NuclearEnergy:Rightforthefuture?

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NuclearEnergy:Rightforthefuture? HamsaFayed Prof.SemihEser EGEE101H 16April2012

Abstract Thefutureofnuclearenergyhasrecentlybecomeahottopicissue.Aprevalentenergysourcenuclear energyhasbeenaroundsinceWorldWarIIonlyithasntalwaysbeenusedfortheforcesofgood. TheUSatomicbombsthatweredroppedonHiroshimaandNagasaki,Japanaretheverysame destructiveweaponsthatendedthewar.Currently,nuclearenergyisfrequentlyusedforelectricity generationproviding13%oftheworldselectricityand20%oftheUnitedStateselectricity.The recentnuclearrenaissanceintheearly2000swasaUSgovernmentreactiontopublicpanicofglobal warming.Nuclearenergyisfamouslyknownasagentlecarbonemissionfreeenergythisisnotthe case.TheThreeMileIsland(Harrisburg,PA),Chernobyl(Ukraine),andFukushimaDaiichidisasters revealedthedangeroussideofnuclearenergythedeadlyradioactivesidethattakes500,000,000 yearstodieout.Nuclearenergycandefinitelybeconsideredahealthandsecuritythreat.Nevertheless, researchdevelopmentcanalsohelptomakenuclearenergythefuturesinceourconventionalenergy supplies(oil,coal,andnaturalgas)arediminishingfairlyquickly.Thispaperexaminesnuclearenergyin theenvironmental,economical,andsocialcontextsinordertotrytohelpthereaderformaninformed decisionabouttheroleofnuclearenergyintodayssociety.

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Introduction Asof2012,nuclearenergyprovides13%oftheworldselectricityand20%oftheUnited Stateselectricity(keyworldenergy,2012).Recently,nuclearenergyusedebatehasbecomeprevalent forsecurityreasons.TheFukushimaDaiichidisasterin2011haspromptedthepublicandgovernments toreconsidernuclearenergypolicies.Somecountrieshavemodifiedtheirnucleardevelopment programs,whilesomehaveoutrightbannedthemlikeItaly.Nuclearenergyisinformallyknownas cleanerenergytothepointwhereithasbeencomparedtorenewableenergy(whichisincorrect)in thatithaslowgreenhousegasemissions. Withtheseadvantages,somepolicymakersandscientistsarguethatthereareHUGEcoststo pay.Anexampleofadisadvantageisgenerationofelectricitythroughnuclearfissionreactionswhich producehighamountsofradioactivenuclearwaste.Wastedisposalhasbecomeaproblematicissue.To diminish,radioactivewastemustbesealedupandburiedforthousandsofyears.Allthewhile,the hazardouswastemustbekeptawayfromnaturaldisasterslikefloods,terrorists,andtechnological malfunctions.Financially,thedevelopmentofnuclearpowerplantsarecostlypartlybecauseof safety/securitysafeguards.However,investmentsinnuclearenergysafetyhaventbeenableto completelydetertechnologicalmishapsandnucleardisaster.Onemightask,whydowekeepnuclear energyaroundifithassuchtollingcosts?Ananswermightbethatnuclearenergyseemslikeagreat alternativetoconventionalenergysystemslikecoalinthatithascheaperfuelcostsandmuchless emissions(D&G,12013).Someotheranswersmightincludethefuturedevelopmentofnuclearenergy innuclearfusion(nottobemistakenwithnuclearfission)holdssomepromise.Currentnuclearpower plantsgenerateelectricityandheatfromnuclearfissionaradioactivedecayprocess.Comparatively,

