Planning, Design, Construction and Rehabilitation

/ORGANIZER:
, ,
City of Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina
/CO-ORGANIZERS:
.. - , ,

Institute of Construction Banja Luka - ZIBL, Republic of Srpska,
Bosnia and Herzegovina

- -
Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology
- IZIIS Skopje, Macedonia
PUBLISHER: Institute for Construction Banja Luka - ZIBL
FOR THE PUBLISHER: Director edo Savi, B.LL.
EDITORS:
Prof. Mirko Ai, Ph.D.
Prof. Drago Trkulja, Ph.D.
TECHNICAL EDITORS:
Aleksandar Cvijanovi, Technical Director ZIBL
Novak Pupavac, M.Sc.
edomir Radulovi, B.Sc.EE
PREPARATION FOR PRINTING:
Marija uri
Snjeana Lepir, B.Sc.EE
edomir Radulovi, B.Sc.EE
COVER DESIGN: Ljubia Gornik
PRINTED BY: N.I.G.D. Nezavisne novine d.o.o., Banja Luka
CIRCULATION: 500
Banja Luka, October 2009
Bawa Luka, Republika Srpska, 26-28. Oktobar 2009.
, ,

PLANNING, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION
AND REHABILITAION OF BUILDINGS
AND OTHER ENGINEERING
FACILITIES IN SEISMICALLY
ACTIVE AREAS
Zemqotresi 26. i 27. oktobra 1969.
godine na povr{ini od 9.000km
2
, ostvar-
ili su seizmi~ki intenzitet 7
0
, 8
0
i 9
0
skale MCS. U Bawoj Luci i 15 Kraji -
{kih op{tina poginulo je 15, a teè i
lak{e povrije|eno 1117 qudi. Poru{eno
je ili jako o{te}eno 86.000 stanova, 266
{kola i 592 kulturna, zdravstvena, so-
cijalna i privredna objekta. Zemqotres
od 26. oktobra shva}en je i kao mogu}a
najava glavnog, znatno jaèg udara, koji
se narednog dana i dogodio, ali je ve}
ve}ina ìteqa bila pod vedrim nebom, u
parkovima, poqanama, ... To je bila sre}a
u nesre}i, pa je broj poginulih i povrije -
|enih relativno mali u pore |ewu sa
ru{ila;kom snagom katastrofalnog
zemqotresa od 27. oktobra.
U pro{losti je zabiqeèno vi{e
jakih zemqotresa, koji su u Bawalu~kom
podru~ju, izazivali pravu pusto{, ali je
Bawa Luka, ponovo, iz ru{evina i pe-
pela, izrastala u jo{ ve}i i qep{i grad.
Danas Bawa Luka ima preko 250.000
stanovnika, {to je skoro ~etiri puta
vi{e nego u vrijeme zemqotresa od prije
40 godina, a urbani dio grada pro{irio
se za pet puta. Bawa Luka je sjedi{te
Republike Srpske, entiteta Bosne i
Hercegovine.
Uvjereni smo da }e ova Konferen-
cija, koja se odràva povodom 40 godina
od zemqotresa koji je pogodio Bawa
Luku, biti pravo mjesto za sumirawe
znawa i iskustva iz zemqotresnog
inèwerstva i da }e, u tom pogledu,
dati svoj doprinos razvoju ne samo u re-
gionu i podru~ju Balkana, ve} i u Evropi
pa i u svijetu. Imaju}i u vidu zna~ajan
broj prispjelih nau~no-stru~nih radova
me|u ~ijim autorima se nalazi i ve}i
broj, danas u svijetu, veoma poznatih
imena iz zemqotresnog inèwerstva,
Konferencija }e biti vrlo aktuelna za
sve struke u graditeqstvu, a posebno za
inèwere koji se bave istraìvawem,
planirawem, urbanizmom, projekto-
vawem, izvo|ewem, nadzorom i odrà v-
awem gra|evinskih objekata i sistema,
ali }e biti vrlo zna~ajna i za organe
vlasti - donosioce odluka, zasnivane na
smawewu seizmi~kog rizika.
Bawa Luka je poznata po svom gosto -
primstvu i otvorenosti i oduvijek je
bila doma}in mnogim uglednim li~nos-
tima i delegacijama. Na{ grad je pretr-
pio mnoge po{asti i promijenio mnogo
svojih lica, ali bogatstvo koje se mjeri
spomenicima, reprezentativnim arhite k-
tonskim nasqe|em, prirodnim qepotama
i bogatim iskustvom wegovih gra|ana
ostaje da plijeni i do~ekuje goste i
danas.
Na kraju, èlim da Vam svima izra -
zim zahvalnost u ime Grada i li~no,
{to ste, Va{im odzivom, omogu}ili
odràvawe ove Konferencije, a posebno
autorima saop{tewa koja su publiko-
vana u Zborniku radova. Tako|e, izraà -
vam zahvalnost ~lanovima Nau~nog i
Organizacionog komiteta koji su svo-
jim zalagawem u~inili da se ovaj skup
odrì na vrlo zavidnom nivou.
Sa posebnim zadovoqstvom, èlim
Vam dobrodo{licu i prijatan boravak u
Bawoj Luci.
Dragoqub Davidovi}
Gradona~elnik Bawa Luke
Predgovor
The earthquakes that struck Banja Luka
on October 26 and 27 1969, affected the
area of 9 000 km with seismic intensities of
7, 8 and 9 on the MCS scale, and left 15
killed and 1117 severely and slightly injured
in Banja Luka and in fifteen other municipal-
ities of the Krajina Region. Eighty-six thou-
sand apartments, 266 schools and 592
cultural, health, social and public facilities
were completely destroyed or severely dam-
aged by this disaster. The first earthquake of
October 26 was interpreted to be a foreshock
of the main, considerably stronger event,
which in fact occured the following day. At
the time, most of the inhabitants were al-
ready out in the open, which turned out to be
most fortunate as the number of the killed
and injured did not increase in proportion to
the destructive force of the second devastat-
ing earthquake on October 27th.
Several strong earthquakes were regis-
tered in the past and some of them destroyed
the area of Banja Luka. In spite of this, the
city grew from the ruins and ashes to become
even bigger and more beatiful. There are
more than 250 000 inhabitants in Banja
Luka today, which is almost four times more
than forty years ago. The urban area of the
city is now five times larger than what it used
to be. Today Banja Luka is the administrative
center of the Republic of Srpska, which is
one of the two entities in Bosnia and Herze-
govina.
We beleive that this Conference, which is
taking place on the occasion of the fortyeth
anniversary of the earthquake, is the ideal
place for reviewing the knowledge and expe-
rience in the field of earthquake engineering,
and that this conference will contribute to
further developments not only in our region
and the Balkans, but also in Europe and in
the world. Judging from the significant num-
ber of the scientific and expert papers we re-
ceived, from distinguished authors in the field
of earthquake engineering worldwide, the
Conference will address the state of the art
and will be most informative for all civil en-
gineering prifessionals, and in particular for
the engineers dealing with research, urban
planing, design, supervision and managing
the construction sites and systems. Further-
more, the Conference will prove very useful
for the local city and government officials.
Having welcomed and hosted many dis-
tinguished visitors and delegations so far,
Banja Luka has always been known for its
hospitality and openness. Our city suffered
many calamities and changed its appearence
many times, but its treasures, which are re-
flected in its monuments, architectural her-
itage, beautiful natural envoronment, and
rich experience of its citizens, will continue
to attract and to host its dear guests.
In conclusion, allow me to express my
gratitute to you personally and on behalf of
the City of Banja Luka for your willingness
to participate, and which made this Confer-
ence possible. I would also like to thank the
members of the Scientific and Organizational
Committees, who helped to make it possible
for this event to take place and at suh an ad-
vanced level.
It is with great pleasure that I extend my
cordial welcome to all of you, and wish you
the most enjoyablet stay in Banja Luka.
Dragoljub Davidovi
Mayor of Banja Luka
Forward

. , ,
. , ,
. , ,
. , ,
. , ,
. ,,
. , ,
. , ,
. , ,
. , ,
, ,
, ,
. , ,
, ,
. ,
. , ,
. , ,
. . , ,
. , ,
. , ,
, ,
. , ,
. , ,
. , ,
. , ,
. , ,

, -
, ..
, ..
. ,
. , -,
. , ,
,
,

,
,
,
.. , -

, -
. , ..
. , ,
,
, ..

. ,
,
,
,

. , ,
International Scientific Comitee
Prof. dr Mirko AI, Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. dr Petar ANAGNOSTI, Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. dr Stavros ANAGNOSTOPULOS, Atena, Greece
Prof. dr Atila ANSAL , Secretary General of EAEE, Turkey
Prof. dr Felix APTIKAEV , Moscow, Russia
Prof dr Jack G. BOUWKAMP, Darmshtad, Germany
Prof. dr Hong CHEN, Harbin, China
Prof. dr Radomir FOLI, Novi Sad, Serbia
Prof. dr Mihail GAREVSKI, Skopje, Macedonia
Prof. dr Predrag GAVRILOVI, Skopje, Macedonia
Dr Branislav GLAVATOVI, Podgorica, Montenegro
Dr Hazim HORVATOVI, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Prof. dr Marin KOSTOV, Sofia, Bulgaria
Mr Ognjen KURAJICA, Pasadena, USA
Prof. dr Sugito MASATA, Japan
Prof. dr Zoran MILUTINOVI, Skopje, Macedonia
Prof. dr Marinko OLUJI, Zagreb, Croatia
Prof. dr Boidar S. PAVIEVI, Podgorica, Montenegro
Akad. Boko PETROVI, Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. dr Miroslav STOJKOVI, Skopje, Macedonia
Mr Slavica RADOVANOVI, Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. dr Duko SUNARI, Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. dr Miha TOMAEVI, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Prof. dr Mihailo TRIFUNAC, Los Angeles, USA
Prof. dr Drago TRKULJA, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Prof. dr ore VUKSANOVI, Belgrade, Serbia
Organizing Committee
Dragoljub DAVIDOVI, Mayor of Banja Luka - Chairman
edo SAVI, director, Zavod za izgradnju Banja Luka
Rajko PUCAR, Zavod za izgradnju Banja Luka
Prof. dr Mirko AI, Faculty of civil engineering Belgrade
Prof. dr Mihail GAREVSKI, director, IZIIS, Skopje
Prof. dr Predrag GAVRILOVI, IZIIS, Skopje
Verica KUNI, Section head for spatialy organization of City of Banja Luka
Budimir BALABAN, Section head for municipal and residental dealing
of City of Banja Luka
Ljiljana RADOVANOVI, Section head for public activity of City of Banja Luka
Drako ILI, parliamentarian
Slobodan BUMA, parliamentarian
Prof.dr. Milenko STANKOVI, dean of Faculty of civil eng., Banja Luka
mr Radovan BELESLIN, Faculty of civil eng, Banja Luka
Prof. dr Drago TRKULJA, Zavod za izgradnju Banja Luka
Prof. dr Vladimir LUKI, Banja Luka
mr Borko URI, entity president of Chamber of economy
mr Novak PUPAVAC, Zavod za izgradnju Banja Luka
Honorary Committee
Acad. Rajko KUZMANOVI, President of Republic of Srpska
Igor RADOJI, President of House of commons RS
Milorad DODIK, Premier of Republic of Srpska
Fatima FETIBEGOVI, Minister of arch. arrangement RS
Prof. dr Stanko STANI, Rector of University, Banja Luka
SADRAJ
Prof.dr Miha Tomaevi
ASEIZMIKO PROJEKTOVANJE ZIDANIH ZGRADA:
40 GODINA POSLE ZEMLJOTRESA U BANJA LUCI
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF MASONRY BUILDINGS:
40 YEARS AFTER THE BANJA LUKA EARTHQUAKE ................................................21
Prof.dr Paata Rekvava
UTICAJ INTERAKCIJE TLO-INTERFEJS-KONSTRUKCIJA
NA SEIZMIKI ODGOVOR PANEL ZGRADA
SOIL INTERFACE STRUCTURE INTERACTION EFFECT ON PANEL
BUILDING SEISMIC RESPONS.....................................................................................35
Prof.dr Zoran Milutinovi
ABU DABI, UAE, SISTEM ZA MONITORING I MENADMENT
SEIZMIKOG RIZIKA
EMIRATE OF ABU DHABI, UAE, SYSTEM FOR SEISMIC RISK
MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT..........................................................................45
Prof.dr Zaven Khlghatyan
ZATITA OBJEKATA OD SEIZMIKIH EFEKATA RAZVIJANJEM
SPREGNUTIH SISTEMA, ISTRAIVANJA I REALIZACIJA
SEISMIC PROTECTION OF STRUCTURES BY
COUPLED SYSTEMS- DEVELOPMENT,
RESEARCH AND REALIZATION .................................................................................63
Prof.dr A.H. Barbat
OCENA SEIZMIKE SIGURNOSTI ARMIRANOBETONSKIH ZGRADA
PROJEKTOVANIH NA OSNOVU EVROKODOVA 2 I 8
EVALUATION OF THE SEISMIC SAFETY OF RC BUILDINGS DESIGNED
BY USING EUROCODES 2 AND 8 ................................................................................75
Prof. dr Mirko Ai
Prof. dr Goran irovi
ULOGA I ZNAAJ GRADITELJSTVA U SMANJENJU SEIZMIKOG RIZIKA
THE ROLE AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CONSTRUCTION IN REDUCTION
OF SEISMIC RISK..............................................................................................................89
Akademik Mandi Enver
Mr sc. Kulukija Salko
Dr sc. Mandi Kenan Humo Mustafa
OCJENA STANJA POSTOJEIH OBJEKATA
KULTURNOG I ISTORIJSKOG
NASLIJEA PRIMJENOM REFRAKCIONE SEIZMIKE .......................................105
Prof. dr Radomir Foli
mr Lidija Babi
PARAMETARSKA SEIZMIKA ANALIZA AB DIMNJAKA
PARAMETRIC SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF RC CHIMNEYS ......................................115
Prof. dr ore Lainovi
Prof. dr Radomir Foli
mr Mladen osi
UPOREDNA ANALIZA SEIZMIKIH ZAHTEVA REGULARNIH
BETONSKIH VIESPRATNIH OKVIRA
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SEISMIC DEMANDS OF
REGULAR MULTISTORY CONCRETE FRAMES.................................................129
mr Goran Simonovi
Prof.dr Branislav Verbi
PRAENJE STANJA KONSTRUKCIJE I
ISTRAIVANJE SEIZMIKE
OTPORNOSTI ZIDANIH ZGRADA
RESEARCH IN SEISMIC RESIDENCE OF
THE MASONRY BUILDING ...........................................................................................145
Prof. dr Miodrag Mani
INTERAKCIJA TLA I ZGRADE BK-2 U NASELJU ''BORIK'' U BANJA LUCI
SOIL STRUCTURE INTERACTION OF BK-2 BUILDING IN BANJA LUKA...........155
Prof. dr D.umarac
Z.Petrakovi
KONTROLA OTEENJA I POPRAVKA RADI BEZBEDNOSTI ZGRADA
DAMAGE CONTROL AND REPAIR FOR SECURITY OF BUILDINGS...............165
Zoran Petrakovi
HISTEREZISNO PONAANJE KONSTRUKCIJE
ELINIH DAMPERA U POLJU ZAMORA
ZEMLJOTRESNIM OPTEREENJEM
VRLO MALOG BROJA CIKLUSA HYSTERESIS BEHAVIOR OF
STEEL DAMPERS CONSTRUCTION IN FATIGUE ZONE UNDER
EARTHQUAKE LOADING
OF EXTREMLY LOW NUMBER OF CYCLES ..............................................................183
Prof. dr Milenko Stankovi
Sran Stankovi
IVOT BEZ STRAHA OD ZEMLJOTRESA-POTREBA-VIZIJA-IMPERATIV
LIFE WITHOUT FEAR OF EARTHQUAKE-NEEDS-A
VISION-AN IMPERATIVE...............................................................................................197
Prof. dr Lidija Krstevska
mr Ljubia ivkovi
ISPITIVANJE OBJEKTA "NOVA BANKA" U BANJA LUCI METODOM
AMBIJENTALNIH VIBRACIJA
IN SITU TESTING OF "NOVA BANKA" IN BANJA LUKA BY
AMBIENT VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS .................................................................207
Prof. dr Dragan Milainovi
Aleksandar Borkovi
STOHASTIKE VIBRACIJE SAVIJAJUIH PLOA PRIMJENOM
METODA KONANIH TRAKA
STOHASTIC VIBRATIONS OF PLATE IN BENDING USING
THE FINITE STRIP METHOD.........................................................................................215
Prof. dr Mihail Garevski
Prof. dr Veronika endova
mr Blagoje Stojanoski
REKONSTRUKCIJA PRAVOSLAVNOG SABORNOG HRAMA
"SV. BOGORODICA" U SKOPLJU
RECONSTRUCTION OF THE ORTHODOX CATHEDRAL
CHURCH OF THE VIRGIN MARY IN SKOPJE........................................................225
Prof. dr Predrag Gavrilovi
mr Blagoje Stojanoski Goran Jeki
INTEGRIRANI PRISTUP SANACIJE I SEIZMIKOG OJAANJA
MUSTAFA PAINE DAMIJE U SKOPLJU
INTEGRATED APPROACH TO REPAIR AND
SEISMIC STRENGTHENING OF MUSTAFA
PASHA MOSQUE IN SKOPJE .....................................................................................233
dr Zoran Rakievi
Prof. dr Predrag Gavrilovi
Prof. dr Dimitar Jurukovski
SEIZMIKA ZATITA VIZANTIJSKIH CRKVI PRIMENOM
SISTEMA ZA PASIVNU KONTROLU
RETROFITTING OF BYZANTINE CHURCH USING
PASSIVE BASE CONTROL SYSTEM .........................................................................245
Prof. dr Roberta Apostolska
Prof. dr Golubka Necevska-Cvetanovska
dr Zdravko Bonev
dr Elena Vasseva
dr Dylian Blagov
Julijana Cvetanovska
METODA SPEKTRA KAPACITETA ZA
OCENU SEIZMIKOG PONAANJA AB
ZGRADA NA DEFORMABILNOM TLU
CAPACITY SPECTRUM METHOD
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
OF RC BUILDINGS INCLUDING SOIL FLEXIBILITY ..........................................257
Prof. dr Golubka Necevska-Cvetanovska
Prof. dr Roberta Apostolska
mr Natasa Miri Julijana Cvetanovska
KONSTRUKTIVNE MERE ZA POBOLJANJE SEIZMIKOG PONAANJA
BEZGREDNIH KONSTRUKTIVNIH SISTEMA
STRUCTURAL MEASURES FOR IMPROVING SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
OF FLAT-SLAB BUILDING STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS...............................................265
dr Milan Trifkovi arko Nestorovi
MOGUNOSTI KORIENJA 2D GEODETSKIH MREA ZA
UTVRIVANJE SEIZMIKIH POJAVA
POSSIBILITIES FOR 2D GEODETIC NETWORKS UTILIZATION
FOR SEISMIC EVENTS DETERMINATION..................................................................273
Prof. dr Boidar Pavievi
PROSTORNO-URBANISTIKO PLANIRANJE KAO KLJUNI ASPEKT
INTEGRALNOG UPRAVLJANJA SEIZMIKIM RIZIKOM
LAND USE PLANNING AS THE KEY ASPECT OF INTEGRATED
SEISMIC RISK MANAGAMENT....................................................................................281
Prof. dr Boidar Pavievi Jadranka Mihaljevi
UPRAVLJANJA ZEMLJOTRESNIM RIZIKOM U
SAVREMENIM USLOVIMA
GENERAL CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED SEISMIC RISK MANAGAMENT .............295
Prof. dr Violeta Mirevska
Prof. dr Vladimir Bikovski
BEM REENJE HIDRODINAMIKOG PRITISKA
USE OF BEM IN SOLVING FLUID STRUCTURE INTERACTION....................311
Prof. dr Zoran Rakievi
Aleksandra Bogdanovi
Prof. dr Dimitar Jurukovski
ASEIZMIKO PROJEKTOVANJE ELINIH RAMOVSKIH KONSTRUKCIJA
SA DODATNIM PRIGUENJEM
ASEISMIC DESIGN OF STEEL FRAME STRUCTURES WITH
ADDED DAMPING .........................................................................................................317
Prof. dr Viktor Hristovski
mr Marta Stojmanovska
1 DEO: PREDLOENE KONSTITUTIVNE RELACIJE ZA VEZE KOD
LAMELIRANIH DRVENIH PANELA (XLAM)
PART 1: PROPOSED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
FOR CONNECTIONS OF XLAM PANELS ................................................................329
Prof. drViktor Hristovski
mr Marta Stojmanovska
2 DEO: PREDLOENE KONSTITUTIVNE RELACIJE ZA VEZE KOD
LAMELIRANIH DRVENIH PANELA-MKE
PART 2: PROPOSED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR CONNECTIONS
OF XLAM PANELS-FE IMPLEMENTATION............................................................339
mr Radmila ali
Prof. dr Zoran Milutinovi
ODGOVOR KONSTRUKCIJA IZOLIRANIH OLOVNO-GUMENIM LEITIMA
RESPONSE OF LEAD-RUBBER BEARING ISOLATED STRUCTURE................349
Prof.dr Ljubomir Takov
Prof. dr Lidija Krstevska
SEIZMIKA BAZNA IZOLACIJA REZERVOARA I ZGRADA
SA PRIMENOM SISTEMA ALSC
SEISMIC BASE ISOLATION ON RESERVOIRS AND
BUILDINGS BY APPLICATION OF THE ALSC SYSTEM......................................357
mr Novak Pupavac
KALIBRACIJA FUNKCIJE POVREDLJIVOSTI UZ POMO STANDARDA
CODE BASED CALIBRATION OF VULNERABILITY MODELS...............................365
BENCHMARK TEST softvera PROC3DN-IZIIS
A BENCHMARK TEST OF THE SOFTWARE PROC3DN-IZIIS ............................379
BENCHMARK TEST softwera FILT3D-IZIIS
A BENCHMARK TEST OF THE SOFTWARE FILT3D-IZIIS..................................389
Prof.dr Dragan Luki
mr Elefterija Zlatanovi

