Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
very common on front suspensions for and cheaper to manufacture. In most cases, a
medium to large cars such as the Honda Macpherson strut requires less space to
Accord, Volkswagen Passat, Chrysler 300, engineer into a chassis design, and in front
or Mazda 6/Atenza, pickups, SUVs, and are wheel drive layouts, can allow for more
very common on sports cars and racing cars. room in the engine bay. A good example of
A single wishbone or A-arm can also be this is observed in the Honda Civic, which
used in various other suspension types, such changed its front suspension design from a
as Macpherson strut and Chapman strut. The double wishbone design, to a Macpherson
suspension consists of a pair of upper and strut design after the year 2000 model. The
lowers lateral arms. The upper arm is changes was made to lower costs, as well as
usually shorter to induce negative camber as allow more engine bay room for the newly
the suspension jounces (rises). When the introduced Honda K-series engine.
vehicle is in a turn, body roll results in
positive camber gain on the outside wheel.
The outside wheel also jounces and gains
negative camber due to the shorter upper
arm. The suspension designer attempts to
balance these two effects to cancel out and
keep the tire perpendicular to the ground.
This is especially important for the outer tire
because of the weight transfer to this tire
during a turn.
The advantage of a double wishbone
suspension is that it is fairly easy to work
out the effect of moving each joint, so you
can tune the kinematics of the suspension
easily and optimize wheel motion. It is also Fig 1: Double Wishbone suspension
easy to work out the loads that different system
parts will be subjected to which allows more
optimized lightweight parts to be designed. B. MAcPherson Strut
They also provide increasing negative McPherson struts are popular struts that are
camber gain all the way to full jounce travel used mainly in the front suspensions on
unlike the MacPherson strut which provides vehicles especially cars. This strut contains
negative camber gain only at the beginning different types of components into one
of jounce travel and then reverses into package making them ideal for front-wheel-
positive camber gain at high jounce drive cars. The McPherson struts are used in
amounts. different types and models of cars. The strut
is used for both rear and front suspension
The disadvantage is that it is slightly more but mainly used in the front suspension
complex than other systems like a because it provides a steering pivot. The
MacPherson strut. Prior to the dominance of subframe of the strut is capable of providing
front wheel drive in the 1980s, many the lateral and longitudinal location of the
everyday cars used double wishbone front wheel. The strut was designed by Earl S.
suspension systems or a variation on it. McPherson. This strut was used in Ford
Since that time, the Macpherson strut has Vedette in 1949. The strut consists of a
become almost ubiquitous, as it is simpler wishbone or a compression link which is
stabilized by a secondary link. The Torsion bar suspensions are currently used
secondary link is important for providing a on trucks and SUV from Ford, Dodge, GM,
bottom mounting point for the hub or axle of Mitsubishi and Toyota. Manufacturers
the wheel. The lower arm of the strut is
change the torsion bar or key to adjust the
helpful in providing both lateral and
longitudinal location of the wheel. ride height, usually to compensate for
heavier or lighter engine packages. While
the ride height may be adjusted by turning
the adjuster bolts on the stock torsion key,
rotating the stock keys too far can bend the
adjusting bolt and (more importantly) place
the shock piston outside the standard travel.
Over-rotating the torsion bars can also cause
the suspension to hit the bump stop
prematurely, causing a harsh ride.
Aftermarket forged torsion key kits use
relocked adjuster keys to prevent over-
Fig 2: Mc Pherson Strut rotation, as well as shock brackets that keep
the piston travel in the stock position.
The body is suspended on the coil spring
whereas the shock absorber, which is usually
in the form of a cartridge mounted within
the strut. The assembly is simple and can be
preassembled into a unit. Moreover, it
allows for more width in the engine bay by
eliminating the upper control arm. This is
useful for smaller cars particularly with
engine having transverse orientation just like
most front wheel drive vehicles have.
C. Torsion Bar System- A torsion bar
suspension, also known as a torsion spring Fig 3: Torsion bar action
suspension or incorrectly torsion beam, is a
general term for any vehicle suspension that D. Twist Beam Suspension- The Twist-
uses a torsion bar as its main weight bearing beam rear suspension is a type of
spring. One end of a long metal bar is automobile suspension based on a large H
attached firmly to the vehicle chassis; the shaped member. The front of the H attaches
opposite end terminates in a lever, mounted to the body via rubber bushings, and the rear
perpendicular to the bar, that is attached to a
of the H carries each wheel, on each side of
suspension arm, spindle or the axle. Vertical
motion of the wheel causes the bar to twist the car. The cross beam of the H holds the
around its axis and is resisted by the bar's two trailing arms together, and provides
torsion resistance. The effective spring rate the roll stiffness of the suspension, by
of the bar is determined by its length, twisting as the two trailing arms move
diameter and material. vertically, relative to each other. The coil
springs usually bear on a pad alongside, or Mk V in response to the Ford Focus' Control
behind, the wheels. Often the shock is Blade rear suspension.
colinear with the spring, to form a coilover.