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nuclearfusionistheoreticallysupposedtobesaferandgeneratemuchless(ifany)radioactivewaste thanfission.Thefutureuseofnuclearenergymustnotonlybedependentontheseaspectsalone. Toevaluatethesecostsanddecideifnuclearenergyisrightforthefuture,oneneedstoplace andconsidernuclearenergyinsocial,environmental,andeconomicalcontexts.Weighingtheadvantages anddisadvantagesintheevaluationoftheseaspectscanassistindecidingtheextentofcommitmentto nuclearenergyinfuturesystems. LiteratureReview ThediscoveryofnuclearfissionbyGermanchemistOttoHahn,didnotinitiallyprompt electricitygeneration.Infact,nuclearfissionwasutilizedasatoolforwartocreatetheatomicbombin WorldWarII.TheAmericanDepartmentofDefensemadeanannouncementin1945Mankindhas enteredanewage,theageoftheatom(MilestonesDocumentary,1992).In1938,OttoHahn,Fritz Strassman,LiseMeitner,andOttoFrischconductedexperimentstotestouttheclaimsofanItalian chemistEnricoFermi.ContrarytoFermisclaims,theyfoundthattheneutronsplitinaprocessthey callednuclearfission.Ascientist,LeoSzilardrecognizingthepotentialforaselfsustainingnuclear chainreactionhadfearsforthefuturenucleardevelopmentsinGermanyandthusurgedAlbert EinsteintowritealettertotheFranklinD.Roosevelt(MilestonesDocumentary,1992). ThislettercatalyzedtheManhattanProjectwhichwasascientificandmilitaryresearchthat eventuallyledtothecreationofthefirstevernuclearreactor.WorldWarIIendedwiththedropoftwo USatomicbombsonHiroshimaandNagasakiinJapan.Theaftermathanddepletionofhumanlife broughtaboutanerawherenuclearforceswouldnolongerbeencouragedforwarefforts.Instead,the adventofnucleartechnologyforelectricitygenerationprovedtobeasolutiontomankindsenergy

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problemsandin1956thefirstevercommercialpowerstationwasbuiltinEngland. Sincethen,alotmorenuclearpowerplantshavebeenbuilt437operatingcommercialnuclear powerreactors,tobeexact(IAEA,2013).Nuclearpowerplantisbydefinitionathermalpower stationtheheatsourceisanuclearreactor.Inanuclearreactor,theheatfromacontrollednuclear fissionreactiongeneratessteamdrivingasteamturbinethatisconnectedtoageneratorwhich produceselectricity.Mostnuclearelectricitycomesfromtwotypesofreactors,BoilingWaterReactor (BWR)andPressurizedWaterReactor(PWR)whichhaveminimaldifferences,butbothessentiallyuse steamtogenerateelectricity. Nuclearreactorsareapartofagreaterfuelcycle.Figure1showsthatthefirststepinthe nuclearfuelcycleisuraniummining.Themineduraniumisconvertedintoagas(UF6),whichisthen enrichedthroughaphysicalseparationprocessintonuclearfuel,therebymakingbothisotopesU235 andU238(Weeks,2006).IsotopeU235,onlyonepercentcontainedinnaturaluranium,isextracted andusedforgenerationofnuclearenergy.Theotherninetyninepercentofnaturaluraniumisisotope U238(knownasdepleteduranium)itisnotusefulforproducingelectricityandwillmostlikelybe waste.Thenextstep(UO2FuelFabrication),enricheduranium(U235)isconvertedintofuelpellets andinsertedintothintubestoformfuelrodswhicharethecoreofthenuclearreactor. Afterelectricitygeneration,spentfuelisremovedfromreactorandputinacoolingfacilities forseveralyearswhileitsradioactivityandheatsubside(Weeks,2006).Reprocessing,whichisthe processofusingspentfuelinthefuelfabricationplantisonlyconductedinpartsofEurope,butnotin theUS.Onepercentofspentfuelisfissionableandanotheronepercentofthespentfuelisplutonium whichcanbemixedinthefuelfabricationplantandusedtoproduceoxidefuel(Weeks,2006).The

