
mechanical restraint: A device used to restrict movement and counteract shrinkage stresses that occur during welding. medium-carbon steel: Steel with a carbon range of .30% to .45%. melting point: The temperature at which a metal passes from a solid state to a liquid (molten) state. melt-through: A discontinuity that occurs in butt welds when the arc melts through the bottom of the weld. metallograph: A metallurgical microscope equipped to photograph microstructures and produce photomicrographs. metallurgical bond: The joining of two components by atomic fusion. metallurgical structure: The arrangement of atoms in repeating patterns within a metal. metallurgy: The study of the influence of crystal and grain structure of metals on the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of metals. meter: A device used to measure and indicate the flow of a gas, liquid, or current through a system. metric equivalent standard: A version of a standard in which all the units are indicated in metric (SI) values. microanalysis: Chemical analysis of extremely small regions of the specimen surface using tools such as energy-dispersive X-ray analysis or electron probe microanalysis. microhardness test: A microhardness test is a type of indentation hardness test that uses light loads of less than 200g. microstructure: The appearance of the metallurgical structure of metals when they are specially prepared to reveal their features. mill test report (MTR): Certification issued by the primary manufacturer (mill) verifying the chemical analy sis and mechanical test properties of stock obtained from a starting ingot or billet of metal. See certificate oj analysis (eGA). mock-up: A simulation of the repair area on which the welder performs work in the expected position of the repair. modulus of elasticity: A measure of the stiffness of an object under tension or compression. multiple-impulse welding: A form of resistance welding in which welds are made with repeated electrical impulses.
emitted from an unknown metal surface when it is arced by an electric current. other side: The opposite snrface of the joint. neutral name: A name that has neither oxidizing nor carburizing characteristics. nil duetility transition (NDT) temperature test: A toughness test that measures the temperature at which the fracture behavior of a metal changes from ductile to brittle in the presence of a stress raiser. noise reduction rating number (NRR): A number that indicates the noise level reduction in decibels (dB). Nomarski illumination: An illumination process that illuminates the specimen using polarized light that is separated into two beams by a biprism. nondestructive examination (NDE): The development and application of technical methods to examine materials or components in ways that do not impair their future usefulness and serviceability. nonessential variable: A qualification variable that may be changed in a WPS without requalification of the WPS. nonrelevant indication: An NDE indication caused by a discontinuity that, after evaluation, does not need to be rejected. notch effect: A stress-concentrating condition caused by an abrupt change in section thickness or in continuity of the structure. paperwork: Physical certification or documentation provided by a product manufacturer or supplier. pass: Each layer of bead deposited on the base metal. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): A federal agency that requires all employers to provide a safe environment for their employees. ohm: The basic unit of measurement of resistance and impedance. One ohm is the resull of I V applied across a resistance that allows I A to now through it. open-circuit voltage: The vall age produced when the machine is ON and no welding is being done. open root joint: An unweldedjoint that does not use backing or consumable inserts. optical emission spectrometer: An instrument nsed for optical emission spectroscopy that is placed on the surface of an unknown metal. optical emission spectroscopy: A semi-quantitative identification method that separates and analyzes the light peel test: A shear test in which a specimen is gripped in a vise and then bent and peeled apart with pincers to reveal the weld. peening: The mechanical working of weld metal using impact blows. penetrant: A solution or suspension of dye. permit-required confined space: A confined space that has specific health and safety hazards associated with it. personal protective equipment: Equipment worn by welders to prevent injury. photomacrography: The documentation of macroetched samples using photography. physical failure analysis: A failure analysis process that provides a diagnosis of the technical canse of failure using rigorous analytical methods.
Glossary ~ 699
overheating: Microstructural damage or change caused by cutting operations. overlapping: Extending the weld metal beyond the weld toes or the weld foot. oxidation: The combination of a metal with oxygen in the air to form metal oxide. oxidizing flame: A flame in which there is an excess of oxygen. oxyacetylene welding (OAW): An oxyfuel welding process that uses acetylene as the fuel gas. oxytuel cutting (OFC): A group of cutting processes that use high heat temperatures generated by burning a fuel gas in oxygen to accelerate the chemical reaction between oxygen and the base metal to sever and remove the metal. oxyfuel welding (OFW): A group of welding processes that use heat from the combustion of a mixture of oxy gen and a fuel for welding.
pipe j ig: A device tha t hold s sect ions o f pipe or fittings hefore tack we lding . pitting (spalling): The formi ng of local ized cavities in metal resulting from corrosion, repetitive slid ing or rolling surface stresses. or poor electroplating. plane-strain fracture toughness test: A tough ness test that measures the resista nce of metals to brittle fracture propagation in the presence of stress raisers such as weld defects. plasma arc cutting (PAC): A cuttin g process uuu uses a constricted arc to remove molt en metal with a high veloc ity j et of ioni zed gas. plasma arc welding (I'AW): An arc we ld ing process that uses a co nstricted arc betwee n a nonconsum able tungsten electrode and the weld poo l (tra nsferred arc). or between the e lectrode and const ricti ng no zzl e (non-transferred arc ). plasma sprayin g: A thermal spraying process in which a plasma torch is used as a heat source for melt ing a nd p rop ell in g the s ur fac ing mat eri al to th e workpiece. plastic strain: Strai n that rem ains permanent after the stress is removed. plug weld: A we ld made in a circ ular hol e in one workpiece, fusing that workpiece to another. pneumatic testing: A proof test in which air is pressurized inside a closed vesse l to revea l leaks. pularity: The po sitive (+) or negative (-) state of an object. polarized illumination: An illum ination process that reveals microstructural features in meta ls that are optica lly anisotropic. polarizer: A device into which norm al light passes and from which polarized light emerges . polysullide adhesive: A one- or two-part adhesive or sealant that cures by evaporation or catalyst. polyurethane : A o ne- or two-part adh es ive w ith ex ce lle nt flexib ilit y that cures by eva po ratio n. catalyst . or heat. positioner: A mec hanical device that suppo rts and moves wor kpieces for maximum loading, welding, and unloading efficiency. postheating: The reheat ing of the we ld area to a high temperature, holding for a predetermined time at temperature, and coo ling at a specifie d rate.
prebending: A mech anical restra int method that relies on locating workpieces out of pos ition before welding so that we lding shrinkage stresses pull the workpieces back into position. preheat : The heating of the jo int area to a predetermined temperature in order to slow the coo ling rate . prequalified PQR: A we lding proce dure specification that complies with the stipulated co nditions of a part icular fabrication standard or co de and is acce ptable for use und er tha t cod e without requiring addit ional qualification testing . primary weld: A weld that is an integral part of a structure and that d irect ly tra nsfers the load . See load. procedure qualification re cord (P Q R): Documentation of the we lding variables used to produce an acceptable test weld and the results of tests co nducted on the we ld to qualify a WPS . prod: A set of hand -held electrodes used to transmit the magnetizing current from the source to the material being inspected. prod method: A wet or dr y continuous method in which portabl e prod-t ype e lectrica l co ntac ts are pressed against the areas to be examined to magnetize them . product analysis: A ch emical report that a parti cul ar metal, such as tubin g or piping, is made fro m a particular heat of metal. projection weld: A resistance we ld type prod uced by the heat obtained fro m the resistance to the flow of welding curre nt. See weld type , fusion, and base metal. projection welding (I'W): A we lding process that produces a weld using heat obtained from resistance of the wor kpiece to the we lding current. proof testing: The application of speci fic loads to welded structures, without failure or perma nent deformat ion, to assess their mech anical integrity. proportional limit: The maximum stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. See stress. pulsed spray transfer: A spray transfer mode in which curre nt is cycled from low to high . at which point spray transfer occ urs . pulse-echo mode: A UT inspec tion method in which the prese nce and position of a reflector are indicated by the echo am plitude and time . pure metal: Metal that consists of one chemica l element. push angle: A travel angle where the electrode is angled to point in the direc tion of we lding.
residual stress: Stress that occurs in a joint member or material after welding ha s been completed, res ulting from thermal or mechani cal co nd itions.
qualitative ideutifieatiou: Metal identification by a qualified person to confirm the identit y of an unknown metal. resistance: The opposition of the mat erial in a co nductor to the passage of electric current, ca using the electrical energy to be transform ed into heat. resistance welding (RW): A group of weld ing processes in which fusion occurs from the heat obtained by resistance to the flow of current through the metals joined. restraint: A clamp or fixture used to redu ce distortion by preventing movement o f the we ld during coo ling, but which does not necessarily reduce residual stress. retentivity: The ability of a material to retain a portion of the applied magnetic field after the magn et izin g force has been removed. right angle: Angle that cont ains 900. rimmed steel: Steel with little or no deo xidi zer addit ion. ripple: The shape within thc deposited bead caused by the movement of the welding heat source. See bead. rivet: Cy lindrical metal pin with a preformed head. rivet pitch: Distance from the ce nter of one rivet to the center of the next rivet in the same row. See rivet. rohot: A programmed path device used to positi on the torch and at times the workpi ece . Rockwell hardness test: An indentation hardness test that uses two loads, supplied sequentially, to form an indentation on a metal test specime n to determine hardness. roll welding: A weldin g procedure that applies heat and pressure to interlo ck the faying surfaces of the we ld. root head: A weld bead that extends into or includes part or all of the joint root. root cause failure a nalysis: A failure analysis process that determin es how to prevent a failure from recurring by understanding how the actions of humans or systems may have led to the technical cause of the failure. root edge: Weld face that comes to a point and has no width. See weld face . r oot face : T he portion of the groove faee with in the joint roo t. root opening: The distance between joint members at the root of the weld before welding. root pass: The initial weld pass that pro vides co mplete penetration throu gh the thickness of the j oin t member. See weld pass and penetration. Giossarv l' 70 1
radiograph : A permanent, visible image on a recording medium pr oduce d by pen etrating radiati on pa ssin g through a material bein g tested .
radiographic examination: The use of X ray s or nuclear radiation (gamma rays) to detect various types of interna l and external discontinuities in material. reaming: Enlarging and improving the surface quality of a hole. rec ommend ed practice: A type of standard that pro vides instru ctions for performing on e or more repetitive technical function s.
re ctifier: An elec tric al device contained within a transformer welding machine that changes AC current into DC current.
re d hardness: The capacity to resist softening in the red heat temp erature range. reducing flame: See carburiring fl ame . red uction : Loss or remo val of oxygen during the welding process. reference hlock: A test piece of the same material, shape , and significant dim ension s as a particular object under ex am ination, and whi ch ma y contain natural or artificial discontinuities or defect s. refl ected light: A lightin g source that houn ces light off a white card, wall, or ceiling. rei nforcement: Amount of weld metal that is piled up above the surface of the pieces bein g joined . r eleva nt indication: An NDE indication caused by a discontinuity that requires evaluation. rerating: Revi sion of the allowable de sign parameters of a mechanical component from the original design arising from formal study of its current condition. r esid ual magnetization method : An .MT examination technique in which magneti c particles are appli ed after the mag netizing force has been disconn ected.
root reinforcement: Reinforcement on the side opposite the one on which welding took place. See filler metal. root surface: Surface of the weld on the opposite side of the joint on which welding was done . rough polishing: A polishing process that is performed on a series of rotating wheels covered with a low-nap cloth (cloth containing a small amount of fiher). run-off tah: A piece of metal of the same co mposition and thickness as the base metal that is tacked to the weld to allow the weld to he completed on it.
shank: Cylindrical body of a rivet. See rivet. sheared plate: Plate that is rolled between horizontal and vertica l rollers and trimmed on all edges. shearing: The parting of material when one blade forces the material past an opposing blade. shear strength: Ability of a metal to withstand two equal forces acting in opposite directions. shea r stress (shear): Stress caused by two equal and parallel forces acting upon ao object from opposite directions. See stress. sheet: Structural steel 'Yt6" or less used to cover large expanses of a structure. See structural steel. shielded meta l are weld ing (Sl\IAW): An arc welding process in which the arc is shielded by the decomposition of the electrode coating.
screw thread series: Groups of diameter-pitch combinations. sea lant: A product used to seal, fill voids, and waterproof parts. scam weld: A continuous weld between overlapping workpicces in which coalescence produces a continuous seam or series of overlapping spot-welds. See weld type . fusion. and spot weld. search un it (probe): An elcctroacoustic device for transmitting or receiving ultrasonic energy. or both. secondary weld : A weld used to hold jo int member s and subassemblies toget her. section view: Interior view of an object through which a cutting plane has been passed. See CUlling plan e line. segregation: Any concentration of alloying chemic al elements in a specific region of a metal. See base metal. select ive plating: A form of electroplating used for touchup repairs on worn or dama ged parts. self-shielded n ux cored arc welding (FCAW-S): An FCAW variation in which shielding gas is provided exclusively by the flux within the electrode core. semikilled steel: Steel in which deoxidizers only partially kill the oxygen-carbon reaction . semi-quantitative identification: Metal identification by applying a physical stimulus to an unknown metal to produce a signal that is interpreted against a set of standards. sensitization: Precipitation of chromium carbides in stainless steels from exposure to high temperatures. as in welding, typically in the HAZ. servomotor: An AC or DC motor with encoder feedback to indicate how far the motor has rotated .
