A Handbook of Moral Theology

FROM-THE-LIBRARY-OF TRINITYCOLLEGE TORONTO
MORAL THEOLOGY
I
A HANDBOOK OF MORAL THEOLOGY

Vol.
Introduction Definition, Scope, I. Object, Sources, Methods, History, and Literature of Moral Theology.
:
Morality,
ject,
its
Subject,
Norm, and Ob
$1.50 net.
iv
and 293 pp.
Vol.
vi
II. Sin and the Means of Grace, and 230 pp. $1.50 net.
Vol. III.
Man
Man Man
and 183 pp.

Vol. IV.
s Duties to Himself, $2.00 net. s
iv
Duties to God.
net.
vi
and
423 pp.
Vol. V.
$2.50
s
Duties to His Fellow-
men.
624 pp.
$3.00 net.
A HANDBOOK OF
MORAL THEOLOGY
Based on the
"Lehrbuch
der Moraltheologie"
of the late
ANTONY KOCH,
D.D.
Professor in the University of Tubingen
BY
ARTHUR PREUSS
VOLUME
Definition, Scope, Object, Sources,
INTRODUCTION
Methods, History,
and Literature of Moral Theology
MORALITY, ITS SUBJECT, NORM, AND OBJECT

THIRD, REVISED EDITION
B.
17
HERDER BOOK
SOUTH BROADWAY,
CO.
MO.
1.
ST. LOUIS,
AND
33
QUEEN SQUARE, LONDON, W. C.

1925
NIHIL OBSTAT
Sti.
Ludovici, die 28. Junii, 1925

F. G, Holweck,
Censor Librorum
IMPRIMATUR
Sti.
Ludovici, die 28. Junii, 1925
John
J.
Tannrath,
A dm.
Copyright, 1918,
by
Joseph Gummersbach
All rights reserved
Printed in U. S. A.
First Edition, 1918
Second Edition, 1919

Third Edition, 1925
THE VAIL-BALLOU PRESS
1 5
^346
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION. DEFINITION, SCOPE, OBJECT, SOURCES, METHODS, HISTORY, AND LITERA
TURE OF MORAL THEOLOGY

CH.
CH.
CH.
I.
I
. .
Definition and Scope of
Moral Theology
II.
Moral Theology
ology
in its Relation to
Dogmatic The
4
III.
The
Difference between Catholic Moral Theology and Protestant Ethics

in
its
CH. IV. Moral Theology

losophy
Relation to Moral Phi

ii
CH. V. The Object of Catholic Moral Theology
....
17
CH. VI. Individual
vs. Social
Ethics
23
CH. VII. The Sources of Moral Theology CH. VIII. The Methods of Moral Theology CH. IX. History and Literature of Moral Theology
i.
26 36
. .
41
2. 3.
The Patristic Period The Medieval or Scholastic Period The Modern Period
42
5i
57
74
. .
CH. X. Division of Moral Theology

INTRODUCTION
77
77
CH.
i.
The Subject of Morality Man as ture Endowed with Free-Will
a Rational Crea
79
i.
2.
Free-Will as the Subjective Condition of Morality The Natural Limits of Free-Will
79 83 86
91
3.
4.
5.
6.
The The
Individual Determinants of Free-Will Social Determinants of Free-Will
....
...
7.
Voluntary Acts The Development of Free-Will Obstacles to Voluntary Action
98
102
113
CONTENTS
PAGE
CH.
II.
The Objective Norm of Morality

and
Law, Divine
119
Human
Law
. . .
i.
2.
3.
The Concept of Law The Moral Law of Nature

Binding Force of the Natural
lig 122
127
135
4.
5.
The Positive Divine Law The Moral Law of the New Testament
145
155
6.
7.
Human Law
The Properties of Human Law The Obligation of Law The Subjects of Human Law
Interpretation of the Law The Cessation of Law
160
163 173
8.
9.
10.
ii.
177 180
CH.
III.
i.
The
Subjective
Norm
of Morality
Conscience
182
182
186
2. 3. 4.
The Existence of Conscience The Nature of Conscience Requisites of a Normal Conscience
194
199
Scrupulous Conscience
CH. IV. The Subjective-Objective Duty I. Duty and its Motives

2.
Norm
of
Morality
203
Conflict of Duties
203 211
.
3.
Probabilism and Other Systems of Morals
218
The Evangelical Counsels CH. V. The Object of Morality Human Acts i. Human Acts Denned
4.
2.
236
....
253
253
3.
Imputability of Human Acts Morality of Human Acts
256
264
275 285
4.
Moral Habits
INDEX
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION, SCOPE, OBJECT, SOURCES, METHODS, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE OF MORAL
THEOLOGY
CHAPTER
DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF MORAL THEOLOGY

i.
DEFINITION.
Catholic
Moral
Theology,
broadly speaking, is the scientific exposition of the ethical teaching of the Gospel, or, more def
initely, that theological discipline
which
sets forth
the laws, rules, and precepts man must know and obey in order to attain his supernatural des
tiny.
There
"Ethical"
is
is
a distinction between
"moral"
derived from the Greek
i}0os,
and which means
"ethical."
in
the singular, custom, usage, habit; in the plural (^jOrj), dis Every free position, temper, character (Latin, mores) / act, good or bad, performed by a rational being is "ethi
cal;"
but no act
i
is
"moral"
unless
Sent.,
it
be ethically good. 2
dist.
1 Cfr.
Cor.
XV,
i
33.
Ill,
23,
qu.
i,
art.
4.
2 Cfr. St.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol.,
I,
English text-books use

"ethical"
"moral"
and
xa 2ae, qu. 58, art.

S.J.,
(Jos. Rickaby,
synonymously, as a generic
Aquinas Ethicus, Vol.

1896,
p.
Lonin
don
167);
Comment,
term and then specify morally good and morally bad.
CATHOLIC MORAL THEOLOGY

The words
"moral"
and
"immoral"
are sometimes used
with sole reference to the Sixth Commandment. Their true meaning is much larger. Morality is by no means
justice, hatred, revenge,
Other vices, such as in confined to the sexual sphere. can be and are quite as immoral
as the vice of impurity.
The
fact of the matter
is
that
the use of the expressions "immorality* or "immoral life" for the vice of impurity is merely an idiomatic euphemism adopted to avoid a clearer description of what is meant,
and
is
not intended to restrict immorality to the sexual
sphere.
In order to give a tion of the laws that govern

2.
SCOPE.
scientific
exposi
Moral Theology must first tions under which man s actions will enable him to reach his final destiny, and then draw from Revelation the correct principles for guiding him All the aright both in private and public life.
problems of
conduct, ascertain the condi
human
human existence, including those of the social and economic order, have a religious and an ethical bearing, and they can not be com
pletely solved except in the light of Christian jus
tice
and
charity.
Moral Theology must avoid two extremes: overemphasizing the ascetic point of view and resolving itself into mere casuistry.
3
See
E.
R.
I,
Hull,
9;
17.
S.J.,
in
the
Theorie und Praxis in
der Moral,
Bombay Examiner,
4 Cfr.
Jan.
u,
6;
John
XIV,
1919. i Cor.
1905; J. Mausbach, Die kath. Moral, ihre Methoden, Grunds dtze
Paderborn
X, 31; Col. Ill,

Clerical
Cfr. J.
Hogan,
und Aufgaben, 2nd
ed.,
Co-
Boston 1898, pp. Les Boudinhon, (A. 107 sqq.; Etudes du Clergc, Rome and Paris F. Walter, 1901, pp. 240 sqq.);
Studies,
logne 1902; A. Meyenberg, Die kath. Moral, 2nd ed., Stans 1901; A. Muller, 1st die kath. Moral reformbedtirftig?
Fulda 1902.
DEFINITION
Moral
sole
3
science
is
Theology
its
is
an
independent
with
its
a well-defined scope and object,
and
it
neither
principal aim to train preachers or con 5 fessors. The latter function belongs to casuistry, which is "the study of cases of conscience" with a view to
nor
define the exact limits
and frontiers of
wrong-doing."
Aug. Lehmkuhl, S.J., in the Catholic Encyclopedia, J. B. Hogan, Clerical Studies, Boston 1898, Thos. Bouquillon, Theologia Moralis Fundamentalis, pp. 197 sqq. 3rd ed., Bruges 1903, Introduction. Thos. Slater, S.J., A Short History of Moral Theology, New York 1909, pp. 3 sqq. A. Krawutzky, Einleitung in das Studium der kath. Moraltheologie, 2nd ed., Breslau 1808. Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Political and Moral Essays, London 1002, pp. 197 sqq. J. Mausbach, Die katholische Moral, ihre Metlioden, Grundsatze und Aufgaben, 2nd ed., Cologne, 1902. IDEM, Catholic Moral Teaching and its Antagonists (tr. by A. M. Buchanan), New York 1914. J. Bucceroni, S.J., Com mentaries de Natura Theologiae Moralis, Rome 1910. A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamentalis, 2nd ed., Haaren 1910, pp. 5 A. Caldara, // Problema Morale nci Tempi Moderni, Rome sqq.
Vol.
READINGS.
XIV,
pp. 601-11.
1918.
5 Cfr.
ffemdss der Sclntlc dcs
Soest 1861,
H. E. Plassmann, Die Moral hi. Thomas, p. 8; M. Jocham, Moral-
theologie,
31.
6 Jos.
Vol.
I,
Sulzbach 1852,
S.J.,
p.
Rickaby,
Political
and
197.
Moral Essays, London
1902, p.
CHAPTER
II
MORAL THEOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY

Catholic Moral Theology
that
is, it
is
presupposes belief in
essentially theistic, God and the free
dom
duty.
of the
human
will.
Without these suppo

nor
sitions there could be neither responsibility
Materialism, Pantheism, and such other systems as exclude theistic belief in God and in
the freedom of the
human
will,
may
evolve the
but they will never arrive at "utility," in the strict the concepts of "good" and
notion of
"bad,"
moral sense of the terms, viz. as things to be done or to be avoided under the sanction of an absolute
:
and imperative duty. Lacking a religious basis, these systems have not power of God unto
"the
salvation
i
to
every one that
2
believeth."
One
On
the freedom of the will see
M. Maher, S.J., Psychology, 4 th ed., London 1900, pp. 394 sqq.; IDEM,
in
Ward, Philosophy of Theism, London 1884; H. Griinder, S.J., Free Will, the Greatest of the Seven
Louis St. 1911; World-Riddles, Rickaby, S.J., Free-Will and Four English Philosophers, London A good survey of the free1906. in will Fonsegrive s controversy Essai sur le Libre Arbitre, 2nd ed., Paris 1896.
Jos.
a
the Cath. EncycL, Vol. Vi,
pp.
259-263;
Pohle-Preuss,
God
the
Author of Nature and the SuperI. Holaind, Legal Practice, New York 1899, pp. 95-116; V. Cathrein, S.J., Die kath. Wei-
natural, pp. 291 sqq.; R.
S.J.,
Natural
Law and
tanschauung,
1909, pp.
2nd
sqq.,
ed.,
44
76 sqq.;
Freiburg W. G.
Rom.
I,
16.
RELATION TO DOGMA
who
holds
that
morality
is
is
autonomous
will
occasionally do that which sometimes avoid that which divine law, but not because
commanded, and
forbidden by the
is
it is
forbidden.
An
atheist
may
abstain from
commanded or mur
der, or help his neighbor, but being an atheist, he does these things from motives different from
those that impel the theist.
As ethics is impossible without metaphysics, so there can be no Moral Theology without dogma.
Dogma and Morals
are the two great branches
of systematic theology (theologia scholastica) and together cover the entire domain of Chris
tian
belief
and
practice.
Dogmatic Theology
(regula credendo-
furnishes the rule of faith
rum), which
duct
in turn determines the rule of con

.
The two sciences (regula agendorum) each other because to be said postulate may dogma must bear fruit in good works, and Chris
tian morality could not exist
3 vealed faith.
if
there were no re
in a
Though Moral Theology thus stands
most
intimate relation to Dogmatic Theology, the two For sciences are separate and independent. whereas the latter deals with God, His essence,
attributes,
Him
to
outward operation, etc., and shows be the sovereign good and source of all
3;
8Cfr. John XVII,
Heb. XI, 6; Mark XVI, 16; Matth. VII, 21; Jas.

II, 26.
created goodness, the former is entirely con cerned with directing man to his eternal goal.
Moral conduct results from the cooperation of three Man must first per separate and independent factors. ceive the difference between right and wrong; second, will to do that which is right; and, third, conform his
actions to the moral law.
"No
excess of the aesthetic
"can faculty," says B. Bjornson, outweigh a moral de And Ch. F. Gounod: "An ocean of talent does fect."
not equal a single drop of holiness." Moral autonomism, so called, is false and pernicious. 4 Though the moral teaching of the Catholic Church is
drawn from Revelation,

There
is
it is not without mysteries. a mystery of iniquity (mysterium iniquitatis) as well as a mystery of faith (mysterium fidei). 5 Not all
ethical
problems can be solved by a short and clean-cut
formula.
READINGS. F. Hettinger (tr. by V. Stepka), Timothy; or Let to a Young Theologian, St. Louis 1902, pp. 372 sqq. V. Cathrein, S.J., Die kath. Weltanschauung, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1909.
Ph, Kneib, Die
"Heteronomie"
I
ters
der christlichen Moral, Vienna im Kampfc um ihre Grundlagen, Freiburg 1906. J. Mausbach, Catholic Moral Teaching and its An tagonists, New York 1914, pp. 3 sqq. J. B. Hogan, Clerical Studies, 2nd ed., Boston 1898, pp. 197 sqq. De Broglie, La Morale
QO3-
IDEM, Die
"Jenseitsmoral"
sans Dien, Paris

*
190.-?.
Cfr. C. Gutberlet, Ethik
und Re193
sqq.;
ligian,
Minister
1892,
pp.
V. Cathrein, S.J., Religion und Moral, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1904, pp. 70 sqq.; IDEM, Moralphilosophic, Vol.
I,
IV, pp. Sheldon, An Ethical Movement, New York 1896; W. R. W. Sullivan, Morality as a Religion,
183 sq.
;
Religious
Knowledge, Vol.
L.
W.
4th
ed.,
pp.
372
sqq.
On
the
the
"ethical
movement"
and the Society

see
1899; H. J. Bridges, The Movement, Its Principles and Aims, 2nd ed., London 1912.
New York
Ethical
for
Ethical
Culture
Vol.
Cath.
the
5 Cfr.
Tim.
Ill,
9;
Thess.
Encyclopedia,
V,
p.
561;
II,
7.
New
Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of
CHAPTER
III
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CATHOLIC MORAL THEOLOGY AND PROTESTANT ETHICS

Catholic Moral Theology is based on the dogmatic teaching of the one true Church.
i.
Protestant ethics rests on arbitrary doctrinal as 1 Hence the fundamental difference sumptions.
between the two sciences. Catholics acknowl edge an infallible authority in questions of both dogma and morals, whereas Protestants possess no objective rule for either, but are buffeted to
and fro by the winds of subjectivism and
error.
Besides these there are other points of differ ence. Thus Catholics, unlike Protestants, do not
regard the Bible as the sole source of knowledge in matters of faith and morals. Nor do they hold that man by the fall of Adam and Eve has lost
his freedom, or that
God overpowers
the will by
Catholics regard free-will as an essential grace. condition of morality and hold that man could
perform no moral act
if
he were not
tr.
free.
1 The dogmatic differences in the systems of Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin may be clearly traced in their moral teaching. Cfr. H. Denifle,
by R. Volz, Vol. I, Somerset, pp. 53 sqq.; C. von Ktigelken, Ethik H. Zwinglis, Leipsic 1902; P. Lobstein, Ethik Calvins, Strassburg
O.,
O.P.,
Luther
and
Lutherdom,
1877.
Furthermore, Catholics do not look upon justi fication as a wholly subjective and purely internal
but regard it as an ethical process, condi tioned (ordinarily) upon the reception of the Sacraments, either in re or in voto.
act,
Finally,
true
liberty,
God"
i.
e. }
the
is
"liberty
of
the children of
(sanctity),
not the be
ginning but the end and object of morality and re 2 It is not faith in Christ, making sin ligion.
harmless, but victory over sin and passion, the result of a constant and patient cooperation with
3
grace.
Whoever
denies the above-mentioned truths
has no foundation upon which to erect a sys tem of moral teaching. Protestant ethics really
owes its existence to an inconsistency and in some measure also to the fact that Protestants, con
sciously or unconsciously, retain
practices, principles underlying them.
2.
many
Catholic
though they have long ago rejected the
Protestant writers deny or ignore the funda mental distinctions just outlined. They claim
that the chief difference between Catholic
Moral
Theology and Protestant ethics lies in the fact that the former is addicted to a false empiricism, which wrongly distinguishes between mortal and venial sin and between perfect and imperfect con2
John VIII,
32;
Rom. VIII,
si.
3 Cfr. 2 Cor. Ill,
17-18.
VS.
trition,
PROTESTANT ETHICS
thereby catering to human frailty and de rogating from the spirit of the Gospel.
They furthermore
allege
that
the
Catholic
Church attributes a magical effect to her Sacra ments and regards the process of justification as
independent of the disposition of the sinner. Another favorite accusation is that the
Church, harking back to the Old Testament, im poses purely human laws and thereby inculcates a false morality, which, like that of the ancient Pharisees, exaggerates external acts at the ex
pense of character and thus breeds servility and
All this, they declare, is opposed to hypocrisy. the Protestant idea of morality, which claims to
be drawn from the teaching of St. Paul. The fourth and last objection against Catholic
Moral Theology is that it is dualistic because it makes a distinction between precepts and coun sels, and measures religious and seculars by a dif
ferent rule, discriminating against the latter in favor of the former. All these charges will be refuted in the course of this treatise. Here let us merely remark that
the erroneous notions which so
lics
many non-Catho
entertain of the Catholic teaching on perfec tion, are to a certain extent pardonable in view of
the hyperbolic language sometimes employed by Catholic writers in describing the religious state.
Perfection
is
not a matter concerning solely the
io
select
few or attainable by a small minority only. On the contrary, it is within reach of all. There is but one perfection, and that is charity, or the love of God, which manifests itself by obedi
ence to the divine will, i. e., keeping the command ments and doing good. Christian perfection is nothing more or less than a complete and willing observance of the law of God.
READINGS.
tagonists,
J.
Mausbach, Catholic Moral Teaching and

1914, pp. 131 sqq.
its
An
New York
die kath. Aszese, Diisseldorf 1902.
Haniack und H. A. Krose, S.J., Der Einfiuss

P. Hoveler,
der Konfession auf die Sittlichkeit, Freiburg 1900.
Ph. Kneib,
Die
441
"Jenseitsmoral"
im Kampfe urn
Hire Grundlagen, pp. 65 sqq.,
V. Cathrein, S.J., Die kath. Weltanschauung, 2nd ed., pp. 453 sqq. Hettinger-Stepka, Timothy; or Letters to a Young Theologian, pp. 376 sqq. A. Devine, C.P., art. "Perfection" in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, pp. 665 sq. IDEM, A Manual
79 sqq.
sqq.,
of Ascetical Vol. I, 5th
Theology, London 1902. E. Miiller, Theol. Mor., Thos. Slater, S.J., pp. 40 sqq., Vienna 1887. The Foundation of True Morality, N. Y. 1920.
ed.,
CHAPTER
IV
MORAL THEOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO MORAL PHILOSOPHY
As
there
is
treating of
God
purely philosophic discipline (theodicy), so there is a purely
philosophic
discipline
dealing
is
with
morality.
called
The
latter,
1
among
Catholics,
commonly
Ethics.
Ethics and Moral Theology differ from each other in three respects ( i ) as to their source,
:
(2) as to their object,

tents.
i.
and (3) as
to their con
or moral philosophy, derives its and motives entirely from unaided hu principles man reason. Its object is to ascertain what is right and what is wrong, and how man must reg ulate his conduct to be naturally good and (sup posing him in the pure state of nature) how to
Ethics,
attain his natural destiny.

1
Rom.
1416.
"Eadem
I, 19 sqq. Apoc. XIV, Cone. Vatic., Sess. Ill, c. 2: sancta mater Ecclesia tenet
;
strum, per ea quae facia sunt, naturali
rationis
humanae lumine
certo
sit."
et docet,
cipium
et
Deum, rerum omnium prinfin em, naturali humanae

posse."
rationis lumine e rebus creatis certo
cognosci non posse, anathema Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God: His Knowability, Essence, and Attributes, 2nd ed., St. Louis 1914, pp. 15 sqq; Th.
cognosci
"Si
Can.
et
de Rev.,
i:
quis
dixerit,
Deum unum
et
2nd
il
H. Simar, Theologie des hi. Paulus, ed., Freiburg 1883, pp. 75 sqq.
verum, Creatorem
Dominum no
12
2.
its

Moral Theology, on the other hand, draws precepts and proofs from Revelation and from
supernatural
faith.
It
reason enlightened by
takes for granted that man is no longer in the pure state of nature and regards him as a ra
tional creature raised to the supernatural order, showing how he must regulate his conduct in
order to attain his supernatural end.
Hence Moral Theology

Ethics.
Its superiority
it
is
may
its
2
more perfect than be further seen from
the fact that

lute clearness
inculcates
principles with abso
and furnishes super natural motives (fear, hope, charity) and su pernatural aids (the example of Christ and the saints, the Sacraments, etc.) to a moral life. History shows that, with proper cooperation on the part of man, Catholic moral teaching is able and certainty
to
produce
3.
saints.
Despite the essential differences existing
between the two sciences, Ethics is a valuable help to Moral Theology, for the reason that faith pre
supposes natural intelligence. Thus Moral The ology may be said to comprise within its scope
natural Ethics, and to derive from it its scientific substructure, while on the other hand Ethics
possesses in
star.
2 John XIV, JLyu dt \eyu
Moral Theology an unfailing load

V, 17-44:
Grasset,
6; Matth.
vfj,lv.
Morale Scientifique
gtlique,
et
Morale Evanpp. 7
Cfr.
Paris
1909,
sqq.
AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY

It
13
would be wrong
to assert that there
is
no morality
repeat edly and formally condemned the proposition that the 3 More virtues of the heathen are but glittering vices.
over,
outside the Christian religion.
The Church has
pagan philosophy has exercised an undeniable ence on Christian moralists. 4
influ
Pagan Ethics
misconceives
robs
ent.
as such, however,
s
is
very imperfect.
its
It
man
relation to his Creator
the
concept
of
morality
of
and thereby prime constitu
Though the science of ethics attained to a high of development among the heathen philosophers of stage antiquity, it never succeeded in stripping off its innate
The true idea of humanity and the great egotism. Christian motive of charity remained entirely outside its ken.
non-Catholic writer
who has made
of the ethical teaching of the Greeks and lines its leading characteristics as follows
a special study Romans out

"
It
never
entered into the pagan concept of humanity to show mercy, much less love, to an enemy. This virtue is not a
postulate of
human
nature or of natural reason.
Even
3 Prop. Bail Damnat., prop. 25; Prop. Damnat. ab Alexandra VIII, prop. 8; Prop. Damnat. Quesnelli, prop. 42, 48 (Denzinger, Enchiridion Symbolorum, Definitionum et Declarationum de Rebus Fidei et
loth ed., by Fr. Clement Bannwart, S.J., n. 1025, 1298, 1392, 1398); Cone. Trid., Sess. VI, can. 7; Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, 2nd ed., St. Louis 1917, pp.
Morum,
Alexandrinus in seiner Abhangigkeit von der griechischen Philosophic, Leipsic 1879; E. de Faye, Clement d Alexandria, Etude sur les Rapports du Christianisme et de la Philosophie Grecque au lie Siccle, Paris 1898; B. Barthel, Ubcr die Benutzung der Schriften Ciceros durch Laktanz, Strehlen 1903; P. Ewald,
Einftuss
Moral auf
179 sqq.
4 Cfr. F. Hasler, Vber das Verh dltnis der heidnischen und christlichen
der stoisch-ciceronianischen die Darstellung der Ethik bei Ambrosius, Leipsic 1881; R. ThaAmbroise et la Morale Chr&min, S. tienne au IV e Sieclc, Paris 1895;
Ethik, Munich 1866; W. Rcrlepenning, Der Einfluss des Aristotcles auf die Moral dcs hi. Thomas von Aquin,
Ph.
Schmidt,
Ambrosius
und
die
Stoa, Gottingen 1897; Th. Zielinski, Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte,
Goslar
1875;
C.
Merk,
Klemens
2nd
ed., Leipsic 1908.
14

Christians
it is
among
not practiced as universally as one
might be inclined to expect especially of those who would establish amicable relations between Christianity on the
one hand and human nature and civilization on the other. To love one s enemies is a supernatural virtue, found
.
. .
only
among
its
requires sentiments of the heart,
those who clearly perceive that Christianity followers to sacrifice to God even the natural
in other
words, that
it
imposes
regeneration and sanctification. I must admit that I have in mind particularly the saints of the Catholic Church. The noble and humane practice of treating wounded enemies with kindness, which flourishes among
the Christian nations of
modern
times,
is
quite a different
no personal grudge against in thing. dividual members of an enemy nation, and if one of them
as a rule feel
is
Men
hurt, they naturally sympathize with him. ity of the ancients scarcely went beyond
The human
the
feelings
of natural sympathy and antipathy. Cicero finds it quite in conformity with natural ethics to hate one s fellow-
men
all.
5
heartily (lib enter),
and says
it is
Yet
it
it is
precisely this that Christianity

as a supernatural duty.
impossible to serve demands for
the sake of
as
God and
Tacitus re
an honor to have many enemies. 6 True, the garded pagan philosophers distinguish between a mere difference
of opinion (opinionum dissensio) and a quarrel (ammoruin contentio), 7 and hold that the former should never de generate into the latter. Cicero plumes himself upon the
fact that
he and Pompey did not allow their
political
differences to disturb their friendship. 8 enmity existed, the average pagan took
ceal the pleasure he derived
*
But where real no pains to con

s
from
7
his
enemy
Ad
II,
discomfiture.
Ad
* Dial..
pwria."
AHic., XIII, 40, 2. 40: Ipsa inimicitiarum

"
Cicero,
Famil., II, 13, 2.
& Phil.,
38,
AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY

.
.
15
Cursing an enemy and wishing him

. .
.
common.
evil, was quite Christianity exercised a strong influence
against slavery, which it opposed in principle, though out of regard for existing conditions and the lot of the unfor
tunate slaves themselves, the Church discountenanced rev

olutionary
If
measures."
9
ethics
to draw a fair comparison between pagan and the moral teaching of Christianity, we must not detach single propositions from their context but weigh
shall
we wish
system against system. Doing so we the latter far surpasses the former. 10
find
that
"What
ancient
Greek culture did for the

art Chamberlain,
"Christ
intellect," says Houston Stew did for the moral life; it was
from Him that humanity
first
received moral
ll
power."
"To profit by suffering," writes Bishop Keppler, "was the highest stage attained by ancient philosophy; the religion of the cross teaches us to practice charity while we suffer and to make our suffering productive of char
12
ity."
Christianity, as even Protestants admit,
was the
first to
9
recognize the importance and value of personality;

antike Hit-
M. Schneidewin, Die
Berlin
1897,
manitat,
pp.
202
sq.,
Cfr. M. Waldmann, 209. desliebe in der antiken
Die FeinWelt und
und die Stoa, Stuttgart 1890; A. Dyroff, Die Ethik der alien Stoa, Berlin 1897, pp. 327
hoffer, Epiktet
im
Christ entum,
Randlinger,
Die
1902; S. Feindesliebe nach

Sitten-
Vienna
dem
natiirlichen
und positiven
gesetz, Paderborn 1906, pp. 22 sqq., 101 sqq.; F. Steinmiiller, Die Feindeslicbe, Ratisbon 1909, pp. 17 sqq. On the attitude of the Church to-
M. Baumgarten, L. A. Seneca und das Christentum, Rostock 1895; Th. Zahn, Der Stoiker Epiktet und scin Verh dltnis zutn Christentum, 2nd ed., Erlangen 1895; K. Jentsch, Hellenentum und Christentum, Leipsic 1903; L. Ê. M. Bautain, La
sqq.;
wards slavery see C.
S.
Devas, The
Key
to the World s Progress, Being an Essay on Historical Logic, London 1906, pp. 143 sqq. 10 Cfr. H. Kellner, Hellcnismus und Christentum, Cologne 1866; A. Chollet, La Morale Stoicienne en Face de la Morale Chreticnne, Paris 1889, pp. 43 sqq., 59 sqq.; A. Bon-
Morale de I Erangile, Paris 1855; Germ. tr. by J. M. Gaisser, Die Moral des Evangeliums, Tubingen
1856, pp.
n Die
Grundlagen
Vol.
I,
349 sqq., 377 sqq. des 19.

4th
ed.,
Jahr-
hunderts,
Munich
1903, P. 207. 12 P. von Keppler,
Das Problem
des Leidens in der Moral, 2nd ed.,
Freiburg 1904,
p. 26.
16

know
the
its
the philosophers of ancient times did not even
term and hence were unable to appreciate

13
ethical bear
ing.
READINGS.
Jos.
Rickaby,
S.J.,
Moral Philosophy, or Ethics

Chas. Coppens,
S.J.,
and Natural Law, London 1908. Text-Book of Moral Philosophy,

S.J.,
New York
1895.
A Brief V. Cathrein,
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, pp. 556 sqq. J. L. Scholastic Philosophy, New York 1909, Th. Meyer, S.J., Institutiones Inris Naturalis, Vol. pp. 136 sqq. A. Castelein, S.J., Insti I, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1906; Vol. II, 1900.
in the
Perrier,
The Revival of
tutiones Philosophiae Moralis ct Socialis, Bruxelles 1809.
Roussaux,
Ethics, Vol.
thique, Bruxelles
I, I,
1890
L. du M. Cronin, The Science of
Dublin 1909, especially
pp. 13 sq.
E. Miiller, Theol.
Mor., Vol.
J. Elliot Ross, C. 5th ed., pp. 38 sqq., Vienna 1887. S. P., Christian Ethics, New York 1919, pp. 7 sqq.
The
Catholic idea of the value of personality
is
beautifully ex
plained by F. Sawicki,
Wert und Wiirde der Pcrsdnlichkeit im
Christentum, Cologne 1906, especially pp. 13 sqq. and 35 sqq.

13 Cfr. G.
liche
Wobbermin, Der
christ-
Berlin
pp. 130 tant.
1902,
sq.
p.
80;
2nd
is
ed.,
Gottesglaube in seincm Verhaltnis zur heutigen Philosophic,
Wobbermin
1907, a Protes-
CHAPTER V
THE OBJECT OF CATHOLIC MORAL THEOLOGY
According to the dogmatic teaching of the Church, the final end and object of moral conduct
is
man
1
eternal happiness in
Heaven
(beati-
tudo).
2
Basing
its
teaching on Sacred Scrip
ture,
the Council of Trent declares that
man
is
free to do good propter retributionem, i. e., for 3 But may he do the sake of gaining a reward.
good
to be
happy?
this ques
The
Catholic Church has been accused of Eu-
dsemonism or Hedonism for answering

tion in the affirmative.
1.
We are told
2 Ps.
"Inclinavi
that the de112
Augustine, Confessiones, X, c. 22: Ipsa est beata vita de ad te, propter te; gaudere te,
"
l Cfr. St.
CXVIII,
cor
(Vulg.):
meum
iustificationes tuas in
ipsa est et
non est altera. Qiti autem aliam putant esse, aliud sectantur gaudium neque ipsum vcrum. Ab aliqua tamen imagine gaudii voavertitur." luntas eorum non
c.
ter
retributionem."
ad faciendas aeternum prop(Cfr. G. Hoder

Vulgata,
berg,
26:
Die
"a7re
Psalmen
p.
Freiburg
1892,
351).
Heb.
XI,
/3Xe7re^
yap
(Mwucrijs)
ets TVJV /J.ia6airo8offiav (in

rationem.)"
remunec.
Ibid.,
23,
n.
33:
"Bcata
quippe
vita
est
es."
est gaudium de enim gaudium de

St.
veritate.
te,
Hoc
says:
Cone.
s
Trid.,
Sess.
VI,
n.
St.
qui reritas
On man
Thomas,
;
true
happiness
Theol.,
see
"Creatus
Ignatius est ut
Loyola
laudet
Summa
la 2ae, qu.
homo
Dominum Deum Nostrum,

animam
Cfr.
suam."
ei rever-
entiam exhibet et per haec salvet

(Lib.
i V. Cathrein, S.J., Moralsqq. philosophic, Vol. I, pp. 81 sqq.; M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol.
Exercit.).
I,
Dublin
1909,
S.J.,
pp.
78
sqq.;
Jos.
E.
Morale
1904, 1913-
Exposition de laCatholique, Vol. I, Paris

Janvier,
Rickaby,
Moral
Philosophy,
London
1908, pp. 6 sqq.
pp.
45 sqq.
J.
S.
Vaughan,
Happiness
and
Beauty,
London
17
i8
sire for
happiness is a mean motive, incompati ble with the idea of perfect morality. 4 i. The Stoics and the followers of Kant as
sert that
any system of
ethics that
commands
men
to do good, not because it is a duty, but in order to obtain a reward, is egoistic and unworthy
This is a very plausible has objection, yet absolutely no basis in fact. Those who raise it misunderstand human nature.
of a true philosopher.
it
so constituted that he cannot truly desire anything which does not afford him interior satis
is
Man
faction.
Whatever he may do or
omit, he
is in
certain sense always seeking his own happiness. Even the wicked sin to be happy. 5 When a man
4 On Kant s ethical teaching see K. Fischer, Geschichte der Philosophis, Vol. IV, 3rd ed., Munich 1882; Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Moral Philosophy,
5 St.
Augustine,
Serm.
in
Ps. t
CXVIII, i, n. i: "Beatitudinem, quam nemo est qui non expetat. Quis enim unquam rel potcst Tel potuit
z-el
pp.
115-119,
London
1908;
Wm.
Turner, History of Philosophy, pp. 540 sqq., Boston 1903. For a refutation of Kant see C. Didio, Die tnoderne Moral und ihre Grundprinzipien,
sqq.;
beatus?
tarn
poterit inveniri, qui nolit esse Beatum quippe esse

, . .
Ph.
7
Freiburg 1896, pp. 64 Kneib, Die "Lohnsucht"
der christlichen Moral, Vienna 1904,
Die "Jcnscitsand 109 sqq.; Schneider, Gottliche Weltordnung, 2nd ed., pp. 517 sqq. On Eudaepp.
sqq.;
pp.
IDEM,
sq.
moral,"
est bonum, ut hoc et boni velint et mali. Ncc mirum est quod boni propterea sunt boni, scd illud est mirum, quod etiam mali propterea sunt mali, ut sint beati. Nam quisquis libidinibus deditus luxuria stuprisque corrumpitur, in hoc malo beatitudinem quaerit et se miserum putat, quum ad suae f con-
magnum
monism
kritische
cfr.
F. J. Stein, Historisch-
non
cupiscentiae voluptatem laetitiamque pcrvenit, beatum vero non dubitat iactare
Darstellung der pathologi-
schen
Moralprinzipien,
1879,
pp.
2nd
sqq.;
ed.,
J.
quum perrenit. Et quisquis avaritiae facibus inardescit, ad

.
.
.
Wurzburg
Holtzmann,
theorien
ideal,
55
Moderns Sittlichkeitsund christliches Lcbens1907;

Cath.
hoc congrcgat quocunque modo diin omnibus vitias, ut beatus sit, sceleribus beatitudinem quaerit."
Strassburg
I,
En-
cyclopedia, Vol.
pp. 369 sq.; Vol.

p,
(Migne, P. L., IDEM, Serm. in

"Nvm
XXXVII,
Ps.,
CL,
est,
VI,
p.
640; Vol. VII,
132,
ft
qui bonus
1501 sq.) c. 3, n. 4: ideo bonus.
OBJECT
19
sire
desires something for others, he does not de it purely for their sake, but partly also be
cause the desired object has some value for him self. In this sense the desire for happiness and egoism are necessary constituents of every human
act.
A
in
one
wholly unselfish act of the will, i. e., no way related to the personal satisfaction
or happiness of the agent, is impossible. Even the so-called unselfish love that causes men to
make
cause
his
sacrifices
for others or for the sake of

"selfishness,"
ideals, is
not entirely free from
be
when man makes a sacrifice, he does it for own satisfaction as well as for the sake of
others.
Moreover,
able
man
s will
and destiny are insepar

it is
from
his nature because
of the very es
sence of the will to desire and tend towards beati

a
tude, which, being
a state
made perfect by the ag

G
gregate
sum
of
all
things
good,"
is
identical with
God
as the sovereign
Now if goodness. are synonymous terms, it is perfectly consistent to be good in order to attain eternal happiness, and there is no sense in inculcating
"pure"
good and source of all God and eternal happiness
estf ut beatus sit; et qui
malus
est,
c.
48,
n.
3;
malus non
esse
esset, nisi
inde se beatum
(ibid.,
la, qu. 26, art.

3,
IDEM, Summa TheoL, i, ad i; la 2ae, qu.
posse
speraret"
XXXVIII,
809). -Cfr.
St.
Thomas,
Summa
6
Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 29, art. 4.
Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, 2. art. 2, God, the Author of Nature and the Supernatural, 2nd ed., St. Louis
ad
"Status
omnium bonorum
gatione
St.
perfectus"
aggre(Boethius).
Gent,,
1.
1916, pp. 190 sqq.

ability,
God: His Know-
Essence, and Attributes, pp,
Thomas,
Summa
c.
II,
93 sqq,
20
duties,

i.e.,
such as abstract entirely from the mo tive of self-love. Therefore, whilst we do not
deny that Catholic moral teaching, like every other rational system of ethics, contains a eudsemonistic element, nay even a strain of "egoism," 7
we must
cisely
insist that this
admixture
is justifiable
and supplies a most

that
false
us,
effective antidote against pre
egotism
which our enemies

it
charge against
inasmuch as
charity (love of that the moral

reconciles
God and neighbor). 8

teaching of
emphasizes true claim
We
Christ
effectively
and combines altruism with egoism. 2. Certain Quietists and pseudo-mystics de nounced the habit of doing good for the sake of obtaining an eternal reward as at best an imper fect virtue, and demanded an absolutely unselfish and disinterested love (amour desinteresse) which expects no reward and would even sur
,
render
willed.
its
claim to eternal beatitude

is
if
God
so
sition
construing an imaginary oppo between God as the highest, and eternal
This
happiness as a merely secondary good. Such teaching is philosophically untenable and
opposed to Revelation.
7 Cfr.
Sacred Scripture again

Matth. XXII, 37-39Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. Ill, St. Louis 1917, PPH. Heppe, Geschichte der 136 sq. quietistischen Mystik, Berlin 1875;
8 Cfr. 9 Cfr.
;
S.
Huber, Die
Gliickselig-
keitslehre des Aristotcles
und des
hi.
Thomas von Aquin, Freising 1893; C. Gutberlet, Ethik und Religion, pp. 158 sqq. C. Didio, Die moderne
;
Moral, Freiburg 1896, pp. 21 sqq.; B. Peters, Die christlichen Begriffe der Sittlichkeit und Seligkeit, Miinster 1902.
E. A. Pace in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, pp. 608 sqq.
OBJECT
21
and again exhorts men to strive for eternal happi ness and promises the joys of Heaven as a re 10 ward for obeying the law of God. If God did not reward virtue, He would be un just, the moral order would hang in the air, and the so-called moral law would be nothing but the fiat of an absolutistic tyrant, and consequently
immoral.
alleged distinction between beatitude as the enjoyment of God and beatitude as a created en
tity
The
separable from Him, has no basis in fact. Catholic theologians, it is true, often speak of
joys
heavenly
and pleasures; but these are
mere
.
accidents.
The
essence of eternal beati

"I
reward exceeding great." n thy Therefore the object of morality, and conse quently of Moral Theology, is man s perfection and eternal happiness. He is destined to be in timately united to God, without however surren
. .
tude consists in the possession of God.
am
dering his personality or individuality.

Fenelon
s
12
so-called
amour
desinteresse
is
contrary to
the teaching of the Fathers. Listen, for instance, to St. Bernard s description of the successive stages through which the soul passes on her way from inordinate self-
love to pure charity:

10 Cfr.
sq.;
Matth. V,
12,
46; X, 41
1232
(ibid.,
sq.)
Innocent
of
Luke VI,
11 Gen.
not.
XV,
23, 32-35. i. Cfr. Prop.
"Quum
alias,"
XII s Brief March 12, 1699
Dam7,
13
Mich, de Molinos, prop. (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
12,
n. 1327 sqq.) 12 Cfr. Gal. II, 20.
1227,
22
"At
first man loves himself for his own sake, for he carnal-minded and takes pleasure in nothing but him is self. When he perceives that he cannot exist by and
through himself, he begins to seek and love God as in In this second stage he dispensable to his own existence.
loves God, but for his
ever, impelled
by his occupy his mind with Him in meditation, reading, prayer, and obedience, he gradually learns to know Him better and loves Him more ardently. And when he has tasted how sweet the Lord is, he enters upon the third
own sake, not God s. When, how own need, he has begun to honor God
and
to
stage of charity, i. e., he loves God no longer for his own In this stage he presumably re sake, but for God s sake.
mains, and
tains the fourth stage, in
do not know whether any man ever at which God is loved solely for
His
I
sake.
Let those
who have
experience
tell
us about
for one regard this stage as unattainable [here be it; low], though it will undoubtedly be the portion of the good and faithful servant when he enters into the joy of the
Lord and becomes inebriated with the fulness of the

13
God."
house of
St. Thomas, Summa Theol, la 2ae, qu. 1-5. J. L. The Revival of Scholastic Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century, New York 1909, pp. 138 sqq. M. F. Dinneen, art.
READINGS.
Perrier,
"Good,
640 sqq.
sqq.
The highest," in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, M. Maher, S J., art. "Happiness," ibid., Vol. VII, pp. M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, Dublin 1909,
C. Gutberlet, Ethik
pp.
131
pp.
245 sqq.
und Naturrecht, 3rd
ed.,
Miinster
V. Cathrein, S.J., Moralphilosophie, Vol. I, 4th 89 sqq. Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelcctiones Dogmaticae, Vol. Ill, 3rd ed., pp. 232 sqq.
1901, pp. 3 sqq.
ed.,
pp.
81
sqq.,
13 Epist.,
XI,
n.
n.
8;
Deo,
c.
15,
39
De Diligendo (Migne, P. L.,

Cfr. J. Ries,
Das
geistliche
Leben
in seinen Ent-
CLXXXII,
113, 998).
wicklungsstufen, Freiburg 170 sqq.
1906,
pp.
CHAPTER
INDIVIDUAL
VS.
VI
SOCIAL ETHICS
The human race is an organic whole, and each member shares in the responsibility for all. Each
forms part of the whole; no one stands alone.
If
we regard man as an individual and then the hu man race as a whole, we obtain a clear-cut division
of moral
science.
Individual
ethics
considers
man
in his personal determinations, without re
gard to the society to which he belongs. There is a school of writers who maintain that man is responsible for himself alone and that the high est aim of morality is to perfect the individ
ual by detaching him as much as possible from society and the companionship of his fellowmen.
This theory is sometimes called Spiritualistic Pessimism. Opposed to it is another extreme,
which sees in man merely a member of society, whose sole and sovereign purpose is to sacrifice himself for the race. This theory is known by 1 the name of Altruism or Social Eudsemonism.
l "Vivre pour autrui." On Altruism see T. Brosnahan, S.J., in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. I, pp. 369 sq.; Caird, The Social Philosophy of
Comte, Glasgow 1885; Costa-Rosetti, Philosophia Moralis, thes. 99; John

F.
Ming,
S.J.,
The Data
of
Modern
1904.
Ethics Examined,
New York
23
24

The New Testament
assigns a more important individual than to social ethics, as it con place to siders man chiefly as the possessor of an im
mortal soul, which belongs to God, because it is His gift. 2 But social ethics also has a place in
the Gospels. 3 The way in which the two are combined by the inspired writers shows that they
belong together and neither should be exagger ated at the expense of the other. This combination of individual with social
ethics corresponds perfectly to man s twofold sition in the world. Every man has a distinct
po vo
his own salvation; as alone but a member of, and not, however, 4 in connection with, society and the Church.
cation
and must work out
Hence extreme Individualism
is
unjustifiable.
the other hand, no man can be a useful mem ber of society unless he is trained to obey the laws
On
of morality. Besides, the final end and pur of pose society consists in the moral perfection
Matth. X, 28; XVI, 26; Luke X, John XII, 25; i Cor. IX, 27; XIII, 1-3. 3 Cfr. Matth. V, 44 sqq.; XIX, 19; XXII, 39; Rom. XIII, 9; i Cor. X,
2
elemcntum
quantalibet
latissimi."
est
civitatis
41 sq.
terrarum (Migne,
P.
et rcgni occupatione
L.,
XLI,
est
114).
St.
I,
Thomas,
c.
De
Rcgimine
Princip.,
i:
"Naturale
24;
Ps.,
Gal.
V,
n.
13
II, 4-
Cfr. St.
VI, 2; Phil. Augustine, Serm. in

sq.;
"Servum
XCIX,
facial,
7:
te cari-
fas
quia
liberum
P.
L.,
te
veritas
fecit."
(Migne,
XXXVII,
i
i- 75)4 Cfr.
homini, lit sit animal socials et poliin multitudine vii ens." ticum, Seneca, De Vita Beata, c. 30: "Qui se deteriorem facit, non sibi tantummodo nocet, sed etiam omnibus eis, quibus mclior factus prodcsse poMerit."
Rom. XV,
St.
1-3;
Cor. XII,
Civ. Dei,
IDEM,
De
Benefic.,
est,
V,
c.
12 sq,
Augustine,
De
19:
"Nullum
beneficium
longius
cnius
tangat,
IV,
c. 3: "Singulus quisque homo, ut in sermone una litcra, ita quasi
commodum non
et pro.rimos
nonnunquam etiam
positos."
INDIVIDUAL
of
its
VS.
SOCIAL ETHICS
25
members. Hence a one-sided ethical So cialism would be as untenable as exaggerated in The truth lies between the two dividualism. Individual must be combined with extremes. 5 social ethics. "Ora et labora" is a fundamental
maxim
of the Christian
life.
M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, Dublin H. Klein, Individual- und Sozialethik, Bern 1904. A. Dorner, Individuals und soziale Ethik, Berlin 1906, pp. 75 P. Gaultier, L Ideal Moderne, Paris 1908, pp. 76 sqq. sqq., 128 sqq. R. I. Holaind, S.J., Natural Law and Legal Practice, New York
READINGS.
1909, pp. ii sqq.
V. Cathrein, S.J., in the Catholic Encyclo Th. Slater, S.J., Questions of Moral Theology, New York 1915, pp. 191 sqq. A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamentalis, 2nd ed., Haaren 1910, pp. 16 sqq.
1899,
pp.
171
sqq.
pedia, Vol.
V,
pp. 563 sqq.
6 Cfr.
Th. Sommerlad, Das Wirtschaftsprogramm der Kirche im Mittelalter,

Leipsic 1903, pp. 7 sq.
CHAPTER
VII
THE SOURCES OF MORAL THEOLOGY

The sources from which Moral Theology draws its data and maxims are two reason and
Revelation.
I.
REASON.
1
Reason
we may call natural

of nature.
able to
the depositary of what Revelation, i. e., the moral law

is
Though impaired by
sin,
reason
is
form moral concepts.

;
To act in accordance with the dictates of reason moral (morally good) to act against those dic tates is immoral (morally bad).
is
necessary, however, to test in the light of supernatural Revelation the moral concepts fur
It is
In adapting these concepts to nished by reason. the teaching of Revelation, reason again plays
an indispensable part, 2
1
in so far,
namely, as
it is
Cfr.
Rom.
II,
14
sq.
Linsenmann,
tlieologie,
Lehrbuch
1
dcr
X. F. Moralsq.
;
Freiburg 1904, pp. 28
charge that the Scholastics deduce morality from "the revealed will of God, which is incomprehensible."
(Cfr. C. Luhr, 1st cine rcligionslose
Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol. I, 4th ed., p. 407. 2 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., i a 2ae, qu. 19, art. 3 and 4; qu.
90,
est
art.
i
:
Moral
moglich?
Berlin
1899,
p.
St. Thomas clearly admits 26). that reason is the rule of morality,
"Regula
ct
mensura
actitum
humanorum est ratio, quae primum principium actuum huRationis

est
though, of course, he means that reason which, in its last analysis, is

"the
divine Intellect manifesting

us."
it-
manorum.
pium
in
enim
est,
ordi-
self in
I,
Cfr. Cicero,
"Naturam
De
Officiis,
nare ad finem, qui

agendis."
primum
princiis
28,
100:
si
sequemur,
This passage
nunquam
26
dberrabimus."
sufficient to disprove the oft-repeated
SOURCES
3
27
a necessary condition of Revelation and of the

positive divine law.
Reason
is
the
first
and principal source of hu
man
knowledge, not in the ontological, but in the Unless man uses his reason prop logical order. erly, he cannot receive revealed truths or make an
act of faith in God.
Nevertheless experience teaches that in most matters pertaining to salvation faith precedes reason and prepares it for the light of Revelation.
II. REVELATION. The second source of Moral Theology is supernatural Revelation, as contained in the writings of the Old and New Testaments and in the oral tradition of the Church (traditio ecclesiastica) .*
3 Cfr. St.
qu.
23.
14, art.
9,
Thomas, De Veritate, ad 8; Summa Theol.,

art.
c.
tern
(the
dogmas of the
(moral
faith)
et
disaplinam
teaching)
con-
2ae,
Vatic.,
qu. Sess.
i,
4,
ad 2;
3
Cone.
4;
St.
Ill,
and
tineri in libris scriptis et sine scripto traditionibus, quae ipsius Christi ore
Augustine, Epist., 120, n. 3: "Absit, inquam, ut idea ere damns, ne rationem accipiamus sive quaeramus: quum etiam credere non possemus, nisi rationales animas haberemus. Ut ergo in quibusdam rebus ad doctrinam salutarem pertinentibus, quas
ab Apostolis acceptae out ab ipsis dictante Apostolis Spiritu Sancto quasi per manus traditae ad nos orthodoxorum usque pervenerunt, Patrum exempla secuta, omnes libros tarn Veteris
menti,
sit
quam Novi
Testa-
quum
utriusque
unus Deus
nondum percipere valemus, sed aliquando valebvmus, fides praecedat rationem, qua cor mundetur, ut magnae rationis capiat et perferat
ratione
auctor, nee turn ad fidem,
non
traditiones ipsas,
turn ad
mores
perti-
nentes,
tamquam
vel
oretenus
De Ord., II, XXXII, 1002).

4 Cfr.
lucem, utique (Migne, P. L., XXXIII, 453) IDEM, 26 (P. L., n. 16,
;
hoc
rationis
est."
Christo, vel a Spiritu Sancto dictatas et continua successione in ecclesia
catholica conservatas, pari pietatis affectu ac reverentia suscipit et veneratur."
Cone.
Trident.,
Sess.
IV,
de fide cath.,
6:
"Ego
(Cone. Vatic., Const, dogm. c. 2) St. Augustine,

;
Deer,
de
ciensque
Canon. Script.: "Perspi[_s. synodus] hanc verita-
Contr. Epist. Manich. Fund.,
c.
5, n.
evangelic
non crederem,
28
i.

The Sacred
Scriptures of both Testaments are called immediate divine sources of Moral The
ology because they embody God s supernatural Revelation to mankind and the manifestation of
His will. "What things soever were written, were written for our learning: that through pa tience and the comfort of the Scriptures, we 5 might have hope." The Old Testament contains many moral a) It is true these precepts precepts and examples. and examples are far inferior to the ideal set up by the Gospel, nay some of them even fall short 6 of the postulates of unaided reason. Neverthe
they deserve careful study. In order to be able to estimate the moral teaching of the Old Testament at its true value, however, we must
less
first
consider the general character of the Ancient
and, secondly, distinguish between universally valid laws on the one hand, and, on the other, mere personal opinions and such
Covenant,
precepts as owe their origin to the peculiar ethos Christ Himself clearly of the Chosen People.
indicated the true relation of the moral teach
ing of the Old to that of the

nisi
New
Testament. 7
me
catholicae
ecclesiae
commoP.
L.,
der Biicher, Freiburg 1904, pp. 190

sqq. 6 Cfr. St. Augustine, Contra Gaudent., I, c. 31, n. 37 (Migne, P. L. t
veret
auctoritas."
(Migne,
Cfr.
XLII, 176). * Rom. XV,
4.
Leo XIII,
Encyclical "Providentissimus Deus," of Nov. 18, 1893 (English tr. in H.
XLIII, 729)
(P. L.,
IDEM, Epist., 204,

St.
23.
n. 7
XXXIII, 941);
Theol.,
Pope, O.P., The Catholic Student

"Aids"
Summa
3,
Thomas, 2ae, qu. no, art.

31-45;
cfr.
to
the Bible,
pp. xi-xlX
H.
London 1913, Hopfl, Das Buck
ad 3. i Matth.
V,
21-28,
SOURCES
While the b) scends the Old in
29
infinitely
it
New
its
Testament
tran
ethical teaching,
does not
contain a complete code of morality, but merely points out certain fundamental truths, which, as
Christ Himself declared, are to be interpreted 8 These truths spiritually rather than literally.
are for the most part couched in parables and proverbs, which, though picturesque and im
pressive, are quite often indefinite.
Even
the life
of our Saviour
up
the highest ideal of morality set for our imitation 9 cannot always be followed
10
literally.
2.
Ecclesiastical Tradition
is
the third source
of Moral Theology.
The Church, through her
teaching office, preserves and interprets both the natural and the divine laws, and issues precepts and decisions of her own, some positive, some
11
negative,
applying the principles of morality

tnonchische Leben, pp. 145 sq., sq., 154, and O. Zockler, Aszese
152
i Tim. I, 8-10. Cfr. J. B. Hirscher, Die christliche Moral, Vol. I, sth ed., Tubingen 1851, pp. 20 sqq. 8 Matth. V, 29, 39; XIX, 29; John XVIII, 22; i Cor. VI, 12. St. Jer-
und
Monchtum, 2nd
fort
ed.,
2 vols., Frank-
n The
Church
tions
1897.
ome
"Nee
says
(In
Galat.,
I,
n,
12):
usually
negative precepts of the take the form of
putemus in verbis scripturae tsse evangelium, sed in sensu; non iw superficie, sed in medulla; non
foliis, sed in radice (Migne, P. L., XXVI, Cfr. 322). Kneib, Die "Jenseitsmoral," pp. 213 sqq. Matth. XI, 29; John XIII, 15; Rom. VIII, 29; Phil. II, 5; 2 Pet.
in
sermonum
orationis."
more important theses officially condemned at various times have been made by Denzinger in his Enchiridion Symbolorum, already referred to, and by D. Viva, S.J., Damnatae Theses ad Theologicam Tnttinam Revocatae, 3 vols.,
.
propositiones of the
damnatae.
Collec-
lit
21.
10
good many things recorded

of the saints are
see
in the lives
eccentricities;
E.
Lucius,
mere Das
Naples 1708. Cfr. J. Bucceroni, EnRome chiridion Morale, 4th ed., 1905; Aug. Rohling, Medulla Theol. Mor., St. Louis 1875, pp. 473 sqq.
30
and enforcing external obedience to the law (e. g., the sanctification of the Lord s Day, the disci
pline of Penance, matrimonial impediments, etc.) Such disciplinary ordinances, in contradistinc tion to universal.laws, often
have only a temporal
or local importance. Needless to add,
12
handed down
Apostolic traditions from the early days of the Church

all
the
excel in dignity
later ecclesiastical precepts,
and general laws are of greater weight than

purely local ordinances.
Another important source of Moral The found in the lives of the saints, which re ology
3.
is
flect
the Christian ideal
more or
less perfectly.
13
However, not everything the saints have done, or are alleged to have done, is so exemplary that we may take it for our guidance. Rather must we apply to them the rule given by St. Augustine in
regard to certain Biblical characters "We should not imitate everything we read about these holy 14 St. Francis de Sales observes that persons."
12 Cfr. Benedict
XIV, De Synodo
is Cfr.
St.
Ambrose,
De
Joseph
Dioecesana, X, 8, i: "Disciplina varia est pro locorum et temporum

* aliqua conplcrisque orbis christiani dioecesibus v-tilis, alicui tamen out dioecesi provinciae peculiari
"Sanctorum vita Pair., c. i, n. i: caeteris nor ma -vivendi est." Ibid.,
ratione, ac fieri potest,

licet
n.
4:
"...
et
cognoscamus
sed
vitia
illos
stitutio,
nan naturae
servationis,
emendasse."
praestantioris,
ob-
nee
Cfr.
nescisse,
sed
(Migne,
T.
P.
L.,
XIV,
minus
opportune, dignoscatur." "Mutantur in dies Ibid., V, 3, 81
641,
Cist.,
643).
Halusa, Ord. Flares S. Bernardi, Ratisbon
hominum
pore
utile
mores,
et
erat,
circumstantiae,
mutantur rerum quod uno ternposted

inutile
evadit."
1898, 87, n. 232; H. Joly, Psychology of the Saints, London 1898, pp. 6 sq., 24 sqq. 14 "Non omnia, quae a sanctis vel
et
quandoque perniciosum
SOURCES
some of the things the
The biographies
31
saints did are to be ad
mired rather than imitated.

of the saints contain a wealth of
ma
terials for a history of the religious life
and for a general
lem
But they present a difficult prob history of civilization. to the critical historian because many of them are not
as old as they claim to be, and most of them embody unauthenticated legends. In order properly to estimate
the lives of the saints, particularly those that have been handed down to us from the Middle Ages, we must pay due regard to the fact that they were professedly written for the edification of the faithful, and that the compil ers frequently dressed up scanty and unreliable data to a moral and adorn a Historic accuracy, as "point a rule, was far from the purpose of these pious scribes, and the most that can be said for their productions, from
tale."
the historian
late
point of view,
may
conceivably
have
that the things they re happened in the manner

is
described. 15
Recent researches leave no doubt that the great ma medieval hagiographers worked mechanically in accordance with a ready-made scheme. Miracles they had read or heard about others they attributed to the
jority of
saint whose story they were engaged in writing. We have instances of entire legends being transferred from one saint to another or taken from pagan mythology. In view of these facts it is rather remarkable that of the saints lives that have come down to us comparatively few are wholly fictitious. The majority contain a kernel
iustis viris legimus,
transferre debe-
mus
c.
in
mores."
(Contra Mendac.,
22; Migne, P. L., XL, 532). See E. Michael, S.J., Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, Vol. Ill, Frei9, n.
is
burg 1903, p. 392; the Fortnightly Review, St. Louis, Mo., Vol. XXIV M. Huber, (1917), No. 7, p. 100. S.J., Die Nachahmung der Hciligen, 2 vols., Freiburg 1912,
32
of truth.

This
is
admitted even by such hyper-critics
as Harnack. 16
legend, in the strict sense of the term, is a story or in cident unauthenticated by history. It is the work of the people, that
"mysterious
trolled in his methods, swift
and many-headed agent, uncon and unfettered perpet

.
ually in labor with fresh products of his fancy
Beside
him there
of letters, the editor, who stands before us as one condemned to a thankless task, compelled
is
the
man
to follow a beaten track, but giving to all he produces a deliberate and durable character. Both together have col
laborated in that vast undertaking known as The Lives of it is important for us to recognize the part each in this process of evolution, which, though played by
the Saints/ and the
work of
all
time,
is
incessantly
renewed."
17
Legends
are mainly poetry, and should be judged as such. Poetic fancies may give pleasure, but the Truth alone has a claim
to veneration and assent.
St.
Francis de Sales
"the
famous
dictum that the

18
practice,"
lives of the saints are
Gospel put into
applies only to the historic lives, not to the

Origin
to
16 Cfr. Harnack s paper on "Legends as Historical Sources" in the Preussische Jahrbilcher, 1890, pp. 249 sqq.; H. Achelis, Die MartyroloBerlin H. Quentin, 1900; gien, Les Martyrologes HistoO.S.B.,
riques, Paris 1908. 17 H. Delehaye, S.J.,
the Present Day,
London
1908, pp. 203 sqq.); H. Menge, Haben die Legendenschreiber dcs Mittelalters
Kritik
goiibt?
Miinster
1908; L. Zopf,
Das Heiligenleben im
zehnten
Les Legendes
Jahrhundert, Leipsic 1908, PP- 6 sqq., 31 sqq., 108 sqq. 18 Avis sur la Vraie Maniere de
Precher, ch. autre chose
3,
Hagiographiques, 2nd ed., Bruxelles 1906 (English tr. by Mrs. V. M. The Legends of the Crawford, Saints: An Introduction to Hagiology,
n.
2:
"Qu
est
ce
la
vie
de
saints
que
London
1907,
p.
u).
Cfr.
H.
I Evangile mis en ceuvre?" Cfr. St. Gregory the Great, Horn, in Ezech., sanctorum patrum I, 10, n. 38:
"In
Gunter, Legendenstudien, Cologne 1906; K. A. H. Kellner, Heortologie, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1906, pp. 155 sqq. (English translation by a Priest of the Diocese of Westminster, under
the
the
title,
vita
cognoscimus,
quid
in
sacrae
scripturae volumine intelleaerc debeamus. Illorum quippe actio nobis

aperit hoc,
quod
in suis pracdicationi-
bus
Heortology:
History of
pagina testamentorum dicit." (Migne, P. L., LXXVI, 901).
Christian
Festivals
frcm
their
SOURCES
33
poetical inventions of authors who could not have recorded the facts even if they had set out to do so, for the simple reason that they had no reliable knowledge of them.
of Catholic moralists (docis a source of Moral trina) Theology in so far as these writers testify to the belief and practice of
4.
19
The teaching
and in different and digest and develop moral ideas and principles with due regard to political and social conditions. Note, however, that whereas the basic principles of morality are unalterable and
the faithful at different times
countries,
never lose their binding force, particular duties and rights may change. General laws must be
constantly, adjusted to varying conditions.
The teaching
judged
tions
:
of Catholic moralists has to be
in the light of the following considera
There is a clear-cut distinction between (1) an author s testimony to the teaching of the Church and his private opinions. Every man is more or less a child of his age and country, and ethical views change somewhat with social and
other conditions.
(2) writers
tors of
The highest authority belongs to those who have been officially proclaimed "Doc the Church," especially St. Thomas Aqui
St.
nas (1567),
19 Cfr.
Alphonsus de Liguori (1871),

Dogmat., Vol.
I,
Pesch, Praelect.
4th ed., pp. 388 sqq., 400 sqq.
34

St.
and
However, the iS//). to these authors does not mean approbation given that the Church endorses all their teachings.
(
Francis de Sales
20
the oft-quoted decrees in favor of the writ of St. Alphonsus are negative rather than ings 21 positive and have no dogmatic character.
Even
(3)
Due
attention
must be paid
to
an author
position in the Church, pope, bishop, or priest, and to the purity of his morals.
The
to
all
principle, "Tantum valet
quantum
probat"
applies
theologians.
in
Not even
in
St.
Thomas
is
an exception.
says a re
"Neither
Dogmatic nor
"is
Moral
Theology,"
cent writer,
it
sufficient to appeal to the authority of St.
Thomas without regard

20 In
to the
arguments on which he
the
Bull
of
Clement
VII
(Nov. 26, 1523) proclaiming the canonization of St. Antoninus of Florence, that eminent writer, too,
is
num. repertum fuerit." The answer was: "Ad i: affirmative, quin tamen inde reprehcndendi censeantur, qui opiniones ab aliis probatis auctoribus
traditas sequuntur.
VII, on May 18, 1803, approved a decree of the S. C. R., in which that sacred Congregation declared that it had found nothing deserving of censure in the writings of
St.
styled 21 Pius
"Doctor."
Ad 2: negative, habita ratione mentis S. Sedis circa
Dei
approbationem scriptorum servorum ad effectum canonizationis." Gregory XVI confirmed this decision and in the Bull of canonization
Alphonsus
("nihil
in
eis
cen-
sura dignum esse
repertum").
The
S. Penitentiary, on July 5, 1831, reUtrum "(i) plied to two questions:

s.
"Eiusdem [Sancti (1839) declared: Alphonsi] opera inoffenso prorsus pede pcrcurri a fidelibus posse." Pius IX declared, March 23, 1871:
"[S. Alphonsus] inter complexes theologorum sive laxiores sive rigidiores sentcntias tutam stravit viam,
theologiae
professor
opiniones,
quas in sua theologia morali profitetur beatus Alphonsus a Ligorio

sequi tuto possit ac pronteri," and An sit inquietandus confessa"{2)
qui omnes beati Alphonsi a Ligorio sequitur opiniones in praxi sacri poenitcntiae tribunalis, hac sola ratione quod a S. Sede Apostolica
rius,
quam Christi fidelium animarum tnoderatores inoffenso pede incedere All these possent." approbations and declarations mean nothing more than that the writings of St. Alper
the
nihil
in
opcribus
illius
censura dig-
phonsus contain nothing contrary to teaching of the Church.
SOURCES
35
To proceed by mere appeal to authority bases his opinion. is contrary to the principles of Scholasticism, of which the Angelic Doctor was the leading exponent. 22 As far as
possible, reason should
endeavor to demonstrate the truths

quaerit intellec-
proposed by faith. tum must never be
The maxim, Fides

set aside in
even the highest authority is, adopt an opinion for no other reason than that
St.
favor of authority, because after all, but human. To

it
was held
Thomas, would be foreign to the spirit of Scholastic by 23 St. Thomas, as Lacordaire has rightly said, theology."
is
a light to guide, not a rod to check. 24
Where
the
Church has issued no positive decision and Revelation offers no definite guidance, we must follow the light of reason and the advice of competent experts. When the theologians agree, it would be rash to reject their opin
ion.
25
If
a considerable
it
number
of
reputable authors
defend a proposition,
their teaching. 26
is
at least permissible to follow
Ethics, Vol. I, Dublin Aug. Lehmkuhl, S.J., in the Catholic Encyclo pedia, Vol. XIV, pp. 602 sq. H. Gerigk, Die ivissenschaftliche Moral und ihre Lehrweise, Breslau 1910. M. Cano, Loci TheoloAd. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae gici, Salamanca 1563. Moralis, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 5 sqq.
1909, pp.
READINGS.
M. Cronin, The Science of
14 sq.
22
For
St.
Thomas own statement

History of Philosophy,
25 Cfr. Melchior Cano, Loci Theologici,

1.
see Turner,
p.
VII,
the
c.
4.
354. 23 Innsbruck Zeitschrift fur kath.
26 Cfr.
Zeitschrift
fur
kath.
Theologie, 1884, p. 788.
Theologie,
24
"S.
1898,
p.
530.
Thomas
est
un phare, mais
borne."
ne doit pas etre une
CHAPTER
man
VIII
THE METHODS OF MORAL THEOLOGY

The attainment
of
s last
end
may
be con
ceived as depending upon knowledge of the truth, observance of the law, or the mystic union of the
Accordingly we distinguish three methods of studying and teaching Moral Theology. These methods are based on the
soul with Christ.
three principal stages that Christian perfection and are

the ascetic method.
i.
mark known
the
way
to
as the Scho
lastic or speculative, the practical or casuistic,
and
THE SCHOLASTIC
The
OR SPECULATIVE
METH
OD.
its
Scholastic or speculative
method derives
data from positive theology, that is to say, it examines the teaching of Scripture and Tradition
and expounds the moral
principles derived
from
that teaching in the light of reason, tracing their intrinsic relations, demonstrating their correct
and developing their logical implications. This method may, therefore, be described as a deduction of the principles of right living from the
ness,
truths of speculative theology.

ijohn XVII,
3; Matth.
Hence
its
other
XIX,
17;
John VI, 55-58.
36
METHODS
name, speculative.
37
The
principal purpose of the
speculative or Scholastic method is to set forth the eternal ideas of right and wrong as they exist in the divine intellect, the ethical faculties of man,
and divine Revelation. The claims of this method need not be proved; they are justified by the very nature of the subject with which Moral
Theology
2.
deals.
THE PRACTICAL
may
OR CASUISTIC METHOD.
This method
be defined as technical in
struction in the application of the general princi ples of morality to special conditions and events,
other words, as the ana lytic solution of so-called cases of conscience (casus conscientiae). Thus defined, casuistry (thereal or
imaginary;
or, in
a legitimate, nay an indis pensable instrument for testing the morality of human acts. By applying the principles of right
ologia casuistic a}
is
conduct to the actual and possible occurrences of
everyday life, the casuist decides practical prob lems arising in the cure of souls and determines
what is right and what is wrong, what is licit and what is forbidden, what is venially and what
mortally sinful in each individual case. ployed prudently, i. e., with due regard for the
principles of morality, the casuistic method is un doubtedly useful. However, it embraces only a
Em
narrow
sector of
life,
duct mainly from
and appraises human con the external, juridical, and
38
legal point of view, and hence easily leads either to excessive rigorism or undue laxity. 2
is more than mere method employed in Moral Theology; it is a science which digests the positive moral teachings em bodied in the laws and official decisions of the Church and deduces from them the true spirit of ecclesiastical legislation and definite principles for the guidance of
In another and a higher sense casuistry
conduct.
ASCETIC METHOD. This method shows how the means of grace should be em
3.
THE
ployed so as to enable man to attain perfection. There are three ways of attaining perfection: the purgative, the illuminative, and the unitive.
soul
Setting out on the first (via purgativa), the is cleansed from sin and concupiscence by
prayer, penitence, and mortification. Proceeding on the second (via illuminativa)

the soul
is
divinely enlightened
and endowed with
supernatural prerogatives, such as intuition, vi

sion, etc.
Finally, at the end of the third way (via unitiva), the soul is united with God, its sovereign
Good.
Mysticism, which in
tions
2 Cfr.
its
practical manifesta
is
F.
pp.
sometimes, though less appropriately,

Walter,
15 sqq.
;
Theorie
Jos.
und
nahan,
pedia,
S.J.,
in
Ill,
the
pp.
Cath.
Encyclosqq.;
Praris,
Rickaby, Political and Moral Essays, S.J., London 1902, pp. 197 sqq.; T. Bros-
Vol.
415
W.
and
Humphrey, S.J., Conscience Law, London 1896.
METHODS
called
39
ascetism, may consequently be defined as the science of Christian virtue, particularly ideal virtue, i. e. the hidden life of the soul with
Christ in God.
It
forms the climax and crown
of Moral Theology.
However, mystic theology does not comprise the Church s entire teaching with regard to the
virtues of the Christian
life.
It
merely deals with
these virtues in their highest aspects.

false ideals.
Wrongly
conceived, Mysticism leads to the adoption of
The Church has prescribed none of the three methods enumerated above for the study or teach 4 As each method covers ing of Moral Theology.
but a portion of the vast field traversed by this science, all three should be employed together. find them so employed in the writings of St.
We
Bernard,
St.
Thomas,
St.
Bonaventure, and other
great masters.
Hogan, Clerical Studies, Boston 1898, pp. 209 Mausbach, Die kath. Moral, ihre Methoden, Grundsatze und Aufgaben, 2nd ed., Cologne 1902. IDEM, Catholic Moral Teaching and its Antagonists, New York 1914, pp. 57 sqq.
READINGS.
J.
sqq.,
222 sqq.
J.
3 Col. Ill, 3; Gal. II, 20;
Eph. Ill, 17 sqq.
Cfr. F. X.
VI, 14; Mutz,
"Auctorem
fidei"
(Aug.
28,
1794)
and Pius IX,

osition
in the thirteenth prop-
Christliche Aszetik, Paderborn 1907, 1910; Th. Zahn, Einfuhrung in die

christliche Mystik, ibid., 1908; G. M. Sauvage, in the Cath. Encyclopedia,
Vol. X, pp.
S.J.,
(tr.
Poulain, of Interior Prayer uy L. Y. Smith), London 1911. 4 Pius VI in his Constitution
663 sqq.; A.
The Graces
Syllabus, merely defend Scholasticism against the unjust accusations of its enemies; they do not prescribe the casuistic method The same is for Moral Theology. true of the letter addressed by Pius IX to the Munich Scientific Congress, Dec. 21, 1863.
of the
40
1910, pp. 7 sq.
A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamentalis, 2nd ed., Haaren A. Meyenberg, Die kath. Moral, 2nd ed., pp. 34
sqq. Hettinger-Stepka, Timothy, pp. 390 sqq. M. Grabmann, Die Geschichte der scholastischen Methode, Vol. I, Freiburg 1909, pp. 36 sqq., 55 sqq. Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Political and Moral Essays, London 1902, pp. 197 sqq. Aug. Lehmkuhl, S.J., in the Catholic
Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, pp. 607 sqq. Th. Boiiquillon, Theologia Moralis Fundamentalis, 3rd ed., Bruges 1903. A. Krawutzky, Einleitung in das Studium der kath. Moraltheologie, 2nd ed., Breslau 1898. E. Miiller, Theol Mor., Vol. I, 5th ed., pp. 23 sqq. Thos. Slater, S.J., The Foundation of True Morality, N. Y.
1920, pp. 37 sqq.
A. Vermeersch,
S.J.,
Theol. Mor., Vol.
I,
pp.
9 sqq.
CHAPTER
THEOLOGY
IX
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF MORAL
literature.
Catholic Moral Theology has a very extensive In this compendium we can do little
more than give a list of the principal authors and We shall supple their more important works. ment this enumeration with sufficient data to make
it
serve as an historical outline of the development
of our science.
The
history of Moral, like that of
Dogmatic
Theology, and Church History
in general,
may
suitably be divided into three periods: (i) the Patristic, (2) the Medieval or Scholastic, and (3) the Modern Period.
SECTION
THE PATRISTIC PERIOD

Those who occupied themselves publicly with the moral teaching of Christianity in the
I.
three centuries did so for a practical rather than a scientific purpose; they wrote to instruct
first
the faithful in the principles of right living and to ward off pagan or heretical attacks.
The so-called Apostolic Fathers expound a) the moral teaching of the Church on the basis
of Sacred Scripture and Tradition. They spe cially emphasize the three theological virtues of
faith, hope,
and charity as the core and kernel of
Christian morality. The DidachCj or Teaching of the Twelve

tles,
has been called

It
"the
first
Apos handbook of Moral
Theology."
gives a synopsis of Christian eth ics under the figure of two ways, the way of life
and the way of death. 2

i
Cfr.
F.
X.
I,
stolid,
Vol.
Funk, Patres Apo2nd ed., Tubingen
Fathers, 1913).
vols.,
London 1912 and
1901. cheap edition of the writings of these Fathers, with a fairly

reliable
2 AtSax?? riav duSeKa aTroaToXwv, Ch. I-VI. On the Didachc and its
English translation,
in
is
now
Li-
available
the
Loeb
Classical
brary (Kirsopp Lake, The Apostolic
teaching see Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrology, Freiburg and St. Louis 1908, pp. 19 sqq.; J. Tixeront, His-
42
HISTORY AND LITERATURE

The same
simile, in a slightly altered
43
curs in the Epistle ascribed to St. St. Clement of Rome, who, according to St.
Irenaeus, was the third successor of St. Peter, in structs the Corinthians in their duties, warns them
form, oc 3 Barnabas.
against harboring envy and jealousy, recommends the practice of humility and obedience, and points
to certain types and examples of these virtues 4 contained in the Old Testament.
St.
Ignatius of Antioch, of whose letters St.

