Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Adam's Bridge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Coordinates:
9.1210N 79.5217E
Historical map of Adam's Bridge and environs, prior to the cyclone of 1964
The Pamban railway bridge, which connects the Pamban island with the Indian
mainland was constructed in 1914
Pamban Island (Tamil Nadu, India) with its small port of Rameswaram is about
2 km from mainland India. The Pamban Bridge crossing the Pamban channel links
Pamban Island with mainland India. It refers to both: a road bridge and a
cantilever railway bridge. Small boats would go below the 2065 m long road
bridge and the railway bridge would open up.
The problem in navigation exists because big ships cannot travel in the shallow
waters of the Pamban channel. Dredging in this channel would cost more than
dredging a channel in the Rama Setu area, where the waters are comparatively
deep and lesser earth would have to be dredged. Hence, in 2001, the
Government of India approved a multi-million dollar Sethusamudram Shipping
Canal Project that aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Bay cutting
across Rama Setu. Various organizations have opposed the project based on
religious, economic and environmental grounds and have sought the
implementation of one of the alternative alignments considered during the
earlier stages of the discussion.
A ferry service linked Dhanushkodi in India with Talaimannar in Sri Lanka. The
service was part of the Indo-Ceylon Railway service during the British Rule. One
could buy a railway ticket from Chennai to Colombo, whereby people travelled by
rail from Chennai to Pamban island, go by ferry to Talaimannar, and then go
again by rail to Colombo. In 1964, a cyclone completely destroyed Dhanushkodi,
as a train was about to enter the station. The tracks and the pier were heavily
damaged along the shores of Palk Bay and Palk Strait. [22] Dhanushkodi was not
rebuilt and the train then finished its journey at Rameswaram. There was a small
ferry service from there to Talaimannar, but it was suspended around 1982
because of the fighting between Sri Lankan government forces and the
separatist LTTE.
Geological evolution
small patch reefs lying in a linear pattern with reef crest (flattened, emergent
especially during low tides or nearly emergent segment of a reef), sand cays
(accumulations of loose coral sands and beach rock) and intermittent deep
channels. The coral reefs are designated by the different studies variously as
ribbon and atoll reefs.
The geological process that gave rise to this structure has also been attributed to
crustal downwarping, block faulting, and mantle plume activity by one
study[28] while another theory attributes it to continuous sand deposition and the
natural process of sedimentation leading to the formation of a chain of barrier
islands related to rising sea levels.[25] Another theory affirms that the origin and
linearity of the Adam's bridge may be due to the old shoreline implying that the
two landmasses of India and Sri Lanka were once connected from where coral
reefs evolved.
Another study explains the origin the structure due to longshore drifting currents
which moved in an anticlockwise direction in the north and clockwise direction in
the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar. The sand was supposedly dumped in
a linear pattern along the current shadow zone between Dhanushkodi and
Talaimannar with later accumulation of corals over these linear sand bodies. [citation
needed]
In a diametrically opposing view, another group of geologists propose
crustal thinning theory, block faulting and a ridge formed in the region owing to
thinning and asserts that development of this ridge augmented the coral growth
in the region and in turn coral cover acted as a `sand trapper'. [citation needed]
The tombolo model affirms a constant sediment source and a strong
unidirectional or bi-directional (monsoonal) longshore current. [citation needed] One
study tentatively concludes that there is insufficient evidence to indicate eustatic
emergence and that the raised reef in south India probably results from a local
uplift.[29] Other studies also conclude that during periods of lowered sea level
over the last 100,000 years, Adam's Bridge has provided an intermittent land
connection between India and Sri Lanka, which according to
famous ornithologists Sidney Dillon Ripley and Bruce Beehler supports
the vicariance model for speciation in some birds of the Indian Subcontinent. [30]
Age
Geological Survey of India (GSI) carried out a special programme called "Project
Rameswaram" that concluded that age data of corals indicate that the
Rameswaram island has evolved since 125,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating of
samples in this study suggests that the domain between Rameswaram and
Talaimannar may have thus been exposed around 18,000 years ago.