702 ~ We/diIlN Skills
shop ri vet: Rivet placed in the shop. See rivet. short circuiting transfer: A metal transfer mode in which molten metal from consumable welding wire is deposited during repeated short circuits. See electrode. shrinkage stress: Stress that occurs in weld tiller metal as it cools, contract s, and solidities. silicone: A one- or two-part adhesive or sealant that cures by evaporation orca talyst. single-bevel-groove weld : Groove weld having one joint member beveled, with the weld made from that side. See gm o ve weld. single-fla re-bevel-groove weld : Groove weld having one straight aod one radiused joint member. with the weld made from one side. See g IVo \'e weld. single-flare-V-groove weld : Groove weld having radiused joint members, with the weld made from one side. See groove weld. single-groove weld : A groove weld made from one side only. See groove weld. slng le-J sgroove weld : Groove weld having joint memhers grooved in a J shape on one side. with the weld made from the grooved side. See g m o l'e weld. single-square-groove weld : Groove weld having squareedged joint members, with the weld made from one side. See gmol'(' weld. single-Ll-groo ve weld: Groove weld having joint members grooved in a U shape on one side, with the weld made from the grooved side. See groove we/d. single-V-groove weld : Groove weld having both joint members angled on the same side, with the weld made from the grooved side. See gr()(J\'e weld.
slag inclusions: Small particles of slag (cooled flux) trapped in the weld metal which prevent complete penetration. sleeving: A weld repair method that applies surfacing to badly worn shafts by welding snug -fitting semicircular forms to cover the shaft surface. slope: The shape of the volt-amp curve on a GMAWwelding machine. slot weld: A weld type made in an elongated hole in one workpiece, fusing that workpiece to another. See weld type. slurry: A mixture of solid particles in a liquid.
specitication: A type of standard that indicates the technical and commercial requirements for a product. specific heat: The ratio of the quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of a unit mass of metal by 10 compared with the amount of heat required to raise the same mass of water by the same temperature. spin testing: Proof testing of rotating machinery done by spinning it at speeds above design values to develop desired stresses from centrifugal forces. splat: A flattened particle that cools rapidly and solidities as it strikes a metal surface, spotface: Flat surface machined at a right angle to a drilled hole. See right angle. spotlight: An intense lighting source that uses a single bulb in a reflector. spot weld: A weld made between overlapping workpieces in which coalescence forms a series of separate circular welds. See weld type and fusion. spot-weld tension shear test: A shear test that determines the strength of arc welds and resistance spot welds. spray and fuse (spraywelding): A two step thermal spray process in which a thermal spray coating is deposited and subsequently fused by heating with a torch or by placing the part in a furnace. spray transfer: A metal transfer mode in which molten welding wire is propelled axially across the arc in small droplets. staggered intermittent fillet welds: Intermittent fillet welds that have a staggercd pitch and arc applied to both sides of a weld joint. standard: A document that , by agreement, serves as a model for the measurement of a property or the establishment of a procedure. standard series: Screw thread series of coarse (UNCI UNRC), fine (UNF/UNRF), and extra-fine (UNEFI UNREF) graded pitches and eight series with constant pitches. See screw thread series. starved joint: A joint that contains insufficient adhesive to create an optimum bond. static electricity: Electricity at rest or electricity that is not moving. static load: A load that remains constant. See load. stator: The stationary part of a generator that produces a rotating magnetic field. steel deoxidation: The process of removing a controlled amount of oxygen from steel during steelmaking.
slurry erosion: The progressive loss of material from a surface caused by slurry moving over the surface.
soldering (S): A group of joining processes that produce a coalescence of metals with nonferrous filler metals having a melting point below that of the base metals. See filler metal and base metal. soldering copper: A tool that consists of a copper or steel heating tip fastened to a rod with a wooden handle. solidification temperatnre: Temperature at which the atoms of a metal assume their characteristic crystal structure. See crystal. solid particle impingement: Wearing away of a surface by repeated impacts from solid particles. solidus: The highest temperature at which an alloy is completely solid. solidus temperature: The highest temperature that a metal can reach and remain in a solid state . solvent-base adhesive: A one-part adhesive with a rubber or plastic base that cures by solvent evaporation. space lattice: Uniform pattern produced by lines connected through the atoms. spacer symbol: Supplementary symbol indicated by a rectangle centered on reference line. See supplemcntary symbol. spark testing: A semi -quantitative identification method that identifies metals by the shape, length, and color of the spark produced when the metal is held against a grinding wheel rotating at high speed. spatter: A discontinuity that occurs when metal particles are expelled during fusion welding and do not form part of the weld. special series: Screw thread series with combinations of diameter and pitch not in the standard screw thread series. See screw thread series.
Glossary @o 703
stencil marking: A n ide ntific ation marking that consists o f continuuus or repeated ink markin gs o n the metal. stickou t : The amou nt of unmelt ed electrode exte nding beyond the end of the gas noz zle when using GMAW and FCAW as the welding process.
surfacing weld: A weld applied to a surface. as op posed to a joint. to obtain desired properties or dimensions. surfacing weld repair: The app lication of a layer. or layers. of weld metal to restore corroded, worn, or cavitated co mpo nent s to extend their useful life.
sto poff: A material used to outline areas that are not to be brazed .
straight bead: A type of weld bead made without an y appreciable weavi ng motion . straight beam: A vibrating pul se wave traveling perpendicular to the surface. strain: The acco mpanying change in dim en sion s when a load induces stress in a material. See stress .
swea t soldering: A process whereby two surfaces are soldered togeth er witho ut allow ing the solde r to be seen.
tack weld : A weld used to hold wor kpieces in proper alignment until the final we lds are made. tail: Part of a we lding symbo l included when a speci fic welding process. speci fication. or procedure mu st be indicated. See weldin g symbol. teach pendant: The input meth od that the robot programmer uses to move the robot and create robot programs. tee: T-shaped struc tura l steel made of I beam s cut to specifications by mill or suppliers. See stru ctu ral steel. tensile strength: A measure of the maximum stress that a material can resist under tensile stress. Sec loud. tensile test: A destructi ve test that mea sure s the effects o f a tensile force on a material. tensile test macbine: A testing machine co mposed of two major components that are the mea ns of applying the load to the spec imen and the mea ns of meas uring the applied load . tension (tensile stress): Stress ca used by two equal forces acting on the same axia l line to pull an objec t apart. tension shear test: A shear test in which a prepared specimen is pulled to failure in a tensile testin g machin e. theoretical throat: Distanc e from the face of a fillet weld to the root before welding. See fillet weld. weld [ ace, and weld root. thermal conductivity: The rate which metal transmits heat. thermal equilibrium: A steady-state co nd ition in which time is available for the diffusion o f atom s. thermal expansion: A measure of the change in dimension of a me mb er caused by heating or cooling . See metal. thermal properties: On e of the physic al proper ties of metal. Includes melting point, thermal co nductivity. and thermal expansion and contraction .
strongback: A mechanical restraint device that is attached to one side of a weld joint to hold work piece s in alignment durin g welding.
structural steel: Steel used in the erection of a structure. structural weld repair: Restoration of a load-bearin g structure by we lding to meet performance requirements. stud weld: A we ld type made by jo ining threaded studs with other parts using heat and pressur e. See weld type. submerged arc welding (SAW): An arc we lding proce ss that uses an arc bet ween a bare metal electrode and the weld pool. subresonant vibration: Vibration frequency less than the resonant frequency of the weld. subsurface deformation: Microstructural damage or change produced by cutting and that occ urs below the surface of the specimen. supplementary essential variable: A qualification variable, for metal s where impact testing is required. that requires a new wel ding proc ed ure specification . supplementary sym bo l: Symbol used on welding symbols to further define the ope ration to be completed. surface feature: A part of a surface where change occu rs. surfacing: The application of a layer or layers of materi al to a surface to ob tain desired properti es or dimen sions.
704 ~ Welding Skills
thermal spraying (THSP): A group of processes in which finely divided metallic or nonmetallic materials are deposited in a molten or semi molten condition to form a coating. thermoelectric potential sorting: A semi-quantitative identification method that uses measurement of the electric potential generated when two metals are heated. threaded fasteners: Devices such as nuts and bolts that join or fasten parts together with threads. through hole: Drilled hole passing completely through the material.
T-joint: A weld joint formed when two workpieces are positioned at approximately 90 to one another in the form of a T.
travel speed: The rate at which the electrode is moved along the weld area. See electrode. tubing: Round-, square -, or rectangular-shaped structural steel. See structural steel.
ultimate tensile strength: A measure of the maximum stress (load) that a metal can withstand. ultrasonic examination (UT): An NDE method that introduces ultrasonic waves (vibrations) into, through, or onto the surface of a part and determines various attributes of the material from its effects on the ultrasonic waves. ultrasonic welding (USW): A welding process that produces a weld by applying high-frequency vibratory energy to workpieces that are held together under pressure. undercutting: Creating a groove in the base metal that is not completely filled by weld metal during the welding process. underfill: A discontinuity in which the weld face or root surface extends below the adjacent surface of the base metal. undesirable microstructure: The creation, through the heat of welding, of microstructures that are preferen tially attacked in a corrosive environment. unified numbering system (UNS): A common embedded designation system that unifies all families of metals and alloys. union: Fitting consisting of three parts having threads and flanges which draw together when tightened. universal plate: Plate that is rolled between horizontal and vertical rollers and trimmed only on the ends. uphill welding: Welding with an upward progression. See vertical weld. upset welding (UW): A resistance welding process that produces a weld on the faying surfaces by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of current through the surface contact areas while under constant pressure. user enquiry: A formal procedure developed by standards committees and code-creating organizations to help users interpret issues and offer suggestions.
Glossary ~ 705
torch positioner: A fixed-path mechanical apparatus that moves the torch in a specified path. torch testing: A qualitative identification method that identifies a metal by the melting rate , the appearance of the metal when heat is applied, and the action of the molten metal. torque: Product of the applied force (P) times the distance (L) from the center of application. torsion (torsional stress): Stress caused by two forces acting in opposite twisting directions. See stress. torsional strength: The measure of a material's ability to withstand forces that cause it to twist. toughness: The ability of a metal to absorb energy, such as impact loads, and deform rather than crack or fail catastrophically. See ductility. toughness test: A dynamic test in which a specimen is broken by a single blow and the energy absorbed in breaking the piece is measured in foot-pounds (ft-Ib). transformer: An electrical device that changes voltage from one level to another. transmission piping: Medium- to high-strength steel, relatively thin-wall and large-diameter, that conveys products from locations of production to intermediate facilities . transverse crack: A crack with its major axis oriented approximately perpendicular to the weld axis. transverse shrinkage: Weld metal shrinkage that occurs perpendicular to the weld axis. travel angle: An angle less than 90 between the electrode axis and a line perpendicular to the weld axis and in a plane determined by the electrode axis and the weld axis .
vacuum box testing: The application of a partial vacuum to one side of a structure and examining for the presence of leaks. variable load: Load that varies with time and rate, but without the sudden change that occurs with an impact load. See impact load. variable voltage control: A control that spans a range of voltages and is used to set the open-circuit voltage on a welding machine. vertical weld : A we ld with the axis o f the weld approximately vertical. Se e downhill welding and "phil/ welding . very-high carbon steel: Steel with a carbon rang e of 0.75% to 1.7%. vibratory stress relief: The appli cat ion of subreso nant vibration during welding to control distortion, or after cooling to provide stress relief. Vickers hardness test: An indentation hardness test that uses an indent er with a 136 0 square- base diamond cone , and that may be used to test hardness in the base metal, weld metal, and HAZ. viscosity: The resistance of a substance to Ilow in a fluid or semi-fluid state.
visual examination (VT): Applicatio n of the naked eye, assisted as necessary by low-power magnification and measuring devices, to monitor welding quality.
wallpapering: A weld repair method that uses thin, usually Y16". sheets of corros ion-resistant material that are welded to a corroded surface. water-base adhesive: A one-pan adhesive that cures by water evaporation, weave bead : A type of we ld bead made with tran sverse oscillation . weaving: A welding technique in whi ch the e nergy source is moved transversel y as it progresses along the weld joint. weld-all-around symbol: Supplementary symbol indicated by a cirele at the intersection of the arrow and reference line, which specifies that the weld extends completely around the joint. See supplementary symbol. weld bead: Weld that results fro m a we ld pas s. See weld pass. weld contonr: Cross-sectional shape of the completed weld face. See weld face. weld cracks: Linear discontinuities that occur in the base metal, weld interface, or the weld metal . See base metal and weld interface. weld defects: Undesirable characteristics of a weld which may cause the weld to be rejected. weld discontinuity: An interrupti on in the typical structure of a weld. welder certification: A written statement that the we lder has produced welds meeting a prescribed standard of welding performance, welder performance qnalification: A test that demonstrates a welder's ability to produce welds that meet required standards. welder registration: The act of approving a copy of the welder's certification document by an appropriate authority. weld face: The exposed surface of the weld, bounded by the weld toes on the side on which welding was done. See weld toe. weld finish: Method used to achieve the surface finish. See base metal. weld gauge: A device for measuring the size and shape of welds. welding: The coalesce nce or jo ining together of metals, with or without a filler metal, using heat, pressure, or heat and pressure.
