Retention Kat Bennett, Erik Kaufhold, Chris Logue, Rachel Lee Colorado State University

Introduction Learning is the active process in which students are presented with information to be absorbed, understood and utilized. The learning process is unique for students based upon their experiences, preferences and individual goals. Thus one of the great challenges of an instructor is teaching material in a way that the students will retain the information long-term. Here, we will present four strategies for increasing learner retention of information: building cognitive structures, differentiation, technology and problem-based learning. While one strategy will not necessarily meet the needs of every student, each strategy can be adapted as needed to create the perfect tool to make information stick. Building Cognitive Structures Learning takes work, (J. LeTellier, 2006). The process of learning requires complex and integrated cognitive structures. Students who struggle with learning may have under-developed cognitive structures (Garner, 2007). Retention of information requires active neurons creating links to dendrites in the brain that link new information to old information and dendrites that are not used are pruned (Willis, 2006). The phrase, Use it or lose it, is used to describe how dendrites are culled; dendrites not being used calcify and self-destruct. However, the good news is that current brain research into the plasticity of the brain shows there is no age limit to developing new cognitive structures (Garner, 2007). This doesnt mean that an adult student wont struggle with learning new material. Adults will likely have lost millions of dendrites since early adolescence (Willis, 2006), but the human brain continues to create new brain cells throughout life, even in a damaged brain (Brown, 2007).

There are many factors that affect why a learner might have poor cognitive structures. Physical impairments or illness, as well as psychological disorders can affect learning. Poverty, trauma, abuse, language barriers, and the devaluation of education in the home environment can also be contributing factors (Garner, 2007, p. 22). How teachers present a lesson can help students develop cognitive structures. In her book, Getting to Got it!, Betty K. Garner (2007) advises teachers to be reflectively aware of the sensory data being presented. Ask students to notice things, ask questions, and provide ways for them to discover the information on their own to build cognitive structures. Components critical to building cognitive structures are the content, the activities and the assessment (p. 23). In 1949, Donald Hebb posited a theory of associative learning that states new learning is based on association (Wilson, 2009). Hebbs axiom for associative learning is often stated as, Neurons that fire together wire together, (Brown, 2007; Doidge, 2007; J. LeTellier, 2006). The implication for teachers is to understand cognitive structures and identify which ones are needed for the three components content, activities, and assessment. Learners create meaning by (1) making connections between new information and prior knowledge (Garner, 2007; J. P. LeTellier, 2007); (2) finding patterns, noticing patterns and relationships (Garner, 2007); (3) formulating rules about the patterns and making predictions when confronted with new data (Garner, 2007); and (4) abstracting principles, transferring knowledge to new situations and conditions, (Garner, 2007). According to Garner, students, develop cognitive structures through reflective awareness and through visualization [which] develop cognitive structures and

foster metability1, (Garner, 2007, p. 13). Encourage students to notice what their senses are telling them and to ask questions. Provide activities that require recognition of patterns and relationships. Ask students to visualize patterns, concepts and processing, bringing into play spatial-temporal reasoning needed for math and science (Shaw, 2000, pp., in Wolfe, 2001). In Thinking in Pictures, Colorado State University Professor Temple Grandin provides ample and poignant evidence that visualization is the way many people, including autistics, think and learn best (Grandin, 1995). LeTellier (2006) says, There is no comprehension without picturing. Neurons also fire together when learning is connected to movement. A group of students in Kats beginning ESL class struggled with the pronunciation of refrigerator, putting primary stress on the final syllable, as they would in Spanish. Kat had the students stand up and repeat a sentence using refrigerator, but when they got to the word, everyone did The Wave on the primary stressed syllable, -frig. Pronunciation improved quickly and many students continued to do some form of The Wave in connection with the word refrigerator many months afterwards. The combination of learning and doing creates a powerful neural connection. Neurons that are used together in learning something new are permanently linked and will fire together whenever that memory is recalled (J. LeTellier, 2006). Another connection between movement and learning retention has to do with what research shows about brain plasticity. It was once believed that we are born with a set number of brain cells, brain cells die off as we age and thats all we get. It is now known that the brain is quite malleable and it does make new neurons (Brown, 2007). Physical exercise can dial up that process (Begely, 2007 in Brown, 2007).
1

The term metability was created by Betty K. Garner to describe the, ongoing, dynamic, interactive cycle of learning, creating, and changing, (Garner, 2007, pp. xiv-xv).

