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Echo Sounders
Principle: The transmitter emits a pulse of energy which radiates out from the vessel, similar to radar. The pulse will be reflected and returned by the seabed and received by the receiver on board. The time taken for the pulse to return is converted into distance, much the same as radar except that sound travels at 1500 m/s in water. Errors Speed of Propagation: The speed of the pulse will vary with the temperatures and salinities of water and therefore may affect the pulse. Aeration: The presence of air in the water will affect the speed of the pulse since sound travels slower in air. The main sources of aeration are; sternway, turbulence caused from hard rudder, broken water over shoals, entering areas in which there has been bad weather/ turbulent waters, light ships pitching heavily. The ships bow wave would also constitute an area of aeration however most echo sounders are sighted forward of the position where the bow waves re enters the water. Bottom Reverberation: Caused by excess power being emitted and or shallow water beneath the vessel. The power is so great that the pulse actually rebounds off the seabed more than once, being sent back as it bounces of the vessels hull showing multiple seabeds. Attenuation due to Noise: Any ambient noise present in the water has the ability to degrade the echo sound signal. Such noise may be from marine mammals, turbulent water or other traffic operating in the vicinity. Absorption due to soft Seabeds: If the seabed is too soft then there is a possibility that the pulse will be absorbed or attenuated. False Echoes: May occur in deep water if the echo sounder is incorrectly set. The returning echo will be received after the stylus has completed one complete revolution showing a false bottom.
Magnetic Compass Errors/ Limitations Variation Deviation Construction Heavy Steel or Iron Objects Electrically Induced Magnetic Fields Correctors
ECDIS
GPS
24 Operational satellites, 6 orbital planes, 55 inclination to the Equator at altitudes of 11000 miles. Configuration ensures a minimum of 4 satellites with suitable elevations are visible to a receiver, anywhere on the Earths surface, however there is poorer coverage in the Polar regions. A GPS Fix is obtained from measuring the ranges from a series of selected satellites to a receiver and the ranges are determined by measuring the propagation times of satellite data transmissions. The ranges measured are not true ranges but are termed pseudo ranges and contain a receiver clock offset error. For a 2-D fix on the Earths surface at least 3 pseudo ranges are required.
Improvement of Accuracy
DGPS DGPS compares the position of a fixed point (reference station) with a position obtained from the GPS receiver at that point. It calculates a 2-D or 3-D geographical co-ordinate offset (position differential) or series of corrections to the satellite range data (pseudorange differential). The data is calculated and corrections are broadcast to GPS receivers by radio; thus an MSK radiobeacon receiver and GPS receiver capable of incorporating DGPS correction data is required by the user. SBAS (Satellite Based Augmentation Systems) Overlay systems for GPS/ GLONASS which use a suite of geostationary satellites and networks of ground relay stations that offer more reliability to the user through improved accuracy, availability, integrity and continuity. There are 3 major components; EGNOS (European Navigation Geostationary Overlay Service) WAAS (American Wide Area Augmentation System) MSAS (Japanese Multi-functional Transport Satellite based AS) Signals broadcast by SBAS are totally compatible and do not interfere with GPS/ GLONASS reception. No set up or subscription fees and standard SBAS receivers do not require any additional equipment. Positions reduced to between 1 5 metres.