Final Report

Automatic VHDL code generation for Fuzzy Logic system using FPGA
ABSTRACT The project aims to design a Traffic Light Controller using VHDL and implement the Traffic Light Controller in FPGA. The traffic in road crossings/junctions is controlled by switching ON/OFF Red, Green & Amber lights in a particular sequence. The Traffic Light Controller is designed to generate a sequence of digital data called switching sequences that can be used to control the traffic lights of a junction.
16 bit microprocessor design in VHDL with implementation on FPGA provides compact and robust solution for existing Traffic System. Mechanical traffic lights got degrade after some time due to environmental factors which affects the delay. With VHDL based traffic lights controller we can also control multiple locations at a same time.
G.H.Raisoni Institute of Engineering and Technology,Pune 1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The monitoring and control of city traffic is becoming a major problem in many countries. With the ever increasing number of vehicles on the road, the Traffic Monitoring Authority or the Transport Ministry as the authority is known here in Malaysia has to find new ways or measures of overcoming such a problem. The measures taken are development of new roads and flyovers in the middle of the city; building of several ring such as the inner ring road, middle ring road and outer ring road; introduction of city trains such as the light rapid transit (LRT), and monorails; restricting of large vehicles in the city during peak hours; and also development of sophisticated traffic monitoring and control systems.
Fuzzy logic technology allows the implementation of real-life rules similar to the way humans would think. For example, humans would think in the following way to control traffic situation at a certain junction: if the traffic is heavier on the north or south lanes and the traffic on the west or east lanes is less, then the traffic lights should stay green longer for the north and south lanes. Such rules can now be easily accommodated in the fuzzy logic controller. The beauty of fuzzy logic is that it allows fuzzy terms and conditions such as heavy, less, and longer to be quantized and understood by the computer.
A large numbers of fuzzy control applications with the physical systems require a real-time operation to interface high speed constraints; higher density programmable logic
devices such as field programmable gate array (FPGA) can be used to integrate large amounts of logic in a single IC.
The best part of using FPGA is we can easily reprogram it. We do not have need to remove the FPGA from the hardware we can program it by placing it into the same board.
The motivation behind the implementation of a fuzzy controller in VHDL was driven by the need for an inexpensive hardware implementation of a generic fuzzy controller for use in industrial and commercial applications. A very simple fuzzy controller is used to demonstrate this implementation. In the controller, an external devices information, such as that from a sensor, etc., is converted into an output control signal to drive a device(s) such as motors,actuators etc., via the process of fuzzification, rule evaluation and defuzzification . These processes are all based on a set of membership functions and the details of this process can be found in numerous publications.
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY
The traffic light controlling system was proposed in which the original relay wiring was replaced by the program, and the hardware and software resources of PLC were used reasonably.
The system simplified the communication between PLC and Host Computer .
But the algorithm was developed for coordinating adjacent traffic signals only and wastage of time due to delay was another problem.
Using VHDL an algorithm was developed for coordinating adjacent traffic signals. This technique uses sensors networks along with embedded system.
The Infrared Sensors are applied to detect vehicles is mounted on road.
But this technique was only for neighboring intersection.
CPLD based Traffic lights provide programmable accurate delay with preventive measures from environmental hazards.
With VHDL based traffic lights controller we can also control multiple locations at a same time.
CHAPTER 3 FUZZY LOGIC
3.1 Evaluation Of Fuzzy Logic
In bivalent logic, BL, truth is bivalent, implying that every proposition, p, is either true or false, with no degrees of truth allowed. In multivalent logic, ML, truth is a matter of degree In fuzzy logic, FL: everything is, or is allowed to be, to be partial, i.e., a matter of degree everything is, or is allowed to be, imprecise (approximate) everything is, or is allowed to be, granular (linguistic) everything is, or is allowed to be, perception based
Fuzzy logic is much more general than traditional logical systems. The greater generality of fuzzy logic is needed to deal with complex problems in the realms of search, question-answering decision and control. Fuzzy logic provides a foundation for the development of new tools for dealing with natural languages and knowledge representation. Among these tools are: Computing with Words (CW); PrecisiatedNatural Language (PNL); Computational Theory of Perceptions (CTP); ProtoformTheory (PT); Theory of Hierarchical Definability (THD); Perception-Based Probability Theory (PTp); Unified Theory of Uncertainty (UTU).
3.2 What Is Fuzzy Logic?