RULING PARAMETERS FOR SEISMIC ANALYSIS
OF TWIN-TUNNELS.......................................................................................................395
Prof. dr Ratko Salati
DISIPACIJA ENERGIJE U POLUKRUTIM VEZAMA
ENERGY DISSIPATION IN SEMI-RIGID CONNECTIONS....................................407
dr Renato Vidrih
Matja Godec
Peter Sini
OSMATRANJE SEIZMINOSTI NA PODRUJU VELIKIH
BRANA U SLOVENIJI
SEISMOLOGICAL MONITORING OF LARGE DAMS IN SLOVENIA......................417
Prof. dr Radenko Pejovi
mr Radivoje Mrdak
mr Jelena Pejovi
mr Nina Serdar
SEIZMIKI ODGOVOR VISOKE LUNE BRANE MRATINJE
SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF HIGH ARC DAM MRATINJE............................................427
21
Miha Tomaevi
1
ASEIZMIKO PROJEKTOVANJE ZIDANIH ZGRADA: 40
GODINA POSLE ZEMLJOTRESA U BANJA LUCI
Rezime:
Razmatrani su neki aspekti aseizmikog projektovanja zidanih zgrada, koji su
posledica novih tehnologija graenja i traenja savremenih propisa. Tako su
sa rezultatima eksperimentalnih ispitivanja uporeeni rezultati rauna
otpornosti zidova na smicanje, dobijeni na osnovu razliitih modela runih
mehanizama. Analiza pokazuje, da za sada jo nema jedinstvenog raunskog
modela, koji bi dao prihvatljive rezultate za razliite uslove optereenja. Na
osnovu ispitivanja na seizmikoj platformi i uzimajui u obzir kapacitet
duktiliteta i kriterijum za ogranienje oteenja, izraena je ocena faktora
ponaanja konstrukcije.
Kljune rei: zidarija, otpornost na smicanje, faktor ponaanja
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF MASONRY BUILDINGS:
40 YEARS AFTER THE BANJA LUKA EARTHQUAKE
Summary:
Some issues of earthquake resistant design of masonry buildings, resulting
from recent technologies of masonry construction and contemporary code
requirements, are discussed. In particular, the results of calculations based on
different shear failure mechanism models are compared with experimental
results. The analysis has indicated that numerical models, which yield
reliable results in different loading conditions, need yet to be developed. On
the basis of the shaking table test results and taking into consideration
damage limitation requirements and ductility capacity, the values of elastic
force reduction factors have been assessed.
Key words: masonry, shear resistance, behavior factor
1
Professor, Ph.D., Civil Engineer, Slovenian National Building and Civil Engineering Institute, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
22
1 INTRODUCTION
In 1969, when the earthquake struck the city of Banja Luka, the first Yugoslav
seismic code of 1964 has been enforced for only a few years. Consequently, not many
buildings subjected to earthquake, especially masonry buildings, have been designed by the
code. Nevertheless, many buildings survived the earthquake with repairable damage or
even undamaged, hence giving us opportunity to learn important lessons regarding the
seismic resistant design. For example, it is not easy to find a better example of influence of
quality of construction on the seismic resistance of masonry buildings than two houses,
located in the vicinity of Banja Luka and shown in Figure 1. The house, built with hollow
clay units in good quality lime-cement mortar, survived the earthquake without damage
(Fig. 1a), whereas the neighboring house of the same structural configuration, built with
solid clay bricks but in poor quality mortar without cement, was severely damaged (Fig.
1b). Since the houses have been built at about only 5 m distance between them, the
difference in the observed behavior cannot be attributed to site effects of the earthquake.
a.) b.)
Figure 1 Banja Luka, 1969: the house on the right, built with clay bricks in poor quality
mortar, was severely damaged, whereas the house on the left, built with hollow clay units
in good quality lime-cement mortar, survived the earthquake without damage (photo by
S.Terelj)
Many additional lessons of similar character have been learned since the
earthquake of Banja Luka in 1969. In the last few decades, considerable research in the
behavior of masonry walls and buildings subjected to seismic actions has been carried out
in many countries. The behavior of masonry buildings during earthquakes has been
analyzed, and experiments to determine the basic parameters of the seismic resistance of
masonry walls and buildings have been carried out.
Based on experimental research, new data on the strength and stiffness
degradation and deterioration, ductility and energy dissipation capacity of different types of
masonry have been obtained. The results of investigations made possible many
improvements in masonry construction, and provided basis for the development of
analytical models and mathematical tools for earthquake resistance verification and design
of masonry structures for seismic loads.
The investigations have also resulted into the development of new codes for
masonry construction and design. In Eurocode 6, European standard for the design of
masonry structures [CEN, 2005], a clear concept for limit states verification has been
23
introduced also for masonry structures. In Eurocode 8, standard for the design of structures
for earthquake resistance [CEN, 2004], additional requirements are specified to be taken
into consideration in seismic regions. However, the validity of some important design
equations, required by the code, needs yet to be verified, and the values of some important
design parameters, proposed in the code, need to be confirmed.
In this contribution, some issues of earthquake resistant design of masonry
buildings, resulting from contemporary code requirements, will be discussed. The results of
experimental and analytical research, recently carried out at Slovenian National Building
and Civil Engineering Institute in Ljubljana, will support the discussion.
2 SHEAR RESISTANCE OF MASONRY WALLS: MODELS AND
CALCULATION
Shear failure, characterized by the occurrence of diagonally oriented cracks, is a
typical failure mode of unreinforced and confined masonry walls subjected to in-plane
seismic loads. Although other mechanisms are also possible, seismic resistance of a regular
masonry structure depends predominantly on the shear resistance of structural walls.
Therefore, the parameters which define the behavior of masonry walls subjected to shear
and equations for the calculation of the shear resistance of the walls are of relevant
importance for the seismic resistance verification of masonry buildings in seismic-prone
areas.
Figure 2 Shear failure mechanisms: a) shear sliding on the bed-joints, b) shear failure
characterized by the formation of diagonal cracks [adapted from Tomaevi, 1999]
If the vertical compressive stresses in the wall are low and the quality of mortar is
poor, seismic forces may cause sliding of a part of the wall along one of the bed-joints (Fig.
2a). Sliding shear failure of unreinforced walls usually takes place in the upper parts of
masonry buildings below rigid roof structures, where the compressive stresses are low and
the response accelerations are high. However, this phenomenon is seldom observed in the
buildings bottom parts where, typically, diagonally oriented cracks develop in the walls
when subjected to seismic loads (Fig.2b). Because of the orientation of cracks, the failure of
the wall in such a case is also called diagonal tension shear failure. Depending on the
quality of masonry units and mortar, diagonally oriented cracks may either follow the bed-
and head-joints or pass through the units or partly follow the joints and partly pass through
the units.
24
Various methods and equations have been already proposed for the assessment of
the shear resistance of unreinforced masonry walls, characterized by diagonal cracking. In
all cases, the sectional stresses and forces are used and the gross dimensions of masonry
walls are taken into consideration in order to simplify the analysis. Turnek and aovi
[1970] introduced the hypothesis that the tensile strength of masonry, conventionally
defined as the principal tensile stress developed at the attained maximum resistance of a
masonry wall, assuming that the wall is elastic, homogeneous and isotropic panel,
determines the shear resistance of the wall. Following this idea, the situations where the
diagonal cracks pass either the mortar joints or masonry units, or both, are covered by the
same equation. According to Turnek and aovi [1970], shear resistance of an
unreinforced masonry wall, R
w,ft
, is calculated by:
1
t
o t
w ft w,
+ =
f b
f
A R
o
, 1)
where A
w
= the area of the horizontal cross-section of the wall,
o
= the average
compressive stress due to vertical load, and f
t
= the tensile strength of masonry,
conventionally defined as the principal tensile stress developed at the attained maximum
resistance of a masonry wall, assuming that the wall is elastic, homogeneous and isotropic
panel:
2
) (
2
o 2
max
2
o
t t
+ |
.
|
\
|
= = b f . (2)
where
max
= the average shear stress in the horizontal section of the wall at the attained
maximum resistance. This approach has been implemented into the Yugoslav seismic code
of 1981. The method to determine the tensile strength, f
t
, as defined by Turnek and
aovi, is not standardized. Three different testing methods are used to determine the
parameter: cyclic lateral resistance tests of symmetrically fixed or cantilever walls at
constant vertical load, simple racking tests or diagonal compression test of walls. It has
been already shown that comparable results can be obtained by cyclic lateral resistance
tests, simple racking tests as well as diagonal compression tests of masonry walls
[Bernardini et al., 1981]. The specimens with geometry aspect ratio (height/length) h/l = 1.5
are usually tested.
According to Mann and Mller [1982], however, the shear resistance is calculated
depending on the path of the diagonally oriented cracks. In the case where the cracks pass
through the vertical and bed joints (step-formed cracks - friction failure of the bed joints),
the resistance is defined by the friction law introducing cohesion and friction coefficients as
the critical parameters.
In the case of the friction failure of the bed joints, the shear resistance of the wall
is calculated by:
R
w,fr
= A
w
= (k +
o
) A
w
, (3)
where A
w
= tl = the area of the horizontal cross section of the wall and = k +
o
= the
shear strength of masonry. Reduced cohesion is given in the form of:
y
x
k ' k
A
A
+
=
2
1
1
, (4a)
25
and the reduced coefficient of friction in the form of:
y
x
'
A
A
+
=
2
1
1
, (4b)
where Ax = l
b
and Ay = h
b
, i.e. the length and height of the unit, respectively.
In the case where the cracks pass through the units, however, the tensile strength
of the unit is critical and the equation for the calculation of the shear resistance of the wall
is similar to the one proposed by Turnek and aovi:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
zst
o zst
w w,cr
1
3 2 |
o |
.
A R , (5)
where
zst
= the tensile strength of masonry units, determined by the diagonal compression
test of units.
Although substantial amount of experimental and analytical research to study the
behavior of masonry walls subjected to shear has been carried out, the recent European
standard for the design of masonry structures, Eurocode 6 [CEN, 2005], requires that only
sliding shear failure mechanism (similar as the friction failure of the bed joints according to
Mann and Mller), with the initial shear strength instead of cohesion and prescribed value
of the friction coefficient as the governing parameters, be used for the assessment of the
shear resistance of unreinforced and confined masonry walls.
According to Eurocode 6, the design shear resistance of a masonry wall, R
dw,EC6
, is
calculated by assuming that pure sliding shear mechanism determines the shear resistance
of a wall:
c
M
vk
EC6 dw,
t l
f
R
= , (6)
where:
f
vk
= f
vko
+ 0.4 o
d
, (7)
|
.
|
\
|
= e
l
l
2
3
c
, (8)
and f
vk
= the characteristic shear strength of masonry,
M
= partial safety factor for masonry,
t = the thickness of the wall, l
c
= the length of the compressed part of the wall, o
d
= the
average vertical stress over the compressed part of the wall that is providing shear
resistance in design situation, f
vko
= the characteristic initial shear strength of masonry at
zero compression, e = Hh/V is the eccentricity of the vertical load, h = the height of the
wall. The expression for l
c
should be considered in the case where the eccentricity of axial
load, e, exceeds 1/6 of the walls length.
The results of two series of tests of clay hollow unit masonry walls, tested as
vertical cantilevers by subjecting them to constant vertical load and imposed cyclic lateral
in-plane displacements, have been used to analyze the validity of the before mentioned
commonly used calculation methods [Tomaevi and Gams, 2009]. Within the first series
of tests (walls type B), 20 walls with height/length ratio h/l = 1.5 have been tested. The
specimens have been constructed with 5 different types of clay hollow units and tested at
vertical precompression equal to 20 %, 30 %, and 40 % of the compressive strength of
26
masonry. In the second series (walls type A), however, 9 equal walls with height/length
ratio h/l = 0.7, have been tested at vertical precompression equal to 5 %, 10 %, and 15 % of
compressive strength of masonry.
In both series of tests, the final mode of failure was of typical shear type with
diagonally oriented cracks formed in the walls. In the case of walls type B with geometry
aspect ratio h/l = 1.5, which have been tested at higher levels of precompression (2040 %
of the compressive strength of masonry, f), cracking and crushing of units because of
insufficient robustness has been also observed. In the case of walls type B, the brittleness of
clay hollow masonry units determined the behaviour and failure mechanism. In the case of
the long walls type A with geometry aspect ratio h/l = 0.7, the influence of precompression
on failure mechanism can be clearly seen. Whereas diagonal orientation of cracks can be
clearly identified in all cases, the mechanism depended on the level of precompression. At
lowest level of precompression, step-formed cracks developed which passed through the
bed- and head-joints, whereas diagonally oriented cracks passed through the units at high
precompression. Also, at lowest precompression level, the units rotated at increased
amplitudes of imposed lateral displacements, so that distinct gaps formed at the interface
between the mortar and units in the joints. At higher precompression, however, the rotation
was prevented and the units started cracking and crushing. The difference in the behavior
can be clearly seen in Figures 3 and 4.
a) b)
Figure 3 Typical damage pattern observed during testing walls type B at
o
o
= 0.37f (a) and o
o
= 0.2f (b)
27
a) b)
Figure 4 Typical damage patterns observed during testing walls type A at
o
o
= 0.05f (a) and o
o
= 0.15f (b)
The experiments have been used to analyze the reliability of models and respective
equations for the calculation of the shear resistance of walls. The calculated and
experimentally obtained results are compared in Tables 1 and 2. It should be mentioned that
the mid-height section of the walls has been considered as the resisting section of the walls
in the case where the Eurocode 6 methodology has been used for the evaluation of the shear
resistance (R
w,EC6
).
Table 1 Comparison of experimentally obtained and calculated values of the shear
resistance of the tested walls: shear friction failure
Wall
H
max,exp
(kN)

o
/f
R
w,EC6
(kN)
exp max,
EC6 w,
H
R R
w,fr
(kN)
exp max,
fr w,
H
R
B1/1 141 0.40 302 2.14 184 1.30
B1/2 92 0.20 155 1.68 106 1.15
B2/1 134 0.35 256 1.91 172 1.29
B2/2 91 0.20 155 1.70 109 1.20
B2/3 118 0.28 209 1.78 143 1.21
B3/1 129 0.37 256 1.98 170 1.32
B3/2 84 0.20 146 1.73 99 1.18
B4/1 142 0.34 248 1.75 223 1.57
B4/2 94 0.21 155 1.65 147 1.56
B6/1 131 0.36 293 2.24 267 2.04
B6/2 92 0.18 175 1.90 166 1.81
A/1 303 0.15 406 1.34 254 0.84
A/2 221 0.10 310 1.40 190 0.86
A/3 130 0.06 220 1.69 131 1.01
28
Table 2 Comparison of experimentally obtained and calculated values of the shear
resistance of the tested walls: diagonal tension failure
Wall
H
max,exp
(kN)

o
/f
R
w,cr
(kN)
exp max,
cr w,
H
R R
w,ft
(kN)
exp max,
ft w,
H
R
B1/1 141 0.40 148 1.05 137 0.97
B1/2 92 0.20 116 1.26 102 1.11
B2/1 134 0.35 187 1.40 133 0.99
B2/2 91 0.20 157 1.72 104 1.14
B2/3 118 0.28 174 1.47 121 1.02
B3/1 129 0.37 155 1.21 131 1.02
B3/2 84 0.20 124 1.48 99 1.18
B4/1 142 0.34 134 0.95 139 0.98
B4/2 94 0.21 110 1.17 110 1.17
B6/1 131 0.36 265 2.02 130 0.99
B6/2 92 0.18 226 2.46 99 1.07
A/1 303 0.15 304 1.00 303 1.00
A/2 221 0.10 272 1.23 259 1.17
A/3 130 0.06 238 1.83 209 1.60
On the basis of the observed behavior and development of cracks in the tested
walls, the shear friction failure mechanism models have not been expected to yield good
results. However, great difference between the measured and calculated values, as indicated
in Table 1, is not acceptable. In the particular case studied, Mann-Mller proposal yielded
better results than Eurocode 6 proposed method. In the case of the Eurocode 6 calculations,
the resistance values significantly overestimated the measured ones, although the initial
shear strength values of masonry have been obtained by standardized testing and the
compressed part of the walls length at the mid-height level has been taken into
consideration when assessing the resistance. In the case of the Mann-Mller proposal,
where the whole length of the walls has been considered as resisting to shear and the
experimentally obtained initial shear strength values have been reduced as recommended by
the authors of the proposal (reduced cohesion), the correlation is improved, especially in the
case of the long walls. Although the shear friction mechanism has not been observed during
the tests, good correlation between the measured and calculated shear resistance values has
been obtained in the case of the long walls with geometry aspect ratio h/l = 0.7, subjected to
low level of precompression.
It has been found that the existing methods of calculation of the shear resistance of
masonry walls do not have general validity. The idea proposed by Turnek and aovi,
that the diagonal tension failure of masonry, which is the result of the principal tensile
stresses occurring in the walls under the combination of vertical and lateral loads,
determines the shear resistance capacity, yielded good correlation between the
experimentally obtained and calculated resistance values in the case of the walls where the
working compressive stresses exceeded 10 % of masonrys compressive strength. In the
case of the brick cracking failure mechanism model, proposed by Mann and Mller, the
correlation with the experimental results was not consistent, although the tensile strength of
units has been determined by testing.
29
3 DISPLACEMENT CAPACITY AND BEHAVIOUR FACTOR q
According to European standard for earthquake resistant design of structures,
Eurocode 8 [CEN, 2004], the structure should be designed to withstand the earthquake with
return period 475 years and 10 % probability of exceedance in 50 years, without local or
global collapse, thus retaining its structural integrity and a residual load bearing capacity
after the seismic events (no collapse requirement). However, the structure shall be also
designed to withstand an earthquake having a larger probability of occurrence than the
design earthquake, i.e. earthquake with return period 95 years with 10 % probability of
exceedance in 10 years, without the occurrence of damage and limitation of use, the costs
of which would be disproportionately high in comparison with the costs of the structure
itself (damage limitation requirement). When verifying the seismic resistance, it has to be
verified that for all structural members as well as for the structure as a whole, the design
resistance capacity R
d
, calculated by taking into account the characteristic strength values
and partial safety factors
M
of members' materials, is greater than the design value of
combined action effect E
d
, which includes seismic actions.
The form of seismic action to be used in seismic resistance verification depends on
the importance and complexity of the structure under consideration. In the case of
structures with regular structural configuration, such as masonry structures, the calculations
are simplified by taking into account only one horizontal component of the seismic ground
motion and analyzing the structure in each orthogonal direction separately. Non-linear
dynamic response analysis is replaced by equivalent elastic static analysis, where the design
seismic loads are evaluated on the basis of the design response spectra, considering the
structure as an equivalent single-degree-of-freedom system. To obtain the design spectra,
the ordinates of the elastic response spectra are reduced by a factor, which takes into
account the displacement and energy dissipation capacity of the structure under
consideration. This factor is generally called force reduction factor or, by terminology
used in European standard for earthquake resistant design, structural behavior factor q.
According to Eurocode 8, the behavior factor q is an approximation of the ratio of
the seismic forces that the structure would experience if its response was completely elastic
with 5 % viscous damping to the minimum seismic forces that may be used in the design -
with a conventional elastic analysis model - still ensuring a satisfactory response of the
structure. The definition can be expressed by:
q = S
e
/S
u,d
, (9)
where S
e
= seismic force developed in a completely elastic structure and S
u,d
= the
design seismic load. The structural behavior factor q can be also expressed in terms of the
global ductility factor of the structure under consideration,
u
= d
u
/d
e
, where d
e
= the
displacement of the structure at the idealized elastic limit and d
u
= the displacement at
ultimate limit, as follows:
q = (2
u
1)
1/2
. (10)
Whereas the basic definition expresses the behavior factor q in terms of forces
(Eq. 9), Eq. 10 determines the minimum ductility and energy dissipation requirements, i.e.
displacement capacity requirement, which should be fulfilled if the behavior factor q is
used for seismic resistance verification:
q
(Eq. 9)
s q
(Eq.10)
. (11)
30
This makes possible the use of the idea of reduction of seismic forces also in the
case where the resistance curve of the structure, calculated by pushover methods, is used
for seismic resistance verification. However, in such a case not only the resistance, but also
the displacement capacity of the structure should be verified. In other words, if the seismic
resistance of a masonry structure is verified for the design seismic loads, calculated by
taking into account structural behavior factor q, its global ductility should not be less than:
u,min
= (q
2
+1)/2. (12)
The following ranges of values of structural behavior factor q are proposed in Eurocode
8 for different masonry construction systems:
For unreinforced masonry: q = 1.52.5,
For confined masonry: q = 2.03.0,
For reinforced masonry: q = 2.53.0.
To enhance the existing information regarding the possible ranges of values of
structural behavior factor q, the seismic behavior of typical Central European masonry
buildings with different structural configurations and qualities of masonry materials has
been investigated also at Slovenian National Building and Civil Engineering Institute
[Tomaevi and Weiss, 2009]. Six models, built at 1:5 scale and representing buildings of
two different structural configurations and constructed with two different types of masonry
materials have been tested on a simple uni-directional seismic simulator. Models type M1
(Figure 5a) represented a two-story terraced house with the main structural walls
orthogonal to seismic motion, whereas models type M2 (Figure 5b) represented a three-
story apartment house with uniformly distributed structural walls in both directions. Four
models of the first and two models of the second type have been tested. In the case of the
terraced house, two models have been built as either partly or completely confined masonry
structures.
(a) (b)
Figure 5 Typical confined terraced house model type M1 (a) and (b)
apartment house model type M2 at ultimate state before collapse
Story mechanism governed the behavior of the tested models. Therefore, the
resistance curve of the model under consideration has been evaluated as a relationship
between the maximum resisted base shear and corresponding first story drift (relative story
displacement), developed in the structure at the same instant of time. In Figure 6, the
obtained relationships are expressed in a non-dimensional form of the base shear
31
coefficient, BSC, and the first story drift angle, , respectively. Base shear coefficient is the
ratio between the base shear BS and the weight of the model above the foundation W: BSC
= BS/W, whereas the first story drift angle, , is the ratio between the first story drift
(relative story displacement), d, and story height, h: (in %) = (d/h) 100.
As can be seen in Figure 6, the values of story drift where the first cracks occurred
in the structural walls and the stiffness of models significantly changed (crack limit), and
the values of story drift at the attained maximum resistance of the models do not differ
much from case to case. An attempt has been therefore made to correlate also the observed
damage, displacement capacity and limit states. By analyzing these and other experimental
results, trends can be seen and ranges of possible story drift values at the attainment of
these two characteristic limit states can be evaluated. The following ranges of values of
story rotation can be attributed to characteristic limit states [Tomaevi, 2007]:
Crack limit:
cr
= 0.20.4 %;
Maximum resistance:
Rmax
= 0.30.6 %, and
Limit state of collapse:
u
= 2.04.0 %.
Story drift at the point where the resistance of the structure degrades to 80 % of
the maximum, is usually defined as the ultimate. In other words, story drift at 20 % of
strength degradation is considered as the maximum value which can be taken into
consideration for the evaluation of the idealized design ultimate global ductility factor of
the structure:
u,d
=
0,8Rmax
/
e,id
. It is assumed that a ductile structure, although severely
damaged, will resist such a displacement without risking collapse (no collapse
requirement).
Figure 6 Seismic resistance curves in the form of the base shear coefficient-first story drift
angle relationships for terraced-house models M1 (a) and (b) apartment house models M2
However, as the analysis of the observed behavior of tested models indicated, the
damage to structural walls exceeds the acceptable limit at this point. The analysis further
indicated that such damage generally occurs at story drifts, equal to approximately 3-times
story drift at the occurrence of the first cracks in the walls, or 3-times of story drift at the
idealized elastic limit. Taking this into consideration, the design ultimate state may be
defined by either the story drift where the resistance degrades to 80 % of the maximum, or
the story drift equal 3-times the value of story drift at the crack limit, whichever is less:
d,u
= min {
0,8Rmax
; 3
cr
}. (13)
32
The values of behavior factor q, evaluated on the basis of the global ductility of
the tested models (Eq. 10), are given in Table 3.
Table 3 Values of structural behavior factor q
(Eq. 4)
, evaluated on the basis of available
ductility (
u
=
0.8Rmax
/
e,id
) and damage limitation requirements (
u
= 3
cr
/
e,id
)
q
(Eq. 10)
= (2
u
1)
1/2
u
=
0.8Rmax
/
ei,d

u
= 3
cr
/
ei,d
Model
ei,d
(in %)
0.8Rmax
(in %)
cr
(in %)
3
cr
(in %)
u
q
u
q
M1-1 0.24 0.89 0.26 0.78 3.70 2.53 3.25 2.35
M1-2 0.05 1.20 0.60 0.16 24.00 6.85 3.20 2.32
M1-1c 0.17 2.60 0.28 0.84 15.29 5.44 4.94 2.98
M1-1d 0.17 1.81 0.27 0.81 10.65 4.50 4.76 2.92
M2-1 0.07 0.42 0.20 0.60 6.00 3.32 8.57 4.02
M2-2 0.16 1.65 0.33 0.99 10.31 4.43 6.18 3.37
The analysis of experimental results has shown, that the values at the upper limit
of the Eurocode 8 proposed range of values of structural behaviour factor q for
unreinforced and confined masonry construction systems, i.e. q = 2.5 in the case of the
regular unreinforced, and q = 3.0 in the case of the regular confined masonry structures are
adequate, if pushover methods are used for seismic resistance verification. However, in this
case, the calculated displacement capacity of the structure should be verified and compared
with displacement demand.
In the case where elastic analysis methods are used and significant overstrength is
expected, the proposed values are conservative. However, additional research and
parametric studies are needed to further support and propose the modifications.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Some issues of earthquake resistant design of masonry buildings, resulting from
recent technologies of masonry construction and contemporary code requirements, are
discussed. In particular, the results of calculations based on different shear failure
mechanism models have been compared with experimental results. It has been found that
the existing methods of calculation of the shear resistance of masonry walls do not have
general validity. The analysis has indicated that numerical models, which yield reliable
results in different loading conditions, need to be developed.
On the basis of the shaking table test results and taking into consideration damage
limitation requirements and ductility capacity, the values of elastic force reduction factors
have been assessed. It has been found that the Eurocode 8 range of values of structural
behaviour factor q are adequate, if pushover methods are used for seismic resistance
verification, and the calculated displacement capacity of the structure is verified and
compared with displacement demand. They are conservative where elastic analysis methods
are used. However, additional research is needed to evaluate the overstrength and propose
the modifications.
33
REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance, Part 1: General
rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings/EN 1998-1:2004, CEN, 2004,
Brussels.
[2] Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures - Part 1-1: Common rules for
reinforced and unreinforced masonry structures/EN 1996-1-1:2005, CEN,
2005, Brussels.
[3] Failure of shear-stressed masonry - an enlarged theory, tests and application
to shear walls/W.Mann, H.Mller/Proceedings of the British Ceramic Society,
No.30, Shelton House, 1982, Stoke-on-Trent: 223235.
[4] Damage as a measure for earthquake-resistant design of masonry structures:
Slovenian experience/M.Tomaevi/Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,
2007, 34 (11): 14031412.
[5] Displacement capacity of masonry buildings as a basis for the assessment of
behavior factor: an experimental study/M.Tomaevi, P.Weiss/Submitted to
Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2009.
[6] Shear resistance of unreinforced masonry walls/M.Tomaevi,
M.Gams/Ingegneria Sismica in Italia, in print, 2009.
[7] Some experimental results on the strength of brick masonry walls/V.Turnek,
F.aovi/Proceedings 2nd International Brick-Masonry Conference, British
Ceramic Society, 1970, Stoke-on-Trent: 149156.
35
Paata Rekvava
1
UTICAJ INTERAKCIJE TLO-INTERFEJS-KONSTRUKCIJA NA
SEIZMIKI ODGOVOR PANEL ZGRADA
Rezime:
U ovom radu predstavljen je metod za ocenu seizmikog odgovora sistema tlo-
interfejs-panel zgrada. Ocena ponaanja konstrukcije izvrena je pomou
metodologije za projektovanje zasnovano na oekivanom ponaanju konstrukcija
izloenih dejstvu seizmikih sila (Performance-Based Seismic Design -PBSD). U
ovoj studiji razmatrana je stokastika priroda pomeranja tla u regionu Tbilisija.
Metod je predstavljen primenom panel zgrada podvrgnutih seizmikom
pobuivanju za odreeni hazard na terenu. Razvijeni metod i dobijeni rezultati
mogu se korisiti prilikom projektovanja novih zgrada ispitanog tipa, kao i za
postojee armiranobetonske panel zgrade starije generacije za oekivane seizmike
aktivnosti u budunosti.
Kljune rei: seizmian, interakcija, analiza, PBSD, panel, zgrada, pouzdanost.
SOIL INTERFACE STRUCTURE INTERACTION EFFECT ON
PANEL BUILDING SEISMIC RESPONSE
Summary:
A method is presented for the evaluation of the seismic response of soil-interface-
panel building system. The Structural behavior is evaluated by means of the
methodology of Performance-Based Seismic Design (PBSD). This study has taken
into account the stochastic nature of the ground motion in Tbilisi region. The
method is demonstrated with an application to panel building subjected to seismic
excitation for the specified hazard at the site. The developed method and results
can be used in seismic risk study for new buildings of examined type under design,
as well as for existing RC panel buildings of old generation for future seismic
activity.
Key words: seismic, interaction, analysis, PBSD, panel, building, reliability.
_______________________________________________________
1
Prof. Dr., Director, Kiriak Zavriev Institute of Structural Mechanics and Earthquake Engineering (ISMEE), 8,
M. Aleksidze st. Tbilisi 0193, Georgia
36
1. INTRODUCTION
Panel buildings with many stories and spacing normally are analyzed with
simplified nonlinear models which neglect effect of spatial structural performance Caccese
and Harris [1]. Some of the analytical models Rekvava [2], Astarlioglu et al. [3] are suitable
for modeling 3D performance of panel buildings under seismic loading. The nonlinear
seismic analysis method based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) and substructures
procedures for panel building considers more scalar parameters as measures of the damage
sustained Rekvava and Mdivani [4].
These parameters are also known as Engineering Demand Parameters (EDPs). The
most common EDPs are the maximum story drift ratios, the maximum roof drift ratios or
the maximum floor accelerations, that will be used with fragility relations to determine
performance of building system and components. This study focuses on the analytical
model of soil-interface-structure to assess the panel building seismic response using some
phase of Performance-Based Seismic Design (PBSD).
2. OUTLINE OF NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
The practical approach to PBSD considers a ground motion Intensity Measure
(IM), structural response to calculate EDP, resulting damage analysis, which relates the
EDP to Damage Measure (DM) and calculation of Decision Variable (DV), in terms that
are useful to decision makers such as direct losses, downtime (or restoration time), and life
safety risks Moehle and Deierlein [5].
Direct assessment of seismic response EDP and DM of building begins with a
careful assessment of the various modes of deterioration in the structural components that
make up a building. In reinforced concrete panel building the primary structural
components of the seismic force resisting system are the wall panels, horizontal panel slabs
and key joints. Deterioration of key joints is associated with axial tension/compression,
shear or a combination of these.
Based on the actual performance of panel buildings under strong earthquakes the
idealized mechanical model, shown in fig.1, and plastic hinge joints method is developed
by the author for simulating the inelastic response of the soil-interface-panel building
system Rekvava [6]. The panel building is represented by a spatial system of elastic
substructures in plane stress - wall panels and panel slabs connected in points,
corresponding to location of key joints, by the nonelastic hinge links (lumped plasticity
model). The soil is simulated by the ensemble of 3D elastic finite elements in the form of
elastic nonhomogeneous isotropic half-space.
The conditions of interconnection as separation and sliding (constructive
nonlinearities) on the interface between the building and surrounding soil are modeled by
contact elements, not passing the tension strength to surfaces belonging to the building and
soil. The contact element is assumed to have zero thickness and can be conceptually
thought of as consisting of springs and Goodman joint element Heuze and Barbour [7]. The
Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion is used to simulate interface behavior.
The moment of entering into the phase of cracking, yielding and failure of
reinforced concrete key joints is specified by the von Mises plasticity formulation with the
Mroz hardening theory Rekvava [6].
The model of the building for dynamic analysis is idealized as a multi degree of
freedom
37
Fig. 1- Diagram of the soil-interface-panel building model
(dof) system consisting of masses. Thus, each mass is lumped at the level of the
floor at nodes of structures interaction and at this stage may possess only three translation
dof per node.
Equations of dynamic motion for assumed model of the soil-interface-panel
building subjected to earthquake ground motion at the time t can be written as follows
Rekvava [6]
P(t) F(t) (t) U C (t) U M = + +