visual identification: Metal identifi cation that consists of checking the appeara nce of the base metal or filler metal for key features that identify the metal type . volt (V): Uni t of measure for electricity that expresses the electrical pressure differential between two points in a conductor. See conductor. voltage: The amount of electrical pressure in a circuit. voltage drop: The voltage decrease across a component due to resistance to the now of current. See current and resistance. volt-amp curve: A curve that shows how the voltage varies in its relationship to current between the open circuit (where there is static elec trical pote ntial but no current is Ilowing) and short circuit (where the electrode touches the workpiece). voltmeter: An instrument used to measure voltage. 706 ~ Weldillg Skills
welding procedure qualification variable: A condition (pa rameter) tbat affec ts the integrit y of a we ld j oint. welding procedure specification (WPS): A document pro vidi ng the required we lding variables for a specific a pplication to ens ure repeatabili ty by properly trained we lders and welding operators. welding symbol: A graphical represent ation of the specifications for produ cin g a welded joint. weld interface: Th e boundary between the weld metal and the base metal in a fusion weld . weld joint: The physical configuration at the juncture of the workpieces to be welded. weld leg: The distance from the joint root to the weld toe. weld metal: Th e portion of a fusion we ld that is completely melt ed during weldi ng.
wet magnetization method : An MT examinati on technique in which the magn etic panicles are suspended in a liqu id medium.
whipping: A manual we lding technique in whic h the arc is m o ved qui ckl y backward an d forwa rd as it progre sses alon g the weld joi nt. work angle: An angle less than 90 in a line perpendicular to the workpiece and in a plane determined hy the electrode axis and the weld axis. working voltage: See (lrc voltage. workmanship stnndard: A section of a joint similar to the one in manufacture in which portions of each successive we ld pass are shown. wraparound guided hend test: A bend test in which a specimen is bent aro und a sta tionary mandrel a specified amount to expose weld discontinuities.
yield point: The location on the stress-s train curve where an increa se in strain occ urs without an increase in stress.
yield strength: The level of stress w ithin a metal that is suffi cient to cau se plastic 110w. yoke: A temporary horse shoe magnet made of so ft. lowret entivity iron that is ma gneti zed by a small coil wound around the hori zontal bar. yoke method: A dry co ntinuo us meth od of MT for detecti on o f surface discont inuit ies.
Glossary ~ 707
708
0 Welding Skills
Index
A See ampere
A B Sf'f' adhes ive bonding abrasion -re sistant iro n. 574
actual throat. 30. 3 / ada pti ve co ntrols. 369-371 adhesi ve. 30 2-306. 360 See al.m ad hesive bonding: ad hesive applica tio n type s. 36(1 - 361 ad hes ive bondi ng. 301 . 30 1-303 . 359. 359-36 1 See al.w mechanical repair
ad hesive applica tion ..\ 0 2-306 surface preparat ion. 30 I adhes ive wear. 266. 267 Set' also wear type AE See acoustic emi ssion testin g Aerospace Material Sp ecifi cutious. 644 aeros pace vehicles. 657 AI See authorize d inspector air car bon arc cutti ng. 290--293 air pressure. 290 electrode ho lder. 29 1 elec trod es. 29 1 weld ing mach ine . 290 air carbon arc go uging . ] 12. 4X7 ai rcraft. 6 57 air c ut lime . ] &.la ir-gas mi xture. 254 ai r pressu re plastic weldin g. 377
AISC Set' Ame rica n Insti tute o f Stee l Cons truc tion ulignmcut. 44 alignm ent mark er . 312 alloy carbide. 572 alloy iro n. 572, 57 3- 574 S CI' also cast iro n alloy metals. 115 alloy steel . 20X. 55 5-566 . 55 6 hard ness les t. 395 welding consideratio ns. 55S -566 alpha bra ss. 600 alternating current, 90. 124. 168. 1tJ..l. +l1 Sef' lll.'W} welding machine: alternating nun-Ill electrode. 107. 109 fo r GTAW. 163. 16+-1 65 a lte rnati ng currc nvdircct curren t. W alum inum . 47 . 70. 74---75. 115. 163. 167 . 16 K. 172. 175. 179. 189 . 19 2. 206. 207 . 230.2.'1-233.254. 256. 277.303 . .H 9. 34 1. 345. 348 . 352. 362. 5 19. 600 . (107 c utting . 2XX GTAW.1 9 1 jo int de sign. 74 so lde r. 259 structu ra l fabr ication . 65 5 weld ing. X3. 189 welding wire. 2m a lumin um alloy. 2-19. 29 1. 477 appearance. 60-1 cleaning req uirem ents. h05 families. (j().J tiller metal. 60 5 heat req uirem e nts. 00 5 welding co ns ide rations. 603 -606 weldi ng processes. 605 aluminum bron ze. 599. 60 I alu minu m bron ze surfac ing weld . JOX Set' atso surfac ing weld repa ir aluminum ox ide. 277 Am erican Bureau or Shipping. 657 American Institute of Steel Cons truction. -10 Amer ican National Sta nda rds Institute .)'('e AN S I Intern ational Am erican Pet ro leum Institute . 330. 6-l-7 ca..; ing and tub ing. &.l-7 d rill pipe. 6-17 line pipe . 647 pipeline requirements. 505 American Society of Mechanical Engi neers St'f' AS ME Intern atio nal Ame rican Society o f No ndestruc tive Testing. 413 Recommended Standar d SNT-TC IA. 4 13
Ame rica n Society for Te stin g and Ma terials See AST M Intern ational Am eri can Wate rwork s Ass oc iat io n. 6 53 welding stee l water pip e. 655 A merica n Welding Societ y. 5, 106. :130.
644-64 5 con sumable insert classification. 323 e lec tro de c lassi fica tion. 106. lOb- lOX. 242. 2-13
ti ller metal classification. 253. 274. 48X mechanica l weld testi ng. 405 robotic and automatic co mponents. 370 robotic welding sa fety. 372 S truc tural Welding: Code. -10-1. 407.
500. 504
weldi ng procedure and pe rfo r mance q ualifi cation. 495 weld sym bols . (127 ammeter. 90 ammonia. 252 ammonium hydro xide-perox ide. 4 5\) amp See am pere amperage. 9 () a mpe re. 1)0 amplifier. 443 anae robic ad hesive . 36 1 See a l.w adhesive ang le beam. UO Ann ua l Book of AS T M St andard s. M 3 SCf' al.\o AST M lmcmational anode. 3-1\). 5-19 an odi zing. ] 0 1 AN S I Inte rnatio nal. 14 . 647 pipe- c lass ification..\ 19 ro bot weld ing safe ty. 371 weld ing procedu re and performance 4uali lil:at ion. 4 95 a ntimon y. 259 anvi l effect. -tO X A PI S('/, Americ an Petroleum Institute appearance. 53H apprenticesh ip pro gram . 5 arc. 117- 120 length . 117. 123- 124. 124. 14 7 res tarti ng. 131 sta rting . IX). 2 16 s trik ing , 121 arc hIm..'. 127- 12X. /2N. 520 arc spray ing. 278 Set' a/.WI thermal sprayi ng equi pment. 278 arc strike. -IR3 arc vo ltage . 9 1. 92 SCt ' a/so voltage arc weld ing. .\ . 22 strength t..:=-.I. 3X9
709
argon. 163. 169. 174-1 75. 191 . 194. 197. 205. 207-2 11. 243. 252. 273 argon-Cff. . 208-2 11. 245
argon -hcliurn -Cfr., 208 argon -hydrogen . 2&8 argon-oxygen. 208 arrow side , 626 artifact, 441 A-scan presentat ion , 43 1
ASME International. 330, 640. 645-6-t7 Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. 4Ol. 407.444. 488. 496. 646. 652
welder requirement s. 504 pipe classification , 3 19
backfire. 50. 66 backgougi ng, 3 12. 487 bac kha nd welding. 77. 83 backing bar. 179. 191 . 215. 312. 359 backi ng blocks. 2 15 back ing rings. 32 1. 323 backin g strips. 2 15 backing weld. 634. 635 backli ghtin g. 462. 4(j3 hack-step welding. 3 12. 586. 593. 617. 6/8 back-to-beck positioning. 619
brass. 12.47. 192.249. 259. 341, 345.600 weldi ng cons iderations. 603 brasses. 599 braze See filler metal
brazed joint tension shear test, 389 See also tens ion shear test braze welding . 3R. 249-264. 256. 257 cas t iron , 257-258. 574. 576 disadvant ages. 258 filler metal. 258 flux. 258 procedure. 257 shear test. 3139 vertical positi on. 257 brazin g, 249-264. 485 . 5 16 See al.W! dipbrazin g; furnace heating; indu ction braz ing; resista nce brazing ca st iron. 576 joint desig n. 250-25 I mnc roetch test. 507 manual process. 254-255 produ ction pro cess. 255-256 surface prep aration. 25 1 titanium alloys. 6 11 welder qualification. 507 bra zing flux. 494 bra zing position . 494 brazing procedu re qua lification testing. 500 brazing qualifi cation variable s. 493-494 brazing tempe rature range, 493 breakaway plat es. 370 brea k lest. 402-405 Set' also destructive testing brightfield illum inatio n. 458 Brincll ball. 396 Brin cll hardn ess numb er, 396 Brinell hardn ess test, 395-396. 396 . 408 brinelling, 266 . 268 See "/JO wear type
Pressure Piping Code, 646, 654 residual stress measurement, 4 11 ASNT See America n Soc iety of Nondestruc tive Testing
ASTM International . 639. 643-644 Brinel l hardness testing. 395 drop weight lest to determine nil
ductil ity tran sition temperature. 40 2 fract ure toughness tes t. 40 9
guided bend test. 391 hardness conversion tables. 398 macroscopic exami nation. 461 microhardncss testing. 398 pipe classifica tion. 3 19 plane-strain fracture toughne ss testing, 401
Rockwell hardness tes t. 397 standards desig natio n. 64 3. 644 tensile testing. 386 Thermoe lectric Potential Sorti ng. 550 ultrasonic e xamination. 432 Vicke rs hardness test, 398 ato mic hydrogen. 558 austenite. 583 austenitic manganese steel. 557 we ldi ng co nsiderat ion s. 565 -566 austeniti c stainless steel. 208 . 312 . ..t69.
butt joint. 32. 33-34, .i8. 4 1. 72- 73. 74, 135 , 135- 137. 143, 151. 157. 17N. 179. 181. 214 . 231. 250.494 See also
double-V but t joint: multiple-p ass bun joint singfe- puss burt joi nt; single- V butt joint ; square butt joint defect s. 72 fit-up. 6 16 n at position . 186--1 87. 226. 590 groove angle. 6 16 plastic. 376 roo t open ing. 6 16 uphill position . 590
B Set' brazin g
710
0 Weidillii Skills
---------
CAC-A See air carbo n arc cutting cadmium, 12 calcium carbide, 49 calcium carbonate, 106 calci um fluoride, 106 calibration block. 432 calibration standard, 432 caliper, 4 14 Ca nad ian Sta ndards Association , 647 cap illary action. 249. 258. 4 18 cappe d steel. 558 carbides. 277 carbon, 555 welding wire, 203 carbon diox ide. 197,205.205-2 11. 243.
244-245. 252
ca rbon equi valen t. 559 calc ulating. 559 car bon mon oxid e. 252 carbon steel. 108. \94. 208. 231-232.
245.249. 277. 29 1
cutting, 288 high -carbon . 106, 113. 194. 555 welding considerat ions. 562 joi nt preparation. 232 low-carbon. 175. 194. 209. 283. 555 qualification test. 394 welding conside rations. 56 1 medium-carbon. 106. 113. 194. 209. 555 hardness test. 395 welding co nsiderations. 56 1-562 repair welding. 3 13 wcldab ility. 555-566 welding considerations. 55K--5W. 558---566 carb urizing name. 65 carrie r line. 548 Cartesia n coordinate plane, 366, 367 Ca rtesian coordinate system, 367 cast iron. 47 . 70. 73, 115. 245, 249, 283.