[25]
Thermoluminescence dating by GSI concludes that the sand dunes of
Dhanushkodi to Adam's bridge started forming only about 500600 years ago. [25]
Investigation by Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS) of Bharathidasan University,
Tiruchi, led by Professor S.M. Ramasamy dates the structure to 3,500 years. [31]
[dead link]
In the same study, carbon dating of some ancient beaches between
Thiruthuraipoondi and Kodiyakarai shows the Thiruthuraipoondi beach dates
back to 6,000 years and Kodiyakarai around 1,100 years ago. Another study
suggests that the appearance of the reefs and other evidence indicate their
recency, and a coral sample gives a radiocarbon age of 4020160 years BP[29]
Early surveys and dredging efforts
[44]
NASA satellite photo: India on top, Sri Lanka at the bottom of the photo
Certain historical inscriptions, old travel guides, old dictionary references and
some old maps have been said to reinforce a religious and geographical belief
that this is an ancient bridge.(seeRamayana). In 2007 the Sri Lankan Tourism
Development Authority sought to promote religious tourism from Hindu piligrims
in India by including the phenomenon as one of the points on its "Ramayana
Trail", celebrating the legend of Prince Rama. Sri Lankan historians condemn the
undertaking as "a gross distortion of Sri Lankan history". [46] Vaishnava News
Network and some other U.S.-based news services suggested that they had
discovered the remains of the bridge built by Rama and his Vanara army that is
referred to in the Ramayana, and that it was not a natural formation, basing their
claim on 2002 NASA satellite footage.[47] NASA distanced itself from the claims
saying that what had been captured was nothing more than a 30-km-long,
naturally occurring chain of sandbanks.[48] It also clarified that, "The images
reproduced on the websites may well be ours, but their interpretation is certainly
not ours. [...] Remote sensing images or photographs from orbit cannot provide
direct information about the origin or age of a chain of islands, and certainly
cannot determine whether humans were involved in producing any of the
patterns seen."[48]
A team from the Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS) of Bharathidasan University,
Tiruchi led by Professor S.M. Ramasamy in 2003 said "the land/beaches were
formed between Ramanathapuram and Pamban because of the long shore
drifting currents which moved in an anti-clockwise direction in the north and
clockwise direction in the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar about 3,500
years ago." and, "as the carbon dating of the beaches roughly matches the dates
of Ramayana, its link to the epic needs to be explored". [49] A former director of
See also
Pamban channel
Ramayana
Lord Rama
Kumari Kandam
Bimini Road
Shoal
References
1. ^ also spelled Rama Setu, Ram Sethu, Ramasethu and variants.
2. ^ a b c d "Adam's bridge". Encyclopdia Britannica.
2007. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved
2007-09-14.
3. ^ Length taken from Google Earth
4. ^ Map of the area
5. ^ Map of the area2
6. ^ Garg, Ganga Ram (1992). "Adam's Bridge". Encyclopaedia of the
Hindu World AAj. New Delhi: South Asia Books. p. 142. ISBN 817022-374-1.
7. ^ a b c Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World. McFarland &
Company. p. 19. ISBN 0-7864-2248-3.
8. ^ Valmiki Ramayan calls mythological bridge built by Lord Rama as
Setubandhanam
9. ^ Jayalalitha quotes literary evidence for Ramar bridge
10.^ Protests against shipping canal hot up | Latest News
11.^ Schwartzberg Atlas Digital South Asia Library
12.^ Schwartzberg Atlas Digital South Asia Library
13.^ Special Story
14.^ News Today An English evening daily published from Chennai
15.^ Scrap the shipping channel project Newindpress.com
16.^ Marco Polo (1854) The travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian; Marco
polo's travel book calls the Adam's Bridge area Ramar bridge
17.^ Horatio John Suckling, Ceylon: A General Description of the Island,
Historical, Physical, Statistical, London (1876), p. 76.
18.^ Ramar Sethu, a world heritage centre?
19.^ Dhanuskodi: The Lost Land
20.^ [1][dead link]
21.^ "Madurai Travels Rameswaram". Madurai.com. Retrieved 201007-16.
22.^ For further details see Dhanushkodi
23.^ Tennent, James Emerson (1859). Ceylon: An Account of the Island
Physical, Historical and Topographical. London: Longman, Green,
Longman, and Roberts. p. 13.
24.^ Suess, Eduard; Hertha B. C. Sollas (translator) (1906). The Face of
the Earth (Vol. II). Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 512513.
25.^ a b c d Frontline, "Myth and Reality", 22 September 2007 5
October 2007
26.^ Double Tombolo reference by NASA
27.^ Adam's Bridge World's largest Tombolo
28.^ Crustal downwarping, block faulting, and mantel plume activity
view
29.^ a b D. R. Stoddart, C. S. Gopinadha Pillai (1972). "Raised Reefs of
Ramanathapuram, South India". Transactions of the Institute of
British Geographers 56 (56): 111
125. doi:10.2307/621544. JSTOR 621544.