(1)
where:
(t), U -MB P(t)
g

=
M, C are mass and damping matrices,
F(t) is a vector of restoring (stiffness) forces,
U(t) is the nodal displacement vector,
B is matrix of coefficient of quasi-static effects of seismic influence,
g
(t) is a vector of the input ground acceleration time history, whose elements are given by
the x-, y- and z-components of ground acceleration.
The equations of motion (1) at time =t+t can be written as
) ( U MB F U C U M
g
t
t t

= + +
(2)
Define the increments in acceleration, velocity, displacement and force occurring in the
time increment t by
U U U U U U U U U
t t t
= = =
t t t t t t

U K U
U
F
F F F
T
t
t
t t t t
=
c
c
~ =
t
(3)
Substituting these expressions in eq.(2), the incremental form of the equations of
motion is obtained as follows:
] F U C U M [ ) ( U MB U K U C U M
t t t g t T t t
+ + = + +

(4)
38
where:
K
T
is the tangent stiffness matrix of the model at time t, which is a function of the nodal
displacements at time t;
Solution of eq. (4) involves time integration to generate the response at discrete times at
intervals t, 2t, etc.
Initial conditions are required at time 0, usually the building carrying gravity loads in the
at-rest state.
The numerical integration of the nonlinear eqs. (4) is performed employing the Newmark
constant average acceleration method (|=1/4 and =1/2) with Newton-Raphson type
iterative technique to achieve equilibrium at the end of each time step.
Constant average acceleration, an implicit time integration scheme, uses the following time-
stepping relations
(t) U - (t) U
t
4
- U(t)) - t) (U(t
t) (
4
t) U(t
2

+ = +

(5a)
t))t (t U (t) U (
2
1
(t) U t) (t U + + + = +

(5b)
To define the k
th
iteration in the step from t to t+At, replace U(t+At) in eq.(5a) by
(U
k
(t+At)+AU
k
), linearize the stiffness forces as
k k k
t)U (t K t) (t F t) F(t
T
+ + + = +
(6)
and substitute eqs. (5) and (6) into eq. (1) written at time (t+At) to obtain
k k
T 2
U t) + (t K + C
t
2
+ M
) t (
4
t) + (t U C
t
2
+ M
) t (
4
- t) + (t F - t) + P(t =
k
2
k
(t) U M + (t) U C + M
t
4
+ U(t) C
t
2
+ M
) t (
4
+
2

(7)
To carry out iteration k, eq.(7) is solved for AU
k
.
.
The new displacement approximation is
found as
U
k+1
(t+At)= U
k
(t+At) + AU
k
(8)
and the updated stiffness forces F
k+1
(t+At) are computed from F
k
(t+At) by following the
actual nonlinear behavior through the increment. After convergence, using the last
approximation to U(t+At), and the next time step commences.
Thus, calculated values of displacements are used as structural response model for EDPs.
3. GROUND MOTION MODEL
The recorded accelerograms may be used to represent earthquakes at a site. But
there is a scarcity of strong motion records for Tbilisi region. Because of the lack of
records, in this study, synthetic earthquake time histories are generated to reflect the region
(100 km environment) site conditions.
The model of seismic ground motion used in this paper is a set of discrete
nonstationary Gaussian process that differ from one another by dominant frequencies,
duration and other parameters.
39
Each j element of this set or the ground acceleration
g
(t,
j
) is found as the
t
j
ete
c
c e e o e
=
j j j g
) )x(t, (t, ) (t, U

(9)
where:
j.
is dominant j-th process frequency, its boundary values
min
and
max
are assumed on
the basis of empirical data,
(
j
) is root mean square value of acceleration,
determines the effective duration and process nonstationarity,
x(t,
j
) is normalized random function that is characterized by function of correlation as
) | | sin / (cos e ) K(
| |
t
j j j j

j
+ =
(10)
where:
is correlation coefficient, characterizing width of the spectrum.
The computation of the parameters of the predicted earthquakes was carried out
at the eight seismogenic zones of Tbilisi region (100 km environment), that can reveal
maximum seismic effect on the territory of the city Rekvava [8].
Calculated parameters considering earthquake magnitude and hypocentral distance
for the generation of synthetic accelerograms for Tbilisi territory are given in Tab. 1.
4. RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT
After sample response histories of sufficient size are generated statistics are taken
on the significant response quantities to determine their probabilistic parameters, which are
in turn used for the reliability analysis of the building by means of Monte Carlo techniques
by the computer code BUILDING-NL Rekvava and Mdivani [4].
The building failure criterion is considered the moment when the roof relative
deflection value exceeds its permissible one
|U
r
/H| > [U
r
/H]
(11)
Table 1 - Parameters of design accelerograms
No zone
(sec
-1
)
(sec
-1
)
(sec
-1
)
cm/sec
2
1
st
group with M=6
12
17
16
7
34.88
34.88
33.05
27.30
17.44
17.44
16.52
13.65
0.56
0.56
0.53
0.44
91
87
77
51
2
nd
group with M=6.5
20 19.03 9.51 0.3 33
3
rd
group with M=7
11
4
30
19.62
17.44
14.60
9.81
8.72
7.30
0.31
0.28
0.23
120
74
32
where:
U
r
is the general roof horizontal deflection of the building,
H is the building height,
40
[U
r
/H] = 1/1200 is allowable value of the given parameter for design Poliakov [9].
For an alternative approach the reliability of structure R
s
can be also evaluated on the basis
of statistical method by
R
s
=1N
o
/N
t
(12)
where:
N
o
is number of failure event which is connected with the fulfillment of the condition
U
r
>[U
r
] under seismic influence,
N
t
is total number of roof deflections during seismic influence considered as a realization of
random function.
Under the equal probability condition the following value of the reliability is defined
_
=
=
n
1 i
si s
R
n
1
R
(13)
where:
n is number of seismic influence.
The seismic resistance criterion of the panel building generally is written
R
s
> R
ul
(14)
where:
R
ul
is the admissible reliability value and is adopted to be equal to 0.9-0.99.
5. SEISMIC ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS
The structure used in the analysis is 5-story and 15 m high panel building with
wide 7.2-8.4 m spacing. Structural members are prefabricated from the lightweight
concrete. The story weight is 2952 kN for span of wall 7.2 m and 3240 kN for span of wall
8.4 m. The building is situated in Tbilisi area at the class II soil type (medium, with soil
shear wave velocity 300-800 m/s) according to soil classification DC 01.01.09 [10].
The building is founded on the ground presented in appearance of a rectangular
prism with sizes in plan 280 x 170 m. The ground segment from a surface to basic bedrock
consists of two layers ( H
1
=10 m loam, E=58 MPa and H
2
=50 m clay, E=33 MPa) and 1426
elastic three dimensional finite elements with three translation degrees of freedom at each
node. The 36 contact elements are arranged along the interaction surface between building
and the soil. The maximum values of stiffness for contact elements in shear and
compression are K
x
=25.6x10
4
and K
z
=36.5x10
4
kN/m, respectively.
The design gravity loads adopted are: 1) the structure self-weight; 2) the design
live load.
The building was subjected to the three components of the Tbilisi earthquake of
April 25, 2002 with scaled PGA of 0.2g and three-component synthetic accelerograms
generated using the data of Tab. 1 for Tbilisi region of seismogenic zones 12, 16, 7 and 11
were used.
The calculation was carried out on the basis of design model considering the
nonlinear ductility of connections of structural elements, the contact surface between the
building and ground and the initial conditions (strained state from static load) at mixed
system of bearing walls spacing in the first version 4.2 and 7.2 m, and in the second
version 4.2 and 8.4 m.
In fig. 2 the first seven periods of natural vibration of the system are shown. It can
be seen that increasing of the wall spacing up to 8.4 m conditions the increasing of initial
41
fundamental period per 5%, whereas the difference in the values of higher tones of period
composes 30-60 %.
Fig.2- Values of the periods
Figure 3 shows the sample values of the maximum roof deflection for different
dominant frequencies of seismic action.
Fig. 3- Roof deflection 1- for 7.2 m; 2 - for 8.4 m.
Figures 4 and 5 summarize the maximum storey responses to five ground motions.
Fig. 4- Story horizontal deflections for spacing 7.2 m
42
Fig. 5 - Story horizontal deflections for spacing 8.4 m
The calculated extreme story drift distribution is illustrated in fig. 6.
a b
c d