This location gives them a very high motion
ratio compared with most suspensions,
which improves their performance, and
reduces their weight. The longitudinal
location of the cross beam controls
important parameters of the suspension's
behavior, such as the roll steer curve and toe
and camber compliance. The closer the cross
beam to the axle stubs the more the camber Fig 4- Twist Beam Rear Axle
and toe changes under deflection. A key
difference between the camber and toe E.Leaf spring
changes of a twist beam vs independent Originally called laminated or carriage
suspension is the change in camber and toe spring, a leaf spring is a simple form
is dependent on the position of the other of spring, commonly used for
wheel, not the car's chassis. In a traditional the suspension in wheeled vehicles. It is also
independent suspension the camber and toe one of the oldest forms of springing, dating
are based on the position of the wheel back to medieval times. Sometimes referred
relative to the body. If both wheels compress to as asemi-elliptical spring or cart spring,
together their camber and toe will not it takes the form of a slender arc-shaped
change. Thus if both wheels started length of spring steel of rectangular cross-
perpendicular to the road and car section. The center of the arc provides
compressed together they will stay location for the axle, while tie holes are
perpendicular to the road. The camber and provided at either end for attaching to the
toe changes are the result of one wheel being vehicle body. For very heavy vehicles, a leaf
compressed relative to the other. This spring can be made from several leaves
suspension is used on a wide variety of front stacked on top of each other in several
wheel drive cars, and was almost ubiquitous layers, often with progressively shorter
on European superminis. It was probably leaves. Leaf springs can serve locating and
introduced on the Audi 50, which was to some extent damping as well as springing
rebadged as the Volkswagen Polo. This functions. While the interleaf friction
suspension is usually described as semi- provides a damping action, it is not well
independent, meaning that the two wheels controlled and results in stiction in the
can move relative to each other, but their motion of the suspension. For this reason
motion is still somewhat inter-linked, to a manufactures have experimented with
greater extent than in a true IRS. This limits mono-leaf springs. A leaf spring can either
the handling of the vehicle, and VW have be attached directly to the frame at both ends
dropped it in favor of a true IRS for the Golf or attached directly at one end, usually the
front, with the other end attached through a faults. Following are the parameters which
shackle, a short swinging arm. The shackle are kept in mind for designing of suspension
takes up the tendency of the leaf spring to
systems
elongate when compressed and thus makes
for softer springiness. Some springs
3.1 Wheel Camber Angle- Wheel camber is
terminated in a concave end, called a spoon
end(seldom used now), to carry a swiveling the lateral tilt or sideway inclination of the
member. wheel relative to the vertical. When the top
of the wheel lean inwards towards the body
the camber is said to be negative, conversely
an outward leaning wheel has positive
camber. Road wheels were originally
positively cambered to maintain the wheels
perpendicular to the early cambered roads.
Fig 5- Leaf Spring Practically for most of the suspensions
3.1 Suspensions Geometry& Tyres role system wheel cambered has been reduces to
for Effective vehicle Handling 0.5 degrees to 1.5 degrees. if one wheel is
The stability and effective handling of the slightly more cambered then the other, due
vehicle depends upon the designer’s may be to body roll with independent
suspension geometry which particularly steering wheel will tend to wander or pull to
includes the wheel Camber, Castor and King one side as the vehicle is steered in the
Pin inclination. It is essential for the straight ahead position. To provide a small
suspension members to maintain these amount of understeer, the front wheels are
factors throughout the whole life of a car. normally made to generate a greater slip
Unfortunately, the pivoting and the angle then the rear wheels by introducing
swiveling joints are both subjected to the positive camber on the front wheel and
wear and damage and must be periodically maintain the rear wheels virtually
centring the steering will have, influence the wheel rim and the rear of the wheel rim.
Total Toe is the overall distance for a pair of
straight-line running and with the Kingpin
wheels whereas Individual Toe is half the
Angle it will influence the camber change Total Toe and relates to individual wheels.
