High School Science Part I

1
Measurement in Science and Technology

We all make use of measurements in our daily life. A milkman measures milk, a shopkeeper measures rice or pulses, a farmer measures his field, a tailor measures the cloth before tailoring and so on. Everybody measures something or the other with different types of devices. It is seen that if we know what to measure and how to measure it, we can do many things well in life. Measurement is one of the basic life skills necessary for everyday life. It is also useful and essential in the learning of science and technology. There is a constant need for measurement in our everyday life. Let us find out little more about the process of measurement. What does this process of measurement involve? Which tools are used for accurate and precise measurement? On which factors are measurement techniques based? This lesson will make you aware of several such aspects of measurement. In this lesson you will study about different measurement systems including the ancient system of measurement and the SI units. You will also learn about the methods of measurement of various physical quantities like length, mass, time, area and volume. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: cite examples of the uses of various parts of our body and senses to measure length; state the limitations of the use of body parts and senses for measurement and justify the need for a standard to measure anything exactly; describe the Indian and various other measurement systems used in the ancient times; define a physical quantity with examples; differentiate between fundamental and derived units; write S.I. units of different fundamental physical quantities; use multiples and submultiples of different units; define the least count of a measuring instrument; name the various devices and instruments used to measure length, mass and time stating the standard in each case; measure area of regular and irregular figures; measure volume of regular and irregular solids.
: 4 : Measurement in Science and Technology
1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MEASUREMENT 1.1.1 Body parts and senses used for measurement Since ancient times, people used their senses and body parts to measure various things. They did this because it became necessary for them in their daily life to deal with other people. Let us find out how senses and body parts help us in measurement. (a) Use of our body parts and senses for measurement We have five senses, which help us to find out about the things around us. These senses are seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching. For example, if we see a tall and a short building or a tall and short person we can feel the difference in their heights. Similarly, if we touch a body we can feel the hotness or coldness of the body. Thus, our senses do help us to guess or estimate the height, length and hotness or coldness of a body and other things around us. Here, estimation means a rough measurement made by our senses. (b) Use of body parts for measurement In ancient days, long before measuring instruments were invented, people actually used different parts of their body to measure length. Figure 1.1 shows various parts of our body, which were used and can still be used to carry out various measurements. But since these measurements are dependent on the size of the person, they may vary from person to person. The length of the cubit, for example, depends on the arm length of the measurer. Thus, cubits had different lengths. To have a better understanding, let us perform an activity.
Thumb
Han
First finger Hand span
Fig. 1.1 Use of body parts for measurement
ACTIVITY 1.1 Aim : To understand the accuracy in the use of body parts for measurement. What is required? A ruler, a measuring tape. What to do? ! With the help of a ruler, measure the length of various parts of your body like the arm or the palm, which are normally used for measurement. ! Repeat the measurements for your friend or for a younger brother and sister also. You can use a measuring tape also for this activity. ! Compare the measurements. What do you observe? You will find that there is a difference in the measurement of your body parts with those of your friends.
Measurement in Science and Technology : 5 :
(c) Limitations of our senses and body parts Though we use our senses and body parts for various measurements, we cannot trust them to measure exactly and accurately. Can you depend on your eyes to judge accurately the height or lengths of different objects? Look at figure 1.2a. Which circle is larger-A or B? Well, both are of the same size. Larger circles around the central one make it appear smaller. Small circles around the central circle make the other appear larger.
(b) Estimating the length of a line segment
(a) Estimating the size of the circle
Fig. 1.2 Limitations of our senses and body parts in measurement
There are many more such instances where objects can fool our eyes. Now look at figure 1.2b and tell which line segment is larger. Verify your estimation by measuring each line segment with the help of a scale. In the above mentioned cases we tried to guess the length or size by seeing i.e. tried to give an estimate, which may or may not be correct. Thus, the use of senses or body parts for measurement does not provide accuracy of measurement, ! reliability of measurement, ! uniformity of measurement, The limitations of the use of senses and body parts have made us to develop some devices and instruments for accurate measurements.
!
1.1.2 Indian measurement system a) Indian measurement system in the ancient period Measurement plays an important role in our lives. We have been using measurement right from the pre-historic time. Let us have a brief look into the historical development of measurement system in India. In ancient periods, the lengths of the shadows of trees or other objects were used to know the approximate time of the day. Long time durations were expressed in terms of the lunar cycles, which even now is the basis of some calendars. In India, excellent examples of measurement practices in different historic periods are available. Our ancient literature reveals that in India different types of measurement practices were followed in different periods. For example, about 5000 years ago in the Mohenjodaro era, the size of bricks all over the region was same. The length, breadth and width of bricks were taken as a standard and were always in ratios of 4:2:1. Similarly around 2400 years ago during the Chandragupta Maurya period there was a well-defined system of weights and measures. The government at that time ensured that everybody used the same weights and measures. According to this system, the smallest unit of length was 1 Parmanu. Small lengths were measured in anguls. For long distances Yojana was used. One yojana is roughly equal to 10 kilometres.
The Indian medicine system, Ayurveda, also had well-defined units for the measurement of the mass and volume. The measurement system was strongly followed to ensure the proper quantity of medicine for particular disease. Different units of measurements used in the period of Chandragupta Maurya 8 Parmanus = 1 Rajahkan (dust particle from the wheel of a chariot) 8 Rajahkans = 1 Liksha (egg of lice) 8 Likshas = 1 Yookamadhya 8 Yookamadhyas = 1 Yavamadhya 8 Yavamadhyas = 1 Angul 8 Anguls = 1 Dhanurmushti
(Reference: Kautilayas Arthashastra)
b) Indian measurement system in the medieval period In the medieval period also the measurement system was in practice. As described in Aini-Akbari by Abul Fazl-i-Allami, during the period of Moghul Emperor Akbar, the gaz was used as the unit of measuring length. Each gaz was divided into 24 equal parts and each part was called Tassuj. This system was extensively used to measure land pieces, for construction of buildings, houses, wells, gardens and roads. You should know that, the gaz was widely used as a unit of length till the metric system was introduced in 1956. Even today in many parts of our country, particularly in the rural areas, gaz is being used as a unit of length. c) Indian measurement system during British period In order to bring about uniformity in the system of measurement and the weights used, a number of efforts were made during the British period. The British rulers wanted to connect Indian weights and measures to those being used in Great Britain at that time. During this period the inch, foot, and yard were used to measure length whereas grain, ounce, pounds, etc. were used to measure mass. These units and weights were used in India till the time of Independence in 1947. The essential units of mass used in India included Ratti, Masha, Tola, Chhatank, Seer and Maund. Raatti is a red seed whose mass is approximately 120 mg. It was widely used by goldsmiths and by practitioners of traditional medicine system in India. Relation between various units of mass used during the British period 8 Ratti 12 Masha 5 Tola 16 Chhatank 40 Seer 1 Maund CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.1 = = = = = = 1 Masha 1 Tola 1 Chhatank 1 Seer 1 Maund 100 Pounds troy (exact)
1. Name the smallest unit of length during the Chandragupta Maurya period. 2. List out our body parts normally used for measurement. 3. In which period was gaz used as a unit to measure length? 1.2 THE MODERN MEASUREMENT SYSTEM In order to overcome the limitations of senses and body parts, and to bring about a worldwide uniformity in the measurement system, the need for exact measurement was felt. For this, a standard of measurements had to be developed which everybody everywhere accepts. The problem of measuring lengths exactly was first solved by the Egyptians in 3000B.C. They did this by inventing the standard cubit. They realized that the length of the arm actually did not matter as long as people of Egypt were concerned. Then they made measuring sticks exactly of the same length as that of standard cubit. In this way they made sure that the cubit was the same length all over Egypt. That is really how measurement is carried out today. In fact, for each measurement a standard is chosen. Every measuring instrument has to be compared with that standard. The present measurement system, which is accepted world-over, has its origin in the French Revolution. You will study the details of the modern system of measurement, in the following sections. 1.2.1 Fundamental quantities and units You have read that measurements are concerned with quantities like length, mass, time, density etc. Any quantity which can be measured is called a physical quantity. Out of the different physical quantities, there are seven physical quantities in terms of which other physical quantities can be measured. These fundamental physical quantities are length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and amount of substance. Such quantities are considered to be the basic or fundamental physical quantities. If you are asked to measure the quantity of a given amount of milk, you will express the volume of milk in some accepted units of volume. Likewise, if an engineer measures the length of a road that connects two cities, he should express the distance in an accepted unit of length. Such a procedure makes life more comfortable. If there were no common units accepted by all, life would be miserable. Such units are much more essential in scientific measurements to facilitate communication of information at international level. Any measurement of a quantity includes a reference standard or unit in which the quantity is measured and the number of times the quantity contains that unit. Thus, when we say that the length of a rod is 4 metres, the rod is four times the metre, which is the unit of length. Metre is the standard length that is adopted as a standard for comparison while measuring length. In the process of measurement the accepted reference standard which is used for comparison of a given quantity is called a unit. 1.2.2 The SI units Scientists have developed and used several systems for expressing the units of physical quantities. However, all measurements in any system are based on the units of the basic or fundamental physical quantities. The units of the fundamental or basic quantities that are independent of each other are called fundamental units.
Keeping in view the importance of the proper units for measurement, there have been attempts over centuries in several developed civilizations to suggest standard units of measurements at international level. In the year 1967, the XIII General Conference on Weights and Measures rationalised the MKSA (Metre, Kilogram, Second, Ampere) system of units and adopted a system based on six basic units. It was called the Systeme Internationale de unites known as SI units in all languages. In 1971, the General Conference added another basic unit to the SI units i.e., mole for the amount of substance. The fundamental units in different systems are different. The international system of units, known as SI units, are commonly used for all scientific purposes. This system has seven basic units for seven physical quantities, which are given in Table 1.1. Table 1.1: SI units and their symbols Physical quantity Length Mass Time Temperature Amount of substance Electric current Luminous intensity Unit metre kilogram second kelvin mole ampere candela Symbol m kg s K mol A cd
Perhaps you may be confused by mass and amount of substance and also with luminous intensity as given in Table 1.1. The mass of a body is the amount of matter contained in the body, while a mole is the amount of any substance equal to its molecular mass. 1 mole of HCl = 36.46 g 2 moles of HCl = 36.46 x 2 = 72.92 g Luminous intensity is the amount of light emitted by a point source per second in a particular direction. The yard and mile as units of length are still in use in USA. Units of length still in use in USA 1 mile = 8 furlongs 1 furlong = 220 yards 1 yard = 3 feet 1 foot = 12 inches 1 yard = 0.9144 m (exactly) 1 inch = 2.54 cm (exactly) 1 mile = 1.61 km The guiding principle in choosing a unit of measurement is to relate it to common mans life as far as possible. As an example, take the unit of mass as kilogram or the unit of
length as metre. In our day-to-day business we buy food articles in kg or tens of kg. We buy cloth in metres or tens of metres. If gram had been chosen as the unit of mass or millimetre as unit of length, we would be unnecessarily using big numbers in our daily life. It is for this reason that the basic units of measurements are very closely related to our daily life. 1.2.3 Standard units of fundamental quantities Once we have chosen the fundamental units of the SI, we must decide on the set of standards for the fundamental quantities. a) Mass: The SI unit of mass is kilogram. One kilogram is the mass of a particular cylinder made of PlatinumIridium alloy, kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. This standard was established in 1887 and there has been no change because this is an unusually stable alloy. Prototype kilograms have been made out of this alloy and distributed to member states. The national prototype of India is the Kilogram no 57. This is preserved at the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi. b) Length: The SI unit of length is metre. Earlier the metre (also written as meter) was defined to be 1/107 times the distance from the Equator to the North Pole through Paris. This standard was abandoned for practical reasons. In 1875, the new metre was defined as the distance between two lines on a Platinum-Iridium bar stored under controlled conditions. Such standards had to be kept under severe controlled conditions. Even then their safety against natural disasters is not guaranteed, and their accuracy is also limited for the present requirements of science and technology. In 1983 the metre was redefined as the distance travelled by light in vacuum in a time interval of 1/ 299792458 seconds. This definition establishes that the speed of light in vacuum is 299792458 metres per second. c) Time: The SI unit of time is second. The time interval second was originally defined in terms of the time of rotation of earth about its own axis. This time of rotation is divided in 24 parts, each part is called an hour. An hour is divided into 60 minutes and each minute is subdivided into 60 seconds. Thus, one second is equal to 1/86400th part of the solar day. But it is known that the rotation of the earth varies substantially with time and therefore, the length of a day is a variable quantity, may be very slowly varying. The XIII General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1967 defined one second as the time required for Cesium133 atom to undergo 9192631770 vibrations. The definition has its roots in a device, which is named as the atomic clock. d) Temperature: The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K). The thermodynamic scale on which temperature is measured has its zero at absolute zero, and has its lower fixed point corresponding to 273.15 K at the triple point of water (0o C). One unit of thermodynamic temperature (1 K) is equal to 1/273.15 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. e) Electric current: The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A). One ampere is defined as the magnitude of current that when flowing through two long parallel wires, each of length equal to 1 m, separated by 1 metre in free space, results in a force of 2 x 10-7 N between the two wires. f) Amount of substance: The SI unit of amount is mole (mol). One mole is defined as
the amount of any substance, which contains, as may elementary units, as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kg of C-12. g) Luminous intensity: The SI unit of luminous intensity (I) is candela (Cd). The candela is defined as the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity of 1/683 watt per steradian in that direction. 1.2.4 Derived units The basic units or the fundamental units are independent of each other. The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed in terms of these basic units. Such units are called derived units. Thus, the units, which are obtained by the combination of fundamental units, are known as derived units. For example, area can be expressed in terms of the basic unit of length, as given below: You know the area of a surface is the product of length and breadth. Therefore, the unit of area will be equal to the product of the unit of length and the unit of breadth (remember that breadth is also length). Unit of area = metre x metre = (metre)2 Thus, the unit of area is m2. Similarly, volume is equal to length x breadth x height of the object. Therefore, the unit of volume = unit of length x unit of breadth x unit of height = metre x metre x metre = (metre)3 Thus, the unit of volume is m3. The derived units of other physical quantities are also found in the same way. Some of the commonly used derived units are given in Table 1.2. Table 1.2 : SI units and symbols of some derived units Physical quantity Area Volume Density Velocity Acceleration Force Work SI Unit square metre cubic metre kilogram per cubic metre metre per second metre per square second kilogram metre per square second (also called Newton) kilogram square metre per square second (also called Joule) Symbol m2 m3 kg/m3 m/s m/s2 kg m/s2 (called N) kg m2/s2 (called J)
There are some other commonly used derived units with special names. They are given in the Table 1.3. Table 1.3: Some commonly used derived units
Physical quantity Force Pressure Energy Power
Special name Newton Pascal joule watt
Symbol N Pa J W
SI Unit kg m/s2 N/m2 Nm J/s
1.2.5 Multiples and sub-multiples of units Sometimes the measurement of physical quantities can give very large or very small numbers. The smaller and larger units of the basic units are multiples of ten only. They strictly follow the decimal system. These multiples or submultiples are given special names. These are listed in Table 1.4. For example, the mass of the earth and mass of the electron are found to be as follows: Mass of earth (M) Mass of an electron (me) = = 5,970,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,911 kg
You will notice that it is not a convenient way to express the mass of earth or the mass of an electron. It takes up space and time to read it. Thus, for convenience, large numbers or very small decimals are expressed in an abbreviated form. The abbreviations in common use are based upon the powers of ten as given in the Table 1.4. Table 1.4: Representation of large and small quantities in powers of ten Large quantities 100 = 1 10 = 101 100 = 102 1,000 = 103 10,000 = 104 100,000 = 105 1,000,000 = 106 Thus, 103 = 10 10 10 = 1000
1 1 = = 0.001 3 10 1000 Example 1.1: Suppose a large ship has a mass of nine hundred thousand kilograms. Express it in powers of ten. Solution: Given, mass of ship = 900,000 kg Thus, in powers of ten, the mass of ship = 9 105 kg Example 1.2: Express the number 0.00034 in terms of powers of ten. Solution: 0.00034 = 3.4 10 4 This concept has been used to express multiples and submultiples of basic units of
3 and, 10 =
Small quantities 1 = 100 0.1 = 101 0.01 = 102 0.001 = 103 0.0001 = 10-4 0.00001 = 105 0.000001 = 10-6
measurement again for the purpose of convenience. For example, let us take the SI unit of length, i.e. metre. Its multiples and submultiples would be: Multiple 1000 metres = 1 kilometre or 103 m = 1 km Sub-multiple 1/1000 metres = 1 millimetre or 103 m = 1 mm
As the metric system uses the base 10, the change from one unit to the another is very easy and it uses simple prefixes to denote multiples or submultiples of the basic units. For example, prefix kilo always means 1000 whether it is kilometre (1000 m) or kilogram (1000 g), kilowatt (1000 W) or whatever. Similarly, the prefix centi always means 1/100 while the prefix milli always denotes 1/1000. A list of prefixes for multiples and submultiples is given in Table 1.5. Table 1.5: Prefixes for multiples and submultiples Name
deca hecta kilo mega giga terra deci centi milli micro nano pico
Symbol
da h k M G T d c m n p
Equivalent
101 102 103 106 109 1012 101 102 103 106 109 1012
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.2 1. What are the characteristics of a physical quantity? 2. Differentiate between fundamental and derived units. 3. What is the difference between mass and amount of a substance? 4. Derive the unit of the following quantities: (i) Force = Mass acceleration (ii) Pressure = Force/Area 5. Represent 237 nm in metres. 1.3 MEASUREMENT OF QUANTITIES We use measurements of different types in our daily life. For example, while buying cloth, we measure its length and while buying milk or kerosene we measure its volume. But for accurate and precise measurement, we have to follow certain methods. Let us study some of them. Let us consider a physical quantity, say length. We know that its standard of measurement is metre. Measuring sticks with the same length as the standard metre have been made which we commonly call as the metre stick. This one metre long stick is divided into 100 equal parts, i.e. into 100 centimetres. Each centimetre is further divided into 10 millimetres. Thus, the smallest division on a metre scale is 1 millimetre. This is the least count of the
metre scale. Thus, the minimum or the least quantity that can be measured by a given instrument is called its least count. For example, the least count of a metre scale is 1 mm or 0.1 cm. A metre scale cannot measure lengths less than 1mm. The least count of any measuring instrument is, thus, very important. We must always quote the result of a measurement only up to the least count of the measuring instrument used. Besides, the method and the selection of proper measuring device for a particular measurement are also very important. 1.4.1 Length and its measurement As we have studied in the last section, length is the distance between two points and it is measured in terms of metres. Different types of devices are used to measure lengths. For example to measure the length of your table, you will use a ruler or measuring tape. But to measure the diameter (thickness) of a wire, you will require a screw gauge. These devices had been made by comparing them with a standard length called standard metre. The standard metre is a fixed length decided by scientists and accepted by all. a) Using a scale to measure length To measure the length of a given line segment AB (Fig 1.3), the metre scale is kept along the line segment with its graduations parallel to it. The metre scale must be so placed that its divisions are as close as possible to the line segment to be measured. Its zero end is made coincident with one end of the line segment. Note the point where the other end of the line segment lies. Suppose, it lies beyond the 2 cm mark and is coincident with the second small division after it. Since each of these marks is 1 mm, the total length of the line segment is 2 cm + 2 mm = 2 cm + 0.2 cm = 2.2 cm
A
1 2
B
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig. 1.3 To measure the length of a line segment using a metre scale
Remember that while looking at the reading on a scale, we must keep our eyes in front of and in line with the reading to be taken. In case of a metre scale, it is not always possible to make the zero mark on the scale coincident with one end of the line to be measured. With repeated use, the ends of measuring scale get somewhat worn-out and ill defined. In such cases, we keep the metre-scale with any of its divisions other than zero coincident with one end of the line. Suppose we place the scale (ruler) in such a way that the two ends of the line segment coincides with 2.0 cm and 4.2 cm marks, respectively (Fig 1.4). Then, the length of the line segment is 4.2 cm 2.0 cm = 2.2 cm That is, it is the difference between the readings on a scale at its two ends.
A
1 2 3 4
B
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig. 1.4 The length of a line segment is the difference between the readings on a scale at its two ends.
If we have to measure a larger length, such as length of a playground, we use a measuring
tape that may be 10 m, 15 m or 50 m long. Sometimes, we are required to measure very small lengths, say (less than 1 mm) like the diameter of a thin wire, the dimensions of fine machine parts, etc. We cannot use a metre scale for such measurements. For such distances, measuring instruments like the vernier callipers and the screw gauge are used. Vernier callipers, as shown in Fig 1.5, is an instrument used to measure the length or thickness of a solid body up to 0.01 cm accurately. A screw gauge as shown is Fig. 1.6, is an instrument used to measure the length or thickness of a solid body up to 0.001 cm. accurately However, each measuring instrument is limited to a certain accuracy of measurement which depends on its graduation. To measure the thickness of a wire or a metallic sheet we require screw gauge.
N A
A B
B
0
D
5
E
20 15 10 9
G Q
Fig.1.5 Vernier callipers
Fig.1.6 Screw gauge
To measure large distances like the distance of your school from your house, or distance between two cities or the distance between the earth and moon, we use indirect methods of measurement. For example, to measure the distance between two cities, we will measure the average speed of certain vehicle, say a car, and the time taken by it to cover that distance. The product of the speed and time will give the required distance. 1.3.2 Mass and its measurement Like length there are many other measurements, which we make in our daily life by using different measuring standards and instruments. For any object, say this book, if some body asks you to answer the question, How much stuff is there in it? It means he is trying to find out the mass of the object. As you have studied earlier in this lesson, mass of a body is defined as the amount of matter contained in the body. The standard mass chosen by the scientists is called kilogram. This standard is used to compare the masses of unknown bodies. In order to measure the mass of different bodies different types of balances or scales are used. The most common is the one we see with the shopkeepers and vendors. What standard masses are used by shopkeepers to measure quantities? What do their balance look like? Have you seen a balance like the one in figure 1.7(a) or 1.7(b).
Sugar
1 Kg
(a) ACTIVITY 1.2 Fig. 1.7 (a) The shopkeepers balance (b) A modern balance
(b)
Aim : To make a sensitive balance to compare the masses of light objects. What is required? A tall bottle like a squash bottle or an oil bottle, two square pieces having each side about 15 cm in length cut from a sheet of a chart paper, a few drinking straws, pins, sewing thread, gum, plasticine (or wet atta) What to do?
! ! ! !
Use the square papers to make pans as shown in Fig.1.8. Draw a small square at a distance of 2 cm from the edges. Fold the paper along the outline of the inner square. Fold again along dotted lines and fix the paper to outer side of the scale pan with gum. Pass lengths of sewing thread through the centre of the four sides. Make a knot so that four stands are of the same length. Measure the drinking straw and find its mid-point. Pass a pin through this point. Balance the pin on a piece of small rubber (eraser) which is glued or fixed with cello tape to the bottle cap. Tie the pans near the two ends of the straw in such a way that they are at equal distances from the mid-point, i.e. the pin. Check to see if they are balanced, otherwise use little bits of atta or plasticine on the pans. This balance can be used to compare the weights of small objects like paper clips and buttons. Try and find out the amount of water loss when leaves dry up by weighing them when green and drying them on a hot plate and re-weighing.
! !
Pin Stapil
Straw
PanFig.
Pan 1.8 Method to make a sensitive balance
A shopkeepers balance, however, does not provide accurate measurement of masses that is needed. In some cases, for example, to find the mass of a piece of gold or the
composition of chemicals required to make aspirin, etc. For accurate measurement of masses a physical balance is used. Figure 1.9 shows a physical balance. Known masses from a standard box are used with this balance.
Fig. 1.9 A physical balance
1.3.3 Time and its measurement Time is measured when you answer questions like, how long does it take to reach Delhi from Bombay? How long do the fruits last? When does the school start? All these questions relate to happenings of two events with a gap between them. For example, if someone says, It took me 17 hours to travel by train from Delhi to Bombay, she is thinking of a measurement of the time interval between a first event (i.e. leaving Delhi) and a second event (i.e. arriving Bombay). She may have measured this interval which is a time interval by looking at her watch when she departed and when she arrived. Thus, when we measure time we measure the interval of time between two events. Sundial Long long ago, people noticed that shadows were long in the morning and evening, and were the shortest when the sun was directly overhead at noon. From these observations they learnt to tell the hour of the day. Based on it, the worlds first timepiece the sundial was made. The sundial was a hemispherical opening in a block of stone or wood. It had an upright rod, called gnamon fixed in the center of the opening (Fig. 1.10). The shadow of the gnamon travelled over the day, telling the time of the day. But the sundial had certain limitations. Can you think of them?
Fig. 1.10 A sundial
Time is measured in seconds (s), minutes (m), hours and days with stop watches and clocks. Our early ancestors used the alternation of the day and night as a clock. They did
this because this phenomenon repeats itself at regular intervals of time. As such, they considered this as a standard with which they used to compare an unknown time interval. Such a system, which repeats itself at regular intervals of time, is called periodic system. The measurement of time is really the comparison of an unknown time interval with the standard time interval of a periodic system. Based on this, instruments like sundials, water and sand clocks were used in early times to measure time intervals. In fact, water clock was the ancestor of our mechanical clocks. Let us perform an activity to understand the working of a water clock. ACTIVITY 1.3 Aim : To use a water clock to measure your pulse or your friends pulse What is required? Water, beaker, a paper cup and a pin What to do? ! With the help of a pin make a very small hole in the bottom of the cup. ! Place your finger over the hole and fill the cup with water. ! Hold the cup over a sink or a larger beaker and remove your finger from the hole. The water should drip from the hole and you should be able to count the drops easily. If water runs out instead of dripping, get another cup and try to make a smaller hole. ! After preparing the water clock (Fig. 1.11), use your middle finger and lightly feel your pulse. ! You start counting your pulse, you tell your friend to start counting the drops from the cup at the same time. Both of you have to start and stop at the same time. ! Record the time taken by the heart to beat 15 times in terms of drops. ! Repeat this with your friend. Is there a difference in the pulse rate between you and your friend?
Fig. 1.11 Working of a water clock
These clocks of early times however, were inconvenient to use because the sundial could not be moved form one place to another place and sand and water clocks had to be attended regularly. The real advancement in the construction of clocks came with the introduction of the pendulum. Let us see how pendulum helped us in measuring time. The pendulumA tool to measure time
Tie a small stone to one end of a long can be used as a string and hang it with the help of the other end to a firm support. This may be used as simple pendulum. Pull t h e stone gently to one side and let it go. The stone begins t o C B A move to and fro, i.e. oscillates (Fig. 1.12). Make sure that it Stone does not move in circles. When the pendulum was at rest, it was at A. This Fig. 1.12 A simple pendulum position is called the mean position. When it swings, it moves form A to B, back to A, from A to C and back to A. In this way it completes one full swing. Each swing is called one oscillation. The distance from A to B or from A to C is called amplitude of the oscillation. Amplitude of a pendulum is the maximum distance the pendulum moves away from the mean position while it is oscillating. The time taken for one oscillation is called the time period of the pendulum. Once your pendulum has started swinging steadily you can use your stopwatch or a wristwatch with seconds hand to find out your pendulums time period. For this, you may count how long your pendulum takes to make 20 oscillations and then from it, the time for one oscillation can be calculated. Pendulum clock The pendulum was used as a time controller in clocks. 1656, Christian Huygens, a Dutch scientist, made first pendulum clock, which was regulated by a mechanism using a natural period of oscillation. Although, Galileo had invented the pendulum and noticed that the time taken by the weights hanging from a chain or rod to swing back and forth is exactly same amount of time. The whole system was enclosed in a case and thus became the grandfather clock. The length of pendulum and the acceleration to gravity at a place determined the time taken in Fig. 1.13 A pendulum clock oscillation. I n the
the
due one
Though with the discovery of pendulum clocks, time keeping became almost accurate, but it had certain limitations like acquiring large space, and difficulty in movement from one place to the other. Therefore, spring watches were discovered. Such watches have a flat steel-bound spring, which is coiled tight by winding the spring. As the time passes the spring uncoils moving the hour and minutes hands attached to it. Thus, it tells us the time. With the advancement of science and technology and to meet the need of more accurate time measurement, quartz clocks and atomic clocks came into existence.
(a) Stop Watch
(b) Electronic Watch
(c) Quartz Clock
Measurement in Science and Technology : 19 : Fig. 1.14 Different types of clocks
Quartz clocks Quartz clocks came into existence in 1929 when quarts crystal rings were used in the mechanical clock. But they became popular in 1970. The rings were connected to an electrode in a circuit. When a current is passed through the circuit, the crystal vibrates at a regular frequency. This helps us to measure time. The quartz clocks lose one second in every 10 years. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.3 1. You are given some words like pans, beam, pointer, weights, objects. Use these words to fill up blanks in the following paragraph, which gives a general description of a balance. A balance has two_____________supported from a rigid_____________ At the center of the support there is a _____________which is free to move. In one pan the _____________to be measured are placed. In the other pan _____________ are placed one by one to balance both the pans. 2. Estimate the length of this page of your book in the following ways: (i) by just looking at it (i.e., seeing) (ii) with the help of your fingers (iii) by using your ruler (in cm) 3. Why were the clocks of early times inconvenient to use? 1.4 MEASUREMENT OF AREA The concept of area finds considerable use in our day to day life. For example, we have to consider the area of the top of the table while buying glass or mica for it. Similarly, the farmer has to consider the area of his field while estimating about the crop yield and so on. Now, the question arises what area is? In fact, the area of a figure can be defined as the surface enclosed by the figure or the extent of the surface of the figure. Like every other physical quantity, we need a unit of area also, for its measurement. The area of a square of side 1m is taken as SI unit of area, which is one square metre, and it is abbreviated as 1 m2. To measure areas, we often use the units cm2, mm2, km2, etc. Also knowing that 100 cm = 1m, we have 104 cm2 = 1m2 and 1 km2 = 106 m2, 1 m2 = 106 km2 Now, let us see, how the areas of different types of figures are measured. 1.4.1 Areas of regular figures To measure the areas of regular geometrical figures like a rectangle, a triangle, or a circle, we have well-known formulae. Some of these are given in Table 1.6 Table 1.6: Formulae to calculate the areas of some geometrical figures Figure Area Rectangle length breadth
Triangle Circle Parallelogram
base height (radius)2 base altitude
Using these formulae, we can calculate the required area. For example, if you are asked to find the area of a rectangular playground whose sides are given as 50 m and 60 m, you can easily calculate the area by finding the product of the two sides of the playground. 1.4.2 Area of irregular figures You can easily find the areas of regular figures by using formulae. But the problem arises in the case of irregular figures. Because, an irregular figure does not have any Fig. 1.15 Method to find the defined length, breadth, etc. We cannot, therefore, use any area of an irregular figure formulae to calculate its area. In such cases, we make use of graph papers having squares of side 1 cm each as shown in Fig. 1.15. First, we draw the outline of the given figure of irregular shape on that graph paper. Then we count the number of complete squares in it and the number of incomplete squares. While counting the incomplete squares, we count only those squares that lie half or more within the figure; the other incomplete squares are neglected. The total number of squares thus counted gives the approximate area of the given irregular surface in cm2. In order to measure the areas of the irregular figures of very big size like field or playground, we split them into regular-shaped figures. Then the area of each figure is calculated and added to find the total area. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.4 1. By what factor will the area of a rectangle increase if all its sides are increased 3 times? 2. A circular tabletop has a radius of 1.4 m. What is the area of mica needed to cover it? 3. How will you measure the area of the leaf of a plant? 4. The area of a figure is 60 m2, what is its value in cm2? 1.6 MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME You would have seen that all the materials occupy certain space. The total space occupied by any piece of matter is referred to as its volume. The SI unit used for volume Table 1.7: Volume of regular solids measurement is the volume of a cube of side 1m each. We call this unit as one Solids Volume cubic metre, abbreviated as 1m3. To Cube (side)3 measure smaller or larger volumes, we use other appropriate units like cm3, Cuboid Length breadth height mm3, or km3. Sphere (4/3) (radius)3 Now, let us study how to measure the Cylinder (radius)2 height volume of different types of bodies.
1.6.1 Volumes of regular solids To measure the volumes of regular solids like cube, sphere or cylinder etc., we have well known formulae. Some of such formulae these are given in Table 1.7. You would have seen a milkman or a kerosene dealer using volume-measuring vessels as shown in Fig. 1.15 These are generally cylindrical or conical in shape and have their capacity in litres. A litre is one-thousandth part of the SI unit of volume, i.e. m3. 1 litre = 10-3m3 a) Taking a reading of liquid level in a measuring cylinder It is observed that liquids like water form a concave meniscus as shown in Fig. 1.17a, while
100 90 Concave meniscus 80

1,000 500 250
70 60 50 40 30 20 Convex meniscus 10
1 Litre
1/2 Litre
1/4 Litre
Fig. 1.16 Volume measuring vessels
Fig. 1.17 (a) Liquid with concave meniscus (b) Liquid with convex meniscus
those like mercury form a convex meniscus Fig. 1.17b. Now, question arises how to take correct readings of the liquids in such cases. We must keep our eyes in line with the flat middle part of the liquid while taking a reading. If we just look at the measuring cylinder and water level we will get a wrong reading. 1.6.2 Volume of irregular solids In order to measure the volume of irregular solids, we follow an indirect way of measurement. For this purpose, we use a graduated cylinder or an overflow can. Let us see, how? a) Using graduated cylinder For small solids, we half-fill the given graduated cylinder with water and note the reading. Now, dip the solid in it after tying it with a thread as shown in Fig. 1.17. You will notice that the water level rises in the cylinder. Note this reading also. Thus, the difference in the readings of the water level before and after insertion of the solid gives the
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Fig. 1.18 Measuring the volume of a solid using graduated cylinder
volume of the solid. We cannot use water if the given solid is a piece of water soluble material, such as rock salt. In such a case, we must use a liquid in which the given solid neither dissolves nor reacts chemically.
80 70 60 50
40 b) Using an overflow can 30 If the given solid is so large that it cannot be dipped 20 10 in a graduated cylinder, then we use a large overflow can with a spout. We fill the overflow can with water Fig. 1.19 Measuring the volume of a solid till it starts overflowing as shown in Fig 1.19. using an overflow can
We wait till no more drops overflow. We then place a clean graduated cylinder below the nozzle of the overflow can and dip the given solid in it. Some water overflows and collects in the graduated cylinder. The volume of water overflown is carefully noted. This is equal to the volume of the given solid. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.5 1. Why do we need a suitable oil while determining the volume of a piece of rock salt using a graduated cylinder? 2. How many cm3 will be there in one litre? 3. What is the shape of the meniscus of milk in a cylinder? 4. What is the volume of a sphere of radius 7 cm? LET US REVISE
!
! !
Measurement is basically a process of comparison and involves two things: a number and a unit. The unit of physical quantity is a standard value of it in terms of which other quantities of that kind are expressed. There are seven fundamental quantities amount of subsances namely length, mass, time, temperature, amoung of substances light intensity and electric current. There are seven SI units and a number of derived units. A metre scale is used to measure large lengths. To measure small lengths, we use vernier callipers or screw gauge. Area is measured in square metre (m2) and graph papers are used for estimating the areas of irregular figures. The total space occupied by any piece of matter is called its volume. It is measured in cubic metres (m3). The unit litre is also used to measure the volume of liquids. Standard measuring vessels are used to measure volumes of liquids like milk, kerosene oil, mobile oil at petrol pumps, etc. In the laboratory, we use graduated cylinder and an overflow can to measure the volume of large irregular bodies. TERMINAL EXERCISES
A. Multiple choice type questions. 1. Which of the following is not an SI unit? (a) Metre (b) Pound (c) Kilogram (d) Second 2. If the mass of a solution is 10g, it is the same as (a) 10-6g (b) 10-12g (c) 10-9g (d) 10-3g 3. A line segment was measured using a scale. One end of the line segment coincided with the 1.3cm mark on the scale. The other end coincided with 7.2 cm mark. The length of the line segment is (a) 1.3cm (b) 7.2cm (c) 8.5cm (d) 5.9cm 4. Rajesh travelled from city A to city B by car. The average speed of the car was 70 km/ h. It took 4h 30min to cover the distance. The distance between the two cities is (a) 315km (b) 280km (c) 2100km (d) 17.5km B. Descriptive type questions. 1. What are the limitations of using our senses and body parts for measurement? 2. Define the following key concepts (i) Estimation (ii) Standard of measurement (iii)Standard metre (iv) Time interval (v) Pendulum 3. Name the SI units used to measure length, mass, time and temperature. 4. Give four examples of periodic systems? 5. Define amplitude and time period of a pendulum. 6. Airplane pilot cannot use his senses to guide his plane through thick clouds. He must depend on the planes instruments. Why? 7. In a village 100 acres of land was distributed among ten farmers. The farmers were very happy because all of them got equal-sized plot of land. How did the Head of the Panchayat manage to do this? 8. Goldsmith uses a balance to measure gold ornaments. Why does he use an instrument for this purpose? 9. In 100 metre race, you must have seen that for each athlete the judge looks at a stop watch to measure the time required by the athlete to complete 100 metres. What does this time mean? 10. Describe the method for finding out the area of a leaf. 11. Measure the diameter of a glass marble by using a scale and two wooden blocks. Which other instrument can be used for finding it more accurately? Why? 12. A thin wire is closely wound on a pencil with its successive turns in contact with each
other. If turns of the wire occupy a total distance 2 cm, what is the diameter of the wire. Which other instrument can be used for more accurate result? 13. How much volume of petrol is needed to fill a spherical tank of radius 2.1 m? 14. Why a standard reference is taken as a unit? ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.1 1. Parmanu 2. Arm, angul, cubit, etc. 3. During the period of Moghul emperor Akbar. 1.2 1. It can be measured and is a subject of study through our five senses. 2. a) Fundamental units are only seven in number whereas derived units are very large in number. b) Fundamental units are independent of each other but derived units are obtained from fundamental units. 3. Mass of a body is the amount of matter contained in a body while the amount of substance is equal to its molecular mass. 4. Unit of force = Unit of mass x Unit of acceleration = kg ms-2 5. Unit of pressure = Unit of force/Unit of area = kg ms-2 / m2 = kg m-1s-2 6. 237nm = 237 x 10-9m = 2.37 x 10-7m 1.3 1. pans beam pointer objects weight 2. Do as in section 1.3.1. 3. They were heavy and bulky and could not be taken from one place to another. 1.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 1.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 9 times 6.16 m2 refer section 1.4.2 600000cm2 We cannot use water because rock salt will dissolve in water but not in oil. 1000 cm3 concave 1437.33 cm3
GLOSSARY Area of a figure: the surface enclosed by a figure or the extent of the surface of a figure. Derived units: Units that are obtained by the combination of fundamental units. Fundamental units: The units of fundamental or basic quantities that are independent of each other. Least count: The minimum or least quantity that can be measured by a given instrument. Physical quantity: Any quantity that can be measured. Periodic system: A system that repeats itself at regular intervals of time. Unit: The accepted reference standard which is used for comparison of a given quantity. Volume: The total space occupied by any piece of matter.
Structure and Properties of Matter : 25 :
Structure and Properties of Matter

All the objects around us whether living or non-living are matter. Water we drink, food we eat, air we breathe, chair we sit on, are all examples of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Matter appears in a huge variety of forms such as rocks, trees, computer, clouds, people, etc. Matter embraces each and everything around us. Therefore, in order to understand the world, it would be necessary to understand the matter. Each pure kind of matter is called substance. Here, pure we mean the same through out. Thus, aluminium is one substance and water is another. Please remember, the scientific meaning of substance is a little different from its every day meaning and we shall discuss it a little later in this lesson. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
z
z z z z z z z
z z
define various states of matter as solid, liquid and gas, and distinguish one from the other based on their properties; classify the matter based on their composition as element, compound and mixture; differentiate between atoms and molecules; state Daltons atomic theory and explain various laws of chemical combinations; define isotopes, atomic mass and molecular mass; express chemical reaction in form of a balanced chemical equation; define mole concept and molar quantities such as molar mass and molar volume; apply mole concept to a chemical reaction and show a quantitative relationship between masses of reactants and products; define Gay Lussacs law of combining volume and Avogadros law; solve numerical problems based on various concepts covered above;
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER Earlier Indian and Greek philosophers and scientists attempted to classify the matter in the form of five elements - Air, Earth, Fire, Sky and Water. This classification was more of philosophical nature. In modern science, however, there are two main ways of classifying the matter : i) Based on physical states: All matter, at least in principle, can exist in three states, solid, liquid and gas.
: 26 : Structure and Properties of Matter
ii) Based on composition and properties: The classification of matter includes elements, compounds and mixtures. 2.1.1 PHYSICAL STATE OF MATTER A given kind of matter may exist in different physical forms under different conditions. Water, for example, at one atmospheric pressure, may exist as solid, liquid or gas with change of temperature. Sodium metal is normally solid, but it melts to a silvery liquid when heated to 98 oC. Liquid sodium changes to a bluish gas if the temperature is raised to 883 oC. Similarly, chlorine, which is normally a gas can exist as a yellow liquid or solid under appropriate conditions. These three different forms of matter differ from each other in their properties. Solids are rigid with definite shapes. Liquids are less rigid than solids and are fluid, i.e. they are able to flow and take the shape of their containers. Like liquids, gases are fluids, but unlike liquid, they can expand indefinitely. Can you think of other differences between a gas and liquid? A gas can be compressed easily whereas a liquid cannot. You might be aware, natural gas is compressed and supplied as fuel for vehicles in the name of CNG (compressed natural gas). It is not possible to compress a liquid. It is still more difficult to compress a solid. All these three forms of matter (solid, liquid and gas) are generally referred as states of matter. Taking fluidity/ rigidity and compressibility, we can write characteristic properties of solid, liquid and gas in the Table 2.1. Table 2.1: Characteristics of different states of matter States of matter Solid Liquid Gas Fluidity/rigidity Rigid Fluid Fluid Compressibility Negligible Very low High
As mentioned, a substance can exist in three forms depending upon temperature and pressure. Water at room temperature (25 oC) exists in liquid form and at 0 oC and 1 atmospheric pressure as solid. If we go on increasing temperature of water at constant pressure, more and more of it will go into vapour form and at 100 oC will start boiling,. If we continue heating at this temperature (100 oC), entire liquid water will be converted into vapour. This is true with most of the liquids. Definitely melting and boiling points of different substances will be different. Can you think why this variation in their melting point and boiling point occurs? You will study later on that intermolecular forces are different in different liquids, and therefore their boiling points and melting points are different. In gaseous form, intermolecular forces are very weak and unable to keep molecules together in aggregation. However, in case of solids, these forces are very strong and capable of keeping molecules in fixed positions. This is the reason solids are rigid and hard and cannot be compressed. Liquids have properties intermediate to solid and gases as intermolecular forces between molecules in liquid are definitely more than gases and less than solids but strong enough to keep the molecules in aggregation (Fig. 2.1). Due to weak intermolecular forces in gases, molecules in gases can move freely and can occupy any space available to them. This property of gases is responsible for their effusion/diffusion. Molecules in gases are far apart and therefore when pressure is applied they can be brought closer and gases can be compressed.

Solid Liquid Gas
Solid
Liquid
Vibrating particle
Container (b)
Gas (a)
Fig. 2.1. Gases, liquids and solids (a) Bulk appearance and (b) the molecular picture.
ACTIVITY 2.1 Fill gas in a balloon and tightly tie its mouth. Now hold it with both hands and compress. What do you find? Balloon can be compressed easily. 2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER BASED ON COMPOSITION - ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES Another method of classification of matter is based on its composition. A substance is matter that has a definite or constant composition and has distinct properties. Examples are aluminium sliver, water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen etc. Substances differ from one another in composition and can be identified by their properties like colour, smell, taste, appearance, etc. Aluminium has uniform composition. Similarly water has uniform composition. No doubt there are also matter which do not have uniform composition. Such matter are called mixtures. Some examples of mixtures are air, soft drink, milk, and cement. Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous. Suppose you add 5g of sugar to water kept in a glass tumbler. After stirring, the mixture obtained is uniform through out. This mixture is homogeneous through out and is called solution. Air is solution of several gases (oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour, carbon dioxide etc). Suppose you mix sand with iron filings, sand grains and the iron filings remain visible and separate. This type of mixture in which the composition is not uniform, is called a heterogeneous mixture. If you add oil to water, it creates another heterogeneous mixture because the liquid thus obtained does not have a uniform composition. We can create homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures and if need arises we can separate them into pure components by physical means without changing the identities of the components. We can recover sugar from its water solution by heating and evaporating the solution to dryness. From a mixture of iron filings and sand, we can separate iron filings using magnet. After separation we can see that the components have the same composition and properties as they did to start with. 2.2.1 Elements Oxygen and magnesium, these two substances which have uniform composition through out are elements. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-94), a French chemist was first to explain an element. He defined an element as basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances even by chemical means. Elements serve as the building blocks for various types of other substances, starting from water up to extremely complex substances like protein. Oxygen, nitrogen, magnesium, iron, gold all are example
: 28element : Structure and Properties of already Matter studied in your lower classes. Today more than 112 of which you have elements are known and we know various details about them. An element consists of only one kind of atoms. These elements are represented by suitable symbols, as you must have read in your previous classes. Fig. 2.2 shows the most abundant element in earth crust and in the human body. As can be seen from the figure, only five elements (oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron and calcium) comprise over 90 per cent of Earths crust. Out of these five, oxygen is the most abundant element in our body.
(a)
5.3% Oxygen 45.5% Silicon 27.2%
All others Magnesium 2.8% Calcium 4.7% 6.2% 8.3% Iron Aluminum
(b)
Oxygen 65% All others 1.2% Carbon 18% Hydrogen 10% Phosphorus 1.2% Calcium 1.6% Nitrogen 3%
Fig.2.2 (a) Elements in Earths crust (b) Elements in human body
2.2.2 Compounds Most elements can interact with one or more other elements to form compounds. A compound is a substance that consists of two or more different elements chemically united in a definite ratio. A pure compound, whatever its source, always contains definite or constant proportions of the elements by mass. As you have read, water is composed of two elements: hydrogen and oxygen. Property of water is completely different from its constituent elements: hydrogen and oxygen which are gases. Similarly when sulphur is ignited in air, sulphur and oxygen (from air) combine to form sulphur dioxide. All sample of pure water contain these two elements combined in the ratio of one is to eight (1: 8) by mass. For example, 1.0 g of hydrogen will combine with 8.0g of oxygen. This regularity of composition by mass will be discussed later on as law of constant composition). This composition does not change whether we take water from river of India or of United States or the ice caps on Mars. Unlike mixtures compounds can be separated only by chemical means into their pure components. In conclusion, the relationship among elements, compounds and other categories of matter are summarised in Fig. 2.3. We have just read that elements are made of one kind of atoms only. Now we shall discuss how concept of an atom emerged and how far this forms the basis of our other studies in science.
Matter
Mixture
Separation by Physical methods
Pure substances
Homogeneous mixtures
Separation by Heterogeneous Fig. 2.3 Classification of matter Compounds mixtures Chemical methods
Elements
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.1 1. Which of the following matter fall(s) in the category of substance? (i) Ice (ii) Milk (iii) Iron (iv) Air (v) Water (vi) Hydrochloric acid 2. Which one of the following is solution? (i) Mercury (ii) Air (iii) Coal (iv) Milk 2.3 DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY In the fifth century B.C. Indian philosopher Maharshi Kanad postulated that if one goes on dividing matter (Padarth), he would get smaller and smaller particles and a limit will come when he will come across smallest particles beyond which further division will not be possible. He (Kanad) named the particles Parmanu. More or less during the same period Greek philosophers, Leuappus and Democritus suggested similar ideas. This idea was not accepted at that time but it remained alive. Not much experimental work could be done until Lavoisier gave his law: Law of conservation of mass and law of constant proportions sometimes in 1789. English scientist and school teacher, John Dalton (17661844) provided the basic theory about the nature of matter: All matter whether element, compound or mixture is composed of small particles called atoms. Daltons theory can be summarized as follows:
z z
Elements are composed of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a simple fraction. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.
In brief, an atom is the smallest particle of an element that maintains its chemical identity throughout all chemical and physical changes. Most of the earlier findings and concepts related to law of conservation of mass and law of constant proportions (Fig. 2.4) could be explained to a great extent. Daltons theory also predicted the law of multiple proportions. However, today we know that atoms are not truly indivisible; they are themselves made up of particles (protons, neutrons, electrons, etc), which you will learn later on.
Atoms of element XFig. 2.4Atoms of elementproportions Y Compound of element X and Y Law of constant
Modern technology has made it possible to take photograph of atoms. The scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) is a very sophisticated instrument. It can produce image of the surfaces of the elements, which show the individual atoms (Fig.2.5).
Fig.2.5 Image from a scanning tunneling microscope
Now let us see how atoms and molecules are related with each other. 2.4 ATOMS AND MOLECULES We have just seen, the first chemist to use the name atom was John Dalton. Dalton used the word atom to mean the smallest particle of an element. He then went on explaining how atoms could react together to form molecules; which he called compound atoms. Today we know what a molecule is. A molecule is an aggregate of two or more than two atoms of the same or different elements in a definite arrangement held together by chemical forces or chemical bonds. We can also define a molecule as smallest particle of an element or of a compound which can exist alone or freely under ordinary conditions and shows all properties of that substance (element or compound). A molecule will be diatomic if there are two atoms, for example, chlorine (Cl2), carbon monoxide, CO; will be triatomic if there are three atoms, for example, water (H2O) or carbon dioxide, (CO2), will be tetratomic and pentatomic if there are four and five atoms respectively. In general, a molecule having atoms more than four will be called polyatomic. There are eight atoms in a molecule of sulphur and nine atoms in a molecule of ethyl alcohol and we write formulas as S8 and C2H5OH respectively (Fig. 2.6). Only a few years back, a form of carbon called buckminsterfullerene having molecular formula, C60 was discovered. The details you will study in lesson 20.
H2O water
NH3 Ammonia
CH3CH2OH Ethyl alcohol
P Cl Cl P P Cl2 P4 Chlorine Phosphorus P S S S
S S S S S8 Sulphur S
Fig. 2.6 Atomic structure of some molecules
2.5 CHEMICAL FORMULAE OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS A molecule is represented by using symbols of elements present in it. This representation is called molecular formula of the compound. Thus, a molecular formula of a substance tells us how many atoms of each kind are present in one molecule. In Fig. 2.6, you will find that atoms in a molecule are not only connected in definite ways but also exhibit definite spatial arrangements. Properties of molecules depends upon the ways atoms are connected and on spatial configuration of the molecules. CO2 and H2O both are triatomic molecules but they have entirely different properties. CO2 is a linear molecule and is a gas but H2O is a bent molecule and a liquid. Sodium chloride (common salt) contains equal number of sodium and chlorine atoms and is represented by the formula, NaCl. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 contains three elements : hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur. 2.5.1 Valency and formulation Every element has a definite capacity to combine with other elements. This combining capacity of an element is called its valency. In normal course, hydrogen has 1, oxygen has 2, nitrogen has 3 and carbon has 4 valency. Valency of an element depends upon how it combines with other elements. This will depend upon the nature of the element. Sometime an element shows more than on valency. We say element has variable valency. For example, nitrogen forms several oxides: N2O, N2O2, N2O3, N2O4 and N2O5. If we take valency of oxygen 2 then valency of nitrogen in these oxides will be 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively. Very soon, you will learn in lesson 3 that valency of an element depends on its electronic configuration. Valency of F, Cl, Br and I is normally taken as 1. In NaCl, valency of Na is also 1. All alkali metals such as K, Cs, Rb have 1 valency. Valency of oxygen is 2 and that of phosphorus is 5, we can write the formula of phosphorus pentaoxide as P2O5. Thus, we can write the formula of water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), magnesium oxide (MgO), phosphorus pentaoxide (P2O5), hydrochloric acid gas (HCl), phosphorus tribromide (PBr3) etc. if we know the elements constituting these compounds and their (elements) valencies. Since valencies are not always fixed (as P has different valencies in P2O5 and in PBr3 in the above example), sometimes we face problem. Writing formula of a compound is easy only in binary compounds (i.e. compound made of only two elements). However, when we have to write formula of a compound which involves more than two elements (i.e. of polyatomic molecules), it is somewhat cumbersome task. You will learn later on that basically there are two types of compounds: covalent compounds and ionic compounds. Covalent compounds are of the type H2O, NH3 etc. An electrovalent or ionic compound is made of two charged constituents. One positively charged called cation and other negatively charged called anion. Here again we should know the charge (valency) of both types of ions for writing formula of an ionic compound. Compounds like sodium nitrate (NaNO3), potassium chloride (KCl), potassium sulphate (K2SO4), ammonium choride (NH4Cl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) etc. are made of two or more than two elements. For writing the formula of the compounds we should know the charge (valency) of positively and negatively charged constituents of the compounds in such cases. Remember in an ionic compound, sum of the charges of cation and anion should be zero. A few examples of cation and anions along with their valency are provided in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Valency of some common cations and anions which form ionic compounds
Anions Chloride ion, Cl Nitrate ion, NO-3 Carbonate ion, Sulphate ion, SO42Bicarbonate ion, HCO-3 Hydroxide ion, OH Nitrite ion, NO 2 Phosphate ion, PO34_ Acetate ion CH3COOBromide ion, Br Iodide ion, I Sulphide ion, S2-
Valency -1 -1 -2 -2 -1 -1 -1 -3 -1 -1 -1 -2
Cations Potassium ion, K Sodium ion, Na+ Magnesium ion, Mg2+ Calcium ion, Ca2+ Aluminium ion, Al3+ Lead ion, Pb2+ Iron ion, Fe3+(Ferric) Iron ion (Ferrous) Fe2+ Zinc ion, Zn2+ Copper ion, Cu2+ Mercury, Hg2+ (mercuric) Ammonium ion, NH4+
+
Valency +1 +1 +2 +2 +3 +2 +3 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1
Suppose you have to write the formula of potassium sulphate which is an electrovalent compound and made of potassium and sulphate ions. Here, charge on potassium ion is +1 and that on sulphate ion is 2. Therefore, for one sulphate ion two potassium ions will be required. We can write, [K+]2 [SO42-]1 = K2SO4 Similarly for writing formula of sodium nitrate, charge (valency) of sodium ion is +1 and that of nitrate ion is -1, therefore, for one sodium ion, one nitrate ion will be required and we can write. [Na+]1 [NO3]1 = NaNO3 Now, it is clear that digit showing charge of cation goes to anion and digit showing charge of anion goes to cation. For writing formula of calcium phosphate we take charge of each ion into consideration and write the formula as discussed above as, [Ca2+]3 [PO-34]2 = Ca3(PO4)2 Writing formula of a compound comes by practice therefore write formula of as many ionic compounds as possible based on the guidelines given above. 2.5.2 Empirical and molecular formula Molecular formula of a substance is not always identical with the simplest formula that expresses the relative numbers of atoms of each kind in it. Simplest formula of an element is expressed by using its symbol as O for oxygen, S for sulphur, P for phosphorus and Cl for chlorine. Molecular formula of these substances are O2, S8, P4 and Cl2 respectively. The simplest formula of a compound is called its empirical formula. The empirical formula of a compound is the chemical formula that shows the relative number of atoms of each element in the simplest ratio. In contrast, the molecular formula tells us the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. It may be the same as the empirical formula or some other integral multiple of the empirical formula. Empirical and molecular formulae of a few compounds are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Empirical and molecular formulae Substance water ammonia ethane hydrogen peroxide carbon dioxide hydrazine Empirical formula H2O NH3 CH3 HO CO2 NH2 Molecular formula H2O NH3 C2H6 H2O2 CO2 N2H4
Formula of an ionic substance is always an empirical formula. For example, NaCl is empirical formula not a molecular formula of sodium chloride. You will study later on that ionic substances do not exist in molecular form. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.2 1. Give one evidence of modern technology which supports Daltons atomic theory. 2. Write formula of the following compounds (i) Ferric phosphate (ii) Barium chloride (v) Magnesium sulphate (iii) Calcium carbonate (vi) Sodium phosphate (iv) Phosphorous tribromide (vii) Sulphur trioxide 3. Write differences between an atom and a molecule. 4. Write empirical formulae of the following molecules: C2H4, HCl, HNO3 2.6 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS French chemist, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) experimentally showed that matter can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. This experimental finding was known as law of conservation of mass. In fact, this could be possible due to precise measurement of mass by Lavoisier. Law of conservation of mass helped in establishing the law of definite composition or law of constant proportions. This law states that any sample of a pure substance always consists of the same elements combined in the same proportions by mass. For instance, in water, the ratio of the mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is always 1:8 irrespective of the source of water. Thus, if 18.0 g of water are decomposed, 2.0 g of hydrogen and 16.0 g of oxygen are always obtained. Also, if 2 g of hydrogen are mixed with 16.0 g of oxygen and mixture is ignited, 18.0 g of water are obtained after the reaction is over. In the water thus formed or decomposed, hydrogen to oxygen mass ratio is always 1:8. Similarly in ammonia (NH3), nitrogen and hydrogen will always react in the ratio of 14:3 by mass. John Dalton thought about the fact that an element may form more than one compound with another element. He observed that for a given mass of an element, the masses of the other element in two or more compounds are in the ratio of simple whole number or integers. In fact this observation helped him in formulation of his fundamental theory
popularly known as Daltons Atomic theory which is discussed in Section 2.3. Let us take two compounds of nitrogen and hydrogen : (i) ammonia (NH3) and (ii) hydrazine (N2H4). In ammonia, as discussed above, 3.0 g of hydrogen react with 14 g of nitrogen. In hydrazine, 4.0 g of hydrogen react with 28 g of nitrogen or 2.0 g of hydrogen reacts with 14.0 g of nitrogen. It can be seen that for 14 g of nitrogen, we require 3.0 g of hydrogen in NH3 and 2.0 g of hydrogen in hydrazine (N2H4). This leads to the ratio That is, masses of hydrogen which combine with the fixed mass of nitrogen in ammonia and in hydrazine are in the simple ratio of 3:2. This is known as law of multiple proportions. 2.6.1 Gay Lusaacs law of combining volume and Avogadros hypothesis The French chemist Gay Lusaac experimented with several reactions of gases and came to the conclusion that the volume of reactants and products in large number of gaseous chemical reactions are related to each other by small integers provided the volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure. For example, in reaction of hydrogen gas with oxygen gas which produces water vapour, it was found that two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen give two volumes of water vapour To be more specific, if 100 mL of H2 gas combines with exactly 50 mL of O2 gas we shall obtain 100 mL of H2O vapour provided all the gases are measured at the same temperature and pressure (say 100 oC and 1 atm pressure). As you know, the law of definite proportions is with respect to mass. Gay Lussacs findings of integer ratio in volume relationship is actually the law of definite proportions by volume. The Gay Lussacs law was further explained by the work of Italian physicist and lawyer Amedeo Avogadro in 1811. Avogadros hypothesis which was experimentally established and given the status of a law later on, states as follows: The volume of a gas (at fixed pressure and temperature) is proportional to the number of moles (or molecules of gas present). Mathematically we can express the statement as Vn You will study in section 2.8 that 1 mole of a substance is 6.022 1023 particles/ molecule of that substance. Where V is volume and n is the number of moles of the gas. (It is clear from the relationship that more volume will contain more number of molecules). Avogadros law can be stated in another simple way Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules For example, 2H2(g) 2 volumes 2 mol of H2 + O2(g) 1 volume 1 mol of O2 2H2O(g) 2 volumes (Gay Lussacs law) 2 mol of H2O (Avogadros law)
Multiplying both sides of equation by the same number, equation does not change. Now let us multiply by 6.022 1023, we get
Similarly,
2 6.022 1023 molecules of H2

H 2 ( g) 1 volume
1 6.022 1023 molecules of O2

+ Cl 2 (g) 1 volume
2 6.022 1023 molecules of H2O

2 HCl (g) 2 volume
1 mol of H2 or 6.022 1023 molecules of H2
1 mol of Cl2 6.022 1023 molecules of Cl2
2 mol of HCl 2 6.022 1023 molecules of HCl
Experimentally, it has been found that at standard temperature (0 oC) and standard pressure (1 bar) volume of 1 mol of most of the gases is 22.7 litres. Since this volume is of 1 mol of a gas, it is also called molar volume. Volume of liquids and solids does not change much with temperature and pressure and same is true with its molar volume. If we know molar mass and density of a solid or of a liquid, we can easily calculate its molar mass molar volume by the relationship, volume = _________________ density 2.7 ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS As you might have read in your earlier classes that an atom consists of several fundamental particles: electrons, protons and neutrons. An electron is negatively charged and a proton is positively charged particle. Number of electrons and protons in an atom is equal. Since charge on an electron is equal and opposite to charge of a proton, therefore, an atom is electrically neutral. Protons remain in the nucleus in the centre of the atom and nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus is called atomic number, and is denoted by Z. There are also neutral particles in the nucleus and they are called neutrons. Mass of a proton is nearly equal to the mass of neutron. Total mass of nucleus is equal to the sum of masses of protons and neutrons. The total number of protons and neutrons is called mass number or the nucleons number denoted by A. By convention, atomic number is written at the bottom left corner of the symbol of the atom and mass number is written at the top Li and 12 Cfor helium, lithium and carbon left corner. For example, we write, 42He, 7 3 6 respectively. The symbol 6 C indicates that there is a total of 12 particles (nucleons) in the nucleus of carbon atom, 6 of which are protons. Thus, there must be 12 6 = 6 neutrons.
12
O has 8 protons and 8 electrons and there are 8 neutrons. Also atomic number, Z differentiates the atom of one element from the atoms of another. Also an element may be defined as a substance whose atoms have the same atomic number. Thus, all atoms of an element have nuclei containing the same number of protons and having the same charge. But the nuclei of all the atoms of a given element do not necessarily contain the same number of neutrons. For example, atoms of oxygen, found in nature have the same number
8
Similarly,
16
of protons which makes it different from other elements, but their neutrons are different. This is the reason that the masses of the atoms of the same elements are different. For example, one type of oxygen atom contains 8 protons and 8 neutrons in the nucleus, second type 8 protons and 9 neutrons and third type contains 8 proton and 10 neutrons. We represent them as 16 O, 17 O and 18 O. Atoms of an element that have same atomic number(Z) 8 8 8 but different mass number(A) are called isotopes. 2.7.1. Atomic mass The mass of an atom is related to the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons it has. Atom of an element is extremely small and therefore it is not easy to weigh it. No doubt, it is possible to determine the mass of one atom relative to another experimentally. For this, it is necessary to assign a value to the mass of one atom of a given element so that it can be used as a standard. Scientists agreed to chose an atom of carbon isotope (called carbon-12). Carbon-12 has six protons and six neutrons and has been assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass unit (amu now known as u). Thus one atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one twelfth of the mass of one carbon-12 atom. Mass of one carbon-12 atom = 12 amu or 12 u massof one carbon atom or 1 amu = 12 Mass of every other element is determined relative to this mass. Further, it has been found by experiment that hydrogen atom is only 0.0840 times heavier than C-12 atoms. Then on carbon-12 scale, atomic mass of hydrogen = 0.084012.00 u = 1.008 u. Similarly, experiment shows that an oxygen atom is, on the average, 1.3333 times heavier than C-12 atom. Therefore, Atomic mass of oxygen = 1.333312.00 u = 16.0 u Atomic mass of a few elements on C-12 scale is provided in Table 2.4. If you see Table 2.4, you will find that atomic mass is not a whole number. For example, atomic mass of carbon is not 12 u but 12.01 u. This is because most naturally occurring elements (including carbon) have more than one isotope. Therefore when we determine atomic mass of an element we generally measure or calculate average mass of the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes. Let us take one example. Carbon has two natural isotope C-12 and C-13 and their natural abundance is 98.90 per cent*, 1.10 per cent, respectively . Atomic mass of C-13 has been determined to be 13.00335 u. Therefore, average atomic mass of carbon = (0.9890) (12.000 u) + (0.010) (13.00335 u) = 11.868 + 0.1430 = 12.01 u Thus, atomic mass of an element means average atomic mass of that element. These days actual masses of atoms have been determined experimentally using mass spectrometer. You will learn about this in your higher classes.
Table 2.4 Atomic masses* of some common elements