Fuzzy logic is very efficient technology to put engineering knowledge right into a technical solution. Fuzzy logic refers to a logical system that generalizes the crisp true-orfalse concept to a matter of degree. Fuzzy logic provides the mechanism by which numerical and linguistic information can be operated in a systematic manner.
Commercially, fuzzy logic has been used with great success to control machines & consumer products. In the right applications fuzzy logic systems are simple to design & can be implemented by non-specialists in control theory. Fuzzy logic is not the answer to all technical problems where simplicity &speed of implementation is important then fuzzy logic is the strong candidate.
Software implementation of fuzzy logic on general purpose computers cannot be considered as a suitable design solution for this type of application, in such cases, design specifications can be matched by specialized fuzzy processors. Higher density programmable logic devices such as FPGA can be used to integrate large amounts of logic in a single IC.
Fuzzy logic (FL) is aimed at a formalization of modes of reasoning which are approximate rather than exact. examples: exact all men are mortal Socrates is a man Socrates is mortal Approximate most Swedes are tall Magnus is a Swede it is likely that Magnus is tall
FL/L Logic (narrow sense FL)
Epistemic FL/E
F.G
FL/S Set-theoretic
FL/R Relational Fig 3.2.1.Principal aspects of fuzzy logic F:Fuzziness/Fuzzification G:Granularity/Granulation F.G:F and G
The logical facet, FL/L, is focused on logical systems in which truth is a matter of degree a degree which is allowed to be a fuzzy set.The set-theoretic facet, FL/S, is concerned, in the main, with the theory of fuzzy sets. Most of the mathematical literature on fuzzy logic relates to FL/SThe relational facet, FL/R, is focused on fuzzy dependencies, granulation, linguistic variables and fuzzy rule sets. Most practical applications of fuzzy logic relate to FL/R.
The epistemic facet, FL/E, is concerned, in the main, with knowledge representation, natural languages, semantics and expert systems. Probabilistic and possibilistic modes of reasoning are a part of this facet as well as FL/L and FL/R
Fuzzy logic has been and still is, though to a lesser degree, an object of controversy.For the most part, the controversies are rooted in misperceptions, especially a misperception of the relation between fuzzy logic and probability theory,a source of confusion is that the label fuzzy logic is used in two different senses.
(a) narrow sense: fuzzy logic is a logical system (b) wide sense: fuzzy logic is coextensive with fuzzy set theory. Today, the label fuzzy logic (FL) is used for the most part in its wide sense.
3.3 Some Comments On Fuzzy Logic
R.E. KALMAN Let me say quite categorically that there is no such thing as a fuzzy concept, We do talk about fuzzy things but they are not scientific concepts. Some people in the past have discovered certain interesting things, formulated their findings in a non-fuzzy way, and therefore we have progressed in science.
3.4 Why Fuzzy Logic ?
In the evolution of science a time comes when alongside the brilliant successes of a theory, T, what become visible are classes of problems which fall beyond the reach of T. At that point, the stage is set for a progression from T to T*--a generalization of T.Among the many historical examples are the transitions from Newtonian mechanics to quantum mechanics; from linear system theory to nonlinear system theory; and from deterministic models to probabilistic models in economics and decision analysis.
Fuzzy logic is a better approximation to reality
In this perspective, a fundamental point--a point which is not as yet widely recognized-is that there are many classes of problems which cannot be addressed by any theory, T, which is based on bivalent logic. The problem with bivalent logic is that it is in fundamental conflict with realitya reality in which almost everything is a matter of degree.To address such problems what is needed is a logic for modes of reasoning which are approximate rather than exact. This is what fuzzy logic is aimed at.
3.5 Principal Applications Of Fuzzy Logic Control consumer products industrial systems automotive decision analysis medicine geology pattern recognition robotics
3.6 Emerging Applications Of Fuzzy Logic
computational theory of perceptions natural language processing financial engineering biomedicine legal reasoning
CHAPTER 4 FUZZY CONTROLLER
4.1 Introduction
The fuzzy controller takes input values from the real world. These values are referred to as "crisp" values since they are represented as a single number, not a fuzzy one. In order for the fuzzy controller to understand the inputs, the crisp input has to be converted to a fuzzy number. This process is called fuzzification. The next step in the fuzzy control process is the implementation of the rule base. This is where the fuzzy inputs are compared and based on the membership of each, the fuzzy output is chosen. For a 2 input system with 7 membership functions for each input, there would be 49 fuzzy rules to compute since they are anded together. The final step is to convert the fuzzy outputs of the rule-base to crisp ones. This process is known as defuzzification. This process will take a fuzzy number and apply it to a membership function to achieve the crisp number that will be sent to the real world.
4.2 Block Diagram of Fuzzy Logic Controller:
PreProcessing
Fuzzificatio n
Inference engine
Defuzzifica tion
PostProcessing
Rule-Base