"contain
Polycarp says that they
faith, patience,
and
all
5
the edification which pertains to

calls faith
"the
our
Lord,"
and the end of
and charity beginning 6 and describes the mutual relationship of these two virtues as follows: "The beginning is faith, the end is love; and when the two are joined together in unity, it is God, and all other noble things follow after
life,"
7
them."
Polycarp as a rule confines himself to gen eral admonitions but now and then he exhorts his
St.
;
tory of
Dogmas, Vol.
I,
St.
Louis
1910, pp. 135 sqq.
synopsis of the
Didache is given by Slater in his Short History of Moral Theology,

pp. 9 sqq.
Vol. I, pp. 107 sqq.; J. Gregg, The Epistle of St. Clement, London 1899. 6 Polycarp, Ad Phil., XIII, 2. 6 dpx^J ^fw^s /ecu reXoj.
7
Ad
Ephes.,
XIV,
i:
Ep. Barn., c. XVIII-XXI. For a brief account of this letter and its
8
irtffTts,
reXos 5e
TTOLVTO.
dyd-n-rj
dpxV l&v ra 5e 8vo

<TTIV,
v ei/OTTjrt yevofAeva Oeos
TO.
contents
see
Bardenhewer-Shahan,
aXXa
et s
KaXoKayadiav
pp. 22 sqq.; Tixeront, Hist, of Dogmas, Vol. I, pp. 139 sqq. 4 i Ep. ad Cor., c. 1-36. Cfr.
Patrology,
Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrology, pp. 25 sqq.; Tixeront, Hist, of Dogmas,
aKoXovdd eanv. On St. Ignatius teaching see E % Bruston, Ignace d Antioche, ses Epitres, sa Vie, sa Theologie, Paris 1897.
44

obey
"the
presbyters and deacons and emphasizes the three theological virtues together with love of one s neighbors. 8
disciples to
The twelve commandments (mandata)
incul
cated by the Shepherd of Hermas are a kind of 9 compendium of Catholic moral teaching.
Letter to Diognetus describes the exem plary life led by the Christians of the third or fourth century. 10
of the second and third without centuries, shutting their eyes to the commendable features of pagan civilization, con
The
b)
The Apologists
11
by Christian believers with the depravity of the pagan masses, and extol the former for their unworldliness, their chastity and benevolence, their charity and heroism, which
trast the pious life led
frequently culminated in martyrdom. Though the early Christians constantly kept in view the essentials of morality, and recognized
prayer and penance as the principal means of sanctification, their views and customs undeniably
Thus they condemned betray a certain rigorism. play-acting and other diversions which are in
themselves harmless.
8
12
Ad
Phil.,
Ill,
2-3.
Cfr.
TixI,
see Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrology,

pp. 68 sq.
eront, History of
Dogmas, Vol.
pp.
132 sqq. Cfr.
11 V.
Bardenhewer-Shahan,
Pa-
Bardenhewer-Shahan,
;
Pacit.,
trology, pp. 38 sq.

I,
Tixeront, op.
trology, pp. 44 sqq. 12 Cfr. K. J. Hefele, Beitrdge xur
in
sqq.
10 Ep. ad Diogn., c. V-VII. On the authorship of this disputed letter
Kirchengeschichte, Vol. I, Tubingen 1864, pp. 16 sqq.; A. Bigelmair, Die Beteiligung der ersten Christen am

The development
45
of Moral Theology was advanced by Clement of Alexandria, strongly whose trilogy (Protrepticus, Paedagogus, Stro mata) is a graduated or progressive introduction to Christianity. The Protrepticus (Exhortation to the Heathen) opens with an eloquent invitation
to listen to
new song of the Logos going forth from Sion." The Paedagogus is a guide to Christian life for the use of converts. The
"the
Stromata (Miscellanies;
Tapestries, a collection of materials for the instruction and

strictly,
training of theologians) presents a scientific ac count of "the true philosophy," i. e., the Christian
religion.
Another
6
ethical treatise
by the same
is
learned author, T
motopwo*
ir\ov<nos
y
more com
Dives
monly known by
Salvetur?"
13
its
Latin
title,
"Quis
Origen made valuable contributions to Moral Theology in his treatise on Prayer and the Ex 14 hortation to Martyrdom.
offentlichen Leben,
Munich
1902, pp.
172 sqq.
Bardenhewer-Shahan, PaA Short History of Moral Theology, pp. n sqq. Clement s trilogy is reproduced in Migne, P. G., VIII and IX. Vol. VIII contains the Paedagogus and the first four Stromata; Vol. IX, the other works. On his life and teaching see O. Stahlin, Clemens Alexan13 Cfr.
trology, p. 129; Slater,
drinus, 3 vols., Leipsic 1905-09;

J.
F.
Winter, Die Ethik des Klemens von Alexandrien, Leipsic 1882; E. de Clement d Alexandrie, Faye,
Paris
1898;
Moral des Klemens von Alexandrien, Paderborn F. X. 1903; Funk, "Klemens von Alexandrien iiber Familie und Eigentum," in Kirchengeschichtliche Abhandlungen und Untersuchungen, Vol. II, Paderborn 1899, pp. 45 sqq.; W. Wagner, Der Christ und die Welt nach Klemens von Alexandrien, Gottingen 1903; J. Kaye, Some Account of the Writ ings and Opinions of Clement of Alexandria, 2nd ed., London 1890; K. Ernesti, Die Ethik des T. Flavins Klemens von Alexandrien, Paderborn 1900. 14 Migne,
P.
G.,
W.
Capitaine,
Die
XI,
416-561,
46

Tertullian
15
and St. Cyprian are the leading representatives of what may be called the practi
cal school of early Christian moralists.
The
or
thodox writings of the former contain many pro found reflections on ethical topics. 16 Tertullian
was
ity.
the
first
writer
is
will of
17
God
St.
expressly taught that the the sovereign principle of moral
who
lent
piety.
2.
Cyprian has left us a number of excel moral treatises distinguished by genuine

18
In the fourth century the Fathers of both

nostris
W. Capitaine, De Cfr. 564-637. Origenis Ethica, Miinster 1898; C. Klein, Die Freiheitslchre des Origenes, Strassburg 1894. 15 Tertullian s ethical writings are reprinted in Migne, P. L., I and II, in Gersdorf s Bibliotheca Pair. Eccles.
angusliis
unum
inculcamus,
bonum atque optimum esse, quod Deus praccipit. Audaciam existimo,

de
bono
divini
Neque enim quia bonum

auscultare
praecipit.
praecepti disputare. est, idcirco
sic
Lot., ed. E. F. Leopold, Leip1839, Vols. IV-VII, and in the
prior est
deb emus, sed quia Deus exhibitionem obsequii maiestas divinae potestatis,
Ad
Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna 1890-96, XX, i and 3. On this writer s teaching see G. Ludwig, Tcrtullians Ethik, Leipsic 1885;
prior est auctoritas imperantis quam utilitas servientis." (Ed. Leopold,

II,
52). 18 These treatises

L.,
may be found
II and
in
;
Migne, P.
critical
IV
(cfr.
V)
W.
matische
Vollert, Tertullians dogund cthische Grundan-
1903; J. Turmel, Tertullien, 2nd ed., Paris 1905, pp. 146 sqq.; Adhemar d Ales, La
schauung,
Giitersloh
Corpus Vienna
edition by G. Hartel in the Script. Eccles. Lat., Ill, 1-3,
1868-1871.
St.
Cyprian
are:
principal
moral
treatises
De
Theologie de Tertullien, Paris 1905, pp. 262 sqq.; F. Nielsen, Tertullians

Ethik, Schonberg 1879; J. Tixeront, History of Dogmas, Vol. I, pp. 304
sqq. 16
Catholicae Ecclesiae Unitate, De Lapsis, De Dominica Oratione, De Bono

Patientiae,
nis,
talitate.
De Opere et ElcemosyDe Habitu Virginum, De MorCfr.
Bardenhewer-Shahan,
De
De
Paticntia,
lolatria,
De Orations, Ad Martyr es, De IdoDe Spectaculis, Ad Uxorem.

Poenitentia,
On the Patrology, pp. 192 sqq. ethical of Lactantius teaching (Migne, P. L., VI- VII; Corpus
Script.
Eccl.
Lat.,
On
and
the character of these treatises the various editions of them see
XXVII,
ed. S.
Vols. XIX and Brandt and G. Laub-
Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrology, pp.

186 sq.
17
mann, Vienna 1890-1897) see M. E. Heinig, Die Ethik des Lactantius,
Grimma
Poenit., 4:
"Nos
1887.
De
vero pro

the East and the
47
West labored hard
to
stem the
tide of corruption that threatened to
invade the
was in the course of this period that St. Ambrose and St. Augustine laid the foun St. dations of Moral Theology as a science.
Church.
It
Augustine
in particular deserves a place of
honor
in the Patristic history of
count of the masterful

ethical questions.
St.
Officiis
way
our discipline on ac in which he developed
theological anthropology
and expounded many
Ambrose
principal
is
Ministrorum,
moral treatise, entitled De modelled on Cicero s De Officiis
and
may
be described as a manual of instruction

s spiritual
com
posed for the author
children, the ecclesiastics His chief motive or ministers (ministri) of the Church. seems to have been to demonstrate the superiority of
Christian
over
pagan
ethics.
works
in praise of virginity
He also wrote several and the religious state. It
has been justly observed that the ethical element pre dominates in all his writings. 19
St.
Augustine systematically expounded both the dog
matic and the moral teaching of the Church in his Enchiri dion ad Laurentium, sive de Fide, Spe et Caritate. His
treatise
De Moribus
Ecclesiae et de Moribus
Manicha-
orum
is
devoted entirely to a defense of the moral teaching

orum
Libris,
19 Cfr. Tixeront, History of Dog-
Braunsberg 1849;
hi.
J.
E.
mew, Vol. II, pp. 251 sq. Short History of Moral
Slater,
Pruner, Die Theologie des

brosius, Eichstatt 1862.
AmChr6of
Theology,
R.
Thamin
St. Ambrose s moral writpp. 14 sq. ings in Migne, P. L.,
XIV-XYIL
s
Ambroise tienne au IV e
(5".
et
la
Morale
Siecle, Paris 1895, ch.
On
see
the
F.
relation
to
of
his
Ministrorum
Ciceronianis
Cicero
De De
Ofnciis
Ofiiciis
5-8)
underrates
the
influence
Bittner,
et
Commentatio de Ambrosianis Offici-
on the Scripture teaching of St. Ambrose.

Sacred
ethical
48

He
monographs on
of the Church against the Manichaeans.

rate
wrote sepa lying, marriage, monasticism, conti 20 nence, patience, virginity, and widowhood. Besides, not a few of his letters deal with ethical topics. 21 The funda mental principle of Christian morality, according to Au
gustine,
is
charity,
from which
all
other virtues emanate,
and with which they are substantially identical. 22 St. Augustine also laid the foundation of practical Mysticism. Speculatively, this science was profoundly in fluenced by the writings attributed (wrongly, as we now
know)
St.
to
23 Dionysius the Areopagite.
Other distinguished moralists of the Patristic age were Basil the Great, 24 St. Gregory of Nyssa, in whose
writings the viewpoint of practical morality often asserts 25 26 and St. John ChrysSt. Gregory of Nazianzus, itself,
De Mendacio, Contra MendaDe Bono Coniugali, De Opere Monachorum, De Continentia, De Patientia, De Sancta Virginitate, De
20
cium,
wesen, Mayence 1900; BardenhewerShahan, Patrology, pp. 535 sqq.; Tix

eront, Hist, of
s
Dogmas, Vol.
Ill, pp.
sqq.
Bono
iduitatis.
Bardenhewer-ShaP.
24 Ethica, Ep.
G.,
han, Petrology,
p. 492. 21 Reprinted from the Benedictine edition in Migne, P. L., XXXII-
XXIX-XXXII).
Canonicae (Migne, Cfr. A.
Kranich, Die Aszetik in ihren dogmatischen Grundlagen bei Basilius
XLVII.
St.
On
the ethical teaching of
dem
Grossen, Paderborn 1896.
Bar-
Augustine see H. Reuter, Augustinisclie Studien, Gotha 1887, pp.

Wolfsgruber, AugustiPaderborn 1898, pp. 860 sqq.; A. M. Tonna-Barthet, Augustini Doctrina Ascetica, Einsiedeln 1906; J. Mausbach, Die Ethik des hi. Augunus,
5".
denhewer-Shahan, Patrology, p. 278. 25 See his De Perfectione, and es

pecially
G.,
359 sqq.; C.
De Virginitate (Migne, P. XLIV-XLVI). Cfr. Bardenp.
hewer-Shahan, Patrology,
299.
On
the ethical teaching of St. Greg ory of Nyssa see F. Hilt, Des hi.
stinus, 2
vols., Freiburg 1909; Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrology. pp. 488
sqq.;
J.
Tixeront,
II, pp.
mas, Vol. 460 sqq.

22 Cfr.
14,
History of Dog 367 sqq., 432 sqq.,

Ecclesiae,
c.
De Moribvs
n.
24
(Migne, P. L.,
XXXII,
H. Koch, Pseudo-Dionysius in seinen Beziehungen zum Neuplatonismus und MysterienAreopagita
1321). 23 Cfr.
von Nyssa Lehre vom Cologne 1890, pp. 103 sqq., 175 sqq.; W. Vollert, Die Lehre Gregors von Nyssa vom Guten und Bdscn, Leipsic 1897; J. B. Aufhauser, Die Hcilslehre des hi. Gregor von Nyssa, Munich 1910. 20 Carmina, Orationes (Migne, P.
Gregorius
Menschen,
G.,
XXXV-XXXVIII).
s
On
Nazi-
anzen
teaching see Fr. K.
Hummer,
Des
hi.
Gregor von Nasianz, des The-

ostom.
49
These writers treated ethical subjects mostly 27 from the standpoint of the ascetic. St. Ephraem Syrus in his orations and hymns is both scholastic and practical. Moralizing discourses, monitory
28 or penitential, make up the greater part of his works. St. Cyril of Jerusalem deals with sin, penance, and other moral topics in his famous Catecheses Mystagogicae. St. Macarius the Egyptian is regarded as the founder of
ecclesiastical Mysticism.
St.
30
Methodius, Bishop of Olympus in Lycia, in his

31
famous Symposion, enthusiastically chants the praises of

virginity.
St. Gregory the Great is minute His and practical. Expositio in Librum lob, more gen has justly been Moralium Libri known as erally 32 His famous termed a thesaurus of Moral Theology." Liber Regulae Pastoralis, written about 591 and dedicated
The moral teaching of
XXXV
is
"
to Archbishop
treatise
John of Ravenna, on casuistry. 33

fels,
regarded as the
first
ologen, Lehre von der Gnade, Kempten 1890; Th. Sommerlad, Das Wirt-
schaftsprogramm der Kirche

telalter,
int
Mit-
Leipsic
27 Chrysostom moral writings in
1903, pp. 136 sqq. and ascetical s
Macarius cfr. J. Stof Die mystische Theologie Makarius des Aegypters und die dltesten Ansatze christlicher Mystik, Bonn
cal opinions of
1908.
XLVII-LXIV.
sqq.;
On
Migne, P. G., his moral teachop.

cit.,
ing see Somerlad,

scl-
Bardenhewer-Shahan,
pp. 142 Patrol-
Migne, P. G., XVIII, 9-408. N. Bonwetsch, Die Theologie des Methodius von Olympus, Berlin
31
Cfr.
ogy, PP- 344 28 Cfr. Bardenhewer-Shahan,

trology, pp. 390 sq. 29 Migne, P. G.,
1903, pp. 125 sqq. 32 Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrology,

p.
cit., pp. 652 sq. Gregory s writings will he found in Migne, P.
Pa-
653. 33 Op.
XXXIII.
On
the moral doctrine of St. Cyril see A. Knappitsch, S. Cyrilli Catechesibus quae Principia ct Praecepta Moralia Contineantur, Graz 1899.
L.,
LXXV-LXXIX.
On
his life
and
30 Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrology,
226 sq. The 0/xiX/cu Tri>ev/JL&TiKal are reprinted in Migne, P. G., XXXIV, -149-822. On the theologipp.
teaching cfr. C. Wolfsgruber, Gregor der Grosse, Saulgau 1890. On the teaching of St. Jerome and Theodoret of Cyrus see Th. Sommerlad, Das Wirtschaftsprogramm der Kirche
im
Mittelalter, Leipsic 1903, pp. 165
sqq., 173 sqq.
50

R. Ceillier, Apologie de la Morale des Peres de J. P. Charpentier, Etudes sur les Peres de
1853.
READINGS.
I
I
Eglise, Paris 1718.

fLglise,
Paris
A.
Rietter,
Sittenlehre
der
kirchlichen
Schriftsteller der ersten zwei Jahrhunderte, Ratisbon 1845. von Dobschiitz, Die urchristlichen Gemcinden, Leipsic 1902.
E.
A.
Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Leipsic 1906, pp. 172 sqq. Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrology, pp. 15 sqq. J. Schwane, Dogrnengeschichte, Vol. I, 2nd Vol. II, 2nd ed., ed., Freiburg 1892, pp. 289 sqq., 466 sqq.
;
Freiburg 1895, PP- 4 T 8 sqq., 439 sqq., 725 sqq. Thos. Slater, S.J., A Short History of Moral Theology, New York 1909, pp. 8-35.
Aug. Lehmkuhl,
604
sq.
S.J., in
the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.
XIV,
pp.
SECTION
THE MEDIEVAL OR SCHOLASTIC PERIOD

1.
The
ecclesiastical writers of the early
Mid
dle
Ages contented themselves with gathering up
the moral teachings of the Fathers, expound ing and adapting them to practical use by
means of encyclopedic
collections
known
as Libri
Sententiaruni, Scintillae Patrum, or Sacra Parallela. It is sufficient to mention St. Isidore of
John of Damascus, St. Bede, St. Peter 1 Damian, and Alcuin. About the same time the ancient penitential
Seville, St.
canons together with the existing ordinances re garding the administration of penance were
gathered into so-called Penitential Books (Libri Poenitentiales), which, by noting the penances to be imposed in the confessional, helped to pre 2 pare the way for the casuistic method.
2. Beginning with the eleventh century the moral teaching of the Church was systematically
l Cfr. Kihn, Enzyklop ddie und Methodologie der Theologie, Freiburg 1892, p. 441. On SS. Isidore and John Damascene see Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrology, pp. 660
Encyclopedia, II, 384 sqq., XI, 764 sq., I, 276 sqq. 2 Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. Ill, pp. 199 sq. H. J. Schmitz,
;
On St. Bede, St. 582 sqq. Peter Damian, and Alcuin, the Cath.
sqq.,
Die Bussbiicher, 2 vols., Mayence 1883 and 1899; Lehmkuhl in the

Cath. Encyclopedia,
XIV,
605.
51
52
expounded according to the speculative, the casu istic, and the mystical method. However, Moral not was an independent science, Theology yet but formed a part of the Scholastic Sunnnac, and
was
dealt with either in philosophy or dogmatic
theology.
Moral Theology as a separate science probably was William Perault, O. P. (+ before I27o). 3 He was followed by St. Antoninus of Florence, also a Dominican ( + 4 Both Perault and St. Antoninus com 1459).
first
The
writer
who
treated
bined the systematic with the casuistic method. a) The real founder of Moral Theology as a
science,
however,
5
is
Saint
(+
3
1274).
is
Utilizing the
Peraldus,
Thomas Aquinas work of Peter Lorn-
Perault
(Peratild,
Peraltus)
believed
by
some
to
have been archbishop of Lyons.
His
Summa
first
de Vitiis et Virtutibus was
1497. published at Cologne, Chs. J. Callan, O.P., in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XV, p.
Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. IV, pp. 188 sqq.) 5 Cfr. K. Werner, Der hi, Thomas von Aquin, Vol. I, Ratisbon 1858, 815; A. Stockl, Geschichte der p.
Philosophic des Mittelalters, Vol. II, Mayence 1865, pp. 655-721; H. E. Plassmann, Die Moral gem dss der
(Cfr.
642.)
4
Summa
Theologica, best edition
by Peter Ballerini, Verona 1740, 4 folio. Cfr. K. Ilgner, Die vols.

volkswirtschaftlichen
Anschauungen
Antonins
to
rank of an independent science by George Calixtus ( -f 1656). (Cfr. G. Honicke, Studien zur altprotestantischen Ethik, Berlin 1902, 128). Th. Venatorius, a Protesp. tant minister in Nurnberg, had published a treatise De Virtute Christiana
in
1904. the
Florenz, Paderborn Protestant ethics was raised
von
Schule des hi. Thomas, Soest 1861; A. Rietter, Moral des hi. Thomas von Aquin, Munich 1858; A. Portmann, System der theologischen Summe, 2nd ed., Lucerne 1903, pp. 105 sqq.; P. Berthier, L Etude de
la
Somme
Theologique de
S,
Thomas
2nd ed., Paris 1905; M. Maurenbrecher, Thomas von Aquins

d Aquin,
Stellung
Zcit,
sum
Leipsic
three
books
as
early
as
1525.
(Cfr..
the
New
Schaff-Hersog
Eigentum Thomas und der Sozialismus, Freiburg 1895; F. Schaub, Eigentumslehre nach Thomas von Aquin, Frei-
Wirtschaftsleben seiner 1898; F. Walter, Das nach der Lehre des hi.

bard
53
(+
tences/ centuries served as a standard text-book in the
1164), called "Master of the Sen whose Libri Sententiarwn for several
and following Alexander of Hales (+ 1245) and Blessed Albert the Great ( + 1 280), the Angelic Doctor in the second part of his classic Summa Theologica developed Cath olic moral teaching into a magnificent system based upon the philosophy of Aristotle and the
theological schools,
dogmatic anthropology of St. Augustine. The Thomistic system was attacked by Duns Scotus (+ 1308), 7 who asserted that "good is good because God wills it so, and to say that God wills the good for the reason that it is good would
be
burg
8
false."
1898; J. Mausbach, Ausgewdhlte Texte zur allgemeinen Moral aus den Werken des hi. Thomas von
A. Bc-rtoni, Jean Duns pp. 851 sqq. Scot, sa PiV. set Doctrine, ses Dis;
ciples,
8
Lcvanto 1917, pp. 402 sqq.
Aquin, Munster 1905; Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Aquinas Ethicus: or, The
Scotus,
19,
Comment,
unica,
dist.
qu.
in Sent., Ill, Cfr. Par7.
Mora/ Teaching of
St.
Thomas.
thenius
Translation of the Principal Portions of the Second Part of Hie "Summa

Theologica,"
Scotus
1905;
Minges, O.F.M., 1st Duns Indeterminist? Munster IDEM, Die Gnadcnlchre dcs
IDEM,
Scotus,
with
Notes,
vols.,
London 1896; M. De Wulf, History

of
Duns Scotus, ibid., 1906; Der Gottesbegriff des Duns

Vienna
his
Medieval Philosophy
(tr.
by P.
1907.
1909, pp. 341 sqq.; Hettinger-Stepka, Timothy, or Letters to a Young Theologian, pp.
Coffey),
London
article
Fr. Minges says in on Scotus in the Cath.

sq.)
:
Encyclopedia (Vol. V, pp. 197

"Scotus
388 sqq., 6 Cfr. W. Feiler, Die Moral des Albertus Magnus, Leipsic 1891; E. Michael, S.J., Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, Vol. Ill, pp. 245 sqq.; M. De Wulf, History of Medieval Philosophy, pp. 298 sqq.
7 Cfr.
St.
Louis 1902.
emphatically that the morality of an act requires an object which is good in its nature, its end, and its circumstances, and according to the dictate of right reason. It is not true that he makes
declares
God
what
free
is
will
decide
arbitrarily
M. De Wulf,
op.
cit.,
pp.
367 sqq.; A. Stockl, Geschichte der Philosophic des Mittelalters, Vol. II,
is bad; he only asserts that the Commandments of the second table of the Decalogue are not in such strict sense laws of
good and what
54

b) Casuistry does not
owe
its
existence, as has
been supposed, to St. Raymond of Pennafort (+ 1275). Robert of Flamesbury, towards the end of the twelfth century, or at the beginning of
the thirteenth, in a treatise called Poenitentiale employed the casuistic method with much skill.
St.
Raymond
an
himself, in composing his
Summa,
by an unknown author, which was probably written between 1217 and 1226 and exhibits the casuistic method fully de This anonymous treatise constitutes the veloped. first known application of the casuistic method 9 to Moral Theology. However, among the nu merous works known as Summae Confessorum, or Summae Casuum C onscientiae which served the clergy of the Middle Ages in the administra
utilized
earlier treatise
tion of Penance, St.
Raymond
it
Summa
de Casicalled,
bus Poenitcntiae,
or, as
is
more often
Summa
Raimundiana, was by far the most fa
mous. Other widely quoted works of the same kind were: the Summa Astesana (or Astensis) de Casibiis C onscientiae, composed about 1317 by a Franciscan friar of Asti in Piedmont the Summa
;
ble; because
nature as are those of the first taGod cannot grant a dispensation from the laws of the first, whereas he can dispense from those
than the other positive laws of

etc.
God,"
of the second, as in fact

his son.
He did when He commanded Abraham to sacrifice

But the precepts of the
sec-
Cfr. E. Michael, S.J., Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, Vol. Ill, pp. On Raymond of Penna237 sqq.
fort see
M. M. O Kane,
Cath.
Encyclopedia,
O.P., in the Vol. XII, pp.
ond
table also are far
more binding
671 sq.
55
Pisana (or Pisanella) of Bartholomew of Pisa, O. P., written about 1338; the Summa Pacifica of Pacificus Novariensis (a resident of Ceredano near Novara), composed about 1470; the Summa
Rosella or Baptistiniana, of J. B. Trovamala of Genoa, written about 1484; the Summa Angelica,
of Blessed Angelus Carletus, a Franciscan, who is generally called Angelus de Clavasio from his
birth-place Chiavasso (+1495); and, last not least, the Summa Summarum quae Silvestrina
composed by Sylvester Prierias, O. P., at Strassburg, 1518, which practically brings the age
dicitur,
of the great "Summists" to a close. 10 c) The chief representatives of the ascetic
Bernard of Clairvaux (+H53), Hugh and Richard of St. Victor 13 and St. Bonaventure (+ 1141 and H73), 14 Later writers worthy of mention in (+ 1274). 5 this field are: John Tauler (+ I36i)/ Bl.
are
St.
12
10 Cfr. T.
method
X1
Brosnahan,
in
S.J.,
art.
"Casuistry"
the
Cath.
pp.
pedia,
Vol.
Ill,
Encyclo415 sqq.;
II,
14 St. Bonaventure s Opera Omnia were re-edited by the Franciscan Fathers of Quaracchi, Italy, 1882 sqq.;
Schmitz,
Die Bussbiicher, Vol.
Decem
pp. 792 sqq. 11 Cfr. K.
Werner,
System
der
christlichen Ethik, Vol. I, pp. 58 sqq. 12 Migne, P. CLXXXIIL., Cfr. A. GeStockl,
ad Opuscula Theologiam Mysticam Spectantia, ibid., 1896. Cfr. De Wulf, History of Medieval Philosophy, pp. 282 sqq.; L. Lemhi.
mens, O.F.M., Der
Bonaventura,
CLXXXV.
schichte
telalters,
der
Philosophie
des
Mit-
Vol. I, pp. 293 sqq.; M. Gildas, O.C.R., in the Cath. Encyclo-
1909, pp. 30 sqq.; A. Stockl, Ceschichte der Philosophic des Mittelalters, Vol. II, pp. 880
sqq.;
Kempten
P.
Robinson,
O.F.M., in the
pedia, Vol. II, p. 501. 13 Migne, P. L.,
Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. II, pp. 648
CLXXVCfr.
Stockl,
CLXXVII;
op,
cit.,
CXCVI.
304
sqq. is Cfr. K. Loffler in the Cath.
En-
I,
sqq., 355 sqq.
cyclopedia, Vol.
^W,
pp. 465 sq.
56

Bl.
10 Henry Suso (+ I365),
(+ 1381), surnamed 18 Gerard Zerbolt of Ziitphen (+ I398), John Gerson (+ 1429), 19 and Thomas a Kempis (+ 1471), author of the world-famous Imita
"the
John of Ruysbroeck Admirable Doctor," 1T
tion.
READINGS. Thos. Slater, S.J., A Short History of Moral Theology, New York 1909, pp. 35-44. Aug. Lehmkuhl, S.J., in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, pp. 605 sqq.
16 Cfr.
in
A.
L.
McMahon,
Encyclopedia,
the
Catholic
O.P., Vol.
18 Cfr.
Scully in the Cath.
Ency
pp.
VII, pp. 238 sq. 17 V. Scully, C.R.L., Life of BL London 1910. John Ruysbroeck, Adornment of the Ruysbroeck s Spiritual Marriage, The Sparkling Stone, and The Book of Supreme Truth have recently been published in an English translation by C. A.
clopedia, Vol. VI, pp. 471 sq. 19 Cfr. L. Salembier, ibid.,
530 sqq. 20 Cfr. Stockl, op. cit., II, pp. 1095 A splendid critical edition of sqq. Thomas a Kempis writings has lately been published by M. J. Pohl
(Thomae Hemerken
Omnia,
Kempis Opera
Wynschenk Dom, edited by Evelyn Underbill, who contributes a valu

able
alia,
"the
Freiburg 1902 sqq.). Cfr. Sir Francis R. Cruise, Thomas d Kempis, London 1887; IDEM, Who
introduction, containing, inter a brief biographical sketch of greatest of the Flemish mys
tics."
(John
of
Ruysbroeck,
Lon
don 1916).
Was the Author of the "Imitation"? London 1898; V. Sully, Life of the Ven. Thomas a Kempis, London 1901; IDEM in the Cath. Encyclope dia, Vol. XIV, pp. 66 1 sqq.
SECTION
THE MODERN PERIOD

i.
The
general
development
of
the
sacred
following upon the Council of Trent naturally included Moral Theology. a ) For a while St. Thomas was universally fol lowed, and the moralists continued to treat their
sciences
problems in connection with Dogmatic Theology. Some of them, notably Gabriel Vasquez, SJ. 2 1 (+ 1604), Francis Suarez, SJ. (+ 1617), and
Dom.
taries
Bariez, O.P.
(+
on the Sutnma.
1604), composed commen Others, e. g., Peter Soto
1563), Adam Tanner (+ 1632), Martin Becanus (+ 1624), Natalis Alexander (+ 1724), Charles Billuart (+ 1757), and Eusebius Amort
(+
(+ 1775), adopted a less formal treatment, which enabled them to combine a systematic exposition of Catholic teaching with its defense against the
"Reformers."
the close of the sixteenth century Moral Theology began to be treated as a separate dis
cipline.
1
From
The method commonly employed was

354
Vol.
ibid.,
p.
See Goyena in the Catholic En275.
cyclopedia, Vol. XV, 2 Cfr. K. Werner,
Goyena
152 sqq.; sqq.; Vol. II, pp. in the Cath. Encyclopedia,
Vol.
I,
Franz Suarez, Ratisbon 1861, pp. 262 sqq.,
XIV,
Vol.
pp.
319 sq.;
p.
Lehmkuhl,
XIV,
607.
57

Most writers divided the subject into treatises and made many excursions into the realm of canonical and civil law. The best-known moralists of this period are:
scholastic or casuistic.
the Jesuits Henry Henriquez ( 1608), Gregory of Valentia (+ 1603), John Azor (+ 1603), Vin cent Filliucci (+ 1622), F. de Castropalao
(+
Paul
1633), Louis Torres (Turrianus,

8
1635),
5
(+
1669);*
7
Laymann ( + i635), Antony Herman Busembaum (+
Escobar
i668),
Claude Lacroix
(+
(+
I743),
John
1714), Paul Gabriel Antoine Renter (+ I762), 8 Nicholas

S.J.,
3 Laymann was the ablest moralist among the German Jesuits. He taught Moral Theology in Munich from 160925. His Theologia Morails (6 vols., Munich 1625) went
Jesuitcnfabeln,
4th
ed.,
Frei
burg 1904.
Lacroix taught at Miinster and His Theologia Moralis (9 vols., Cologne 1707-14) is based on
6
Cologne.
through numerous editions. 4 K. Weiss, P. Antonio de Escobar y Mendoza, Klagenfurt 1908; E. P.
Busembaum and was

many,
France,
S.J.,
attacked in Ger
Zaccaria,
Graham
Vol.
5
in
p.
the
534.
Cath.
Encyclopedia,
T.
B.
V,
A. J. Italy. defended Lacroix s teaching in his Apologie de la Theologie Morale, 1758.

7 Cfr.
and
On Busembaum
Ill,
see
Bar
s
rett,
S.J., in the Cath.
Encyclopedia,
Encyclopedia.
toine
lism.
"Inter
Vol.
pp.
86 sq.
Busembaum
G. F. Johnson in the Cath. An Vol. I, p. 583. was an opponent of ProbabiSt.
Medulla Thcologiae Moralis Facili ac Perspicua Met ho do Rcsoh cns Casits

Conscientiae
Alphonsus says of him:
Auctoribus
ally
ex Var\is Probatisquc Concinnata was origin published in one volume at

1650.
rigidos auctorcs non infimum In spite of its rigor tenet locum."
ism, however, Antoine s Theologia Moralis Universa ad Usum Parocho-
Miinster,
Altogether
there
rum
have been more than 200 editions of this work. The latest ("iu.rta editionem ultimam S. Congr. de Prop.
appeared at Tournay, 1876, in two volumes. This much misrep
Fide")
et Confessariorum (Nancy 1726) went through nine editions during the author s life and ten after his
death.
in
The last of these, published Rome, 1747, was prescribed by
Benedict
XIV
as
the
official
text
resented
treatise
formed the basis
book
for the moral theologies of Lacroix, Zaccaria, St. Alphonsus, BalleriniCfr. B. Duhr, Palmieri, and others.
Moral Theology for the College of the Propaganda. 8 Reuter taught theology at Treves. His Neo-Confessarius (re-edited by
of

Mazotta
59
1C
;
(+
i?37),
12
Edmund
11
the Salmanticenses;
1780) the Franciscans Patrick

13
Voit
(+
Sporer (+ i683), Benjamin Elbel (+ I756), 14 Louis Abelly Anaclete Reiffenstuel (+ 1703) 15 Maria de Liguori St. Alphonsus (+i69i);
;
A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., in 1905) is still in use. His Theologia Moralis Quadripartita appeared at Cologne in 1750; his Casus Conscientiae, ibid.,
1753.
9 His Theologia Moralis (4 vols., Naples 1748; Augsburg 1756) was burnt by order of Parliament at Paris (1763) because of its "laxism." 10 Voit s Theologia Moralis ap peared at Wiirzburg, Bavaria, where he was a university professor, in 1750, and passed through at least ten
Innsbruck 1910, pp. 275 sq., 1296 sq. for 12 Sporer theology taught many years at Passau in Bavaria. He is the author of numerous works, chief among them Theologia Moralis
Decalogalis et Sacramentalis, 3 vols.
in
at
folio,
Wiirzburg 1681, re-edited

1692,
latest
Salzburg,
J.
edition
by
Bierbaum, O.F.M., Paderborn
For a short biographical 1901 sqq. sketch of Sporer see the Cath. En cyclopedia, Vol. XIV, p. 236. 13 Elbel s Theologia Moralis per
editions (Wiirzburg, Bassano,
Rome,
primis
Modum
Confcrentiarum
(Venice
Paris).
Gury
calls
him
"probabilista
moderatus,
practicis
tus."
doctrina
et
in
1733) was highly esteemed and often quoted by St. Alphonsus. It has
J.
resolutionibus
commendato this
Hurter
subscribes
praise,
but adds: "Nitidior tamen rerum expositio et magis ordinata methodus in opere desideratur." (Nomenclator Lit. Theol. Cath., 3rd
ed.,
been re-edited in three volumes by Bierbaum, O.F.M., Paderborn, 3rd This book is still a ed., 1904 sqq. favorite with confessors. Cfr. BuchKirchliches
berger s Vol. I,
i-t
Handlexikon,
Vol. V, Part
i,
col.
234 sq.)
1907, col. 1265. Reiffenstuel (see Cath. Encyclo

is
Munich
were a group of theologians of the Order

11
The
Salmanticenses
pedia, Vol. XII, pp. 724 sq.) known as a canonist. His
best
Theo
of
Discalced
at
Carmelites,
teaching
in
and writing at the end

the
century.
Salamanca
the of the
Spain
of
sixteenth
and
logia Moralis, first published at nich, in 1692, passed through thirty editions, most notable among them,
Mu
beginning
seventeenth
those
ciscan,
rence to
principle.
They made strict adhe Thomism their fundamental
prepared by his fellow-Fran M. Kresslinger (Modena
Their Cursus Theologiae Moralis was begun in 1665 by Fran cisco de Jesus-Maria and completed by Alonso de los Angeles. Cfr. B.
in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, pp. 401 sq. ; H. Hurter, S.J., Nomenclator Literarius Theologiae Catholicae, Theologos Exhibens Aetate, Natione, Disciplinis Distvnctos, Vol. IV, 3rd ed.,
1740; issued
bria
Munich
by
1742).
The
Ricci
edition
a
Cim(Augsburg 1777) makes Reiffen

Flavianus
stuel a Probabiliorist.
In reality he
was a
Rodez
in
St.
Probabilist.
Zimmerman, O.D.C.,
is Abelly was appointed bishop of in 1664, but resigned his see
and attached himself to Vincent de Paul, whose biogra His famous Me pher he became. dulla Theologica (1651) went through
1666
6o

16
(+ (+
J.
1787)
the Dominicans Didacus Alvarez
17
i635), V. Patuzzi
Daniel Concina
(+
first
18
1756),
and
at
(+
19
I769).
The
great
work of
Kirchliches
138).
the
many
Wirceburgenses, which
editions.
appeared
I,
One
appeared
1839.
is
at
334
17
sqq.;
Buchberger,
p.
Ratisbon as late as
Accord
"a
Handler-ikon, Vol.
ing to St. Alphonsus, Abelly
classic in probabilism." (Cfr. T. J. Campbell, S.J., in the Cath. En
cyclopedia, Vol. I, p. 39). 16 Liguori s famous Moral
Archbishop of Trani, 1616-35, chiefly known as a commentator of St. Thomas and defender of the Thomistic the teaching against
Molinists.
(Cfr.
The
in
Hurter,
Nomen-
ology
logiae
first
appeared
at
Naples,
clator Lit. Theol. Cath., 3rd ed., Vol.

Ill, col. 659 sqq.) 18 Concina was a
title, Medulla TheoMoralis R. P. Busembaum S,J. cum Adnotationibus per R. P. Alphonsum de Ligorio. The sec ond edition was entitled, Theologia Moralis Concinnata a R. P, Alphonso de Ligorio per Appendices in Me dull am R. P, H. Busembaum, Na
1748, under the
famous preacher.
literary activity was confined His Storia chiefly to moral topics.
His
del Probabilismo
ice 1743),
Rigorismo (Ven
The third ples 1753. editions appeared in

sqq.).
and following
Venice
(1756
being directed against the Jesuits, naturally gave rise to con troversy, which reached a climax when Concina, under the auspices of Benedict XIV, published his Theo
logia Christiana Dogmatico-Moralis, 12 vols. in 4to, Rome and Venice
The
received
1803.
ninth, published in 1785, ecclesiastical approval in
Recent editions by M. Heilig (Malines 1845, Paris 1857), M. Haringer (8 vols., Ratisbon 1846-47, 2nd ed., Paris 1879-81); Le Noir
(4 vols., Paris 1875, 2nd ed., 1884);
1749-51.
For
brief
account
s
of
this controversy
and Concina
later
career see Jos. Schroeder, O.P., in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, pp.
191 sq. 19 Patuzzi
and L. Gaude Second sqq.).

the Saint
s
(3 in
vols.,
Rome
is
1903
importance
moral writings
among his com
Some
of
his
was a prolific writer. works appeared pseu-
pendium
entitled Istruzione e Pratica
per li Confessori (1757), republished in Latin under the title, Homo Apostolicus Instructus in Sua Vocatione
(F.usebio donymously Eraniste, Adelfo Dositeo). He was a violent opponent of Probabilism and pub lished two pamphlets against St. Alphonsus: La Causa del Probabi
ad Avdiendas Confessiones, in 1759. Besides, St. Alphonsus wrote a large number of dogmatic and ascetical works. His Letters (Lettere di Al
lismo
zioni
(Ferrara
Teologiche
1764)
(ibid.
and Osserva-
His 1765). principal work is the Ethica Chri stiana sive Theologia Moralis, 3
vols.,
folio,
phonso
1887;
di
Liguori,
ed.,
vols.,
Rome
Bassano 1760; new
ed.,
Ratisbon 189294) are concerned almost entirely with the spiritual conflicts going on in
his time.
German
8vo, Venice 1770. (Cfr. Buchberger s Kirchliches Handle.vi-
16
vols.,
kon, Vol. II, col. 1369 sq.; Hurter,
(Cfr.
H.
Castle,
S.J.,
I,
in
pp.
the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol.
Nomenclator Lit. Theol. Cath., 3rd ed., Vol. V, Part I, col. 226 sqq.)
61
Wiirzburg, Bavaria, in 1766-71 and was re printed in Paris nearly a century later, is deserv 20 ing of special mention.
Notable monographs on various ethical topics were composed by Francis Suarez, S.J., 21 Car 22 Thomas dinal John de Lugo, S.J. (+ 1660), 23 Martin Bonacina Sanchez, S.J. (+ i6io),
were
Theologi Wirceburgenses eminent Jesuit profes sors of theology, Henry Kilber Theodore Holtzclau ( -j- 1782),
four
(
20
The
see
Goyena
s article in
the Cath.
pp.
En
cyclopedia,
319 sq. 22 Disp. de Virtute Fidei Divinae,

Poenitentia,
Vol.
XIV,
De
De
lustitia et lure,
1783),
Neubauer Ignatius i795)j and Ulric Munier or
Their magnum ( 1759). volumes, Wiirzburg opus (14 1766-1771, new edition, 10 vols., Paris 1879-80) constitutes a com and course of dogmatic plete moral theology and is characterized
Miiller
Responsorum Moralium Diversorum "Endowed with un Libri Sex, etc. common speculative genius and
practical judgment, he [John de Lugo] in many instances pointed out entirely new paths towards the solution of moral questions. Speak
clear,
ing of his Moral Theology, St. Al-
by clearness and solidity of thought. In the Paris edition of 1879-80, Vol.
phonsus
styles
him
by
"
all
leader after St. Thomas.
odds (Lehm-
contains
De
;
Beatitudine,
bus Humanis, and
Neubauer)
lustitia
Vol.
De ActiDe Lcgibus (by VI, De lure et

Vol.
kuhl in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol.
XIV,
(by
Holtzclau);
VII,
;
De
Peccatis,
De
Gratia,
De
Justifi-
cationc,
and De Merita (by Kilber)
Vol. VIII, De Virtutibus Theologicis con (by Kilber). Vols. IX and tain the treatises on the Sacraments.
Cfr. K.
Theologie,
Werner, Geschichte der kath. Herder s 242 sq. pp.

;
Kirchenlexikon, Vol. XII, col. 170608; Hurter, Nomenclator Lit. Theol. Cath., 3 rd ed., Vol. V, Part i, n. 262 sqq.); A. Ruland, (col. 133 Series et Vitae Professorum SS.
Theol., qui Wirceburgi Wiirzburg 1835.
21
tute
work, and the only one he himself edited, is the Disputationes de Sacramento Matrintonii (Genoa 1602), of which Fr. Wernz, late General of the Society of Jesus, says (lus Decretalium, IV, n. 20) that it is even to-day reckoned by the Roman Curia among the classical works on marriage. Strangely enough, the third volume appears on the Index. Even in the earlier editions of the Index, as re
vised
p. 607). 23 Sanchez chief
by
still
Leo
XIII,
till
his
Con
Thorn.
stitution
"Officiorum
et
munerum,"
docuerunt,
Vir-
may
be read:
"Sanches,
Disputationum de Sacramento MatriRetorn. III. ed. Venctiae, sive aliarum, a quibus /. 8 disp. 7 detractus est integer num. 4. Deer. 4 Feb. 1627." This number, as Fr.
De
Legibus,
Theologica, On the ligionis.

this
De De
Triplici
ntonii
Virtute
life and writings of famous theologian, who founded
a school of his
own
in Scholasticism,
Lehmkuhl explains
(Cath.
Encycl.,
62
24 Peter Hurtado de Mendoza, SJ. (+i63i), 25 Dominic Soto, O.P. (+ is6o), 26 (+i63i),
Louis de Molina, SJ.

sius,
SJ.
(+
29
28
1623 ),
2T Leonard Les1600), and John de Dicastillo, SJ.
(+
(+i6 S3 ).
b)
The
were
chief exponents of the casuistic method Martin de Azpilcueta, known as "Doctor

(
Navarrus"
+ 1586),
whose Manuale Confes;
sariorum was highly esteemed Francisco de

ledo, S. J.
To
(+
exegete,
who
1596), philosopher, theologian, and besides many other valuable works

30
wrote a comprehensive Sumnia Casuitm;

XIII, 428), which was omitted from the Venice edition of 1614, treats of the power of the Pope to grant a valid legitimation, through the socalled sanatio in radios, of the off spring of marriages invalid only
Louis
436
sq.
cyclopedia,
Vol.
There
is
no
X, modern
pp.
critical
biog
raphy of
et
this learned
and renowned
theologian.
His treatise
De
lustitia
through Canon Law. 24 Bonacina was Bishop of Utica. He died on the way to Vienna, where he was to serve as Apostolic a wrote nuncio. He Theologia Moralis (2 vols., Lyons 1624), of which the treatise De Legibus has
attained
25
lure (Cuenca 1593), a classic, is frequently quoted at the present time (7 vols., Venice 1614; 5 vols., Co
logne 1733)28 Lessius was a Flemish Jesuit and a theologian of high repute.
His
chief
et
moral
lure,
works
are:
De
1605
lustitia
published in
He
fame. wrote
Scholasticae et
Mo
Virfolio,
rales
Disputationes
Theologicis,
de
2
Tribus
vols.,
and subsequently in many editions; De Surnmo Bono (Antwerp 1616), and De Perfectionibus Moribusque XIV Libri Divinis (Antwerp
1620).
pp.
tutibus
Cfr.
sq.;
Cath. Encyc., Vol.
IX
Salamanca 1631. Hurter says of him: "Ingenio fuit acerrimo, doctrina
192
The Month, London,
No. 717,
scent.
eximia,
quern
palda
est."
semper (Nomenclator
doctissimus Rimagistrum veneratus

Lit. Theol. Cath.,
3rd
ed., Vol.
Ill, col. 927).
26 De lustitia et lure Libri Decem, Salamanca 1556. On Soto see Ch. J. Callan, O.P., in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, pp. 152 sq. 27 For a good sketch of Molina s life see J. Pohle in the Cath. En
Spanish de taught at Naples and Ingolstadt, wrote Tractatus Duo de luramcnto, Periurio et Adiuratione, necnon de Censuris et Poenis Ec-
PP- 193 sriq29 Dicastillo was of
He
clesiasticis
(Antwerp 1662) and

lure Ceterisque
De
lustitia
et
Vir tuti
Cardmalibus Libri Duo (Ant werp 1641). 30 This author is more commonly
bus

Lopez, O.P.
63
(+
1596), author of a book entitled

31
Instruct orium Conscientiae;
Emanuel
Sa, S.J.
(+
S.J.
1596),
whose
Aphorismi
32
Confessariorum
ran through
many
(+
33
1623),
Valerius Reginald, whose Praxis Fori Poeniteneditions;
and other writings were praised by St. Francis de Sales and led St. Alphonsus to rank the author among the classics of Moral Theology; 34 and Stephen Bauny, S.J. (+ 1649), author of a Summa Casuum Conscientiae, who owes his fame
tialis
35 mainly to Pascal.
The abuses
tical
incident to the one-sidedly casuis
treatment of Moral Theology were combatted by Prosper Lambertini, later Pope Bene
dict
XIV (De Synod o

as Toletus.
Dioeccsana, Institutiones
3 Cfr. Kirchliches Buchherger, Handlexikon, Vol. II, col. 1707. 35 Bauny was highly esteemed for and holiness. His his learning "knowledge of Moral Theology was singularly profound, but he was in
1
known
His
Summa
ap-
peared at Lyons in 1599 and passed through forty-six editions and many translations (Spanish by Juan de Salas; Italian by Andreo Verna; French by Goffar) also summaries in Latin, Spanish, French, and Italian. (Cfr. Goyena, in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, pp. 760 sq.)
;
many
points too lenient," says Fr. T. Barrett, S.J. (Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. II, 352). Bauny s prinp.
31
printed. tractibus
Salamanca 1585; repeatedly reLopez also wrote De Conet
cinal
Negotiationibus,
1596.
ibid.
1592. 33 Venice
The
book
was
works were: Pratique du Droit Canonique au Gouvcrncmcnt dc I Eglisc (Paris 1634) and Somme des Peclicz qui se commettcnt en tons Etats (Paris 1630). These two
books,
as well
s
put on the Index in 1603, because of its defense of the validity of confession
as
the
first
part
of
Bauny
on
Vol.
by
letter;
released,
1608.
the
Moral Theology, were put Index. (Cfr. Hurter, NoLit.

col.
(H. Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen Bilcher, Vol. II, i, pp. 312
sq.;
menclator
Ill,
Thcol. Cath., 3rd ed., 1186 sq.). It was
Hurter, Nomenclator
Lit. Tlieol.
Cath., 3rd ed., Vol. Ill, col. 223 sq.) 33 2 vols., Lyons 1616.
mainly Bauny s teaching that the enemies of the Jesuits exploited in order to convict the Society of
laxism.
64

and
es
Ecclesiasticae, Qitaestiones Canonicae),

pecially
by St. Alphonsus de Liguori, who sub the views of the casuists to a thorough crit jected icism and separated the wheat from the chaff.
Speculative mysticism having fallen into disrepute in the course of the previous period, the exponents of mystic theology now turned their at
c)
tention to ascetics.
The following writers de serve mention as safe guides on the way of Christian perfection:
Francis Louis de Blois, a Flemish Benedictine abbot, more widely known by the Latinized form
of his name, Blosius (+ 1566) Louis of Granada, O.P. (+1588), called by St. Francis de Sales "the prince of spiritual
;
3G
87
writers";
36
ous.
De Blois writings are numerThey were first published in a
offered
the
him by Sixtus V. hundreds of eminent
"Among
ascetical
complete edition at Louvain, in 1568, and many of them have been frequently reprinted and translated. In the English-speaking world he is known principally by his Mirror for
writers of Spain, Louis of Granada remains unsurpassed in the beauty
and purity of
of
his
his style, the
solidity
and
B.
doctrine, and influence of his
the
popularity
(J.
writings."
Monks
Monachorum), translated into English by Sir John Coleridge, 1872, the Book of Spiritual Instruction (London 1900), and
(Speculum
Connor, S.T., in the Cath. Vol. IX, p. 385). Encyclopedia, Nearly all of his works were translated
into
the
various
European
Comfort for the Fainthearted (London 1902), the latter two works translated by Father Bertrand Wilberforce,
O.P.
(Cfr.
G.
Cyprian
languages, and several into Turkish and Japanese. The best known of his books is La Guia de Pccadores (Bajadoz 1355), which has been
Alston, O.S.B., in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. II, p. 604). 37 famous preacher and theolo-
favorably
tion of
compared
a
to
the
Imita-
Thomas
The
first
Kempis.
ed.,
A new
The Sinon by
and revised English

1889.
tier s
New York
gian,
provincial
of
the
Portuguese
Dominicans, confessor and counselHe delor to the queen regent. clined the honors of the cardinalate
Guide, Holiness of Life,

Shipley
in
part entitled
of
Counsels
edited
was
Ascetic
The
Library,

Teresa of Jesus (+ 1582), whose autobio graphical writings have been compared to the Confessions of St. Augustine; 3S St. John of the Cross (+ 1591), co-founder, with St. Teresa, of the Discalced Carmelites,
St.
whose system has been described as

3<J
"empirical
mysticism"
Lorenzo Scupoli, Theatine

Spiritual Combat 40 of devotion
;
(+
1610), whose
is still
widely used for purposes
Rodriguez, SJ. (+ 1616), whose Practice of Christian and Religious Perfection

Vol. VIII, London 1869. It con tains a brief sketch of the author s
life.
Alonzo
(V.
Connor,
I.e.)
38
For a
Cath.
life
and
list
of her writ
1889), compiled from all his Spanish biographers and from other sources, by D. Lewis, is excellent; but what is most wanted now is a
don
ings see B.
the
pp.
lish
Zimmerman, O.D.C., in Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, The most recent Eng 515 sqq.
translations are by Lewis, Life
ed.
biography founded upon the deposi

tions of witnesses in the process of Not until that work is beatification.
done
shall
we have
a true picture of
and Relations,
Zimmerman, 4th London 1911; The Interior ed., Castle, Exclamations, and The Way
tr.
the saint." 40 On Scupoli see
Kaulen
in
Her
col.
der
Kirchcnlexikon, Vol.
XI,
of Perfection, of Stanbrook,
by the Benedictines
18; Ilurter,
Nomenclator
Lit. Theol.
ed.
Zimmerman;
the
two former, London 1906, the latter, London 1911. Cfr. Burke, St. Te
resa, 39
New York
1911.
his
life
For a sketch of
and
Encyclopedia, Vol. 480 sq. English tr. of John s works by D. Lewis, London 1864, with an introduction by Wise man; revised by the translator and
writings see B. in the Cath.
Zimmerman, O.D.C.,
3rd ed., Vol. Ill, col. 616. entered the Theatine Order at the age of forty and became a much sought confessor, until forced to re tire by calumnies ("calnmniis, quibus non liquct," says Hurter, I.e.), was reduced to the lay state by a
Cath.,
He
VIII,
pp.
general chapter of his Order, and the remaining spent twenty-five years of his life in humble retire ment. The Combattimento Spirituale first appeared
reprinted, London 1889, in 4 vols., with introductions by Fr. Zimmer
anonymously
It
at in
Venice,
lated
in
1589.
has
seen
man.
Of
his life
by Lewis, Fr.
Zim
numerable editions and been trans

into
merman
"The says (ibid., p. 481): Life of St. John of the Cross (Lon
nearly
all
European lan
guages.
66
has been a source of untold consolation to relig ious and laymen throughout the world 41 Cardinal Robert Bellarmine (+ 1621), the dis
;
tinguished Jesuit theologian, whose devotional 42 writings were the fruit of his annual retreats
;
Ponte, S.J. 1624), known to English readers mainly by his Christian Life and Meditations on the Mys
Ven. Louis de Lapuente, or
De
(+
teries of
Our Holy Faith;
43
Cardinal John Bona, a Cistercian
(+
1674),
whose
best
known
44
ascetical his
ductio ad
Caelum and
life
is
works are his Manutreatise on the Sacrifice

was printed
at St. Omer in 1612. known English translation,
is that which first London, 1697, from the
Marais."
of the Mass;
41
short
of
this
popular
prefixed to the English translation of The Practice of Christian and Religious Perfec
spiritual
tion,
writer
The
best
often reprinted,
appeared
in
London
left
1861.
Fr. Th. published. Slater has contributed a biographical
Shea never
translation
John Gilmary which has
French of Abbe Regnier des

42 Bellarmine
s
spiritual
:
writings
been
sketch of Rodriguez to the Cath. En He cyclopedia, Vol. XIII, p. 109. is a book says of the Practice:
"It
of
practical
instructions
on
all
the
De Ascensione Mentis ad Deum (1615), DC Aeterna Felicitate Sanctorum (1616), De Gemitu Columbae (1617), De Septcm Verbis Christi (1618), and De Arte Bene Moriendi (1620). On
are mainly
five, liz.
virtues which go to make up the per fect Christian life, whether lived in
Bellarmine
pp. 411
sqq.
see
S.
F.
Smith,
S.J.,
in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. 43
II,
the cloister or in the world.
It
came popular
at once,
much used
it
to-day
editions
as of
it
and it is was when

the
original
be as
On Lapuente
s.
see H.
J.
Swift
article
v.
in
the
Cath.
Encyclo
first
became known.
have
More than
besides
twenty-five
pedia, Vol. IX, p. 3. 44 The Manuductio has been
com
Spanish
extracts
been
issued,
abridgments. More have appeared in French in seven different trans
and
pared to the Imitation of Thomas a Kempis on account of its simplic

ity.
than
sixty
editions
It
lations,
twenty in
Italian,
at
least
four teen
appeared in 1658 and in decades passed through four Latin editions. It has been
Spanish,
ten in German, and eight in Latin. An English translation from the
translated into Italian, French, Ger
man,
French by Fr. Antony Hoskins,
S.J.,
English
translation,
and Armenian. An by Sir Robert

St.
67
Francis de Sales
(+
1622),
Bishop of
Geneva and Doctor of the Universal Church, whose Traite de I Amour de Dieu, also known as Introduction a la Vie Devote, was translated into nearly all civilized languages and went through
innumerable editions. 45
excellent introduction to ascetic theology is the Direttorio Ascetico of J. B. Scaramelli, SJ.
(
An
+ 1752), translated into English by Eyre.

2.
46
In the second half of the eighteenth century
Moral Theology was detached from its supernatu ral basis and almost completely identified with
moral philosophy.
tant
Catholic as well as Protes
cumbed
theologians, especially in Germany, suc to the influence of Rationalism, as em
bodied in the philosophical systems of Leibnitz, 47 48 Wolff, Kant, and Fichte, and based their moral teaching exclusively on "practical reason/
Thus Moral Theology

appeared in London, under the title, A Guide to Other well known ascetiEternity. cal works by the same author are: Via Compendia ad Deum (1657),
Estrange,
1900,
lost its Christian

rectorium
by
and
ec-
Asceticum, -with Preface Cardinal Manning, Dublin and London, 1870-71; new, revised ed., London 1879-81; Latin translation,
Brixen 1770; Louvain 1848; German
Principia
Cliristianae
et
Documenta Vitae (1673), and Horologium

See
the
Cath.
Asceticum
(1676).
Encyclopedia, Vol. II, pp. 645 sq. 45 A complete critical edition of the writings of St. Francis de Sales
Augsburg 1778; Spanish, Madrid 1806; French, Paris 1854. For a brief sketch of Scaramelli s life see H. Ollion, in the Cath. Entranslation,
cyclopedia, Vol. XIII, p. 514. 47 Cfr. Wm. Turner, History
of
appeared Traite de
ally
Annecy, 1892 sqq. The de Dieu originappeared at Lyons in 1608.

at
I
Philosophy,
sqq. 48 Turner,
sqq.,
Boston
op.
cit.,
1903,
pp.
506
Amour
pp.
525,
528
40 Best
rols.
;
edition,
JRatisbon
1883,
550 sqq.
English translation,
The Di-
68

The
teachings of Revela
clesiastical character.
were respected only in so far as they were considered useful in advancing morality and cor recting the disproportion existing between vir tue and happiness in this life. Moral Theology was restored to its pristine character and dignity by Benedict Stattler, 49 A. N. Oberrauch, O.F.M. SJ. (+ I797), 50 51 M. von Schenkl, O.S.B. (+ i8i6), (+ i8o8), 52 and especially J. M. J. A. Stapf (+i844), 53 of Ratisbon Sailer, Bishop (+ 1832) and J. B.
tion
Hirscher
(+
54
1865 ).
a) Of recent writers the following have treated Moral Theology positively and system
atically,
49 Ethica
without however neglecting casuistry

Christiana
Universalis,
Ingolstadt
1772;
Ethica
Christiana
Communis,
burg
3 vols. in 6 parts,
Augs-
52 Theologia Moralis, 1827-31; 7th eel., 4 vols., 1855. The same in German, Die christliche Moral,
1782; Vollst dndige christliche Sittenlehre, 2 vols., Augsburg 1791. On Stattler see A. C. Cotter, S.J.,
in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. p. 282.
vols.,
II,
cit.,
1841-42. 2194).
(Buchberger, op,
53 Sailer
was a much misjudged
XIV,
his
man, but he has been rehabilitated

of late years. (F. R. Stolzle in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, p.
50 Oberrauch
is
also
known by
Order,
is
name
in the Franciscan
"Her-
culanus."
His principal work
In-
328; Buchberger s Handlexikon, Vol. II,

Sailer s
Kirchliches
col.
1883 sq.).
stitutioncs lustitiae
Christianae sive Theologia Moralis, in 4 vols., Innsbruck 1794. It was placed on the
Handbuch der
christlichen
Moral appeared in 3 vols. at Munich, 1817-18, and was reprinted at Sulzbach in 1834. See Ph. Klotz, Sailer als Moralphilosoph, Paderborn 1909. 54 On Hirscher see Goyau in the
Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, pp. 363 sqq. His chief moral work is,
Index in 1796, but the censure was not enforced against a new revised edition published at Bamberg and Nuremberg in 1797-98. (V. Herder s Kirchenlexikon, Vol. IX, col.
592).
61 Ethica
3
Die
Christiana
Universalis,
1830.
christliche
Moral
als
Lehre von
vols., 1800; sth ed., Gran (Cfr. Buchberger, Kirchliches
der Verwirklichung des gottlichen Reiches in der Menschheit, Tubin-
Hand-
gen 1835; sth
ed.,
3 vols., 1851,
lexikon,
Vol.
II,
col.
1959).
69
:
and the practical application of moral principles 55 56 B. Fuchs, Fr. Probst (+ i899), Conrad Martin, Bishop of Paderborn (Germany) 5T 58 Karl Werner M. (+ iS88), (+ 1879), 59 60 F. Friedhoff, A. Rietter Jocham (+ i893), G1 Th. H. Simar of Co (+i866), Archbishop 62 63 E. Primer (+ I9O7), logne (+ I902), J.
Thomas
Schwane
honer,
68
J.
Bouquillon
1892 ),
00 00
(+
J.
64
1902),
F. X. Linsen65
mann, Bishop-elect of Rottenburg
(+
87
i898),
J.
J.
(+
Scheicher,
Rappen-
P. Michel,
and F. M. Schindler. 70
the Scholas
to satisfy
vols.,
b)
tic
The following authors employ

Moraltheologie,
2
method and aim
mainly the pracVol.