29 1.34 1. 567
braze welding. 257-258 cutting. 287. 296 fill er metal . 73 joint preparation. 574 repairing crac ked casting. 578-579 repair welding. 574 weldab ility.571-579 weldi ng. 82 welding processes. 576 cast stai nless stee l. 584-585. 586 corrosion-resistant. 585 heat-resistant. 585 weld ing co nside rations. 594
cathode . 349. 549 cav itation. 266. 267 See also wear type cavity. 473-475 C-clamp. 100. /0 1 ce llulose potass ium. 105. 107 ce llulose sod ium. 105. 107 CEN See European Standards Council ceramic, 277 ceramic guide See ferrule cert ificate o f an alysis, 649 See also materials test report certificate of co mpliance. 538. 649 ce rtification. 5, 649 cesium- 137.436 CFR Set' Code of Federal Regulations Charp y specimen. 399. 400 Charp y V-no tch test. 399-401, 400. 402. 409 See also toughness testing check valve. 55. 56 chem ical analysis. 3 12. 553 chemical cleaning method. 20. 605 See also hazardous substance chemical co nversion. 30 I chemical inhomogeneity. 532 chemical polishing. 455 Chemica l Spot Testing. 549-550 chill plate. 586 c hipping. 487 chipping hamm er. 100. / 0/ usc. 129 chisel testing. 543 chloride. 251, 62 1 chlorine. 4 19. 54 1 chrome-moly steel. 108. 556 welding conside rations. 563-564 ch romium. 567. 569. 572. 573. 58 1. 597 chro mium iron. 574 See also abrasi onresistant iron chromium ox ide. 277. 305 ch uck. 35\ circuit. 9J c ircular magnetization. 425 clampin g force. 359 cle aner. 4 18 clea ning aluminum a lloys, 605 cleaning solvent. 259 cleaning welds. 129 cleavage. 30 1 clip test. 563 clothin g, 15. 16. 102 clu ster porosity. 474 CO . Set' ca rbon dioxide COA See ce rtificate of analysis co balt. 597 surfacing powder. 272 cohalt-60. 436 co balt alloy. 277 See certificate of compliance code. 640 Code of Federa l Regu lations. 657
coefficie nt of thermal expans ion. 5 18. 5 19 co pper alloy. 601 nickel alloy. 597 welding stain less stee l. 585 cold crack, 468. 560 Set! also crack cold lap. 222. 223 cold mech anical repair. 303. 304 See also mechanica l repair cold mounting, 452 cold weldin g. 362 cold work tool steel Sa tool steel: cold work collet, 170. 346 color, 539. 540 color- coding. 54 1 S('(, a/.HI markings columbium. 345. J4 X. 352 co mpac ted graphite iron. 572 . 573 S ('(' also cast iron compact tension specimen. 40 I composition of weld metal. 5 15 compressed a ir. 262 co mpression. 525 com pressive streng th. 525 co ncave roo t surface. 482 co nductor. 89 confined space. I I. 315 non-permi t 12 permit-required, II confined space entry perm it. 3 16. 317 constant-curren t powe r so urce. 357 constant-current welding machi ne See weldin g mach ine: co nstant-curre nt constant potential. 199 See also welding machin e: constant-voltage con stant-poten tia l welding machin e Sa welding machin e: constant-vo ltage constant-vo ltage power source. 357 co nsta nt-voltage welding machi ne See weld ing machine : co nstant-vo ltage construction standards and codes. 655 construct ion equipment welding. 659 co nsumable insert. 323 . 592 co nsumable insert rings. 323 co ntact tip. 200 co ntent. 64 2 co ntinuous fillet weld. 308 continuous magnetization method. 426 contro lled atmos phe re. 252 cooling rate. 5 13 copper, 47. 70. 11 5. 175. 192. 207. 235.
cae
Index ~ 711
plastic. 376 corner weld, 38 co rros ion allo wance, 306 corrosio n resistance . 53 2- 535 corrosion -re sistant iron . 574 co uplan t, 430 cover pass. /33. 134 See also weld pass pipe welding. 326 crack. 467-473. 4(JR See also cold crack: crater crack: hot crack: root crack crash detection mo unts. 370 crater. 30. 125. / 26 co ntrolling. 126 crater crack. 222. 223. 469. 469-470 creep, 524 crosschec king. 308 crow n. 326 CRT display. 430. 432 crysta l. 430 crystal structure. 51t. 5 /2 CSA See Canad ian Standards Association C urie tem perature. 542 c uring. 303 chemical reac tion, 303 solvent evaporation. 303 current . 89. 89- 9 1. 90. 117. 124 , 344 adju stment. 119 selec tion. 124 cutting. 22. 283- 297. 449 . 449-45 1 cast iron. 287 machine. 283 manual, 283 round stoc k. 287 safe ty precautions. 293 tool s. 450 cutt ing machine. 283 SeC' also plasma arc C Ulling machin e cutting tip, 284 cutting torch. 283. 284-285. 285 St't' also plasma arc CUlling torch ace tylene pressure. 285 oxygen pre ssure . 285 CW Sec cold welding cya noacrylate adhesive. 36 1 See also adhesive cyclical load. 525 cyl inde r. 50-5 1
testing, 390 demagnetization. 427 density. 545 de nsity testing. 544-545 , 545 de oxidi z e d copper. 192 See a/so copper dcoxidizers. 205 deoxi dizing age nts. 243 depo sition rate . 109. 113. 204 . 6 17 depth of field. 46 1 deratin g, 164 design thickness. 306 destructive testing, 383-4 11 See also testing pipe weld . 334. 334-33 5 types. 383-405 detector. 44 3 deterg ent cleani ng, 419 de veloper. 41 8, 421 de velo ping time. 422 diffraction . 55 1 diffused light. 461. 462 dilution. 268. 270. 5 15 dip-brazin g. 255. 256 direct curre nt. 90 , 94 . 181 See also weldin g machin e: direct c urre nt arc blow. J 27 fo r GTAW. 163. 164. 166- 168 direct current electrode negative. 90. 93.
1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~1~ 1~1~
dro p weight test. 402 dry magnetization method . 427 ductile iron, 303. 572 See also cast iron; iron ductile-to-b rittle transition temperature See nil ductility transition temperature test ductility. 205. 385. 522 testing. 390 dunn age. 653 dup lex stainless steel , 58 3, 584 weld ing co nside rations . 593 Duriron" . 574 See also corros ion-resistant iro n duty cycle. 98 dwe ll time. 420 dynamometer. 385 Se e also load cell
198. 273
direct current electrode positive . 90. 107.
E-7018 elec trode welding techn ique. 154 ear muff. 17, 18 See also car protection earp lug. 17, 18 Sec also ear protection ea r protection . 17-1 8 earthmoving equipment weldi ng. 659 EBW See electron beam weld ing ECuA I-A2 See filler metal: for brazing cast iron EC uSn-A See filler metal : for brazing cast
iron
ECuSnC See tiller metal: for brazing cast iron edd y current, 442 edd y current testing See electromagnetic ex amination edge join t. 32. 36. 3R. 4/. / 78. 179. 214 plastic. 376 edge preparat ion. 44 . 486 edge weld. 38 effec tive throat . 30. 3 1 EGW See e lectrogas welding ela stic limit, 387 electrical characteristics. 485 . 49 1 electrical circ uit. 89 e lectrical conductivity. 520 e lectrical hazards. U electrical resistivity. 520 electrical resistivity testin g. 550--55 1 ele ctrica l strip heater. 380 e lectric coil. 442 elcctrie shock. 23 electric soldering gu n. 26 1 e lectric soldering iron. 26 1. 262 electric soldering penc il. 261 electrode. 29. 105-115. 118. 119 See also tung sten e lectrode bare . 106 base metal prop el1ies:-i-OH carbon-gra phite . 29 1 classification. 106
dark field illumination. 458 DBIT See ductile -to-brittle tran sition temperature IX: See direct c urrent DCEN See direc t current electrode negative DCEP Set' direct current electrod e positive defect. 4 13 dela mination
conservation. 109-110 co ntinuous wire . 197. 209 co pper-clad carbon-graphite. 29 1 deep-penetrati ng. 109 deposition rate. 109 diameter. 109 E-70 18 welding techniqu e. 154 fast -fill. III fas t-free ze. 109. 11 0. 148. [53 fill-freeze. 109. II L 148. 153 flu x core d. 239. 240. 242 -243 gripping. 119 GTA spo t welding. 34 3 "inside-out". 239 iron pow der . li D. 112 E-6027. 11 2 E-7014 . 112 E-7024. 112 low-hydrogen. 106. I 10. 113 E-7016 . 113 E-7018 . 113 mild steel. 105. 110. 111 -1 12 E-60 10. III. 126 E-60 1l. III . 126 E-60 12. III E-6013. 11 1-11 2 mov ing in severa l directions. 130 noncon sum able tungsten. 163 pipe welding . 326 reverse polarity. 109 selection. 108. 123 spot weld ing . 338-339 storage. 109- 111 stra ight polarity. 109 tubula r wire. 242 electrode angle. 117. 125 elec trode ex tension. 180. 243 electrode holder. W--ICXl. 11 8. Jl 9. 160.314 C AC -A. 29 1 electrode lead . 118. 1/9 electrode ove n. 100. 10 1 clcctrogus welding. 359 clcctrographic chemical spot test. 549. 550 clcct rogra phic technique . 549 electrolytic method . 48 electrolyt ic polishin g. 455 elec tromagnetic examin ation . 442-444 equipment calib ration . 443 inspection eq uipment. 44 3 longitudinally welded pipe or tubing. 444 procedures. 44 3 requirements, 44 3 electromagnetic induction . 442 electron beam weld ing. 348-35 1 eq uipment. 349-35 1. 350 ope rating controls. 35 1 procedure. 35 1 processes. 349 electronic radiation detector. 434 electroplating. 304 See also mechanical repair
electroplating solution. 3()..t electroplating tank . 304 electrostatic discharge. 442 elon gation . 385. 387 ca lculation. 388 measure ment. 388-389 embri ttlc me nt. 522 emery cloth. 25 1 encirc ling coil. 442 ENi-CI St' f' nickel EN i-FeCI See nickel-iron epoxy . 36 1, 37.'5 See also adhesive epoxy phenoli c adhe sive. 302 equip ment . 98- 100. 99. 343- 344 See also shop equipmen t; weldi ng: equipme nt automat ic weldi ng. 370--37 1 setup. 4 15 eq uipment calibration standard. 44 3 erosio n. 266 See also wear type erosion-corrosion. 266 . 601 esse ntial variable. 496 ET See electromagnetic exa mination etching. 40 8. 419 . 449. 455-459 etch test. 402 Eurcnonn s. 648 Europea n Sta ndards Co uncil. MR exa mination. 455--459 See also weld eva luation exa miner. 41 3 excess weld metal. 6/ 7 excess weld reinfo rceme nt. 4XI. 4HI-482 See af.wl reinforcement exhaust system. 12 See also ventilation ex plosion weldi ng. 36 1 cxtcns omctc r. 386 external welding. 333 EXW Set' explosion welding eye protection . 14-18
FAA Set' Federal Aviation Adm inistration fabrication drawing number, 30t.) fabrication standards and codes. 65 1-659 face-bend specimen. 335 . 39 1. 392 See atso specime n face-bend test. 392 See also wraparound guide d bend test face-feedi ng, 253 face reinforcement. 30 failure analysis. 299-300 . 449 failu re-critical member. 656 failure location . 385. 389 failure modes and effect s anal ysis, 299 falloting, 6-W false indication. 413
fatigue. 522. 523 fatigu e stre ngth. 3().t fatigue stress. 307 fatigue-testing machin e. 4DI fuyi ng surface . 39. 249 fayin g surfaces. 30 1 FCAW See n ux cored arc weldin g FCAW-G Set' gas-shielded flux cor ed arc wel di ng FCAW-S See self-shielded flux cored arc we lding Federal Aviation Administration. 3 11 ferrite. 572 . 5H3 ferrite number. 592 fcrritic stainless steel. 208. 583. 5X4 preheat. 59 1 we lding conside rations. 59 1- 59 2 ferromagnetic material. 424 ferrou s alloys . 106 ferrous metal. 163. 167 ferrul e. 346 field weld symbol. 633 filament. 349 file resting. 544 filing. 25 1 filler metal. 30.70.73. 75. 163. 169. 175. 253. 259. 273. 3 15. 485 . 488 -490. 650 adding. 70. I X2 aluminum. 175 appli cation . 253 carbon steel. 576 cast iron. 576 co mpo site. 272 copper. 175 copper alloy. 576 for alumi num alloy. 605 for brazing cast iron . 578 for cast iron. 576--578 for copper alloy. 60 1 for magnesium alloys. 609 for nickel alloy. 599 for stainless stee l. 588-589 for too l steel. 569-57D identifi cation . 554 low-allo y steel. 569-570 matchin g. 569 - 570 movi ng. 70- 7 1 nickel alloy. 576 nonfe rrou s. 249 powder. 253 rod. 253 selection. 70 soft. 569-570 soft buildup material. 57D stainless stee l class ification. 588 strength test, 389 strip. 253 triple deoxidized mild steel. 175 wire. 253 filler metal approval. 649
Index
713
filler metal qua ntity, 489 filler metal specification. 488 filler metal usability classification. 488 fillet, 384 fillet weld. 37, 38, 134, 214,2/5,471 , 524 disto rtion . 6 14. 6/5 radio graphic examinati on. 44 1 shear test. 389 stainless steel. 590 surfac ing test. 390 symbo l. 626 , 628, 62 9 weld er requ irement s. 504 . 507 Filler weld break tes t. 404-405, 405 fillet weld jo int. 307 fi llet weld shear test. 389 See also shear test fill et weld specime n. 409-4 10 fillet weld test. 5()..l. fill-fre e ze elec trode See electrode : fill-freeze fill lightin g. 462. 463 fill pass St'f' inte rmedi ate weld pass final poli shing. 45 3-455 fine grinding, 45 1-453. 453. 459 firebr ick. 287 fired clay. 2 15 lire extinguisher cla sses. 26 fire hazard s. 25 fire pre vcntion. 25 fi sh eyes. 205 fittings Sf'f' pipe fittings fit-up, 4 1-44, 44, 109, 322,6 16 fixed automation sys tem. 363 . 363- 364 fixed automation weldi ng. 363 See also au tomat ion in prod uction weldi ng fi xed automation weldin g system Set' fixed automati on sys tem fixture. 44 flame . 65 chara cteri stics. 66 co ntrol. 66 test ing. 67 fl am e c utting See thermal c utting flame spraying. 277. 277-278 See a/so thermal spray ing flanged join t. 36. 73 flare-bevel- groove weld. 38 flare- groove we ld symbol . 63 / flurc-v -groov c weld. 3~ flash arrestor. 50 regu lator-mounted . 50 torc h-mo unted. 50 flashba ck. 50. 66 flash bun weld test. 40 2 flashin g. 38 1
go uging. 29 1. 292
tool steel. 569 FM C: Filla Metal Comparison Charts. 645, 646 FN Sa ferri te numher focu sing coil. 349 forced -ai r nu x feeding method . 357 See also flu x forced cooli ng. 5 14 forehand welding. 77 forge welding. 36 1 foundry mark . 54 1 Set' also mark ings four -stage belt sandin g. 453 four-stage wheel gr indin g. 453 FOW See forge weldin g fracture toughness spec imen. 409 fractu re toughness test. 409 free -machining stee l. 555. 556 See also carbon steel welding cons iderations. 562 frequency. 90 frequency converter. 358 fretting, 266. 267 SCt' also wear type friction weld lest. 40 2 frictio n welding. 35 1. 352. 38 1 FRW See friction weld ing fuel gas req uirements. 492 ful l-open comer joint. 35. 36 full -section specimen. 405 full skip. 432 full-wa ve rectifie r. 97 fume e xtraction system. 240. 24 / See also ve ntilation syste m furn ace. 26 1 fuma ce heating, 255 fusion Set' incompl ete fusio n test. 39 1. 404 fusion face ultrasoni c examination. 433 fusion weld test. 402 fus ion we lding. 30 FW See flash welding
galling. 266. 267, 268 See also wear type galvanized metal. 339 galvanized shee t steel. 259 galvanized steel. 12.473 gamma rays. 433. 434 . 435 gas flow meter. 244 gas flow rute , 244 gas lens. 170 gas metal arc weld ing. 4. 74, 197- 211,
213- 230, 231-237, 239, 307, 308, 315, 345- 346, 369, 504, 5 16, 562
aluminum a lloy. 605 applications. 231- 237
7 14 ~ Weldin g Skills
automa tic. 346 bun joint. 226 cast iron. 576. 578 curre nt select ion. 197-1 98. 198 depo siting beads in fhu position. 225 de positing buildu p in n at posi tion. 226 discont inui ties. 222 di stortion. 617 eq uipme nt. 200- 209. 201 joint. 230 joint preparation. 214 lap joi nt. 227 magne sium alloy. 608 mec han ized . 346 meta l tran sfe r modes. 218-222 mul tiple -pass T-joint. 228 nic kel a lloy. 598 pipe wel ding. 332 posit ion ing wo rk. 2 15- 2 16 proc edures. 213 setup. 2 16 we ldi ng a joint. 217 robotic pulsed. 369 semiautom atic , 197.200. 213.345--346.