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unreprocessedspentfuelisradioactivenuclearwastethatmustbesealedandburiedundergroundfor manyyears.Highlevelradioactivenuclearwasteincludefissionproductswhicharesmallatomic fragmentsofsplituraniumatomsandfissionbyproductswhicharelargeratoms(Stencel,1976).Fission productshaveshortertoxiclivesthanfissionbyproducts.Thehalflife(periodoftimethatmustelapse beforeradioactivityhasbeenreduced)offissionproductslikecesium137areabout30yearsbut canremaindangerousfor6001,000years(Stencel,1976).Fissionbyproductslikeplutonium239 hasahalflifeof24,000yearswhichmeansitisdangerousfornearly500,000years(Stencel,1976). However,currentreprocessingtechniquesdonotseparatefissionbyproductsandproducts,therefore theymustbecontainedfornearlyhalfamillionyears(Stencel,1976). Discussion Thefearofglobalwarmingorhumancausedclimatechangecatalyzedanuclearrenaissance intheearly2000s,particularlyinWashington.PresidentBushsignedtheEnergyPolicyActof2005, offeringtaxcreditstocompaniesforbuildingnewnuclearplantsandguaranteedgovernment reimbursement(Clemmitt,2011).Currently,theUSfaceswastemanagementissuesofhighlevel radioactivewasteandconcernovertheaccumulationofthatwaste.So,isthereawaytoreducethis waste?Breederreactorsafuelefficientnuclearreactorthatproducesmorefuelthanitcanconsumes emergedintheearly1960saspopularresearchfielduntilitdeclinedlaterinthedecadewhenuranium reserveswerediscovered(Philip,1969).FastbreederreactorsuseU238(depleteduranium)to generateelectricitywhichsavesbothmoneyandreducenuclearwaste(Philip,1969).However,thereis ahighcostofreprocessingfuelsafely.Theefforttoreducenuclearwastedoesntcompletelyeliminate theissuenuclearwastestillexists.

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So,wheredoweputthatwastewithoutcreatingdangerousexternalitiesforthecitizensliving aroundaparticularnucleardepository?Thefactofthematterishighlevelnuclearwasteisnotsafe andnoonewantsitintheirbackyard.TheNuclearWastePolicyActof1982requiredtheDepartment ofEnergy(DOE)todesignanundergroundgeologicalrepositoryfordisposingofnuclearwaste whichpromptedtheplanofdumpingallnuclearwastetoYuccaMountaintobetransportedviatruck (Hansen,2001).Thisposesgreatexternalityissuesofwhichcanbeseenfrombothaneconomicaland environmentalperspective.Transportingradioactivewasteisagreathealthriskinthatitendangersthe individualsthathandlefuelcasksorlivealongtransportroutes(Weeks,2011).Also,transportationof wasteincreasesrisksofaccidentsorexposuresAPHAcalledspentfueltransportationanational publichealththreatthatislargelypreventable(Weeks.2011). Exampleofthemagnitudeofnucleardestructioncanbeseeninthethreeprominentnuclear accidentsoverthepastcenturyThreeMileIsland(1979),Chernobyl(1986),andFukushimaDaiichi (2011)disasters.Glasterdescribesnuclearpowerasa[f]austianbargaininthatnuclearpower promisestheluxuriesofabundantelectricitycoupledwiththepossibilityofacatastrophicradioactive accident(Glaster,1986).IsNuclearaFaustianBargain?byGlasterhadbeenpublishedafterthe Chernobylaccidentthesameyear.Thus,GlasterusedChernobyldisasterasanexampleofthe dangersofnuclearaccidentsandshinedlightuponthesimilaritybetweenUSandChernobyl containmentdesignsthatalloweddeadlyradiationtoescapewhentheplantcaughtonfire(Glaster, 1986).GlasterstatesthatbothChernobylandUShadsimilarpreventionlikethepressuresuppression systemwhichreducesthesteamthatwouldescapeinanaccidentandthusreducethepressurethatthe buildingwouldhavetowithstand.(Glaster,1986)Thus,Glasterhadconsiderablefearforstateof