I:
C5 Kath.
logiae
Moralis,
Theologia
Tubingen 1848-50, 2nd ed., 1853. 66 System der christlichen Sittenlehre, Augsburg 1851. 57 Lehrbuch dcr kath. Moral, Mayence
58
vols.,
Moralis
Fundamentalis,
Bruges
De 1873, 3rd ed., 1903; Vol. II: 2nd Virtutibus 1878, Theologicis, De Virtute 1890; Vol. Ill: ed.,
Religionis, 65 Dr.
1880, 2nd Linsenmann
ed.,
s
1849;
5th
ed.,
1865.
EtJiik, 3
1890.
System der christlichen

1888;
Lehrbuch
ed.,
Ratisbon 1850-52; Vol. I, 2nd Enchiridion Theologiae

vols.,
Moralis, Vienna 1863. 59 Moraltheologie, 3
Sulz-
bach 1852-54. 60 Allgemeine Moraltheologie, Ralisbon 1860; Spesielle Moraltheologie,

1865. 61 Breviarium
der Moraltheologie (Freiburg 1878) exercised great influence upon con temporary theology. It is followed in this Handbook and in the more recent one-volume Moraltheologie
of
O. Schilling, Freiburg 1922. 6C Allgemeine Moraltheologie, Frei

1885;
1878;
Spezielle
burg
der
der
christl.
Moraltheo
1885.
Etliik,
logie,
2nd
ed.,
Ratisbon 1866.
02
Lehrbuch
Moraltheologie,
Freiburg 1867; 3rd ed., 1893. 63 Kath. Moraltheologie, Freiburg

1875; 3rd ed., 1902-03, 3 vols. 64 Dr. Bouquillon is remembered
in
this
G7 Allgemeine Moraltheologie, Rat isbon 1885. 68 Allgemeine Moraltheologie, Munster
1891-93.
Paris 1900-02.
69 Tlieologiae Moralis Principia, 2

vols.,
country,
where
he
Moral
University
Theology in the His of America.

is:
taught Catholic
Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie, 3 vols., Vienna 1907 sqq.

70
mag
Theo-
num
opus
Institutiones

tical
needs of the confessor:

71
1887 ), Aug. Lehmkuhl, SJ., J. Aertnys, 78 77 C.SS.R., J. Bucceroni, SJ., A. Ballerini, SJ.,
(+ (+ (+
1866),
73
P. Scavini
J.
(+
P. Gury, SJ. 1869), E. M. Miiller

J.
72
i888),
75
d Annibale
(+
79
74
i892),
76
Marc
and Dom. Palmieri, SJ.,
G.
B.
Tepe,
81
(+
71
80
1894)
F. A. Gopfert
Theologiae
(+
1916),
2
vols.,
SJ. H. Noled.,
Compendium
Mo-
Vecchio,
sth
Milan
vols.,
rails, 2 vols.,
Lyons and Paris 1850;
ed.,
1857; sth ed., 1874; new enlarged by H. Dumas, sth ed., Freiburg i. B. 1891; revised by A.
Ratisbon
1902. 73 Theologia
Moralis,
I,
Augsburg 1868-70; Vols.

9th
ed.,
and
7th
II,
Ballerini,
SJ.
ed.,
(+
1874;
6th
Rome 1881), 1882; revised by
1902;
1905; Vol. I,
Vol.
roth
Ill,
ed.,
ed.,
Ratisbon
Dom.
Palmieri, S.J., I4th ed., 1902;
1923. 74 Summula Theologiae Moralis, 3

vols.,
adapted to American conditions by C.SS.R. A. (Theologia Konings, Moralis, Boston 1874, 2nd ed., 2
vols.,
1908;
joli,
Milan 1881-83; 5th ed., Rome Supplementum by D. Manna-
New York
1876;
two
later
Rome 1909. 75 Institut. Morales Alphonsianae ,
editions by H. Kuper, C.SS.R.; for a biographical sketch of Konings see the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol.
2 vols., Rome 1885; i$th ed., 1917, (see Irish Th. Quarterly, XIII, 50,
VIII,
to
pp.
690 sq.);
American
by
again adapted conditions and con
167 sqq.) 70 Theologia Moralis, 2 vols., Frei
burg
ibid.,
i.
B.,
1883-84;
nth
ed.
("de
densed
New
Aloysius Sabetti, S.J., York 1884; frequently revised
Integra
revisa,
refecta,
adaucta"),
1910;
ibid.,
is
Compendium
1886, sth
ed.,
Theol.
1907.
and re-edited since by T. Barrett, SJ.; 27th ed., New York 1919. A Spanish edition of Gury s Compen
dium, with many additions, has been published by J. B. Ferreres, SJ., Qth ed., Barcelona 1918 sq. For a brief sketch of Gury s life see
J.
Mor.,
probably the most fre quently quoted and the most highly esteemed of present-day moralists. 77 Theologia Moralis iuxta Doctnnarn S. Alphonsi, Tournay 1887, loth ed. C. A. Damen, C.SS.R.,
t>y
Lehmkuhl
Salsmans,
S.J.,
in the
Cath.
89.
En
For
cyclopedia, a refutation
circulated
Vol.
VII,
p.
191978 Institutions
ralis,
Theologiae
1887,
Mo
of
certain
calumnies
vols.,
Rome
6th ed.,
B.
his work, cfr. against Duhr, SJ., Jesuitenfabeln, 4th ed., Freiburg 1904, pp. 474 sqq. 72 Theologia Moralis Universa ad
(V. La Civilta Cattolica, 1914-15. 1917, quad. 1601, pp. 604 sqq.)
79
Opus
Theologicum
Morale
in
Busembaum Me dull am,
7 vols., Prati
Mcntem
ed.,
S.
Alphonsi,
1847,
vols.,
3rd
Novara
nth
Moralis
by
ed.,
Milan
1901;
Theologia
in
ComDel
1889-91, 3rd ed., 1902-03. so Institutions Theologiae Moralis Generalis, 2 vols., Paris 1899.
81 Moraltheologie,
3 I
vols.,
pendium
Keaacta
1.
A.
born 1897-98; Vols.

ed.,
and II
Paderin 6th
1909; Vol. Ill in sth ed., 1906.

din,
(a Sexten), SJ. 85 84 E. C. Vives, Delama, J. 89 87 88 86 A. A. Bulot, Berardi, Tanquery, J. Busquet, and A. Vermeersch, S. J., 89a to whom we must add an eminent American theologian, Archbishop F. SJ.,
82
H.
D-
Gatterer
(+
83
1899),
P.
Kenrick,
of
Baltimore
(+
1863),
whose
Theologia Moralis did such splendid service to

the
American clergy during the

90
that
lished
latter half of the
nineteenth century.
82
Summa
vols.,
Theologia (Moralis, Innsbruck 1901-2; Vol.
3
I,
the
at
second
"valde
edition
(?).
was
pub
calls
Mayence
He
i3th ed., ed., 1924; Vol. II, 1921; Vol. Ill, i2th ed., 1920. 83 Compendium Theologiae MoStutt ralis, Messina 1899, 2nd ed.,
i7th
the
J.
work
practices."
John
Shea, in his article on Kenrick in Vol. VIII, pp. 618 sq. of
gart 1900, 3rd ed., 1902. 84 Institutiones Theologiae

ralis,
the Cath. Encyclopedia is indefinite follows Kenrick inaccurate. and

St. Alphonsus, whose very words he frequently adopts. He says in the * "Prooemium (2d ed., Vol. I, p. XIV) : "Inter recentiores ethices cultores eminet S. Alphonsus de
Mo-
vols.,
Trent 1902.
Theologiae
85
ralis,
Compendium
Mo
also
8th ed., Rome 1904. Vives has written an excellent Compen

ed.,
dium Theologiae Ascetico-Mysticae,

3rd
tals,
87
ralis,
Rome
1908.
floruit,
86 Theologia
Moralis
ibid.,
Fundamen
1905.
Ligorio, qui saeculo proximc elapso nostra aetate sacris E-cclesiae honoribus auctus. Evolvisse videtur
libros
Faenza 1905; Praxis Confes-
fere
omncs
de
hac
ad-
sariorum, 4 vols.,
disciplina
tractantes,
scientiae
Compendium
Theologiae
Mo
2 vols., Paris 1905. 88 Synopsis Theologiae Moralis et Pastoralis ad Mentem S. Thomae et
iungens rerum pcritiam; per annos enim plurimos in animanim euro et studii ut adeo vcrsabatur: exercitti fructus in Theologia Morali
S. Alphonsi, 3
vols.,
7th ed., Toured.,
nay 1921. 89 Thesaurus Confcssarii, 4th

Paris 1909. 89a Theologia Moralis, Bruges 1921; II and III, 90 Kenrick s Theologia
first
quam scripsit, nobis reliquerit. Hanc semper prae manibus habuimus; dum opus hoc nostrum qualecumque pararcmus, eiusque
simus
saefe
saepius
verba,
exscripsecuti
Vol.
1924.
Moralis
libcnter auctoritatem, quam magnam esse constat ex S. Poenitentiariae
appeared
at
1841-43, in 3 vols. us the second, revised

vols.,
Philadelphia in have before
We
edition,
responses (die 5 lulii 1851), et etiam ex Pii IX. documentis. Nostro tamen usi sumus iudicio, tenui licet et
infirmo,
nisi
et
Malines
Theol.
18160-61.
(Norn.
ed.,
Cath.,
Vol.
Hurter V, 3rd
Innsbruck 1911,
col.
1152) says
cui nihil petimus fidendum, quatenus suffragetur auctoritas rationum momenta."
72 c)

Of
special value
particular casuistics 02 91 P. Villada, J. P. Gury,

94
from the standpoint of are the Casus Conscientiae of

J.
95
;
A. Lehmkuhl, S.J. Genicot, of C. Cennari, 90 and the Theologiae Moralis Instituiiones
93 E. Bucceroni, the Consult asioni
by Genicot and
In this connection
tion of cases in
we may
Salsmans, S.J. also mention the collec

J.
97
Moral and Pastoral Theology, published under the title, The Casuist, by J. F. Wagner, New York (1906-1917; ed. by J. A. McHugh, O.P., and others).
Of these casuistic writings it has been said: man is not a competent moralist unless he has 98 consulted collections of this kind." Note, how
"A
ever, that casuistry, though it has been at times cultivated to excess and in a one-sided manner,
has never supplanted scientific Moral Theology. The value of casuistry lies entirely within the do main of the penitential discipline. Casuistry has
place in theology as well as in jurisprudence and medicine. Everything depends on the spirit
its
which it is applied and the dogmatic principles 99 upon which it is based.

in
burg
1862; 8th ed., FreiB. 1891. 92 Bruxelles 1885. 93 2 vols., Rome 1894-95; 6th ed.,
i.
91 Ratisbon
$12
98
vols., 6th ed.,
Bruxelles 1909.
n est jamais un moralist e complet, quand on n a pas consults

"Ow
des recueils de cette

versite
sorts."
(L Unip.
1913.
Catholique,
XLI
[1902],
942 952
3rd
vols., vols.,
Louvain 1901. Freiburg i. B. 1902-03;
310). 99 Casuistry,
(Clerical
sq.),
ed.,
1907.
96 2 vols., 2nd. ed.,
Rome
1902-04.
"is
says Abbe Hogan Studies, 2nd ed., p. 224 not confined to moral sci-

READINGS.
ology,
73
Thos. Slater,
S.J.,
New York
1909, pp. 44-50.
A
5th
Short History of Moral The Sweens, Theologia Moralis

8 sqq.
pp.
J.
Fundamentalis, 2nd ed., Haaren Sumiwula Thcol. Mor., Vol. I,

Thcol.
1910, pp.
ed.,
D Annibale,
E.
Miillcr,
S.J.,
1-16.
Mor., Vol. I, 5th ed., pp. 45-63. A. Vcrmeersch, Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, Bruges 1922, pp. 18-36.
it is
ence;
lation.
the outgrowth of
is
all legis
built
exactly in
is,
the
same fashion;
rulings given
Wherever there
of a kindred
it.
code,
that
on
pontifical
casuistry
up around
kind grows The numberless de
cisions, for instance, of the
Congre
on single cases. So also the com mon law of England, which, differ ent from the statute law made by
legislative enactments, rests entirely
gation of Rites, are the casuistry of The very laws of good liturgy.
breeding give birth to a casuistry of etiquette. Indeed, most of what is called law is scarce anything but Until the period of its casuistry. codification under the Emperor Jus tinian, the Roman law was little more than a collection of cases, or individual decisions, subsequently
on the rulings of law courts and the opinions of eminent lawyers re garding single cases submitted to
them.
ers
around
Statute law itself soon gath it a vast amount of
mine
similar cases which practically deter its interpretation, as may be
made
into
rules.
Canon Law was
seen in French, Belgian, or Italian jurisprudence, or in the statutory jurisprudence of the United States."
CHAPTER X
DIVISION OF
MORAL THEOLOGY
in his rela
Man may
be variously regarded,
tions to God, to himself,

1
and
to his
fellowmen;
and hence Moral Theology has been fitly divided For our purpose, however, into three parts.
we
prefer
the
more
serviceable
division
sug
gested by the laws of logic and practical use: : /^., into (i) General or Theoretical and (j)
Special or Practical.
2
General Moral Theology treats of morality and the moral order in three subdivisions
:
I.
Morality,
its
II.
The Disturbance
and
Subject, Norm, and Object of the Moral Order by

;
Sin
III.
The Restoration
of the Moral Order by
Grace.
Special Moral Theology shows how the moral order is realized in man as an individual and as a
member
and (3)
vidually
1 Tit.
of society, and hence discusses
Alan
Duties to Himself; (2) Man s Duties to God; Man s Duties to His Fellowmen, Indi
and
12.
Collectively.
II,
2 Cfr.
F.
X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie, pp. 35 sqq.
74
DIVISION
75
For convenience sake we shall divide the whole subject-matter of Moral Theology into five vol
umes, as
f ollow s
r :
VOLUME
Morality, Its Subject,
Norm, and Object

II
VOLUME
Sin and the
Means
of Grace
VOLUME
III
Man
Duties to Himself
VOLUME IV Man s Duties to God VOLUME
Man
READINGS.
ology,
pp.
Duties to His Fellowmen

S.J.,
Th. Slater,
44-50.
Short History of Moral The

S.J.,
Aug.
ed.,
Lehmkuhl,
in
the
Catholic
En
cyclopedia, Vol.
XIV,
pp. 607 sqq.
A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis
Fundamentalist 2nd
Haaren
1910, pp. 13 sq.

INTRODUCTION
In this
first
volume of our Handbook we
will
:
treat of morality in five subdivisions, as follows
Chapter
as a Rational Creature
The Subject of Morality, i. e. Man Endowed with Free-Will

}
;
Chapter
i.
II
The Objective Norm
of Morality,
e.,
Law, Divine and

:
Human
Chapter III
ity,
i.
The Subjective Norm of Moral
e..
Conscience;
Chapter IV:
of Morality,
i.
The Subjective-Objective Norm

e.,
Duty;
of Morality,
i.
Chapter
The Object
e.,
Hu
man
Acts.
77
CHAPTER
THE SUBJECT OF MORALITY MAN AS A RATIONAL CREATURE ENDOWED WITH FREE-WILL
SECTION
MORALITY
FREE-WILL AS THE SUBJECTIVE CONDITION OF
subject of morality is man as a rational creature, able to know the moral law and con
The
of being responsible omissions.

scious
for
his
acts
and
the
Man
power
chief ethical faculty
is free-will,
i.
e.,
to determine his
own
actions or to choose
for himself between right and wrong (liberum arbitrium, vis electiva). By virtue of this faculty
and properly the master of his own actions (dominus actnum suorum). Only those acts are properly called human
man
is
truly
(actus humani, in opposition to actits hominis) of
which man
with
1
is master, i. consciousness and
e.,
which he performs
(actus
Ex
free-will
mo
li-
rales).
1 Cfr. St.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol.,
arbitrii est electio.
hoc enim
ia, qu. 83, art. 3:
"Proprium liberi
bcri arbitrii esse dicimur,
quod
pos*
79
8o
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
The
liberty of the
will, which we take axiom from philosophy and Dogmatic The 2 3 ology, is not merely a Catholic dogma, but a 4 fundamental truth of revealed religion, and the 5 Without free-will man pivot of all morality.
human
as an
could perform no ethical acts, either good or bad;

there would be no moral responsibility, no imputability, no virtues or vices, neither guilt nor
merit,
quod
and no redemption. 6
recipere alio recusato,
To deny
. .
the free-
sumus unum
est eligere, et ideo naturam liberi arbitrii ex electione considerate

oportet."
"Revclarit nobis per scriptures suas sanctas, cssc in homine liberum vo luntatis arbitrium. Ipsa divina
.
Ibid.,
la
2ae,
qu.
i,
art.
i: "Differt homo ab aliis irrationalibus creaturis in hoc, quod est suorutn actuum dominus. Unde illae solae actiones vocanlur propric humanac, quorum est dominus. Est autem
homini non prodessent, nisi liabcret liberum voluntatis ar bitrium, quo ca facicns ad promissa
pracccpta
praemia
"Quid
pervcniret."
Ibid.,
n.
4:
quod tain multis omnia mandata sua custodiri ct

illud,
locis
fieri
homo dominus suorum actuum per

rationem
et
iubct
est
Deus?
liberum
Quomodo
882 sq.) de la
Paris
ixbet, si
non
voluntatem, undo
ct
li-
arbitrium?"
berum arbitrium
tiones
voluntatis et rationis.
cssc dicitur facultas Illae ergo ac
P. L.,
XLIV,
Vol.
St.
vier, Exposition
lique,
II,
(Migne, Cfr. E. Jan Morale Catho1904,

pp.
quae
tiones
ex
propriae humanae dicuntur, voluntate deliberata proSi
51 in 2:
sqq.
5
quae homini conveniant, possunt did quidem hominis actiones, sed non proprie humanae, quum non sint hominis, inquantum est homo." 2 See Readings at the end of this
chapter. 3 Cfr.
can. 5:
et
cedunt.
autem
aliae
ac
Cfr.
Thomas, Comment,
24,
Sent.,
II,
dist.
qu.
3,
art.
"Voluntas
est
principium more/Hum,
et idco ibi incipit
primum dominium
tur."
genus moris, ubivoluntatis inveni-
6 Cfr.
St.
Augustine,
c. i,
De
"Et
Libero
Cone.
"Si
Trident.,
Sess.
VI,
quis liberum hominis ar
bitrium post
Adae peccatum amissum
extinctum esse dixerit, ant rem esse de solo titulo, immo titulum sine re, figmentum denique a satana invectum in Ecclesiam; anathema
sit."
poena et praemium, si homo voluntatem non habcret libcram." IDEM, De Vera Rcligione, c. 14, n. non voluntate male facinius, 27:
Arbitrio, II, iniusta essct
3:
"Si
n.
nemo obiurgandus
monendus; quibus
lex et disciplina
est
omnino
out
sublatis Christiana
religionis au-
omnis
4 Cfr.
Gen.
Ecclus.
37.
IV,
7;
Deut.
XXX,
19-20;
XV,
XXIII,
tia et
St.
14-18; Matth. Augustine, De Gra

II, n. 2, says:
Voluntate ergo feratur necesse est. Et quoniam peccari non peccatur. dubium est, ne hoc quidem dubitan-
Libero Arbitrio,
dum
video,
habere
animas liberum
FREE-WILL
81
dom
of the will, therefore,

is
is
to
deny Christianity
itself.
Free-will
tivation,
capable of development and cul and hence is not the beginning but
to
the end of moral endeavor.
from virtue
7
virtue,"
Man, by "going and by growing unto sal

"moral
liberty,"
vation,"
is
called to attain
"a
to
perfect man unto the measure of develop into the age of the fulness of Christ," and thereby to reach that blessed freedom which is "the glory of
the children of
8
God."
Moreover, free-will is not absolute but relative and limited in various ways metaphysically, by of His Creator, the will man s dependence upon and ethically, by certain natural, individual, per sonal, and social factors which constitute as many
:
intrinsic determinants of liberty.

READINGS.
C.
St.
Thomas,
Summa
Tlicol., la, qu.
sqq., 13, 83.
Gutberlet, Die Willensfreihcit und Hire Gcgner, Fulda 1893, M. Maher, S.J., Psychology; Empirical and Rational, pp. 26 sqq. 4th ed., London 1900, pp. 394 sqq. IDEM, in the Catholic En
cyclopedia, Vol. VI, pp.
voluntatis
rat. in Ps.,
arbitrium."
259 sqq.
Jos.
Rickaby,
S.J.,
Political
IDEM, Enar-
mihi non per hanc rationcm pecoribus non faceres meliorcm, non me
et
"Si CI, serm. i, n. 11: dedisses liberum arbitrium
mur. Alioquin ubi ncccssitas, nee corona XXIII, (Cfr. ibid.,

est."
286).
la,
St.
Thomas,
83,
art.
Summa
i:
Theol.,
est
me
sc-
qu.
"Homo
liberi arbitrii, alloquin frustra csscnt
queretur damnatio iusta pcccantcm." IDEM, Retract., I, c. 9, n. 4. (See Migne, P. L., XXXII, 1241;
cxhortationes, praccepta, prohibit iones, praemia et pocnac." 7 Ps. LXXXIII, 8; Phil. Ill, 13;
consilia,
i
XXXIV,
XXXII,
133;
XXXVII,
Cfr.
St.
1302;
Pet.
II,
c.
2.
Cfr.
Cone.
Trident.,
596).
Jerome,
Sess. VI,
n.
Ill,
21.
Adv. lovin., II, c. 3: "Liberi arbitrii nos condidit Dcus, nee ad rirtutes nee ad vitia necessitate trahi-
82 Cor. Rom. VIII,
17;
Eph.
IV,
13;
82
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
and Moral Essays, New York 1902, pp. 249 sqq. IDEM, Free Will and Four English Philosophers (Hobbes, Locke, Hume, and Mill), London 1906. W. von Rohland, Die Willensfreiheit und ihre Gegner, Leipsic 1905. A. Janvier, Exposition de la Morale Catholique, Vol. I, Paris 1904. H. Griinder, S.J., Free Will, the Greatest of the Seven World-Riddles, St. Louis 1911. E. Miiller, Thcol. Mor., Vol. I, 5th ed., pp. 329 sqq. W. McDonald, Prin E. Ross, J. ciples of Moral Science, Dublin 1910, Ch. VIII. Christian Ethics, New York 1919, pp. 21 sqq.
SECTION
THE NATURAL LIMITS OF FREE-WILL

I.
Man was
Here on
created for both time and eternity. earth, where he is to prepare himself for
the life beyond, he is subject to the same laws as other terrestrial creatures. However, since he
rank among, and was made to rule over 1 these creatures, he is empowered to use them as
holds
first
means to achieve his own particular ends. 2 But man is not created for this world alone. He has an immortal soul, 3 and is bound so to em
ploy his earthly sojourn that he may attain This is the express will of eternal beatitude. which man cannot God, change, and to that ex
tent his
.
freedom
free-will,
is
limited by his supernatural
end.
However,
this limitation
4
by no means ab
it
rogates
iGen.
Cfr.
but rather elevates
to
higher plane of perfection.

26 sqq.; II, 19 sq.; IX, Augustine, Tract, in loa., 33, c. 6; Vergil, Aeneis, VI, 727; Sophocles, Antigone, 332 sqq.; A. Jakob, Der Mensch, die Krone der
I, 2.
XII,
20;
i
St.
13 sqq.
St.
Tim. VI, 7; Jas. IV, Polycarp, Ep. ad Phil,

I,
IV,
(ed.
Funk, Vol.
2nd
ed., p.
I,
c.
301).
Tertullian,
Ad Uxorem,
irdischen Schopfung, Freiburg 1890. 2 i Cor. Ill, 22.

3
28; Job
4
Rom. XIV, XIV, 5

I,
sq.;
Acts XVII,
i;
sqq.
Job
21
Prov.
XXVII,
Luke
haec recogites, moneo, "Super 7: neminem non ex Dei voluntate de saeculo educi, si ne folium quidem ex arbore sine Dei voluntate delabitur. Idem qui nos mundo infert, idem et educat necesse est." (Ed.
83
84
II.
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
Though he
is
the lord of the physical uni
verse,
ture.
man
is
in several respects subject to
na
by natural causes. Certain physical disturbances are regu followed larly by definite phenomena in the ethical domain. Statistics show how greatly men are dependent on climate, the weather, seasonal changes, and other physical agencies. They are compelled to battle with nature for their existence and well-being, and this struggle involves a con
1.
His moral
life
is
influenced
stant expenditure of physical as well as intellec tual energy.

2.
Man s
control of his
5
own
actions
is
limited
His intellectual knowl by the life of the body. the senses. edge depends upon Through the organs of the body man receives impressions by the aid of which he forms mental images, con Moreover, the intellectual and cepts or ideas.
moral
life
of
man
conditions,
e. g. }
influenced by various bodily the need of food and sleep, the

is
sexual instinct, disease.

siderable thought
Man
has to devote con

to the care of his
and attention
body and
is
impulses. weight or a prison impeding the intellect in its movements. But this comparison is one-sided.
Leopold, P. II, 68).
I, 4,
frequently compelled to combat its The body has been compared to a dead
Horace, Carm.,
Cfr. J.
scher,
1,
Die
christliche
Moral,
Vol.
13; 28, 15.

15.
5th ed., pp. 174 sqq.
5Wisd. IX,
B. Hir-
LIMITS OF FREE-WILL
85
The body
is
an essential constituent of the com

It is
the organ of the soul, subject Animated and, as it the soul, the body becomes were, spiritualized by the source of sentiments conducive to moral im
to its elevating influence.
pound, man.
of the body, moreover, fur nishes the soul with many occasions for practicing
provement.
The
life
virtue
and
acts as a strong counterpoise to pride
and
self-conceit.
the Old Testament emphasizes man s the earth, the New insists that the over mastery body be kept holy because it is a temple of the 7 Holy Ghost.
Whereas
ed.,
READINGS. A. Huber, Die Hemmnisse der Willensfreiheit. 2nd Miinster 1908. M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, Dublin 1909, pp. 169 sqq. Ellsworth Huntington, World Power and Evolution, Yale University Press, 1919. J. E. Ross, C. S. P.,
Christian Ethics,
New York
1919, pp. 30 sqq.
6 St. John Chrysostom, Orat. de Angusta Porta, i, says that the body
is
ment
gives
forth
the
beautiful
G.,
melody of
LI, 41). 7 i Cor.
virtue.
(Migne, P.
III,
the harp
in
of
the
soul;
the
if
spirit
is
moves the
done
strings,
and
this
I,
19;
16;
Rom.
the right way, the instru-
VIII,
u; VI,
16-22.
SECTION
THE INDIVIDUAL DETERMINANTS OF FREE-WILL
Man
terial
as an individual
is
constituted by a
1
ma
body and a with impulses and

definite
spiritual soul, and endowed inclinations which give rise to The in temptations, virtues, and vices.
dividual
determinants of free-will are chiefly
three
i.
the
AGE. Age exercises a notable influence on human organism and offers to the will a spe cial field in which to exert itself. Though the
individual continues the same,
ity is essentially
and
his personal
unaffected by age, the differences
wrought by the latter are so far-reaching that moral science must take account of them.
Each age has

lems.
2
peculiar ethical tasks and prob In infancy man is almost completely ruled
its
by egoism, but the egoism of the child has a re deeming feature in his ready submission to God 3 In (faith) and parents (filial love, pietas}.
i.
See
Scholastic
Psychology and
ed.,
St.
Pohle-Preuss, The Author of Nature
and the Supernatural, 2nd

Louis 1916, pp. 124 sqq. 2 i Cor. XIII, ii Tit.
;
II,
1-6;
John II, 12-14. 8Cfr. Matth. XVIII, 1-6; XIX,
13-16; Matth. XI, Jerome, Ep., 52 (al. 2), n. 3 (Migne, P. L., XXII, 528); W. Preyer and K. L. Schafer, Die Secle des Kindes, 8th ed., Leipsic 1908; R. Gaupp, Die Psychologie des Kindes,
13-15;
Mark X,
25.
St.
Leipsic
1908.
86
DETERMINANTS OF FREE-WILL
87
early childhood the operation of the will, so far as it acts independently, is negative rather than
positive, characterized
by a tendency to obstinacy,
is
destructiveness,
and
of
cruelty.
The period
adolescence
marked by a
struggle between liberty and control. Though at the soon first, very receptive begins to as boy sert himself against his elders. He is inclined to
follow the bent of his sensual nature, to enjoy himself, to substitute knowledge for faith, to criti
and doubt, to engage in airy speculations, to waver to and fro between optimism and pessi mism, hope and despair. Over against these tendencies are the faculty and inclination to labor, to cultivate tender sentiments, and to seek
cize
Unless these faculties are properly the trained, young man is liable to become an 4 egoist, a dreamer, and a sentimentalist.
noble ideals.
Manhood, the age of maturity,

full control
is
marked by
of the vital energies, by a certain fix ity of both the bodily and the intellectual type, and by a preponderance of the active over the re
ceptive faculties.
set
The
peculiar dangers that be
are pride, vainglory, isolation, heartlessness and obtuseness of mind resulting

life
middle
from untoward experiences.

* Cfr.
sqq.;
These
perils
can be
avoided by cultivating a strong sense of duty and

Sophocles,
Horace, Ep.,
II,
Antigone, 705 3, 156 sqq.
(De Arts Poetica) 2, 67 I, Homer, Ilias, III, 108; IV, 320.

,
sq.;
88
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
God and one
of
s
devoting oneself to the service of
fellowmen
ture.
5
and
to
the
contemplation
life
na
its
Thus each succeeding period of

peculiar ethical stamp; each
its
has
special dangers
and
pitfalls; each
is
This truth
capacity for virtue. exemplified in the lives of the saints,

its
own
who belong to every age, clime, and condition. 2. TEMPERAMENT. By temperament we un*
derstand the peculiar physical and mental charac

ter of
an individual.
The
ancients enumerated
four types
the sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric (or None of these tem bilious), and melancholic. is in any one individ found unmixed peraments
ual.
the
Nevertheless, as the temperaments contain germs of definite inclinations and tendencies,
a study of them is of great importance for the formation of character. The temperaments
undoubtedly influence the
will,
though by no
Besides, every man is more or less responsible for the faults peculiar to his temperament. Hence arises the duty of acquir
means
irresistibly.
ing control over one s temperament and its idio In this matter the Apostles furnish syncrasies.
splendid models.
5 Cfr.
31;
8-9-
Ecclus.
J.
Job XII, 12-13; Prov. XVI, XXV, 6-8; Wisd. IV,

Ehring, Des Priesters GreiMiinster 1896, pp. 3 sqq-,
senalter,
A. Fouillee, Temperament et selon les Individus, les Sexes et les Races, Paris 1895; P. Michel, Theologiae Moralis Prin6 Cfr.
Caractere
59 sqq.
cipia,
Vol.
I,
pp.
445 sqq.
3.
89
NATURAL TALENT.
Talent
is
a special apti
tude or faculty for effective action along certain lines. Talents differ and are differently dis Some men are more talented than tributed.
Some are highly gifted in more than one while others scarcely show any trace of respect, talent at all. The presence or absence of special
others.
aptitudes necessarily influences
man
s intellectual
is
and moral development, and hence
an
ethical
factor of considerable importance. man s choice of vocation and his social standing are
largely conditioned by his talents, and experience teaches that, as a general rule at least, the moral sense develops in proportion to the growth of in
telligence.
However, while
is
talent has a place
among
the
individual determinants of free-will,
its
influence
by no means compelling.
Whether endowed
with
many
mains
talents or few, great or small, master of his actions. There is
man
re
no hard
and
fast relation
between morality and
intellectual
culture.
attain
man
men sometimes moral Moreover, great perfection. ethical development depends upon other
Intellectually inferior
to
factors besides natural aptitudes.
Even
infidel
savants admit that the low mental and moral state of many primitive races is the result, not
of natural inferiority, but of a process of deprava-
90
tion.
7
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
For some reason or other their natural faculties and aptitudes were not properly devel The Catholic Church teaches that every oped. normal human being is able to distinguish good from evil and to observe the more general or abso
lutely necessary precepts of the Gospel.
It is this
conviction that inspires Catholic missionary ac History testifies that tivity among the heathen.
nations which have attained to some degree of culture are more easily converted than those com
pletely
immersed
J.
in savagery.
I,
Die christliche Moral, Vol. Hirscher, Vol. II, 5th ed., pp. 268 sqq., 418 sqq. C. Krieg, Die Wissenschaft der Seclenleitung, Vol. I, Freiburg A. Huber, Die Hemmnisse der Willens1904, pp. 99 sqq., 131 sqq.
READINGS.
B.
freiheit,
2nd
ed.,
Miinster 1908, pp.
^Psychology, 4th
ed.,
London
1900, p. 393.
132 sqq. M. Maher, S.J., T. Pesch, S.J., Instit.
1078 sq. O. Briissau, Die Tetnperamente und Psychologicae, das christliche Leben, Hamburg 1906. M. Maher, S.J., in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. II, p. 585. A. C. O Neil, ibid., XIV, 8.
A. Waldron, O.P.,
ibid.,
XV,
A.
474.
F. Muszinski, Die
Tempera-
Paderborn 1907. Moralis, Vol. II, Tournai

mcnte,
Cap.,
Tanquerey,
1905, pp. 65 sqq. Introductio Pathologica ad Studium

1917.
Schneider, Die Natur-
Synopsis Theologiae Fr. a Barbens, O. M.

Theologiae Moralis,
Tarracona
7 Cfr.
W.
2nd
sqq.
ed.,
Paderborn
1903,
pp.
474
volker, Vol. I, Paderborn 1885, pp. 3 sqq.; C. Gutberlet, Der Mensch,
SECTION
THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF FREE-WILL
Man
is
social being,
not merely an individual, he is also a and as such his liberty of choice is
influenced by several other factors in addition to
those already enumerated. They are i. SEX. Sex is the sum-total of the peculiari ties of structure and function that distinguish the
:
male from the female organism.
Its influence is
not limited to the body, but extends to the intel lect and the will, and consequently affects the moral character. 1
generally speaking, possesses greater spontaneity, energy, and strength than the female. These advantages are counterbalanced
timent.
The male
sex,
by certain defects, e. g. lack of delicacy and sen The female sex, on the other hand, en
}
joys greater receptivity, a more delicate sense of 2 modesty, a more intense religious sentiment and
greater patience, but

3
is
less
strong in resisting
4 evil, and more prone to fall. But though sex is a determinant of morality, it does not neutralize free-will. For in the first
1
See Readings at the end of this
members
3 Cfr.
Section.
2
The
liturgical
sexus,"
phrase,
"devotus
femineus
passing,
"virgines
be
a
it
remarked in
is
merely
synonym
i.
for
of female religious orders. Pet. Ill, 7, and the hymn for Matins in the Commune Virof the Roman Breviary, ginum 4 Cfr. R. Stade, Aus der Gefdngi
Deo
devotae,"
e.
the
nisseelsorge,
Leipsic
1901,
pp.
56
91
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
5 place the human soul or spirit is non-sexual and the same law binds both male and female. "Una
est lex de viris et de fe minis," as the School
men
put it. The assumption of a so-called double standard of morals is unchristian. 6 Secondly, all
virtues are attainable by both sexes, and neither enjoys any intellectual or moral privilege that is
denied the other.

sqq.,
Third, the sexual relations of

this
105
sqq.
IDEM,
Frauentypen
(1903), pp. sqq.; H. F.
from
Innocent
(c.
23,
C.
aus
dem Gefdngnisleben
40 sqq., 57 sqq., 67 Beneke, Gefdngnisstudien, Hamburg

1903, PP- 13 sq., 76 sqq. 5 Cfr. St. Ambrose, Expos. Evang. sec. Luc., II, n. 28: "Anima, quae
"Christiana- religio qu. 5): adultcrium in utrcque sexu part St. Jerome in rations condemnat."
XXXII,
non habet
sex-urn
St.
"
(Migne, P.
L.,
speaking on the same subject cen turies before the days of Gratian insists on the striking contrast be tween the pagan double code of
morality for men and women, and the single or equal code of Chris
tian
XV,
1562);
la,
Thomas,
93,
art.
6,
Sum-ma
ad
2:
est
corn-
Theol.,
"Imago
qu.
sit
Dei utrique sexui
teaching.
(Ad
Oceanum, Ep.
sunt
"aliae
munis,
in qua 6 Cfr.
quum
non
secundum mentem,
distinctio
sexuum."
LXXVII).
Caesarum,"
"Aliae
est
he writes,
leges Christi:
"Let the i Cor. VII, 3-4: husband render the debt to his wife, and the wife also in like manner to
aliud Papianus, aliud Paulus nosier And after describing praccipit."
the
sets
larger
to
licence
husband. The wife hath power of her own body, but husband; and in like manner husband also hath not power of own body, but the wife." Cfr.
the
8:
"This
not
the
allowed
the Roman laws men and husbands, he
the
his
against this the Christian code non of equality: "Apud nos, quod
licet
feminis aeque non

servitus
licet
viris:
the
i,
et
eadem
Shepherd of Hermas, Mand. IV,

is
censetur."
the
course
of
action
r]
presented,
St.
pari conditions Such is the contrast in the judgment of

at
for
wife
and
eTrl
husband
yvvaiKl
10:
(avrr/
/cat
"For
Jerome,
the
close
of
the
7rpats
/cetrcu)."
dvdpl
this
Ibid.,
between the Chris tian and Pagan ideas on this ques

tion.
fourth century,
was enjoined on you to live by yourselves, whether husband or wife (ia TOVTO Trpocrerayr] vfJLiv
reason
it
And
yet,
after
the
lapse
of
fifteen
hundred
the
in
historian
fess
a candid years, of morals is fain to con
et re avrip ei re eavrols (Ed. Funk, Vol. I, and ed., yvvr])." p. 476, 8 and 13; Kirsopp Lake, The Apostolic Fathers, Vol. II, London
(
that
Cfr.
fj.ei>eiv,
dominates
7
pagan idea still pre modern Europe.

Ill,
Gal.
28;
Matth.
12,
XXVIII,
XVIII,
Evang.
10;
2.
Acts
St.
XVII,
34;
1913,
St.
p.
81).
The
Corpus
luris
Canonicl quotes the following from
sec.
Ambrose
:
4)
"Nee
(C. 4, C. viro licet,
XXXII,
quod
qu. mulieri
"Utrumque
Ambrose, Expos. Lucam, IV, n. 57: sexum, Dominus euro-
non
licet.
Eadem
a viro,
quae ab
turus advenerat, et prior sanari debuit, qui prior creatus est, nee praetermitti
ilia,
uxore,
debetur
castimonia."
And
quae mobititate magis
men and women,
trolled
93
unlike those of irrational brutes, are not governed by physical necessity, but con
by the
9
will,
which can ennoble and

Education
spirit
ualize them.
2.
EDUCATION.
skill
signifies the
pro-
cess of imparting
and drawing out (e-ducere)
knowledge,
society
is
or discipline of character.
As
im
at present constituted, education is
parted partly in the home and partly at school. The early training a child receives at home is of
animi
quam
pravitate
peccaverat.
1629). 16 (al.
St.
(Migne, P. L., Augustine, Serm.,
XV,
12
Roman Missal we read: "Et quos out sexus in corpore out aetas discernit
in
de
tempore,
omnes
in
unam
"Utrumque sexum Diversis), n. 12: volens in spent renovationis et reParationis adduccre, virilem, in quo
pariat gratia mater infantiam." 8 Cfr. Matth. XIX, 11-12: "All
nasceretur, nasceretur, 61 (al. 190

"Quoniam
femineum,
elegit."
per quern IDEM, Serm.,

n.
de
Diversis),
2:
est,
utrumque sexum,
feminae,
ipse
id
masculi
et
utique
creavit, ideo
utrumque sexum etiam

. .
.
nascendo voluit honorare, quam venerat liberare. Dominus veniens quaerere quod perierat, utrum
For there are eunuchs, who were born so from their mother s womb: and there are eunuchs, who were made so by men: and there are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can Rom. VIII, take, let him take
to
it
men take whom
not this
is
word,
but they
given.
it."
12-14:
"Therefore,
brethren,
we
are
honorando commendare, que quia utrumque perierat. In nullo igitur sexu debemus iniuriam facere Christo: utrumque ad sperandam salutem commendavit nativitas Domini.
voluit
debtors, not to the flesh, to live ac cording to the flesh. For if you live according to the flesh, you shall die: but if by the spirit you mortify the deeds of the flesh, you shall live."
i Cor. VII, 25 sqq. Matth. XXII, 30: "For in the resurrection shall neither they marry nor be married; but shall be
Honor
Christi,
masculini sexus est in carne
Cfr.
honor feminini est in matre

Vicit
Chris ti.
serpcntis
1008).
gratia lesu
Christi."
astutiam (Migne, P. L.,

St.
XXXVIII,
Great,
106,
Leo the
Serm., 74 (al. 72), c. 3: "Pro hoc fide per univcrsum mundum non solum viri, sed etiam feminae, nee tantum impubes pueri, sed etiam tenerae virgines usque ad effusionem
sui sanguinis dccertarunt." (Migne, P. L., LIV, 398). In the benedic tion of the baptismal font in the
as the angels of God in heaven." Cfr. Tertullian, Ad Uxorem, I, c.

(ed. P. Leopold, II, 62 sq.)
St.
Au
c.
gustine,
De
Civitate Dei,
XXII,
(Migne, P. L., XLI, 778 sq.); IDEM, Serm., 243 (al. 6 de Divers.), n. 6 (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, St. Jerome, Adv. lovin., I, 1146).
17
c.
36 (P. L., XXIII, 261).
94
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
cause
or
supreme importance for his future welfare be it leaves upon the mind deep traces of good
evil.
10
Whether a man
life will
ious,
whether his
will be virtuous or vic redound to the advan
tage or detriment of his fellowmen, depends largely upon the character of the domestic circle No other factor, in which he spends his youth.
agency, or institution can fully supplant a good Christian home. In spite of all this, however, home-life does not
give a necessary predetermination for either good The will remains free, and even the or evil.
most excellent training sometimes fails to bend It happens that good it in the right direction. 11 parents have bad children, whereas, on the other
hand, a naturally good child will often preserve innocence in spite of a bad example.
its
supplements and completes the training received at home, and its influence on the formation of character is second only to that of 12 Its chief defect is that it cannot the family.
The
school
give to each child the individual care required, and hence the influence of the school upon the
10 Cfr.
Plato,
drj
Politia,
II,
17:
TrXdrrerai Kal cvSverai TVTTOS, vv &v TIS povXyrai Cfr. Horace, evo-rj/J.rii aadai e/cd<rrw.
MdXia-Td
rare
Rectique cultus pectora roborant: Utrumque defecere mores, Dedecorant bene nata culpae."
ll
"
Filii
heroum
the
nequam."
Carm., IV,
"Fortes
4, 29,
32 sqq.:
fortibus
et
creantur
.
bo-
nis;
Doctrina sed -vim promo-vet insitam
proverb: IToXXoi fj.aO^Ta.1 Kpeiffaoves TUV dL5a(TKa\wv Many pupils are better than their masters.
12 Cfr.
Greek
moral character the home.
3.
is less
95
pronounced than that of

society
is
SOCIETY.
Human
the sum-total
of living men, considered as an aggregate, of which each individual is a member. Every man is more or less a child of his time, nation, and
not merely in a physical sense, i. e., by country, the external characteristics due to soil, climate
and national type; but

cally, in
also intellectually
13
regard to his
and ethi views of right and wrong,
his likes
and
dislikes, etc.
The
and the
relation existing between social environment in
man
free acts
lives
which he
(milieu) has been carefully investigated in re It was found that certain crimes and cent times.
misdemeanors recur more or less regularly under This observation led Lomcertain conditions. broso and others to conclude that the law of physi cal causation applies to ethics and that human
conduct
14 With this governed by necessity. conclusion we cannot agree, for three reasons is
:
13 Cfr. Ps. XVII, 26-27: "With the holy, thou wilt be holy; and with the innocent man thou wilt be innocent; and with the elect thou wilt be elect: and with the perverse thou wilt be Pope perverted."
translated into
English,
have exer-
cised a malign influence on contemporary thought. Cfr. Krauss, Der
Kampf gegen
sachen, pp.
die
;
17 sqq.
VerbrechensurR. Frank, Die

1908.
Lehre Lombrosos, Tubingen
Hadrian
lor,
VI
composed
refert,
this
"Proh
epi-
taph for his tombstone:
dotern-
quantum
I"
in
qitae
Enrico Ferri, another popular aubiothor, contends that crime is logico-social abnormality," which has
"a
pora vel optimi cuiusque virtus

dot 14 Cesare
particular,
inci-
"its
origin in
an
anti-social biological
Lombroso s writings some of which have been

in
constitution, cosmic or physical," and is "the resultant of anthropological,
cosmic,
and
social
factors."
(Cfr.
96
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
a) That
men
think, feel, calculate,

is
alike
under similar conditions
and act no proof that
they lack liberty of choice. b) At all times there have been
many who, under identically the same circumstances, have attained a degree of moral perfection that raised them far above their fellows.
c)
Statistics
are
limited
to
external
acts,
whereas the individual inclinations and dispo as well as the intentions and motives from which individual actions spring, and which therefore constitute the true essence of moral All that ity, elude observation and inquiry. science can demonstrate is to what extent men observe the law or, rather, in what degree they Even those are given to immoral practices. acts which are common to a large number of men and can therefore be statistically tabu lated, remain rational and ethically freeactus humani regardless of social and economic en
sitions
vironment.
15
The
science of
what
is
called
its
moral
criminal) and crime.
statistics
devotes
(or, more correctly, attention entirely to vice
Virtue, as a rule,
makes no
"If
noise.
An
an
cient Chinese proverb says: your neighbor will never find

Criminal Sociology by Enrico Ferri, by J. I. Kelly, Boston 1917)Ferri too often makes words serve
it
you do a good deed, out but if you commit a

;
tr.
test,
in place of ideas. his system

Cfr.
Put
fails
to the logical
completely. Charles Goring, The English Convict: A Statistical Study, Lon

15 Cfr.
don 1920.
C.
Gutberlet,
Willensfrei-
heit,
pp. 40 sqq.
it."
97
crime, everybody for a hundred miles around will talk To regard only the evil that men do will never about
lead to an adequate knowledge of
human
nature.
READINGS. Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. I, p. 163; XV, 687. A. Rosier, C.SS.R., Die Frauenfrage vom Standpunkt der Natur, der Geschichte und der Offenbarung, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1907, pp. 18 sqq., 26 sqq. H. Marion. Psychologic de la Femme, Paris Ch. Turgeon, Le Feminisme Franâis, Vol. II, Paris 1902, 1900. C. Krieg, Die Wissenschaft der Seelenleitung, Vol. pp. 152 sqq.
I,
pp. 138 sqq.
A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theologiae Moralis, Vol.

ct ses
II,
Tournai
1905, pp. 69 sqq.
L. Desers,
L Education Morale
ed.,
Conditions, Paris 1009.

1897.
W.
Toischer, Die
Macht der Schule, Prague
F.
W.
Foerster,
Schule und Charakter, 7th
Zurich 1909.
SECTION
VOLUNTARY ACTS
Not
all
human
actions
are
ethically
free.
There are various degrees of self-determination corresponding to the measure of knowledge with which a man acts. 1
1.
SPONTANEOUS
OR
REFLEX ACTIONS.
is
spontaneous or reflex action
one produced by
the will without due knowledge. spontaneous act, as such, is not ethical. "Nihil volititm the category of spon taneous actions belong the primary perceptions of the external and internal senses, the first stirnisi praecognitum"
,
To
rings of the imagination and the memory, as well as all acts performed in the state of sleep or dis
ease,
2.
under external compulsion or

Thomas,
art.
in ignorance.
VOLUNTARY AND FREE ACTS.

Summa
Theol.,
sibi
An
act is
1 Cfr. St.
la, qu.
noxium; sed hoc iudicium non
59,
3:
"Quacdam
sunt
est ipsi
turn.
quae non agunt ex aliquo arbiirio, sed quasi ab aliis acta et mota, sicut sagitta a sagittante movetur ad finem.
Sed solum
liberum, sed a natura indiid quod habet inra-
tellectum, potest agere iudicio libero,
inquantum cognoscit universalem
Quaedam vero agunt quodain

trio,
arbi-
sed non libero, sicut animalia

iudicio,
irrationalia.
ex quodam
Ovis enim fugit lupum quo existimat eum
tionem boni, ex qua potest iudicare hoc vel illud esse bonum. Unde ubicunque est intellectus, est liberum
arbitrium."
98
VOLUNTARY ACTS
99
voluntary and free (voluntarium et liberum) if it is performed by the will with knowledge and de
liberation.
2
For an act to be voluntary and free, therefore, two conditions must cooperate: a) The act itself must be produced by an in- ^
ternal principle,
i.
e.,
the will ;
The person acting must have some knowl of the end towards which his act tends. edge Acts performed under external compulsion,
b)
therefore, or without knowledge of their purpose, cannot be called free. In order that an act be entirely free, it must, moreover, be perceived by the agent in all its
parts and circumstances.
When even one cir cumstance is unknown to the agent, the act is not free with regard to this circumstance. For in stance, if a man appropriates to himself an object, not knowing that it belongs to another, he is not a thief; or if he knowingly possesses himself of the property of another without being aware of the fact that it is devoted to a sacred purpose, he is
not guilty of sacrilege.
There are different degrees of voluntariness, according measure of reflection accompanying an act.
(i)
tivwri)
2
"Actus
to the
An
act
is
positively voluntary (voluntarium posi-
if it is
directly intended; negatively (voluntarium

in-
procedens a principio
tione
finis."
St.
Thomas,
i.
Summa
trinseco seu a voluntate
cum
cogni-
Theol., la 2ae, qu. 6, art.
ioo
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
if
it
negativum)
omission. 3
(2)
involves
an inexcusable or culpable
An
act
fectum)
if it
is perfectly voluntary (voluntarium perproceeds from the will with full knowledge
;
and deliberation
imperfectum)
full.
if
it is imperfectly voluntary (voluntarium the knowledge and deliberation are not
is immediately voluntary (voluntarium eliproduced directly by the will it is mediately voluntary (voluntarium imperatum) if it is dictated by the will and performed by some other faculty of mind or
(3)
An
act
citum)
if it is
body.
(4)
An
act
if
pressum)
is expressly voluntary (voluntarium exthe consent of the will is manifested by word
or sign; it is tacitly voluntary (voluntarium taciturn) if the consent of the will can be deduced from some act or omission.
Thus
a superior wills expressly

;
what
his
spoken or written command enjoins he wills tacitly what he permits, though he be able and in duty bound to pre
vent
it.
(5) Something
self
itself
is
is
said to be willed directly or in

s.
it
(voluntarium directum
in se)
when
it is
in
and by
It the object of the will, e. g., a premeditated crime. willed indirectly or in the cause (voluntarium indirectum s. in causa) when it is merely the effect of something
else
which
is
directly willed.
For anything
to be willed in
the cause, therefore, the effects of that cause must be fore seen but not intended, for if they were intended, the action
would be willed
drink
in itself or directly.
drunkard,
e. g.,
directly wills the gratification of his appeiite for strong

;
indirectly he also
Thomas,
5,
wills
to
ruin his health and

est
3 Cfr. St.
Summa
ad 2:
Theol.,
"Ipsum
xa zae, qu. 71, art.
velle et
inquantum in potestate hominis non velle."
non
velle
potest
did voluntarium,
VOLUNTARY ACTS
effects in the cause.
101
squander his money, because he foresees these inevitable
READINGS.
S.J.,
St.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol., la 2ae, qu.
6.
V. Frins,
Actibus Humanis, Vol. I, Freiburg 1897, pp. 85 sqq. M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, pp. 34 sqq. Th. Slater, SabettiS.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 22 sq. Barrett, S.J., Compendium Theologiae Moralis, 22nd ed., New York 1915, pp. ii sqq. A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis FundamenA. Vermeersch, S.J., talis, 2nd ed., Haaren 1910, pp. 34 sqq.
Theologia Moralis, Vol.
I,
De
Bruges
1922, pp. 57 sqq.
SECTION
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FREE-WILL

i.
INSTINCT.
Instinct,
which
is
the
first
and
lowest stage of the appetitive faculty, may be de fined as "an impulse of the sensitive appetite to wards certain acts and objects, the suitableness of
which transcends the range of knowledge of the * All instinctive ac agent that performs them." tions are performed under internal compulsion. The primary form to which all instincts may be reduced, is an impulse towards happiness. This
impulse
against
is irresistible,
it
i.
e.,
the will cannot decide
because no
man
The
has
it
in his
is
power not
to will to be happy.
case
different with
the secondary forms that proceed from this pri mary form of instinct the impulse to self-pres
ervation, the sexual instinct,
and
others.
These
are subject to the will. Intimately connected with the instinct of self-preservation are modesty,
anger, and fear.
(a) Modesty is directed to the preservation of per sonal integrity. This instinct reacts with particular vigor
i
Cfr. E.
Wasmann,
S.J.,
Modern
Biology and the Theory of Evolution

(tr.
by A. M. Buchanan), London
IDEM, Instinct and Intelli19 10; gence in the Animal Kingdom, St. Louis 1903.
102
DEVELOPMENT OF FREE-WILL
to attacks against chastity
103
and
truth.
sin,
an invaluable protection against

son
is
it
Modesty furnishes and for this rea
weak and tender and can

and becomes a
virtue.
should be assiduously cultivated, especially since it Under easily be destroyed.

2
conscientious cultivation modesty ceases to be a mere in

stinct
(b)
Anger
is
defined as a violent desire to wreak ven
geance on persons or objects that oppose or thwart the Ego in the prosecution of its ends. This instinct tends to
destroy that which opposes it. Anger stinct because it makes deliberation
is
difficult.
a dangerous in For the
same reason, of course, it diminishes accountability and inspires foolish and injurious actions. Anger is essentially a craving for vengeance on account of wrong done. Though there is a just and holy anger, the stirrings of this passion in the weakened state in which humanity exists since the Fall, mostly spring from sinful then Anger, in the words of Father Rickaby, egotism.
"is
only a safe course to enter on, when it proceeds not upon personal but upon public grounds and even by this maxim
;
many
(c)
2.
deceive
themselves."
Fear (metus)
will be treated later. 4
will, or when sensual perception presents something as desira ble to the lower appetites, there ensues a tendency
tellect
AFFECTIONS AND PASSIONS. proposes some good to the
When
the in
towards that
2Cfr.
c.
1
object.
Offic.,
I,
This tendency
non
44).
sinat."
is
either
L.,
St.
Ambrose, De
"Est
(Migne, P.
XVI,
8,
n. 69:
verccundia pudisocietate
casti-
citiae
comes,
cuius
tas ipsa tutior est.
Bonus enim
est
re-
gendae
si
castitatis
pudor
comes, qui
se
pericula
praetendat ad ea quae prima sunt, pudicitiam temerari
Schneider, Die Naturvolker, Vol. II, pp. 426 sqq. 3 Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Moral PhiCfr. Mark III, 5; losophy, p. 64. Matth. XXI, 12; John II, 15-17.
Cfr.
4 Infra,
p.
W.
116.
104
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
spiritual or sensual, according to the nature of the object. The stirrings of the rational appetite
are called affections; those of the sensual appe

tite,
passions (passiones). passions, in so far as they are excited by external objects, are involuntary in their origin
The
because independent of free-will. Consequently man is not accountable for them, unless he
has willed them in the cause (voluntarium in

causa).
the other hand, whether pure or mixed, are either wholly or partially subject
to the will, according as they proceed 5 either entirely or in part.
The affections, on
from
it
There
former
is
sions on the one hand,
a difference between the affections and pas and instinct on the other. The
may
proceed mediately from the will and presup
pose a clear knowledge of their object, whereas the latter springs from sentiment and cannot be elicited by an act of
the will.
discern.
However
is
this difference is
not always easy to
An
affection
in that,
when
man
distinguished from a free act of the will is under the influence of an affec
tion, willing
takes place.
5 Cfr.
immediately follows knowledge, and no choice For this reason the affections, though they
De
Civitate
St.
Augustine,
quam
voluntates sunt.
Nam
quid est
Dei, XIV, c. 6: "Interest, qualis sit voluntas hominis; quia si perversa est, perversos habebit hos motus; si
cupiditas et laetifia nisi voluntas in
eorum consensionem, quae volumus? Et quid est metus atque tristitia nisi
voluntas in dissensionem ab his, quae nolumus?" (Migne, P. L. t XLI,
409).
autem recta
biles,
est, non solum inculpaverum etiam laudabiles erunt.

[scil.
Voluntas est quippe in omnibus

motibus],
immo omnes
nihil
aliud
may
less
105
be voluntary in the highest degree, are not free, un indeed the knowledge from which they spring was caused by the will, or if they are made the object of
reflection.
But the
it
will is
never accountable for an af

its
i.
fection unless
has cooperated in
in
production, or con
sented to
it
after due deliberation,
when it began to participate more than a physical impulse.

(a)
from the moment what was originally no

e.,
motus prlmo primus is an impulse which, resulting immediately from an involuntary act of knowledge, precedes all rational deliberation and therefore is neither
free nor imputable.
less into object the consciousness of the subject, thus affording a pos Such acts are sibility of deliberation and free choice.
(b) causes
motus
sec undo
primus
to
is
an impulse which
the
desired
enter
more or
not entirely compulsory nor, on the other hand, are they It follows that while they may be to some entirely free.
;
extent imputable, they never constitute

sin.
more than a
to
venial
(c)
is
If the
knowledge that gives birth

will,
an impulse
caused by the
or
if
the will positively and de
liberately acquiesces in the impulse and makes its own the object towards which it tends, we have a motus secundus. This happens, e. g., when the will, instead
of rejecting sinful thoughts, deliberately entertains and nourishes them. Hence the Scholastic maxim, "Motus
sentire est naturale, motibus consentire est
6 Cfr.
criminale."
St.
Augustine, In Ep.
ad
operatur peccatum nolentibus nobis

nisi
si
Rom.,
in ipso "Non prop. 13-18: desiderio pravo, sed in nostra conpeccamus."
sola illicita
desideria?
Quibus
assen<
voluntatis
senswne
XXXV,
Ps.,
2066).
s.
(Migne, P. L., IDEM, Enarrat. in

3,
sus,
non adhibeatur movetur quidem nonnullus
af-
CXVIII,
n.
i:
"Quid
fectus, sed nullus ei relaxatur effectus." (P. L., XXXVII, 1507).
106
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
The motus secundus, being
a voluntary and deliberate act of the will, is fully imputable and, when the matter at stake is sinful and important, involves a mortal offence.
how strongly actions are influenced by the affections and the passions. As affectus antecedentes they pre
It
needs no argument to show
man
cede, incite,
the decision of the will, and are frequently the very requisites of free will actions, capable of becoming concurrent
elicit
and
causes in their production, thus entering as im portant factors into man s accountability for his
deeds.
Not every good impulse or emotion

is
en
thusiasm, love, hatred, anger supernaturally Neither is every evil impulse sin meritorious.
ful.
Many
of these stirrings are purely natural

choice.
and involve no deliberate
the other hand, the will can enlist the affec tions and the passions in its service. When thus
enlisted,
On
they are called affectus subsequentes,

will,
and intensify the

its
increase
every strengthen ordered, the affections "Rightly

act,
its power, and whether good or bad.
are
virtues/
says a Scholastic axiom; direction, they disturb the

7 "Affectiones
"when
7
soul."
lacking proper
ordinatae
virtutes
snntt inordinatae
Cfr.
St.
pcrturbationes."
31), n. i: secum in
Augustine, Serm., 344 (al. "Amores duo in hac vita
pennis out pedibus, sed affectibus venimus ad Deum. Et rursum non corporeis nodis et vinculis, sed contrariis affectibus terrae inhaeremus."
omni tentatione luctantur, amor saeculi et amor Dei; et Jiorum duorum qui vicerit, illuc amantem tamquam pondere trahit. Non enim
(Migne, P. L., XXXIX, 1512). IDEM, De Civitate Dei, XIV, c.

n.
i
:
9,
"lu.rta
namque
scripturas sacras sadoctrinam cives sanctae civi-
The
affections
107
and the passions, therefore, are
not in themselves evil or unworthy of human na ture. The Church has condemned the Stoic as
sertion
that
a perfect
man
should be totally
8 Her ideal is not stolid apa devoid of passions. thy but rational control of the affections and
passions.
to right reason is an imperative duty, not only in regard to single acts, but also in regard to the conditions created
To
subject
them
by the continued activity of these impulses. Even the most vicious habit, no matter how strongly developed, can be overcome with the
aid of divine grace.
tatis
tione
Dei in huius vitae peregrinasecundum Deum viventes me-
carne circumdamur, moderari et regere possumus, amputare non possumus."
tuunt cupiuntque, dolent gaudentque.
(P.
L.,
XXII,
in8).
St.
Et quia rectus est amor eorurn, istas omncs affectiones rectas habent."
L.
c.,
Bernard,
c.
De
Gratia et Lib. Arbitr.,
6,
n.
n.
3:
"Hi
de amorc boni
et
motus, hi affectus de sancta caritate
insunt
17: "Simplices affectiones naturaliter nobis, tamquam
ex
nobis.
additamenta
profecto
est,
ex
nisi
gratia.
venientcs, si ritia vocanda sunt, sinamus, ut ea quae vere vitia sunt, virtutes
Nee ahud
gratia
tio,
quod
crca-
ordinat,
quas
donavit
sint
vocentur.
Scd
quum rectam
rationem sequantur istac affectiones,
ut nihil nisi ordinatae
ahud
virtutes
affectiones."
(P.
L.
quando ubi oportet adhibentur, quis eas tune morbos sen vitiosas passiones audeat dicer ef Quamobrem etiam ipse Dominus in forma servi agere vitam dignatus humanam, sed nullum habens omnino peccatum adhibuit eas, ubi adhibendas esse iudicavit.
CLXXXII,
8 Cfr.
1010).
linos,
prop,
Prop. Damn. Mich, de Mo(Denzinger-Banni, 55

Epist. ad ipsa et libido
wart, n. 1221, 1275). Cfr. St. Jerome, In

Gal.,
Ill,
c.
6:
"Ira
Neque enim
in
quo
verum
erat hominis corpus et verus hominis animus, falsus erat humanus af

fectus."
quae desiderat ultionem, refrenem, si propter Deum tasi ceam, per singulos commotionis aculeos et incentii a vitiorum Dei
et
iniuria.
si
me
(P. L.,
St.
Cfr.
i,
XLI, 413, 414 Jerome, In Ezech.,

L.,
sq.).
I,
c.
desuper me mihi occasio

P. L..
der,
iridentis
recorder,
fiunt
triumphorum."
n. n.
12
(P.
13:
XXV,
et
23);
Ep.,
XXVI,
432 sq.).
W.
(Migne, Schnei
ed.,
130,
"Affectus
tiones,
quamdiu
huius
in
perturbatabernaculo coret
Das andere Leben,
xoth
Paderborn 1909, pp. 17 sqq.
poris
habitamus
fragili
io8
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
"Passion is the natural and in a certain degree the insep arable adjunct of strong volition. To check one is to check the other. Not only is the passion repressed by repressing the volition, but the repression of the passion is
man then who did also the repression of the volition. his best to repress all movements of passion indiscrim inately, would lay fetters on his will, lamentable and cruel
and impolitic fetters, where his will was bent on any object good and honorable and well-judged." "The effort made as the Stoics direct, would mean no yielding to excitement, no poetry, no high-strung devotion, no rapture, no ecstasy, no ardor of love, no earnest rhet oric spoken or listened to, no mourning, no rejoicing other than the most conventional, to the persistent smothering of whatever is natural and really felt, no tear of pity freely let flow, no touch of noble anger responded to, no scudding
before the breeze of indignation, all this, that reason 10 on the even tenor of its may keep way undisturbed."
commits a crime minute before, is guiltless in comparison with him who for months and years has revolved the same crime in his brain, without ever proceeding to action. An envious man may deserve
in the heat of passion
"
man who
far
that
was
from
his thoughts only a
a severer punishment than a thief, and one who harbors hatred and plans vengeance may be worse than a mur
derer."
1X
Freedom of the will (libertas 3. FREE-WILL. orbit rii seu naturae} is distinguished by two es sential notes: self-determination, and the power
of choosing between different actions.
10 Jos. Rickaby, Moral Philosophy, pp. 45 sq. 11 Op. cit., p. 46.
a)
109
The
rational
soul
has within
itself
the
tendency or inclination to proceed to action (a potentia ad actum).

the intellect operates
will, all intellectual
from potency
In so far as
consciously
acts are ethical.
through the Hence, while
there
may
be indifferent acts in genere, or in the

is
abstract, no act
is
indifferent in indwiduo.
is
That
either
to say, every individual concrete act
good or bad.
b)
To
say that
man
has the power of choos
ing between two or more actions (liber um arbitrium) is not the same as to assert, as the an
cient Pelagians did, that
evil
man
can choose good or
It is in facility (equilibrism). of that the will demon power choosing freely strates its superiority over the sensitive appetite.
with equal
the
Whereas
the latter acts under intrinsic compul
sion, the will
can determine
itself
freely,
i.
e.,
choose either good or bad.

is
According to the objects between which choice made, the freedom of the will is called libertas
s.
contradictions
exercitii, libertas specific ationis
or libertas contrarietatis.
By
libertas contradictions
s.
exercitii is
meant
active indifference to act or not to act.
Libertas specifications may be defined as the power of choosing between specifically different
acts of the
sire.
same
kind, for instance, love
and de
no
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
is
Libertas contrarietatis
ing between contraries, and evil.
e.
the faculty of choos g., love and hate, good
of these species of freedom (libertas contradictions) is included in the other two.

first
The
Moral indifference
rather a defect of the
4.
is
not a prerogative but

12
will.
CHRISTIAN OR SUPERNATURAL MORAL FREEDOM. The natural freedom of choice with which the human will is endowed, furnishes the foundation and groundwork of that libertas virseu gratiae which Sacred Scripture calls the freedom of the children of God. 13 It is to this
tutis
prerogative that Christ refers when He says: you continue in my word, you shall be my disciples indeed, and you shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free. ... If there
"If
fore the Son shall

free
14
indeed."
make you
free,
you
shall be
This liberty of grace, which is the work of the 15 Holy Ghost, involves a continued cooperation
of the will and an incessant struggle against sin and concupiscence. It manifests itself in that
constant and unswerving tendency towards moral 16 which is the special mark of the loyal goodness
l2Cfr.
i
Cor.
VII,
37-
St.
Thomas,
10, art.
Summa
4.
I,
Theol., la zae, qu.