Fig. 6 - Story drift of building for longitudinal (a,c) and transversal (b,d) directions:
spacing 7.2 (a,b); spacing 8.4 (c,d). 1 due to Tbilisi earthquake ; 2 due to
accelerogram from seismogenic zone 11
The analysis shows that during the elastic-plastic vibration of building with
spacing of 7.2 and 8.4 m maximum roof horizontal relative deflection and stories drift
ratios are less than 1/1200 and 1/200, respectively that indicates the great rigidity and the
ability of a panel system with wide spacing under examination to resist to earthquakes of
43
various spectral content. This is also confirmed by the displacement ductility demand (
B
)
of the building that is ratio of the maximum displacement to the yield displacement and as
numerical results showed its value equals 2.
The value of slippage at elastic-plastic vibration on the interface of building-
ground reaches its maximum at the spacing of 8.4 m at generated earthquake with the
prevailing frequency 19.62 sec-1 (zone 11) and composes 0.0006 m that is 2.8 times greater
then the effect of the 2002 Tbilisi earthquake.
The building maximum subsidence is 0.013 m that is less than the maximum
allowable one for panel buildings.
In consideration of real and generated accelerograms there is no disturbance of the
contact along the vertical axis of the building.
The increase of spacing up to 8.4 m does not cause damage of the panel slabs with
exhausting of carrying capacity of the compressed cross-section.
The concentration of main tensile stress zones is observed in the joints of
connection and exceeds the concrete design resistance in tension that conditions the local
damages in these places.
The maximum compression stresses in the panels of external and internal walls at
increasing of spacing up to 8.4 m are raised per 19-30%, but they remain less then design
compression resistance of the concrete of respective class. In the most strained panels of the
first floor the cracks appear under action of accelerograms of zone 11, whereas the other
earthquakes under consideration do not affect significantly the structure operation.
The deformation of key joints of structural elements has a complex character. The
number of elastic-plastic cycles of deformation depending on the duration and spectral
content of real earthquake and generated accelerograms reaches 10-30.
Cracks in the key joints and local damages are developed, but permanent
displacements do not exceed the permissible ones in the horizontal (0.03 m) and vertical
(0.01 m) directions. Here the normal (compression, tension) and shear forces are increased
per 1.2-1.3 times in comparison with spacing of 7.2 m, and compose respectively 56% and
41 % of ultimate strength of indicated joints.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The method has been presented that is capable of accurate reproduction of the
complete three-dimensional nonlinear behavior of the soil-interface-panel building system
under strong ground motion in Tbilisi region and used to study the reliability of a
residential 5-story panel building of new generation.
2. The bearing capacity of the panel building with the super-wide spacing 8.4 m is
not exceeded. It resists the effect of an earthquake of high intensity and retains the ability of
further deformation.
3. The code reduction coefficient K
1
=0.25 (it is equal to 1/q, where q is the
behavior factor used for design in Eurocode 8) considering the panel building capacity to
develop the inelastic deformations, in this study composes 0.5, that indicates the low degree
of nonlinear deformability of the 5-story panel building.
4. The building reliability for both versions are equal to 0.95 that is greater than
ultimate admissible one (0.9) for the dwelling houses that guarantees the structure safety
from collapse and allows to recommend the expediency of experimental design and the
construction of proposed building with super-wide wall spacing.
44
5. Degree of total damage of the building is less than 3 determined by MSK-64,
that is connected with DM and does not cause the stopping of a building function and is not
required a lot of financial expenses for repairing. Obtained results can be used for many
decision-makers.
7. Further research needs tools for improved nonlinear analyses of the soil-
interface-panel building system that includes a successful methodology for evaluation of
monetary loss or DV as the last stage of PBSD of the examined type panel building for
future seismic activity.
REFERENCES
[1] Seismic resistance of precast concrete shear walls-correlation of experimental and
analytical results /Caccese V., and Harris H.G. //J. Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, 1987, 15, pp. 661-677.
[2] Nonelastic ductility influence of nodes on seismic response of large panel building s/
Rekvava P.A.// Proc. 9th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1990,
Moscow, vol.7-A, pp.118-126.
[3] Modeling strategies for three dimensional analysis of precast panel buildings under
seismic load/ Astarioglu S., Memariz Ali M .and A.Scanlon A. //Proc. 12-th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 2000, London, Paper Reference 1356.
[4] Investigation on seismic performances of precast R/C panel buildings /Rekvava P.A
and Mdivani K.I. // Proc. International Turkey Symposium on Advances in Earthquake
and Structural Engineering, 2007, Isparta, pp. 17-27.
[5] A framework methodology for performance-based earthquake engineering/ Moehle J.
and Deierlein G.G. // Proc.13-th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 2004,
Vancover, Paper Reference 679.
[6] Method of plastic hinge joints in design panel building under seismic influenc
/Rekvava P.A. // Proc.14-th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 2008,
Beijing, Paper Reference 14-014.
[7] New models for rock joints and interfaces/ Heuze F.E. and Barbour T.C. // 1982, J.
Geotechnical Engineering Devision, 108, pp.757-776.
[8] Use of the regional models of seismic effect in building design/ Rekvava P.A. //
Proc.10-th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1994, Vienna, vol.1,
pp.253-256.
[9] Seismic resistant constructions of Buildings/ Poliakov S.V. // Building Publishing
House, 1983, Moscow, pp. 303.
[10] Design code for earthquake engineering of Georgia /DC 01.01.09, 2009, Tbilisi,
pp.103.
[11] Guidelines of the panel dwelling-houses design/ BCR 2.08.01-85//Building Publishing
House, 1989, Moscow, pp. 245.
45
Zoran V. MILUTINOVI
1
and Mihail A. GAREVSKI
2
ABU DABI, UAE, SISTEM ZA MONITORING I MENADMENT
SEIZMIKOG RIZIKA
Rezime:
Da bi se obezbedio i zatitio odrljiv razvoj Abu Dabi emirata, UAE, a posebno
Optine i grada Abu Dabija i zatitila zivotna sredina njegovih stanovnika, Sektor
za Planiranje Optine Abu Dabi inicirao je projekt Ocena seizmikog hazarda i
rizika Abu Dabija. Tokom konceptualne pripreme projekta i izrade tender
dokumenta, primarni koncept je modificiran i teritorijalni obuhvat projekta je
proiren, rezultirajuci u Abu Dabi sistem za monitoring i menadzment seizmikog
rizika. Rad diskutira i u neophodnim detaljima prezentira strukturu projekta,
njegove ciljeve i domet, kao i druge krucijalne aspekte.
Kljune rei: Sistem, seizmiki rizik, monitoring, menadzment.
EMIRATE OF ABU DHABI, UAE, SYSTEM FOR SEISMIC RISK
MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT
Summary:
To assure and maintain sustainable development of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi,
UAE, in general, of Abu Dhabi Municipality and Abu Dhabi City in particular,
and disaster free living environment for its citizens, the Abu Dhabi Municipality
Town Planning Department initiated project "Assessment of Seismic Hazard and
Risk in Abu Dhabi". During the conceptual design of the system and development
of the Tender document, the primary concept and territorial coverage of the project
have been enhanced ending up into Emirate of Abu Dhabi System for Seismic
Risk Monitoring and Management. This paper discusses and in necessary details
presents the project structure, its objectives and scope and some other the crucial
aspects.
Key words: System, Seismic Risk, Monitoring, Management.
1
Professor, Head RDM-IZIIS, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, Skopje,
Macedonia; ADM, UAE, consultant.
2
Professor, Director, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, Skopje, Macedonia;
ADM, UAE, consultant.
46
1 OBJECTIVES
To assure and maintain sustainable development of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in
general, of Abu Dhabi Municipality (ADM) and Abu Dhabi City in particular, and disaster
free living environment for its citizens, the Abu Dhabi Municipality initiated the Project
"Assessment of Seismic Hazard and Risk in Abu Dhabi".
During the latest stage of ToR development (December 2008), Al Ain (AAM) and
Western Region (WRM) Municipalities joined the ADM initiative. The project has been
enhanced to the national, the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, scale and the title was reformulated in
"Assessment of Seismic Hazard and Risk in Emirate of Abu Dhabi".
The Project is aimed in setting up a system that in the most effective, but technically
and scientifically consistent, manner will provide data, technology and state-of-the-art
know-how for developing sound strategy and acceptable policy environment for protection
of current and planned development against adversity of potential environmental impacts.
The Project, endeavored in creating Abu Dhabi System for Seismic Risk Monitoring
and Management, is primarily focused on seismicity sector. The historic record on local
seismicity of engineering significance is practically nonexistent, however, the unique
structural typology emerging rapidly in the region, represented by worldwide unique
typology of tall and ultra tall buildings, is calling on particular attention. In particular
critical is their behavior when exposed to strong seismic action from neighboring high
energy seismic sources, their intrinsic potential of causing significant and psychologically
unacceptable discomfort, even panic, of occupants and businesses, including adverse
effects (physical damage) potential on their seismic stability, structural integrity and
seismic safety.
The Project shall meet seismic community safety goals by assuring consistent,
technically sound and economically justified policies in the domain of:
o Prevention, Regional and Development Planning (Emirate scale)
o Urban Planning and Land Development (Municipal, City of Abu Dhabi, Al
Ain and designated urban areas in WRM scale)
o Mitigation, Emergency Preparedness and Response (Municipal, City of Abu
Dhabi, Al Ain and designated urban areas in WRM scale)
o Engineering and Development (City of Abu Dhabi, Al Ain and designated
urban areas in WRM scale)
o Promotion of Risk Prevention Culture and Public Safety (Emirate scale)
Such strategic orientations are made possible by recent worldwide advances in seismic
monitoring instrumentation, real-time computational and data transmission and communication
technology, as well as the data accumulated, databases developed and established GIS systems
for monitoring and management of urbanization processes in major urban areas of Abu Dhabi
Emirate.
2 SCOPE
The Project pillars are the following broadly defined activities:
o Qualitative and quantitative assessment of seismic hazard, Seismic Zoning of
the Abu Dhabi Emirate, Microzoning of areas defined by the "Plan Abu
Dhabi 2030: Urban Structure Framework Plan", "Al Ain Urban and Regional
Structure Plan 2015" and designated urban areas in WRM
47
o Qualitative and quantitative assessment of seismic risk of buildings, selected
nine (9) essential structures, selected Critical Importance lifeline (water
supply, electric power, gas and oil transportation) systems, and of urban
developments of Abu Dhabi, Al Ain and Western Region Municipalities)
o Seismic monitoring for emergency management and disaster risk reduction
by deployment of network of 50 accelerograph seismic monitoring stations
o Seismic monitoring for development and maintenance of 3D Seismic
Simulation Model for simulating long-period seismic waves by deployment
of a network of four (4) stations consisting of three-component broad-band
sensors and triaxial accelerograph unit
o Installation of Structural Health Monitoring Systems in seven (7) selected
unique structures
o Development, including Web display, of Ground Shaking Map System for
Abu Dhabi Emirate (EAD-GSM System), for automatic real time collection
of ground shaking parameters for emergency impact phase decision making
process
o Creation, upload and maintenance of Web for public informing and in a
support to architectural and structural design practice
o Creation of reliable seismic data base as an umbrella and the major
instrument for seismic risk monitoring and management
o Establishment of disaggregated EAD Seismic Risk Monitoring and
Management Center (EAD-SRMMC) consisting of two (2) Data and five (5)
Display Centers.
3 STRATEGIC GOALS
The strategic goals are:
o Study "Assessment of Seismic Hazard and Risk in Emirate of Abu Dhabi" as
a base for Building Seismic Design Code Development, engineering
prevention and regional and urban planning
o Creation of an Unit to operate the system and databases A Centre for
Seismic Risk Monitoring and Management (EAD-SRMMC)
o Capability development
o Public Awareness
4 FORESEEN STRATEGIC ACHIVEMENTS
4.1 Infrastructural Achievements
The major tangible infrastructural achievement is establishment of disaggregated EAD
Seismic Risk Monitoring and Management Center (EAD-SRMMC). The EAD-SRMMC
Center consists of two (2) Data and five (5) Display Centers.
Data Centers are conceptually designed as complex, powerful and independent IT and
communication facilities for:
o acquisition and hosting of all metadata accumulated during the project
performance:
48
seismic zonation and microzonations
3D seismic simulation model and other geo-spatial data
urban (buildings) and infrastructure (4 Critical Importance lifelines) spatial
data/results
simulation models and expertise for various project needs and subsequent
simulations
host seismic design parameters web
specialized clients software and seismic databases
o acquisition, hosting, real-time processing and dissemination of data acquired
from:
seismic monitoring network that presently consisting of 5 stations of
National seismic monitoring network, 4 stations to be set-up under this
project as well as additional 4 stations to be set-up in coming future as a
second phase of programmed development of the National seismic
monitoring network
permanent accelerograph (strong motion) network consisting of 50
accelerograph stations
seven (7, ADM 3, AAM 2, and WRM-2) structural health monitoring
systems (SHMS)
other data relevant for other project needs as presented in ToR document.
o in real-time calculation and release EAD Ground Shake Map
o host and in real-time maintain needs and operations of 5 display centers.
Two, spatially dislocated from each other Data centers, designed to mirror the
function of the other one, are foreseen for assuring:
o operability of at least one Data center for real-time function of five Display
centers during emergency impact period
o real-time acquisition and transfer of data and other relevant parameters for
decision making process of stakeholders involved
o real-time decision making process, and
o other emergency needs
Considering the interdisciplinarity and complexity of real-time operations the
data centers are designed for, not only one, but several stakeholders shall and
will be mandated for their operation and maintenance. Mandates and
coordination will be decided during the project implementation phase.
Five Display centers, in fact decision making posts, are to be established in:
o Abu Dhabi Municipality (ADM)
o Al Ain Municipality (AAM)
o Western Region Municipality (WRM)
o Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA)
o Civil Protection/Emergency Function (CP)
The conceptual design of EAD-SRMMC is presented in Img. 1. The EAD-
SRMMC is a system that:
o Catalyses and integrates cooperation in the fields of hazard, risk and
emergency/disaster management among different national institutions
49
(NCMS
2
, UAEU
3
, PI
4
, ADNOC
5
, ADWEA
6
, EAD
7
/ Former ERWDA
8
,
other), the decision making authorities (DMA, Municipalities /ADM, AAM
and WRM], Emergency systems), Critical infrastructure operators (power
and water supply, gas and oil transportation), and other interested in potential
stakeholders
o efficiently bridges the gap between professionals of various proficiencies and
decision making authorities
o assures and maintains real-time decision making process among major
emergency and crisis management stakeholders (DMA, ADM, AAM, WRM
and CP)
In essence, EAD-SRMMC will represent a seed and backbone of an Integrated EAD
(Multi) Disaster Management System that, although conceptually designed based on
potential seismic threats the Emirate is exposed to, is easy upgradable for any other disaster
agent jeopardizing safety, security and quality of life of citizens of the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
4.2 Other Tangible Strategic Achievements
Bellow is summarized only the most tangible achievements:
o Integration of worldwide state-of-the-art in the fields of:
Geosciences
engineering and earthquake engineering
IT & communication
emergency management, etc.
o Improved seismic monitoring network
o Established seismic monitoring of engineering and decision making
parameters by permanent accelerograph network and structural health
monitoring systems
o Seismic zoning of the Emirate and seismic microzonations of areas defined
by the "Plan Abu Dhabi 2030: Urban Structure Framework Plan", "Al Ain
Urban and Regional Structure Plan 2015" and designated urban areas in
WRM
o Assurance of data, parameters and criteria for EAD Seismic and Wind
Design Code development including provisions for design of tall and ultra
tall buildings
o Technological and IT linkage and integration of major Decision making
Authorities
o In a case of a seismic impact and in a support of rapid and coordinated
situation management, provision of near-real time (not more that 25-30
2
NCMS: National Centre of Meteorology and Seismology, U.A.E. Ministry of Presidential Affairs
3
UAEU: United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi Emirate
4
PI: Petroleum Geosciences Department, the Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi
5
ADNOC: Abu Dhabi National Oil Company
6
ADWEA: Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Agency
7
EAD: Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi (previously ERWDA
7
)
8
ERWDA: Environmental Research & Wildlife Development Agency of Abu Dhabi Emirate
50
minutes) information on seismic effects (EAD Ground Shaking Map /EAD-
GSM/ System):
in major urban areas of the Emirate
on major Critical Infrastructure (CI) systems (Water supply, Electric Power,
Oil and Gas transportation)
o Build-up of national capacity and capability for which in other part of the
World several decades of progressive research and development were and are
usually needed
o Coherent estimates on seismic vulnerability and risk of urban areas defined by
the "Plan Abu Dhabi 2030: Urban Structure Framework Plan", "Al Ain Urban
and Regional Structure Plan 2015" and designated urban areas in WRM
o Other achievements pertinent to seismic qualification and quantification of the
territory of Abu Dhabi Emirate and neighboring regions, process of regional
urban planning, development and preventive seismic protection of existing and
planned construction.
5 PROJECT STRUCTURE
General Project structure is presented in Table 1. More detailed insight on foreseen
deliverables and expected completion time frame is provided in Table 2. The Project, as
structured and presented in Table 1, consists of 20 tasks and 68 deliverables.
Fifteen (15) tasks and fifty (59) deliverables of technical nature (Table 3) are related to
qualitative and quantitative understanding of:
o seismic environment the Emirate of Abu Dhabi is exposed to
o potential consequences if the Emirate in general, and Abu Dhabi, Al Ain
and/or Western Region Municipalities in particular, are exposed to a major
earthquake event from surrounding high energy seismic zones
o performance and seismic risk inherent to current and planned building stock,
and selected critical importance lifeline systems; and,
o installation of seismic monitoring systems (accelerograph network, seismic
monitoring network and structural health monitoring systems) for research,
engineering, planning and emergency management needs
o establishment of disaggregated EAD Seismic Risk Monitoring and Mana-
gement Center (EAD-SRMMC) consisting of two (2) Data and five (5) Display
Centres.
o definition of parameters for deciding nationally feasible and economically
justifiable levels of seismic protection, i.e. economically acceptable level of
seismic risk.
Three (3) tasks and seven (7) deliverables are related to coordinated activities, the
Project promotion, validation and creation of public awareness and training, one (1) task
and one (1) deliverable to post-implementation phase maintenance and one (1) task and one
deliverable (1) are related to BOT services that will enable Client to rapidly start offshored
operations, and within a period of 3 (three) years, to take ownership of the offshored
developed center (EAD-SRMMC Center) as its own subsidiary.
51
Fourteen (14) tasks and twenty-six (26) deliverables shall be performed at Abu Dhabi
Emirate level, while six (6) tasks and forty-two (42) deliverables are municipality specific
and shall be conducted either within or for selected urban areas and critical
9
and/or
unique
10
structures in Abu Dhabi, Al Ain and Western Region Municipalities.
6 SPATIAL COVERAGE
The spatial coverage of the Project is the entire jurisdiction area of Abu Dhabi Emirate
(Img.2), including
o Abu Dhabi Island
o East of Abu Dhabi City up to Alkhatem
o West of Abu Dhabi City up to Seih Shoaib, and
o Al Ain Area
7 OTHER PROJECT ASPECTS
Implementation phase of the Project lasts 20 months.
Project dominantly relies on use, interpretation and reinterpretation of existing data
fund. The additional field (site and building characterization, Table 4) investigations are
required to meet international standards for installment of systems as planned, as well as to
assure a set of consistently interlinked parameters for calibrating data compiled from
literature and from the existing data fund.
In summary, additional field investigations comprise drilling of 117 boreholes with total
length of 2.75 km, 70 P-S log (suspension) measurements, 190 months of 1 month
continuous microtremor measurements, 17.5 km of surface refraction (or MASW)
geophysical measurements, sampling of 20 undisturbed samples in cohesive soils and 117
other samples for determination of index properties (water content, sieve analysis,
Atteberg's limits), 140 samples and corresponding dynamic laboratory testing for
determination of G-/- material curves, 36 samples for liquefaction susceptibility testing,
as well as ambient vibration measurements of 16 buildings with estimated total duration of
about 6 months.
9
Buildings/structures with high occupancy, critical response services (fire, police, hospitals) and vulnerable
populations (schools, nursing homes). Damages to critical structures lead to more life loss, larger economic loss
and greater social disruption, and slow community response to earthquakes. Often these buildings are called
'essential'.
10
Structures of unique architectural shape and/or size, historic buildings, monuments, structures requiring unique
features for their specific purpose and use.
52
8 OVERLAPPING
Project has no overlaps. The identified one, overlapping with DMA initiative "Adoption
of IBC (2006/2009)" Building Code of International Code Council (US) has been extracted.
However, the link between both initiatives has been established through Task 16:
"Coordinated Activities" in order to assure mutual transfer of data and outputs and other
feed backs. During course of performance, other links will be assured if, and when, other
complementary activities are identified.
9 GAPS
During the tendering process it was identified that neither DMA initiative "Adoption of
IBC (2006/2009)" Building Code of ICC, US nor the ADM project Assessment of Seismic
Hazard and Risk in Emirate of Abu Dhabi provides elements, guidance and rationales for
seismic and wind design of tall and ultra tall buildings favored as current construction
typology in the region.
To amortize this gap that can seriously affect design practice in the Emirate, in
particularly tall and ultra tall buildings and other flexible structures, during the
implementation phase of this project adequate ToRs will be developed for:
o Wind Hazard Assessment and Wind Zoning of Emirate of Abu Dhabi; and,
o Special Provisions and Guidelines for Wind and Seismic Design of Tall and
Ultra Tall Buildings
o and both additional deliverables will be accommodated under the Task 16:
Coordinated Activities.
10 END USERS
Project outputs cover mandates and needs of broad number of stakeholders. The most
concerned are listed in the following
o Governmental authorities
o Emergency response systems & Emergency Managers
o Engineering & scientific community (Seismologists, Architects, Structural and
Earthquake engineers, Geologists, etc.)
o Regional & Urban planners
o Land developers
o Operators of critical infrastructure
o Owners and/or operators of infrastructure and public utilities
o Owners of structures
o Businesses
o Media
o General public; etc.
53
11 TRAINING
Training needs of nominated staff, necessary to assure adequate operation of installed
systems and the maximum benefit of results achieved are identified, as specified in Table 5.
While hands-on trainings are designed to develop national capability to operate and use the
system for various technical, planning, research and emergency needs, the purpose oriented
trainings are designed for training of decision making authorities and other relevant
professionals to familiarize with system outputs and develop skills to efficiently implement
them in decision making process.
12 DISSEMINATION/INTRNATIONAL VALIDATION
To present Project achievements, position them with respect to worldwide state- of-the-
art, receive comments and, if viable, incorporate in the final products and assure national
feed-back, three International workshops are planned, as presented in TK- 16:
o Workshop 1: Seismic Hazard Assessment, Seismic Zoning and Microzoning
o Workshop 2: Strong Motion Instrumentation and Structural Health Monitoring
o Workshop 3: Seismic Risk and Loss Assessment
Further project promotion is foreseen to be made by organizing special, the
Project specific, sessions at:
o 14
th
European Conference of Earthquake Engineering
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia (2010)
o 15
th
World Conference of Earthquake Engineering
Lisbon, Portugal (2012)
o Other national, regional and international events
13 ADMINISTRATIVE ISSUES
The project "Assessment of Seismic Hazard and Risk in Emirate of Abu Dhabi" alias
Emirate of Abu Dhabi System for Seismic Risk Monitoring and Management by its
objectives and scope, as requested by RFP and translated in ToR, in the forthcoming period
will worldwide be one of the most outstanding activities in the field of seismology,
earthquake engineering, seismic monitoring and protection of population, material property
and environment against adverse seismic impacts.
The tendering process of the project Emirate of Abu Dhabi System for Seismic Risk
Monitoring and Management is completed and Contractor is selected. Presently, it is in
Contract negotiation and Contract award phase, with expected commencement at November
2009.
14 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Consultant, GECO Engineering, Dubai, represented by Prof. Dr. Zoran
Milutinovic, conceptually designed the system and developed Projects Terms of Reference
(ToR) in full cooperation with the Project Technical Committee composed of nominees
from:
o U.A.E. Ministry of Energy
o Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA)
54
o Al Ain Municipality
o Western Region Municipality
o National Center for Meteorology and Seismology (NCMS)
o United Arab Emirate University (UAEU), Faculty of Science, Geology Department,
Al Ain
o Petroleum Geosciences Department, the Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, and
o Abu Dhabi Municipality, Building Permit Directorate
and with full support of the Abu Dhabi Municipality, Town Planning Sector, Spatial Data
Directorate the initiator of the Project.
Consultant expresses his gratitude to Technical Committee for continuous assistance,
support and encouragement during the course of conceptual design of the system and its
ToR development, as well as established working and cooperation synergy.
Image 1 - Conceptual Design and Functionality of Disaggregated EAD-SRMMC Center
55
Image 2 - Study Area (Emirate of Abu Dhabi)
56
Table 1 - Project Structure Broken Into Tasks (TK) and Deliverables (DL)
57
58
59
60
Table 3 - Brake Down of Task and Deliverables by Nature
Table 4 - Summary on Field Investigations for Site/Building Characterization
61
Table 5 - Nominated Staff Training Needs
63
Zaven Khlghatyan
1
, Ruben Badalian
2
SEISMIC PROTECTION OF STRUCTURES BY COUPLED
SYSTEMS- DEVELOPMENT, RESEARCH AND REALIZATION
Summary:
The Armenia and adjacent territories are situated in the collision zone of the
Arabian and Eurasian plates. The Spitak (Armenia), 1988 destructive earthquake
has shown that seismic hazard in Armenia was considerably higher than buildings
and structures seismic resistance and practically all the territory of Armenia is
situated in the area of high seismic risk. It is evident that the increase of existing
buildings and structures seismic resistance is essential for Armenia.
The results of theoretical and experimental research on application coupled system
of strengthening and retrofitting of existing buildings in Armenia are provided.
Key words: seismic hazard, seismic protection, strengthening and retrofitting,
coupled system
ZATITA OBJEKATA OD SEIZMIKIH EFEKATA
RAZVIJANJEM SPREGNUTIH SISTEMA, ISTRAIVANJA
I REALIZACIJA
Rezime:
Jermenija i teritorije u njenoj neposrednoj blizini nalaze se u zoni sudaranja
arapske i evroazijske ploe. Razorni zemljotres koji se dogodio u Spitaku
(Jermenija) 1988. godine pokazao je da je seizmiki hazard u Jermeniji znatno
vei do seizmike otpornosti zgrada i objekata i da se praktino cela teritorija
Jermenije nalazi u zoni visokog seizmikog rizika. Oigledno da je poveanje
seizmike otpornosti postojeih zgrada i objekata od sutinskog znaaja za
Jermeniju.
Dati su rezultati teorijskih i eksperimentanih istraivanja o primeni spregnutih
sistema ojaanja i rehabilitacije postojeih zgrada u Jermeniji.
Kljune rei: seizmiki hazard, zatita od seizmikih efekata, ojaanje i
rehablitacija, spregnuti sistem
___________________________
1
Zaven Khlghatyan Head of Earthquake Engineering Centre, Armenian Western Survey for Seismic Protection
SNCO
2
Ruben Badalian, RA, J-S CC ARIEE and PC
64
1. OVERVIEW OF SEISMIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Seismic protection of damaged buildings during the earthquake and the lack of seismic
resistant buildings are traditionally performed by strengthening of their structural systems.
Depending on the type of building and strengthening of damaged reinforced concrete, or
are implemented by steel jackets, stiffeners, reinforced mortar layers, an additional rigid
elements in the form of reinforced concrete diaphragms or steel lateral braces, prefabricated
slabs, framing of openings, polymer reinforced bars, injection of cracks with mortar and so
on. Seismic Protection Systems be grouped as follows:
- Serving to increase the carrying capacity of individual structural elements and the
connections of their joints;
- Intended for the perception of a large part of the inertial forces on the building,
increasing its rigidity and stability.
In first group consists primarily strengthen the constructive solution, in second group
strengthening actions taken based on the structural analysis and design of the building and
its individual elements.
Constructive solutions, methods of analysis and research of strengthening of structures
and buildings devoted a lot of valuable publications, including normative documents, being
issued and published in Armenia [1-5].
In order to radically improve the reliability and efficiency by significantly reducing
operating on these inertial forces, have been used and known in the seismic design methods
for active and semi-active seismic protection. There is already developed and to some
extent tested a number of such systems. They can be grouped as follows:
- Working on the principle of seismic isolation system, including a flexible lower part of
the load-bearing structures, with the rubber supports, with the kinematic supports the
principle of rolling, with pendulum bearings, with suspended floors, the same, but with
joints of dry friction with sliding supports;
- Adaptive seismic protection systems operating on the principle of change within the
prescribed limits of their dynamic characteristics, including: from disconnecting joints; to
include the connecting;
- Systems with high damping, acting on the principle of dissipation of energy during the
vibrations, including: viscous dampers, with elements of high plastic deformation,
including vibration dampers beam, ring type and extrusion, with dry frictional dampers,
frictional diaphragm, sandy-dampers;
- System with tuned mass absorbers, including: with impact and dynamic, including:
spring, pendulum, combined, in the form of a flexible upper floor, etc.
Suffice detailed overview and analysis of such systems given in [6]. New versions of
the active seismic protection systems, including the principles of vibration and seismic
isolation dampers have been developed and studied in Armenia (J-SCC ARIEE & PC,
NSSP of RA). Moreover, they were first implemented not in new construction but in the
seismic zone of the Spitak earthquake [7-12].
Along with these systems have been proposed the first varieties of the Coupled
Systems. We note constructive solution adopted in developed by us in 1992 to strengthen
the draft 3-and 4-storey buildings of the maternity advice bureau, gynecology and obstetrics
of the regional maternity hospital in Artik town, built on the basis of the standard frame of
the series IIS-04.
65
As provided for them instead of unfinished construction, poor quality and partially
damaged large-panel walls, new monolithic reinforced concrete with stone facings.
Between them and the frame of the building through joints and reinforcing flexible braces
under the angle of 45 were installed, being anchored in walls and pouring in place plates
of precast floors. It allowed us to use the walls in its plane as a seismic protection of
buildings.
2. THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE COUPLED SYSTEMS.
Determination of the natural frequencies of structures is the most important and difficult
part of the dynamic analysis of their seismic behavior. How, in particular, pointed out in
[14], it is connected with the imminent errors occurring from the fact that the design
scheme in most cases is rather crude reflection of reality, the parameter value of the
designed systems on which they depend for rigidity, can not made precise, etc. By the
increase of the same number of degrees of freedom determine the natural frequencies even
more complicated.
However, this problem is susceptible to some simplification. This becomes possible if
the complex system considered as coupled to each other, two separate, simpler system with
a single degree of freedom. Here, coupled means that the vibration in separate system,
that is in one part of the complex system, influence the vibrations in the other and vice
versa.
Designed L.I. Mandelstam, N.D. Papaleksi, A.A. Andronov and their followers
Khaikin, and A.A. Vitt, V. Migulin and others [15-16] theory of a bound system is based on
the fact that the vibrations of the two systems can be considered as vibrations of a united
system with two degrees of freedom. The main question is - how much of the vibrating
process of one system affects the presence of the second system and its vibrating process.
L.I. Mandelstam, analyzing this question, introduced the concept of connectedness. The
main point of the latter is the following: the character of the systems interaction is revealed
not only by the parameters of the joints between them, but the closeness of their partial
frequencies. Even a small force in the relationship may have a significant influence on the
vibrational process system, if the partial frequencies of each system are close enough to
each other. And vice versa - with a large detuning, that is, for a significant difference
between the partial frequencies, even at relatively large forces in joints, they can influence
the vibrations of each individual system is not so much.
Realized structural system Building-Multistory Annex is a kind of two such coupled
systems, connected by flexible joints. Developed and other options structural solution of a
coupled system.
3. THE STRUCTURAL DECISION OF SEISMIC PROTECTION OF
BUILDINGS BY MEAN OF COUPLED SYSTEM.
The coupled system Building-Multistory Annex developed and implemented on a
typical 5-storey masonry residential building with 90 apartments in the city of Gyumri.
Earthquake GPA (Ground Peak Acceleration) was: A= 0,2 g. But now GPA of this territory
assigned to: A=0,4 g. Building on the level of damage attributable mainly to the 2-nd and
66
partly to the 3rd degree. To ensure its earthquake GPA, the following activities to provide
its seismic resistance:
- the structure of seismic protection system was built as a reinforced concrete multistory
annex;
- the structural measures were implemented for transverse walls;
- restoration and strengthening measures were implemented for longitudinal bearing
walls with original design bearing capacity can provide the required seismic resistance of
building in this direction.
Seismic design of buildings is a prefabricated-monolithic multistory annex, formed of
reinforced concrete diaphragm elements and slabs of floors.
By the results of experimental tests of J-SCC ARJEE and PC on performance of
compressed reinforcing rods with constrained supports [8] the connected elements were
developed and implemented as the joints of reinforcing rods [13]. Their hooked ends are
anchored in monolithic areas of the girders of the annex and in special reinforced concrete
bindings being installed along the whole building. They are joined with floors to accept the
forces not only for the areas of the wall, but also transfer it to the building. The sectional
area of the joints was extracted from the forces defined by the design of the system on
seismic effects. For the optimization of the system the calculations of the system were
executed by 20 different variants of the location of the joints. By the results of the
calculation they were fabricated from C12 class A-III rods, with the space 0,85m on the
level of the floor of the 5-th storey, and on the level of the room 1,0m. The free length of
the joints was accepted from the necessary values for longitudinal rigidity and forces [13].
The rods of the joints were galvanized to avoid the corrosion.
4. THE CALCULATION OF THE COUPLED SYSTEM
BUILDINGMULTISTORY ANNEX
During the calculation the following was taken into consideration; its results will allow
us to determine the level of reduction of design values for horizontal seismic loads on the
building in transverse direction precisely enough and to reveal the possible interaction of
the building and the annex in longitudinal direction, that is, to determine and to compare
their periods of vibrations separately and together with the system in the same direction. To
reveal the efficacy of the system, the building and the annex were calculated separately and
together with the system. During the design the building and the annex were modeled by
bar finite elements taking into consideration their shear, flexural rigidities, and the joints in
the level of the floors by finite longitudinal rigidity. The masses of the building and the
annex were accepted as concentrated in the level of the stories. The calculations (fig. 1)
have been made by the computing complex Mirage, version 4.2 (NIIASS, Kiev).
In fig. 1 the relation of the maximum values of the transverse forces on the building are
shown separately and together with the coupled system to reveal the effectiveness of the
tested system.
67
a) separately united system
building annex building annex
b)
sec 007 . 0 sec 020 . 0
sec 014 . 0 sec 054 . 0
sec 020 . 0 sec 122 . 0 sec 329 . 0
sec 043 . 0 10 75 , 101 10 35 , 304
sec 202 . 0 10 4 , 939 10 3613
3 3
2 2
3 1 1
2
5 5
1
2 5 2 5
= =
= =
= = =
= = =
= = =
T T
T T
T T T
T kN GA kN GA
T m kN EI m kN EI
c)
d)
e)
333 , 0
1136
379
. .
. .
1
= = =
sep b
Q
sys b
Q
K 175 , 3
222
705
. .
. .
1
= = =
sep an
Q
sys an
Q
K
Fig. 1. The results of the building and the annex separately and the system
Multistory Building-Annex in transverse direction.
68
a - Displacement o (mm) and the values of coefficient of the mode shape q;
b - Stiffness characteristics and the vibrations periods (sec);
c -The load (ton) on the compartment storey of the building and forces diagrams (in
brackets inertial forces);
d - Bending moments diagram (ton.m);
e - The ratio of maximum forces on the building and the annex separately for their
values together with the system.
5. EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL TESTS OF THE
REALIZED COUPLED SYSTEM BUILDING-MULTISTORY
ANNEX
The aim of experimental studies of the system Building-Multistory Annex by
vibration measurement equipment was to determine the dynamic characteristics- natural
periods of the building and the annex separately and together as part of the system, for
comparison with the design values.
In order to solve this problem the experimental studies were conducted in the mode of
MS and the free vibration of the building and the annex in the horizontal impact of the
hanging load and vibrations of the ground during the drop of the load.
Prior to the restoration and strengthening works identified the actual periods of natural
vibrations of the building during the drop of the load. From these experimental data, the
period of natural vibrations of the building in the transverse direction was 0,37 0,43 sec,
that can be conditionally accept an average 0,40 sec.
The experimental values of the natural periods of the building building were slightly
higher than the design value (T
design.
= 0,329 sec). This obviously occurred because of the
design load for recording vibrations was absent.
The storey weight of the building constituents: m s t g
b
Q
f
b
m /
2
. 08 , 225 = = , not taking
into consideration the lack of structures of reinforcement, roof, partitions, snow and other
temporary loads.
The ratio of actual mass of building to its designed one is equal to:
777 , 0
1
= =
d
b
m
f
b
m o for its initial state.
So, experimental natural period of the building in transverse direction before its
reinforcement is equal to sec 454 , 0 777 , 0 40 , 0
.
. .
= =
tr
des b
T by the design load and with
the ratio
1
o .
Such a relatively great value of the natural period of the building is quite obvious in
comparison with that one shown in reference and in Building Codes [14], as all cross walls
were performed by lightweight concrete smoke-ventilated blocks with lack of connection
with each other and longitudinal walls. Besides, it should be assumed that because of the
damages during the earthquake, the wall rigidity of the building was slightly reduced.
69
The reason for such a large period of vibration could be another factor. Analysis of the
results shows that the upper layer of the ground was enough soft and it is known, that the
more is the foundation deformability, the greater is the natural period of the building.
The foundation base of studied building served to be the loams with the interlayer of the
sand loam, while the pedestal piles of the annex were fixed in rocky soils. Such a
significant difference of soil foundations of the building and the annex was not assumed by
calculations, which evidently caused some divergence of experimental and design values of
the natural periods.
It is known [15], that the definition of the natural frequencies of the coupled system
includes the conception mistuning of partial frequencies (the natural frequencies of
constituent parts of the coupled system). It is equal to:
2
)
1
/
2
( n n = , where
j
n - is the
natural frequency of separate systems with a single degree of freedom ( 2 , 1 = j ). Depending
on the value of mistuning the vibrations occur with the frequency of
1
n or
2
n , and the
transition from the frequency
1
n to
2
n or vice versa is performed by jumping. In works [15
and 16] the particular case is shown, when the masses of separate systems are equal. And
we examined the common case, when the masses of separate systems are differed. The
following expression is obtained to determine the natural frequencies of the system
1
e and
2
e :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 / 1
2
4 1 1 1 1
1 2 , 1
2
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + + + + + +
=
o o o
e
k k k
n
#
,
(1)
where:
( )
2
1 2
n n = - mistuning;
( )
2 / 1
j j j
m C n = - the natural frequencies of the each system;
1 3
C C k = ,
2 1
m m = o - coefficient of the ratio of the system masses.
It is obvious, that for k = 0 (that is, for the lack of the braces between the system) we
have -
2 1 1
n n = = e ;
1 2
n = e .
In the presented instance, proceeding from the results of calculations listen in fig. 2, we
have the following
( ) ( ) ( ) 132 , 0
2
33 , 0 12 , 0
2
2 1
2
1
n
2
n = = = = T T
326 , 0 70 , 289 495 , 94
2 1
= = = m m o ;
Where
1
sec 01 , 10
1
= n ,
1
sec 33 , 52
2
= n , and
1
T and
2
T ,
1
m and
2
m - are the
natural periods ( sec ), and the revealed masses ( m t /
2
sec . ) of the annex and the building. It
is easy to prove that the curves ( ) k
j
e are the parabolic equation. From (1) it is clear, that
2
e >
1
n >
1
e >
2
n >0.
70
By rising the coefficient of the brace k , the values of the natural frequencies of the
coupled system are removing more from the partial ones (
1
n ,
2
n ). In addition, the first
frequencies of the vibrations asymptotically tend to the certain constant value, and the
second one goes into infinity. And the system itself becomes one-mass with a single
degree of freedom and for a given case
1
1
sec 75 , 30
= e or Hz f 9 , 4
1
~ and
sec 204 , 0
1
= T , and for a design value of the coefficient 72 , 6 = k , that is, for the rigidity of
braces
1
1
sec 08 , 30
= e or Hz f 78 , 4
1
= , sec 209 , 0
1
= T ,
1
2
sec 0 , 163
= e or
Hz f 94 , 25
2
= , sec 038 , 0
1
= T by design.
Summarizing the above-shown theoretical analysis of the vibrations of the coupled
system we have the following its 3 possible states, depending on the value of the rigidity of
braces:
1. The brace between the systems is lack or its rigidity is less, that is, 0 k . In
this case we have 2 separate independent systems with the frequencies:
1
2 1
sec 01 , 19
= = n e ; Hz f 03 , 3
1
= ; sec 33 , 0
1
= T .
1
1 2
sec 33 , 52
= = n e ; Hz f 33 , 8
2
= ; sec 12 , 0
2
= T .
2. Separate systems are connected by actual brace, that is, k has two degrees of
freedom and correspondingly two natural frequencies, being differed from partial
1
n and
2
n :
1
1
sec 08 , 30
= e ; Hz f 78 , 4
1
= ; sec 209 , 0
1
= T .
1
2
sec 0 , 163
= e ; Hz f 94 , 25
2
= ; sec 0385 , 0
2
= T .
3. Separate systems are jointed by rigid braces, that is k . Then the coupled system
becomes one-mass with a single degree of freedom, the vibration frequency of which is
determined by the formula:
2 / 1
1
2 / 1
2 1
2 1
1
1
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
o
o
e n
m m
C C