Element Aluminium Argon Arsenic Barium Boron Bromine Caesium Calcium Carbon Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Fluorine Gold Helium Hydrogen Iodine Iron Lead Lithium Symbol Al Ar As Ba B Br Cs Ca C Cl Cr Co Cu F Au He H I Fe Pb Li Mass(u) 26.98 39.95 74.92 137.34 10.81 79.91 132.91 40.08 12.01 35.45 52.00 58.93 63.54 19.00 196.97 4.00 1.008 126.90 55.85 207.19 6.94 Element Magnesium Manganese Mercury Neon Nickel Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Platinum Potassium Radon Silicon Silver Sodium Sulphur Tin Titanium Tungston Uranium Vanadium Xenon Zinc Symbol Mg Mn Hg Ne Ni N O P Pt K Rn Si Ag Na S Sn Ti W U V Xe Zn Mass(u) 24.31 54.94 200.59 20.18 58.71 14.01 16.00 30.97 195.09 39.10 (222)** 28.09 107.87 23.00 32.06 118.69 47.88 183.85 238.03 50.94 131.30 65.37
* During calculation we convert per cent into fraction by dividing by 100. Thus, 98.90 per cent becomes 0.9890. *Atomic masses are average atomic masses. They are given correct up to second decimal places. In practice, we use round figures and for this rounding off is necessary. **Radioactive 2.7.2 Molecular mass You have just read that a molecule can be represented in form of a formula popularly known as molecular formula. Molecular formula may be of an element or of a compound. Molecular formula of a compound is normally used for determing the molecular mass of that substance. If the substance is composed of molecules (for example, CO2, H2O or NH3), it is easy to calculate the molecular mass. Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms present in that molecule. Thus the molecular mass of CO2 is obtained as C 1 12.0 u = 12.0 u 2O 2 16.0 u = 32.0 u Total = 44.0 u CO2 We write molecular mass of CO2 = 44.0 u Similarly, we obtain molecular mass of ammonia, NH3 as follows : N 1 14.0 u = 3H 3 1.08 u = NH3 Total = 14.0 u 3.24 u 17.24 u
Molecular mass of ammonia, NH3 = 17.24 u. For substances which are not molecular in nature, we talk of formula mass. For example, sodium chloride, NaCl is an ionic substance. For this, we write formula mass which is calculated similar to molecular mass. In case of NaCl, formula mass = mass of 1 Na atom + mass of 1 Cl atom = 23 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u. You will learn about such compounds later on in your lesson 5. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.3 1. Silicon has three isotopes with 14, 15 and 16 neutrons respectively. What is the mass number and symbol of these three isotopes? 2. Calculate molecular mass of the following compounds C3H8, PCl5, SO3 2.8 MOLE CONCEPT When we mix two substances, we get one or more new substance(s). For example when we mix hydrogen and oxygen and ignite the mixture, we get a new substance water. This can be represented in the form of an equation, 2H2 (g) + O2(g) 2H2O (l) In above equation, 2 molecules (4 atoms) of hydrogen react with 1 molecule (2 atoms) of oxygen and give two molecules of water. Similarly, we always like to know how many atoms/molecules of a particular substance would react with atoms/molecules of another substance in a chemical reaction. No matter how small they are. The solution to this problem is to have a convenient unit of matter that contains a known number of particles (atoms /molecules). The chemical counting unit that has come into use is the mole. The word mole was apparently introduced in about 1896 by Wilhelm Ostwald who derived the term from the Latin word moles meaning a heap or pile. The mole whose symbol is mole is the SI base unit for measuring amount of substance. It is defined as follows: A mole is the amount of pure substance that contains as many particles (atoms, molecules, or other fundamental units) as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kg of C-12 isotope. In simple terms, mole is the number of atoms in exactly 0.012 kg (12 grams) of C-12. Although mole is defined in terms of carbon atoms but the unit is applicable to any substance just as 1 dozen means 12 or one gross means 144 of any thing. Mole is scientists counting unit like dozen or gross. By using mole, scientists (particularly chemists) count atoms and molecules in a given substance. Now it is experimentally found that the number of atoms contained in exactly 12 grams of C-12 is 602,200 000 000 000 000 000 000 or 6.0221023. This number (6.0221023) is called Avogadro constant in honour of Amedeo Avogadro an Italian lawyer and physicist and is denoted by symbol, NA. We have seen that Atomic mass of C = 12 u Atomic mass of He = 4 u We can see that one atom of carbon is three times as heavy as one atom of helium. On the same logic 100 atoms of carbon are three times as heavy as 100 atoms of helium. Similarly 6.021023 atoms of carbon are three times as heavy as 6.02 023 atoms of helium.
But 6.021023 atoms of carbon weigh 12 g, therefore 6.021023 atoms of helium will weigh 1/3 12g = 4g. We can take a few more examples of elements and can calculate the mass of one mole atoms of the element. Numerically it is equal to its atomic mass expressed in gram. Mass of one mole of a substance is called its molar mass. Mass of one mole atoms of oxygen will be 16 g. Mass of one mole of fluorine will be 19 g. Now if we take mass of one mole molecule of oxygen it would be 32 g because there are two atoms in a molecule of oxygen (O2). When we do not mention atom or molecule before mole, we always mean one mole of that substance in its natural form. For example, if we simply say one mole of oxygen, it means that we are referring one mole molecule of oxygen as oxygen occurs in nature as molecular oxygen. If we take an example of a molecule of a compound, we find that same logic is applicable. For example, mass of one mole molecule of water will be 18 g as molecular mass of water is 18u. Remember molar mass is always expressed as grams per mole or g /mol or g mol-1. For example, Molar mass of oxygen (O2) = 32 g mol-1 Molar mass of lead (Pb) = 207 g mol-1 We have just seen in Section 1.6 that atoms of two different elements combine with one another in the ratio of small whole number. A modern interpretation of this observation is that atoms or molecules combine with one another in the ratio of 1:1, 1:2 or 1:3 or any other simple ratio i.e. they combine 1 mol for 1 mol or 1 mol for 2 mol or 1 mol for 3 mol, and so on. Thus mole concept is the cornerstone of quantitative science for chemical reactions which you will study in your higher classes.
Table 2.5 Molecular and molar mass of some common substances
Formula O2 H2 Cl2 P4 CH4 CH3OH NH3 CO2 HCl C6H6 SO2 CO C2H5OH Molecular mass(u) 32.0 2.0 71.0 123.9 16.0 32.0 17.0 44.0 36.5 78.0 64.0 28.0 46.0 Molar mass (g/mol) 32.0 2.0 71.0 123.9 16.0 32.0 17.0 44.0 36.5 78.0 64.0 28.0 46.0
Example 2.1: How many grams are there in 3.5 mol of sulphur? Solution: For converting mass into mole and vice visa, we always need the molar mass. Molar mass of sulphur is 32.0 g mol1. Therefore, number of grams of sulphur in 3.50 mol of sulphur is 32.0 g 3.50 mol sulphur = 112.0 g sulphur 1 mol
Example 2.2: Calculate number of moles present in 48 g of oxygen. Solution: Molar mass of oxygen = 32 g mol-1 Oxygen in natural form will be molecular oxygen, O2 48 g Therefore, number of moles of oxygen = -1 = 1.5 mol 32 g mol CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.4 1. Sulphur is a non-metallic element. How many atoms are present in 16.3 g of S? 2. Molar mass of silver is 107.9 g. What is the mass of one atom of silver? 2.9 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS A chemical equation is a shorthand description of a reaction carried out in a laboratory or elsewhere. It gives the formulas for all the reactants and products. For example C + O2 CO2 2H2 + O2 2H2O ..... (1) .......(2)
In a chemical reaction reactants are written on the left and products are written on the right side of the arrow. Arrow () indicates conversion of reactant(s) into product(s). In a chemical reaction atoms are neither created nor destroyed. This is known as law of conservation of mass. A chemical equation, therefore, should be consistent with this law. Total number of atoms of each element must be the same in the products and in the reactants. As shown in equation (2) above two molecules (four atoms) of hydrogen react with one molecule (two atoms) of oxygen and give two water molecules in which there are four hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms. Since number of atoms of the involved elements is equal on both side of the arrow in the equation, we say the equation is balanced. A balanced chemical equation is quite meaningful in science (chemistry) as it gives a lots of information. In order to make an equation more informative, we also indicate the physical states of the reactants and products. We write in parenthesis s if the substance is solid, l if the substance is liquid and g if the substance is a gas. Accordingly, equation (1) and (2) can be written as, C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l) 2.9.1 Balancing of a chemical equation Balancing of a chemical equation is essential as we can derive meaningful information from this. Before balancing a chemical equation, please ensure that correct formulas of reactants and products are known. Let us consider burning of methane in oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water. First write reactants and products,
reactants
CH4 + O2
products
CO2 + H2O (unbalanced equation)
In this equation, hydrogen and carbon appear in only two formulas each, while oxygen appears three times. So we begin by balancing the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Here if we examine both sides, carbon appears in methane on left and in carbon dioxide on
the right side. Therefore, all carbon in methane, CH4 , must be converted to carbon dioxide. One molecule of CH4, however, contains four hydrogen atoms, and since all the hydrogen atoms end up in water molecule, two water molecules must be produced for each methane molecules. Therefore, we must place coefficient 2 in front of the formula for water to give CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2O (unbalanced) Now we can balance oxygen, since there are four oxygen atoms on right hand side of equation (two in CO2 and two in two molecules of H2O). Therefore, we must place 2 in front of the formula for oxygen, O2. By doing this we get equal atoms of oxygen on both sides of equation. CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O (balanced) Now number of atoms of each element is equal on both sides of the chemical equation. In order to make the chemical equation more informative, indicate states of each reactant and product. CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) Balancing of equation comes only by practice and therefore let us take one example. Example2.3: Bottled gas sold as cooking gas contains butane, C4H10 as the major component. Butane when burns in sufficient oxygen (present in air) gives carbon dioxide and water. Write a balanced chemical equation to describe the reaction. Solution: Work out the balanced equation in steps Step 1: Write an unbalanced equation showing correct formulas of reactants and products C4H10 +
butane oxygen
O2
CO2 +
Carbon water dioxide
H2O (unbalanced equation)
Now balance C and H as they appear only in two places. Step II: Balance the number of C atoms. Since 4 carbon atoms are in the reactant, therefore, 4CO2 must be formed. C4H10 + O2 4CO2 + H2O (unbalanced) Step III: Balance the number of hydrogen atoms There are 10 hydrogen atoms in butane and each water molecule requires 2 hydrogen atoms, therefore, 5 water molecules will be formed. C4H10 + O2 4CO2 + 5H2O (unbalanced) Step IV: Balance the number of O atoms There are 8 oxygen atoms in the carbon dioxide and 5 oxygen atoms with H2O molecules. Therefore, 13 atoms or 13/2 molecules of oxygen will be required. C4H10 + 13/2 O2 4CO2 + 5H2O
Normally we do not write fractional coefficient in equation as one may interpret that molecules can also be available in fraction. Therefore, we multiply both sides by 2 and get the final balanced equation 2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O (balanced) We can also write states of the substances involved. 2C4H10 (g) + 13O2 (g) 8CO2 (g) + 10H2O(l) Remember : (i) Use the simplest possible set of whole number coefficients to balance the equation. (ii) Do not change subscript in formulas of reactants or products during balancing as that may change the identity of the substance. For example, 2NO2 means two molecules of nitrogen dioxide but if we double the subscript we have N2O4 which is formula of dinitrogen tetroxide, a completely different compound. (iii) Do not try to balance an equation by arbitrarily selecting reactant(s) and product(s). A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction which is real. Thus real reactants and products only can be taken for balancing. 2.9.2 Uses of balanced equations A balanced chemical equation gives a lot of meaningful information. First it gives the number of atoms and molecules taking part in the reaction and corresponding masses in atomic mass units (amu or u). Second it gives the number of moles taking part in the reaction, with the corresponding masses in grams or in other convenient units. Let us consider the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen once again 2H2 (g)
2 molecules of hydrogen 4.0 u
+ O2 (g)
1 molecule of oxygen 32.0 u
2 molecules of water 36 u
2H2O(l)
But in normal course we deal with a large number of molecules, therefore, we can consider the above reaction as follows:
2 molecules of hydrogen
2H2
1 molecule of oxygen
O2
2 molecules of water
2H2O
Suppose we multiply entire chemical equation by 100, we can write 2 100 molecules + 1 100 molecules of 2 100 of hydrogen oxygen molecules of water If we multiply entire equation by Avogadro constant, 6.022 1023 , we get 2 6.022 1023 molecules + 1 6.022 1023
molecules of hydrogen molecules of oxygen
2 6.022 1023
of water
Since 6.022 1023 molecules is 1 mole, therefore, we can also write or 2 mol of
hydrogen
+ 1 mol of
oxygen
2 mol of water
Therefore, equation can be written as 2H2

2 mol of hydrogen
O2
1 mol of oxygen
2H2O
2 mol of water
Or 4.0 g of hydrogen + 32.0 g of oxygen
36 g of water
Thus a chemical equation can also be interpreted in terms of masses of reactants consumed and product(s) formed. This relationship in chemical reaction is very important and provides a quantitative basis for taking definite masses of reactants to get a desired mass of a product. Example 2.4: In the reaction CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) How much CO2 will be formed if 80 g of methane gas (CH4) is burnt? Solution: CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) 1 mol 2 mol 1 mol 2 mol or 16 g 64 g 44 g 36 g We can see in the above equation that 16 g of CH4 gives 44 g of CO2. Therefore, for getting 80 g of CH4, the mass of CO2 required will be
44 g 80 g = 44 5 g = 220 g of CO 2 16 g
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.5 1. Balance the following equations. (i) H3PO3 H3PO4 + PH3 (ii) Ca + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2 (iii) C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O 2. Name the following compounds. Na2O, Cu2Cl2, BaO, Na2SO4
z
LET US REVISE Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It can be classified on the basis of its (i) physical state as solid, liquid or gas, and (ii) chemical composition/constitution as element, compound or mixture. An element is basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances even by chemical reaction. A compound is a substance composed of two or more different types of elements chemically combined in a definite proportion by mass. A mixture contains more than one substance (element or compound) mixed in any proportion.

z
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more than two substances. Major component of the solution is called solvent. According to law of constant proportions, a sample of a pure substance always consists of the same elements combined in the same proportions by mass. When an element combines with another element and forms more than one compound, then different masses of one element that combine with a fix mass of another element are in ratio of simple whole number or integer. This is the law of Multiple proportions. John Dalton introduced the idea of an atom as an indivisible particle of matter. An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can exist and retains all the chemical properties of that element. A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or of a compound which can exist freely under ordinary conditions and shows all properties of that substance. A molecule can be expressed in form of a chemical formula using symbols of constituent elements. A molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of different elements in a molecule of an element or of compound. In other words, composition of any compound can be represented by its formula. For writing formula of a compound valence or valency of the elements is used. Valency is combining capacity of an element and is related to its electronic configuration. An empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of different elements present in a compound. Atoms of the isotope 12C are assigned a atomic mass unit of 12 and the relative masses of all other atoms are obtained by comparison with the mass of a carbon-12. The mole is the amount of substance which contains the same number of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kg of 12C. Avogadros constant is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of C-12 and is equal to 6.022 1023 mol-1. Mass of one mole atoms or one mole molecules of a substance is its molar mass and volume of one mole of the substance is its molar volume. A chemical equation is a shorthand description of a reaction. A balance chemical equation provides quantitative information about reactants consumed and products formed in a chemical reaction. A balance chemical equation obeys law of conservation of mass and law of constant proportions. TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. There are many examples of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures in the world around you. How would you classify: sea-water, air (unpolluted), smoke, black coffee, tea, soil, soda water and wood ash?
2. Characterize gases, liquids and solids in terms of compressibility, fluidity and density. 3. What is atomic theory proposed by Dalton? Describe how it explains the great variety of different substances. 4. Give normal state (solid, liquid or gas) of each of the following: (i) Nitrogen (ii) Copper (iii) Bromine (iv) Oxygen (v) ethyl alcohol (vi) hydrogen peroxide 5. Label each of the following as a substance, a heterogeneous mixture, or a solution. (i) bromine (iv) soil (in front of your home) (vii) river water (ii) petrol (v) stone (viii) Coal (iii) concrete (vi) beach sand (ix) Soda water 6. Write the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each of the following: 19 F, 18 O, 40 Ca 9 8 20 7. Give the symbol for each of the following isotopes (i) (ii) (iii) Atomic number 19, mass number 40 Atomic number 18, mass number 40 Atomic number 7, mass number 15
8. Boron has two isotopes with masses of 10.01294 and 11.00931 u and abundance of 19.77% and 80.23%. What is the average atomic mass of boron? (Ans.10.81 u) 9. How does an element differ from a compound? How are elements and compounds different than mixture? 10. How will you define a solution based on its composition? 11. Charge of one electron is 1.6022 10-19 coulomb. What is the total charge on 1 mol of electron? If there is same amount of charge on one proton, calculate total charge on 1 mol of protons. 12. How many molecules of O2 are in 8.00 g of O2? If the O2 molecules were completely split into O (oxygen atom), how many moles of atoms of oxygen would be obtained? (Ans. Number of molecules in 8 g of O2 =1.5055 1023 molecules Number of atoms in 8 g of O2 = 3.0110 1023 atoms) 13. Assume that a human body is 80% water. Calculate the number of the molecules of water that are present in the body of a person who has mass of 65 kg. (Ans. 1.7 1027 molecules of water) 14. Using atomic masses given in the table of this lesson calculate the molar masses of each of the following compounds: CO,CH4, NaCl, NH3 and HCl
15. Average atomic mass of carbon is 12.01 u. Find the number of moles of carbon in (i) 2.00 g of carbon and (b) 3.00 1021 atoms of carbon. 16. Balance the following equations (i) H2O2 H2O + O2 (ii) S + O2 SO3 (iii) C2H2 + O2 CO + H2O (iv) MnO2 + HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 + H2O 17. Classify the following molecules as mono, di, tri, tetra, penta and hexatomic molecules. H2, P4, SF4, SO2, PCl3, C2H2, CH3OH, PCl5, H2O2, HCl, Cl2O 18. What is meant by molecular formula? Hydrogen peroxide has the molecular formula H2O2. What mass of oxygen can be formed from 17 g of H2O2 if decomposition of H2O2 takes place. 19. Write true or false. A balanced chemical equation shows (i) the formulas of the products (ii) the molar proportions in which the products are formed (iii) that a reaction can occur (iv) the relative number of atoms and molecules which react (v) that a reaction is exothermic 20. What is the mass of (i) 6.02 1023 atoms of O (ii) 6.02 1023 atoms of P (iii) 6.02 1023 molecules of P4 (iv) 6.02 1023 molecules of O2 [Ans. (a) 16.0 g (b) 31.0 g 21. How many atoms are there in (i) (ii) two moles of iron 0.1 mol of sulphur (c) 124.0 g (d) 32 g]
(iii) 18 g of water, H2O (iv) 0.44 g of carbon dioxide, CO2 [Ans. (a) 1.204 1024 (b) 6.02 1022 (c) 1.8 1024 and (d) 1.8 1022] 22. Define the following (i) (ii) Law of constant proportions Law of multiple proportions
(iii) (iv) (v)
Avogadros Law Gay Lussacis Law Daltons atomic theory
23. Convert into mole (i) 12 g of oxygen gas (O2) (ii) 20 g of water (H2O) (iii) 22 g pf carbon dioxide (CO2) (Ans. (a) 0.375 mol (b) 1.11 mol (c) 0.50 mol) ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.1 2.2 1. (i), (iii), (v) and (vi) 2. (ii) 1. refer text 2. (i) FePO4 (ii) BaCl2 (iii) CaCO3 (iv) PBr3 (v) MgSO4 (vi) Na3PO4 (v) SO3 3. refer text 4. CH2, HCl, HNO3 2.3 1. 28 Si, 14
29 14
Si,
30 14
2. C3H8 = 44 u PCl5 = 207.5 u SO3 = 80 u 2.4 2.5 1. 3.08 1023 S atom 2. 1.77 1022 g of Ag 1. (i) 4H3PO3 3H3PO4 + PH3 (ii) Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2 (iii) C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O 2. Sodium oxide, Cuperous chloride, Barium oxide, Sodium sulphate GLOSSARY Atomic mass: The average mass of an atom in a representative sample of atoms of an element. Compound: Matter that is composed of two or more different kinds of elements chemically combined in definite proportions. Chemical reaction: A process in which substances are changed into other substances through rearrangement/combination of atoms. Diffusion: The gradual mixing of the molecules of two or more substances owing to random molecular motion.
Element: Matter that is composed of one kind of atoms, each atom of a given kind having the same properties (Mass is one such property). Heterogeneous mixture: A mixture which has no uniformity in composition. Homogeneous mixture: A mixture with the same composition throughout Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms having the same atomic number, Z but different mass number, A. Mass number: Number of protons plus number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of an element. Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space. Mole: Mole is amount of substance that contains as many elementary particles as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of C-12 isotope. Molar mass: The mass (in gram) of one mole of a substance. Molar volume: The volume of one mole of a substance. Molecular mass: The sum of atomic masses (in u) of all the atoms of a molecule.
Atomic Structure
In the previous lesson, you have studied that the atoms are the smallest constituents of matter. But what is the structure of an atom? Why are atoms of different elements different? Let us try to find out the answers to some of these questions in this lesson. We will start the study of this lesson by recapitulating the postulates of Daltons atomic theory .At that time, many Greek philosophers believed that the atoms cannot be further subdivided, i.e. they were structure less entities. But as you will study in this lesson, various developments such as the discoveries of sub-atomic particles such as electron, proton etc. led to the failure of this idea. Based on these discoveries, various atomic models were proposed by the scientists. In this lesson, we would discuss how various models for the structure of atom were developed and what were their main features. We would explain the success as well as the shortcomings of these models. These models tell us about the distribution of various sub-atomic particles in the atom. From the knowledge of structure of atom the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus can be obtained. This arrangement is known as electronic configuration. The electronic configurations of some simple elements are discussed in this lesson These electronic configurations would be useful in explaining various properties of the elements. The electronic configuration of an element governs the nature of chemical bonds formed by it. This aspect is dealt in lesson 5 on chemical bonding. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you should be able to: ! state the reasons of failure of Daltons atomic theory; ! name and list the fundamental particles present in the atom; ! recall the developments of various atomic models; ! list the shortcomings of Bohrs atomic model; ! compute the electronic configuration of first 18 elements. 3.1 FAILURE OF DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY You have read about Daltons atomic theory in lesson 2. Daltons theory explained various laws of chemical combination about which you have read earlier in lesson 2. At that time, the atom was considered to be indivisible. Later, certain experiments showed that an atom is made up of even smaller particles which are called subatomic particles. You will now study about the discovery of these subatomic particles namely electrons, protons and neutrons.
: 52 : Atomic Structure
3.1.1 Discovery of electron During 1890s many scientists performed experiments using cathode ray tubes. A cathode ray tube is made of glass from which most of the air has been removed. Such a cathode ray tube has been shown in Fig. 3.1. You can see in the figure that there are two metal electrodes; the negatively charged electrode is called cathode whereas the positively charged electrode is called anode.
High
Volta g
()
Metal electrode (Cathode) Evaluated glass vessel
(+)
Fig. 3.1 Cathode ray
Metal electrode (anode) tube
An English physicist J.J. Thomson studied electric discharge through a cathode ray tube. When high voltage was applied across the electrodes, the cathode emitted a stream of negatively charged particles, called electrons. mass = charge of the electron charge per unit mass of the electron
1.60 1019 C e = = 9.10 10-28 g e / m 1.76 108 C g 1
Since the electrons were released from the cathode irrespective of the metal used for it or irrespective of the gas filled in the cathode ray tube, Thomson concluded that all atoms must contain electrons. Robert Millikan (1868-1953) received the Nobel prize in Physics in 1923 for determining the charge of the electron. The discovery of the electron led to the conclusion that the atom was no more indivisible as was believed by Dalton and others. Hence, the idea of indivisibility of atom as suggested by Dalton was proved incorrect. In other words, the atom was found to be divisible. If the atom was divisible, what were are its constituents? You have read above that one such particle is an electron. Now, what are the other particles present in an atom? Let us study the next section and find out the answer. 3.1.2 Discovery of proton In 1886, Eugen Goldstein observed that rays flowing in a direction opposite to that of the cathode rays were positively charged. Such rays were named as canal rays because they passed through the holes or the canals present in the perforated cathode. In 1898, Wilhelm
Atomic Structure : 53 :
Wien, a German physicist, measured e/m for canal rays. It was found that the particles constituting the canal rays are much heavier than electrons. Also unlike cathode rays, the nature and the type of these particles varied depending upon the gas present in the cathode ray tube. The canal rays had positive charges which were whole number multiples of the amount of charge present on the electron. The positive nature of the canal rays was explained as follows: In a cathode ray tube, the electrons emitted from the cathode collide with the atoms of the gas present in the tube and knock out one or more electrons present in them. This leaves behind positive ions which travel towards the cathode. If the cathode has holes in it ,then these positive ions can pass through these holes or canals. Hence, they are called the canal rays. The canal rays are shown in Fig. 3.2.
Anode
+ + + +
Cathode
+ +
Fig. 3.2 Canal rays
When the cathode ray tube contained hydrogen gas, the particles of the canal rays obtained were the lightest and their e/m ratio was the highest. Rutherford showed that these particles were identical to the hydrogen ion (hydrogen atom from which one electron has been removed). These particles were named as protons and were shown to be present in all matter. Now it is the time to check your understanding. For this, take a pause and solve the following questions: CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.1 1. Name the extremely small particles which constitute matter. 2. What do we call the negatively charged particles emitted from the cathode? 3. What is a cathode ray tube? 4. What is an anode? 5. Why the canal rays obtained by using different gases have different e/m values? 3.2 EARLIER MODELS OF ATOM Based on the experimental observations, different models were proposed for the structure of the atom. In this section, we will discuss two such models namely Thomson model and Rutherford model. 3.2.1 Thomson model All matter is made of atoms and all the atoms are electrically neutral. We have just seen that all atoms contain the electrons. Based on these facts, Thomson concluded that there must be an equal amount of positive charge present in the atom. He proposed that an atom could be considered as a sphere of uniform positive charge in which electrons are embedded. This is shown below in Fig.3.3.
This model is similar to a water-melon according to which an atom can be thought of as a sphere of positive charge in which the electrons are embedded like seeds. This model is also called plum pudding model or raisin pudding model because the electrons resembled the raisins dispersed in a pudding (an English dessert).
Special cloud of positive charge Electrons
During this period only, the phenomenon of Fig. 3.3 Thomson model of atom radioactivity was also being studied by the scientists. This phenomenon of spontaneous emission of rays from atoms of certain elements also proved that the atom was divisible and it contained sub atomic particles. Ernest Rutherford and his coworkers were also carrying out experiments which revealed that the radiation could be of three types: (alpha), (beta) and (gamma). You will study more about them in lesson 14. In 1910, Rutherford and his co-workers performed an experiment which led to the downfall of the Thomson model. Let us now study about the contribution of Rutherford. 3.2.2 Rutherfords model Rutherford who was a student of J.J Thomson was studying the effect of alpha (a) particles on matter. The alpha particles are helium nuclei. They are obtained by the removal of two electrons from the helium atom. Hans Geiger (Rutherfords technician) and Ernest Marsden (Rutherfords student) directed particles from radioactive source on a thin piece of gold foil (about 0.00004 cm thick). This is shown below in Fig. 3.4. Ernest Rutherford, (1871-1937) who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for proposing the nuclear model of the atom.
Beam of a particles Scattered of a particles
Circular fluorescent screen
Thin gold foil (a)
Most particles are undeflected
Fig.3.4 (a) The experimental set-up for the particle bombardment on thin gold foil, (b)Scattering of particles
(b)
If Thomson model was correct,then most of the a particles should pass through the gold foil and their path should only be deflected by a small amount. They were surprised to find out that although the majority of the a particles passed through the gold foil undeflected (or were deflected with minor angles), some of them were deflected by a large angles and a few even bounced back. This is shown in Fig. 3.4(b). In 1911, Rutherford explained the above observation by proposing another model of the atom. He suggested that :
(i) Most of the mass of atom and all of its positive charge reside in a very small region of space at the centre of the atom, called the nucleus. (ii) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths. This model is also known as Rutherfords nuclear model of the atom and is shown in Fig. 3.5.
Electron
+ Nucleus
This model resembeled the solar system in which the Fig. 3.5 Rutherfords nuclear nucleus was similar to the Sun and the electrons were similar model of atom to the planets. Ruthurford was able to predict the size of the nucleus by carefully measuring the fraction of particles deflected. He estimated that the radius of the nucleus was atleast 1/10000 times smaller than that of the radius of the atom. We can imagine the size of the nucleus with the following similarity. If the size of the atom is that of a cricket stadium then the nucleus would have the size of a fly at the centre of the stadium. Thus, most of the space in the atom is empty through which the majority of the particles could pass. When the - particles come close to the nucleus, they are repelled by its positive charge and hence they show a large deflection. Wherefrom this positive charge comes in the nucleus? The nucleus was supposed to contain positively charged particles, called protons. The positive charge on a proton was equal but opposite in nature to that on an electron. This quantity of charge, i.e. 1.602 x 10 19 C is called the electronic charge and is expressed as a unit charge, i.e., the charge of an electron is 1 whereas that of a proton is +1. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.2 1. Who proposed the nuclear model for the structure of atom? 2. Define nucleus. 3. What is a proton? 3.3 DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON Although Rutherfords model of the atom could explain the electrical neutrality and the results of scattering experiment but a major problem regarding the atomic masses remained unsolved. The mass of helium atom (which contains 2 protons) should be double than that of a hydrogen atom (which contains only one proton). [The electron being very light weight particle as compared to that of a proton, its contribution to the atomic mass can be ignored]. Actual ratio of helium and hydrogen masses is 4:1. Rutherford and others, thus, suggested that there must be one more type of subatomic particle present in the nucleus which may be neutral but must have mass. Later in 1932, James Chadwick showed the existence of this third type of subatomic particle. This was named as neutron. The neutron was found to have a mass slightly higher than that of a proton electrically neutral. Thus, if the helium atom contained 2 protons and 2 neutrons in the nucleus, its mass ratio to hydrogen as 4:1 could be explained. The characteristics of these three particles, called as fundamental particles are given in Table 3.1.
James Chadwick (1891-1972) was a British physicist. He received the Nobel prize in 1935 for showing the existence of neutron in the nucleus of an atom. Table 3:1 Characteristics of the subatomic particles.
Particle Symbol Mass(kg) Charge Coulomb (C) in multiple units -1 +1 0
Electron Proton Neutron
e p n
9.10939 x 10-31 1.67262 x 10-27 1.67493 x 10-27
1.6022x10-19 +1.6022 x 10-19 0
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.3 1. What is a neutron? 2. How many neutrons are present in the -particle? 3. How will you distinguish between an electron and a proton? 3.4 ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER AND ISOTOPES Why do the atoms of different elements differ from each other? The numbers of protons present in the atom of an element are different from those present in the atom of another element. Thus, the number of protons present in the atom of each element is fixed and is a characteristic property of that element as you have already learnt in lesson 2. This number is called the atomic number and is denoted by Z .Hydrogen has one proton in its nucleus and therefore, its atomic number is 1. Similarly, two protons are present in the nucleus of helium atom and hence its atomic number is 2. What about the number of electrons present in hydrogen and helium? Since the atom is electrically neutral, the number of electrons present in these atoms is 1 and 2 respectively.In addition to the protons, the helium atom also has neutrons present in its nucleus. The total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element is called its mass number. It is denoted by A. Helium nucleus contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons; hence, its mass number is 4.The atomic number and the mass number of an element (X) can be denoted as follows:
A Z
Thus, helium can be represented as 4 H 2 12 Similarly, 6C means that the carbon atom has 6 protons and hence 126 = 6 neutrons. But some carbon atoms can have 7 or 8 neutrons also. The mass number of these carbon atoms would be 6+7=13 or 6+8=14.Such atoms which have the same atomic number but have different mass number are called isotopes. Thus, carbon has three isotopes. These isotopes can be represented as shown below:
12 6
C,
13 6
C,
14 6
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.4 1. How is atomic number related to the number of protons present in the atom? 2. What is the mass number of an atom which has 7 protons and 8 neutrons? 3. Calculate the number of neutrons present in the following isotopes of hydrogen. 1 2 3 H, 1 H, 1 H 1
3.5 DRAWBACKS OF RUTHERFORDS MODEL As you have studied in section 3.3, Rutherfords model could not solve the problem of atomic mass. The existence of the neutron thus accounted for the mass of the atom. Another drawback which Rutherfords model suffered was that it could not explain the stability of the atom. According to the electromagnetic theory of radiation, a moving charged particle, such as the electron which is constantly accelerating because of change in directions of motion, should emit radiation. The energy of the radiation would come from the motion of the electron. Thus, the electron would emit radiation and follow a spiral path as shown in Fig.3.6.
Fig. 3.6 Spiral path of an electron
The energy of the electron would keep on decreasing (as the electron would keep on emitting radiation) till the electron finally falls into the nucleus. But actually it does not happen. The electron does not collapse into the nucleus. Thus, Rutherfords model needed the improvements which were later on suggested by Bohr. Bohrs model now will be discussed in the next section. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.5 1. What were the two drawbacks of Rutherfords model? 3.6 BOHRS MODEL OF ATOM In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a model which was an improvement over Rutherfords nuclear model. Bohr proposed that an electron moves around the nucleus in a well defined circular path. He set down following two main postulates to explain the stability of atom particularly hydrogen atom (i) An electron can have only a definite circular path around the nucleus with specific energy values. This circular path he called orbit or energy level (ii) Electron may go to next higher energy level (orbit) when given a definite amount of energy. In other words, an electron absorbs energy when it goes to higher energy level from a lower energy level. Contrary to this, electron will emits out a definite amount of energy when it comes from a higher energy level to lower energy level. If E2 is energy of an electron in higher energy level and E1 is energy of electron in lower energy level, then energy released E will be expressed as, E = E2 E1 If the electron remians in the same orbit, the energy would neither be released nor absorbed. These orbits will, therefore, were called stationary orbits or stationary states. Niels Bohr (1885-1962). He was a Danish physicist He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Although Bohr model could explain a number of aspects related to hydrogen atom but it could not explain stability of atoms having more than one electron. After the nature of electron was studied in detail, it was found that an electron cannot remain in a fixed circular orbit as envisaged by Bohr. Bohr model was rejected on this ground.
Based on the nature of electron, concept of circular orbit was modified and a three dimensional shell with definite energy came into existence. These shells are similar to circular path/energy levels given by Bohr. These shells are represented by letters K, L, M, N etc. Each shell is associated with a definite energy. The energies of these shells go on increasing as we move away from the nucleus. The maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated in each shell is given by 2n2 where n can take values 1, 2, 3.etc. Thus, the first shell can have two electrons whereas the second shell can have 8 electrons. Similarly the maximum number of electrons present in third and fourth shells would be 18 and 32, respectively. Each shell could be further sub-divided into various sublevels of energy called subshells. These subshells are denoted by letters s, p, d, f, etc about which you would study in your higher classes. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.6 1. What are stationary states? 2. What will happen to the energy of electron when it goes from an orbit of higher energy to that of a lower energy? 3. What is a shell? 4. How many electrons can be present in a L-shell? 3.7 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS From the above discussions, you are aware that shells of different energies exist in an atom. The electrons occupy these shells according to the increasing order of their energy. You also know that the first shell can have two electrons whereas the second shell can accommodate eight electrons. Keeping these points in mind, let us now study the filling of electrons in various shells of atoms of different elements. Hydrogen atom has only one electron. Thus electronic configuration of hydrogen can be represented as 1. The next element helium (He) has two electrons in its atom. Since the first shell can accommodate two electrons; hence, this second electron can also be placed in first shell. The electronic configuration of helium can be represented as 2. The third element, Lithium (Li) has three electrons. Now the two electrons occupy the first shell whereas the third electron goes to the next shell of higher energy level, i.e. second shell. Thus, the electronic configuration of Li is 2, 1. Similarly, the electronic configurations of beryllium (Be) and boron (B) having four and five electrons respectively can be written as follows: Be 4 electrons Electronic configuration - 2, 2. B 5 electrons Electronic configuration - 2, 3. The next element carbon (C) has 6 electrons. Now the sixth electron also goes to the second shell which can accommodate eight electrons. Hence, the electronic configuration of carbon can be represented as 2, 4. Similarly, the next element nitrogen having 7 electrons has the electronic configuration 2, 5. The electronic configuration of other elements can be given on the same lines. The electronic configuration of first twenty elements is given in Table 3.2 and depicted in Fig. 3.7.
Fig. 3.7 Electronic configuration of some elements
Table 3.2: Electronic distribution in shells of first twenty elements

Element/symbol No. of electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Arrangement of electrons in shells Electrons Common distribution valency in shells 1 in first shell 2 in first shell 2 in first shell + 1 in second shell 2 in first shell + 2 in second shell 2 in first shell + 3 in second shell 2 in first shell + 4 in second shell 2 in first shell + 5 in second shell 2 in first shell + 6 in second shell 2 in first shell + 7 in second shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 1 in third shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 2 in third shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 3 in third shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 4 in third shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 5 in third shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 6 in third shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 7 in third shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 8 in third shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 8 in third shell + 1 in fourth shell 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell + 8 in third shell + 2 in fourth shell 1 2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8 2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8 2,8,8,1 2,8,8,2 1 0 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 3,5 2 1 0 1 2
Hydrogen, H Helium, He Lithium, Li Beryllium, Be Boron, B Carbon, C Nitrogen, N Oxygen, O Fluorine, F Neon, Ne Sodium, Na Magnesium, Mg Aluminium, Al Silicon, Si Phosphorus, P Sulphur, S Chlorine, Cl Argon, Ar Potassium, K Calcium, Ca
3.7.1 Valence electron and valency We have just discussed the electronic configuration of first 20 elements. We can see from the table 3.2 that electrons are located in different shells around the nucleus. The electrons in the last shell (popularly known as valence shell) govern the chemical properties of the atoms. These electrons are known as valence electrons. Valency or combining capacity of an atom of an element depends on the number of these electrons as mentioned in lesson 2. Valency of 20 elements along with their electronic configuration is also provided in Table 3.2. In next lesson, you would study how these electronic configurations are useful in understanding the periodic arrangement of elements. These electronic configurations are also helpful in studying the nature of bonding between various elements which will be dealt in lesson 5. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.7 1. How many shells are present in the nitrogen atom? 2. Name the element which has the completely filled first shell. 3. The electronic configuration of an element having atomic number11 is_____________
! ! !
! ! ! ! ! !
LET US REVISE Electrons are present in all the atoms. Thomson proposed the plum-pudding model of the structure of atom. Rutherfords model of the structure of atom suggested that most of the mass and all of positive charge of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus and the electrons revolve around it in. The neutrons are neutral particles present in the nucleus. Atomic number is the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom. Mass number gives the number of protons and neutrons present in an atom Isotopes have same atomic number but different mass numbers. Bohrs model gave the idea of definite orbits or stationary states. The electrons occupy various shells in an atom in the increasing order of their energy. The maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated in a shell is 2n2. TERMINAL EXERCISES
A. Fill in the blanks. 1. The nucleus consists of and 2. The model which resembled the solar system was proposed by 3. Anode rays travel towards 4. An electron has charge. B. Classify the following statements as true or false. 1. The plum pudding model was proposed by Rutherford. 2. Cathode is the negatively charged electrode. 3. Neutrons are constituents of atoms of all elements. 4. The number of electrons present in a neutral atom is always equal to the number of protons.
C. Multiple choice type questions. 1. An -particle has (a) 2 protons only. (b) 2 neutrons only (c) 2 protons and 2 neutrons (d) 2 neutrons 2. Isotopes have (a) same mass number (b) same atomic number (c) different atomic number (d) same mass as well as atomic number 3. The mass of a neutron (a) is less than that of a proton. (b) is greater than that of a proton. (c) is equal to that of a proton. (d) zero 4. The filling of second shell starts with (a) He (b) Li (c) C (d) N 5. The electronic configuration of Cl is (a) 2, 8 (b) 2, 8, 4 (c) 2, 8, 6 (d) 2, 8, 7 6. Which of the following elements has completely filled shells? (a) H (b) O (c) Ne (d) Mg D. Descriptive type questions. 1. How can you say that electrons are present in all types of matter? 2. Define an orbit. 3. Calculate the number of neutrons present in 16 O and 19 F 8 9 4. The mass number of iron is 56. If 30 neutrons present in its atom, what is its atomic number? 5. Which of the following are isotopes? 12 C, 14 C, 14 N 6 6 7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 3.2 1. 2. atoms electrons A glass tube from which most of the air has been removed. It has two electrodes. It is a positively charged electrode. because the positive ions resulting from the different gases have different masses.
J.J. Thompson The small region of space at the centre of the atom where most of the mass and all of the positive charge is located. 3. An alpha particle is the helium nucleus which is obtained by the removal of two electrons from the helium atom. 3.3 1. A neutron is a neutral subatomic particle having mass slightly higher than proton. 2. 2 3. (i) An electron has negative charge whereas a proton has a positive charge.
(ii) An electron is present outside the nucleus whereas a proton is present in the nucleus. (iii) The electron has very less mass as compared to a proton. 3.4 1. 2. 3. 3.5 1. 3.6 1. Atomic number is equal to the number of protons present in the nucleus of the atom. 15 0, 1, 2. It could not explain the correct atomic masses and the stability of atoms.
Stationary states are energy levels of definite energy. When an electron is present in a stationary state, its energy does not change. 2. Its energy would decrease. 3. A shell is a group of energy levels having similar energy. 4. 8 electrons. 3.7 1. 2 2. He 3. 2, 8, 1 GLOSSARY Alpha particles: Positively charged particles ejected at high speeds from certain radioactive substances; Atom: The smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical properties of that elemen. Atomic nucleus: The tiny central core of an atom that contains neutrons and protons. Atomic number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element. Electron: A negatively charged subatomic particle found in the space about the nucleus. Electron shell: The collectio of orbitals with same principal quantum number. Electronic configuration: The complete description of the orbitals occupied by all the electrons in an atom on ion. Isotopes: Forms of an element composed of atoms with same atomic number but different mass number owing to a difference in a number of neutrons. Mass number: The number of proton plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of an element. Neutrons: An electrically neutral subatomic particle found in the nucleus. Orbital: Regions occupied by electrons in S, P, d, f, subshells, represened by three dimensional boundary surface diagram.. Proton: A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus.
Periodic Classification of Elements

You must have visited a library. There are thousands of books in a large library. In spite of this if you ask for a particular book, the library staff can locate it easily. How is it possible? In library the books are classified into various categories and sub-categories. They are arranged on shelves accordingly. Therefore location of books becomes easy. In the last two lessons you have studied about the structure of atoms and their electronic configurations. You have also studied that elements with similar electronic configurations show similar chemical properties. Electrons are filled in various shells and subshells in a fairly regular fashion. Therefore, properties of elements are repeated periodically. Such trends in their physical and chemical properties were noticed by chemists in the nineteenth century and attempts were made to classify elements on their basis long before structure of atom was known. In this lesson we shall study about the earlier attempts for classification, the first successful classification which included all the known elements at that time namely Mendeleevs periodic table, and about the long form of modern periodic table which is an improvement over Mendeleevs work. Finally we shall learn about some properties of elements and their variations in the periodic table. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: ! state different historical classifications of elements in brief; ! state main features of Mendeleevs periodic table; ! explain the defects of Mendeleevs periodic table; ! state modern periodic law; ! describe the features of the long form of periodic table; ! define various periodic properties; ! discuss the trends in various periodic properties in the periodic table. 4.1 EARLIER ATTEMPTS OF CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS The first classification of elements was as metals and non-metals. This served only limited purpose mainly because of two reasons: 1. All the elements were grouped in to these two classes only. Moreover the group containing metals was very big.
: 64 : Periodic Classification of Elements
2. Some elements showed properties of both-metals and non-metals and they could not be placed in any of the two classes. After this, scientists made attempts to recognize some pattern or regularity in variation of properties of elements and to classify them accordingly. Now we shall learn about some of them. 4.1.1 Dobereiners triads In 1829, Dobereiner, a German scientist made Element Atomic mass some groups of three elements each and called Lithium, Li 7 them triads. All three elements of a triad were Sodium, Na 23 similar in their properties. He observed that the Potassium, K 39 atomic mass* of the middle element of a triad was nearly equal to the arithmetic mean of atomic masses of other two elements. Also, same was the case with their other properties. Let us take the example of three elements lithium, sodium and potassium. They form a Dobereiners triad. Mean of the atomic masses of the first (Li) and the third (K) elements: 7 + 39 = 23 u The atomic mass of the middle element, sodium, Na is equal to 23 u. Two more examples of Dobereneirs triads are given below.
Element Calcium, Ca Strontium, Sr Barium, Ba Atomic mass 40 88 137 Element Chlorine, Cl Bromine, Br Iodine, I Atomic mass 35.5 80 127
2
40 + 137 = 88.5 u 2 35.5 + 127 Mean of the first atomic masses of the and third elements = = 81.5 u 2 Actual atomic mass of the second element = 88 u
Mean of the atomic masses of the first and third elements =
Actual atomic mass of the second element = 80 u Dobereneirs idea of classification of elements into triads did not receive wide acceptance as he could arrange only a few elements in this manner. 4.1.2 Newlands law of Octaves In 1864 John Alexander Newland, an English chemist noticed that when elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic masses* every eighth element had properties similar to the first element. Newland called it the Law of Octaves. It was due to its similarity with musical notes where, in every octave, after seven different notes the eighth note is repetition of the first one as shown below. 1 lk 2 js 3 xk 4 e 5 i 6 /k 7 uh 8 lk
*Then known as atomic weight
Periodic Classification of Elements : 65 :
Look carefully at the Newlands arrangement of elements shown below:

Li (6.9) Na (23.0) K (39.1) Be (9.0) Mg (24.3) Ca (40.1) B (10.8) Al (27.0) C (12.0) Si (28.1) N (14.0) P (31.0) O (16.0) S (32.1) F (19.0) Cl (35.5)
With the help of the arrangement given above, can you tell starting from lithium which is the eighth element? Sodium. And starting from sodium? It is potassium. Properties of all three are similar. Similarly, aluminnium is the eighth element from boron it shows properties similar to it. However, Newland could arrange elements in this manner only up to calcium out of a total of over sixty elements known at his time. Because of this shortcoming his work was not received well by the scientific community. The next break through in classification of elements came in the form of Mendeleevs work. 4.1.3 MENDELEEVS PERIODIC LAW AND PERIODIC TABLE 4.3.1a Mendeleevs periodic law Dmitry Mendeleev** a Russian chemist while trying to classify elements discovered that on arranging in the increasing order of atomic mass*, elements with similar chemical properties occurred periodically. In1869, he stated this observation in the following form which is known as Mendeleevs Periodic Law. A periodic function is the one which repeats itself after a certain interval. Thus, according to the periodic law the chemical and physical properties of elements repeat themselves after certain intervals when they are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic mass. Now we shall learn about the arrangement of elements on the basis of the periodic law. The chemical and physical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses*. A tabular arrangement of the elements based on the periodic law is called periodic table. Mendeleev believed that atomic mass of elements was the most fundamental property and arranged them in its increasing order in horizontal rows till he encountered an element which had properties similar to the first element. He placed this element below the first element and thus started the second row of elements. Proceeding in this manner he could arrange all the known elements according to their properties and thus created the first periodic table.
Then known as atomic weight ** Also spelled as Mendeleef or Mendeleyev