S.J., De Act. 112 sqq. 28; 2 Cor. Ill, 17;
V. Frins,
pp.
14 John. VIII, 31-32, 36. 15 2 Cor. Ill, 17. ie John VIII, 34-36; Rom.
VI,
St.
Human., Vol.
13
Gal.
i
16-23;
Cor.
VII,
Ps.,
22.
Cfr.
n.
Cor.
13.
XV,
Augustine,
"Servum
In
XCIX,
faciat,
7:
li-
V,
te
caritas
quia
Catholic.
to sin
17
in
moral inability which attains its (non posse pec care}, climax in the world beyond, where it is trans formed into that freedom of glory which is the
Its highest stage is
inheritance of the Blessed (libertas gloriae
filio-
rum
To
18
Dei).
be able to sin
is
defect.
This power
not a proof of liberty, but a moral may at most be called a sign of lib
erty in the sense in which disease is sometimes called a In the final state of perfection the will is no sign of life.
longer able to choose evil in preference to good. To choose evil is always an abuse of liberty, the sole purpose
of which
to serve
is
moral goodness. 19
is
"Deo
servire regnare
est,"
God
to rule.
Inability to sin
true liberty.
"Let
(non posse peccare) is what constitutes no one believe," says St. Bernard of
Clairvaux, "that liberty is called liberum arbitrium be cause the will is moved with equal facility between if this were the case, it would good and evil ...
;
be impossible
liberty to God and the holy are so that they cannot be wicked, or to angels, good the fallen angels, who are so bad that they can no longer
to
ascribe
who
be good. Nay, we ourselves [in that hypothesis] should lose our liberty after the Resurrection [of the flesh],
berum
P. L.,
17
17.
te
veritas
fecit."
(Migne,
XXXVII,
1275).
32, 36; 2 Cor. Ill,
21.
et
St. AuGrat., XI, n.
non peccare, novissima erit multo maior, non posse peccare; prima immortalitatis
erat,
John VIII,
novissima
erit
posse non mori, multo maior, non posse
18
Rom. VIII,
Cfr.
inori;
testas,
prima erat perseverantiae po-
gustine,
De
Corr.
erit
bonum
erit
posse non deserere, nofelicitas
32:
trio,
"Quid
liberius libero
arbi-
-vissima
quando non
quae
cato,
futura
poterit servire pecerat et komini,

sanctis,
bonum
19 Cfr.
non
J.
perseverantiae, deserere." posse

936).
(Migne, P. L.,
XLIV,
sicut facta est

mcriti."
angehs
ibid.,
merces
n.
IDEM,
XII,
33:
lichkeit Gottes, p.
Uhlmann, Die Person118; St. Thomas,
"Prima
libertas voluntatis erat, posse
De
Veritcte, qu. 22, art. 6.
ii2
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
shall be inseparably united either
wicked."
~
when we
with the good
or with the
Libertas
summa
est tua, Christe, facessere iussa,
Nemo Nemo
est ingenuus, nisi qui tibi servit, lesu,

est,
qui regnet, famulus nisi fidus lesu.
(The highest freedom, O Lord Jesus, is to obey Thy com mands no man is free unless he serves Thee no man
;
can rule unless he

READINGS.
St.
is
Thy
faithful servant). 21
Thomas,
Summa
ThcoL,
la
2 ae,
qu.
22-48.
IDEM, De Vcriiaie, qu. 26, art. i-io. J. Gardair, Les Passions E. Janvier, Exposition de la Morale et la Volonte, Paris 1892.
Catholique, Vol. III.
41
sqq.
Rickaby, S.J., Moral Philosophy, pp. Psychology, pp. 214 sqq. M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, pp. 43 sqq. A. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae Moi alis, Vol. II, Tournai 1905, pp. 38 sqq., 53 sqq.
Jos.
M. Maher,
S.J.,
Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Political

pp.
and Moral Essays,

Principles of
New York
1902,
249-265.
W. McDonald, The
De
35
St.
i:
Moral Science,
Dublin 1904, pp. 69 sqq.

20 St.
Bernard of Clairvaux,
et
Gratia
Lib.
Arbltr.,
(Migne, P. L., CLXII, Anselm, De Lib. Arbltr.,

"Libertatcm
X, n. 1019);
c.
non puto esse potentiam peccandi et non peccandi.

arbitrii
quod nefas est dicer (P. L., CLVIII, 489). 21 Alexander this Hegius. On famous pedagogue of the Humanist school (-f 1498) see Buchberger s
e."
Quippe si haec eius esset definitio, wee Deus nee angeli, qui peccare nequeunt, liberum haberent arbitrium,
Kirchliches Handler-ikon, Vol. 1874 sq. A similar sentiment
I, col.
is
ex-
pressed by Seneca,
De
Vita Beata,
est."
XV,
7:
"Deo
par ere libertas
SECTION
OBSTACLES TO VOLUNTARY ACTION

be free, an action must proceed (i) from internal inclination, without constraint; (2) from
To
a full knowledge of the end intended, and (3) 1 from indifference of the will.
An
is
action that
is
performed without constraint

Obstacles to spontaneity
called spontaneous.
are:
VIOLENCE. By violence (vis, wolentia, coactio) is meant the state of being driven by some external force which the agent is unable to
i.
resist.
Since
the
will
itself
cannot
be
sub
jected to violence, its interior acts (actus eliciti s. The only acts interior es) are never forced.
that can be affected by force are those mediate 2 Acts performed under acts known as imperati.
1 Cfr. St.
Thomas,
6,
Summa
Theol.,
la 2ae, qu.
2 Cfr. St.
art.
5 sqq., qu.
76
sq.
motiva. Quantum igitur potentid ad actus a voluntate imperatos, voluntas violentiam pati potest, inquanturn per violentiam exteriora membra impediri possunt, ne imperium vo-
Thomas,
Summa
Theol.,
la zae, qu. 6, art. 4: "Duplex- est actus voluntatis: unus quidem qui est eius immediate, velut ab ipsa elicitus, scil. velle, alius autem est actus voluntatis a voluntate imperatus et
exequantur. Sed quantum ad ipsum proprium actum voluntatis,

luntatis
me-
non potest
huius est
ei
violentia
inferri.
Et
diante alia potentid exercitus, ut ambulare et loqui; qui a voluntate im-
ratio, quia actus voluntatis
nihil est aliud
quam
perantur, exercentur autem mediante
dam procedens
inclinatio quaeab interiori principio
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
compulsion, the subject resisting in are ternally, involuntary (actus simpliciter inWhen the compulsion is not abso voluntarii).
the acts performed under it are more or less voluntary, according to the degree of resistance
lute,
absolute
offered.
2.
IGNORANCE. When a man has no knowl edge of the end intended, he is said to be igno rant. Moral ignorance may therefore be defined as a lack of that knowledge which a person ought
cognoscente,
ralis
sicut
appetitus
inclinatio
natu-
"Ad
est
quaedam
et
ab
in-
tinet
teriori principle
tionc.
Quod autem
[sed] sine cogniest coactum vel
providentiam divinam non pernaturam rerum corrumpere, sed \_con]servare." IDEM, De Veritate t
violentum, est ab exteriori principio. Unde contra rutionem ipsius actus voluntatis est, quod sit coactus vel violentus, sicut etiam est contra ra-
"Deus potest immuqu. 22, art. 8: tare voluntatem de necessitate, non
tamen potest earn cogere." 3 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 6, art. 5. That internal
(necessitas) destroys compulsion the freedom of the will has been in the Church. Cfr. directly defined by
tionem naturalis inclinationis vel motus lapidis, quod feratur sursum. Potest enim lapis per violentiam ferri sursum, sed quod iste motus violen tus sit ex eius naturali inclinatione,
esse
est
Damnat. Bail, prop. 46: Prop. "Ad- rationem et definitionem peccati
non
potest.
Similiter etiam pot-
non
67:
pcrtinet
"Homo
voluntarium."
Prop.
homo per
quod pugnat rationi violentiae." Cfr. St. Anselm, De Lib. Arbitr., c. 5: "Velle non potest invitus, quia velle non potest nolens velle." (Migne, P. L., CLVIII, 496). God can ex nolente facere volentem per gratiam efficacem (St. Alphonsus, De Act. Human., n. 19), and, by His omnip
otence, cause the human will to act or abstain from acting; but He can
violentiam, trahi, sed hoc sit ex eius voluntate, re-
peccat,
etiam
damnafacit."
biliter, in eo,
quod necessario
et
Prop. Damnat. lansenii, prop.

"Ad
3:
merendum
liber tas
demerendum
non requiritur
necessitate,
in in
statu naturae lapsae
homine
sufficit
a a
sed
libertas
coactione."
Prop.
Damnat. ab Alexandra VIII.

1690), prop,
lapsae
i:
"In
(7 Dec.,
statu
naturae
et
ad peccatum formale
sufficit
ilia
de-
meritum
sua,
voluntarium
peccato
libertas, ac libcrum fuit in
qua
causa
not properly speaking compel it, be cause He cannot cause it to will and not to will the same thing at one and Cfr. St. Thomas, the same time.
originali
et
voluntate
Adami
Bannwart,
Cfr. Th.
peccantis."
(Denzinger-
n. 1046, 1067, 1094, 1291).
Summa
Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 10, ari. 4:
Zwang
Moral
1922.
in
Muncker, Der psychischc seinen Beziehungen zu

Pastoral,
und
Dusseldorf
OBSTACLES TO FREE-WILL
to
115
have
fice
order to perform the duties of his of It is impossible to will a thing or vocation.

in
4
that lies outside the scope of one s knowledge. If a man unknowingly directs his action towards
such an object, that action
is
in so far forth in
voluntary (involuntarium)? Ignorance may be culpable or inculpable (culpabilis s. inculpabilis), vincible or invincible (vincibilis s. invincibilis).
Invincible ignorance is that which cannot be overcome by the use of ordinary intelligence. It involves no moral responsibility.
Vincible ignorance, on the other hand, the kind that can be dispelled by the use of ordinary
intelligence,
may,
in certain circumstances, di
minish moral responsibility, but never entirely abolishes it; for whatever is done in a state of
vincible ignorance, is willed at least indirectly, and to that extent is voluntary.
Ignorance due to gross negligence is called crass or supine (ignorantia crassa) when means are used to foster it, it is called affected (igno
;
rantia affectata}. rance are sinful. 6

4
"Quod
Both crass and affected igno

est,"
latet,
ignotum
quod
ignoras."
(Migne,
Cfr.
St.
P.
L.,
"Tgnoti
nulla
St.
c.
cufido,"
are Scholastic
XXXII,
Siimma
2-3.
c Cfr.
1297).
Theol.,
Thomas,
76,
art.
axioms.
5 Cfr.
bitr.,
ia 2ae, qu.
Augustine,
19,
De
Lib. Artibi
Ill,
n.
53:
"Non
Job XXI, 14; John IX, 41;
deputatur ad culpam, quod invitus ignoras, sed quod neglegis quaerere,
XV,
22.
ii6
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
FEAR.
Fear (metus) is a disturbed condi tion of the mind caused by real or imaginary dan Fear does not always destroy free-will, but ger.
3.
7 generally diminishes accountability. Fear is grave or slight (metus grams
s.
levis)
it
according to the nature of the

is
danger by which
caused.
As
fear, generally speaking, does not
exercise compulsion, the actions which it inspires are voluntary, though the degree of their imputability varies in proportion to the disturbance ex
Both canon and civil law re gard acts inspired by grave and unjust fear as 8 void. If serious evil or danger suddenly over whelms a man, so as to deprive him momentarily of the use of reason, the acts he performs in that
cited in the mind.
state are involuntary
in other words, a man may sometimes be so disturbed by fear that free-will

;
is
suspended.
4.
CONCUPISCENCE.
Concupiscence
(concu-
piscentia), in the general sense of the term, is
any
the sensitive appetite towards its 9 More particularly, it is that inor proper object. dinate inclination to evil which is in human na
movement of
ture since the fall of

7 Cfr. St.
Adam
n.
and Eve. 10
o Cfr.
Thomas,
6,
Suwma
6;
Theol.,
Catechismus
10,
Romanus,
P.
est,
xa
St.
2ae,
qu.
art.
qu.
41-44;
III,
c.
qu.
5:
"Sciendum
Alphonsus,
De
Act.
Human.,
concupiscentiam
esse
commotionem
2022.
8 Cfr. J. Laurentius, S.J., Instit. luris Eccl., Freiburg 1903, pp. 458 sqq.; E. Taunton, The Law of the
quondam
das
2ae,
ac vim animi, qua impulsi homines, quas non habcnt, res iucunappetunt."
10 St.
Thomas,
30,
Summa
1-3:
Theol.,
la
Church. London 1906,
p.
345.
qu.
art.
"Concu-
OBSTACLES TO FREE-WILL
Concupiscence
tion of the will.
117
may
precede or follow the ac In the former case it is called
antecedent; in the latter, consequent.
Antecedent concupiscence (concupiscentia antecedens) is involuntary when it completely im

pedes the use of reason, and in that case there is no accountability. Men are often "blinded by
passion."
not entirely suspended, the guilt of an evil act may be greatly 11 diminished by passion. Thus, to kill a man in a rage is less criminal than to murder him in cold
is
When
the use of reason
blood.
Consequent concupiscence (concupiscentia consequens) may to some extent obscure the light of reason, but as a rule increases the malice of
evil acts
12
because
sensum,
it
is
either deliberately exter aufert
piscentia est appetitus boni delcctabilis

. .
.
nsum
rationis,
actus om-
secundum
nino
redditur
appetitus sensitivus, passio appetitus Cfr. qu. 77, art. i and sensitivi." St. Alphonsus, De Act. Human., 7.
n. 23-25; Pohle-Preuss,
cusatur.
est
consequens Quandoqiie
tanta,
involuntarius et per totalitcr a peccato exi
ero passio non

intercipiat
quod
totaliter
et
God
the
Au-
usum
alias
rationis,
thor of Nature and the Supernatural, 2nd ed., St. Louis 1916, pp. 203, 217, 245, 261 sqq., 283 sqq.
11 Cfr. St.
passionem
tune ratio potest excluder e diver tendo ad

vel
cogitationes
impedire,
ne
quia
nisi
talis
Thomas,
77,
Summa
7:
TheoL,
"Passio
ia
2ae,
qu.
art.
suum consequatur effectum, membra non applicantur operi Unde per consensum rationis.
passio
cato."
quandoque quidem,
totaliter
est
tanta,
quod
sicut
non
aufert
usum
et
rationis,
totaliter excusat a pec(Cfr. qu. 10, art. 3; qu. 73,
Patet in his qui propter
amorem
vel
art. 6).
iram insaniunt,
tune
si talis
passio
12 St. 2ae,
Thomas,
6,
Summa
7:
Theol.,
ia
a principio fuerit voluntaria, imputatur actus ad peccatum, quia est voSi vero luntarius in sua causa. causa non fuerit voluntaria, sed naex a aegrituturalis, put quum aliquis dine vel aliqua huiusmodi causa in.
qu.
art.
"Concupiscentia
non causat involuntarium, sed magis Dicitur aliquid voluntarium. facit

enim aliquid voluntarium ex
eo,
quod
voluntas in id fertur; per concupiscentiam autem voluntas inclinatur ad
cidit in talem
passionem, quae
totali-
volendum
id
quod
concupiscit,
et
ii8
cited
SUBJECT OF MORALITY
by the
13
will or, at
any
rate, willed in its
cause.
READINGS. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 6, qu. 76 V. Cathrein, S.J., Moralphilosophie, Vol. I, 4th ed., Freiburg A. Huber, Die Hemmnisse der Willens1904, pp. 73 sqq. freiheit, pp. 48 sqq. Ballerini-Palmieri, Opus Theol. Mor., Vol. Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, I, tr. i, c. 3-6.
sq.
Vol.
41 sqq.
M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, pp. A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamental-is, 2nd ed., Haaren 1910, pp. 59 sqq. F. P. Kenrick, Theologia Moralis, Vol.
I,
pp. 30 sqq.
I,
pp.
7 sqq.
W. McDonald, The
Principles of
Moral Science,
S.J.,
Dublin iC4, pp. 177 sqq., 184 sqq. A. Vermcersch, Mor., Vol. I, Bruges 1022, pp. 69 sqq., 77 sqq.. Si sqq.
ideo
hoc,
Theol.
magis facit ad quod aliquid sit voluntarium quam quod sit ini oluntarium." Qu.
concupisccntia
77,
ti-vi
quod quanta
vel
aliquis
maiore libidine
peccat,
concupiscentid
peccat."
tanto
magis
IDEM,
De
Veritate,
art.
i:
"Passio
appetitus sensi-
non potest directe trahere aut movere voluntatem, scd indirecte potest et hoc duplicitcr: uno quidcm modo secundum quondam abstractionem.
.
"Passio ipsa consequ. 26, art. 7: quens in inferiors appetitu est sig-
num, quod
tcnsus.
iiatura
sit
motus voluntatis
potest
esse
in-
Non enim
passibili,
in
quod
voluntas
ad
Alio
modo ex
est
partc obra-
iecti voluntatis,
quod
boniim
aliquid fortiter moveatur, quin sequatur aliqua passio in partc inferiori.
tione apprehensum." 13 Cfr. St. Thomas,
Unde
dicit
Augustiniis,
dum
vitae
Summa
la 2ae, qu. 77, art. 6:
Theol., "Passio con-
huius infirmitaton gcrimus, si passiones nullas habernus, non recte

ini>i-
sequens non diminuit peccatum, sed magis augct vcl potius est signnm
magnititdinis
eius,
mus."
The passage
of
St.
Augus-
inquantum
I
scil.
tine here referred to by the Angelic Doctor is De Civitate Dei, XIV,

c.
demonstrat intensionem
oluntatis ad
9, n.
4 (Migne, P. L., XLI, 451).
actum
peccati.
Et
sic
verum
est,
CHAPTER
II
THE OBJECTIVE NORM OF MORALITY DIVINE AND HUMAN
LAW,
SECTION
THE CONCEPT OF LAW

i.
The
objective
norm
of morality,
i.
e. }
the
rule by
the will of
which men must regulate their conduct, is God as manifested through nature and
Revelation.
"The
measure or rule of the human
will is
two
fold, one proximate and homogeneous to the will itself, namely human reason the other is the first
;
rule, namely, the eternal law, which the reason of God."
is
as
it
were
Whenever an
the act
tude,
i St.
ing to the order of reason

is
act proceeds to the end accord and of the eternal law,

it
right
when
i.
swerves from
2
this recti
it is
wrong,
Summa
e. y
a
la
sin.
Thomas,
Theol.,
2
art.
Summa
i:
"In
Theol.,
his,
la
2ae,
qu.
21,
2ae,
qu. 71, art. 6: manae voluntatis est

et
"Regula
hu-
duplex:
scil.
una
ipsa
quae aguntur per voluntatem, regula proximo est ratio
propinqua
homogenea,
humana, regula autem suprema

lex aeterna.
tarius est
dit
. .
est
humana
regula,
ratio; alia rcro est prima lex aeterna, quae est scil.
Dei."
Omnis
actus volunet
legis
mains per hoc, quod receordine

rationis
quasi ratio
(Rickaby
s tr.).
ab
119
120
OBJECT OF MORALITY
Law, therefore, is but another name for the divine will recognized as the standard of human 3 In a narrower sense law may be de conduct.
ordinance of reason for the general good, promulgated by him who has the care of the
fined as
"an
community."
2.
The source and measure
of
all
law, physi
and ethical, is the lex aeterna, i. e., the intellect and will of God commanding men to observe the right order and forbidding its dis
cal, spiritual,
turbance.
promulgated in time (lex temporalis), (i) as the law of physical nature and (2) as the law of the moral order (lex
is
This divine law
moralis).
The moral law

is
is
either natural, in as far as
it
promulgated by the rational nature of
man
(lex
moralis naturalis, ins naturae)? or positive (lex moralis positiva), in so far as it is made known
7 by supernatural Revelation. God also manifests His will through human
aeternae, et omnis actus bonus concordat rationi et legi aeternae."

3
art.
Summa
i:
Theol.,
la 2ae,
qu.
90,
4 "Lex nihil aliud est quam quaedam ordinatio rationis ad bonum commune ab eo, qui cur am habet
quaedam regula est et mensura actuum, secundum quam inducitur aliquis ad agendum vel ab agenda retrahitur. Dicitur enim
"Lex
communitatis,
promulgata."
(St.
Thomas,
90,
art.
Summa
4).
Theol., la 2ae, qu.
5 Cfr. St.
lex a Uganda, quia obligat ad agenOn the derivation of the dum."
Manich.,
XXII,
Augustine, Contra Faust. c. 27 (Migne, P.

11-14; Matth. VII,
19;
word
lex
from legere see Cicero, De
L., XLII, 418). 6 Deut.
XXX,
II,
St. I, 19; Legibus, Augustine, Quaest. in Heptateuch., Ill, qu. 20 (Migne, P. L., XXXIV, 681).
12;
7
Rom.
Ps.
14-15.
CXLVII,
Heb.
I,
1-2.
LAW
121
laws, which are called ecclesiastical (leges ecclesiasticae s. canonicae) when made by the Church,
or
(leges civiles) thority of the State.

READINGS.
St.
civil
when imposed by
the au
Thomas,
Summa
1902.
Theologica, la 2ae, qu. 90-108

I,
(Rickaby, Aquinas Ethicus, Vol.
pp.
264 sqq.).
E.
Seydel,
la
Das ewige
Gesctz,
Vienna
A. Janvier, Exposition de
1909.
Morale Catholique, Vol. VII,
Thos. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, 5th ed., N. Y. 1925, pp. 81 Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Moral Philosophy, new impression, Lon sqq. don 1908, pp. 126 sqq. Suarez, De Legibus, Vol. I, 12 and IT, 6. V. Cathrein, S.J., art. in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.
Paris
"Law"
IX, pp. 53 sqq. IDEM, Moralphilosophie, Vol. I, 4th ed., pp. 332 Thos. Bouquillon, Theologia Fundamental-is, n. 52 sqq. S. sqq. Schiffini, S.J., Philosophia Moralis, Turin 1891, Vol. I, pp. 104 sqq. M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, pp. 597 sqq. A.
pp.
Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamentalis, 2nd ed., Haaren 1910, 120 sqq. A. Tanqnerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, Tournai 1905, pp. 119 sqq. E. Miiller, Theol. Mor., Vol.
I,
5th
ed.,
pp.
120 sqq.
J.
New York
Vol.
I,
1919, pp. 87 sqq.
E. Ross, C. S. P., Christian Ethics, A. Vermeersch, S.J., Theol. Mor.,
pp.
142 sqq.
SECTION
THE MORAL LAW OF NATURE

i.
DEFINITION.
By
the moral law of nature
(lex moralis naturalis) is understood the sumtotal of those ethical precepts which God has im It is that planted in the rational nature of man.
law which
of
St.
Paul says
is "written
in the
hearts"
men/
in order to enable
them
2
to attain their
natural destiny as free beings, right or wrong.
capable of doing
The moral law

reason.
of nature
is
promulgated by
content or object of this law are the gen eral conditions under which man lives as an ethii Rom. II, 15. Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God: His Knowability, Essence, and St. AugusAttributes, pp. 18 sqq.
The
in cordc conscripta,
ne aliquid
pali ipse
faciat quisque alteri,
qua suggeritur, quod

{P.
L.,
non
vult,"
tine,
2:
Div. Quaest., 83, qu. 33, 11. est naturalis "Quasi transcripta
De
XXXIII,
la
681).
lex in
animam rationalem, ut
in ipsa
vitae huius conversatione
moribusque homines talium distributionum imagines servent." (Migne,

terrenis
Thomas, Summa Theol., "Lex na2ae, qu. 91, art. 2: turalis nihil aliud est quam partici2 Cfr. St.
patio
"Lex
legis
aeternae
Ibid.,
in
rationale
creatura."
P.
L.,
XL,
(a/.
36).
n.
IDEM,
15:
CLVII
etiam
89),
"Lex
Epist., est
aeterna
dirinae
est
i: qu. 93, art. nihil aliud est quam
ratio
in
ratione
utitur arbitrio
hominis, qui iam libertatis, naturaliter
quod
sapientiae, secundum directiva omnium actuum
et motionum."
122
THE NATURAL LAW

cal being, especially his relations to
self,
123
God, to him
and
to his fellowmen.
present from the beginning, the moral law of nature at first manifests itself but vaguely
Though
reason, but with the growth of that the faculty concept of law and its obligatory force is more clearly and fully brought home to the
in
human
individual.
2. EXISTENCE. The existence of the moral law of nature can be proved from the Old and the New Testament. It is of this natural law, above all others, that
Jehovah says
"This
commandment
that I
com
mand
from
thee this day

thee.
is
not above thee, nor far off
Nor is it in heaven, that thou shouldst say Which of us can go up to heaven to bring it unto us, and we may hear and fulfil it in work ? Nor is it beyond the sea that thou Which of us can mayest excuse thyself, and say cross the sea, and bring it unto us that we may But the hear, and do that which is commanded ? word is very nigh unto thee, in thy mouth and in
:
:
thy heart, that thou mayest do
4
it."
More
definite is the teaching of St. Paul,
who
not says: the [positive divine] law, do by nature those things that are of the law; these having not the
3 Rom. I, 18-25; Tob. IV, 16; Matth. VII, 12. 4 Deut. XXX, 1-14; cfr. Jer. XXI,
Tor when
the gentiles,
who have
31-33; Wisd. IV, 20;

12.
Matth.
VII,
124
OBJECT OF MORALITY
[i.
:
the positive law] are a law to them selves who shew the work [i. e., substance] of the law written in their hearts, their conscience bear
law
e.,
ing witness to them, and their thoughts between themselves, accusing, or also defending one an
5
other."
Therefore, though the positive law of God had not been revealed to the gentiles, they knew and observed its essence in the Decalogue. The law
was implanted
itself to
in their
very nature and revealed

is
them.
at
The
tested
existence of the moral law of nature
by human
all
consciousness.
the natural law
is
Cicero says that co-eval with the divine intellect,

are imbued with
6
and that
men
it.
Ecclesi
on the subject is so constant and 7 uniform that there is no need of developing it.
astical Tradition
5
Rom.
II,
14-15.
Cfr.
Th.
H.
Simar, Theologis des hi. Paulus, 2nd ed., pp. 80 sqq.; J. Quirmbach, Die Lehre des hi. Paulus von der natiirdcm Gotteserkenntnis und lichen naturlichen Freiburg Sittengesets, 1906, pp. 60 sqq.
1903, pp. 225 sqq., and De Origenis Ethica, Munster 1898, pp. Ambrose says (De St. sqq. 76 Abraham, II, c. 11, n. 98): "Ne-
born
sciat
ram
[sapiens] nisi secundum natuvivcre, in cuius instituto et orest."
dine Dei lex
(Migne, P. L.,
QDe
simul
Legibus,
II,
cum mente
lex
4: divina.
"Orta
est
XIV,
3,
500).
15:
IDEM,
De Fuga
est,
Quamob-
n.
"Lex
gemina
L.,
Saec., c. naturalis
rem
est
vera
ad iubendum
recta
et
atque princeps, apta ad vetandum, ratio

lovis."
et scripta.
Naturalis in corde, scripta

(P.
in
tabulis."
XIV,
577).
summi
. .
.
Cfr.
Pro
Milone, 10: "Est non scripta, sed ad quam non docti, nata lex, sed facti, non instituti, sed imbuti
sumus."
IDEM, Epist., 73, n. 2-3: "Esse legem naturalem in cordibus nostris etiam Apostohis docet, qui scripsit,
quia plerumque
ea,
et
gentes naturaliter
etc.
quae
legis sunt, faciunt,
Ea
On
the
teaching of Clement of
igitur lex
tur,
non
scribitur, sed innasci-
Alexandria and Origen see the monographs of W. Capitaine, Die Moral des Klemens v. Alexandrien, Pader-
nee aliqua
percipitur
lections,
sed profluo quo dam naturae fonte in singulis exprimitur et humanis in-
THE NATURAL LAW
125
God Himself is the author of the moral law of nature. The organ of the natural revelation through which He pro
mulgates it, is human reason. 8 Rea Reason, therefore, is not the author of law. son is not autonomous it cannot make laws independently
;
merely the organ through which the Su 10 It was in this sense preme Lawgiver proclaims His will. of nature "the law moral law called the that St. Augustine
of God,
9
but
is
of reason which not even iniquity itself
is
able to de
u
stroy."
The sum-total
law of nature
is
of the ordinances contained in the moral
often called
the natural
is
12
law."
The
all
existence of a natural law in this sense
admitted by
But there is a Catholic philosophers and theologians. the natural whether the question controversy regarding
law embodies practicable rules for all the social relations of men, binding them prior to and outside of positive, es
pecially
genris
human,
13
legislation.
the
Jiaiii
1251).
gustine,
On
itur." (P. L., XVI, the teaching of St. Au who treats cf the natural
following
assertion
nnllo
(prop.
3)
"Humana
ratio,
frorsus
Del
law
very
exhaustively
in
different
H. OberActcrna ad Mentetn S. Augustini, Innsbruck The Catechism of 1776, pp. 4 sqq. the Council of Trent (III, c. i, qu.
parts of his writings,
see
rauch,
De Lege
1
Dei
respectu habito, unicus est vcri ct boni et mali arbiter, sibi ipsi est lex et naturalibus suis viribus ad lionrinum ac populorum bonum cufaJsi,
randum
sufficit."
(Denzinger-Rann13;
wart, n. 1703). 9 Cfr. Deut. VI,

10;
Matth. IV,
3)
says:
"Nemo
est,
qnin
sibi
Luke XXII, 42; John IV, 34;

36.
Deo legem
sentiat."
in
animo
insitam
esse
VI,
Letter
Pius IX, in his Kncyclical of Aug. 10, 1863, declares:

cordiesse."
10 Cfr.
Saint
Thomas,
Summa
i :
Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 90, art. 4, ad

"Promulgatio
"Natural
bus a
em legem in omnium Deo insculptam

Thomas,
naturae est ex hoc ipsOj quod Deus earn mentibus

legis
Theol., la 2ae, qu. 91, art. 3, ad 2: "Ratio human a secundum se non est regula scd ei naturaliter morum. principia
indita
8 Cfr. St.
Summa
hominum
inseruit cognoscendam."
"Le.v
dem
(al.
rationis, quam ne ipsa quidelet iniquitas." Epist., 157 18 (Migne, P. L., 80), n.
;
sunt
regulae
quaedam gene-
rales et mcnsuraiae
omnium eorum, quae sunt per hominem agenda." The Syllabus of Pius IX condemn?
XXXIII, 683) cfr. Confess., (P. L., XXXII, 678).
II,
c.
12 Jus natnrale. 13 Cfr. Theodore Meyer, S.J.,
Die
126
OBJECT OF MORALITY
Vol.
READINGS. Theodore Meyer, S.J., Institutiones luris Naturalis, G. von Hertling, Kleine Schriften I, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1906. zur Zeitgeschichte und Politik, Freiburg 1897, PP- J 68 sqq. C. Gutberlet, Ethik und Naturrecht, 3rd ed., pp. 123 sqq. Jos.
Rickaby, S.J., Moral Philosophy, pp. 133 sqq. J. Haring, Der Rechts- und Gesetzesbegriff, Graz 1899, pp. 25 sqq. V. Cathrein, S.J., Rccht, Naturrecht und positives Recht, Freiburg 1901, pp. 101 IDEM, in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, pp. 562 sq. R. I. sqq. Holaind, S.J., Natural Law and Legal Practice, New York 1899,
pp. 37 sqq.
M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, pp. 607 sqq. A. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, pp.
A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamental, 2nd
ed.,
123 sqq.
pp. 139 sqq.
Grundsatze der Sittlichkeit und des

Rechts, Freiburg 1868, pp. 147 sqq.;
V. Cathrein, S.J., Moralphilosophie, Vol. I, 4th ed., pp. 485 sqq.
SECTION
BINDING FORCE OF THE NATURAL LAW

i.
it
The
natural law
all
embraces
all
is universal, that is to say, 1 Because of the actions of man.

it is
this universality
the foundation and measure
of
positive law, divine as well as

2
human,
ec
law is valid un less it conforms to the moral law of nature. Hence it is false to say that politicians and diplo mats are bound by a different law than that which
clesiastical as well as civil.
No
governs private
life.
it
natural law, moreover, is universal because Its divine Author recognizes no binds all men.
The
"super-man."
No human
being
is "beyond
it,
good
all
and
bad,"
as Nietzsche would have
but
without exception are subject to the precepts of 3 Human nature is essentially the the moral law.
1 Cfr. St.
Thomas,
93,
art.
Summa
i
:
Theol.,
ae-
la
2ae,
qu.
"Lex
Si vero in aliquo a lege naturali discordet, iam non erit lex, sed legis
terna nihil aliud est quam ratio divinae sapientiae, secundum quod est
directiva
tionum."
omnium
actuum
et
mo-
Lcgibus, fundamentum tarn gratiae quam cuiuscunque legis humanae. Principia etiam
corruptio,"
F.
Suarez,
De
II, c.
9, n.
10:
"Natura
est
2 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., "Sicut la 2ae, qu. 99, art. 2, ad i ita naturam, gratia praesupponit oportet, quod lex divina praesupponat
:
naturalia, per quae

neralia, ut virtute
homo
tarn
e.
[i.
in morali-
bus gubernari debet,
sunt
ge-
"virtualiter]
comprehendant
ita
legem
art. 2:
naturalem."
Ibid.,
qu.
95,
omnem obligationem, ut nulla possit hotnini applicari

principiis."
"Omnis lex humanitus posita intantum habet de ratione legis, ino lege naturae derivatur.
nisi
mediantibus illis (Opera Omnia, V, 120).

3
Pius
IX condemned
the follow-
127
128
OBJECT OF MORALITY
in all
men, and hence all are equal before the natural law without distinction of time, place,
same
sex, or intellectual attainments. the Schoolmen were wont to

4
"Lex
naturalis"
"est
say,
una
omnium.* In view of the fact that the light of reason was darkened by the fall of our first parents, we must distinguish between primary and secondary pre
cepts of the natural law.
former
(prima
et
The knowledge of the communissima principia),
though often impaired by sin, cannot be effaced from the human conscience. Man may, however, through internal and external influences, so com
pletely lose all
knowledge of the secondary prinSt.
ing propositions in his famous Sylla-
Thomas,
Summa
5,
TheoL, la 2ae,
"Lex
bus (No. 56): "Morum leges divina haud egent sanctione minimcque opus est, ut humanae leges ad naturae ius conformentur out obligandi
qu. 91, art.

dirigit
ad
3:
naturalis
hominem secundum quaedam
praccepta communia, in quibus conveniunt tarn pcrfecti quam imperfccti,

et
viam
"Turn
Deo accipiant." No. 64: cuiusque sanctissimi iuramenti

a
turn quaclibet scelesta flagiactio sempiternae legi re-
idco est
una omnium.
lex dirina dirigit
Sed hominem etiam in
violatio
particularibus
tiosaque
non
similiter
se
quibusdam, ad quae habent perfecti et
pugnans non solum haud est improbanda, verum etiam omnino licita
laudibus effcrenda, summisque quando id pro patriae amore agatur." (Denzinger-Bannwart, numbers 1756 and 1764).
4 Cfr.
impcrfecti, et idea oportuit legem On the foolish noesse dupliccm."

tion
of
the
"superman"
see
W.
Schneider,
Gottliche 165
sqq.,
Weltordnung,
233 sqq.; F.
2nd
ed., pp.
Sawicki,
lichkeit
Cicero,
erit
De
Republica, III,
Das Problem der Personund des Ubermenschen, PaSt.
22:
Nee
alia lex
Romae,
alia
derborn 1909.
5 Cfr.
Athenis, alia nunc, alia postea, sed et omnes gentes et omni tempore una lex et sempiterna et immutabilis continebit,
Thomas,
pertinent
Summa
6:
"Ad
Theol.,
la 2ae, qu. 94, art.
naturalem
unusque
erit
communis quasi
quaedam
praecepta
legem primo quidem communissima,
tnagister et imperator
ille
omnium Deus,
quae sunt omnibus nota, secundario
huius inventor, disceptator, Cui, qui non parebit, ipse se fugiet ac naturam hominis aspernatus hoc ipso luet maximas poenas."
legis
lator.
autem quaedam secundaria praecepta

magis propria, quae sunt quasi conclusiones propinquae principiis."
THE NATURAL LAW

ciples of the natural
129
that he
is
led to
commit
law (praecepta secundaria) evil actions without
6 Such ac being aware of their true character. tions are morally guiltless, which is but another
of saying that with regard to the secondary precepts of the natural law there may be what
way
theologians call ignorantia invincibilis et inculpabilis.

7
Many
cepts
:
writers distinguish three species of moral pre
cepta primaria), as,

"We
(1) First, highest, and most general precepts (prae "We must do good and avoid evil,"
must worship
God,"
etc.
(2) Secondary precepts (praecepta sccundaria }, de rived by direct deduction from the first, as "We must
:
not
blaspheme,"
"We
must not
lie,"
etc.
(3)
6 Cfr.
Remote precepts (praecepta remota), which are

Tertullian,
et
41:
"Inest
DC Anima, c. bonum animac illud

divinum atque gcrnaturals.
principale,
illud
manum
quam
tingui
et
propric
cst,
Quod
enim
est."
enim a Deo
obumbrari,
non
tarn c.rtinguitur
obumbratur.
quia
Potest
cst
non
Dcus, ex-
non
pp.
potest,
quia a
Ecclcs.
St.
"Lex
Deo
Lat.,
tcr vel concupisccntiam aliquam aliam passioncm. Quantum vcro ad praecepta sccundaria, potest lex naturalis dcleri de cordibus Iwmimim Tel proptcr malas persuasiones (eo niodo, quo etiam in spcculativis errores contingunt circa conclusiones etiam propter praras nccessarias)
alia
i<el
{Corpus
Script.
i,
Vol.
consuetudincs
sicut
et
habitus
corruptos,
XX,
368).
c.
Augustine,
scripta in
apud quosdam non rcputaban-
Confess., II,
4:
cordibus hominum,
quam ne
ipsa qui-
tur latrocinia pcccata vel etiam vitia contra naturam, sicut etiam ApostoIns
7
dicit."
dem
L.,
dclet
iniquitas."
(Migne,
P.
(Rom.
the
I,
18-32).
con7,
:
XXXII,
Summa
St. Thomas, 678). Theol., la 2ae, qu. 94, art. 6:
Among
is
propositions
demned by Alexander VIII, Dec.

1690,
principia communia, lex naturalis nullo modo potest a cordibus hominum deleri in
"Quantum
ad
ilia,
(prop. 2) "Tametsi detur ignorantia invincibilis iuris naturae, hacc in statu naturae
the
following
universali,
deletur
culari operabili,
tamen in partisecundum quod ratio
lapsae operantcm ex ipsa

sat a peccato
formali."
non excuthe theologthe ig-
(Denzinger-
impeditur applicare commune principium ad particulare operabile prop-
Bannwart,
ical
n. 1291).
On
controversy
regarding
130
OBJECT OF MORALITY
first indirectly,
is
deducible from the

reasoning, as
articles
etc.
:
by a process of
usury,"
logical
"Lost
"It
wrong
to practice
should be restored to their rightful

to precepts of the second class
owners,"
(secundaria), persons intellectually undeveloped or unfamiliar with the common teaching of morality may occasionally
err,
With regard
though only for a time.
The
class are easily subject to invincible,

less, error.
precepts of the third and therefore guilt
It is impossible, however, to draw a hard and fast line between the precepts of the second and those of the third class. Some theologians (Scotus, Gerson, etc.) have
held that the unity and indissolubility of marriage, the right of private property, and other important prin ciples, cannot be deduced with certainty from the primary
8 precepts of the natural law.
2. With respect to its binding force, the moral law of nature is absolute or unchangeable, that is to say, it cannot be abrogated by positive divine 9 Not even God can change it or or human law.
The reason is that, dispense from its precepts. as He commands man absolutely through the
voice of conscience to do good and avoid evil, it would be a contradiction were He to permit any
10 one to disobey that voice.
norantia
ner,
sqq.
invincibilis,
cfr.
I,
K.
pp.
Wer354
Franz Suarez, Vol.

A.
Stockl,
S.J.,
la aae, qu. 94, art. 5; V. Cathrein, Moralphilosophie, Vol. I, 4th

pp. 401 10 Cfr. St.
sqq.
ed.,
Geschichte der Philosophic des Mittelalters, Vol. II, pp. 852 sq.
8 Cfr.
SJ
Thomas,
Summa
Theol.,
"Apo-
ia aae, qu. 100, art. 8, ad 2: stolus dicit (2 Tim. II, 13) :

fidelis
Deus
Cfr. St.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol.,
permanet, negare seipsum non.
THE NATURAL LAW
131
Those who hold that God can dispense from the precepts of the natural law, regard that law as an arbitrary fiat or else think there is no other
way
of explaining certain incidents recorded in the Old Testament (the sacrifice of Abraham, the appropriation of the golden vessels by the Israel
The former latter may The manifestly assumption be characterized as a clumsy subterfuge. The
ites,
the marriage of Osee,

is
11
etc.).
false.
exegetical difficulties which meet, are real; but they
it
was devised
be
to
cannot
solved
by the assumption that Lord and Lawgiver, can cepts of the natural law of the lives and property
there are
it
God, as the Sovereign

dispense from the pre
of men.
and arbitrarily dispose 12 For, though

13
some
technical difficulties in the text,
is
clearly impossible for
man from
potest.
sit
God to dispense any the natural law because that law is an

His voluntas ordinata,
si 3,
effluence of
ordinem suae
ipse
i.
e.,
His
will
864);
Negaret autem seipsum,

iustitiae auferrct,
n.
6-8 (P. L.,
CLXXXII,
quum
in hoc
St.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol., la aae,
sua
iustitia.
Et idea
Deus dispensare non potest, ut homini liceat non ordinate se habere ad Deum vel non subdi ordini iustitiae eius etiam in his, secundum quae
homines ad invicem ordinantur." 11 Gen. XXII, 2; Ex. I, 15-21; III, 22; XI, 2; XII, 35-36; Os. i, 2.
12 Cfr. St. Augustine, Quaestiones
in Heptateuch.,
qu. 100, art. 8, ad 3. 13 With regard to the sacrifice of
Abraham
cfr.
P. Scholz,
Die
hi.
Al-
tertumer des Volkes Israel, Vol. II, Ratisbon 1868, pp. 119 sq.; on the
P.
L.,
XXXIV,
I,
VII, qu. 36 (Migne, 803); IDEM, De

c.
Civitate Dei,
21
(P.
L.,
XLI,
marriage of Osee, W. Riedel, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen, Leipsic i (The prophet s sqq. 1902, pp. consort was a servant of Baal and an idolatress, and in this sense is called wife of fornications"). On Ex. Ill, 22 see F. Bennewitz, Dig
"a
35); IDEM, De Divers. Quaest., 83, St. Berqu. 53 (P. L., XL, 34-38) nard, Liber de Praec. et Dispens., c.
;
Stinde im alien Israel, Leipsic 1907, Cfr. Ph. Kneib, Dit, pp. 70 sqq.
"Jenseitsmoral,"
pp. 200 sqq.
132
OBJECT OF MORALITY
as governed by His wisdom and benevolence. 14 Whatever the natural law commands is good and
whatever
it
forbids
is evil,
not because
it is
com
manded
or forbidden by lawful authority, but be cause it is in conformity with, or opposed to,

s
man
quia
rational nature; or, as the Scholastics say,
"Non
sunt bona
qitia
praecepta, sed praecepta
bona."
To God s
this consideration
may
be added another.
action furnishes the ideal for the moral

"Be
conduct of men.
your God am
"One
holy."
ye holy, because I the Lord He is absolute goodness.
good, God." Jesus Christ, the second Person of the Trinity, is the pattern-exemplar
is
1G
of
all
perfection,
1T
"as
a kind of law and living

in
justice/
Were
God, therefore, even
one
single instance, to dispense from the natural law, He would set up a different rule of conduct for
Himself and His rational creatures, and thus con fuse the minds of men, give scandal, and render His own example ineffective. 18
14 Cfr.
Rom. VII,
14;
Eph.
I,
1 1
18 St.
Thomas, De
"Voluntas
Vcritate,
qu.
ra-
Die Kneib, P. 38 sqq.

;
"Jenseitsmoral,"
pp.
23, art. 6:
non habet
Minges,
O.F.M.,
Der
Gottesbegriff dcs Duns Scotus, pp. loi sqq., 120 sqq. 16 Lev. XIX, 2; cfr. Lev. XI, 44; Matth. V, 48; i Pet. I, 16. 16 Matth. XIX, "Unus est 17:
tionem primae regulae, sed est rcgula recta. Dirigitur enim per rationem et intellectum, non solum in nobis, Dicer e quod ex sed in Deo.
. . .
simplici voluntate dependeat iustitia, est diccre, quod divina voluntas non
bonus,
17
".
Deus."
.
.
proccdat sccundum ordinem sapien-
quasi
quaedam
lex
et (St.
59,
tiae,
quod
est blasphemum."
IDEM,
iustitia animata." quacdam Thomas, Summa Theol., 33., qu.

art.
2,
Summa
2:
Theol., xa, qu. 21, art. i, ad bonum intellectum sit "Quum

est,
ad
i).
obiectum voluntatis, impossible
THE NATURAL LAW

ity
133
To-day not a few who reject the teaching of Christian demand an ethical system in which man is his own law. This demand is to some extent justified. Man has a right to insist that the moral yoke imposed on him should conform to his rational nature. But reason is not the Man, far from being inde highest and final authority. is a creature and autonomous, subject to God. On pendent the other hand we must not exaggerate the heteronomous The moral law is not an arbi side of Christian ethics. trary fiat of the Almighty which demands blind obedi
omy
ence without regard to the dictates of reason. Heteronin this sense would be unworthy of human nature
and of God. In matter of fact Christian morality is by no means onesidedly heteronomous. It combines auton
omy with heteronomy by teaching that, though God is the Author of all law, His will is not arbitrary, but based on His wisdom. Human reason being a reflection of the di vine Intellect, its dictates must coincide with the laws of
in
God. In other words, the will of God is promulgated our rational nature, which thereby becomes for us the
proximate, though only a secondary, source of the moral law. Man sins when he acts against his reason or con viction. But reason does not get its authority from itself.
God, from whom all authority comes, has inscribed the natural law into the hearts of his rational creatures.
Thus, according to the Catholic view, man serves God by obeying the dictates of his reason, and morality is alike autonomous and heteronomous.
Deum
veils
nisi
quod
ratio
suae
tatem
facit,
iuste facit, sicut et nos
sapientiae habet. Quae quidem est sicut lex iustitiae, secundum quam eius voluntas recta et iusta est.
quod secundum legem facimus, iuste Sed nos quidem secunfacimus.
dum
legem alicuius superioris, Dens

sibi ipsi
Unde quod secundum suam
volun-
autem
est
lex."
34
OBJECT OF MORALITY
READINGS. E. Sawicki, Weri und Wurde der Personlichkeit im Christentum, Cologne 1906. IDEM, Das Problem der Personlich keit und des Uebermenschen, Paderborn 1909. Ph. Kneib, Die "Heteronomie" der christlichen Moral, pp. 17 sqq. IDEM, Die
"Jenseitsmoral"
Croriin,
im Kampfe um The Science of Ethics,
ihre Grundlagen, pp. 7 sqq.
M.
Vol.
I,
pp. 615
sqq.
E. Muller,
Principles of
Theol Mor., Vol. I, 5th ed., pp. 137 sqq. W. McDonald, The Moral Science, Dublin 1904, pp. 92 sqq.
SECTION
THE POSITIVE DIVINE LAW

The
positive divine
law consists of precepts
which God has given and supernaturally re Such legisla vealed to men for their salvation.
tion
is
morally necessary because reason
is
seri
first
ously impaired in consequence of the fall of our parents, and man has not only a natural but
1
likewise a supernatural destiny. The manifestation of God s will

positive divine law
is
known
as the
contained in the Old and
New
I.
Testaments.
THE OLD TESTAMENT.

Thomas,
art.
i.
The
positive
law of
l Cfr. St.
IE,
Summa
IDEM,
4.
Theol.,
qu.
i,
Summa
IDEM,
24,
dist.
contra
qu.
III,
Comment,
i,
c.
Gentiles, 1. I, c. in Sent., Ill,

3.
norare permissus est, ut esset unde iudicarentur et quibus lex non esset data. Sed ne sibi homines aliquid
in tabulis,
bant."
art.
2;
Cone. Vatican., Sess. St. can. 2-3 de Revel.

73,
defuisse quererentur, scriptum est et quod in cordibus non lege(P.

L.,
XXXVI,
VII,
c.
673).
n.
Ambrose,
fuisset
Epist.,
n.
9:
"Non
IDEM,
Confess.,
21,
27
necessaria
data
est},
[ler,
si
Moysen
illam
quae per legem
naturalem servare potuissemus, sed quia non servavimus, ista lex per
(P. L., XXXII, 748). J. Mach, Die Notwendigkeit der Offenbarung, Mayence, 1883. J. Scheeben, DogF.
matik,
Moysen
gustine,
necessaria
facta
St.
est."
Meyer,
Vol.
I,
(Migne, P. L., XVI, 1253). Enarr. in Ps., 57,
Aui:
n.
"Manus formatoris nostri in ipsis cordibus nostris veritas scripsit : Quod
Rom., Thomas,
art i:
Th. 17 sqq. luris Naturalis, 2nd ed., pp. 255 sqq. Cat. P. c. I, 6. St. 2, qu.
I,
Vol.
pp.
S.J.,
Instit.
Summa
Theol.,
ia,
qu.
i,
"A
veritatis cognitione depen-
tibi
non
vis
fieri,
ne facias
12!.
alteri.
det tot a hominis salus, quae in

est."
Deo
\Tob. IV, 16; Matth. VII, et antequam lex daretur,
Hoc
ig-
nemo
135
136
OBJECT OF MORALITY
(lex veins)
is
the Old Testament
partly pre-
Mosaic and partly Mosaic.
The pre-Mosaic law
consists of certain precepts given to individuals, (Noe, Abraham, etc.) mostly concerning divine
worship, the use of animals for of circumcision, etc. 2

Rabbinic tradition has handed
precepts,"
i.
sacrifice, the rite
down seven
"Noachian
canons or laws which were given by Je hovah to the sons of Noe. These precepts enjoin: (i)
e.
Submission to civil authority, kings, judges, etc.; (2) Avoidance of idolatry and sacrilege; (3) Reverence for the name of God, as in taking an oath (4) Proper re straint and direction of the sexual instinct; (5) Reverence for life, even of animals, by refusing to consume the blood
;
of beasts as food; (6) Respect for the rights of property; To (7) Refusal to eat the members of a living animal.
these the Rabbins added others.
allowed to dwell
among
the
Thus no stranger was Hebrews unless he became a
proselyte of the gate," i. e,, unless he worshipped the one true God and observed the Noachian precepts.
consisted mainly of "the judg ments, precepts, and laws which the Lord gave ... in Mount Sinai by the hand of Moses." 3
The Mosaic law
These precepts are commonly divided into three classes: moral, ceremonial, and judicial.
2
XV,
8
Gen. VII, 2; IX, 4 (cfr. Acts 20); XVII, 10-14; XXXVIII, Deut. XXV, 5 sq.). A. (cfr.
Wiener, Die jiidischen Speisegesetze, Breslau 1895. K- BockenhofF, Das apostolische Speisegesetz, Paderborn IDEM, Speisesat1903, pp. 8 sqq. zungen mosaischer Art in mittel-
alterliclien Kirchenrechtsquellen, Miinster 1907, pp. i sqq., 50 sqq. G. Resch, Das Aposteldekret, LeipA. sic 1905, pp. 19 sqq., 41 sqq. Seeberg, Die beiden Wege und das
Aposteldekret,
sqq., 53
Leipsic
1906,
pp.
38
20;
sqq.
3 Lev.
XXVI,
45; Deut. VI,
i,

i.
137
precepts of the Mosaic law (praecepta moralia) are all traceable to 4 the Decalogue. They are "words of life,"
The purely moral
because they express the will of the living and are intended to give eternal life to those
observe them.
6
God who
The Decalogue contains two precepts which do not formally coincide with the commandments of the natural law. They are: the (temporary)
prohibition of graven things or images, and the sanctification of the Sabbath. With the excep
tion of these
two precepts, the Decalogue em
bodies the natural law and consequently forms the This explains why basis of all ethical teaching.
Christ did not abrogate the law of Moses, but expounded and fulfilled it and raised it to a higher
7
plane.
its literal wording is purely a simply designates day for public worship and commands that day to be hallowed in a definite man-
The
third
it
commandment
in
ritual
VII,
ii.
Cfr.
St.
Thomas,
99,
art.
Summa
2-5.
ne
ibi
feccris.
Ibi continentur decem,

duo."
Theol.,
4 Ex.
la 2ae, qu.
continentur
(Migne,
P.
2-17; Deut. IV, 13; cfr. St. Augustine, Matth. XXII, 37-40. Serm., 9 (a/. 96 de temp.}, n. 7: "Tota lex in duobus praeceptis est,
in
XX,
L.,
6
XXXVIII,
J.
80, 86).
\o7ia ferret.
E.
Cfr.
Belser,
Acts VII, 38. Die Apostelgep.
dilectione
Dei
et
dilectione
pro-
schichte, 6 Lev.
Vienna XVIII,
1905,
5
:
100.
"Keep
my
a
laws
ximi; ad duo itaque praecepta, i. e. ad dilectionem Dei et proximi perti"Denet decalogus." Ibid., n. 14: cem praecepta ad duo ilia referuntur,
ut diligamus
and
do,
my
judgments, which
if
man
he shall live in them." Cfr. Deut. XXXII, 47; Rom. VII, 10, 12,
14;
7
Gal.
Ill,
12.
duo ilia ad autem: Quod
Deum et proximum; et unum illud. Unum est

tibi fieri
Matth. V, 17 sqq.; Rom. Ill, 31. Cfr. Condi. Trident., Sess. VI,
can.
19.
non
vis,
alii
138
ner.
OBJECT OF MORALITY
God
as such
is
The public worship of 8 the natural law.

2.
a precept of
precepts of the Mosaic law (praecepta caeremonialia sive legalia) typified Christ and His Church, and were abrogated by
The ceremonial
law was our pedagogue in Christ," Paul, "that we might be justified by faith says but after the faith is come, we are no longer un
"The
Him.
St.
der a
pedagogue."
of the Old
Law,
precepts therefore, are no longer in force,
The ceremonial
but have been formally repealed, and hence it would be sinful to observe them. "Immediately
after Christ s
says the Angelic Doctor, were not "[the legal precepts of the Old Law] no effectual or bind either i. e., only dead, longer
passion,"
ing, but also deadly, that is to say,
whoever ob
10 served them was guilty of mortal sin." 3. The judicial precepts of the Old Law (prae u are likewise cepta iudicialia) abrogated, but it
8 Cfr.
St.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol.,
stianorum,
similiter
23 2ae, qu. 122, art. 4; IDEM, Comwent, in Sent., Ill, dist. 37, art. 5.
9 Gal. II,
quam
quamvis sit ex ludaeis, ea cclebrare voluerit, tarnsopitos cineres erucns, non erit
3-5
cfr.
2.
Gal.
Ill,
24-
29; IV, 9-10; V,

10
Summa
ad
i
:
Theol., za 2ae, qu. 103,
pius deductor vel baiulus corporis, sed impius sepulturae violator." Ibid., n. 20: Ilia, quae signification s
, causa praecepta sunt, permittenda paululum eis maxime, qui ex illo populo, cui data sunt, itenerant, Postea vero tamquam cum honore
.
art. 4,
"Statim post passionem Christi inceperunt [praecepta legalia] esse non solum mortua, i. e. non ha-
bentia virtutem et obligationem, sed etiam mortifera, ita scilicet, quod peccabant mortaliter quicunque ea
observabant."Cir.
St.
c.
sepulta
sunt,
ckristianis
omnibus
(Migne,
Cfr.
irreparabiliter
deserenda."
Acts
Dial.
XV,
c.
10.
P. L.,
11
XXXIII,
282, 285).
Justin
9-47.
18),
St.
Martyr, Augustine,
16:
Epist.,
Tryph., 82
chri-
Exod.
XXI-XXIIL
A.
(a/.
n.
"Quisquis
Schopfer, Geschichte des alien Testamentes, 4th ed., Brixen 1906, pp.

would not be sinful
to
139
obey them as mere
human
precepts, provided no obligation is attributed to them because of their being contained in the
In the language of the Schoolmen, these precepts are "mortua, non tamen morti12
fera."
Mosaic code.
The moral law
of the Old Testament
was a
special
prerogative granted to the Israelites in preference to other nations because "by them the pure light of the law was 13 But the Mosaic law was to be given to the world."
form (consisting mostly of prohibitions) manner of its fulfilment. It did not pos sess the power of justifying those to whom it was given, nor was it intended for this purpose. Its sole aim was to remind the Israelites of their sinfulness and to inspire them with a desire for Christ, who was to fulfil and per
imperfect in
its
as well as in the
fect the law.
14
as Kant and It would be wrong to say, however, Hegel and their respective followers do, that the Mosaic law prescribed external acts only (lex mosaica cohibet manuni, non animum). Its positive and negative pre cepts alike demand internal obedience, e. g., thou shalt not
304 sqq.; M. Seisenberger (tr. Buchanan), Practical Handbook for the
Talis
enim intentio observandi

Cfr.
esset
mortifera."
F.
E.
Kiibel,
Study of the Bible,

pp. 1 06 sqq. 12 Cfr. Saint
New York
1911,
Thomas,
qu.
104,
Summa
art.
Theol.,
la
2ae,
3:
sunt quidem mortua, quia non habent Tim obligandi, non tamen sunt mortifera; quia si quis princeps ordinaret in regno suo ilia iudicialia observari, non peccaret, nisi forte hoc modo observarentur vel observari. mandarentur, tamquam habentia vim obligandi ex veteris legis institutione.
"Praecepta
iudicialia
Die soziale und volksivirtschaftliche Gesetzgebung des alien Testaments, 2nd ed., Stuttgart 1891; F. Buhl, Die sozialen Verhaltnisse der Israeliten, Berlin 1899; F. Walter, Die Propheten in ihrem sozialen Beruf, Freiburg 1900, pp. 14 sqq. 13 Wisd. XVIII, 4; cfr. Dent. IV,
8; Ps. CXLVII, 19-20; Bar. Ill, 9 to IV, 4; Rom. Ill, 1-2; IX, 4. 14 Gal. II, 21; III, 24; V, i; cfr.
Acts
XV,
10.
4o
OBJECT OF MORALITY
covet. True, in obeying the law of Moses, the Israelites were moved chiefly by the fear of temporal punishment and the hope of temporal reward. 15 But these external sanctions were not their only motives. The more pious no acted them doubt from among higher considera
tions,
commandments
love of God, hope of eternal reward, etc. The "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with
:
thy whole heart, and with thy whole soul, and with thy whole strength," 16 and "Be ye holy, because I the Lord
:
your God
am
17
holy,"
inculcated as the rule of
were not merely proclaimed, but life. The Old Testament even
anticipated the New by teaching that all men are children of God. 18 The Mosaic code was by no means
.1
law without grace, but a

capable
of
"holy,
just,
and good law/
19
perfectly
it.
sanctifying
those
who observed
It
the
Ten Commandments.
"one
has become the fashion to speak disparagingly of But, as a non-Catholic writer
justly observes,
who
has studied the history of
com
per parative religions judge differently. ceive that the Decalogue represents the highest achieve
will
He
will
ment in the religious life of the nations before Christ. For whereas other lawgivers dealt indiscriminately with things big and little, sublime and ridiculous, attributing
15
tine,
Heb. XII, 18-24. Contra Adimant.,

est
St.
c.
Augusn.
18 Lev. XI, 44;
Deut. X,
3;
16,
19
i
17,
2:
XI,
Mai.
i,
13,
22;
XIII,
XIV,
brevissima et apertissima duoruni testament orum: differentia timor et amor; illud ad veterem, hoc
"Haec
XXX,
II,
6;
I,
Is.
LXIII,
G.
16;
LXIV,
ad novum hominem pertinet; utrumque tamen unius Dei misericordissima dispensatione prolatum atque coniunctum." (Migne, P. L., XLII, Ph. Kneib, Die "Jenseits159).
moral,"
XII, 13; Ecclus. Sternburg, Die Ethik des Deuteronomium, Berlin 1908; M. Wiener, Die Anschauungen der Propheten von der Sittlichkeit,
6;
Eccles.
20.
Cfr.
Berlin 1909.
19 Rom. Ill, 31; VII, 12. Cfr. Prop. Damnat. Quesnelli, prop. 64 sq. (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1414
sq.).
pp. 189 sqq., 204 sqq.
16 Deut. VI, s sqq. IT Lev.
XIX,
2,
18.
141
equal importance to each, the Decalogue contents itself with laying down the fundamentals of the moral and The Ten religious life for all times and generations.
Commandments
in their
elementary majesty are a genuine
revelation of the eternal moral order of the universe,
because they emphasize the unity and spirituality of God, ascribe decisive importance to devotion in matters of life
and worship, enjoin social precepts which are today ad mitted by all, and demand purity of intention and pur
20
pose."
Another Protestant author says: "Ancient Babylonia was no doubt the center from which cultural influences radiated in every direction but religion, which is the su
;
preme achievement of
ture in the
Bible."
all
true culture, has
its classic litera
21
Despite vociferous assertions to the contrary, no true equivalent of the Decalogue or of any considerable portion
thereof has been discovered
of
among
the literary remains
The resemblances traceable be ancient Babylonia. tween the Mosaic law and the code of Hammurapi are
mainly juridical; ethically, the former son superior to the latter. 22
II.
is
beyond compari
the
THE NEW TESTAMENT. The moral law of New Testament (lex nova sive evangelica) is
who
the purest and most perfect expression of the It is pre-eminently the law because divine will.
its
Author,
is
none other than our Lord and

lie
20 K. Furrer in the Theologische

1902, Literaturzeitung, Leipsic p. 41921 E. Konig, Bibel und Babel, 3rd ed., Berlin 1902, p. 51. 22 Cfr. H. Pope, O.P., The Catho-
London
"Aids" to the Bible, M. Seisen1913, pp. 33 sq. berger, Practical Handbook for the Study of the Bible, New York 1911,
Student s
pp. 272 sq.
142
OBJECT OF MORALITY
"the
Saviour Jesus Christ, is the life." St. Paul says

of
life, in Christ Jesus,
truth, the
way, and
spirit
"The
law of the
hath delivered
23
me from
compared
the law of sin and
death."
a)
The
superiority of the
New
(/?)
as
its
with the Old

character as
spirit,
Law
()
a
appears from
new
law,
quadruple a law of the
(y)
a law of grace and liberty, and (8)
a law of love.
new law, the Gospel effects moral re and conversion generation /?) As a law of the spirit, it raises men above the material and animates them with the life
a)
As
of faith;
a law of grace and liberty, it bestows divine grace, by which man is enabled to break
y)
As
the bonds of sin and to enjoy the prerogatives of the children of God;
8)
As
a law of love,
is
its
motive, content, and

is
fulfilment
charity, which
identical with
God
Himself. 24
23
II,
12;
24
I,
Rom. VIII, 2; cfr. John I, 17. Rom. Ill, 27; VIII,

II,
Jas.
I,
25;
2; cfr. Jas.
25;
14.
12;
Matth.
V,
17-47;
Col.
lex fidei scripta in cordibus eius species contemplationis, quam spiritualis domus Israel ab hoc mundo liber ata perdpiet, pertus,
ita
mercesque
XXII, 37-40; John XIII, 34-35;

III, et
St.
c,
tinet
ad
Testamentum
Novum."
Augustine,
24,
n.
De
Lit.,
41:
Spiritu "Sicut lex
factorum scripta in tabulis lapideis mercesque eius terra ilia promissionis,
quam
carnalis
quum ex Aegypto
cepit,
domus Israel, liberata esset, ac~
(Migne, P. L., XLIV, 225). St. Jerome, Epist., 128 (a/. 12), n. i, speaks of the "maiestas evangelii, ad cuius fulgura omnis mortalium sensus hebetatur." (P. L., XXII,
1096).
pertinet ad
Testamentum Ve-
143
b) Being absolutely perfect and incapable of change or improvement, the moral law of the
Gospel (test amentum aeternum) binds
all
men
to
whom
becomes known, and will remain in force The Montanists and the Joachists, who asserted that the New Testament would
it
forever.
25
eventually be superseded by a higher law, that 26 were condemned by the of the Holy Ghost, 27 The more recent theories of the in Church.
definite perfectibility of
human reason and
the
coming of a so-called Johannine age are clearly 28 untenable.

the relationship between the posi tive divine law and the moral law of nature it will
As regards
be sufficient to observe that the former was given 29 the latter, support materially to com plete, and formally to spiritualize and animate it, and at the same time to enable those for w hom
"in
of"
25 Matth.
20;
Cor.
V, 17-18; XXVIII, 192 Tim. II, i; Ill, ii

;
I,
pp. 288 sq.; E. G. Gardner, in the
Ill, 14.
20 In opposition to all the Fathers, who held dogma and morality to be since absolutely complete Christ,
Tertullian, after his apostasy, declared that Christian ethics stood in
Encyclopedia, Vol. ^ VIII, pp. P. Fournier, Etudes sur 406 sq. Joachim de Flore et scs Doctrines,
;
Cath.
Paris 1909. 27 Cone. Lat. IV., c. 2. Cfr. the decree Lament abili" of the S. C. of the Holy Office, July 3, 1907, n.
"
need of further perfectioning. Thus he writes, De Virg. Velandis, c. i: "Regula quidem fidei una omnino est,
sola
.
. .
21 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 431 sqq., F. Heiner, Der ncue Sylla2021).
bus Pius X., 2nd ed., Mayence 1908,

pp.
immobilis
et
irreformabilix.
Hac
lege fidei
manente caetera
correctionis."
104 sqq. 28 Cfr. the
Syllabus of Pius IX,

n.
iam
disciplinae et conversations ad-
prop.
56
(Denzinger-Bannwart,
Apostol.,
mittunt
novitatem
1705 sq.).
29 Constitut.
(Ed. Leopold, P.
chim of Flora
On Joa2, 201). see Stockl, Geschichte
VI,
I,
c.
19
der Philosophic des Mittelalters, Vol.
(Funk, Didascalia, Vol. born 1905, p. 347).
Pader-
144
OBJECT OF MORALITY
was
intended, to observe
it
the natural law

full extent.
READINGS.
St.
to its
30
St.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol., la 2ae, qu. 98-108.
Bonaventure, Comment, in Sent., Ill, dist. 40 (Opera Omnia, Vol. Ill, pp. 883 sqq.). Suarez, De Le gibus, 1X-X (Opera Omnia, Vol. VI, pp. 419 sqq.). Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectioncs Dogmaticae, Vol. V, 4th ed., Freiburg 1916. Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 118 sqq. F. P. Kenrick, Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, Malines 1860, pp. 38 sqq. A. Sweens, Theologia
Moralis Fundamentals, 2nd ed., Haaren 1910, pp. 143 sqq. A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theologiae Moralis, 2nd ed., Tournai 1905, A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theologia Moralis Vol. I, nth pp. 123 sqq.
,
ed., pp.
170 sqq.
30 Cfr.
St.
S.
Rom.
I,
16;
Cor.
I,
18.
Augustine, Enarr. In Ps., 118,
raised against the ethical teaching of Christianity see \V. Schneider, Gottliche
divina naturalis "Leijc 4: [lex] sive instaurnta sive aucta sive -firmata est." (Migne. P. L.,
25, n.
ilia
sqq.;
Weltord-nunq, 2nd ed., pp. 490 Mausbach, Catholic Moral J.

its
Teaching and
Antagonists,
New
XXXVII,
1574)-
On
the objections
York
1914.
SECTION
THE MORAL LAW OF THE NEW TESTAMENT

i.
The
existence of a moral law in the
New
Testament seems to be contradicted by St. Paul and St. John. a) St. Paul declares that the commandment which was ordained to life, was "found to be unto
death";
that
man
does not
owe
law, and that Christians walk 1 the law but in the spirit of life in Christ Jesus. In the same Epistle (to the Romans) he says that
his liberty to the not according to
and, "after the of the the law, as a peda come," operation 3 gogue, i. e., a precursor of the Messias, ceases. St. John extols the grace and truth of the Gos
"the
end of the law

is
is Christ"
faith
pel in opposition to the
was given by Moses," came by Jesus Christ." 4 The Epistle to the Hebrews speaks of setting aside of the former
"a
law of Moses. "The law he says, "grace and truth
commandment" as a thing
"which
decayeth and
5 It is well near end." and known that St. Paul did not deem it necessary for
groweth
old"
"is
its
iRom. VII,
2
5-25; VIII, 1-8.
4 John
6
I,
17. 13.
Rom. X,
4; cfr. Gal. II 16 sqq.
Heb. VII, 18; VIII,
3 Gal. Ill, 24-29; IV, 4-7,
145
146
OBJECT OF MORALITY
to
pagan converts
law.
6
assume the yoke of the Mosaic
texts quoted, however, and others like them, are not meant to abrogate the entire law of
b)
The
the Old Testament, but merely its ceremonial pre cepts, as may be seen from the following con
siderations.
)
Christ,
who had been

"by
hailed as the
7
Law
issued
giver par excellence
the prophet Isaias,
precepts and enjoined His Apostles to enforce
them upon all men. 8 The New Testament expressly acknowl ) edges and confirms the fundamental laws of the Mosaic code, particularly that of charity and holiness, and enforces certain commandments of
the Decalogue.
y)
St.
9
James expressly designates the 10 Testament as St. Paul perfect law."