Fig.4.2.1 Basic block diagram of fuzzy logic controller
Description Of Block Diagram: The block diagram is mainly consists of: Preprocessing Fuzzification Inference engine & rule base Defuzzification Postprocessing
4.2.1
Preprocessing:
A preprocessor conditions the measured inputs before they enter the controller and maps crisp inputs into a standard universe.
4.2.2
Fuzzification:
Fuzzification converts each crisp input datum into a degree of membership to one or several membership functions. Crisp values are converted into fuzzy values. There are numerous different types of membership functions. Among them, the two most commonly used in practice are the triangular and trapezoidal membership functions (triangular membership function being a special case of the trapezoidal function).
Each trapezoidal membership function is defined by two points and two slope values. The entire membership function can be divided into three segments: 0, 1 and 2 as shown in Figure 3.The Y axis shows the degree of membership () as a value between 0 and 1. The X axis shows the universe of discourse and is divided into three segments. The degree of membership depends on the location of the input value with reference to these three segments. Figure 3 shows how trapezoidal input membership functions are formed in the fuzzification process [8, 9, 10]. The calculation of the degree of membership (() can be categorized into three different segments: (a) in segment 0: (b) in segment 1: = 0, slope is upward from left to right, therefore:
= (Input value point 1) * slope1, where is limited to a maximum value of 1, (c) in segment 2: slope is downward from left to right, therefore: = 1 - (Input value point 2) * slope 2, where is limited to a minimum value of 0.
Fig.4.2.2 Trapezoidal membership function As an example, lets use the input value of 10 to calculate the degree of membership function. Using an 8-bit resolution computation, = 1 equals to $FF or 255 in decimal (the $ sign indicates hexadecimal number representation). The values of Point 1 and Point 2 are $04 and $09, respectively, and the two slopes can be calculated as follows: Slope 1 = 1 / (6 4) = $FF / 2 = 255 / 2 = 127 = $7F (1) and Slope 2 = 1 / (12 9) = $FF / 3 = 255 / 3 = 85 = $55 (2) Since the input value of 10 ($0A) is greater than Point 2 and lies in segment 2, therefore: = $FF (Input value point 2) * slope 2 = $FF ($0A - $09)*$55 = $AA (3)
4.2.3
Inference Engine & Rule Base:
An inference engine translates the nonlinear input vector into a scalar output using fuzzy rules. The fuzzy inference engine uses membership functions to represent the input and output conditions. Membership functions maps fuzzy set elements to real numbered values Normally it contains rules in linguistic format (if-then), but other formats (relational and tabular) can also be used.
A rule usually takes the form of IF-THEN statement as follow: IF x is A AND y is B THEN z is C (4) AND is a fuzzy operator which is the minimum operation between the two antecedents. In VHDL, the following minimum function is used to obtain the result of each rule evaluation between two variables: function minimum(a, b: std_logic_vector) return std_logic_vector is variable min: std_logic_vector(7 downto 0) := (others => '0');begin if a < b then min := a; else min := b; end if; return min; end minimum; There is also an implied OR operation between successive rules when more than one rule is involved with the same output. The linguistic rule, IF (x1 is A1 AND y1 is B1) OR (x2 is A2 AND y2 is B2) THEN z is C , can be implemented by taking the maximum value of all the results with the same consequent block. In VHDL code, a function of taking the maximum of two input variables to determine the final result of all rules with the same output can be written as: function maximum(a, b: std_logic_vector) return std_logic_vector is variable max: std_logic_vector(7 downto 0) := (others => '0'); begin if a > b then max := a; else max := b; end if; return max; end maximum; By combining the minimum and maximum functions, the truth value for each rule can be obtained as: C <= maximum( minimum(A1, B1), minimum(A2, B2));
4.2.4
Defuzzification:
Defuzzification is a process of changing the fuzzy control signal that comes from the inference engine into a crisp output that can be used to control the system at hand. There are several types of defuzzification including Center of Gravity (COG), Bisector of Area (BOA), and Mean of Maxima (MOM).
During the defuzzification process, each fuzzy output is multiplied by its corresponding single on position. The sum of this product is divided by the sum of all fuzzy output to obtain the result of the final output. In VHDL, this is implemented as: For i = 1 to n do begin product = (s(i) f(i)) + product; sum = f[i] + sum; end for loop; output = product / sum; Although several types of membership functions, such as singleton, trapezoidal etc., could beused to describe the output using VHDL, the defuzzification calculation are not the same, some are more complicated than others. If trapezoidal shapes are used, finding the center of gravity and overall area of the membership functions are considerably more complicated than the calculation on singletons, and the results are not necessary effective or better.
4.2.5. Post-Processing:
Post-processing is used to scale the output of the FLS. The output from the FLS is defined on a standard universe that should be scaled or translated to engineering units(such as volts, amperes, etc.).
4.3. Advantages of Fuzzy Logic:

The fuzzy controller also has an advantage of performing according to linguistic rules in the manner of how a human would use. The fuzzy logic control system provides better performance in terms of total waiting time as well as total moving time. Less waiting time. Reduce the fuel consumption. Reduce air and noise pollution.
CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROLLER
5.1 Overview Traffic signal control has become an important operational measure of road traffic management, in particular as it has become more and more difficult to provide sufficient road space despite growing traffic demand. Since traffic signal systems directly intervene in traffic by alternatively stopping or releasing traffic flows which share conflict zones, they have to be designed, implemented and operated very carefully. This section will present the traffic signal system according to "Steering Committee Traffic Control and Traffic Safety".
5.2 System Overview
As a controlled automatic system, a traffic signal system can be divided on: detectors, a controller and actuators. Detectors are the elements that transform a physical information in a eletrical signal that can be undestood by a controller. Actuators are the elements that transform an eletrical signal came from the controller in a physical actuation. The controller is the elemnet that have all logic rules to control actuators based on signals came from the detectors.
In a traffic signal system the parts that constitute the system are:
detectors: loops (for vehicles presence detection), pedestrian buttons (for pedestrian detection), internal clock (time detection). controller: traffic light controller. actuators: traffic lights (severals states).
The design of a traffic signal system covers the selection of the control strategy, i.e. the selection of severals rules to change the traffic lights based on the detectors information. These rules are dependent on the traffic engineer description of control, on the calculation of the signal program elements as well the road traffic engineering design of the intersection, road section or part of a netwok including the corresponding control measures.
The individual components, as for exemple the actual layout of the intersection, the division of approaches into lanes, the direction of pedestrians and cyclists and the signalization of the individual traffic streams have to be coordinated in a way that precondition for safe traffic flow are given under all operational condition and for all traffic loads. Road space layout, traffic layout and signalisation have to form an integrated whole.
Summarizing, the controller internal logic is based on a control strategy that will depend on traffic stream, intersection layout and etc. Based on these studies a control strategy is built using logic functions depending on previous signal configurations, time on the current signal configuration and others detectors activation. This logic act in two levels on traffic lights: state changing and stateperiod. See fig 4
However, as said before, the control strategy will depend on all intersection layout and stream, thus, the changes on time and state of a sigle traffic light has to follow all other changes on the traffic lights at the intersection. Therefore, the control strategy has to be related to configurations of all signal groups at the intersection et not just one especific traffic light.
Fig 5.2.1 controller internal logic
5.3 Control Strategies
Control strategy in a traffic light control can be classified in two types: regulative and adaptative traffic control. "Regulative traffic control is preferred if a rigid operational traffic management is desired on certain road sections. It requires constant traffic streams featuring only long-term changes in volume since it not meant to react to short-term variations on traffic demand". Otherwise "Adaptative traffic control is preferred if
actuated operational traffic management is desired, taking into account the prevailing traffic situation even at short-term variations of volume or direction of traffic".
In a Regulative traffic control the system normally consist in a controller and his traffic lights. As only input the time will be the sigle variable used into the control actuation. In this strategy, as there are constant streams, other detectors normally are not necessary. Therefore, controllers logic is based just in fixed times came from traffic flow studies at the intersection and its actuation is based on a comparation between passed time and the fixed times given by studies.
In an Adaptative traffic control strategy other detectors are constantly used and they will interfere in the controller logic to changes phases at the intersection.In this strategy, not just time is used to act on the system and all detectors, depending on priorities, can have an influence on the output.
5.4 Detectors
To understand what kind of influence and changes we can have in an adaptative traffic control strategy it is necessary to know what kind of information we can measure. Even if to vehicles detection normally there are only loops on the ground detecting vehicle presence, its possible to have many different variables that will ifluence on the control strategy. With some different disposition or changing loop length is possible to measure:
time headways: Time between two vehicles. traffic volume: Number of cars in an specific period of time. period of occupancy: Time that a vehicle stayed on the detector. speed: With two loops in sequence is possible to measure speed.
To pedestrians detection there is a pedestrian button that detects a pedestrian presence when he pushes the button.
Therefore, mixing time detection with presence loops its possible to create a series of variables that will influence f function. Thus, we have a intermediate step between stectors and logical function on controllers (Fig. 5)
Figure 5.4.1 controller internal logic with an intermediate treatment
All these variables will be analyzed by the controller logic, it will compare the instant variable with minimums and maximums values for this variable. As result, the controller will chose an actuation form.
5.5 Actuators
As it can be seen in fig. 1 and 2 the controller logic function output will depend on all its input variables. Until the moment its known that output can influence choosing stay at the same signals configuration (or define a duration time to the current signal configuration) or change to another one. [1] defines 4 different possible influence but in a intermediate level, influendes that changes a internal level on the control function.
5.6 Internal Parameters This section will give some important internal controllers concepts. Concepts defined, it will be possible to understand how the internal logic is modeled and how exactly the control acts. Therefore, it will be possible to understand how the logic function is designed.
5.7 Traffic Light
As said in the previous section traffic light is the actuator of the system. It can be a two (pedestrian) or three (vehicles) colors traffic light whose states can be:
Released: Dark Yellow Blinking On Green Green Blinking Released
Closed: Red Off Blinking Closed
Transition: Yellow Green Blinking Transition Red-Yellow
Unknown in special cases.
Moreover, for some control strategies there are well defined sequece, for exemple for normal vehicle traffic the color sequence is Green-Yellow-Red an for pedestrian traffic light is Green-Red-Green. The control strategy consists in make choices on the traffic light state and on how much time the traffic light will stay on this state.
5.7.1 Phase