(2)
And it is equal to
1
1
sec 75 , 30
= e ( Hz f 90 , 4
1
= ; sec 204 , 0
1
= T ).
From (2) it follows, that the frequency of the vibrations of the coupled system depend
both on mistuning ( ) and on the ratio of the masses ( o ) of separate systems.
Experimental and theoretical studies showed that for design values k and k the
values of the vibration period are approximately equal. It can be explained by the fact that
the assumed values of the rigidity and the levels of the locations of the joints turned out to
be optimum along the whole height of the system.
So, despite the fact, that the results were obtained, proving design reduction of the level
of seismic load on the building, there is a chance for optimization of the system and
improvement of the structural decision, which can be achieved by the choice of the most
effective rigidity of joints, their location and structural decision. The obtained theoretical
values of the frequencies of vibrations of the building and the annex in various states of the
coupled system have also been registered during the experimental tests. For clear similarity
71
and analysis of experimental and theoretical results of data proceeding of vibrations of the
system Building-Multistory Annex are listed in transverse direction. When the impact
effect the most registration points have the following predominant vibration frequency
Hz
y
f 1 , 8 ; 2 , 4 8 , 3 = ( sec 26 , 0 24 , 0 ; 12 , 0 =
y
T ) on the 1-st and 2-nd phases of
experimental study. Based on this, the following values of occurred predominant natural
periods can be revealed for the system Building-Multistory Annex and its separate parts
the building and the annex:
State 1 0,121sec for the annex and 0,342sec for the building;
State 2 0,190,26sec (realized coupled system);
State 3 0,160,18sec (as a system with a single degree of freedom).
However, the actual state of the building, the annex and their joints are characterized by
them not providing by the design. Therefore, taking into consideration the fact that the
masses of the building and the annex were slightly less during the experimental tests in
comparison with the design ones, lets corrects the above-mentioned average values of the
natural periods. Then we shall have the following experimental and theoretical values of
the natural periods, complying with the accepted state of the system:
sec 124 , 0 022 , 1 122 , 0 sec; 359 , 0 052 , 1 342 , 0 = = = =
an
T
b
T .
( ) sec 197 , 0 2 / 022 , 1 052 , 1 19 , 0 = + =
sys
T .
( ) sec 270 , 0 2 / 022 , 1 052 , 1 26 , 0 = + =
sys
T .
The verified average experimental and theoretical values of the natural periods can be
used as the criterion for the calculation of the true performance of designs and so, to prove
the efficacy of the examining system Building-Multistory Annex, accepted by the project.
Let's note, that in the 2-nd state the value k = 0,31000 corresponds to the diapason of
the vibration period 0,1970,270sec. And according to the project for realized joints the
value k complies with 6,7.
Analyzing the given, we come to the conclusion though the second diapason of the
vibration period is close to the actual one, it's rather large.
Let's average the values, and in the result we obtain the following:
( ) sec 233 , 0 2 / 207 , 0 197 , 0
exp .
= + =
sys
aver
T .
The difference of the estimated average experimental value of the vibration period of
the system together with the design one wills constituent the following:
( ) % 3 , 13 100 233 , 0 / 202 , 0 233 , 0 = ,
This also says about enough satisfactory convergence of experimental and theoretical
data with the results of the design system.
The reduction of the design seismic load more than
0 , 3 9 , 378 1136
. .
= =
syst b
Q
cert b
Q times is achieved by the evaluation (Fig. 2) instead of
twice that one given for designing.
As for the behavior of the system in longitudinal direction, it should be noted, that
according to a number of records the predominant vibration period both of the building and
of the annex separately and together with the system were in the diapason of 0,280,32sec.
Or approximately their vibration period was equal to
y
T =0,3sec., which complies with its
design value.
72
It means that in this case the vibration of the building and the annex shouldn't be
antiphasic during the seismic effects in transverse directions and so the occurrence of any
significant extra forces is eliminated in their linking members.
6. CONCLUSION
1. Actually the coupled system Building - Multistory Annex fundamentally is a new
direction of seismic protection system of buildings, based not on damping or energy
absorption, but on redistribution of inertial forces between the building and the new more
rigid structure added to it and may be functionally used structure, separated by elastic joints
and connected by flexible braces in corresponding levels.
2. As a matter of fact, the system Building-Multistory Annex is essentially a kind of
the coupled system known in the theory of vibrations. According to obtained experimental
eigenvalues of the building and the annex separately and as part of the united system,
indicate, that the character of their interaction is defined by the parameters of the braces
between them and the proximity of their partial frequencies as it was established by the
theory of the Coupled Systems.
3. Analysis of the obtained experimental data for the vibrations of the system
Building-Multistory Annex it was revealed that there were its 3 possible states depending
on rigidity of the braces.
4. According to the results of the calculation, confirmed by experimental and
theoretical studies, the estimated value of the transverse force on the building together with
the system turned out to be equal to
b
Q = 379 Ton, being 3 times less its value out of the
system, which determines its efficacy and thus the reduction of the seismic risk.
5. As a result, the first experience on using of the structure of seismic protection for
concrete residential building showed that strengthening of the building can be performed by
industrial method and in a relatively short time. It is characterized by an increasing of the
total area of the building by more than 33% while reducing the consumption of the concrete
and the steel correspondingly for 25 and 60% per a square meter of the total area, compared
with the traditional methods of strengthening.
6. Based on these studies, in comparison with the well-known system of seismic
protection, the Coupled System is especially effective for relatively flexible buildings,
typical for industrial enterprises, including also especially important buildings and strategic
sites.
REFERENCES
1. Building Codes of the Republic of Armenia. Reconstruction, Restoration and
Reinforcement of Buildings and Structures. The main items. BCRA 1-4.02-99. Ministry of
Urban Development, 2000, Yerevan. /in Armenian/
2. Recommendations on restoration and reinforcement of bearing structures of
residential buildings of the series 1A-450 and 1A-451. ArmEERI, 1991, Yerevan. /in
Armenian/
73
3. Recommendations on techniques of injection of polymer composition GIPK-14-32
into the masonry during the restoration and reinforcement of buildings and structures.
ARIEE and PC, 1996, Yerevan. /in Russian/
4. Recommendations on restoration and reinforcement of precast buildings and polymer
solutions. M., State Committee of Architecture, TbilZNIIEP, 1990. /in Russian/
5. Building Codes of the Republic of Armenia. Reconstruction, Restoration and
Reinforcement of Buildings and Structures. The main items. BCRA II-6.02-2006. Ministry
of Urban Development, 2006, Yerevan. /in Armenian/
6. Up-to-date methods of seismic protection. Polyakov V.S., Kilimnik L.Sh., Cherkashin
A.V. M., Stroyizdat, 1989, 320p.
7. USSR Patent No 1574776 Seismic Resistant Multi-storey Building. Korenev B.,
Khlghatyan Z., 1990, Moscow.
8. Patent RA No 1313 A2 Seismic Protection System for Masonry Buildings. Badalyan
R., Khlghatyan Z., 2002, Yerevan.
9. The estimation of buildings vulnerability and experience in application of modern
seismic protection systems in Armenia. Internationalni Nauchno-Struchi Skup. Grade-
vinarstvo-Nauka i Praksa. Kniga 1, 2006, Zabljak, pp 309-316.
10. On the application of multi mass dynamic vibration dampers for seismic protection of
buildings. Korenev B., Khlghatyan Z. M. Proceeding of the 9-th European Conference on
Earthquake Engineering. - Moscow, 1990, Moscow, vol.8, pp. 96-103.
11. The methods of seismoprotection of multistoried buildings. Khachiyan E.E.,
Melkumyan M.G., Khlgatyan Z.M. The International Conference Spitak-88, 22-26 May,
1989. UNESCO and Armenian Academy of Sciences, Publishing House of the Armenian
AS, 1989, Yerevan, p.p. 52-53.
12. The System of Seismic Insulation. Melkumyan M.G. Armenian Builders` Bulletin 9,
1997, Yerevan, p.p. 6-8.
13. The Behaviour of the compressed reinforcing rods. Badalyan R. Bulletin of the
Structural Engineering. 770, October, 1998. M., Publishing House BSE, 1998. /in
Russian/
14. Introduction of the theory of oscillations. Strelkov S.P. GTTL, M. 1951, Leningrad,
341p.
15. The Lectures on the theory of oscillations. Mandelshtamm L.I., M., Nauka, 1972,
470p.
The theory of oscillation., Andronov A.A., Veett A.A., Khaykin S.E. M., Physmathgiz,
1959,
75
A. H. Barbat
111
, J. C. Vielma
212
and S. Oller
3
EVALUATION OF THE SEISMIC SAFETY OF RC BUILDINGS
DESIGNED BY USING EUROCODES 2 AND 8
Summary
Modern design codes include prescriptions ensuring a ductile behavior of the
elements and of the structure as a whole in order to avoid the sudden collapse of
the structures when subjected to strong ground motions. But ductility implies
structural damage and it is especially important for the designer to know during
the design phase the extent of damage that his structure will undergo under the
seismic action specified by the code. This paper evaluates the safety of a set of
regular reinforced concrete framed buildings designed according to the EC-2/EC-8
prescriptions using both modal pushover analysis and an incremental dynamic
analysis. A seismic global damage index is used and damage thresholds associated
with the interstory drift are considered to calculate fragility curves and damage
probability matrices. The results show that the response of earthquake resistant
buildings designed according to the prescriptions of EC-2/EC-8 ensures that the
collapse state is not reached for the specific demand typified by the inelastic
design spectra.
Key words: Ductility, overstrength, behavior factor, fragility curves, damage
index.
OCENA SEIZMIKE SIGURNOSTI ARMIRANOBETONSKIH
ZGRADA PROJEKTOVANIH NA OSNOVU EVROKODA 2 I 8
Rezime
Moderni propisi za projektovanje sadre odredbe kojima se obezbeuje duktilno
ponaanje elemenata i cele konstrukcije da bi se izbeglo iznendano ruenje
objekata izazvano silnim kretanjima tla usled dejstva zemljotresa. Ali, duktilnost
je u vezi sa strukturnim oteenjima stoga je od posebne vanosti za projektanta da
prilikom projektovanja zna koji stepen oteenja e pretrpeti njegov objekat u
uslovima seizmikih dejstava definisanih propisima. U ovom radu vri se ocena
sigurnosti grupe zgrada armiranobetonske ramovske konstrukcije koje su .......
.....projektovane u skladu sa odredbama EC-2/EC-8 korienjem kako modalne
pushover analize, tako i inkrementalne dinamike analize. Korien je globalni
1
Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain
2
Lisandro Alvarado University, Barquisimeto, Venezuela
76
indeks seizmikog optereena i uzete su u obzir granice oteenja usled
meuspratnog drifta za izraunavanje krivih lomljivosti i matrica verovatnoe
oteenja. Rezultati pokazuju da odgovor zgrada otpornih na zemljotres
projektovanih shodno odredbama EC-2/EC-8 obezbeuje da ne doe do stanja u
kome dolazi do ruenja za specifini zahtev predstavljen nelastinim projektnim
spektrom.
Kljune rei: Duktilnost, poveana nosivost, faktor ponaanja, krive lomljivosti
konstrukcije, indeks oteenja.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recent advances and developments in the computational tools enabled to develop
and to apply more realistic analysis models to evaluate the seismic behavior of new or
existent buildings and to take into account main features of the nonlinear seismic behavior
of structures, like constitutive laws (plasticity and damage) or large deformations. The non
linear analysis has been used in the assessment of buildings designed according to specific
design codes [1, 2, 3]. Among the characteristics studied in past works, some examples can
be provided: displacement ductility, overstrength and behavior factor. The assessment of
these characteristics is possible by applying deterministic procedures in analyzing the
nonlinear response of the structures subjected to static or dynamic loads.
The application of the Performance-Based Design concepts required the definition
of a set of Limit States, usually starting from engineering demand parameters, such as the
interstory drift, the global drift or the global structural damage. These parameters allow
defining damage thresholds associated with the Limit States which are applied to calculate
the fragility curves and of the damage probability matrices used in the seismic safety
assessment of the buildings.
In this paper, the seismic safety of regular reinforced concrete moment-resisting
framed buildings (MRB) is studied using static and dynamic nonlinear analysis. Sixteen
buildings have been designed according to EC-2 and EC-8 for high ductility class (behavior
factor equal to 5.85), with 3, 6, 9 and 12 numbers of stories and 3, 4, 5 and 6 spans,
covering a low to medium structural period range and also the relevant range of structural
redundancy. The seismic demand is obtained for the B Soil type design spectrum (stiff soil)
and for a peak ground acceleration of 0.3g.
The static analysis is performed by means of pushover procedures while the
dynamic analysis is performed using the Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA). The
analysis was performed using the PLCd program [6] which allows incorporating the main
characteristics of the rein-forcement and of the confinement provided to the structure
members. The results of the non-linear analysis allow calculating the displacement
ductility, the overstrength and the behavior factors of the structures. The latter are
compared with those prescribed by EC-8. The global performance of the buildings is
evaluated using an objective damage index based on the capacity curve. Finally, for the
predefined damage thresholds, fragility curves and damage probability matrices are
calculated.
77
Normalized roof drift (A/H) %
B
a
s
e

s
h
e
a
r

(
V
/
W
)
0 1 2 3 4
0
0.15
0.3
0.45
Ay=0.48
Au=3.05
Design base shear coefficient,
V
d
/W=0.15
Yield base shear coefficient,
V
d
/W=0.34
R
R
=0.34/0.15=2.27
=3.05/0.48=6.35
1. NON-LINEAR analysis of the buildings
1.1. Characteristics of the computational model
The non-linear static analysis with force control was performed using the PLCd
finite element code [7, 8] which allows using two and three-dimensional solid elements as
well as prismatic, reduced to one-dimensional, members. This code provides a solution
combining both numerical precision and reasonable computational costs [9, 10]. It can deal
with kinematics and material nonlinearities. It uses various 3-D constitutive laws to predict
the material behavior (elastic, visco-elastic, damage, damage-plasticity, etc. [11]) with
different yield surfaces to control its evolution (Von-Mises, MohrCoulomb, improved
MohrCoulomb, DruckerPrager, etc. [12]). Newmarks method [13] is used to perform the
dynamic analysis. A more detailed description of the code can be found in Mata et al. [9,
10]. The main numerical features included in the code to deal with composite materials are:
1) Classical and serial/parallel mixing theory used to describe the behavior of composite
components [14]. 2) Anisotropy Mapped Space Theory enables the code to consider
materials with a high level of anisotropy, without the associated numerical problems [15].
3) Fibermatrix debonding which reduces the composite strength due to the failure of the
reinforcedmatrix interface [16].
1.2. Non-linear static analysis
To evaluate the inelastic response of the structures, pushover analysis was
performed applying a set of lateral forces representing seismic actions corresponding to the
first vibration mode. Before the structure is subjected to the lateral loads simulating seismic
action, it is first subjected to the action of gravity loads, in agreement with the combinations
applied in the elastic analysis.
Although it is difficult to find a method to obtain the global yield and ultimate
displacements [17] in this paper a simplified procedure is applied. The nonlinear static
response obtained via finite element techniques is used to generate an idealized bilinear
shaped capacity (see Figure 1), which has a secant segment from the origin to a point on the
capacity curve that corresponds to a 75% of the maximum base shear [18]. The second
segment, which represents the branch of plastic behavior, was obtained by finding the
intersection of the aforementioned segment with another, horizontal segment which
corresponds to the maximum base shear. The use of the compensation procedure guarantees
that the energies dissipated by both nonlinear models are equal.
Figure 1. Idealized capacity curve of the 9 stories MRB
There are two variables that characterize the quality of the seismic response of buildings.
78
The first is the displacement ductility
, defined as
y
u
A
A
=
(1)
where y is the yield drift and u the ultimate drift. The second variable is the overstrength
R
R
of the building, which is defined as the ration of the design base shear V
d
to the yielding
base shear V
y
, both of which are shown in Figure 5
d
y
R
V
V
R =
(2)
Based on the idealized bilinear curve of this figure, a displacement ductility of 6.35 and an
overstrength of 2.27 are obtained. The ductility is higher than that specified in the EC-8
seismic design code, which is 5.85, showing that the MRB designed according to EC-2 and
EC-8 have ductile response to seismic actions and adequate overstrength.
1.3. Damage index
A local damage index D is calculated using the finite element program PLCd with a
damage and plasticity constitutive model that enables correlation of damage with lateral
displacements [19]
0
1
in
in
P
D
P
= (3)
where
in
P
and
0
in
P
are the norm of current and elastic values of the internal forces
vectors, respectively. Initially, the material remains elastic and D=0 but, when the entire
energy of the material is dissipated,
0
in
P
and
1 D
. It is useful to know the level
which the damage reaches when a structure suffers a certain demand. This is possible if the
damage index is normalized respecting the maximum damage which can occur in the
structure. Vielma et al. [20] proposed a capacity curve-based damage index
P
obj
D
which
allows assessing the damage level for a specific roof displacement. This objective damage
index
1 0 s s
P
obj
D
reached by a structure for a given drift corresponding to a point P of
the capacity curve is defined as
1
) / 1 ( 1
0
K K
D D
P
P
P
obj
(4)
For example, P might be the performance point resulting from intersection between the
inelastic demand spectrum and the capacity curve and
P
K
the stiffness corresponding to
this point. Other parameters are the initial stiffness
0
K
and the displacement ductility
,
calculated with the yield displacement
*
y
A
which corresponds to the intersection of the
79
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
a)
0 1 2 3 4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Number of spans
3_out
3_inn
4_out
4_inn
5_out
5_inn
6_out
6_inn
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
b)
0 1 2 3 4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Number of spans
3_out
3_inn
4_out
4_inn
5_out
5_inn
6_out
6_inn
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
c)
0 1 2 3 4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Number of spans
3_out
3_inn
4_out
4_inn
5_out
5_inn
6_out
6_inn
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
d)
0 1 2 3 4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Number of spans
3_out
3_inn
4_out
4_inn
5_out
5_inn
6_out
6_inn
initial stiffness with the maximum shear value (see Figure 2). Figure 3 shows the evolution
of the objective damage index with respect to the normalized roof drift, computed for all
the frames of the studied buildings.
Figure 2. Parameters used in the calculation of the objective damage index
Figure 3. Evolution of the damage index
a) 3 story, b) 6 story, c) 9 story and d) 12
story buildings
80
1.4. Incremental Dynamic Analysis
In order to evaluate the dynamic response of the buildings, the Incremental
Dynamic Analysis (IDA) [21] was applied. This procedure consists in performing time-
history analyses using real or artificial accelerograms, which are scaled each time in order
to induce increasing levels of inelasticity in the structural model. A set of six artificial
accelerograms compatible with soil type B of the EC-8 design spectrum were generated.
The collapse point is reached when the capacity of the structure drops. A usual criterion is
to consider the slope of the curve less than the 20% of the elastic slope [21, 22]. Table 1
summarizes the computed average values of the collapse points for all the studied cases.
Dynamic analysis is useful in assessing the collapse point of the buildings. The values of
the behavior factors q have been obtained by means of the following equation [2]:
( )
( ) yield design g
collapse g
a
a
q
_
=
(5)
where
( ) collapse g
a
and
( ) yield design g
a
_
are the collapse and the yield design peak ground
acceleration, respectively.
( ) collapse g
a
is obtained from the IDA curves and
( ) yield design g
a
_
is
calculated from the elastic analysis of the building. Average values of the computed
behavior factor q of the studied buildings are show in Table 2 and are compared with the
behavior factors prescribed by the design codes.
Table 1. Normalized roof displacement (%) at the collapse of the structures
Static analysis
Dynamic analysis
(average)
3 2.51 2.51
6 2.63 2.63
9 2.48 2.62
12 2.35 2.39
Table 2. Behavior factors of the buildings
q
equation
(Average) q
code
q
equation
/q
code
3 17.40 5.85 2.97
6 10.79 5.85 1.84
9 15.07 5.85 2.57
12 15.12 5.85 2.58
The computed behavior factors show that the applied code allows designing
structures with satisfactory lateral capacity when they are subjected to strong ground
motions, regardless of the building height. The relationship between the calculated and the
prescribed behavior factors is close to three for the case of low rise buildings.
81
1 SEISMIC SAFETY OF THE BUILDINGS
1.1 Calculation of the performance point
As the main objective of this paper is to study the seismic safety of buildings
designed according to the Eurocodes, it is necessary to define a measure of the engineering
demand. The global drift of the structure corresponding to the performance point has been
selected herein to assess the seismic safety of the buildings. The performance point permits
establishing the maximum drift of an equivalent single degree of freedom model produced
by the seismic demand. It is determined by using the N2 procedure [23] which requires
transforming the capacity curve into a capacity spectrum expressed in terms of the spectral
displacements
d
S
and of the spectral acceleration
a
S
;
d
S
is obtained as
MPF
S
c
d
o
=
(6)
where
c
o
is the roof displacement and MPF the modal participation factor obtained from
the response of the first mode of vibration
_
_
=
=
=
n
i
i i
n
i
i i
m
m
MPF
1
2
, 1
1
, 1
|
|
(7)
In this equation, m
i
is the mass I and |
1,I
is the spectral ordinate. The spectral
acceleration
a
S
is given by
o
W
V
S
a
=
(8)
where V is the base shear, W is the seismic weight o and is the coefficient
_
_
=
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
i
i i
n
i
i i
m
m
1
2
, 1
2
1
, 1
|
|
o
(9)
The values of the spectral displacements corresponding to the performance point
are shown in Table 3. An important feature in the non linear response of the buildings is the
ratio between the performance point displacement and the ultimate displacement. This ratio
indicates whether the behavior of a structure is ductile or fragile. The lower values of this
ratio correspond to the 12 story building, which has a weak-beam strong-column failure
mechanism.
82
Table 3. Roof drift of performance points for the studied buildings
Normalized roof drift (%) Ratio
Story
number Performance point %) Static analysis
Dynamic
analysis
(average) Static analysis
Dynamic
analysis
(average)
3 0.80 3.02 2.51 0.26 0.32
6 0.51 2.48 2.63 0.20 0.19
9 0.39 2.48 2.62 0.16 0.15
12 0.21 2.34 2.39 0.09 0.09
The fragility curves are obtained by using the spectral displacements determined
for the damage thresholds and considering a lognormal probability density function for the
spectral displacements which define the damage states [27]
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
t |
=
2
ds , d
d
ds d ds
d
S
S
ln
1
2
1
exp
2 S
1
) S ( F (10)
where
ds , d
S
is the mean value of the spectral displacement for which the building reaches
the damage state threshold
s
d
and
ds
|
is the standard deviation of the natural logarithm of
the spectral displacement for the damage state
s
d
. The conditional probability
) S ( P
d
of
reaching or exceeding a particular damage state
s
d
, given the spectral displacement
d
S
, is
defined as
)
=
d
S
d d d
S d S F S P
0
) ( ) ( ) ( (11)
Figure 4 shows the fragility curves calculated for the four different heights of
buildings considered in the analysis. Figure 5 shows the damage probability matrices
calculated for the performance points corresponding to all the studied cases. It is worth to
observe that the probabilities are not sensitive to the variation of the span number. It is also
important to note that for the frames of the same building, the probabilities vary according
to the load ratio (seismic load/gravity load).
Another important feature which can be observed in the obtained results is the
increase of the probability values that correspond to the higher damage states for low rise
buildings, for which the collapse is associated to the soft-storey mechanism as discussed in
previous sections. For example, in the case of the inner frames of the 3 levels building, the
probability to reach the collapse is four times higher than in the case of the outer frames of
the same building. In contrast, the 6, 9 and 12 story buildings show very low probabilities
to reach more severe damage states regardless of the load ratio and of the span number. For
these buildings, the predominant damage states are the non-damage and the slight damage.
83
Spectral displacement S
d
(m)
F
D
=
P
r
o
b
.
(
E
D
>