Toe-in increases lateral stability but can lead
when cornering as a function of the steering
to wear on the inside shoulder of the tyre.
input. Castor Angle traditionally used to be Front end toe-in dampens turn in response
but improves the self centring action of the
very small as large amounts of Castor Angle
steering while rear toe-in helps to reduce
created heavy steering,. Large Castor Angles oversteer due to the improvement in lateral
stability. Toe-out reduces lateral stability and
mean greater, dynamic camber changes can
can lead to wear on the outside shoulder of
be created and that means better negative the tyre. Front end toe-out can improve turn-
in response while rear end toe-out
camber when cornering and smaller camber
encourages oversteer due to the reduction in
on the straight, ideal for both performance lateral stability. Toe can be altered on the
front by adjusting the track-rod ends and on
and wear of the tyres unfortunately too large
the rear by adjusting the toe control arms.
a castor angle can lead to poor turn-in.
all the forces acting on a contact patch yields rolling at a non-vertical orientation, the
the net lateral force with a point of action on inclination angle being known as camber
the centroid.The asymmetry of the forces angle.With Camber, a lateral force known as
build up in the contact patch causes the force “Camber Thrust” is produced. The
resultant to be positioned toward the rear of inclination angle is defines with respect to
the contact patch by a distance known as the perpendicular from the ground plane,
Pneumatic Trail. By SAE convention the positive corresponding to an orientation with
lateral force is taken to act at the center of the top of the wheel tipped to the right when
the tire contact. At this position net resultant looking forward along it’s direction of
is a lateral force,Fy and aligning moment travel. It is the primary cornering force by
,Mz.The magnitude of aligning moment is which motorcycles and the other two
equal to the lateral force times the wheeled vehicles are controlled. On
pneumatic trail. passengers and trucks, camber thrust
contributes to understeer behavior, but
Vehicle stiffness is one of the primary normally as a secondary source. On vehicles
variables affecting steady state and transient with independent suspensions where
cornering properties of vehicles in the significant camber angles may be achieved,
normal driving range.Understeer gradient, this mechanism may contribute up to about
the characteristic commonly used to qualify 25 percent of the under steer gradient. On
turning behavior, is directly influenced by vehicles with Solid axles, little camber can
the balance of the cornering stiffness on occur such that its contribution to turning
front and rear tires, as normalized by their performance is very less.
loads.A higher relative cornering stiffness on
the rear wheels is necessary to achieve under
steer.
on understeer by its action on the steered may include representations of the body, sub
wheels. The moment is normally in the frames, suspension arms, struts, roll bars,
direction to turn the steered wheels out of steering system, engine, drivetrain and tyres.
the turn. the steered wheels out of the turn.
The main analysis code consists of a number
Even though the steer deflection angles in
response to aligning moments may be small, of integrated programs that perform three-
this is normally an important contribution to dimensional kinematic, static, quasi-static or
under steer gradient. dynamic analysis of mechanical systems. In
addition there are a number of auxiliary
4. Simulation and Analysis of Suspensions programs, which can be supplied to link
Systems- Computer aided simulation of with ADAMS. These programs can be used
vehicle handling characteristics is nowadays
to perform modal analysis, model vehicle
universally acknowledged as an efficient
method in the process of developing new tyre characteristics, pre-process using a
vehicles. Simulation software tools are used library of macros, automatically generate
both by automobile manufacturers and vehicle suspensions and full vehicle models,
suppliers to an increasing extent. The or model the human body. Once a model has
outstanding quality of simulation results for been defined ADAMS will assemble the
chassis development is acknowledged equations of motion and solve them
without exception. ADAMS® as a
automatically. It is also possible to include
multybody-simulation-tool is in service in
automotive engineering all over the world. differential equations directly in the
The dynamics of rigid bodies can hereby be solution, which allows the modeling of
analyzed mathematically very exactly. active suspensions or steering, braking and
speed controllers. Programs such as
ADAMS have developed to such an
advanced stage that they form an integral
part of a modern computer aided
engineering installation. The program will,
for example, link or interface with CAD
systems, finite element programs, software
used for advanced visualization or additional
Fig 15- ADAMS model of a car
software modules such as those used for tyre
The main use of ADAMS within the modelling. The combined use of these
automotive industry is to simulate the systems can lead to the development of what
performance of suspension systems and full may be referred to as virtual prototypes,
vehicle models. The analyst will often wish which is computer models that can simulate
to validate the performance of a suspension the tests and conditions that a real prototype
model over a range of displacements would be subject to during the development
between full bump to rebound before the of a new engineering product.