As was said a controller has to control the stream in all direction at an intersection. To achieve this goal some traffic light configurations are continuously repeated. These configurations are called phases. [1] gives a more rigorous definition: "A phase is that part of a signal program during which a certain basic signalization stage do not change, whereby the green times of the released traffic streams do not necessarily have to begin and end at the same time". For example, in a simple intersection with 4 traffic lights to simplify traffic lights are supposed to change between 2 states: red and green a controller can have a minimum of 2 phases.
It can have more phases if specific cases, as for turning left, are treated. Thus, a controller stratagy has it logic for control the sequence of possible phases and not just individual traffic lights.
Fig 5.7.1. Phases of traffic light
5.7.2 Cycle
The logic controller function will chose, depending on controller input variables on time, a sequence of phases that respect all requirements to a good road traffic management. A sequence starting on a phase "a" than over some phases comes back to phase "a" is called cycle. A control strategy can also changes a cycle depending on controller income variables.
5.7.3 Program
A group of cycles carrying the same influences (rules) by a control is called program. The program are use for long-term changes on cycles. To control strategy its possible classify control input variables effect in two types: macro and micro affectation. Macro affectation will interfere in program changes (long-term changes on sequence and duration time) and micro affectations will interfere on the cycles (time and sequence of phases).
5.7.4 Actuation on Internal Parameters
As was previous said, the controller actuation has an intermediate level actuating on the internal parameters (phase, cycle, program) before giving the final visual effect on traffic lights and on the traffic flow. We have seen previously 4 different possible influence on internal parameters (figure 7 for an overview):
Green Periods: Changing in green times (actuation on duration times in a sequence of phases sharing the same green state in a single traffic light). Phase Swapping: Alter phases sequence (actuation on number of phases in a cycle). Request of a demand phase: Alter number of phases and green periods (actuation on the phase number and duration time at the same time). Signal Program Formation: Can alter green times, phase sequence, phase numbers and change the cycle time. (very open strategy)
Fig 5.7.4. Overview of control stratrgies
5.7.5 Control Strategy and Internal Parameters
In a Regulative traffic control all internal parameters are fixed and determinists. The programs are time-fixed, so there is a schedule that control a program change during a day. Cycles are also time-fixed and for each program there is just one cycle, therefore, there is a fixed sequence of phases that repeats in loop. In consequence, phases are timefixed as traffic light states as well.
In an Adaptative traffic control strategy all previous affectations are possibles. There are micro and macro affectations, different cycles in a program due to duration time changing in phases or due to phase inclusion on the middle of a cycle.
CHAPTER 6 FPGA: FIELD PROGRAMMABLE GATE ARRAY
6.1 Introduction
Fig 6.1 An example of a Xilinx Spartan FPGA programming/evaluation board
A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit designed to be configured by the customer or designer after manufacturinghence "field-
programmable". The FPGA configuration is generally specified using a hardware description language (HDL), similar to that used for an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) (circuit diagrams were previously used to specify the configuration, as they
were for ASICs, but this is increasingly rare). FPGAs can be used to implement any logical function that an ASIC could perform. The ability to update the functionality after shipping, partial re-configuration of the portion of the design and the low non-recurring engineering costs relative to an ASIC design (notwithstanding the generally higher unit cost), offer advantages for many applications. FPGAs contain programmable logic components called "logic blocks", and a hierarchy of reconfigurable interconnects that allow the blocks to be "wired together"somewhat like many (changeable) logic gates that can be inter-wired in (many) different configurations. Logic blocks can be configured to perform complex combinational functions, or merely simple logic gates like AND and XOR. In most FPGAs, the logic blocks also include memory elements, which may be simple flip-flops or more complete blocks of memory.[2] In addition to digital functions, some FPGAs have analog features. The most common analog feature is programmable slew rate and drive strength on each output pin, allowing the engineer to set slow rates on lightly loaded pins that would otherwise ring unacceptably, and to set stronger, faster rates on heavily loaded pins on high-speed channels that would otherwise run too slow.[3][4] Another relatively common analog feature is differential comparators on input pins designed to be connected to differential signaling channels. A few "mixed signal FPGAs" have integrated peripheral Analog-toDigital Converters (ADCs) and Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs) with analog signal conditioning blocks allowing them to operate as a system-on-a-chip.[5] Such devices blur the line between an FPGA, which carries digital ones and zeros on its internal programmable interconnect fabric, and field-programmable analog array (FPAA), which carries analog values on its internal programmable interconnect fabric.
FPGAs can be characterized by the following items: High production cost Low design density Programmable fabric adds significant overhead No NRE and Re-Spin cost Low development effort Low dead-time simplified timing No test vectors Relaxed verification
6.2 Block Diagram ROM
Address to
data input from lookup table
A/D CONVERTER
Lookup table INPUT
D/A
OUTPUT
CONVERTER
INPUT
Fig.6.2.1 Block diagram of fuzzy control board with FPGA
FPGA CHIP The FPGA chip is most important factor in this project. The above fig.2 shows the block diagram of fuzzy control board with FPGA. The block diagram consists of: 1. A/D converter 2. ROM 3. FPGA 4. D/A converter The A/D converter converts analog inputs into digital output i.e. fuzzy output which is given to the FPGA chip.This chip process on the inputs from A/D converter and input from ROM memory. The FPGA chip gives address inputs to the ROM. The output of FPGA chip is given to the D/A converter which converts the digit output into analog output
6.3 FPGA Technology in Detail FPGAs are chips, which are programmed by the customer to perform the desired functionality. The chips may be programmed either: Once: Antifuse technology, e.g. devices manufactured by Quick logic Several times: Flash based e.g. Devices manufactures by Actel Dynamically: SRAM based e.g. Devices manufactured by Actel, Altera, Atmel, Cypress, Lucent, Xilinx
Each technology has its own advantages, which shall be discussed only very briefly: Antifuse FPGAs: Devices are configured by burning a set of fuses. Once the chip is configured, it cannot be altered any more.Bug fixes and updates possible for new PCBs, but hardly for already manufactured boards.ASIC replacement for small volumes. Flash FPGAs: Devices may be re-programmed several thousand times and are non- volatile, i.e. keep their configuration after power-off. With marginal additional effort, the chips may be updated in the field Expensive Re-configuration takes several seconds
The CLBs form the central logic structure with easy access to all support and routing structures. The IOBs are located around all the logic and memory elements for easy and quick routing of signals on and off the chip.
SRAM FPGAs Currently the dominating technology Unlimited re-programming Additional circuitry is required to load the configuration into the