"a
New
calls
it
"the
law of
faith,"
"the
law of the
1S
spirit of
12
life,"
and
tion,
"Do
faith?"
"the law of Christ/" To the ques we, then, destroy the law through he replies, "God forbid: but we estab
lish the
8)
6
14
law."
Christ and His Apostles repeatedly affirm

XV,
3-10.
22.
Acts
II,
10 sq., 19 sq., 28 sq.
Gal.
19; Rom. XIII, 9; i Pet. I, 15 sq.
Eph. VI, 2
12.
6q.;
7 Is.
XXXIII,
lOjas.
11 12
I.
25;
II,
XI, 28 sqq.; XIX, 18 sqq.; John 17 sqq.; XXVIII, XII, 49 sq.; XIII, 34; XIV, 15;
8 Matth. V, 17:
Rom. Ill, 27. Rom. VIII, 2.
XV,
10.
13 Gal. VI, 2. 14 Rom. Ill, 31.
Matth. XXII, 34-40;
XIX,
18-
THE MORAL LAW OF THE

that
"the
N. T.
147
doers of the law shall be
justified,"
not,
however, those who merely hear The moral law of the New Testament is not a law in the ordinary sense of the term, but only in
it.
15
so far as it contains and inculcates the precepts In other words, the of goodness and sanctity. of laws; it merely code Gospel is not a formal
lays down general truths and principles, from which the rules of right living can be deduced. Such general truths and principles are, e. g., con 16 tained in the Sermon on the Mount, the descrip 17 and the parables of tion of the Last Judgment, 18 the Gospel. Even when Christ expressly enun ciates moral principles, He does not clothe them
in the
eral terms,
19
form of specific precepts, but employs gen which require to be interpreted and
religion, therefore,
applied.
is a law, and in respect truth and holy, good of the intellect and holiness in respect of the 20 and is confirmed by the conscience and will,
The Christian
inasmuch as
it is
15 Matth.
Jas.
I,
VII, 21; Rom.

i
II,
13;
22.
introducunt mills annos post resurrectionem, dicentes tune nobis cen-
16 Matth. V,
17 Matth. 18 Cfr.
sqq. to
VII,
sqq.
tuplum
simus,
omnium rerum, quas

et
dimi-
XXV,
31 sqq.
S.J.,
intam aeternam esse red-
L.
Fonck,
The Para-
lies of the Gospel, New York 1915; W. Barry, in the Cath. Encyc. XI, 460 sqq. Ph. Coghlan, C. P., The
dendam: non intellegentes, quod si in caeteris digna sit rcpromissio, in
unam
P.
Parables
of Jesus, London 1918. 19 Cfr. Matth. V, 29 sq., 39 sqq.;
uxoribus appareat turpitudo, ut qui pro Domino dimiserit, centurn recifiat in future." (Migne,
L.,
XXVI,
130).
XIX,
ome,
29;
Luke VI, 29
sq.
St.
Jer-
"Ex Matth., Ill, c. 19: occasione huius sententiae quidam
In
Al12; i Tim. I, 8 ready in the Old Testament the law
20
Rom. VII,
was
called choktna,
i.
e.,
ethical wis-
148
OBJECT OF MORALITY
conviction of the inner man, 21 grace does not abrogate, but reaffirms it and gives it additional
force.
2.
22
Catholic teaching just explained is de nied by the Protestant "Reformers" and by a cer tain group of mystics, who claim that the Gospel
The
has no legal character.
Reformers hold Gospel to be synonymous with liberty and contend that under the New Dispensation the law completely lost its original character and was no longer a compul sory measure, because sin, for the sake of which it had originally been given, was destroyed by the atonement, and man restored to full liberty; that whereas Moses was a lawgiver, Christ came
a)
so-called
The
purpose of reconciling men with God and redeeming them from sin. Against this teaching the Council of Trent defines: any one saith that Jesus Christ was given by God to
solely for the
"If
men
as a
23
Redeemer
in
whom to
trust,
as a legislator
ema."
whom
to obey, let
and not also him be anath
based upon a one sided view of the Scriptures and involves a miserror thus
is
dom.
Cfr.
The
condemned
H.
matisch-ethische
Zschokke, Der dogLehrgehalt der alt-
testamentlichen Weisheitsbiicher, Vi-
enna
21
II,
1889.
Rom. VI, 2-6; VI, 16-22;

B.
Gal.
13 sq.
St. Jakobus, Freiburg 1897, pp. 34 sqq., 80 sqq., 124 sqq. 23 Sess. VI, can. 21: quis Vi xerit, Christum lesum a Deo hominibus datum fuisse ut redemptorem, cui fidant, non etiam ut legislator em,
"Si
und
22 Cfr.
Bartmann,
St.
Paulus
cui obedient, anathema
sit."

tion.
N. T.
149
conception of the moral requisite of the
Redemp
the cere
The New Testament abrogated
monial and judicial code, but not the moral law of

nature.
Nor
is
every
man
justified
and raised
to
the liberty of the children of God by the fact of Christ s death. Humanity was reconciled to God
by the atonement, but individual justification, as Dr. Pohle says, wrought by the application to
"is
the soul of grace derived from the inexhaustible merits of Jesus Christ." 24 Finally, it is false to
and law are absolutely incom Christian patible. liberty means order in con formity with the law of God, not license. "We are not the children of the bondwoman, but of the
assert that liberty
freedom wherewith Christ made us not liberty an occasion to the but flesh, by charity of the spirit serve one an 2G "For so is the will of God, that by other." well you may put to silence the ignorance doing of foolish men as free, and not as making liberty
free: by the
free/
25
"Make
2T a cloak for malice, but as the servants of God." It has been aptly said that the commandments
of
God
upon us
are like iron chains that weigh heavily if we fear Plim, but like a silken harness
if
that sits lightly on the soul

24 Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, 2nd ed., p. 2. 26 Gal. 27
we
love him.
Freiheit nach der Verkihidigung des
Apostels Paulus, Gottingen 1902, pp.

7 sqq.; J. St.
IV, 31. 26 Gal. V, 13.

i
MacRory, The
Epistles of
Pet.
J.
II,
16;
Cor. Ill,
17.
Paul to the Corinthians, Dublin 1915, Part II, pp. 42 sq.
Cfr.
Weiss,
Die
christliche
150
OBJECT OF MORALITY
Luther claims that Christ abrogated not only the Old but the Ten Commandments as well, and that con cupiscence has such power over man that he cannot ob serve them. 28 This teaching is directly opposed to Revela
Law
tion.
under
I
Gen. IV, 7: The lust thereof [i. e. sin] shall be 29 and thou shalt have dominion over thee,
it."
not suffer you to be X, 13: above that which are able but will make also tempted you 30 with temptation issue, that you may be able to bear
"God
.
. .
Cor.
will
it."
Pet. V, 9
"Whom [the devil] resist ye,
strong in faith
same affliction befalls your brethren who knowing are in the world. But the God of all grace, who hath
that the
called us unto his eternal glory in Christ Jesus, after you have suffered a little, will himself perfect you, and con
firm you, and establish you." 31 "Blessed James I, 12 is the man that endureth temptation; for when he hath
:
been proved, he shall receive the crown of hath promised to them that love him." 32
life,
which God
The Reformers,
school,
were forced by the
particularly Melanchthon and his inevitable consequences of
their Antinomistic teaching to return to the Catholic con
ception of the
New
Testament.
In practice, however,
day essentially Antinomian, hold to the faith be only necessary requirement for salva ing
Protestantism
is
to this
tion.
28 Cfr. H. Denifle, O.P., Luther and Lutherdom, Vol. I, Part i, Somerset, O.,
31
Pet.
V,
9:
"Cui
resistite
-fortes
in fide:
ei,
scientes
eandem
est,
pas-
1917.
sionem
"Sub
quae in
fieri.
mundo
vestrae
29 Gen.
IV, 7:
te
erit
ap-
fraternitati
Deus autem omnis
petitus eius, et tu dominaberis illius." 30 i Cor. X, 13: non "Deus Patietur vos tentari supra id, quod
.
gratiae, qui -uocavit nos in aeternam suam gloriam in Christo lesu, modi-
cum
bit,
passes ipse perficiet, confirmasolidabitque."

I,
potestis,
sed faciet etiam

ut
cum
cfr.
tentasusti-
tione
nere."
proventum,
possitis
32 lac.
suffert
12:
"Beatus
vir,
qui
On
this
passage
Rory, The Epistles of St. the Corinthians, I, pp. 143 sq.
MacPaul to
tentationem: quoniam
fuerit,
quum
probatus
vitae,
accipict
coronam
diligen-
quam
se."
repromisit
Deus
tibus

"It
N. T.
151
"to
is not always an easy matter," says Dr. Aveling, determine with any degree of precision how far certain forms and offshoots of Calvinism, Socinianism, or even
Lutheranism, may not be susceptible of Antinomian inter pretations while at the same time it must be remembered that many sects and individuals holding opinions dubi
;
or even indubitably, of an Antinomian nature, would indignantly repudiate any direct charge of teaching that evil works and immoral actions are no sins in the The shades and gradations case of justified Christians.
ously,
of heresy here merge insensibly the one into the other. To say that a Christian cannot sin because he is jus
tified is
very
much
the
same thing as
to state that
tion,
whether sinful
in itself or not, can be
no ac imputed to the
justified Christian as
a sin. Nor is the doctrine that good works do not help in promoting the sanctification of an in dividual far removed from the teaching that evil deeds do not interfere with it. There is a certain logical nexus be tween these three forms of the Protestant doctrine of jus tification that would seem to have its natural outcome in
the assertion of Antinomianism.
is
The only
doctrine that
conclusively and officially opposed to this heresy, as well as to those forms of the doctrine of justification by faith alone that are so closely connected with it, is to be found in the Catholic dogma of faith, justification, and sanctifi
cation."
33
b)
The pseudo-mystics
luded, claim that it is the law once he has outgrown the need of disci the pline, and that, consequently, God intended
whom we have al useless for man to obey

to
law for the sinner, not for the perfect Christian.

83 F. Aveling in the Cath. Encyclopedia. Vol.
I,
p.
567.
152
OBJECT OF MORALITY
St.
34
This theory grossly distorts the teaching of

Paul,
and, aside from

is
"If
its
false postulate that the
interior state of the soul alone determines
man
moral standing,
Council defines
:
heretical.
The Tridentine
saith that the
is
anyone
man
not
who
is
justified,
and how perfect soever,
bound
to observe the
commandments
:
of
God and
of the Church, but only to believe as if indeed the Gospel were a bare and absolute promise of eter nal life, without the condition of observing the
35 No commandments; let him be anathema/ man can become so perfect as to be entirely dis 36 If any pensed from obeying the law of God.
one believes that he has attained to such a degree of perfection, he lacks humility and egregiously
Furthermore, every man is a member of society, and as such subject to the laws that govern the social order.
deceives himself.
34 Cfr.
i
Tim.,
I,
sqq.:
if
"We
know
vise
it
that the law
is
good,
man
the law
lawfully: knowing this, that is not made for the just man, but for the unjust and disobedient, for the ungodly, and for sinners, for
the wicked and denied, for murderers of fathers, and murderers of mothers,
for
manslayers,"
etc.
Cfr.
c.
St.
i
:
non premitur, sed leva(Migne, P. L., XXXIII, 485). 35 Sess. VI, can. 20: quis hominem iustificatum, et quantumlibet pcrfcctum, du crit non tencri ad observantiam mandatorum Dei et Ecclesiae, sed tantum ad credcndum, quasi nero Evangelium sit nuda et absoluta promissio t itae aeternae sine
eius baiiilus
tur."
"Si
Justin Martyr,
6
TTJS
DC
Resurrect.,
conditions observationis mandatorum,
dXrjOelas \6yos CGTIV eXeir depos re /ecu a.VTeovo~ios (ed. Otto, TractaVol. Ill, 3rd ed., p. 210). tus Origcnis De Libris SS. (?)
Script.,
p.
anathema
sit."
(Cfr. Sess. VI, can.
19; Sess. VII,
De
Bapt., can. 7 sq.)
ed.
P.
Batiffol,
197: Christiana
Epist.,
"Nescit
quidquam
St.
Paris 1900, timer e
Prop. Damnat. M. de Molinos, n. 33~35, 40, 59 sq., 66-68 (DenzingerBannwart, n. 1253 sqq., 1260, 1279 sq., 1286 sqq.)
36 Cfr.
i
libertas."
Augustine,
Cor.
X,
12;
Phil.
Ill,
"Haec 127 (a/. 45), n. 5: est una sarcina [iugum Domini], qua
11-14.
N. T.
153
The pseudo-mystic tendency with which we are dealing 37 has almost invariably led to libertinism in practice. "The end of the law," says St. Paul, Christ, unto
"is
justice
"Love
to
every
is
one
that
believeth."
38
And
39
law."
again
therefore
the fulfilling of the
And:
"Now
heart,
the end of the commandment is charity from a pure and a good conscience, and an unfeigned faith." The commandments are one and all directed towards, and converge in love, as fulfilling of the law," law leads to faith, faith obtains the Holy Ghost for
"the
"the
41 Not who pours forth love, and love fulfills the of charity by his own power, therefore, but by the aid alone can man observe the law perfectly, and charity
law."
makes easy the fulfilment of all other commandments, 42 Thereeven the most difficult of them, self-denial.
37 See the history of the Lollards, Beghards, and Beguins. 88 Rom. X, 4. SO Rom. XIII, 10. 40 i Tim. I, 5. Cfr. St. Augus
tine,
"Lex
guntur, et una dicitur, quia via nostra caritas est." (Migne, P. L.,
XXXVII,
(a/.
1837).
n.
IDEM, Epist., 145

"Lex
Tract,
in
loa.,
XVII,
n.
9:
caritas est." Christi ergo (Migne, P. L., XXXV. 1532). See J. E. Belser, Die Briefe des Apostels
docendo et iubendo quod sine gratia impleri non potest, homini demonstrat suam infirmitatem, ut quaerat demonstrata in144),
3:
firmitas
Salvatorem,
possit,
quo
sonata
voluntas
posset.
fides
quod
infirma
non
Paulus an Timotheus und Titus, Freiburg 1907, pp. 30 sqq.

41 St.
:
Lex
igitur adducit
impctrat
Spiritum
ad fidem, largiorem
Augustine, Enchiridion, c. 121 "Omnia praecepta divina referuntur ad caritatem, de qua dicit Apostolus: Finis out em praecepti est caritas de corde puro et conscientia bona et fide non ficta (i Tim. I, 5).
diffundit Spiritus cari (P. L., tatem, implet caritas legem."
[largitorem],
XXXIII,
42 St.
Gratia,
facilia
c.
593).
Augustine,
6g,
n.
De Natura
"Omnia
et
83:
fiunt
L.,
(a/.
caritate."
Omnis
itaque praecepti finis est cari id est, ad caritatem refertur tas, omne praeceptum." (Migne, P. L. t
XLIV,
289).
(Migne, P. IDEM, Serm., 96

n. i:
"Durum
47 de Diversis),
vit,
vide-
IDEM, Enarr. in Ps., 141, dictae snnt Dei, n. "Semitae 7: quia multa praecepta sunt, et quia eadem multa praecepta ad unum redi-
XL,
288).
tur et grave, quod Dominus imperaut si quis eum vult sequi, abne-
get seipsum.
Sed non
est
durum nee
guntur, quia plenitudo legls caritas (Rom. Ill, 10), propterea t iae istae in multis praeceptis ad unam colli-
grave, quod ille imperat, qui adiuvat, . ut fiat, quod imperat. Quidquid enim durum est In praeceptis, ut sit
.
leve,
caritas
facit."
XXXVIII,
384).
(Migne, P. L., IDEM, Enarrat. in
154
fore the law
OBJECT OF MORALITY
"for
is the unjust and disobedient, for the 43 for and i. e., for those who acknowl sinners," ungodly, no and edge authority give free rein to their passions. shall learn They through the law that they are living in sin and must prepare for penitence. For just man," on the other hand, into whose heart the Holy Ghost has poured that charity which is the fulfilment of the law, law is not"; not as if the justified sinner were not
"the
"the
because he
subject, or could afford to be indifferent, to the law, but "uses it lawfully," i. e., in conformity with his
rational nature
and the
will of
God,
in other
words, be
cause he obeys the law for conscience sake. 44

H. Jakoby, Neutestamentliche Ethik, Konigsberg Weiss, Die christliche Freiheit nach der V erkundigung des Apostels Paulus, Gottingen 1902. Th. Slater, S.J., in the
READINGS.
J.
1899.
Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. IX, pp. 71 sq. Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol. V. Ph. Bachmann, Die Sittenlehre Jesu,
Leipsic 1904.
pp.
41
sqq.
F. P. Kenrick, Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, 2nd ed., A. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae Moralis,
Vol.
C. S. Devas, The II, pp. 140 sqq. Progress, London 1906, pp. 189 sqq.
67,
n.
Key
nee
to
the
World
Ps.,
est
18:
"Quidquid
difficile
ter
facit,
est
amicits
recti,
in
Nee
turn,
praecepto, leve est amanti. ob alind recte intellegitur die-
onus
30),
meum
leve
est
(Matth.
quia [Dens ] dot Spiri.tv.rn Sanctum, per quern diffunditur caritas in cordibus nostns (Rom.
XI,
nisi
quando mallet, si fieri posset, id quod rectum est non iuberi." (P. Cfr. H. Denifle, L., XXXVI, 823). Luther and Lutherdom, Vol. I, Part
i.
43
V,
5),
ut
amando
liberalitcr
facia-
44
Tim. Tim.
I,
9.
I,
8-10.
mus, quod timendo qui
facit, sermli-
SECTION
HUMAN LAW
i. To collect and digest the precepts of the natural as well as those of positive divine law is the business of human authority, which is partly
ecclesiastical
and partly
civil.
human law may be defined as a rule of con duct made for the common good and properly A human promulgated by legitimate authority.
1
be merely a more definite statement of the principles contained in the natural or positive
law
may
divine law (determinatio principiorum) or it may embody a deduction from those principles (con,
ex principiis). St. Thomas explains this distinction with his wonted lucidity as follows: "There are two modes of derivation from the law of nature. Some enactments are derived by way
clusio
of conclusion from the
law
common principles of the as the prohibition of killing may be derived from the prohibition of doing harm to any man.
;
Other enactments are derived by way of deter mination of what was in the vague. For inl St.
Thomas,
Summa
TheoL,
rationis
la
or-
2ae, qu. 90, art. 4:
"Lex
nihil ali-
dinatio ad bonum commune et ab eo qui curam communitatis habet, pro

mulgata."
ud
est
quam quaedam
155
156
OBJECT OF MORALITY
law of nature ordains that he who does
;
stance, the
wrong should be punished but that he should re ceive this or that punishment is a determination
of the law.
Both
sorts of enactment are
found
in
However, the former are not mere legal enactments, but have some force also of nat The latter have force of human law ural law. 2 That man should fast is clearly pre only." scribed by the law of nature and by positive divine law but the time and manner of fasting is deter mined by the Church. 3
law.
;
human
law, therefore, is in every respect sub ordinate to the natural and to positive divine
law, and
its
Human
precepts have binding force only

4
if
they agree with both. 2. Pointing to such texts as James IV, 12, 5 some authors assert "There is one lawgiver,"
that no
man
f ellowmen.
has a right to make laws for his But Christ expressly bestowed legis
ia
lative
2
6 power on His Church, and furthermore Theol.,

2ae,
Summa
2
I,
qu.
95,
Thomas,
Summa
TheoL, 22 2ae, qu.
art
Vol.
(Rickaby,
p.
Aquinas Eihicus,
Epist.,
288).
147, art. 3. 4 Cfr. St.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol,
3 Cfr.
St.
Augustine,
36
ia 2ae, qu. 95, art. 2.
The Syllabus
this proposition
in 86), c. ii, n. 25: (a/. "Ego evangelicis et apostolicis literis toto-
of Pius
(no.
IX condemns
scientia
57):
"Philosophicarum
rerunt
quod appellatur Testamentum Novum, animo id revoh tns, video praeceptum esse \e\umum. Qiiibus autem dlebus non
que
instrumento,
oporteat ieiunare et quibus oporteat, praecepto Domini vel Apostolorum non invenio definitum." (Migne, Cfr. St. P. L., XXXIII, 147).
itemque civiles leges possunt et debent a divina ei
morumqite
ecclesiastica
auctoritate
declinare."
(Denzinger-Bannwart. n. 1757). 5 Jac. IV, 12: ets 6 vofJ-oBerriS6 Matth. XVI, 19; XVIII, 17;
Luke X,
16.
HUMAN LAW
157
Himself acknowledged the laws of the State and 7 St. Paul exhorted His disciples to obey them. ordi the that from and is God that all power says
nances of legitimate authority bind in conscience. Broadly speaking, both the natural and the
positive divine law consist of general principles, which have to be interpreted and applied to con
8
The fact crete conditions by human authority. that human authority adds precepts of its own to
those given by God, proves nothing against St. James statement that God is the "one lawgiver,"
human lawgivers act in His name and by His authority. Thus every human law is me Christ, in diately and by derivation a divine law. the not human did laws, deny legisla censuring tive power of the Synagogue, but protested
because
against the
making of such human ordinances as and the positive divine law, and incidentally condemned the quibbling of 9 Nor do human (particularly ec the Pharisees.
conflicted with the natural
clesiastical)
the Gospel. of that discipline which
laws encroach upon the freedom of On the contrary, they are a means
for the individual,
makes man and an essential
free,
a guide
requisite for
the welfare of society. Note that the laws of the Church as a rule do
7
Luke XX,
25; Acts
i
XV,
28;
XX,
sqq.
Matth.
XV,
9;
XXIII,
3 sqq., 16
28.
8 Rom. XIII XIX, xx.
sqq.;
cfr.
John
158
OBJECT OF MORALITY
mark the acme of perfection, but merely minimum of what is absolutely required
Like the Church,
civil society
not
the
for
bare
salvation.
3.
or the State
is
God created man as a social divinely instituted. intercourse and coopera The desire for being.
tion with his
fellowmen
State
is
ingrained in his very
nature.
10
The
the
is
organized
society.
Whatever
necessary to
authority is ruler exercises his power directly or indirectly by the grace of God, "for there is no power but from
form of organization, authority is make and execute laws, and this always derived from God. Every
God, and those that are, are ordained of
God."
The purpose
of
civil
authority
is
to regulate the
social affairs of
men,
to settle their differences,
and, in general, to advance their temporal wel fare. "Suprema lex salus publica."
two sharply distinct societies ruled by dif ferent supreme powers with different aims and means. Both derive their origin from God, but in a different way the supreme authority of the one [the Church] was im mediately instituted by Him and its form once for all
"There
are
10 Cfr. Gen. II, 20-24. 11 Rom. XIII, i cfr. Prov. VIII, 15-16; Wisd. VI, 3-4; i Tet. II,
;
illo,
sint,
ex quo sunt omnia, non solum ut verum etiam ut ordinata sint."

Cfr.
(Migne, P. L., XL, 76).
Leo
Dei,"
13-17.
vers.
"Notum
Cfr.
St.
Augustine,
83,
De
n.
Di4:
XIII
Nov.
n.
s
i,
Encyclical
"Immortale
Quaest.,
sit
qu.
69,
1885
sqq.).
omnibus,
nullum prin-
1866
On
the
potestatem sive caelestium sive terrestrium per se habuissc ahquid principals et potestatis, sed ab
cipium
ct
extent
of
civil
authority
origin and see Jos.
Rickaby, S.J., Political and Moral Essays, London 1902, pp. 1-174. A. Vermeersch, S.J., Theol. Mor. f Vol. I, pp. 221 sq.
HUMAN LAW
determined
159
as universal and constant; the supreme authority of the other [the State] is from God also, but through the will of the people, who give it its form and
determine
its
specific duties.
12
This
latter
power
is
neither
universal nor constant, but subject to the vicissitudes of
human
society."
READINGS.
St.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol, la 2ae, qu. 95-97.
Suarez, De Lcgibus, III-VIII (Opera Omnia, Vol. V, pp. 175 Vol. VI, pp. I sqq.) V. Cathrein, S.J., Moralphilosophie, sqq. Vol. I, 4th ed., pp. 406 sqq. Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral
;
Theology, Vol.
I,
pp. 119 sqq.

pp.
and Legal Practice,
315 sqq.
Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, Moralis Fundamentalis, 2nd ed., pp. 151 sqq.
12 Bonomelli-Holzer, Die Kirche,
Holaind, S.J., Natural Law A. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis A. Sweens, Theologia pp. 147 sqq.
R.
I.
Freiburg 1905,
p.
369.
SECTION
THE PROPERTIES OF HUMAN LAW
A human law is an ordinance made by a human

legislator as a general and just rule for the benefit of his subjects, and properly promulgated. 1 This
embraces all the requisites of a true 2 law, both material and formal. i. A law is general if it is equally binding upon all members of the community for which it is made. A law is practicable if what it demands is
definition
morally possible for ordinary men to fulfil. A law is just if it does not contravene any other legitimate enactment of a higher authority.
A
1 St.
law
is
useful
Summa
if it
ia
155,
advances the good of the

(Migne, P. L., LXXXII, 203). Cited in the Decrctum Gratiani, c.
2, D. 4; c. 5, D. i (ed. Friedberg, Leipsic 1879, Vol. I, pp. 6 and i). 3 Cfr. Regulae luris in VI Decret.
Thomas,
Theol,
sae, qu. 90, art. 4 (v. supra p.
note
21
i).
2 Cfr.
:
St.
"Erit
Isidore, Etymol., V, c. lex honesta, iusta, possi-
secundum naturam, secundum consuetudinem patriae, loco temporique convenient, nccessaria, utilis, manifesto quoque, ne aliquid per obbilis,
Bonif.
VIII,
n.
6:
"Nemo
potest
ad
II,
impossible
Canonici,
obligari."
(Corpus
luris
ed.
scuritatem
in
captione
utilitate
contineat,
Leipsic 1881, p. Trident., Sess. VI,

n.
Friedberg, Vol. Cone, 1122).

c.
i
1 1
nullo private-
commodo, sed pro comconscripta."
Damnat.
160
lansenii, prop,
Prop, (Denzin;
muni
civium
ger-Bannwart,
1092).
HUMAN LAW
whole community or
161
at least does not hinder the
welfare of the majority or injure that of the

minority. In case of doubt the presumption is always in favor of the law. If those for whom a law is
made, believe
it
has serious defects, they are free
to petition or agitate for its repeal; but as long as the law is in force, provided, of course, it is
not manifestly opposed to religion or morality or declared to be invalid by the proper authority,
it
remains binding.
2.
Formally, a law, to be valid, must proceed from legitimate authority and be duly promul gated. By promulgation is meant the executive
brought to the notice of the No law public and consequently put into force. is binding until it has been promulgated. Pro mulgation differs from knowledge of a law, which
act
is
is
by which a law
No one is
he
is
merely a subjective requisite of accountability. formally guilty of violating a law unless
aware of
it is
its
existence.
When
uncertain or doubtful whether a law
has been promulgated, there is no obligation to obey it, because in such circumstances the will of
the legislator
is
uncertain.
of promulgation depends on the
Ecclesiastical laws at the present
The form or manner

will of the
lawmaker.
time are
officially
promulgated through the Acta Apostol-
62
OBJECT OF MORALITY
a periodical publication appearing at irregu
licae Scdis,
lar intervals in
Rome. 4
the Latin
The laws of
ficis
Church
contained in the
new Codex
at present in force are Pontiluris Canonici Pii
Papae Digestus, Auctoritate Promulgatus, which took effect on Pentecost

Sunday, 1918. As soon as a law has been properly promulgated, it is binding upon those for whom it is intended, no matter
Max ivni
iussu
Benedicti
XV
whether they accept it or not. The reason for this is The law-making power is derived from God, not plain. from the people. Alexander VII, on Sept. 24, 1665, con demned the proposition that people do not sin if with out any cause whatever they refuse to receive a law 5 Only when a law is in promulgated by their ruler."
"
"A
dubitably unjust may it be rejected by those for whom it was made. In a democratic country the people are in duty bound to obey the laws passed by their representa
tives.
READINGS.
pp. 393 sqq.
p.
E. Taunton,
The Law of
the Church,
London
1906,
A.
Van Hove
in the Cath.
"Normae
454.
Codex
Juris Canonici,
Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, can. 1-23. General

cs,"
Aug. Bachofen, O.S.B., A Commentary on the Canon Law, Vol. I, St. Louis 1918.
4 Cfr.
"De
New
Code of
the
Apostolic
S.
Constitution
et
5 "Populus
non
peccat, etiamsi abs-
Promulgatione
Legum
Scdis,"
Evul-
gatione
Actorum
Oct. 30,
1908, in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis, Rome 1909, pp. 6 sqq.
causa non rccipiat legem a (Denzingerprincipe promulgatam." Bannwart, n. 1120).
que
iilla
SECTION
THE OBLIGATION OF LAW

i.
KINDS
OF
ties
law, ecclesiastical described in the preceding section of this treatise, binds not only externally, under pain of
OBLIGATION. Every human or civil, which has the proper
punishment, but also internally, i. e., in the court of conscience. This proposition is evident from the very nature of things, for the provisions of a
just
law are simply the

1
will of
God
:
applied to
some
special condition.
St.
soul be subject to higher
Paul says: "Let every powers for there is no
power but from God, and those that are, are or dained of God. Therefore he that resisteth the
God. Wherefore be subject of necessity, not only for wrath, but also for conscience sake. For there
power,
resisteth
the
ordinance
of
fore also
you pay
tribute.
For they are the

their dues: tribute,
;
ministers
of
God, serving unto this purpose.

to all
Render therefore
to
men
whom
tribute
fear, to
1 Cfr. St.
whom
Thomas,
is due, custom, to whom custom 3 fear honor, to whom honor."

;
Summa
Theoi.,
art. 4-
Sia
TOVTO
yap
1-7.
Kal-
(Rom.
la aae, qu. 95, art. 2; qu. 96,
XIII, 6).
3
Rom. XIII,
I6 3
164
OBJECT OF MORALITY
Peter
:
And St.
human
"Be
creature for
God
ye subject therefore to every s sake: whether it be to
the king as excelling, or to the governors as sent by him for the punishment of evildoers, and for the praise of the good for so is the will of God,
:
that by doing good you may put to silence the ignorance of foolish men: as free, and not as
making
liberty a cloak for malice, but as the ser

4
God."
vants of
"SS.
Peter and Paul insisted that
men owe
obedience to
civil
authority for conscience sake and by virtue of a divine command. This doctrine at that time was utterly
. . .
in the world. According to Apostolic teaching, the ruling power of the State, or public authority, no mat ter what its form or composition, is ordained for the pur
new
pose of administering the divine law on earth.

every Christian
is
Hence
in
duty bound
to recognize those
stituted in authority, without regard to their
con moral or re
ligious qualifications,
and
to obey
them
for conscience
All power, civil sake, not merely for fear of punishment. as well as paternal, is from God. Obedience to authority
is
a necessary duty deeply ingrained in the soul of every

5
man."
The teaching mony with that

the
Epistle
to
of Tradition
of Scripture.
is
in perfect
har
in
Thus we read
from other men

nor customs.
4
i
. .
Diognetus: "Christians differ neither in country nor language They share all things as citi.
Pet. II, 13-16.
6 Dollinger,
Christ entum
und Kirche, Ratisbon
1868, pp.
14 sq.
OBLIGATION OF
zens.
.
LAW
165
the appointed laws, and Tertulin own lives." laws their go beyond the lian writes: "We venerate in the emperors the decisions of God, for God has placed them over
.
.
They obey
the
nations."
St.
Augustine
says
that
the
Christian soldiers of
Rome
"distinguished
be
tween their eternal and
their temporal lord,
and
obeyed the latter for the sake of the former." Hence there can be no doubt that every just
law obliges in conscience,
i. e., under pain of sin morali s. However, not (sub culpa theologica). An af all laws bind always and in every case. firmative law binds "always" but not "for al
ways"
(semper, sed non pro semper,,

in all circumstances),
i.
e.,
at every
whereas a nega "always" always" (sem per et pro semper}. Thus a person is not bound to profess his faith under all circumstances, but he is never allowed to deny it.
moment,
tive
law binds
and
"for
semper"
"Lex positiva obligat semper, sed non pro has one exception: the law of charity, which binds always and for all time because the obligation of
The
rule,
loving and serving God is the foundation of 9 cepts, negative as well as positive.
6 Epist.
all
other pre
ad Diognet.,
c.
(Lake,
II,
Hamm, Zur Crundlegung und

schichte
Ge-
The Apostolic Fathers, Vol. don 1913, pp. 359 sq.).

7
Lon-
der
Steuermoral,
Treves
Apol.,
c.
32.
Enarrat. in Ps., 124, n. 7. Many other Patristic passages of similar tenor will be found collected in F.
8
Ueber die Notwendigkeit der guten Meinung, Freiburg 1905,

p.
1908, pp. 138 sqq. 8 Cfr. J. Ernst,
201.
166
OBJECT OF MORALITY
in conscience because
laws,"
Unjust laws do not bind

they
St.
"are
acts of violence rather than

10
as
In regard to the above the should be borne in mind: following principles a) No one is obliged to obey a precept which
says.
it is
Thomas
morally impossible for him to
fulfill
(ultra
However, when the whole posse nemo tenetur}. of an obligation cannot be fulfilled, and the matter is susceptible of division, we are not excused from
a part. Innocent XI condemned the proposition that a priest who is unable to say the whole of his daily office is therefore excused from
fulfilling
11 saying any portion of it. law which runs counter to the moral law b)
of nature not only does not oblige in conscience, 12 13 but must be resisted passively.
TheoL, la sae, qu. 96, Cfr. St. Augustine, De Lib. "Mihi lex Arbitr., I, c. 5, n. n: esse non vidctur, quae iusta non
art.
4.
10
Summa
et probarentur et coronarentur non faciendo quod illi iuberent, quia Deus Sicut iusserat Nabuchoprohiberet. donosor, ut aurea statua adoraretur;
P. L., XXXII, the Syllabus of Pius IX, prop. 56 and 57 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1756 sq.). V. supra, Sect. 3, note 3.
fuerit."
(Migne,
1227).
Cfr.
also
quod qui faccre noluerunt, Deo talia prohibenti placuerunt." (Migne, P. L., XXXIII, 398). St. Thomas,
Summa
4:
Theol.,
la
2ae, qu.
96, art.
11 Cfr.
the
54th
of
the
proposi-
tions
condemned by Innocent XI: f Qui non potest recitare matutinunt et laudes, potest autem reliquas horas,
possunt esse iniustae per contrarietatem ad bonum divinum, sicut leges tyrannorum inducentes ad vel ad idololatriam quodcunque aliud, quod sit contra leg em divinam;
"Leges
trahit
ad nihil tenetur, quia maior pars ad se minorem." (Denzin29.

2,
et tales leges nullo modo licet observare, quia sicut dicitur Act. V , 29:
ger-Bannwart, n. 1204). 12 Cfr. Acts IV, 18-19; V, St. Augustine, Epist., 105, c.
7:
"Imperatores si
Obedire
n.
oportet
Deo
magis
quam
hominibus."
in error e essent,
IS Cfr. Ph. Hergenrother, Der Gehorsam gegen die weltliche Obrigkeit,
quod absit, pro veritatem leges darent, per quas iusti
err ore
suo
contra
Freiburg 1877.
OBLIGATION OF
Authority, be
it civil
LAW
167
or ecclesiastical, can never oblige
commit even a venial sin, for we must obey God more than men. Such has always been and always will be Wiclif and Hus held that the teaching of the Church.
a
man
to
no one
is
state of mortal sin.
obliged to obey a superior if the latter is in the The Church teaches that one must
not obey
sinful.
15
sinful
command.^
When
command
is
clearly contrary to
the law of God, obedience would be
The oft-quoted dictum
of
Gregory VII,
"Sententia
pastoris, sive iusta sive iniusta fucnt, timenda est," means not that an unjust command must be obeyed, but that it
should not be transgressed lightly and in a

tempt.
spirit of
con
is
The phrase
in
"ad
peccatum
of
obligare,"
which
found
the
constitutions
some
religious
orders,
sin (sub
signifies
an obligation which binds under pain of
16 peccato), not a command to sin. "Active resistance to authority," says a non-Catholic not unreservedly condemned by Christian writer,
"is
ethics.
Those who maintain that

notions.
it
is,
absolutistic
faithless
When
persons
them."
in
are inspired by authority are
and
violate the constitution,

17
even a Christian
subject
is
justified in resisting
indubitably unjust law does not bind. is just in its object (lex in or its origin pur honesta), and unjust only does it be obedience pose, may obeyed, provided
c)
If,
An
however, a law
15;
14 Cfr. Prop. Damnat. Wiclif., n. Huss., n. 30 (Denzinger-Bann-
wart, n. 595, 656).

is Cfr. St.
Thomas,
104, art.
Summa
5,
23 2ae, qu.
question,
Theol, where the

teneantur
von Ketteler, Kann von einem Obern zu einer Siinde verpflichtet werdenf Mayence 1874, pp. 10 sqq. B. Duhr, S.J.,
16 Cfr. Bishop
ein Jesuit
;
Utrum
subditi
Jesuitenfabeln, 4th ed., pp. 515 sqq. 17 Theologische Literaturseitung,

Leipsic 1902, p. 617.
suis superioribus in omnibus obedire, is treated exhaustively.
i68
OBJECT OF MORALITY
Obedience
not involve the violation of some other moral
even be a strict duty, namely, when some higher moral good would be jeopardized by disobedience, as in the case of public scandal or revolt, provided always that no
duty.
may
just
law
is
violated.
In the words of the
An
gelic Doctor,
"[unjust]
laws are not binding in
the court of conscience, except perhaps to avoid scandal or turmoil, for which cause a man ought
to abate
something of his right. Laws which imperil higher rights or interests may be resisted by all legal means, such as
.
.
."
18
remonstrances, appeals, petitions, agitation in the To employ illegal means is tanta public press.
mount
to sedition.
No
matter what the provo
cation, revolution against a legitimate govern ment is forbidden, because revolution by its
very concept
is
an attack upon actually existing

"It
and divinely sanctioned rights. Pius IX sol is per emnly condemned the proposition that mitted to withhold obedience from legitimate rul
nay even to rebel against them." So far as obligation is concerned, laws may be divided into moral, penal, and mixed.
ers,
ad 4:
TheoL, la 2ae, qu. 96, leges iustae et ex fine, quando scilicet ordinantur ad bonum commune, et ex auctore,
"Dicuntur
19
18
Summa
onera in ordine ad bonum commune.
... Unde
obligant
in
talcs [iniustae] leges
non
nisi
foro
conscientiae,
quando
scilicet lex lata
non
ex
e.vcedit
forte propter vitandum vel turbationem, propter
scandalum quod etiam
potestatem
ferentis,
et
forma,
homo
iuri suo
debet cedere. secunV,

40-41."
quando
scil.
proportionis
secundum aequalitatem subditis imponuntur
dum
illud Matth.
19 Syllabus
Errorum,
n. 63:
"Le-
OBLIGATION OF
LAW
169
moral law (lex moralis) binds in con (1) science and under pain of sin (ad culpam).
purely penal law (lex mere sive pure poenalis) binds only under pain of suffering the
(2)
penalty imposed for its infraction. (3) If a law binds under pain of sin, and, in addition, imposes a penalty, it is called mixed
(lex mixta).
A
A
The Schoolmen teach that if one transgresses a purely penal law, he is bound in conscience to pay the penalty imposed, but incurs no moral guilt (cutpa theologica) and therefore commits
His transgression is merely a technical violation of the law (culpa iuridica).
no
sin.
As examples of purely penal laws Catholic moralists are wont to cite (i) the statutes of certain associations, institutes or seminaries, especially the constitutions of
religious orders
which distinguish between the rules of or
20 and (2) such dinary and those of stricter observance, civil ordinances as regard taxes, permits, licenses, etc.
Some writers include in the category of leges mere poenales police regulations, nay all laws made by "infidel Scholastic theology as a system or unchristian" States. 21 the possibility of purely penal laws; merely teaches
gitimis
trectare,
principibus
obedientiam
rebellare
n.
de~
immo
et
licet."
Fr.
1763). Cfr.
H einer,
2;
ence
Syllabus, Cfr. 1905, pp. 283 sqq.
Der
MayRom.
672
XIII,
sqq.
Sophocles,
Antigone,
21 Cfr. K. Wagner, Die sittlichen Grundsatze bezuglich der Steuerpfiicht, Ratisbon 1906, pp. 50 sqq.; A. Miiller, Die staatlichen Gesetze in ihrer Beziehung zur sittlichen Weltordnung, Treves 1906, pp.
sqq.
20 Cfr. St.
23.
Thomas,
186,
art.
Summa
1-2.
Theol,
2ae,
qu.
i;o
OBJECT OF MORALITY
it is
whether such laws actually exist
When
is a question in dispute. certain that the civil authorities do not intend
22
to bind their subjects in conscience, a
law
may
be con
sidered penal only.
Unlike divine bind The laws, absolutely. obligation they impose depends in each case pri marily on the will of the lawgiver and second arily on the matter involved.
2.
DEGREES OF OBLIGATION.
human laws never
a)
When
the matter
i.
is
light
and
trivial
(ma-
teria levis),
e.,
portance for the by reason of attendant circumstances, the ob ligation is slight. When, on the other hand, the matter is grave (materia gravis), i. e., when the
when the precept is of no im common good, either in itself or
law or
tion
is
its
object
is
in itself important or ren
dered so by circumstances, the resulting obliga

serious.
b) The intention of the lawgiver may either be gathered from the purpose of the law or in ferred from the wording chosen or the penalty
imposed.
c)
22 Cfr.
A human law ordinarily does not bind

Opus
107:
influxum."W.
cum
Ballerini-Palmieri, Theol. Mor., tr. 3 de Leg., n.

"Haec
Principles
est
quaestio
celeberrima, an
poenales."
dentur
leges
mere
S.J.,
ed.,
Vermeersch, lustitia, and

134: abiere
tores;
"Revera
Quaestiones
A. de
98 sqq. the rules of religious orders:
The McDonald, Moral Science, pp. Thomas a Kempis says of

of
"Duo
Bruges 1904, p. in varies ac diver sas

recentiores
caeli
omnis regularis praetendit disciplina, ut statuta diligenter serbcna

ventur
tralium,
et
neglegentes pro culpis suit
sententias
in
qua.
auc-
corriga/ntur."
(De Disciplina Claus;
opinionum
varietate
c.
Op. Omnia, ed. Pohl,
suspicari fas
est
seu regionis
Vol.
II,
p.
269).
OBLIGATION OF
LAW
171
gram incommodo^ and hence may
be disregarded if its observance involves any serious inconven ience, such as danger to life and limb, loss of honor, health or fortune, etc. The reasons for
this
exemption are:
(i)
law, to be binding,
must be physically and morally capable of fulfil ment; (2) No human legislator has power over
the
life,
health, or property of his subjects, unless
higher interests are at stake.
In matter of fact, even positive divine laws do

23 danger, and the Church does not enforce even such important precepts as the sanctification of the Lord s Day, fasting, or
not bind where
life is in
the recitation of the Breviary as obligatory on those who cannot observe them without grave
inconvenience.
There
death,
are,
however, circumstances in which

bind even at the risk of
life
human laws
e. g.,
or
(1) When the common good or the eternal salvation of one s fellowmen are involved, as
often happens in the case of priests and sol

diers
;
(2)
dal.
When
disobedience involves formal con
tempt of authority or the danger of grave scan

In
life
all
such cases a law binds even at the risk of
or health, for the reason that the

23 Cfr.
i
common
Kings XXI,
6;
Matth. XII, 1-5.
172
OBJECT OF MORALITY
is
good (bonum commune)

individual.
superior to that of the
That all men are bound under pain of grievous sin to obey the "higher powers," appears from the passage we have quoted 24 from St. Paul s Epistle to the Romans. This is not, however, tantamount to saying that all human
laws bind sub gravi. The question whether a human law giver can impose a serious obligation when the matter at
answered negatively by reasons given are two ( i ) Even the divine law binds but slightly in matters of no im
issue
is
slight (materia levis), is
most theologians.
The
portance, and a
human lawgiver cannot impose a heavier than God, from whom his jurisdiction is de obligation To rived; (2) impose a serious obligation in matters of small importance would be contrary to the common good,
give cause for scandal, and work mischief. Note, however, that a matter small in itself
may become
important by virtue of its purpose or outward circum This was stances, and thus involve a serious obligation.
the case with the
in Paradise. 25
command God gave
to our first parents
Though
the matter involved
was
slight,
the law itself possessed great importance on account of the purpose for which it had been given and the severe
punishment threatened.
READINGS.
Vol.
I,
Th. Slater,
S.J.,
A Manual
of Moral Theology,
pp. 97 sqq.
IDEM
in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, pp.
189 sqq.
pp.
177 sqq.
1922,
A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamental, 2nd ed., A. Vermeersch, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. I. Bruges pp. 210 sqq.
24
Rom. XIII, 1-6
(supra, p. 163).
25 Gen. II,
16 sq.
SECTION
THE SUBJECTS OF HUMAN LAW

human law binds all those made and who are subject to the
legislator.
for
whom
it
is
authority of the
The laws of
persons
the
who have
Church oblige only baptized attained the use of reason.
Theoretically, Protestants, too, are in some man ner subject to the jurisdiction of the Church, 1
but
"a
Church
probable opinion teaches that it is not the s intention to bind them by such of her
laws as proximately regard the sanctification of individual souls, rather than the public good," be cause "harm rather than good would follow from
intending these laws to bind heretics and schis
2
matics."
general law obliges all who have attained the use of reason and are subject to the authority of
the legislator.
All such, therefore, are in duty
bound to acquaint themselves with the laws un der which they live.
i
i
Cor.
V,
12-13.
Cfr.
to
Cone.
7-8
Trident.,
Sess.
Bapt.;
letter
VII, can. of Pius IX
de
Em-
peror William I, August 7, 1873. 2 Thos. Slater, S.J., A Handbook of Moral Theology, Vol. I, p. 93.
173
174
OBJECT OF MORALITY
particular law is one made for a limited of persons or for a particular territory Particular laws of the latter kind bind only. those for whom they are made, who have a domi
class
cile
or quasi-domicile in the territory concerned

to live in a place for
and actually reside there. To have a domicile means
ten years or with the intention of residing there
permanently. quasi-domicile is acquired by in a place with the intention of remaining living there for the greater part of a year, or by actu
ally residing there for the greater part of a year.
3
Foreigners (peregrini) are not bound to obey the particular laws of either their own country or the one in which they are sojourning, with the
exception of those which regard the public wel 4 fare or prescribe legal formalities. Strangers (vagi, who have no domicile or quasi-domicile
3
Codex luris Can., can. 13, 92. 4 Codex: luris Can., can. 14. Cfr.
Augustine, Epist., 36,
c.
St.
14,
11.
32: "Indicabo tibi, quid mihi de hoc requirenti respondent venerandus Ambrosius: Qnando hie [Mediolani]
bi sabbato tantum et dominico, alibi tantum dominico, et si quid aliud huiusmodi animadverti potest, totum hoc genus rerum liberas habet obser-
sum,
non
Romae sum,
quit,
ieiuno sabbato; quando ieiuno sabbato; et ad

veneritis,
si
quamcunque ecclesiam
eius
in-
vationes, nee disciplina ulla est in his melior gravi prudcntique christiano quam ut eo modo agat, quo agere riderit ecclesiam, ad quam forte devenerit. Quod enim neque contra
morem
Epist.,
scandalum non
IDEM,
c.
servate, vultis out
pati
fidem neque contra bonos mores esse
facere."
com incitur,
et propter
indifferenter
habendum
54
(al.
118),
2; "Alia vero, quae per 2, n. loca terror urn regionesque variantur, sicuti est, quod alii ieiunant sabbato,
alii
eorum, inter quos vivitur societatem, servandum est." (Migne,

P.
L.,
XXXIII,
200).
Hence the
"Si
well-known
adage:
vivito
ibi."
fueris
si
non,
alii
quotidie
communicant
Romae, romano
din,
S.J.,
more;
Cfr.
fueris
qu.
corpori et sanguini Domini, alii certis diebus accipiunt, alibi nullus dies
pratermittitur, quo
alibi, vivito sicut
H. NolI,
Theol. Mor., Vol.

124, 5.
non
offeratur, ali-
IV,
art.
i,
SUBJECTS OF
HUMAN LAW
175
anywhere) are bound to obey the general as well as particular laws of the territory in which they
sojourn.
journey undertaken in fraud em legis, i. e., with the express purpose of escaping an obliga
tion, leaves that obligation in full force.
How
actually leaves a place with the in of not tention returning to it, the obligation
ever, if
man
ceases, even
though his motive was to escape the
actual change of domicile always en tails a change of jurisdiction, no matter what the
law.
An
motive for which
it is
effected.
Children who have not yet attained, and adults who have permanently lost, the use of reason, are not bound by any human law. The reason is that they are inca 5 Under certain condi pable of performing moral acts. such tions, however, persons may be forced to conform
to particular precepts,
e. g.,
that of abstinence.
A
i. e.,
subject to his own laws, not coactive, sovereign as regards their coercive force, for no one properly is
is
;
coerced by himself but directive, i. e., as regards their di rective force, for the sake of order and good example.
In the words of
ing he
St.
Thomas,
fulfil
"He
not of constraint to
the
law,"
is above it, "inasmuch change the law and dispense from and season." 6
c Cfr.
St.
ought voluntarily and though strictly speak as, if expedient, he can

it
according to place
Thomas,
"Lex
De
Veritate,
St.
qu. 17, art. 3: turn est Tinculum

fl
sen praecep-
II, c.
Ambrose, Apol. Proph. David, 3, n. 8 (Migne, P. L., XIV,

IDEM, Epist., 21,
1004).
c.
rationis."
890).
n. 9
(P. L.,
Cfr. St.
Thomas,
Summa
I,
TheoL,
294).
XVI,
St. Isidore, Sent., Ill,
la zae, qu. 96, art. 5, ad Aquinas Ethicus, Vol.
3 (Rickaby,
p.
c. 51, n.
1-2, cited in the

2,
Decretum
(P.
L.,
Gratiani,
D. 9
176
OBJECT OF MORALITY
It goes without saying that the members of legislative bodies are bound to observe the laws which they them
selves have
made.
READINGS. St. Thomas, Summa TheoL, la 2ae, qu. 96, art 5. A. GSpfcrt, Moraltheologie, Vol. I, 6th ed., Paderborn 1909, pp. 57 sqq. Thos. Slater, S.J A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I,
F.
:
,
"Domicile" in the Cath. Encyclo A. Sweens, Theologia or alls Fundamcntalis, 2nd ed., pp. 204 sqq. A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theologia Moralis, nth ed., Freiburg 1910, Vol. I, pp. 138 sqq.
pp. 92 sqq.
A. Boudinhon,
art.
pedia, Vol. V, pp. 103-106.
LXXXIII,
ed.
723;
Corpus luris Can.,

I,
On
Friedberg, Vol. the question of
col.
16).
domicile
and
quasi-domicile see Aug. Bachofen, P.S.B., Commentary on the New Code of Canon Law, Vol. II.
SECTION
10
INTERPRETATION OF THE LAW

interpretation is meant an authoritative explanation of a law in accordance with the will
i.
By
of the lawgiver.
interpretation is authentic if it is given, either directly or indirectly, by the lawgiver him
self,
An
and
in that case
it
has the same binding force
as the law which
interprets.
receives
Customary from
interpretation is that which a law the legitimate practice of those who

it.
are subject to
According
to
an ancient ad-
the best interpreter of law." dage, Doctrinal interpretation is that developed by experts according to recognized rules from the
"Custom is
wording and object

ized as follows
:
(ratio)
of
rules of doctrinal interpretation
The may be summar

a
law.
a)
The presumption
is
letter of the law.
When
always in favor of the the text is ambiguous,
the words must be taken in their proper, ordinary, and natural meaning.
b) If the object and purpose of a law (ratio

i "Consuetude est
optima legum inter pres."
(Codex Juris Can., can. 29).
177
178
leg-is)
OBJECT OF MORALITY
are obvious, but the phraseology is indis the mind of the legislator and the circum tinct, stances of the case must be attended to.
c) Laws which confer a favor or privilege may receive a wide interpretation (favor es ampli-
andi), provided there be no danger of injuring a third party and no conflict with the general law.
d) Penal laws, and laws which impose a new burden or restriction may be interpreted nar
rowly, that is, not extending the burden to such as are not strictly included in their terms (odiosa 2 sunt restringenda).
2.
When must
a law be observed?
The gen
is that a legal obligation should be ful as soon as possible. When a fixed term is appointed for the fulfil ment of a law, this must be observed. In ap
eral rule
filled
pointing a fixed term the lawmaker
may have
in
tended to make the obligation binding only for that period (tempus appositum ad finiendam
one has missed Mass on Sunday, he is not bound to make up for it on some other day. Or the intention may have been
obligationem)
.
Thus,
if
merely to impress the urgency of the precept vel sollicitandam ( tempus appositum ad urgendam In the latter case the obligation obligationem). must be fulfilled even after the appointed term
2
Bonif.
Regulae luris in Sexto Decret. VIII, No. 15: "Odia reampliari."
Cfr.
No. 49:
"In
poenis benignior
Cfr. Co-
est interpret atio
facicnda,"
stringi ct favor es convenit
dex luris Can., can. ip.
INTERPRETATION OF LAW
make
179
has expired. Thus, if a man has neglected to his Easter Communion during the pre scribed season, the duty of making it later con
3
tinues.
If in such a case a person
knows be
forehand that he will be unable to comply with an obligation at or after the time prescribed, he is
bound,
if
possible, to fulfil
it
earlier.
READINGS.
taries
Codex
luris Can., can. 17 sqq. (with the
commen
by Aug. Bachofen, O.S.B., Vol. I, St. Louis 1918, and J. Kinane in the Irish Ecclesiastical Record, Fifth Series, Vol. XI, No. 601, pp. 25 sqq.). Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 100 sqq. A. Sweens, Theol. Mor., FundaA. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis nicntalis, 2nd ed., pp. 198 sqq.
Thcologiac Moralis, Vol. II, pp. 166 sqq. A. Vermeersch, Theol. Mor., Vol. I, Bruges 1922, pp. 159 sqq.
S.J.,
Cone. Trident., Sess. XIII, can.
9:
"...
singulis annis, saltern in
Paschate."
SECTION
ii
THE CESSATION OF LAW

law may cease to be binding either for the whole of a community or for particular individ
uals only.
A
1.
law ceases to bind the whole community: a) By abrogation (abrogatio), which is a com plete annulment of the whole law b) By derogation (derogatio) which is the annulment of a portion of the law, the rest re
;
maining
c)
intact;
By
the introduction of a contrary custom

;
(consuetude vim legis habens) d) By the fact that the law has ceased to be useful because it no longer attains the purpose for which it was made (cessante causa cessat effectus)
2.
;
A law ceases to bind individuals,

By By By
i.
e. }
in par
ticular cases:
a)
b)
c)
a dispensation (dispensatio) a privilege (privilegium) and epikia, or equity, i. e., a benign inter
; ;
pretation of the law, by which apply to some particular case.

180
it is
deemed not
to
CESSATION OF
Cases sometimes arise where
it
LAW
181
may
be assumed that the
lawgiver, not having foreseen all possible contingencies, would, if he were consulted, excuse the person so situated.
is the application of a law accord the lawgiver and contrary to its word It applies to human and positive divine laws only, ing. never to the moral law of nature. Epikia is not a sel-
Epikia (ri fca)
ing to the
mind of
to
dispensation, as is sometimes claimed, but may be likened an act of justifiable self-defense or self-help, when there
is a conflict of duties and one has to follow his own judg ment or moral conviction in determining which is the
1
higher duty.
Such equitable interpretation is permitted in affirmative and negative or prohibitive laws, not in nullifying laws, i. e., in those which make an act contrary to them null and void, 2 and only in cases where the observance of a law is attended by serious difficulties and no important 3 interests of Church or State are at stake.
READINGS.
Theol.,
23.
Codex
II, p.
luris Can., can. 22

120.
sq.
St.
2ae, qu.
Th.
Slater,
S.J.,
Thomas, Sumtna Manual of Moral

the Church,
Theology, Vol.
103.
E. Taunton,
The Law of
Suarez,
London
c. 2, n.
Legibus, I, A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theologia Moral is, nth ed., Vol. A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamcntalis, 2nd I, pp. 149 sqq. A. Vermeersch, S.J., Thcol. Mor., Vol. I, pp. ed., pp. 232 sqq.
9-11.
1906, pp. 294 sqq., 324, 266 sqq.
De
174 sqq., 223 sqq., 254 sqq.

1 St.
Thomas,
96,
Summa
6;
Theol.,
2ae,
la
qu.
Lehmkuhl,
sqq.;
Theol.
Mor.,
I,
p.
2ae,
2
qu.
art.
2a
147; Sweens, Theol.
120, art.
1-2.
S.J.,
*O2
Mor. Fund., pp. Tanquerey, Synopsis

169 sq.
Thos. Slater,
A Manual
I,
of
Theol. Mor., Vol. II, pp.
Moral Theology, Vol.
p.
103.
CHAPTER
III
THE SUBJECTIVE NORM OF MORALITY

CONSCIENCE
SECTION
THE EXISTENCE OF CONSCIENCE

The
every
existence of conscience
is
a fact
known
to
man through
terms
7
his
immediate consciousness.
and consciousness, have distinct meanings. English/ says Father Rickaby, "we have done with a Latin word what neither the Latins nor the French have done we have doubled the term, making conscience stand for the moral depart ment and leaving consciousness for the univer sal field of objects about which we become
conscience
The
though much
alike,
"In
aware."
When, therefore, we say that the existence of conscience is attested by consciousness, we mean
that every man is immediately aware of the fact This is true of un that he has a conscience.
civilized
ijos.
and barbarous as well as of

182
civilized
p.
Rickaby, S.J., in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. IV,
268.
CONSCIENCE
human
183
By all, conscience is acknowl beings. a moral as power and one of the mainstays edged of the social order. Cicero, Seneca, and other
rule
it
pagan writers extolled it as the life, though their conception of

not altogether correct. The existence of conscience
is
and guide of was crude and
throughout the Old and New former speaks of conscience as heart (KapSt a), and devotes special attention to the pangs of an
evil conscience.
itself
taken for granted 2 The Testaments.
(conscientia) 3 occurs only once in the Old Testament in the New it is used repeatedly, though never by
;
The name
o-uwSô-i?
Christ Himself. St. Paul expressly distinguishes conscience from the natural law, of which it gives testimony, and describes it as the unconditional
rule of morality.
4
Conscience, being common to all men and in born in all, must be part of human nature, and, 5 therefore, created by God, not, as the Material2 Cfr. J.
Vol.
sqq.
3
Ill,
L. Mosheim, Sittenlehre, Helmstadt 1743, PP- 2l

ii.
fugere,
tuarn.
homo,
Intra
in
praeter
in
tuo,
conscientiam
domum
tuam,
in
rein-
quiesce
lecto
intra
Wisd. XVII,
teriora:
Rom.
I,
II,
12.
14-15;
St.
XIV,
23; cfr. 2
perse-
Cor.
Augustine, Enarr.
"Vicerunt
quo rodunt
interius habere nihil poles, fugias a conscientia tua, si

te
peccata
tua."
(P.
L.,
in Ps.,
56,
n.
14:
XXXVI,
5 Cfr.
c.
234).
Tertullian, Adv.
"Ante
quentes [pagani], et victi sunt martyres f Absit. Quaere gloriam martyrum apud Deum, quaere foveam paganorum in confossa conscientia:
Marcionem, anima quam prophetia: animae enim a primordio conscientia Dei dos est; eadem nee alia
I,
10:
enim fovea, quo cadit impius, in conscientia mala." (Migne, P.L.,

ibi est
et
in
Ponticis."
Aegyptiis et in Syris et in (Ed. Leopold, Vol. Ill,
XXXVI,
s.
670).
8:
IDEM,
ibid., vis,
II,
30,
p.
52).
i,
n.
"Quidquid
potes
184
ists
SUBJECTIVE
maintain,
NORM OF MORALITY
evolved by education, training, environment or economic causes. For habit, the same reason conscience is not autonomous.
Its
voice,
than
says St. Thomas, is nothing else the manifestation of the divine law to
man. 7
of our
The
first
inspired account of the temptation 8 "The idea of parents proves this.
good and
writer,
evil,"
says
modern non-Catholic
"was given to man before the fall. It is a prerequisite of free-will, which could not per form its functions without that concept. An an cient tradition aptly places the tree of the knowl
9 Good and edge of good and evil in Paradise. Conscience evil existed before man was seduced. began to speak in him the moment he became aware of his liberty, for from that moment he
was
ing either
able to judge himself 10 good or bad."

call
and
his actions as be
What we
a guilty conscience
(i. e.,
evil
con
cupiscence) did not, of course, exist before the fall of our first parents, but is a consequence of
original sin
6 Cfr.
which
still
affects their descendants,

dictamen nihil est aliud quam perventio praecepti divini ad eum, qui
Th. Elsenhans, Wesen und des Gewissens, Leipsic G. Car1894, pp. 149 sqq., 204 sqq. ring, Das Gewissen, pp. 40 sqq., 64
Entstehung
sqq.
r St. art.
conscientiam habet." 8 Gen. Ill, 1-4. Cfr. F. Delitzsch, System der biblischen Psychologic,
Thomas, De
"Quum
3:
sit
conscientia
Veritate, qu. 17, nihil
2nd
9
ed., Leipsic 1861, pp.
133 sqq.
Gen.
II, 9.
aliud
quam
applicatio notitiae ad
actum,
constat
quod
conscientia
10 R. Seeberg, Gewissen und Gewissensbildung, Erlangen 1896, p.

15; cfr. p. 71.
ligare dicitur vi praecepti divini." "Conscientiae Ibid., art. 4, ad 2:
CONSCIENCE
185
though its malign influence is largely offset by 11 grace and the blessings of the atonement.
St. Thomas, De Veritaie, qu. 16 and 17. P. Ewald, Vocis ffvvetdyffcus Vi ac Potestate Commentatio, Leipsic 1883, I. Jahnel, Ueber den Begriff Gewissen in der pp. 20 sqq. griechischen Philosophic, Glatz 1872. IDEM, DC Conscientiae Notione, Berlin 1862. Th. H. Simar, Das Gew-issen und die GewissensfreiL. Lacotte, Traite dc la Conscience, heit, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1902.
READINGS.
De
Paris 1905.
II, pp.
E. Janvier, Exposition de la
J. II
.
217 sqq.
Newman, An Essay
Morale Catholiquc, Vol. in Aid of a Grammar

"Conscience"
of Assent, pp. 104-118. Jos. Rickaby, S.J., art. the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, pp. 268 sqq.
in
Sabetti-Barrett,
Thcologia Lehrnkuhl
Compendium Theologia Moralis, 2/th ed., pp. 35 sqq. A. Sweens, Morahs Fundamental is, 2nd ed., pp. 315 sqq. A. Thcologia Moralis, nth ed., Vol. I, pp. 73 sqq. J. Mausbach, Catholic Moral Teacliing and its Antagonists, New York 1914, pp. 131 sqq. E. Muller, Theol. Mor., Vol. I, sth ed.,
A. Vermeersch,
S.J.,
pp. 270 sqq.

ll Cfr.
St.
Theol. Mor., Vol.

"Deo
I,
pp. 289 sqq.
ad
Liter am,
"Non
solum
Augustine, De Gencsi XII, c. 34, n. 65: tertium caelum, quid-
sedes est conscientia piorum. (P.L., XXXVI, 520). IDEM, Enarr.

"Quomodo
in Ps., 53, n. 8:
est
magna
quid illud est, quod profecto magnum sublimitcrquc praeclarum est, vcrum ctiam in ipso homine laetitia quaedam bonae conscientiae paradisus
est."
poena impiorum conscientia, sic magnum gaudium piorum ipsa con-
scicntia,
ait
Nam
gloria nostra liaec est,

12),
(Migne, P. L., XXXIV, 482). IDEM, Enarr. in Ps., 45, n. 9:
Apostolus (2 Cor. I, nionium conscientiae

(P. L.,
testi
nostrae."
XXXVI,
625).
SECTION
THE NATURE OF CONSCIENCE

concept of conscience, being inseparably bound up with that of soul, could not be fully de
The
veloped until psychology had attained a certain degree of scientific precision.

i.
NOMINAL DEFINITION.
is
science
derived from the
The word con much wider term
conscientia, which signifies the state of being aware of one s own actions. Popularly, con science is often called the voice of God or a mani festation of His will in the hearts of His rational
creatures.
This conception
is
substantially cor
rect because conscience acquaints man with the dictates of the divine law, which is a power he
may
ment
not contemn.
But conscience
Like any other
is
not always
the voice of God.

it
human judg
may
be erroneous.
without a doubt.
As men
History proves this have at various times

2
held erroneous opinions in other matters,

l
so one
Cfr.
St.
Bonaventure, Comment.
In Sent., II, dist. 39, art. i, qu. 3, ad "Conscientia est sicut praeco Dei 3:
et nuntius.
regis, et hinc est quod conscientia habet virtutem ligandi in his, quae
possunt
aliquo
modo
bene
"
fieri.
dot ex se,
Et quod dicit, non manscd mandat quasi e.r Deo,
(Opera Omnia, Vol. II, p. 907). 2 Cfr. R. Seeberg, Gewissen

Gewissensbildung,
pp.
und
22
sicut praeco,
quum
divulgat edictum
sqq.,
186
NATURE OF CONSCIENCE
may
187
(by false training or for other reasons) hold erroneous opinions in moral questions. pagan
involved in invincible and therefore pardonable error concerning the secondary precepts of the
moral law, might worship

2.
idols
and torture
3
his
foes with a perfectly clear conscience.
REAL DEFINITION.
is
The first
real definition
of conscience
4
found
in the writings of the
Scholastics,
especially Blessed Albert the Great
and
St.
Thomas Aquinas. 5
taught that the soul has two
a) Aristotle
faculties, intellect
and
will,
of which the latter
is
subject to the former.

this theory
intellect or
sqq.
;
The Schoolmen adopted

6
and defined conscience as an act of the

understanding.
Creat.,
pp.
13
Distinguishing beP.
II,
Th. H.
die
Simar, Das Gewissen
und
sqq.
Gewissensfreiheit,
70;
dist.
IDEM,
5, art.
De Homine, qu. 69Comment, in Sent., II,

6; dist. 24, art.
14.
St.
3 Cfr.
2.
Rom. XIV,
Th.
23;
John XVI,
Thomas,
art.
H. Simar, Die Lehre des Gezvissens in der Scholastik des 13. Jahrhunderts, I,
4 Cfr.
Theol., ia, qu. 79, 12-13; ia 2ae, qu. 19, art. 5; De Veritate, qu. 16-17; Comment, in
Summa
vom Wesen
Cfr. H. Appel, Sent., II, dist. 24. Die Lehre der Scholastiker von der
Freiburg 1885, pp. 5 sqq. A practimeditation on conscience by a 1 2th century writer is contained in the anonymous Libellus de Concal
Synteresis, Rostock 1891, pp. 28 sqq.; A. Strobel, Die Lehre des Albertus
Magnus
iiber das Gewissen, Sigmaringen 1901, pp. 2 sqq.; F. J. Bruck,
scientia,
reproduced
in
Migne
Die Lehre vom Gewissen nach Antonin, Freiburg 1909.

6
Patrologia Latino, CCXIII, 903 sqq. See also the Liber de Conscientia ad Alcherum of Peter Cellensis
(P. L., CCII, 1083 sqq.) and the Tractatus de Interiori Domo sive de Conscientia Aedificanda of an un-
In opposition to the Dominican
school, which regarded conscience as an act of the intellect only, the Fran-
ciscan theologians, led by Alexander of Hales and St. Bonaventure, con-
known contemporary
(ibid.,
of St. Bernard
ceived
it
as a moral faculty, based
CLXXXIV,
the
Albert
507 sqq.). Great, Summa
de
upon the appetitive powers as well as upon the understanding. (Simar,
88
SUBJECTIVE
NORM OF MORALITY
tvveen the speculative and the practical intellect, they assumed a double conscience.
speculative conscience (synteresis) they defined as a habit by which the soul perceives the
8 In other general principles of right conduct. words, "synteresis is an habitual hold upon pri
The
mary moral judgments,

avoid
evil,
good, honor benefactors, superiors, requite punish evildoers/ The practical or so-called individual conscience
a judgment or dictate of practical reason de 10 ciding that a particular action is right or wrong.
is
as, that
we must do
an application of speculative knowledge to 11 The process by which reason concrete facts. at the arrives judgment called practical conscience The major premise is essentially syllogistic. is a (indicium iuris) judgment of the speculative The minor (indicium facti) is its ap conscience.
It is
plication to the particular case
in hand.
The
.
conclusion
Die Lehre vom
hunderts,
7
I,
is
the final judgment as to the moral

des
13.
Wesen
GewisJahr-
sens in dcr Scholastik des

p.
7; cfr. pp.
10 sqq.).
non extinguitur et qua. nos peccare sentimus." (Migne, P. L., XXV, 22). The correct form of the
.
.
On
the much-discussed term cvvcfr.