Exercise gets blood, oxygen, and nutrients to the brain and stimulates the production of neurotrophins that, enhance growth, impact mood, cement memory, and enhance connections between neurons, (Jensen, 2000, p. 165). Adults who exercise can improve their ability to learn and retain information. There can be many reasons why a student has difficulty learning something presented in class and the teacher is unlikely to know all or even some of those reasons. Neurons that fire together wire together. Connect new material with prior knowledge, promote visualization and questioning, help students discover patterns and formulate rules, and connect learning with physical movement to build and strengthen cognitive structures. Differentiation No discussion about retention can be complete without also discussing its opposite: forgetting.(Social Learning Blog: Training and Performance Improvement in the Real World) I found this quote on a social learning blog to be quite interesting. How do we make the learning experience unforgettable? One of the keys is differentiation. By knowing your learners and planning strategically an effective educator can make learning stick. The two key components of effective education are knowledge of the content being taught and knowledge of the individuals we are teaching. The first step is to create a learning environment that makes students feel emotionally safe. By being invested in individual student success we send a message to our learners that we are in this together. Knowing your learner also enables you to assess the readiness, the learning styles and interests of each person. Each learner comes to the classroom with different strengths, skills and life experiences. Each person also comes into the classroom with varying levels of cognitive abilities and

attitudes about school. Being invested in differentiation requires a commitment on the part of the teacher to learn about the students being taught. Readiness refers to a students knowledge, understanding, and skill related to a particular sequence of learning, (Corley, 2005, para. 5). It is suggested that one way to address different levels of readiness is to allow students to complete different activities addressing the same concept. Interest arises from topics that evoke curiosity and passion in students and in which they want to invest time and energy to learn about, (Corley, 2005, para. 6). When we know our students and what interests them we can build on the natural passion they already have for the subject. By using a group activity where participants create a walk-about answering questions about what they know what they want to know and how much they already know about a particular subject can help real time dynamic planning begin to take place. Corley talks about the learning profile or preference for learning. This could include learning style, culture, gender and intelligence types. We know that learners use different learning styles and processes to gather, assimilate and retain information. If we can co-create a learning profile with each student we can provide multiple choices for each student to demonstrate mastery. While it is true that all learners need to be given access to the same content; teachers who are committed to differentiation will be able to make adjustments to the degree of complexity by using diverse instructional process to teach the content. (Corley, 2005, para. 8). Differentiation requires an investment of time on behalf of the instructor. Assessing each individuals needs is a time consuming process. However if we are to move teachers from dispenser of knowledge to facilitator of learning it will take a

commitment to differentiation and a new way of thinking to make learning relevant, meaningful and in turn boost retention. Using modern technology to support learner retention In most developed nations, we are living in a hyper-fast, hyper-connected world. Information is readily available at our fingertips through the Internet, and smart phones are creating what seems to be an almost symbiotic relationship between user and handheld device. When looking at technology in academia, its becoming evident that our world is becoming rich with new ways of learning through technology. A quick glance over at sites like www.khanacademy.org, www.teacherspodcast.org or www.educationarcade.org shows that this technology can be used to fit anyones schedule as well as learning style. Using this Web 2.0 technology and simulations in the classroom is a way for teacher to use the way the, outside world approaches meaning, socialization and accomplishment (Klopfer et. al., 2009). Moreover, this technology can be used to elicit higher order thinking skills in students and it should be used as a tool for educators to increase learning retention. Not only is the technology that we have available to us changing our world on the outside, its also changing how we think, learn and communicate (Klopfer et. al., 2009). What may have seem like brain-dead activities through the use of games, simulations and social media, should actually be regarded as tools that a teacher can use to foster 21st Century skills. JISC (2009a and 2009b) highlights creating 21st Century skills such as communication, critical thinking, networking, and that soft skills like autonomy and teamwork can be introduced through social networking sites (SNS), games and simulations. Social networking sites empower the student through creation of their own online identity. or avatar, and are tools for teachers to give the students an opportunity

to partake in relevant evaluation, as well as collaboration. Richardson (2010) states that SNS allows people to engage in, self-directed, peer-based learning, (p.132). Also, SNS allows users to participate in social engagement through cooperation and interactivity that creates a networked learning, which is in contrast to the winnertake-all atmosphere that can be prevalent in the traditional classroom (Richardson, 2010). Social networks allow students to continue their learning after the class ends (Richardson, 2010). They give the students an opportunity to be involved in an online learning community that can help them succeed, and it gives the students a chance to reflect on how far they have come. Another aspect of technology that can be used as a tool to enhance learning retention is using games and simulations that incorporate problem-based learning. Simulations such as Second Life or Sims allow users to learn quickly from their mistakes, test solutions and hypotheses, and reflect on the choices they made (Lefever and Currant, 2010). Moreover, teachers can use virtual environments as tools to help transition students into the world that they will eventually enter (JISC 2009 a & b; Cann, 2008). This can be viewed as experiential learning where learners can negotiate meaning based on their own experience and direct their own learning-such as online collaboration with others,(Lefever and Currant 2010, p. 22). Furthermore, parallels can be drawn between games, simulations and SNS given the fact that each venue allows the learner to become involved in the online learning community, as well as continue to strengthen their skills once the class ends (Richardson, 2010). Having students become involved in collaboration and giving them control of the learning process is one way to increase engagement among learners. Through increased engagement, learners will be more motivated to continue to learn. The use of technology can be seen as a way to foster these qualities in students, and may

motivate them to develop their skills and boost confidence (Lefever and Currant, 2010). When examined with an educational lens, as well as what constitutes good learning, games, simulations and social networking sites should seriously be considered as a tool for educators to use in their practice.