FPGA after power- on Re-configuration is very fast, some devices allow even partial reconfiguration during operation. Allows new approaches and applications
FPGA are two dimensional arrays of logic blocks and flip-flops with an electrically programmable interconnection between logic blocks. The interconnections consist of electrically programmable switches which is why FPGA differs from Custom ICs, as Custom IC is programmed using integrated circuit fabrication technology to form metal interconnections between logic blocks. In an FPGA logic blocks are implemented using multiple level low fan in gates, which gives it a more compact design compared to an implementation with two-level AND-OR logic. FPGA can be programmed as per user requirement.
6.4 Traffic Light controller with FPGA: Traffic signal is an essential element to manage the transportation network. Modern approaches towards designing traffic signal controllers suggest way to convert loop detector data or video detector into no. of vehicles waiting for queue for a major arterial intersection under interrupted traffic flow conditions by means of fuzzy logic and neural networks Intelligent traffic control system is generally designed for different traffic parameters. The important parameters which contributes most for all types of traffic like homogeneous and heterogeneous in urban, rural and metro cities are : a) Congestion at the intersection, b) Delay in traffic and c) Synchronization of signal at current intersection with the signal at neighboring intersection.
fig 6.4.1 conflicts in traffic signal
CHAPTER 7 SOFTWARE USED
7.1 Matlab
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include Math and computation Algorithm development Data acquisition Modeling, simulation, and prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific and engineering graphics Application development, including graphical user interface building MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar noninteractive language such as C or Fortran.
The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API). This is a library that allows you to write C and Fortran programs that interact with MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.
7.1.1 Some functions of Matlab used in the coding:
ycbcr2rgb
The function rgb2ycbcr converts colormaps or RGB images to the YCbCr color space. ycbcr2rgb performs the reverse operation. For example, these commands convert an RGB image to YCbCr format.
Example RGB = imread('peppers.png'); YCBCR = rgb2ycbcr(RGB
rgb2gray
Convert an RGB image or colormap to grayscale Syntax I = rgb2gray(RGB) example newmap = rgb2gray(map)
imerode
IM2 = imerode(IM,SE) erodes the grayscale, binary, or packed binary image IM, returning the eroded image IM2. The argument SE is a structuring element object or array of structuring element objects returned by the strel function Syntax IM2 = imerode(IM,SE).
imdilate
IM2 = imdilate(IM,SE) dilates the grayscale, binary, or packed binary image IM, returning the dilated image, IM2. The argument SE is a structuring element object, or array of structuring element objects, returned by the strel function. Syntax IM2 = imdilate(IM,SE)
7.2 Xillin
7.2.1 Xilinx ISE Overview The Integrated Software Environment (ISE) is the Xilinx design software suite that allows you to take your design from design entry through Xilinx device programming. The ISE Project Navigator manages and processes your design through the following steps in the ISE design flow.
7.2.2 Design Entry
Design entry is the first step in the ISE design flow. During design entry, you create your source files based on your design objectives. You can create your top-level design file using a Hardware Description Language (HDL), such as VHDL, Verilog, or ABEL, or using a schematic. You can use multiple formats for the lower-level source files in your design.
After design entry and optional simulation, you run synthesis. During this step, VHDL, Verilog, or mixed language designs become netlist files that are accepted as input to the implementation step.
7.2.3 Implementation
After synthesis, you run design implementation, which converts the logical design into a physical file format that can be downloaded to the selected target device. From Project Navigator, you can run the implementation process in one step, or you can run each of the implementation processes separately. Implementation processes vary depending on whether you are targeting a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) or a Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD).
7.2.4 Verification
You can verify the functionality of your design at several points in the design flow. You can use simulator software to verify the functionality and timing of your design or a portion of your design. The simulator interprets VHDL or Verilog code into circuit functionality and displays logical results of the described HDL to determine correct circuit operation. Simulation allows you to create and verify complex functions in a relatively small amount of time. You can also run in-circuit verification after programming your device.
7.2.5 Device Configuration
After generating a programming file, you configure your device. During configuration, you generate configuration files and download the programming files from a host computer to a Xilinx device.
CHAPTER 8 HARDWARE USED
Fig 8.1 Model View
8.1 Spartan-3 Trainer Kit
Fig 8.1.1.block diagram of spartan 3 trainer kit
8.2
Specification Of Spartan-3 Trainer Kit Model-mxs3fk-pq-208_003_im
Spartan-3 Features FPGA Compatibility flash PROM. JTAG Port. Power Supply Vccio and Vccint are generated on board using regulators. Xilinx Spartan-3 XC3S400 in PQ208 pin package.
Configuration through
User Interface 16 Digital Output LEDs 4 X 4 Matrix Keyboard Six 7 Segment Display
Clock oscillator User I/Os Maximum 79 I/Os. FPGA XC3S400.
Standard Configuration
Standard Accessories User Manual. Codes for Demonstration. Download Cable.
Power Supply Adapter. One RS-232 channel using MAX3223
Interface Module Light Controller Real Time Clock Circuit
ADC- DAC Traffic
RS232 Serial Interface RS232C compatible connectivity is provided using device MAX3223. Signals provided are Rx, Tx RTS and CTS. These signals are terminated on 9-pin D connector Analog Interface: 12 bit AD7891 ADC and 12 bit AD7541 DAC. Analog Input Eight channels using ADC using AD7891, (500Ksps, 12 bit). Analog Output- Two channels using Two DACs-AD7541. (12 bit, 100 ns conversion time) Downloading Cable and Connector For downloading the design from PC, one 10-pin FRC connector is provided on board. (JTAG) Configuration
Board supports two different configuration modes Master Serial Mode (Configuration PROM.) Boundary Scan Mode.(JTAG) Configuration modes can be selected by setting mode pins using on board jumpers.
Boundary Scan Mode
In this mode, FPGA and / or PROM can be configured through JTAG port.
Configuration through PROM Master serial mode One Platform Flash PROM XCF04S is provided on board.
User I/Os Maximum of 24 I/Os are available from FPGA. These I/Os are provided using 34-pin box type FRC connector (5V input Tolerant and 3.3V output tolerant). User LEDs 23 LEDs are provided on the board to monitor signals, which are grouped as follows. Six POWER-ON LED - for power supply indication. DONE LED indicates successful configuration of FPGA. Sixteen user LEDs to indicate output conditions Clocks Clock Source: 4MHz clock oscillator supplied as standard and can be used as system clock input Seven Segment Display Six 7-Segment LED displays are provided. They can be used as an aid to verify designs.
DIP switch Sixteen input switches are provided on board, useful to give logic input to your design.
Test Points (TPs) Test points are provided for 4MHz clock, ground,12VN,12V,5V,2.5V, 3.3V and 1.2V.
Keyboard 4 X 4 key matrix switches are provided on board