e
d
i
/
S
d
=
S
d
i
)
0 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.3
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
ND
SL
R
E
ST
C
ND: No damage
SL: Slight
R: Repairable
E: Extensive
ST: Stability
C: Collapse
d
(m)
F
D
=
P
r
o
b
.
(
E
D
>

e
d
i
/
S
d
=
S
d
i
)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
ND
S
R
E
ST
C
d
(m)
F
D
=
P
r
o
b
.
(
E
D
>

e
d
i
/
S
d
=
S
d
i
)
0 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.3 0.36 0.42 0.48 0.54 0.6
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
ND
S
R
E
ST
C
d
(m)
F
D
=
P
r
o
b
.
(
E
D
>

e
d
i
/
S
d
=
S
d
i
)
0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.8
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
ND
S
R
E
ST
C
a)
d)
c)
b)
Figure 4. Fragility curves of the a) 3 story, b) 6 story, c) 9 story and d) 12 story buildings
84
3
4
5
6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Spans
Probability
a)
3
4
5
6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
b)
3
4
5
6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
c)
3
4
5
6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
d)
3
4
5
6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
e)
3
4
5
6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
f)
3
4
5
6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
g)
3
4
5
6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
h)
Figure 5. Damage probability matrices of a) outer and b) inner frames of 3 story buildings,
c) outer and d) inner frames of 6story buildings, e) outer and f) inner frames of 9 story
buildings and g) outer and h) inner frames of 12 story buildings
85
a) b)
Stories
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
3 6 9 12
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Number of spans
3
4
5
6
Stories
D
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
d
e
x
3 6 9 12
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Number of spans
3
4
5
6
Figure 14. Damage index computed for the a) outer frames and b) inner frames
Figure 14 shows the values of the damage index corresponding to the performance
point of the different frames. These values were obtained using Eq. 3. First of all, it is
possible to observe that low rise buildings (3 levels) reach higher values of the damage
index than the other buildings; this is a consequence of the failure mechanism which occurs
for this kind of buildings (soft story mechanism). In contrast, the 12 levels buildings
exhibits damage index about 0.3 to 0.35 for the outer frames, values that are consistent with
the failure mechanism (strong columns-weak beams) and with the probabilities obtained
from the fragility curves. Finally it is important to observe that the values of the damage
index of the outer frames are lower than the values of the damage index of the inner frames,
indicating that the damage index depends on the load ratio.
CONCLUSIONS
The local damage distribution of the buildings corresponding to the collapse
threshold shows that low rise buildings have a failure mechanism associated to the
formation of the soft storey mechanism. The buildings with 6, 9 and 12 story) exhibit a
failure mechanism associated to the weak-beam and strong-column conceptual design
objective.
Reinforced concrete framed buildings, designed according to the Eurocodes for a
high ductility class show adequate values of overstrength which are greater than the value
prescribed in the code (1.5). Behavior factors obtained by means of the dynamic analysis
are also adequate and are twice the code values. In the procedure applied to evaluate such
factors, no influence of the structural redundancy was detected.
Generally speaking, the studied buildings show adequate ductility behavior, as it is
evidenced by the displacement ductility values and by the ratio between the performance
point and the ultimate displacement.
The nonlinear response of the buildings depends on the ratio between the seismic
and gravity loads. The inner frames which are designed for lower ratios have lower
overstrength values. Consequently, the seismic safety of the different frames is influenced
by this ratio.
The assessment of the seismic safety of the buildings demonstrates that low rise
buildings reach higher damage states than the other studied buildings, when they are
subjected to the demand prescribed by the elastic design spectrum. This fact is a
86
consequence of the failure mechanism of the low rise buildings. The probability of damage
is not sensitive to the span number of the frames.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Most of the developments included in this work are consequences of several
research projects. The institutions and companies responsible of these projects are
gratefully acknowledged. These are, CEEFP6 (LESSLOSS project, ref. FP6-
50544(GOCE)); the Spanish Goverment through the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnologa
(RECOMP project, ref. BIA2005-06952, DECOMAR project, ref. MAT2003-08700-C03-
02 and DELCOM project, ref. MAT2008-02232/MAT) and the Ministerio de Fomento
(project Retrofitting and reinforcement of reinforced concrete structures with composite
materials. Numerical and experimental developments applied to joint of bars and
composites anchorage proposal); AIRBUS through the project FEMCOM and ACCIONA
Infraestructuras through the projects SPHERA, CETIC, PROMETEO.
REFERENCES
Mwafi, A.M. Elnashai, A. Overstrength and force reduction factors of multistory
reinforced-concrete buildings, Structural design of tall buildings, 11, 329-351, 2002.
Mwafi AM, Elnashai A. Calibration of force reduction factors of RC buildings, Journal of
Earthquake Engineering, 6(2), 239-273, 2002
Sanchez, L. Plumier, A. Parametric study of ductile moment-resisting steel frames: a first
step towards Eurocode 8 calibration, Earthquake engineering and structural dynamics, 37,
1135-1155, 2008.
Comit Europen de Normalisation (CEN). Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BS
EN 1992, Brussels, 2001.
Comit Europen de Normalisation (CEN). Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for
Earthquake Resistance. EN 2004-1-1, Brussels, 2003.
PLCd Manual. Non-linear thermo mechanic finite element oriented to PhD student
education, code developed at CIMNE, Barcelona, Spain, 2009.
Oller, S. and Barbat, A. H. (2006). Moment-curvature damage model for bridges subjected
to seismic loads, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 195, 4490-
4511, 2006.
Car, E., Oller, S. and Oate, E. A large strain plasticity for anisotropic materials: Composite
material application, International Journal of Plasticity, 17(11), 1437-1463, 2001.
Mata, P., Oller, S. and Barbat, A.H. Static analysis of beam structures under nonlinear
geometric and constitutive behaviour, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, 196, 4458-4478, 2007
Mata, P., Oller, S. and Barbat, A. H. Dynamic analysis of beam structures under nonlinear
geometric and constitutive behaviour, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, 197, 857-878, 2008.
Oller S, Onate E, Oliver J, Lubliner J. Finite element non-linear analysis of concrete
structures using a plastic-damage model, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 35(13), 219
31, 1990.
Lubliner, J. Oliver, J. Oller, S. Oate, E. A plastic-damage model for concrete,
International Journal of Solids & Structures, 25(3), 299326, 1989
87
Barbat, A.H. Oller, S. Onate, E. Hanganu, A. Viscous damage model for Timoshenko beam
structures, International Journal of Solids & Structures, 34(30), 395376, 1997.
Faleiro, J. Oller, S. Barbat, A.H. Plastic-damage seismic model for reinforced concrete
frames, Computer and Structures, 86, 58197, and 2008.
Oller S., Car E., Lubliner J. Definition of a general implicit orthotropic yield criterion,
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 192(78), 895912, 2003.
Martinez, X. Oller, S. Rastellini, F. Barbat, A.H. A numerical procedure simulating RC
structures reinforced with FRP using the serial/parallel mixing theory, Computers and
Structures, 86, 16041618, 2008.
Priestley, M.J.N. Calvi, G.M. Kowalsky, M.J. Displacement-based seismic design of
structures. IUSS Press. Pavia, Italy, 2007.
Park, R. State-of-the-art report: ductility evaluation from laboratory and analytical testing,
Proceedings 9
th
WCEE, IAEE, Tokyo-Kyoto, Japan, 605-616, 1988.
Barbat, A. H. Oller, S. Oate, E. Hanganu, A. Viscous damage model for Timoshenko
beam structures, International Journal of Solids and Structures, 34(30), 3953-3976, 1997.
Vielma, J. C. Barbat, A. H. Oller, S. Un ndice de dao objetivo para la evaluacin de los
edificios de hormign armado. Hormign y acero. 248, 53-64, 2007.
Vamvatsikos. D, Cornell, C.A. Incremental dynamic analysis, Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, 31(3), 491-514, 2002.
Han, S.W. Chopra, A. Approximate incremental dynamic analysis using the modal
pushover analysis procedure, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 35(3):
1853-1873, 2006.
Fajfar, P. A. Nonlinear Analysis Method for Performance Based Seismic Design,
Earthquake Spectra, 16(3), 573-591, 2000.
SEAOC. Vision 2000 Report on Performance Based Seismic Engineering of Buildings,
Structural Engineers Association of California, Volume I, Sacramento, California, 1995.
Vielma, J. C., Barbat, A. H. y Oller, S. Umbrales de dao para estados lmite de edificios
porticados de concreto armado diseados conforme al ACI-318/IBC-2006, Revista
Internacional de Desastres Naturales, Accidentes e Infraestructura, 8(2), 119-133, 2008.
Vielma, J. C. Caracterizacin de la respuesta ssmica de edificios de hormign armado
mediante la respuesta no lineal, PhD Thesis, Barcelona, ISBN: 978-84-691-3475-7, 2008.
Pinto, P.E. Giannini, R. Franchin, P. Seismic reliability analysis of structures. IUSS Press,
Pavia, Italy. 2006.
89

113
,
214

:

,
. ,

, -
, -
, , ,
, . , ,
, , ,
.
, -
.
: , ,
THE ROLE AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CONSTRUCTION IN
REDUCTION OF SEISMIC RISK
Summary:
All construction activities in completing projects of construction structures and
infrastructural and other systems in seismic active regions are presented and
analyzed in the paper. The significance of constructors are pointed out and also
their responsibility in exploring relevant seismic and other parameters in optimal
spatial city planning and seismic designing and constructing, as the most
significant factors in seismic risk reducing is emphasized, i.e. in protecting people,
structures, equipment from earthquake impacts. All these assignments before,
during and after an earthquake can be successfully completed only by very
developed and well-organized construction industry. Outstanding importance is
attached to preventive measures, especially to those that should be implemented
by the inhabitants of quake areas.
Key words: Seismic Risk, Building Organization, Safeguard
1
, , . . ., , , vlacic@beotel.rs
2
, . . ., , - , ,
cirovic@sezampro.rs
90
1

. , ,
, , , -
, ,
.
, , ,
.
, , , -
,

.
, -
, , ,
.
.
,
,
, , .
, ,
,
, , , ,
, ...
.
[9].
, ,
-

.

, , -
, .

, , -
, , .
,

. , , ,
, ,
, .
(: Emergency Management; Disaster Management).
,
, ()
, ,
.
91
2

, , ,
, , ,
, ,
. , , ,
, , -
, ,
() , , -
. , , (
/ ),
,
, ,
.
-
,
. -
, , , (, ...) ,
, , , . ,
,
. - ()

.
, ,
, , , , ,
, , , ....
, , ,
, ,
. , ()
, , , ,
.
,
, , , , ,
, , ,
, ,
, , -
, , ., . ,
. , ,
, ,
. ,
- , ,
, ,
, -
. , , -
, ( -, -
),
92
() , ,
- ,
. , () -
, ( ),
( ) , -

( , , , , ...).
,
, , ,
. , , ,
, ... , ,
, , (
.), , , .

, ,
. ,
, , , , .,
.
, ,
(, ) -
, -
, , , ,
[10]. .
( 1:1) ,
, . -
.
, -
, -
. , , -
, :

. .
.
,
, ( ),
, . .
50-60 m.
() ( )
-
. ()
[18]. , ,
1969. ,
,
. ,
Ts > Tp, Tp
0,10sps0,34 sec. ,
.
93
() ,
. , , , ,
, .
, (
), (, , , ),
.
. ,
. ,
, -
, . ,
, .
( ).
, ()
( ) -
. , ( -
).
,
, .
, , ,
. ,
, .
, -
, ( ) , ().
, , . -
() , -
, , , .
, ,
, .
,
, .
,
, , .
, ,
, .
( ), ( ),
, (
). (, , , ...)
( ), .
.
3

, ,

.
94
,
, -
, , , -
, . ,

, ,
.

20. : (26. 1963. )
, , 1.300 80%
, 10%
. (26. 27. 1969. )
5%, (15. 1979. ) 10%
[14].

,
[11,12,19,20,21,30,31]. ,
.

[22],
- , ,
.
, : ,
- , ,
.
3.1

, , -
, . ,
.
, ,
. , , -
, ,
, . ,
,
, ( , .)
, ,
() .
, .
.

: VII, VIII IX , -64,
, -
, , ,
95
, (.
),
, ,
, .
, ,
,
( , ,).
,
50 (, , , . -
), (, )
,
, ,
, .
, -
, , , ,
. -
,
.
,
: (
), ,
, ()
( .), .
, ,
,
: , (
,
, ,
( ), ,
. , ,
( ),
.
,
: , , , . ,

.
[19],
( ),
, 8 ( 8),
()
[7,8]. YU , ,
( ) , ,
8.
; ,
, ,
- . ,
: , -
96
/
. ( ) ,
,
. ,
,
.
-
.
, , , ,
, . -
, -
. , -
/ ,
.
.
-
, ,
, ()
, ,
, , . ,
, , . -
-
( -
), -
.
, .
. , , ,
, , , . ,
, ,
, , .
.
, , , , -
, , , ,
. , -
, , , -
, , . ( -
, , .), ,
, ,
.
(, , ,...). ,
, , , , ...
/ ,
.
, (
.), ,
,
, , () . , -
97
, ( ),
,
(), . ,
, ,
, ,
, , , .,

, , .
,
,
, ,
.
1963. ,
, 10 , ,
,
,
.
, ,
, - , ,
, . -
, ,
, , ,
. (, ,
, ...),
, , , .,
. ,
, , , ,
, .

() ,
( 1964. [18]), (, ,
, .)
, ,
/ , . ,
.
FEMA
(Federal Emergency Management Agency) 1997.
NEHRP (Natioanl Earthquake
Hazard Reduction Program) [32]. FEMA je
,
, , ,
,
, , , . je
. FEMA 2.600
, 4.000
.
98
FEMA . je
FEMA 273 .
je FEMA NEHRP

.
FEMA-273 u [32]
/ .
,

.
FEMA je FEMA 276 - NEHRP -
,
(FEMA-273) , :
, je -
, , ,
.
FEMA je (FEMA 274),
- (FEMA 275).
FEMA 356 u -
FEMA 273 274 ,
.
: - ,
, , , ., a
.
ANSS (Advanced National Seismic System) [3,36]
,
,
.
- National
Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) 15 . -
, , , ,
, .
SRCE (Seismic Rehabilitation Cost Estimator) je online
, -
2.000 -
FEMA 156 -
.
1996. je "
.
,
( ) -
. je ,
. VULPIP [9],
,
. - TOSQA [9], je
" . je
: ( );
99
( ) ( ). je

.
/ -
EUROSEISTEST [9], -
,
.
3.2
,
, , ,
,
, . -
,
. ,
: , - , , --
, , , , .
, (
) , .
,
,
.
155. YU [19],
()
.
,
10 %, /
.
. ,
, ,
, (),
. ,
,
,
, .
,
. , ,
, ,
( ),
,
[15].
100
4

, -
, , ()
, (, ,...)
, , ,
, , ... [4,17,23,24,29,35,37,38].
, ,
,
. , ,
, ,
:
- , ,

. , ,
, , , , .
,
.
- ,
; .
, , .
;
, ,; .
(,
.), , ,
, ,
. ,
( , .). ,
.
( , , , ).
.
;
. , -
.
, ,
, , .
, ,
, ,
,
[26]. -
. , ,
, , ...
, ,
, , ,
. .
101

. .
.

.

. (
) ,
[6,33,34].
,
, [25,28].

, .
- ,
[22], .
, , -, , -,
, -
, . ,

, .

, , ,
.
102
[1] / , . //
, III - , , 2007, . 13-42.
[2] Aseizmiko projektovanje upravljanje seizmikim rizikom / Pavievi, S. B. // Univerzitet Crne
Gore i Graevinski fakultet Podgorica, 2000.
[3] Advanced National Seismic System // earthquake.usgs.gov/anss
[4] Beehive / http://wa.thebeehive.org/emergencies
[5] Building valuation / Preiser W. F. E. // Springer, 2000.
[6] Department of Conservation, California / www.conservation.ca.gov/index/Earthquakes
[7] EC 8 Zemljotres potresa Jugoslaviju / Alender, V., Ai, M., // asopis Izgradnja, Beograd,
1996/6
[8] Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistances. Part 1: General Rules Seismic
Actions and Rules for Buildings, EN 1998-1 / CEN Brussels, 2004
[9] European Commission http://ec.europa.eu/research/leaflets/disasters/en/earthqu.html
[10] Earthquakes Engineering Indias Standards / www.bis.org.in/other /quake.htm
[11] / ". ", .
20/77, 24/85, 27/85, 6/89 52/89 ". ", . 53/93, 67/93, 48/94 101/2005 - .
[12] / ".
", . 50/92
[13] Zemljotresno inenjerstvo visokogradnja / Anii, M., Fajfar, P. . Petrovi, B., Szavitz
Nossan, A., Tomaevi, M. // Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1990.
[14] Zemljotresi Seizmika opasnost i principi zemljotresnog inenjerstva / Paskalov T. //
Univerzitet Union, Beograd, 2008.
[15] Nadogradnja stambenih i javnih zgrada / Grupa autora // Zbornik radova sa savetovanja
JUDIMK-e, Beograd, 2000.
[16] Organizovanje graevinarstva u uslovima katastrofalnih zemljotresa / uranovi, P. //
Doktorska disertacija , Graevinski fakultet, Beograd, 1987.
[17] Optimized resource allocation for emergency response after earthquake disasters / Fiedrich, F.,
Gehbauer F., and Rickers, U. // Institut fr Maschinenwesen im Baubetrieb, Universitt
Karlsruhe, D-76128 Karlsruhe, Germany, 2001.
[18] /
". ", . 39/64
[19]
" / . ", . 31/81, 49/82, 29/83, 21/88 52/92
[20]
/ ".
", . 34/78
[21] ,

/ ". ", . 52/85
[22]
, 2009. //
www.mup.sr.gov.yu/ /sektorzazastituispasavanje
[23] Post-Occupany Evaluation / Preiser W. F. E., Rabinowitz, H. Z. nd White, T., // Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York, 1988.
[24] Risk factors for injuries due to the 1990 earthquake in Luzon / Roces, M. C., White, M. E.,
Dayrit, M. M., Durkin M. E. / Philippines, Bulletin of the World Health Organization (WHO),
1992 - bases.bireme.br
103
[25] Roundtable Workshop 7: The National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program at
Twenty-Five Years: Accomplishments and Challenges, http://dels.nas.edu/dr/f7.shtml
[26] / http:// prezentacije.mup.sr.gov.yu
/sektorzazastituispasavanje /saveti.html
[27] Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Buildings / Paulay, T., Prestley, M.N.J. //
New York, ..., Singapore, 1992.
[28] Training and Education for Improving Earthquake Disaster Management in Developing
Countries / Proceedings of the Sixth International Research and Training Seminar on Regional
Development Planning for Disaster Prevention // Nagoya, Japan, 14 December 1992, pp. 170
[29] The Behaviour of Building Occupants in Earthquake / Durkin, M. // Earthquake Spectra, Vol 1,
No 2, 1985.
[30] /
". ", . 27/87
[31] o
/ ". ", . 34/78
[32] FEMA-273 / Guidelines and Commentary for Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings, ATC, 1996.;
http://wwvv.fema.gov/plan/prevent/earthquake/nehrp.shtm
[33] Facilities Development Division / California // www.oshpd.ca.gov/fdd
[34] Hospital Facilities Seismic Safety Act (HSSA) / California, USA, 1973.
[35] http://www.gadr.giees.uncc.edu
[36] California Integrated Seismic Network // www.cisn.orft
[37] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA / http://www.bt.cdc.gov /disasters
/earthquakes /prepared.asp
[38] www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/bda.html
105
Enver MANDI,Salko KULUKIJA, Kenan MANDI, Mustafa HUMO'
OCJENA STANJA POSTOJEIH OBJEKATA KULTURNOG I
ISTORIJSKOG NASLIJEA PRIMJENOM REFRAKCIONE
SEIZMIKE
Rezime
Stanje zidanih objekata kulturnog i istorijskog naslijea najee je vidljivo
dostupno samo sa jedne otvorene strane. Nain gradnje i vrsta materijala po dubini
debelih zidova kamenom zidanih objekata potpuno je nepoznata. Nepoznati su i
uslovi ispunjenosti malterom prostora meu pojedinanim elementima ili
slojevima kamenom zidanih konstrukcija. Za ocjenu postojeeg stanja i
projektovanje uslova sanacije i rekonstrukcije neophodno je izvesti istraivanja
nerazornim metodama. Refrakciona seizmika ili mikroseizmika nudi mogunosti
otkrivanja stanja kamenom zidanih konstrukcija po dubini zidova, na razliitim
mjestima koja su od interesa. U radu su pokazani rezultati istraivanja provedeni
metodama plitke refrakcione seizmike na objektu Sulejmanpaia kule kod
Bugojna. Dat je i prijedlog odreivanja koeficijenta kompaktnosti zida.
Summary
The determination of the conditions of masonary constructions of cultural and
historical heritage is most comonly possible only from one open side. The method
of construction and the type of the material inside thik wals is completly unknown.
The conditions of mortar fillingof space between individual elements or layers of
masonry rock constructions are also unknown. For the assement of present state
and recovery and reconstruction conditions planing, it is necessary to conduct
research with nondestructable methods. Refractional seismic or microseismic
method offers the possibilities for determination of conditions on different depht
inside masonry rock wals , in different places of interest. In this work the results
of research conducted by the shallow refraction seismic on Sulejmanpaia tower
near Bugojno are presented. The suggestion of koeficient of wall compact is also
given in this work.
________________________________
Akademik Enver MANDI, prof., dr sc. Akademija nauka i umjetnosti BiH
Mr sc. Salko KULUKIJA, dipl.in., INTERPROJEKT doo Mostar
Dr sc. Kenan MANDI, dipl.in.geologije, Univerzitet u Tuzli
Mustafa HUMO, dipl.in.gra., INTERPROJEKT doo Mostar
106
1.UVOD
Istraivanja na objektima kulturnog i istorijskog naslijea potrebno je provoditi na
nain da se dobije dovoljno potrebnih podataka za izradu projekta restauracije i
rekonstrukcije a da se pri tim istraivanjima ne oteuju bilo koji dijelovi objekta. Jedna od
metoda koja prua mogunost dobivanja kvalitativnih i kvantitaivnih podataka o zidovima i
uslovima kompaktnosti zida zidanog kamenom ili nekim drugim materijalom je i primjena
refrakcione seizmike na vanjskim otvorenim i najee jedinim prisutnim dijelovima zida u
njegovoj kompletnoj postojeoj strukturi. Refrakciona seizmika omoguava dobivanje
prostiranja seizmikih talasa koji se izazivaju udarcem ekia u zid na strani gdje se izvodi
mjerenje. Stabiliziranjem prijemnika geofona (za prijem longitudinalnih ili transverzalnih
talasa) na povrini zida omoguava registriranje vremena nailaska talasa sa razliitih
rastojanja gdje se du zida udara ekiem. Iz poznatog vremena nailaska prvog talasa na
prijemnik geofon i rastojanja od take udara do prijemnika geofona i rastojanja od take
udara do prijemnika geofona, mogue je izraunati brzinu talasa. Poveanjem rastojanja
take udara od prijemnog ureaja geofona, mogue je ispitati stanje materijala ugraenog
u zid po cijeloj dubini do druge strane zida. Pomijeranjem prijemnika geofona du profila
ispitivanja i ponavljanjem procedure mogue je pratiti promjene stanja zida du profila na
kome se ispitivanja provode. Takav metod je i primijenjen na istraivanju stanja kamenih
zidova Sulejmanpaia kule u mjestu Odak kod Bugojna.
Primjena seizmike metode mogua je i za uslove postavljanja prijemnika
geofona sa unutranje strane zide a mjesto udara da bude sa vanjske strane zida. Mogue je
ponavljati operacije sa geofonom u sredini ili na krajevima profila, kao i druge kombinacije
ispitivanja.
12. METODOLOGIJA MJERENJA
Metodologija mjerenja podrazumijeva detaljno prilagoavanje uslovima na terenu
jer su objekti kulturnog i istorijskog naslijea esto na nepristupanim ili teko
pristupanim terenima. Kod svakog objekta potrebno je detaljno razmotriti i usvojiti: izbor
moguih i potrebnih profila za ispitivanje, nain mjerenja du profila, rastojanje meu
takama udara, nain profiliranja, uslove registracije talasa (frekventno podruje).
2.1. Izbor profila
Profili du kojih se izvodi ispitivanje mogu biti horizontalni (najee) ili
vertikalni (rijetko). Najee je za ispitivanje potrebno postaviti montanu skelu. Za
isptivanje na Sulejmanpaia kuli koritena je skela a profili su bili horizontalni (vidjeti
slike). Obzirom da je kula ravnih zidova sa etiri strane, tako su i profili postavljeni da
omogue utvrivanje sastava i svojstava kamenog zida u zoni konstrukcije koja se oslanja
na teren i slobodnih zidova djelimino zatrpanih uruenim materijalom sa unutranje strane
kule.
107
Slika 1. Sulejmanpaia kula
2.2. Nain mjerenja du profila
Za istraivanje stanja zidova kule primjenjen je jedinstven nain mjerenja.
Prijemnik gefon je stabiliziran na krajnjem dijelu kamenog zida. Taka udara ekiem
oznai se na svakih 0,5 m rastojanja od prijemnika geofona, sa udaljavanjem do kraja
zida. Profiliranje se nastavlja tako to se prijemnik geofon pomjeri na 1/3 duine zida i
postupak udara ekiem nastavlja po istoj proceduri kao prethodni. Zatim se prijemnik
geofon pomjera na 2/3 duine zida i procedura udara ekiem ponavlja kao i u prethodnim
sluajevima. Proces pomijeranja geofona za 0,5 m i ponavljanje procedure udara ekiem
nije primijenjen jer je spor i zahtijeva mnogo sati rada pa u ovom sluaju nije primijenjen,
to ne znai da ne treba biti primijenjen gdje god to uslovi i okolnosti dozvoljavaju.
Kompletna opisana procedura izvedena je na sva etiri zida objekta a dobiveni
rezultati zadovoljavaju postavljene uslove o neophodnom nivou informacija koje se
oekuju od ove vrste isptivanja.
108
Slika 2. Lokacije seizmikih ispitivanja
Seizmiki profil- juna fasada
Seizmiki profil- sjeverna fasada
Seizmiki profil- zapadna fasada
Seizmiki profil-istona fasada
109
2.3. Uslovi registracije talasa
Za istraivanje koriten je instrument SEISTRONIC RS 100 kanadske
proizvodnje, koji predstavlja najsavremeniji instrument koji se danas koristi i za ovu
namjenu. Prije poetka svakog mjerenja namjeta se odgovarajue frekventno podruje koje
omoguava eliminaciju smetnji koje nastaju iz drugih izvora. Instrument registrira vrijeme
nailaska prvog talasa i omoguava sagledavanje kompletnog zapisa talasa za dalju analizu.
Mjerenje vremena nailaska prvog talasa za longitudinalne i za transverzalne talase
omoguava crtanje dijagrama vrijeme rastojanje iz koga se izraunavaju brzine u
sredinama kroz koje prolazi talas. to je brzina manja to znai da u zidu postoje upljine i
obrnuto. Ako postoji prekid, na primjer zidani vanjski dio zida i kameni ili drugi nabaaj
izmeu vanjskog i unutranjeg zidanog dijela zida, brzina e se mijenjati pa moemo
registrirati dvoslojnu ili troslojnu strukturu zida.
2.4. Dijagrami brzina
Dijagrami vrijeme rastojanje omoguavaju izraunavanje brzine talasa koji se
prostire kroz ispitanu sredinu.
Za svaki od profila na kome je izvedeno mjerenje nacrtan je dijagram koji je
pokazao da je zid kompaktna jednoslojna sredina. Dijagrami jasno pokazuju da je to
jednoslojna kamena konstrukcija sa jasno definisanim graninim povrinama sa vanjske i
unutranje strane. Brzine longitudinalnih talasa su ujednaene, kao brzine transverzalnih
talasa koje su nie po vrijednosti u odnosu na longitudinalne:
Longitudinalni talasi Vl = 1900 - 2700 m/s
110
Slika 3. Fotografije lokacija
SULEJMAN PAIA KULA KOD BUGOJNA
SJEVERNI ZID
REFRAKCIONI PROFIL RF-1
Tok operacija zapad-istok
Longitudinalni talasi VL
Slika 4. Karakteristian dijagram brzine
V1L =2000 (m/s)
V2L=291(m/s)
V1L V2L
111
Refrakcioni profil RF-1/1 (longitudinalni talasi)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rastojanje d (m)
V
r
i
j
e
m
e