assembly of a full vehicle model. The final
model may be used for ride and handling,
durability or crash studies. A detailed model
IGES Mass
Translation properties
Body properties, Suspension
Human Factors Modelling geometry, Geometry models, tyre Vehicle Modelling
postures monitors models,
drivetrains (i) The use of kinematic or quasi-static
Hydraulic, Pneumatic
Subsystem Modelling
Bond-graph ADAMS Differential
Equations Actuator Modelling analysis to simulate the motion of the
Models System Model Definition
Mass,
road wheel relative to the vehicle
Control System Modelling
Control laws
ADAMS Data Language
stif ness,
damping
models
F.E.
Flexible Body Modelling body passing through the full range
of vertical movement between the
Interactive Real-Time Kinematics Kinematic Path Optimisation rebound and the bump positions. The
output from these analyses is mainly
Equation Generation geometric and allows results such as
Assembly/ Initial Condition Analysis camber angle or roll centre position
Kinematic Analysis
Loads
to be plotted graphically against
Static/Quasi-Static Analysis
Dynamic Analysis
Boundary
Conditions vertical wheel movement.
Plant Linearisation/Model Analysis
Model
ADAMS
System Simulation Modules (ii) The use of static, quasi-static or
ADAMS Results Files dynamic analyses to simulate the
diffusion of loads from the contact
Signal Processing Data Tabulation
patch through the suspension system
High-speed Photo-realistic
Shaded
Image
Configuration Display Results Plot ing
Rendering
Film-recorded
and into the body mounts. These
Animation Superimposed Display/Animation Animation
types of analyses are used to
ADAMS
Simulation Results Processing Modules
represent typical in service loads that
need to be considered to provide the
Fig 16- Integration of Adams with CAE
required durability. Typical load
cases will include those due to
driving, braking and cornering
leading on to the simulation of the
more severe cases to which a
prototype vehicle would be subjected
such as driving through a pothole.
The output from these analyses will
be the peak loads produced at
locations such as the suspension arm
to body mounts and the spring seats.
These results can then be used as
inputs to finite element models in
order to determine the structural
stresses and strains required for the
design of the components and to
perform further fatigue assessments.
vehicle. An example of this would be and aligned through the front and rear roll
to recreate test procedures carried centers.
out in the laboratory such as the
input of an oscillatory load at the The four suspension arrangements are
tyre contact patch where the shown schematically in Figure18.
frequency is varied with time. This is
often referred to as a frequency
sweep and will identify which
frequencies will excite the
suspension leading in severe cases to
problems such as ‘wheel hop’ where
the resulting excitation of the road
wheel can lead to violent bouncing.
procedure. The seven posts are hydraulic types of cars on which the suspension
cylinders. Four of them have flat pans the systems are used has also been discussed.
tires sit on and support the car. The other Particular Emphasis has also been given on
three are called the aeroloaders and attach to the mechanics of tyres, Suspension
the sprung mass. Normally, two are mounted Geometry and how it affects the vehicle
to the front of the chassis some distance performance. Various physical test like K &
apart while the third one is mounted at the C Rig test and Shaker’s Rig test has also
rear on centerline. Loading on these been given and fully explained. More
cylinders is done to pull the car down, emphasis is given on the Modelling and
opposing the four wheel pans. The analysis of the Automotive Suspensions.
aeroloaders simulate other forces on the car
such as the squashing from inertia loads as
the car rolls through a banked turn or
References-
deflections due to aerodynamic loading. By
adjusting the load on the three downforce 1. Advance Vehicle Technology by
rams we can simulate any combination of Heisler
roll, heave or pitch displacement to recreate
specific conditions seen on the track and 2. “ Vehicle Dynamics” by Thomas
repeat that condition. Normally, wheel D.Gillespie
travels from actual test-session recordings
are re-created in the lab. By using the 3. www.howstuffwork.com
correct deflections indicated by wheel travel 4. Advance Race Dynamics by
with the same springs and bars as those used Milliken & Milliken
in the track test, the loads will be correct.
Deflections are used because race teams 5. www.sidebrake.net/forums/index.ph
seldom have vertical loads as a p?topic=841.0
measurement.
6. http://www.circletrack.com/techarticl
es/seven_post_shaker_rig_suspensio
n_dynamics/index.html