Problem based learning Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject though the experience of problem solving. According to Wikipedia, PBL was first developed in the 1960s by Howard Burrows, at McMaster University Medical School. The goal was to create a curriculum that motivated the learners to seek knowledge, and increase retention, improve problem-solving skills and develop collaboration and critical thinking skills. Since it was first conceived, PBL has been widely adopted by medical school and other graduate-level programs, as well as for instruction at the elementary, secondary and undergraduate educational levels. PBL, regardless of subject matter, follows a regular series of steps, according to Terry Barrett on AISHE.org. First, the students are presented with a problem. This is in contrast to traditional learning, where the problem is used to illustrate or demonstrate a concept. In PBL, the students encounter the problem before they have gained the knowledge to solve it. To solve the problem, the students are divided into small tutorial groups. Once in their groups, the students begin to discuss the problem. They must work to determine every facet of the problem, from listing the facts they already know to the questions (also referred to as learning issues) that they must answer to move forward in the problem-solving process. At this point, the students have already begun to develop ideas and a plan for solving the problem. After the

tutorial, the students leave to gather information independently on their learning issues. The students may draw on a multitude of sources including the library, databases, the Internet and firsthand accounts. Once they have gathered information independently, the students return to their tutorial group to share their findings amongst their peers, and use their newfound knowledge to refine their list of possible solutions to the original problem. This process of discussion of facts, determination of learning issues, self-study, and revision may be repeated several times, until the group can accept a final solution to the problem, which they then present to the instructor. Finally, the group analyzes the process itself, including peer review, to determine ways to improve the collaborative effort. PBL fosters increased retention by emphasizing active learning, versus the passive process of sitting in a lecture hall, copying notes. A study by Rahn and Moraga (2007) showed increased learning in a graduate level engineering decision theory class. The test group had to complete a performance assessment task (PBL), covering a subset of content also evaluated via traditional cognitive test. Further, the group that completed the performance assessment task also displayed increased scores on the final cognitive test, in that same subset of subject matter, versus students who had not. One of the main concerns with PBL is the ability to implement it successfully in a curriculum. Because the small group tutorial is the crux of PBL, instruction of this style can be prohibitively time or personnel intensive. In 2011, Klegeris and Hurren studied the use of PBL in a large classroom setting. In this setting, the initial problem is presented to a large class (50-80 students). The students, already arrayed in their pre-assigned small groups of 7-9 students, begin the process of analyzing the problem. The individual group discussions are not supervised, as there is only one

instructor in the room. The small group discussions are then followed by an open classroom discussion with all the groups participating and the instructor moderating. During the discussion, the groups may take notes, later used to formulate learning issues. The process repeats itself until the allotted class time elapses. The students then take the learning issues they have determined and leave to begin their self-study. The next case sessions follow the same process until the entirety of the case is revealed and all case materials and objectives have been completed. Results of this study indicated a significant increase in the students abilities to problem-solve, reflected in an increase in the number of reasonable answers given in response to a question. What is more important, there was a significant increase in student satisfaction and motivation to participate. Additionally, students believed that their retention was improved, and they were more likely to attend class. Like all educational curriculums, a PBL curriculum must be carefully designed and structured. This is essential to assure that all learning content goals are addressed and mastered. Students unfamiliar with PBL also require time to adjust to the pedagogy. In a 2011 study from Yadav, et al, students indicated frustration at the lack of readily available information, as compared with traditional lecture, and believed that they did not learn as much. However, empirical results indicate the opposite. During the transition to the PBL method, faculty should clearly explain the process and the advantages, as well as highlighting that other students may have similar difficulties. Creating a support network for the transition may aid the process. Further, assessment should be focused not only factual knowledge, but also conceptual understanding, thus reinforcing the learning process and deemphasizing negative consequences of making errors.

PBL focuses on creating a habit of lifelong learning. By forcing the students to examine a wide variety of content, they learn to develop a method of assessing the information and applying it to solve a problem. The collaboration inherent in PBL improves students capabilities beyond the subject matter and increases the ability to plan and communicate. Finally, PBL increases retention of information amongst students, indicating that the student has in fact learned, rather than just been taught. Conclusion Learning does indeed take work (J. LeTellier, 2006). It is something that an instructor needs to analyze through what is happening cognitively through activities and interactions. Moreover, understanding how learning works gives teachers insights into how amazing the human brain is, as well as provides a teacher with new methods to make learning stick for a student. Through new research on the structure of the brain and using methods such as problem based learning and technology, it is clear that since the human brain is a muscle, that in order for this muscle to grow, it needs to be challenged in new ways. Consequently, the term use it or lose it applies when it comes to the brain and retention. Luckily, teachers today have a plethora of materials available to them on learning research that they can use to improve their pedagogy.

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