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reactordesignsintheUSbecausetheyweresosimilartoChernobyl. Theeconomiccostsofnuclearpowerincludetheevaluationofproductioncostsofnuclearfuel cycleandtheexternalitieswhichincludeanyoutsideeffectslikeliabilitycosts,environmentalregulation costs,morejobopenings,andhigherconsumertaxes(Externalities,2011).Theproductioncosts includeallthestepsinthenuclearfuelcycleliketheactualconstructionofthenuclearplant/reactors, capitalcosts,wastedisposal,andoperatingcosts.Inthenucleardebate,opponentsofnuclearenergy tendtosupporttheirnucleareconomicargumentsbybringingupnegativeexternalitiesand environmentalrisks,whilethesupportersofnuclearenergytendtosupportthelowerfuelcostsin comparisontoconventionalsystemslikecoalaswellasthegreatnucleargenerationofelectricity. AnexampleofasupporterofnuclearenergycanbeseenintheargumentsmadeinThe EconomicFutureofNuclearPowerbyaresearchgroupinUniversityofChicago.Essentiallythey arguethattheinitialoperatingcostofcapitalinvestmentsandconstructionofnuclearpowerplantsmight becostlyinthebeginning,butwillbebeneficialbecauseofthelowoperatingcostsoftheplant. Conversely,opponentsofnuclearenergyexaminedirectcostsofnuclearfuelcycletooclosely,whenin facttheyshouldbepayingattentionattheenvironmental/healthrisksthatnuclearenergymightbeposing (Externalities,2011).Additionally,MarylandPIRGFoundationfoundthatthefundingforthe developmentofapowerplantincreasedtaxesforconsumersin2009whentheplantwouldntbegin givingelectricityuntil2016(Travis,2009).Also,accidentriskswhichcouldpotentiallyexceedtwo trillioninpropertydamageinNYCareaccountedasapotentialexternalitybyKarlCoplanofPace UniversitySchoolofLaw(Coplan,2008).Further,theCatoInstitutesuggeststhatmuchofthereal increaseincostswasassociatedwithchangesintheNRCssafetyandenvironmentalregulation

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(Rothwell,2009).Thissuggeststhatthemaintenanceofsafetysafeguardsimmenselyincreasescosts. Nuclearproliferationisaveryimportantsocialaspectofnuclearenergy.Asmentionedbefore, theinitialdevelopmentofnucleartechnologywasmadeforthepurposeofwarweaponsliketheatomic bombsdroppedonHiroshimaandNagasakiinJapan.Theatomicbombisaresultofanuncontrolled nuclearreaction.Sincethisincident,thethreatofnuclearweaponshasbeenanimminentissueinthe newsandpopculture.Theproliferationofnucleartechnology,evenifforthepurposeisforelectricity generation,createsasocialandhealthrisk.FlaministatesinIsanewnucleararmsracebeginning? Nuclearpowerplantscanbeseenaspartoftheproliferationcalculation,sincetheyhavethepotential tobeconvertedtoweaponsproduction(Flamini,2007) Ifallotherenvironmentalrisksofradiationweresetaside,thenuclearproliferationpoliticalrisk makesitdifficulttoconsidernuclearenergyasafuturehegemonforelectricitygeneration.Itsfartoo riskytoglobalizeanenergysourcethatcanbeeasilymanipulatedintoweaponsofmassdestruction. Somemightarguethatpoliticaldevicesshouldbecounteredwithpoliticalstrategieslikedeterrence whichisathreattoattackanothersforcesknowingthattheywillbackdownandnotengage.Notall countriesaredeterred,infact,thiswayencouragesthemtofurtherarmthemselves(Flamini,2007).The needtoarmonescountrywithnuclearweaponsisconnectedtotheneedtoattaintheprestigethatare sometimesexhibitedbypowerfulcountrieslikeAmerica.Thosewhohaveweaponsofmassdestruction, areoftenincontrolandallothercountriesaresometimessubjecttotheirpoliticalwhims.Thereforein evaluatingthefurtheruseofnucleartechnology,oneshouldfurtherdevelopmentandproliferationof nucleartechnologywithagrainofsaltduetotheinherentrisksofnuclearweapons. Nuclearfusionelectricitygenerationseemslikeafantasyoradreamcometrue.InSweets