34~
sta inless stee l, 588 . 592 starting the arc. 2 16 titanium alloy. 6 10 T-joi nt. 229 tool steel. 569 weaving motions. 235 weld back ing. 215 welding wire SeC' elec trode: co ntinuo us wire welding machines. 198- 200 we ld overlay. 272 gas nozzle. 170 gas-oxygen mixtu re. 254 gas pressure plastic we lding. 377 ga..-shielded nux cored arc welding. 239. 240 gas to rch. 262 See also torch gas tungsten arc spot we lding. 342-345 See also produ ctio n wel ding eq uipme nt. 343-344 procedure. 344-345 gas tungsten arc weldi ng. 3-4. 74. 163J7~. 177- 190. 191- 194. 307. 315.5 16. 562 See also pul sed GTAW we lding aluminum alloy. 605 aluminum joi nt, 189 applicat ions. 191-1 94 automatic proce ss. 177 butt joi nt. 181 n at pos itio n. 186- 187 current selec tion. 164-1 68 depositing bead s o n mild steel in nat position . 185 with fille r metal. 186 disto rtio n, 6 17 eq uipme nt. 163- 176. 170
horizonta l weldi ng proced ure. 183 joint prepara tion. 177- 179 lap joint. 181- 182 horizont a l posit ion. 187 magnesium alloy. 608 manu al proc ess. 177 mech ani zed process. 177 nickel alloy. 598 ove rhead welding procedu re. / 83. 1831R4 pipe we ldi ng. 332 proc edures. 177. 177-1 90 robotic process. 370 . 37J semia utomatic process. 177 stainless stee l. 588. 592 titani um alloy. 6 10 Tjoint. 181-1 82 hori zon tal posit io n. 188 vertica l position . 188 vertical welding procedure do wnh ill. 183 uphill . / 83 weld o verlay. 272 gauge lengt h. 385 ge nerato r. 97. 443 co nstant-current. dua l-con trol, 97 glob ular transfer Sa metal tra nsfe r modes: globular transfer glove s. 16-27. / 7. /02 G MAW Sa gas metal arc welding G MAW productio n spray. 37 1 gog gles. /5. 57 gou ging. 266. 283, 29 1- 292 See also wear type nat position . 29 1. 292 hori zon ta l position . 292 vertica l positio n. 292 G raham method . 346-347. 348 See also stud welding g rain. 5 1 J grain growth. 250. 59 1-592 grain struc ture. 5 11- 5 12. 512 graphite fl akes. 572 graphitiza tio n. 556 gravity feed method, 357 See also nux gray iron. 303. 572 See also cas t iro n; iro n repai r weld ing, 574 grinde r. 136. 3 14 grinding. 25 1. 273. 3 13. 3 16. 449. 4R6. 487 See also fine grinding: rough gri nding grinding whee ls. 178 grit blasting, 279 groov e angle, 42. 3 12 pipe we lding. 32 1 plastic we lding. 376 sy mbol. 63 / groove weld. 37, 215. 47 1. 613-6 14 ductility test, 390 speci me n. 405-409. 406
sy mbo l. 628- 630. 630 symbols. 626 we lder req uirements. 504. 507 GTA See gas tungsten arc spot weld ing GTAW See gas tungsten arc w eldi ng GTAW-P See pulsed GTAW weld ing guided ben d test, 334. 390. 39 1. 5().l See also bend test; des tructive testing specime n. 392
hal f-open comer j oint. 35 hal f slee ve. 308 ha lf-wa ve rec tifie r. 96 hand feed welding. 378. 379 hand gri nde r. 10 / hardfuci ng, 265 ha rdne ss. 52 1. 522. 560 co nversion tables. 398 reduct io n. 250 scale. 398 spec ime n. 408-409, 4 10 test. 395. 395-405 See also destructive testin g HAZ Sa heat -affected zon e hazard ous substance . IH -22 cleaning method. I S-20
Index ~ 7 15
hori zont al braz ing. 494 horizonta l cutting gou ging. 292 hor izon tal weld ing. 40. 41. 85. 109. 147.
147- 14X
buu joint 86
impact resistan ce. 205 impact testing. 52 1 incl usi o n. 475-477 test. 39 1 incomplete fusion . 428 , 443. 477. 477-479.
4 78
testi ng, 390 inco mplete pe netration. 477-479. 478. 4 79 lncon el'", 345. 599 incorrect shapc . 47 9-482 indications See flaw non relevan t. 422 relevant, 422 induction brazing. 255 induc tion we lding. 38 1 Ind ustrial Fas teners Institute. 540 inert gas. 174. 205 inerti a welding See friction welding infrared rays. 13. 102 inju ry, 10 lnncrshield ", 239 See also sel f-sh ielded flux cored arc weldin g in-service inspect ion and repair codes See weld repair : repair code s inside coil. 442 in spe ction coil. 443 inspe ctor. 4 13 interg ranular penetration. 472 iruermediarc weld pass. 133. 133-134. 327 See also weld pass pipe weld ing. 325 inter mi ttent fillet weld. 308
depositing straight beads. 149 fillet we lds. 590 GTAW proc edure. 183 lap joint . 187 lap we lds. 590 multiple-pas s butt joint. 151 multiple-pass T-joint. 150, 228 . 248 procedure. 148 single- pass kK )P joint. 149 T-jo int. 87. 188 hose. 56--57 care. 57 hOI alkaline washing. 30 1 hot chemical solution method . 20 See also hazardous substance hot crac k. 468. 529 See also crack hot gas weld ing. 377- 380 See also plastic we ld ing hot melt adh esive. 36 1 Sa also ad hesive hot mounting. 451 hot plate. 3S0 hot wi re welding. 184 hot wo rk See too l steel : hot work hot work too l steel Set' tool steel: hot work HRB Sel' Rock well B usc Set' Rockwel l C HSLA steel See steel: high-strength/low-alloy HVOf See high-veloc ity ox yfuel flam e spra ying hyd raul ic load. 385 hyd roc arbon. 375 hydroch loric ac id. 25 1. 459 See ah a muriatic acid hydro gen . 57. 58. 75. 197. 205 hig h-purity. 252 hydro ge n-assisted cracki ng. 532 hydrogen c rack. 470. 558 See also crac k tool stee l. 569 hydrostatic testing, 3 16. 444-446. U5 hydrotesting See hyd rostatic testing Hz See hertz
joi nt See butt j oint: co me r joint: lap joint: o utside comer joint: "l-joint alu minum . 230 clearance. 250. 251. 260. 494 effic iency, 385 fla t position. 134- 137 alumi num. 189 integrity. 263 plastic welding. 376 pre paration. 41-44.214.4 15 pipe. 32 1- 324 joint design. 109, 4S5. 486-487 joint member thickness . 559 jo int pe net ratio n, 30 joint mot, 30. 3 I
kerf. 283. 287. 288 key ho le. 324. 325 killed steel. 557 kineti c energy. 35 1 knurling tool. 279 krypton. 20S
icing. 245 illumination. 458. 458 -459 image distortion. 434 . 435 image enlargement. 434 image q uality indicator. 436. 43 7 image sharpn ess. 434 impact damage. 266. 268 See also wear type impact load. 525
International Organization for Sta ndardiza tion . 648 intcrpass clean ing. 492 intcrpuss tempe rature control. 4SS. 491. 513 interstitial e lement. 610 inverter. 97 inverter weldin g machine. 168 See also welding machine iodin e and pota ssium iodid e so lution. 460 ionized gas . 287 IQI See image qual ity indica tor iridium - 192. 436 iron. 47. 283. 362. 555. 597. 600 iron ca rbide. 572 iron ox ide. 105. 107 iron powder. 105. 107 ISO See International Organ izat ion for Standardization isotope camer a. 436
lamellar tearing, 47 1-472. 472 lamin ar discont inuity. 429 lap joint. 32. 35. 38. 4 / . 73.74. 134. 140.
J-groo vc weld. 38
,
I ,
I
I
lime sto ne. 106 Linc oln Electric Manu facturing Compa ny. 239 line -heating. 619 line piping. 654 line rs. 323 line-up cla mp. 322 liqu efaction colu m n, 47 liquefied pe trole um gas Ser propane liquid-air method. 47 liquid impingement. 266. 2fl(}-2 fl7 See CI/SO wear type liq uid met al e mbr iulcmcnt. 472-474. 473 liquid penetrant examination. 303. 3 I3.
mach ine cutting See cutting mach ine 100 1 welding, 659 machining, 25 1, 313. 4S6 mac roct ch an ts. 4 59 mucro ctching. 459-46 1. 46 1 macr octch test. 507 macroscopic exa mina tio n. 459-462 magnesium. 115. 163. 167. 172, 179. 192-194.207 magn esium alloy. 249 filler metal. 609 hea t requ irements, 608 surface preparatio n. 608 we lding co nsiderations. 607--609 welding processes, 608 magnesium -alumin um silicate. lOb
mag netic fi eld. 424 magnetic flux . 424 magnetic leakage field , 4 24 magnet ic particle. 424 magnet ic particle examination. 303. 316 , 423. 423 -429. 465 ind ication s. 428--429 proced ure, 4 26-427 Magnetic Response Testing. 542. 542-543 magnetism , 520 main lightin g. 46 2. 463 ma lleabil ity. 524 ma llea ble cas t iron. 70 malleab le iron, 249, 572. 573 See also cas t iro n mandrel. 392 mangane se. 205. 206. 555. 567. 581. 600. fm ma nifold system. 50 manual cutti ng See c utting: man ual manu al we lding See welding: ma nual manufactu rer paperwork, 537-538 Manu facturing Data Report , 65 1 MA PP See rnethylacc tylcne-propudiene stabi lized ga s M APP-o xygc n, 254 mark ings. 540 martensite , 558, 572 mart ensiti c See stainless stee l: martcnsitic mart ensi tic stainless stee l, 58 1-5 82. 583 til ler meta l. 59 r welding co nside ratio ns, 590--59 1 material handling eq uipment, 659 Materi al Safe ty Data Sheet. 2/. 2 1-22 ma teria ls nonconformance report, 538. 539 materials standards . 639 -643. 640 use 64 8-650 variatio n. 648 materials standards organizations. 6-t3-6-t8 materials test report, 53 7 mating surfaces See Iaying surfaces maximum load . 385 ~1DR See Manu factu ring Data Report mech anical hond o 279 mechanical cleani ng method . 20. 597 . 605 See also abrasive c1e.. ming: gri ndi ng: hazardou s substance mechanical force , 524, 526 mechanical load , 385 mechanica l prope rty, 520 mechanical repa ir. 30 1-306 See also repa ir we ld ing mech anical restraint , 6 18-6 19 mec ha nized welding See we lding : mechanized medium-carbon steel See carbon steel mela mine. 375 melting point , 5 18 melt -through. 482, 483 melt-through weld sy mbol. 634 , 635 metal identification, 537-554
or.