J.
word
TypTjais
Jahnel,
"Woher
is crvveid^ffts8 "Cognitio speculative,
princi-
stammt der Ausdruck Synteresis bei den Scholastikernf" in the Theologische Quartalschrift of Tubingen,
1870, pp. 241 sqq.
It
piorum universalium ad bene viv endum."
9 Jos.
Rickaby, S.J., Moral Philos.

137.
owes
its exist-
ophy,
10
p.
ence to a corrupt passage in St. Jerome s Commentary on the Prophet

Ezechiel
(I, c. i, n. 10): "Graeci vocant ffWTifjpyffiv, quae scintilla con-
"Indicium
cum
rationis,
quo
hie et
11
nunc
sit
seu diet amen practiiudicamus, quid agendum ut bonum

malum."
out vitandum ut
"Applicatio
scientiae in
Adami quoque
est
pectore,
scientiae ad aliquem
postquam
eiectus
de
paradise,
actum
specialem."
character of the act under consideration, practical conscience itself. For example
Major: Minor :
so;
:
189
i.
e. }
the
speak so and so would be to lie Conclusion: Therefore it is sinful to speak so and

;
To To
lie is
sinful
or:
Major: Minor:
forbidden
or:
Adultery
is
forbidden
What
;
am
about to do
I
is
adultery;
Conclusion:
Therefore what
am
about to do
is
Major:
Minor:
;
must obey
;
all
who command me with law

here and
ful authority
X. commands
me
I
now with
lawful
authority Conclusion:
Therefore
must here and now obey
X.
This theory is not, however, quite satisfactory. For, in the first place, the operation of conscience does not On the entirely coincide with that of practical reason.
may have
man contrary, the two are often disproportionate. a highly developed mind coupled with a dull and
unresponsive conscience. Vice versa, the conscience is sometimes very active and delicate in a mind that has lit
tle
more than
the rudiments of intellectual culture.
An
other defect of the Scholastic theory is that it does not account satisfactorily for the characteristic phenomenon
called
good or bad conscience, which
is
mere sentiment
190
SUBJECTIVE
NORM OF MORALITY
it
preceding the judgment of reason and causing about what it has done or is about to do.
to reflect
b)
To remedy
this defect, the Scholastics
drew
a distinction between conscientia antecedent and conscientia consequents. Antecedent conscience is a dictate of practical reason preceding action;
consequent conscience follows an action, approv

ing
it
as right or
is
cording to this explanation,

conscience
condemning it as wrong. Ac what men call bad

act
simply a judgment of reason con

illicit
it is the perception of, and regret a false conclusion and a foolish act based for, In matter of fact, however, the sothereon. called pains or qualms of conscience are some
demning an other words,
and
its
consequences; in
thing more than mere regret over a wrongly drawn conclusion. Nor can the underlying dif
be removed by conceiving the conscientia antecedens as an act of the understanding and the conscientia consequens as a mere sentiment,
ficulty
for to divide conscience into
two
its
essentially dif
ferent faculties would destroy

3.
unity.
THE SCHOLASTIC THEORY
THE MYSTICS.
science
AS PERFECTED BY The Scholastic theory of con

the
was complemented and perfected by

12
medieval mystics,
12 Cfr. J. Jahnel,
who held that deep down

;
in the
De
Conscientiae Notione, pp. 81 sqq.
W.
Schmidt, Das
Gewissen, pp. 225 sqq.
innermost recesses of the
191
is
human
soul there
spark of eternal light (scintilla animae), which God Himself has put there to preserve the soul
from
destruction.
13
Intellect
and
will,
according
to this theory, can be made serviceable to evil; not so the scintilla animae, in which God Himself
dwells as the object of mystical contemplation. It is this spark of divine light in the soul that the
mystics regard as the true seat of conscience.

4.
No
STRICT DEFINITION OF CONSCIENCE
adequate definition of con science is impossible because we do not under stand the mysterious nature of the soul. But
POSSIBLE.
strictly
such a definition
We
not necessary for our purpose. can obtain a sufficient knowledge of the na
is
ture of conscience by studying
its
manifestations
(a posteriori). Observation teaches that every dictate of conscience is first a judgment of reason
concerning the moral character of an

secondly a stirring of the
will, in
act,
and
the
command, admonition or warning,
form of a especially an
impulse of sentiment in the shape of a reproach or pain. Hence conscience is more than an act of
the understanding. It engages all the faculties of the soul, and consequently is not a separate and
is Cfr.
John V,
ad 5;
3.
18.
St.
Thomas,
qu.
tilla
i,
ad
3.
Comment,
2, art. 3,
art. 2,
in Sent., II, dist. 24, qu.
Lehre des
hi.
M. Grabmann, Thomas von der

in
"Die
Scin-
De
Veritate, qu. 17,
Animae,"
the Jahrbuch fur
ad
St.
Bonaventure, Com-
Philosophie
logie,
und spekulative
Theo-
trent.
in Sent., II, dist. 39, art. 2,
Paderhom
iqoo, pp. 413 sqq.
192
SUBJECTIVE
NORM OF MORALITY
distinct faculty, but something which lies beneath all faculties, at the very basis of the soul.
may therefore roughly define conscience as a habit or capacity (habitus) of the three facul
ties
We
of the soul
is
intellect,
will,
by which man
bound
to the
;
and feeling, moral order of the
universe, i. e., the will of God or, in other words, the capacity of applying objective laws to subjec
tive
conduct or of regulating
man s
actions in ac
cordance with the law.

defined, conscience appears as a moral ligious faculty or disposition placed in the soul
Thus
and
re
by God, and developed together with its other faculties. The fact that conscience depends upon the faculties of the soul and is subject to many internal and external influences, ex
plains
why
it
acts
is
differently
in
different
it
individuals.
Conscience
itself
never mistaken, but

In
its
sometimes
makes a wrong application of the primary precepts of

morality to individual cases.
is
"the
innermost essence
and proximate rule conscience, therefore, of human conduct," 14 and to act deliberately against its dictates is always sinful, because such conduct involves a
internal
denial of ethical personality,

hilation.
a sort of moral self-anni
The
first
principle
of morality,
for
therefore,
to
is
this:
its
Always obey your
conscience,
act
against
15 dictates is invariably a sin.
14 "Regula internet, proximo, formalis actuum humanorum." 15 "Omne, quod non est ex
sivs
-fide,
peccatum
est."
Rom.
XIV,
23.
Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., 1. (ed. Gaude, I, 25); J. Scheeben, Dogmatik, Vol. Ill, pp. 954 sqq.
Cfr.
I,
St.
n.
55
READINGS.
S.J.,
193
Thomas, DC Veritate, qu. 16 and 17. Th. Sla of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 57 sqq. Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Moral Philosophy, pp. 135 sqq. IDEM, art. "Con R. Hofscience" in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, pp. 268 sqq. mann, Die Lehre von dem Gewi-sscn, Leipsic 1866. M. Kahler, Das Gewissen, Vol. I, Halle 1878. M. R. Kabisch, Das Gewissen, Th. H. Simar, sein Ursprung und seine Pnege, Gottingen 1906. Das Gewissen und die Gewisscnsfreiheit, Freiburg 1874. M. CroF. Katzinger, nin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, pp. 448 sqq.
St.
ter,
A Manual
S.J.,
Inquisitio
1924.
Psychologica in ConscicnPiam Humanain, Inns
bruck
SECTION
REQUISITES OF A
NORMAL CONSCIENCE
be entirely reliable, .conscience must be Hence the three right, certain, and watchful. conditions for the normal functioning of con
science enumerated by the Schoolmen: rectitudo,
certitude, vigilantia. i. In order to be right (recta s. vera), con science must accord with the eternal law. Every
To
man
when
bids
is
it
in
duty bound to follow his conscience
it
prescribes an act as as unlawful.

is
commanded
or for
Conscience
ronea) when 1 the moral law.
called erroneous (conscientia erits dictates are not in harmony with
The mistake may be owing

law (error
its
to a
false conception of the
iuris), or to a
wrong
fact
application of
(error facti),
2
provisions to a concrete or to a faulty conclusion

latter
formed with regard to the

facti).
If a mistake
is
(iudicium
made
that could have been avoided, the
conclusion
bilis).
1 Cfr.
said to be vincibly erroneous (error vinciIn this case an act may be sinful, not because the
is 23;
i
Rom. XIV,
Cor. VIII,
2.
quidem
id,
7;
X, 25 sqq.; John XVI,

2 Cfr. St.
applications contingit esse error em dupliciter: uno modo, quid

habet, 1-13.
Thomas, De
applicatio
17,
art.
2:
"Conscientia
Veritate, qu. nihil aliud
est
quam
scientiae
ad
quod applicatur, in se errorem alio modo ex eo, quod non bene applicatur/ Cfr. i Cor. VIII,
aliquem
specialem
actum.
In
qua
194
A NORMAL CONSCIENCE
195
agent has obeyed his conscience, but because the error was willed in the cause (voluntarium in causa). An er
roneous conscience is invincible (error invincibilis) if the mistake committed was absolutely unavoidable. To fol low the dictates of an invincibly erroneous conscience is
no
even when the act performed is objectively evil. it would be sinful to act against one s On even conscience, if, in acting against it, one would be ob
sin,
the contrary,
jectively in the right. corrected as soon as it
Of
is
course, the mistake
must be
realized.
2.
Conscience
it
cert a) if
(conscientia declares without hesitation that an ac
is
called
certain
tion
ists,
is
it
Where uncertainty ex right or wrong. is a duty to obtain certainty as soon as
possible.
When
man
finds himself unable to
form a certain conclusion with regard to the moral character of an act, he will either suspend
judgment or assent to one of two contrary propo sitions, though conscious that the other may be In the former case, i. e., if no sufficient true.
reasons are
for either affirming or deny ing a proposition, or if equally important reasons speak for the one and for the other, conscience
is
known
said to be doubtful
if it
doubtful conscience,
(conscientia dubia). bases its action on good
and
solid grounds, is called probable (conscientia
probabilis).
doubtful conscience may, therefore, be defined as a suspension of judgment with regard to the lawfulness of
an
act.
196
SUBJECTIVE
NORM OF MORALITY
Theologians distinguish between positive and negative
When there are no reasons, or very slight reasons, on either side, there is a negative doubt. Such doubts, which calm consideration generally shows to be un
doubt.
founded, must be treated like temptations.

is
When
there
an apparent equality of reasons, and the mind can not arrive at a decision either one way or the other,
the
existing
doubt
is
positive.
When
positive
it is
doubt
has reference to the morality of an action

to
not lawful
3 While conscience is in this perform that action. state, one may abstain from action, or, if the decision cannot be postponed, one must do what would be licit in any case. Thus, in doubt whether an action be permis sible, when it is certain that such an action may be omitted, the action is to be omitted, and vice versa. This is what is meant by the Scholastic axiom, dubiis pars tutior est
"In
sequential
From what
duty bound
has been said
it
follows that every
man
is
in
to rid himself of doubts
and
to acquire a cer
tain conscience (bona fides). Whoever makes a sincere effort to solve his doubts by observing the conduct of con
scientious people situated in similar circumstances, con sulting an experienced guide, praying for light and trust
ing in Providence, will not sin, even should happen to be wrong. 4

3 Cfr. St.
1.
if
his final decision
I,
n.
22
Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., (ed. Gaude, I, n):

esse licitum
"Dicimus,
nunquam
cum
conscientia practice dubia operari; et

casu, quo aliquis operatur, quidem peccato eiusdem
gravitatis,
4 Indirectly, according to Lehmkuhl, one may resolve a doubtful case by these reflex principles: (i) In dubio melior est conditio possi-
peccat, et speciei
et
dentis;
(2)
Videndum
est,
cui
in-
de quo dubitat, quia qui
cumbat onus probandi; (3) Ut legi certae extra materiam iustitiae satis-factum
tio
sit,
exponit periculo peccandi, iam peccat iuxta illud: Qui amat perise
sufKcit
probabilis
(4)
imple-
positive
probata;
In dubiis
culum, in
illo
Quare
tale,
si
dubitat,
peribit (Eccli. Ill, 27). an illud sit morpeccat."
mortaliter
standum est pro eo, pro quo stat praesumptio ; (5) In dubio iudicandum est ex ordinarie contingentibus ;
A NORMAL CONSCIENCE
3.
197
watchful conscience (conscientia vigilans) one which asserts itself promptly and strongly under all circumstances. The quality of watch
is
of
A conscience by regular daily examinations. thus trained becomes tender (conscientia tenera) and makes its possessor a conscientious man. Continued disregard of the laws of God renders the conscience obtuse (cauteriata) and finally
5
enhanced by a conscientious observance commandments, by careful attention to the inner workings of conscience, and especially
fulness
all
is
the
lax.
a)
A blunt or obtuse conscience fails to protest
even against grievous sins. It is called sleeping, not dead, because conscience never dies, but al ways awakes again, even in the greatest crim inals, either of itself or under the influence of 7 Needless to say, grace, though often too late.
every
man
is
bound
to keep his conscience
from
going
is
to sleep.
lax conscience (conscientia laxa s. lata) b) characterized by a tendency to deny or diminish

It
obligations.
results
from harboring wrong

an explanation of these rules, and some useful hints as to their application, see A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol.
Mor.,
*9*o>
(6) Factum non praesumitur, sed probandum est; sed quod de iure
faciendum erat, in dubio factum seu recte factum esse praesumitur; (7) In diibio favores sunt ampliandi, odiosa restringenda, i. e. benigniora praeferenda sunt ; (8) In dubio, quod minimum est, tenendum; (9) In dubio
Vol.
I,
nth
ed.,
Freiburg
PP- 122-126. 5 Cfr. Gal. VI, 4 sq.; 6 Cfr. i Tim. IV, 2.

7 Cfr.
Eph. IV, 26.
Mark IX,
43.
pars
tutior
sequenda
est.
For
i 98
SUBJECTIVE
NORM OF MORALITY
sinful
life,
principles
and leading a
and may be
described as a frivolous conception of life and its 8 When a man s conscience has grown duties.
lax, his actions are
morally equivalent to those
performed
in a state of vincible ignorance.

is
9 There is very hard to cure. really but one effective remedy for it, viz.: a thor ough-going change of life. This is a drastic
lax conscience
medicine, but unless

patient will
tent,
it
is
applied promptly, the
succumb
to delusions,
grow impeni
and incur eternal damnation. 10

Slater, S.J.,
READINGS.TH.
I,
A Manual
of
Moral Theology, Vol.
pp. 59 sqq.
ed.,
Sabetti-Barrett,
2/th
tals,
pp. 35 sqq.
ed.,
Compendium Theologiae Moralis, A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamen

A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theologian
2nd
pp.
II,
319 sqq.
Moraiis, Vol.
pp. 203 sqq.
W. McDonald, The
188 sqq.
Principles of
Moral Science, Dublin

8 Cfr.
9 Cfr.
1904, pp.
Matth.
XXIV,
15
38.
sq.
10 Cfr. Ecclus. Ill, 29:
"The
sin-
Apoc. Ill,
ner will add sin to
sin."
SECTION
A SCRUPULOUS CONSCIENCE
Scrupulosity or scrupulousness is a peculiar ir regularity by which the conscience is led to ex
aggerate obligations or to regard harmless actions as sinful. scrupulous man is harassed by
groundless doubts and worries, which sometimes cause desperation or religious dementia.
Scrupulosity
egoistic ends,
is
e. g.,
often simulated by penitents for to make a good impression on
the confessor.
prudent confessor will there
fore treat such cases with great caution, espe What appears cially when women are involved.
to be a scrupulous conscience is
sometimes mere
hypocrisy, which, after the manner of the Phari sees, strains at gnats and swallows camels, i. e.,
pretends to worship the letter of the law without regard for its spirit, and loads down others with
burdens which
a conscience
is is
it
declines to
assume
itself.
Such
called conscientia pharis&ica, and almost impossible to cure because it springs
from that most tenacious of all vices, pride. A scrupulous conscience, on the other hand, can usually be cured by the timely application of suit
able remedies.
1 Cfr,
Matth. XXIII, 2 sqq., 13 sqq.; John XVIII, 28.
199
200
SUBJECTIVE
NORM OF MORALITY
In a) The first step to take is to determine the cause. the majority of cases the confessor will discover a patho
logical condition of either the
body or the mind.
The
penitent must be enjoined under strict obedience to re move the cause of his scruples by applying the rem edies suggested to him. There is no other cure be
cause the victim of scrupulosity nearly always seeks the cause of his disorder outside himself. Where scruples
are merely a trial of the soul, or a penalty for previously committed sins, or a test of virtue, they may be regarded as a disposition of Providence, and the penitent should be
admonished to be patient, humbly put his trust in God, and use his affliction as a means of acquiring greater per
fection.
If scrupulosity is the result of diabolical obsession and the confessor decides to perform an exorcism, he should
the penitent know anything about it. second reason for enjoining strict obedience to the directions of the confessor is the inclination of scrupulous
not
let
persons to reject the advice of others and obstinately ad here to their own notions. Such people need, and gener
ally desire, a firm guide, and it is safe to say that a scrupu lous penitent will never sin if he follows the advice of his
confessor. For the same reason a prudent confessor should inexorably send a scrupulous penitent back to his
lormcr confessor, or, when this is impossible, accept him only on condition that he promises strict obedience, Priests do well to be lenient toward scrupulous penitents
in all other things, but they should punish disobedience with firmness, even by denying absolution. b) The specific remedies indicated in each individual
case must be applied after a careful consideration of all the symptoms. When a scrupulous person is haunted by temptations against purity, or by the fear of consenting to
A SCRUPULOUS CONSCIENCE
201
blasphemous thoughts, he should be instructed to accuse himself of such things only if he can make oath to the ef fect that he has consented. Men and women who have a
tender conscience do not usually commit a grievous sin without being aware of the fact. Where scruples have
reference to past confessions, they are generally caused
by a false notion of the requirements of valid confession or by the apprehension of losing the right disposition at any moment. In such cases it may be advisable to instruct
the penitent regarding the necessary requisites of confes If a general confession is likely to afford relief, let sion.
it be suggested or permitted, on condition that the penitent confess no sins of his previous life, unless he is ready to
take an oath that he actually committed and never con As a rule scrupulous penitents fessed them before. should be dissuaded from brooding over or mentioning
past sins.
This
is
a wise rule to follow, because, even
though something serious may occasionally be left out, the preservation of bodily and spiritual health is a higher
duty than the material integrity of sacramental confession. Another class of persons labor under the fear of
committing a sin every time they act. These should be advised to disregard their apprehensions and to
go ahead resolutely without trying to solve their doubts, because no one who earnestly strives to serve God is likely to commit a grave sin without being aware of the fact. The rule bidding men to abstain from acting as long as
their conscience
is in
it
a state of doubt, does not apply to

did, they
the scrupulous. If they are never free

"
from douui.
would never act at all, as Such persons should be

"In
dubio pars tutior est taught to disregard the maxim, will and sin, except in a material rarely they sequenda } act not will because conscience, but against sense, they
merely against unreasonable fears and scruples.
202
SUBJECTIVE
NORM OF MORALITY
Finally, scrupulous persons should be forbidden to re

etc., which they think they have performed imperfectly. Of course, where harm has re sulted to another by an incomplete performance of duties, even the scrupulant can not be dispensed from repeti tion, e. g., if a scrupulous priest had mispronounced the formula of absolution, he would be bound to repeat the
peat prayers, penances,
same. Usually, however, scrupulous persons only think they have erred in such cases, and since their doubts are unfounded, there is no obligation to repeat. E. Boyd
that
J., pleads "for a frank recognition of the fact scruples is a mere nerve disease, though concerned with facts of the moral order. The central interest of
Barrett, S.
his state of soul. the pious man or woman/ he says, The obsession t hat grips his exhausted or weakened mind
"is
deals naturally with the chief interest of his life, religion, and hence the content of the obsession of a pious person
concerns
118).
sin."
(The
New
Psychology, N. Y. 1925,
p.
READINGS.
Vol.
I,
pp.
76 sqq.
Thos. Slater, S. J., A Manual of Moral Theology, IDEM, Questions of Moral Theology, New
J.
York
Vol.
1915, pp. 329 sqq.

Ill,
F.
Delany
in the
S.J.,
Cath. Encyclopedia,
pp.
640
sq.
Sabetti-Barrett,
Compendium The-
olog iac Moralis, 2/th ed., New York 1919, pp. 39 sqq. De Lehen, S. J., The IV ay of Interior Peace, New York 1888, pp. 268 sqq.
S.J., Thcologia Moralis, nth ed., Vol. I, pp. A. Konings, C.SS.R., Thcolor/ia Moralis, 2nd ed., Vol. I, New York 1876, pp. 19 sqq. Fr. a Barbens, O. M. Cap., Introductio Pathologica in Studium Thcol. Mor., Tarracona 1917, pp.
A.
Lehmkuhl,
76 sqq.
121 sqq. Aug. Gemelli, O.F.M., De Scrupulis, Florence 1913. A. Eymieu, Le Gouvernement de Soi-mcme, Essai de Psychologic Pratique, 2 vols., esp. Vol. II, Obsessions et Scrupules, Paris, 27th A. Poulain, S.J., The Graces of Interior Prayer, tr. eel, 1922. N. Turco, by. S. Yorke Smith, 2nd ed., London s. a., pp. 420 sqq.
// Trattamento "Morale" Morbosa, 2 vols., Turin
dello
1920.
L Ange
Ossessione Scrupnlo e dell Conducteur des Ames

S.J.,
Scrupulcuscs on Craintives, Bruges 1905. E. Boyd Barrett, The New Psychology, N. Y, 1925, pp. 103 sqq.
CHAPTER
IV
THE SUBJECTIVE-OBJECTIVE NORM OF MORALITY DUTY
SECTION
DUTY AND
I.
ITS
MOTIVES
DEFINITION AND DIVISION OF DUTY.
Law
as the external rule of conduct objectively binds all those for whom it is made but it does not be
;
subjective obligation for the individual until obedience to it is perceived to be a duty (offi-
come a
cium). Duty has been defined as the recognition of the applicability of a general precept to a con
crete case. tion to do
More
correctly,
it is
a moral obliga
1
something or refrain from doing
it.
Jurisprudence knows none but compulsory duties, which can be enforced by external means. In the court of Moral Theology, on the contrary, every duty binds in
conscience because duty, in its last analysis, spells ac countability to the will of God (supremus debendi tituHence the following distinctions lus)
.
i Cfr.
St.
Thomas, Summa
Theol.,
obligatione praecepti sive necessitate

finis,
2a 2ae, qu. 58, art. 3, ad 2: "Duplex est necessitas: una coactionis , Alia autem est necessitas ex .
.
quando
scilicet aliquis
non
pot-
est
consequi finem virtutis nisi hoc
faciat."
203
204
SUBJECTIVE-OBJECTIVE
NORM
Natural duties (ofli(1) Natural and positive duties. from the moral law of nature, posi tive duties (officia positiva) from divine or human laws.
cia naturalia) arise
(2)
(officia
Negative and affirmative duties. Negative duties negativa) forbid, whereas affirmative duties (offi-
cia affirmativa)
command.
(or perfect) and hypothetical (or im The former bind not only always
all
(3) Absolute
perfect)
duties.
(semper), but in
conceivable circumstances (pro
sem
per), e.g., telling the truth; the latter under certain con ditions only (semper, sed non pro semper), as e.g., fra
ternal correction.
(4) Duties to God, to oneself, and to one s fellowmen. (5) Individual and social duties, arising from one s
obligations towards oneself and one s relations to society. (6) Duties of charity and duties of justice, dictated
respectively by these two fundamental virtues. (7) Higher duties obliging under pain of grievous, and lower duties obliging under pain of venial sin, according
to the degree of obligation and especially according to the importance of the object involved (gravitas sive levitas
materiae). There are as
many
duties as there are actions that fall
under the general law, and hence no exhaustive enumera Life is in constant motion and condi tion is possible.
tions are changing all the time.
II.
MOTIVES.
motive
is
a reason for do
ing a thing, apprehended by the intellect, plus a The motives desire to do it, residing in the soul.
that impel a Christian to live fear of God (timor Domini)
tas).
up to his duties are and charity (cari-
These two motives
differentiate Catholic
DUTY
205
Moral Theology from Determinism, as well as from the Pharisaic legalism that obeys the letter
but disregards the spirit of the law. i. The highest of all motives is charity. It excludes moral compulsion and that slavish fear
which cringes
but
it
apprehension of punishment does not exclude that childlike reverence

in
;
(timor
Ulialis)
which
3
.
is
the beginning of love
(tint or initialis) All fear is more or less a product of egoism, and hence the timor filialis is a less perfect motive
But even pure charity is not abso lutely disinterested, and therefore moral compul sion as a means of training the will, and filial fear
than charity.
as a motive of duty, are not opposed to the Chris tian religion, though charity is invariably the
highest and the only perfect motive.

St.
Bernard writes:
"Charity
alone can deflect the
heart from self-love and love of the world, and direct it towards God. Neither fear nor self-love (amor pri-
vatns)
is
able to transform the

alter a
soul.
These motives
sometimes
2
man s mien
or some single act of his, but

timore inclwatur, caritatc perficitur" (Migne, P. L., XXXIV, 136).
Timor scrrilis, technically called sen iliter servilis. (Cfr. i John IV, 8).
timor
1
IDEM,
Alcuin,
St.
Enarr.
in
Ps.,
63,
n.
c.
2.
3 Ps.
II, 6;
XXXIII,
IX, 10;
n; M-
Is.
.
I,
XI, 2 6; Prov.
sq.;
I,
De
art.
Virtut. et Fitiis,
15.
7;
Thomas,
19,
Summa
1-12.
Theol, 23 2ae,
XV, 33; Ecclus. I, n, 22; XIX, 18; XXI, 13; XL, 28: Job XXVIII, 28; Matth. X, 28; Luke XII, 5; Rom. VIII, 15-17; ^ Cor.
VII,
i
qu.
i;
I,
Gal.
17.
IV,
c.
6;
Phil.
II,
12;
Pet.
Cfr. St. Augustine,

17,
n.
De
peccare boni virtutis (Horace, Epist., i, 16, 52). obeys the law because he fears punishment, is not a vvr bonus.
^"Oderunt
amore."
man who merely
Vera
Relig.,
33:
"Pietas
206
NORM
they never change his character (affectum). Even he is a slave [to sin] occasionally obeys the will of God; but as he does not act of his own accord (sponte), it
who
easily
becomes manifest that

5
his heart continues to be

s
hardened."
According
to
Aquinas man
ultimate des
tiny
is
to
be united to
God by
charity, and therefore
sanctity
or
loving 6 sovereign precept of the Gospel.
God and one
Christian perfection consists essentially in s fellowmen in obedience to the
famous
fifteenth-
century preacher, P. John Herolt, O.P., says: "To be truly good, our actions must be inspired by the love of
What is pleasing to God

God.
not done for charity s sake, is neither nor meritorious. Hence we must guard
against serving God merely for the sake of eternal re ward, or because we are afraid of hell, but must do good True, chiefly for the love of God and His greater glory.
Heaven and the fear of hell are salutary but to avoid evil for no other purpose than to escape punishment would not only be unbecoming to a St. Ignatius Loyola Christian but positively sinful." 7
the desire for
;
motives
much
says that a man should be guided in all his actions as as possible by a pure and perfect love of God, though he may be aided also by fear of punishment or
8 hope of reward.
The meaning is that we should strive from pure love of God, though not as if to act from lower motives were sinful.
to act
the slavish legalism of the Pharisees the Catholic Church opposes the spiritual inter2.
6 Liber de Diligendo Deo, c. 12, 34 (Migne, P.L., CLXXXII, 995)6 Cfr.
n.
fiir
To
kath. Theologie,
Innsbruck 1902,
PP- 4*7 sqq.
the
Summa
Theologica,
2a
8 Const.,
Ill,
i,
26 (Florence ed.,
zae, qu. 184, art. i and 3. 7 Cfr. N. Paulus, Johann
Herolt
1893, 2, 43). Cfr. Matth.
XXIII, 1-33; Mark

Beer,
und
seine Lehre, in the Zeitschrift
XII,
38-40;
G.
Schabbath,
Tubingen 1908,
pp. 37 sqq.
DUTY
207
She bids us pretation of the law (ratio legis). obey the spirit rather than the letter, because the
essence of morality does not consist in a purely external and material conformity to the law, but above all in a willing disposition of the heart and
mind.
10
There
is
no morality without
it
because one
who
is
obey His law.

true that there
truly loves God On the other hand
legality, will gladly

is
equally
no true legality without moral 11 The ity. alleged opposition between the inte rior spirit and external observance, between the gospel and "ecclesiastical formalism," exists only in the imagination of our opponents. There is, of course, no intention of denying that opposition between the two is possible. Man may obey the law outwardly while resisting it inwardly, and
his soul.
thereby destroy the true spirit of religion within But this is not the Catholic idea. The
Church demands that we embrace the faith sincerely and obey its precepts with a cheerful It was in this sense that Christ, after ac heart. cusing the Pharisees of tithing mint and anise and
disregarding the weightier things of the
lawthem:
judgment,
mercy,
and
faith
said
to
"These things you ought to have done, and not to 12 leave those undone."
1-12;
1-4.
loCfr. Gen. IV, 3-5; Matth. XII, Mark XII, 41-44; Luke XXI,
11 Cfr.
XXIII, 23-30; John XIV,
15.
21;
XV,
Die
Cor. XIII, 1-8. 12 Matth. XXIII, 23. Ph. Kneib,

10;
i
Matth.
XXI,
28-32;
"Jenseitsmoral,"
pp.
57
sqQ-
208
NORM
The
Catholic Church has never been satisfied with in
culcating a merely external observance of the command ments. On the contrary, she has always insisted on faith
and charity as the chief postulates of Christian perfection. "When Cain and Abel offered their St. Cyprian says:
God, He regarded not the gift, but the heart of the givers, and was pleased best by the gift of Abel be cause Abel had a pure heart." 13 St. Ambrose writes
sacrifices to
:
The
name.
spirit in
As
it
which you do a thing gives your work its comes out of your heart, so will it be appre
ciated [by God]. You see how the Judge regards your interior disposition. He consults with you as to whether
He
should accept your gift;

14
He
:
first
mind."
St.
Augustine teaches
"Men s
interrogates your actions are
judged [by God] according to the motive that inspires them, i. e., charity. Many things are done which look well enough, but do not spring from charity; even the
thorns produce flowers. Some things that seem harsh and inhuman, are done at the behest of charity (dic-
commandment
. .
.
tante caritate) to further a good cause. Hence the brief is once for all impressed upon you
:
Love [God] and do what you please (Dilige et quod vis Let the root of charity grow in your heart, fac). then nothing but good will proceed therefrom." 15 St. "God weighs the heart, not Gregory the Great declares the gift (substantiam) and when a sacrifice is offered to Him, He does not regard its size, but the heart from which it comes. Before God the hand is never
:
empty
13
8.
if
the shrine of the heart
is filled
with good
.
will.
n.
De Oratione Dominica, c. 24, n. See the Vienna edition of St.

s
15 Tract, in Epist. I loa.,
VII,
Cyprian
works (Corpus Scriptorum

i,
Eccles. Latin.}, Ill,
285.
UDe
P.L.,
8 (Migne, P.L., XXXV, 2033) Cfr. Abelard, Ethica, c. 5: "Habe, inquit Augustinus, caritatem et fac,
Officiis,
I,
c.
30
(Migne,
quod
vis."
(P.L.,
CLXX VIII,
647).
XVI,
66).
DUTY
.
. .
209
No more
1G
good will." of him who
precious gift can be offered to God than John Herolt teaches that "the disposition
offers sacrifice is more pleasing to God than For perfection or holiness of life does the gift offered. not consist in external practices, such as fasting, watch
but in humility, patience, chastity, mercy, obedi External practices (exte ence, and, above all, charity.
ing, etc.,
rior a exercitia) are valueless except in so far as they fit man to lead a virtuous life and are dictated by the right
17
spirit."
St.
Alphonsus summarizes the teaching of the Church

:
"The essence of Christian perfection consists not in severity towards oneself, nor in prayer, nor in the frequent reception of the Sacraments, nor in giving alms, but in charity." 18
as follows
Needless to say, by thus insisting on the need of genu ine charity these writers do not intend to disparage the
practice of good works.
3.
PARVITAS MATERIAE.
The teaching
of the
casuists concerning parvitas materiae must be judged in the light of the truth just set forth,
namely, that the state of a man s soul is deter mined, not by his external compliance with the Catholic law, but by his interior disposition. theologians hold that a duty may be regarded as
fulfilled
16
even though the act be materially incomin

L.,
How.
Erang.,
I,
horn.
is Practica
di
amar
F.
Gesii
Cristo,
(Migne. P.
LXXVI,
1093).
On
M.
29
Turin
hi.
1768.
Cfr.
Meffert,
Der
the teaching of the Fathers cfr.
Alfons
p.
I, c.
von
Reichmann,
die
S. J..
Der Zweck
1903,
heiligt
1901,
Pair.,
;
258;
Liguori. Mayence John Cassian, Collat.
Mittel,
Freiburg
pp.
sqq., 40 sqq.
17 Cfr. N. Paulus, "Johann Herolt und seine Lehre," in the Innsbruck
6-7 (Migne, P.L., XLIX, 488) St. Gregory the Great, Horn, in Evang., II, hom. 29, n. 4 (P.L., LXXVI, 1216).
Zeitschrift jur kath. Theologie, 1902,

pp. 429 sqq.
210
plete,
and that no transgression
is is
NORM
a mortal sin
if
unimportant (materia parva}, provided, of course, that the will of the transgres sor be not positively evil; for a positively evil will
render an act grievously sinful even 19 object be in itself slight.
the matter
may
if
the
The
without
doctrine of the parvitas materiae, however, is not It cannot be left to the subjective its difficulties.
judgment of the individual to decide in a given case what is materia parva, and the casuists have made it their
particular business to fix a point with regard to every single commandment where the parvitas materiae begins.
their decision can only be approximate and naturally subject to change. The objects of the moral law can not be measured with mathematical precision. Note also
But
is
materiae is to be interpreted in favor of morality, the subject must have the will to obey the law. Where good will is lacking, or where there is a positive
that, if the parvitas
tendency to
its
evil,
object
is
an act may be mortally sinful even though materia parva according to common estima
tion.
Thus
e. g.,
the destruction of
its
another, even though

malice,
when
some object belonging to value be small, may involve great one knows that the owner is extremely
fond of the object and would be deeply grieved by its In this way an act directed to a small and un loss.
important object
READINGS,
sqq.
may
20 yet be a grievous sin.
R.
I.
267 sqq.
M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, pp. 203 Holaind, S.J., Natural Law and Legal Practice, pp. Th. Meyer, S.J., Institutiones Juris Naturalis, Vol. I,
C. Gutberlet, Ethik
2nd
ed,,
ed.,
pp. 378 sqq.
und Naturrecht, 3rd
pp.
100 sqq.
J.
E. Ross, C. S. P., Christian Ethics, pp. 75
sqq.
19 Cfr.
H. Thurston,
S.J.,
in the
p.
JE.afychpedia, Vol. IX,
154.
20 F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moralthsologie, p. 102.
SECTION
CONFLICT OF DUTIES
I.
When
is
able to
fulfil
has two or more duties, but only one, he is confronted by what
man
moralists call a conflict of duties. At first blush it would seem that such a conflict
can exist only in the mind. If what we call law is primarily a communication of truth to the hu
man
intellect,
by which knowledge
is
increased
and the moral judgment sharpened, it must be pos sible for the average man to inform himself with regard to the spirit of existing laws and their mu
tual relations so as to avoid perplexity of con 1 science. Furthermore, the law is supposed to
safeguard conscience in all important matters This contention is against doubt and error.
basis on
strengthened by a consideration of the ultimate which the concept of duty rests, i. e.,
the will of God,
who cannot
contradict Himself.
In reality, however, since the fall of our first parents, conditions are such as to make a conflict
of duties possible, nay in
l Cfr.
St.
many
instances real.
christiano
Jerome,
(ed.
Tract,
sive
:
"Nunquam
nox
est; sent
oritur"
Horn,
in
Ps.
G.
Morinus)
per christiano sol iustitiae
211
212
1.
The moral order
is
NORM
and perma This disturbance is an nently disturbed by sin. and fact universal which permeates the objective whole of society. Man, on being born, enters a world full of grievous disorders. He is sur rounded all through life by false notions and im moral deeds. Perplexity of conscience arises indeed primarily and immediately from defective knowledge. But the underlying error is more than subjective or individual. It is an objective fact resulting from the general condition of things and the dependence of each individual on the ideas and acts of his f ellowmen. 2. In consequence of the disturbed moral or der man s destiny and his position in the universe are twofold, temporal and eternal, earthly and and it requires extraordinary insight heavenly, and more than a purely natural wisdom to har monize the respective duties of both spheres to
seriously
provide for the needs of the body without detri
ment
is
to the soul.
not merely an individual he also a social being, and as such has duties to his
Moreover,
man
is
and to society. These duties (devo tion to family and country, etc.) often clash with the duties he owes to himself, and every collision gives rise to doubts and conflicts, which are not merely the product of subjective and vincible error in the mind, but actually exist in rerum naf ellowmen
CONFLICT OF DUTIES
213
tura as a consequence of the disturbance of the
moral order.
II.
Moralists have laid
rules
by which a
man
is
down certain general enabled to choose between
im the same have portance. Though obligations source (i. e., the will of God), they differ in degree
conflicting duties according to their relative
all
according to the order of the various laws, the rel ative importance of the objects which they are in tended to promote, and the social standing of the persons concerned.
i.
Some
duties derive their relative impor
tance from the laws by which they are imposed. a) Duties based upon the moral law of nature
man
precede those enjoined by positive divine or hu Hence it is not allowed to tell a lie law.
obey one s parents, but it is allowed to do servile labor on the Lord s Day to assist a felin order to
lowman
never permitted to commit a grievous sin in order to prevent a 3 venial sin. It goes without saying that divine
in need.
it is
Likewise
laws rank higher than purely

that, all other things
2 Cfr.
human laws and

F. Heiner,
being equal, the religious

II,
ii.
23-28;
Cfr.
i
III,
Matth. XII, 1-14; Mark 1-5; Luke VI, i
73 sqq.
v.
Hoensbroech
heiligt
Kings XXI, 1-6. 3 Gen. XIX, 8; Judg. XIX, 24. In regard to the question, "An liceat consulere sine suadere minus malum ad evitandum maiusf" the Fathers and Cfr. differ. H. theologians Zschokke, Die biblischen Frauen des Alien Testaments, Freiburg 1882, pp.
"jesuitischen"
Des Graf en Paul neucr Beweis des Grundsatzes: Der

pp.
Zweck
Fidelis,
Freiburg
Mitt el, 3rd ed., 28 sqq.; Dr. Ploensbroech contra Dasdie

1904,
8,
bach, Klagenfurt 1904, pp. 5, F. G. Dasbach Dasbach,
13;
gegen Hoensbroech, Treves 1904, I, pp. 19 sqq; II, and ed., Treves 1905.
214
NORM
precepts imposed by the Church involve a heavier 4 obligation than purely civil ordinances.
Negative take precedence over affirmative duties in other words, it is a higher duty to avoid Hence it is not sin than to perform good works.
b)
;
permitted to violate the truth in order to satisfy the obligation of sanctifying Sunday, for the end
does not justify immoral means. c) Duties corresponding to
a strict right a duties of as rule precede those (called justice)
Hence no man is permitted enjoined by charity. to steal in order to give alms. Note, however, that there are circumstances in which, for the
sake of some higher consideration, duties of charity may take precedence over duties of jus
tice.
Thus a man
is
bound
to assist a
fellowman
in
extreme need before paying his own legitimate

d)
debts.
The
duties of one s vocation or office take
precedence over purely personal and family du ties, but only in so far as their non-observance
would jeopardize the common good. Thus a priest must remain at his post in times of persecu tion or during an epidemic, but this duty does not bind when he is himself ill and a substitute
can be had.
4 Cfr. Acts IV, 19; V, 29. The Syllabus of Pius IX condemns the "In conflictu proposition (n. 42): legum utriusque potestatis ius civile
praevalet."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
1742). 6 Cfr. Gen.

6 sqq.
XIX,
31 sqq.;
XXVII,
CONFLICT OF DUTIES
215
Certain duties take precedence over uncer e) tain or doubtful duties.

to the relative importance or value of the objects which laws are intended to
2.
With regard
promote, the salvation of the soul ranks higher 6 Hence a man is than the welfare of the body.
not allowed to commit a sin
faith) in
(e. g. } to
deny the
order to save his
life.
Life and health
are more
liberty,
important and more valuable than liberty comes before honor, and honor
ranks above purely material goods. The duties connected with these objects are graded accord
ingly.
Note, however, that, in concrete, the de
cision between conflicting duties depends largely on circumstances. A soldier engaged in war for
the defense ot
his country will often esteem honor higher than liberty, nay than life itself. In regard to the social rank or standing of 3. the persons to whom duties are owing, they may be grouped into classes according to family, re
Inside the family group, nationality, etc. the duties a person owes his blood relations take precedence over those he owes to relatives by
ligion,
Parents are more closely bound to their children than to their progenitors. "Amor plus descendit quam ascendit." Illness or debility
marriage.
will,
of course, modify this relation in not a few
Cfr. Matth. X, 28, 32-33, 37-39; XVI, 24-26. TCfr. Gal. VI, 10.
216
NORM
instances.
Again, a man s relation to his parents is closer than to his adult brothers or sisters, his relation to his sisters is closer than to his broth
provided immaturity, disease, unemployment, or other circumstances do not change the regular
ers,
order.
In saying that
man
duties towards those
faith or religion take precedence over the duties he owes to his nationality or country,
of his
own
we do
not, of course,
mean
to intimate that
im
portant patriotic duties may be neglected in favor of an enemy who happens to be of the same faith.
These general rules will in most cases enable a sensible and practical man to decide a conflict of duties. Where
doubts remain, a prudent Catholic will consult his con Recourse should also be fessor or a reliable author.
had
to prayer.
He who
employs these means conscien
tiously will, as a rule, receive sufficient grace to enlighten When it is impossible to decide which of his conscience.
several duties
tion
is
is
the
more urgent, or what course of ac

which Bishop Martin re unable to decide which of
fraught with least danger to the soul, one will do

I
best to follow the ancient rule

states as follows:
"If
am
two or more
suffices
conflicting duties I
am bound
to fulfil,
if
it
to choose the more probable one, and
proba
for
bility is unattainable, I
am
free to use
my own
judgment.
sin,
Even were
God
mistake, I should not will regard the intention rather than the act.
I
to
make a
Who/
asks St. Augustine, 8

sibly avoid?
8
"Quis
"
sins
by doing what he cannot pos

and
enim peccat
in
eo,
quod
Retractationes,
(P. L.,
I,
c.
9,
n.
caveri potest?"De Lib. Arbit., Ill, c. 18, n. 50 (Migne, P.L., XXXII, 1295); cfr. the same writer s
nullo
modo
596 sq.). 9 Bishop Conrad Martin, Lehrbuch der kath. Moral, $th ed., p. 123.
XXXII,
CONFLICT OF DUTIES
217
Different systems have been devised with a view to obtaining greater certainty than can be gained by the ap
plication of this simple rule. their inventors, these systems
factory solution. to say that all the systems thus far devised could be cut out of the body of Catholic Moral Theology without
But despite the acumen of have not brought a satis Bishop Linsenmann does not hesitate
drawing one drop of blood.

READINGS.
I,
Th. Meyer,
PP-
S.J.,
Instihitiones Juris Naturalis, Vol.
2nd
ed.,
pp. 448 sqq.
Ratisbon
1839,
235
A. A. Waibel, Moraltheologie, Vol. I, F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der sq.
Moraltheologie, Freiburg 1878, pp. 105 sqq. J. E. Pruner, KathoUsche Moraltheologie, Vol. I, 3rd ed., p. 101. G. Schulze, Ueber den Wider streit der P filch ten, Halle 1878. W. McDonald, The
Principles of
Moral
Science, Dublin 1904, pp. 188 sqq.
SECTION
MORALS
PROBABILISM AND OTHER SYSTEMS OF
We now come to a consideration of the systems

that have been devised for the purpose of insur ing practical certainty in cases of speculative
doubt, or,
if
we may
express the same thought
somewhat
an
act,
differently, to satisfy oneself

is
whether
the morality of which

is
speculatively
uncertain, practically allowed or forbidden. i. STATE OF THE QUESTION. In all cases
where a
definite decision
has to be made under
conditions which do not admit of full certainty re garding the existence of a law or obligation, a
man may
ful cases
act safely with w hat is called a probable Such doubt conscience ( conscientia probabilis )
r
.
owe
their existence to the fact that
law
cannot regulate the actions of men in every detail, nor adequately express the will of the lawgiver, and hence a sphere is left open in which man may
use his
own judgment.
"case
In every
of
conscience"
there are
two oppos
ing opinions: one in favor of the law (opinio pro lege),

218
PROBABILISTIC SYSTEMS
the
219
Neither
of liberty (opinio pro libertate). both are more or less probable but certain, that the discussion of such cases by Note (probabiles).
is
other in
favor
the
Catholic moralists never turns on the question, which is more perfect course to pursue ? but merely, what is licit
or not? In other words, in trying to solve so-called cases of conscience, theologians do not ask: "Which of the two actions is the more perfect?" but "Which of the two
one obliged to perform tinder pain of sin?" For ex ample: I am uncertain whether or not to-day is a day of fasting. I have reasons for thinking that it is. But What am I to do these reasons are merely probable.
is
if
cannot obtain reliable information?
Am
obliged
to fast?
Or may
? The question at issue is plainly not of greater perfection, for no one dis putes that to fast would be the more perfect act.
for thinking it is duty of keeping the fast

licitness,
I, on the strength of the reasons I have not a fast-day, absolve myself from the
one of
2.
it is
Aside from Laxism, a general principle that in case of doubt the
GENERAL PRINCIPLE.
pars tutior must be chosen, i. e., that course of ac tion must be followed which most effectively ex
cludes the danger of sin. Abstractly and objec the opinion in favor of the law tively considered, (opinio pro lege) is the safer (opinio tutior scil.
a periculo peccandi) for the reason that by fol lowing it one can best avoid the risk of sin. That
the pars tutior must be followed in all cases is the teaching of Rigorism. The so called Probabil
istic
systems, on the contrary, contend that the opinio pro lege does not always furnish moral
220
NORM
certainty, that such certainty may also be af forded by the opinio pro libertate, and that in case
of doubt one may, for good reasons (probabilitas), safely follow the latter.
The controversy thus narrows

tion
itself
down
to the ques
which of the two opposing opinions, that favoring the law or that favoring liberty, is safer to follow in
case of doubt.
3.
is
THE FUNDAMENTAL
SUPPOSITION.
Man
not permitted to act upon a mere opinion, but when direct certitude is unattainable, certitude reflex reach should try to by
earnest
The
careful comparison. conscience or dictate of conscience based

is
consideration and
upon such an opinion
called probabilis.
The
relation of the different conflicting opinions is de termined according to the degrees of intrinsic or
extrinsic probability
which each can claim.
difference between intrinsic and extrinsic probabil that intrinsic probability rests upon reasons con ity tained within the opinion itself, whereas extrinsic proba
is
The
bility is
based on authority.
probable opinion (opinio probabilis) may be based either on intrinsic or extrinsic grounds, provided these are
good and solid. If two contrary opinions have the same degree of prob
ability they are called aequiprobabiles.
more probable opinion (opinio

on weightier reasons than
probabilior)
its
that rests
one which opposite,

is
in that case
is still
221
probable, but less so (minus probabilis,

.
or simply probabilis) When a probable opinion rests on such solid grounds that it is almost a certainty, it is called most probable Its opposite can not, of course, be (probabilissima).
solidly probable, but, in the
language of the schools,

it
may
be
panim
vel
emitter probabilis.
said
From what we have

of an opinion
is
follows that the probability
measured by the weight of the intrinsic and extrinsic arguments on which it rests. The authority which creates extrinsic probability is that of theological
experts or confessors.
4.
THE SCOPE
seen,
OF PROBABILISM.
the claims
Though, as
we have
all
cases
be
asserted
of liberty against those
may
of
in
the
law, the sphere of liberty in Moral Theology is nevertheless greatly restricted, for the reason that the
safer
side
(pars
tutior)
must always be
chosen where
definite end,
bilis
it is
absolutely necessary to attain a
and where following an opinio proba or even probabilior would involve danger of 1 This is the case whenever faith or frustration.
religion are involved, especially in the adminis 2 tration of the Sacraments, in medical and surgil
Cfr.
J.
P.
Gury,
I,
Compendium
Lyons
n.
2 Cfr.
i
Gury, op.
"In
cit.,
Vol
I,
n.
57,
Theologiae
Paris,
"Non
Moralis, Vol. 1850,
and
55-56:
and
4:
Us,
quae saluti necestutius
saria
sunt necessitate medii,
sequi opinionem probabilcm nee probabiliorcm relicta tutiore, quoties adest obligatio absoluta alicuius finis determinate oblicet
sectari cogeris; tantus enim finis prae caeteris absolute, prorsus necessitate
procurandus
est,
et
proinde
media
tinendi, quern usus medii probabiliter inepti in periculum adduceret; tune igitur pars tutior est sequenda."
absolute tuta et certa sunt adhibenda. In rebus igitur ad finem sen ad
veram religionem pertinentibus probabilitate reiecta opinio tutior neces-
222
NORM
cal prescriptions,
and when there is an obligation 3 to protect the interests of one s f ellowmen.
Hence Probabilism may be applied only when there is question of the mere morality, i. e., the licitness or illicitIn ness, of an act or omission (sola actionis honestas).
other cases the pars tutior must be chosen. This is no argument in favor of Tutiorism, however, nor an excep
all
tion to the general rule of Probabilism, because in such cases there is always present a direct speculative certitude,
whereas Probabilism was expressly devised for cases which no speculative certitude can be attained.
5.
in
ABSOLUTE TUTIORISM OR RIGORISM.

is
Ab
Rigorism (tutiorismus absobased on the principle that lutus sive rigidus) the opinion which favors the law must be followed
sario
solute Tutiorism or
sequenda
sub
n.
est.
Hinc ab Innoest
licta
tutior e.
"
(Denzinger-Bann-
centio XI.
positio
damnata
4:
sequcns proinfidclitate
wart, n.
3
1151).
op. cit., Vol. I, n. 57, 2-3:
Ab
Gury,
nan credens, ductus opinione minus probabi-li. [See Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1154]. Inimo in tali casu ne probabiliori
excusabitur
infidelis
timens ne plumbum in fcram eiaculando aliquem hominem forte laedat, emitter e non potest,
"Venator
etiamsi probabilius cxistimaret abesse
quidcm opinione,
uti liceret.
tutiori
posthabitd,
Minister sacramenti, ubi de eius valore agitur, nisi defectus
periculum, nam si forte illud adsit, probabilitate contraria, etiam maiori,
removeri
non
potest.
Medicus
et
suppleatur vel urgeat casus necessitatis, tenetur sequi tutiorem partem inquantum moraliter potest, relicta minus tuta, probabili vel etiam probabiliori, quia aliter
ckirurgus tenentur ad medicamenta et media tutiora, quae hie et nunc haberi possunt, adhibcnda, quia tacito contractu ad finem obtincndum, in-
exponeret sacraet proxispiritualis.
tnentum periculo
nullitatis
mum
Hinc
periculo
damni
quantum fieri potest, se obligarunt. Idem pariter dicendum de omnibus aliis, qui erga proximum obligationem
contraxerunt."
merito damnata est sequens propositio ab Innocentio XI. sub n. Non est illicitum in sacramentis i:
conferendis babilent de
sequi opinionem provalore sacramenti, re-
Cfr.
the
Proposi-
tiones
n.
Damnat. sub Innocentio XI.,

"Probabiliter
2:
cem posse
existimo, iudiiudicare iuxta opinionem

probabilem."
etiam minus
(Denzin
ger-Bannwart,
n.
1152).
always, and that
it
223
is never lawful to follow a even probable opinion, though it be probabilisin favor of liberty. 4 This system is unten sima, able because it misconceives the problem at is
5
sue,
and has been formally condemned by the

6
Church.
In order to escape ecclesiastical condemnation a certain school of Rigorist theologians modified the fundamental tenet of Tutiorism by saying that one may decide in
favor of liberty only
if
the opinion favoring that side
is
most probable (probabilissima). This system does not differ substantially from absolute Tutiorism and is useless
for the solution of difficult cases of conscience.
cipal
(-f-
Its prin
representatives
i?oi) and
Ignatio
6.
(+
Steyaert 1720), Henry a Sancto 7 1719), and Cardinal H. S. Gerdil (+ 1802).

J.
are
the
Jansenists
M.
Obstraet
(-f-
LAX PROBABILISM OR LAXISM
(probabilis-
mus
absolutus sive excessivus). This system maintains that the opinion which favors liberty
may be
followed always, even when it enjoys but a or doubtful degree of probability (tenuiter slight vel dubie). The Church rejects Laxism for the
reason that this system is incompatible with the 8 dignity of the moral law.
4
Tutiorism
was
adopted
Its foremost Jansenists. was the Irish theologian
by the defender
dro
"Non
VIII.
licet
(Dec. 7, 1690), n. 3: sequi opinionem vel inter

probabilissimam."
Joan Sinsqq.;
probabiles
7
(Dens
nichius
s Cfr.
(+
i
1666).
zinger-Bannwart,
n. 1293).
Mace. II, 31 44; 2 Mace. V, 25; VI,
IX, Matth.
sketch
of
Card.
Gerdil
life
XXIV,
6
20.
See the Prop. damn, ab Alexan-
be found in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, p. 471. 8 Cfr. the Prop. Damnat. sub Inwill
224
NORM
Excessively lax propositions were taught by J. Sanchez 9 (+. about 1620), F. Amicus, S.J. (+ 165 1), 10 St. Bauny,
11 Thos. Ord. Cist. J. Caramuel, 1* A. Diana, (+I684),
SJ.
(+I649),
Tamburini,
S.J.
(+
i6;5),
12
(+
17
Ord.
i682), J. Cardenas, SJ. Theat. (+ i663), 15 Z.
13
Pasqualigo,
Ord.
Theat.
1669),
(+
M.
Mendoza, S.J. and others.

7.
(+
A. 1664), de Moya, S.J.
16
Escobar
y
18
(+
1684),
that
PROBABILIORISM. This theory contends a man is in doubt regarding the existence of a law, he must nevertheless obey the same and
if
may
follow the opinion in favor of liberty only

is
if
certainly more probable (certe Hence the axiom, probabilior) than its opposite.
that opinion
dubio stricto sen aequali pars tutior sequenda est," i. e., as long as the conscience is strictly in
"In
nocentio
trinsecd,
XL,
n. 3:
"Generatim
dum
probabilitate sive intrinseca sive ex-
quantumvis
tenui,
modo a
probabilitatis finibus non exeatur, confisi aliquid agimus, semper pru-
denter
wart, n.
9
agimus."
(Denzinger-Bann-
1153).
John Sanchez must not be confounded with Thomas Sanchez, S.J. (+ 1610). Cfr. Hurter, Nomenclator Lit.
ed.,
de Moya was Moral Theology in Murcia, Alcala, and Madrid. Under the nom de plume "Amadaeus Guimenius" he wrote a book entitled Adversus Quorundam Expostulationes contra Nonnullas Jcsuitarum Opiniones Morales (Palermo 1657), in which he showed that the lax
professor
of
17 V. supra, p. 62. 18 Father Matthew
Theol. Cath., Vol. Ill, 3rd

592, 893.
pp.
10 See
the
Catholic Encyclopedia,
Vol.
11
I,
.
p.
429.
12
V supra, p. 63. On Tamburini see

XIV,
the
p.
Cath.
doctrines attributed to the Jesuits in a libelous pamphlet, Teatro Jesuitico, Apologetico Discurso con Saludables y Seguras Doctrinas Necessarias a los Principes y Senores de la Tierra, by Francisco de la Piedad (also a
Encyclopedia, Vol.
441.
13 Ibid., Vol. Ill, pp. 329 sq. 14 Ibid., Vol. Ill, pp. 332 sq. 15 Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 773.
16 Hurter,
Nomenclator
Lit. Theol.
pseudonym), were taught long beby other writers. Both the Teatro and Moya s reply were put on the Index, where they remain even after the Leonine revision.
fore
Cath., Vol. IV, 3rd ed., col. 298 sqq.
doubt, that
is
225
ment
to say, while it suspends judg without inclining either way, the law must
be obeyed. This principle
is
theoretically incontrovertible
but useless for practical purposes, and therefore no longer has any followers. While all Catholic
moralists admit that a
man may
safely follow
Probabiliorism, most of them maintain that this system is of no value in the solving of doubtful
cases precisely for the reason that in such cases
no opinio probabilior
is
attainable.
In practice
Probabiliorism leads to Tutiorism, and "solves" only those cases of conscience which in reality
are no
"cases"
at
all,
because the greater proba
bility in favor of one side or the other can be easily
perceived.
The most eminent defenders

dinal Cajetan
(+
19
I534),
of this system are Car Alexander Natalis (-f 1724), 20

:
Vincent Baronius (-f i674), 21 C. R. Billuart (-f- I757), 22 D. Concina (+ I756), 23 V. Contenson (+ i674), 24 P. M.
(-f i68i), J. V. all Dominicans Patuzzi (-J- 1769), and the Jesuits 28 Thyrsus Gonzalez de Santalla (+ I7O5), M. de Elizalde
Gazzaniga
(+
25
I799),
27
J.
B. Gonet
26
19 On Cardinal Cajetan (Tommaso de Vio Gaetani) see the Cath. En-
22 V. supra, p. 57. 23 V. supra, p. 60.
cyclopedia, Vol. Ill, pp. 145 sqq. 20 On Alexander Natalis (Noel
24 V , Cath. EncycL, IV, 330. 25 V. Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. VI,

p. 401.
Alexandre),
21
ibid.,
Vol.
I,
pp. 296 sq.
Not to be confounded with the famous Jesuit Cardinal Cesare Baronius.
20 V. supra, p. 60.
Brief
sketches
of
both
in
II,
the
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.
V supra, p. 60. 28 Gonzales was the thirteenth general of the Society of Jesus, and
27
.
pp. 304 sq.
while holding that
office,
published
226
i6;8),
29 31
NORM
30
(+
P.
G. Antoine
(+
I743),
and P. Collet
(+I770).
8. SIMPLE OR COMMON PROBABILISM (probabilismus simplex sive benignus, commnnis sive This system teaches that whenever there latus).
doubt concerning the mere lawfulness or un lawfulness of an act, it is permissible to follow a solidly probable opinion in favor of liberty,
is
even though the opposing view be more probable

(probabilior)
.
But why may a more probable
opinion be relinquished in favor of a less prob able one? To this Probabilism answers as fol
lows:
and solidly probable (vere it must be because the law

ficiently
If the opinion favoring liberty is truly et solide probabilis)

,
is
doubtful or insuf
promulgated (lex dubia aut non suffiNow a doubtful law is not binding (lex dubia non obligat), and therefore one is at liberty.
cienter pr omulgat a).
But
his
this
statement of the Probabilist posiand

Etudes Rcligieuses, 1901-02, Ter Haar, Das Decret Innocenz XI. iiber den Probabilismus, Paderborn 1904. Latin text of the decree given by the latter, pp. 29 sqq. and by Lehmkuhl, Prob. Vind., For an English translapp. 81 sqq.
Paris
F. tion see p. 230, note 40, infra. 29 V . Nomenclator urter,
famous Fundamentum Tkeologiae

e.
Moralis, i. de Recto
1694).
It
Tractatus Theologicus
Usu
is
Opinionum
(Rome
Cursus
J.
reproduced in Migne s Cfr. Theologiae, Vol. XI.

;
Salsmans, S.J., in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, pp. 635 sq. der Geschichte Dollinger-Reusch, Moralstreitigkeiten in der romischkath. Kirche, Nordlingen 1889, Vol. For an account of I, pp. 1 20 sqq. the controversies that raged about the decree of Innocent XI on Probabilism see J. Brucker S.J., in the
Lit.
Theol. Cath., Vol. IV, 3rd ed., col. 286 sq. 30 V. supra, p. 58. 31 Cfr. Buchberger, Kirchl. Handlexikon,
I,
964,
tion does not
227
remove the
logical
and moral ob
to follow a
jection that Probabilism permits

less
sic cognita et iudicata)
men
probable opinion (sententia minus probabilis even though its opposite is
perceived to be more probable.
who established the moral sys says a Protestant ethicist, "correctly perceived that probability plays a part in moral conduct, and that to reject Probabilism absolutely, would betray a
"The
wise practicians
Jesuits,"
tem of the
permitted to follow the ne axiom, Quod dubitas, jeceris and to act only when he knows for certain and without doubt that he is right, he would frequently be unable to act at all; nor would
hasty
judgment.
Were man
from action help him out of the difficulty, for mere omission of an act also entails consequences and is equivalent to a definite decision of the will, which may be either right or wrong That a certain mode of procedure is absolutely right in all circumstances, and its opposite absolutely wrong, can be asserted only from
abstention
the
Man is a the standpoint of an omniscient intelligence. short-sighted creature and can act only if he has the
courage to make a false move and to do something which may prove objectively wrong, and which he would not do were he better informed. Nevertheless, his conscience absolves him from guilt if he has acted to the best of his knowledge and understanding in accordance with the
most probable opinion.

teaching of the Jesuits
is
erably on authority and which he himself must admit

32 Ch. Sigwart, Vorfragen der Ethik, 2nd ed., Tubingen 1907, pp.
thing we reject in the that they base probability pref allow a man to follow an opinion
The only
to
be
less
32
probable."
d Innocent XI.
contre
le
Probabi-
lisme, Paris 1903, pp. 79 sqq., 99 sqq.
40
sq.
Cfr.
Mandonnet, Le Decret
228
NORM
"There can be no doubt," says St. Alphonsus, "that the Tutiorists in their excessive rigorism do much damage; but on the other hand the Probabilists, who follow an
opinion which they recognize as less probable (but which I no longer regard as probable because the law in its moral sense is sufficiently promulgated), are also to blame for
the loss of
many
souls."
33
Neither the Fathers nor the early Schoolmen give any general rule for determining moral obligation in doubt
ful
cases.
But from the way

it
in
controversies
is
evident
that
which they decided they were guided by
the principle that a doubtful law does not bind. Thus St. of Nazianzus addressed the Gregory following challenge to a Novatian writer who had denounced second marriage
"
as
illicit:
Either prove that you are right, or

doubt,
let
if
you
are unable to bring proof, do not pass judgment.
If the
matter
3*
vail."
is
in
humanity and convenience pre
The first theologian who reduced Probabilism to a formula and attempted to demonstrate it systematically was Bartholomew de Medina, O. P. (-[-1581). In his commentaries on the Second and Third Parts of the
Summa
called
of St.
Thomas,
this learned writer,
who
is
usually
"the
Father of
is
Probabilism,"
defends the proposi

35
tion:
"We
are permitted to follow a probable opinion
even
if its
opposite
more
P.G., ita se
probable."
est
This thesis was

licet
33 Letters, III, 355. 34 Oral., 39, n. 19 (Migne,
earn
sequi,
sit."
babilior
tica
(Expositio
in D.
19,
opposita pros. Scholas-
XXXVI,
358)
"Aut
rem
Commentaria
la
Thomae
art.
6,
S.
haberc proba, aut, si id nequis, ne condemnes. Quodsi res est dubia, Cfr. vincat humanitas et facilitas." Chr. Lupus, Dissertatio de AntiquiAuctoritate et Legitimo Usu Sententiae Probabilis (Opera Omnia, Venice 1729, Vol. XI, pp. i sqq.).
tate,
Theol.,
2ae, qu.
Sala-
manca 1577. Medina s life
For a sketch of B. de see D. J. Kennedy,
35
"Si
est opinio probabilis, licitum
O. P., in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. X, pp. 143 sq. Modern writers are divided as to Medina s teaching on Probabilism. Echard (followed by Billuart) maintains that Medina s
229
favorably received by the majority of Catholic moralists and met with no ex professo opposition until Father
Andrew
i642.
36
Bianchi,
S.J.,
attacked
it
in
his
treatise
De
in
Opinionum Praxi Disputatio, published
at
Genoa
opponents of simple Probabilism were the Jansenists, especially Blaise Pascal, who, in his famous Lettres a un Provincial (1656), attacked Probabilism with
bitterest
The
vigor and grace of style. The result was that many theo In the ensuing conflict, logians adopted Probabiliorism. which lasted nearly two centuries, Probabilism received
its
hardest blows from the Dominicans.
Alexander VII
(1665),
(1690) 37 mostly taken from the writings of Probabilistic authors. At the instance of the last-mentioned Pope, a general chap
ter of the Dominicans, held at
(1679), and Alexander VIII censured a series of propositions which were
Innocent
XI
Rome
in 1656, advised all

38
members of
espouse Probabiliorism. Father Thyrsus Gonzalez, General of the Jesuits, tried to banish Probabilism from the Society by publishing an
that
to
Order
anti-Probabilistic work,
differed
Fundamcntum Theologiae Morhaps better known by his Latin name, Blancus. He died at Genoa, March
29,
system greatly from Probabilism as expounded by its later defenders. H. Hurter, S.J., says of
1657.
His
treatise
De
Opi-
him:
aevi
"Inter
principes
scholasticae
est
habitus
moralisque et exinde
theologiae cultores sui
nionum Praxi Disputatio was published under the pseudonym "Candidus

Philalethes."
quoque
nactus,
It
is
Tutioristic
celebritatem
quondam
est
in tendency.
Cfr. Dollinger-Reusch,
probabilismi systemati praelusisse dicitur." Literarius (Nomenclator
Geschichte
en,
der
I,
Moralstreitigkeit31
sqq.,
Vol.
pp.
51
Theologiae Catholicae, Vol. Ill, 3rd

ed.,
Ter Haar, De Syst. Mor.,

sqq.
pp.
sqq.; 18
Innsbruck 1907,
col.
144).
Cfr.
Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten, Vol. I, pp. 28 sqq.; Ter Haar, De Systemate Mor., pp. 17 sqq.; A. Schmitt, Zur GeDollinger-Reusch,
37 For a
list
of these
condemned
propositions see Denzinger-Bannwart, n. noi, 1151, 1289, 1291; A. Rohling,

sqq.,
Medulla Theol. Mor.,

St.
pp.
479
Ge-
Probabilismus, Innsbruck 1904, pp. 43 sqq. 36 Andrea Bianchi, S.J., is per-
schichte
des
Louis
1875.
38 Cfr.
Dollinger-Reusch,
schichte der Moralstreitigkeiten, Vol.

I,
pp. 42 sqq.
230
alis.
39
The
so-called
in reality
NORM
26, 1680 (which
decree of Innocent XI, of June was merely a protocol of the

action.
40
Holy
Office), strongly
approved of his
The
follows
41
present status of Probabilism may be described as It has never been either officially approved or
:
officially
ated
censured by the Church, but was and is toler and upheld by the majority of Jesuit theologians,
it is
though
V
Lately
39
.
J.
not the official teaching of the Society. de Caigny, C.SS.R., published several books
p.
42
43
supra,
225,
n.
10.
Cfr.
A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Prob. Vind., pp. A. Koch, "Neue Doku83 sqq. mente zu dem Thyrsus Gonsalez ;
and
allowed to follow the less probable; to inform him that whatever he does and writes on behalf of the
Streit,"
Quartalschrift of Tubingen, 1905, pp. 95 sqq. 40 Cfr. Mandonnet, Decret d In

;
in the Theol.
will be pleas Let it be en ing to His Holiness. joined upon the Father General of the Society of Jesus, as by order (de
more probable opinion
nocent XL, pp. 73 sqq. Ter Haar, Das Dekrct Innozenz XL, pp. 29 sqq.; G. Arendt, S.J., De Conciliationis
Tcntamine
nuper
Iterate
online) of His Holiness, not only to permit the Fathers of the Society to write in favor of the more probable opinion and to attack the opinion of
those
Aequiprobabilistas inter et Probabilistas, Rome 1902 (cfr. the Civil td Cattolica, 1902, quad. 1253, pp. 574 The "decree," the authentic sqq.).
text of which
who
less
assert
that in
conflict
was published Apr.