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paper,thereisastrongoptimismregardingthefundingforfusionresearch(Sweet,1980).Thepaper waswritteninthe1980sandalmost30yearssincethenscientistsstillhaventbeenabletogenerate electricityinanuclearreactorthroughnuclearfission.Theissueofnuclearfission,isthatawaymustbe foundtoforceatomsofhydrogentogetherinacontrolledreaction...intenseheatanddensityare requiredtoovercomethenaturaltendencyofthenucleitorepeleachother(Sweet,1980).Sweet declaresifthismuchisachievedscientistswillbeabletogenerateenormousamountsofenergy. Nuclearfusionalsoholdsanumberofotheradvantageslikeimmunetoreactionmeltdownof fissionreactorsandevenifareactiongetsoutofcontroltheplasmawouldrapidlyabsorbthemuch largercontainmentvesselbasicallydeterringitselffromthedestructionofameltdown(Sweet,1980). Evenifitwouldtomeltdown,Sweetsaysthatthegasesreleasedwouldbelessnoxiousthanthatofa nuclearfissionreaction.Also,fusionreactionshasashorterlivedradioactivity.Finally,radioactivityhas alessintimatelinkwithproductionofatomicweapons(Sweet,1980). Doesitsoundtoogoodtobetrue?Wellthatsbecauseitmightactuallybethat!Comparatively, thenegativeaspectsofnuclearenergyincludethelackofactualdevelopment.Fordecadesthecostly fieldofcontrollednuclearfusionhasbeenrockedbyupsanddowns,promiseandproblems.(Griffin, 1993).In1993,RodmanGriffinstatedafter40yearsand$9billioninUSfundedresearch....energy isstillatleastahalfcenturyaway.(Griffin,1993).Thus,shouldwespendbillionsofdollarson researchthatcantbeassured?Withouthastilyansweringthisquestion,weshouldfirstthinkaboutour otheroptionsandexamineourcurrentprospects.

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Conclusion Examiningnuclearenergyundertheenvironmental,economic,andsocialcontextshelpedto evaluateboththepositiveandthenegativeaspectsofthefutureofnuclearenergy.Beinginformedof bothsidesofthenucleardebatecanhelptomakeaninformeddecisionaboutnuclearenergy.The currentnucleardebateisextremelydividedontheissueofpronuclearenergyorantinuclearenergy. Understandably,thesupportforbothissuesareprettydividedonallthethreeaspects(environmental, economic,andsocialcontexts). Economically,nuclearreactorshavelargeinitialconstructioncosts,butlaterhavelowerfuel costs.Theinclusionofexternalitiestonuclearenergyaddsabitcomplexityinthatexternalitiesare definedindifferentwaysinproductioncosts,constructioncosts,liabilitycosts,environmental regulationcost,higherconsumertaxes,nuclearwastedisposal,andjobopenings.Theinvestigationof theeconomicfactorofnuclearenergybroughtaboutthemoreserioushealthandenvironmentalconcern ofnucleardisposalaswellastransportationofradioactivity.Notonlyisthereahighlevelradioactive threat,butthereisapoliticalandsocialthreatofnucleardevelopmentinthewronghandswhichis knownasnuclearproliferation.Thus,thisbringsmetomypreviousquestion:whyevenconsider nuclearenergy? Theadvantagesofnuclearenergyliesinresearchdevelopmentandimprovementofcurrent systems.Asmentionedbefore,fastbreederreactorsareagreatstarttotrytouseuptheU238 (nuclearwaste)isotopeandgenerateelectricity.Additionallynuclearfusionholdsgreatpromiseandif theresearchispursuedtherewillsurebeadiscovery.Nuclearenergyismarketableonitsowntobea greatenergysourcebecauseitssignificantlylowcarbonemissions.Further,astudyconductedinMITin

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thestudyoffuturenuclearpowersuggeststhatimprovementintheopen,oncethroughfuelcyclemay offerwastemanagementbenefitsaslargeasthoseclaimedforthemoreexpensiveclosedfuelcycles. (MIT,2003). Furthermore,itismoreimportantthatIprovidethereaderwiththeinformationtomakea decisionaboutthepossibilityofnuclearenergyasafutureelectricitygeneratorratherthanformthe opinionmyself.Itsuptothereadertomakeuptheirownmindaboutnuclearenergy.