Interface Modules 1. Traffic Light Control Interface Module. 2. Real Time Clock (RTC) Interface Module. 3. ADC DAC Interface Module.
Traffic Light-Module -Interfaces with Spartan 3 KIT to implement traffic light controller as an exercise in outputting digital data from Programming Logic Devices to control real world around.
Fig.8.2.1 Traffic Light Module
ANALOG INPUT Eight analog input channels using ADC ADC0808 (Resolution 8bits.Conversion Time -100 us), as shown in Figure 8, are provided using ADC0808, with following specifications Input range - 0V to 5Volts. The-ADC takes an external analog input from the PUT terminal.
Figure 8.2.21: Input Channels of ADC
ANALOG OUTPUT Two analog output channels are provided on-board DAC AD7541 Output Range +10 V to -10 Volts, single ended Resolution - 12 bit. Conversion time - 100 ns Settling time 600 ns. Output Range -0 to 5 Volts.
Analog Output Connector:
Vout: PUT terminal is provided to provide ANALOG OUTPUTS Analog Outputs Vout Vout 1 GND 2
8.3. CAMERA
Fig 8.3.1 Iball Face2face C8.0 Web Camera
Specification Image sensor:High quality 1/4 CMOS sensor Effective Pixels:480K pixels ( Interpolated 8M pixels still image & 4M pixels video)
Video Resolution:Max. up to 2304 x 1728 pixels 4MP Image Resolution:Max. up to 3264 x 2448 pixels 8MP Frame Rate:30 frames per second Colour Depth:24-Bit True Color Focus:5 cm to Infinity Microphone:Built-in high sensitive USB microphone Snap Shot Button:Built-in snap shot button Night Vision:6 LEDs for night vision, with brightness controller Low Light Boost:Automatic low light boost White Balance:Auto Auto Exposure:Auto Auto Compensation:Auto Auto Tracking:Auto face tracking function Zoom:4X Digital Zoom Video Effects:10 photo frames and 16 special effects OS Compatibility:Windows XP / Vista & 7 Bundled Software:Driver for Windows with 10 Photo frames, 16 Special effects & Auto Face Tracking and more. I/O interface:USB 2.0, backward compatible to USB 1.1
CHAPTER 9 ALGORITHM 1) Trigger the camera. 2) Take the photo . 3) According to the program, give the count of the vehicles. 4) Send the data serially to the FPGA. 5) Serial to parallel conversion of the data. 6) Operation on the data takes place. 7) Green signal is given to the side of the road having more number of vehicles for the specified seconds
CHAPTER 10 Flowchart
start Trigger camera Green direction
Cap. back yes Capturing backg. C=1:1000
no
Right green time
straight Left green time lL green time change All green out Set to Y-R out Set to R-R out
Get data(vid) Ycbr2rgb(back. & obj) Analy & cl result Rgb2gray(back. & obj) Diff =grback.-graob
Set to R-G Dilate & erode out Get final count Set to R-Y o/p serially to FPGA Controller read data out Set to R-R out
Comparing with the available data G.H.Raisoni Institute of Engineering and Technology,Pune
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Out change Did cycle change
no
Return Call new green time Display time
yes
Turn on led Display time <min Load timer Count cars Display time Display time >max
no
Time up
yes
Return
CHAPTER 11 RESULT
Fig 11.1 Output Of Matlab
Fig 11.2 Output After Simulation In Xillin
CHAPTER 12 CONCLUSION
The fuzzy logic traffic lights controller performed better than the fixed-time controller or even vehicle actuated controllers due to its flexibility. The flexibility here involves the number of vehicles sensed at the incoming junction and the extension of the green time. In the fixed-time controller, being an open-loop system, the green time is not extended whatever the density of cars at the junction. For vehicle actuated traffic light controllers, which is an enhanced version of fixed-time controller, the green time is extended whenever there is a presence of a vehicle. However, thesetimes are fixed in advance up to a maximum time limit. For example when a car is detected, the green time is extended for another 5 or 10 seconds until the maximum time limit is reached. In the fuzzy logic controller, the extension time is not a fixed values. They are all fuzzy variables such as long, medium and small. The number of cars sensed at the input of the fuzzy controllers are also converted into fuzzy values, such as very small, small, medium, too many, etc. In addition to the fuzzy variables as mentioned, the fuzzy controller also has an advantage of performing according to linguistic rules in the manner of how a human would use. The reasoning method in the fuzzy controller is also similar to that of the policeman handling the traffic flow at a typical junction.
A simulation experiment was carried out to compare the performance of the fuzzy logic controller with a fixed-time conventional controller. The flow density of the simulation is varied according to real life traffic conditions. It can be observed from the results that the fuzzy logic control system provides better performance in terms of total waiting time as well as total moving time. Less waiting time will not only reduce the fuel consumption but also reduce air and noise pollution.
APPENDIX A. REFERENCES
C. C. Lee, Fuzzy Logic in Control System: Fuzzy Logic Controller - Part I & II, IEEE Trans. On Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Vol. 20, No. 2, Mar/Apr. 1990, pp. 404-435.
C. P. Pappis and E. H. Mamdani, A Fuzzy Logic Controller For a Traffic Junction, IEEE Trans. On Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Vol. SMC-7, No. 10,Oct. 1977, pp. 707-717.
Shilpa S. Chavan (Walke), Dr. R. S. Deshpande, J. G. Rana, Design of Intelligent Traffic Light controller using Embedded System, International conference on Emerging Trends in Engg. & Tech., ICETET-09.
Yan Li and Xiaoping FAN, Design of Signal Controllers for Urban Intersections Based on Fuzzy Logic and Weightings in proc. IEEE Conf. July 23-7, 2003.. Dipti Srinivasan, Min Chee Choy, and Ruey Long Cheu, Neural Networks for Real-Time Traffic Signal Control, IEEE Transaction on Intelligent Transportation Systems,Vol. 7, No. 3, September 2006.
C. T. Wannige and D.U.J. Sonnadara, Traffic Signal Control Based on Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference 4th international conference on information and automation for sustainability, ICIAFS, 2008.
Md. Shabiul Islam, Masuri Othman, Md. Anwarul Azim, M. S. Bhuyan, M. Saukat Jahan, H. R. Siddiquei, Design and Implementation of an Intelligent Fuzzy VLSI Chip for Traffic Control Application, IEEE region conference TENCON, 2006.
WM El-Medany and MR Hussain, FPGA based advanced real traffic light controller system design, IEEE International Workshop on Intelligent Data Acquisition and Advanced Computing Systems: Technology and Applications, IDACS, 2007, Dortmund, Germany, 6-8 September 2007.
N. Y. Hamisi, N. H. Mvungi, D. A. Mfinanga, B. M. M. Mwinyiwiwa, Prospects of Pre-timed Arterial Traffic Control Systems in City Roads of a typical Developing Country: A case Study of Dar es Salaam City, 2nd international conference on adaptive science and technology ICAST, December 2009,.
Yi Hu, Andrew Chiou and Qinglong Han, Hierarchical Fuzzy Logic Control for Multiphase Traffic Intersection Using Evolutionary Algorithms, IEEE
International Conference on Industrial Technology, ICIT, 2009. Xing Zheng and Lianyu Chu, Optimal Parameter Settings for Adaptive TrafficActuated Signal Control, 11th International IEEE Conference on International Transportation Systems, ITSC, 2008.
Liu Yang and Chen Xian Feng, Design of Traffic Lights Controlling System Based on PLC and Configuration Technology, International Conference on Multimedia Information Networking and security, MINES, 2009.