PERIODIC TABLE (Modified form of Mendleeffs Table)
P E R I O D I C S
Group : Oxide: Hydride: A 1 2 3 4 First series second series First series second series First series second series 7 * Lanthaandie Elements (Rare Earth Series)
I R2O RH B
H 1 (At. No.) 1.008(At.Wt.) Li 3 6.939 Na 11 22.99 K 19 39.102 Cu 29 63.54 Rb 37 85.47 Ag 47 107.87 Cs 55 132.90 Au 79 196.97 Fr 87 (223)
II RO RH2 A B A
III R2O3 RH3 B A
IV R2O5 RH4 B A
V R2O5 RH3 B A
VI RO3 RH2 B A
VII R2O7 RH B
VII Ro4 Transition Traids
Zero Noble gases
Be 4 9.012 Mg 12 24.312 Ca 20 40.08 Zn 30 65.37 Sr 38 87.62 Cd 48 112.40 Ba 56 137.34 Hg 80 200.59 Ra 88 (226)
B5 10.811 Al 13 26.981 Sc 21 44.96 Ga 31 69.72 Y 39 88.905 In 49 114.82 *Rare Earths 57-71 Tl 81 204.37 Actinide Elements 89-103
C6 12.011 Si 14 28.086 Ti 22 47.90 Ge 32 72.59 Zr 40 91.22 Sn 50 118.69 Hf 72 178.49 Pb 82 207.19 Ku 104
N7 14.007 P 15 30.974 V 23 50.94 As 33 74.92 Nb 41 92.906 Sb 51 121.75 Ta 73 180.948 Bi 83 208.98 Ha 105
O8 15.999 S 16 32.06 Cr 24 51.99 Se 34 78.96 Mo 42 95. 94 Te 52 127.60 W 74 183.85 Po 84 (210)
F9 18.998 Cl 17 35.453 Mn 25 54.939 Br 35 79.909 Tc 43 (99) I 53 124.9014 Re 75 186.2 At 85 (210)
He 2 4.0026 Ne 10 20.183 Ar 18 39.948 Fe 26 Co 27 Ni 28 55.85 58.93 58.71 Kr 36 83.80 Ru 44 Rh 45 Pd 46 101.07 102.91 106.4 Xe 54 131.30 O s 76 Ir 77 Pt 78 190.2 192.2 195.09 Rn 86 (222)
( La 57 Ce 58 Pr 59 Nd 60 Pm 61 Sm 62 Eu 63 Gd 64 Tb 65 Dy 66 Ho 67 Er 68 Tm 69 Yb 70 Lu 71 ( 138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (147) 150.35 151.96 157.25 158.92 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
Actinide Series ( Ac 89 Th 90 Pa 91 U 92 Np 93 Pu 94 Am 95 Cm 96 Bk 97 Cf 98 Es 99 Fm 100 Md 101 No 102 Lr 103 ( (227) 232.04 (231) 238.3 (237) (244) (243) (245) (247) (249) (254) (253) (256) (253) (257)
Fig. 4.1 Mendeleevs periodic table
4.1.3b Main features of Mendeleevs periodic table Look at the Mendeleevs periodic table shown in fig.4.2 carefully. What do you observe? Here, elements are arranged in tabular form in rows and columns. Now let us learn more about these rows and columns and the elements present in them. 1. The horizontal rows present in the periodic table are called periods. You can see that there are seven periods in the periodic table. These are numbered from 1 to 7 (Arabic numerals). 2. Properties of elements in a particular period show regular gradation (i.e. increase or decrease) from left to right. 3. The vertical columns present in it are called groups. You must have noticed that these are nine in number and are numbered from I to VIII and Zero (Roman numerals). 4. Groups I to VII are subdivided into A and B subgroups. Groups Zero and VIII dont have any subgroups. 5. All the elements in a particular group are chemically similar in nature. They show regular gradation in their physical properties and chemical reactivities. After learning about the main features we shall now learn about the main merits of Mendeleevs periodic table. 4.1.3c Merits of Mendeleevs periodic classification 1. Classification of all elements Mendeleevs was the first classification which successfully included all the elements. 2. Prediction of new elements Mendeleevs periodic table had some blank spaces in it. These vacant spaces were for elements that were yet to be discovered. For example, he proposed the existence of an
unknown element that he called eka-aluminium. The element gallium was discovered four years later and its properties matched very closely with the predicted properties of ekaaluminium. In this section we have learnt about the success of Mendeleevs periodic classification and also about its merits. Does it mean that this periodic table was perfect? No. Although it was a very successful attempt but it also had some defects in it. Now we shall discuss the defects in this classification. 4.3.1d Defects in Mendeleevs periodic classification In spite of being a historic achievement Mendeleevs periodic table had some defects in it. The following were the main defects in it: 1. Position of hydrogen Hydrogen resembles alkali metals (forms H+ ion just like Na+ ions) as well as halogens ( forms H- ion similar to Cl- ion).Therefore, it could neither be placed with alkali metals (group I ) nor with halogens (group VII ). 2. Position of isotopes Different isotopes of same elements have different atomic masses, therefore, each one of them should be given a different position in the periodic table. On the other hand, because they are chemically similar, they had to be given same position. 3. Anomalous pairs of elements At certain places, an element of higher atomic mass has been placed before an element of lower atomic mass. For example, Argon (39.91) is placed before potassium (39.1) CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.1 1. Elements A, B and C constitute a Dobereiners triad. What is the relationship in their atomic masses? 2. How many elements were included in the arrangement given by Newland? 3. Which property of atoms was used by Mendeleev to classify the elements? 4. How many groups were originally proposed by Mendeleev in his periodic table? 5. Where in the periodic table are chemically similar elements placed, in a group or in a period? 6. Mendeleevs periodic table had some blank spaces in it. What do they signify? 7. What name was given to the element whose properties were similar to the element eka-aluminium predicted by Mendeleev? 4.2 MODERN CLASSIFICATION Henry Moseley, an English physicist discovered in the year 1913 that atomic number, is the most fundamental property of an element and not its atomic mass. Atomic number, (Z), of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom. The number of electrons in the neutral atom is also equal to its atomic number. This discovery changed the whole perspective about elements and their properties to such an extent that a need was felt to change the periodic law also. Now we shall learn about the changes made in the periodic law. 4.2.1 Modern periodic law After discovery of atomic number the periodic law was modified and the new law was based upon atomic numbers in place of atomic masses of elements.
The Modern Periodic Law states The chemical and physical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers After the change in the periodic law many changes were suggested in the periodic table. Now we shall learn about the modern periodic table which finally emerged. 4.2.2 Modern periodic table The periodic table based on the modern periodic law is called the Modern Periodic Table. Many versions of this periodic table are in use but the one which is most commonly used is the Long Form of Modern Periodic Table. It is shown in figure 4.3.
1 2
H
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
He
10
Li
11 19
Be
12 20 38 56 88 21 39 57 89 58 90 59 91 60 92 61 93 62 94 63 95 64 96 65 97 66 98 67 99 68 100 69 101 70 102 71 103 22 23 24 42 74 106 25 43 75 26 44 76 27 45 77 28 46 78 29 47 79 30 48 80
B
13 31 49 81
C
14 32 50 82
N
15
O
16
F
17
Ne
18
Na Mg K
37 55 87
Al Si Ti
40
P
33 51 83
S
34 52 84
Cl
35 53 85
Ar
36
Ca Sc
V
41 73 105
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Ru Rh Pd Ag Pt Au
Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Cd In Sn Sb Te I Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
Kr
54
Rb Sr Y Cs Ba La Fr Ra Ac Ce Pr
Zr
72 104
Nb Mo Tc
Xe
86
Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta
Ru Re Os Ir
Rn
Th Pa U
Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Unq Unp Unh
Fig. 4.3 Modern periodic table
If you look at the modern periodic table shown in the fig.4.3 you will observe that it is not much different from Mendeleevs periodic table. Now let us learn the main features of this periodic table. 4.2.2a Groups There are 18 vertical columns in the periodic table. Each column is called a group. The groups have been numbered from 1 to 18 (in Arabic numerals) from left to right. Group 1 on extreme left position contains alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr) and group 18 on extreme right side position contains noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn). All elements present in a group have similar electronic configurations and have same number of valence electrons. You can see in case of group 1 (alkali metals) and group 17 elements (halogens) that as one moves down a group, more and more shells are added. Group 1 Element Li Na K Rb Electronic configuration 2,1 2,8,1 2,8,8,1 2,8,8,8,1 F Cl Br I Group 17 Element Electronic configuration 2,7 2,8,7 2,8,8,7 2,8,18,8,7
All elements of group 1 have only one valence electron. Li has electrons in two shells, Na in three, K in four while Rb has electrons in five shells. Similarly all the elements of group 17 have seven valence electrons however the number of shells is increasing from two in F to five in I.
Elements present in groups 1 and 2 on left side and groups 13 to 17 on the right side of the periodic table are called normal elements or representative elements. Their outermost shells are incomplete. They are also called typical or main group elements
Elements present in groups 3 to 12 in the middle of the periodic table are called transition elements. (Although groups 11 and 12 elements are, strictly speaking, not transition elements). Their two outermost shells are incomplete. However, it should be noted here that more and more electrons are added to valence shell only in case of normal elements. In transitions elements, the electrons are added to incomplete inner shells. Elements 113, 115 and 117 are not known but included at their expected positions.
Group 18 on extreme right side of the periodic table contains noble gases. Their outermost shells contain 8 electrons. Inner transition elements:14 elements with atomic numbers 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu) are called lanthanides# and they are placed along with the element lanthanum (La), atomic number 57 in the same position (group 3 in period 6) because of very close resemblance between them. However, for convenience sake they are shown separately below the main periodic table 14 elements with atomic numbers 90 to103 (Th to Lr) are called actinides* and they are placed along with the element actinium (Ac), atomic number 89 in the same position (group 3 in period 7) because of very close resemblance between them. They are shown also separately below the main periodic table along with lanthanides. 4.2.2b Periods There are seven rows in the periodic table. Each row is called a period. The periods have been numbered from 1 to 7 (Arabic numerals).
In each period a new shell starts filling up. The period number is also the number of shell which starts filling up in it. For example, in elements of 3rd period, the third shell (M shell) starts filling up as we move from left to right@ . The first element of this period sodium Na (2,8,1) has only one electron in its valence shell (third shell) while the last element of this period, argon Ar (2,8,8) has eight electrons in its valence shell. The gradual filing of the third shell can be seen below.
Element Electronic configuration
! ! ! !
@
Na 2,8,1
Mg 2,8,2
Al 2,8,3
Si 2,8,4
P 2,8,5
S 2,8,6
Cl 2,8,7
Ar 2,8,8
The first period is the shortest period of all and contains only 2 elements, H and He. The second and third periods are called short periods and contain 8 elements each. Fourth and fifth periods are long periods and contain 18 elements each. Sixth and seventh periods are very long periods containing 32 elements* * each.
However, it should be noted here that more and more electrons are added to valence shell only in case of normal elements. In transitions elements, the electrons are added to incomplete inner shells. # These elements have been named after the 1st elements lanthanum present in their position in the periodic table. * These elements have been named after the 1st elements actinium present in their position in the periodic table. ** Including elements up to atomic number 118. Elements 114, 116 and 118 have been reported only recently.
4.2.2c Merits of modern periodic table over Mendeleevs periodic table The modern periodic table is based on atomic number which is more fundamental property of an atom than atomic mass. The long form of modern periodic table is therefore free of main defects of Mendeleevs periodic table. 1. Position of isotopes All isotopes of the same elements have different atomic masses but same atomic number. Therefore, they occupy the same position in the modern periodic table which they should have because all of them are chemically similar. 2. Anomalous pairs of elements When elements are arranged in the periodic table according to their atomic numbers the anomaly regarding certain pairs of elements in Mendeleevs periodic table disappears. For example, atomic numbers of argon and potassium are 18 and 19 respectively. Therefore, argon with smaller atomic number comes before potassium although its atomic mass is greater and properties of both the elements match with other elements of their respective groups. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.2 1. According to the modern periodic law the properties of elements are periodic function of which property of theirs? 2. List any two defects of Mendeleevs periodic table which have been corrected in the modern periodic table? 3. How many group and periods are present in the long form of periodic table? 4. What is the name of the family of elements present in group 2 of the modern periodic table? 5. The elements that are present in the right hand portion of the periodic table are metals or non-metals? 6. How many elements are present in 6th period of the periodic table? 4.3 PERIODIC PROPERTIES In the previous section we have learnt about the main features of the Modern Periodic Table. We have also learnt that in a period the number of valence electrons and the nuclear charge increases from left to right. It increases the force of attraction between them. In a group the number of filled shells increases and valence electrons are present in higher shells. This decreases the force of attraction between them and the nucleus of the atom. These changes affect various properties of elements and they show gradual variation in a group and in a period and they repeat themselves after a certain interval of atomic number. Such properties are called periodic properties. In this section we shall learn about some periodic properties and their variation in the periodic table. 4.3.1 VALENCY (a) Valency in a period : You have already learnt in the previous section that the number of valence electrons increases in a period. In normal elements it increases from 1 to 8
in a period from left to right. It reaches 8 in group 18 elements (noble gases) which show practically no chemical activity under ordinary conditions and their valency is taken as zero. Carefully look at the table given below. What do you observe? Valency of normal elements with respect oxygen increases from 1 to 7 as shown below for elements of third period. This valency is equal to the number of valence electrons or group number for groups 1 and 2, or (group number-10) for groups 13 to 17.
Group Element No. of valence electrons Valency with respect to oxygen Formula of oxide 1 Na 1 1 Na2O 2 Mg 2 2 MgO 13 Al 3 3 Al2O3 14 Si 4 4 SiO2 15 P 5 5 P4O10 16 S 6 6 SO3 17 Cl 7 7 Cl2O7
In the following table for elements of second period you will observe that valency of elements of with respect to hydrogen and chlorine increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to 1 again.
Group Element No. of valence electrons Valency with respect to hydrogen and chlorine Formula of hydride Formula of chloride 1 Li 1 1 LiH LiCl 2 Be 2 2 BeH2 BeCl2 13 B 3 3 BH3 BCl3 14 C 4 4 CH4 CCl4 15 N 5 3 NH3 NCl3 16 O 6 2 H2O Cl2O 17 F 7 1 HF ClF
(b) Valency in a group : All the elements of a group have the same number of valence electrons. Therefore, they all have the same valency. Thus valency of all group 1 elements, alkali metals, is 1. Similarly valency of all group 17 elements, halogens, is 1 with respect to hydrogen and 7 with respect to oxygen. 4.3.2 Atomic radii A number of physical properties like density and melting and boiling points are related to the sizes of atoms. Atomic size is difficult to define. Atomic radius determines the size of an atom. For an isolated atom it may be taken as the distance between the centre of atom and the outermost shell. Practically, measurement of size of an isolated atom is difficult; therefore, it is measured when an atom is in company of another atom of same element. It is defined as one-half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms when they are linked to each other by a single covalent bond. 4.3.2a Variation of atomic radii in a period Atomic radii (in picometer) of 2nd and 3rd period elements are given in the table given below. What do you observe? In a period, atomic radius generally decreases from left to right.
2nd Period 3rd Period Li 155 Na 190 Be 112 Mg 160 B 98 Al 143 C 91 Si 132 N 92 P 128 O 73 S 127 F 72 Cl 99
Can you explain this trend? You have learnt in the beginning of this section that in a period there is a gradual increase in the nuclear charge. Since valence electrons are added in the same shell, they are more and more strongly attracted towards nucleus. This gradually decreases atomic radii. 4.3.2b Variation of atomic radii in a group What happens to atomic radii in a group? Atomic radii increase in a group from top to bottom. This can be seen from the data of atomic radii in picometers given for groups 1 and 17 elements below.
Element Li Na K Rb Atomic radius 155 190 235 248 Element F Cl Br I Atomic radius 72 99 114 133
As we go down a group the number of shells increases and valence electrons are present in higher shell and the distance of valence electrons from nucleus increases. For example, in lithium the valence electron is present in 2nd shell while in sodium it is present in 3rd shell. Also, the number of filled shells between valence electrons and nucleus increases. Thus in group 1 Li (2,1) has one filled shell between its nucleus and valence electron while Na (2,8,1) has two filled shells between them. Both the factors decrease the force of attraction between nucleus and valence electron. Therefore, atomic size increases on moving down a group. 4.3.3 Ionic radii Ionic radius is the radius of an ion. On converting into an ion the size of a neutral atom changes. Anion is bigger than the neutral atom. This is because addition of one or more electrons increases repulsions among electrons and they move away from each other. On the other hand a cation is smaller than the neutral atom. When one or more electrons are removed, the repulsive force between the remaining electrons decreases and they come a little closer. 4.3.3a Variation of ionic radii in periods and groups Ionic radii show variations similar to those of atomic radii. Thus, ionic radii increase in a group. You can see such increases in groups 1 and 16 elements from the data given below.
Group 1 Element Electron radius Li+ 60 Na+ K+ Rb+ 95 133 148 Group 16 Element Ionic radius O2140 S2Se2Te2184 198 221
Ionic radii decrease in a period . It can be seen from the data of ionic radii in picometer for 2nd period elements given below.
Element radii Li+ 60 Be2+ 31 B C N3171 O2140 F136 Ionic
In the data given above, the positions of boron and carbon have been left vacant as they do not form ions. Also, the trend in radii of cations is seen in Li+ and Be2+and in radii of anions is seen in N3, O2 and F. 4.3.4 Ionization energy Negatively charged electrons in an atom are attracted by the positively charged nucleus. For removing an electron this attractive force must be overcome by spending some energy. The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state to form a gaseous ion is called ionization energy. It is measured in unit of kJ mol-1. It is a measure of the force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron. Stronger the force of attraction, greater is the value of ionization energy. It corresponds to the following process: If only one electron is removed, the ionization energy is known as the first ionization energy. If second electron is removed the ionization energy is called the second ionization energy. Now we shall study the variation of ionization energy in the periodic table. 4.3.3a Variation of ionization energy in a group We have already seen earlier, that the force of attraction between valence electrons and nucleus decreases in a group from top to bottom. What should happen to their ionization energy values? Ionization energy decreases in a group from top to bottom. This can be seen from ionization energy values (in kJ mol-1) of groups 1 and 17 elements given below.
Group 1 Element Ionization Energy Li 520 Na K Rb 496 419 403 Group 17 Element Ionization Energy F 1680 Cl Br I1251 1143 1009
4.3.4b Variation of ionization energy in a period We know that the force of attraction between valence electron and nucleus increases in a period from left to right. As a consequence of this, the ionization energy increases in a period from left to right. This trend is can be seen in ionization energies (in kJ mol-1) of elements belonging to 2nd and 3rd periods.
2nd Period Elements Element Li Ionization Energy 520 Be 899 Mg 738 B 801 Al 578 C 1086 Si 786 N 1400 P 1021 O 1314 S 1000 F 1680 Cl 1251 Ne 2080 Ar 1521
3rd Period Elements Element Na Ionization Energy 496
4.3.5 Electron affinity Another important property that determines the chemical properties of an element is the tendency to gain an additional electron. This ability is measured by electron affinity. It is
the energy change when an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state. It corresponds to the process X(g) + e X(g) + E Here, X is an atom of an element. The energy change is measured in the unit kJ mol-1. By convention, electron affinity is assigned a positive value when energy is released during the process. Greater the value of electron affinity, more energy is released during the process and greater is the tendency of the atom to gain electron. Let us now learn about its variation in the periodic table. 4.3.5a Variation of electron affinity in a group In a group, the electron affinity decreases on moving from top to bottom, that is, less and less amount of energy is released. Such trends in its values (in kJ mol-1) for group 1 and group 17 elements are given below.
Group 1 Element Electron affinity Li 58 Na K Rb 53 48 45 Group 17 Element Electron affinity F 333 Cl Br I348 324 295
4.3.5b Variation of electron affinity in a period In a period, the electron affinity increases from left to right, that is, more and more amount of energy is released. You can see this increase in electron affinity values (in kJ mol-1) below for elements of 2nd and 3rd periods.
2nd Period elements Element Electron affinity 3rd Period elements Element Electron affinity Li 58 Na 53 Be Mg B 23 Al 44 C 123 Si 120 N 0 P 74 O 142 S 200 F 333 Cl 348
4.3.6 Electronegativity You have learnt in the previous section that electron affinity of an element is a measure of an isolated atom to attract electrons towards it self. We normally do not deal with isolated atoms. Mostly we come across atoms which are bonded to other atoms. There is another property which deals with the power of bonded atoms to attract electrons. This property is known as electronegativity. Electronegativity is relative tendency of a bonded atom to attract the bond-electrons towards itself. Electronegativity is a dimensionless quantity and does not have any units. It just compares the tendency of various elements to attract the bond-electrons towards themselves. The most widely used scale of electronegativity was devised by Linus Pauling. Electronegativity is a useful property. You will learn in the next chapter how it helps to understand the nature of chemical bond formed between two atoms. Now let us learn about its variation in groups 1 and 17.
Periodic Classification of Elements : 75 : Group 1 Element Electronegativity Li 1.0 Na K Rb 0.9 0.8 0.8 Group 17 Electronegativity 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5
Element F Cl Br I-
What do you observe? Electronegativity decreases in a group from top to bottom. Now let us see its variation in 2nd and 3rd period elements.
2nd Period Elements Element Electronegativity 3rd Period Elements Element Electronegativity Li 1.0 Na 0.9 Be 1.5 Mg 1.2 B 2.0 Al 1.5 C 2.5 Si 1.8 N 3.0 P 2.1 O 3.5 S 2.5 F 4.0 Cl 3.0
Now what do you observe? Electronegativity increases in a period from left to right. 4.3.7 Metallic and non-metallic character You know what are characteristic properties of a metal? They are its electropositive character (the tendency to lose electrons), metallic luster, ductility, malleability and electrical conductance. Metallic character of an element largely depends upon its ionization energy. Smaller the value of ionization energy, more electropositive and hence more metallic the element would be. 4.3.7a Variation of metallic character in a group You know the variation of ionization energy in a group. Can you predict the variation of metallic character on its basis? Metallic character of elements increases from top to bottom. This can best be seen in elements of group 14. Its first element, carbon is a typical nonmetal, next two elements Si and Ge are metalloids and the remaining elements Sn and Pb, are typical metals as shown below. Group 14
Element C Si Ge Sn Pb Nature Non-metal Metalloid Metalloid Metal Metal
4.3.7b Variation of metallic character in a period How does metallic character change in a period? Metallic character of elements decreases in a period from left to right as shown below for 3rd period elements
Element Character Na Metal Mg Metal Al Metal Si Metalloid P Non-metal S Non-metal Cl Non-metal
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.3 Fill in the blanks with appropriate words. 1. The force of attraction between nucleus and valence electrons _______________ in a period. 2. Atomic radii of elements _______________ in a period from left to right. 3. Radius of cation is _______________ than that of the neutral atom of the same element 4. Electronegativity _______________ in a period from left to right and _______________ in a group from top to bottom. 5. Metallic character of elements _______________ from top to bottom in a group. 6. Ionization energy of the 1st element in a period is _______________ in the entire period.
!
LET US REVISE The first classification of elements was s metals and non-metals. It served only limited purpose. After atomic masses (old term, atomic weight) of elements had been determined, it was thought to be their most fundamental property and attempts were made to correlate it to their other properties. Dobereiner grouped elements into triads. The atomic mass and properties of the middle element were mean of the other two. He could group only a few elements into triads. For example (i) Li, Na and K (ii) Ca, Sr and Ba (iii) Cl, Br and I. Newland tried to see the periodicity of properties and stated his law of octaves that, When elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic weights every eighth element has properties similar to the first. He could arrange elements up to calcium only out of more than sixty elements known then. Mendeleev observed correlation between atomic masses and other properties and stated his periodic law as, The chemical and physical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights. Mendeleev gave the first periodic table which is named after him which included all the known elements. It consists of seven horizontal rows called periods and numbered from 1 to 7. It has nine vertical columns called groups and numbered from zero to VIII. Main achievements of Mendeleevs periodic table were (i) inclusion of all the known elements and (ii) prediction of new elements. Main defects of Mendeleevs periodic table were (i) position of isotopes, (ii) anomalous pairs of elements like Ar and K and (iii) grouping of dissimilar elements and separation of similar elements. Moseley discovered that atomic number and not atomic mass is the most fundamental property of elements. In the light of this the periodic law was modified to The chemical and physical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers. This is the modern periodic table. Modern periodic table is based upon atomic number. Its long form has been accepted by IUPAC. It has seven periods (1 to 7) and 18 groups (1 to 18). It is free of main
defects of Mendeleevs periodic table. Elements belonging to same group have same number of valence electrons and thus show same valency and similar chemical properties. Arrangement of elements in the periodic table shows periodicity. Atomic and ionic radii and metallic character increase while ionization energy , electron affinity and electronegativity decrease in a group from top to bottom. Number of valence electrons, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity increase while metallic character and atomic and ionic radii decrease in a period from left to right. TERMINAL EXERCISES Multiple choice type questions. The first attempt to classify elements was made by (a) Mendeleev (b) Moseley (c) Newland (d) Dobereiner Which group has maximum number of elements in the periodic table? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 The law of octaves applies to (a) B,C,N (b) As, K, Ca (c) Be, Mg, Ca (d) Se, Te, As Representative elements belong to groups (a) 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 (d) 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 Which of the following ions is the largest in size? (a) Al3+ (b) Ba2+ (c) Mg2+ (d) Na+ Mark the following statements as true or false. Ionization energy of an element increases with an increase in atomic number. Electron Affinity of fluorine is greater than that of chlorine. Out of P3+, S2- and Cl- ions Cl- ion is the smallest one.
A. 1
2.
3.
4.
5.
B. 1. 2. 3.
4. The first member of lanthanide series of elements is lanthanum. C. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Descriptive type questions. Name the group and period of element having the atomic number 21. Give an example of Dobereiner triad. State Newlands law of Octaves. State the Modern Periodic Law. How many groups were present in Mendeleevs Periodic Table and give their numbers. What are periods and groups in periodic table. List two main achievements of Mendeleevs periodic table. What are main defects of Mendeleevs periodic table? How is modern periodic law different from the Mendeleevs periodic law? Why argon (atomic mass 40) was placed before potassium (atomic mass 39)? In each of the following pairs of ions, which one is bigger in size and why? (i) Li and Ne (ii) O and S (iii) K and K+ (iv) Br and Br12. Define atomic radius. How does it vary in a period and in a group? 13. What is ionization energy? How does it vary in a group? Give two reasons for it. 14. Which element of the following has the highest ionization energy? Na, Ba and Cl 15. Explain why does ionization energy increase from left to right in a period but decrease from top to bottom in a group? 16. What do you understand by periodicity of properties? Explain taking metallic character of elements as an example. 17. Potassium is more reactive than sodium. Explain with the help of ionization energy. 18. An element has atomic mass 32 and its nucleus has 16 neutrons. To which group of periodic table does it belong? Explain. 19. The following is a portion of periodic table. Look at it and answer the following questions. 1 2 3-15 16 17 18 H He C D A E B (i) Out of A and B which one has lower ionization energy ? (ii) Which is bigger atom C or D? (iii) (iv) Which is the most electropositive element of all? Which is more metallic in nature D or E?
(v) Which is more non-metallic in nature C or D? (vi) Which is the least electronegative element of all? ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.1 1. Atomic mass of the middle element B must be nearly equal to the average of the other two elements A and C.
Or
Atomic mass of B = Atomic mass of A + Atomic mass of B

2
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
16 Atomic weight 8 Group These were the positions of elements which were yet to be discovered. Gallium
4.2 1. Atomic number 2. Any two of the following: i. Position of isotopes ii. Anomalous pairs of elements iii. Grouping of dissimilar elements iv. Separation of similar element. 3. Seven periods and eighteen groups 4. Alkaline earths 5. Non-metals 6. 32 4.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. increases decreases smaller increases, decreases increases minimum
GLOSSARY Actinides: A group of 14 elements with atomic numbers 90-103 (ThLr) which are placed along with the element actinium (Ac), atomic number 89 in the some position in group 3 in the periodic table. Atomic number: It is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom of an element.
Atomic radius: It is defined as one-half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms when they are linked to each other by a single covalent bond. Dobereiners triad: A group of three chemically similar elements in which the atomic mass and properties of the middle element are mean of the other two. Electron affinity: It is the energy change when an electron is accepted by an atom in an isolated gaseous state. By convention, it is assigned a positive value when energy is released during the process. Electronegativity: It is a measure of the tendency of a bonded atom to attract the bond-electrons towards itself. Groups: The vertical columns present in periodic table. Ionic radius: It is the radius of an ion i.e. the distance between the centre of ion and its outermost shell. Ionization energy: It is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state to form a gaseous ion. Lanthanides: A group of 14 elements with atomic numbers 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu) which are placed along with the element lanthanum (La), atomic number 57 in the some position in group 3 in the periodic table Mendeleevs periodic law: The chemical and physical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses. Modern periodic law : The chemical and physical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers. Newlands law of octaves: When elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic weights every eighth element has properties similar to the first. Noble gases: The elements present in group 18 on extreme right side of the periodic table. Their outermost shells contain 8 electrons. Normal elements: These are the elements present in groups 1 and 2 on left side and groups 13 to 17 on the right side of the periodic table whose only outermost shells are incomplete. Periodic properties: These are the properties which repeat themselves after a certain interval of atomic number. Periodic table: A tabular arrangement of the elements based on the periodic law. Periods: The horizontal rows present in the periodic table. Transition elements: These are the elements present in groups 3 to 12 in the middle of the periodic table whose two outermost shells are incomplete.
Chemical Bonding
INTRODUCTION:
In lessons 3 and 4, you have read about the electronic configurations of atoms of various elements and variation in the periodic properties of elements. But every thing present around us is not just the elements. We see substances which can be either elements or compounds You know that the atoms of same or different kinds may combine. When atoms of same elements combine, we get elements. But we get compounds when atoms of different elements combine. Have you ever thought why do atoms combine at all? In this lesson, we will find an answer to this question. We will first explain what a chemical bond is and then discuss various types of chemical bonds which join the atoms together to give various types of substances. The discussion would also highlight how are these bonds form. The properties of substances depend on the nature of bonds present between their atoms. For example, in the lesson you will learn sodium chloride, the common salt and glucose dissolve in water whereas methane gas or naphthalene does not .This is because the type of bonds present between them are different. In addition to the difference in solubility, these two types of compounds differ in other properties about you will study in this lesson. We will also briefly cover the nature of bonding in metals and correlate it to various characteristic properties of metals. Finally, hydrogen bonding which is an important interaction present between molecules would be explained.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you should be able to : - give reason for the formation of chemical bonds; - list various types of chemical bonds present in different substances; - describe the formation of an ionic bond with suitable examples; - explain the characteristic properties of ionic compounds; - describe the formation of a covalent bond with suitable examples; - explain the characteristic properties of covalent compounds; - explain bond parameters such as bond length, bond energy and bond polarity; - distinguish between polar and nonpolar molecules; - state the differences between ionic and covalent compounds; - explain the nature of bonding present in metals; - explain hydrogen bonding.
WHY DO ATOMS COMBINE ?

The answer to this question is hidden in the electronic configurations of the noble gases. It was found that noble gases namely helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon did not react with other elements to form compounds, i.e. they were nonreactive. Earlier they were also called as inert gases. It was, thus, thought that these noble gases lacked reactivity because they had electronic arrangements which were quite stable. When we write the electronic configurations of the noble gases (see table 5.1 below), we find that except helium all of them have 8 electrons in their outermost shell. Electronic Configuration of Noble gases
Name Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon Symbol He Ne Ar Kr Xe Ra Atomic number 2 10 18 36 54 86 Electronic configuration 2 2,8 2,8,8 2,8,18,8 2,8,18,18,8 2,8,18,32,18,8 No. of electrons in the outermost shell 2 8 8 8 8 8
Thus, it was concluded that atoms having 8 electrons in their outermost shell are very stable and they did not form compounds. It was also observed that other atoms such as hydrogen, sodium, chlorine etc. which do not have 8 electrons in their outermost shell undergo chemical reactions. They can stabilize by combining with each other and attaining the above configurations of noble gasses, i.e. 8 electrons (or 2 electrons in case of helium) in their outermost shells. Thus, atoms tend to attain a configuration in which they have 8 electrons in their outermost shells. This is called the octet rule. The octet rule explains the chemical bonding in many compounds. Atoms are held together in compounds by the forces of attraction which are called chemical bonds. The formation of chemical bonds results in the lowering of energy, i.e. as compared to the individual atoms the resulting compound is lower in energy and hence is more stable. Thus stability of the compound formed is an important factor in the formation of chemical bonds. In rest of the lesson; you will study about the nature of bonds present in various substances. We would explain ionic bonding and covalent bonding in detail while briefly touch upon the bonding in metals and hydrogen bonding. Before you start learning about ionic bonding in the next section, you can answer the following questions to check your understanding.
Ionic Bonding
When sodium metal and chlorine gas are brought into contact, they react violently and we obtain sodium chloride. This reaction is shown below. 2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) ->2 NaCl (s)
The bonding in sodium chloride can be understood as follows: Sodium (Na) has the atomic number 11 and we can write its electronic configuration as 2,8,1 i.e. it has one electron in its outermost (M) shell. If it loses this electron, it is left with 10 electrons. The resulting species is positively charged ion. Such a positively charged ion is called a cation. The cation in this case is called sodium cation Na+. This is shown below in Fig. 5.1.
Formation of Sodium Cation Note that the sodium cation has 11 protons but 10 electrons only. It has 8 electrons in the outermost (L) shell. Thus, sodium atom has attained the noble gas configuration (that of Neon as shown in Table 5.1) by losing an electron present in its outermost shell. Thus, according to octet rule, sodium atom can acquire stability by changing to sodium cation. The ionization of sodium atom to give sodium ion requires an energy of 496 kJ mol1. A chlorine atom having the atomic number 17, has the electronic configuration 2,8,7. It can complete its octet by gaining one electron. This is shown below in Fig.5.2.
Formation of chloride ion Note that in the above process, the chlorine atom has gained an additional electron and hence it has become negatively charged ion. Such a negatively charged ion is
called an anion. This anion is called chloride ion (Cl-). The chloride ion has 8 electrons in its outermost shell and it is a stable electronic configuration according to the octet rule. The formation of chloride ion from the chlorine atom releases 349 kJ mol-1 of energy. Thus, an ion is a species having positive or negative electrical charge. Both the cation and the anion are known by the general name ion. A cation is formed by the loss of an electron from the sodium atom whereas an anion is formed by the gain of an electron by chlorine atom. Since the cation (Na+) and the anion (Cl-) formed above are electrically charged species, they are held together by electrostatic force of attraction. This electrostatic force of attraction which holds the cation and anion together is known as electrovalent bond or ionic bond. This is represented as follows:
.
Na +
.
: Cl : -> ..
Na+
Cl-
Note that only outermost electrons are shown above. Such structures are also called Lewis structures. If we compare the energy required for the formation of sodium ion and that released in the formation of chloride ion, we note that there is a net difference of 147 kJ mol-1 of energy. If only these two steps are involved, then the formation of sodium chloride is not favorable energetically. But sodium chloride exists as a crystalline solid. This is because the energy is released when the sodium ions and the chloride ions come together to form the crystalline structure. The energy so released compensates the above deficiency of energy. The crystal structure of sodium chloride thus obtained is shown below in Fig 5.3.
The crystal structure of sodium chloride You can see that each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions and each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. The force of attraction between the sodium and chloride ions is uniformly felt in all directions. Thus, no particular sodium ion is bonded to a particular chloride ion. Hence, there is no species such as NaCl in the crystal structure shown above.
Similarly, we can explain the formation of cations resulting from lithium and potassium atoms and the formation of anions resulting from fluorine, oxygen and sulphur atoms. Let us now study the formation of another ionic compound namely magnesium chloride. We will proceed in the same way as we had done for sodium chloride. We will first consider magnesium (Mg) atom. Its atomic number is 12. Thus, it has 12 protons. The number of electrons present in it is also 12. Hence, the electronic configuration of Mg atom is 2, 8, 2. Let us consider the formation of magnesium ion from magnesium atom. We see that it has 2 electrons in its outermost shell. If it loses these two electrons, then it can achieve the stable configuration of 2, 8 (that of noble gas neon). This can be represented in Fig. 5.4 as follows:
Formation of magnesium ion You can see that the resulting magnesium ion has only 10 electrons and hence it has 2+ charge. It is a dipositive ion and can be represented as Mg2+ion. The two electrons lost by the magnesium are gained one each by two chlorine atoms to give two chloride ions. The formation of chloride ion has already been explained above. Thus, one magnesium ion and two chloride ion joins together to give magnesium chloride, MgCl2. Hence, we can write
Mg (2,8,2) + 2Cl 2(2,8,7) or MgCl2 -> Mg2+ (2,8) 2(Cl) 2(2,8,8)
Let us now see what would happen if instead of chloride ion, the magnesium ion combines with another anion say oxide anion. The oxygen atom having atomic number 8 has 8 electrons. Its electronic configuration is 2,6. It can attain a stable electronic arrangement (2,8) of the noble gas neon if it gains two more electrons. The two electrons, which are lost by the magnesium atom, are gained by the oxygen atom. On gaining these two electrons, the oxygen atom gets converted to the oxide anion. This is shown below in Fig 5.5.
Formation of oxide ion The oxide has 2 more electrons as compared to the oxygen atom. Hence, it has 2 negative charges on it. Therefore, it can be represented as O2- ion. The magnesium ion (Mg2+) and the oxide ion (O2-) are held together by electrostatic force of attraction. This leads to the formation of magnesium oxide.
Mg2+ (2,8)
O2(2,8)
->
Mg2+ (2,8)
O2(2,8)
Thus, magnesium oxide is an ionic compound in which a dipositive cation (Mg2+) and a dinegative anion (O2-) are held together by electrostatic force. Similar to the case of sodium chloride the formation of magnesium oxide is also accompanied with a lowering of energy which leads to the stability of magnesium oxide as compared to individual magnesium and oxygen atoms. Similarly, the ionic bonding present in many other ionic compounds can be explained. The ionic compounds show many characteristic properties which are discussed below: Let us consider the formation of magnesium ion from magnesium atom. We see that it has 2 electrons in its outermost shell. If it loses these two electrons, then it can achieve the stable configuration of 2, 8 (that of noble gas neon). This can be represented in Fig. 5.4 as follows:
COVALENT BONDING
In this section, we will study about another kind of bonding called covalent bonding. Covalent bonding is helpful in understanding the formation of molecules. In lesson 2, you studied that molecules having similar atoms such as H2, Cl2, O2, N2 etc. are constituents of elements whereas those containing different atoms like HCl, CO2 etc. are constituents of compounds. Let us now see how are these molecules formed? We will begin with the formation of hydrogen molecule (H2). The hydrogen atom has one electron. It can attain the electronic configuration of the noble gas helium by sharing one electron of another hydrogen atom. When the two hydrogen atoms come closer, there is an attraction between the electrons of one atom and the proton of another and there are repulsions between the electrons as well as the protons of the two hydrogen atoms. In the beginning, when the two hydrogen atoms approach each other, the potential energy of the system decreases due to the force of attraction. The value of potential energy reaches a minimum at some particular distance between the two atoms. If the distance between the two atoms further decreases, the potential energy increases because of the forces of repulsion. The covalent bond forms when the forces of attraction and repulsion balance each other and the potential energy is minimum. It is this lowering of energy which leads to the formation of the covalent bond.
Potential energy diagram We will next consider the formation of chlorine molecule (Cl2). A molecule of chlorine contains two atoms of chlorine. Now how are these two chlorine atoms held together in a chlorine molecule? You know that the electronic configuration of Cl atom is 2,8,7. Each chlorine atom needs one more electron to complete its octet. If the two chlorine atoms share one of their electrons as shown below, then both of them can attain the stable noble gas configuration of argon as shown below. Note that the shared pair of electrons is shown to be present between the two chlorine atoms. Each chlorine atom thus acquires 8 electrons. The shared pair of electrons keeps the two chlorine atoms bonded together. Such a bond, which is formed by sharing of electrons between the atoms is called a covalent bond. Thus,
we can say that a covalent bond is present between two chlorine atoms. This bond is represented by drawing a line between the two chlorine atoms as follows:
.. : Cl .. .. Cl : ..
Sometimes the electrons shown above on the chlorine atoms are omitted and the chlorine-chlorine bond is shown as follows: Cl - Cl Similarly, we can understand the formation of oxygen molecule (O2) from the oxygen atoms. The oxygen atom has atomic number 8. It has 8 protons and also 8 electrons. The electronic configuration of oxygen atom is 2,6. Now each oxygen atom needs two electrons to complete its octet. The two oxygen atoms share two electrons and complete their octet as is shown below: The 4 electrons (or 2 pairs of electrons) which are shared between two atoms of oxygen are present between them. Hence, these two pairs of shared electrons can be represented by two bonds between the oxygen atoms. Thus, an oxygen molecule can be represented as follows: The two oxygen atoms are said to be bonded together by two covalent bonds. Such a bond consisting of two covalent bonds is also known as a double bond. .. O .. O :
Let us next take the example of nitrogen molecule (N2) and understand how the two nitrogen atoms are bonded together. The atomic number of nitrogen is 7. Thus, it has 7 protons and 7 electrons present in its atom. The electronic configuration can be written as 2,5. To have 8 electrons in the outermost shell, each nitrogen atom requires 3 more electrons. Thus, a sharing of 3 electrons each between the two nitrogen atoms is required. This is shown below: Each nitrogen atom provides 3 electrons for sharing. Thus, 6 electrons or 3 pairs of electrons are shared between two nitrogen atoms. Hence, each nitrogen atom is able to complete its octet. Since 6 electrons (or 3 pairs of electrons) are shared between the nitrogen atoms, we say that three covalent bonds are formed between them. These three bonds are represented by drawing three lines between the two nitrogen atoms as shown below: Such a bond which consists three covalent bonds is known as a triple bond. So far, we were discussing covalent bond formation between atoms of the same elements. But covalent bond can be formed by sharing of electrons between atoms of different elements also. Let us take the example of HCl to understand it.
Hydrogen atom has one electron in its outermost shell and chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outermost shell. Each of these atoms has one electron less than the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas. If they share one electron pair, then hydrogen can acquire two electrons in its outer most shell whereas chlorine will have eight electrons in its outermost shell. The formation of HCl molecule by sharing of one electron pair is shown below: Similarly, we can explain bond formation in other covalent compounds. After knowing the nature of bonding present in covalent compounds, let us know study what type of properties these covalent compounds have. Properties of covalent compounds The covalent compounds consist of molecules which are electrically neutral in nature. The forces of attraction present between the molecules are less strong as compared to the forces present in ionic compounds. Therefore, the properties of the covalent compounds are different from those of the ionic compounds. The characteristic properties of covalent compounds are given below: a) Physical state Because of the weak forces of attraction present between discrete molecules, called inter-molecular forces, the covalent compounds exist as a gas or a liquid or a solid. For example, O2, N2, CO2 are gases; water and CCl4 are liquids and iodine is a solid. b) Melting and boiling points As the forces of attraction between the molecules are weak in nature, a small amount of energy is sufficient to overcome them. Hence, the melting points and boiling points of covalent compounds are lower than those of ionic compounds. For example, melting point of naphthalene which is a covalent compound is 353K (80o C). Similarly, the boiling point of carbon tetrachloride which is another covalent compound is 350 K (77o C). c) Electrical conductivity The covalent compounds contain neutral molecules and do not have charged species such as ions or electrons which can carry charge. Therefore, these compounds do not conduct electricity and are called poor conductors of electricity. d) Solubility Covalent compounds are generally not soluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents such as alcohol, chloroform, benzene, ether etc.
After understanding the nature of covalent bond and properties of covalent compounds, let us now study about certain characteristic features associated with a covalent bond. Bond parameters A covalent bond has characteristic values associated with it. These are called bond parameters. Some of these parameters are bond length, bond angle, bond energy, bond polarity and bond angle. We will now discuss them one by one. a) Bond length: It is the distance between the nuclei when they combine to form covalent bond. The bond lengths for some common bonds are shown below in Table 5.2. You can note that as the number of bonds between the two atoms increases, the bond length between them decreases. Bond lengths for some common bonds Bond C-C C=C CC C-O C=O C=O Bond length (pm) 154 134 120 143 123 113 Bond N-N N=N N=N O-O O=O Bond length (pm) 147 124 110 148 121
b) Bond angle: It is the angle between two bonds of a covalent molecule. For example, in water molecule the bond angle is 104.5o. c) Bond energy: The stability of a molecule can be related to the strength of the covalent bonds present in it. The stronger the covalent bonds present in a molecule, the more would be its stability. The strength of the covalent bond can be expressed in terms of the energy required to break the bond. For example, 242 kJ of energy is required to break the Cl-Cl bond of Cl2 molecule present in one mole of chlorine gas. .. : Cl .. .. Cl :(g) -> 2: ..
Cl :(g)
The energy required to break one mole of a bond in isolated molecules of a substance is known as bond energy. The bond energy values for a particular bond can vary slightly from one compound to another. The bond energy values are therefore reported as average bond energies. The average bond energies of some of the bonds are listed in Table 5.3.
You can see from Table 5.3 that the bond energy increases as the number of bonds between two atoms increases. Hence, it indicates that the bonds become stronger and stronger as the number of bonds increases. d) Bond polarity: When a bond is formed between the atoms of the same element, the resulting molecule is called a homonuclear molecule. In such molecules, the electrons forming the bond are equally shared between the atoms. For example, in H2, Cl2, O2 molecules, the bonded electrons are equally shared between the atoms of these molecules. But when two atoms of different elements form a bond, the resulting molecule is known as a heteronuclear molecule. In these molecules, the shared pair of electrons is pulled more by the more electronegative atom towards itself. For example, in HCl molecule the shared pair of electrons is pulled more by the more electronegative chlorine atom. This leads to partial separation of charges which are represented by d+ and d as shown below: Thus, two poles one negative (Cl atom) and the other positive (H atom), are formed in the HCl molecule. The dipole in HCl molecule can also be represented by H Cl where the foot of the arrow represents the positive end of the dipole and the arrow head represents the negative end of the dipole. The bonds such as those present between the HCl molecules are called polar bonds. Hence, such molecules are called polar molecules. Shapes of molecules The bond lengths and bond angles of various molecules can be determined experimentally. The values so obtained give us an idea about the shapes of molecules. The covalent molecules have definite shapes because the covalent bonds are formed along a particular direction. Thus, we can say that the covalent bond is directional in nature. Note that this is in contrast to the ionic compounds in which the electrostatic forces of attraction are felt equally strongly in all the directions. Some examples of common covalent molecules and their shapes are given below in Table 5.4. Name Oxygen(O2) Nitrogen(N2) Structure .. .. :O=O: :N=N: Shape linear linear
Bonding in metals
You know that some of the characteristic properties of metals are malleability, ductility, conduction of heat and electricity, high melting point etc. The high melting point indicates that bonding in metals is strong in nature. These properties of metals can be explained with the help of electron sea model. According to this model, the cations of metal are present in a sea of electrons as shown below in Fig.5.7.
Electron sea model The electrostatic forces of attraction hold the electrons and the cations together. Since these forces are strong in nature, the melting point of metals is high. The electrons are distributed throughout the metal and they are not confined to any particular metal cation. These electrons are mobile and hence can conduct electricity when the metal is connected to a battery or two electrodes. Similarly, the metal ions can also move and no specific bonds are to be broken in this movement. Since both the electrons and the metal ions can freely move and their environment does not change by this movement, the metals exhibit the malleability and ductility. So far we have discussed chemical bonds resulting from strong forces of attraction, but weaker forces of attraction also play an important role towards the properties of many substances. One such type of interaction present between the molecules is hydrogen bonding. Let us now study about it in detail.
Hydrogen Bonding
When hydrogen is bonded to an electronegative atom such as oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine, a special or unique type of attraction is present among the molecules of such compounds. The hydrogen of one molecule is attracted by the electronegative atom of the adjacent molecule. Such type of bonding is shown by dotted lines for hydrogen fluoride and water in Fig.5.8. The strength of hydrogen bonding varies from about 4 kJ mol-1 to 25 kJ mol-1 in various substances. This energy is much less than that required breaking one mole of an ionic or a covalent substance as you can see from Table 5.3.
H_____F-----H_____F-----H_____F
The existence of water in liquid state is because of hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding is also responsible for the low density of ice as compared to water. In ice, hydrogen bonding gives an ordered arrangement of water molecules which has a lot of free space in between them. Since ice is lighter than water, it floats on water and provides an insulating layer over water which is very important for the survival of aquatic life.
Hydrogen bonding also explains the miscibility of alcohol in water in all proportions. Glucose which contains six-OH groups makes hydrogen bonds with water molecules and hence is very soluble in water. More than 80 g of glucose dissolves in 100 mL of water. In proteins, hydrogen bonding is responsible for their helical structure
In Text Questions
1. State octet rule 2. Why are noble gases non-reactive? 3. Define the term ion. Name the two types of ions? 4. How many shells are present in Na+ ion? 5. What is the number of electrons present in Cl- ion? 6. Name the type of force of attraction present in ionic compounds. 7. In sodium chloride lattice, how many Cl- ions surround each Na+ ion? 8. How many electron pairs are shared between (i) Cl2 (ii) O2 and (iii) HCl molecules? 9. Which of the following statements are true for covalent molecules? i ) They are poor conductors of electricity. ii ) Their boiling points are high. iii ) They have definite shape
1. Define the terms: cation and anion.
2. Classify the following as cations or anions: Na+, O2-, Cl-, Ca2+, N3-, K+, Mg2+, -OH 3. Explain the formation of Li+ ion from Li atom. 4. How would you explain the bonding in MgCl2? 5. Which of the following statements are correct for ionic compounds: i) They are insoluble in water. ii) They are neutral in nature. iii) They have high melting points. 6. State three characteristic properties of ionic compounds.
7. How does a covalent bond form? 8. What is the number of bonds present in the following molecules? i) Cl 2 ii) N2 iii) O2 9. Classify the following statements as true or false: i) Ionic compounds contain ions which are held together by weak electrostatic forces. ii) Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. iii) Covalent compounds are good conductors of electricity. iv) Sodium chloride is a good conductor of electricity. 10. Classify the following compounds as ionic or covalent: i) sodium chloride ii) calcium chloride iii) oxygen iv) hydrogen chloride v) magnesium oxide vi) nitrogen 11. Classify the following molecules as polar or non-polar: i) H2 (ii) HCl (iii) O2 (iv) H2O 12. Why is hydrogen bonding important? Give two examples. 13. Name the type of bonds present in H2O molecule. 14. Explain electron sea model of bonding in metals
What you have learnt
Atoms combine to attain a stable arrangement of eight electrons in their outer most shell. Ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces. Hence, ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity . They are soluble in water but insoluble in inorganic solvents. Covalent bonds are formed by sharing of electrons between atoms. Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. They are poor conductors of electricity.
The covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents. Covalent bonds are directional in nature and hence covalent compounds have definite shapes. Bond length decreases with the number of bonds whereas the bond energy increases with the number of bonds. Electrons are mobile in metals and hence the metals and hence the metals are good conductors of electricity. Hydrogen bonding is an important interaction and is responsible for variety of properties in various molecules. In water, it is responsible for its liquid nature whereas, it is responsible for its liquid nature whereas in proteins it is responsible for their shape and in glucose it is responsible for its solubility in water.
Chemical Arithmetic and Reactions

Total number of reactions we study in chemistry is very large. They are of numerous types. In lesson 2, you have learnt how to write and balance chemical equations. In this lesson you will learn, how chemical equations can be classified into various categories on the basis of some of their features. You will also learn about the information that can be obtained from a balanced chemical equation and how we can use this information for making calculations. You have learnt about acids, bases and salts in earlier classes. In this lesson you will learn more about them. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: list various types of reactions; distinguish between various types of reactions; classify the reactions according to their rates and energy changes; work out simple problems based on stoichiometry; define acids, bases and salts and give their examples; explain the acid-base equilibrium in aqueous systems; define pH and solve simple problems based on pH. 6.1 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS Chemical reactions can be classified on the basis of some of their features. One classification is based on the nature of chemical change that occurs in the reaction. On this basis reactions can be classified into five types. These are: (i) Combination reactions (ii) Decomposition reactions (iii) Displacement reactions (iv) Double-displacement reactions (v) Oxidation-reduction reactions Let us now learn about these reactions. 6.1.1 Combination reactions A reaction in which two or more substances react to form a new substance is called a combination reaction.
: 98 : Chemical Arithmetic and Reactions
A special category of combination reactions is the one in which a compound is formed by combination of its constituent elements. Such a reaction is known as synthesis reaction. Following are some examples of combination reactions: 1. Carbon (charcoal, coke) burns in presence of oxygen (or air) to form carbon dioxide (synthesis reaction). CO2(g) C(s) + O2(g)
carbon oxygen carbon dioxide
2. Hydrogen burns in presence of oxygen (or air) to form water (synthesis reaction). 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
hydrogen oxygen water
3. Phosphorus combines with chlorine to form phosphorus pentachloride (synthesis reaction). P4(s) + 10Cl2(g) 4PCl5 (s)
phosphorus chlorine phosphorus pentachloride
4. Ammonia combines with hydrogen chloride to form ammonium chloride. NH3 (g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
ammonia hydrogen chloride ammonium chloride
6.1.2 Decomposition reactions A reaction in which one substance breaks down into two or more simpler substances is known as decomposition reaction. A decomposition reaction always involves breaking of one or more chemical bonds and therefore occurs only when the required amount of energy is supplied. The energy may be supplied in any of the following forms: Heat: Such decomposition reactions are called thermal decomposition reactions. (ii) Electricity: Such decomposition reactions are called electro-decomposition reactions and the process is known as electrolysis. (iii) Light: Such decomposition reactions are called photo-decomposition reactions and the process is known as photolysis. Following are some examples of decomposition reactions: 1. Potassium chlorate decomposes on heating into potassium chloride and oxygen. 2KClO3 (s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
potassium chlorate potassium chloride oxygen
(i)
2. When calcium carbonate (limestone) is heated strongly it decomposes into calcium oxide (quicklime) and carbon dioxide. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
calcium carbonate calcium oxide carbon dioxide
3. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen on heating. 2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
hydrogen peroxide water oxygen
4. Water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen on passing electricity through it (electrolysis).
2H 2O(l)
water
2H2(g)
hydrogen
O2(g)
oxygen
5. Lead nitrate decomposes on heating into lead monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. 2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
lead nitrate lead monoxide nitrogen dioxide oxygen
6.1.3 Displacement reactions A reaction in which one element present in a compound is displaced by another element is known as displacement reaction. Following are examples of displacement reactions: 1. Displacement of a metal by a more reactive metal. a. Zinc displaces copper from a solution of copper sulphate. Zn (s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) +
zinc copper sulphate zinc sulphate
Cu(s)
copper
b. Magnesium displaces copper from a solution of copper sulphate. Mg(s)

magnesium
CuSO4(aq)
copper sulphate
MgSO4(aq)
magnesium sulphate
Cu (s)
copper
2. Displacement of hydrogen from solutions of acids by more reactive metals. a. Zinc displaces hydrogen from dilute sulphuric acid. Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
zinc dil. sulphuric acid zinc sulphate hydrogen
b. Magnesium displaces hydrogen from dilute hydrochloric acid Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
magnesium dil hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride hydrogen
2. Displacement of a halogen by a more reactive halogen. Chlorine displaces bromine from a solution of potassium bromide. Cl 2(g) + 2KBr(aq) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
chlorine potassium bromide potassium chloride bromine
6.1.4 Double-displacement reactions A reaction in which two ionic compounds exchange their ions is known as double displacement reaction. The following are the examples of double displacement reactions: a. Reaction between sodium chloride and silver nitrate. NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) AgCl(s)
sodium chloride silver nitrate silver chloride
NaNO3(aq)
sodium nitrate
b. Neutralization of hydrochloric acid by sodium hydroxide. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) +

hydrochloric acid sodium hydroxide sodium chloride
H 2O(l)
water
6.1.5 Oxidationreduction or redox reactions These are the reaction in which oxidation and reduction processes occur. Let us first learn what these processes are. a) Oxidation: It is a process which involves loss of electrons. Earlier it was defined as a process involving addition of oxygen or loss of hydrogen.
b) Reduction: Reduction is a process which involves gain of electrons. Earlier it was defined as a process involving removal of oxygen or addition of hydrogen. c) Redox reactions: From the above definitions, you must have noticed above that oxidation and reduction processes are just opposite to each other. None of these processes can occur alone. During a reaction if one substance gets oxidized the other gets reduced. Thus, both the processes occur simultaneously. That is why the reactions in which oxidation and reduction processes occur are called redox reactions or oxidation-reduction reactions. Now let us understand these processes with the help of some examples. (i) Consider burning of coke (carbon) in presence of oxygen: C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
carbon oxygen carbon dioxide
In this reaction carbon is getting oxidized as oxygen is added to it and oxygen is reduced. (ii) When hydrogen sulphide reacts with sulphur dioxide the products are sulphur and water. 2H2S(g) + SO2(g) 3S(s) + 2H 2O(l)
hydrogen sulphide sulphur dioxide sulphur water
Here, hydrogen sulphide is oxidized to sulphur due to loss of hydrogen while sulphur dioxide is reduced to sulphur due to loss of oxygen. (iii)When copper (II) oxide is treated with hydrogen, copper and water are produced. CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H 2O(l)
cupric oxide hydrogen copper water
Here cupric oxide is reduced to copper due to loss of oxygen while hydrogen is oxidized to water due to addition of oxygen. (iv)When sodium metal reacts with chlorine it forms sodium chloride. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
sodium chlorine sodium chloride
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound. Sodium is present in it as sodium ion (Na+) and chlorine as chloride ion (Cl-). This reaction can be considered to occur in the following steps: Each sodium atom loses one electron and forms sodium ion. Since two sodium atoms are involved in the reaction, the process is: 2Na 2Na+ + 2e sodium sodium ion Thus, sodium is oxidized due to loss of electron. Each chlorine atom gains one electron and forms chloride ion. Since one chlorine molecule has two atoms of chlorine the process is: Cl2 + 2e 2Cl
chlorine chloride ion
Thus, chlorine is reduced due to gain of electrons. (v) When zinc is added to an aqueous solution of copper sulphate, it displaces copper. Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) zinc copper sulphate zinc sulphate copper
Here zinc is oxidized to zinc ions and copper ions are reduced to copper. This reaction is displacement reaction as well as a redox reaction. (d) Oxidizing and reducing agents : Consider the reaction between zinc and copper sulphate: Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) In this reaction zinc reduces cupric ions to copper. Such a substance which reduces another substance is called a reducing agent. Here, zinc is the reducing agent. Also, in this reaction cupric ions oxidize zinc to zinc ions. Such a substance which oxidizes another substance is called an oxidizing agent. Here, cupric ions are the oxidizing agent. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.1 Match the type of reaction given in column I with the reactions given in column II. I II 1. Displacement A. 2H2S(g) + SO2(g) 3S(g) + 2H2O(1) reaction 2. Double B. NH3 + HCl NH4Cl displacement reaction 3. Combination C. 3CaCl2 + 2K3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6KCl reaction 4. Redox reaction D. Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s) 5. Decomposition E. 2H2O2 2H2O + O2 reaction 6.2 NATURE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS In the last section, we have learnt how chemical reactions have been classified into various types on the basis of the nature of chemical change that occurs in them. In this section we shall learn about some other features of chemical reactions. These features have been discussed below. 6.2.1 Homogeneousheterogeneous reactions Chemical reactions can be classified on the basis of physical states of reactants and products as homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions. a) Homogeneous reactions The reactions in which all the reactants and products are present in the same phase are called homogeneous reactions. Such reactions can occur in gas phase or solution phase only. A. Gas phase homogeneous reactions These are the reactions in which all reactants and products are gases. (i) H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
hydrogen chlorine
(ii)
2SO2(g)
sulphur dioxide
O2(g)
oxygen
H+
hydrogen chloride
2SO3(g)
sulphur trioxide
(iii)
N2(g)
nitrogen
3H2(g)
hydrogen
2NH3(g)
ammonia
B. Solution phase homogeneous reactions These are the reactions in which all reactants and products are present in a solution. (i) HCl(aq)
hydrochloric acid
NaOH(aq)
sodium hydroxide
NaCl(aq)
sodium chloride
H2O(l)
water
(ii) CH3COOC2H5(l) +
H2O(l)
CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l)
b) Heterogeneous reactions The reactions in which reactants and products are present in more than one phase are called heterogeneous reactions. Such reactions involve at least one solid substance along with one or more substances in solid, solution or gaseous phase. The following are the examples of heterogeneous reactions. (i) (ii) (iii) CaCO3(s)
calcium carbonate
CaO(s)
calcium oxide
CO2(g)
carbon dioxide
2Mg(s)
magnesium
+ +
O2(g)
oxygen
2MgO(s)
magnesium oxide
BaCl2(aq)
barium chloride
Na2SO4(aq)
sodium sulphate
BaSO4(s)
barium sulphate
2NaCl(aq)
sodium chloride
6.2.2 Slow and fast reactions Different reactions occur at different rates. Rusting of iron is a slow process and requires few days time. On the other hand burning of cooking gas is a fast reaction. On the basis of their rates chemical reactions can be classified as slow and fast reactions. Rusting of iron, curdling of milk, hydrolysis of esters at room temperature (e.g. reaction between ethyl acetate and water), fading of colours of clothes, burning of coal, etc. are some examples of slow reactions. On the other hand, neutralization reaction (e.g. reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide), explosion reactions (e.g. in a fire cracker bomb), action of acids or bases on litmus, and burning of cooking gas are some examples of fast reactions. A large number of reactions are neither slow nor fast. They may be termed as moderate reactions. Burning of candle, thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate, and reaction of zinc with dilute sulphuric acid are some examples of moderate reactions. 6.2.3 Exothermic and endothermic reactions All chemical reactions are accompanied by some energy changes. Energy is either evolved or absorbed during the reaction usually in the form of heat. Depending upon this, the reactions are classified as exothermic and endothermic reactions. a) Exothermic reactions The reactions in which heat is liberated or evolved are called exothermic reactions. In such reactions heat is shown as one of the products. If exact amount of heat evolved is known then this amount is written otherwise simply the word heat is written. Following are the examples of exothermic reactions. (i) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) + heat or 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) + 571.5 kJ
(ii) (iii)
C(s) + O2(g) HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
CO2(g) + 393.5 kJ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) +
57.3 kJ
b) Endothermic reactions The reactions in which heat is absorbed are called endothermic reactions. In such reactions heat is shown as one of the reactants. If exact amount of heat absorbed is known then this amount is written otherwise simply the word heat is written. Following are the examples of endothermic reactions (i) or (ii) N2(g) N2(g) 2KClO3(s)
lead nitrate
+ + +
2O2(g) O2(g) heat heat
+ +
heat 180.7 kJ 2KCl(s)