"A
19,
1902, by the Secretary of the Holy report having been Office, reads: made by Father Laurea of a letter
directed by
lez,
Father Thyrsus Gonza Our Most Holy Lord; the Most Eminent Lords said that
S.J.,
to
probable opinion Avith a more probable, known and estimated as such, it is allowed to follow the less probable; but also to write to all the universities of the Society, [informing them] that it is the mind of His Holiness that who soever chooses may freely write in favor of the more probable opinion, and may attack the aforesaid con
trary [opinion]
to
of a
the Secretary of State must write to the Apostolic nuncio of the Spains [directing him] to signify to the said
and to order them submit entirely to the command of His Holiness." M. (Cfr. J.
;
Father Thyrsus that His Holiness, having received his letter favorably, and having read it with approval, has
Harty
in
the
p.
Cath.
Encyclopedia,
Vol. XII,
445).
commanded
that he
[Thyrsus] shall
freely and fearlessly preach, teach, and defend with his pen the more probable opinion, and also manfully
41 Cfr. Ter Haar, Das Decret Innocenz XL, pp. 177 sqq. 42 For some of the leading argu ments for and against Probabilism
see J.
M. Harty
in
the
Cath.
En
attack the opinion of those who as sert that in a conflict of a less prob
able opinion with a
cyclopedia, Vol. XII, pp. 444 sq. 43 Apologetica, etc. (see p. 23.5,
infra)
Licito
;
known and
more probable, estimated as such, it is
De
Gemino
Probabilismo
Concilia-
Dissertatio Exarata
231
probabilism.
for the purpose of reconciling Probabilism with ÊquiHis arguments were met by G. Arendt,
SJ.
4*
(probabilismus moderatus). /Equiprobabilism takes middle ground between Probabiliorism and simple Probabilism.
9.
ÊQUIPROBABILISM
opinions for and against the existence of a law have equal or nearly equal
It teaches that unless the
probability,
it is
of liberty.
not permissible to choose in favor The leading principle of this system,
which
"In
it shares with Probabiliorism, is this: obscuris pars certe verisiniilior seu pars probabilior sic cognita et iudicata pro lege sequenda
est." However, if the opinions for and against the existence of a law have equal or nearly equal probability, and there is consequently a state of
real doubt,
opinion.
permissible to follow the less safe Hence the axiom, "Lex stride ditbia
it is
non obligat.^ In other words, when there is doubt as to the existence of a law, liberty is in pos session. When there is doubt in regard to
the cessation of a law, the law remains in posses
sion.
tionis
Consequently, whereas simple Probabilism

Gratia;
S.
De Genuino
Alphonsi
Morali
Systemate
Dissertatio
Irenico-Critica. 44 Apologeticae
Fr. Lehmkuhl says towards the conclusion of his little book, Probabilismus Vindicatus 126) (p.
:
de AequiprobabilHistorico-Philo-
"Quod
saepius dixi,
nunc
repeto,
me
ismo
Alphonsiano
inter
moderatum
sire aequiprobabilis-
sophicae Dissert ationis a R. P. J. Caigny, C.SS.R., Exaratae Crisis iuxta Principia Angelici Doctoris Instituta. Freiburg i. B. (Herder).
mum
sive probabilismum discrimen theoreticum exiguum, practicum out nullum out vix ullum agnoscere."
232
NORM
teaches that a
ion favoring
man may
liberty, if
that opinion
always follow the opin is based on
good and
site
grounds (opinio vere ac solide probabilis), even though he knows that the oppo
solid
opinion is more probable, /Equiprobabilism maintains that the less safe opinion may be fol lowed only when it is quite or nearly as probable
(aeque aut fere aeque probabilis) as
its
opposite,
and only when there

arising, not ceasing.
is
question of an obligation
/Equiprobabilism is regarded by some as an ad vance over simple Probabilism, in so far as it sets
up a practical instead of a purely

45
logical
prob
ability.
The extrinsic reasons in favor of Êquiprobabilism are "This summed up by Archbishop Simar as follows
:
theory is the fruit of long scientific debates and has in its favor the presumption that, by dint of logical devel
opment, it is the golden mean between the two conflicting extremes of absolute Probabilism and Tutiorism. The
followers of St. Alphonsus
laration of the
may
point to the
official
dec
Church
that, unlike
Tutiorism and several
forms of Probabilism,
sured.
his teaching has never been cen
these advantages must be added the great per sonal authority of the Saint, which deserves to be the more
45 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor.,
n.
To
I,
58:
"Ad
licite
operandum
sed
sola
non
sufficit
probabilities,
Ratio quid ad licite in rebus dubiis -veritatem inquirere et sequi; at ubi

tate,
amplecti.
operandum debemus
veritas
requiritur moralis certitudo de honeCfr. op. cit., I, n. state actionis."

54:
"Si
amplecti
dare inveniri nequit, tenemur saltern opinionem illam,

accedit,
probabilior."
videatur
opinio, eerie
quae stat pro

probabilior,
lege,
quae propius ad veritatem

qualis est opinio
ipsam
(Ed.
omnino
tenemur nee possumus tune oppositam, quae stat pro libersectari
Gaude, I, 25). Decret Innocenz
Cfr.
Ter Haar, Das

pp. 8 sqq.
XL,
233
highly regarded because the problem in question was for him a vital one, which he investigated with the utmost
conscientiousness
and
zeal,
and also
for
the
further
reason that the conviction at which he finally arrived has stood the test of pastoral experience and triumphantly
resisted innumerable
46
attacks."
The most prominent
representatives of yEquiprobabil-
ism are the Jesuits Christopher Rassler (+ about 1730) and Antony Mayr (-(- 1749), Eusebius Amort of the Can
St. Alphonsus ons Regular of St. Augustine (+ I775), 48 de Liguori, founder of the Redemptorist Order, Bishop
47
Martin of Paderborn, Archbishop Simar of Cologne, and

the moral theologians of the Congregation of the
48 * Holy Redeemer.
Most
Simar, Lehrbuch der 3rd ed., p. 143. The translator of this work thinks it but fair to note, however, that Lehmkuhl and others hold that St. Alphonsus never held Aequi46 Th.
H.
48aSee L. Wouters, C.SS.R., De

Systemate
edition,
data,"
"ad
Moraltheologie,
Moralt Dissertatio, new novutn ins accommo1918.
Wittem (Holland),
from
the
48 Êquiprobabilism
"gained
and persistence
of
St.
vigor teaching
his
probabilistic
(Theol.
118)
Mor.,
principles. ed. ua, Vol.
Lehmkuhl
I,
Alphonsus,
who began
p.
theological career as a Probabiliorist,
illustrates
the
s
difference
be
tween the Saint
teaching and that
of the Aequiprobabilists as follows: AEQUIPROBABILISMUS dicit: In sola

probabilitate legis existentis obligatio non existit. In sola probabilitate legis cessantis obligatio non cessarit.
ST.
defended Probabilism, about 1762, em braced Êquiprobabilism. In a new dissertation he laid down the two
subsequently
.
.
and
finally,
propositions that it is lawful to act on the less safe opinion, when it is equally probable with the safe opin
ALPHONSUS
dicit:
In sola proba
bilitate
legis existentis obligatio
non
In sola probabilitate legis For an cessantis obligatio cessavit. able defense of the Probabilist posi
existit;
tion
see
the
same author
Proba-
bilismus Vindicatus, Freiburg 1906. 47 Cfr. Ter Haar, De Systemate Mor., pp. 20 sqq., 52 sqq. On Amort, see the Cath, Encyclopedia, He was one of Vol. I, pp. 434 sq.
and that it is not lawful to fol low the less safe opinion when the safe opinion is notably and certainly more probable. In the sixth edition (1767) of his Moral Theology he again expressed these views, and in deed towards the end of his life fre quently declared that he was not a
ion,
Probabilist."
(Cath.
sq.
;
Encyc.
Irish
XII, pp. 442
cfr.
Vol. Theol.
the foremost theologians of the i8th (Thos. J. Shahan, Cath. century. EncycL, Vol. I, p. 434).
On Quarterly, Vol. VI, No. 24). the systema compensations seu rationis sufficienti-s, which d Annibale
ascribes to Potton, O. P., and which
has
ists,
been
see
latterly
espoused
by
Prummer and some French moral

Vermeersch, Theol. Mor. t
234
It is
NORM
unjust to charge that Probabilism and the allied systems permit man to act on the strength
of a mere opinion and thus dispense him from the duty of regulating his life in accordance with
the dictates of conscience, which must be the Prob highest rule and measure of all morality.
abilism,
were
bling
all
Probabiliorism, and yEquiprobabilism devised for the express purpose of ena

to follow the voice of conscience in
cases.
49
man
doubtful
So
far
from
undermining
morality, these systems, as a whole, deserve great credit for having safeguarded the important prin ciple of liberty against the attacks and snares of
the Jansenists, Rigorists, and Talmudists.

READINGS. On the moral systems in general K. Werner, System der Ethik, Vol. I, pp. 430 sqq. W. Wilmers, S.J., Lehrbuch der Religion (ed. Lehmkuhl), 6th ed., pp. 537 sqq. F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie, pp. 114 sqq. F. A. Gopfert,
:
Moraltheologie, Vol.
I,

I,
Thos. Slater,
J.
S.J.,
Manual of Moral Theology, Vol.
pp. 68 sqq.
in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, pp. 441 sqq.
M. Harty M. Cronin,
The Science of Ethics, Vol. I, pp. 478 sq. A. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiac Moralis, Vol. II, Totirnai 1905, pp. 213 sqq. Gatide, C.SS.R., DC Morali Systemate S. Alphonsi, Rome 1894. On Probabilism: F. Ter Haar, DC Systemate Morali Antiquerum Probabilistarum Dissertatio Historic o-Critica, Paderborn P. F. Mandonnet, O.P., Le Dccrct d Innocent XL 1894, pp. 77 sqq.
centre
S.J.,
A. Lehmkuhl, le Probabilisme, Paris 1903, pp. 99 sqq. Probabilismus Vindicatus, Freiburg 1906, pp. 16 sqq. L.
Wouters, C.SS.R.,
I,
De Minusprobabilismo, Amsterdam, 2nd
ed.,
306 and 313; K. Neuner, O. Cap., in the Kath. Kirchenstg. of Salzburg, 1924, No. 26. 49 Cfr. Joseph Mausbach, Catholic
pp.
Moral, 2nd ed., pp. 161 sqq.; Ter Haar, Vcn. Innoc. XL de Probabilismo Decrcti Histona, Rome 1904,
pp.
126 sqq.
Moral Teaching and its Antagonists, pp. 69 sqq.; A. Meyenberg, Die kath.
1908, pp. 17 sqq.
J.
235
L. Jansen, Geschichte
und Kritik im Dienste

F. Mentre,
Siecle, Paris
der
"Minus probabilis,"
Courot
et la
Paderborn 1906, pp. 14 sqq. Renaissance du Probabilisme au XIXe
Chr. Lupus, Dissertatio de Antiquitate, Auctoritate ct Legi1908. timo Usu Sententiae Probabilis (Opera Omnia, XI, Venice 1729).
Dinneen,
De
Probabilismo
Dissertatio,
Dublin
1898.
J.
M.
Jos. Th.?
Harty
in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.
XII, pp. 443 sqq.
Rickaby,
Principles of
Moral Philosophy, pp. 152 sqq. Moral Science, Dublin 1904,

:
W. McDonald,
pp. 215
sqq.
A. Ver-
meersch, S.J., Thcol. Mor., Vol. I, pp. 303 sqq. On Probabiliorism Thyrsus Gonzalez, Fundamentum Theolo giae Moralis, i. e. Tractatus Tlieologicus de Recto Usu Opinionum, Rome 1694. J. M. Harty in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XII,
pp. 442 sq.
J.
Biederlack,
in the
S.J.,
in the
Innsbruck Zeitschrift fur

"S.
kath. Theologie, 1890, pp. 186 sqq.

Probabilioriste?"
L. Wedff,
Alphonse
est-il
Revue Thomiste, Paris
1904, pp. 129 sqq.,
477 sqq. A. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, pp. 220 sqq.
On
/Equiprobabilism
Vindiciae
Alphonsianae seu Doctoris
Ecclesiae S. Alphonsi de Ligorio Doctrina Moralis Vindicata a Plurimis Oppugnatoribus A. P. Ballerini cura et studio quorun-
Congregatione SS. Redemptoris, 2 vols., J. De Caigny, C.SS.R., Apologetica de sEquiprobabilismo Alphonsiano, Tournai 1894. G. Arendt, S.J., Apologeticae de JEquiprobabilismo Alphonsiano Historico-Philosophicae Dissertationis a R. P. /. de Caigny Exaratae Crisis iuxta Principia Angclici Doctoris, Freiburg 1897, PP- 65 sqq. IDEM, sEquiprobabilismus ab Ultimo Fundamento Discussus, Rome 1909. Vindiciae Ballerinianae seu Gustus Recognition^ Vindiciarum Alphonsianarum. Insunt Dissertationes Ballerini de Systemate S. Alphonsi et Altera Dissertatio de Probabilismo et JEquiprobabilismo eiusdem, Bruges 1873. A. Ballerini, S.J., Opus Theohgiae Moralis (ed. Palmieri), Vol. I, 3rd ed., pp. 606 sqq. Le
e
dam Theologorum
ed.,
2nd
Bruxelles 1874.
Bachelet,
Harty
Ligorienne, Paris 1899, pp. 25 sqq. J. M. Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, p. 445. BertheCastle, C.SS.R., Life of St. Alphonsus de Liguori, Dublin 1905.
in the
La Question
A. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, pp. 223 sqq. Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Compendium Theologiae Moralis,
27th
ed.,
New York
1919, pp. 163 sqq.
SECTION
THE EVANGELICAL COUNSELS

THESIS. Besides those precepts which must be observed by all under pain of sin, there are others which are intended rather as counsels for those who wish to do more than the minimum and to attain Christian perfection, so far as this is attainable on earth. These Counsels (conI.
silia
evangelica) are: voluntary poverty (pauper-
tas voluntaria), perpetual chastity (continentia, castitas sive virginitas perpetua), and voluntary obedience to a spiritual superior (obedientia vo-
lunt aria).
All
men
without exception are bound to strive
after perfection, but not in the same way or by the same means. 2 The so-called Evangelical Coun1 Cfr.
Matth.
Matth.
XIX,
33.
12, 21;
XVI,
12.
24;
St.
Luke IX,
Thomas,
quae omnia sicut et praecepta ordinantur ad caritatem, sed aliter et alipraecepta alia a praeceptis ordinantur ad removendum ea, quae sunt caritati contraria, cum quibus scilicet caritas esse non potest; ccnsilia autem ordinantur ad
ter.
2 Cfr.
V, 48; XIX,
Nam
Summa
qu. 184, art. 3:

essentialiter
Theol., 23. 2ae, "Per se quidem et
caritatis
consistit perfectio christianae vitae in caritate, principaliter quidem secundum dilectionem Dei,
removendum impedimenta
tatis,
actus cari-
secundario autem secundum dilectionem proximi, de quibus dantur praecepta principalia divinae legis. Secundario autem et instrumen.
. .
quae tamen
sicut
caritati
est
trariantur,
non conmatrimonium,
occupatio negotiorum saecularium- et

alia huiusmodi."
taliter perfectio consistit in consiliis,
2 36

sels
237
do not
in
themselves constitute perfection.
They are merely surer and more effective means of attaining perfection (instrument a perfccTheir superior efficacy arises from the fact that they aid powerfully in removing the ob
tionis).
which obstruct the way to Heaven. 3 While all men have the same ultimate aim, their minor ideals differ according to the various of fices and tasks assigned to each. The highest
stacles
of these are represented by the Evangelical Coun sels. How does a counsel differ from a com
mandment ?
cessity,
A
it
commandment
is
is
a matter of ne
to
whereas a counsel
left
the free
choice of the person to

less,
whom
it is
indeed,
4
forms part of
Theol., 23. excrci-
his
proposed, un vocational
duties.
3 St.
23.C,
Thomas,
186,
Summa
7:
non
silia
ita,
qu.
art.
"Ad
scrvari
4 St.
quod sine consiliis praccepta non possint, sed ut per conobservcntur."
tium perfectionis requiritur, quod aliquis a se removeat ilia, per quae posset impediri, ne totaliter eius affectus tendat in
sistit
perfectius
Thomas,
Summa
Theol.,
et
la
sae, qu.
108, art. 4:
"Haec
est dif-
Deum,
in quo con-
ferentia inter consilium

turn,
praecep-
perfectio caritatis.
tria
:
autem sunt
piditas
tollitur
Huiusmodi primum quidem cu-
quod praeceptum importat ne~ cessitatcm, consilium autem in optione ponitur ei-us, cui datur; et idea convenicnter in lege nova, quae est lex libertatis, supra praccepta sunt
exteriorum bonorum, quac per votum paupertatis; secundum autem est concupiscentia seniibilium dclectationum, inter quas praecellunt delectationes vcnereae, quae excluduntur per votum continentiae; tertium autem est inordinavoluntatis humanae, quae excluditur votum obcdientiae." per
tio
"Prae189, art. i, ad 5: ceptorum quaedam sunt principalia, quae sunt quasi fines praeceptorum et conr Uorum, scilicet praecepta cariad quae consilia ordinantur, tatis,
addita consilia, non autem in veteri lege, quae erat lex servitutis. Oportet igitur,
quod praecepta novae

data de
his,
legis
intelligantur esse
quae
sunt necessaria ad conscquendum finem aeternae beatitudinis, in quern

lex
silia
Ibid., qu.
nova immediate introducit; con-
vero oportet esse de illis, per melius et expeditius potest homo consequi finem praedictum."
quae
Ibid.,
23.
2ae, qu.
43, art.
7,
ad 4:
238
NORM
The
not reach
Catholic doctrine of the Evangelical Counsels did its full development until after the Protestant
;
Reformation but its main ideas are rooted in the very substance of Christian morality and clearly expressed in both Scripture and Tradition.
II.
DEFINITION AND RATIONALE.
The
dis
tinction
between the precepts of the Gospel and the so-called Evangelical Counsels, or counsels of It has always perfection, is as old as the Church.
( i )
been Catholic teaching,
that there are
works
of supererogation, i. e. good works not enjoined as a strict duty; (2) that these works are not
merely good
position to
in opposition to bad, but better in
op
is
good (opera meliora), and (3) that

a
whereas a precept binds of necessity, a counsel

matter of free choice.
i.
Justification, as effected
is
by Baptism or Pen
life.
;
ance,
a state of grace meriting eternal
But grace is merely in an incipient stage it can and should be increased by good works.
In performing such, man may either content him with what is of strict duty, or he may go be yond the province of duty and perform works of
self
His charity. to his merits.
reward
will be in exact proportion
The distinction between precepts and a) counsels is distinctly Scriptural. When the
"Quandoque
tamen consiliorum
.
obsa-
lutis,
quod patet
consilia."
in
his,
qui
iam
servatio
sunt de necessitate
voverunt
239
young man asked what he should do to gain eter nal life, Christ bade him "keep the command ments," and when he pressed the inquiry further, these I have kept from my youth, saying, what is yet wanting to me?" Jesus told him: thou wilt be perfect, go sell what thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have Here treasure in heaven, and come follow me." obedi between drawn we have a clear distinction ence to the commandments, and poverty as a state
"All
"If
of higher perfection; between eternal life as the reward of ordinary good conduct, and a treasure
thing to serve God.
up for those who sacrifice every This distinction is brought out even more clearly by the remark of the at tending disciples, "Behold we have left all things, and have followed thee, what therefore shall we have?" and the Master s promise of a special re the regeneration [i.e. at the last ward: judgment], when the Son of man shall sit on the seat of his majesty, you also shall sit on twelve
in
heaven
laid
"In
seats judging the twelve tribes of Israel." Jesus "And added every one that hath left house, or
:
brethren, or sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands for my name s sake, shall receive a hundredfold, and shall possess life ever
6
lasting."
5 Matth.
XIX,
16 sqq.
eMatth. XIX, 16-30; Mark X, 17-31; Luke XVIII, 18-30.
240
NORM
St. Paul, in his First Epistle to the Corinthians, not only presses home the duty incumbent on all Christians of abstaining from sins of the flesh,
but counsels perfect chastity on the ground that it is easier for the unmarried to serve God with
an undivided heart. 7 A little further on in the same Epistle he clearly distinguishes between preaching the Gospel as a duty incumbent on him by virtue of his office, and the supererogatory good works (preaching without charge) for which he expects a special reward. 8 The common sense of mankind has always b) discriminated between the conscientious perform ance of duty and heroic virtue, and awarded spe cial honors to the latter.
"The
difference between matters of duty
and matters
of counsel has a prominent place in the universal concep tion of morality. There are some actions which are re
quired of all. There are others which are strictly speak ing not demanded of anybody, but regarded as specially
meritorious or heroic.
the strict sense,
least so far as
i.
If there existed
only duties in
positive and negative precepts, the notion of moral heroism might as well be abolished, at
e.
it implies extraordinary self-sacrifice in the performance of duty and the idea of something ex
ceptionally difficult
assumed over and above mere duty.
lics
we do not admit Ziegler s charge that Catho regard moral heroism as super-moral. To follow the Evangelical Counsels is to perform a good work of suIn saying this
7
i i
Cor.
I,
7.
gustine,
De Opere Monack.,
n.
7.
c.
5,
n.
Cor. IX, 1-18.
Cfr.
St.
Au-
6;
c.
6,
241
perior moral value, something demanded of no one, not even of him who might be in a position to perform
it.
Is there
any reason for assuming that morality does

True, there are certain vocations
not admit of degrees?
and occupations which oblige those engaged in them to perform duties in excess of the average; but even
within these vocations
9
we
find there are heroic acts not
strictly required of any one but left to the free choice of

volunteers."
All good works are means of attaining per fection but some are more effective than others.
2.
;
These are called Evangelical Counsels in the nar rower sense. They have a relatively higher value
than ordinary good works, for three reasons
because, being
:
more
difficult,
they
demand greater
effort, (2) because they are directly opposed to the three principal agencies of sin, concupiscence of the eyes, concupiscence of the flesh, and pride
and (3) because they are of special im portance for the Church and the entire social 11 In recommending the three Evangelical order. Counsels as "bonuni melius" the Church does not
of
life,
10
mean
erty,
to
condemn marriage,
and the rational use of
the holding of prop liberty as mala.
On
9
i
the contrary, she expressly upholds these as

VII,
7,
Ph. Kneib, Die "Jcnseitsmoral," cfr. Gen. XLI, 39-45; pp. 96 sq.
;
20.
c.
St.
6,
Ambrose, De Vir-
ginitate,
14, n. 83.
n.
Kings XVII, 10 i John II, Summa TheoL,

7.
25.
1
On
34; De Viduis, c. the diversitas statuum
6.
Cfr. St. 2ae, qu.
Thomas,
186, art.
et
officiorum
in
Ecclesia
cfr.
St.
23.
Thomas,
Summa
Theol., 2a 2ae, qu.
183, art. 2.
11 Cfr.
Rom. XII, 4
sqq.
Cor.
242
against
NORM
excessive Rigorism. Voluntary more no depreciates marriage than gold chastity 12 Moreover, poverty and virdepreciates silver.
12 Cfr. St.
bona
Methodius of Olympus,
Virginity (2u/i,
H>
scilicet
qui audeant solvere copulam

(P. L.,
The Banquet, or On
iroaiov
r)
coniugalem."
XVI,
274).
irepl
dyveias)
6
TTJV
c.
HapdevLas
dêtXe
e\0ovo-rjs
Aoyos OVK
Augustine, Contra Secundinum Manich., c. 21: "Me fateor in Ec

St.
iravrri
eTretSr;
Ou
rwv
yap
TCKvoyovlav. ruv dffrepwv rj

<pws
clesia
catholica
ita
didicisse,
sicut
ant-
mam
et
corpus,
quorum alterum
est, ita
creXr/pr;
fjieiûv
a\\i>jv
pelrat. St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Catccheses,
eo~Ti, Trapd TOVTO dvaiaarepuv TO (Migne, P. G., XVIII, 48).
pracditum, alterum subditum
bonum animae ac bona corporis non esse nisi a summo bono, a quo sunt omnia bona, sive magna sive parva,
svve
caelestia
IV,
6<J)V
c.
25:
TT]V
Mr; 5
ctu
irdXiv /carop-
sive
terrestria,
sive
Kara TUV Ti/j.ios yap
corporalia, sive temporalia sive sempiterna, nee ideo ista

spiritualia
sive
yd/ôs
<pr\aiv
/cat
r?
KOLTTJ 6
reprehendenda,
renda."
quia
ilia
praefe-
d/u az Tos, ws (Hebr. XIII,
ATrocrroXos
rijv
4).
Kcu av
OVK
,
ayveiav
G-^V
dpa
yeyafJ-TiKoruv lyevi>r)6r]s OTL -^pvatov KTijcriv e%ets, TO dpyvdAX eue XTTtSes piov dwodoKi/jiaê /cat ot ev yd/j.u> vo(J.tfi<i)S f.<jTwao.v ot 5ta TO TW yd/Aw xpw/ieôi.
rwv Mr) yap

e/c
XLII, 597). IDEM, De Civ. Dei, XVI, c. 36: "Constituamus ambos [Abraham et Isaac]
(P. L.,
bonos; etiam sic profecto melior est coniitgatus fidelissimus et obedientissimus Deo quam continens minoris
field obedientiae. Si minorisque vero paria sint caetera, contineniem coniugato praeferre quis ambigatf" (P. L., XLI, 515). IDEM, De Bono
TeKvoyovelv, dXX ou 5ta ro dovelv rw 70,^0? TrpooreXrjXi ôres. (Migne, P. G., XXXIII, 488). St.
<pCh.i}-
Coniugali, castitatem
c.
23,
n.
est,
28:
"Nullo
Ambrose, De Viduis,
"Honorabile
c.
12,
n.
72:
modo dubitandum
meliorem esse
bilior
integritas
igitur
est ;
coniugium, sed honoraVII, 38). (i Cor.
continentiae
quam
casti-
Quod
bonum
est,
non
vitan-
dum
est.
quod est melius, eligendum Itaque non imponitur, sed praeCfr.

c.
ponitur."
256).
tate,
P. XVI, L., (Migne, DC VirginiIDEM,

n.
tatem nuptialem, quum tamen utrumn. bonum." Ibid., que sit 29: "Nuptiae et virginitas duo bona sunt, quorum alterum mains." (P. L., XL, 392, 393). IDEM, Contra Iulian.
Pelag., IV,
c.
7,
n.
38:
"Bo
6,
33-34;
"Bona
igi
num
causa
cuius
758). 18:
tatis
opus
est
nuptiarum, generandi
tio
tur
vincula
vincula;
bonum
tamcn a mundi, ut -viro potius cupiat placcre Nemo ergo vel qui quam Deo.
. .
nuptiarum, sed tamen sed coniugium, tractum et iugo iugo

.
commi.\
operis
legitima
est
scxuum,
ordinata
fructus
susceptio
filiorum."
(P.
L.,
XLIV,
IDEM,
De
S.
et
"Sectatores
Virglnitate, c. sectatrices per-
coniugium
elegit,
reprehendat integri-
petuae continentiae
et sacrae virgini-
tatem, vel qui integritatem sequitur, condemnet coniugium. Namque huius sententiae adversaries interpretes
admoneo, ut bonum suum ita praeferant nuptiis, ne malum iudicent
damnavit
iamdudum
Ecclesia,
eos
Neque fallaciter, sed plane nuptias. veraciter ab Apostolo dictum [/ Cor.

ginity are bona meliora only
truly moral, and
It is
243
when chosen from

13
especially religious, motives.
impossible to speak
ried state than
many
.
pious
. .
more respectfully of the mar monks have done at different

Deo ad acternam merentur
beatitu-
Haec VII, 28, 38, 46} noverint. dominica, haec apostolica, haec vera, haec sana doctrina est, sic eligere
dona maiora, ne minora
(P. L.,
(al.
"Ambae
dmem
damnentur."
XL,
404).
IDEM, Sermo 104
de verb. Dom., 27), c. 3, n. 4: [Martha et Maria] fuerant Domino gratae, ambae amabiles, ambae discipulae." Ibid., c. 2, n. 3:
dit,
(Denzinger-BannO.P. wart, 430). Kollin, (+ 1536), Eversio Lutherani Epitha"Matrimoniale lamii, Cologne 1527: bonum neutiquam vituperatur, dum
pervenire."
n.
C.
sibi
virginale
anteponitur,
quemad-
modum
.
nee luna vilipenditur, quando sol in luminis claritate ci praeferlur.

.
.
ergo Dominus opus reprehensed munus distinxit. Transit labor multitudinis et remanet caritas
"Non
.
. .
Num
to
argentum
P.
iniurid
melius?"
afficit
dicens
aurum argento
cording
Kollin,
Ac who was a
century,
unitatis."
(P.
L.,
XXXVIII,
617).
prominent Dominican preacher and

missionary
celibacy
is
Jerome, Epist., 48 (al. 50), n. 2: "Non honorabiles ignoramus Lenuptias et cubile immaculatum. gimus primam Dei sententiam: CreSt.
of
in
the
itself
i6th
preferable to matrimony; but he who has not the grace of continence, does better
scite et multiplicamini et replete ter-
(Gen. I, 28). Sed ita nuptias recipimus, ut virginitatem, quae de nascitur, nuptiis praeferamus. Numquid argentum non erit argenaurum si tum, argento prctiosius
est?"
ram
(melius facit) if he marries." Cfr. N. Paulus, Die dcutschen Dominikaner im Kampfe gegcn Luther,
Freiburg 1903, pp. 124 sq. F. Falk, Die Ehc am Ausgange des Mittelal;
Ibid., n. 17:
"Si
dixero, me-
lius est
virginem essc
quam nuptam,
Si autem alte-
Freiburg, 1908. i Cor. XIII, 1-3. gustine, De Bono Coniugali,

ters,
13 Cfr.
St.
c.
Au
10, n.
bono melius praetuli.
rum gradum fecero, melius est nubcre quam fornicari, ibi non bono melius, sed malo bonum praetuli.
Multa
quod
495.
cationi
diversitas est inter id melius,
nuptiis, et inter id,
anteponitur."
quod
forni-
(P. L.,
XXII,
57)-
"Dicat
aliquis: trahcre, quae a

est
Non
bono
405).
IDEM, Epist., 22, n. 19: et audes nuptiis deDeo benedictae suntf detrahere nuptiis, quum illis
antefertur.
(P.
(a.
10 omnes ho "Quid si, inquiunt, mines vclint ab omni concubitu conunde subsistet genus hutinere, manum? Utinam omnes hoc vellent, dumtaxat in caritate de puro corde et conscientia bona et fide non ficta." (Migne, P. L., XL, 381). IDEM, De S. Virginitate, c. i "Quibus dictum est: Qui potest capere, capiat [Mt. 19, I2~\, c.rhortandi sunt, ne terrean:
:
tur, ct terrendi,
nc e.rtollantur.
est
Non
virginitas
Nemo malum
L.,
solum ergo praedicanda

tas,
virgini
comparat."
XXII,
c. i
:
Conc.Lat.IV.
solum virgines
1215),
"Non
et
continentes,
verum etiam coniugati per rectam fidem et operationem bonam placentes
ametur, verum etiam mone infletur." (P. L., XL, 397). IDEM, Enarr. in Ps., 99, n. "Melius est humile coniugium 13:
ut
nenda,
quam superba
virginitas."
(P.
L.,
244
NORM
periods in the Church s history. Thus Brother Berthold of Ratisbon (-J- 1272) says in one of his sermons: "God sanctified Matrimony by making it one of His seven Sac
raments. It is holier than any order ever founded, more sacred than that of the barefooted friars, or the preachers, or the grey monks. In certain respects none of these
orders can be compared with marriage, because marriage is a necessary order, and therefore strictly enjoined by
God, whereas
all
other orders are merely of

the
counsel.
could the predestined number of 14 be reached without Matrimony

?"
How
elect
ever
The Church has one standard of morals

the moral law
is
for
all
because
one, though application may vary. Christian perfection, which is the ideal of every Catholic, consists in observing the precept of charity, i. e., loving
its
God and one s fellowmen. The Evangelical Counsels do not constitute perfection, but they are means of fulfilling 15 the precept of charity more perfectly.
"It
is
mistake,"
writes Father A.
consilia
M. Weiss,
sunt
O.P., the
XXXVII,
(a/.
IDEM, Serm., 4 1280). 44 dc Diversis), n. 20: "Sancti non sunt, nisi qui habuerint caritatern.
.
. .
perveniendi
Ibid., art.
Qualis
ergo
caritas,
quae
homines
quaedam instrumcnta ad perfectionem." 5, ad 2: Dicendum, quod statum perfectionis assu-
sola
multum
prodcst, sine qua caetera

(P. L.,
nihil
prosuntf"
XXXVIII,
and
26-1
44). 14 Cfr.
quasi profitentes seipsos perfectos esse, sed profitentes se ad . . Unde non perfectionem tendere.
.
munt non
Denifle-Volz, Luther Lutherdom, Vol. I, P. i, pp.

sqq.
;
committit aliquis mendacium vel simulationem ex eo, quod non est perfectus,
A.
M. Weiss, O.P., Luther-
psychologie, 2nd ed., pp. 120 sqq.; F. Falk, Die Ehe am Ausgange des Mittelalters,
qui statum perfectionis assumit, sed ex eo, quod ab intentione
perfectionis
Ibid.,
animum
relinquit."
Freiburg 1908.
15 Cfr. St.
Thomas, Summa
Theol.,
"Relii, ad 3: gio nominal statum perfectionis ex
qu.
186, art.
"Consilia qu. 108, art. 4: oportet esse de his, per quae melius
la
2ae,
intentione
7:
tis
finis."
Ibid., qu. 188, art.
"Religio
ad perfectionem caritaCfr.
et
expeditius potest
praedictum."
homo consequi
IDEM, ad 3,
ibid.,
i:
ordinatur."
finem
2ae,
2a
Luther and Lutherdom, Vol.

pp.
Denifle-Volz, I, P. i,
sqq.
qu.
184,
art.
"Ex
146 sqq.
Weiss, Lutherpsychopp.
ipso
modp loquendi
apparet,
quod
logie,
2nd
ed.,
in

famous
apologist,
"to
245
assert, as Protestants do, that
from
the Catholic point of view the only genuine Christians are the members of religious orders and all others are second-
The only excuse for asserting such thing is that some religious have praised their state of life in exaggerated terms. ... It is wrong
rate
and
inferior.
foolish
to say that those
who have embraced
religion are the
only real or first-rate Christians. There are no sec ond-rate Christians or Christians improperly so called.
But
it
is
strive to
become perfect
perfectly true that religious men and women Christians, that they are bent on
True, this practicing their faith honestly and sincerely. should be the aim of all and, generally speaking, can be attained by all who try. Yet, since the world offers in
numerable impediments to the higher life, there have always been those who preferred to withdraw as much
as possible from the world, in nrder more securely to fulfil the task incumbent upon all. This is the origin and mean
ing of the religious
16
life."
That the Evangelical Counsels involve a bonum

melius
is
taught in Sacred Scripture both directly
and by
implication.
There are eunuchs who were born so from their mother s womb and there are eunuchs who were made so by men and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him 17 take Here we have a clear-cut distinction between those who remain unmarried for God s sake and those who "take not this word" because
Christ says:
: :
it."
16 Weiss, op.
cit.,
p.
125 sqq.
17 Matth.
XIX,
sq.
246
it.
NORM
cel
they cannot understand
Hence voluntary
ibacy is an ethical ideal that is not enjoined on all, but may be attained by those who have a special
vocation and grace.

St.
Paul says
19
"Concerning
18
virgins I have no
commandment
of the Lord,
but
speak
my
mind, as one by the mercy of God rendered trust 20 therefore that this (state) is worthy. I think
good on account of the present distress that it is good for a man so to be. Art thou bound to a wife ? Seek not to be loosed. Art thou not ( so ) bound ? Seek not a wife. But if thou marry, thou hast not sinned and if a virgin marry, she hath not sinned. Yet such (as marry) shall have afflic tion in the flesh but I spare you. But this I say,
;
;
brethren, the time is short: henceforth let those that have wives be as having them not, and those that weep as weeping not, and those that rejoice as
rejoicing not, and those that buy as possessing not, and those that use the world as not using it to the
For the world as we see it is passing away. My desire is to have you free from care. He that is unmarried hath a care for the things of the Lord, how he may please the Lord but he that is married hath a care for the things of the world, how he may please his wife, and he is drawn dif ferent ways. So also the unmarried woman and
full.
;
the virgin hath a care for the things of the Lord,

Kvpov.

that she
^4?
may be holy both in body and soul, whilst woman hath a care for the things of the world, how she may please her husband. Now this I say for your own profit, not that I may cast
the married
a snare upon you, but for the sake of seemly and devoted and undistracted service of the Lord.
But
if
any man thinketh that he incurreth
re
proach as regards his virgin (daughter, by keep

ing her unmarried), she being past her youth, and if (in the circumstances) it ought so to be done,
he wisheth he sinneth not let them be married. But he that standeth steadfast in his heart, being under no necessity but having power to accomplish his own will, and hath de termined in his heart to Keep his (daughter a) In a word, he that givvirgin he shall do well.
let
him
act as
21
eth his virgin (daughter) in marriage doth well, and he that giveth her not shall do better." 23 Of
22
a widow he says: she will: only (let
"She
is
free to
it
be) in the
I
Lord.
is,
marry whom But she is

in
more
ment;
God."
blessed
24 25
if
she remain as she
my
judg
and methinks
too have the spirit of
Apostle, therefore, though he em phasizes the cares and trials of the married state,
The
21
yafj-eirucav.
Kpelffffov
von Korinth, Freiburg

sqq.
;
1899,
pp.
62
22 /caXws Trotet, bene facit. 23 Trotei, melius facit.
H. Achelis, Virgines SubintroLeipsic

St.
ductae,
J.
1902,
pp.
s
30
sqq.;
24
Kara
TTJV
fj.rjv
25 i Cor. VII, use the Westminster Version). Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. XXIV, can. 10.
J.
yvu^v. (We 25-40.
McRory,
Paul
the Corinthians, P. I, Lutz, Die kirchliche Lehre von den
Epistles to pp. 101 sqq.;
evangelischen Rat en, Freiburg 1909,

pp. 69 sqq.
Rohr, Pcuûs und die Gemeinde
248
NORM
and the great advantages of

"cast
virginity, does not
snare,"
i.
e.,
does not bind the faithful,
but,
distinguishing clearly between the divine
command and
his personal opinion, recommends the sake of God, i. e., for a higher for virginity moral end, as something that is better than mar
a bonum melius. Similarly, when he riage asks for alms to succor the needy, he makes a dis tinction between precept and counsel, saying:
"I
speak not as commanding; ...

2Q
give
my
ad
vice."
The
"As
so-called Apostolic Constitutions declare:
regards virginity, we have received no pre 2T cept, but leave it as a matter of conscience to the decision of those who choose it freely.
But we exhort them not

.
When
[a virgin]
make a vow lightly. has vowed chastity, her

to
deeds must correspond with her vow, in order that people may know that she took her vow with
a serious intention, not to show contempt for riage, but to give proof of piety."
3.
mar
A
is
precept, as said above,
is
a matter of
is left
strict obligation,
whereas a counsel
to the
free choice of the person to
whom
it is
proposed.
Man
and
262
i
at liberty to choose between what is good what is better. 29 There is no law compelling
cfr. 6,
i
Thess.
27
Cor. VIII, 8 sqq.; IV, 2; 2 Thess. Ill, Tim. VI, 13 sq.

i?s
28 Constit. Apost., IV,
c.
14
2
(ed.
12;
Funk,
29
i
I,
235). Cor. VII,
37
sqq.;
Cor.
etfynj
VIII,
7 sqq.;
IX,
7; Philem. 13 sqq.

him
to choose the
It
249
attain
more perfect means for
ing his end.
follows that to choose the less
perfect means is no sin, and that every man is free to do so in case of doubt. But it also follows
that those
who
feel
morally certain that they are
called to a life of higher perfection, are
bound to
obey the
call.
"The Evangelical Counsels," says Bishop Martin, "are appointed for the perfection of the faithful in general, not of each individual in particular. There are circum
stances which
may
render
it
impossible or dangerous for

. .
an individual
has called and
to follow these counsels.
Hence God
does not will all to follow
who
them, but only those whom are not prevented by other duties.
He On
the other hand, a counsel
may sometimes become

cannot save
Thus
if
know
that
my
soul
a duty. in the
world, I am obliged to enter a religious order, because otherwise I should expose myself to great danger. But
even in such a case
it is
not the counsel as such that binds,

vocation."
but the duty of choosing the right

III.
It is
30
unnecessary to prove our thesis from
Tradition.
erected
The
Catholic Church
upon the Evangelical
so to speak, The Counsels.

is,
ideas of poverty and obedience are embodied in 31 and the high value of virginChrist Himself,
Cfr.
Cone.
Trident.,
Sess.
XXV,
III,
c.
134; F. X.
Linsenmann, Lehr142
F. Regul. et Monial., c. 17. Katholische Kirchc und Sawicki,

sittliche
de
buck
sqq.;
dcr
A.
Moraltheologie, pp. Ott, Die Bettelorden
und
Personlichkeit,
Cologne
ihre Verteidigung durch
Thomas von
1907, pp. 102 sqq. 30 C. Martin, Lehrbuch der kath.
Aquin, Treves 1903, pp. 26 sqq. 31 Cfr. Matth. VIII, 20; XXVI,
42;
Moral, 5th
ed.,
pp.
Thomas,
Summa
88 sq.; cfr. St. contra Gentiles,
Mark XIV,
2
sq.;
VIII,
36; Luke II, 7, 51; XXII, 42; John IV,
2 5o
ity
NORM
appears from His life and that of His Blessed Mother. 32 The Shepherd of Hermas clearly in culcates the Catholic doctrine of supereroga
tory works.
ity St. St.
33
number of
St.
treatises
St.
on virgin
Ambrose, by Cyprian, Augustine, Jerome, St. Methodius, and St. Gregory Nazianzen give testimony to the belief of the early
Church
tine,
in the Evangelical Counsels.

it
St.
Augus
paradoxical though may sound, while he did not employ the term opus supererogationis, 34 From the very beginning actually created it.
the Church put the Evangelical Counsels into
34; V, 30; VI, 38; Rom. V, 19; 2 Cor. VIII, 9; Phil. II, 7 sq.; Heb.
I,
c.
4,
n.
15;
De
Virginitate,
n.
c.
3,
n.
13;
Epist.,
XVIII,
n;
St.
V,
8;
X,
G.
7
I,
sqq.
32 Matt.
Cfr.
delle
M.
18-25; Luke I, 34-38. Galfano, La Vergine
Vergini,
sqq.;
Palermo
1882,
pp.
Pohle-Preuss, Mariology, 2nd ed., St. Louis 1916, pp. 83 sqq.; Schaefcr-Brossart, The Mother of Jesus in Holy Scripture, New York 1913, PP- 10 sqq.; O. Bardenhewer,
237
Contra Faust. Manich., Prudentius, Contra Symmach., II, v. 1054 sqq. 33 Cfr. V. "Der Schweitzer, Pastor Hermac und die Opera supererogatoria," in the Theol. QuarAugustine,
c.
XX,
21
talschrift,
sqq.; A.
Tubingen, 1904, pp. 539 Harnack, Mission und Ausdcs
brcitung
Christentums,
Vol.
I,
Manas
1905;
brief,
Verkiindigitng,
M. Meinertz, Freiburg 1905, pp. 16 sqq.; E. Neubert, Marie dans I Eglise Ante-
Freiburg Dcr Jakobus-
2nd
ed., Leipsic 1906, pp. 186 sq.
34 Cfr. St. Augustine,

ginitate,
c.
De
S. Vir
30:
"Neque
enim sicut
ita
On the Jewish niccenne, Paris 1908 view of virginity see Lev. XXI, 1-3, 13; V. Zapletal, O.P., Alttestamentliches,
non moecJiaberis, non occide.i, did potest, non nubes. Ilia
exi-
guntur, ista offeruntur. Si fiant ista, laudantur; nisi fiant iUa, damnantur.
pp.
78 sqq.;
Fribourg (Switzerland), 1904, II. Weiss, Das Gelubde
In
illis
Dominus
debit-urn
itnperat
Jephtes, Braunsberg 1907; E. Mader, Die Menschenopfer der alien He-
vobis, in his autem, si quid amplius supererogaveritis, in redeundo red-
det
412).
vobis."
(Migne,
oft
P.
L.,
XL,
On the essen braer, Freiburg 1909. tial distinction between Christian

and
sius,
Vestal
virgins,
see
et
J.
Lip31
De
St.
Vesta
Vestalibus
pp.
Syntagma,
sqq.;
Antwerp Ambrose,
1603,
wrongly) quoted Serm. 16 de Temp, was not written by St. Augustine. Cfr. Ps.Augustine, Append. Serm., 273 (a/. 6r de Temp.), in Migne s P. L.,
(but
The
De
Virginibus,
XXXIX,
2258.

practice
251
and rejected the claims of Helvidius, Jo35 and other heretics who at vinian, Vigilantius,
tacked them.
30
The principle underlying the Catholic teaching on the counsels was never seriously challenged until the time of the so-called Reformation. Protestants maintain that
the
commandment
of
perfect
charity
it.
and that no one can go beyond

says that
binds all men, But Christ plainly
we love God if we "keep His commandments." 3r Hence if we wish to love God, we must perform the
good deeds required of us as a matter of duty, and avoid sin. But in the choice of means we are free. We can choose either the more or the less perfect. In other words, we are not bound to love God in the most
perfect manner possible, or do all the good we can do, or always choose that which is better in preference to that which is simply good. To practice the highest conceiv
able degree of charity (amor intensive smnmus) is a privilege reserved to the holy souls in Heaven. Another Protestant objection is that every man is
bound
become constantly more perfect, and no one can more or merit a greater reward than the rest. Those who raise this objection rest it on Luke XVII, 10:
to
achieve
"When
you
St.
shall
have done
all
these things that are comder
Jerome, Liber de Perpetua Virginitate B. Marine adv. Helvidium; Libri Duo ad loviniaLiber contra nuni; Vigilantium (Migne, P. L., XXIIII, 183, 212,
35 Cfr.
Cfr. 339). 601 sqq.;
ten Jungfrauen in den ersten Jahr-
hundcrten
Kirche,
Freiburg
23
sq.;
1892, pp. 6 sqq. 3T Cfr. John
XIV,
21,
XV,
Horn,
10;
Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
John VI.
in
"Veritas
St.
John II, 3-6; V, 3; 2 Gregory the Great,
W.
P-
Haller,
Jovinianus,
Leipsic
1897,
MS! W. Schmidt,
Vigilantius, Miinster 1860, pp. 48 sqq.; A. Reville, Vigilance de Calagurris, Paris 1902. 36 Cfr. J. Wilpert,
XXX. n. i: Evang., Siquis diligit me, sermonem meum servabit. Probatio

dicit:
ergo dilectionis exhibitio est operis." (Migne, P. L., LXXVI, 1220).
Die gottgeweih-
252
you, say
:
NORM
;
manded
We
are unprofitable servants

to
do."
done that which we ought
we have The command to be
as perfect as possible binds all. But no one is bound to be most the perfect always doing good work he is capable of.
Every man
is
free to choose between the various
means
that lead to perfection. To deduce from the general to strive us after perfection, the strict which bids precept of not that which is good, but that which duty doing only
nay the best we are capable of, would lead undue rigorism. On the other hand, upon closer examination the Scriptural text quoted will be found to contain nothing more than an enunciation of the funda
is
better,
to
mental truth that whatever good there is in us we owe primarily to the grace of God, and therefore we should 38 always be humble.
READINGS. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 108, art. 4; 2ae 2ae, qu. 184, art. 3 and 4; qu. 186, art. 3-7. IDEM, Summa contra Gentiles, III, c. 130-137 (Rickaby, God and His Creatures, London 1905, pp. 293 sqq.) IDEM, An Apology for the Religious
Orders, Edited by
christliche
J.
Procter,
London
1902.
A. Winterstein, Die
J.
Lehre vom Erdengut, Mayence

la
1898, pp. 87 sqq.
G.
Earthier,
J.
Perfection Chrctienne, Vol. II, pp. 5, 39, 105, 150. Mausbach, Catholic Moral Teaching and its Antagonists (tr.
De
by Buchanan), New York 1914, pp. 270 sqq. H. Denifle, O.P., Luther and Lutherdom (tr. by Volz), Vol. I, p. i, pp. 146 sqq. F. J. Lutz, Die kirchliche Lehre von den evangclischen Raien, Paderborn 1907, pp. 48 sqq. A. S. Barnes in the Catholic En cyclopedia, Vol. IV, pp. 435 sq. H. J. Gladder, S.J., Als die Zcit erfiillt war, Freiburg 1915. Suarez, De Statu Perfectionis,
c.
VI sqq. Book VI II.

I 9i7,
PP-
Francis de Sales, Treatise of the Love of God, Addis and Arnold, Cath. Dictionary, pth ed., London 335 sq. Thos. Slater, S.J., The Foundation of True
St.
Morality, N. Y. 1920, pp. 51 sqq.

SS
John XV,
5;
Cor.
I,
31; III,
7; 2 Cor. Ill, 5;
X, 17. Cfr. Cone. "Absit ut Trident., Sess. VI, c. 16:
ut eorum velit esse merita, quae sunt ipsius dona." Cfr. St. Celestine,
12,
Epist.
n.
in se ipso vel confidat vel glorietur, et non in Domino, cuius tanta est erga homines bonitas,
christianus
homo
14
ad Episc. Galliae, I, c. (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
141).
CHAPTER V
THE OBJECT OF MORALITY
HUMAN
I
ACTS
SECTION
HUMAN
1.
ACTS DEFINED
soul.
Man
is
composed of body and
His
of
acts, to
be truly human, must bear the
mark
those faculties which distinguish him from the lower orders of creation, namely, understand
(actus humanus), in contradistinction to an act of man (actus hominis), is characterized by three essen
ing and
free-will.
human
act
tial
qualities:
knowledge,
voluntariness,
and
freedom. "All three are necessary to it, and, as necessary, they are called principles of the hu
man
2.
1
ics,
*
act."
A
I,
human
p.
act does not necessarily manifest

of Eth-
M. Cronin, The Science

Vol.
33.
Hinc
in
Cfr. Gury,
:
Com-
"Acpendium Theol. Mor., I, n. i tus humamts est ille, qui procedit a
deliberata hominis voluntate, seu est actus procedens a voluntate libera cum advertentia ad bonitatem vel malitiam
ab actu hominis, qui fit vel ab homing absque ulla deliberations, ut sunt actus indcliberati concupiscentiae, seu motus prinwprimi, vel actus hominis penidiffert
homine,
tus distracti, somniantis, delirantis, amentis, ebrii ant usu rationis quo-
nus
moralem. Actus igitur humaidem sonat ac actus moralis.
cunque modo
destitute."
253
254
itself
OBJECT OF MORALITY
externally
(actus externus) but may be the will (actus internus). within completed human act need not be positive, but may 3.
consist in
is
an omission, for freely to omit an act as imputable to the will as to perform it. If an
omission (omissio, actus omissus) is the result of culpable inadvertence or carelessness, it is volun
tary in the cause (voluntarium in causa). human act, being the product of a 4.
A
i.
finite
creature,
is
not what the Scholastics
call
actus
purus,
e. } it is
not conceived and consummated
simultaneously, but passes through a series of distinct periods of time. First an impression is made on the senses. This leads to a notion or
concept, which is presented by the intellect as As soon as the will con desirable to the will.
sents, there is
an actus interims.
When
this in
ternal act sets the bodily powers in motion and be comes external, there results an actus externus.
act that has run through all these stages 2 called complete or perfect.
An
is
READINGS. St. Thomas, Sumtna TheoL, la 2ae, qu. 18-20 (Rickaby, Aquinas Ethicus, Vol. I, pp. 55 sqq.). St. Alphonsus, Theologia Moralis, 1. V. (ed. Gaude, Rome 1905 sqq., Vol. II,
2 Cfr.
I, n. 4,
Gury, Comp.
3:
TheoL Mor.,
"[Voluntarium distingui-
vel perfectum imperfectum, prout habetur cum plena cognitions plenoque consensu, seclusa omni voluntatis repugnantia, out cum impervel imperfecto fecta cognitione consensu vel etiam cum aliqua re-
tur]
pugnantia voluntatis. Hinc voluntarium istud imperfectum duplex esi: \ Stride imperfectum, nempe deficiente
out pleno imperfectum, repugnante quidem aliquatenus voluntate, sed remanente libera et absoplena consensu, 2
cognitione
late
lute
consentiente,"
HUMAN ACTS
pp. 689 sqq.).
255
ed.,
V. Cathrein,
I,
S.J.,
Moralphilosophie, 4th
S.J.,
Frei
burg
ed.,
1904, Vol.
pp. 284 sqq.

J.
L. Sacotte, Traite des
Actes Hu~
Vol.
maines, Paris 1905.
Bucceroni,
De
Actibus Humanis, 3rd

Ethics,
I,
Rome
1906.

Holaind,
S.J.,
Natural Law and Legal Practice, New York 1899, pp. 71 sqq. Thos. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. I sqq. V. Frins, S.J., De Actibus Humanis, Vol. II, Freiburg 1904. A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis
pp. 30 sqq.
R.
I.
Fundamental, Haaren Compendium Theologiae
1910,
pp.
31
sqq.
Moralis, 27th
ed., pp.
Sabetti-Barrett, 10 sqq.
S.J.,
SECTION
IMPUTABILITY OF
I.
HUMAN
ACTS
NOTION OF IMPUTABILITY.
There
is
a dis
tinction
between responsibility, imputability, and

the condition of a
morality.
man who, and having knowledge, being free from coercion, can act or not act, as he chooses, and is
"Responsibility is
sufficient
therefore
accountable
is
for
his
determination.
is
Imputability
the character of an act which
freely performed, so that the good or evil of attributable to him who performs it. The
it is
mo
rality or immorality of an act is its conformity or 1 non-conformity with the moral law."
Imputation
is
the
judgment by which a man
is
declared to be the free cause of an act and held

responsible for
its
consequences.
Before judgment on the authorship of an act can be definitely pronounced, it is necessary to in

quire, (i)
whether the agent to

really its author
whom
the act
is
imputed
is
(imputatio facti),
to act
and (2) whether he was free

sponsible for his conduct
legis).
i R. I.
and
is
re
(imputatio iuris sive
Holaind,
S.J.,
Natural
Law and
Legal Practice,
p. 84.
256
IMPUTABILITY OF ACTS
The judgment by which an
a
act
is
257
man
2
is
pronounced
either
by
his
imputed to own con
science
may
eth
or by civil or ecclesiastical authority, and be true or false. God alone always "judg3
justly,"
because
He
is
"the
searcher of
hearts."
judgments are just only in so far as they coincide with those of God.
II.
Human
ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS OF IMPUTA BILITY. i. A man is responsible for an act (be it of commission or omission) in exact proportion Hence to the degree of liberty which he enjoys.
only free acts are imputable, i. e. } attributable to In other the agent for reward or punishment.
THE
words, where there

is
is no freedom of choice, there no imputability, and the greater a man s power
to determine his actions, the greater his merit or
demerit, and vice versa.

2.
Of
It
was
course, no human being is entirely free. shown in the first part of this treatise how
is
the will
social
factors.
influenced by individual as well as In addition to these there are
certain others
which diminish
responsibility,
e. g.,
ignorance, inadvertence, habit, and various tal disturbances.

2 Cfr.
i
men
Rom.
8;
Cor.
IV,
Theol.,
sq.
St.
10;
XX,
4,
12; 10;
John
Acts
2
II,
I,
23;
Thomas,
112,
art.
Summa
5;
la 2ae, qu.
S.J.,
I,
XIV,
i
24;
XV,
10;
Theo.
Meyer,
Cor. IV, 5;
Cor. V,
Apoc.
Institutiones luris Naturalis, Vol.
II, 23;
5
XX,
12.
2nd
ed., pp.
173 sqq.
cfr.
Cfr.
W.
3 Jer.
XI, 20. 4 Ps. VII, 9 sq.;
urn die sittliche

Jer.
Schmidt, Der Kampf Welt, pp. 301 sqq.
XVII,
258
OBJECT OF MORALITY
IGNORANCE (ignorantia)
is
a)
civil
the absence of
6 knowledge which a person should have.
The
courts (except in the case of children) do not admit ignorance as a mitigating circumstance in cases of serious transgression, but proceed on
the principle that
excuse."
"ignorance
of the law does not
Moral Theology, on the contrary, acknowl

which responsibility and
edges the existence of culpable ignorance by guilt are diminished.
is
The reason
not far to seek.
A sin that springs
from ignorance does not indicate a positive evil tendency of the will. That there are peccata ignorantiae the New Testament teaches in nu merous passages. Christ prayed for his execu
tioners:
forgive them, for they know In one of the discourses not what they do/ 7 St. I had not reported by John, Jesus says:
"Father,
"If
to them, they would not have 8 have no excuse for their they St. Peter, after accusing the Jews of having killed the Author of life, added: "Brethren, I
sin; but
come and spoken
now
sin."
know
through ignorance, as did Paul regrets that he per secuted Christ and His Church, but adds obthat
you did
it
also your
rulers."
St.
"I
6 Cfr. E. Taunton, The Law of the Church, pp. 365 sq. J. Hollweck, Die kirchlichen Strafgesetse, Mayence 1899, pp. 77 sqq.
;
7 8 9
Luke XXIII, 34. John XV, 22.

Acts
III,
17.
tained the mercy of God, because
rantly in
10
259
it
did
igno-
unbelief."
Note, however, that ignorance can never alto gether excuse any one from performing the duties
proper to his state of

strictly
because every man is bound to inform himself with regard to

life,
these duties. 11
b) INADVERTENCE signifies (inadvertentia) the omission of such care as duty requires one
to take with regard to one s obligations. Civil jurisprudence imputes acts of inadvertence that Not so Moral Theol involve injury to others.
ogy.
Sins
committed
through
inadvertence
(peccata inadvertent iae) are not altogether im puted because they spring from defective knowl
There can be no guilt in the theological edge. sense of the term where there is no dolus, i. e., a deliberate intention of violating the law, or
culpa lata, i. c., criminal carelessness or neglect of that ordinary care which every sensible
person
ters.
1^2
is
supposed to exercise
in
important mat
An evil action may be premeditated (malice prepense or aforethought), or committed in a fit of passion (dolus
repentimis). This distinction is important in cases where a man takes the life of another. If he acts with malice
10
i
Tim.
I,
13.
11 Cfr.
Luke XII,
47
sq.
Jas.
IV,
17.
Codex luris Can., can. 2199 Ex. XXI, 29 sqq.; Numb. XXXV, 22 sqq.; Deut. XIX, 4-6.
12 Cfr.
sq.;
260
OBJECT OF MORALITY
;
aforethought, he is guilty of murder if carried passion, his crime is merely man-slaughter.
away by
Negligence means failure to do something which a

reasonable man, guided by those considerations that or dinarily regulate the conduct of human affairs, would do,
or doing something which a prudent and reasonable man would not do. Negligence may be slight, ordinary, or
gross.
These principal degrees have been shaded off in opposite directions by the Roman jurists and the School
men
c)
(latissimaf latior, lata; levis, levior, levissima) ,
13
CUSTOM (consuetude)
or habit
is
a facility
acquired in performing certain acts by frequent If a man always acts in the same repetition.
manner, he gradually acquires a certain
facility.
As
a determinant of the
will, this facility
may
be
a means either of virtue or of vice, and as the 14 proverb says, often becomes second nature.
13 Cfr.
V.
Patuzzi,
Ethica
Chri-
stiana, Vol.
sq.:
V, Bassano 1790, pp. 229
"Culpa latissima dolo et fraudi aequiparatur, et revera in e.rpresso dolo consistit, ut si miles excubias habens se dormire -fin gat, ut hostes
ingrediantur.
est
Culpa
latior est
dolus
tacitus, ut si custos gregis,
qui pot-
gore,
est
clamando furem vel lupum fusilet tamen. Culpa vero lata
sed seris non obductis. Levissima denique culpa omissionem importat illius diligentiae, quam soli cautissimi et circumspectione abundantes solent adhibere, qualis est illius qui gemmas in area clauderet, sed manit non experiretur vel exploraret, num firmiter occlusa sit." E. Voit, Theologia Moralis, Vol.
ostio,
I,
6th ed.,
Wurzburg
latior
omissio illius diligentiae in rei alienae custodia vel damno vitando,
p.
494:
"Culpa
1769, n. 744, dicitur dolus
quam prudentes
et cordati viri
com-
praesumptus, sive diligentiae, ex qua,
omissio
etsi
debitae
muniter adhibere solent in propriis rebus curandis, ut si servus nocturno tempore ostium domus claudere neLevis vero in omissione conglegat.
sistit illius diligentiae,
non omnino manifests colligatur malus nocendi animus, prudenter tamen potest praeTalis est in eo, qui
sumi.
damnum
quam
viri et
speciali-
patres familias diligentiores; ut si quis au~
ter
adhibere
solent
proximi non intendit quidem, illud tamen praevidct futurum ex actione sua vel eius omissione."
14 Cicero,
"Consuetude
De
reum vas commodatum in suo quidem cubiculo reponat, clauso etiam
Finibus, V, c. 25: quasi altera natura."
Cfr.
St.
Augustine,
Confession?*,
Habit diminishes but does not destroy
In so far as a habit
responsibility,
261
free-will.
and
is freely acquired, it increases in so far as it is good, it aug
ments merit. If one has unconsciously acquired a bad habit, the sinful acts are not imputable until the wickedness of the habit and its acts is real ized. As soon as it is realized, the duty arises
of rigorously combatting the evil habit. By fall back a into bad habit a man incurs ing grave re sponsibility, because he almost invariably acts
against his better knowledge and his conduct has in it something tending to that state of which our
Saviour says that it is "worse than the first." 15 Acts which are, as it were, mere mechanical
consequences of a habit, are imputable only in so
far as the habit itself
in causa).
is
voluntary (voluntarium
d) There are
many
or
different kinds of
MENTAL
Illu
DERANGEMENT
psychic
abnormality.
sions, hallucinations, fixed ideas, hypochondria, melancholia, hysteria, morbid fear in its various
forms (especially agoraphobia,

VIII,
c.
i. e.,
the dread of
crossing or being in the midst of open spaces), se5,
n.
10
"Quippc
ex
-vo-
Homilias,
50),
n.
3
8:
(P.
L.,
luntate perversa facta est libido, et dum servitor libidini, facta est con-
XXXVIII,
Consid.,
125).
c.
St.
Bernard,
"Nil
De
tarn
IV,
3,
n.
suetudo,
resistitur,
et
dum
facta
consuetudini
est
7,
non
19:
durum,
(P.
L.,
quod
duriori
non
cedat."
necessitas."
CLXXXII,
777).
Cfr.
Jer.
IDEM,
"Non
De
Musica, VI, c. frustra consuetude
n.
cunda
citur."
et quasi affabricata
quasi senatura di-
1173).
(Migne, P. L., XXXII, 753, IDEM, Serm., 17 (a/. 28 inter
XIII, 23. Matth. XII, 43 sqq.; cfr. Prov. XXVI, n; Luke XI, 24 sqq.; Heb. X, 26; 2 Pet. II, 20 sqq.
ir>
262
OBJECT OF MORALITY
vere nostalgia (homesickness), and all forms of quasi-amentia impede the normal exercise of rea son and must therefore be regarded as extenuat
ing circumstances, though they do not entirely de stroy free-will unless they develop into actual in
sanity.
be consulted.
must
such cases medical experts should Note, however, that theologians sometimes assume moral guilt where
all
In
physicians and lawyers deny the existence of re For while it is quite true that sponsibility. the genuine symptoms of insanity are rarely simu
many crimes (especially sexual per are versities) pathological, and that an insuper able disinclination to labor and a slanderous
lated, that
tongue
teria,
may
is
it
be symptoms of neurasthenia or hys equally certain that not all forms of
mental derangement entirely destroy the freedom

of the
3.
will.
act (eyentus se to the are imputable quent es) agent whenever follow from the act in the they ordinary course of events and can therefore be foreseen, either defi
nitely or at least in confuso, or when they are organically connected with the act from which
The CONSEQUENCES of an
they flow and form a moral whole with
it.
When
an act that is in itself licit entails evil conse quences which the agent can foresee, these con
sequences are imputable to the agent, provided the act is neither physically nor morally neces-
sary.
263
Consequences which follow an act with purely physical necessity are not imputable in the court of morals, though they can and must be
16 reckoned with in secular jurisprudence.
READINGS. On imputability in general: M. Cronin, The Sci ence of Ethics, Vol. I, pp. 182, 543 sq. R. I. Holaind, S.J., Nat ural Law and Legal Practice, pp. 84 sqq. Theo. Meyer, S.J., Institutiones luris Naturalis, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 173 sqq.
On
ignorance
p.
Vol. V,
682.
J.
A. Boudinhon in the Catholic Encyclopedia, F. Delany, ibid., Vol. VII, pp. 648 sqq. Th.
of Moral Theology, Vol. the Church, pp. 365
I,
Slater, S.J.,
A Manual
pp. 30 sqq.
E. Taunton,
A. Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamental-is, pp. 71 sqq. A. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae Moralis, pp. 48 sqq. On negligence: Thos. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral The
sq.
The Law of
ology, Vol. I, pp. 27* 409 sq., 539. J. F. Delany in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. X, p. 737. On mental derangement as a diminuent of responsibility: A.
Huber, Die Hemmnisse der Willensfrciheit, 2nd ed., Ig. Familler, Pastoral-Psychiatrie, Freiburg 1898. Zwangsgedanken und Zwangszustande, Paderborn
pp. 214 sqq.

S.
Weber,
R.
v.
1903.
Kraft-Ebing, Psychopathia Scxualis, I3th ed., Stuttgart 1907. W. K. Hilty, Wille, Die Psychosen des Pubertdtsaltcrs, Vienna 1898.
Krauss, Der Kampf gegen die 1897. Verbrechensursachen, pp. 295 sqq. J. Bessmer, S.J., Storungen im Seelenlcben, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1907. IDEM, Die Grundlagen der Seelenstorungen, Freiburg 1906. Th. Braun, Die religiose Wahnbildung, Tubingen 1906, pp. 13 sqq. Jas. J. Walsh, "Scru
Ueber Neurasthenie, Berne
ples, Obsessions,
LVI
(1917),
and Dreads," in the Ecclesiastical Review, Vol. No. 4, pp. 360-375. O Malley-Walsh, Essays in
Pastoral Medicine, New York 1906, pp. 211 sqq. Fr. a Barbens, O. M. Cap., Introductio Pathologica ad Stndinm Theol. Mor.,
Tarracona
16 Cfr.
ologica,
St.
1917, pp. 81 sqq.
Thomas,
Summa
5;
la 2ae, qu. 20, art.
TheGo-
pfert, Moraltheologie, Vol. I, 6th ed.,
pp. 122 sqq.
SECTION
MORALITY OF
HUMAN
ACTS
By
the morality of an act
trinsic relation to the
is understood its in moral order and to reason.
bad.
Every human act, in concrete*, is either good or It is good if it conforms to the moral law; 1 it is bad if it violates that law.
sources of morality (f antes sive principia moralitatis) i. e., the factors or principles which
,
The
determine the relation of an act to the moral law, are: (i) the object or matter of the act, (2)
form, intention or end tending circumstances.
its
(finis),
and (3) the

if all
at
Generally speaking, an act
is
good
three
of these factors cooperate in making it conform able to the right order; it is evil if any one of them is wrong or sinful. Hence the Scholastic
axiom:
"Bonum
ex Integra causa, malum ex

2
quocunque
1 Cfr.
defectu"
causa,
malum
ant em
ex
singulari-
Ethics, Vol. I, 2 Cfr. Pseudo-Dionysius,
bus
De
Div.
G.,
"Malum
Nomin.,
Ill,
c.
4,
30
(Migne, P.
ad 3: contingit ex singularibus defectibus, bonum autem ex tota et indefectibus."
Ibid., art. 7,
St. 729). Thomas, Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 19, art. 6, ad i:
tegra
causa."
(Cfr.
qu.
18,
art.
4,
ad
3).
"Dionysius dicit:
Bonum
ex integra
264
MORALITY OF ACTS
I.
265
THE
OBJECT.
The
is
(obiectum materiale) sidered in the abstract.
object that act
of
an
act
itself,
con
Though
there are ob
jects that are in themselves indifferent (e. g., eat
ing and drinking), as a rule the object of an act has an inherent morality of its own, which causes the will of the agent to be either good or bad,
according as the object

fasting), or bad
3 St.
is
good
(e.
g.,
3
prayer,
(e. g., lying,

Theol.,
stealing).
Objec-
Thomas, Summa
la
"Act us omnis 2ae, qu. 18, art. 8: habet speciem ab obiecto, et actus hunianus, qui dicitur moralis, habet speciem ab obiecto relato ad principium
ordinetur ad debitum finem. Unde necesse est omnem actum hominis a deliberativa ratione procedentem in individuo consideratum bonum esse
actuum humanorum, quod
est ratio.
ali-
Unde
quid,
si
obiectum actus includat
malum. Si autem non procedit a ratione deliberativa, sed ex quadarn imaginatione (sicut quum aliquis
vel
quod conveniat ordini rationis, erit actus bonus secundum suam speciem, sicut dare eleemosynam indigenti; si autem includat aliquid, quod repugnat ordini rationis, erit actus malus secundum speciem, sicut Confurari, quod est tollerc aliena.
tingit
barbam vel movet manum aut pedem), talis actus non est proprif loquendo moralis vel humanus, quum hoc habeat actus a ratione, et sic erit indifferens, quasi extra genus moralium actuum exist ens." Cfr. St. Ambrose, Expos, in Ps., 118, s. 14,
fricat
n. 23:
"Omnia
autem,
includit
quod
obiectum
actus
cum
ratione [facias ],
non
ordinem
aliquid pertinens ad rationis, sicut levarc festu-
nihil sine ratione, quia tionabilis, o homo, sed
non
es irra-
rationabilis."
cam de
terra, ire
ad campum
et hu-
iusmodi, et tales actus secundum spe ciem suam sunt indifferentes."