t

(
m
s
)
Slika 5. Karakteristian zapis za jedno mjerenje
3. Koeficijent kompaktnosti zida
Za dalja istraivanja na objektima kulturnog i istorijskog naslijea predlamo
ustanovljavanje koeficijenta kompaktnosti zida (KKZ). Ovaj koeficijent bi omoguio
sagledavanje jedinstvenog naina klasifikacije zidova po kompaktnosti bez obzira da li se
radi o jednoslojnim, dvoslojnim ili troslojnim kamenim zidovima ili zidovima od drugog
materijala.
Koeficijent kompaktnosti zida (KKZ) izraava stepen ispunjenosti zapremine zida
stijenskim materijalom i/ili malterom izmeu vanjske i unutranje granine povrine zida.
KKZ se izraava u procentima. Lingvistiki se klasificira u pet klasa: od vrlo malog do
veoma velikog. Dobije se istraivanjima provedenim refrakcionom seizmikom na osnovu
brzina longitudinalnih talasa utvrenih na zidu i uzorku stijenskog materijala od koga je
izgraen zid:
KKZ = (Vlz / Vlu) 100 (%).
gdje je: Vlu brzina longitudinalnih talasa mjerena u monolitu karakteristine stijene koja
gradi zid. Etalon uzorak se uzima sa dimenzijama 5 x 5 x 5 cm, bez vidljivo
prisutnih pukotina u stijenskom materijalu.
Vlz brzina longitudinalnih talasa mjerena u zidu konstrukcije.
Na osnovu dobivenih podataka o brzinama longitudinalnih talasa moe se
izraunati KKZ i izvriti ocjena kvaliteta zida na svi mjestima koja su od interesa za koja su
112
mjerenja izvedena. Klasifikacija zidova zidanih konstrukcija moe se izvesti po predloenoj
kategorizaciji.
Kategorizacija zidova zidanih konstrukcija
1. kategorija KKZ = 0 20%
Veoma mali koeficijent kompaktnosti zida
Jednostrano ili dvostrano zidani dvoslojni ili troslojni kameni zid male debljine
zidanog materijala. Debljina sloja zidanog vanjskog dijela je oko 1/5 debljine
zida. Prazan prostor izmeu zavrnih povrina zida ispunjen kamenim nabaajem
bez slaganja, bez ili sa malo maltera ili ispunjen zemljanim materijalom.
Kod rekonstrukcije potrebno je injektiranje sa veom potronjom injekcione mase,
razmak izmeu injekcionih buotina je vei, materijal za injektiranje vezivo sa
punilom od sitnog do prainastog pijeska ili vezivo sa kamenim braom.
2. kategorija KKZ = 20 40 %
Mali koeficijent kompaktnosti zida
Zid je jednostrano ili dvostrano zidani dvoslojni ili troslojni kameni zid vee de-
bljine zidanog materijala na vanjskim povrinama. Debljina sloja zida vanjskog
dijela je debljine zida. Prazan prostor izmeu vanjskih slojeva zida ispunjen je
kamenim nabaajem, bez slaganja sa malo ili bez maltera, bez slaganja.
Kod rekonstrukcije poeljno injektiranje vezivim materijalom sa malo punila
(kameno brano). Razmak izmeu injekcionih buotina manji.
Srednji koeficijent kompaktnosti zida
Zid je jednostrano ili dvostrano zidani dvoslojni ili troslojni kameni zid sa veom
debljinom zidanih slojeva na vanjskim povrinama. Debljina zida vanjskih slojeva
je po 1/3 ukupne debljine zida. Prazan prostor izmeu zavrnih povrina ispunjen
kamenim nabaejem bez slaganja, bez ili sa malterom.
Kod rekonstrukcije moe se koristiti injektiranje sa vezivim materijalom vee ili
manje migrabilnosti. Razmak izmeu injekcionih buotina manji. Injekcioni ma-
terijal bez bilo kakvog punila.
Veliki koeficijent kompaktnosti zida.
Zid je jednoslojno ili dvoslojno ili troslojno zidan kameni zid sa vezivom meu
slojem od zidanog materijal sa vezivom kod troslojnog zida. Kod jednoslojnih
zidova unutranjost je od ne obraenog kamena sa malterom ali sa uplinama u
kojima nema maltera. Kod dvoslojnih zidova samo su vanjeske povrine zidane
obraenim kamenom a unutranjost od ne obraenog kamena sa malterom i sa
upljinama izmeu pojedinanih komada kamena. Kod troslojnih zidova vanjski
slojevi su zidani obraenim kamenom dok je unutranjost zidana neobraenim
kamenom sa malterom ali sa upljinama izmeu. U troslojnim zidovima nema
kamenog nabaaja.
Kod rekonstrukcije injektiranje se primjenjuje sa malim razmakom buotina.
Injekciona masa mora biti veoma migrabilnom sa visokim stupnjem pentrabilnosti
zbog tekog prodiranja u upljine koje meusobno ne komuniciraju.
113
5. kategorija KKZ = 80 100%
Veoma veliki koeficijent kompaktnosti zida.
Zid je jednostrano ili dvostrano zidan obraenim kamenim blokovima kao
jednoslojna ili dvoslojna konstrukcija sa malterom koji potpuno popunjava prazne
prostore izmeu pojedinanih blokova.
Kod rekonstrukcije injektiranje nepotrebno.
Istraivanja provedena na terenu mjerenjem brzina longitudinalnih talasa na
zidovima Sulejmanpaia kule u Odaku kod Bugojna i na uzorcima karakteristinog
stijenskog materijala, od koga je zidana kula, svrstavaju 90 cm debele zidove kule u
kategoriju sa veoma velikim koeficijentom kompaktnosti, KKZ = 83 88 %.
12. Zakljuak
Primjena nerazornih metoda istraivanja zidanih konstrukcija u svijetu sve vie
dobiva na znaaju. Meunarodna udruenja koja posveuju punu panju rekonstrukciji i
restauraciji objekata kulturnog i istorijskog naslijea daju smjernice i preporuke za
upotrebu ovih metoda. Obzirom da se u BiH pristupa sve vie istraivanju stanja i uslova
mogueg saniranja ovih objekata neophodna su prethodna istraivanja koja e dati uslove
kako provesti sanaciju, rekonstrukciju i restauraciju takvih objekata a da se ne doprinese
daljem razaranju tih objekata.
Primjena refrakcione seizmike za istraivanje stanja zidova objekata kulturnog i
istorijskog naslijea je u BiH vrlo rijetko koritena, pa e poetni, veoma ohrabrujui,
rezultati pokazali svu opravdanost koritenja ove metode. Predloena klasifikacija i
kategorizacija kamenih zidova po veliini koeficijenta kompaktnosti zida (KKZ) moe
znaajno pomoi kod izbora metoda sanacije, rekonstrukcije i restauracije. Istraivanja
provedena za zidove Sulejmanpaia kule u Odaku kod Bugojna pokazala su i dokazala
mogunosti primjene metode seizmikog profiliranja na utvrivanje stanja kamenih zidova.
Na istoj kuli provedena su i geoelektrina istraivanja koja su potvrdila dobivene rezultate.
114
Literatura
1. European Commission, 2006, Onsiteformasonary project, On-site investigation
techniques for the structural evaluation of historic masonary buildings, EUR
21696 EN
2. Grupa autora, 2009, Istraivanja stanja zidova Sulejmanpaia kule kod Bugojna
refrakcionom seizmikom, Interprojekt Mostar, ne publikovano
115
Radomir Foli
115
,Lidija Babi
216
PARAMETARSKA SEIZMIKA ANALIZA AB DIMNJAKA
Rezime:
Zemljotresi su najei i najopasniji uzrok velikog broja oteenja i ruenja
dimnjaka. Odgovarajui seizmiki proraun je neophodan da bi se umanjili mo-
gui rizici. U radu se razmatra ponaanje visokih industrijskih dimnjaka, izloenih
seizmikim dejstvima. Prikazane su metode seizmike analize i preporuke date ra-
zliitim savremenim propisima. Na osnovu parametarske dinamike analize izve-
denog dimnjaka, uporeene su teorijske vrednosti sa rezultatima eksperimentalnih
ispitivanja. U radu se komentarie opravdanost primene pojedinih metoda.
Kljune rei: seizmika dejstva, parametarska analiza, AB dimnjaci, projektovanje
PARAMETRIC SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF RC CHIMNEYS
Summary:
Earthquakes are the most frequent and the most dangerous cause of a large number
of damaged and destroyed chimneys. A proper seismic calculation is requisite for
risk mitigation. The paper deals with the behaviour of tall industrial chimneys
exposed to seismic actions. It displays methods of seismic analysis and
recommendations of various provisions of contemporary codes. According to
parametric dynamics analysis, theoretical values are compared with experimental
results. The paper points out that the application of some methods is justified.
Key words: seismic action, parametric analysis, RC chimneys, design
1
PhD, Professor emeritus, Faculty of technical science, Novi Sad, Serbia
2
MrSci,assistant, Faculty of technical science, Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia
116
1 INTRODUCTION
Rapid industrial development and building of industrial systems set up new
requirements regarding design and construction of chimneys. The application of modern
building materials and improvement of construction technology require the choice of
adequate mathematical models and more accurate analyses. The design of seismically
resistant structures is particularly important for high structures including industrial
chimneys. It is the subject of numerous recommendations and technical regulations, among
which are European Norms (EN 1998 Part 6) that are used in designing of such structures
in the European Union.
Strong earthquakes cause great damage on structures, (Fig 1) and (Fig 2).
Chimneys are particularly sensitive to seismic actions, not only those on residential
buildings but industrial chimneys as well.
At the international conference called The International Symposium on Chimney
Design held in Edinburgh 1973, the problems in design and construction of industrial
chimneys were discussed, together with diverse regulations dealing with the topic [10]. A
body was formed, Comit International des Chemines Industrielles (CICIND), which even
now follows and directs the development of regulations in different countries. In 1982 a
report named Proposal for a Model Code for the Design of Chimneys was published.
However, suggested regulations were not accepted by CEB (Comit Euro-International du
Bton) for they were not based on the limit state analysis.
2 SURVEYS OF SOME NORMS FOR DYNAMIC CALCULATION
OF CHIMNEYS
There are four types of the seismic analysis of structures classified as: linear static, non-
linear static, linear dynamic and non-linear dynamic analysis [2].
Fig. 1. Explosive dismantling sequence at the Italsider Bagnoli plant, Naples, Italy,
after [6]
117
a.) b.)
Fig. 2. a.) Felling of the 110-F stack at Hanford, USA, using explosives. b.). Time sequence of the
stack fall at Marcoule G1, France, after [6]
Linear static analysis is highly applicable in conceptual design [8], and gives
acceptable results for low and medium-tall structures in which the first vibration tone is
dominant. The linear change of stiffness is adopted and coefficients of ductility and
damping that depend on the structural system and applied materials are introduced. Inner
forces are computed after the application of pseudo seismic load. In tall chimneys, and
generally in high structures, higher modes are dominant and the use of this method does not
give reliable results. This procedure is common for simple regular buildings.
Non-linear static analysis (NSA) is more convenient for models where the effects
of higher tones are not significant. There are more variants of NSA in use. Good results are
obtained with the push-over analysis. Through the application of this method, the structure
is exposed to a gradual increase of horizontal seismic load, till the occurrence of a local or
total failure of the structure. Deformations are also obtained by the analysis, which enables
the determination of critical cross-sections of the structure.
Linear dynamic analysis includes methods of spectral response (spectral modal
analysis) and the method of time history analysis. It is usually used in systems with more
degrees of freedom.
Non-linear dynamic time history analysis gains greater application with the
development of computer hardware capacities. It requires complex mathematical
operations, and detailed information on the structure and the excitation. Therefore, it is
rarely used in designing of new structures, though it is largely applied in scientific
investigations. Introducing of the influence of the structure-soil interaction additionally
complicates the analysis on the mathematical model.
EN 1998Part 6 discusses in particular structures of industrial chimneys, and
telecommunication and other towers [7]. Requirements that are to be fulfilled by the
calculation depending on the category of the structure during an earthquake are:
protection from jeopardy concerning people, neighbouring structures and nearby
goods, and
preserving of continuous functioning of the facility, industry and communication
system.
The former implies the prevention of collapse of the structure, and the latter the
limitation of damage of the structure.
Experimental results for TREPCA chimney are compared with conventional
European norms. The methods prescribed in the European norm EN 1998-1:2004 for the
calculation of structures in seismic areas are given in Table 1:
118
Table 1. Methods prescribed for calculation of structures in European norms
Method STATIC DYNAMICS
Linear Equivalent static analysis Response spectrum
Nonlinear Push-over analysis Time-history analysis
The calculation obtained through the application of equivalent static load gives
good results when the first mode dominantly affects the response of the structure, i.e. when
the contribution of the higher modes is negligible. For chimneys are recommended the
linear analysis with usage of reduced spectrum, or simplified dynamic or multimode
analyses. Non-linear methods can be used taking into account seismic actions,
corresponding constitutive model, interpretation of results and some specific requirements.
Nonlinear dynamics analysis directly calculates seismic actions and displacements by time-
history procedure.
When modelling the structure, one should determine the number of degrees of
freedom, calculate masses, stiffness, adoption or way of calculation for damping, and the
interaction structure-soil should also be introduced [12]. When arranging concentrated
masses, equipment, machinery, and possible extensions should be taken into account. In
chimneys, the effects of interaction between outer and inner pipes should be considered, as
well.
The reinforcing rules are prescribed depending on the outer diameter of the
chimney [7]. For outside diameter 4m, minimal vertical reinforcement is more than 0.003.
If outside diameter <4m, the ratio of outer layer reinforcement shall not be less than 0.002.
The distance between vertical bars should be less than 200mm. The declination of the
vertical axis must not exceed 1/1.000 part of the height of shell, or maximum 2 cm.
Measured thickness of the wall must not vary more than 1/100 of the specified value.
When designing chimneys on horizontal seismic forces, it is sufficient to, due to
symmetry, take into account only one horizontal direction. The vertical component of the
earthquake has no significant effect and can be neglected. If the calculation through the
elastic spectre is applied, damping must be adopted for possible liners, depending on the
confining material. Namely, for steel is assumed the value of 1.5%, for brick 4% and 2%
for FRP materials.
Damage limitation requirements are expressed through the maximum
displacement of the top of the structure, limited relative displacement of the shell and liner
or support platform. Limited displacements contribute to the reduction of second order
effects.
The maximum lateral deflection of the top of the structure should be limited to:
max
0.005 d v H =
(1)
119
where:
max
d lateral deflection at the top of the chimney,
H height of the structure
v reduction factor to take into account the lower return period of the seismic action.
Simplified dynamic analysis is recommended in structures that can be presented in
two plane models, and whose response is not significantly influenced by higher modes. It is
allowed for chimneys where the importance factor is
1
1 and height H < 80 m.
Depending on the type and importance of the structure, different importance
factors for structures were adopted, by which are multiplied the amplitudes of accelerogram
or spectrum.
Chimneys are sensitive to a larger period of seismic excitation. This is particularly
expressed in soft soil.
Structures are classified in 4 importance classes (Table 2.). Classification depends
on the consequences of collapse for human life, on importance for public safety and civil
protection in post-earthquake period, on social and economic consequences [7].
Four importance classes show the recommended
I
factor, and it is Nationally
Determined Parameter (NDP), varied in the National Annex. In EC8, the importance factors
are applied to the input motions, as opposed to US practice where importance factors are
applied to seismic loads [14]. There is significant difference in nonlinear analysis, because
increasing the ground motions may cause less increase in forces, depending of yielding of
elements, but more increase in deflections, due to plastic strains and P-delta effects.
Table 2. Importance classes, after [7]
Importance class Buildings
I
I
Building of minor importance
for public safety, e.g. agricu-
ltural buildings, etc.
0.8
II
Ordinary buildings, not belon-
ging in the order categories
1.0 (not an NDP)
III
Buildings whose seismic resis-
tance is of importance in view
of the consequences associa-
ted with a collapse, e.g. scho-
ols, assembly halls, cultural
institutions, etc.
1.2
IV
Buildings whose integrity du-
ring earthquakes is of vital
importance for civil prote-
ction, e.g. hospitals, fire sta-
tions, power plants, etc.
1.4
120
The importance factor
1
is given with values from 1 to 1.4, depending on strategic
importance, height and environment. If the height of the structure is twice bigger than the
maximum dimension in the base, then the influence of soil is great and can significantly
increase the effects of second order influence and soil structure interaction.
According to EC8, structures taller than 80 m, in the area of high seismic activity,
must be analysed as a special structures. A region where the designed soil acceleration a
g
for soil type A is smaller than 0.08g is considered to be an area with low seismic activity
ACI 307-98 Building code requirements for structural concrete for analysis, design
of the structure and details of RC chimneys in the USA [5] and [1]. Corresponding stiffness
is taken into account as RC chimneys are designed to keep elasticity during earthquake.
Such a philosophy of designing is in a collision with directions of development of
international regulations like the ones given by International Committee on Industrial
Chimneys (CICIND 2001) and EN 1998 Part 6 :2005) which take into account the
required ductility of the structure [10]. In ACI 307-98 it is required to apply the modal
analysis and elastic spectrum with effective factor of response modification R = 1.33. There
is no consideration to involve ductility and capacity design principles. It provides a failure
mechanism in foundation area. Associated load factor of 1.43 for seismic forces is also in
the function of requirement to keep the behaviour of the structure during earthquake within
the elastic area. CICIND 2001 recommends a higher importance factor 1.4, with R = 1 for
the elastic response, and R = 2 for ductile behaviour in a highly seismic area, where it is not
economic to design a chimney within the elastic domain. According to EN 1998 Part 6
the reduction of seismic force (in EN 1998 marked with q) is allowed if the ductility is
provided with R (q) = 3. Furthermore, the possibility to form one plastic hinge for R = 2 is
anticipated. The load level for R = 2 is kept beyond the zone of the plastic hinge [11].
According to CICIND 2001 standard, the response spectrum is given depending
on the period T. Seismic actions are obtained from the elastic response increasing the
response by importance factor and dividing it by structural response factor. The importance
factor depending on the importance class of the chimney has the value IF = 1.0, 1.2 or 1.4
[8].
In November 2008, ACI published Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
Chimneys, ACI 307-08 [3], and it replaced previous ACI 307-98 [5].Significant revisions
are made in the seismic design provisions. One of the key changes from the ACI 307-98 is
that selecting the design base earthquake of Maximum Considered Earthquake includes
effects of soil amplification in design response spectra, use a response modification factor
(R) of 1.5, considering P-delta effects for chimneys design category D., E and F. It defines
difference in seismic criterion between the concrete chimney shell and chimney liners.
After effect of 1976 Tangshan Earthquake magnitude 7.8, is damaged 180 m high
chimney, at height of 132m, and collapsed top of 48 m during the aftershock, magnitude
7.1, about 15 hours after the earthquake. Influence of higher mode effect is a failure of
75% chimney height. Chimneys shorter than 100m remained with no damage [13].
Earthquake at Izmit, Turkey, 17.08.1999, magnitude 7.4, generated ground
shaking of 45 sec. One 115 m tall chimney collapsed at the oil refinery within 20 km of the
epicentre, and four chimneys hade been damaged hardly. The collapsed chimney had
diameter at the base 10.0m, thickness of 0.45 m, and diameter at the top 5.0 m, and
thickness 0.22m. It was based on firm soil. The chimneys were designed to ACI307-69.
The chimney had brittle failure of the withshield near the openings. Photographic of failure
show little longitudinal reinforcement.
121
During the Loma Pierta earthquake, 154 m tall chimney suffered total cracking
between 80%-90% of chimney height. The chimney was designed to the ACI505-1954,
which assumed a first mode response. The height mode effects were neglected.
RESULTS OF PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS FOR TREPA
CHIMNEY
Fig.3- Chimney Trepca, Kosovska Mitrovica
The numerical parametric analysis of dynamics behaviour for chimney Trepca in
Kosovska Mitrovica has done. According to parametric analysis, theoretical values are
compared with experimental results.
Chimney Trepca is 300 m tall, top thickness t = 0.25m and bottom t = 0.7m. It
has five declinations, at 60,100,145 and 190 m (Fig 3).
Base structure is RC round slab, D= 36m, based on 6m depth.
Experimental examinations involve environment vibrations, sinusoidally
controllable excitement and free vibration [9].
Environment exciting vibration is addition to random cases. It comprises micro
seismic activities, products of human activities as traffic and machine vibrations, and wind
as the prime cause.
Two accelerators FBA-3 are used. Also, 19 spot spans are equidistantly placed
with 15 m increment to reach the structure height. For sinusoidal exciting, spot is at the
level of 295m.
The chimney is analysed by software SAP2000. The results are obtained for modal
analysis, nonlinear static, response spectrum analysis, nonlinear direct-integration time-
history analysis (NDIH).
122
Table 3. Experimental and theoretical results for first three modes
f
1
[Hz] f
2
[Hz] f
3
[Hz]
Ambient oscillation (AO) 0.171 0.641 1.498
(AO) compared with
theoretical value-shell
(+34.6%) (+11.498%) (+5.315%)
Sinus motion (SM) 0.685 1.510
(SM) compared with
(+19.15%) (+6.159%)
Free oscillation (FO) 0.659 1.52
(FO) compared with
(+14.629%) (+6.862%)
Theoretical - 20 lumped
mass (LM)
0.17 0.66 1.62
(LM) compared with
(+14.802%) (+13.892%)
Theoretical- shell 0.5m
thin
0.127 0.5749 1.4224
123
Fig. 4- Modes 1,3,7 and 12
Fig.5- Stress Smax dijagram for NDIH, response spectrum and nonlinear static analysis
124
Fig.6- Deformed shapes for NDIHA, response spectrum and modal analysis
Fig.7 Response spectrum curves
125
Fig.8 Displacement-time diagram at 300m and 55.08m
Table 4. Displacement of joint 911
Joint Mode 1 Mode 12
Linear response
spectrum
NDIHA max NDIHA min
911 -3.61E-04 -8.18E-03 4.78E-03 3.631098 -4.27133
Comparison of modal analysis and experimental results is given in the Table 3.
Difference between theoretical and experimental results for frequency is the
largest for the first mode, +34.6%. For the second mode, difference is 11.498%-19.15%,
and for third, it ranges between 5.315%-6.862%. The Trepa chimney structure is
modelled by Finite element method (FEM), as thin shell with 4928 joints.
Stress and displacement values are compared for different analysis types, and
some results are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6. Response spectrum curves are shown in Fig. 7
for two joints, and represent significant influence of damping. Displacement-time diagram
at two points (top and at 55.08 m) over height of chimneys are shown in Fig. 8
Displacement of one joint for modal analysis, linear response spectrum analysis and
nonlinear direct-integration time-history is presented in Table 4, and has appreciably larger
value for NDIH analysis.
126
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
In areas with low seismic activity, a dominant influence on the calculation of the
chimney structure is the wind action. In are with high seismic activities, the response of the
structure to seismic actions must be examined in detail.
According to [9], steel chimneys are more efficient for heights of 70-90 m, and RC
ones for heights above 90 m. For heights exceeding 150 m RC chimneys are built.
Theoretical basis and application in practice of the method for seismic analysis of
structures are frequently in disproportion. The analysis of real behaviour of structures in
earthquake shows that a well-chosen concept of the structure contributes more to its seismic
reliability than the application of complicated numerical models.
ACI 307 norms and earlier recommendations of CICIND (from 1998) give more
significance to the elastic behaviour of the structure, neglecting its ductility. The result of
this approach is a very expensive structure, which can suffer from a brittle failure in case of
strong earthquake. On the contrary, in EN 1998 Part 6 it is recommended to adopt ductile
behaviour by forming a plastic hinge.
A good designing approach is the introduction of limited ductility, when seismic
energy is dissipated in plastic hinges. On the bases of the surveyed analyses it can be
concluded that the choice of an adequate mathematical model for the seismic analysis of
chimneys significantly diminishes the domain of probability regarding the collapse of the
structure.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT: This research has been supported by the Ministry of
Science of Serbia through the Research Project TR 16017. This support is gratefully
acknowledged.
127
5. REFERENCES
[1] Bae, S. et al: Evaluation of the Design Provisions of ACI 307 Standard for Seismic
Design of Concrete Chimneys, Proceedings of Sessions of the Structures Congress
Long Beach, California, USA, ASCE 2007
[2] Chopra, K.A: Dynamics of Structures (3rd Edition) (Prentice-Hall International Series
in Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics), 2006
[3] Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Chimneys (ACI 307-08)
[4] Customers Guide to Specifying Chimneys, CICIND, Switzerland, 1990
[5] Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Chimneys (ACI 307-98)
[6] Dismantling Of Contaminated Stacks At Nuclear Facilities, IAA Vienna, 2005
[7] Eurocode 8: Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures, Part 6:
Towers, masts and chimneys, CEN, 2004
[8] Foli, R.: Neke primene dinamike konstrukcija i njihova primena u seizmikoj analizi
konstrukcija graevinskih objekata, Graevinski kalendar 2007, Vol.39, p. 143-233
[9] Kapsarov, H.,: Doprinos aseizmikom projektovanju visokih armiranobetonskih
postrojenja tipa tornja, Graevinski fakultet Ni, 1985
[10] Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, with Commentaries, Part A - The Shell,
CICIND, Second Edition, Revision 1 - August 2001
[11] Munshi, J., Malushte, S.: Seismic Design of Concrete Chimneys - State of Practice,
pp. 1-10, Proceedings of Sessions of the Structures Congress, Long Beach, California,
USA, ASCE 2007
[12] Pour, N.S., Chrowdhury, I.: Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction Analysis of Tall
Multi-flue Chimneys under Aerodynamic and Seismic Force, IACMAG, pp. 2696-
2703, Goa, India, 2008
[13] Rumman, W.S.: Reinforced concrete chimneys in Handbook of concrete
engineering (M. Fintel, e.) 2
nd
Ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York, 1985
[14] Seismic Design of Buildings to Eurocode 8, Edited by Ahmed Y. Elghazouli, Spon
Press, New York, 2009
[15] Wilson, L.J., Earthquake Design and Analysis of Tall Reinforced Concrete Chimney,
Melbourne ,2000
129
ore Lainovi
117
, Radomir Foli
218
and Mladen osi
319
UPOREDNA ANALIZA SEIZMIKIH ZAHTEVA REGULARNIH
BETONSKIH VIESPRATNIH OKVIRA
Rezime:
Cilj rada je procena mogunosti korienja uproenih nelinearnih metoda u
analizi regularnih okvira razliitih spratnosti. Procena ciljnog pomeranja je
sprovedena primenom poznatih metoda CSM, ELM, CM i DDM. Sve koriene
metode zasnivaju se na nelinearnoj statikoj analizi i metodi spektra odgovora.
Pushover analiza koristi se za konstruisanje pushover krive, koja se idealizuje da
bi se odredile karakteristike ekvivalentnog SDOF sistema. Za regularne okvirne
konstrukcije uproene metode daju zadovoljavajuu tanost. Sve primenjne
raspodele poprenog optereenja daju skoro identine nosivosti, krutosti i
duktilnosti.
Key words: regularni okviri, seizmiki norme, seizmiki zahtevi, nelinearna
analiza
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SEISMIC DEMANDS OF
REGULAR MULTISTORY CONCRETE FRAMES
Summary:
The aim of the paper is to assess the usability of nonlinear simplified methods for
practical application for regular frame structure with different stories. Estimation
of target displacement is performed using CSM, ELM, CM and DDM. All applied
procedures are based on pushover analysis and response spectrum method. The
pushover analysis is used to develop pushover curve, which is idealized to
determine the characteristics of SDOF system. For regular frame structure
simplified methods yield to results of adequate accuracy. For all the applied
distribution of lateral loads were obtained almost identical levels of strength
capacity, stiffness and ductility.
Key words: regular frames, seismic codes, seismic demands, nonlinear analysis
1
Prof., Dr., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia, E-mail: ladjin@uns.ac.rs
2
Prof., Dr., University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia, E-mail: folic@uns.ac.rs
3
PhD student, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
130
1 INTRODUCTION
Existing seismic design procedures are predominantly based on elastic structural
models Error! Reference source not found.. The capacity of the structure to dissipate
input energy during earthquake with inelastic deformation is taken into account indirectly
by using the reduced seismic forces. However, the use of the empirically based reduction
factor may fail to predict the actual behaviour of the structure. The need for changes in the
existing methodology implemented in existing building seismic codes has been therefore
widely recognised. The existing seismic design procedures cannot provide an adequate
inspection of damage level of building structures in quantitative terms. These methods are
based on the assumption of linear elastic structural behaviour and do not provide
information about real strength, ductility and energy dissipation.
In this paper, a simplified nonlinear method for estimation of seismic demands and
real response of multi-storey buildings is presented. Two mathematical models are used for
the seismic analysis one mathematical model is a multi degree of freedom (MDOF)
system, and the other is a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system. Nonlinear static
analysis is used to determine the action effects and the pushover curve of MDOF model,
approximated by the bilinear force-displacement relationship to determine the
characteristics of the equivalent SDOF system. Developed pushover curve is converted into
an acceleration displacement response spectrum (ADRS) format of capacity curve. The
ratio of seismic demands and yield strength capacity is determined by comparison of
capacity curve and response spectra of excitations. Estimation of target displacement is
performed using capacity spectrum method [1], equivalent linearization method [2],
coefficient method [3] and displacement modification method [3]. Target displacement
determined in this way is again converted into the corresponding displacement of MDOF
system. The whole system is afterwards being "pushed" to the target displacement of the
multi storey frame, with the determination of the action effects in structure and monitoring
of the plastic hinges formation and propagation of nonlinear deformations.
2 NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MODEL OF MULTISTORY
FRAMES
Methods for seismic analysis of structures can be divided into static and dynamic,
and structural models into linear and nonlinear. The actual structural behaviour under
seismic action can be best simulated using nonlinear time history analysis. However, the
nonlinear time history analysis is still too complex for practical usage, which led to a recent
development of analysis methods based on a nonlinear static analysis (NSA). Results of
these researches are implemented into the latest codes for the design of structures for
earthquake resistance: FEMA 356 [2], FEMA 440 [3] and Eurocode EN 1998 [5]. Initial
structural model for nonlinear static analysis (NSA) of structures subjected to seismic
actions is a multi degree of freedom system, for which is necessary to determine the
pushover curve, i.e. the relationship between the base shear force and horizontal
displacement of the top of the building. Structural strength capacity, as well as the shape of
pushover curve, depends on the applied distribution of seismic forces over the height of the
building. Different lateral load distributions can be applied: uniform, triangular, according
to the first mode shape (modal distribution), the distribution according to the SRSS
combination of modal lateral forces [3] etc.
131
Three dimensional multi storey frame building can be analyzed through the
decomposition of structure into certain substructures, which consist of multi storey frames
loaded in their own plane. Some codes limit the application of nonlinear static analysis to
regular frames in elevation, with the exception to frames with the discontinuity at the
ground floor, where the application of nonlinear static analysis is allowed. Plane frames are
modelled using beam and column elements of constant cross-sections with two nodes and
three degrees of freedom in each node. Structural models with plastic hinges concentrated
at the ends of elements (beams and columns) are commonly used for nonlinear analysis of
multi-storey frame structures. Recently, structural model of multi storey frames with fibre
models of beams and columns are also used, which can include propagation of inelastic
deformations along structural elements.
Frame model with plastic hinges is formed using beam finite elements, "placing"
plastic hinges at the ends of elements. Nonlinear effects can occur as a result of material
and/or geometric nonlinearity. Geometric nonlinear effects are introduced through P
effects and the incremental displacement determination, while the material nonlinearity is
introduced using a nonlinear force-deformation relationship in the plastic hinges. The force-
deformation relationship in potential plastic hinges must be previously determined (e.g.
moment-rotation, moment-curvature relationship, etc.).
The nonlinear static analysis defines the relationship between base shear force and
horizontal displacement at the top of the building through the pushover curve. Overall
lateral load is divided into increments, and the whole system is observed through different
configurations in which the equilibrium equations are solved for the incremental load.
Within each increment, it is assumed that the system of equations is linear, so the solution
of nonlinear problems is given as the sum of a series of incremental solutions. As a result of
linearization, there are unbalanced (residual) forces, which is the reason why iterations are
performed within each increment in order to balance residual load. The distribution of
seismic loads over the height of the building is taken to be constant during the several
increments (conventional analysis) or with the alteration of the load distribution in the
incremental situations (adaptive analysis).
Static analysis is first carried out for vertical load in the conventional analysis.
Previously should be defined the system geometry, material characteristics, preliminary
cross-section dimensions and amount of reinforcement for all elements, the characteristics
of plastic hinges (e.g. by [4]) depending on the type of element (beam, column ...).
Afterwards, lateral load is progressively applied and the formation of plastic hinges is
monitored with a transition of the system to a nonlinear behaviour range. In slender
unbraced frames it is possible problem of stability and divergence of solution due to the
second-order effects. Lack of conventional methods is that the lateral seismic load does not
change with the occurrence of plastic hinges and propagation of inelastic deformation, but
the distribution of loads is constant during the entire analysis. Therefore, according to the
codes (e.g. [2], [3], [5]), it is required that the analysis must use at least two different load
distributions.
Incremental update methods of the lateral load are recently developed, which are
using the term adaptive pushover analysis. Update of seismic load vector is implemented
using: total updating, incremental updating and hybrid total - incremental updating. In the
adaptive analysis is used distribution of lateral loads that are changing during the analysis.
The update of the characteristic values and mode shapes is performed due to the nonlinear
behaviour of the system. Modification of characteristic vibration analysis is reflected in the
132
fact that after every significant change in stiffness, the model is redefined. Degradation of
stiffness is accompanied by extending the period of vibration and changing the
characteristic mode shape. Therefore, new periods and mode shapes of vibration and new
distribution of horizontal forces for each new refined model is determined through several
iterations. In the first phase, as well as in conventional method, the system is analyzed for
vertical load. Stiffness matrix K
0
at the end of this analysis is used for nonlinear seismic
analysis in the next step. The horizontal displacement u is divided into a number of
increments within which the incremental-iterative analysis is performed. At the end of each
step, stiffness matrix K
i
is used for the subsequent modal analysis and the next step of
nonlinear static analysis, as long as the condition u = u
max
is satisfied. Seismic load in i-th
step is generated from the characteristic mode shape of vibration determined in the previous
step. In this way a series of analysis is performed in which the calculation of structural
mode shapes is done alternately and new seismic loads are defined [4].
3 ESTIMATE OF TARGET DISPLACEMENT
Analysis of the target displacement is the second phase of nonlinear static analysis.
Estimation of inelastic deformation is based on the analysis of SDOF system, and
depending on the procedure applied for the determination of target displacement. In this
aim several different procedures are developed. Research in this paper is limited to the
analysis verified in practical applications and implemented in technical codes: 1) Capacity
Spectrum Method - ATC-40 [1], 2) Coefficient Method - FEMA 356 [2]), 3) Equivalent
Linearization Method - FEMA 440 [3]), 4) Displacement Modification Method - FEMA
440 [3]).
3.1 CAPACITY SPECTRUM METHOD
Capacity spectrum method (CSM) is a nonlinear static procedure that determines
the nonlinear displacement of system caused by seismic action on the structure. This is an
approximate method based on an estimation of the target displacement using the equivalent
linear system. Target displacement of the nonlinear system due to the seismic action is
determined by dynamic analysis of number of equivalent linear systems with successive
update of equivalent vibration period T
eq
and equivalent damping coefficient
eq
. The
method is based on the application of two mathematical models, one of MDOF and the
other of SDOF. The first step in the analysis is the development of MDOF model pushover
curve, and then for such developed pushover curve, bilinear force-displacement relationship
is determined. Curve obtained in this way is called the capacity curve or capacity spectrum.
In determining the bilinear force-displacement relationship of SDOF model, it is necessary
to distinguish the initial stiffness of K
i
from the effective elastic stiffness K
e
. Initial stiffness
is the elastic stiffness of MDOF model, while the effective stiffness is determined as an
intersection point of the pushover curve for the 60% of the yield strength V
y
.
In the previously described procedure participates viscous damping which is
introduced through the elastic response spectrum. Idealized, design spectrum or the
response spectrum generated from the earthquake records for different levels of viscous
damping, ranging from 5% to 40% with incremental growth of 5%, can be used in analysis.
It is necessary to take into account the hysteretic energy dissipation which participates in
the total damping, for this correction to be included. In this way, the seismic demands
133
expressed by spectral curves are significantly reduced which adjusts the value of the target
displacement. The procedure for determining the target displacement is iterative. In the first
step the maximum spectral displacement is taken as S
d,i
= S
d
, and it is determined by the
intersection of radial line which corresponds to the initial period of vibration T
i
and elastic
response spectrum with the viscous damping
i
= 5%. Afterwards, the calculation of the
ductility coefficients is performed according to = S
d,i
/ S
dy
, where S
dy
is the yield
displacement of the idealized SDOF system. Total damping is calculated as the sum of
viscous damping:
t
=
i
+k
0
, where
t
is the total damping,
i
is the 5% viscous damping
(constant) which is usually used in the analysis for elastic structural behaviour, is the
modification factor which simulates possible imperfections in the hysteresis loops,
0
is the
hysteretic damping coefficient represented as the equivalent viscous damping coefficient.
The simplest procedure for determining the coefficient of equivalent viscous damping is to
equalize the energy dissipated in one vibration cycle of inelastic system related to
equivalent linear system.
Damping modification factor depends on the structural behaviour, type of
structural system and on duration of seismic excitation. The ATC-40 defines three different
models of structural behaviour. Type A represents hysteretic behaviour with completely
stable hysteresis loops, while type C represents hysteretic behaviour with pinching effects
and/or stiffness and strength degradation. Type B refers to inelastic behaviour that is
between type A and C.
For the total damping
t
, the spectral curve and radial lines for the damping are
constructed at the same diagram, and then the spectral displacement S
d,j
is determined.
Verification of the convergence terms is performed according to expression:
(S
d,j
- S
d,i
)/ S
d,j
< tol, where tol is the adopted value of tolerance. If the previous condition is
satisfied, the spectral displacement is S
d
=S
d,j
, otherwise S
d,i
= S
d,j
and the iterations
continue. In most cases, large number of iterations is not needed for the previous condition
to be achieved. Combining the obtained discrete values of S
d,i
from the iterations, the
demand spectrum with variable damping is formed. The value of the target displacement is
determined based on the intersection of the capacity curve and the demand spectrum. This
specific value of target displacement of SDOF system is necessary to convert into the
MDOF displacement by multiplication of SDOF displacement with the participation factor
I
1
of the first mode shape.
3.2 COEFFICIENT METHOD
In relation to the capacity spectrum method that is based on the graphic
presentation for determining the target displacement, the coefficient method uses the
multiplication of elastic displacement with different coefficients. This method also uses
idealized bilinear pushover curve, whereby the effective period is determined as
T
e
= T
i
(K
i
/ K
e
)
0,5
. The target displacement is determined by modifying the spectral
displacement of equivalent SDOF system as:
2
0 1 2 3
2
4
e
t a
T
C C C C S g o
t
= (1)
Spectral displacement of the equivalent SDOF system is related with the
displacement of the control node of MDOF system by the coefficient C
0
. It is calculated
through the participation factors of the first mode shape, but the value of this coefficient
must be less than 1,0. Using only the first mode shape of the elastic system, modification
134
coefficient C
0
becomes equal to the participation coefficient of the first mode shape. The
coefficient C
1
associates expected maximum nonlinear displacement with linear elastic
response displacement:
( )
1
1
1 1
e S
S e e S
for T T
C
R T T R for T T
>
+ < (