potassium chloride
2NO(g)
nitric oxide
2NO(g) 3O2(g) + O2(g)
potassium chlorate
(iii) 2Pb(NO3)2(s) +
2PbO(s)
4NO2(g)
nitrogen dioxide
6.2.4 Reversible and irreversible reactions Chemical reactions can also be classified on the basis whether they can occur only in the forward direction or in forward as well as backward directions. a) Irreversible reactions Most of the reactions would occur till the reactants (or atleast one reactant) have been completely converted into products. For example, if a small piece of zinc metal is put in a test tube containing excess of dilute hydrochloric acid, it completely reacts with it. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq) Such reactions occur in forward direction only. The reactions which occur in forward direction only are called irreversible reactions. The following are some more examples of irreversible reactions: (i) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
magnesium magnesium oxide
(ii)
2HgO(s)
mercuric oxide
2Hg(l)
mercury
O2(g)
(iii) NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) b) Reversible reactions On the other hand consider the reaction: H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) In this reaction hydrogen and iodine are not completely converted into hydrogen iodide. The reason for this is that the moment some HI is formed it starts decomposing back into H2 and I2. 2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g) The reactions that can occur in forward and reverse directions, simultaneously under same set of conditions are called reversible reactions. Reversible nature of a reaction is indicated by writing two arrows (or two-half arrows) in opposite directions between reactants and products as shown below;
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) or H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) Some more examples of reversible reactions are : (i) Synthesis of ammonia N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) (ii) Oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide O2(g) 2SO3(g) 2SO2(g) + 6.2.5 Equilibrium in reversible reactions In the last section we have learned that a reversible reaction can occur in forward as well as reverse directions simultaneously. Consider the following reaction: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
When the reaction is started by taking a mixture of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxygen (O2) it would initially occur only in the forward direction and formation of sulphur trioxide (SO3) would begin. Initially the rate of this reaction is fast. As it progresses its rate decreases. This happens because as reactants are consumed their concentrations decrease. Concentration Concentration is a measure of the amount of a substance contained per unit volume. In chemistry it is commonly measured in terms of molarity. Molarity is the number of moles of a substance present in one litre volume. It has the unit of mol L-1. In case of gases it is their number of moles present in one litre volume. And in case of solutions it is the number of moles of solute present in one litre volume of solution. The molar concentration of a substance X is denoted by writing its formula/symbol within a square bracket [X]. As soon as SO3 is formed, it starts decomposing and the backward reaction also starts. Initially its rate is very slow but as the reaction progresses the concentration of SO3 (which is reactant for the reverse reaction) increases and the rate of reverse reaction also increases. Thus, with the progress of reaction, the rate of forward reaction decreases and that of the reverse reaction increases with Fig. 6.1 Changes in rates of forward and backward time. These changes are depicted in the (reverse) reactions in a reversible reaction. When the two figure 6.1.
become equal, the reaction attains equilibrium.
After some time, the rate of the forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of the reverse reaction and the reaction reaches equilibrium state (Fig. 6.1). Under these conditions, there is no change in concentration of any reactant or product. A system is said to be in a state of equilibrium if none of its properties change with time. In other words, when a system is in a state of equilibrium, all its properties remain constant.
At equilibrium the concentrations of reactants [SO2] and [O2] and product [SO3] are related by the following expression known as the law of equilibrium: Kc =
2 3 _______________
[SO ]
[SO2][O2]
How to write the expression of the law of equilibrium ? To understand how to write the expression of law of equilibrium for any reaction let us take a general reaction: aA + bB cC + dD For this reaction, the law of equilibrium is given by the following expression : [C]c[D]d Kc = _______________ [A]a[B]b In this expression, Kc is the equilibrium constant for the reaction. The numerator is obtained by multiplying the concentration terms for all products after each term has been raised to the power which is equal to the stoichiometric coefficient of that product. Here C and D are the two products and c and d are their respective stoichiometric coefficients. Therefore, numerator would be the obtained by multiplying [C]c and [D]d terms. Also, conventionally if any pure solid or liquid is taking part in the equilibrium, its concentration is taken as 1. Similarly, the denominator is obtained by multiplying the concentration terms of all reactants after each term has been raised to the power which is equal to the stoichiometric coefficient of that reactant. Static and dynamic equilibrium The type of equilibrium attained by reversible reactions is called dynamic equilibrium. Such an equilibrium state is attained as a result of two equal but opposite changes occurring simultaneously so that no net change occurs in the system. Therefore, all the properties of the system acquire constant values. You can encounter a similar situation when a person is walking on a treadmill. His speed of walking is exactly matched by the speed of the treadmill which moves in the backward direction. The net result is that position of the person does not change and he stays there only. Another similar situation in encountered when a person using an escalator for climbing starts moving down on it and matches his speed with that of the escalator. Another type of equilibrium is attained when a system is acted upon by a set of forces that cancel out each other. Such an equilibrium state is attained when no change occurs in it. This type of equilibrium is called static equilibrium. A book lying on a table is in state of static equilibrium because the downward acting gravitational force is balanced and cancelled by the upward acting force of reaction from the table (Newtons third law of motion). Another similar situation is encountered in the game tug of war when the efforts of the two opponent teams (forces by which they pull the rope) exactly match and they remain where they are.
Kc of a reaction is its characteristic property at a given temperature and it characterizes the equilibrium state. Its value changes only when temperature is changed. The same equilibrium state (characterized by the value of Kc) is reached finally whether the reaction is started from the reactant side or from the product side or all reactants and products are mixed in arbitrary amounts. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.2 Select the correct choice about the nature of each reaction out of the two options mentioned against it. 1. Burning of petrol in a car (homogeneous / heterogeneous). 2. CaCO3(s) 3. 2HgO(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) (exothermic / endothermic) 2Hg(l) + O2(g) (reversible / irreversible)
4. Bursting of crackers (slow / fast) 5. A reversible reaction at a stage when concentration of reactants and products is changing (equilibrium state /non-equilibrium state) 6.3 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS AND STOICHIOMETRY In lesson 2 you have learnt how to write and balance chemical equations. Stoichiometry deals with the proportions in which elements or compounds react with one another. In this section we shall learn how to use the stoichiometric information in a balanced chemical equation for making some calculations. 6.3.1 Significance of balanced chemical equation Balanced chemical equation carries the following information: a) Qualitative information carried by a balanced chemical equation Reactants taking part in the reaction Products formed in the reaction Physical states of different reactants and products (if given) b) Quantitative information carried by a balanced chemical equation Number of molecules of different reactants and products taking part in the reaction Number of moles of different reactants and products taking part in the reaction Masses of different reactants and products taking part in the reaction Relationship between moles of different reactants and products taking part in the reaction Relationship between masses of different reactants and products taking part in the reaction Relationship between volumes of different gaseous reactants and products taking part in the reaction
Let us understand how to get this information from a chemical equation with the help of an example.
Information carried by a chemical equation
Names Physical states Moles (Molar masses) 2Na(s) sodium solid 2 moles ( Na= 23 ) + 2H2O(l) water liquid 2 moles (H2O = 2 +16 = 18) 2NaOH(aq) + sodium hydroxide aqueous solution 2 moles (NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40) H2(g) hydrogen gas 1mole (H2 = 2)
Masses
2 x 23 = 46g 1 x 2 = 2g
2 x 18 = 36g
2 x 40 = 80g 1 x 22.7
Volume* of L=22.7L gaseous substance
From the information listed above we can conclude that: (i) Sodium metal (solid) reacts with water (liquid) and produces sodium hydroxide (aqueous solution) and hydrogen (gas). (ii) 2 moles of sodium react with 2 moles of water and produce 2 moles of sodium hydroxide and 1 mole of hydrogen. Thus the ratio of number of moles of these substances is 2:2:2:1. (iii) 46 g sodium reacts with 36 g water and produces 80 g of NaOH and 2 g of hydrogen. (iv) 2 moles or 46 g sodium produces 22.7 L of hydrogen gas when it reacts with water. (v) 2 moles or 36 g water produces 22.7 L of hydrogen gas when it reacts with sodium. c) Limitations or information not carried by a chemical equation Conditions under which the reaction takes place Rate of the reaction whether it is fast, slow or moderate The extent up to which the reaction takes place before equilibrium state is reached in case of a reversible reaction 6.3.2 Calculations based on chemical equations The information that can be obtained from a chemical equation can be used to make several types of calculations. Let us carry out few such calculations. a) Mole-mole relationship Example 6.1: In the reaction 2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g) calculate the following: (i) How many moles of oxygen will be produced if 10 moles of KClO3 are decomposed? (ii) How many moles of KCl would be produced with 0.6 moles of O2? Solution: The given reaction is 2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
2 moles 2 moles 3 moles *Volume of a gaseous substance can be calculated by making use of the fact that one mole of a gas occupies a volume of 22.7 L at STP (standard temperature and pressure) i.e. at 273 K temperature and 1 bar pressure.
(i) 2 moles of KClO3 produce 3 moles of oxygen. Therefore, 10 moles of KClO3 would produce 3 10 = _________ = 15 moles of oxygen. 2 (ii) With 3 moles of oxygen the number of moles of KCl produced = 2 moles With 0.6 moles of oxygen the number of moles of KCl produced 2 0.6 = ___________ = 0.4 moles 3 b) Mass-mass relationship Example 6.2: For the reaction N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) Calculate the masses of nitrogen and hydrogen required to produce 680 g of ammonia? Solution: The given reaction is: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) 1mole 3 moles 2 moles 1 x 28 3x2 2 x (14+3) 28 g 6g 34 g Thus to produce 34 g ammonia the mass of nitrogen required = 28 g Therefore to produce 680 g ammonia the mass of nitrogen required 28 x 680 = _____________ = 560 g 34 Similarly, to produce 34 g ammonia the mass of hydrogen required = 6 g Therefore to produce 680 g ammonia the mass of hydrogen required 6 x 680 = _____________ = 120 g 34 c) Volume-volume relationship Example 6.3 : The following reaction is used industrially for manufacture of sulphuric acid. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) How much volume of oxygen at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure) would be required for producing 100 L of SO3 (at STP)? Solution: In the reaction 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) 2 mole 1 mole 2 mole 2 x 22.7 L 22.7 L 2 x 22.7 L 2 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes To produce 2 volumes or 2 L of SO3 the oxygen required is 1 volume or 1 L.
To produce 1L of SO3 the oxygen required is 0.5 L Therefore to produce 100 L of SO3 the volume of oxygen required is 0.5 x 100 = 50 L d) Mixed calculations Example 6.4: Calculate the mass of hydrochloric acid required for neutralizing 1 kg of NaOH Solution: The neutralization reaction involved between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide is as follows : HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O (l) 1mole 1 mole 1 + 35.5 23 + 16 + 1 = 36.5 g = 40 g Thus, for neutralizing 40 g of NaOH the mass of HCl required is 36.5 g. For neutralizing 1 kg or 1000 g of NaOH the mass of HCl required is 36.5 x 1000 _________________ = 912.5 g 40 Example 6.5: In the reaction 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) calculate the following: (i) The maximum number of moles of sodium that can react with 4 moles of water. (ii) The mass of sodium hydroxide that would be produced when 4.6 g of sodium reacts with excess of water. (iii) The mass and volume at STP of hydrogen gas that would be produced when 1.8 g of water reacts completely with sodium metal. Solution: 2Na(s) + 2 moles 2 x 23 = 46 g =2g
22.7 L at STP
2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) 2 moles 2 moles 1 mole 2 x 18 = 36 g 2 x 40 = 80 g
1 x 2
(i) From the equation it can be seen that 2 moles of water react with 2 moles of sodium 4 moles of water can react with a maximum of 4 moles of sodium. (ii) 46 g sodium reacts to produce 80 g sodium hydroxide 80 x 4.6 4.6 g sodium would produce _______________ = 8.0 g sodium hydroxide. 46 (iii) 6 g of water produces 2 g or 22.7 L of hydrogen at STP 2 x 1.8 22.7 x 1.8 1.8 g of water would produce ___________ = 0.1 g of hydrogen and ______________ = 1.135 L 36 36 of hydrogen at STP.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.3 Consider the equation for combustion of benzene (C6H6): 2C6H6(l) + 15O2(g) 12CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) + heat Some statements about this reaction are given below. Read them carefully and indicate against each statement whether it is true (T) or false (F). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It is an exothermic reaction. 0.1 mole of benzene would require 7.5 moles of oxygen for its combustion. 1 mole of benzene would produce 134.4 L of CO2 at STP. 10.8 g water would be produced by combustion of 15.6 g benzene. 200 g of O2 is sufficient to convert 1 mole of benzene completely into CO2 and H2O.
6.4 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS You have learnt in your earlier classes about three types of substancesacids, bases and salts. They are vital to many life processes and are valuable to industry. Let us do a quick revision about them. 6.4.1 Acids An acid is defined as a substance that furnishes hydrogen ions (H+) in its solution. Actually, the hydrogen ion, H+ does not exist in the aqueous solution as such. Instead, it attaches itself to a water molecule to form the hydronium ion (H3O+). It is customary, however, to simplify equations by using the symbol for the hydrogen ion (H+). The strongest acids are the mineral or inorganic acids. These include sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid. More important to life are hundreds of weaker organic acids. These include acetic acid (in vinegar), citric acid (in lemons), lactic acid (in sour milk), and the amino acids (in proteins). Acids have sour taste and turn blue litmus red. They react with metals (which are more reactive than hydrogen) to liberate hydrogen. Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H 2(g) 6.4.2 Bases Bases are the substances which furnish hydroxyl ions OH in their solutions. The hydroxides of metals are the compounds that have the hydroxyl group. They are called bases. Hydroxides of alkali metalslithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium have the special name of alkalies. A basic solution is also called an alkaline solution. Bases have bitter taste and turn red litmus blue. Taste of acids and bases Although you will find mention of taste of acids being sour and that of bases being bitter in books, never attempt to taste them yourself. Many of them can cause serious damage if swallowed or even on their contact with tongue. 6.4.3 Salts A salt is a substance produced by the reaction of an acid with a base. It consists of the cation (positive ion) of a base and the anion (negative ion) of an acid. The reaction between an acid and a base is called a neutralization reaction. In solution or in the molten state,
most salts are completely dissociated into cation and anion and are good conductors of electricity. 2NaOH(s)
sodium hydroxide
+ H2SO4(l)
sulphuric acid
Na2SO4(aq)
sodium sulphate
2H2O(l)
Another typical acid-base reaction is between calcium hydroxide and phosphoric acid to produce calcium phosphate and water: 3Ca(OH)2(s)
calcium hydroxide
+ 2H3PO4(l)
phosphoric acid
Ca3(PO4)2(aq) +
calcium phosphate
6H2O(l)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.4 A substance AB is formed by reaction between an acid X and a base Y along with water. The cation and anion of the compound AB are monovalent. 1. What type of substance is AB? 2. Which one out of AB, X and Y would turn red litmus blue? 3. Which one out of AB, X and Y would have sour taste? 6.5 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA IN AQUEOUS SYSTEMS In the last section we discussed the nature of three important types of substancesacids, bases and salts. They show their typical properties in aqueous solutions. In this section we shall learn about their behaviour in such solutions. 6.5.1 Electrolytes and non-electrolytes An electrolyte is a substance that conducts electric current through it in the molten state or through its solution. The most familiar electrolytes are acids, bases, and salts, which dissociate in their molten state when dissolved in such solvents as water or alcohol. When common salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is dissolved in water, it forms an electrolytic solution, dissociating into positive sodium ions (Na+) and negative chloride ions (Cl). A non-electrolyte is a substance that does not conduct electric current through it in the molten state or through its solution. Non-electrolytes consist of molecules that bear no net electric charge and they do not dissociate in their molten state or in their solutions. Sugar dissolved in water maintains its molecular integrity and does not dissociate and it is a non-electrolyte. 6.5.2 Strong and weak electrolytes In the last section we learned that electrolytes dissociate into ions in their solutions. Some electrolytes are completely dissociated into ions. They are called strong electrolytes. Sodium chloride, potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are strong electrolytes. On the other hand some other electrolytes are dissociated only partially into ions. They are called weak electrolytes. Acetic acid and ammonium hydroxide are weak electrolytes. 6.5.3 Dissociation of acids and bases in water In the last section we learned that some electrolytes are strong while others are weak. In this section we shall study more about dissociation processes that occur in aqueous solutions of acids and bases.
6.5.3a Dissociation of acids (i) Dissociation of strong acids Strong acids are completely dissociated into ions in their aqueous solutions. Consider dissociation of hydrochloric acid: HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl(aq) From the above equation it can be seen that HCl is completely converted into its ions and no amount of it remains in the undissociated form. One mole of HCl forms one mole each of hydrogen ions and chloride ions. Thus, concentration (molarity) of H+ ions is same as that of HCl in the solution.
(ii) Dissociation of weak acids Weak acids are only partially dissociated into ions in their aqueous solutions. Consider dissociation of acetic acid. CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO(aq)
From the process depicted above it can be seen that: CH3COOH is only partially dissociated into ions. The process of dissociation is reversible and an equilibrium is established between dissociated and undissociated CH3COOH. The amount of hydrogen ions and acetate ions formed is less than the total amount of acetic acid taken initially. Thus, if one mole of acetic acid was dissolved in one litre of solution (concentration = 1 mol L-1) the concentration of hydrogen ions H+ formed in the solution would be less than 1 mol L-1. In fact acetic acid is such a weak electrolyte that less than 1% of it would dissociate in this solution. We can write expression of the law of equilibrium for the above equilibrium as [H+][CH3COO] Ka = ________________________ [CH3COOH]
Here the symbol used for equilibrium constant is Ka in place of Kc. Here Ka is dissociation constant of acetic acid. 6.5.3b Dissociation of bases (i) Dissociation of strong bases Strong bases like sodium hydroxide are completely dissociated in their solutions. NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH(aq) From the above equation it can be seen that NaOH is completely converted into its ions and no amount of it remains in the undissociated form. One mole of NaOH forms one mole each of sodium ions and hydroxyl ions. Thus concentration (molarity) of OH ions is same as that NaOH of in the solution.
(ii) Dssociation of weak bases Weak bases like ammonium hydroxide are only partially dissociated in their solutions. NH4OH(aq) NH4OH(aq) NH4OH is only partially dissociated. The dissociation process is a reversible process and in the solution equilibrium is established between dissociated and undissociated NH4OH. The amount of OH ions and NH4+ ions formed is less than the total amount of ammonium hydroxide taken initially. We can write expression of the law of equilibrium as Ka =
+ 4 __________________
NH4+(aq) + OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)
From the process shown above it can be seen that
[NH ][OH ] [NH4OH]
Here the symbol used for equilibrium constant is Kb in place of Kc. Kb is the dissociation constant of ammonium hydroxide. 6.5.4 Self-dissociation of water Pure water is neutral in nature. It ionizes to a small extent and releases an equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions. H2O(1)
[H+] = [OH]
H+(aq) + OH(aq)
It can be seen from the above equation that in pure water Also, for this equilibrium Kw = [H+]. [OH] where Kw is known as ionic product of water. This is in fact the equilibrium constant for self dissociation process of water. The term in the denominator is [H2O] which by convention is taken as 1 for any pure solid or liquid (see section 6.2.5). The concentration of H+ and OH ions in water has been measured and found to be 1 107 mol L-1 each at 25 0C. Instead of saying that the hydrogen ion concentration in pure water is 1 107 mol L-1, it is customary to say that the pH of water is 7.0 . The pH is the logarithm (see box) of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration. It is written: l pH = log _________ [H+] Alternately, the pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration i.e. pH = - log [H+] Because of the negative sign in the expression, if [H+] increases pH would decrease and if it decreases the pH would increase.
LOGARITHM Logarithm is a mathematical function. If, Then x = 10y y = log x
You will study more about logarithm in your higher classes.
Similarly, we may define pOH and pKw as: pOH = log [OH] and pKw = log Kw Since the concentration of OH- ions, [OH-] is 1 107 mol L1 ; pOH = 7 The relationship between pKw, pH and pOH is pKw = pH + pOH = 7+7 = 14 The following points should be noted regarding self-dissociation of water: (i) Water produces H+ and OH- ions in equal amounts therefore: [H+] = [OH] (ii) Water is a neutral liquid. (iii) pH of water is 7.0 at 25 0C temperature. (iv) The sum of pH and pOH of any aqueous solution is always 14 at 25 0C. 6.5.5 Neutral, acidic and basic solutions and their pH In the light of discussion on self-dissociation of water in the last section, we can now discuss the characteristics of neutral, acidic and basic aqueous solutions. 6.5.5a Neutral aqueous solutions Neutral solutions would be similar to water, which is also neutral in nature. Therefore, the following are the characteristics of neutral aqueous solutions: (i) [H+] = [OH] (ii) pH = 7.0 at 25 0C 6.5.5b Acidic aqueous solutions Acidic solutions would have more [H+] than in water. Therefore the following are the characteristics of acidic aqueous solutions: (i) [H+] > [OH-] (ii) Since hydrogen ion concentration in acidic solutions is more than in water their pH would be less than that of water i.e. pH < 7.0 at 25 0C (iii) For calculation of pH of acidic solutions first the concentration of H+ ions i.e. [H+] is calculated. From it the pH is calculated by the relation pH = log [H+] Such calculations have been shown in the next section.
6.5.5c Basic aqueous solutions Basic solutions would have more [OH] than in water. Therefore they would have less [H+] than water. The following are the characteristics of basic aqueous solutions: (i) [H+] < [OH] (ii) Since hydrogen ion concentration in basic solutions is less than in water their pH would be more than that of water i.e. pH > 7.0 at 25 0C The pH of such solutions can be calculated indirectly. First pOH is calculated from the concentration of OH- ions using the relation (see next section). pOH = log [OH] Then pH is calculated by the relation pH = 14 pOH Thus in brief we may conclude that at 25 0C: (i) Water has a pH of 7 and is neutral. (ii) Solutions with pH 7 are neutral. (iii) Solutions with pH less than 7 are acidic. (iv) Solutions with pH more than 7 are basic. 6.5.7 Calculations based on pH concept In the last section we learned the concept of pH and its relationship with hydrogen ion or hydroxyl ion concentration. In this section we shall use these relations to perform some calculations. It may be noted that the methods of calculation of pH used in this lesson are valid for solutions of strong acids and bases only. The method is not valid for solutions, which are extremely dilute. The concentration of H+ or OH should not be less than 106molar. Example 6.6 : Calculate the pH of 0.001 molar solution of HCl. Solution: HCl is a strong acid and is fully dissociated in its solutions according to the process: H+(aq) + Cl(aq) HCl(aq) From the above process it is clear that one mole of HCl will give one mole of H+ ions. Therefore the concentration of H+ ion would also be 0.001 molar or 1 x 103 mol L1. Thus [H+] = 1x 10 3 mol L1 pH = log [H+] = ( 3) =3 Thus pH= 3 Example 6.7 : What would be the pH of an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid which is 5 x 105 molar in concentration? Solution : Sulphuric acid dissociates in water as: H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42(aq)
Thus each mole of sulphuric acid gives two moles of H+ ions in solutions. One litre of 5 x 105 molar solution contains 5 x 105 moles of H2SO4, which would give 2 x 5 x 10-5 = 10 x 10-5 = 10-4 mol of H+ , therefore [H+] = 104 mol L1 Therefore, pH = log [H+] = log 10 4 = (4)
=4
Example 6.8 : Calculate the pH of 1x10 4 molar solution of NaOH. Solution: NaOH is a strong base and dissociates in its solutions as: NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH (aq) One mole of NaOH would give one mole of OH- ions. Therefore [OH] = 1x10 4 molar pOH = log [OH] = (log 104) = ( 4) pOH = 4 Since pH = 14 pOH = 14 4 = 10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.5 1. Aqueous solution of a substance does not conduct electricity through it. What type of substance is it? 2. A substance completely dissociates in to ions when dissolved in water. What type of substance is it? 3. X is a strong acid while Y is a weak acid. In whose aqueous solution a dynamic equilibrium will be established? 4. In an aqueous solution [H+] = [OH] What type of solution is it, acidic, basic or neutral? 5. pH of a solution is 4. What is the hydrogen ion concentration in it? LET US REVISE Based on the nature of chemical changes, reactions can be classified into five types (i) combination reactions, (ii) decomposition reactions, (iii) displacement reactions, (iv) double-displacement reactions, and (v) oxidation-reduction reactions. The reactions in which all the reactants and products are present in the same phase are called homogeneous reactions and the reactions in which reactants and products are present in different phases are called heterogeneous reactions. The reactions in which heat is evolved are called exothermic reactions and the reactions in which heat is absorbed are called endothermic reactions. The reactions that can occur in forward and reverse directions simultaneously under same set of conditions are called reversible reactions. A system is said to be in a state of equilibrium if none of its properties changes with time.
One mole of a gas occupies a volume of 22.7 L at STP (standard temperature and pressure) i.e. at 273 K temperature and 1 bar pressure. An acid is a substance that furnishes hydrogen ions, H+; a base is a substance that furnishes hydroxyl ions, OH in its solutions and a salt is produced when an acid and a base react with each other. An electrolyte conducts electric current through itself in the molten state or through its solution. If it dissociates completely it is known as a strong electrolyte and if it dissociates only partially it is known as a weak electrolyte. pH of a neutral solution is 7, that of an acidic solution is less than 7 and that of a basic solution is more than 7 at 250C TERMINAL EXERCISES Multiple choice type questions. The reaction given below is: Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) (a) Combination reaction (b) Displacement reaction (c) Redox reaction (d) Displacement and redox reaction. The reaction given below is not a: CO2(g) C(s) + O2(g) (a) Heterogeneous reaction (b) Displacement reaction (c) Exothermic reaction (d) Redox reaction. In the reaction 2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g) (a) 1 mole of KClO3 produces 1.5 mole of O2 (b) 1 mole of KClO3 produces 3 moles of O2 (c) 2 moles of KClO3 produce 1 mole of KCl (d) when 1 mole of KCl is produced 3 moles of O2 are produced Which of the following statements about chemical equilibrium is not correct ? (a) It is dynamic equilibrium. (b) It can be established by a reversible reaction only. (c) It is established in any aqueous solution of a strong acid or a strong base. (d) On changing the temperature the equilibrium constants value would also change. pH of a solution is equal to (a) log [H+] (b) - log [H+] (c) log [OH] (d) - log [OH]
A. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. In which of the following reactions H2O2 acts as a reducing agent? (a) H2O2 +2KI 2KOH + I2 (b) H2O2 + SO2 H2SO4 (c) H2O2 + Ag2O 2Ag + H2O + O2 (d) 4H2O2 + PbS PbSO4 + 4H2O B. Descriptive type questions. 1. Write electronic definitions of oxidation and reduction. 2. Give one example each of slow and fast reactions. 3. Give any two examples of quantitative information carried by a chemical equation. 4. What is an acid? 5. What is pH? 6. What is an exothermic reaction? Give one example. 7. Differentiate between displacement reactions and double displacement reactions. 8. What are weak electrolytes? Give one example. 9. In the reaction Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq) How much mass of Cl 2 is required to produce 1.5 moles of Br2? 10. What is the pH of 5x104 molar solution of H2SO4? 11. In the reaction: CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H 2O(l) Identify the species that is getting (i) reduced (ii) oxidized. 12. What is the difference between dynamic and static equilibrium? Give example of each. 13. NH4OH is a weak base. Write down the equilibrium established in its aqueous solution and the expression of its dissociation constant Kb. 14. Given the following reaction 2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) 2Fe + Al2O3(s) calculate the mass of Fe2O3 in grams required to produce 20.0 g of Fe. (Relative atomic masses: Fe = 55.8; O = 16). 15. Calculate the pH of (i) 105 mol L1 HCl and (ii) 104 mol L1 NaOH. 16. What are oxidation and reduction? Give one example with equation of a redox reaction. Identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent in it. 17. (i) What is a homogeneous reaction? Give one example each of gas phase and solution phase homogeneous reactions. (ii) What is a reversible reaction? Give one example. 18. In the reaction 3C3H6 + 2KMnO4 + 4H2O 3C3H8O2 + 2KOH + 2MnO2 Calculate, (i) the number of moles of MnO2 produced by 12 moles of C3H6. (ii) the number of moles of KMnO4 needed to react with 0.006 moles of C3H6. (iii) the number of moles of KMnO4 needed to produce 0.15 moles of C3H8O2. (iv) the mass of C3H6 required to produce 5.6 grams of KOH. (Atomic mass of K = 39)
19. What is a neutralization reaction? A titration was started by taking 20 mL of 102 molar HCl. Then a solution of NaOH was gradually added from the burette. By mistake the student missed the end point and added excess of NaOH. When he finished the titration, the solution was 104 molar in NaOH. What was the pH of the solution present in the titration flask? (i) In the beginning of the titration (ii) at the end point when NaOH had just neutralized the HCl and (iii) at the end of the titration. 20. Sodium metal reacts with excess of water according to the reaction: 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) (i) Calculate the mass of sodium required to produce 1 kg of NaOH. (ii) Find out the volume of H2 evolved at STP when 1.012 kg of sodium reacts with excess of water. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.4 1. 2. 3. 6.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. D C B A E Heterogeneous Endothermic Irreversible Fast Non-equilibrium T F T T F Salt Y X Non-electrolyte Strong electrolyte In solution of Y Neutral 104 mol L-1
GLOSSARY Acid: A substance containing hydrogen that furnishes hydrogen ions (H+) in its solutions. Base: A substance that furnishes hydroxyl ions, OH in its solutions. Combination reaction: A reaction in which two or more substances react to form a new substance. Decomposition reaction: A reaction in which one substance breaks down into two or more substances. Displacement reaction: A reaction in which an ion present in a compound is displaced by another ion. Double displacement reactions: The reactions in which two ionic compounds exchange their ions. Electrolyte: A substance that conducts electric current through it in the molten state or through its solution. Endothermic reactions: The reactions in which heat is absorbed Equilibrium state: A state in which no property of system changes with time. Exothermic reactions: The reactions in which heat is evolved Heterogeneous reactions: Reactions in which reactants and products are present in more than one phase. Homogeneous reaction: Reactions in which all the reactants and products are present in the same phase. Molarity: It is the number of moles of a substance present in one litre volume. Neutralization: The reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water. Non-electrolyte: A substance that does not conduct electric current through it in the molten state or through its solution. Oxidation: A process which involves loss of electrons. pH: The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. Reduction: A process which involves gain of electrons. Reversible reactions: The reactions that can occur in forward and reverse directions simultaneously under same set of conditions. Salt: A substance produced by the reaction of an acid with a base along with water. STP: Standard temperature and pressure i.e. when temperature is 273 K temperature and pressure is 1 bar. Strong electrolytes: The electrolytes that dissociate completely in their solutions. Synthesis reaction:The reaction in which a compound is formed by combination of its constituent elements. Weak electrolytes: The electrolytes that dissociate only partially into ions in their aqueous solutions.
Motion and Its Description

In this world, we see many objects moving around us, for example, cars, buses, trucks, and bicycles moving on the road, aeroplanes flying in air and ships sailing on the sea, leaves falling from the trees and water flowing in the river. All these objects are changing their position with time. When an object changes its position with time, it is said to be in motion. In these examples, motion is easily visible to us. But in some cases, motion is not easily visible to us. For example, air moves in and out of our lungs and blood flows in our body. The moon moves around the earth, while the two together go around the sun. The sun itself with its planets travels through our own galaxy. An object that does not change its position with time is said to be at rest, for example a book lying on a table. In this lesson, you will learn how to describe motion. For this, we will develop the concepts of displacement, velocity and acceleration. You will also learn how these quantities are related to each other. For an object moving along a straight line with uniform acceleration, we will obtain simple equations (known as equations of motion) connecting these quantities with time. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
!
! !
! !
define the terms motion, scalar and vector quantities, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration, distinguish between (a) rest and motion (b) scalar and vector quantities (c) speed and velocity; differentiate between uniform and non-uniform motion; plot and interpret the following graphs (a) displacement time graph for uniform motion, (b) velocity time graph for uniformly accelerated motion; establish three equations of motion; solve problems based on equations of motion.
: 122 : Motion and Its Description
7.1 SOME BASIC ASPECTS OF MOTION 7.1.1 Types of motion In our daily life we see many objects moving. Some objects move in a straight line. For example, a ball rolling on a horizontal surface, a stone falling from a building and a runner on a 100m race track. In all these examples, objects change their positions with time along a straight line. This type of motion is called rectilinear motion. Observe the motion of a seconds hand of a clock, or motion of a child sitting on a marry-go round, or the motion of the blades of an electric fan. In such a motion, an object follows a circular path during motion. This type of motion is called circular motion. If you take a stone, tie a thread to it and whirl it with your hand, you will find that the stone moves on a circular path. In all such cases, though an object changes its position with time, it remains at a fixed distance from a point. Some objects move to and fro, such as a swing, a pendulum, the branches of a tree in the wind and the needle of a sewing machine. Such type of motion is called oscillatory motion. In such a motion, an object oscillates about a point, often called equilibrium position. 7.1.2 Scalar and vector quantities Each of the physical quantities you encounter in this book can be categorized as either a scalar or a vector quantity. A scalar is a quantity that can be completely specified by its magnitude with appropriate units; i.e. a scalar has only magnitude and no direction. A vector is a physical quantity that requires the specification of both magnitude and direction. Mass is an example of a scalar quantity. If someone tells you that mass of an object is 2 kg, that information completely specifies the mass of the object; no direction is required. Other examples of scalar quantities are, temperature, time interval, the number of students in a class, the volume of water in a bucket and the number of pages in this book. An example of a vector quantity is force. If your friend tells you that he is going to exert a force of 5N on an object, this is not enough information to let you know what will happen to the object. The effect of a force of 5N exerted horizontally is different from the effect of a force of 5N exerted vertically upward or downward. In other words, you need to know the direction of the force as well as its magnitude. Velocity is a vector quantity. If you wish to describe the velocity of a moving vehicle, you must specify both its magnitude (say, 30 m/s) and the direction in which the vehicle is moving (say, northeast). Other examples of vector quantities include displacement and acceleration, which are defined in this lesson. We use different symbols to represent scalar and vector quantities. A scalar quantity is represented by an ordinary letter (such as a) or number (such as 5) with appropriate unit. 3 cm, 6 L, and 12 kg represent scalar quantities. A vector quantity is represented by a symbol printed in boldface, such as a or A. Since in handwriting, this representation is not practical, a common notation is to indicate a r r vector quantity by an arrow over its symbol, a or A . When we are interested only in the magnitude of a vector quantity, such as a, we write it as a scalar (that is, a) indicating that its direction is not being considered. Graphically, a vector is represented by an arrow. The
Motion and Its Description : 123 :
length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector and the arrow points in the direction of the vector. Fig. 7.1 a shows vector A and vector A, both has the same magnitude but are in opposite directions.
A
Fig. 7.1 (a) Vectors in same direction
Fig. 7.1 (b) Vectors in different directions
Figure 7.1 (b) shows vector A and another vector B whose magnitude is same as that of A but direction is different. Scalars can be added and subtracted like ordinary numbers. Vectors follow different laws. However, vectors having same direction can be added easily. For example, sum of vector A and a vector C (Fig. 7.1c) is a vector D whose magnitude is the sum of the magnitudes of vector A and C and direction is the same as that of A.
A C
Fig. 7.1 c Addition of vector
D=A+C
Subtraction of vector C from vector A can be seen as addition of vector C to vector A as shown in Fig. 7.1d. The resultant has a magnitude equal to the difference of the magnitude of A and the magnitude of B. It points in the direction of A (the bigger of the two vectors). A A
C C
(C)
E = AC = A+(C)
Fig. 7.1 (d) Subtraction of vectors
7.1.3 Distance and displacement Motion occurs when an object changes position. Therefore, in order to describe the motion of an object, one must be able to specify its position at all times. In this course, we shall consider motion of objects in which position changes along a straight line, known as rectilinear motion. Let us say that the object moves along x-axis as shown in Fig. 7.2
S 100 80 60 R 40 20 O 0 20 40 P 60 80 Q 100 +x (m)
Fig. 7.2 Movement of an object along x-axis
Then position of the object is specified with reference to a point, say O. This point is called origin of the axis. The position is taken to be positive if it is to the right of the origin and negative, if it is to the left. So, if a car is at P, its position is + 60m. If it is at R, its position is 40m.
Suppose a car starts from O, moves to Q and then comes back to P. During this motion, the actual path length covered by the car = OQ + QP = +100m + (40m) = 140m. This is known as distance. The total path length covered by an object irrespective of its direction of travel is called distance. It is a scalar quantity. In SI unit, it is measured in metres (m). In the above example, at the end of journey, the car is at P. So, its final position is P while its initial position was O. Therefore, change in position is OP +60m only. This is known as displacement. The displacement of an object is defined as the change in its position and is given by the difference between its final and initial position. Displacement of an object = final position initial position. Displacement is a vector quantity. In SI units, it is measured in metres (m). In the above example, the displacement of the car is + 60m. The plus sign means that it is along + x-axis. The magnitude of this displacement is 60m and its direction is towards right or + x-axis. Consider another case. Suppose a truck moves from O to R and returns to O. What is the distance covered by the truck? What is its displacement? Though the truck is moving along x-direction, the length of path covered is positive. (The minus or plus sign, as explained earlier, indicates the direction of travel). Distance covered by the truck Displacement of the truck = Path length of OR + Path length of RO = 40 m + 40 m = 80 m = Final position initial position = O (since it returns to origin O, its initial position) Example7.1: What is the distance covered and displacement of a car, a) b) If the car moves from O to P If the car moves from O to P and then back to R (see Fig. 7.2). = Length of path OP = 60 m
Solution : a) Distance covered in moving from O to P Displacement
= Final position Initial position = + 60 m (0 m) = + 60 m 60 m is the magnitude of the displacement and + sign indicates that it is directed towards right or towards P. Note that in this case magnitude of displacement is equal to the distance. This is so because the object does not change its direction during the course of motion. b) Distance covered in this case = Length of path OP + Length of path PR
= 60 m + (60 m + 40 m) = 160 m Displacement = Final position Initial position = (40 m ) (0 m ) = 40 m The minus sign shows that the direction of displacement is towards left or towards x direction. Note that in this case, the magnitude of displacement (i.e. 40 m) is not equal to the distance (160 m). 7.1.4 Speed and velocity An object in motion travels a given distance in a certain time interval. How fast is the object moving? This is indicated by a quantity called speed. The speed of an object is defined as the length of the path travelled per unit time.
Speed = Path length or distance covered Time taken
(7.1)
Its unit is m/s. It is also expressed in kmh-1. For example, if a car covers a distance of 61 km in 2h, its speed is 61km / 2h = 30.5 kmh-1. The velocity of an object is defined as the displacement divided by the time interval during which the displacement occurred:
Displacement (7.2) Time taken Since displacement is a vector quantity, velocity is also a vector quantity. Its unit is the same as that of speed, i.e. ms-1 or kmh-1. Velocity =
ACTIVITY 7.1 Aim : To calculate your average speed of walking. What is required ? A metre stick or a measuring tape; stop watch or a wrist watch with seconds hand. What to do? i) Take a stopwatch to a field. ii) Using the measuring tape mark two positions (in a straight line) on the field that are 50m apart. iii) Start the clock as you walk down the marked line and stop it as you reach the 50m mark. Find the time taken by you to cover this distance. iv) Calculate your average speed of walking. v) Measure the time it takes you to run the same distance. What is your average speed? To represent displacement and velocity, we must use vector notations. But in this class, we shall be considering motion along a straight line. As mentioned earlier, in such cases, direction can be represented by + or signs. Therefore, we need not use vector notations.
For example, consider a car moving towards + x axis (Fig. 10.1). It moves from O to A position + 900 m in 1 minute. Then its displacement = + 900 m (0 m ) = + 900 m.
+ 900 m = +15 ms1 60 s The magnitude of velocity is 15 m/s and its direction (as indicated by + sign) is towards right or towards + x axis. Suppose the car travels back to origin O in 90 s. Then, speed for this motion = Distance covered/ time taken = (900 m + 900 m)/ (60 s + 90 s)
Therefore, velocity =
= Velocity for this motion =
1800 m = 12 ms-1 150 s
Displacement 0m = = 0 ms-1 Time taken 150 s (Displacement is zero because final position coincides with the initial position). CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7.1 1. If the average velocity of an object is zero in some time-interval, what can you say about the displacement of the object for that time interval? 2. If B is added to A, under what conditions does the resultant vector have a magnitude equal to A+B? Under what conditions is the resultant vector equal to zero? 3. Car A travelling from Delhi to Ghaziabad, has a speed of 25 ms-1. Car B, travelling from Delhi to Gurgaon, also has a speed of 25 ms-1. Are their velocities equal? Explain. 4. Give one example of circular motion and one example of motion in a straight line. 5. A body moves in a straight line from O to P and then to Q. What is the value of (i) distance travelled by the body, and (ii) displacement of the body.
7.2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF MOTION 7.2.1 Position time graph It is easy to analyze and understand motion of an object if it is represented graphically. To draw graph of the motion of an object, its positions at different times are shown on y axis and time on x axis. For example, positions of an object at different times are given in Table 7.1.
Time (s) Table 7.1 Position of different objects at different times 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 10
Position (m) 0
90 100
In order to plot position time graph for data given in Table 7.1, we represent time on horizontal axis and position on vertical axis drawn on a graph paper. Next, we choose a suitable scale for this. For example, in Fig. 7.3, 1 cm on horizontal axis represent 2 s of time interval and 1 cm on vertical axis represent 20 m, respectively. If we connect different points representing corresponding position time data, we get a straight line as shown in
Fig. 7.3. This line represents the position-time graph of the motion corresponding to data given in Table 7.1.
100
80
Distance (m)
60
40
20
10
11
12
Time (s)
Fig. 7.3 Position-time graph for the motion of a particle on the basis of data given in table 7.1
Fi 7 3
We note from the data that displacement of the object in 1st second, 2nd second,, 10th second is the same i.e. 10 m. In 10 second, the displacement is 100 m. Therefore, velocity is 100 m/10 s = 10 m/s for the whole course of motion. Velocity during 1st second = 10 m/ 1s = 10 ms-1 Velocity during 2nd second = 10 m/1s = 10 ms-1 and so on. Thus, velocity is constant i.e., equal to 10 m/s throughout the motion. The motion of an object in which its velocity is constant, is called uniform motion. As you see in Fig. 7.3, for uniform motion, position-time graph is a straight line. ACTIVITY 7.2 Aim : To plot and interpret the graph of the motion (walking) of your friend. What is required ? A metre stick, stop watch, and a marker (chalk, etc.) What to do? (i) Go out to your college field with your friend. (ii) Using a meter stick, mark positions, 0, 5m, 10m, 15m, 20m, 25m, 30m, 35m, 40m, 45m, and 50m. (iii)Ask your friend to walk down the line starting from position marked 0m. (iv)As your friend starts walking, start the stop watch and record the reading of the stopwatch as he touches the marks 5m, ................, 50m. What do you observe? (i) Record your data in the following table:
Displacement (m) 0 5m 10m 15m 20m 25m
Time (s) 0
Displacement (m) 30m 35m 40m 45m 50m
Time (s)
(ii) Plot a graph of distance (vertical axis) and time (horizontal axis). What do you infer? (i) Is the graph a straight line? If yes, what does it mean? If no, what does it mean? (ii) Did your friend travel this distance with uniform velocity? (iii)Calculate the average velocity of your friend for a dsiplacement of 20m, 40m and 50m. Are they same? Explain your result. Like position-time graph, one can also plot displacement-time graph. Displacement is represented on the vertical axis and time interval on the horizontal axis. Since displacement in each second is 10 m for data in Table 7.1, the same graph (Fig. 7.3) also represents the displacement-time graph if the vertical axis is labelled as displacement. How will the position-time graph look like for a stationary object or object at rest. Suppose an object is at rest at position x = 40 m. Then, its position-time graph will be a straight line parallel to the time axis as shown in Fig. 7.4 because at all times, it is at 40 m.
100
80
Distance (m)
60
40
20
10
11
12
Time (s)
Fig. 7.4 Position time graph of a particle at rest
7.2.2 Velocity time graph Take time on the horizontal axis and velocity on the vertical axis on a graph paper. Let 1 cm on horizontal axis represent 2 s and 1 cm on vertical axis represent 10 ms-1. Plotting the data in Table 7.2 gives us the graph as shown in Fig. 7.5.
Motion and Its Description : 129 : Table 7.2 Velocity-time data of an object Time (s) Position (m) 0 0 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 9 10 10 10 10
50
Velocity (ms1)
40 30 20 10 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
Fig. 7.5 Velocity-time graph for the motion of a particle on the basis of data given in table 7.2
Thus, we see that the velocity-time graph of motion represented in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2 is a straight line parallel to time axis. This is so because the velocity is constant throughout the motion. The motion is uniform. Consider the area under the graph in Fig. 7.5. Area = (10 ms-1) x 10 s = 100 m. This is equal to the displacement of the object in 10s. Area under velocity-time graph = Displacement of the object during that time interval. Though, we obtained this result for a simple case of uniform motion, it is a general result. Let x be displacement of an object in time t, moving with uniform velocity v, then x = v t (Uniform motion ) (10.3) In real life, objects usually do not move with constant velocity. We see that usually an object starts from rest, picks up motion, moves some distance, slows down and finally comes to rest. This means that the velocity during different time intervals of motion is different. In other words, velocity is not constant. Such a motion is called non-uniform motion. This change in velocity with time is a physical quantity called acceleration which we shall define next. 7.2.3 Acceleration The acceleration of an object is defined as the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which this change occurs.
Acceleration = Change in velocity Time interval
(10.4)
Its unit is m/s2. It is a vector quantity. Suppose the velocity of a car changes from + 10 m/s to + 30 m/s in a time interval of 2.0 s. Note that both velocities are towards the right, as indicated by + signs. Therefore, Acceleration =
30 m / s 10 m / s = + 10 ms-2 2 .0 s
The acceleration in the present case is +10 ms-2. This means that the car accelerates in the + x direction and its velocity increases at a rate of 10 ms-1 every second. If the acceleration of an object during its motion is constant, we say that the object is moving with uniform acceleration. The velocity-time graph of such a motion is a straight line inclined to the time axis as shown in Fig. 7.6.
V (ms1)
t (s)
Fig. 7.6 Velocity-time graph of a particle moving with uniform acceleration
For a given time interval, if the final velocity is more than the initial velocity, then according to Fig. 7.6, the acceleration will be positive. However, if the final velocity is less than the initial velocity, the acceleration will be negative. What is the acceleration corresponding to motion represented in Fig. 7.6? It is zero since there is no change in velocity with time. Thus, for uniform motion, the acceleration is zero and for non-uniform motion, the acceleration is non-zero. Note: Please note that speed and velocity that we defined in the earlier section are, in fact, average speed and average velocity for the time-interval under consideration. Unless otherwise specified, terms speed and velocity wherever used refer to the average speed and average velocity. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7.2 1. Look at fig. 7.7. (i) What kind of motion does the graph represent? (ii) What does the slope of the graph represent?
d (m)
t (s)
Fig. 7.7
2. Look at fig. 7.8. (i) What kind of motion does the graph represent? (ii) What does the area under the graph represent?
Fig. 7.8
3. Look at fig. 7.9. (i) What kind of motion does the graph represent? (ii) What does the slope of the line represent? (iii) What does the area under the curve represent?
V (ms1)
t(s)
10
Fig. 7.9
4. A car starts from rest accelerates uniformly and attains a maximum speed of 20 ms-1 in 5 seconds. In the next 10 s it slows down uniformly and comes to rest at the end of 10th s. Draw a velocity time graph for the motion. Calculate from the graph (i) acceleration, (ii) retardation, and (iii) distance travelled. 5. A body moving with a constant speed of 10 ms-1 suddenly reverses its direction of motion at the 5th second and come to rest in the next 5 seconds. Draw a position - time graph of the motion. 7.3 EQUATIONS OF MOTION Consider an object moving with uniform acceleration, a. Let u be its initial velocity (at time t = 0), v, its velocity after time t and s, its displacement during this time interval. Let us see how these quantities are related to each other. 7.3.1 Relation between, v, u, a and t According to the definition of acceleration, we have
Acceleration = a= Change in velocity Time interval v u t
or or,
v= u+at
(10.5)
With the help of this equation, we can find velocity of a uniformly accelerated object after a given time interval. Or, given any three of these quantities, fourth can be found using this equation. Example 7.2: A car has an initial velocity of 25 ms-1. The brakes are applied and the car stops in 2.0 s. What is the acceleration of the car? Solution: Using (10.5), v = 0, u = 25 ms-1, t = 2.0 s O = 25 ms-1 + a (2.0s) hence, a = - 12.5 ms-2 It is negative. Negative acceleration is also called deceleration. 7.3.2 Relation between s, u, a and t From equation (10.3), we have Displacement = (average velocity) ( time interval )
or, But,
v+u s= t 2 v = u + at
1 (u + u + at ) t = u t + 1 a t 2 2 2
Therefore, s =
1 s = ut + a t 2 2
(10.6)
If an object starts from rest, u = 0 and equation (10.6) reduces to

s= 1 2 at 2
(10.7)
Thus, we see that the displacement of an object undergoing a constant acceleration is proportional to t2, while the displacement of an object with a constant velocity (zero acceleration) is proportional to t (Equation 10.3). A body in free fall, falls with a uniform acceleration, called acceleration due to gravity (denoted by g) and having an average value 9.8 ms-2 near the surface of earth. For this motion the equations of motion become v = u + gt s = ut + gt2 Use these concepts to do the following activity: ACTIVITY 7.3 Aim: To measure your reaction time. What is required? To do this activity, you need the help of your friend, a metre scale, and a stop watch. What to do? (i) Take a metre scale and ask your friend to hold it vertically between his index finger and thumb. (ii) Note the position of the metre scale with respect to his index finger. (iii)Ask your friend to release the ruler and you must catch it (without lowering your hand after catching it). (iv)Note the position of the metre scale, when you catch it and find the distance through which the ruler falls. Let it be d. (v) Repeat this activity 5 times and note the value of d each time.
What do you infer? (i) The ruler is a freely falling object with u = 0, a = g (acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2)
1 2 Using equation of motion, s = ut + a t 2
we have d = or t r =
2d g
1 2 g tr 2
(ii) Using the different experimentally values of d obtained, you can calculate tr find the mass of all these values. What you get is your reaction time. (iii)Similarly, you can measure the reaction time of your friend. It is usually about 0.2 s. Example 7.3: An object with an initial velocity of 4.0 m/s is accelerated at 6.0 m/s2 for 2.0 s. (a) How far does the object travel during this period? (b) How far would the object travel if it were initially at rest? Solution: a) Given u = 4.0 ms-1, t = 2.0 s, a = 6.0 ms-2 s = u t + a t 2 = (4.0 ms-1) ( 2.0 s) + (1/2) (6.0 ms-2) (2.0 s)2 = 8.0 m + 12.0 m = 20 m. b) For u = 0, s = 0 + (6.0 ms-2) (2.0 s) 2 = 12 m 7.3.3 Relation between u, v, and s We know that, u+v s= t 2 and,
v u t On multiplying these two equations, we have a=
v u v + u v2 u2 as = t = t 2 2 or, v2 = u2 + 2 a s
(10.8)
Equations (10.5), (10.6) and (10.8) are the three equations of motion. Example 7.4: A bus starts from rest and moves with a uniform acceleration of 3ms-2. What will be its velocity after moving a distance of 37.5 m?
Solution : Given
u = 0, a = 3 ms-2, s = 37.5 m v = u2 + 2 a s = 0 + 2 (3 ms-2) (37.5 m) = 225 m2/s2 = (15 ms-1) 2 v = 15 ms-1
Example 7.5: A body is dropped from the top of a 3 story (h=15m) building. After how much time will it strike the ground? (g=10ms-2) 1 Solution: s = ut + _____ gt2 2 u = 0, g = 10 ms2, s = 15m
15 = 1 10t 2 2
t=
15 = 3 = 1732 . s 5
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7.3 1. A ball is thrown straight up with an initial velocity of + 19.6 ms-1. It was caught at the same distance above ground from which it was thrown: (i) How high does the ball rise. (ii) How long does the ball remain in air? (g=9.8 m/s2) 2. A ball is thrown vertically upwards. (i) What are its velocity and acceleration when it reaches the highest point? (ii) What is its acceleration just before it hits the ground? 3. A body accelerates from rest and attains a velocity of 10 ms-1 in 5s. What is its acceleration? 4. A body starts its motion with a speed of 10 ms-1 and accelerates for 10 s with 10 ms-2. What will be the distance covered by the body in 10s? 5. A body starts from rest and covers a distance of 50m in 10 s. What is the average speed of the body? LET US REVISE If a body stays at the same position with time, it is at rest. If the body changes its position with time, it is in motion. Motion is said to be rectilinear if the body moves in the same straight line all-the time, e.g, a car moving in a straight line on a level road. The motion is said to be circular if the body moves on a circular path: e.g, the motion of the tip of the hand of a watch. The total path length covered by a moving body is the distance travelled by it.
! ! !

! !
The difference between the final and initial position of a body is called its displacement. Physical quanities are of two types (i) scalar: which have magnitude only, no direction (ii) vector: which have magnitude as well as direction. Distance, speed, mass, time, temperature etc. are scalar quantities, whereas displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force etc. are vector quantities. Distance travelled in unit time is called speed, whereas, displacement per unit time is called velocity. Position-time graph of a body moving in a straight line with constant speed is a straight line sloping with time axis. The slope of the line gives the velocity of the motion. Velocity-time graph of a body in a straight line with constant speed is a straight line parallel to time axis. Area under the graph gives distance travelled. Velocity-time graph of a body in a straight line with constant acceleration is a straight line sloping with the time axis. The slope of the line gives acceleration. For uniformly accelerated motion : v = u+at 1 s = ut + _____ at2 2 where u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, and s = distance travelled in t seconds. TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain whether or not the following particles have an acceleration: (i) a particle moving in a straight line with constant speed, and (ii) a particle moving on a curve with constant speed 2. Consider the following combination of signs and values, for velocity and acceleration of an object with respect to a one-dimensional motion along x-axis: Velocity a. Positive b. Positve c. Positive d. Negative Acceleration Positive Negative Zero Positive Velocity e. Negative f. Negative g. Zero h. Zero Acceleration Negative Zero. Positive Negative
Describe what an object is doing in each case, and give a real-life example for a car on an east-west one-dimensional axis, with east considered as the positive direction. 3. A car travelling initally at + 7.0 m/s accelerates at the rate of + 0.80 m/s2 for an interval of 2.0s. What is its velocity at the end of the acceleration? 4. A car travelling in a straight line has a velocity of + 5.0 m/s at some instant. After 4.0s, its velocity is + 8.0 m/s. What is its average acceleration in this time interval? 5. The velocity - time graph for an object moving along a straight line as shown in figure. 7.10.
8 6 4
V (ms1)
2 t (s) 2 4 6 8 5 10 15 20
Fig. 7.10
Find the average acceleration of this object during the time intervals 0 to 5.0 s, 5.0s to 15.0s, and 0 to 20.0s. 6. The velocity of an automobile changes over a period of 8 s as shown in the table given below: Time(s) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Velocity (m/s) 0.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0 Time (s) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 Velocity (m/s) 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0
Plot the velocity - time graph of motion. Determine the distance the car travels during the first 2s. What distance does the car travel during the first 4s? What distance does the car travel during the entire 8s? Find the slope of the line between t = 0s and t = 4.0s. What does this slope represent? (vi) Find the slope of the line between t = 5.0s and t = 7.0s. What does the slope indicate? 7. The position-time data of a car is given in the table given below: Time(s) 0 5 10 15 20 (i) (ii) (iii) Position(m) 0 100 200 200 200 Time(s) 25 30 35 40 45 Position(m) 150 112.5 75 37.5 0
Plot the position-time graph of the car. Calculate the average velocity of the car during first 10 seonds. Calculate the average velocity between t = 10s to t = 20s.
(iv)
Calculate the average velocity between t = 20s and t = 25 s. What can you say about the direction of the motion of car?
8. Distance is always (a) less than; (b) greater than; (c) less than or equal to; (d) greater than or equal to, the magnitude of displacement. 9. The graph of x vs. t plot for an object with a uniform velocity in the x-direction is (a) a curved line; (b) a straight line; (c) a circle; (d) a point. 10. An object initially at rest moves for t seconds with a constant acceleration a. The average speed of the object during this time interval is (a) at/2; (b) 2 at; (c) 1/2 at2 (d) 1/2at. 11. A car starts from rest with a uniform acceleration of 4 m/s2. The distances travelled at the ends of each of the first 4 seconds are, respectively, (a) 4, 8, 16, 32m, (b) 2, 8, 18, 32m, (c) 2, 4, 8, 16m, (d) 4, 16, 32, 64m. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7.1 1. Zero 2. Both A and B should be along the same direction. B should be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to A 3. No. Though the magnitudes of their velocites are the same (25 ms-1), their direction are different. Hence, VA VB. 4. Motion of a seconds hand of a clock is a circular motion. A ball rolling on a horizontal surface executes motion along a straight line. 5. (i) 25m, (ii) 5m 7.2 1. (i) uniform motion (ii) velocity of the object 2. (i) uniform motion (ii) displacement of the object 3. (i) uniformly accelerated motion (ii) accleration (iii) displacement 4. refer section 7.2.2 5. refer section 7.2.1 7.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. (i) 19.6m (i) v = 0, a = g 2ms-2 600m 5ms-1 (ii) 4s (ii) g
Force & Motion

INTRODUCTION: In the previous lesson, you have studied about the motion of bodies in a straight line. You have learnt that there are three equations of motion, with the help of which you can solve problems involving initial velocity, duration of motion and the acceleration with which a body travels. But what is the cause of change in motion or cause of acceleration which is responsible for producing an increase in the velocity of a moving body? Newton formulated three laws regarding the motion of bodies. These laws are called Newtons laws of motion. In this lesson you will learn about these laws. These laws will tell you why a motion occurs. These will help you to find out more about moving bodies. If you push a body on a floor or ground, the body stops after moving through some distance. Why does it happen so? Why does a stone thrown upwards always come down to the earth? Why the edge of a knife is made sharp? Why do some bodies float on water whereas some other bodies sink in water? The answer to such questions will be discussed in the present lesson. OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to: explain the cause of motion; define the terms inertia, force, mass and momentum; state the three laws of motion and explain their significance; establish a relationship between force, mass and acceleration; explain friction and the factors on which it depends; illustrate advantages and disadvantages of friction in day to day life; explain how friction is increased or decreased in different situations; state and explain the Newtons law of gravitation; distinguish between mass and weight, and express the relationship between them; distinguish between thrust and pressure with suitable examples; state the principle of Archimedes and apply it to solve problems.
Force and Motion If you put a ball on the ground, it will stay there. It does not move by itself. It will move only when you kick it. If you kick it hard, it moves faster. To move a heavy stone across a room lot of pushing has to be done. But to move a sheet of paper off your table requires a very little push. Can you think of a situation when a cart is moving without bullocks? No. It means something has to be done to move a body from rest or to make it move slow or fast. You can also stop a moving ball by catching it or putting an obstacle in its path. It means something is done to stop a moving body. Consider another example in which the volleyball players are hitting the ball from both sides. You will observe that in each hit the direction of the ball is changed. In this case also something is done to change the direction of motion of the body. What is this something that changes the state of rest, or of uniform motion of a body? This something is called force. Thus, we can say that the force is something which when applied on a body changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform motion of the body. Kick, push, pull and hit are some of the different ways of applying force on a body. Each one is called an action. You must note that force is a vector quantity, because it is always applied along a particular direction and has magnitude. Newton's Laws of Motion 8.2.1 Newtons first law of motion Therefore, we conclude that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless and until it is compelled by some unbalanced force to change that state. This is the statement of Newtons First Law of Motion. So, Newtons first law of motion may be used to define force. It also defines another concept called inertia. The property of a body by virtue of which it is unable to change its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line is called inertia. You can do another activity to understand the concept of inertia. ACTIVITY 8.1 Aim: To study Newtons first law of motion and inertia. What is required ? Two books and a smooth sheet of paper. What to do? (i) Place the sheet of paper on the table with some part of it coming out of the edge of the table. Now stack two books on the paper. (ii) Remove the paper with a jerk and see the effect on books. What do you observe? When the paper is removed with a jerk from below the books, the books do not change their position (Fig. 8.3).
Fig 8.3 Paper being removed with a jerk from below the books What do you infer? We find that the books remain in their position unless something external is done. Even removal of paper from below them with jerk does not change their position. ACTIVITY 8.2 Aim: To study the inertia of rest What is required? A coin, talcum powder, a table with sunmica top or glass top. What to do? (i) Strike the coin on a smooth floor and note the distance travelled by it. (ii) Now, sprinkle talcom powder on the floor and again strike the coin from the same place with the same force and note the distance travelled by it again. The distance travelled by the coin in straight line is different in the two situations. What do you infer? We find that coin travels through much longer distance along a straight line on the floor when powder is sprinkled. The floor exerts a resistive force on the motion of the coin. But this resistive force is much less when powder is sprinkled on the floor, so coin travels much farther. If we imagine a completely smooth floor which offers no resistive force, the coin will continue to move on it with constant velocity unless some net external force is applied to stop it. Inertia is a property common to all bodies in nature. You must have experienced that it is difficult to move a heavy body than a lighter one e.g., pushing a loaded box is more difficult than to push an empty box because heavy box has more inertia. So inertia of a body is characterized by the quantity called mass of the body. Thus, it can be said that the mass of a body is a measure of its inertia. Some illustrations of first law of motion (a) Why do you tend to fall while getting off a moving bus or why are you thrown forward when the moving bus stops suddenly and you are not cautious. What actually happens is that when a moving bus suddenly stops, your feet in contact with the bus are suddenly brought to rest while the rest of your body, which has acquired the same velocity as the bus, due to inertia of motion tends to move forward even after the bus has stopped.
(b) You would have noticed that when a moving trolley is stopped suddenly, sometimes the loaded goods fall from it. This is due to the inertia of motion of the goods. When the trolley stops suddenly, it comes at rest immediately. But because of inertia of motion, the goods placed in it try to remain in motion. Hence they fall from it. Now think, why does the ink comes out of a fountain pen when it is given a jerk? Newton's second law of motion You have seen that force changes or tends to change the state of motion of a body. When you throw a piece of stone in the air, you apply a force. Greater the force with which you throw the stone, the farther it goes, i.e., the greater the force, the greater is the change in motion of a particular body. But how does the motion of a body change when you apply some external force? To establish a relationship between the force and the acceleration produced in a body, Newton formulated his second law of motion. If you kick a football, it moves, but if you kick it very hard, it moves faster than before. Kicking harder means applying more force due to which football gains more acceleration and hence moves faster. It is seen that acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force applied on the body.
Fig. 8.4 Passenger falling forward as the bus stops suddenly The mass of the football is greater than that of the plastic ball. For the same force the acceleration produced in the plastic ball is greater than the acceleration produced in the football. So it can be said that the acceleration produced in a body depends on its mass and is inversely proportional to the mass. Hence, we have, a = F/m ............... 8.1 Where, a denotes the acceleration produced in a body of mass m when a force F is applied on it. Now, you know acceleration is a vector quantity and force is also a vector quantity, so the equation (8.1) may be expressed in the vector form as a = F/m ...................... 8.2
Fig 8.5 Motion of (a) foot ball (b) plastic ball when the same force is applied on them This shows that acceleration produced in a body is in the same direction as the applied force. Equation (8.2) represents Newtons second law of motion which may be stated as the acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional to the unbalanced force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass. The direction of the acceleration is the same as that of the force. Unit of force: You can use equation (8.1) to define the unit of force. Equation (8.1) may be written as, F = ma ............................ 8.3 In SI system of units, if m = 1 kg and a = 1 ms-2 then, F = (1 kg *1 m)/1s2 = 1kgm/s2 1kgm/s2 is called as 1 Newton whose symbol is N. Hence, the SI unit of force is Newton.1 Newton force is that force which on acting on a body of mass 1 kg produces in it an acceleration of 1 ms-2 i.e., 1N = 1 kg ms-2 You must note that equation (8.3) can be used to find out the acceleration or force applied or mass of a body provided any two of the three quantities namely force, mass and acceleration are known. If you put F = 0 in equation (8.3), you will get, ma = 0 But, mass m of a body can never be zero. Therefore, or a = v u = 0 or v = u i.e., a moving body continues to move with the same velocity if no force acts on it. This is nothing but the first law of motion. So first law can be derived from the second law. Let us solve some problems using Newtons Law of motion.
-2 Example 8.1: What force accelerates a 50 kg mass at 4m/s ?
Solution: Newtons second law gives F = ma Here m = 50kg and a = 4ms-2 Therefore, F = 50 kg x 4ms-2 = 200 kg ms-2 = 200N (since 1N = 1kg ms-2 ) Example 8.2: If a force of 50 N acts on a body of mass 10 kg. then what is the acceleration produced in the body? Solution: Newtons second law gives
F = ma or a = F/m Here, F = 50 N = 50 kg ms-2 and m = 10 kg a= 50kgms-2 * 1/10 kg = 5ms-2 Momentum You know that a moving body always has a mass and a velocity. These two quantities help us to define a new quantity called momentum. Thus, the momentum of a moving body is defined as the product of its mass and velocity, and its direction is same as that of its velocity. So, we can say that all moving bodies have momentum. i.e. Momentum = Mass x Velocity p = m x v = mv You know, velocity is a vector quantity, so momentum is also a vector quantity directed along the velocity. In vector notation, p = mv Momentum plays an important role in the motion of bodies. We know that the acceleration of a body is defined as rate of change of its velocity. v = Final velocity, u = Initial velocity and t = Time Newtons second law of motion gives. F = ma Substituting (8.4) in the above equation we have, F = ( Final momentum Initial momentum ) / Time (according to the definition of momentum) or F = ( Change in momentum ) / Time = Rate of change of momentum Hence the rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the force acting on the body and is in the same direction. This is another way of stating Newtons second law of motion. Unit of momentum: By definition, momentum is the product of mass and velocity. In SI units, the unit of mass is kg and that of velocity is m/s. Therefore, the unit of momentum is kg m/s or kgms-1 or Ns 8.2.5 Some illustrations of second law of motion According to the Newtons second law of motion the force is defined as F = Rate of change of momentum Force is large when time is small and when time is large, force becomes smaller, for the same change of momentum. The following examples are based on this concept.
(a) If a bundle tied with a string is lifted quickly by holding the string, the string snaps. Why? This is because a large force must be exerted on the string to quickly increase the momentum of the bundle. (b) When a person falls on a cemented floor, why does he get hurt? The person has some initial momentum mu which becomes zero when he comes to halt. Since the mass comes to rest within a very short time, very large force comes into action in order to produce a definite change in momentum (from mu to zero), thereby hurting the person. On the other hand, if he falls on dry clay or husk or on a foam mattresses, he does not get hurt due to prolongation of time in making momentum zero and hence reduction of force. (c) Why does a cricket player while catching a ball moves his hands backward? By doing so he increases the time duration in which the momentum of the ball becomes zero. As time increases, smaller force comes into action to produce the desired change in momentum, so his hands do not get hurt. 8.2.6 Newtons third law of motion You must have noticed that when you jump out of a boat suddenly, the boat moves in the backward direction. Why does this happen? While jumping, your foot exerts a backward force on the boat (Fig. 8.6). This force is called the action. At the same time, a force is exerted by the boat on your foot, which makes you move forward. This force is known as reaction. Action and reaction forces are, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Fig 8.6 A boy jumping out of a boat Also you must have noticed that when an air-filled balloon is released, the balloon moves opposite to the direction of the air coming out of it. In this case the air coming out of the balloon exerts a force of reaction on the balloon and this force pushes the balloon backwards. If the air rushes out vertically downwards (action) the balloon moves vertically upwards (reaction). You can try it yourself at your home.
Therefore, forces always exist in pairs and they act on two different bodies. Newtons third law of motion very clearly states that to every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction, and the action-reaction forces act on different bodies. There are three significant features of this law: (i) We cannot say which force out of the two forces is the force of action and which one is the force of reaction. They are interchangeable. (ii) Action and reaction always act on two different bodies. (iii) The force of reaction appears so long as the force of action acts. Therefore, these two forces are simultaneous. 8.2.7 An illustration of third law of motion Working of jet plane and rockets: A jet plane takes in air, the fuel burns and then releases the burnt gases from the tail. As the burnt gases come out, the plane moves in the forward direction. If the force with which the gases escape is the action, then the force enabling the plane to move forward is the reaction. Friction in Motion You might have noticed that a moving car begins to slow down the instant its engine is switched off. Why does it happen? In fact the car is slowed down by a force called friction, which exists between the surfaces of all materials which rub against each other. 8.3.1 Factors affecting friction Friction is caused due to the irregularities i.e., elevations and depressions in the surfaces of sliding objects. These irregularities act as obstructions to motion. The direction of the frictional force is always in a direction opposite to the motion. Thus, if an object is to move at a constant velocity, a force equal to the opposing force of friction must be applied. In that condition the two forces exactly cancel one another and the net force on the body is zero; hence the acceleration produced in the body is zero. But zero acceleration does not mean zero velocity. Zero acceleration means that the body maintains its velocity, it neither speeds up nor slows down. The resistive force before the body starts moving on a surface is called static friction. So it may be concluded that force needed to overcome friction, is necessary to maintain the uniform motion of a body. Air resistance is one type of frictional force. It is a common experience that it is difficult to walk on sand, but it is easier to walk on a metalled road. Greater the roughness, greater is the friction. More power is needed to develop same speed on the same road for a heavy truck than for a lighter truck. It is so because the heavy truck has greater normal reaction (reaction of road on the truck against the action or weight of the loaded truck) and hence greater frictional force.
8.3.2 Sliding and Rolling Friction Once a body starts moving on a surface the friction between them is called sliding or kinetic friction. This friction is less than the static friction discussed above. You might have used a slide in your school or a park in your childhood to play with. Here force of friction is much less. You may be using a bicycle or a scooter to go from one place to another. The wheels are round and these roll over the road. Friction between wheels and road is rolling friction. This type of friction is least of all other types. Ball bearings do have rolling friction. 8.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of friction (a) Advantages of friction It helps vehicles to move. If there were no friction between vehicle tyres and the ground, the wheels of the vehicle might spin but the vehicle would stay where they were. Thus, vehicle tyres are designed to give as much friction as possible in all conditions. It helps us to walk. When you are walking, a force of friction is developed between the soles of your feet or shoes and the ground. This force causes us to move. Can you now tell, why we find it difficult to walk on slippery ground or even on the sand? We can easily walk, write on a page or black board due to friction. (b) Disadvantages of friction Friction produces heating of the rubbing surfaces. Friction reduces efficiency of the machines as considerable amount of energy is wasted in overcoming friction. Friction causes wear and tear of surfaces and machine parts. 8.3.4 Control of friction Oil reduces friction by helping the surfaces slide over each other, move smoothly. Wheels of vehicles are usually mounted on ball or roller bearing to reduce friction. Some time friction is increased by making surface rough as in case of tyres of vehicles, stairs and ramps. From what has been stated above one may conclude that the friction plays an important role in our daily life. This is the reason why friction is often termed as a necessary evil.
Force of Gravitation It is every day experience that bodies like a ball thrown vertically upward comes back to the earth. Why does it happen so? We are even today fascinated how planets move around the sun and how various stars are there in their orbits or positions? All this has been possible due to the force of attraction between any two masses. Newton called it force of gravitation and he formulated a law connecting the force and masses of the two bodies involved. The interesting aspect of this gravitational force is that it is always attractive whatever may be the size of bodies. 8.4.1 Newtons law of gravitation On the basis of some observations, Newton found that the force of gravitation is directly proportional to the product of masses of the two bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Mathematically, F = G (m1*m2) / r2 Where G is called the universal gravitational constant. In S.I. units where m is measured in kilogram, F in newton and r in metre, G has a value 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2. At once we see that for appreciable value of force, masses should be very large. The gravitational force due to earth is also known as gravity. 8.4.2 Acceleration due to gravity Stand at the roof top of a three or more storeyed building with stones of different masses in your two hands and drop these together (Be careful dont hurt anyone). Ask another person (an observer) to observe falling of the stones. You will find that both the stones fall simultaneously. The earths gravity accelerates the bricks down. Since both reach ground together, this acceleration, called acceleration due to gravity (g), is same for both pieces and is same for any mass. That is g is independent of the mass of the freely falling body. Its value changes from place to place on the Earth and it is 9.81 ms -2 at the equator. Its value is maximum at the poles. 8.4.3 Mass and weight We know that acceleration due to gravity varies with geographical latitude and the gravitational force is an inverse square of force i.e. F 1/r2 . However, the ratio of the gravitational force to the free fall acceleration for a given body at any point on the Earth is a constant.
The ratio F/g is a characteristic of a body and is known as the mass of the body according to Newtons second law of motion. Thus, mass of a body is defined as the
ratio of the force of gravity acting on the body to the free fall acceleration. m = F/g. Mass is a scalar quantity and is measured in kilogram (kg). Mass is also defined as the matter contained in the body. At a given place the value of acceleration due to gravity is same for all masses-big or small. Hence force of gravity is proportional to the mass of the body.
The weight of a body at a given place is the force with which the Earth attracts the body towards it. The unit of weight is Newton. More massive a body is, more weighty it will be. Thus, the weight of the body W is W = mass x acceleration or W = mg Mass : Mass is the amount of matter contained in a body. It is a scalar quantity. Mass of a body is a constant quantity. Mass is measured with a beam balance. Unit of mass is kg. It is gravitational force with which Earth attracts a body towards it. It is the ratio of gravitational force on the body to the acceleration due to gravity. Weight: Weight is force, hence a vector quantity. Weight of the body changes from place to place. Weight is measured with a spring balance. Unit of weight is N. Example 8.3: A body weighs 49 N at a place where g=9.8 ms-2. What will be its weight at the pole where g=9.82 ms-2. Solution: w=mg
weight at pole w = mg = 5 kg x 9.8 ms-2 = 49.10 N Example 8.4: A 1kg body falls from a height of 60 m from rest on a planet where acceleration due to gravity is 120 ms-2. Calculate the velocity of the body when it touches the planets surface. Solution : Initial velocity of the, body, u = 0 acceleration, a = g = 120 ms-2 height through which body falls = h = 60m. Using the equation of motion v2 = u2 + 2gh we have on substitution of values 2 2 -2 v = 0 +2 x 120 ms x 60 m
= 1,4,400 m2 s-2 v = 120 ms-2 Example 8.5: Two bodies A and B weighing, 2N and 6N are dropped from the roof of a 10 m high building together. Which A or B will reach the Earth first? Solution : Since the two bodies have same initial velocity (i.e. zero) and have same acceleration (g) i.e. acceleration due to gravity acts on both A and B, hence, both will reach Earth together irrespective of their masses. 8.4.4 Motion under gravity and free fall The force with which Earth attracts a body, stationary with respect to Earth, is called the weight of the body. When a body falls freely from some height (say, top of a building) it does so due to a force called weight. When no other force like air resistance except gravity, acts on a falling body, it is called a free fall and body acquires acceleration under its weight. There are many situations, like a person in a lift or satellite which has some acceleration with respect to the earth other than g, the weight of the person is not same. He exerts less or more force on his support than his actual weight. If the system, somehow, has acceleration a =g, the person feels no weight. This is known as the weightlessness. It has several implications for an astronaut. Thrust and Pressure Rockets and jet planes eject burnt gases with force. The gas in turn react on the rocket or jet plane with force called thrust. Similarly water coming out of a plastic or rubber pipe exert thrust on it. Thrust and pressure are properties of fluids (gases and liquids). The total force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) on any surface in contact with it, is called thrust. Thrust is measured in newton (N). The thrust exerted by fluid at rest per unit area of the surface in contact with the fluid (liquid/gas) is called pressure. The air exerts pressure, you fill air in cycle or scooter/motor cycle tyres upto a certain pressure, the astronaughts and soldiers in places like Siachin wear pressure suits to avoid bleeding. Blood pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure at high attitudes. Under sea water, pressure put by it on the body is quite high. The normal atmospheric pressure is one atmospheric pressure and according to the definition
-2 p = F/A, its value in Nm is 1 atmosphere = 1.014 x 105 Nm-2 Normal atmospheric pressure is also measured in terms of centimetre or milimetre of mercury, 1 atm = 76 cm = 760 mm of mercury. The SI unit of pressure is Nm-2. Pressure is measured in pascal (Pa)
1 Pa = 1 Nm-2 The air or gas pressure is also measured in bar or torr. 1 atmos = 1.014 bar and 1 torr = 1 m m of mercury 133.3 N m-2 1 atmos = 760 torr A practical application of pressure is the shape of a paper pin, needle and nail. The tip of these is made very narrow so that these pierce the object with greater pressure. Buoyancy : How a ship floats on sea? If there is no water below or insufficient water, the ship will sink to the sea bottom. The weight of the ship acts downward and water pushes it upward. Similarly a diver in a swimming tank is also pushed up when he jumps from the board into the water. The force exerted by water or any liquid or gas on a body immersed in it, in the upward direction, is called the up-thrust or buoyant force or simply buoyancy. In the early days of space flights, buoyancy of Earths atmosphere posed a big problem in the re-entry of space vehicles in Earths atmosphere and their safe landing on Earth. The principle of buoyancy comes from Archimedes principle. 8.5.1 Archimedes principle When you put a piece of stone on the surface of water it sinks but boat can float on it. Why does this happen? Greek scientist Archimedes gave the principle which could explain such things. According to Archimedes principle when a body is immersed, wholly or partially in a liquid (or fluid), it undergoes an apparent loss in its weight, which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body. 8.5.2 Applications of Archimedes principle (i) Flotation of bodies : Suppose the weight of a body is W and weight of liquid or fluid displaced is w then body will float immersed or partially immersed when W = w or W < w. (ii) To determine the specific gravity of the body (iii) To find the volume of a body. Example 8.6: The mass of a body in air is 1 kg. What will be its weight in the liquid -2 of specific gravity 1.2 if it displaces 100 ml of this liquid? (Take g = 10ms ). Solution : Weight of the body in air = 1 kg x 10ms-2 10N. Density of liquid = 1.2 x 103 kgm-3 Volume of the liquid displaced 100 ml = 100 x 10-6 m3 Buoyant force = 100 x 10-6 m3 = 1.2 N Loss in weight of the body =1.2 N Weight of body in the liquid = 10N 1.2N = 8.8 N.
In Text Questions 1. Is there any force applied when (i) you push the wall of a house? (ii) the speed of the cycle is increased? (iii) the player changes the direction of football by using his head? 2. What is the property by virtue of which a body tends to remain stationary? 3. When a bus suddenly starts, the passengers feel a backward jerk. Why? 4. If forces of same magnitude are applied on two bodies of masses 2 kg and 4 kg, which of the bodies will have more acceleration? 5. If a body of mass 5 kg moves with a velocity of 10 ms-1, then what is the momentum of the body? 6. If a force of 10N produces an acceleration of 2 ms-2 in a body, how much force would be required to produce an acceleration of 4 ms-1 in the same body? 7. What is the acceleration of an aeroplane moving in a circle around the Earth, if the passenger in it feels weightlessness? 8. Does any force act on a body in a free fall. 9. Density of kerosene is 0.8 g cm-3 and density of water is 1 g cm-3. Which one will exert greater buoyant force on a body? 10. A body is immersed in a liquid. If the liquid displaced by the body weighs 20g then what is the buoyant force acting on the body? 11. If the weight of a body is 10 g and the buoyant force is 7g, will the body sink or float? 12. Why is straw used to drink a soft drink? 13. Sailors generally say that a person is easily drowned in a river than in sea, why? Terminal Questions 1. Define force. Is it a vector quantity? What is its unit? 2. State Newtons first law of motion. 3. Explain why is it dangerous to jump (or alight) from a fast moving bus or train? 4. Why do the dust particles from the hanging blankets fall off by beating with a stick?
5. Which law helps you to find the magnitude of the force acting on a body of mass mmoving with an acceleration a? State the law. 6. Define momentum. Is it a vector quantity? What is the unit of momentum? 7. How is the rate of change of momentum related to force? 8. Which will have greater momentuma truck moving with a speed of 60 km/ h or a train moving with the same speed? Justify your answer. 9. Find the acceleration produced in a body of 2 kg mass when a force of 10N acts on it. 10. What force accelerates a 50 kg mass at 6 m/s? 11. A force of 60N accelerates a mass of 15 kg from rest. Find the velocity at the end of 6 seconds. 12. Explain the effect of friction on motion. 13. Give an example to show that friction is useful as well as harmful to us. 14. What is an inverse square law of gravitation? What you have learnt
- If a body stays at the same position with time, it is at rest. - If the body changes its position with time, it is in motion. - Motion is said to be rectilinear if the body moves in the same straight line all-the time, e.g, a car moving in a straight line on a level road. - The motion is said to be circular if the body moves on a circular path: e.g, the motion of the tip of the hand of a watch. - The total path length covered by a moving body is the distance travelled by it. - The difference between the final and initial position of a body is called its displacement. - Physical quantities are of two types (i) scalar: which have magnitude only, no direction (ii) vector: which have magnitude as well as direction. - Distance, speed, mass, time, temperature etc. are scalar quantities, whereas displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force etc. are vector quantities.
- Distance travelled in unit time is called speed, whereas, displacement per unit time is called velocity. - Position-time graph of a body moving in a straight line with constant speed is a straight line sloping with time axis. The slope of the line gives the velocity of the motion. - Velocity-time graph of a body in a straight line with constant speed is a straight line parallel to time axis. Area under the graph gives distance travelled. - Velocity-time graph of a body in a straight line with constant acceleration is a straight line sloping with the time axis. The slope of the line gives acceleration. - For uniformly accelerated motion : v = u+at s = ut + 1/2 at2 where u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, and s = distance travelled in t seconds.
10
Thermal Energy
You are aware that energy is required for all types of activities. In the previous lesson you have learnt about mechanical form of energy. Heat is also a form of energy, called thermal energy. Fire has heat in it . When fuels like coal, petrol, wood, kerosene-oil are burnt, heat is produced. You would have noticed that in winter season, when it is cold, generally people rub their palms to warm up. Here, doing mechanical work against friction produces heat. You must have learnt that in ancient times man used to produce fire by rubbing two pieces of stone together. Even now a days we produce fire by the same method when we rub the tip of a matchstick on the special surface of the matchbox. Why do we need heat? We require heat to cook, to iron clothes, to have hot water for bathing in winter season, to melt solids, to vaporize the liquids, etc. Why do the wet clothes get dried when hanged in sunlight? Have you seen an iron smith heating an iron rod red hot and then beating it to give the required shape of a knife or a scissor? You must have got a chance to see a gold smith working with flames of a lamp in designing an ornament. What is the use of flame? In thermal power plants coal is burnt to generate electricity. In steel industry and glass industry, iron and glass are melted to give them definite shapes. Steam engine can pull a train due to the power of steam. In all these activities heat is used. Let us learn all about heat and its effects in this lesson. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to differentiate between heat and temperature; explain that heat is transferred from one body to another when there is a temperature difference between the two bodies; describe construction, calibration and use of thermometers; explain the effect of heat on matter resulting in thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases; explain the constancy of temperature of a substance during change of phase even though heated continuously; state the factors upon which the total transferable heat of a body depends; calculate heat flow from a hotter body to a colder body in contact; predict the variation in melting point and boiling point of materials due to the presence of impurities and with variation in pressure; explain why the food gets cooked easily and quickly in a pressure cooker.
: 172 : Thermal Energy
10.1 WHAT IS HEAT? Heat is a form of energy. We call it thermal energy. It is measured in joule. Sunrays have heat in them. This heat is called radiant heat. It travels with the speed of light i.e. 3 x 10 8 m s -1. 10.1.1 How is heat produced? Rub your palms together. What happens? They become warmer, indicating generation of heat. Here friction is generating heat. When you burn coal, wood or kerosene oil, fire is produced. Fire has heat energy in it. Here, the chemical energy gets converted into heat by the process of burning.
Fig. 10.1 Rubbing the palms together makes them warmer
Fig. 10.2 Fire has heat energy
10.1.2 Heat is energy of molecular motion Every material is made up of molecules, which are in a state of continuous random motion. This is due to the heat in them. When we heat up this material, this molecular motion increases. This Fig. 10.3 Molecular motion increases suggests that heat is kinetic energy of molecular with absorption of heat motion. Kinetic energy of a body in motion can be utilized in doing work against frictional forces. This results in the heating up of the body. It is due to transfer of kinetic energy from the moving body to the molecules. Let us perform an activity to demonstrate conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy. ACTIVITY 10.1 Aim: Demonstration of conversion of mechanical energy into heat What to do? i) Keep bicycle on its stand and rotate the paddle with hand so that the rear wheel rotates very fast. ii) With the help of a pad of cloth on your finger tip, touch the rim of the wheel to stop the wheel.
Brake rubber
Fig. 10.4 Conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy
Thermal Energy : 173 :
What do you observe? At the finger tip you feel that cloth has become hot. What do you conclude? The kinetic energy of motion of the wheel has been transferred to the cloth due to friction and it appears in the form of heat. 10.1.3 Heat can lead to work You might have seen water boiling in a kettle. Due to steam formed in the kettle, its lid moves up and down. This shows that heat can do work. You must have seen a steam engine pulling a long array of coaches. Thus, heat can be utilized to do work. Thus, we can conclude that heat is a form of energy since it can do work. Also, heat and work are inter convertible. The device that converts thermal energy into mechanical work is called heat engine.
Fig. 10.5 Heat can do work
10.1.4 Temperature and need for its measurement How will you measure the hotness of a given body? You may suggest that this can be done simply by touching the body. It means feeling of hotness by our hand can be used to estimate how hot a body is. But sometimes it may be difficult (if the body is very hot and may cause burns) and sometimes the conclusion may be confusing. Can you have a wrong sensation of hotness by touch? ACTIVITY 10.2 Aim: Our sense of touch may be misleading What to do? i) Take three bowls A, B and C. Fill ice cold water in bowl A, ordinary tap water in bowl B and hot water in bowl C (Fig. 10.6). ii) Now dip your left hand in bowl C containing hot water and right hand in bowl A containing ice cold water and let them remain there for two minutes. iii) Now take your hands out of both bowls and put both of them in bowl B containing tap water.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.6 Sense of touch may be misleading
(c)
What do you feel? You will be surprised to note that your left hand will give you the sensation that this water is cold, while the right hand will give you the sensation that it is warm. Thus, confusing sensations can be felt by skin. The difficulty in using the sensation as a measure of hotness arises because of the fact that the terms hot and cold are relative terms and cannot be used in the absolute measurement of hotness. Therefore, there is a need of some standard for the measurement of the hotness of a body. The degree of hotness of a body is called its temperature. It is measured by devices called thermometer. It is represented as a number on a thermometric scale. 10.1.5 Difference between heat and temperature Heat is energy in transit, which is transferred from one body to another due to temperature difference between them. While heat is a form of energy, the temperature is the degree of hotness of a body. Heat is measured in Joule while the temperature is measured in degree Fahrenheit (o F), degree Celsius (o C) or Kelvin (K). 10.1.6 Various types of scales for measurement of temperature The thermometers in common use have two different types of scales of measurements namely Fahrenheit and Celsius scales of temperature. For scientific work, Kelvin scale of temperature is more often used. However, the construction and working of these thermometers is same. It is obvious that a hotter body would show higher temperature and a colder body a lower temperature on the same scale. The thermometers cannot have confusing or wrong sensations. 10.1.7 Construction and use of a thermometer Mercury thermometers are the most common thermometers in use. Mercury is filled in a thin walled glass bulb joined at the end of a capillary tube by the process of repeated heating and cooling. The mercury is seen in the form of a thin dark thread in the capillary. The space above the mercury level in capillary is evacuated. The other end is now sealed. Mercury has the property of uniform thermal expansion over a wide range of temperatures. This means, the length of the mercury thread in the thermometer increases by same amount for each degree rise in its temperature. The tip of the mercury thread can be easily seen in the transparent glass tube as shown in Fig 10.7. Calibration of mercury thermometer To calibrate a scale on a thermometer, two fixed points are marked, the lower fixed point or ice point and upper fixed point or steam point. To mark the ice point, the bulb of thermometer is placed in a vessel containing mixture of water and crushed ice. When the level of the mercury becomes stable, a mark is put at the position of the tip of
Capillary tube
Constriction
Mercury in bulb
Fig. 10.7 Mercury thermometer
mercury thread in the glass tube. This is called ice-point. Next, the same bulb is placed in steam just above boiling water in a vessel. The position of the tip of mercury thread changes due to thermal expansion of mercury in the bulb. A mark is again made on the glass tube at this new position of the tip of the mercury thread. This is called steam point. Now to mark a Celsius scale on this thermometer, zero is written at the ice point mark and 100 is written at the steam point mark. The length between these two marks is then divided into 100 equal parts. This now becomes a Celsius thermometer. To mark a Fahrenheit scale, 32 is written on the ice-point mark and 212 is written on the steam point mark. The length between these two marks is then divided into 180 equal parts. This now becomes a Fahrenheit thermometer.
Steam point
Ice point
Fig. 10.8 Method of calibration of a thermometer
In a clinical thermometer, the marks are shown only in the range 95 0F to 110 0F. [These are the two limits of human body temperature beyond which human beings cannot survive]. Kelvin scale can be marked on a Celsius scale F C by writing 273 at ice point and 373 at steam point. 212 212 Steam point 44 110 Thus, each mark is calibrated with a value higher by 273 than on Celsius scale. The Kelvin scale 98.6 37 begins with the lowest possible temperature as its zero, which is 273.15 0C. This temperature is also 32 95 Ice point 35 32 called absolute zero. To measure the temperature of a hot body, the bulb of the thermometer, is put in contact with Fig. 10.9 Calibration of thermometers in that body. Mercury in the bulls expands, resulting different scales in the increase of the length of the mercury thread in the glass capillary. The position of the tip of the mercury thread on the scale (calibrated on the capillary) is read. This gives the value of temperature. When you measure temperature of a cooler body, mercury contracts, length of mercury thread decreases and it gives the value of temperature. As mercury does not stick to glass, the receding tip of mercury thread does not leave any mercury in empty part of capillary, which could cause error in the reading.
ACTIVITY 10.3 Aim: To measure the temperature of a patient What to do? i) Take a clinical thermometer (also called Doctors thermometer) (Fig. 10.7). ii) Wash the thermometer in running cold water under a tap, rinse carefully and give a few jerks to bring tip of the mercury thread below 95 0F. iii) Now put the bulb end of the thermometer in the mouth Fig. 10.10 To measure the under the tongue of the patient for about 2 minutes. temperature of a pateint iv) Now take it out gently and read it. This gives the body temperature of the patient. v) Is it more than 98.6 0F? If yes! The patient has fever. It may be somewhere in between 97 0F and 98.6 0F, if the patient does not have fever. vi) Wash it again in running tap water; hold it from the other end and give it 3-4 jerks so that the thermometer reading reduces to 95 0F. vii) Now put the bulb of the thermometer under the armpit of the patient inside the shirt and keep it slightly pressed. Hold it for about 2 minutes. viii) Take it out gently and note the thermometer reading. ix) Is it about 1.0 0F lower than before? What do you conclude? The mouth temperature called the body temperature is about 10 higher than armpit temperature. To know the body temperature of an infant who cannot keep the bulb of the thermometer in his mouth, the temperature of the armpit is measured and then 10 is added to this reading to find the body temperature and decide if he has fever. 10.1.9 Relation between Fahrenheit and Celsius scales of temperature Let us solve the following examples: Example 10.1: A thermometer reads the temperature of some hot liquid as 100 0F. What would be the reading of the Celsius thermometer used to measure this temperature? Solution : You have known that Fahrenheit scale starts from 32 0F instead of 0 0C. Both of these are the ice points. Also steam points on these scales are marked as 212 0F and 100 0C, respectively. Thus, 180 divisions of F scale are equivalent to 100 divisions of C scale. Hence, 1 division of F scale = 100/180 divisions of C scale Now if F is the reading on the F scale, then Number of divisions above ice point are = F 32 Therefore, value of (F 32) divisions of F scale = (100/180) x (F 32) divisions of C scale
i.e. reading of Celsius thermometer will be = (100/180) (F 32) = C or