30.^ Ripley, S. Dillon; Beehler, Bruce M. (November 1990). "Patterns of
Speciation in Indian Birds". Journal of Biogeography (Journal of
Biogeography) 17 (6): 639
648. doi:10.2307/2845145. JSTOR 2845145.
31.^ CRS study point Ram Setu to 3500 years old
32.^ Francis, Jr., Peter (2002). Asia's Maritime Bead Trade: 300 B.C. to
the Present. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2332-X.
33.^ Rodd, Rennell (1930). "Major James Rennell. Born 3 December
1742. Died 20 March 1830". The Geographical Journal (The
Geographical Journal) 75 (4): 289
299. doi:10.2307/1784813. JSTOR 1784813.
Mark] Hess had added. "NASA had been taking pictures of these
shoals for years. Its images had never resulted in any scientific
discovery in the area."
49.^ "Rama's bridge is only 3,500 years old: CRS". Indian Express. 2
February 2003. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
50.^ "Debate shifted over Ram from Ram Sethu". indianewstrack.com.
15 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
51.^ Ram sethu should be manmade says former Geological survey of
India director
52.^ No evidence to prove existence of Ram, Centre to SC
53.^ [2][dead link]
54.^ Ram Sethu 'man-made', says government publication
55.^ Ram Setu 'man-made', says government publication
56.^ Ram himself destroyed Setu, govt tells SC
Sri Pada
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sri Pada
Adam's Peak
Samanalakanda
Sivanolipatha Malai
Sri Pada
Sri Lanka
Location
Range
Samanala
Coordina
tes
064841N 802959ECoordinates:
064841N 802959E
Sri Pada (also Adam's peak; Sinhalese Samanalakanda - "butterfly
mountain", and also "Sri Paadaya"; Tamil Sivanolipatha Malai -
), is a 2,243 metres (7,359 ft) tall conical mountain located in central Sri
Lanka. It is well known for the Sri Pada, i.e., "sacred footprint", a 1.8 metres
(5 ft 11 in) rock formation near the summit, which in Buddhist tradition is held to
be the footprint of the Buddha, in Hindu tradition that of Shiva and
in Muslim and Christian tradition that of Adam, or that of St. Thomas.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 Trails
3 Nomenclature
4 History
5.1 Legends
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Geography
The mountain is located in the southern reaches of the Central Highlands, in the
Ratnapura district of the Sabaragamuwa Province - lying about 40 km northeast
of the city of Ratnapura. The surrounding region is largely forested hills, with no
mountain of comparable size nearby. The region along the mountain is a wildlife
reserve housing many species varying from elephants to leopards, and including
many endemic species.
Adam's Peak is important as the main watershed of Sri Lanka, four of the
principal rivers of the Island, including the Mahaveli Ganga, the longest, having
their source from this mountain, and descend to the sea on the eastern, western
and south eastern coasts. The districts to the south and the east of Adam's Peak
yield precious stones-emeralds, rubies and sapphires, for which the island has
been famous, and which earned for its ancient name of Ratnadvipa. [2]
Trails
Access to the mountain is possible by 6 trails: Ratnapura-Palabaddala, HattonNallathanni, Kuruwita-Erathna, Murraywatte, Mookuwatte & Malimboda. The
Nallathanni & Palabaddala routes are most favored by those undertaking the
climb, while the Kuruwita-Erathna trail is used less often; these trails are linked to
major cities or town by bus, accounting for their popular use. The Murraywatte,
Mookuwatte & Malimboda routes are hardly used, but do intersect with the
Palabaddala road midway through the ascent. The usual route taken by most
pilgrims is ascent via Hatton and descent via Ratnapura; although the Hatton
trail is the steepest, it is also shorter than any of the other trails by
approximately five kilometers.
Mahagiri Dambaya
Due to its significance to the various people that inhabit the country, the
mountain is referred to by a variety of names.
The often used Sri Pada is derived from Sanskrit, used by the Sinhalese people in
a religious context; this name also has meaning in Pli, and may be translated
roughly as "the sacred foot". It refers to the footprint-shaped mark at the
summit, which is believed by Buddhists to be that of the Buddha. Christian and
Islamic traditions assert that it is the footprint of Adam, left when first setting
foot on Earth after having been cast out of paradise, giving it the name "Adam's
Peak".[citation needed] Hindu tradition refers to the footprint as that of
the Hindu deity Shiva, and thus names the mountain Shiva padam (Shiva's foot)
in Tamil. Tamils may also use the name Shivanolipatha Malai to refer to the
mountain.