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Automatic VHDL code generation for Fuzzy Logic system using FPGA

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY

The Infrared Sensors are applied to detect vehicles is mounted on road.

But this technique was only for neighboring intersection.

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CHAPTER 3 FUZZY LOGIC

3.1 Evaluation Of Fuzzy Logic

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3.2 What Is Fuzzy Logic?

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FL/L Logic (narrow sense FL)

3.3 Some Comments On Fuzzy Logic

3.4 Why Fuzzy Logic ?

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Fuzzy logic is a better approximation to reality

3.6 Emerging Applications Of Fuzzy Logic

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CHAPTER 4 FUZZY CONTROLLER

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4.2 Block Diagram of Fuzzy Logic Controller:

Fig.4.2.1 Basic block diagram of fuzzy logic controller

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Inference Engine & Rule Base:

4.3. Advantages of Fuzzy Logic:

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CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROLLER

5.2 System Overview

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Fig 5.2.1 controller internal logic

5.3 Control Strategies

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Figure 5.4.1 controller internal logic with an intermediate treatment

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5.7 Traffic Light

Released: Dark Yellow Blinking On Green Green Blinking Released

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Closed: Red Off Blinking Closed

Transition: Yellow Green Blinking Transition Red-Yellow

Unknown in special cases.

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Fig 5.7.1. Phases of traffic light

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5.7.4 Actuation on Internal Parameters

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Fig 5.7.4. Overview of control stratrgies

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5.7.5 Control Strategy and Internal Parameters

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CHAPTER 6 FPGA: FIELD PROGRAMMABLE GATE ARRAY

Fig 6.1 An example of a Xilinx Spartan FPGA programming/evaluation board

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6.2 Block Diagram ROM

data input from lookup table

Lookup table INPUT

Fig.6.2.1 Block diagram of fuzzy control board with FPGA

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