F 32 C = 180 100 F 32 C = 9 5
This becomes the required formula to convert any reading of F scale to C scale or vice versa. In the present case F = 100 340 5 C = (100 32) = = 37.78 degree Celsius 9 9 37.8 0C Example 10.2: Which temperature has same numerical value on Fahrenheit scale and Celcius scale of temperature ? Solution: Here, we are given F = C Therefore, in the conversion formula put F = C, we get
C 32 C = 9 5 F 32 C = , 9 5
5C 160 = 9C Thus 40 0C = 40 0F
C = 400
Example 10.3: What would be the value of 80 0C on Kelvin scale? Solution: Since Kelvin scale readings are higher by 273 than on Celsius scale, the value on Kelvin scale is 80+273 = 353 K Kelvin scale is used in system international (SI) to report the temperature. However, in laboratory we use only Celsius scale for measuring temperature. On Kelvin scale, the temperature is mentioned in Kelvin only and not degree Kelvin. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 10.1 State whether the following statements are True or False. 1. Heat can be measured in Kelvin. (T/F) 2. 30 0F is a lower temperature than 30 0C. (T/F) 3. The numerical value of temperature of any hot body measured on Kelvin scale is always higher than measured on Fahrenheit Scale. (T/F) 4. Thermal energy can be measured either in calories or Joules. (T/F)
5. Pure alcohol can also be used as thermometric liquid. (T/F) 6. When we touch a cold body, heat flows from our hand to the cold body. (T/F) 10.2 EFFECTS OF HEAT When objects are heated, they may show a change in their shape, size, colour or sometimes in their state. However, the magnitude of change depends upon the quantity of heat absorbed by the object. 10.2.1 Solids expand on heating Have you ever faced a problem of opening the jammed metallic cap of an inkpot? Sometimes, it is too much tightly closed. Place the inkpot in a wide vessel containing hot water for few minutes. Now take it out Fig. 10.11 Method to open tightly closed and try to open the cap. It opens easily. Why? metallic cap of an inkpot Metallic cap undergoes thermal expansion in its size (more than the mouth of inkpot which is made of glass) due to absorption of heat from the hot water and therefore, gets loosened. The phenomenon of expansion of solids is used for various purposes. (i) Fitting of tyres on wheels: Do you know, how is the iron ring mounted on the wooden wheel of a horse-cart? The radius of the iron ring is slightly less than that of the wooden wheel. It, therefore, cannot be easily slipped on to the rim of wooden wheel. The iron ring is, therefore, first heated to a higher temperature so that it expands in size and the hot ring is then easily slipped over to the rim of the wooden wheel. Cold water is now poured on the iron ring so that it contracts in size and holds the wooden wheel tightly (Fig. 10.12a)
Iron ring expands on heating
(a) Fitting of tyres on wheels

Aluminium
(b) Gaps in railway tracks at joints
Aluminium expands more
Brass
(c) Thermostat in electrical appliance Fig. 10.12 Some applications of thermal expansion
(ii) Gaps in the railway track at joints: You must have noticed gaps at the joints in a railways track. Why is it left like that? If this gap is not left then during summer the iron rail will expand due to hot weather and will get bent at the joints (Fig. 10.12b). (iii) Thermostat in electrical appliances: Thermostat is a temperature control device. It is a bi-metallic strip made up of two different metals having different expansivity. As the temperature rises, due to unequal thermal expansion, the strip bends. Due to this the contact breaks and the circuits gets disconnected. Similarly, it can be used to make contact as temperature rises and thus, to switch on a circuit, as in case of a fire-alarm (Fig. 10.12c). Thus, bimetallic strip is a technical application of differential expansion of metals. 10.2.2 How to measure the expansivity of the material of a body? All substances do not expand by the same amount when heated through the same difference of temperature. Also it is seen that the same substance expands by a different amount when heated to a different temperature. It is found that larger the rise in temperature, larger is the expansion. It is understood that the ratio of change in length (L) to the original length (L) is directly proportional to the rise in temperature (t) of solid bodies ; i.e.
L t L
or
L = t L
is a constant and depends on the nature of the material of the body. It is called linear coefficient of thermal expansion of the material. It is measured in per degree celsius. It is defined as fractional increase in length for each degree rise in temperature. Example 10.4: The length of a steel rod at room temperature of 25 0C is 20.00 cm. What would be its length when its temperature is raised to 325 0C? [Given linear coefficient of thermal expansion of steel as 0.000012 0C-1 ]. Solution : Since ,
L = t and t = 300 C L L = L t = 200 x 0.000012 x 300 = 0.072 cm
or
Therefore, the increased length will be 20.00 + 0.072 = 20.07 cm. Please note that the result is rounded off to 2nd decimal place because 20.00 cm, the term with smallest decimal place in addition has 2 decimal places.
ACTIVITY 10.4 Aim: To study the expansion of water What to do? i) Take a small glass bottle (say a used medicine/ injection bottle). Fill it with water up to the rim. ii) Take the thin plastic tube of a used, empty ball-pen refill. Warm it, bend it and pass through a cork into the mouth of the bottle. iii) Now heat the bottle gradually. Do you find droplets of water coming out of the bent tube? What do you conclude? Liquids expand on heating
Fig. 10.13 Expansion of liquids
Mercury is a liquid. The property of thermal expansion of mercury has been used in the construction of a thermometer. Different liquids expand by different extent for the same rise in temperature. Gases also expand on heating. It is important to know that unlike solids and liquids all gases expend by same amount for the same rise in temperature. Thus heating causes expansion of solids, liquids and gases. However, in case of liquids and gases we measure their volume expansivity. It is found that fractional increase in volume of liquids or gases is directly proportional to rise in their temperatures, i.e.
V t V
or
V =t V
Where, is a constant called volume coefficient of thermal expansion, which is different for different liquids. It is defined as the fractional increase in volume for each degree rise in its temperature. It is also measured in per degree Celsius. For gases this constant has the unique value 1/273 per Kelvin. It is interesting to note that unlike other liquids, water expands when it freezes into ice. Also when water is heated from 0 0C to 4 0C, its volume decreases. But further heating beyond 4 0C results in volume expansion. You must have noticed that if water bottles or cold drink bottles are left in the freezer of a refrigerator for some days, they crack. Similarly, there is bursting of water pipes under extreme cold conditions at hill stations. This is due to the fact that water expands on freezing into ice. Table 10.1 shows the values of linear and volume coefficients of thermal expansion of some materials. It is seen that volume coefficient of thermal expansion is equal to three times the linear coefficient of thermal expansion.
Table 10.1: Coefficients of linear expansion and volume expansion for some substances Material Quartz Steel Iron Silver Brass Aluminium Lead Coefficient of linear expansion (oC-1) 0.4 x 10 -6 8 x 10 -6 11 x 10 6 18 x 10 6 18 x 10 6 25 x 10 6 2.9 x 10 6 Coefficient of volume expansion (oC-1) 1.2 x 10 6 24 x 10 -6 33 x 10 -6 54 x 10 -6 54 x 10 -6 75 x 10 -6 8.7 x 10 -6
10.2.3 Heating causes change of state of matter When a solid material is heated, its temperature rises. When the temperature reaches a certain value, the solid starts melting. The temperature remains constant till whole of the solid material gets melted. This temperature is called the melting point (M.P.) of the material. It is a characteristic temperature for the material. It does not depend upon the shape or size of the solid. Different materials have different melting points. ACTIVITY 10.5 Aim: Determination of melting point of ice What to do? i) Take some crushed ice in a cooking utensil. Place a thermometer in it and note down its temperature (it should be 0 0C) (Fig. 10.14). ii) Now heat it on a gas stove slowly. Do you see conversion of ice into water? Keep an eye on the level of mercury thread of the thermometer. Does it change? Fig. 10.14 Determination of iii) Keep on heating till whole of the ice gets melting point of ice melted. What is the temperature? Is it constant at 0 0C. Heat further. Do you find that the temperature of water is now increasing? What do you conclude? You will find that the ice melts at 0 0C and the temperature of ice-water mixture remains constant at 0 0C till whole of ice gets melted. Repeat this activity for other solids to find their melting points. You can perform a similar activity with boiling water to find its boiling point. You have to take care that
thermometer measures the temperature of steam a little above water surface. If it dips in boiling water the water must be quite pure. Whenever there is a change of state between solid and liquid or liquid and gaseous states, the temperature does not change even though the heat is either continuously absorbed (as in the process of melting or boiling) or continuously given out (as in the process of freezing and liquefaction) by the material under observation. Table 10.2: Melting points and boiling points of some materials Material Melting point (oC) -271 -259 -212 -39 0 658 1063 Latent heat of fusion (kj/kg) 58.6 23.0 11.7 335 322 67 Boiling point (oC) -268 -252 -191 357 100 1800 2500 Latent heat of evaporation (kJ/kg) 25.1 452 213 272 2260
Helium Hydrogen Air Mercury Pure water Aluminium Gold
10.2.4 Effects of impurities on melting point and boiling point Pure substances have definite melting points and boiling points characteristics of the material. But on addition of impurities their values change. Let us study this with the help of some activities. ACTIVITY 10.6 Aim: To find out effect of impurities on melting point of ice What to do? i) Take two containers A and B. In container A, put some pure water and crushed pure ice. In container B, ice is mixed with about 1/3rd its weight of powdered salt. Observe that in B some ice melts and a saturated solution of salt is formed. ii) Measure the temperature of liquid in both the containers. Obviously, temperature of ice in any container is same as that of its liquid. In which container is temperature lower? iii) The temperature is lower in B. What do you conclude? Presence of impurities lowers the freezing point/melting point.
Activity 10.7 Aim: To find out effect of impurities on boiling point of water What to do? i) In the above activity 10.6, heat both the containers until the water starts boiling. ii) Note the boiling point of water in the both containers, keeping the bulbs of the two thermometers inside the levels of respective boiling liquids. What do you observe? The boiling point of salted water is higher than that of pure water. What do you conclude? Presence of impurities increases the boiling point. 10.2.5 Effect of pressure on melting point and boiling point The melting and boiling points of a material also change with the change in atmospheric pressure. Let us study the effect of pressure on melting point and boiling point with the help of some activities. ACTIVITY 10.8 Aim: To study the effect of pressure on the melting point of a substance What to do? i) Take an ice block, a wooden block and a wire. ii) Press the wire to first cut the ice block and then the wooden block. You cannot cut a wooden block by pressing a wire on it though wood is softer. Why does the wire pass through the ice block easily? What do you conclude? The pressure applied through the wire melts the ice in immediate vicinity allowing the wire to pass through it. Thus, the melting point of ice is lowered with increase in pressure. It should be noted that in case of all solids other than ice, the volume of liquid obtained on melting is generally larger than solid volume. Water is an exceptional case. In such solids, which increase in volume on melting, the melting point increases with increase of pressure. All liquids expand on evaporation. Hence, increase in pressure will obstruct the change of phase on boiling. This results in an increase in the boiling point of liquids with increase in pressure. 10.2.6 Cooking is easier in pressure cooker In a pressure cooker, (which is air tight from all sides), when water together with vegetables is heated, its temperature rises. Initially, when valve of the cooker is open, water boils to form steam at 1000 C. This steam so formed occupies larger volume than what it had in liquid state. Now the valve is closed. The steam, having no exit to come out, exerts pressure
on the surface of water in the cooker, which stops boiling. More heat is now supplied. This increases the temperature of water without allowing the remaining water to boil any more. Thus, inside a pressure cooker, there is steam and water at higher temperature and at high pressure. The higher temperature and pressure quickly softens the vegetable and causes the quicker cooking of food.
Fig. 10.15 Cooking is easier There is always a certain weight put on the in a pressure cooker nozzle of the lid of the pressure cooker. If the force due to the pressure of the steam exceeds this weight, the weight gets lifted and some of the steam leaks out and reduces pressure. Do you now understand why it is called pressure cooker?
The importance of pressure cooker for persons living at hill stations is very great. The atmospheric pressure in hilly areas is lower due to the high altitude, and thus, water starts boiling at a lower temperature. In such a situation if the ordinary utensil is used for cooking food (especially food like rice and pulses), it will take a long time, resulting in wastage of precious fuel. 10.2.7 Latent heat We have already discussed in the previous parts of this section that the temperature does not change during the change state even though heat is continuously supplied to the material. What happens to this heat supplied? It is used up wholly in changing the state of the substance. Therefore, it does not appear in the form of rise in temperature of the body. This is, therefore called latent heat (or hidden heat). Its value is constant and is different for different materials. Latent heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required to completely change the state of unit mass of that substance either from solid to liquid or liquid to gaseous state. It is generally denoted by capital letter L and is measured in Joules per kilogram (J/kg). When material changes from solid to liquid, it is called as latent heat of fusion and when the state changes from liquid to vapours it is latent heat of evaporation. Do you understand why does water filled in a clay pitcher become cold even when placed inside a room? In this case, water drops leaking through the fine pores of clay pitcher absorb heat for evaporation from the water inside. Therefore, the inside water gets cooled. Example 10.5: How much thermal energy is required for complete melting of 10 kg of ice at 0 0C to form water at 0 0C? Solution: Thermal energy for melting m kg ice at its melting point =mL = 10 x 335 kJ = 3350 kJ
Heat required for a mass m kg of a substance for change in state at its melting point or boiling point is = mL joule. 10.2.8 Sublimation Some solid substances when heated directly change to gaseous state without becoming liquid. This process is called sublimation. ACTIVITY 10.9 Aim: To study the sublimation of camphor What to do? Take some camphor tablets in a spoon and heat the spoon slowly over a gas stove. What to observe? Do you see fumes coming out and camphor gradually vanishing without melting?
Fig. 10.16 Camphor sublimates on heating
What do you conclude? This shows that camphor sublimates on heating. Naphthalene balls (used for preserving woolen clothes) and iodine are also sublime substances. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 10.2 Fill in the blanks with the correct choice. 1. A bimetallic strip is used as a thermostat in the electrical device named ___________ (geyser, camera, T.V.) 2. If the mass of a substance is doubled, its melting point will _____________ (be lowered, be raised, remains same) 3. When solid ice is heated, the volume of the water formed on melting is _________ the initial volume of the solid ice. (more than, less than, same as) 4. Latent heat of evaporation is measured in _______________ (J, J/k, J/kg) 5. The water containing little salt dissolved in it boils at a temperature _______ 100 0C. (higher than, lower than, equal to) 10.3 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM When two bodies at different temperatures are brought in contact heat energy will always flow from the body at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature, till both the bodies acquire the same temperature. The two bodies are then said to be in thermal equilibrium.
ACTIVITY 10.10 Aim: To study the state of thermal equilibrium What to do? i) Take a steel tumbler. Fill it 2/3rd with tap water. Put a thermometer in it and measure its temperature. ii) Now take a large heavy metallic spoon which can be inserted in the tumbler. Heat it on a flame and put it in the tumbler and keep an eye on the temperature scale of the thermometer. What do you observe? Does the temperature of the water rise? Does the temperature stops rising after some time? Touch the spoon with the thermometer bulb and note the temperature of the spoon. Is the temperature of spoon same as that of water? What do you conclude? The heat energy keeps on flowing from the hot body to the cold body till both acquire same temperature. This is called state of thermal equilibrium. 10.3.1 Can we measure the amount of heat transferred? Heat gets transferred from a hotter body to a cooler body in contact. The larger the quantity of heat transferred, larger would be the rise in the temperature of the colder body before a state of thermal equilibrium is achieved. Therefore, the heat energy transferred is proportional to the rise in temperature of the cold body. Similarly, heat energy lost by the hot body is proportional to the fall in temperature of the hot body. ACTIVITY 10.11 Aim: To study the factors on which the heat transferred from a hot body to a cold body depends What to do? i) Take two identical vessels A and B and put equal amount of tap water in both of them. ii) Now take another larger vessel C containing some water and heat it on a gas stove till it boils. Note its temperature. iii)Now pour a small quantity of water from vessel C into vessel A and larger quantity of water into vessel B. Note the new temperatures of water in vessels A and B. What do you observe? The temperature of water in vessel B is more than that of water in vessel A. What do you conclude? The vessel B, in which larger quality of boiled water was added, has been given larger quantity of heat. Thus, the quantity of heat transferred not only depends on the temperature of the hot body but also depends upon its mass.
The quantity of heat (H) transferred from a hot body is proportional to (i) mass (m) and also to (ii) fall in temperature (t). or Hmxt H=sxmxt
Where, s is a constant of proportionality and is called specific heat of the material of the body. It is a characteristic constant of the material of the body and does not depend upon the shape or size or mass of the body. Since s = H/m x t, specific heat of a material can be defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of that substance through unit degree. In S.I., it is measured in J/kg 0C or Jkg-1 0C -1. Using the concept of conservation of energy Heat given by hot body = Heat received by colder body Example 10.6: How much thermal energy is required to raise the temperature of 10 kg of water form 25 0C to 100 oC? [Given specific heat of water s = 4200 J kg-1 C-1]. Solution: Heat required = m x s x t = 10 x 4200 x (100 25) J = 315 0 kJ Example 10.7: A hot iron ball of mass 1.0kg and specific heat 3000 J kg-1 0C-1 at temperature 60 0C is placed in water of mass 3.0kg at a temperature 25 0C. Calculate the final temperature when thermal equilibrium is achieved. Neglect the heat sharing by the vessel containing water. Solution: Let the final temperature of the mixture be 0C Then, heat given by the iron ball = ms t = 1 x 3000 (60- )J Heat taken by water = 3 x 4200 ( 25) J Since heat given = heat taken 1 x 3000 x (60- ) = 3 x 4200 ( 25) or 180000 3000 = 12600 315000 or 15600 = 495000 0 This gives = 31.7 C CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 10.3 Which of the following is the correct alternative? 1. Two iron balls of radii r and 2r are heated to same temperature. They are dropped into two different ice boxes, A and B, respectively. The mass of ice melted (a) will be same in the two boxes (b) in A will be twice than in B (c) in B will be twice that melted in A (d) in B will be 8 times that melted in A 2. An iron ball A of mass 2 kg at temperature 20 0C is kept in contact with another iron ball B of mass 1.0 kg at 20 0C. The heat energy will (a) flow from A to B only (b) flow from B to A only (c) not flow form A to B or B to A (d) flow from B to A as well as A to B
3. When solid ice at 0 0C is heated, its temperature (a) rises immediately. (b) falls (c) does not change until whole (d) first rises then falls back to 0oC of it melts 4. Which of the following bodies when gently dropped in a vessel containing water at 200C will cause highest rise in the temperature of water? a) An iron ball of mass 1.0 kg at temperature 50 0C. b) A brass ball of mass 2.0 kg at temperature 40 0C with specific heat half that of iron. c) A block of ice of mass 0.1 kg at temp 10 0C. 5. When steam at 100 0C is heated its temperature a) does not change b) increases c) decreases LET US REVISE Heat is a form of energy while the temperature is the degree of hotness of the body. Heat energy is measured in joule while the temperature is measured either in degree Fahrenheit (0F) or degree Celsius (0C) or in Kelvin (K). Mercury is used as a thermometric substance, because it is opaque and does not stick to the walls of the glass capillary. Also it has uniform coefficient of thermal expansion over a wide range of temperature. A Fahrenheit scale of temperature is related to Celsius scale of temperature by the relation
F 32 C = 9 5
The Kelvin scale is related to Celsius scale by the relation K = 273 + C All substances expand on heating i.e. a rise in temperature. Linear coefficient of thermal expansion of a solid material is defined as the increase in length per unit length per degree Celsius rise in temperature. It is measured in 0C-1. Volume coefficient of thermal expansion of a solid material or a liquid or gaseous material is defined as the change in volume per unit volume per unit rise in temperature. It is also measured in 0C-1 . Volume coefficient of thermal expansion of a solid material is equal to three times its linear coefficient of thermal expansion. Different substances expand to different extents when heated for same rise in temperature. Bi-metallic strip is a technical application of differential expansion of solid metals. It can be used as an on/off switch in electrical circuits in response to a rise in temperature. Melting point and boiling point of a material are characteristic temperatures for that material. They do not depend upon their shape or size. Melting point of a substance decreases while its boiling point increases with mixing of impurities.
Melting point and boiling point change with rise in pressure. The solids (like ice) which contract in volume on melting show a fall in their melting point with rise in pressure. The boiling point of all liquids increases with rise in pressure. The temperature of substances remains constant when heat energy is supplied at their Melting point and boiling point. This is used in changing their phases and is called latent heat. It is measured in joule per kg. Heat always flows from a body at higher temperature to another body in contact at lower temperature. It keeps on flowing till both the bodies acquire a common final temperature and a state of thermal equilibrium is achieved. Heat transferred is equal to mass specific heat change in temperature. In all heat transfer cases; heat given by hot body is equal to heat taken by cold body. TERMINAL EXERCISES Descriptive type questions. What is the difference between the temperature of a hot body and its thermal energy? What happens to the temperature of a body when it changes its state from liquid to solid? On what factors does the thermal expansion in a wire depend? What is the difference in the units of specific heat and latent heat of substances. Name any two uses of a bimetallic strip. If you have a mercury thermometer without any calibration, how will you make a (i) Celsius scale (ii) Fahrenheit scale for it? Why is the mercury used as a thermometric substance? Why does a bimetallic strip bend on heating? Heats of fusion and vaporization of substances are often referred to as latent heats. Why? When some water in a tea kettle is heated on a gas stove, it always takes a much lesser time for the water to start boiling than for all the water to vaporize? Why is it so? Why is the steam-burn far more serious than the one obtained from a spilling hot water. A solid substance expands on melting. What will happen to its freezing point when the pressure is reduced, just like at a hill station? At what temperature the numerical value of Fahrenheit scale will be just double of that on Celsius scale? (Ans. 160 0C or 320 0F) A 50 cm silver bar becomes shorter by 1.0 mm when it is cooled. How much was it cooled. Given coefficient of linear expansion for silver = 18 x 10-6 C 1. The iron rim of a wagon wheel has an internal diameter of 1.000 m when the temperature is 150 0C. What would be its diameter when it cools off to 25 0C? (Coefficient of linear expansion for iron = 12 x 10-6 0C -1) How much heat energy is required to change 200 g of ice at 20 0C to water at 70 0C? [Given latent heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg and specific heat of ice = 2100 j/kg 0C]
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
16.
17. A 2.0 kg block of iron at 100 0C is dropped into a 0.75 kg of water contained in a 0.325 kg copper Calorimeter. If the initial temperature of water and Calorimeter was 12 0C, what will be the final temperature. Given specific heat of iron = 105 cal kg -1 C-1; specific heat of water = 1000 cal kg10C-1; specific heat of copper = 93 cal kg10C-1 (use 1.0 cal = 4.25J) 18. A heavy box of mass 200 kg is pulled along the floor for 15 m. If the coefficient of sliding friction is 0.4, how much heat energy is developed? 19. A 50 g bullet of lead at 27 0C fired form a rifle moves with a velocity of 200 m s-1. What temperature would it attain when it stops after the impact? [Given specific heat of lead = 130 J/kg 0C]. Assume that entire heat generated by impact goes to the bullet and not to target. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 10.1 1. F 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. F 6. T 3. less than
10.2 1. hot water geyser
2. remains same
10.3 1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b) GLOSSARY Heat: A form of energy which gives us sensation of warmth. Latent heat of fusion of a solid: The amount of heat required (in joules) to convert 1 kg mass of the solid into its corresponding liquid state at its melting point. Latent heat of vaporization of a liquid: The amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of the liquid into its corresponding gaseous state at a constant temperature. Principle of Calorimetry: In case no heat is lost to the surroundings and no change of state is taking place, the heat lost by hot body is equal to the heat gained by the cold body, when these are brought into contact. Specific heat of a substance: Defined as the amount of heat required (in joule) to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 0C (or 1 K). Sublimation: The process in which a solid changes into its gaseous state directly without passing through liquid state. Temperature: A numerical measure of hotness of a body which determines the direction of flow of heat. Heat always flows from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. Thermal equilibrium: Implies that the two bodies are at the same temperature and hence no net heat transfer is taking place between them. Thermal expansion: Implies the increase in the size of an object on heating.Principle of Calorimetry: In case no heat is lost to the surroundings and no change of state is taking place, the heat lost by hot body is equal to the heat gained by the cold body, when these are brought into contact. Thermometer: A device used for measuring temperature. Thermostat: A temperature control device usually made of a bimetallic strip.
11
Light Energy
Can you read a book in the dark? If you try to do so, then you will realize, how much we are dependent on light. Light is very important part of our daily life. We require light for a number of activities. Even the plants on which we depend, need light for their food production. Without light we feel helpless. Truly speaking, life is not sustainable without light. It is an experience from our early childhood that objects become visible in presence of light. You see the objects when the light after reflection from them falls on your eyes and thus makes their image at the retina of your eye. In fact, light is a form of energy and hence it is invisible, although the presence of light gives us the ability to see the things around us. You may have seen in torches that there is a curved sheet of metal around the bulb. Can you think why is it so? We are very fond of looking at the image of our face in a looking glass. Do you know how the image is formed? You would also have noticed that when a rod is placed in a tumbler of water, it appears bent. What has caused the rod to bend ? We see that the stars twinkle on a clear night, that on a clear day the sky appears blue, at the time of sunset or sunrise the sky near horizon appears orange red. Have you ever tried to find out the reason for such natural events? In the present lesson you will find the answers to all such questions. You will also study about some man-made otpical instruments like microscope and telescope in this lesson. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: recognise the importance of light in day to day life; define the reflection of light and state the laws of reflection; describe the image formation by plane and curved mirrors with suitable ray diagrams; use mirror formula and define magnification; define refraction of light and state the laws of refraction; give some examples from nature showing refraction of light; explain the refraction of light through prism and rectangular glass slab; describe the types of lenses and explain the image formation by convex and concave lenses with the help of ray diagrams; use lens formula and define magnification; explain the power of lens and define dioptre; describe briefly the construction and working of the instruments, like simple microscope, compound microscope and astronomical telescope.
: 192 : Light Energy
11.1 REFLECTION OF LIGHT Can you think how does an object become visible to you. When we see an object, we do so because light from the object enters our eyes. Some objects such as sun, stars, candle, lamp etc. may emit their own light, called luminous objects. Some other objects may bounce back a part of the light falling on them from other luminous objects. This bouncing back of the light after falling on any surface is called reflection of light. The light bounced back from the surface is called reflected light.
f le o Ang ction refle
Thus, when a beam of light travelling through a medium comes in contact with an object, a part of it gets bounced back (however, a part of it is absorbed and some part of it is able to penetrate through the object). This phenomenon is called reflection of light. Some objects having smooth and shiny surfaces reflect light better than others. A smooth shining surface, which reflects most of the light incident on it is mirror. The reflection of light from a plane mirror is shown in Fig 11.1
Angle of incidence
Normal
In
Fig. 11.1 Reflection of light from a plane mirror
While studying the reflection of light, you will come across different terms related to it. They are given below : Ray can be defined as the direction of propagation of light. Beam of light consists of a number of rays. Incident ray is the ray of light that falls on the reflecting surface. Normal is the name given to a line drawn at 900 to the surface at the point where the incident ray strikes the surface. Angle of incidence is the angle between the normal and the incident ray.
11.1.1 Laws of reflection of light Suppose, a ray of light (IO) falls on a reflecting surface AB at O, after reflection it goes along OR, as shown in Fig 11.1. The reflection of light from the surface takes place according to the following two laws: (i) First law of reflection: The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. (ii) Second law of reflection: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection i.e., i = r 11.1.2 Types of reflection Depending on the nature of the surface the reflection of light can be of two types: (i) Regular reflection: When the reflecting surface is very smooth and the rays of light falling on it are reflected straight off it, then it is called regular reflection, as shown in Fig. 11.2.
Incident rays Reflected rays
Smooth plane surface
Fig. 11.2 Regular reflection
Re fle cti
cid ent ray
on ray
O
Light Energy : 193 :
(ii) Diffused reflection : When the reflection of light takes place from rough surfaces, the light is reflected off in all directions, as shown in Fig. 11.3. It depends on the angle of the incidence on the part of the surface it hits. This is called diffused reflection.
Incident rays
Normal
Reflected rays
Normal
Rough surface
Fig. 11.3 Diffused reflection
Do you know ? The rough surface diffuse or scatter the light falling on it and prevent the formation of image. Light is reflected from the paper of this book also but the surface of paper is much rougher than mirrors. That is why no image is formed by the paper. You might have seen people putting frosted window glass pane? Have you ever thought why are frosted glass used? The frosted glass has a rough surface which does not allow the light to form clear images. Instead, the rough surface of glass diffuses the light and no clear image can be seen through it . How do we see non-luminous objects? Sunlight or light from a lamp incident over non-luminous objects undergo regular as well as diffuse reflection. When these reflected rays strike the retina of our eyes, an image of that object is formed in the eye, and thus we are able to see the objects. 11.1.3 Formation of images due to reflection You know that a mirror is a good reflector of light rays. Daily at least once a day, you must be using a mirror to see your face. What do you actually see in the mirror? You see your image. The images are of two types real and virutal. (i) Real image: The images which are obtained by the actual intersection of reflected rays, are called real images. The real images can be cast on a screen. In case of spherical mirrors real images are formed on the same side of the mirror as the object. (ii) Virtual image: The image obtained when the rays appear to meet each other but actually do not intersect each other, are called virtual images. They cannot be cast on a screen. Virtual images are formed behind the mirror. To understand the formation of image by a plane mirror, let us do an activity. ACTIVITY 11.1 Aim : Image formation by a plane mirror What is required? A plane mirror, a few pins and a sheet of paper. What to do? (i) Spread the sheet of paper over a soft, smooth wooden plank or a piece of card board.
Put the mirror M1 M2 in a vertical position over the sheet as shown in figure 11.4 (iii) Put two pins, one at A little far from the mirror and the other one very near to the mirror at B so that, the line AB makes an angle with the line M1 M2 showing the position of the mirror. (iv) Look at the images A and B of the two pins through the mirror, put two other pins at C and D so that all four pins A, B, C and D are in the same straight line. A (v) Now, look at the images of all these pins closing one of your eyes and moving your face in side ways. If the image of the two earlier pins and the two pins you have put just now, B B O C O M appear to be moving together you can say your a b c observation is free-from parallax error. b c (vi) Join the positions of pins by straight lines. a A (vii) Keeping the first pin as it is, take out other Fig. 11.4 Image formation by a three pins and repeat the experiment described plane mirror above by putting the pins in new positions. This way take a few more readings.
2
(ii)
What do you observe? Besides the formation of image of the pins by the mirror, you are able to trace the directions of various incident and reflected rays. To understand the formation of image, you may consider the light rays emerging out of the object A. We have drawn only three rays namely (a), (b) and (c). These rays after striking the mirror M1 M2 get reflected in the directions (d), (e) and (f), respectively, (as shown in the figure 11.4) obeying the laws of reflection. It is clear that these reflected rays never meet with each other in reality. However, they appear to be coming (emerging) out from the point A, inside the mirror i.e., if the reflected rays (d), (e) and (f) are extended in the backward direction, they will all meet with each other at A. Thus, at A we get the image of object A. From the above activity we find that the image formed by a plane mirror has the following characteristics: This image is virtual (i.e., not real), erect and same in size as the object. The object distance and the image distance from the mirror are found to be equal i.e., OA = OA. Hence, the image of a point in a plane mirror lies behind the mirror along the normal from the object, and is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front. It is an erect and virtual image of equal size. 11.1.4 Few important facts about reflection Put your left hand near a plane mirror. What do you see? You will find that on reflection, the image of the hand appears as right hand as shown in Fig. 11.5 (a). Similarly, the number 2 will appear in an inverted fashion on reflection as shown in Fig. 11.5 (b).
Hence, due to reflection in a plane mirror left handedness is changed into right handedness and vice-versa. This is known as lateral inversion. For example a left handed screw will appear to be right handed screw on reflection as shown in Fig. 11.5(c).
mirror (a)
mirror (b)
mirror (c)
Fig. 11.5 Lateral inversion in image formed by a plane mirror
Do you know ? (i) If you are approaching towards a plane mirror, even your image will also appear to be approaching towards you. (ii) A woman can see her full image in a plane mirror whose height is half of her height. See the ray diagram in Fig. 11.6 and try to understand why this happens.
H G E A h
Fig. 11.6 Size of plane mirror to see full image
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.1 1. Name four luminous objects. 2. Name the phenomenon of bouncing back of light from a rigid surface. 3. What is the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection? 4. Although the light is reflected from the book you read, why is your image not visible in it? 5. Give two differences between diffused and regular reflection. 11.2 REFLECTION AT CURVED MIRRORS A curved mirror is a section of a hollow sphere whose inner or outer surface has been polished. Thus, there are mainly two types of spherical mirrors-convex mirror and concave mirror.
(i) Convex mirror: It is a mirror in which the reflection takes place from the outer or the bulging side (i.e. the polishing is on the inner side) as shown in Fig 11.7 (a). (ii) Concave mirror: It is a mirror in which the reflection takes place from the hollow side (i.e., the polishing Inci dent is on the outer-side) as shown in Fig. 11.7 (b). ray For understanding the reflection at spherical mirrors, Angle of certain important terms are very useful. They are as shown i incidence Curved r f o e l mirror in Fig 11.8 and defined below. g n n A ctio refle ray (i) Pole (P): It is the mid-point of the spherical mirror. cted
Refl e
(ii) Centre of curvature (C): It is the centre of the hollow sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part.
Fig. 11.7 Reflection of light by curved mirrors
(iii) Radius of curvature (R): It is the distance between the pole and the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror. (iv) Principal axis: It is the imaginary line joining the pole with the centre of curvature. (v) Principal focus (F): The rays of light parallel and close to the principal axis of the mirror after reflection, either pass through a point (in concave mirror) or appear to be coming from a point (in convex mirror) on the principal axis; this point is called principal focus of the mirror. (vi) Focal Length (f): It is the distance between the pole and the principal focus of the mirror.
Hollow glass sphere Hollow glass sphere
x Principle axis R
x Principle axis R
Radius of curvature
Radius of curvature Convex mirror spherical mirrors
Fig.
Concave 11.8 Some mirror terms
in image formation by
Relationship between focal length and radius of curavture Focal length (F) of a spherical mirror is equal to half of the radius of curvature (R) of that mirror. In mathematical terms it can be written as,
f= R 2
11.2.1 Rules of image formation by spherical mirrors The ray diagram for image formation by mirrors can be drawn by taking any two of the following rays : (i) Central ray: The ray of light striking the pole of the mirror is reflected back at the same angle on the other side of the principal axis (Ray no. 1 in Fig. 11.9).
(ii) Parallel ray: For a concave mirror the ray parallel to the principle axis is reflected in such a way that after reflection it passes through the principal focus. But for a convex mirror the parallel ray is so reflected that it appears to come from principal focus (Ray no.2 in Fig 11.9). (iii) Ray through centre of curvature: A ray passing through the centre of curvature hits the mirror along the direction of the normal to the mirror at that point and retraces its path after reflection (Ray no.3 in Fig 11.9).
1 1 2 3 C 2 3 1 1 (a) (b) F P P 2 2
Fig. 11.9 Image formation by spherical mirrors (a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
Now, let us see how images are formed by concave and convex mirrors when the object is placed in different positions. (a) Formation of image by concave mirror Using the above said rules of image formation, the ray diagram for the image formed for different positions of object are given below:
(a) When the object is situated at a D P C F A (b) B C A B F A (c) B B A ' F (b) Object beyond c (c) Object at c
Real, inverted, highly diminished image at focus
Real, inverted highly diminished between C and F
Real, inverted highly image of the same size as object at C
(d) Object between then c and f
(e) Object at f
(f) Object between f and p
A' A B' C B D P (e) C A B F D P C F B D P
B '
Real, inverted, enlarged image beyond C
Fig. 11.10 Formation of image by a concave mirror
Real, inverted, highly enlarged image at infinity
Virtual, erect, enlarged image behind the mirror
In all these diagrams we have considered two rays starting from a point at the top of the object. The image is formed where these rays intersect after reflection. (b) Formation of image by convex mirror In case of convex mirror, the formation of the image is shown in Fig 11.11. The incident ray AQ parallel to principal axis is reflected such that it appears to come from focus F. The incident ray AN towards the centre of curvature being normal to the mirror is reflected back along the same path. A A' These two reflected rays appear to be coming from N the common point A, which is the image of point A. C P B F B
'
The image formed by convex mirror is between pole P and focus F, virtual, diminished, and erect. Fig. 11.11 Formation of image by convex mirror In convex mirror, whatever may be the position of the object infront of the mirror, the image formed is always virtual, erect, diminished, (i.e, smaller than the pize of the object) and is situated between the pole and the focus. 11.2.2 Uses of mirrors The different types of mirrors have different uses in our daily life. Let us study them one by one. (i) Plane mirror is used in looking glasses, in construction of kaleidoscope, telescope, sextent, and periscope etc., for seeing round corners, as deflector of light. (ii) Concave mirror is used as shaving and makeup mirrors, as a reflector in search light, head light of motor cars and projectors etc, for converging solar radiation in solar cookers, as mirror for the dentists, in flood lights to obtain a divergent beam of light to illuminate buildings, in reflecting telescopes large concave mirrors are used. (iii) Convex mirror is used as a rear view mirror in motor cars, buses and scooters, etc, as safety viewers at dangerous corners and on upper deck buses 11.2.3 Sign convention and mirror formula To measure distances with respect to a curved mirror, following convention is followed: (i) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror. (ii) The distances measured in the same direction as incident light, are taken as positive. (iii) The distances measured against the direction of incident light, are taken as negative. (iv) The distances above the principal axis are taken positive, whereas, below it are taken negative. Using the sign convention, the relationship between object distance (u), image distance (v) and the focal length for a curved mirror is given by,
1 1 1 = + f u v
You can use this formula to find out any of the quantities, provided the other two are given. 11.2.4 Magnification in spherical mirrors Often we find that a spherical mirror can produce an enlarged or magnified image of any object. The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object is called linear magnification. i.e., linear magnification (M) = size of image (I) v = size of object (O) u
Where, v = image distance from mirror, and u = object distance from mirror Positive value of M tells that image formed is erect while negative value of M indicates that an inverted image is formed. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.2 1. What is the focal length of a plane mirror? 2. Write the position and nature of image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed between the focus and centre of curvature. 3. List any two differences between real and virtual images. 4. What type of mirror is used to view the rear objects by an autodriver? 5. If an object of 5cm size is placed infront of a concave mirror, the size of the image formed by it is 7.5 cm, what is the linear 3 magnification of the mirror? 1 3 1
i Air 11.3 REFRACTION OF LIGHT i When a light ray passes from a less dense medium r to a more dense medium (e.g., from air to glass), it r 2 bends towards the normal (Fig. 11.12) and when it 2 passes from a denser medium to a less dense medium (a) (b) Fig. 11.12 Refraction of light (e.g., from glass to air) it bends away from the normal (Fig. 11.12). This phenomenon of deviation of light rays from their original path, when they pass from one medium to another, is called refraction of light.
ACTIVITY 11.2 Aim : To study the refraction through a glass slab What is required ? A glass slab, drawing sheet, pencil, drawing board, alpins, protector, and a scale. What to do? (i) Place glass slab on a drawing sheet fixed on a wooden drawing board, sketch a

O
pencil boundary. Draw a line OC meeting the boundary line obliquely. (ii) Fix the pins A and B on that line. Now look for these pins through the other side of the glass slab. (iii) Take a pin and fix it on the sheet such that A, B and E are in a straight line. (iv)Now fix another pin F such that it is in a straight line with pins A, B and E. Remove the slab and the pins. (v) Draw a line joining the points F to E to meet the boundary at D. (vi)Join point C to D by a dotted line.
A B C
E F
Fig. 11.13 Refraction through a glass slab
What do we observe? As shown in Fig. 11.13, the line ABC gives the direction of incident ray on the glass slab while the line DEF gives the direction of emergent ray. The line CD gives the direction of refracted ray. Draw normals N1CN2 at C and N3DN4 at D to the boundaries. Now check the indication of these rays. Do you find that the refracted ray D has slightly bent towards the normal to the boundary at C? What do you conclude? The ray of light when goes from a rarer (air) to a denser (glass) medium, it bends towards the normal. Also, the ray of light when goes from denser (glass) to rarer (air) mediums it bends away from the normal. 11.3.1 Refractive index of the medium When the light travels from one medium to another medium, the speed of light changes.A ray of light from a rarer medium to a denser medium slows down and bends towards the normal. On the other hand the ray of light going from a denser medium to a rarer medium, is speeded up and bends away from the normal. It shows that the speed of light in different substances varies. Therefore, different substances have different abilities to bend or refract light. We call this bending ability of a material as the index of refraction or refractive index of that material. The refractive index () of a material is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuume to that in the material medium. speed of light in vacuum speed of light in medium The refractive index of a rarer medium is less as compare to that of a denser medium. Therefore, refractive index of a medium () = 11.3.2. Laws of refraction The extent to which a ray bends, depends not only on the refractive index of medium, but also on the angle of incidence. The laws of refraction are : (i) First law of refraction: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.(see fig. 11.13)
(ii) Second law of refraction: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant and it is equal to the refractive index of the medium. This law is also called as the Snells law of refraction. Refractive index () = sine of angle of incidence sin i = sine of angle of reflection sin r
Air 11.3.3 Application of refraction of light Actual Apparent depth depth (i) If you look at a coin placed at the bottom of a container full of water, you will notice that it appears to be raised as shown in Fig. 11.14. You know that an object is visible C only when the rays of light from the object reach your eyes. In the first case, when Water there is no water in the container, the coin C will not be visible to you from the side of Fig. 11.14 (a) Apparent depth of a coin in the container as shown in Fig. 11.14(a), water because the rays of light traveling in a straight line do not reach your eyes. But on pouring the water into the container, the rays of light from the coin change their direction as they travel from water (denser medium) into air (rarer medium) and thus, reach your eyes. Thus, the coin becomes visible to your eyes. The rays now appear to be coming from C1 instead of C. In this way, the coin appears to be raised. The ratio of the actual depth of the coin to the apperent depth of the coin is equal to the refractive index of the liquid of the container.
1 Rupee 1 Rupee
Refractive index () =
actual depth apparent depth
(ii) Another example of refraction observed in our daily life is the twinkling of stars. Visibility of the sun before actual sunrise or after actual sunset can also be explained on the basis of refraction of light. Position of the pencil (ii) You would have observed that a pencil as it appears when seen half kept in water in a glass appears to fom above Air be bent. When the part of a pencil is kept inside the water in a glass, it appears to Water be broken or bent with respect to the part Ray of light suffers outside the water as shown in Fig 11.14 Actual position bending here of the pencil (b). This is also due to the bending of Fig. 11.14 (b) The pencil inside water appears light rays when they pass from water to bent air. Try to explain these events and discuss your answer with your teacher or fellow students. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.3 1. What happens when a ray of light passes from one medium to another of different density?
2. Why do the stars twinkle at night? 3. What happens to a ray of light, if it enters a glass block along its normal? 11.4 REFRACTION THROUGH CURVED SURFACE In the present discussion under this section, we will confine ourselves to the refraction of light through lenses only. Do you know what is a lens? A lens is a portion of a transparent refracting medium bounded by two spherical surfaces. Because the lenses are made from spheres, they are called as spherical lenses. They are mainly of two types : Convex lens Concave lens (i) Convex lens: A convex lens is thick in middle and thin at the rim. It makes the parallel rays of light to converge and come to a point. Hence, it is also called a converging lens . The conveging property of a convex lens is shown in Fig. 11.15(a). (ii) Concave lens : A concave lens is thin in the middle and thick at rim. It makes (a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens the parallel rays of light to spread from Fig. 11.15 Types of lenses a point. Hence it is also called a diverging lens. The diverging property of concave lens is shown in Fig. 11.15(b). The point at which the incident rays parallel to principal axis will converge upon after refraction in a convex lens is called its principal focus. Where as in a concave lens the point from where incident rays parallel to the principal axis of the lens appear to be coming, is called as its principal focus (F). 11.4.1 Rules of image formation by lenses In order to draw the image formed by any lens only two rays are required. These two rays are: (i) A ray parallel to the principal axis of the lens after refraction, converges upon (appears to diverge off) the principal focus of a convex (concave) lens. (ii) A ray towards the optical center falls on the lens symmetrically and after refraction passes through it undeviated. Let us now see the image formation in cases of convex and concave lens in different situations of the objects. (a) Image formation by convex lens According to the above said rules of image formation, the position and nature of the image formed for different positions of object is shown by the following ray diagrams: (see Fig. 11.16). (i) If the object is placed between the optical centre O and first focus F1, the image is formed on the same side of lens and it is virtual, upright and magnified. (ii) If the object is at first focus F1 ,the image is at infinity and it is real, inverted and very much magnified.
Rays coming from the object at Infinity F

F (Object at F) O F
I (Image formed at F)
(Refracted parallel rays meet at infinity. So , image is formed at infinity.
Fig. 11.16 (a) Object placed between optical centre and first focus
Fig. 11.16 (b) Object at the first focus
(iii) If the object is between F1 and 2F1, the image is beyond 2F2 on the other side of the lens and it is real, inverted and larger in size. (iv) If the object is at 2F1, the image is at 2F2 on the other side of the lens and it is real, inverted and is of same size as object.
O
O 2F
2F
2F
2F
Image is formed at 2F
Fig. 11.16 (c) Object is between F1 and 2F1
Fig. 11.16 (d) Object is at 2F1
(v) If the Object is beyond 2F1, the image is inbetween F2 and 2F2 on the other side of the lens and is real, inverted and diminished. (vi) If the object is at infinity, the image is at F2 on the other side of the lens and is real, inverted and very much diminished.
O
O
2F 2F (Object beyond 2F) F O F

F (Object is O between F and O) F
Image between F and 2F
Eye of the observer
Fig. 11.16 (e) Object is beyond 2F1
Fig. 11.16 (f) Object is at infinity
(b) Image formation by concave lens The image formed by a concave lens is always smaller than the object, erect and virtual and is formed between focus and optical centre on the same side as the object whatever be the position of object as shown in Fig. 11.17. 11.4.2 Sign convention and lens formula In case of the spherical lenses,
P P' O Q Q'
Fig. 11.17 Image by concave lens
(i) all distances in a lens are to be measured from optical centre of the lens, (ii) distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken to be positive, (iii) distances opposite to the direction of incident ray are taken to be negative.