met al inse rt. 38 I metallograph. 45 7 metallograph y. 449-462 me tallurgical bond. 265 metallu rg ical microscope. 456. 45 7 metallu rgical structure, 5 11-5 14 metallurgy. 5 11-536 metal stitching Sec cold mechanical repair meta l substitution. 538 meta l tran sfer mod es. 2 18-222 glob ular tran sfer. 220, 23 1 pu lsed spra y transfer, 220- 222 we ld ing machines, 222 short circuiting transfer, 218. 23 1. 233, 235 spray transfer. 2 1&-220, 219. 23 1. 233, 235 met hy lacety lene -propadiene stabi lized gas. 57. 58. 262 . 284 met ric equivalent standa rd, 643 metric system. 647 microanalysis. 454 microhard ness test, 398 microh ard ne ss tester. 398 microscope. 459 See also metallurg ical microsco pe microscopic examinat io n, 449-459 micro stru ctu re. 534 M IG welding Sf'f' gas metal arc welding mild steel. 173. IR5. IR6- 187. 187. IXX . 20X. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 246. 247 mill. 649 milling machin e, 178 mill test report . 649, 650 mirror, 4 14 mo ck -up. 3 15 mock -up test. 500 mod ulus of ela sticit y, 527 mo ld too l steel See tool steel: mo ld mo lten salt bath. 256 molybdenum. 277. 279. 345. 348. 567. 569.572.573.58 1.597 Monet" . 345, 599 mou nting, 45 1-453 See also co ld mounting: hot mounting mounting res in. 45 1 MSDS See Material Safety Data Shee t MT See magn etic particle: examin ation MTR See materials test report; mill lest report multiple-im pu lse we ld ing, 34 1 Set' also re sista nce wel d ing multiple-pa ss butt j o int, 151 mu ltiple-pass fillet lap joi nt. 141 multi ple -pas.... fillet T-joint. 142 multiple-par...s lap joint llat position, 247 ove rhead position, 16 2 mul tiple -pass sing le- V buu joint. 161 multiple-pass T-joint. 150 horizon tal position, 228. 248 overhead position. 162 multipl e-pass wel d. 3 1, 133. 133-134.
Index ~ 717
na meplate. 5-t0. 652 Nat ional Board Inspection Cod e. 652 National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspector s. 64 7 Nationa l Elect rical Manufactu rers Assoc iatio n. 98 National Fire Protection Assoc iation. 26 natu ral gas. 262. 284 NB See National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspector s NB IC See Na tional Board Inspection Code NDE See nondestructive examination NDT See nil ductility transition tempe rature test nee dle valve. 53. 262. 284 Nelson method. 346. 3.J7 See also stud welding NEMA See National Elec trical Manufucturers Assoc iation neon . 205 neu tral na me. 65 NFPA See Nat iona l Fire Protection Association Ni-Hard", 574 See also abra sio n-resistant iron Ni-Resisr" , 574 See also corrosion-resistant iro n nick -break speci me n. 409 . 4 10 nick -break test. 402 -4().t. 505 nickel. 115. 192. 207. 29 J. 345, 352. 569. 573. 574, 5H J. eoo nickel alloy. 3 12 clean ing. 4 19 distort ion , 597 families, 598 filler metal. 599 heat req uireme nts. 598 join t cleanl iness. 597 nick el-ch romi um . 597 repa ir we lding. 3 13 weldin g co ns idera tions. 597-599 welding processes. 598-599 nickel-chromium Sec ' nickel alloy nickel-iron tiller meta l, 576 nickel -silver . 601 nickel steel. 70. 555 weld ing consideratio ns. 565 nil d ucti lity transition tem perature test. 401-402 See (11m toughness test ing nitric acid. 251. ..t59
nitrides. 205 nitrogen. 48. 197. 205. 252. 377. 58 1 nitroge n-hyd roge n gas . 288 nodu lar iron See ductile iron noise reduction rating number. 17 Nom arski illumination . 459 nomi nal pipe size. 3 19 nonconsumable tungsten elec trode. 163 nondestructive examination. 309. 413 . 413-446. 4 N . 465. 499 pipe weld. 335 symbol . 636 non essential variable. 496 nonferrous metal. 163. 167. 254 See also aluminum alloy: copper alloy: magnesium alloy: nickel alloy: titanium alloy cutt ing. 287 we ldabi lity.597- 6 12 nc nrelevnnt indication. 4 13 notch effect. 466 nozz le. 200-20 1. 20 1 GTA spot weldin g. 3.J.J NPS See nominal pipe size nuclear plant stan dards and code s. 653 nuclear radiation. 433 nugget. 40 null point method . 550 numerica l control system . 349
OAW See oxy acetylene weld ing Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 9 O r C SCt' oxyfuel gas c utting off-li ne programming software. 367. 368 OFW Set' oxyfuc l weldin g ohm. 89 oi l-purging cylinder. 47 open-circuit voltage. 9 1. 92 See also voltage ope n root joint. 507 o perator con tro ls. ) 64. 368 optica l e mission spectro me ter. 55 1 optical em ission spectroscopy. 55 1. 55 1-552 optical viewi ng syste m. 349. 350 oscill osco pe. 429 OS HA See Occupational Safety and Health Adm inistration other side . 626 out -of-positio n weld ing. 245 o utside comer joint, 143 overhead c ranes. 659 overhead welding. 40 .JI. 85. 85--86. 86. lOY. 159-1 60 butt joint, 88 depositing beads. 161
GTAW procedure. / 83. 183-1 84 mult iple-pass lap joint. 162 multiple-pass single- V butt joint. 16 1 mu ltiple-pass T-joi nt. 162 T-joi nt. 229 trave l angle. 160 work an gle. 160 ove rhea ting. 45 1 ove rlap. 147. 481 ove rlapping. 127 o xida tion. 280. 520 oxide. 251 oxid e incl usion . 477 oxidizing flame. 65 oxidizing gas . 288 oxyacetylene. 254 oxyacetylene welding. 2. 22,47,85, 308, 314 a luminum. 74-75 cast iron , 73- 74 hea vy stee l. 76- 78 pipe welding. 332 we ld overlay. 27 1 oxyfuel c utting gasses . 284 oxyfuel gas c utting. 283-287. 284 , 3 12 beveling. 286 ca st iron. 287. 296 piercing holes. 285- 286. 286 round stoc k. 287 stee l. 294 oxy fuc l gouging. 4X7 oxyfucl weldin g. 2. 307. 485. 5 16 cast iron . 576 cast iron filler metal. 577 dis tortion. 617 nickel alloy. 598 stainless steel. 588 tool steel. 569 oxyfuel welding qua lification variables. 492 oxygen . 48. 197. 204-205 deficiency. 3 15 oxygen cylinder, 48 , 6 1 oxygen hose. 56 Sa also hose oxy hydroge n. 254
PAC See plasma arc c utting pack ing nut. 53 pain ting. 129 paint rem oval, 4 19 paperwork . 537 See also manuf acturer paperwork : supplier pap er wor k partia l-thickness spec imen. 407 PAW See plasma arc welding pearli te. 572 peeling, 30 1 peel test. 389. 390 See also shear test
peenin g, 308, 314, 492 , 53 1, 57 \ cast iron, 575 pcnctrameter See ima ge qual ity indicator penetrant , 4 18, 42 1 pen etration. 72, 126, 133, 222, 223-224, 224, 449 See als o incomplete penetration ; intergran ular penetration lest, 39 1. 404 penn y See ima ge quality indi cator personal prote ctive equ ipment . 12, 13, 102, /59, 4 10 phenolic plastic, 375 phe nolic resin . 302 pho sphating, 30 1 pho spho rus, 600 photo graphi c film, 434 photoma cro graphy. 461 physical failure analysis, 299 piercin g holes, 285-286 pin end. 385, 386 pipe cla ssifi cation, 3 19-320 diam eter, 320 wall thickness. 320 pipe clamps . 330 pipe fittings. 321 See also butt-welded fittin gs; socket fittings pipe j ig, 324 pipe system standards and cod es, 654 --655 pipe welder, 6 cert ification, 326, 330-33 1, 507 pipe weld ing, 3 19-335 connec tio ns, 320-32 1 ele ctrode selec tion, 326 joint alignm ent , 322 j oi nt design, 322 j o int preparation, 321, 32 1-324 methods, 33 1-333 sta nda rds, 330-33 1 tec hniques, 326-330 test position s, 330--33 1, 33 / we ld pa ss, 324-326 pit s, 453 pittin g, 266, 268, 308 See also wear type plane -strain fracture tou ghn e ss test, 40 I pla sma , 276, 288 plasma arc cutting, 287-290 manua l proces s, 288 mechani cal process, 289-290 plasm a arc c utting machine, 290 See also cutting machine plas ma arc cutting torch, 288 See also cutting torch pow er supply, 289 pla sma arc welding, 4, 272, 307, 353, 353 -355 distortion, 6 17 equ ipme nt, 354, 354-355 robotic process, 370
to rch . 355 weld overlay, 272, 273 pla sma spraying, 276, 276- 277 See also the rmal spraying pla stic , 375-382 ty pes, 375 plastic strain , 387 pla stic welding, 375-3 82 joints. 376 pro cedure, 377 tec h niq ues, 375-377 plat e fillet weld specimen, 410 plating solu tion . 304 PLC See programmable logic contro ller plug weld, 38, 39 sym bo l, 626, 630. 632 pneumatic testing , 446 polarity, 90. 9/ polarized illu mination , 459 polarizer , 459 polishing, 449 See also automatic polishing; chemical polishing; electrolytic polishing; final polishing; rough polishing pol yacrylate esters, 302 polyam ide, 375 pol yest er, 375 poly ethylene . 375 polyfluoride, 375 polypropylene, 375 pol ystyrene , 375 polys ulfid e adhe sive , 361 See also adhesive polyurethane, 36 1 See also adhesive pol yvin yl chloride, 375 poros ity, 194,222,223,404, 4 74,474-
475 test, 391 position welding , 330 positioner, 44, 159 postflow timer . 174 posthcating, 73, 307, 308, 314, 485, 491, 531, 558, 560 cast iron, 575 nick el alloy, 598 powder spra y material, 277 po wer source , 370 eng ine -driven, 97, 97-98 static, 95-97 pow er wire bru sh ing, 3 13 PQR See procedure qualification record pre bending, 619 precip itat ion harden ing stai nless steel, 584, 585 we lding co nside ratio ns, 593-5 94 prehea ting, 73, 75, 307, 308, 485, 49 1, 5 13, 560, 57 I, 6\6 al uminum alloy s, 605 calculating temperature, 559 cast iron , 575 nickel alloy, 598
tool stee l, 569 prequalifi ed PQR , 499 press ure cy linder, 54 wo rkin g. 54 pres sur e pipi ng, 654 pressure-sen sitive tape , 302 pressur e test, 3 16 pressur e vess el standa rds and codes, 65 1-654 pressur e weld test, 402 primary weld, 520 prob e See searc h unit probe-typ e dete ctor co il, 444 procedure qualifi cation record, 385, 390. 485 ,498-50 1 prod , 425 prod method, 427 See also magneti c particl e examination produ ct ana lysis, 537 , 649 production welding. 337-362 c ircles, 363 linear sea ms, 363 radial sca ms, 363 programmab le logic controller. 364 projection weld . 38. 39 sy mbo l, 626 proj ection welding. 340 , 340--34 1 See also resistance wel d ing proo f testing. 444 propane, 262, 284 prop ane gas torch. 262 prop ort ional lim it. 386 proposed repl y, 642 protect ive clothing, 57, 15 9 See also personal protective eq uipme nt pro tector cap, 48 PT See liquid pen etrant e xamin atio n pulsed GTAW welding, 184 pulsed spray tran sfer See met al transfer mod es: pulsed spray tra nsfe r pul se- echo mode , 43 1--432 purpose, 642 push ang le, 2 15, 2 /6 automatic we ld ing, 37 1 PVC See polyvin yl chloride PW Sa proj ection weldi ng
QPL See q ualifi ed produ ct s list qual ified produ cts list, 649 qu ali tative ide ntifica tion, 542-544 quantitativ e identification methods, 552- 554
Ind ex ~ 719
radia tion . 14 rad iograph . ..f3..f eva luatio n proc ed ure. 441 radiographic examination. 335, 433-442. 465. 504 See also nondestructive examination pro cedure req uirem en ts. 435--438 rad iog raphic fil m. 434. 438 processing defects. 442 radiography. 3 16 rad ioisot ope. 436 rado n. 205 railroad cars . 656 rapid coo ling. 5 14 re;lsscmbl y. 316 recomme nde d pract ice. 639 rec tangular spec ime n. 385. 405 See also specime n rect ifier. 95 full-wa ve. 97 half-wave. 96 rectifying column. 47 red hard ness. 56 9 reducing flame See carburizing flame red uction, 385. 3X7 ca lculatio n. 388 measurem en t, 388- 389 reference bloc k. 432 reference line, 625 refe rence tail. 633-634. 634
respirator. / 2 Se e also ventilatio n respirato ry equipme nt. 240 See a/so re spirato r restr aint. 53 1 retentivity. ..f27 reverse polarity See direc t current electrode positive rheo stat. 199 RIA See Robotic Industries Assoc iat ion rimmed steel. 557
safety. 9. 100- 102. 3 15- 3 16 arc welding. 22- 25. 23 cutting. 22. 293
cylinder. 50----51 equipmen t operati on , II hazard s. 11 oxy acetylene weldi ng. 22 safety glasses. 15 . 102 salt bath. 251 sand blas ting. 273. 30 1 sanding, 251. 30 1 SAW See subme rged arc welding sca le. 589 sco pe. 642 sealant. 360
ripple. 30
robot. 364 robot controller. 365 Rob otic Indu strie s Associ ation. 37 1 robot ic we lding machines. 5 robo t inte rface . 369 robot manipulator . 366 robot wor k area. 37 1 operating space. 37 1 restricted space . 37 1 safeg uarded space. 37 1 Rock we ll B. 397 Rock well C. 397 Rockwel l hardness sca le. 397 Roc kwell hard ness test. 396--397, 397. 40 8 Rock we ll testing machine. 396 rod spray material. 277 roll welding, 330, 36 1 root bead. 30, 324 roo t-bend spec ime n. 335. 39 1. 392 See also speci men root- bend test, 39 2 Set' also w raparound guided bend test roo t ca use fail ure ana lysis. 299 roo t crack. 472 . 4 73 See af!;o crac k roo t face. 30. 43 pipe welding. 32 1 root ope ning. 30. -/3. 44. 3 12 pipe welding. 32 1 plastic welding . 376 sy mboL 63 J root pass. 30. 133. 469 See al.w weld pass pipe welding. 324. 325 ultra sonic exa minat ion. 4 32. 433 roo t pass examination , 4 15 rosin. 259 Se e also flux rotating equipmen t weldi ng. 659 rough g rinding. 449-45 1. 459 too ls. 451 rough polishi ng. 45 3-455. 454 round specimen. 385 See also specimen rou nd stoc k. 144 cutting. 28 7 ROW See roll we lding RT See radio gra phic examin atio n: radiographic testing ruler. 4 14 run -off tab . 470 rust. 283 rust and scale remo val. 4 19 RW See resistance welding
scamcr. 364
scam soldering. 262 . 263 sea m tracker. 369 Se 3l 11 weld. 38. 39 symbol. 626. 632-633. 633 SC3 11l welding. 339-340. 3-10 Sec also resistance we lding search unit. 430 sec o ndary we ld. 520 seg rega tio n. 532 selec tive plati ng, 304. 305 self-shielded flux cored an: welding. 239. 240 semiauto ma tic welding. 332 semikilled steel. 557 semi-q uantitative ide ntificatio n. 5..f4-552 sensitive leak test 3 16 sensitization. 590. 59 3 sensitized paper, 434 se rvo mo tor . 365 al tern ating current. 365 di re ct curre nt, 365 setup co ntrols. 35 1 SG S t'i' spheroidal graphite shade. 102 Sa also helm et she aring. 486 she ar strength, 389 shear stress. 527 shear test. 389-390 Sa also destru ctive testing shear wave . 43 1 sheet metal. 655 shielded metal M e weld ing. 3. 89. 93. 94.