Another Sinhala name for the mountain is Samanalakanda, which refers either to
the deity Saman, who is said to live upon the mountain, or to the butterflies
(samanalay) that frequent the mountain during their annual migrations to the
region. The name Sri Paada, however, is the more commonly used.
Other local and historic names include Ratnagiri ("jewelled
hill"), Samantakuta ("Peak of Saman"), Svargarohanam ("the climb to
heaven"), Mount Rohana and other variations on the root Rohana.
History
Sri Pada is first mentioned (as `Samanthakuta') in the Deepawamsa, the earliest
Pali chronicle, (4th century), and also in the 5th century chronicle Mahawamsa,
where it is stated that the Buddha visited the mountain peak. The
chronicle Rajavaliya states that the King Valagamba (1st century BCE) had taken
refuge in the forests of Adam's Peak against invaders from India, and later
returned to Anuradhapura. The Mahawamsa again mentions the visit of King
The village of Nallathanniya at the feet of the mountain, where the stairs begin
It is revered as a holy site by Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims and Christians. It has
specific qualities that cause it to stand out and be noticed; including its dominant
and outstanding profile, and the boulder at the peak that contains an indentation
resembling a footprint. As the 1910, Encyclopdia Britannica notes[3]
"For a long period Sri Pada was supposed to be the highest mountain in Ceylon,
but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft. above sea-level. This elevation is chiefly
remarkable as the resort of pilgrims from all parts of the East. The hollow in the
lofty rock that crowns the summit is said by the Brahmans to be the footstep
of Siva, by the Buddhists of Buddha, by the Muslims of Adam, whilst the
Portuguese Christians were divided between the conflicting claims of St
Thomas and the eunuch of Candace, queen of Ethiopia. The footstep is covered
by a handsome roof, and is guarded by the priests of a rich monastery half-way
up the mountain, who maintain a shrine on the summit of the peak."
It is an important pilgrimage site, especially for Buddhists. Pilgrims walk up the
mountain, following a variety of difficult routes up thousands of steps. The
journey takes several hours at least. The peak pilgrimage season is in April, and
the goal is to be on top of the mountain at sunrise, when the distinctive shape of
the mountain casts a triangular shadow on the surrounding plain and can be
seen to move quickly downward as the sun rises.
Climbing at night can be a remarkable experience, with the lights of the path
leading up and into the stars overhead. There are rest stops along the way.
Legends
Petrosomatoglyph
Trikuta
[edit]References
1. ^ "Seruwila to Sri Pada (Sacred Foot Print Shrine)". UNESCO.org.
Retrieved 2011-08-25.
2. ^ Palihapitiya. "P.G.G.". Retrieved 28 September 2012.
3. ^ Chisolm, Hugh (1910). The Encyclopdia Britannica (Vol. 5).
University press. p. 778.
[edit]External links
Wikimedia
Commons has
media related
to: Sri Pada
Trikuta
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Trikuta (Sinhala: Thirikunamalai, Tamil: Tirikutamalai, Trikuta giri, Thai: Nila Kala)
is a three peaked mountain in Hindu mythology. It is one of the twenty
mountains surrounding Maha-Meru. The height is said in the Bhagavata
Purana to be 10,000 yojanas, and the three peaks are iron, silver and gold. We
find its references in the Sundarkand chapter of the Ramayana and its location is
believed to be in Lanka.
Srimad Bhagavatam further tells us that it contains a nice garden called Rumak,
constructed by Varuna, and it also contains a beautiful lake with elephants
(see: Gajendra Moksha) inhabiting the region.[1] Trikuta is historically viewed as a
legendary reference to the tallest peak of the island, the mountain Sivanoli
Padam of the Malaya mountainous range, surrounded by lakes and gardens and
capital of Ravana's kingdom [edit] . Jatavarman Veera Pandyan
I mentionsTrikutagiri alongside the Koneswaram temple of Konamalai as two
different places in a country of the island Eelam that he conquered and placed
atop the victory bull flag of the Pandyan kingdom in 1262.