+ P (iv) the height of the object or image measured above the principal axis are taken positive whereas below + it, are taken negative. Q' O Using the above mentioned sign convention, in Fig. C F C Q F 11.18 let us assume, distance of object PQ from the f optical center O = OQ = (-u), distance of iamge PQ u v from the optical center O = OQ = (+V), and focal length P' Fig 11.18 Sign convention in lenses of lens = OF2 = (+f). The relationship between u,v and f for a lens is as shown below:
1 1 2 2
1 1 1 = v u f
This is called lens formula. Focal length for convex lens is positive, whereas, for concave lens it is taken negative. 11.4.3 Magnification You would have noticed that in case of some lenses, the size of the image of an object is enlarged whereas in some other cases it is diminished. If we take the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object for a particular lens it remains constant for that lens. This ratio of the size of the image to that of the object is called as the magnification of the lens. i.e., magnification (m) = also, m = size of image I = size of object O
I v = O u A positive value of m tells that the image is erect and negative value of m tells that the image is inverted.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.4 1. If an object is placed at the focus of a convex lens, what will be the position and nature of the image? 2. Draw the ray diagram to show the image formed by a concave lens. 11.5 DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT We are sure, you must have observed seven brillient colours of light in your surrounding. The separation of white light into its constituent seven colours is called dispersion of light. 11.5.1 Dispersion of light through glass prism When the white light passes through a glass prism, it gets splitted into seven different colour rays. In fact, the white light is supposed to be made up of seven colours. Different coloured light have different wavelengths. The refractive media like glass have different values of refractive indices for different colours. You should know that as we go from violet to red wavelength of light increases . The violet part of incident white light get refracted of the surface PQ at angle <r0 which is different than angles of refraction for other colour-rays.
As a result of which different coloured light rays are seperated from each other. Thus, on emergence through the face PS, they get further separated resulting in the dispersion and forming a spectrum. ACTIVITY 11.3 Aim : To produce a spectrum using a prism and sunlight. What is required ? A shoe box, knife, a transparent white paper. What to do ? (i) Take an empty shoe box. Make a rectangular opening on its cover with a knife and close it with a transparent white paper to see the spectrum. (ii) Make a thin slit with knife on the opposite side cardboard of the shoe box. least b (iii) Place the prism on a block inside the lendin Spectrum t g White ligh box as shown in the figure 11.19. (Sun light) mo (iv) Turn the slit-side face of the box st b en din towards sunlight. g Glass prism (v) Do you see coloured strips on the Fig. 11.19 Formation of transparent paper? spectrum by a prism What do we conclude ? We can see that a brilliant pattern of the colours is formed in the sequence of Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red which can be written as VIBGYOR.
Red Orang e Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet
If you repeat the same activity with a glass slab, you will find that a glass prism shows dispersion of white light but a glass slab does not? Can you think of Why? The emergent beam refracted through the other face of glass slab is a parallel beam and therefore, does not get separated. To produce dispersion, the emergent beam should be divergent. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.5 1. What is the sequence of colour in a spectrum of white light formed by prism? 2. Which colour has minimum wavelength? Violet, yellow or green. 3. For which colour the value of refrative index is more orange or blue? 4. The emergent beam in a prism producing spectrum is convergent or divergent? 5. Why does a glass slab not produce a spectrum of white light? 11.6 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS You are advised to wash your hands before taking any food. Do you know why? Because, there may be harmful germs on your hands, which are not visible to you with your naked eyes. Then how do we see such minute germs, bacteria or other things. For this purpose we use microscope. Do you know or have you ever seen it? A microscope is an optical instrument used to see very-very small objects by forming their magnified image at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.
There are a number of instruments and devices that make use of the light. For example, lens camera, pin hole camera, microscope, telescope and projector etc. are the optical instruments. Here, we will study about the microscope and telescope only. Least distance of distinct vision The minimum distance of an object from a normal eye up to which it is clearly visible, is called least distance of distinct vision. 11.6.1 Microscope There are two types of microscopes-simple microscope and compound microscope. Let us study about them one by one. (a) Simple Microscope A simple microscope consists of just a convex lens of small focal length. We know that a convex lens produces an erect and magnified image when the object is placed at a distance less than its focal length. This property is made use of in a simple microscope. In other words, a simple microscope is nothing but a magnifying glass. The magnification in the case of convex lens Fig. 11.20 is given by
m = 1 v f
A
B'
F1
F2
Fig. 11.20 Image formation by simple microscope
Where, v is the image distance and is the focal length of the lens. Now, taking the image distance to be equal to 25 cm, i.e. the least distance of distinct vision, the magnification m turns to be.
25 25 = 1+ f f Thus, we see that the magnification increases with the decrease in the focal length of the lens, even if the focal length of a convex lens is very small, say 1 cm. But the magnifying power of a simple microscope cannot exceed beyond a certain limit. To get higher magnification a compound microscope, therefore, has to be used. Example 11.1: Find the magnifying power of a simple microscope having the focal length equal to 2.5 cm. m = 1
Solution : We know that for a simple microscope,

25 f Given, f = 2.5 cm Therefore, substituting value of f, we get
m=1+
m = 1 + 25 = 1 + 10 = 11 2.5
(b) Compound microscope In order to see very minute objects, we use compound microscope. In a compound microscope, unlike the simple microscope, the magnification takes place in two stages. (i) Construction It consists of two convex lenses. The lens towards the object is known as objective, whereas, the other lens towards eye of the viewers is called eyepiece. Both the eyepiece and objective are of short focal lengths. But the focal length of the objective is shorter as compared to that of the eyepiece as shown in Fig 11.21.
Objective L' B A'' f2 A fo' fo B' B fe' A' O' fe Eye piece
Fig. 11.21 Image formation by a compound microscope
(ii) Working Consider figure 11.21. Let the object is placed at a distance slightly greater than the focal length of the objective. A real inverted and magnified image is formed by the lens on its other side. The eyepiece is so adjusted that this image is within its focal length. The image acts like an object for the eyepiece which produces a virtual, erect and enlarged final image. It is inverted image of the object. (iii) Magnifying power of the microscope Let u1 = distance of the object AB; v1 = distance of the image from the objective lens L1 : u2 = distance of A1 B1 from the eyepiece L2; v2 or D = the distance of its image A2B2 from L2. Now, with the eye placed very close to the eyepiece, the magnifying power (m) of the compound microscope is given as: m = mo x me Where, me is the magnification of eye piece and mo is the magnification of the objective. Since the eyepiece acts like a simple microscope, so its magnifying power is,
me = 1 + 25 where, fe = focal length of the eye piece. fe
m = me 1 +
25 fe
Hence, m =
v1 25 1+ u1 fe
Thus, it is clear that the magnifying power of the compound microscope is greater than that of a simple microscope. From this equation it is clear that the magnifying power of the compound microscope can be increased if,
u is small, that is the object AB is placed very near to the objective. It is possible only when the focal length of the objective is very small, since the object is to be placed beyond the focus to give real, inverted and magnified image. v1 is greater, that is, the distance between the image and the objective is large. Again the object has to be placed near the focus of the objective. So the length of the microscope should be large. fe, the focal length of the eyepiece is very small.
11.6.2 Telescope A telescope is an optical instrument used to view the distant objects. There are mainly two types of telescopes: Refracting telescope Reflecting telescope (i) The refracting telescope The refracting telescope is normally used to observe the astronomical or heavenly bodies, therefore, it is known as astronomical telescope also. It consists of two convex lenses arranged in a tube. The lens towards the object is called objective and it is of larger focal length. The other lens towards the eye is called the eye lens or eye piece and it has a short Objective focal length. Fig. 11.22.
Eye piece Real Inverted and Diminished Q b a P
Toa
a From a
Eye
Fig. 11.22 Astronomical telescope
The objective forms an inverted upside down and real image of a distant object. The eye lens acts like a magnifying glass taking the image formed by the objective as its object. ii) The reflecting telescope Objective The objective of this type of telescope is a spherical concave mirror of large focal length. Fig. 11.23 Complex shows a reflecting telescope. The parallel rays from mirror a distant object fall on the concave mirror. Before Eye piece being focused at the focus, the rays are intercepted by a small convex mirror, M1M2 inclined at 45o with the axis of the objective mirror. Thus, the Fig. 11.23 Reflecting telescope image is shifted towards the eyepiece. The eyepiece magnifies the image as usual. The mirror M1M2 is so small that it does not obstruct much of the incident light. Hence, the brightness of the image is not affected. The mirror M1M2 can be replaced by a totally reflecting right angled isoscles prism.
Most of the telescopes used for serious astronomical observations are reflecting telescopes. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.6 1. Write down the uses of a microscope and a telescope. 2. What type of lens is used in a simple microscope? 3. What is the difference between reflecting and refracting telescopes? 4. What do you mean by an objective and an eyelens? LET US REVISE Light is a form of energy which itself is not visible but makes other things visible. When the light ray (called incident ray) strikes a polished surface, it is bounced back in the same medium (forming reflecting ray), and the phenomenon is said to be reflection of light. The reflection of light always takes place according to the two laws of reflection. The reflected light forms images. Images are of two kinds real image and virtual image. The image formed by a plane mirror lies along the normal from the object, is as far behind as the object is in front and it is erect, virtual and of equal size. Plane mirror gives an image in which left handedness turns into right handedness and vice-versa, i.e. it causes lateral inversion. The image formed by a concave or convex mirror depends on the position of the object in front of the mirror. When a ray of light passes from one medium to another medium of different density, it bends and this phenomenon is called refraction of light. Refraction of light is caused by the change in the speed of light as it passes from one medium to another of different density. The ability of any medium to bend light ray is called the refractive index of the medium. It is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to that in the medium. A lens is bounded by two surfaces which may be spherical. There are two categories of spherical lenses convex lens and concave lens. Convex lens makes a parallel beam of light rays to converge and come to a point. Where as concave lens makes the light rays to diverge. Magnification is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object. A microscope is an instrument used to see very small objects by forming their enlarged images. A telescope is an instrument used for observing distant objects like the stars. TERMINAL EXERCISES What is reflection of light? Explain it with the help of a ray diagram. State and explain the laws of reflection. What is an optical image and how is it formed? Name two types of images and distinguish between them. Explain the formation of images with the help of ray diagrams for the following cases: (i) a plane mirror (ii) a convex mirror (iii) a concave mirror, for an object lying between focus and center of curvature.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. Define the focus of convex and concave mirrors. Give relationship between focal length and radius of curvature. 7. What is refraction of light? State laws of refraction of light. 8. Define refractive index of a medium. 9. Explain why do the start twinkle? 10. Why is a convex lens is also called converging lens? 11. With the help of ray diagram show the image formed by a convex lens when the object is placed between F and C. 12. An object is placed at a distance of 30 cm from a convex lens of focal length 20 cm. Find the nature and position of the image formed. 13. What is a microscope? Explain briefly the principle of simple microscope with a suitable diagram. 14. What is a telescope? Explain briefly the principle of refracting telescope. 15. What is the difference between objective lens and eye lens in a telescope? ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.1 1. The sun, candle flame, fire, lighted electric bulb 2. Reflection of light 3. Angle of incidence = angle of reflection 4. Because of diffuse reflection 5. Regular reflection: i) It takes place at smooth and shiny surfaces. ii) Reflected rays are in a particular direction. Diffused reflection : i) It takes place at rough surfaces. ii) Reflected rays are in different directions. 11.2 1. infinity 2. image is beyond C, real, inverted and magnified 3. Real image i) They are formed by actual intersection of reflected rays ii) They can be casted on the screen Virtual image i) They are formed by the reflected rays which appears to be coming from a point they do not intersect actually. ii) Cannot be casted on screen 4. Convex mirror 5. Magnification (m) =
I 7.5 . = = 15 O 5
11.3 1. It deviates from its original path 2. Because of multiple refraction of the light coming from the stars 3. It is refracted without deviation 11.4 1.The image will be at infinity, real, invested and magnified. 2. Ray diagram 11.5 1. Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red 2. Violet 3. Blue 4. Divergent 5. Because the emergent beam is parallel 11.6 1. Microscope is used to see very small objects by making an enlarged image. Telescope is used to see for distant objects by making their image nearer to the eye. 2. Convex lens 3. Reflecting telescope consists of a concave mirror as objective whereas refracting telescope consists of a convex lens on objective. 4. The lens towards the object is objective lens and the lens towards the eye is eye-lens.
12
Electrical Energy
The tiny electrons, about which you have studied in lesson 3. on structure of atoms, exhibit very interesting behaviour when at rest and very useful effects when in motion. Electrical energy is the energy, basically associated with the electrons and other such particles called charged particles. The wonderful genie of electrical energy brings all comforts to our command just with the press of a button. It is impossible to think of a world devoid of electrical energy. We start feeling very uncomfortable even if electricity, in our houses, is not available even for a short duration. Would you not like to know the nature of electrical energy, and the way it works. This is exactly what you are going to study in this lesson. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: cite examples of production of static electricity from everyday life; describe experiments to show the existence of two types of charges and state Coulombs law for the force between them; define the terms electrostatic potential energy, potential difference, electric current and electric resistance; state Ohms law and describe its experimental verification; apply Ohms law for finding equivalent resistance of series and parallel combinations of resistances; describe experiments to illustrate thermal and magnetic effects of electric current; define the commercial units of electric power and electric energy; solve numerical problems based on Coulombs law, Ohms law, combination of resistors and consumption of electric power and electric energy in our houses. 12.1 ELECTROSTATICS Ordinarily, if you bring a plastic comb near a piece of paper, you would not find any attraction between them. But, if you comb your dry hair with a comb and bring it close to a small piece of paper, you will find that the piece of paper is attracted towards the comb. We say that the comb gets charged or electrified in the process of combing. Thales of Miletus (600 BC), a Greak philosopher, knew that amber when rubbed with fur acquires the property of attracting small bits of wood. However, the systematic study of electricity started with Dr. Gilbert, the personal physician of queen Elizabeth-I, who published his work in 1600 AD about charges and magnets. It was Dr. Gilbert, who using the word
: 214 : Electrical Energy
electron for amber coined the word electricity. Dr. Gilbert, through his experience also indicated that the process of charging is not limited to amber only. Many other materials, like glass, ebonite and sealing wax can also be charged similarly. The electricity (or charge) developed on a body, when it is rubbed in intimate contact with another body is called frictional electricity. It was realised that metals cannot be charged that way, whereas, non-metallic solids can be charged. 12.1.1 Nature of charges A French chemist Charles Dufay, while performing experiments on charged bodies, found that charge acquired by a glass rod on getting it rubbed with silk is different from the charge acquired by an ebonite rod rubbed with wool. Let us perform the activity performed by Dufay to understand the difference. ACTIVITY 12.1 Aim : To identify two different types of charges What do you need? Two glass-rods, two ebonite rods, a piece of silk, a piece of woolen cloth, an insulating stand with which a stirrup is hanging vertically with the help of a silken thread. What should you do? (i) Rub a glass-rod with a piece of silk and place it on the stirrup so that it stays horizontally. Let it come to rest. (ii) Rub the second glass-rod with silk and bring it close to one end of the first glass-rod. Observe carefully the position of first glass rod. (iii)Rub an ebonite-rod with a piece of wool and bring it close to the end of glass rod on stirrup as in step (ii). What difference do you note in the position of the glass-rod ? (iv)Repeat the experiment by placing an ebonite-rod on the stirrup instead of glassrod. Insulating stand
Silken thread Stirrup Glass rod A Glass rod B Ebonite rod
(a) Glass rod A hanging on a stirrup
(b) Glass rod A moves away from Glass rod B
(c) Glass rod A moves towards the ebonite rod
Fig. 12.1 Glass-rod rubbed with silk has a charge different than the charge acquired by ebonite rod rubbed with wool
What do you observe? We observe that (i) two charged glass-rods repel each other, (ii) two charged eboniterods also repel each other, but, (iii) a charged glass-rod attracts a charged ebonite rod. What do you conclude? We conclude that:
Electrical Energy : 215 :
(i) Charge developed on glass-rod on rubbing it with silk has a different nature that the charge developed on ebonite rod rubbed with wool. (ii) Like charges repel each other while unlike charges attract each other. Dufay called the charge acquired by glass-rod on rubbing it with silk as vitreous electricity and the charge acquired by ebonite-rod on rubbing it with wood as resinuous electricity. Later, Benjamin Franklin termed the former as positive charge and the latter as negative charge. Dr. Gilbert also constructed a device for detecting charge. Such a device is called electroscope. Let us also construct a simple electroscope and do another activity using it. ACTIVITY 12.2 Aim : To verify that in the process of charging by friction, equal and opposite charges are developed on the bodies rubbed together What should you need? A pith-ball with acqua-dag coating, a small silk thread, an insulating stand, an ebonite-rod, 4 " long woollen cap which fits on the ebonite rod.
Insulating stand
Silken thread Pith ball
Woolen cap
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Fig. 12.2 Using pith ball electroscope to show that equal and opposite charges are produced by friction.
What should you do? (i) Pass the silk thread through the pith ball, put a knot at the lower end and attach the other end with the insulating stand as shown in Fig. 12.2 (a) (ii) Insert the ebonite rod in woollen cap, rub them with each other for some time and then touch the ebonite rod with path ball. The pith ball will, thus, get negatively charged, which is indicated by its repulsion with ebonite rod. (iii) Now put woollen cap on the ebonite rod, and bring the rod close to the pith ball. Is there any attraction or repulsion shown by the pith ball? (iv) Check again with and without woollen cap on ebonite rod one by one. What do you observe? We observe that (i) negatively charged ebonite rod repels negatively charged pith ball, (ii) woollen cap attracts the negatively charged pith ball, (iii) when ebonite rod with woollen cap is brought near the pith ball no attraction or repulsion takes place. What do you conclude? We conclude that ebonite rod has negative charge and woollen cap has equal amount of positive charge.
Remember : Charging by friction always produces equal and opposite charges on the two bodies which are rubbed in intimate contact. How to explain this? A material as such may be neutral but it is made of atoms. An atom possesses a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. When we rub two materials in intimate contact with each other, some of the weakly bound electrons from one body are transferred to the other body. The body which gains electrons becomes negatively charged and the body which loses electrons becomes positively charged. The charge of an electron (e) = 1.6 x 10-19C If a body gains n electrons it will acquire a negative charge q = n e .........(12.1) 12.1.2 Force between electrical charges : Coulombs law In the previous section we have seen experimentally that we can give different amounts of charge to bodies by friction. Also, that some of its charge can be transferred from a charged body to an uncharged body by contact. We have also learnt that like charges repel each other while unlike charges attract. The factors on which this force of attraction or repulsion depends was studied first by the french physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb. Coulomb presented the inferences of his experiments in the form of a law which is stated below. Coulombs law The magnitude of the force of attraction (or repulsion) between two point charges is directly proportional to the quantity of charge present on each of them and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them. If a charge q1 is placed at a distance from a similar charge q2, then the two charges will continue to repel each other with a force, (12.2), r where k is a constant of proportionality depending on the nature of the medium in which the charges are placed. In SI units, k = 9 x 109 Nm2 c-2, for vacuum (or for air) Charge is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is coulomb. Equation 12.2 may be used to define 1C. If q1=q2 q2=1C and r=1 m, f=9x109 N. Thus, 1C charge is the charge which when placed at a distance of 1 m from an equal like charge in vacuum, experiences a repulsive force on 1N. f=
1 2 ____________ 2
kq q
Coulomb is a very big unit of charge. Normally charge acquired by bodies are of the order of micro coulomb or at the most milli coulomb. You may recollect that 1 micro coulomb = 106C and 1 milli coulomb = 103C
Fig 12.3 Coulombian force between two charges seperated by a distance r
12.1.3 Electric potential Consider a big charge Q fixed at a point. Let us call it source charge. At a very large distance from Q a small charge q will experience negligibly small force. As we bring q towards Q the magnitude of force between Q and q increases. If Q and q both are of the same nature (i.e. both positive or both negative) there will be a force of repulsion between them. Hence in moving charge q towards Q work will (1890) have to be done on the charge q. This work will be stored up as potential energy in the charge. It is because of this electrostatic potential energy, that a charge when left of itself in the Fig. 12.4 Potential energy of charge q place at region surrounding a fixed charge, moves from a distance r from charge Q one point to another point. The electrostatic potential energy possessed by a charge q when it is at a distance r from charge Q is given by : KQq .................. (12.3) r In electricity, potential energy per unit charge is called electrostatic potential. Potential is more significant than potential energy itself. Using equation 12.3 we can say that potential at a point U=
________
U KQ = _______ ------------ (12.4) q r Electrostatic potential is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is JC-1, the other name for which is volts (V). V =
_____
The potential at a point is 1 V if a + 1C charge placed at that point possesses a potential energy of 1J. It may be noted that potential due to a positive source charge, at any point around it, is positive and decreases with distance. Whereas the potential due to a negative source charge is negative at any point around it and increases with increasing distance. The importance of electrostatic potential lies in the fact that it is this quantity which determines the direction of flow of charge. Positive charges always move from higher potential to lower potential. On the other hand, negative charges move from lower potential to higher potential. Example 12.1 : How many electrons make one coulomb? Solution : Let n electrons make 1 C Since charge is built by the excess or deficiency of electrons only Charge on 1 electron is 1.6 x 10-19C Charge q = + n e n=q = 1 1.6 x 1019 e = 6.25 x 1018 electrons
Example 12.2 : Two point charges having magnitudes 1 microcoulmb and 2 microcoulombs respectively are kept separated by a distance of 2 m. Calculate (i) the force of repulsion between them, (ii) the electrostatic potential energy of the charge system. Solution : (i) F = (ii) U = KQq r2 KQq r = = 9 x 109 x 1 x 10-6 x 2 x 10-6 (2)2 9 x 109 x 10-6 x 2 x 10-6 2 = 4.5 x 103 N = 9 x 103 J
Example 12.3 : Calculate the potential at a point, distant 30 cm from a 60 micro coulomb negative charge. Solution : V = KQ r = 9 x 109 x 60 x 10-6 30 x 10-2 = 1.8 x 106 volts
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 12.1 1. What type of charge does an ebonite rod acquire when it is rubbed with wool? What is the nature of the charge acquired by wool? 2. When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk it acquires +10 micro coulomb of charge. How many electrons have been transferred from glass to silk ? 3. If the charge on two particles be doubled and separation between them be halved, how many times will become the Coulombian force between them? 4. A charged particle placed at a distance of 50 cm from a fixed charge has a potential energy of 10J. If the charge of the particle is 1 micro coulomb (i) what is the potential at the position of the particle (ii) what is the value of the fixed charge? 5. Define the unit of (i) charge (ii) potential 12.2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY Can charge produced at one place be transferred to some other place without actually moving the charged body? Yes, you will say, by connecting the charged body to an uncharged body through a metallic wire. But, can you do so by holding the naked wire in your hand? You will say, no, the wire should be insulated. What you know by sheer experience today, was shown by Stephen Gray in 1729 by extensive and expensive research of several months. 12.2.1 Electric cellsSources of potential difference As you have learnt in the previous section, positive charge flows from higher to lower potential. So if you want to pass charge continuously, from one body to another body through a wire, you have to maintain a potential difference between them. You are familiar with a device which can be used to maintain potential difference between the two ends of a wire-the dry cell. The dry cell is a type of electric cell. An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. A group of cells is called battery. In a torch having many cells you are using a battery of cells.
ACTIVITY 12.3 Aim : To construct a battery of cells and use it to light up an LED What you need? 5 lemons, 5 thin strips of copper, 5 thin strips of zinc, an LED, copper connecting wires. What to do? (i) Arrange the lemons in a line on a table. (ii) Insert one copper and one zinc strip in each of the lemons as shown in Fig. 12.5
L E D Connecting wire
Copper strip
Zinc strip
Lemon
Fig 12.5 A battery of 5 lemon cells used to light up an LED
(iii) Connect zinc strip of first lemon with the copper strip of the second lemon and this way connecting all the cells, leaving one copper strip free at the end of first lemon and one zinc strip at the end of last lemon. (iv)Connect LED between these free strips. (v) Repeat the experiment using cotton threads instead of copper wires with LED. (vi)Repeat experiment using 3V bulb instead of LED. What do you observe ? You will observe that (i) the LED glows continuously when connected across the battery using copper connecting wires, (ii) LED does not glow when we use cotton thread instead of copper wire, (iii) 3V bulb does not glow in this arrangement. What do you infer ? We infer that (i) the LED glows continuously, because, continuous charge flows through it due to a constant potential difference applied across its ends with the help of battery of lemon cells, (ii) copper wire conducts charge but cotton thread does not, (iii) The arrangement does not supply enough charge to glow a 3V bulb. Remember: 1. There are two types of substances: (i) those through which electric charge can flow easily are called conductors. All metals are good conductors of electricity, (ii) Those through which charge does not pass are called insulators. Non-metals are generally insulators. It is the structure of the material which determines whether it will conduct charge or not. A conductor has a large number of free electrons, whereas insulators have none. 2. A directed flow of charge is called electric current. The electric current flowing through a conductor is defined as the charge flowing through any section of the conductor in 1 second.
i.e.
Q = t
------------- (12.5)
Current is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is ampere (A). Current through a conductor is 1A if 1C charge flows through it in 1 second. The current flowing through a conductor is measured with the help of a device called ammeter. 3. As a convention, the direction of flow of positive charge is taken as the direction of flow of electric current. Thus in an electric circuit current is considered to be flowing from the positive terminal of the battery towards negative terminal. 4. In conductors it is the negatively charged free electrons which move to constitute current. They flow in opposite direction to the direction of conventional current. 5. A dry cell bears a marking 1.5V. This figure indicates the maximum potential difference that can be applied to this cell, when no current is being drawn from it. This is called emf of the cell. The emf of a cell is its characteristic property. Actual potential difference which we can apply with the help of the cell is slightly less than its emf. 12.2.2 Electric circuits and Ohms law When we connect some devices like electric bulb across a cell through connecting wires, current flows through the arrangement in a closed path. This type of arrangement of cells, conductors and bulbs is called electric circuit. In circuit diagrams various components are represented by definite symbols, some of which are given in Fig. 12.6.
Cell Cell Battery
Connecting wire
Wires connected together
Wires crossing without being connected
Fixed resistance
Variable resistance
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Galvanometer
Switch
Closed key
Lamp
Fig. 12.6 Some important symbols used in electric circuits
In this list of symbols, voltmeter is a device used to measure potential difference between any two points of a circuit, galvanometer - a device to detect current and rheostat to change current in the circuit. During contact programme request your tutor to show you various electrical devices they use in laboratories. 12.2.2a Ohms Law In section 12.2.1 we have seen that current flows through a conductor when we apply a potential difference between its ends with the help of an electric cell. The question arises how does the value of current flowing through a wire change when the potential difference applied across it is changed. To answer this let us perform the following activity.
ACTIVITY 12.4 Aim : To find the relation between the current flowing through a wire and the potential difference applied across it What you need? A dry cell, a voltmeter (range 01.5V), an ammeter (range 01A), a standard fixed resistance coil (1 Ohm), rheostat (01 Ohm), connecting wires and a plug key. What to do? V (i) Connect the fixed resistor (R), ammeter (A), dry cell (D), plug key Resistance (R) (K) and rheostat (Rh) is series (end Rheostat (Rh) Ammeter Cell to end) and voltmeter (V) in parallel Plug key A to R, as shown in Fig. 12.8. . (ii) When the key K is open check that Fig 12.7 Circuit diagram to show the readings in ammeter and relationship between voltage and current voltmeter is zero. (iii) Insert the plug in the key and move the sliding contact of the rheostat so that there is some small reading in ammeter and voltmeter. Record these readings. (iv) Increase the value of current with the help of rheostat. Record ammeter and voltmeter readings again. (v) After changing the readings 4 to 5 times, record the corresponding values current and voltage from ammeter and voltmeter. (vi) Plot a graph between ammeter and voltmeter readings. What do you observe? You will observe that : (i) on increasing ammeter reading voltmeter reading increases in the same proportion. (ii) the voltage-current graph is a straight line as shown in Fig. 12.8. What do you conclude? We conclude that the current flowing through a wire is directly proportional to the potential difference applied between its ends. i.e. V I or V = RI ........................... (12.6) Here, R is a constant of proportionality and is called the resistance of the given wire. This observation was first made by George Simon Ohm and is called Ohms Law. Remember : 1. The law can be applied only to conducting wires and that too when its temperature and other physical conditions remain unchanged. If the temperature of the conductor increases its resistance also increases. 2. R i.e. resistance of wire, is a constant for a given wire. It can be easily shown that resistance of a wire depends on :
its length longer the wire, more the resistance its thickness thicker the wire, lesser the resistance the nature of material copper wire has lesser resistance than iron wire of same length and thickness. 3. Resistance is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is Ohm (). 4. The resistance of a wire can never be negative. Ohm is the resistance of a wire across, which when 1V potential difference is applied, 1A current flows through it.
Potential difference (V)/ volts
Slope = Resistance (R) Current (I)/amperes
Fig 12.8 Graph showing variation in voltage with the variation in current
12.2.3 Combinations of resistors In electrical circuits, we connect a number of devices having different resistance values. This we can do in two different ways. (a) Series combination In this combination a number of resistances are connected end to end, so that, same current flows through all of them (Fig. 12.9), when the combination is connected to a cell.
R1 R2 R3
R1
V1
V2
V3
Fig 12.9 Series combination of resistances
If we measure voltage across each of the resistances with the help of a voltmeter, we will find that more the resistance more the potential difference across it. Thus, voltage across r1, i.e., V1 = Ir1, across r2 is V2 = I r2 and so on. Also, the total voltage across the combination is the sum of the voltage across individual resistors. i.e. V = V1+V2+V3+ ---------------- (12.7) = Ir1+Ir2+ Ir3 + ---------------V ___ = r1+r2+ ---------------- (12.7a) I V gives the resistance of the combination R I R = r1 + r2 + -------------- (12.8) The resistance of a number of resistances in series is equal to the sum of the resistances of the component resistors.
(b) Parallel combination Resistances are said to be connected in parallel when one end of all the resistors is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the other end to the negative terminal, as shown in Fig. 12.10. In parallel combination equal potential difference is applied across each resistor. The current drawn from the cell is inversely proportional to the resistance, i.e.
R1
R1
R2
R3
Fig. 12.10. Parallel combination of resistances
I1 = V , I2 = V , I3 = V r1 r2 r3 Also, total current drawn from the cell by the combination is equal to the sum of currents drawn by the individual resistors. If the resistance of the combination be R, then I=V R and I = I1 + I2 + I3 V = V R r1 1 R = 1 r1 -------------------(12.9) + V + V r2 r3 + 1 r2 + 1 -----------------------(12.10) r3
The reciprocal of the resistance of a combination of a number of resistors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistances. Remember : 1. Normally all the appliances in our household circuits are connected in parallel. But the chain of small bulbs that we use for decoration on Deewali has the bulbs connected in series. 2. As we add resistances in series the circuit resistance increases but when we connect resistances in parallel the total resistance is smaller than the smallest of the resistances involved. Example 12.4 : Find the equivalent resistance of the following combination of resistors.
Fig. 12.11.
Solution : (a) Here all resistors are connected in series R=r1+r2+r3+r4+r5+r6=1+2+3+3+2+1=12 (b) Here we have two series combination of 3 resistors in parallel. R1 = 1+2+3 = 6, R2 = 1+2+3 = 6 R R2 6 x6 36 1 _________ _______ _____ R = = = = 3 R1+R2 6+6 12 (c) Here we have 3 parallel combinations of 2 resistances each connected in series. r1 x r2 1x1 1 _________ _______ ___ = = R = r1 + r2 1+1 2 2 x2 _________ R = = 1 2+2 3 x3 9 3 _________ ___ ____ R = = = = 1.5 3+3 6 2 R = R1 + R2 + R3 = + 1 + 3/2 = 3
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 12.2 1. Define the units of (i) current (ii) resistance 2. A number of bulbs are connected in a circuit. Decide whether the bulbs are connected in series or in parallel, when (i) the whole circuit goes off when one bulb is fused (ii) only the bulb that gets fused goes off. 3. When the potential difference across a wire is doubled, how will the following quantities be affected (i) resistance of the wire (ii) current flowing through the wire. 4. How will the readings of ammeter and voltmeter change in the adjoining circuit (Fig. 12.12), when an extra resistance R is connected (i) series with the battery (ii) parallel to the resistance R. Assume ammeter, voltmeter and cell to be ideal devices. 5. What is the reading of ammeter in the adjoining curcuit (Fig. 12.13).
Fig. 12.12
Fig. 12.13
12.3 Effects of electric current When current is passed through a conductor some changes take place in and around its material. These changes, produced due to electric current, are called effects of electric current.
There are two effects of electric current flowing through a conductor that we come across in our day to day life. They are : (i) Thermal effect (ii) Magnetic effect Let us study these effects of electric current one by one. 12.3.1 Thermal effect of electric current When current is passed through a conductor it gets heated up. To study the heating effect of electric current let us perform the following activity. ACTIVITY 12.5 Aim : To study thermal effect of electric current What you need? Two pieces of the element of electric heater (one of which has 10 turns and the other 20 turns), two dry cells, connecting wires. What to do? (i) Attach connecting wires to the free ends of 10-turn coil permanently. (ii) Touch the free ends of the connecting wires to the two terminals of dry cell, thus passing current through it. Detach the contacts after 10 seconds. Now touch the coil and feel it. (iii) Repeat the experiment by passing current for 20 seconds. (iv) Place two dry cells in contact, making series battery and repeat the second step. (v) Repeat steps 2,3,4 with 20-turn heater coil.
Fig. 12.14. Study of thermal effect
What do you observe ? You will observe that (i) On passing current through a conductor it gets heated up. (ii) The coil is found to be heated when current is passed for a second. (iii) The coil is found to be hotter when greater voltage is applied across it. (iv) When same voltage is applied across bigger coil less heat is produced in it. What do you infer ? Thus, we conclude that (i) Current has a heating effect, i.e. when current is passed through a conducter it gets heated up. (ii) More heat is produced in a conductor when more potential difference is applied across it current is passed through it for more time (t) more current is passed through the same conductor.
Thus it can be seen that heat produced Q VIt or Q = kVIt If V = 1 volt, I = 1 A, t = 1 second, Q = 1 J Then Q = V I t ............................ (12.12) Q = I2 Rt = V2 t R (12.13) According to Ohms Law : V = IR K=1
12.3.2 Magnetic effect of electric current All of you, I am sure, might have played with magnetics. A magnet has such interesting properties that you cannot resist possessing one. A pivoted magnetic needle always stays in north-south direction and is used as a magnetic compass. A magnet attracts small pieces of iron, nickel and cobalt. It also attracts unlike poles of another magnet and repels like poles. But a stationary magnet does not attract or repel a stationary charge. Still electricity and magnetism are intimately related. In fact, magnetism is just an effect of electric current. This was for the first time discovered by H.C. Oersted, in 1820, accidently. Let us perform an activity to understand oersteds discovery. ACTIVITY 12.6 Aim : To study the magnetic effect of electric current What do you need? A compass needle, a dry cell, connecting wires, a thick copperwire, two wooden stands What to do? Copper wire 1. Place the magnetic needle on the table. It will stay in northWooden stand south direction. 2. Stretch the thick copper wire over the magnetic needle, using wooden stands, so that Magnetic the wire is parallel to the axis compass of the magnetic needle. 3. Attach connecting wires at Fig. 12.15 Set-up to study the magnetic effect the two ends of the thick of electric current copper wire. 4. Touch the free ends of the connecting wires to the two terminals of the battery. Observe the magnetic needle carefully. 5. Touch the reverse terminals of the battery with the free ends of the connecting wires, observe the magnetic needle again. What do you observe ? (i) The magnetic needle gets deflected whenever an electric current is passed through the thick copper wire. (ii) The deflection in magnetic needle gets reversed when the direction of flow of current through the wire is reversed.
We conclude that a magnetic field is developed around a conductor when electric current is passed through it. This observation is called magnetic effect of electric current. The magnetic field around a conductor carrying conductor is in the form of closed circular loops, in a plane perpendicular to the conductor, and is given by right hand grip rule. According to the rule, hold the conductor is your right hand with thumb pointing in the direction of electric current, then, the curling figures point is the direction of the magnetic field. Making use of these devices, scientists have devised a number of electric gadgets that we use in our houses for our comfort. You will learn about some of these devices in the next lesson.
Direction of magnetic field
Magnetic compass Direction of electric current
Fig. 12.16 Right hand grip rule
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 12.3 1. Which will produce more heat in 1 second a 1 ohm resistance on 10V or a 10 ohm resistance on the same voltage? Give reason for your answer. 2. How will the heat produced in a conductor change in each of the following cases? (i) The current flowing through the conductor is doubled. (ii) Voltage across the conductor is doubled. (iii) Time for which current is passed is doubled. 3. 1 A current flows though a conductor of resistance 10 ohms for 1/2 minute. How much heat is produced in the conductor? 4. When plug is inserted in key K, indicate the direction of magnetic field developed around wire AB in Fig. 12.17. 5. Name a household electric device based on (i) thermal effect (ii) magnetic effect of electric current.
Fig. 12.17
12.4 ELECTRIC ENERGY AND ELECTRIC POWER We have seen in the previous section that when V volts is applied across a conductor and I amperes flows through it, then the energy produced in the conductor in t seconds is given by Q = VIt Actually this equation holds true in whatever form the electrical energy may be consumed. The electrical energy consumed in one second is called electric power and is given by P = Q = VI t Equation 12.13 then becomes Q = Pt = VIT = qv (12.14)
(12.15)
12.4.1 Commercial units of electrical energy and electric power In SI units, energy in each of its form, has the same unit, joule (J). But in our houses we consume so much of electrical energy daily that joule proves to be a small unit for practical purposes. Therefore for commercial purposes we use a very big unit for measuring electrical energy, called kilo watt hour (kWh) IkWh = 1000 x 3600 = 3.6 X 106 J. (12.17) (12.18) For electric power also commercially we use a bigger unit, horse power (HP). 1 HP = 746 watt
12.4.2 Electric power generation and consumption in India One of the criteria, for judging the progress of a nation and the standard of living of its people, is the electrical energy generated and used by it. India has come a long way in its efforts to generate and use electrical energy. Till 31st December 2001, we had developed a total installed capacity of more than 103 billion watts of power utilities, with high targets of capacity additions in our future plans. Though per capita electricity available to our people is still very low as compared to the per capita electricity available in developed and oil rich countries, the situation is not very unsatisfactory when it comes to the considerations of resources available. There are three types of large scale electricity, generating plants : Hydroelectric power plants - where potential energy of water stores in a dam is used for generating electricity. (ii) Thermal power plant - where a fossil fuel is burnt to produce steam which runs a turbine to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. (iii) Atomic power plant - where nuclear energy obtained from a fissionable material like uranium is used to run a turbine. Some of the important power plants of India are listed below : 1. Hydel power plants (a) Bhakra -Nangal hydroelectric power plant, Punjab (b) Rihand hydel power house, Uttar Pradesh. (c) Periyar hydroelectric power station, Tamilnadu (d) Iddika hydroelectric power house, Kerala. (e) Umiam hydroelectric power station, Assam 2. Thermal power plants (a) Badarpur thermal Power Station, Delhi (b) Talcher thermal power house, Orissa. (c) Barauni thermal power station, Bihar. (d) Neyveli thermal power station, Tamil Nadu. (e) Namrup thermal power station, Assam. 3. Nuclear power plants (a) Tarapore atomic power station, Maharashtra. (b) Rajasthan atomic power station, Rana Pratap Sagar, Kota. (i)
(c) Madras atomic power station, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. (d) Narora atomic power station, Uttar pradesh. Of the total electrical power generation facilities available in India about 25% are hydel, 7% thermal, 2.5% nuclear and the rest use other resources like wind energy, solar power, geothermal energy or oceanic energy. This shows that main thrust by now has been on thermal power plants which use coal, natural gas and diesel as fuel. Because, we have to import fossil fuels the production is not to the full installed capacity. Thus a change in shift to other sources becomes imperative. In India all the major plants produce A.C. (alternating current) at 50 hertz, 11000 volts or more. This power can be further stepped up to higher voltages using transformers and hence can be transmitted to long distances without much loss of power. Example 12.5 Find the resistance of the filament of 100W, 250V electric bulb. Solution : P = = V2 P 250 x 250 100 Example 12.6 Calculate the energy consumed in a 2 kW electric heater in 2 hours. Express the result in joules. Solution : Q = Pt = = 2 x 2 kWh
6
625
4 kWh 14.4 x 106 J
4 x 3.6 x 10 J =
Example 12.7 How much time will a 2 kW immersion rod take to raise the temperature of 1 litre of water from 300 to 60. Solution : Q Q mc = = = Pt mc pt 1 kg 4.18 x 103 J kg-1 C-1 60 30 = 300C. ....(12.19)
Mass of 1 litre of water (m)= Specific heat of water (c) = P = 2 kW = 2000W =

3
Rise in temperature of water () = Substituting in equation (12.19) we get 1 x 4.18 x 103 x 30 t = 125.4 x 10 2 x 103
2000 x t 62.7 s
Example 12.8 : How many kilowatt hour of energy will be consumed by a 2HP motor in 10 hours? Solution : P = 2 HP = 2 x 746 W = 1.492 kW Q = Pt = 1.492 x 10 kWh = 14.92 kWh
Example 12.9 : A potential difference of 250V is applied across a resistance of 1000 ohm. Calculate the heat energy produced in the resistance in 10 s. Solution : Q = V2t = 250 x 250 x 10 = 625 J R 1000 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 12.4 1. Which has a higher resistance a 40W, 220W bulb or a 1 kW electric heater? 2. What is the maximum current that a 100W, 220V lamp can withstand? 3. How many units of electricity will be consumed by a 60W lamp in 30 days, if the bulb is lighted 4 hours daily. 4. How many joules of electrical energy will a quarter horse power motor consume in one hour. 5. An electric heater is used on 220V supply and draws a current of 5 A. What is its power? LET US REVISE When two bodies are rubbed together in contact, they acquire a peculiar property of attracting small bits of paper. We say the bodies are electrified or charged by friction. Charges are of two types. Charge acquired by a glass rod rubbed with silk is positive and that acquired by an ebonite rod rubbed with fur is negative. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. The force between two charges is given by Coulombs law according to which K q1 q2 F = ______________ r2 Force per coulomb of charge at a point is called electric field, E = F/q Work is done in moving a charge against electric field which is stored up as potential energy of the charge. Hence, when charge is placed at a point in the field it possesses potential energy. Potential energy per coulomb of charge at a point is called potential. Positive charge always moves from a higher potential to a lower potential and vice-versa. Electric cell is a device with the help of which we can apply a potential difference between the two ends of a wire due to which current will flow through the wire. Ohms law states that current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied between its ends, provided temperature and other physical conditions of the conductor remain unchanged. Ratio of voltage applied across a conductor and the current flowing through it is called resistance of the conductor. S.I. Unit of resistance is ohm. Resistances may be connected in two different independent ways (i) in series, (ii) in parallel. In series, total resistance of the combination is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. In parallel, reciprocal of the combined resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Current when passed through a conductor produces two effects. (i) Thermal effect,(ii) Magnetic effect. Commercial unit of electrical energy is kWh and that of electric power is HP. India is gradually moving towards its target of providing enough electric power to its people but still we have a long way to go.
TERMINAL EXERCISES A. Multiple choice type questions. 1. A charged conductor A having charge is touched to an identical uncharged conductor B and removed. Charge left on A after separation will be :(a) Q (B) Q/2 (C) Zero (D) 2Q -1 2. J C is the unit of (a) Current (b) Charge (c) Resistance (d) Potential 3. Which of the following materials is an electrical insulator? (a) Mica (b) Copper (c) Tungsten (d) Iron 4. The device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is called (a) electric fan (b) electric generator (c) electric cell (d) electric heater. 5. The resistance of a conductor does not depend on its (a) temperature (b) length (c) thickness (d) shape B. Fill in the blanks. 1. When current is passed through a conductor its temperature __________. 2. A current carrying conductor carries a __________ field arount it. 3. The director of magnetic field around a current carrying conductor is determined using __________. 4. Unit of electric power is __________. 5. of the two wires made of the same material and having same thickness the longer one has __________ resistance C. Descriptive type questions. 1. Name the instruments used to measure (a) current (b) potential difference. 2. Name the quantity measured by the unit (a) NC-1 (b) C S-1 3. Give a one word name for the unit (a) J C-1 (b) C S-1 4. What is the potential difference between the terminals of a battery if 250 J of work is required to transfer 20C of charge from one terminal of the battery to the other. 5. Give the symbols of (a) cell (b) battery (c) resistor (d) voltmeter. 6. What is the conventional direction of flow of electric current? Do the charge carriers in the conductor flow in the same direction ? Explain ? 7. Out of ammeter and voltmeter which is connected us series and which is connected in parallel ? 8. You are given two resistances of 3 ohm and 6 ohm, respectively. Combining these two resistances what other resistances can you obtain?
9. 10. 11.
Two resistances when connected in series give 8 and when connected in parallel give 1.5 . What is the value of these resistances ? Which effect of electric current can be utilized in detecting a current carrying wire concealed in a wall? Name the scientist who discovered this effect. Two resistances are connected in series as shown in fig. 12.18. (i) What is the current through 5 ohm resistance? Fig. 12.18 (ii) What is the value of R? (iii) What is the value of V? In the circuit shown alongside (Fig. 12.19), find (i) Total resistance of the circuit. (ii) Ammeter (A) reading (iii) Current flowing through 2 ohm resister
12.
Fig. 12.19
13.
14.
15.
For the circuit shown alongside (Fig. 12.20), find the value of : (i) Current through 6 ohm resistor. (ii) Potential difference across 12 ohm Fig. 12.20 resistor You are given three resistors of 1 ohm, 2 ohm and 3 ohm. Show by diagrams, how will you connect these resistors to get (a) 6/11 (b) 6 (e) 1.5 A resistor of 8 is connected in parallel with another resistor of X . The resultant resistance of the combination is 4.8 ohm. What is the value of resistor X In the adjoining circuit (Fig. 12.21), find : (i) Total resistance of the circuit. (ii) Total current flowing through the circuit Fig. 12.21 (iii) The potential difference across 4 resistor What is the fuel used in : (a) an atomic power plant (b) a thermal power plant What is the (a) frequency (b) voltage of electricity, supplied in our homes ? Name two of each of the following types of power plants in India. Also give their location. (a) Hydel power plants (b) Thermal power plants (c) Nuclear power plants
16.
17. 18. 19.
20.
What are the three types of electric power plants in India? How do they differ from one another? ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
12.1 1. 2.
Negative charge. Wool acquires postive charge. q 10 x 10-6 13 n = 19 = 6.25 x 10 electrons e 1.6 x 10 F = U k
____ 1 2 ________
qq r2
3. 4.
F = K
1 2 _______________
2q 2q (r/2)2
= 8F
(i) v =
5.
= 107V q 10 KQq Ur 10 0.5 5 (ii) U = __________ = r = ______ = ____________________ = ____ 103C 9 6 r Kq 9 10 10 9 (i) Unit of charge is Coulomb. IC charge is the charge which when placed at a distance of 1 m from an equal like charge repels it with of force of 9 x 109 N. (ii) Unit of potential is 1 volt. Volts is the potential at a point in an electric field such that if IC positive charge is brought from outside the field to this point against the field 1 J work is done. = (i) (ii) Unit of current is ampere. 1A is the current in a wire in which 1C charge flows in 1 second. Unit of resistance is ohm .1 ohm is the resistance of a wire across which when 1V potential difference is applied 1A current flows through it. If the whole circuit goes off when one bulb is fused the bulbs are connected in series. If only one bulb goes off and the rest of the circuit remains working the bulbs are connected in parallel. Resistance of the wire remains unaffected current flowing through the wire is doubled. When R is connected in series readings of voltmeter and ammeter will reduce to half. When R is connected in parallel to R, reading of ammeter is doubled but reading of voltmeter remains unchanged.
_______ 6
10
12.2 1.
2.
(i) (ii)
3. 4.
(i) (ii) (i) (ii)
5. 12.3 1. 2.
1A. Q = V This implies that more the resistance less the power. Therefore, more t R heat will flow is 1s in 1 ohm resistor. (i) Heat produced becomes four times (ii) heat produced becomes four times
3. 4. 5. 12.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
(iii) heat produced is doubled. Q = I Rt = 1 x 10 x 30 = 300 J. refer section 12.3.2 (i) Electric heater (ii) Electric fan
2
R =
V = 40W lamp has higher resistance. P P 100 5 I = ____ = ______ = ____ A. V 220 11 Q = Pt = 60 30 4 = 7200 Wh = 7.2 kWh.
2 _____
746 Q = Pt = ________ 3600 J = 675400 J. 4 P = VI = 220 5 = 1100 watt.
13
Electricity in Our Homes

Today, electricity has become so essential part of our life that we can not think of life without it. Our households are full of electrical appliances such as electric bulb, electric bell, electric fan, electric iron, electric heater, refrigerator, washing machine, dish washer, radio, television, air conditioner and so on. In a way, we can say that man has gained a partial control over forces of nature with the help of electrical energy. Electricity runs our industries and pumps out water for irrigation of our fields. Use of electricity in the transport system is also increasing. In the previous lesson you studied about the story of the wonderful genie of electrical energy. In this lesson also, we will continue with the same story and highlight its uses in our daily life. We will try to understand how electrical energy is generated, distributed and used. The principle, construction and working of electric motor, generator and some of the domestic electric gadgets will be explained. The important features of distribution systems and domestic wiring systems will also be highlighted in this lesson. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: explain the principle and working of an electric motor; demonstrate the flow of electric current in a closed loop of conducting wire when magnetic field associated with it is changed; explain the principle and working of an a.c. generator; draw circuit diagram to indicate how wiring is done to supply electric power to various devices in our houses or in industry; state the hazards involved in using electric energy and describe safety measures to minimize them; highlight the importance of fuse and earthing in electrical circuits; and identify different household electrical appliances and explain their construction and working. 13.1 ELECTROMAGNETISM In the previous lesson we have seen that a magnetic field is developed around a current carrying conductor due to which a magnetic needle placed alongside shows deflection from its N-S orientation. Fig. 13.1 shows magnetic field due to a circular loop of wire carrying current. It is evident here that the magnetic field due to the loop at its centre is
: 236 : Electricity in Our Homes
quite strong, because, every part of the current loop is providing field in the same sense. The current-carrying loop, in fact, behaves as a magnet, one face of it being North Pole and the other South Pole. If we make a cylindrical coil of insulated wire having many turns (called solenoid) and pass current through it, the coil will behave as a temporary magnet one end serving as a north pole and the other as a south pole. Hold your right hand above the coil with the curling Fig. 13.1 Magnetic field due to a fingers pointing in the direction of the current, then the current-carrying loop stretched thumb indicates that end of the coil, which functions as the north pole. The stretched thumb also indicates the direction of the magnetic field inside the coil. This rule is called the right hand thumb rule. If you wind the coil on a cylindrical tube of cardboard and study the magnetic field by placing a magnetic needle inside it we can see that the magnetic field inside the coil increases when, i) the current flowing through the coil is increased, ii) number of turns in the coil is increased, iii) length of the coil is decreased, and iv) a soft iron bar is introduced in the card board tube. 13.1.1 Electromagnets A current-carrying solenoid with soft iron core is called an electromagnet (Fig. 13.2). A comparison of an electromagnet and a permanent magnet is given in the table below.
Fig. 13.2 A solenoid carrying current behaves like a magnet
Table 13.1 : Distinction between a bar magnet and an electromagnet Bar magnet Bar magnet is a permanent magnet. Electromagnet An electromagnet is a temporary magnet. It remains magnet only for the duration the current flows through it. The strength of an electromagnet can be changed by changing the amount of current flowing through it. Electromagnet produces comparatively stronger field. Just by reversing the direction of current flow, we can reverse the polarity of electromagnet.
The strength of a bar magnet cannot be changed. Bar magnet is a weak magnet. The poles of a permanent magnet cannot be easily reversed.
Electricity in Our Homes : 237:
13.1.2 Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field Oersteds experiment showed that a current carrying conductor deflects a magnetic needle. Newtons third law of motion suggests that a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field should experience a force. ACTIVITY 13.1 Aim : To study the forece experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field. What do you need ? A U-shaped magnet, two batteries, two rheostats, one tapping key, one plug key, two ammeters, mercury in a shallow dish, a flexible joint J and connecting wires. What to do ? (i) Place the dish containing mercury between the pole pieces of the electromagnet. (ii) From a rigid support T, suspend flexible joint J. Let the thick copper wire AB hang on J so that its lower end B just touches mercury. (iii) Connect the positive terminal of the battery with J and the negative terminal to a rheostat which is connected to an ammeter and a tapping key. Wire from the other end of the tapping key is dipped in mercury. (iv) Connect a battery, a rheostat, an ammeter and a plug key across the electromagnet as shown in figure 13.3. (v) Insert plug in key K2 and press K1. (vi) Repeat the experiment by increasing current in the electromagnet and the wire AB, one by one. What do you observe ?
+
S A
K1 A
B N
K2
Fig. 13.3 Experimental set-up to demonstrate force on a current carrying conductor
You will observe that (i) on pressing key, the wire AB swings out of the pole pieces of the electromagnet, (ii) the amplitude of swing increases when the strength of the electromagnet is increased by increasing the current in it or when the current in the wire is increased. What do you infer ? (i) A current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force due to which the conductor moves out of the mercury cup, as a result of which the circuit breaks and wire falls back and swings in and out of the mercury cup. (ii) The force increases with an increase in the current flowing through the conductor. (iii) The magnitude of the force also increases with the increase in the strength of the magnetic field.
The direction of the force experienced by a conductor placed in a magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of current as well as magnetic field and is given by Flemings Left Hand Rule. According to this rule, if you hold the forefinger, the central finger and the thumb of your left hand at right angles to each other in such a way that the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field and the central finger is in the direction of current, then, the thumb will indicate the direction of the force experienced by the conductor (Fig. 13.4). For example, if we consider a horizontal magnetic field running west to east in which a conductor hangs vertically and the current in it flows in a vertically downward direction, then the wire will experience a force in southward direction as shown in Fig. 13.5.
Force
Magnetic field
Current
Fig. 13.4 Diagram to illustrate Flemings Left Hand Rule
East B Force
13.1.3 Electric motor South Fig. 13.5 Diagram showing application of Faradays discovery of force experienced by a Flemings Left Hand Rule current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field was a great discovery, because it helped in the development of electric motor. An electric motor is a device that can convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electric motor, as you already know, is the main component of electric fans, mixer-juicer-grinders, electric churners, centrifuges, etc. a) Construction of electric motor An electric motor (Fig. 13.6) consists of the following parts: i) ii) Field magnet (N-S), which is a U-shaped permanent magnet with cylindrically curved pole pieces. Rectangular coil (ABCD) with large number of turns of insulated copper wire mounted on a rotor shaft R and having a soft iron core (core not shown in figure). Split ring commutator (XY), which is a copper ring split in two part X and Y and mounted on the rotor shaft. One free end of the coil is welded with X and the other with Y. Contact brushes (PQ) kept in contact with the half-rings of the commutator to provide for the convenience of supplying current to the coil through them.
C R B
iii)
N D PX YQ + Battery
iv)
Fig. 13.6 Construction of an electric motor
b) Principle and working of electric motor When the contact brushes P and Q are connected to a battery, as shown, current flows through the coil. It can be seen by applying Flemings Left Hand Rule that on the strand DC the force due to magnetic field acts in vertically downward direction where as on BA it acts in vertically upward direction. These two, unlike equal parallel forces acting on the coil, tend to rotate it. The coil makes a half rotation. Then the strands AB and CD interchange their positions and so do half-rings Q and P. Now the current in AB and CD again provides for a pair of equal, unlike parallel forces giving rotation to the coil in the same sense (anti-clockwise). Thus the coil and the shaft attached with it rotate continuously till the current is passed. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.1 1. State Flemings Left Hand Rule. What is the rule used for? 2. Name the rule you will use to find the direction of magnetic field due to a current loop. State the rule. 3. Give two points of difference between an electromagnet and a permanent magnet. 4. Give two factors on which the strength of an electromagnet depends. 5. State the principle of working of an electric motor. 13.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION It again occurred to Faraday that if electric current can give rise to magnetic field, a changing magnetic field should also give rise to electric current. This phenomenon of producing electric current in a coil, by changing magnetic field associated with it, is called electromagnetic induction. One of the experiments that Faraday performed to demonstrate the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction you can also try in the form of the following activity. ACTIVITY 13.2 Aim : To induce current in a coil by changing the magnetic field associated with it What do you need? A strong magnet, a tightly wound cylindrical coil of insulated copper wire mounted on an insulating pipe, a galvanometer
N G S
Fig. 13.7 Electric current induced in a coil due to a moving magnet
What to do? Hold the coil horizontally. Connect free ends to a galvanometer. Hold the magnet at a distance from the coil. Move the magnet towards the coil. Move it away from the coil. Move the magnet towards and away from the coil at a faster rate. What do you observe? i) The galvanometer shows a deflection whenever the magnet is moved relative to the coil. ii) The galvanometer pointer swings in one direction when the magnet moves towards the coil and in the opposite direction when the magnet moves away from the coil.
iii) The galvanometer shows deflection only when the magnet is moving, the pointer of the galvanometer returns to zero position when the magnet is stopped at any position. iv) The deflection in the galvanometer is more when the magnet moves faster. What do you infer? An electric current is induced in a coil whenever the magnetic field associated with the coil is changed. When magnetic field threading the coil increases, the current flows in one direction but when the field associated with the coil decreases, it flows in opposite direction. More rapidly the field is changed greater is the magnitude of the induced current. This phenomenon of a changing magnetism into electricity is called electromagnetic induction and is the principle behind an electric generator. 13.2.1 Electric generator Electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. a) Principle of an electric generator If we rotate a rectangular coil of wire in a uniform magnetic field about an axis perpendicular to the field lines, the magnetic field associated with the coil will change continuously. This will induce a continuously changing current in the coil. Depending on the way the energy is tapped out and the type of current we get in the output, generators are of two types: Direct current (d.c.) generators: These provide steady and unidirectional current output. Alternating current (a.c.) generators: These provide an output current, which varies continuously in magnitude and periodically in direction. Most of the generators in use these days are a.c. generators. Let us study the construction and working of this generator. b) Construction of an alternating current generator The construction and working of an a.c. generator is shown in Fig. 13.8. i)
b Pivot
B1 Rl
S1 S2
B2
R Rotating system
Fig. 13.8 An alternating current (a.c.) generator
An a.c. generator consists of the following parts: Rectangular coil ABCD made of very large number of turns of insulated copper wire, wound over an insulated frame and mounted on a rotor shaft. ii) Rotor shaft R attached to a rotating system (viz. a turbine, not shown in the figure) with the help of which it can be rotated rapidly between the pole pieces of the field magnet.
iii) Field magnet N-S is a strong horse shoe type permanent magnet. iv) A pair of slip rings S1 and S2, which are metallic rings, mounted on the rotor shaft insulted from each other and insulated from the shaft. One free end of the coil wire (say, a) is connected to S1 and the other (say, d) is connected to S2. v) Contact brushes B1 and B2 are metallic (or carbon) brushes, kept in contact with S1 and S2, through which current is taken out and passed in external circuits or appliances connected across them. The appliance connected across the generator is shown by RL in Fig. 13.8 and is called load. c) Working of an alternating current generator To understand the working of an a.c. generator let us consider that the coil, to begin with, is parallel to the magnetic field lines and starts rotating in anti-clockwise direction. The magnetic field entering into the face ABCD of the coil increases from zero to some finite value and continues to increase till the coil becomes normal to the field. The rate, at which the magnetic field linked with the coil changes, is the maximum in the beginning and then it decreases continuously. Thus the induced current in the coil is maximum at time, t = 0, and decreases with passing time. When the coil becomes normal to the field the rate at which flux changes becomes zero and hence current in the coil is zero. When the coil further rotates the face of the coil through which magnetic field enters starts changing and hence the direction of field-change and hence direction of current is reversed. The field entering into the face DCBA now continues increasing till the coil again becomes parallel to the field at which position we find that the field linked with the coil is zero but change in magnetic flux is maximum resulting in maximum current. As the coil rotates further the flux linked with DCBA increases with a lesser rate of change in field. Thus the current in the coil decreases and attains a zero value when the coil is normal to the field. Then again the face of the coil turning towards the north pole is reversed. The current starts flowing in the initial direction and attains a maximum value when the coil comes in the position we started with. Fig. 13.9 shows the positions of the coil at crucial stages of rotation and the current in the coil at these instants.
Io O Io b c b c c b c b b c
a a B1 B2 t=o B=o I=Io d a d S1 S2 B1 B2 S1 S2 B1 B2 S1 S2 d a d B1 B2 S1 S2 B1 B2 t=T B=o I=o S1 S2 a d
t=T/4 B=max I=o
T=T/2 B=max I= Io
T=3T/4 B=max I=o
Fig. 13.9 Current in the coil of generator as it rotates
Thus, a continuously varying current which changes its directions after every T/2 seconds is obtained. Such a current is called alternating current. d) Direction of induced current: Flemings Right Hand Rule The direction of induced current that is indicated in Fig. 13.9 is the actual direction we obtain for the given situation. The direction of current induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field is given by Flemings Right Hand Rule. According to the rule, stretch the thumb, the forefinger and the central finger of your right hand at right angles to each other and hold them in such a way that the North forefinger points in the direction of magnetic Induced field and thumb in the direction to motion current West B of the conductor then the central finger will Magnetic field point in the direction of the induced current Motion (Fig. 13.10). Using this law now you can easily check that the direction of induced current in Fig. 13.10 is towards north as shown.
Vertically downward
Fig. 13.10 Diagram to illustrate Flemings Right Hand Rule
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.2 1. What is meant by electromagnetic induction? 2. State the principle of working of an electric generator. 3. State Flemings Right Hand Rule and its use. 4. An LED is connected across a long solenoid (see the adjoining figure). When a strong permanent magnet is moved towards the solenoid, the bulb glows. Explain. 5. Who discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction? 13.3 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER Generators are to be constructed near the source of energy. You cannot construct a dam for every house or a thermal power plant for every industry. Power is generated on large scale at one place and then it is distributed to consumers situated at far off places from the generating stations. How is it done? The conductor system through which electric power is conveyed from a generating station to consumers premises may be divided in two parts: Transmission System Distribution System 13.3.1 Transmission system Long distance transmission of DC power is technically impractical and financially nonviable. Because, we have to transmit power at the same voltage at which it is generated. But we have developed devices, which can increase or decrease the magnitude of alternating voltage. These devices are called transformers. A transformer, which increases the level of voltage, is called step-up transformer and the one, which decreases the level of voltage, is called step-down transformer.
In a transformer, if voltage is increased current decreases in the same proportion, and viceversa. Thus, using a step-up transformer we can transmit power at high voltage and low current. Due to low current, the power losses and voltage drops on lead wires reduce to very low values. Also the cost of the distribution system decreases substantially. A typical transmission system is shown in Fig. 13.11.
Distribution line
G
220 v Electric pole Electric pole Town substation Step down Transformer Distribution step down Transformer
Power station (11 kv)
Step-up Transformer (139 KV)
Fig. 13.11 A typical transmission system
In India, at the generating station the power is normally generated at 11000V, 50Hz. Using a step-up transformer this voltage is stepped up to 13.2 kV. Transmission is done at this high voltage. At the town substation, this voltage is first reduced to 33 kV with the help of a step-down transformer and then 33 kV is stepped down to user level 220V, 50 Hz using a step-down distribution transformer.
S
13.3.2 Distribution system The distribution system is the arrangement, which provides power from town substation to the consumer. It involves feeders, distributors, sub-distributors and service mains. Normally there are two types of distribution systems: Tree system Ring system These days, mostly, it is the ring system that we use. The arrangement of various components of ring mode distribution is shown in Fig. 13.12.
F1 Feeder
Substation Feeder
F2
S Distributor S
Service Mains
Fig. 13.12 A ring mode distribution system
13.3.3 Domestic wiring circuit Through the distribution system the electricity reaches to an electric pole in our street from the pole two insulated copper wires come to our house. One of these wires is at a high potential of 220V. It is called live wire and is denoted by L. Normally, we use for live wire, a wire having red-coloured insulation. The other wire is ground potential of zero volt. It is called neutral wire and is denoted by N. For neutral wire we can use any colour except red or green. All the appliances in our house are connected in parallel to these two wires. A typical household circuit is shown in Fig. 13.13.