95.97.98- 100. 105-11 5. 11 7-1 20. 123-1 29. 133-146. 147- 148. 153- 154. 159-1 60. 213. 307. 314. 516
cas t iron. 57 6. 578 cas t iron filler metal. 577 equ ipme nt. 118. 119 intermediate weld pass. 325 nickel alloy. 598
720
1 Welding Skills
pipe weld ing. 332 stai nless stee l. 588 1 001 steel. 569 we ld o verlay. 27 1 shielding gas. 163. 169. 173- 175. 197. 21X ). 2ll4-209. 23 1. 232. 24/ . 344. 4S5. 49 1 flow rate. 208-209 for mag nesium alloys. 60 8 for titanium alloys. 610 GMAW sta inless stee l. 588 shielding gas cylinde r. 244 shielding gas regulator. 24 / shielding gas supply. 20 1 shielding gas sys tem. 370 shim stock. 43h, ./37 shipping co ntainers, 65 7 ships. 65 7 shock resisting S<'C' tool steel: shock resisting shoc k resisting tool stee l See too l steel: shoc k re sisting sho p eq uipme nt. UX). /0 / short c ircuit. 95 short circuiting transfer See metal transfer mod es: short circuiting tran sfer sho ulder. 384 shrinkage. 6 13 See also base metal shrinkage: we ld metal shrinkage shrinkage stress. 5 28 shrinkage voids. 474. 475 SI Se e metric sys tem side- bend te st. 392 See also wraparo und g uided be nd test silico n. 192. 205. 206 . 278. 567. 573. 574. f:JJ7 See also co pper silico n bron ze. 601 silicone. 36 1. 375 See also adhesive silver. 259. 599 single be vel butt j oi nt. 33 single beve l Ttjoint. 3./ single fillet lap j oint. 35 single-groo ve weld , 37 symbol, 628 single-J 'l-j oin t. 34 single- pass fillet 'f-joi nt. 141 single- pass lap joint. 140 . 149 single-s pot spo tweld e r See spotwcld c r single-U butt joi nt. 33 sing ie- U g roove j oint preparatio n. 32 1 single- V butt joint. 33. 76.77. 179 edge preparation , 136 over head position . 16 1 with root face , 136 single- V groo ve jo int preparat ion . 32 1 single-V joint. 574 single-wa ll RT. 438. 439 slag. 100. 105. 123. 129. 242. 243. 4(}j. 589 slag incl us ion. 476 sleeve. 250 sleeving. 308 See also weld repair
slope. 199 slot weld. 38. 39 slur ry. 267 slurry erosion. 266. 267 See also wear type SMAW See shield ed metal arc welding soap stone, 285 Soc iety of Automotive Engineers. 644 soc ke t fittings. 321 solde r 50/50 See solde r: hal f-and -hal f bar. 259 ca ke. 259 flu x. 259-260 nu x-core wire. 259 half-and -half. 259 lead -silver, 259 paste. 259 ribbon , 259 so lid wire. 259 tin-a ntimon y. 259 tin-lead alloy. 259 tin-zinc. 259 so lde ring. 249~264 . 258- 264 See also stea m soldering: swea t soldering applica tion s. 259 cast iron . 576 de vices. 26 1. 262 de-we tting, 263 filler meta l, 259 heatin g devices. 200-262 inspecting solde red j oints. 263 joint design. 260 . 26 1 no n-we lting. 263 o verheat ing. 263 techniq ues. 262- 263 solde ring co ppe r. 260-261 . 262 solid panicle impi ngement . 266 See also wear type solid us te mperature . 250 solvent. 25 1. 42 1 cleaning. 30 1, 3 13. 4 19 dipping. 3 13 wiping. 30 1 solvent-base adhesive. 36 1 See also adhe sive so nic we lding See induction we lding spacers . 323 spalling See wear type sparkligh tcr. 5 7 spark test grinde rs. 54 7. 548 spa rk testing, 3 11. 545-548. 546 gray iron . 572 malleable iron. 57 3 white iron . 573 spatter. 483 special purpose tool steel See tool steel: speci al purpo se speci ficatio n, 639 spec ific hea l, 5 19 specimen. 385. 39 1. 392. 393. 399. 401. 402 or ient atio n. 449--450 prep aratio n. 405-4 11. 459
preparation safety. 4 10 spheroidal graphite. 573 Scr also ductile iron sphe roidiz ation. 573 spin testing. 446 spin-welding See frictio n we lding spla t. 279 spot-hea ting. 620 spot light. 461. 462 spot weld. 38. 39 shear test. 389 sy mbol, 626. 632 spotweldcr. 338. 339 multiple-spo t. 339 port abl e. 339 si ngle-s pot. 339 spot welding. 338 See aI-WI re si stan ce welding e lectrodes. 338-339 spot- we lding g un See spotwclder spot-weld ten sion shear test, 389 See also tension shear test spray and fuse. 278. 305 See also therma l spray co ating: therm al spray ing spray gun. 275 spray transfer See metal transfer modes: spray transfer spraywelding See spray and fuse square butt joint. 33 See also buu jo int square-groove we ld. 38 sq uare T-j oin t. 34 See also T-joint stainless stee l, 173. 20 X. 245 , 249, 259. 277. 2S3. 29 1. 339. 345. 352. 477 See also austeni tic stainless stee l: ferritic slainless steel arc we lding processes. 588 butt joi nt in nat posit ion . 590 butt j oint in uphill positi on. 590 clea ning. 4 19--420. 587 c utting. 287. 288 filler metal. 588-589 G MAW. 233-235 GTAW. 192 heal tint. 58 7 horizo ntal ti lIet wel d. 59() horizon tal lap weld. 590 joint design. 588 joi nt preparation. 587 rnartensitic. :!08 remo val of heat tint. 587 repai r welding. 300. 3 13 weldabili ty. 58 1-59.t welding co nsiderat io ns. 585-595 welding current. 589 weld ing technique , 589- 590 welding wire. 203 standard. 6.'9 deve lopme nt. 640-64 1. (H 1 revision, 64 L 642 standards co mmittee. MO. 6-11 starved jo int. 303 static load. 525 steam clea ning. .'13. 419
Index ~ 721
su rface porosi ty. 474 See a/so porosity surface tensio n. 252 surfacing. 137. 145.265.265-281. 516 met hods. 268 -28 1 wel ding . 268 -274 wea r types. 2 66-2M~ surfacing powde r. 272 surfaci ng weld, 39. 137. 485 chemical composition. 495 ductility test, 390 sy mbol, 636 surfacing weld qualifi cation variables, 494-495 surfaci ng weld repair. 307-308 See also weld repair automatic process. 307 swe at solde ring. 263 sy nchron ized motion . 369
T-joinl, 32, 34, 34-35, .IN, 4 / , 73, 135, 141, 142, 150. 157, / 7N, 179, 18 1-1 82,2 14, 250. 471 Sa also double bevel 'l-joint: double-J "l-joim: multiple-pass "l-joint; single bevel f -joint : singlc-J 'I-joint; single-pass T-joint; square T-joint horizontal position . 188 ove rhead position . 162. 229 plastic. 376 speci me n. 40 5 vertical position, 188 tack weld, 40, 72, 133, 3 14, 404, 616 pipe welding. 324 tack welder. 503 qua lifi catio n. 40-1 tad welding. 380. 490 tantalum. 348 teach pendan t. 366. 367 tensile force. 383 tensile strength, 249, 385, 525 measurement, 3XX tensile stress, 525, 613 tensile test. 334. 383-389. 505 See also destructive testing specimen. 384. 386 S(,(, a/so specimen tensile test machine. 383. 385 See a/so universal testing machine tensio n, 525 tensio n shear speci men . 409 tension shear test. 389 See also shear test tension spec imen . 405--407 testing, 383-4 11, 413-446, 449, 449-462, 465-483.485-501, 503- 509 See also destru ctive testing: nond estructive examination appearance. 416
arc weld strength, 389 base metal. 432 integrity. 4 16 bead rollover. 416 blowh ole. 415 cavi ty. 449 crack , 4 14, 4 15, 417 , 423, 434, 44 1, 44 2,449 crater crack. 428, 441 crater deficiency, 4 14 delamination , 390 dimensional accura cy. 416. 4 17 di sco ntinuity, 41 7 ductility. 385. 390 elonga tion. 388 fa ilure loca tion. 385 filler metal strength. 389 fille t weld. 44 1 fusion. 390. 405. 423. 428, .w I. M2. 449 fusion face. 433 gas pocket 402. 434 grain size. 402 hard ness. 395 incl usio n. 449 joint efficiency. 385 joint misalignmen t. 4 17 join! penetratio n, 4 17. 429, 44 1 lamin ar discontinuity, 429 lamination. 423 load-bearin g capacity. 385 maximu m load, 385 ove rlap. 402. 414. 4 17, 423 penetration. 402. 4 14. 434 . 449 piled-up beads. 416 pipe, 442 pipe welds, 334-335 plastic deforma tion capability. 390 porosity. 402. 405. 4 15. 4 17. 429. ~I, 442 , 449 red uction. 388 reinforce ment. 4 17. .w I root pass, 4 15, 432 . 433 root penetration. 4 17 shear strength. 389 shrinkage cavity, 4 14 shrinkage void. 429 slag depo sit. 415 slag incl usion. 402. 429 . 434. 441 . 442 spot weld stre ngth, 389 strai n-hardening pro perty. 385 surface discontinuity. 390. 423. 44 1 tensile force. 383 tensile strength. 385 toe crac k. 428 to ughne ss. 399 transverse crack . 428 tun gsten incl usions. .w 1 undercut. 4 14. 417 . 44 1 underfill. 4 17 weld body. 433 wormhol es. 44 1
test jig , 39 1 thermal conductivity, 5 19 stainless steel, 586 thermal cutting. 486 thermal equilibrium, 514 thermal expansion. 5 1R. 5 / 9 calculating, 5 1R thermal spra y coating material , 274 thermal spray coat ings, 279, 305 See also mechani cal repair therm al spra ying, 39, 274-278 See als o arc spra ying; name spraying; highvelocity oxyfuel nam e spraying; plasma spraying; spra y and fuse part desi gn. 279 surface preparation , 279 Thermoelectric Potential Sorting, 550 thermoplastic, 375 thermosettin g plastic , 375, 45 1 thermosetting resin See thermosetting plastic thorium , 173, 607 throat crac k, 469 thru arc scam tracker. 369 See also scam track er THSP See thermal spraying T1G See gas tungsten arc welding tin. 259. 600 tin bras s, 600 tin bron ze, 599 weldin g con sideration s, 603 tinning. 26 1 tin plat e, 259
tip, 53, 63, (,4, 75, 492
PAW, 355
shut OFF. 66 testing, 543-544 water-cooled, 169. 171 torch positioner, 364 See also fixed automation system torch rest. 287 tor sion , 528 torsional strength, 52 R torsional stress . 528 touch sensor system, 369 tou ghness, 52 1 test, 399--402 See also destructive testing trainin g, 5 transducer, 358 See also crysta l transferred arc, 289 tran sformer. 95 transform er-rectifi er pow er source, 95, 96 transmi ssion piping , 654 transportation. 6 56~65R transverse crack, 468 , 470 tran sverse shrinkage, 613, 614 trans verse tension shea r spec imen, 409 transverse weld specimen , 407 travel angle, 125, 160,21 5 See also drag angle; push angle
ultrasoni c cle aning. 419 ultrason ic exa mination, 335 , 429--433, 465 See also nond estructive examination electronic com pone nts, 430 procedure requirements, 43 1--432 ultrasoni c thickness meas uremen t, 306 ultrasonic waves, 429. 43 1 ultra sonic welding, 358 , 358-359 equipment. 358 proc edure, 358-359 ultra violet rays, 13. 102 underbead crack, 205. 470, 470---471 See also crack undercutt ing, 127, 147 , 305, 324. 480 ,
480-4 82
underfill, 482 underwater weldin g, 658 undesi rable microstructure, 534 unifi ed numbering sys tem. 644. (j45 Unifon n Building Code, 40 United Stat es Departm ent of Defen se. 657 univ ersal pendul um impact tester, 399 univ ersal testing machin e, 384, 385 UNS See unified numbering system unzippin g, 30 1 uphill welding, 85. 153-154, 154. 183 butt joint, 590 butt joint in vertica l position, 157 depositing beads in vertical position, 156 lap joint in ve rtical position , 156 pipe weldin g, 329, 329-330 T-joint in vertical position. 157 travel angle, /54 upset weldin g, 342 See also resistanc e welding urea, 375 urethan e, 375 user enquiry, 642-643 USW See ultrasoni c welding UT See ultrasoni c examination UW See upset welding
care, 53 multiflamc, 254 plastic weld ing. 37X single. 254 tip cleaner. 53, 101 titani a coating, 107 titania potas sium . 105 titania sodium. 105. 107 titanium . 11 5,206, 207. 249.291 . 345.