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References Ansolabhere,S.,Deutch,J.,Driscoll,M.,Holdren,J.P.,Joskow,P.L.,Lester,R.K.,Moniz,E. J.,&Todreas,N.E.(2003).Mitstudyonthefutureofnuclearpower.(pp.ix16). Massachusetts:MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Retrievedfromhttp://web.mit. edu/nuclearpower/pdf/nuclearpowersummary.pdf Clemmitt,M.(2011,June10).Nuclearpower.CQResearcher,21,505528.Retrievedfrom http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/ DangermanATCJ,SchellnhuberHJ(2013)Energysystemstransformation.ProcNatlAcadSci USA110:E549E558. Flamini,R.(2007,January1).Nuclearproliferation.CQGlobalResearcher,1,126.Retrievedfrom http://library.cqpress.com/globalresearcher/ GeoffreyRothwell,CanNuclearPowerCompete?inRegulation,Vol.15,No.1(2009) Glazer,S.(1986).Nuclearreactorsafety.Editorialresearchreports1986(Vol.II).Washington,DC: CQPress.Retrievedfromhttp://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre1986120500 Griffin,R.D.(1993,January22).Nuclearfusion.CQResearcher,3,4972.Retrievedfrom http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/ Hansen,B.(2001,June8).Nuclearwaste.CQResearcher,11,489504.Retrievedfrom http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/ KarlS.Coplan,TheExternalitiesofNuclearPower:First,AssumeWeHaveaCanOpener... (2008).PaceLawFacultyPublications:23 KeyworldenergystatisticsIn(2012).Paris:InternationalEnergyAgencyRetrievedfrom

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https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.p Liang,A.J.,Hsu,F.,Carillo,F.,Jurewicz,J.,Tang,M.,&Liu,V.(2011,November03).Retrieved fromhttp://newnuclearenergy.wordpress.com/economics3/economicexternalities/ MartinCastellano,WilliamClune,PhiloDavidson,KantDesai,AmeliaFoo,AshwinR.Harris, AdrianKats,EmilIantchev,NathanIlten,WeiLi,MinghaoLiao,MarkNielson,James Taylor,WalterTheseira,StephanieWaldhoff,DanielWeitzenfeld,andJieZheng.,The EconomicFutureofNuclearPower,(August2004):11 Milestonesinscience&engineeringottohahn:Nuclearfission[Web].(1992).Retrievedfrom http://www.hulu.com/watch/87169 Nuclearpowerintheworldtoday.WorldNuclearAssociation(2012,April).Retrievedfrom http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/CurrentandFutureGeneration/NuclearPowerinthe WorldToday/ Phillips,J.G.(1969).Electricpowerproblems.Editorialresearchreports1969(Vol.II).Washington, DC:CQPress.Retrievedfromhttp://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre1969121700 PowerReactorInformationSystem,(2013).Thedatabaseonnuclearpowerreactors.Retrieved fromInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA)website:http://www.iaea.org/pris/ Stencel,S.(1976).Nuclearwastedisposal.Editorialresearchreports1976(Vol.II).Washington, DC:CQPress.Retrievedfromhttp://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre1976120300 Sweet,W.(1980).Nuclearfusiondevelopment.Editorialresearchreports1980(Vol.II). Washington,DC:CQPress.Retrievedfromhttp://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher /cqresrre1980091200

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TravisMadsen,JohannaNeumann,andEmilyRusch,TheHighCostofNuclearPowerWhyAmerica ShouldChooseaCleanEnergyFutureoverNewNuclearReactors,(March2009):19 Weeks,J.(2006,March10).Nuclearenergy.CQResearcher,16,217240.Retrievedfrom http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/