Meter Main fuse L From electric pole Main switch Main fuse To other rooms N
B Fan Sub circuit fuse S1 S2
Room -1 E
Fig. 13.13 A typical domestic electric wiring circuit from electric pole to a room consisting of bulb, a fan and a plug prompt.
Three specific features of the circuit are to be specially noted. These are as follows: (i) All the appliances are connected in parallel. (ii) All fuses and switches are to be placed on live wire. (iii) A third wire of green colour called earth wire also runs along with live and neutral wires. Bodies of all electrical appliances are earthed through this wire. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.3 1. In domestic electrical wiring, on which wire do we normally place switch to operate light? 2. Which effect of electric current is used in the working of an electric fuse? 3. Why are domestic appliances connected in parallel? Give one reason. 4. Name the electrical device used to increase or decrease the magnitude of voltage. Can it be used with direct current? 5. What are the advantages in transmission of electric power at high voltage? 6. Switching off a bulb in one room has no effect on other lamps in the same building. Why? 13.4 HAZARDS IN USING ELECTRICAL ENERGY
When used with care, electricity is the most convenient form of energy. But carelessness in the use of electrical energy may prove to be fatal for the operator as well as for the installation. For example, If a person touches a live wire he or she may get a severe shock which may lead even to death. Short-circuiting due to damaged wiring or overloading of the circuit can cause electrical fire, which may damage the building. Defects in household wiring like loose connections, defective switches, sockets, plugs, etc. may also cause sparking which may lead to an electrical fire. Some precautions and safety measures are, therefore, suggested in the next subsection below.
13.4.1 Precautions in the use of electrical energy a) For household wiring always use good quality wires having proper thickness and insulation. Plugs, sockets, switches and electrical appliances used should be ISI marked. All the wire connections should be tight and all the wire joints should be covered with an insulating tape. Defective switches, sockets, plugs, etc. should be immediately replaced. b) All the switches in your household electrical wiring circuit should be placed on the live wire of the circuit so that when the switch is off, the appliance is disconnected from the live wire and on touching the device you do not get shock. c) Switch off the mains before you start working on a repair job on the electrical circuit. In case it is necessary to work on live circuit put on rubber gloves, rubber shoes and use tools with insulted handles. d) In case of an electrical accident switch off the main switch of electrical supply. Try to insulate the person who has received a shock. In any case do not touch him directly. Never use water to extinguish fire arisen due to electrical sparking. e) Ensure that the safety measures of earthing and fuse are properly done in your household electrical circuit. Ensure that the fuses are placed on live wires and are of proper current rating. 13.4.2 Causes of electrical hazards There are basically three causes behind most electrical hazards: Current leakage Short-circuiting Overloading a) Current leakage Some times, due to wear and tear or due to excessive heating, the insulation covering of connecting wires is removed and the wire becomes naked. This naked live wire may touch the metal case of an electrical appliance raising its voltage to the level of the main voltage. The metal body of the appliance if connected to ground, current will flow through it to the ground resulting in current leakage. Body of a person also acts like a conductor and a person who touches the metal case of a current leaking appliance may get a shock. b) Short circuiting and over loading These are two faults in electrical circuits due to which heavy current may flow through the circuit resulting in the overheating of conducting live wires and consequent fire in the installation. Short-circuiting takes place when a naked live wire touches a naked neutral wire. Normally sub-standard wires wear out soon and may cause short-circuiting. Overloading of electrical circuit results, when the number of appliances operated on the circuit at the same time exceeds the limits the circuit wiring can withstand. We know that in household circuits all the appliances are connected in parallel. In parallel circuits as we add more and more resistors (appliances) in parallel more current is drawn from the supply.
A slight omission causing short circuiting or overloading may, therefore, cause fire and damage the whole installation. A safety device against this is a fuse. 13.4.3 Safety devices used in electrical circuits a) Electric fuse Electric fuse is a weak link in the electrical circuit. It is a short piece of a thin wire made of a lead-tin alloy. The material that a fuse wire is made of has a low melting point and high resistance as compared to the material of live wire. Consequently, when current in the circuit starts increasing the specified limit the fuse wire gets heated up and blows off. The fuse wire thus saves the installation from getting damaged. An electric fuse wire is always placed in series with the main supply on the live wire. Depending on the circuit specification we use fuse wires of different current rating normally 5A for domestic lights and 15A for domestic power. 15A fuse wire is thicker then a 5A fuse wire. b) Earthing the electrical appliance To avoid shock due to current leakage in electrical appliances the metal body of the appliance is earthed, i.e. connected to earth. For this purpose a separate wire, called earth wire, runs all through the circuits along with live and neutral wires. Metal bodies of all the appliances are kept connected with the earth wire. The free end of the earth wire is attached to a copper plate buried deep in the ground. This leaves the body of electrical appliances at the same potential (zero) as the earth and hence when we touch the metal body we do not get shock. Earthing is thus a safety device incorporated in an electric circuit to protect the operator. The above discussion shows how important the provisions of earthing and fuse are in our electrical circuits. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.4 1. Why do electricians wear, rubber shoes or rubber hand gloves while working on electric circuits? 2. State two hazards associated with the use of electricity. 3. Why is a fuse wire is made of a tin-lead alloy? 4. What is the usual rating of an electric fuse used in the following: (i) lighting circuits (ii) power circuits 5. What will you do if you see a person in contact with a live wire? 6. Along with live wire and neutral wire, a third wire is also used in domestic electrical wiring. What is the name of this third wire? What is the purpose of this wire? 13.5 HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES There is a long list of electrical appliances that we use in our houses for convenience in our work and comfort. Some of these appliances are based on thermal effect an electric current and the other are based on magnetic effect. We have already studied these effects in the previous lesson. In this section we will study the construction and working of some of the important electrical appliances we use in our houses.
13.5.1 Electrical appliances based on thermal effect of electric current When potential difference is applied across a conductor, the free electrons in it move up the potential to minimize their potential energy. In doing so they collide with other particles of the material of the conductor on their way. As a result the conductor gets heated up. The heat so produced can be utilized in a number of electrical appliances, such as electric bulb, electric iron, electric oven, electric water heater, electric room heater, soldering iron, electric kettle, etc. A brief description of some of these devices is given below. a) Electric lamps Generally two types of electric lamps are used in our houses for producing light incandescent lamps fluorescent lamps. i) Incandescent lamp: An incandescent lamp, which is also called an electric bulb, is based upon the principle that when a conductor having a high melting point is heated electrically to a high temperature it becomes incandescent and starts emitting light. If we closely examine an electric bulb we find that a small coil of tungsten wire (melting point 3300 K) called filament is mounted on insulating supports inside the bulb. The two ends of the filament are taken to the base of the bulb by two thick metal leads. This entire assembly is enclosed in a sealed glass bulb filled with noble gases at low pressure (Fig. 13.14). When the bulb is put in its holder and switched on, current 220 v 60 w flows through the filament heating it to incandescence. Glass Bulb The inert gas in the glass bulb prevents the filament from Filament getting oxidised at that high temperature. ii) Fluorescent lamp: A fluorescent lamp has a filament sealed in one end of a glass tube and another electrode at the other end. The tube contains little amount of mercury that vaporizes when the filament gets hot. An electric current is then set up through the mercury Brass cap vapours from one end of the tube to the other. The Holder pins mercury vapours give off both visible and ultra violet light. The ultra violet light strikes the fluorescent coating Base Contacts on the inside surface of the glass tube and causes it to glow brilliantly. The colour of the light given off by the Fig. 13.14 Incandescent lamp lamp depends upon the material used for the fluorescent coating. Fluorescent lamps produce a great deal of light with little heat. This is the reason why their efficiency is comparatively high. b) Electric iron or electric press An electric iron basically has four parts: base plate, heating element, pressure plate, and upper cover with handle of insulating material such as bakalite.
Tube filled with Argon gas, and mercury vapour Base
Lamp Mountain panel To on/off switch
Fig. 13.15 Fluorescent lamp
The heating element consists of fine nichrome strip wound on a mica sheet, which is further enclosed, between thin strips of mica. In electric irons, mica is used for electrical insulation. Mica has a special property that it acts as an insulator for electricity but as a conductor for heat. The heating element is placed between the base plate and the pressure plate. The pressure plate protects the heating element and does not allow it to move from its position. When an electric current passes through the heating element, heat is generated in it that is transferred to the base plate by conduction. The heated base plate can now be used to iron clothes. c) Electric heater and electric heat radiators These devices have heating elements made H.E. of nichrome wire in the form of spiral arranged in the grooves of ceramic plate or rod. The electric stove and room heaters (a) Electric stove are two such devices (Fig. 13.17).
(i) Base Plate
(ii) Cast iron pressure plate
(iii) Heating element
(b) Room Heater
Fig. 13.17 (a) Electric stove (b) Room heater
In heat radiators, the heating element is mounted in a frame having a highly polished concave reflector at its back. When electric current is passed through the heating element, it gets heated and starts radiating heat. The heat radiation Lid falling on the concave polished Container Handle reflector are also reflected in the forward direction.
Fig. 13.16 Electric iron
d) Electric kettle It is an electrical device in which heating effect of electric current is used (Fig. 13.18). You might have seen electric Coil Rubber sealing kettles of different shapes and sizes being used in houses, Fig. 13.18 Electric kettle offices and restaurants. In an electric kettle, the heating element is fitted at the bottom of the vessel in such a way that maximum heat from the heating element is conducted to the vessel.
Terminal
e) Electric immersion heater An immersion heater consists of a heating element made of nichrome wire housed in a metallic tube. The nichrome wire is separated from the metallic tube by filling the intervening space with magnesium oxide powder that is an electrical insulator and a reasonably good conductor of heat. The metallic tube is coiled in a few turns so that its long length may be accommodated in a smaller space and as such may remain in contact with the liquid to be heated. The design of an electrical immersion heater is shown in Fig. 13.19.
Code
Element
3-Pin plug top
Fig. 13.19 Electric immersion heater
13.5.2 Electrical appliances based on magnetic effect of electric current All the devices based on magnetic effect of electric current such as electric bell, electric fan, mixer-grinder and ammeter, voltmeter etc. make use of an electromagnet and/or the motor described in section of this lesson. Below is given a brief description of two of these devices, viz. electric bell and electric fan.
AC Mains
B Coil
Spring
Armature Soft-iron core Contact Screw
Hammer
(a) Electric bell Gong If you closely examine an electric bell you will see that it has a U-shaped electromagnet as shown in Fig. 13.20. The two Fig. 13.20 Electric bell ends of the windings of the electromagnet are connected to the power supply (battery or the mains) through a make and break arrangement and a push button called the bell push (a kind of switch). When the bell push (B) is pressed the electric current flows through the coils of the electromagnet and the soft iron core of the electromagnet becomes magnetized. This magnetized iron core attracts the armature, consequently the hammer attached to the armature hits the gong and a loud sound is produced. But as soon as the armature is attracted by the electromagnet the circuit is broken at the contact screw. The electromagnet no more remains magnet. The armature due to spring action returns back to original Bubin Bolt position. The process is repeated Shakle again and again. The hammer Top Canopy periodically keeps on hitting the gong Hanging rod Split pin till the push button is not released. Bolt to hold Condenser
Canopy Upper cover (b) Electric fan Terminal connector Bottom canopy Heat bolt Electric fans are used to circulate air in a room. Mostly a fan uses a Blade permanent capacitor type motor. Back Cover Three blades are symmetrically Motor Back Cover Decorating cup attached to the rotor shaft of the Fig. 13.21 Parts of a ceiling fan motor. As soon as the switch is made an electric current flowing through the motor rotates the blades which circulate air of the room. Fig. 13.21 shows the various parts of a ceiling fan. Condenser housing
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.5 1. Which material is the filament of an incandescent lamp made of? 2. Name a substance that is good conductor of heat but a bad conductor of electricity. 3. What is the role of a polished concave surface behind the element of a room heater? 4. Is fluorescent tube based on heating effect of electric current? 5. Name the energy transformation that takes place in an electric fan.
LET US REVISE A current-carrying coil behaves as a magnet, one end of which behaves as the north pole and the other as the south pole. The polarity of the coil is determined by using the Right Hand Thumb Rule. The strength of an electromagnet depends on (i) strength of current flowing through the coil, (ii) number of turns per unit length of the coil, and (iii) the nature of the core material. A current-carrying conductor placed in magnetic field experiences a force. The magnitude of the force depends on (i) strength of the magnetic field, (ii) current flowing through the conductor, (iii) length of the conductor, and (iv) orientation of the coil with respect to the field. The direction of the force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is given by Flemings Left Hand Rule. An electric motor is a device, which converts electrical energy into magnetic field. When magnetic field associated with a closed coil is changed a current is induced in the coil, which lasts, so long as the change in magnetic field is continued. This observation first made by Faraday is called electromagnetic induction. Electric generator is a device, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The device is based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. Long distance transmission of a.c. power has become possible by the use of devices called transformers. There are two types of transformer (i) step-up transformers, which increase the level of voltage (ii) step-down transformers, which decrease the level of voltage. In domestic wiring circuits, fuse and earthing are very important safety provisions. Careless use of electric power may be dangerous. Therefore, we must take proper precaution in the use of electricity. Electric bulb, electric heater, electric iron, electric kettle, etc. are examples of appliances based on thermal effect of electric current. Electric bell, electric crane, electric fan, electric mixer-juicer-grinder are appliances based on magnetic effect of electric current. TERMINAL EXERCISES
A. Objective type questions. 1. Name the device which converts i) ii) iii) electrical energy into mechanical energy mechanical energy into electrical energy high voltage into low voltage
iv)
low voltage into high voltage
v) electrical energy into light energy 2. Fill in the blanks. i) ii) The electricity in our home has voltage __________________ volts, frequency ____________Hz and it provides ____________ current. The power plant in which ____________ or ____________ is used as basic fuel is called thermal power plant, whereas Uranium235 is used in ____________ power plant. In a hydroelectric power plant ____________ of water stored in a dam is converted into ____________ of rotation of a turbine, which in turn changes into ____________ energy. In the statement for Flemings Left Hand Rule central finger points in the direction of ____________, forefinger points in the direction of ____________, and thumb points in the direction of____________ _______________, ____________ and/or ____________are at the root of all electrical hazards.
iii)
iv)
v)
B. Descriptive type questions. 1. A circuit has a fuse of 5A. What is the maximum number of 100 W (220V) bulbs that can be safely used in the circuit? 2. Explain the principle and working of an a.c. generator. 3. Explain the construction and working of the following: i) ii) iii) iv) v) Electric motor Electric iron Electric bulb Electric fan Electric bell
4. Distinguish between the following: i) ii) Permanent magnet and electromagnet Electric generator and electric motor
5. Explain the role of earthing and fuse in electric circuits. 6. With the help of suitable diagrams show how electrical energy is i) ii) Transmitted from generating station to town substation. Distributed from town substation to the consumer site.
7. Draw a domestic electric wiring diagram from electric pole to one room of the house having a bulb, a socket and a fan. Provide separate fuse for each room and separate switch for each device. 8. Describe an experiment to demonstrate: i) Force experienced by a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field ii) Phenomenon of electromagnetic industries 9. Enlist the precautions one must observe in the use of electrical energy. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.1 1. Flemings Left Hand Rule is used to find the direction of force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. According to this rule, stretch the forefinger, the central finger and thumb of your left hand at right angles to each other and hold them in such a way that the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field, central finger points in the direction of electric current, then thumb will point in the direction of motion of (or force) in the conductor. The direction of magnetic field due to a current-carrying loop can be determined using Right Hand Thumb Rule. According to the rule, hold the right hand above the coil with the curling fingers pointing in the direction of current, then the stretched thumb will indicate the direction of magnetic field. i) An electromagnet is much stronger than permanent magnet.
2.
3.
ii) The strength and polarity of an electromagnet can be changed but that of a permanent magnet is fixed. 4. 5. 13.2 1. 2. 3. The phenomenon of setting up electric current in a coil by changing magnetic field associated with it is called electromagnetic induction. When a coil of wire is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, the magnetic field associated with the coil is changed due to which current is set up in the coil. We use Flemings Right Hand Rule to determine the direction of the current induced in a conductor when the conductor moves in a magnetic field crossing the field lines. The law states, stretch the forefinger, the central finger and the thumb of your right hand at right angles to each other, and hold it in such a way that forefinger points in the direction of field, thumb points in the direction of motion of the conductor, then, the central finger will point in the direction of induced current. The strength of electromagnet depends on (i) the current flowing through the conductor, and (ii) number of turns in the coil. When a current-carrying coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field it experiences a pair of equal, opposite and parallel forces due to which the coil rotates.
4. 5. 13.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
When the magnet moves towards the coil, the magnetic field threading the coil increases inducing a current in it. Due to the induced current the LED glows. Michael Faraday
Live wire Thermal effect So that different appliances may draw different currents needed by them. Transformer; No it cannot be used with d.c. Transmission at high voltage provides for low current due to which the power losses and voltage drop in lead wires substantially decreases and transmission can be done at low cost. Because all the lamps are connected in parallel.
6. 13.4 1. 2.
The insulating rubber shoes or gloves do not let the current flow through the body of the electrician to earth and he is saved from getting any shock. i) Electricity may give shock to the careless operator.
ii) Short circuiting or over loading may cause fire. 3. 4. Tin-lead alloy has low melting point and high resistance, hence blows off much before the rest of the circuit wiring is heated appreciably. i) Light circuit 5 A ii) Power circuit 15 A 5. We will switch off the main switch and try to insulate the body of the person (so that he does not remain in contact with earth) without directly touching him/ her. The third wire is earth wire. It is a safety device to protect the operator from electric shock in case of current leakage from the body of the appliance.
6. 13.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Tungsten Mica It reflects the heat falling on it and sends it in forward direction. No Electrical energy into mechanical energy
GLOSSARY Earth wire: Green-coloured wire, which at one end is connected to the metallic body of an appliance and the other end is connected to a copper plate, buried deep in the ground. Electric fuse: A short piece of thin wire made of lead-tin alloy, placed in series with the main supply on the live wire, that acts as a safety device. Electric generator: A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electric motor: A device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electromagnet: A current-carrying solenoid with a soft core inside it. Electromagnetic induction: Phenomenon of producing electric current in a coil by changing the magnetic field associated with it. Live wire: Red-coloured wire that carries electricity at high potential of 220V. Neutral wire: A wire that is at ground potential of zero volts may be of any colour except red or green. Step-down transformer: A device, which decreases the magnitude of alternating voltage. Step-up transformer: A device, which increases the magnitude of alternating voltage. Transformer: A device which can increase or decrease the magnitude of alternating voltage.
14
Chemical and Nuclear Energy

You have studied in the previous lessons that energy is an essential part of our life. We all require energy in our daily life in the form of food, fuel, electricity etc. It is also needed for cooking food, running the transport system and industries. The conventional energy sources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are being increasingly used. But we have only limited resources of conventional sources of energy (coal, petroleum, etc.) and they are depleting at a very fast rate. Therefore, scientists all over the world are trying to develop alternate sources of energy. Of the various sources of energy that would serve as alternative to conventional sources, the main sources are nuclear and solar energies. The most common forms of energy are heat, light and electricity. Other forms of energy are chemical and nuclear energy. In this lesson we shall study in detail about chemical and nuclear energies and their various sources. We will also study about the process of combustion and the conditions necessary for it. This knowledge is useful in finding ways and means of controlling fire which some times proves to be destructive and dangerous. We will also study the types of fuels, change of chemical energy into electrical energy, and about nuclear energy. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to : differentiate between chemical and nuclear energy; define various fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum, biomass; list the important compounds of petroleum and their uses; define combustion and calorific value of fuel and solve problems related to calorific value; state the conditions necessary for combustion and describe the functioning of sodaacid fire extinguisher; highlight the importance of food as body fuel; explain the functioning of voltaic cell, its weaknesses and necessary modifications; explain the terms radioactivity, radioisotopes, fission and fusion; describe the functioning of nuclear reactor and generation of electricity therefrom; compare nuclear power plant with a thermal power plant; list some uses of nuclear energy and hazards involved in its production.
: 256 : Chemical and Nuclear Energy
14.1 CHEMICAL ENERGY You must have noticed that at the time of whitewashing, when water is added to quick lime, there is loud hissing sound, and the mixture almost starts boiling. Do you know why does this happen? In this case, a chemical reaction between quick lime (CaO) and water (H2O) takes place in which large amount of heat is liberated as follows: CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Heat liberated This means, there must be some stored energy in the chemicals involved in the reactions, which comes out as heat. This energy is chemical energy. Thus, chemical energy is that form of energy, which the substances have by virtue of their composition and nature. Chemical energy becomes apparent during chemical reactions when chemical energy of a substance changes into other forms such as heat, light and electricity, etc. We shall now consider those reactions where chemical energy is converted into heat energy or vice versa. Such reactions are called thermochemical reactions. These reactions can be divided into two types exothermic reactions and endothermic reactions. 14.1.1 Exothermic reactions You know that burning of coal gives out large amount of heat. The reaction can be represented as: C + O2 CO2 + Heat Such chemical reactions in which heat is given out are called exothermic reactions. ACTIVITY 14.1 Aim : Heat change in chemical reactions What to do? Take a small amount of baking soda in a test tube. Add a few drops of vinegar or lemon juice to it. What do you observe? You will observe that a brisk effervescence takes place and a colourless gas is evolved? Touch the bottom of the test tube. What do you feel? Does the test tube become hot? You will find that the test tube becomes hot. This shows that heat is evolved during this reaction. Hence, it is an exothermic reaction. Similarly, addition of water to quick lime is also an exothermic reaction. Can you think of some other examples of exothermic reactions? 14.1.2 Endothermic reactions You must have noticed that evaporation of water on a hot day is faster. Here the following transformation takes place. H2O(l) + Heat H2O(g) Such reactions where heat is absorbed are called endothermic reactions.
Chemical and Nuclear Energy : 257 :
Similarly, the decomposition of mercuric oxide (HgO) is also an endothermic reaction. 2HgO + Heat Hg(l) + O2(g)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.1 1. When carbon is burnt in the presence of oxygen what type of energy is evolved? 2. When Uranium-235 is bombarded with neutrons which type of energy will be evolved? 3. The amount of energy liberated in a chemical reaction is large or small? 4. The ability to do work is known as ____________ 14.2 FUELS You know that for cooking food we require heat energy that we get by burning wood, coal, kerosene, or liquid petroleum gas (LPG). To run vehicles we need petrol or diesel. All these provide substances that generate energy are known as fuel. Fuels are chemicals, which react with an oxidizing agent. Usually the oxidizing agent is oxygen itself. Energy is released during the reaction and new chemicals are formed. Any substance, which reacts with oxygen, or other oxidizing agent, could be used as fuel. The best known fuels include petrol, diesel, coal and natural gas. All these fuels burn in the presence of oxygen. Scientists have developed other fuels for special purposes. For example, a chemical called hydrazine is used as a rocket fuel. It is not burnt in oxygen, but it is oxidized by concentrated nitric acid. Other examples are the splitting of uranium in nuclear fuel reactors and the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy in electrochemical cells. The over all changes, which take place when a fuel burns, are shown below: Fuel Useful energy released + reaction + Oxidizer (burning) Chemical products (such as oxygen) But, you should remember that every chemical, which burns is not necessarily a good fuel. The fuel must release plenty of energy when it is burnt. But there are many other important points to be considered. For most people it is probably convenience and cost that seem to be important. We prefer fuels which are safe to use and which do not produce unpleasant gases and smoke when they burn. 14.2.1 Classification of fuels On the basis of physical states the fuels are classified into three categories: a) Solid: coke, coal, wood and charcoal b) Liquid: petrol, alcohol, diesel and kerosene c) Gas: liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), coal gas and petrol gas Liquid and gaseous fuels are better, as compared to solid fuels because: these can flow through pipes, can be lighted at a moments notice, no ash is left, have high heat content, and their supply and distribution is easier.
14.2.2 Fossil fuels Coal and petroleum are major fuels that are being used in large amount at present. These are known as fossil fuels. The fossil fuels are carbon-containing substances that were formed from the remains of the marine organisms that lived millions of years ago, under the influence of high temperature and pressure in the interior of earth. We have limited amount of fossil fuels. According to some estimates we would run out of fossil fuels before the middle of the twenty first century. Fossil fuels are therefore, called depeletable or non-renewable source of energy. In this subsection, we will learn about the types of fossil fuels. The fossil fuels can be divided into two categories coal and petroleum. a) Coal Coal may be defined as a sedimentary rock that burns. Coal deposits were formed long ago by decomposition of plant matter buried under the ground. It is a complex mixture of compounds of Table 14.1 : Types of coal carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and some free carbon. Type Carbon content It also contains small quantity of nitrogen and sulphur. Anthracite 90% Bituminous 80% Coal is important because it can also be used as a Lignite 70% source of other fuels like coal gas and synthetic petrol.
Peat 60%
We know that wood is the starting material for coal. Depending on the extent of carbonization, we get different varieties of coal. These forms are different in carbon contents as listed in Table 14.1. When coal is heated strongly to a temperature of about 1273K to 1373K, in the absence of air, it decomposes into coal gas, coke, ammoniacal liquor and coal tar. This process is known as destructive distillation. Let us study more about these components of coal. i) Coal gas: One of the most promising methods for making coal more efficient and cleaner fuel involves the conversion of coal to a gaseous form, i.e. coal gas. This process is called coal gasification. Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide. All the gases present in coal gas can burn to provide heat. Due to this, coal gas is an excellent fuel having high calorific value. It is used as a cooking gas. In the past it was used as illuminant also for lightning homes, factories and streets. ii) Coke: It is used as a reducing agent in blast furnaces to extract iron from its ores. It is also used as a source of carbon in the chemical industry and as a fuel. iii) Ammoniacal liquor: It is converted into ammonium sulphate by absorbing in dilute sulphuric acid. The ammonium sulphate is used as a fertilizer. iv) Coal tar: It was earlier considered to be a nuisance. Even its disposal was a problem. Subsequently, it was used for surfacing roads. It has now been found to be a rich source of aromatic hydrocarbons. b) Petroleum The name petroleum means rock oil (petra: rocks; oleum: oil). It is called petroleum because it is found in the crust of earth trapped in rocks. It is used to describe a broad range of fossil hydrocarbons that are found as gasses, liquids and solids beneath the earth surface. The two common forms of petroleum are crude oil and natural gas.
Crude oil: It is a complex mixture of alkane hydrocarbons with water and earth particles. The final stage of refining involves the removal of impurities such as sulphur compounds. When a fuel containing sulphur is burnt, the sulphur in it turns into sulphur dioxide, an acidic gas. So it is to be purified or refined before it can be used for specific purposes. The process of separating crude petroleum oil into more useful fractions is called refining. The refining of petrol is done by the process of fractional distillation. Refining is needed to make sure that all the oil is turned into useful products. Cracking also occurs during the refining process of petroleum. The process of breaking bigger hydrocarbon molecules into smaller hydrocarbons molecules by heating in the presence of a catalyst is called cracking. The refining of petroleum or separation of petroleum into different components is based on the fact that the different compounds of crude oil have different boiling points ranges. The fraction of petroleum having highest boiling point range is collected in the lowest part of the fractionating tower (Fig. 14.1). The fraction having lowest boiling point range is collected in the topmost part of the tower. Such a process of separation of different fractions of petroleum from crude oil is called fractional distillation. The various fractions obtained by the fractional distillation of crude petroleum oil and their uses are given in Table 14.2.
i)
273 303 K crude oil storage section of bubble cap C1 C4 303 360 K C5 C7 363 513 K C7 C13 513 623 K C13 C18 623 773 K
crude oil storage
pre-heating furnace
Over 500 C
Boiling point range
Fig. 14.1 Fractionating tower
Table 14.2 : Fractions obtained by fractional distillation of petroleum Fraction Gaseous hydrocarbons Approximate composition C1-C4 Boiling range Up to 303K Uses As fuel gas after liquefaction, as carbon black.
Crude naphtha Petroleum ether C5-C7 Petrol/gasoline Benzene Kerosene oil C7-C9 C9-C10 C10-C13 C13-C18
303-363K 363-393K 393-423K 423-513K
As solvent in varnish and rubber industries, for dry cleaning As motor fuel, for dry cleaning For dry cleaning Fuel for stoves, manufacture of oil gas, as an illuminant Fuel for diesel engine and tractors, cracking stock for gasoline
Fuel oil Gas oil Diesel oil Furnace oil Lubricant oil Medicinal oil Motor oil Grease Paraffin wax Petroleum jelly Petroleum wax Petroleum coke Heavy fuel oil and bitumen
513-623K
C15-C18
Above 543K
Paint oil, transformer oil, for lubrication etc.
C18-C30
673K Upward
Ointments, candles, paraffin wax, for matches, paints, water proofing, as solid fuel, protecting paints
C30 onward
Forms residue
Paints, road surfacing
(ii) Natural gas: Natural gas is a mixture of lightweight alkanes. The composition of natural gas depends upon the source, but a typical sample contains 80% methane, 7% ethane, 6% propane and 4% butane. Natural gas occurs deep under the crust of the earth alone or along with the petroleum deposits. Therefore, some wells dug into the earth produce only natural gas, whereas others produce natural gas as well as petroleum. In the later case, natural gas is a byproduct of petroleum. The propane and butane separated from the natural gas are usually liquefied under pressure and called as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). It is used as domestic and industrial fuel. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is also used as fuel for transport as well as in industries. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.2 1. Name any two constituents of coal gas. 2. Write two examples of fossil fuels that you use in your daily life.
3. What are two main varieties of coal? 4. The boiling point of water, methyl alcohol and kerosene are 373K, 313K and 543K, respectively. If a mixture of these three liquids is separated by fractional distillation column, which component of the mixture will be collected near the bottom of the column? 5. Name any two products of the petroleum. 6. State any two uses of petroleum products. 7. Name any one hydrocarbon fraction obtained during fractional distillation of petroleum which is used as domestic fuel. 14.3 COMBUSTION You would have seen that when coal is burnt in an angithi or chulah, it turns red hot. After some time when the chulah cools down, we find no coal but the ash is left. What has happened to the coal? On burning, coal changes into carbon dioxide and ash. Hence, on burning, the composition of a substance changes, i.e. the substance changes into other substances. This is called combustion. Combustion may be defined as a chemical change in the presence of oxygen in which both heat and light are produced at the same time and the composition of substance changes. Burning of coal, paper, candle and hydrocarbon are the examples of combustion. Chemical equations of some combustion reactions are given below:
combustion
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) + heat + light CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + heat + light It may be noted that during combustion certain chemical change should occur. If no chemical change occurs in the reaction but heat and light are produced, that reaction will not be combustion. For example, when we switch on an electric bulb it starts glowing. We get light from it. If we touch, we find that glowing bulb also produces heat. Do you think that glowing of electric bulb is a case of combustion? No, glowing of bulb is not combustion because no chemical change occurs, i.e. no new substance is formed. 14.3.1 Conditions for combustion Let us look at some of our day to day experiences and find out the conditions that are necessary for combustion. If we bring a burning matchstick near paper, kerosene, petrol or alcohol, they immediately catch fire and start burning, but in case of the substances like glass and stone no change is observed. Such substances that can burn are called combustible substances. For example, petrol, kerosene, alcohol, etc. Substances that do not burn are called non-combustible substances. For example, stone and glass. Hence, we can say that for combustion a combustible substance is required. We know that air contains oxygen, which is a good supporter of combustion. When we cover burning coal with vessel the supply of air is cut off, hence, the coal fire stops. We know that in chulahs used in the villages for cooking food, gaps are left between the logs of wood. These gaps are left for the air to enter the chulah. Thus, a good supply of oxygen is necessary for burning.
Often we find that in order to light up a pressure stove, a burning matchstick is kept for some time over the kerosene oil taken in a cup round the burner and the oil starts burning. Let us perform an activity to prove that air is necessary for burning. ACTIVITY 14.2 Aim : Air is necessary for burning What is required? A plastic trough, water, a candle, a glass tumbler, match box What to do? Take a candle about 8 cm long and fix it in a plastic trough. Pour water in the trough as shown in Fig. 14.2 a. Light the candle. Invert the glass tumbler over the candle.
Glass tumbler Burning candle Plastic trough Candle goes off
Water
(a) Immediately after setting up (b) After some time Fig. 14.2 To show that air is necessary for burning
What do you observe? You will see that candle continues burning for a few seconds. The flame then starts flickering and finally goes off (Fig. 14.2 b). Why does this happen? It is because no fresh air enters in the glass tumbler to support combustion. Thus, the activity clearly proves that air is necessary for combustion. It is also seen that to burn coal in an angithi sufficient amount of heat is supplied by burning waste paper or cloth soaked in kerosene oil. Why is it so? Whenever a substance is heated, its temperature increases till it become equal to a temperature, at which the substance starts burning. This temperature is called the ignition temperature. A substance cannot catch fire or burn as long as its temperature is lower than its ignition temperature. The ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire and starts burning. The ignition temperatures of different substances are different. Lower the value of ignition temperature of a substance, lesser the amount of heat required to burn it. The ignition temperature of kerosene is higher than that of petrol. So petrol catches fire immediately whereas kerosene requires more heat to start burn. Similarly the ignition temperature of coal is very high. It requires more heat to start burning. Can you give reasons as to why a matchstick does not catch fire on its own?
Room temperature is much lower than the ignition temperature of matchstick therefore, it does not catch fire. On rubbing of matchstick against the side of the box, heat is produced due to friction. This heat raises the temperature of chemicals present on the matchstick head to its ignition temperature. Thus, the matchstick starts burning. Hence, we find that a substance can not catch fire or burn as long as its temperature is lower than its ignition temperature. Here is a simple activity which prove that ignition temperature is necessary for combustion ACTIVITY 14.3 Aim : Ignition temperature is necessary for combustion What is required? A paper cup, water and a spirit lamp What to do? Take a paper cup, pour water in the cup. Heat the paper cup. What do you observe? You will see that we can boil the water in a paper cup without burning the paper. Why is it so? It can be explained on the basis of ignition temperature of paper cup. When we heat water in a cup, the heat supplied to the paper cup is quickly transferred from the paper cup to the water, the temperature of paper cup does not reach its ignition temperature, and hence it does not burn. Now we can say that three conditions are necessary for combustion: presence of a combustible substance (that burns easily e.g. fuel), presence of supporter of combustion (oxygen from air), and attainment of ignition temperature i.e. heating. Unless all of these three conditions are fulfilled, combustion cannot take place.
He
Ox yg en
Ox yg en
ati ng
He ati ng
Fuel
Fuel
Fig. 14.3 The fire triangle
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.3 1. Why does the coke not burn in air at room temperature? 2. It is said that oxygen is essential for burning. From where does this oxygen come? 3. State any one condition necessary for combustion. 4. Petrol catches fire immediately whereas kerosene does not why? 14.4 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS We know that fire is very useful in our day to day life. However, some times it proves to be destructive, especially when it becomes uncontrollable. Therefore, it is necessary to learn the ways and means of controlling fire.
As you are aware that small fire can be extinguished by covering it with a lid. For example, coal fire or fire in frying pan is extinguished by covering it with a lid. Similarly, you would have seen that when a person catches fire than we cover him with a thick blanket and make him to roll on the ground. We often see that whenever fire spreads over a vast area, pouring water or sand puts it off. How is the fire put off by covering or pouring the water? As you have learnt one condition of supporting combustion is air (oxygen). If we cut off the supply of air by covering fire with lid, the fire is extinguished. The apparatus used to extinguish fire is called fire extinguisher. You would have seen fire extinguishers in petrol pumps, big buildings, cinema halls and other public places. 14.4.1 Principle of fire extinguisher The principle of working of fire extinguisher is based on either of the following three conditions: cooling the combustible material below its ignition temperature, or cutting off the supply of air, or cooling the combustible material and at the same time cutting the supply of air. The different types of fire extinguishers, their working principle and the nature of fire for which they are used are listed in Table 14.3. Table 14.3 : Working principle and uses of different types of fire extinguishers Type of fire extinguisher Working principle Nature of fire for which used All types of fire All types of fire except due to electrical and inflammable liquids Fire due to inflammable liquids All types except due to electricity and oil Fire due to electricity Dry powder extinguisher Cuts off supply of air (sand and baking soda) Baking soda sulphuric acid Cuts off supply of air extinguisher (soda acid) Foam type extinguisher Water Cuts off supply of air Cools the substance below the ignition temperature Cuts off supply of air
Carbon tetrachloride extinguisher
14.4.2 Soda acid fire extinguisher The most common fire extinguisher is soda acid. The carbon dioxide is liberated by the action of acid on baking soda. It increases the percentage of carbon dioxide in air (CO2 is non supporter of combustion). How does this happen? This type of fire extinguisher contains a bottle of sulphuric acid supported by a metallic container filled with a baking soda solution (Fig. 14.3). When the cylinder is inverted and knob struck, against the
Trigger
Iron grating
Ampule with H2SO4 Solution of sodium bicarbonate
Fig. 14.4 Soda acid fire extinguisher
ground, the acid bottle breaks and the acid comes in the contact with the backing soda. 2NaHCO3
baking soda
H2SO4
sulphuric acid
Na2SO4
sodium sulphate
2H2O
water
2CO2
carbon dioxide
As a result carbon dioxide is liberated. This increases the percentage of carbon dioxide in air. Due to this the supply of air is cut off and there, fire is extinguished. These types of extinguishers are used in cinema halls, multistorey buildings, etc. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.4 1. Name the chemicals present in a soda acid fire extinguisher. 2. Why is fire of frying pan extinguished, when it is covered with lid? 3. If fire is due to the electricity, can we use to water as fire extinguisher? 4. Name the gas evolved in soda-acid fire extinguisher. 5. Give any one condition on which principle and working of fire extinguisher is based. 14.5 BIOFUELS The organic waste, such as wood, agricultural residues and cattle dung, are called biomass. Biomass contains carbon compounds and it is the oldest source of heat energy for domestic purposes. Biofuels, such as firewood, dung cakes and agricultural wastes, constitute main source of energy in rural areas. A cause of concern in recent years has been the excessive consumption of firewood, which is not sustainable for long at present level of consumption. Deforestation and desertification are taking place, adversely affecting the ecology. Secondly, the age-old practice of burning dung cakes and agricultural wastes is depriving the lands of much needed humus and consequently causing loss of soil fertility. Moreover, inefficient burning of biofuels in traditional chulhas causes air pollution. 14.5.1 Smokeless chulah In order to overcome the problems of lower energy and smoke hazards of conventional chulahs, smokeless chulahs designed scientifically are now available for use. These chulahs are designed in such a way that less amount of heat is lost to the surroundings. Thus, these chulah consume less fuels and hence, more efficient than the conventional chulahs. These are provided with a tall chimney, which help the smoke to escape into the upper atmosphere. 14.5.2 Biomass as fuel Biomass can be used as fuel in two ways: By burning dry biomass like wood and cattle dung directly to produce heat. By converting biomass into more useful fuels, for example, wood can be converted into charcoal, which is a better fuel as compare to coal. Similarly cattle dung can be converted into biogas, which is better fuel than cattle dung. 14.6 CALORIFIC VALUE (FUEL VALUE) OF FUELS You know heat is produced on burning of fuels. Different, fuels on burning produce different amount of heat. Various fuels have different composition and hence, different energy contents. The usefulness of the fuels is measured in terms of Calorific values. Higher the calorific value, better is the fuel.
Calorific value may be defined as the amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel. The unit of mass usually taken, for measuring the calorific value of fuel, is gram. Therefore, calorific value may be defined as the amount of heat produced by burning completely one gram of fuel. For example, by burning of one gram carbon (charcoal) produces 8137 calories of heat (or 34013 joules). Therefore, calorific value of carbon is 34013 Jg-1. The calorific value is expressed in kilojoule/gram (kJ g-1) because Joule is very small unit of energy. So the calorific value of carbon is 34 kJ g-1. 1 cal = 4.18 J 1000 J = 1 kJ
Table 14.4 : Calorific value of some fuels Type of fuel Calorific value Wood 18 kJ g-1 Charcoal 35 kJ g-1 Dung cake 8 kJ g-1 Coal 30 kJ g-1 Gasoline 34 kJ g-1 Kerosene 37 kJ g-1 Natural gas 50 kJ g-1 Petrol 50 kJ g-1 Biogas 40 kJ g-1 L.P.G 50 kJ g-1 Methane 55 kJ g-1 Hydrogen gas 150 kJ g-1
Calorific value of some fuels is listed in table 14.4. From table 14.4 we know that the calorific value of petrol is 50 kJ g-1. This means that if one gram of petrol is burnt completely, then it will produce 50 kiloJoule of heat energy. a) Hydrogen as fuel: Why hydrogen is not commonly used as a fuel even though its calorific value is high. Hydrogen gas has highest calorific value, but it is not used commonly as a domestic or industrial fuel. There are two problems in using hydrogen as a fuel. Firstly, its handling is difficult and secondly, it burns with an explosion. b) Hydrocarbons as fuels: Hydrocarbons contain carbon and hydrogen and are used as fuels. Since hydrogen has the highest calorific value therefore, the fuel containing higher percentage of hydrogen will have a higher calorific value than that which have a lower percentage of hydrogen in it. The calorific value of methane (CH4) is higher than that of butane (C4H10) because percentage of hydrogen in CH4 (25%) is higher than that in C4H10 (17%). The calorific value of CH4 is 55 kJ g-1 whereas for butane it is 50 kJ g-1. c) Wood as fuel: Cellulose, i.e. (C6H10O5)n is the chief constituent of wood. The percentage of oxygen in wood is quite high. The oxygen supports the combustion but does not produce heat. Therefore, wood has lower calorific value. Out of CH4, C2H6 and C12H22O11, the lowest calorific value is of sugar C12H22O11 because it has lower percentage of hydrogen due to the presence of oxygen. Whereas, out of CH4, C2H6, C3H8 and H2 the lowest calorific value is of C3H8 because it has lower percentage of hydrogen. In compound A, each carbon in a molecule is bonded with three hydrogen atoms. In the molecule of another compound B, each carbon atom is bonded with one hydrogen and one oxygen atom. Can you tell which compound will have higher calorific value? Compound A will have higher calorific value because of more percentage of hydrogen.
Example 14.1 : Calorific value of LPG is 55k Jg-1. Calculate the energy consumed by a family in one month if it required a cylinder containing 14.5 kg of LPG. Solution: The calorific value of LPG is 55 k Jg-1. It means one gram of LPG on burning will produce 55 kJ heat energy. 1 kg = 1000 g and 14.5 kg = 1000 x 14.5 = 14500 g Heat energy produced by 1 g LPG = 55 kJ So, 14500 g LPG will produce heat energy = 55 x 14500 = 797500 kJ 14.6.1 Food as fuel We have already discussed the types of fuel required for cooking food, transport and industry. Energy is also necessary for our body to carry on the various life processes. The food, which we eat, is a kind of fuel for our body that supplies us the energy. The food that we eat is broken down into smaller molecules of glucose during digestion. Glucose so formed is absorbed in the blood and taken to the cells throughout our body. When we breathe in air, then oxygen of the air is also absorbed by the blood and carried to all cells. This oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O oxidizes the glucose C6H12O6 slowly and gives us energy. Table 14.5 : Calorific value of some foods Type of food Calorific value Carbohydrate 17 kJ g-1 39 kJ g-1 Fat 18 kJ g-1 Protein 2.5 kJ g-1 Apples 2.5 kJ g-1 Curd 1.8 kJ g-1 Bread 12 kJ g-1 Cheese 20 kJ g-1 Milk 3 kJ g-1 Egg 6.0 kJ g-1 Wheat 12 kJ g-1 Meat 34 kJ g-1 Butter 13.3 kJ g-1 Honey 15 kJ g-1 Hamburger 23 kJ g-1 Peanuts 3 kJ g-1 Potato
When energy is released from food, some of it is transferred to a special molecule found in cells called ATP* (adenosine triphosphate). Thus, ATP is the energy-storing molecule in the body. To release energy ATP is converted into ADP (adenosine diphosphate). ATP ADP + phosphate + energy Calorific value of some foods is given below Table 14.5. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.5 1. Which of the following fuels has lowest calorific value? C2H6, C2H5OH, C2H4, H2 2. Which of the following fuels has highest calorific value? C2H6, C2H5OH, C2H4, H2 3. Hydrogen compounds are abundantly available on earth and it has a high calorific value but why this gas is not commonly used as a domestic fuel? 4. Why do the fuels like wood and alcohol have lower calorific values as compared to LPG and biogas?
*You will learn more about ATP and ADP in lesson 24 of this course.
5. How do we get energy in our body from the food? 6. Which food has higher calorific value carbohydrate, egg, butter, peanuts and curd? 14.7 VOLTAIC AND DRY CELLS Now we will learn about electrochemical cells. You know that cars and other automobiles are started with the help of battery. We use cells in torches, transistors and watches etc. The chemicals present in cell and batteries react to generate the electric current. The device used to generate electricity through chemical reaction is called an electrochemical cell. Let us learn about some of the commonly used electrochemical cells. 14.7.1 Voltaic cell The first electrochemical cell was constructed by Volta in 1796. It is called Voltaic cell. In this cell, a strip of zinc is placed in zinc sulphate solution and a copper strip is placed in copper sulphate Flow of electrons solution. Both the solutions are separated by a porous Porous partition partition which allows the ions to pass through it, but Zinc Copper plate plate does not allow the mixing of the two solutions. The zinc plate acts as an anode (negative electrode), while copper plate acts as cathode (positive electrode). It is to be kept in mind that the signs of the electrodes in an electrochemical cell are opposite to that of an electrolytic cell.
ZnSO4 solution CuSO4 solution
Fig. 14.5 (a) Voltaic cell
Working of a voltaic cell When both the electrode terminals are connected by a wire then there is a flow of electrons (electric current) from zinc to copper terminal (Fig. 14.4). Zinc metal is more reactive than copper, so it has a greater tendency to lose electron. Zn Zn 2+ + 2e (Oxidation) These electrons flow through the wire to the copper cathode. The reaction that occurs at the copper cathode is Cu2+ + 2 e Cu (Reduction) 14.7.2 Daniel cell An improvement over the voltaic cell was Daniel cell. Here, the zinc sulphate solution is kept in a porous pot that is suspended in a solution of copper sulphate in a copper vessel. This cell gives a more steady current. The voltage of cell is 1.1 volt. 14.7.3 Dry cell The cell used in torch and transistor etc is called dry cell. The most common dry cell, that is, the Leclanche cell, is used in flashlight and transistor radios. The anode of the dry cell consists of zinc container which is in contact with manganese dioxide (MnO2) and an electrolyte. The electrolyte consists of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride in water to which starch is added to thicken the solution to a paste like consistency so that it is less likely to leak (Fig. 14.6). A carbon rod serves as cathode, which is immersed in the electrolyte in the centre of cell.

Zinc Anode Central carbon rod surrounded by MnO2 paste Steel cover Cathode Insulating washer CuSO4 solution Electrolyte NH4Cl and ZnCl2 paste Paper cover Porous separator (paper) Zinc can Expansion chamber
ZnSO4 solution
Copper vessel
Fig. 14.5 (b) Daniel cell
Fig. 14.6 Construction of a dry cell
The cell reactions are: Anode : Cathode : Zn(s) 2NH (aq) + 2MnO (s) + 2e Zn2+(aq) + 2e Mn O (s) + 2NH (aq) + H O(l) Zn 2+ (aq) + 2NH 3 (aq) + H 2 O(l) +
+ 4 2 2 3 3 2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Overall : Zn(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2(s) Mn2O3(s)
Actually this equation is over simplification of the complete process. The voltage produced by dry cell is about 1.5V. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.6 1. Name the materials used to make the electrodes of a voltaic cell. 2. At which electrode in a cell does reduction take place? 3. At which electrode in a cell does oxidation take place? 4. The conversion of Zn to Zn2+ is oxidation or reduction? 5. In which cell does chemical energy change into electrical energy electrochemical cell or electrolytic cell? 6. Dry cell is also known as ______________ 7. Name the materials used to make cathode of a dry cell. 8. Name the electrolytes used in dry cell. 9. How much voltage is produced in dry cell? 10. What precaution is adopted to prevent over mixing of the solutions of electrolytes? 14.8 NUCLEAR ENERGY ENERGY FROM THE ATOM You have seen that chemical reactions are accompanied by energy changes. In a chemical reaction, the composition of the nucleus of an atom does not change. But there are some reactions in which the composition of the nucleus of an atom changes. Such reactions are called nuclear reactions and the energy released during such reaction is known as nuclear energy. To understand the difference between chemical and nuclear energy, study the following table (14.6).
Table 14.6 : Differences between chemical and nuclear energy Chemical energy Nuclear energy Chemical energy is released or absorbed Nuclear energy is released due to the due to the influence in the bond energies of change in the composition of the nucleus the bonds in the reactants and products. of an atom. Chemical energy is obtained when a Nuclear energy is obtained when nuclear chemical reaction takes place. changes take place. The amount of energy evolved is very The amount of energy evolved is very small. large. No harmful radiation is emitted. Radiation emitted during nuclear changes is harmful. Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom is known as nuclear energy. In a nuclear reaction, when the nucleus of an atom is bombarded with neutrons, it undergoes a change to form smaller fragments of new atoms. In this process, a tremendous amount of energy is evolved in the form of heat. For example, when Uranium-235 nucleus is bombarded with neutrons, it splits into two smaller nuclei and a large amount of energy is released in the form of heat. 14.8.1 Radioactivity It has been observed that the atoms of some elements, such as radium and uranium, spontaneously emit radiations. Such a process is called radioactivity. It is a spontaneous process in which the nucleus of the atom disintegrates and the energy bearing particles or rays are emitted. Radioactivity is a spontaneous process of disintegration or breaking up of the nucleus of an atom accompanied by the emission of energy bearing particles or rays. The materials which give off energy bearing rays or particles or both are called radioactive materials. The three main types of radiations emitted are: Alpha particles, Beta particles, Gamma rays The characteristics and the properties of these radiations are given in Table 14.7. Table 14.7: Characteristics of various types of radiations/particles Characteristics and properties Nature Rays of alpha particles Each particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, i.e. they are doubly-charged helium ions. Positive Stopped by thick sheet of paper or skin High ionization power Rays of beta particles They are electrons Gamma rays Electromagnetic waves similar to X-rays
Charge Penetrating effect
Ionization effect
Negative Stopped by a few millimeters thick sheet of aluminium Medium ionization power
No charge Not stopped
Weak ionization power
Apart from the above properties, all three types of radioactive radiation can (a) affect photographic plate, (b) cause fluorescent materials like ZnS to glow, (c) have pronounced physiological effects like power to kill plants seeds and human tissues, cause cancerous growths, destroy bacteria, can cure skin cancer and other diseases if used in controlled quantities. 14.8.2 Nuclear fission The splitting of the nucleus of an atom into fragments that are roughly equal in mass along with the release of energy is called nuclear fission. When a neutron strikes the nucleus of a uranium atom at an appropriate speed, it gets absorbed. Uranium nucleus on absorbing a neutron becomes highly unstable and splits into smaller atoms releasing huge amount of energy in the process.
235
U + 1n
0
141
Ba +
92
Kr + 3 1n + energy
0
92
56
36
During this process three neutrons are also released. These neutrons split other nuclei of the uranium. The reaction continues rapidly and is known as chain reaction (Fig. 14.7). A great deal of heat is produced in this reaction.
Chain reaction Fission reaction
Uranium 235 Neutrons
Fig. 14.7 Nuclear fission
If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, all the nuclei of uranium split in a fraction of second and this is the case of a devastating explosion, such as that of atom bombs which were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 14.8.3 Nuclear reactors A peaceful application of nuclear fission is the generation of electricity using heat from a controlled chain reaction in a nuclear reactor. A nuclear reactor is an arrangement in which the energy produced (in the form of heat) in a nuclear fission can be used in a controlled manner to produce steam, which can run the turbine and produce electricity.
The main part of nuclear reactor is called the core as shown in Fig. 14.8. The reactor core is made up of the following parts: a) Nuclear fuel: It is the fissionable material used in nuclear reactors to produce energy by fission process. The nuclear fuel consists of uranium, usually in the form of its oxide, U3O8. Naturally occurring uranium contains about 0.7% of uranium 235 isotope which is too low a concentration to sustain a chain reactions. For effective operation of reactor, uranium 235 must be enriched to a concentration of 3 or 4%. b) Moderator: An important aspect of the fission process is the speed of the neutrons. Slow neutrons hit uranium-235 nuclei more efficiently than do fast ones. Because fission reactors are highly exothermic, the neutrons produced usually move with high velocities. For greater collision efficiency, neutrons must be slowed down. For this purposes a substance is used that can reduce the kinetic energy of neutrons. Such a substance is called as a moderator. A good moderator should be a nontoxic and inexpensive substance. And it should be resist conversion into radioactive substance by neutron bombardment. Graphite (C) or heavy water (D2O) are commonly used as moderators. c) Control rods: In principle, the main difference between an atomic bomb and nuclear reactor is that the chain reaction that takes place in a nuclear reactor is kept under controlled conditions at all the times. The factor limiting the rate of the reaction is the number of neutrons present. This can be controlled by lowering cadmium or boron rods between the fuel elements. d) Coolant: It is the substance which is circulated in pipes to absorb the heat given off by the nuclear reactor and transfer it outside the reactor core, where it is used to produce steam to drive an electric generator. Large quantity of water is used as coolant. e) Shield: To prevent the losses of heat and to protect the people operating the reactor from the radiation and heat, the entire reactor core is enclosed in a heavy steel or concrete dome, called the shield.
Shield Control rod Heat exchanger
Concrete Steam Steel
To steam turbine Water
Coolant Moderator Water Nuclear fuel Pump Control rod Uranium fuel
Fig. 14.8 Core of nuclear reactor
Fig. 14.9 Nuclear reactor
A complete nuclear power plant essentially consists of the four parts: reactor core, steam generator, steam turbine, and steam condensing system (Fig. 14.9). 14.8.4 Nuclear fusion Energy is also produced when two light nuclei such as deuterium (heavy hydrogen) fuse together to form a heavy nucleus. A process in which the nuclei of light atoms combine to form the nucleus of a heavier atom with the release of energy is called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion requires very high temperature, say of the order of 4 million degree Celsius (4000000oC). This is the mechanism through which the energy is produced in stars, including the sun. The hydrogen bomb also relies on this kind of reaction. Enormous amounts of energy are released during nuclear fusion. It is still not possible to control nuclear fusion to provide us with a steady supply of energy. In our country the scientists are making attempts to understand the basic process which may in future lead to controlled nuclear fusion. Some of the reactions that occur during nuclear fusion are shown below.
1 1 2 1 3 2 1
H + 1H
1
H + 0e + energy
1 +1
H + H
1 3
He + + energy
2
He + He
2
He +
2
H + 1H + energy
1 1
14.8.5 Uses of nuclear energy The important uses of nuclear energy are as follows: a) The heat produced in a nuclear reactor is used to boil the water to form steam. The steam then turns a turbine, which runs an electric generator to produce electricity. b) Nuclear energy is now being used to run submarines and ships. Vessels driven by nuclear energy can sail for long distances without having to refill. c) Nuclear energy in the form of bombs (atom bomb and hydrogen bomb) is used in warfare. d) Nuclear energy is used in making radioisotopes that are used in medicine, agriculture and research. 14.8.6 Hazards of producing nuclear energy While producing nuclear energy harmful radiations may be released which can penetrate human bodies and cause irreparable damage to cells. To prevent leakage of these dangerous and toxic radiations, nuclear reactors are covered with a thick covering of radiation absorbing substance such as lead. However, a minor fault in the design of reactors or a natural calamity striking a perfectly designed reactor, could result in the release of these extremely harmful radiations into the environment. It could pose a permanent threat to the living beings of the surrounding areas. You may be aware of the two major accidents in the nuclear power plants, one at Three Mile Island (USA) in 1979 and the other at Chernobyl (The Soviet Union) in 1986. The devastation caused in these two accidents by the release of nuclear radiations is yet to be fully assessed. Apart from possible accidents at the reactor site, there is of course, the additional danger of harmful waste matter produced at various steps of
nuclear cycle, such as mining, enrichment of ore, etc. In every step of nuclear cycle a number of substance capable of emitting nuclear radiations are generated. These substances are called nuclear wastes. We have not yet been able to discover safe methods of dealing with such nuclear waste generated in nuclear power plants. It is simply being stored in strong containers. Thus, the problem of its disposal is yet to be solved. 14.8.7 Radioisotopes An isotope that spontaneously decays into an isotope of different elements is known as radioactive isotope. The first radioisotope of 17 8 O was produced by bombardment of alpha particles on 14 ordinary nitrogen 7 N by Rutherford in 1919.
14 7
N + 4 2 He
17 8
O + 1 1H
a) Production of radioisotopes Bombarding atoms of some elements with lighter nuclei such as protons, alpha particles or neutron produces radioisotopes. Some common examples of the production of radioisotopes are given below:
40
Ca + 1H
1
40
Sc + 1n
21 0
(p, n)
1
20 19 9 12 6 35
Fe + 4He
2
22
Ne + 1H
10 8 0
(, p) (, n) (n, ) (n, )
C + 4He
2
15
O + 1n
17
Cl + 1n
0
36
17 37
Cl + Cl +
17
Cl + 1n
0
38
17
Sometimes even heavier nuclei are used as bombarding material. b) Applications of radioisotopes Some important applications of radioisotopes are given below: (i) In determining the age of fossils and old rocks. (ii) In determining the solubility of sparingly soluble materials. (iii) To determining the amount of an element in a sample. (iv) Isotopes exchange reactions provide information on the mechanism of certain reactions (radioactive tracer). (v) In industry the isotope 60Co is used for -radiography to detect cracks/ flaws in metal plants and pipes. (vi) The isotopes have immense use in the field of medicine. For example, 135I is used to locate brain tumors and of disorders of the thyroid gland. 24Na is used to locate blood clots. 99Tc is used to obtain images of organs such as heart, liver and lungs. The isotopes 51 Cr and 59Fe are used to determine the amount of total blood in a patient. (vii) Radioactive isotopes are used in biological, fields and in agriculture. For example, 32 P is used to detect the deficiency of phosphetic fertilizers in the soil and 18O isotope
was used to determine the source of O2 in photosynthesis.
Table 14.8 : Location of Atomic power plants in India Capacity 160 MW 220 MW 100 MW 220 MW 220 MW 220 MW 220 MW
14.9 NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN Place Number INDIA Tarapur 2 India has 14 operating reactors out of which Rajasthan 2 two are Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) and 2 12 are Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors Kalapakkam 2 (PHWR). Two more reactors with capacities Narora 2 of 500 MW are under construction at Tarapur Kakrapara 2 in Maharashtra and are expected to attain Kaiga 2 criticality in 2005 and 2006, respectively. The nuclear power generation for the year 2001- 2002 was 19193 million units.
The sun is the ultimate source of energy The ultimate source of all the energies is sun. Plants take energy from sun through the process of photosynthesis. Plants serve as food for animals. Plants and animals are fossilized to coal, petroleum and natural gas. Plants also supply wood as fuel. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.7 1. Which isotope of uranium is used in nuclear fission? 2. Name the elements produced in nuclear fission. 3. Atomic bomb is based on nuclear _______________ reaction. 4. Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear _______________ reaction. 5. How many neutrons are emitted in a single nuclear fission? 6. What is the role of moderator in nuclear reaction? 7. What is the function of cadmium rods in a nuclear reactor? 8. State peaceful uses of nuclear energy. 9. Name the coolant used in nuclear reaction. 10. Give two examples of nuclear fuels. 11. How many operative reactors are present in India? 12. What do you mean by BWR and PHWR? LET US REVISE Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels. The energy related to the nature and composition (atoms/molecules) of a substance is called the chemical energy. The chemical energy can be converted into heat energy and vice versa during chemical reactions. The reaction where heat is absorbed is called endothermic where as the reaction where heat is given out is called exothermic. Chemical energy can be converted to electrical energy and vice versa.
Combustion is a chemical change in which heat and light are produced at the same time. The lowest temperature at which a substance starts burning is called ignition temperature. Ignition temperature is different for different substance. Substances, which burn rapidly, are called combustible substances and those, which do not burn at all, are called non-combustible substances. The three conditions necessary for combustion are presence of combustible substance attainment of ignition temperature continuous supply of a good supporter of combustion (generally air). Fire which is very useful in our daily life, is produced by combustion of substances like coal, petrol, etc. The instruments, which have been developed to extinguish fire, are called fire extinguishers. The working principle of different type of fire extinguishers is based either on the conditions to remove the combustible substance or to cutoff the supply of air or to cool the burning substance below its ignition temperature. Radioactivity is a spontaneous process of disintegration of the nucleus of an atom accompanied by the emission of energy bearing rays or particles. Fission is a process of splitting of the nucleus of a heavy atom into fragments that are roughly of equal masses with the release of huge amount of energy.
TERMINAL EXERCISES A. Multiple choice type questions. 1. Which of the following variety of coal has maximum carbon content? (a) Anthracite (b) Bituminous (c) Lignite (d) Peat 2. Which of the following has highest calorific value? (a) Natural gas (b) LPG (c) Biogas (d) Hydrogen 3. Which of the following can provide maximum voltage? (a) Voltaic cell (b) Daniel cell (c) Dry cell (d) Distilled water 4. Which of the following food components has maximum calorific value? (a) Carbohydrates (b) Proteins (c) Fats (d) Mineral salts
B. Fill in the blanks. 1. The energy stored in a substance is known as _____________released in form of _____________ energy. 2. When water added in lime the heat released in form of _____________energy. 3. When heat is released and absorbed, the reactions are called_____________and _____________reactions, respectively. 4. The energy released by bombarding Uranium-235 with neutrons is _____________ 5. Two main products of petroleum are _____________and _____________ 6. Soda acid fire extinguisher contains _____________and _____________ 7. Coal gas is a mixture of _____________and _____________ 8. LPG is known as _____________ 9. Coke does not burn at room temperature because _____________is high. 10. The isotope of Uranium used in nuclear fission is _____________ C. Descriptive type questions. 1. Define chemical and nuclear energy. 2. With the help of examples explain exothermic and endothermic reactions. 3. Define fuel and also explain its role in every day life. 4. What is biomass? For what purpose it is usually used? 5. Explain why charcoal is a better fuel then wood? 6. Define fossil fuel. Give suitable examples. 7. Mention different types of fossil fuel. 8. Name two organic compounds obtained by distillation of coal. 9. Give the chemical composition of coal gas. 10. Name the product obtained by the distillation of petroleum that is used for making road surfaces. 11. The boiling points of substances A, B and C are 443K, 523K and 623K, respectively. On fractional distillation, which of the three compounds will be obtained at the bottom of fractional distillation column. 12. Name the two components of petroleum obtained by fractional distillation. 13. Name any one hydrocarbon fraction obtained during fractional distillation of petroleum which is used as domestic fuel. 14. What is the full form of LPG and also gives its chemical composition? 15. How does we get chemical energy in our body from the food we consume? How does this process differ from normal burning process? 16. What are three conditions necessary for combustion? Pouring water on a fire which condition of combustion is not satisfied? 17. It is very difficult to burn a heap of fresh green leaves but it catches fire easily once the leaves dry up. Why? 18. How is it possible that water can be boiled in a paper cup without burning? 19. Calorific value and ignition temperature of fuel X are 75kJ g-1 and 20 oC respectively and those for Y fuel are 50k J g-1 and 75 oC respectively. On burning the fuel Y produces
20. 21.
22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.
only CO2 while fuel X produces CO2 and CO. Which of the two is a better fuel? Give the reasons to support your answer. Define ignition temperature and also explain why coke does not burn in air at room temperature? Compound A has each of its carbon atom bonded with four hydrogen atoms while compound B has each carbon atom bonded with three hydrogen atoms. Which one of the two compounds will have higher calorific value? An electric spark is struck between two electrodes placed near each other, inside a closed tank full of petrol. Will the petrol catch fire? Explain your answer. On what principle does fire extinguisher work? Explain the working of sodaacid fire extinguisher. Why is water not used to extinguish fire due to electricity? Why is the crude oil sometimes called Black Gold? Calorific value of LPG is 55kJ g-1. Calculate the energy consumed by a family in one month, if it requires a cylinder containing 14.5 kg of LPG. A burner consumes 1g of LPG in 55 seconds. If the calorific value of LPG be 55k Jg1 , what will be the power of combustion of the burner? Define nuclear fission, nuclear chain reaction and critical mass. Which isotope can undergo nuclear fission? What is the function of cadmium rods in a nuclear reactor? Define term moderator in a nuclear reactor. Name the isotopes of two different elements, which can be fissioned easily. What is a nuclear reactor? Will the help of a labeled diagram describe how a nuclear power plants used as nuclear reactor to generate electricity. Which fuel is used in nuclear reactor? Why can it not be used as a fuel in the form it occurs in nature? State two peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Explain the nuclear wastes, what are the problems inherent in their disposal. Name any two type of radiations emitted during nuclear fusion. What are the measures taken to prevent the leakage of radiations from the nuclear reactors? ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
14.1 1. Chemical energy 2. Nuclear energy 3. Small 4. Energy 14.2 1. Methane and carbon monoxide. 2. Coal and petroleum 3. Lignite and bituminous 4. Kerosene
5. Petroleum kerosene 6. Fuels, lubricants, solvents for organic compounds 7. Petroleum gas 14.3 1. The ignition temperature of coal is high 2. From air 3. Attainment of ignition temperature 4. Petrol has lower ignition temperature as compared to kerosene 14.4 1. Baking soda and sulphuric acid 2. It stops the supply of oxygen. 3. No 4. Carbon dioxide 5. Any one of the following: (a) Cooling below ignition temperature or (b) Cutting the supply of air or (c) Cooling the fire. and also cutting the supply of air. 14.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. C2H5OH H2 Problem in handling and also burn with explosion Because they have higher percentage of oxygen which is a supporter of combustion Metabolism (by burning the food) Butter
14.6 1. Zn and Cu rods 2. Cu electrode (Cathode) 3. Zn electrode (Anode) 4. Oxidation 5. Electrochemical cell 6. Leclanche cell 7. Carbon rod. 8. NH4Cl + ZnCl2 9. 1.5 V 10. By using porous pot 14.7 1. 235U
92
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
141
Ba and 92Kr
36
56
Fission Fusion Three Graphite and D2O Slow down the speed of neutrons. Nuclear reactor (to generate electricity) Water U3O8 enriched with 235U
92
11. 14 12. BWR: Boiling water reactor; PHWR: Pressurized heavy water reactor GLOSSARY Chemical energy: Energy stored within the structural unit of a substance. Combustion: Chemical change in the presence of oxygen in which both heat and light are produced at the same time and the composition of the substance changes. Critical mass: The minimum mass of fissionable material required generating a selfsustaining nuclear chain reaction. Daniel cell: A galvanic cell utilizing the reduction of Cu2+ ion by zinc. Dry cell: A chemical galvanic cell with a zinc anode and a graphite cathode surrounded by solid MnO2. The electrolyte is a moist paste of NH4Cl, ZnCl2 and some inert filler. Energy: The capacity to work or produce change. Fission: The splitting of a heavy nucleus (mass number 7200) into lighter fragments with the release of energy. Most fission processes are initiating by bombarding the heavy nucleus with thermal electrons. Fuel: Any substance that produces energy in the form that can be used for practical purposes. Fusion: The process in which two light nuclei combine to produce a heavier nucleus with mass number A less than 60, with the release of energy. Galvanic cell: A device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy. Ignition temperature: It is the latest temperature at which a substance catches fire and starts burning. Nuclear chain reaction: A self-starting sequence of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear energy: Energy stored in a nucleus of an atom. Radioactive isotopes: An isotope that spontaneously decays to become an isotope of different elements. Radioactivity: The spontaneous break down of an atom by emission of particles and/ or radiations.
16
The Earth A Living Planet