348, 352
titanium alloy. 249. 477 , 485--486 brazin g. 611 cleanin g, 4 19--420 cleaning requirements, 6 10 shielding gas, 610 weldability. 609- 6 11 we lding proc esses. 610 toe crack. 472 , 4 73 tool steel , 567-57 1 cold work, 567 gro ups. 568 high -speed, 567, 569 hot work , 567, 569
mold, 567
shock resisting. 567 special purpo se, 567 water hard enin g, 567 If-groove weld , 38 ultimate tensil e strength. 3R7
V-groove weld, 38 V-heating, 620 vacuum box testing, 3 16, 446 vacuum chamber, 35 1 vacuum chamber process, 349 Sec also electron beam weldin g vacuum pumping system. 35 1 vanadium, 206 . 567, 569, 572, 573 vapor degrea sing, 25 L 30 I. 4 19 variable load Sa cyclical load ventilation, 12, 240 ventilation system , 12, 100, 10 1,240 vertica l cu tting
gougi ng. 292 vertica l downflow brazing. 494 vertical upflo w brazing. 49-t vertical weld. 153
down hill. 155 uphill. 156 GTA \V down hill . 183 uphill. 183 lap joint uphill. 156 T-j oinl. 188. 229 uph ill. 157 vibratory energy. 3,g vibratory ... tres... relief. 53 1 Vickers hardne..x number. 39 7 Vickers hardness test. 397-398. .l08 vinyl. :n5 visco sity, 360 visua l examinatio n. 335. 4 14--l 17. 50t, 465 Sa a/,\'(/ nondestructive examination utter we lding. 4 16--417 before welding . 4 15 during welding. 415-4 16 visual identi fication . 538-54 2 vo!t'lge. 91-93 auto matic weldin g. 37 1 d isplay. 9/ voltag e drop. 9 1 vo ltage-sen sing wire feeder See wire feeder vo lt-amp curve. 94 VT SI'(' visual exami nat ion
weld area. 449 weld backin g. 2 15 weld bead. 29. 69- 70 co ntro l. 154deposit ing. 71. 130. 155. 156 in n at po...ition. 185. 189,225,24- 6 with filler metal. 79. 186 starting and stopping. 328 weld bod y ultrasonic ex nminntion. 4 33 weld defect. 4-fl5. 466 ....'cld de...ign s. 40-44weld di scon tinuities. 465-483 weld discontinuity. 4-65. 465-1. 83 welde r. 6. 50 3 qualification. 4 15 5( '1' (11.\0 welder performance qualificat ion weld er certific atio n. 50 3 we lder helpe r. 6 welder operator. 6 welder performance qualification. 390. 503. 503- 50 9 orating. 507, 509 pipe. 507
in.
pipe See pipe welding positions. 40 . -II. 485. 4-90 procedu res. 6 16-6 17 procc ...sc.... 2. 4S5 . 6 17 railroad cars. 656 ships. 65 7 tech niq ues. 4-85. 4-9 1-492. 617-tl 18 See also Whipping- motion techniq ue terms. 29- 3 1
tnJds. 656
underwater See underwater we ld ing uphill. R5 vertical position See vertical welding we lding ap para tu.... 5 1-57. 52. 6 1 assembly. 6 1-tl7. 62 weldin g cable. 141. 2M . 314-. 316 weldin g: current for ...rainles s steel. 5X9 weld ing en gine e r. 6 weld ing equipment Sre equipment welding ga ses . 57-58 w elding gauge. 414 we ldi ng gloves. 2X7 welding gun. 197. 200- 20 2. 201. 240. 2-11 . :!42 air-cooled. 202. 24:! automatic. 202 FCAW-S. 2-12 fume extractor. 242 metal shield. 24 2 pistol grip. 242 semiautom atic . 202- 211 shielding gas nozzle. 24-2 tungsten arc. 34-3 ventilation system. 240 w atc r-cookmt system. 242 w atcr-coolcd. 202. 2-l2 weldin g head . 359 wel ding htKK1. /51.) welding inspector. 6 we lding instru ctor. 6 w eldi ng layou t and set- up person. 6 welding: IC3d. 99. 2fX) welding machine. 93. 11 K 2UI . 2.uJ.24/ altern ating current. 184-. 24 I auto matic surfac ing. 307 consrant-c urrer n. 89. 94. 95. 168. 169. 200. 241 constant-potential See weld ing mach ine:
plate. 506-5 07
...hcet steel . 507 . 50S standards and codes. 5(>3-505 struc tural mem be rs. 506-507 welder pcrf onuancc qualification testing. 407
uv.
wall paperi ng. 3()& See also weld rep air wa rpage . 250. 571 wash ing. 292. 293 wash ing lower. 47
constant- voltage
con ...tent-voltage. 199. 24- I d iesel -po wered. 9 7 direct current. 14- I. 3-0
724
Weldill g Sk ills
weldi ng metallurgy. 5 11-536 we lding ope rator. 503 welding performance qualification record. 5O-l weldi ng procedure qualifica tion. 485---501 welding proc edure qualification record. 385. 390 weld ing procedu re qualifica tion variable. 485-495 we lding procedure speci fica tion. 383. 4 85. 14 495. 495-496. 51 welding screen . HXl. 101 welding seq uence mo nitoring. 415 weld ing supervisor. 6 welding tip See tip weld ing torch See torch weldi ng wire See elec trode: continuous wire weld interface. 5 15 weld joint. 3 1. 38 we ld leg. 30. 31 weld metal, 5 15 calc ulating compos ition. 5 15 weld me tal shrinkage. 613-6 14. 6/4 weld overlay. 268 base metal preparat ion . 273 filler metal. 273 GM AW. 272 GTAW. 272 OAW. 27 1 PAW. 272, 273 SAW. 273 SMAW. 27 1 weld pass. 29, 6 17 Set' also cove r pass; intermediate weld pass; root pass pipe welding. 324-326 weld pool ca rrying without tiller meta l. 78 moving. 69 we ld profile, 449 weld regions. 5 f.1. 5 14-5 17 weld reinforcement. 30 weld repair. 30n-308 See also repair we ld ing disassem bly. 3 13 equipment. 3 14-3 15 inspection, 3 16 pers onnel. 3 15 prehea ting. 3 14 procedu res. 3 13-3 16 repair codes. 309 -3 11
safe ly. 3 15-3 16 surface cleaning. 3 13 weld ing process. 3 14 weld repa ir plan. 309- 3 16 determining necessity of repairs, 309.....) II weld roo t. 30. 3 I weld sched ule. 35 1 weld stresses. 466-467. -/67 weld sy mbol. 625 . 625--{,36 location. 626 weld toe, 30. 31 weld trave l speed automati c welding, 37 1 weld type. 36-40. 38. 625 . 626 weld width. 30. -149 wet magnetization method. 427 wetting. 258 wetting age nt. 25 t whipp ing. 154 whipping- motion tech niqu e. 126 whiskers. 222. 224 white iron. 57 1, 572. 572- 573 See also ca st iron alloy, 574 wire brush . /01 usc. 129 wire brushing, 25 1, 273. 30 1 wire feed control pane l. 202 wire feeder . 184. 197. 20 1. 202- 204. 203. 240. 241.244.31 4. 370 co nstant-speed. 202 , 244 controllable, 202 drive rolls. 203. 244 four-ro ll syste m. 203. 244 pull type. 203. 204 push -pull type. 203. 21 14 push type. 203 . 203- 2 11, 244 voltage -sensing , 244 . 357 wire feed speed. 19~t 244 . 280 au toma tic welding. 371 wire feed syste m. 357 wire spray materials. 277 wor k angle. 125. 160. 215 hori zontal position . U 8 work boot s. 17. 102 working voltag e See arc voltage wor kman ship standa rd. 416 workpi ece connection. 100. 118. 1/9. 316 workp iece lead. 118. 119 workpiece po sitione r. 368. 368-369
workpiece positione r/ho lder. J64 See also fixed automation sys tem wormhole, 475 WPQ See welder performance qua lificatio n WPQR See weldi ng perfo rmance qualification record WPS See we lding proced ure spec ification wraparou nd guided bend test . 392- 394, 393. 4 10 See also bend test bend locat ions. 393
X-ra y fluorescence analysis. 3 12. 488 Xcray fluorescence spectrography, 552-553. 553 X-ray machin e. 436 X rays. 433. 434. 4.15 xenon . 205 XR F See X-ray fluore sce nce analysis; Xray fluorescence spec trography
yield point, 387 yield strength. 529 yoke. 426 yoke method . 427-428
zinc. 12.277. 3 13. 54 1, 600. 603. 607. 621 zinc alloy. 34 1 zinc chloride See flux: zinc-chloride zirco nium. 173. 249. 277. 29 1. 348. f.iJ7 zirconium alloy. 249
Index
725
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Welding Skills, 3rd Edition, 11011' ill j idl colo:- has been comp letely revised to cover att aspeas (if the IG 111 11 11111/11 11 111111 11 1 1111 technology. TIlls classic textbook is renowned In the field and continues the tradition oj presenting fundamental 1 0 00 1 74 1 6 deta iled illustrations, descriptive photographs. and concise text. Hands -oil exercises, updated AWS termin ology . IH; '.Y/J I )/fll.\ , {//fU inf onnativefactoids supplement essential content throughout the book. New chapters in this edition inclulm .lt "',- Repair Welding Metallography Weld Discontinuities Metal Identification Wcldahility of Common Metals Distortion Control
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Welding ReSOUfL'eS that list useful welding reference tables and charts Media Clip s that depict welding processes and procedures Reference Material that provides Internet links to related organizations and resources
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