Ibid., art. 9:
"Oportet quod quilibet individualis actus habeat aliquam drcumstantiam, per quam trahatur ad
(Migne, P. L., XV, 1400). St. Jerome, Epist., 112 (al. 89), n. 16: "Neque enim indifferentia sunt inter
bonum
et
malum,
sicut
est
philosophi
continentia,
disputant.
Bonum
bonum
vel ad
malum, ad minus ex
Quum enim parte intentionis finis. rationis sit ordinare, actus a ratione deliberativa procedens, si non sit ad
debitum finem ordinatus, ex hoc ipso repiignat rationi et habet rationem mali; si vero ordinetur ad debitum
finem, convenit
Inter utrumque indifferens ambulare, digerere alvi stercora, capitis naribus purgamenta
est luxuria.
malum
proiicere,
sputis
rheumata
iacere.
est; sive
Hoc nee bonum nee malum

enim feceris sire iustitiam habebis
Observare autem
non
nee
legis
feceris,
nee
iniustitiam.
caeremonias,
est."
cum
ordine rationis,
non potest
esse indifferens, sed aut
unde habet rationem boni. Necesse est autem quod vel ordinetur vel non
bonum
est,
aut
malum
(P. L.,
XXII, 926).
266
lively
OBJECT OF MORALITY
indifferent
acts
become good or bad
when they are willed with a good or bad inten tion, or when good or bad circumstances surround
them.
According to
act
is
its
gravity in the moral order, an
called materia gravis or levis.
either intrinsically as their objects are

cally
In regard to their object or matter human acts are good or intrinsically bad, according
good
acts
tively.
An
good or bad in themselves. Intrinsi may be good either absolutely or rela absolutely good act (secundum se bonus),
is, e. g.,
which can never be bad.
the love of God.
rela
which inspire or the accidental conditions or circumstances which sur round it. Such relatively good acts are, for example,
prayer, fasting, almsgiving. Intrinsically bad acts are such as run counter to the
tively good act (in se bonus) is one that or bad according to the reason or motive
may
be good
moral order by their very nature. Some are absolutely bad and can never become good, as, e. g., hatred of God, Others are bad merely because the agent has perjury. no right to perform them or because they are a source of
danger or temptation, e. g., manslaughter, viewing un chaste pictures. Acts of the latter kind are called rela tively bad. relatively bad act may become good by
virtue of special conditions or circumstances,
e.
g.,
self-
defense or study.
Extrinsically bad acts are bad simply because they are forbidden. As Gopfert rightly remarks, however,
"the
terms extrinsically good and extrinsically bad do
not denote merely the conformity or nonconformity of an act to the law, regardless of its intrinsic ethical char-
MORALITY OF ACTS
acter
;
267
but they indicate that the relation existing between such an act and the moral order owes its existence to a
command
II.
or prohibition of the
*
lawgiver."
THE
END.
is
By
iectum formate)
the end of an action (obmeant the reason or motive
which induces the agent to perform that action, or, to employ a more familiar term, the intention with which he acts. 5 i. An intention may be actual, virtual, or ha
bitual.
It is actual if
is
it
is
elicited
immediately
direct ref
before the act
performed and with
erence to the same.
It is virtual if its
force
is
borrowed from a previous act of the

is
will,
which
accounted as continuing in effect. It is ha bitual if it once existed and has never been re
tracted.
be morally good an act must be inspired by an actual, or at least a virtual, good intention.
sufficient for
in
To
merely habitual intention is not this purpose because it may exist
an uncon
scious subject, and is strictly speaking non-exist ent while the action is being performed.
The Catholic Church exhorts her make a good intention frequently, at

4 Gopfert, Moraltheologie, Vol. I, 6th ed., p. 191. o Cfr. Matth. VI, 1-8. St. Au-
children to
least every
lumen
festum
in nobis, quia hoc nobis maniest, bono animo nos facer e

Cadmus."
quod
gustine,
II,
De Serm. Dom.
in
Monte,
XXXIV,
Baptismo,
1289).
c.
St.
c. "Non ergo quid 13, n. 45: quisque faciat, sed quo animo faciat,
2,
P. (Migne, Bernard, n. 6 (P.
L.,
De
L. t
CLXXXII,
1035).
considerandum
est.
Hoc
est
enim
268
OBJECT OF MORALITY
all
day, in order to sanctify
their actions
by re
6 There is no ferring them directly to God. nobler motto than, "All for the greater honor and 7 glory of God."
be primary or sec ondary, ultimate or intermediate, natural or su

action
The end of an
may
pernatural.
2. As regards the influence of the intention on the morality of an act, note the following consid erations:
a)
An
act that
its object is the intention of the agent.
morally indifferent, so far as concerned, becomes good or bad by

is
Thus
the act of eating,

if
which
is
in itself indifferent,
becomes good
done
for the purpose of sustaining life and strength, bad if done exclusively for pleasure. 8
objectively good (e. g., bad if done for a becomes prayer, almsgiving) an wicked purpose. Conversely, objectively good act derives an increase of moral value from a
b)
An
act
that
is
good
c)
intention.
A
sq.
materially bad act

i
(e. g.,
lie) is
never
31; Col. Ill, 17; cfr. John

I,
Oi Cor. X,
10
St.
Pet.
IV,
n;
XXXVI,
XV,
8; Phil.
Epist.
et s
ad
Ignatius of Antioch, Tlavra, Polycarp., c. 5:
the good inten341). tion as a requisite of supernatural merit see Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Ac-
On
TifjLTjv
#eou
yivecrdoi.
(Funk,
Patres Apost., I, 2nd ed., 292, 8). St. Augustine, Enarr. in Ps., 34,
s.
2,
n.
16:
"Tola
die
Deum
lau-
and Habitual, pp. 413 sqq. H. Lammens, AntiquitS de la Formule Omnia ad Maiorem in the Revue dt Dei Gloriam, I Orient VIII (Paris Chretien,
tual
7 Cfr.
"L
"
dare quis duratf Suggero remedium, unde iota die laudes Deum, si vis. Quidquid egeris, bene age et laudasti Deum." (Migne, P. L.,
1903), pp. 477 sqq.

8 Eccles. 9 Cfr.
X, 17. Matth. V, 16; VI,

15.
sqq.;
XXIII,
5,
MORALITY OF ACTS
269
rendered good by a good intention. The reason is that a good end cannot be attained by evil
means. 10
No
gained by sin is large enough to jury inflicted on the moral law.

said:
"What
advantage that could possibly be outweigh the in Christ Himself doth it profit a man, if he gain
the whole world, and suffer the loss of his own soul? Or what exchange shall a man give for n It is never allowed to do evil that his soul?"
good may come, which is but another way of 12 saying that the end never justifies the means. the teach says Father Slater, S.J., ing of Holy Scripture and of the Catholic Church, nor have the Jesuits any other doc Father trine different from that of the Church. Dasbach promised to give anyone two thousand florins who would prove in open court that the Jesuits had ever taught that the end justifies the means. Count Paul von Hoensbroech undertook to do so, but he failed in his suit when it was tried
"This,"
"is
at Cologne, in the spring of

10 Cfr. Job XIII, 7;
13
1905."
Rom.
Ill, 8;
sa-
fine,
VI,
C.
i.
St.
Augustine,
"Ad
De Mendacio,
of>itu-
nulla velut bona intentione facienda sunt." (Migne, P. L., XL,

528). 13 Th.
Slater, S.J., A Manual of Theology, Vol. I, p. 49. P. Roh, S.J., Das altc Lied:
21,
lutem
lante
sempiternam duccndus est mcndacio." (Migne, P.

n.
42:
nitllus
L.,
Moral
Cfr.
"Der
XL,
11
516).
Matth.
XVI,
St.
26.
12 Cfr.
Augustine,
n.
Contra
18: "Interest Mendacium, c. 7, quidcm phirimum qua causa, quo intentione fine, qua quid fiat, scd ea
Zweck heiligt die Mittcl," 3rd Freiburg 1894; M. Reichmann, S.J., Der Zwcck heiligt die Mitt el, Freiburg 1903; Fr. Gerard, S.J.,
ed.,
Does
C.
S.J.,
the
End
S.
Justify
the
!>.
Means?
Duhr,
ed.,
quae constat esse peccata, nullo bonae causae obtentu, nullo quasi bono
T.
pamphlet. Jesuitenfabcln, 4th

J.
pp.
542
sqq.;
Mausbach,
Catholic
270
OBJECT OF MORALITY
act
is
However, while the sinfulness of an

neutralized,
it
never
may
if
be diminished by the intention
of the agent,
the choice of
is
means
results
from
for the sake of a imperfect knowledge or good purpose. To choose a bad means for the
made
attainment of a good end manifestly indicates less malice than to choose a bad means for its own
sake.
14
An apparently
good purpose may, on the

quant qui miserando furatur; sed
si
other hand, augment the wickedness of an act

its Antagonists, 92 sqq.; Pilatus (Dr. V. Naumann, a Protestant), Der Jesuitistnus, Ratisbon 1905, pp. 280 sqq.; F. Heiner, Der Jesuitismus, 3rd ed., Pa-
Moral Teaching and

pp.
furtum omne peccatum est, ab omni furto est abstinendum." (P. L.,
XL,
et
529).
St.
c.
Bernard.,
7,
De
Praec.
Dispens.,
n.
13:
"Interest
derborn 1902, pp. 81 sqq.; IDEM, Die Jesuiten und Hire Gcgner, Munich 1906, pp. 73 sqq.; Catholic Encyclo
pedia, Vol. Ill,
p. 87; Vol. XIV, pp. 104 sq.; Brou, S.J., Les Jcsuites de la Legende, Paris 1906; Concerning
sane, qua causa, quo affectu, qua in-
Jesuits,
London
1902; Maynard,
1855.
6:
The
quo praecipiente in quove malum hoc committatur. Et quidem nullam prorsus inobedientiam dico parvi duccndam, non tamen omnem pari aestimandam periculo. Enimvero mandatum Dei est:
tentione,
praecepto
Studies and Teaching of the Society

of Jesus, 14 Cfr.
dion,
c.
Non
duos
occides [Ex. 20, jj],
Fac ergo
London
St.
1
homicidas,
et
unum quidem
Augustine,
n.
"Mihi
8,
Enchiri videtur
spoliandi cupiditate, alterum z ero necessitate sese defendendi facinus

perpetrasse.
peccatum quidem esse omne mendacium, sed multum inter esse, quo animo et quibus de rebus quisque menNon enim sic peccat ille, qui tiatur.
cendi
consulendi, quomodo ille, qui voluntate mentitur;
no-
An non
hie
satis
evi
dent er inter lepram et lepram causa separat, utique faciens disparem valde unius culpam eiusdemque
transgrcssionisf Quid vero, si hunc subita ira, ilium studiosa malitia out
out
[hand] i ero tantum nocet, qui viatorem mentiendo in diversum Her mittit, quantum is, qui viam ritae mendacio fallente depravat." (Migne, P. L., XL, 240). IDEM, Contra Mcndac., c. 8, n. 19: "Dicet ergo aequandus est fur quialiquis
:
vetus odium
pulerit?
-forte
Num
erit
sandum
mili
ad idem scelus imquidnam simili peniudicio, quod tarn dissi-
affectu? Nil deinde incestius obscoeniusve quam illas filias Lot paternum usurpasse
factum constabit
concubitum [Gn.
quis
libet ei furi
tate
qui misericordiae volun hoc dixerit? furaturf Quis

ideo
est
non
videat,
19, 32-36], et tamen quantum evacuaverit
out
attenuaverit
fiagitii
Sed horum duorum non
reatum
intentio
pietas
turpis nefandique intentionis et
quisquam bonus quia peior est unus. Peior est enim, qui concupiscendo
pietatisf"
(Migne, P.
L.,
CLXXXII,
868).
The legend
that
MORALITY OF ACTS
in the attempt to
271
because of the intrinsic contradiction contained
employ a bad means for the at tainment of a good end, e. g., if one meant to honor God by committing murder or fornication. THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF AN ACTION. III. By the circumstances of an action are understood certain accidental conditions which determine and 15 distinguish it from others of the same kind. There are seven such conditions, enumerated in
the old-time versus memorialis:
"Quis,
quid, ubi, quibus auxiliis, cur, quomodo, quandof (Who, what, where, when, by what means, why, and how?)
Some circumstances (circumstantiae gradum moralitatis mat antes) merely augment or dim inish the malice of an act, whereas others com
pletely transform its moral species (circumstan tiae speciem moralitatis miitantes). This dis
tinction
of great practical importance, for the circumstances which alter the species of a sin
is
must be mentioned
in confession.
16
However,
St.
it
is
not so
much
the external cir-
Crispin stole leather to make shoes for the poor, is based upon a
V. Cathmisunderstanding. Cfr. rein, S.J., Moralphilosophie, Vol. I, 4th ed., p. 286.

15 Cfr. St. Thomas, Sumtna Theol., la 2ae, qu. 7, art. i: "Dicitur in localibus aliquid circumstare, quod est quidem extrinsecum a re, tamen attingit ipsam, vel
modo actum humanum, circumstantiae dicuntur. Quod autem est extra substantiam rei, ad rem ipsam
pertinens,
Unde
qu.
18,
accidens eius dicitur. circumstantiae accidentia

sunt."
eorum dicendae
art.
3,
Cfr.
ibid.,
10,
n.
Sweens,
pp.
Theol,
Mor.
Fundament.,
Sess.
106
appropinquat
ei se-
sqq. 16 Cone.
Trident.,
5
XIV, de
7;
c.
cundum locum.
Et idea quaecumque conditiones sunt extra substantiatn act&s et tamen attingunt aliquo
Poenit.,
47.
and canon chismus Romanus, P. II,

c.
Cate5,
qu.
272
OBJECT OF MORALITY
cumstances as the interior disposition or inten

tion of the agent manifesting itself in and through the circumstances, that furnishes the criterion for
determining the moral character of an
act.
A
:
modern writer on
"
ethics
somewhat paradoxically
depends on time, place, and circumstances says whether a virtue is a vice, or a vice, a virtue." This dictum is not true except in the limited sense explained
It
above. 17
of an
augment or lessen the malice (circumstantiae aggravantes vel minuentes peccatum) are enumerated in the following hexa
that
evil action
1S
:
The circumstances
meters by a medieval writer

"Aggravat
or do, locus peccata, scientia, tempus,

in culpa, status altus, lucta
18
pusilla."
Aetas} conditio, numcrus, mora, copia, causa,
Et modus
The circumstances
of an act
that alter the moral species

classified.
may
be variously
There are
(1)
Circumstances
which render an act a
transgression of more than one commandment or duty, e. g., when a man kills his parents or
commits fornication with a married woman; (2) Circumstances by which a sinful act be comes a source of injury to others, as, e. g. when
}
scandal
given (3) Circumstances in which the matter of the

;
is
17 Matth. VI,
sqq.
;
sqq.;
sqq.
XVIII,
St.
Luke X, 30 Thomas,
3.
Cfr. A. Franz, Drei deutsche 1279. Minoritenprediger, Freiburg 1907, p.

30.
Summa
18 Frater
TheoL, ra 2ae, qu. 7, art. Conrad of Saxony,
d.
MORALITY OF ACTS
sin
273
is
committed (where such matter
divisible)
ceases to be materia parva and becomes materia magna, as when one eats several ounces of meat
on a day of abstinence, or
dollars.
19
steals, say, thirty-five
(4) Another specific difference arises from the circumstance that an act which might have been externalized remains immanent, and therefore
incomplete.
(5) Finally, the circumstance that an evil ac tion was committed more than once furnishes a
criterion
(though not an
infallible
one) for clas

for this psy
sifying
it
as a sin of malice.
It is
chological as much as for juridical considerations that the Church requires penitents to mention the
number of
their grievous sins in confession.
tradistinction to specific) distinction of logians give the following rules

:
For determining the number or the numerical (in con moral acts, theo
a)
The determining
which
it
factor of an individual act
is
the
last stage
reaches in the process of realization.
preliminaries (introduction, preparation, the intermediary stages, and the ordinary means or instruments used in attaining the final end, are always
etc.),
The
natural
presumed. Thus if one has burglarized a house he need not mention the circumstance that he employed a ladder In this and similar to climb through the window.
cases a whole series of distinct acts
10 This in the
inateria
is
is
regarded as morally
Mor.,
p.
the
amount put down

of
Sabetti
as
latest
editions
dium York
Theol.
1915,
ed.
223,
New
34O.
absolute
gravis.
(Compen-
274
OBJECT OF MORALITY
one (actus nuniero unus), provided, of course, the in troductory and preparatory acts stand in their natural relation to the main act. When this is not the case, and if
such acts have a malice of their own, the circumstances
must be separately enumerated, as when a man drinks to excess in order to commit fornication. b) Acts belonging to the same moral species are reck oned as separate and distinct if they were far enough
apart in time to render
agent to
actions
make
new
it possible and necessary for the decision of the will. series of
press
e.
may be interrupted either voluntarily, e. g., by ex or silent retraction, contrition; or involuntarily,
g.,
by a considerable interval of time, inadvertence,

Sins are multiplied according to the numerical dis by them. Thus, if you have
lie in a grave matter, it is necessary to state how persons were deceived or injured by it; if you gave
sleep, etc.
c)
tinction of those affected
told a
many
scandal, to
READINGS.
Vol.
I,
how many, and

Ths. Slater,
St.
S.J.,
so forth.
pp. 41 sqq.
Jos.
Rickaby,
die
S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Thomas, Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 18 sqq. Moral Philosophy, pp. 31 sqq. J. Ernst,
Ueber
Notwendigkeit der guten Meinung, pp. 244
sqq.
J.
F.
Delany in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, pp. 69 Sweens, Theologia Moralis Fundamental, 2nd ed., pp. 84
sq.
A.
sqq.
SECTION
MORAL HABITS
i.
DEFINITION.
Good and
evil
may
be viewed
not only as individual and transient acts (actus), but also as permanent habits (habitus). habit is quality difficult to change, whereby an agent, whose nature it was to work
"a
or another indeterminately, is disposed easily and readily at will to follow this or that 1 particular line of action/
one
way
Rickaby explains the difference between (i) habit and disposition, and (2) habit and fac
Fr.
ulty thus:
"Habit
differs
from
disposition, as
a quality easily changed. Thus one disposition in a good humor is in a disposition to be kind.
is
Habit
ing
is
fit.
:
a part of character disposition is a pass Again, habit differs from faculty or

:
to act but habit, pre action renders supposing power, easy and expedi have a tious, and reliable to come at call.
;
power as power enables one
We
power
to
move our
ride or swim.
limbs, but a habit to walk or Habit then is the determinant of

S.J.,
Ijos. Rickaby,
Moral Philosophy,
p.
64.
275
276
OBJECT OF MORALITY
power. One and the same power works well or 2 ill, but not one and the same habit."
Habits are either infused or acquired.

a)
An
in or
infused
born
it
(habitus infusus) is with the subject or communicated to
habit
from
outside.
According
to its nature, such
a habit disposes the subject for good or bad. b) An acquired habit (habitus acquisitus}, as
the
name
indicates, is the result of repeated acts.

:
But here arises a difficulty the habit comes from acts, and the acts from the habit, how is the habit originally acquired?" This question is an swered by Fr. Rickaby as follows: "There are two ways in which one thing may come from an other. It may come in point of its very existence, as child from parent; or in point of some mode of A habit has existence, as scholar from master. its very existence from acts preceding; but those acts have their existence independent of habit. The acts which are elicited after the habit is
"If
the
formed, owe to the habit, not their existence, but mode of their existence: that is to say, be
cause of the habit the acts are
now formed read The or and virtuously. ily, reliably, artistically, primitive acts which gradually engendered the habit, were done with difficulty, fitfully, and with
many
failures,
management,
if it
more by good luck than good was a matter of skill, and by a

2 Ibid.
MORAL HABITS
special effort rather than as a thing of course,
was question of moral well-doing." 3 2. VIRTUES. Not only should man perform deeds now and then; he should be habit good ually good and advance constantly on the path of 4 virtue. Once a good habit has become firmly
where
it
rooted in the soul, it is called a virtue. virtue (virtus) may therefore be denned as a habit that
a
man
which
i.
has got of doing moral good, or doing that 5 befits his rational nature to do. In the
with charity,
last analysis all virtues are identical

e., 6
will.
conformity of the human with the divine According to the order to which a virtue
it
belongs
a)
3
is
called natural or supernatural.
The moral
virtues regulate
man
c.
relation
Op. cit., pp. 66 sq. 4Cfr. Ps. LXXXIII, 8; Phil. Ill, 12-14; i Thess. IV, i; i Pet. II, 2. Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, c. 10.
St.
aliquid proficcre." (Ed. Pohl, II, 10). s Cfr. St. Augustine, De Moribus
Ecclcsiae,
et
I,
6, n. 8:
"Non
placet
vocare virtutem nisi habitum ipsum

quasi
sapicntis
Bernard,
virtus
se
clauditur.
.
Epist.,
254,
n.
2:
aniinae
qualita-
"Vera
finem
. .
nescit,
tcmpore
iustus
tern."
non
Nunquam
1314).
P. L., XXXII, (Migne, IDEM, De Lib. Arbitr., II, c.

(P.
L.,
arbitratur
quam
esnrit
dicit:
Satis
comprehendisse, nunest; sed semper

iustitiam,
ita ut,
si
18-19
St.
XXXII,
Sum-ma
art.
1266-1269).
Theol.,
"Virtus
Thomas,
qu.
55,
la
est
sititque
2ae,
4:
semper viveret, semper quantum in

se
contenderet, semper de bono in melius proncere totis viribus conaretur." Ibid., n.

est,
"Quod si
iustior
esse
ritur,
Ibid.,
bona qualitas mentis, qua recte vi qua nullus male utitur."

qu.
58,
n.
3:
"Virtus
hu-
4:
studere perfectioni esse

profecto
est."
perfectum
ficerc
est,
nolle
pro-
mana est quidain habitus perficiens hominem ad bene operandum." Cfr. Matth. XXII, 36-40; Rom.
XIII,
3.
deficcre
CLXXXII, De Imitat.
habet
nititur
460).
Christi,
(Migne, P. L., Thomas a Kempis,

1.
10;
Tim.
I,
John V,
I,
c.
3:
"Quis
fortius
certamen
se
quam
qui
ipsum? Et hoc deberet esse negotium nostrum, vincere scilicet se ipsum; et quotidie se
vincere
ipso fortiorem fieri atque in melius
Augustine, Enchiridion, c. "Omnia 121, n. 32: praeccpta dirina referuntur ad caritatem, de Finis autem qua dicit Apostolus:
praecepti est caritas,
etc.
. .
.
Cfr.
St.
Om-
nis itaque praecepti finis est caritas. id est, ad caritatem refertur omne
278
to
OBJECT OF MORALITY
the
created
world.
They are
principally
four: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temper ance. These are often called the cardinal vir
Their enumeration, as Fr. Rickaby has a piece of Greek philosophy that pointed out,
tues.
"is
has found
its
way
into the catechism.
Prudence,
justice, fortitude,
and temperance are mentioned
by Plato as recognized heads of virtue. They are recognized, though less clearly, by Xenophon, re
It does porting the conversations of Socrates. not look as though Socrates invented the division
:
he seems to have received

source, possibly
it
7
from an
earlier
Pythagoras."
All the moral virtues,
the four cardinal virtues just
enumerated, and others derived from them, may be either infused or acquired, natural or supernatural. In the soul
of
Christian,
final
:
of
course,
they
are
supernatural
be
end and purpose is supernatural. St. "The moral virtues, as Thomas says they are operative in man to an end which does not exceed the natural faccause their
praeceptum. Quod -vero it a fit vel timore poenae vel aliqud intentions carnali, ut non referatur ad illam
caritatem,
clesiae,
I,
c.
15,
n.
25:
"Quodsi
ad beatam vitam nos ducit, nihil omnino esse virtutem afKrmavirtus
quam
diffundit
Spiritus
verim, nisi
(P.
L,,
summum amorem
1322).
I, c. 26, n.
Dei."
sanctus in cordibus nostris,

fit,
nondum
oportet,
XXXII,
dilectio,
IDEM,
27:
De
quemadmodum
fieri
fieri
Gratia Christi,
"Ubi
quamvis
quippe
in
his
ista
videatur.
et
Caritas
non
est
nullum
bonum
Dei et proximi, duobus praeceptis

prophetae.
utique
lex
iota
pendet
et
(Matth. XXII,
40). Adde Evangelium, adde Apostolos: non enim aliunde vox ista
est,
opus imputatur nee recte bonum opus vocatur, quia omne, quod non ex fide est, peccatum est, et fides per dilectionem operatur." (P. L., XLIV,
374).
1 Jos.
finis
praecepti
"
est
caritas
et
Deus caritas est. (Migne, P. L., XL, 288). IDEM, De Moribus EC-
losophy, p.
Rickaby, S.J., 84 sq.
Moral Phi-
MORAL HABITS
ulty of
279
acts
;
man, may be acquired by human
and so ac
be without charity, as they have been in many pagans. But as they are operative of good in order to a supernatural last end, thus considered, they have the perfect and true character of virtue, and cannot be acquired by human acts, but are infused by God;
quired, they
may
and such moral virtues cannot be without
8
charity."
ical
b) Faith, hope, and charity are called theolog or divine virtues (virtutes thcologicae slue
divinae) because they have God for their material as well as formal object. All three are essenti
ally
supernatural.
Faith furnishes certain su
pernatural principles, which the intellect per ceives by a divine light. Hope directs man to his
supernatural end. Charity unites the will with God. Charity is superior to faith and hope for two reasons. 9 First, though its object does not
differ
8 St.
from that of the other two

Summa
2:
virtues, charity
cXTTt s,
Thomas,
65,
art.
Theol.,
la
Se fievei Trlaris,
dyd-mr]:
Erri
T&
2ae, qu.
"Virtutes
mo-
rpLa
de
ravra:
Col.
/j.ei^v
Ill,
de
TOVTWV ^
-rrdaiv
rales, prout sunt operativae boni in ordine ad finem, qui non excedit facultatem naturalem ho minis, possunt
dydir-rj-
14:
TOVTOIS
rrfv
rijs
dyaTnjv,
effriv
(rvi>8eo~fj.os
Per opera humana acquiri, et
sic ac-
Thomas,
Summa
St. TeXetOTTjrosTheol., xa 2ae, qu.
quisitae sine caritate esse possunt, sicut fuerunt in mult is gentilibus.
Secundum autem quod sunt

tivae boni in ordine ad
operaH-
ultimum
nem
supernaturalem, sic perfecte et vere habent rationem virtutis et non possunt humanis actibus acquiri, sed infunduntur a Deo ; et huiusmodi inrtutes morales sine caritate esse non
Possunt."
Oportuit quod quantum ad utrumqite aliquid ho mini supernaturaliter adderetur ad ordinandum ipsum \n finem supernaturalcm. Et primo quidem, quantum ad intellecturn adduntur homini quaedam pnn62, art. 3:
cipia supernaturalia,
mine capiuntur,
bilia,
et
quae dii ino luhaec sunt credi-
Rickaby, S.J., Aquinas Ethicus, Vol. I, pp. 194 sq. 9 Rom. XIII, 10 Tl\rjpi>}fj.a i Cor. XIII, 13: NupJ ].
Jos.
:
Cfr.
de quibus est tides. Secundo vero est voluntas, quae ordinatur in ilium finem et quantum ad motum intentionis
in
id,
i>6/mov
in
ipsum tendentem, sicut

est
quod
possibile
consequi,
280
OBJECT OF MORALITY
alone enables the soul actually to attain that ob 10 ject. Second, charity endures, whereas faith
changed into vision and hope into posses 11 There is still another difference be tween charity and the other two theological vir tues: whilst faith and hope as truly supernat ural virtues can exist without charity (though, of course, only in an imperfect way), charity is
is
sion.
destroyed by grievous
3.
sin.
12
THE
GIFTS OF THE
HOLY GHOST.
habitis, sed
The
so-
quod pertinet ad spem; et quantum ad unionem quondam spiritualem, per quam quodammodo transformatur in ilium finem, quod fit per caritatem." St. Bonaventure, Breril., P. 5, c. 4: "Sicut imago creationis consistit in trinitate potentiarum cum unitate esscntiae, sic imago recreationis con sistit in trinitate habitiium cum imi tate gratiae, per quos anima fcrtur
recte in
amor caritatis est de eo quod iam habetur; est enim amaium
quodammodo
in
amante,
et
etiam
amans per affectum trahitur ad uni onem amati, propter quod dicitur (/ loa. 4, 16) Qui manet in caritate, in Deo manet, et, Dens in Cfr.
.
eo."
Sum ma
and
8.
Thcol., 2a 2ae, q. 23, art. 6
11
Cor.
XIII,
8:
dyd-m
Saint
summam
Trinitatetn secunin
ovoeTTore
exTrirrTCL-
Cfr.
dum
ita
tria
appropriata tribus pcrsonis,

dirigit
et
Thomas,
67, art.
Summa
Thcol.,
la 2ae, qu.
I erum
quod fides credcndo
summum
et
assentiendo, spes
fides
"Impossibile est, quod 3-6: mancat simul cum bcatitudine
in
summe arduum
imitando
ex-
in
id,
eodcm
quod
24).
.
speciando, caritas in summe bonum desiderando et diligendo." (Ed. 2,

Vicetia, 340). 10 St. Thomas,
tut is
Deum.
8,
Bcati -vident obiectum spei, scilicet Ergo non s per ant (Rom. Et idea, quando habetur
subiccto.
est
.
Summa
ThcoL, xa
id,
2ae, qu. 66, art. 6:
"Magnitude vir-
secundum suam speciem con~ sideratur ex obiecto. Quum autem

tres
I
quod speratur, scilicet dii ina fruitio, iam spes esse non poterit. Caritas non evacuatur per gloriae
.
.
perfcctioncm, sed eadem numero

net."
ma
irtutes
theologicae
respiciant
proprium obiectum, non did maior altcra ex hoc quod sit circa maius obiectum, sed ex co, quod una se habeat propinquius ad obiectum quam alia. Et hoc modo caritas est maior aliis. Nam aliae important in sui ratione quon dam distantiam ab obiecto, est enim fides de non visis, spes autem de non
sicut
Deum
potest una
ear um
12 i Cor. XIII, 2; Jas. II, 14. Cone. Trid., Sess. VI, cap. 15 and can. 28: quis dixerit amissa per peccatum gratia simul et fidem semper amitti, out fid em, quac rema"Si
net,
sit
non
viva,
esse
veram fidem,
eum,
qui
licet
non
fidem sine caritate habet, non esse Christianum; Cfr. Prop. damn, ab anathema
sit."
out
MORAL HABITS
called gifts of the theological virtues.
281
Holy Ghost rank below the Aside from the charismata,
with which
such
we
are not concerned, there are seven
gifts, viz.:
fortitude, knowledge, piety (godliness),
wisdom, understanding, counsel, and fear

gifts differ
of the Lord.
How
tues?
do these
from the moral

to
vir
They evidently superior Canon Forget says on this subject:

"Some
are
them.
writers think they are not really distinct from
them, that they are the virtues inasmuch as the latter are free gifts of God and that they are identified essentially
with grace, charity, and the virtues. That opinion has the particular merit of avoiding a multiplication of the entities infused into the soul. Other writers look upon
the gifts as perfections of a higher order than the vir tues the latter, they say, dispose us to follow the impulse
;
and guidance of reason

spirations of the
the former are functionally in

1S
tended to render the will obedient and docile to the in
Holy
Ghost."
The latter The student

Alex. VIII.
"Quando
ficit
is
the opinion held by St. Thomas.

it
12:
will find
1690), n.
more
fully developed in
(7 Dec.,
magnis peccatoribus deomnis amor, deficit etiam fides,

in
"Fides et spes, sicut et 65, art. 4: virtutes morales dupliciter consi-
derari possunt:
et etiamsi
fides
videantur credere, non est (Dendivina, sed Humana."

n.
incfwationem
secundum
.
. .
uno modo secundum quondam, alio modo perfectum esse virtutis.

fides
et
zinger-Bannwart,
1169).
Prop.
Sic
iffitur
spes
sine
damn. Quesnelli, n. 57-58: "Totum deest peccatori, quando ei deest spes; et non est spes in Deo, ubi non est
caritate
quidem aliqualiter esse, perfectae autem virtutis rationem sine caritate non habent."
possunt
13
J.
amor Dei. Nee Deus est nee religio, ubi non est caritas" (ibid., n. 1272-1273). St. Thomas, la 2ae, qu.
Forget in the Cath. Encyclo*
pedia, Vol. VII, p. 413.
282
OBJECT OF MORALITY
Forget s treatise De I Habitation du Saint-E sprit dans les Ames Justes. THE BEATITUDES. Particular good acts 4.
springing from the virtues or gifts of the Holy Ghost are, e. g., those enumerated in the eight Beatitudes, or solemn blessings, which mark
the opening of
called
St.
Christ
the
first
sermon (the
so-
Sermon on
15
Mount)
in the Gospel of
Matthew. 14
pointed out,
As Father Van Kasteren has the peculiar form in which Our
Lord proposed these

be styled poetical.
blessings makes them, per haps, the only example of His sayings that may
There
is
indeed an unmis
takable parallelism of thought and expression running through the whole passage:
Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs of heaven.
:
is
the king
dom
meek for they shall possess the land. Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be com
Blessed are the
forted.
Blessed are they that hunger and thirst after justice:

for they shall have their fill. Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the clean of heart for they shall see God. Blessed are the peacemakers for they shall be called
:
the children of God.
Blessed are they that suffer persecution for justice sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
14 Matth. V, 3-10; cfr.
Luke VI,
p.
15 Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. II, 371-
20
sqq.
MORAL HABITS
5.
283
effects
OF THE HOLY GHOST." As life St. Paul mentions twelve supernatural works that are done joyfully and with peace of soul: Charity, joy, peace, pa
"FRUITS
THE
of
a virtuous
tience,
benignity,
goodness, longanimity, mild
These ness, faith, modesty, continence, chastity. so-called fruits of the Holy Ghost are acts, not
habits,
and should not be confounded with the
virtues or the gifts of the Holy Ghost. 1G to them are the "works of the flesh/
READINGS.
Opposed
Thomas,
On Summa
the moral habits and virtues in general cfr. St.

Theol.,
I
la
2ae,
qu.
49-70.
St.
Bonaventure,
I,
Breviloquium
Schiffini, S.J.,
I
(ed.
icetia,
Freiburg
1881),
P.
c.
4-6.
S.
sqq.
Traciatus de Virtutibus Infusis, Freiburg 1904, pp. L. Billot, S.J., De Virtutibus infusis, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Rome
Rickaby,
S.J.,
1905.
Jos.
Moral Philosophy,
I,
pp.
Cronin,
S.S.,
The Science of
Ethics, Vol.
pp. 559 sqq.
64 sqq. M. A. Tanquerey,
1905.
sqq.,
Synopsis Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, pp. 321 sqq., Tournai A. Janvier, Exposition de la Morale Catholique, Vols. I Paris 1904 sqq. G. H. Joyce, S.J., The Catholic Doctrine of
St.
Grace, N. Y. 1920, pp. 89 sqq. On the Gifts of the Holy Ghost:

i
Thomas,
Summa T licoL,
Bonaventure, Breviloquium, P. V, c. 5. C. Weiss, S. Thomae Aquinatis de Septem Donis S. Spiritus DocM. Meschler, S.J., Die Gabe des hi. Pfingsttrina, Vienna 1895. J. Forget in the Catholic En festes, 6th ed., Freiburg 1909. cyclopedia, Vol. VII, pp. 413 sq. IDEM, DC I Habitation du SaintSt.
a 2ae, qu. 68.
16 Gal.
2.
St.
V, 17 Thomas,
70.
sqq.;
St.
Apoc. XXII,
Theol.,
6:
Summa
V,
c.
la
principaliter
aae,
qu.
Bonaventure,
"Qua
bitus vero
Habitus virtutum ad exercitium disponunt activae, hadonorum ad actum con-
Breviloquium, adepta pace
P.
necessario
sequitur
templativae, habitus autem beatitudinutn ad perfectionem utriusque.
superabundans delectatio spiritualis, quae in duodenario fructuum Spiritus continetur, ad insinuandam superabundantiam delectationum. Est enim duodenarius numerus abun-
Fructus
caritas,
vero
Spiritus,
pa.v,
qui
sunt
gaudiu;n,
fides,
patientia,
longanimitas,
bonitas,
benignitas,
conti-
mansuetudo,
modestia,
Hum
in quo insinuatur spirituacharismatum exuberantia, quibus fruitur et delectatur anima sancta.
dans,
nentia, castitas (Gal. V, 22-23), dicunt delectationes consequentes opera

perfecta."
284
Esprit dans
les
OBJECT OF MORALITY
Ames
Justes, Paris
1900, pp. 378 sqq. 1902, pp. 99 sqq.
Oeuvre du Saint -Esprit, Paris

t
W.
Bellevue, F. Stadel-
man, C. S. Sp., Glories of the Holy Ghost, Techny, 111., pp. 47 F. M. Schindler, Die Gaben des hi. Geistes nach Thomas S qq von Aquino, Vienna 1915. G. H. Joyce, The Catholic Doctrine of Grace, N. Y. 1920, pp. 94 sqq. J. R. M. Landrieux, The For
gotten Paraclete, London 1924, pp. 52-145. On the Beatitudes St. Thomas, Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 69.
:
St.
Bonaventure, Breviloquium, P. V,
the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.
c. 6.
J.
P.
Van
Kasteren,
S.J., in
iel,
371 sq. Hy. in the Catholic Fortnightly Review, St. Louis, Vol.
II, pp.
Dan
Lon
XXIV
(1917), No. 23.
M. Devine, The Religion of
the Beatitudes,
don
1918.
W.
pp. 54 sqq.
F. Stadelman, C. S. Sp., Glories of the Holy Ghost, Kenelm Digby Best, in his Mores Catholici, vols.,
London
1831-42, (demonstrates by a vast accumulation of beauti ful examples how each of the eight Beatitudes was realized in the
lives of mediaeval
men and women, how
the ideals of the Beati
tudes were maintained and inculcated by the mediaeval Church, and how they influenced the individual in every walk of life, in youth
and age,
in
peace and war, in sorrow and joy).
On
the Fruits of the
Holy Ghost
St.
Thomas,
Summa
ThcoL,
6.
St. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, P. V, c. la 2ae, qu. 70. Forget in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, pp. 414 sq.
J.
W.
F.
Stadelman, C. S. Sp., Glories of the Holy Ghost, pp. 58 sqq.
INDEX
Antinomianism, 150
ABEL, 208.
Abelly, Louis, 59. Abnormality, Psychic,
sq.
Antoine, P. G. (S.J.), 58, 226. Antoninus, St., 52. Apologists of the 2nd and 3d
261
sq.
centuries, 44.
Abraham,
131, 136. Abrogation, 180.
Abstinence, 175, 273-
Apostles, 88, 146. Apostolic Constitutions, 248. Fathers, 42 sqq. Apostolic --,-Aristotle, 53,
187.
Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 161 sq. Actus eliciti imperati, 113 sq. Actus externusinternus, 254. Actus hominis, 79, 253. Actus humanus, 79, 253 sqq. Actus numero unus, 273 sq.
Asceticism, 39.
Augustine, ,M{^*W A*v,f

250.
V 47 W sq., *J\JJ 53, St., O 30, ftMTV*} 65, 124 sq., 125, 165, 208, 216,
J
"T/
T/>
Adam,
"Ad
116, 128, 184.
Authority, 35; Civil, 158, 164; Resistance to, 166 sq., 170;
Adolescence, 87.
peccatum obligor
e,"
jEquiprobabilism, 231 Aertnys, J. (C. SS. R.), 70.

sqq. Affections, 103 -,,,
167. sqq.
Contempt of, 171. Autonomy, Moral,

133-
4,
6,
125,
Affectus antecedentes and sub-
Aveling, F., 151. Azor, John (S.J.), 58. Azpilcueta, Martin de, 62.
Age
sequentes, 106. as a determinant of free

will,
B
BALLERINI, A. (S.J.), 70. Banez, Dominic (O.P.), 57. Baptism, 238. Barnabas, Epistle of, 43. Baronius, V., 225.
Barrett, Tim. (S.J.), 70. Bartholomew of Pisa, 55.
Basil,
St.,
86 sqq. Agoraphobia, 261. Alexander VII, 229. Alexander VIII, 229. Albert the Great, 53,
Alcuin, 51.
187.
53,
Alexander of Hales,
187.
Almsgiving, 266, 268. Alonso de los Angeles, 59 Alphonsus, St., 33 sq., 59 sq., 63, 64, 71, 209, 227 sq., 232,
233-
48.
Bauny,
224.
Stephen
(S.J.),
63,
Altruism, 23. Alvarez, Didacus
(O.P.), 60.
208, 250.
Beatitude, Eternal, 21, 83. Beatitudes, The, 282. Becanus, Martin, 57.
Ambrose, St., 47, Amicus, F., 224. Amort, Eusebius,
Amour
57, 233. desinteresse, 20 sq. 55.
Bede, St., 51. Bellarmine, Card., Benedict XIV, 63

Berardi, E., 71. Bernard, St., 21
66.
sq.
sq.,
Angelus de Clavasio, Anger, 103.
39,
55,
in,
285
205.
286
Berthold of Ratisbon, 244. Bianchi, A., 229.
INDEX
Children not bound by
laws, 175. Christ, 29, 81,
146,
156,
human
145, 153,
Bierbaum,
Billuart,
J.
(O.F.M.),
57,
59-
Chs.,
225,
228.
147,
157,
148,
140, 149,
141, 150,
Bjornson,
B., 6.
Blancus, see Bianchi.

Blois, Louis cle (O.S.B.), 64. Blosius, see Blois.
207, 238 sq., 249, 251, 258, 261, 269.
245,
Body, The, 84 sq. Bona, Card., 66. Bonacina, M., 61 sq. Bonaventure, St., 39, 55, 187. Bonum ex Integra causa, malum ex quocunque dcfcctu,
264.
Chrysostom, St., 48 sq. Church, The, 29 sq., 156, 157 sqq., 171, 206 sq., 208, 214,
267, 273.
Cicero,
14,
47,
124,
183.
Circumstances
271 sqq.
of
an
action,
45.
Clement of Alexandria, Clement of Rome, 43.
Bonn m mehus,
248.
241
sq.,
245,
Codex
Collet,
152,
Juris
P.,
Canonici, 162.
140
251.
sq.
sq.,
226.
150,
Bouquillon, Thos. J., 69. Breviary, 166. Bucceroni, J. (S.J.), 70, 72. Bulot, A., 71.
Commandments,
153.
237.
Busembaum, H.
Busquet,
J.,
(S.J.), 58.
Compensation, System of, 233 Compulsion, 114, 116. Daniel Concilia, (O.P.),
225.
60,
71.
Concupiscence, 116
Conflict
sq.,
241.
CAIGNY,
J.
DE,
230.
Cain, 208. Cajetan, Card., 225. Calixtus, George, 52.
Confession, 201, 273. of duties, 211 sqq., 218 sq. Conscience, 128, 154, 164, 165, 1 66, 1 68, 182 sqq.; Existence
of,
182 sqq.
;
Nature
sq.
;
of,
Calvinism, 151.
sqq.
Not always
1
"the
186 voice
189
Caramuel, Cardenas,
224. 224. Cardinal virtues, 2/8.

J., J.,
of
sq.
;
God,"
86
Bad,
Antecedent
and conse
;
Carelessness, Criminal, 259. Carletus, Angelus, Bl., 55. Cases of Conscience, 37 sq.,
quent, iqq; No strict defini tion possible, 191 sq. Ap

192 Requisites of a normal, 194 sqq.; Probable, 218 sqq., 227. Consciousness, 182 sq. Consequences of an act, 262 sq.
definition,
;
proximate
218 sq. Castropalao, F. de (S.J.), 58. Casuistry, 3, 37 sq., 54, 72, 209.
Celibacy, 243,
T.,
138.
246.
Contenson, V., 225.

Counsels, Evangelical, 236 sqq.
Crispin, St., 271. Culpa theologica, 165, 169,
2>Q.
Ceremonial precepts of the O.

Cessation of law, 180 sqq. Chamberlain, H. S., 15.
Charity,
153,
10,
13,
Custom,
180,
260
sq.
154,
165,
21 sq., 43, 142, 204 sqq., 208,

sq.,
Cpyrian, St., 46, 208, 250. Cyril of Jerusalem, St., 49,
214, 244, 251, 279 Chastity, Perpetual, 242, 246 sqq., 283.
283sqq.,
D
D ANNIBALE,
J.,
236
70.
INDEX
Dasbach, 269.
Debility,
215.
124,
287
Epikia, 180 sq. Equilibrism, 109.

137,
141.
Decalogue,
Error
Ethics,
sqq.
iuris
facti,
Innocent XI, see Innocent XI. Defectives, Mental, 175. Delama, D., 71. Delehaye, H. (S.J.), 32. De Lugo, John (S.J.), 61. De Ponte, see Lapuente. Derogation, 180. Determinism, 205.
Devil, 150.
Decree
of
Escobar, Ant. (S.J.),

5,
sqq.,
194. 58, 224. II sqq., 23
Eudaemonism,
Eunuchs, 245.
Exorcism, 200.
17 sqq., 23.
Evangelical counsels, 236 sqq.
Diana, A., 224. Dicastillo, John de Didache, 42.
FAITH,
(S.J.), 62.
43,
208,
216,
221,
279,
283.
family, 215.
Fasting, 156, 209, 219, 265/266. Fathers, The, 42 sqq.
Diognetus, Letter to, 44, 164. Dionysius the Areopagite, 48.

Disease, 215, 216. Dispensation, 180. Disposition vs. habit, 275. Division of Moral Theology, 74 sq.
Favorcs atnpliandi, 178. Fear, 116; Of God, 204

Fenelon, 20
Ferreres,
J.
sqq.
sq.
B.
(S.J.), 70.
58.
Fichte, 67.
Doctor Navarrus, 62. Doctors of the Church, 33 Dolus, 259 sq.
lliucci,
Vincent (S.J.),
J.,
sq.
Target,
281
sq.
Dom,
C. A.
Wynschenk,
56.
Formalism, External, Fornication, 271, 272.
207.
59.
sq.,
Domicile, 174.
Dominicans, 229, 231. Double standard of morals, Doubt, 196, 231.
Francisco de Jesus-Maria, Francis de Sales, St., 30

92. 32, 34, 63, 64, 67.
Scotus, 53. Duty, Definition of, 203 Divi sion of, 204 Motives of, 204 Conflict of, 211 sqq. sqq.
;
Duns
Free- Will, 7, 79 95, 98 sqq., 102

1 1
sqq.,
sqq.,
93,
94,
108 sqq.,
262.
6,
184,
B.,
257,
69.
261,
Friedhoff, F., 69.
Fuchs,
240, 259,
261.
EASTER DUTY,
178.
Eating, 268. Education as a determinant of morality, 93.
GATTERER, H. (SJ.),7i. Gaude, L., 60. Gazzaniga, P. M., 225. General vs. particular
173 sq. Genicot, E., 72. Gerdil, H. S., 223.
laws,
Egoism, 18 sqq., 86, 205. Elbel, Benj. (O.F.M.), 59. Elizalde, M. de, 225 sq. End of an action, 267 sq. Enemy, Love of, 13 sq.
Gerson, John,
Gifts
sq.
56.
of the
Holy Ghost, 281
Environment, Ephraem, St.,
95. 49.
God,
Cannot dispense from the moral law of nature, 130
288
sqq.
;
INDEX
All
power from,
158;
Duty
the
spells accountability to will of, 203; Fear of,
sqq. ; sqq.;
Scholastic
period,
sqq. 269.
51
Modern, 57
204; Love of, 251. Gonet, J. B., 225. Gonzalez, Thyrsus, 225, 229. Good intention, 267 sq. Gopfert, F. A., 70, 266. Gospel, 142 sqq., 146 sqq., 152, 206, 207, 237 sqq. Gounod, Ch. F., 6. Grace, 148, 150, 185, 238, 252. Granada, Louis de (O. P.), 64. Greeks, 13 sq. Gregory VII, 167. Gregory of Nazianzus, St., 48,
228, 250.
Hoensbroech, P. von, Hogan, Abbe, 72 sq.
Holy Ghost, Law

;
Home
of the, 143, 153, 154; Gifts of the, 281 Fruits of the, 283. sq.
training, 93 sq.
Honor, 215. Hope, 279 sq.
Hugh of St. Human acts,
Victor, 55.
253 sqq. Humility, 209. Hurtado, Peter (S.J.), 62.
Hus, 167. Hypochondria,

Hysteria, 261
261.
sq.
Gregory of Nyssa, St., Gregory of Valentia

58.
48.
(S.T.),
49,
Gregory
208.
Guilt,
the
Great,
St.,
IGNATIUS LOYOLA,
ST., 206.
St., 43.
165,
J.
169,
Gury,
P.
259, 262. (S.J.), 70, 72.
Ignatius of Antioch, Ignorance, 114 sq.,

sq.
129,
258
H
HABITS, 257, 260; Moral, 275 Infused or acquired^ sqq. 276 sq.
;
Illusions, 261 sq. Imputability, 256 sqq., 261. Inability to sin, in sq.
Inadvertence, 259 sq., 274. Indifference, Moral, no, 266.

Indifferent acts, 109, 266. Individualism, 24. Individual vs. social ethics, 23
sqq.
Hallucinations, 261.
Hammurapi,
1 02.
141.
sqq.,
Happiness, Desire for, 17

Haringer, M., 60.
In dubio pars tutior sequenaa,

196, 202, 219.
Harnack, A,, 32. Hatred of God, 266. Hedonism, 17 sqq.

Hegel, 139. Heilig, M., 60. Helvidius, 251. Henriquez, Henry (S.J.),
Infancy, 86 sq. Innocent XI, 166, 229 sq. Insane, 175.

Insanity, 262.
Instinct,
102.
58.
Hermas, Shepherd of, Heroism, Moral, 240.

Herolt,
J.,
Intention, 267 sq. Interpretation of the law, 177 S q ? T *

Isaias,
146.
St., 51.
44.
Isidore of Seville,
206, 209. Heteronomy, see Autonomy.
Indicium
iuris
facti,
188
sq.
Hirscher,
J.
B., 68.
History
41
sq.;
of
Moral Theology,
period,
Patristic
42
JAMES,
ST.,
146,
157.
INDEX
Jansenists, 223, 229, 234.
289
laws
they
the
176.
have
made,
70,
Jerome,
St.. 250.
Jesuits, 227, 229, 269. 143. Jocham, M., 69. Johannine age, 143.
Lehmkuhl,
7.2.
Aug.
(S.J.),
Joachists,
John Damascene, St., 51. John of Ravenna, 49. John of the Cross, St., 65.
John,
St.,
Leibnitz, 67. Lessius, Leonard (S.J.), 62. Lettres a un Provincial, 63, 229. Lewis, D., 65.
145.
Journey
undertaken
in
frau-
dem
Jovinian,
leg is, 173. 251.
Libertas contradictions, etc., 109 sq. Libertas virtutis s. gratiae, no

sq.
Judgment, 256 sq. Judgment, Last, 147.

Judicial precepts of the O. T., 138 sq.
Justice, 204, 214. Justification, 8, 151,
154,
Liberty, 8, 109 sqq., 149, 215, 219, 223, 224, 226, 231 sqq.,
257.
238.
Libri Poenitentiales, 51. Libri Sentenliarwn, 51. License, 149.

Life, 215.
K
KANT,
18
sq., 67,
Limitations
.sqq.
of
free-will,
8l
139.
Kenrick, F. P., 71. Keppler, Bishop, 15. Konings, A. (C. SS. R.), 70. Kresslinger, M. (O. F. M.),
Linsenmann, F. X., 69, 217. Literature of Moral Theology,

41 sqq.
Lombroso,
95.
Kuper, H. (C. SS. R.),
70.
Lopez, Louis (O.P.), 62 sq. Luther, 150. Lutheranism, 151. Lying, 213, 265, 268, 274.
M
LACORDAIRE, 35. Lacroix, Claude (S.J.), 58. Lapuente, Louis de, 66. Law, The concept of, 119 sqq.;
Eternal, 120; Temporal, 120; Moral, 120, 122 sqq.; Ec clesiastical, 121, 157 sq., 161 sq. ; Human, 155 ; Properties of human, 160 sqq.; Inter
MACARIUS,
ST., 49.
Malice, Prepense, 259 sq. ; Sins of, 273 sq. Manhood, 87 sq. Man, the subject of morality, 79 sqq. Manichaeans, 48.
pretation of, 177 sqq.; sation of, 180 sqq. Lax conscience, 197 sq.
Ces
Manslaughter, 266. Marc, C., 70. Marriage, 242 sqq., 246. Martin, Conrad, 69, 216, 233.
249.
Laxism, 219, 223. Laymann, Paul (S.J.),

Legalism, 206.
58.
Legends of the Saints, 30 sqq. Legislators bound to observe
Mass, 178. Materia levis grams, 204, 209 sqq., 266.
170, 172,
Mayr, Ant.,
233.
290
Mazotta,
sq.
INDEX
Nicholas
(S.J.),
58
Motives of duty, 204 sqq.
Means, The end does not jus

tify bad, 268 sqq.
Motus primo primus, 105. Motus sccundo primus, 105. Moya, M. de, 224.
Muller, E. M.,
70.
6.
Medina, Bartholomew
Melancholia, 261.
de, 228.
Melanchthon, 150. Mental derangement, 261
Murder, 260, 271. Mystery of iniquity,

sq.
Mercy
13.
St., 49,
Mysticism, 38 sq., 49, 64 151 sqq., 190 sqq.
sqq.,
Methodius,
250.
Methods of Moral Theology,

36 sqq.; Scholastic or specu
Practi lative, 36 sq., 57 sq. cal or casuistic, 37 sq. ; As
;
N
NATALIS ALEXANDER,
57, 225.
cetic, 38 sq. Michel, P., 69. Milieu, 95. Minges, P. (O. F. M.), 53 sq. Miracles, 31. Missions, 90. Modern period of the history of Moral Theology, 57 sqq.
Nationality, 215, 216. Natural Definition law, of, 122; Content of, 122 sq. Ex istence of, 123 sqq. Author of, 125 sqq. Universality of, 127 sqq. Primary and sec ondary precepts of, 128 sqq.
;
Absolute
;
or
unchangeable,
of,
sq.
Modesty, 102 sq. Molina, Louis de (S.J.),

Montanists, 143.
62.
Moralists, Teaching of, 33 sqq. Morality, Not confined to the sexual sphere, 2; Outside the Christian religion, 13; Definition of, 26, 256; Sub ject of, 79 sqq.; Objective norm of, 119 sqq.; Ideal of, 132; First principle of, 192; Objective-subjective norm of (duty), 203 sqq.; No with out legality, 207; Standard of, 244; Of human acts, 264
sqq.
New
130 sq. Binding force 130 sqq. Nature, Man subject to, 84 Negligence, 260.
the,
Testament, Moral law of
141 sqq., 145 sqq. Nietzsche, 127. Noachian precepts, 136.
Noe, 136. Noldin, H. (S.J.), 70

Nostalgia, 262.
sq.
O
OBEDIENCE,
sqq., 249.
167
sq.,
209,
236
law of nature,, see Natural law. Moral Theology, Definition of,

i
Moral
Oberrauch, A. N. (O. F. M.),

68.
Object,
17 sqq.
Of Moral Theology, Of morality, 265 sqq.

;
sq.
Scope, 2
sq.
Relation
to
Dogmatic
;
Theology,
to Protestant ethics, 7 sqq. sqq. ; to moral philosophy, II sqq.; Object of, 17 sqq.;
Obligation of law, 163 sqq. Obsession, 200. Obstacles to voluntary action,

113
sqq.
Division
of,
74
sq.
Morbid
fear, 261.
149.
Mosaic law, see Moses. Moses, 136 sqq., 145, 146,
Obstraet, J., 223. Odiosa restringenda, 178. Old Testament, Positive of the, 135 sqq., 146.
law
Omission, 254, 257, 259.
INDEX
Opera meliora, 238. Orders, Religious, 244 Origen, 45. Original sin, 184, 276. Osee, 131.
163
sq.
;
291
As
distinct
from
habit,
275 sq. Prayer, 216, 265, 266, 268.

Precepts, Of the Moral law, Positive 129 sq. divine, as Counsels, 236 135 sqq.
;
;
sqq.,
248 sqq.
Prierias, Sylvester, 55. Privilege, 180.
PACIFICUS NOVARIENSIS, Paganism, 13, 44, 47. Palmieri, D. (S.J.), 7Parables, 29, 147. Parents, 215, 216. Parvitas matenae,
2/3-
55.
Probabiliorism,
234-
224
sqq.,
229,
172,
209,
Pascal, 63, 229.
Pasqualigo, Z., 224. Passions, 103 sqq. Patristic period in the history of Moral Theology, 42 sqq. Patuzzi, J. V., 60, 225. Paul, St., 9, 123, 142, 145, 146,
152,
Probabilism, Explanation of, 218 sqq.; Scope of, 221 sq. Teaching of, 226 sqq. Probabilissima, 221, 223. Probability, Kinds of, 220 sq. Probst, Fr., 69. Promulgation of law, 161 sq. Properties of human law, 160
;
sqq.
Protestant
sq.
Ethics,
sqq.,
148
Protestantism essentially antinoniian, 150 sq. Protestants not bound by the laws of the Church, 173. Pruner, J. E., 69.
153,
103,
164,
183,
240,
246
sqq., 258.
Pelagians, 109.
Penance, 238.
Penitence, 154. Penal laws, 169 sq. Penitential Books, 51. Peraldus, 52. Perault, 52. Peregrini, 174 sq. Perfection, 10, 24 sq., 38, 236
sqq., 244, 252.
Pseudo-Mystics, 151 sqq. Punishment, 156, 257.

"
Pure
"
duties,
19 sq.
Pythagoras, 278.
Q
QUASI-DOMICILE, Quietists, 20 sq.
174.
Perjury, 266. Perplexity of

sqq.
conscience,
211
R
RAPPENHONEK,
J.,
Pessimism, 23. Peter Damian, St., Peter Lombard, 52
69.
51.
sq.
Rassler, Chr., 233.
Peter, St., 43, 164, 258. Pharisees, 157, 199, 206, 207.
Pius IX, 168.

Plato, 278.
Polycarp,
St.,
43 sq.
Pompey,
14.
Poverty, Voluntary, 236 sqq., 242 sq., 249. Power, All from God, 158,
Ratio legis, 177 sq., 207. Rationalism, 67. Raymond of Pennafort, St., 54. Reason, A source of Moral Theology, 26 sq. The meas ure of the will, 119; The promulgator of the moral law of nature. 122; Not au
;
tonomous,
125;
And con
science, 188 sq.
INDEX
Redemptorists, 233. Reginald, Valerius, 63. Regnier de Marais, 66. Reiffenstuel, Anaclete (O.
Schwane,
J.,
69.
Scintilla animae, 190 sqq. Scintillae Patrum, 51.
F.
MO,
59-
Resistance
to
authority,
pas
Scotus (See Duns Scotus). Scrupulousness, 199 sqq. Scupoli, Lorenzo, 65.
Self-denial, 153. Selfishness as a motive, 19 sqq. Self-love, 22.
sive, 166; active, 167, 168. Responsibility, 256, 261, 262. Renter, John (SJO, 58.
Revelation as a source of Moral Theology, 27 sqq. Revolution, 168. Richard of St. Victor, 55 Rickaby, Jos. (S.J.), 275, 276,
.
Seneca, 183.
Sermon on the Mount,

282.
102.
147,
278. Rietter, A., 69.
Rigorism,
234, 242.
38, 44, 219,
222 sqq.,
54.
sq.
Sex, 91 sqq., Sexten, a (See Gatterer). Shea, J. G., 66. Shepherd of Hernias, 44, 250. Sigwart, Chs., 227. Simar, H. Th., 69, 232, 233.
Sin,
165,
Robert of Flamesbury,
Rodriguez, Al.
in,
167,
(S.J.), 65
119, 128, 192, 210,
Romans,
Ruysbroeck,
13 sq. Bl.
219,
240,
241,
154, 213, 215, 249, 269, 273

148,
John
of, 56.
sq.
Sixtus V, 64.
Slater,
Thos. (S.J.), 269.
SABBATH, 137 sq., 171, 213, 214. Sabetti, A. (S.J.), 70. Sacraments, The, 9, 12, 221,
244.
Society as a determinant of morality, 95 sqq.; Civil, or the State, 158 sq. Socinianism, 151. Socrates, 278.
Soldiers, 165, 171, 215. Soto, Peter (O. P.), 57, 62. Sources, Of Moral Theology, 26 sqq.; Of Morality, 264.
Sacra Parallela,
Sa,
51.
Emanuel (S.J.), 63. Sailer, J. M., 68. Saints, The, 14, 29, 30 sqq., 88.
Salmanticenses, 59. Salsmans, J. (S.J.), 72. Sanchez, J., 224. Sanchez, Thos. (S.J.), 61, 224.
Sovereign, Subject to his

laws,
175.
98.
own
M.),
Spontaneous actions,
Sporer,
59-
Patrick
(O.
F.
244.
Sancto Ignatio, Henry
a,
223.
Standard of morals,
Scandal, 272, 274. Scaramelli, J. B. (S.J.), 67.

Scavini, P., 70. Scheicher, J., 69.
Stapf, J. A., 68. State, 157, 158 sq., 169. Statistics, Criminal, 95 sq.
Stattler,
Benedict (S.J.),
68.
Schenkl,
68.
M. von (O.
S.
B.),
Schindler, F. M., 69. Scholastic period in the his tory of Moral Theology, 51
sqq.
Stealing, 265, 273. Steyaert, M., 223. Stoics, 18 sq., 108.
Strangers, 174. Suarez, Francis (S.J.), 57, 61. Subjects of human law, 173
sqq.
School, 93 sqq.
INDEX
Summa
Summae,
54
sq.
293
J.
Astesana
(or
Asten54.
Troyamala,
B.,
55.
sis), 54.
Tutiorism, 222
sq., 225, 232.
Summae Confessorum,
Summa Summa
Scholastic, 52. Pacifica, 55.
U
Ultra posse nemo tenetur, 166. Underbill, Evelyn, 56.
Pisana (or Pisanella),
Summa Summa
Raimundiana,
Rosella
55.
54.
(or
Baptisti-
niana),
.Swwwa Summarum
vestrina), 55. Superhuman, 127 sq.
(or
SV/-
VAN
KASTEREN, 282. Vasquez, Gabriel (S.J.),
57.
Venatorius. Th., 52.
Suso, Henry,
Bl.,
56.
Vermeersch
Synagogue,
Sweidriffis,
157. 183.
Surgery, 221.
Synteresis,
188.
Vigilantius, Villada, P., 72. Vincent de Paul, St., 59. Violence, 113 sq., 166. Virginity (See Chastity). Virtues, 277 sqq.
A., 71. 251.
TACITUS, 14. Talent, 89 sq. Tamburini, Thos., 224. Tanner, Adam, 57. Tanquery, A., 71. Tauler, John, 55.
Vives, J. C, 71. Voit, Edmund (S.J.), 59. Vocation, Duties of, 214. i oluntarium, 98 sqq., 104, 195,
254.
Voluntary
acts,
98 sqq.
W
When
178.
Temperament,
88.
Temptation, 150, 184. Tepe, G. B. (S.J.), 70.

Teresa,
St., 65.
WEISS,
A. M. (O.P.), 244
a law
sq.
must be observed,
Tertullian, 46, 143, 165.
Wiclif, 167.
Testamentum aeternum, 143. Theological virtues, 279 sq. Thomas a Kempis, 56, 64,
66.
Wirceburgenses, 60 Wolff, 67.
sq.
Works
sqq.,
of supererogation, 238
250.
Thomas Aquinas,
sq.,
St.,
39, 52 sq., 57, 1 66, 1 68, 175, 184, 278, 281.
33, 34 138, 155, 187, 206,
Works
of the flesh, 283.
X
XENOPHON,
278.
Toletus, Fr. de (S.J.), 62. Timor filialis, 205 sq. Torres, Louis (S.J.), 58. Tradition, 27, 29 sq. Trent, Council of, 17 sqq., 57,
148, 152.
Z
ZERBOLT, GERARD, 56.
Ziegler, 240.
DATE DUE
PRINTED
IN
CANADA
BY
RYERSON PRESS
KOCH & PKSUS3
A handbook of
T.oral
theology

A Handbook of Moral Theology - I PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

A Handbook of Moral Theology - I PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

FROM-THE-LIBRARY-OF TRINITYCOLLEGE TORONTO

and 293 pp.

and 183 pp.

s Duties to Himself, $2.00 net. s

Duties to His Fellow-

Professor in the University of Tubingen

MORALITY, ITS SUBJECT, NORM, AND OBJECT

QUEEN SQUARE, LONDON, W. C.

Ludovici, die 28. Junii, 1925

Ludovici, die 28. Junii, 1925

All rights reserved

First Edition, 1918

Second Edition, 1919

THE VAIL-BALLOU PRESS

INTRODUCTION. DEFINITION, SCOPE, OBJECT, SOURCES, METHODS, HISTORY, AND LITERA

TURE OF MORAL THEOLOGY

Definition and Scope of

Difference between Catholic Moral Theology and Protestant Ethics

CH. IV. Moral Theology

Relation to Moral Phi

CH. V. The Object of Catholic Moral Theology

CH. VI. Individual

CH. X. Division of Moral Theology

MORALITY, ITS SUBJECT, NORM, AND OBJECT

The Subject of Morality Man as ture Endowed with Free-Will

Free-Will as the Subjective Condition of Morality The Natural Limits of Free-Will

Individual Determinants of Free-Will Social Determinants of Free-Will

Voluntary Acts The Development of Free-Will Obstacles to Voluntary Action

The Objective Norm of Morality

The Concept of Law The Moral Law of Nature

The Existence of Conscience The Nature of Conscience Requisites of a Normal Conscience

CH. IV. The Subjective-Objective Duty I. Duty and its Motives

Probabilism and Other Systems of Morals

Imputability of Human Acts Morality of Human Acts

DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF MORAL THEOLOGY

derived from the Greek

and which means

English text-books use

xa 2ae, qu. 58, art.

Aquinas Ethicus, Vol.

term and then specify morally good and morally bad.

CATHOLIC MORAL THEOLOGY

are sometimes used

as the vice of impurity.

fact of the matter

not intended to restrict immorality to the sexual

In order to give a tion of the laws that govern

conduct, ascertain the condi

Theorie und Praxis in

1905; J. Mausbach, Die kath. Moral, ihre Methoden, Grunds dtze

X, 31; Col. Ill,

und Aufgaben, 2nd

a well-defined scope and object,

define the exact limits

ffemdss der Sclntlc dcs

H. E. Plassmann, Die Moral hi. Thomas, p. 8; M. Jocham, Moral-

Moral Essays, London

MORAL THEOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO DOGMATIC THEOLOGY

essentially theistic, God and the free

Without these suppo

sitions there could be neither responsibility