Mother Earth has every thing to fulfill mans needs but not his greeds. - Mahatma Gandhi You have studied in the previous lesson that the Earth is the third planet of the solar system as counted from the sun. The Earth also came into existence almost the same time as the other members of the solar system, i.e. around 4.5 billion years ago. This is the planet we live on and where multitude of diverse life forms have evolved. In this lesson we will study the brief story of the 4.5 billion years of Earths life - its changing structure and evolving life support system. We will also study that various components of our environment are in fine balance but facing a threat due to various human activities. This should put us on alert to save our planet. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to :
! !
! !
explain why life evolved on the Earth, stating conditions necessary for it; explain the differentiation of Earth and evolution of atmosphere and hydrosphere in its present form; describe the life supporting systems on the Earth, i.e. the biosphere comprising the lithosphere, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere; justify that the sun is the ultimate source of all energy on Earth except nuclear energy and geothermal energy; explain how the solar energy is cycled in nature and utilised by living beings; explain the origin and evolution of life on Earth and suggest some measures to protect the Earth and its life support systems.
16.1 WHY ONLY EARTH HAS LIFE? You can easily identify living things around you. Earth has life on its surface. Scientists are trying hard to find out whether life exists elsewhere also in the universe, but, till date they could not find any. Let us analyse the possibility of life in our solar system. 16.1.1 Physical conditions necessary for life For life to exist on a celestial body the following conditions seem to be necessary :
: 300 : The Earth A Living Planet
(i) Presence of some elements such as carbon (C), oxygen (O2), Nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2) which are involved in the basic structures of complex molecules forming living cells. (ii) Suitable temperature range on its surface for sustenance of life. Most of the living organisms cannot survive at too high (>700C) or too low (<O0C) temperatures because, life processes cannot be carried out at very high and very low temperatures. (iii) Presence of a liquid medium, like water, which is a must for transporting nutrients inside a living body. (iv) Presence of a protective atmosphere having a protective layer like ozone layer, to prevent harmful radiations to reach its surface. On the Earth all these conditions are satisfied and hence, we have life on it. 16.1.2 Possibility of life on other planets of the solar system You might be wondering whether there is possibility of any life on any other planets of the solar system. Lets check it. Planet mercury is so close to the sun that it is too hot to sustain life. On the other hand planets Jupiter Saturn, Urenus, Neptune and Pluto are so far away from the sun that due to extremely low temperatures on their surfaces life is impossible. The narrow belt containing Venus, Earth and Mars seem to be at suitable distance from the sun so that temperature of a planet in the region could possibly allow life to develop on it, if no other phenomenon like green house effect alters its temperature. The table given below discusses the planets Venus, Earth and Mars and the four physical conditions necessary for life. Table 16.1 : Conditions necesary for life on different planets
S. No. 1. 2. 3. Planet Venus Earth Mars Presence of C, N2, O2, N2 Yes Yes Yes Correct temp. range No Yes No Presence of water No Yes Yes Protective blanket Yes Yes No
This shows that no other planet, except Earth, fulfils the conditions necessary for life and hence, Earth is the only planet in Solar system where life has originated, evolved and flourished. Thus, the Earth is a unique planet. 16.1.3 Are we alone in the universe? This is the next obvious question you will ask. The way the universe came into existence and the way various gallaxies and solar systems are formed, suggest that there is a very high probability of inhabited worlds. In fact, scientists expect millions of such worlds to exist. But all our efferts to contact the extra terriestrial beings have failed by now. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 16.1 1. Name two planets of solar system which have a protective layer in their atmosphere. 2. Give one reason to explain why there is no life on Jupiter. 3. Why is the presence of a liquid medium necessary for life to exist on a celestial body ?
The Earth A Living Planet : 301 :
4. Mention the region of space in solar system where life may be possible ? 5. Give one reason to explain why planet mercury does not have any atmosphere ? 16.2 WHAT MADE EARTH A SPECIAL PLANET? What is special with the Earth that has made it an abode of life? The following three factors, it seems, have contributed in this regard. (i) Right distance from the Sun : The Earth stays at the right distance from the sun in an almost circular orbit. Therefore, it receives just appropriate amount of energy from the sun, so that, the temperature range on its surface is suitable for the origin and evolution of life. (ii) Appropriate mass and size : The Earth has appropriate mass and radius so that it could provide gravitational field sufficient enough to hold atmosphere. (iii) Occurence of some natural events on Earth at right time and in desirable sequence so that a life supporting system (called Biosphere) could evolve on its surface. 16.2.1 Birth of the Earth About 5 billion years ago, when the sun was formed, the leftover gases surrounding it started getting condensed into small chunks of matter called planetesimals. The planetesimals as they revolved around the sun aggregated into bigger massesplanets, satellites, asteroids etc. by forces of mutual attraction. The Earth also came into existence the same way around 4.5 billion years ago. When born, it was a cool, condensed aggregate of planetesimals. The primitive Earth then melted because of the following two processes nearly 3.7 billion years ago and assumed its present structure. (i) Planetesimals were still colliding with it and imparting their kinetic energy and mass to it. (ii) There were radioactive elements like Uranium (U), Thorium (Th) etc. present in the Earth which released energy as they decayed which was absorbed by the Earth. The energy gained by these processes increased the temperature of Earth and it melted. This resulted into the differentiation of the Earth. 16.2.2 Differentiation of the Earth As the Earth melted it acquired a spherical shape. The heavier elements from its surface sank towards its centre and formed a central region called the core. The lighter materials rose to the outer region. Of these materials, whatever remained on the surface of the Earth as liquid, cooled and solidified to form crust. The gases and water vapours trapped within the Earth's material were released from its surface and formed atmosphere. Thus, the Earth re-organised itself into different layers of varying densities. The process of reorganisation of the Earth in different layers of varying densities is called differentiation.
Dense rocks Molten iron Solid iron
Inner core Outer core Mantle Crust Atmosphere
Fig. 16.1 Different layers of earth
Due to differentiation, the mass of the Earth got distributed in four different layers ! The core ! The mantle ! The crust ! The atmosphere Figure 16.1 shows the various layers of Earth (not on the scale). Some important characterstics of each layer are given in the table 16.2. 16.2.3 Evidence of differentiation of Earth The theory of evolution of solar system suggests that the Earth also came into being at the same time and in the same manner as the other members of the solar system. Scientists have developed a techinique of finding the age of a rocks. This technique is called uranium dating. Using the technique when we find the age of a meteorite, it comes out to be 4.5 billion years. When we determine the age of oldest rock found in Greenland region of the Earth, it comes out to be only 3.7 billion years. What does this mean? This means that for the first 800 million years the temperature of Earth was increasing due to which it got melted and differentiated during that period. That is why all signs of Earth for the evolutionary history of this period are wiped out. Table 16.2 : Characterstics of different layers of Earth Characterstic Location Constituents Core Innermost part Iron and some Nickel Mantle Middle part Silicates of iron and magnesium Crust Outermost part. A mixture of large number of minerals like silica, alumina etc.
Temperature Size
very hot ~ 4000 0C at the centre Radius of the core is about 3400 km. The thickness between core and crust is about . 2900 km 4-6 gcm-3 Very thin, only around 10km under the oceans and 35-60 km below the land mass 3 gcm3
Density Pressure
About 18 gcm3 About 3.7 million atmosphere at the centre. Inner core though at higher temperature, is solid on account of high pressure. Outer core is liquid.
State
Mostly solid only a thin outer layer of tar like viscous fluid of molten rocks.
Solid
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 16.2 1. What material the inner core of the Earth is made of ? 2. What is the thickness of the crust of the Earth ? 3. When did differentiation of Earth took place ? 4. What is the importance of right mass and right size of Earth ? 5. Explain how the inner core of the Earth is solid though its temperature is (about 40000C) higher than outer core which is liquid ? 16.3 THE LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS Life on Earth is found in a nearly 20 km thick spherical shell near its surface, called biosphere. Living beings are found to interact with each other and with their environment in the biosphere. (i) Lithosphere, (ii) Hydrosphere, and (iii) Atmosphere. These three parts of the biosphere form the life supporting systems of the Earth. The story of the evolution of life is intimately associated with the evolution of the biosphere. Let us study the three parts of the biosphere one by one. 16.3.1 Lithosphere The word lithosphere literally means a layer of rocky materials. It consists of the Earths crust and the small upper solid part of mantle. Presently, about three fourths of the surface of the lithosphere is covered with water in the form of oceans, and the remaining one fourth is a land mass devided in seven continets, namely North America, South America, Antarctica, Australia, Asia, Africa and Europe. All these seven continents form six separate land masses, seperated by water bodies Europe and Asia forming one big entity. As we look at the present world map we find that these six land masses appear as a jig-saw puzzle and may be adjusted at one place to from a one big land mass. In 1912, German geologist Alfred Lother Wegener suggested that in the begining of Earths history, the continents were a single piece of landmass called pangaea (meaning all Earth). Then at about 225 million years ago the pangea fractured and started drifting apart and gradually assumed its present shape. The position of continents at various eras of Earths history is given in Fig. 16.2.
(a) 225 million years ago
(b) 200 million years ago
(c) 135 million years ago
(d) 65 million years ago
Through their studies on Earthquakes, volcanoes and formation of mountain, geologists have acquired a lot of knowledge about the interior of the Earth. They have come to the conclusion that the entire land and water bodies of Earth in fact, stay divided into (e) Present eight large and some smaller pieces called the Lithospheric plates. Fig. 16.2 Position of These plates are rigid but they float over coal-tar like molten rocks continents in various of mantle, called magma . Due to temperature and pressure eras of the earths history
difference between the core and the upper part of the mantle, convection currents are set up in magma because of which the Lithospheric plates drift slowly. The scientists have estimated that the continents are drifling even today at an average pace of 15 cm per year or so. 16.3.2 Hydrosphere The water bearing component of biosphere is called hydrosphere-most of it is in the form of oceans (97%) and the rest as Polar ice caps (2.5%) and atmospheric vapours. The huge water body surrounding the continents is divided into five parts called oceans. Land The five oceans are : (i) Pacific ocean (ii) Atlantic ocean (iii) Indian ocean (iv) Arctic ocean (v) Antarctic ocean Oceanologists have explored the floor of the oceans using Ultrasonic echo devices like SONAR and found that the ocean floors are uneven. Like lands, they also have planes, hills, valleys and plateaus. The researches show that the average depth of oceans is about 4 km. Though at some places they may be more than 10 km deep.
Equator
Convection currents in outer mantle
Ocean 1. Solid inner core. 2. Liquid outer core. 3. Solid inner mantle. 4. Tar like liquid outer mantle. 5. Crust. 6. Surface of earth land and oceans.
Fig. 16.3 Convection currents in magma drifted lithospheric plates
You know that sea water is salty. Weathering and erosion of rocks makes these salts available for winds and waters which take them to oceans and make them salty. But the percentage of salts in sea water is almost a constant for the duration of a life time. Winds and oceans are a big support for life. Some important functions of oceans are listed below. (i) They regulate the global temperature. (ii) The primitive life form originated in the oceans. (iii) They dissolve atmospheric carbon dioxide and thus help in keeping the biosphere in equilibrium. (iv) They provide good resources for fossil fuels, minerals, salts and sea foods. (v) They act as medium for transporting men and materials using ships, boats etc. 16.3.3 Atmosphere Surrounding the Earth there is a few hundred kilometer thick envelope of air called atmosphere. As we go up in atmosphere the air thins out, so much so that 90% of the air is found within 20 km of height from the ground. The main constituents of air are nitrogen and oxygen and it is upto a height of 12 km from the Earths surface that cloud formation and weather changes take place. Between the altitude of 10 - 50 km lies the ozone (O3) layer which protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiations of sun.
Atmosphere also is a crucial life support system. It has the following important functions. (i) It is because of the atmosphere that the radiations from the sun do not straight way reach the surface of the Earth. Thus the atmosphere prevents the Earth from getting too hot. (ii) Nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere are in correct proportion due to which living beings can breathe and controlled burning of fuels becomes possible. (iii) Billions of meteors entering into Earths atmosphere burn out due to air friction. In absence of atmosphere they will reach Earths surface and hit it with great force. (iv) The water vapours present in atmosphere provides for rains which is vital for agriculture. (v) The ozone layer of atmosphere protects us from the harmful effects of ultra-voilet rays of sun-light. (vi) Carbon dioxide though present in the atmosphere in a very small amount (0.033%) it is important for two reasons !
Green plants absorb carbon dioxide from atmosphere in preparing their food through photosynthesis. (Details of photosynthesis in lesson 25). Carbon dioxide being a greenhouse gas traps infrared (heat) radiations and makes nights warmer and more comfortable.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 16.3 1. How do scientists study the interior of the Earth? 2. Give two important functions of carbon dioxide in atmosphere? 3. Give two important functions of atmosphere? 4. Give two important functions of oceans? 16.4 EVOLUTION OF LIFE ON EARTH A very precise sequence of events gave rise to the life supporting systems mentioned in the previous section. Then came the first ever self multiplying organisms on the scene, the blue-green algae. These components of the biosphere then interacted with each other. They grew in complexities and modified each others properties and composition. Finally, an equilibrium condition was obtained where every thing was in a fine balance supporting each other. All this did not happen in a day. It took more than 3.7 billion years to reach to the presennt stage of evolution of the biosphere.Let us have a broad look at the major events in the process of evolution of life on Earth. 16.4.1 Formation of primitive atmosphere To begin with when the differentiation of Earth started, there was no atmosphere. In the process of differentiation, as the light elements rose up, the very light elements, which were present in gaseous form bubbled out of the surface of molten Earth and formed the primitive atmosphere. The primitive atmosphere was very thin and had only nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour. It had no oxygen in the beginning.
16.4.2 Formation of primitive hydrosphere As the outer surface of the molten Earth cooled and solidfied to form a thin crust, it was repeatedly hit and punctured by falling meteorites. Since the atmosphere at that time was very much rarefied, it could not offer any resistance to the falling meteorites and they hit the crust with great force, creating vents in it. Through these vents magma flew out, got solidified and became part of the crust. In this process some gases were also released mainly due to the hydrated minerals in the molten rocks. These gases enriched the atmosphere. The water vapour in this primitive atmosphere got condensed and formed clouds. The clouds then came down in the from of rains. The rainwater on one hand speeded up the process of cooling of Earth on the other hand it filled up the low lying areas and formed the oceans. 16.4.3 Origin of life on Earth As more and more gases were added to the atmosphere it became gradually denser. The clouds, as they moved, got charged and electric discharge between them resulted in thunderstorms and lightening. The lightening fused the elements of the primitive atmosphere into complex compounds. These compounds were then washed down by heavy rains and sent to oceans. In the oceans, under suitable circumstances more and more complex molecules like carbohydrates and amino acids were developed. With passing time more and more complex molecules came into existence which could utilize the energy and materials from their environment. Finally, in the oceans appeared a complex structure which could prepare its own food, using carbon dioxide from air and water from occean, in presence of sunlight. This was the blue-green algae, the first living organisms that ever originated on Earth. It had two properties markedly different from the existing materials self growth and self propagation. These are clearly the properties of living beings. 16.4.4 Evolution of higher life forms When the blue green algae appeared in oceans, atmosphere had only nitrogen, hydrogen, water vapours and carbon dioxide. There was no oxygen in atmosphere. And this was good, because the algae could have easily got oxidised in an oxygen rich environment. Then the possibility of life on Earth would have been wiped out . But fortunately the oxygen in air was added at a very slow pace so that the growing life forms could adjust with it. The algae as they prepared their food through photosynthesis used carbon dioxide and evolved oxygen. But nature had a provision to remove this extra oxygen in the beginning years of evolving life. The iron dissolved in oceans consumed the oxygen exhaled by algae and got oxidised. 2000 to 3500 million year old deposits of iron stones at the bottom of oceans are evidences of this proposition. The early forms of life thus survived and developed into more advanced organisms. During this period (2000 to 3500 million years from now) however the content of carbon dioxide in atmosphere decreased and that of oxygen increased gradually. The increasing level of oxygen accelerated the process of evolution of life in two ways. (i) The new organisms adjusted themselves to have greater tolerence for oxygen and to utilise it for more efficient metabolic processes.
(ii) Some of the oxygen formed ozone layer to protect the living organisms from harmful ultraviolet radiations. On the other hand reduction in the level of carbon dioxide reduced the green house effect, because of which the temperature on Earth could settle down to values more favourable for higher forms of life. Under these conditions more advanced forms of life evolved which could survive even on land. Around 600 million years ago the environmental conditions and composition of atmosphere became almost similar to the present status. The organisms of the time also had reached a level of evolution to develop into more advanced life forms. The diverse life forms that we see around us today is a result of the evolutionary process of these 600 million years. 16.4.5 Evolution of man Man also has his place in the story of the evolution of life. Scientists now believe that apes (like Chimpanzee and gorilla) were the ancestors of modern man. On the basis of fossil remains from various excavation sites they have developed a chain of successive stages of evolution of man.
Human ancestor 3.5 million years ago
Human ancestor 1.7 million years ago
Human ancestor 10000050000 years ago Oldest of human ancestor (10-13 million years ago)
Human ancestor 2000050000 years ago
Fig. 16.4 Stages in evolution of man
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 16.4 1. An oxygen free atmosphere was crucial for the survial of early life. Why? 2. Which evolved earlieratmosphere or hydrosphere? Could it be otherwise? 3. What evidence do we have to believe that the oxygen evolved in early years of life was removed by some natural process. What was this process? 4. In which period of time oxygen replaced carbon dioxide from its dominant position? How do we know this? 5. What is the evidence to suggest that apes were the ancestors of man? 16.5 THE EARTH SYSTEM The lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and various life forms on Earth interact with each other and support each other. So the Earth may be visualised as a system. To run
a system we need energy. On Earth all forms of energy that we use, with the exception of nuclear energy and geothermal energy, are obtained from the sun. 16.5.1 Sun, as the source of energy Basically, the energy we receive from the sun is in the form of heat and light. We can use this energy directly in our solar cookers or solar water heaters. But, usually the energy from sun may manifest itself in various other forms on Earth. Let us consider a few examples. 1 Wind energy : Uneven heating of different regions of Earths surface, creates regions of high and low pressures. Due to this, wind blows and the wind energy runs our wind mills.
2. Hydel power : Water evaporated by solar energy, rises up in the atmosphere. This water cools at high altitudes, forms clouds and comes down in the form of rains. The rain water as it flows down slopes may run our water-mills. It may also be collected in dams and run our power plants to generate electricity. 3. Energy from food : To do work we need energy. We get this energy from food. Animals get food from plants. Plants prepare their own food through photosynthesis using sunlight. So the energy that runs life on Earth is ultimately received from the sun. 4. Energy from fossil fuels : You have studied that fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are forms of biomass (dead remains of plants and animals) burried deep under the Earth. This biomass when alive had received its energy from the sun. So it is solar energy stored in the form of fossil fuels. The importance of sun, as a source of energy for life on Earth, is therefore, unquestionable. The sun is a huge mass (~ 1030 kg) consisting of hydrogen (92%) and helium (7.8%). It is radiating out tremendously large amount of energy for the last 5 billion years and is expected to do so for the next 5 billion years. The energy that it radiates is so large that we receive 1.36 kW m-2 of solar power in the upper atmosphere of the Earth. However it is only 47% of this energy that reaches on the surface of the Earth. The incredibly large amount of energy that is being released by the sun can not be produced by the simple burning of hydrogen gas. The source of the energy of sun, as suggested by German physicist, Hans Bethe, in 1939, is nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. 16.5.2 Circulation and utilization of solar energy The flow of energy from the sun to the Earth is a unidirectional process. We receive energy from the sun, but return nothing back to it. However, the energy received from the sun may either be utilized or it may go waste and create problems for life. For example, if excessive solar energy remains trapped in atmosphere it may melt the solar ice caps, which will result in increased sea level and submergence of land. The energy received on Earth is exchanged between atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and living organisms in various ways. Thus the energy circulates between these components of biosphere and life to keep them active.
Sun
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Fig. 16.5 Circulation of solar energy in the biosphere
The most effective and low cost method of utilizing solar energy is used by plants in the process of photosynthesis and hence by increasing the green cover of Earth we can think of maximum utilization of solar energy. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 16.5 1. Name two forms of energy which we do not receive on the Earth from the sun. 2. After a nuclear holocaust the sky some scientists say, will get covered with dense dust clouds for several months. Can you think of one consequence of this situation ? 3. The brown haze in Asian sky will result in low agricultural produce. Can you give one explanation for this ? 4. How is sun responsible for the energy we receive from a hydroelectric power plant ? 5. Name the reaction responsible for the production of energy in the sun ? 16.6 BALANCE IN NATURE By now you might have understood that the Earth system has several interacting constituents in delicate balance. A slight disturbance in this balance may bring a big threat to the entire life. Let us consider some of the human achivities which are disturbing the balance in nature at an alarming rate. 16.6.1 Examples of threats to the balance in nature by human activities 1. In our craze for comfort and zeal for industrialization we are burning fossil fuels at a very fast rate. Thus, the carbon dioxide which was fixed for millions of years is being returned to the atmosphere in few hundred years. This is causing not only an energy crisis but also posing a threat of global warming. 2. The mindless use of chloro fluoro carbons (the chemicals we use as refrigerants and perfume sprays) are eating up our protective ozone layer creating a hole in it above Antarctica.
3. Deforestation for paper and wood is minimizing the effective use of available solar energy on Earth. 4. Creation of non-biodegradable materials like polythene is making the Earth barren and pausing threats for various life forms. 16.6.2 Our duty to protect the Earth We must understand that the Earth is a unique planet. It is under very special circumstances that its life support systems have evolved. We must take special care to maintain the equilibrium between the various components of the Earth system so that life on this planet may flourish and progress. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 16.6 1. Give a consequence of deforestation. 2. Name a substance responsible for creating ozone hole. 3. What is meant by a biodegradable substance? 4. Suggest one step to maintain balance in nature.
!
LET US REVISE The Earth was formed around 4.5 billion years ago along with the other members of the solar system. Due to the kinetic energy of the colliding planetesimals and disintegration of radioactive elements the Earth melted and got differentiated around 3.7 billion years ago. Differentiation is the process of reorganization of Earth into different layers of varying density Radiodating techniques used by scientists revealed that the oldest rock found in Greenland is only 3.7 billion years old. The Earths solid stuff differentiated into three layers (i) core (ii) mantle (ii) crust, after it melted. Crust of Earth along with oceans and atmosphere is the region in which living organisms are found and, therefore, they together are called biosphere. Biosphere has three life support systems (i) Lithosphere (ii) Hydrosphere and (iii) atmosphere The oxygen free atmosphere the hydrosphere the blue green algae oxygen containing atmosphere higher life forms Homo sapiens (man) evolved on Earth in this particular sequence, and seltted down to an interactive system in equilibriun. Mans activites are disturbing the balance of our ecosystem and posing a threat to the entire life on our unique planet. Let us be careful and mend our ways. TERMINAL EXERCISES
A. Multiple choice type questions. 1. The first living organism developing on Earth was (a) Bacteria (b) Virus
2.
3.
4.
5.
(c) Algae (d) Fungus How much time (approximately) did it take for the formation of fossil fuel? (a) 2.5 x 108 years (b) 2.5 x 106 years (d) 2.5 x 102 years (c) 2.5 x 104 years Which part of the Earth do we interact with the most? (a) Inner core (b) Outer core (c) Mantle (d) Crust The first organism originated in (a) Ocean (b) Atmosphere (c) Marshy land (d) Desert Which of the following is not the part of biosphare? (a) Lithosphere (b) Hydrosphere (c) Atmosphere (d) Mantle
B. Mark the following statements true or false. 1. If there were no atmosphere, the temperature of the Earths surface would have varied over a wide range in 24 hours. 2. The oldest rock found on Earth is 4500 years old. 3. Green plants trap solar energy when they are alive and release it when they die. 4. The continents are fixed with respect to the Earth. 5. The concentration of salt in oceans remains roughly constant over a life time. C. Fill in the blanks. 1. __________ radiations present in sun light can cause skin cancer. 2. The density of air __________ as we go up. 3. Earth was born along with other members of solar system nearly __________ years ago. 4. The temperature at the core of the Earth is about __________ 5. One of the factors due to which the primitive Earth melted was radio active decay of elements like __________ D. Descriptive type questions. 1. What is meant by Pangaea ? 2. What is the age of the Earth ? 3. Up to what height do we have significant amount of water ? 4. Name two major ways by which carbon dioxide present in air is consumed. 5. When did the atmosphare reach a composition similar to what we have today ? 6. Name the four layers the Earth is differentiated into. 7. How does the atmosphere protect us from the falling meteors? 8. Deforestation may lead to melting of polar ice caps. Explain. 9. The primitive algae were prone to oxidation, even then these survived in the oxygen exhaled. Explain how it could be possible ? 10. How were complex molecules formed from the elements present in the primitive
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
atmosphere? Discuss why life could not evolve on planet Mars ? What is meant by the term differentiation. Describe major layers of Earth with the help of a labelled diagram ? State five advantages of atmosphere. State the five advantages of oceans? What made Earth a unique planet of solar system ? Explain. List some activites of man which are disturbing balance of the life support systems of the Earth. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
16.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 16.2 1. 2 3. 4. 5.
Venus and Earth Because it is very cold So that nutrients may be transported to different parts of the organism The belt containing Venus at its inner edge and Mars on the outer edge. Very high range of temperature variation and low gravity to hold the atmosphere. Iron 10km under the sea floor and 35-65 km under the land Around 3.7 billion years ago from now Right mass and right size ensures right gravitational field to hold atmosphere because of very high pressure.
16.3 1. Studying the Earth quakes, volcanos and formation of mountains. 2. (i) green plants prepare their food using CO2 (ii) being green house gas it maintains night temperature to a comfortable value. 3. (i) Regulate global temperature (ii) Mineral and food resource 4. Provide oxygen for respiration and CO2 for photosynthesis. 16.4 1. Because the very first organism blue-green alga was prone to oxidation. 2. Atmosphere evolved before hydrosphere. Had it been in reverse order the lighter water molecules could have escaped out of Earth. No life was then possible without water. 3. The red iron stones at the sea-beds ageing 2 billion years are evidence. Oxidation of iron dissolved in water removed the oxygen from the atmosphere. 4. Around 600 million years ago. Because that is the minimum age of the red iron stones found at sea beds.
5. The fossil remains of man-like creatures suggest a definite evolutionary trend. 16.5 1. 2. 3. 4. Nuclear and geothermal energy A global winter Lesser light from sun reaches the Earth slowing down the process of photosynthesis. Solar energy evoporates water which rises to high altitudes, forms clouds, comes down in the form of rains. It is the potential energy of this water collected in dams which runs turbines of our power plants and generates electricity. 5. Nuclear fusion. Decrease in the effective use of available solar energy Chloro fluoro carbons A substance which can be broken up into simpler substances by some germs. Grow more trees.
16.6 1. 2. 3. 4.
GLOSSARY Algae : Plants without true stems, roots and leaves found in water or ground. Atmosphere : A blanket of gases surrounding the Earth. Core : The innermost portion of the Earth. Crust : The thin, rocky outer layer of the Earth. Convection current : A process of transfer of heat in liquids and gases where in hot and light fluid rises up and gets cooled at higher place and heavy cool fluid sinks down. Erosion : The weathering away of Earths surface by water, ice or wind. Evolution : The process where by species of living things gradually change to adapt to their environment. Geologist : A scientist who studies the Earth, its history and structure. Global warming : Gradual rise in the average temperature of Earth. Magma : Hot, molten rock formed beneath the Earths crust. Mantle : The layer of the Earth that lies between crust and core. Organism : Any living being. Photosynthesis : The process by which green plants use sun light as an energy source to turn CO2 and H2O into sugars they need for their food. Pressure : Amount of force acting on unit area. Volcano : An opening in Earths crust through which magma erupts.
17
Our Environment
The word environment means to encircle or surround. Any thing that surrounds us forms our environment. The plants, animals, air, water and land all form our environment. All our activities are influenced by the environment in which we live. These activities include the functioning of our body and our interaction with other parts of our environment. Therefore, the environment is important for our survival. We should take care of it. OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you will be able to: define environment and list the biotic and abiotic components of the environment; discuss the different types of habitats and the adaptation of animals and plants in these habitats; explain the causes and consequences of alterations in habitats and the need to conserve habitats; define biosphere and ecosystem, and discuss the ecological significance of these levels of organization; explain food chain, food web and trophic levels in a biological community and discuss how these are constituted as the pyramids of energy; compare the carbon and nitrogen cycles within the ecosystem. 17.1 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT The environment has two types of components. Biotic components, which include living beings including humans. Abiotic components, which include all non-living things around the organism. These two components have an effect on each other. For example, if it does not rain for some days and the temperature is very high, the plants will dry up and animals, including human beings, will find it difficult to live in such an environment. The desert area is covered with sand all around. It rains very little in such areas hence water is scarce. The days are very hot while the nights are cool in deserts. It is because of such adverse conditions of the abiotic components that
: 2 : Our Environment
there is very little vegetation and only a few species of animals can live in deserts. Animals, such as camels, and plants like cactus that can survive without water for many days are found in such places. We know that a fish swims with ease in water. However, as soon as it is taken out of water, it dies. Do you know the reason? This is because the changed environmental condition is not suitable for the survival of the fish. Thus, we find that biotic components depend upon the abiotic components for their survival. On the other hand, the abiotic components are also affected by biotic components. For example, if there are more trees at a place the air will contain more moisture at the place. Also, the temperature of the place will be relatively low. The amount of dust particles in the air shall be less. Have you ever felt such difference between a place with more trees and the one with fewer trees? The amount of fertility of the soil at a place gets affected by the water, temperature and air. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 17.1 1. Classify the following into biotic and abiotic components of the environment: neem, soil, buffalo, air, rose, butterfly, light, heat, man, cow, humidity 2. Give an example to show that abiotic components of environment depend upon the biotic components. 3. Name one desert animal and one desert plant. 17.2 HABITAT AND ADAPTATION Every living organism lives in a specific environment. A place or a set of environmental conditions in which a particular organism lives is called its habitat. The habitats of different plants and animals are different, but at the same time many plants and animals share the same habitat. All forests are not habitats of tigers or lions. Jim Corbett National Park in Uttaranchal has thick forests. It provides optimum conditions for the tigers to live. There are streams and rivers flowing in the area that provide water. The presence of deer and sambhar in large number in the same habitat provide food for the tigers.Thus, a habitat must provide the organisms suitable climatic conditions, shelter and food. 17.2.1 Modes of life The following modes of life have been identified for different organisms: Aquatic : For organisms living in water Terrestrial : For organisms living on land Aerial : For organisms that use air as a medium for their activities such as locomotion Amphibious : For organisms, such as a moss plant and a frog that complete their life cycles by living one part of their life in water and another part on land.
Our Environment : 3 :
Fig. 17.1 Different organisms live in different habitats
Organisms that live in a specific habitat have some important characteristics that help them to adjust and to live successfully. This adjustment is called adaptation. The organisms adapt so that they can: i. successfully compete for food, ii. defend themselves from attack by other organisms (enemies), iii. find a mate to reproduce/find favourable conditions to reproduce, and iv. respond efficiently to the change in environment. 17.2.2 Aquatic adaptations in organisms a) In plants Plants that live in water are called hydrophytes (hydro: water, phyte: plant). Look at the picture above and relate. Plants that live in Lotus water have the following Hydrilla characteristics: i. Poorly developed root system: As they can easily absorb water and minerals from the plentifully available water. ii. Thin and narrow leaves (Hydrilla) or long, flat and ribbon-shaped l e a v e s (Vallisneria): As Water hyacinth this helps to withstand water Fig. 17.2 Some plants that live in water currents.
Vallisneria
In a lotus plant, the leaves float on water with their broad upper surface coated with wax. This wax acts as water repellant. b) In animals Observe the animals shown in the figure 17.3. Vertebrates that live in water have Catla the following characteristics: i. The body is streamlined (pointed at both ends) that helps Labeo in reducing friction and allows swift movement in water. ii. Gills help the animal to breathe in water. iii. Fins help to swim, steer and maintain balance. A whale (a Hammer-headed shark mammal) has flippers to swim. iv. Pupil of the eyes is large as compared to other vertebrates. It allows more light to enter for clear vision in water. v. Some fish have swim bladders Ray fish that act as floats and allow the Fig. 17.3 Some fishes that live in water organisms to float in water. vi. The body surface gives out some secretions, which lubricate the scales and help the animal slip away and escape from enemies. There are numerous other kinds of aquatic animals with varying adaptations, such as Hydra, water flea and some worms.
Lobster Some coelenterates
Echinoderms
Labeo Some sponges Octopus
Fig. 17.4 Diversity of animal life in water
17.2.3 Terrestrial (land) adaptations in organisms a) In plants Some plants live on land and require moderate (neither low nor high) supply of water and temperature. These plants are called mesophytes (meso: moderate). Examples: neem, papaya, banyan, mango, wheat, tomato, etc.
Wheat
Rice Papaya Bamboo Banyan
Fig. 17.5 Mesophytic plants
Some plants live on land under extreme water scarcity and high temperature conditions. These are called xerophytes (xeros: scarce water). Examples: cactus (Opuntia), Babool (Acacia).
Casuarina Opuntia
Fig. 17.6 Xerophytic plants
Table 17.1 Adaptations in land plants Part of the plant Roots Stem Mesophytes Well-developed draw as much water as Well-developed, solid and branched Xerophytes Extensively developed to possible from the ground Flattened, fleshy and green to store water and function as leaves Well-developed, numerous, Reduced (modified) into of various shapes and spines, stoma if present sizes and with large reduced in number to number of stomata prevent loss of water
Leaves
b) In animals Most animals you see around are those living in a moderate type of a habitat. These are different types of animals. Examples of some terrestrial mammals and reptiles are given below : Mammals: tiger, lion, deer, bear, squirrels and many others Reptiles: lizards and snakes Terrestrial animals may be of different types according to their mode of locomotion. Such animals have well-adapted toes. These are: Runners: deer and antelopes Climbers: monkeys and squirrels Burrowers: rats, moles and snakes Fliers: bats and birds All vertebrate terrestrial animals breathe through lungs. 17.2.4 Xerophytic adaptations in organisms Animals found in the xeric (dry) conditions show certain special types of adaptations. Extreme heat and scarcity of water: These animals have very scaly skin, resistant to drying and show many adaptations to conserve water. Examples: camel, snakes, spiders and scorpions. Extreme cold and scarcity of water: These animals have oily hairs that provide thick winter coat. Examples: polar bear, reindeer. 17.2.5 Aerial adaptations in organisms Besides insects, organisms, such as birds, mainly use air as a medium to fly. Birds show the following adaptive features that help them to fly: i. streamlined body to steer through the air, ii. wings that help to fly are modified forelimbs, iii. strong flight muscles, iv. body covered with feathers, which trap air to keep the body warm and help the bird to fly, and v. light weight because of hollow bones along with reduction in the number of bones.
Fig.17.7 Aerial adaptations in a bird
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 17.2 1. Name the type of habitat in which the following organisms are found. i) Acacia ii) Snake iii) Bat iv) Frog v) Lotus vi) Mango tree
2. Give the adaptive features of the following: i) Birds with respect to bones ( ) ii) Snakes with respect to high temperature ( ) iii) Neem tree with respect to the number of stomata ( iv) Xerophytes with respect to the root system ( v) Fish with respect to shape of the body ( )
) )
17.3 EFFECT OF ALTERATION OF HABITAT The survival of an organism in a habitat depends upon the way an organism is conditioned to the abiotic and the biotic components of the environment in the habitat. Any change or alteration in the habitat can disrupt the balance in nature. Bhopal gas tragedy Do you know what happened on 3rd Dec 1984 in Bhopal? Leakage of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas from Union Carbide factory totally disturbed human and animal life there. The adverse effects of that gas are seen till today. Gujarat earthquake What happened in Gujarat on 26th January 2001? The earthquake damaged human, animal and plant life. In a similar way other natural calamities, like floods, volcanic eruptions and tornadoes cause so much of damage to life all around. Much more than this, a kind of change in the habitat is brought about by human beings for their selfish gains. Some such activities are, deforestation, indiscriminate use of poisonous materials in form of pesticides and chemical repellants, industrialization and mismanagement of industrial waste, automobiles, hunting and fishing, and use of nuclear weapons. Natural calamities or adverse human activities have a destructive effect on the natural habitat. As a result, the organisms may die an unnatural death, or lose their place of shelter. Many of the species in turn many get completely wiped out from the world, i.e. they may become extinct. To save the living treasure (flora and fauna) and to protect the natural habitat many laws have come into force. These are being operated by many organizations. It is compulsory to implement the plan related to Human Resource Development (HRD) and Natural Resource Development (NRD). To conserve the natural habitat, many national parks and sanctuaries are being maintained by the government. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 17.3 1. Name any one recent natural calamity that occurred in India and any one calamity caused due to human activities. 2. List any four human activities that affect the natural habitat adversely. 17.4 BIOSPHERE The land, water and air on the earth support living organisms. The region comprising water forms the hydrosphere. The soil and rocks on the earths surface
as well as below the oceans make up the lithosphere. The air above the earths surface forms the atmosphere. These three parts act together to provide surroundings called the biosphere in which life exits. Biosphere is considered as the largest organisational unit of the biological system. 17.4.1 Environmental levels of organization Let us start at the level of the whole organism, such as a plant or an animal. This is called organismal level. Take an example of a human being as an organism. All human beings of your family, locality, city, state, country and the world form one kind of individuals, they can potentially interbreed and produce fertile young ones, thus they are one species. Individuals of a species occupying a definite space or area at a given time constitute population. Thus there can be a population of frogs in a pond, population of squirrels in a garden, or population of peepal trees in a forest, etc. Any population of individuals cannot live independently. Can we live without domestic animals, crops or plants? When you look in a pond, you may see plants like lotus, hydrilla and algae. You may also see frogs, fish, water fleas and some other insects. There are different kinds of organisms (populations) in that area. All these organisms are interdependent and live together forming a community. A community of living organisms is called biotic community. We have learnt earlier that no biotic community can exist in the absence of abiotic factors (water, air and light). The interdependence of the two types of factors occurs in an ecosystem. A pond and a lake are examples of aquatic ecosystems. Examples of some terrestrial ecosystems are natural forests, crop fields, etc.
Fig. 17.8 A pond is an aquatic ecosystem.
Fig. 17.9 A forest is a terrestrial ecosystem
In simple language we can say that, the living organisms which are found in a definite geographical region together with the physical environment of that region form an ecosystem. All the ecosystems taken together in a geographical area form a bigger unit called biome. For example, in forest biomes one may find ponds, lakes, grasslands and forests. Organisms exist up to 8 km in the air above sea level and up to 5 km below sea level. These life supporting regions of the earth comprise the biosphere. Various levels of organization and their sequence is given below. The biosphere includes the total world of life. The living world which is made up of millions of organisms, depends upon the earth for the necessary materials that enter into its composition and upon the sun for its constant need of energy to perform its vital activities.
Individual
Biome
Ecosystem
Community
Population
17.5 FLOW OF ENERGY The sun gives out a large amount of radiation that consists of many different kinds of rays. Only some of these rays reach the earths surface. Others are either reflected by the earths atmosphere or turned away by the earths magnetic field.
Fig. 17.10 Various levels of organisations
The amount of sunlight, which the earth receives in the form of energy, is very little. A portion of it is also reflected back to the earths surface. No animal can use sunlight directly for its living activities. Green plants possess chlorophyll. This chlorophyll is capable of trapping a fraction of the incoming suns energy to make food for the plants by a process called photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide are used to build up complex carbohydrates. The absorbed light energy is thus trapped as chemical energy. Thus, solar energy enters into the biosphere through photosynthesis. Only a negligible amount of solar radiation striking the plants is fixed through photosynthesis. The pathway along which the energy flows through the organisms can be studied in the following two ways: We can study the food relationship between the species and the community by way of food chains and food webs. We can also find out the energy flow in terms of number of organisms and their biomass (i.e. weight of all organisms and calorie content.) 17.5.1 Food chain We know that green plants make food during photosynthesis, taking raw material from the earth and energy from the sun. Thus, the green plants are producers in the living world. It is seen that the animals eat green plants, which in turn are the food for other animals. Hence, the food produced by green plants is consumed directly or indirectly by all kinds of animals, which are called consumers. The relationship of eating and being eaten up at different levels in an ecosystem is represented in the form of a chain called food chain. A food chain is the representation of a single energy pathway from the producer to the consumer.
Secondary consumer
Energy source
Producer
Primary consumer
The study of food chains in an area or habitat helps us to know about interactions among the different organisms and also their interdependence. Let us take the example of a simple food chain in grassland in which the grass is eaten by the grasshopper that in turn is eaten by a bird Fig.17.11. In this process of eating and being eaten, energy is passed on from one step to next in a food chain.
Fig. 17.11 Energy flow in a food chain
This energy flow can be represented in a food chain as shown in figure 17.11. In this chain, the grass is the producer, the grasshopper, which consumes grass, is a herbivore and the bird, which consumes the grasshopper, is called the carnivore. Animals that consume both plants and animals are called omnivores. Herbivores, carnivores and omnivores are consumers. The best example of omnivores is man.
17.5.2 Food web In a community, a large number of food chains exist. Many of these chains are interconnected by a species, which occurs in more than one chain. Grassland can have many food chains operating in it as shown in fig. 17.12. These interconnected food chains establish a network of species relationships called food web. A food web is a network of species relationship formed by interconnected food chains.
Fig. 17.12 A food web
A food web indicates that one organism may occupy position in more than one food chain. For example, a snake and also a hawk may consume a rat. The organisms representing producers and consumers in the food chain give a definite structure of the ecosystem. We have seen that in a food chain there are different steps and energy is passed on from one step to the next step. Each of these steps in a food chain is called trophic level. In other words, the various steps in a food chain at which energy transfer takes place are denoted as trophic levels. Plants are producers and form the first trophic level. Herbivores, i.e. plant eaters, are the first order consumers and form the second trophic level. Carnivores, i.e. animal eaters, which feed upon the herbivores, form the third trophic level. Large carnivores that feed upon small carnivores form the fourth trophic level, and so on.
Large carnivores Small carnivores Herbivores Producers
Fig. 17.13 Pyramid of numbers
If you compare the number of organisms living at each trophic level in a food chain, then you can represent the chain by a pyramid of numbers. Producers form the base of the pyramid and the apex by the last order consumers. The pyramidal shape shows that the large carnivores at the top are fewer in numbers (Fig. 17.13) One can also construct a pyramid of energy if it is measured in term of joules for each trophic level.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 17.4 1. Complete the following sentences : i) Plants trap solar energy and pass it to the next trophic level in the form of__________ energy. ii) The third trophic level in a food chain is formed by the _________ iii) A food chain is the representation of single energy pathway from_________ to__________ 2. Which of the following statements are TRUE? i) One organism cannot occupy position in more than one food chain. ii) The number of organisms living at different trophic levels in a food chain is the least for large carnivores. iii) Plants are called producers because they can produce a new plant. iv) The solar energy enters the biosphere through the process of photosynthesis going on in the plants. 3. What is the difference between a biome and an ecosystem? 17.6 AMOUNT OF ENERGY FIXATION Energy after being trapped by plants (producers) is passed to the animals (consumers) of the next trophic level in the form of food. Some amount of energy is lost during these transfers. Energy is also used up by the organisms at each trophic level to carry out various activities. Thus, the amount of energy available goes on decreasing during its transfer from one trophic level to the other. And, the flow of energy through various trophic levels is one-way energy transfer. An interesting point emerges from the study of food chains. Shorter the chain, more is the energy available at each level. Maximum energy is at the plant level (producers). Nearer the eater is to the plants, greater is the energy available to it. 17.7 CYCLING OF MATERIALS Since materials flow from non-living to the living and back to the non-living in a more or less circular path, the cycle is also known as biogeochemical cycle. One can study the cycling of each element and have a total picture of this property of the ecosystem. 17.7.1 Carbon cycle Carbon is the main constituent of the living matter. It is found in carbohydrates,
fats, proteins and nucleic acids that make up the living cell. It is available from the following three main sources atmosphere, oceans (hydrosphere), and lime stone, coal and petroleum of the lithosphere.
Photosynthesis
Decay ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE Respiration GREEN PLANTS
The atmosphere contains about 0.03 n te to 0.04% carbon dioxide in free state. Ea Green plants use this carbon dioxide to ANIMALS synthesize food by the process of photosynthesis. The atmospheric carbon taken in by the plants is transferred to animals in the form of food. From both PREHISTORIC PLANTS plants and animals, it is then passed on to the decomposers after their death. If Fig. 17.14 Carbon cycle in nature such processes of taking in and passing on continued then there would have been no carbon dioxide left in the atmosphere. However, this does not happen in reality. There are processes by which carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere to maintain a balance. The processes by which carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere are as follows: By the process of combustion, i.e. burning of fuels like wood, coal, petroleum, etc. which takes place continuously. By the process of respiration in plants, animals and decomposers.
y ca De n Re sp ira tio Co m bu sti on
17.7.2 Nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is an essential component of the proteins and nucleic acids in living beings. The atmosphere is the biggest source of nitrogen. Green plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrites and nitrates from the soil and water in organic or inorganic form. Nitrogen cycle can be studied in five steps as given below. i. Nitrogen fixation: Free nitrogen from the atmosphere can be fixed in following two ways:
denitri
nitrates
y ca de
ORGANIC REMAINS
ammonia
NITROGEN IN SOIL
ammonium compounds
fying b
nitrates
acteria
NITROGEN IN THE AIR
by action of nitrifying bacteria
de
ath
NITROGEN IN ANIMALS
eaten
NITROGEN IN PLANTS LEGUMINOUS PLANTS
deat
nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil
Fig. 17.15 Nitrogen cycle in nature
ro ot no du le s
Fo ssi lisa tio n
absorpti
e excr tion
on
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Nitrogen and oxygen combine with each other to form oxides in the atmosphere by lightning during cloud formation. These oxides of nitrogen dissolve in rainy water and on reaching the earths surface become a part of soil and water. Some microbes like blue green algae and bacteria fix the free nitrogen in the atmosphere into nitrites and nitrates. Nitrogen fixing bacteria are found in the soil and in root nodules of the roots of some leguminous plants like peas, gram, beans, etc. They fix the atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates. These nitrates are released into the plants or soil. Nitrogen assimilation: Plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates to prepare amino acids. This nitrogen is then taken by animals from plants in the form of proteins (complex form of amino acids) through the food chain. Ammonification: Proteins in the body of animals are broken down in simpler form, such as urea and ammonia. These are removed from the body along with urine. Remains of the dead organisms are also converted into ammonia. This process is known as ammonification. Nitrification: Conversion of ammonia into nitrates is called nitrification. Some bacteria, found in the soil convert ammonia into nitrites. Some other bacteria convert these nitrites into nitrates. Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria living in some soils like the soil of ponds and marshes change the soil nitrates into nitrogen which goes back to the atmosphere.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 17.5 1. Choose the correct answer from the following : i. Which of the following gases is essential for burning? a) Oxygen b) Nitrogen c) Water vapour d) Carbon dioxide ii. The process of conversion of free atmospheric nitrogen into nitrites and nitrates is called a) nitrification b) denitrification c) nitrogen assimilation d) nitrogen fixation iii. The processes by which carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere are a) combustion and respiration b) photosynthesis and respiration c) decomposition and nutrition d) photosynthesis and digestion 2. Why do living organisms need nitrogen?
LET US REVISE The environment has both living and non-living parts, i.e. biotic and abiotic. The biotic and abiotic components depend on each other. A place or a set of environmental condition in which a particular organism lives is its habitat. A habitat provides shelter, food and climate to the organism. Aquatic, terrestrial, aerial and amphibious are different types of habitat. Different organisms are adapted to live successfully in different modes of life. Any alteration in the habitat because of natural or man-made calamity causes imbalance in nature. Efforts are being made at international and national level to maintain balance in nature. Living organisms have various levels of organization, which are divided into two main groups, i.e. lower level (up to individual) and higher level (up to biosphere). Each level of organization works like a system involving both matter and energy. Biosphere is the highest level of organization. It includes all the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components of the world, i.e. all the ecosystems. It works like a system showing interactions and interdependence between different organisms and different physical environments. The living community in the biosphere has various trophic levels like green plants (producers), animals (consumers) and microorganisms (decomposers). The food inter-relationships between the organisms of various trophic levels are studied through food chains. In the process of eating and being eaten up, energy trapped by the green plants is passed on through various trophic levels. Ultimately, the energy is released and it does not re-enter the system. Thus, a cyclic flow of energy is seen in an ecosystem. Energy is lost at each transfer and maximum of it is available near the beginning of the food chain. The materials or nutrients which plants and animals require for their normal growth and development, cycle through the ecosystem. They are absorbed by plants, passed on to animals and returned to the environment by decomposers. Nature has a unique way to maintain balance in the atmospheric gases through various cycles, viz. carbon and nitrogen cycles.
TERMINAL EXERCISES A. Multiple choice type questions. 1. Plants found in which of the following habitats have poorly developed root system? a) Aquatic b) Terrestrial c) Xerophytic d) Amphibious 2. As a special feature of birds, their bones are a) small-sized and jointed for flexibility. b) porous to allow circulation of materials. c) filled with a hard material to provide strength. d) hollow and few in number to make the body light in weight. The government is maintaining national parks and sanctuaries in order to a) conserve natural habitat for animals. b) identify areas where hunting and fishing can be done without any restriction. c) protect small animals from other carnivores that feed on them. d) protect animals from accidents. The largest unit of the biological system is a) population b) biome c) biosphere d) ecosystem The apex position in the pyramid of numbers is occupied by: a) producers b) small carnivores c) large carnivores d) herbivores
3.
4.
5.
B. Descriptive type questions. 1. Differentiate between the following : i) ii) iii) iv) 2. 3. 4. Ecosystem and biosphere Food chain and food web Carnivores and omnivores Producers and consumers
Using a simple food chain, explain the pathway along which energy flows in an ecosystem. Why do we say that energy flow in the biosphere is unidirectional, i.e. in one way? Explain with an example. With the help of a diagram, explain the cycling of carbon in the biosphere.
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 17.1 1. Soil Air Light Heat Humidity Neem Buffalo Rose Butterfly Man Cow Presence of trees makes the air contain more moisture and keep the temperature low. Camel, Cactus
2. 3. 17.2 1.
2. 17.3 1.
i) Acacia - Terrestrial ii) Snake - Terrestrial iii) Bat - Aerial iv) Frog - Amphibious v) Lotus - Aquatic vi) Mango tree - Terrestrial i) Light and hollow bones ii) scaly skin iii) large number of stomata iv) root system extensively developed v) streamlined body. Natural calamity: Earthquake in Gujarat on 26th Jan. 2001 Calamity due to human activities: Leakage of MIC from the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal on 3rd Dec.1984 Deforestation, use of pesticides and automobiles, hunting, and fishing i) Chemical ii) Carnivores iii) Producer, consumer (ii), (iv) True statements All living organisms in a definite geographical region along with the physical environment form an ecosystem. While, all ecosystems in a geographical area together form a biome. i. (a) ii. (d) iii. (a) Nitrogen is an essential component of proteins and nucleic acids in living beings. Therefore, it is required for growth.
2. 17.4 1.
2. 3.
17.5 1.
2.
GLOSSARY Habitat: A place or a set of environmental conditions in which a particular organism lives. Adaptation: The adjustment made by an organism that lives in a specific habitat by acquiring certain important characteristics that helps it to adjust and live successfully. Biotic community: A community of living organisms in an area. Ecosystem: Living organisms found in a definite geographical region together with the physical environment of that region. Biome: All the ecosystems taken together in a geographical area. Food chain: The relationship of eating and being eaten up at different levels in an ecosystem represented in the form of a chain. Food web: A network of species relationship formed by interconnected food chains.

High School Science Part I

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High School Science Part I

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Measurement in Science and Technology

: 4 : Measurement in Science and Technology

First finger Hand span

Fig. 1.1 Use of body parts for measurement

Measurement in Science and Technology : 5 :

(b) Estimating the length of a line segment

(a) Estimating the size of the circle

Fig. 1.2 Limitations of our senses and body parts in measurement

: 6 : Measurement in Science and Technology

Measurement in Science and Technology : 7 :

: 8 : Measurement in Science and Technology

Measurement in Science and Technology : 9 :

: 10 : Measurement in Science and Technology

Measurement in Science and Technology : 11 :

Physical quantity Force Pressure Energy Power

Special name Newton Pascal joule watt

SI Unit kg m/s2 N/m2 Nm J/s

: 12 : Measurement in Science and Technology

Measurement in Science and Technology : 13 :

If we have to measure a larger length, such as length of a playground, we use a measuring

: 14 : Measurement in Science and Technology

Fig.1.5 Vernier callipers

Fig.1.6 Screw gauge

Measurement in Science and Technology : 15 :

Pan 1.8 Method to make a sensitive balance

: 16 : Measurement in Science and Technology

Fig. 1.9 A physical balance

Fig. 1.10 A sundial

Measurement in Science and Technology : 17 :

Fig. 1.11 Working of a water clock

: 18 : Measurement in Science and Technology

(a) Stop Watch

(b) Electronic Watch

(c) Quartz Clock

Measurement in Science and Technology : 19 : Fig. 1.14 Different types of clocks

: 20 : Measurement in Science and Technology

Triangle Circle Parallelogram

base height (radius)2 base altitude

Measurement in Science and Technology : 21 :

100 90 Concave meniscus 80

Fig. 1.16 Volume measuring vessels

Fig. 1.18 Measuring the volume of a solid using graduated cylinder

: 22 : Measurement in Science and Technology

Measurement in Science and Technology : 23 :

: 24 : Measurement in Science and Technology

Structure and Properties of Matter : 25 :

Structure and Properties of Matter

: 26 : Structure and Properties of Matter

Structure and Properties of Matter : 27 :

Fig.2.2 (a) Elements in Earths crust (b) Elements in human body

Separation by Physical methods

Structure and Properties of Matter : 29 :

: 30 : Structure and Properties of Matter

Fig.2.5 Image from a scanning tunneling microscope

CH3CH2OH Ethyl alcohol

P Cl Cl P P Cl2 P4 Chlorine Phosphorus P S S S

Fig. 2.6 Atomic structure of some molecules

Structure and Properties of Matter : 31 :

: 32 : Structure and Properties of Matter

Structure and Properties of Matter : 33 :

: 34 : Structure and Properties of Matter

Structure and Properties of Matter : 35 :

2 6.022 1023 molecules of H2