Trikuta finds mention in the Ramayana as being where the city of Lanka is built,
while Vayu Purana (300 CE) mentions it as being on Malaya Dvipa, to the east of
which on the coast lies the Shiva shrine of Koneswaram at Gokarna bay. [2]
[3]
The Vividhatirthakalpa, a 14th century Jain text mentions that
at Trikutagiri in Kishkindha of Lanka there was a magnificent Jain temple which
was dedicated by Ravana for the attainment of supernatural powers. [4] To fulfil a
desire of Mandodari, his queen consort, Ravana is said to have "erected a Jain
deity statue out of jewels; this was thrown into the sea when he was defeated
by Rama Chandra. King Sankara, a royal of Kalyananagara of Kannada, came to
know about this statue and he recovered it from the bottom of the sea with the
help of Padmavatidevi, a prominent "Goddess of the Jainas.""[5][6]
[edit]See also
Trincomalee
[edit]References
1. ^ Srimad Bhagavatam: Withdrawal of the cosmic creations By A. C.
Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupda, page no.41 [1]
2. ^ H.N. Apte, Vayupurana, Chapter 48 verses 20-30, Poona, 1929
3. ^ S.Pathmanathan, The Kingdom of Jaffna, Colombo, 1978. pages
135-144
4. ^ Kiskindhayam Lankayah patalankayam Trikutagrirau
Srisantinathah
5. ^ Vividhatirthakalpa, pp. 93.
6. ^ Jain, Arun Kumar (2009). Faith & philosophy of Jainism. Delhi,
India : Kalpaz Publications, 2009. p. 10. ISBN 978-81-7835-723-2
8178357232 Check |isbn= value (help). OCLC 428923103.
Categories:
http://books.google.com.au/books?
id=2v9UYNqlGLQC&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&dq=sivanoli+padam+mountain&sourc
e=bl&ots=YlKc2XBzHi&sig=kW19L37iYp0mNkhDyQJ8d-qSXs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=thSGUdiYLMOQigfsvIDwBA&sqi=2&ved=0CHAQ6AEwCA#v
=onepage&q=sivanoli%20padam%20mountain&f=false
Negrito
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the ethnic group. For the shrub, see Citharexylum
berlandieri. For the municipality, see El Negrito.
Negrito
Indonesia
(Maluku Islands, West Papua)
Malaysia
(Peninsular Malaysia)
Philippines
(Luzon, Palawan, Panay, Negros, Cebu,
andMindanao)
Thailand
(Southern Thailand)
Religion
Animism
Related ethnic groups
Australoid race, including Melanesians
The Negrito are a class of several ethnic groups who inhabit isolated parts
of Southeast Asia.[1]
1 Etymology
2 Origins
3 Historical distribution
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Further reading
7 External links
[edit]Etymology
[edit]See also
Wikimedia
Commons has
media related
to: Negrito
Peoples
Aeta peoples
Al-Akhdam
Ati people
Australoid race
Black people
Indigenous Australians
Koro-pok-guru
Kunlun Nu
Mamanwa
Mani people
Negroid race
Orang Asli
Peopling of India
Proto-Australoid
Pygmy peoples
Saisiyat people
Semang
Shanyue
Topics
History of Taiwan
Primitive culture
[edit]Notes
12.^ ^ Reich et al., Denisova Admixture and the First Modern Human
Dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania, The American Journal of
Human Genetics (2011), , DOI:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005, PMC
3188841, PMID
21944045,http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000292
9711003958
13.^ a b c Jules Quartly (Sat, 27 Nov 2004). "In honor of the Little Black
People". Taipei Times. p. 16. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
14.^ Liu, James J.Y. The Chinese Knight Errant. London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul, 1967 (ISBN 0-2264-8688-5)
[edit]Further reading
Garvan, John M., and Hermann Hochegger. The Negritos of the Philippines.
Wiener Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte und Linguistik, Bd. 14. Horn: F.
Berger, 1964.
Hurst Gallery. Art of the Negritos. Cambridge, Mass: Hurst Gallery, 1987.
Khadizan bin Abdullah, and Abdul Razak Yaacob. Pasir Lenggi, a Bateq
Negrito Resettlement Area in Ulu Kelantan. Pulau Pinang: Social
Anthropology Section, School of Comparative Social Sciences, Universit
Sains Malaysia, 1974.
Schebesta, P., & Schtze, F. (1970). The Negritos of Asia. Human relations
area files, 1-2. New Haven, Conn: Human Relations Area Files.
Zell, Reg. Negritos of the Philippines -The People of the Bamboo - Age - A
Socio-Ecological Model. edition blurb, 2011.
[edit]External links
[show]
Negritos
[show]
Navigation menu
Create account
Log in
Article
Talk
Read
Edit
View history
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
Print/export
Languages
Catal
esky
Deutsch
Eesti
Espaol
Euskara
Franais
Galego
Hrvatski
Italiano
Nederlands
Norsk bokml
Polski
Portugus
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
Edit links