(2)
where the characteristic period T
S
represents the limit between constant acceleration and
constant velocity ranges.
The coefficient R is the reduction factor, which is calculated by:
/
a
m
y
S
R C
V W
= (3)
where S
a
is the spectral acceleration determined from the response spectrum for
fundamental period. Coefficient of the effective masses C
m
is equal to 0.9 for T
i
< 1.0 s and
1.0 for
T
i
> 1.0 s.
The coefficient C
2
takes into account the pinching effect of the hysteretic loops,
stiffness degradation and strength deterioration at maximum response of the system (for
details see [2]), while for the nonlinear static analysis it can be taken equal to 1.0. The
reduced values of the C
2
coefficient are given in [2] for lower levels of damage, such as the
performance level of immediate occupancy compared to the performance level of collapse
prevention.
The coefficient C
3
introduces the increase of displacement due to dynamic P-
effects. Positive stiffness in the nonlinear range takes the value of C
3
= 1.0, while the
negative stiffness for non-linear behaviour is determined as:
( )
3/ 2
3
1 1
e
C R T o = + (4)
where is the ratio of the stiffness in the nonlinear range to the effective elastic
stiffness. The increase of displacement caused by dynamic P- effects depends on the
coefficient o, fundamental period, the hysteretic load-deformation behaviour, frequency
characteristics of the earthquake and duration of strong ground motion.
3.3 EQUIVALENT LINEARIZATION METHOD
Conventional method of the capacity spectrum uses the secant period as an
effective vibration period in the target displacement determination, as the intersection point
of capacity curve and demand curve for effective damping in the ADRS form. The effective
vibration period T
e
of improved procedure is generally less than secant period T
sec
, which is
defined on the capacity curve for achieved target displacement. Multiplying the ordinate of
the ADRS demand curve for the corresponding effective damping
e
with modification
factor M = a
t
/ a
e
gives the modified acceleration displacement response spectrum
(MADRS), where a
t
is the acceleration at the target displacement according to MADRS
demand, and a
e
is the acceleration according to ADRS demand (Fig. 1).
Since the values of the acceleration are in direct correlation with the corresponding
period and ductility, modification factor can be determined by:
135
( )
2 2 2
1 1
e e i
sec i sec
T T T
M
T T T
o
+ | | | | | |
= = =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
(5)
When applying a procedure of equivalent linearization in practice, it is necessary
to use the reduction factor for the correction of the initial response spectrum for the
appropriate level of effective damping
e
. This factor is a function of effective damping
B(
e
) and it is used for correction of the spectral acceleration as (S
a
)
= (S
a
)
0
/B(
e
), where B
factor is determined from B(
e
) = 4/ (5,6 ln
e
). This expression is very similar with the
expression given in ATC-40.
Figure 1. Modified response spectrum using the secant period T
sec
Figure 2. Bilinear representation of the capacity curve
136
Figure 3. Determination of the target displacement using MADRS
Since the effective period T
e
and the effective damping
e
depend on ductility
demand, calculation of the target displacement using equivalent linearization is done in
iterations, in the following steps:
in the initial response spectrum is constructed with
i
=5% according to ATC-40,
such response spectrum is modified according to FEMA 440 to include the effects
of soil-structure interaction (SSI),
modified SSI response spectrum is converted into ADRS format according to
ATC-40 procedure, and becomes the initial response spectrum for iterative analysis,
developed pushover curve is converted into capacity curve according to ATC-40,
initial target acceleration a
pi
and displacement d
pi
are determined using the
principles of equal of displacement of linear and nonlinear system response, as shown
in Fig. 2,
bilinear capacity curve is determined in accordance to ATC-40, then the
fundamental period T
0
, yield displacement d
y
and yield acceleration a
y
are determined,
determine the ductility coefficient ( = d
pi
/ d
y
) and the value of the coefficient ,
which represents the ratio of stiffness for non-linear and linear behaviour:
pi y y
pi y y
a a d
d d a
o
(6)
appropriate effective damping
e
for the bilinear hysteretic model (BLH), for
stiffness degrading model (STDG) and for strength degrading model (STRDG) is
determined. Effective viscous damping is shown as a percentage of critical damping
depending on the ductility coefficient:
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2 3
0
0
2
0
2
0
1 4 : 1 1
4 6, 5 : 14 0, 32 1
0, 64 1 1
6, 5 : 19
0, 64 1
e
e
e
e
for A B
for
T
for
T

< < = + +
s s = + +
(
| |
(
> = +
|
(
( \ .

(7)
137
The coefficients A, B, C, D, E and F are functions of hysteretic behaviour model and
the coefficient . Numerical values of these coefficients can be found in [3].
effective vibration period is determined by (5), where the numerical values of
coefficients G, H, I, J, K and L are given in [3].
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2 3
0
0
0
1 4 : 1 1 1
4 6, 5 : 1 1
1
6, 5 : 1 1
1 2
e
e
e
for T G H T
for T I J T
for T K T
L

(
< < = + +

s s = + + (

(

( > = +
`
+
(

)
(8)
response spectrum in the ADRS format is altered for a previously determined
effective damping
e
, as (S
a
)
= (S
a
)
0
/ B(
e
),
values of acceleration response spectrum for
e
are multiplied by modification
factor M, and then the MADRS is generated,
joining the points from intersections of radial lines of secant periods T
sec
with
MADRS response spectrums, demand spectrum with variable ductility is obtained (Fig.
3),
value of the target displacement is determined from the intersection of the demand
spectrum and capacity curve (Fig. 3).
3.4 DISPLACEMENT MODIFICATION METHOD
The displacement modification method (DCM) has certain improvements related
to the coefficient method according to FEMA 356. The C
1
coefficient is limited to a
relatively short vibration period of structures according to FEMA 356, while the FEMA
440 eliminates this restriction and C
1
is calculated as:
( ) ( )
2
1
1 1
e
C R aT = + (9)
where a is a constant whose value is 130, 90 and 60 for B, C and D type of soil,
respectively. For the vibration period less than 0.2 s, the value of the C
1
coefficient is
determined by the given expression, while for the vibration period greater than 1.0 s, C
1
is
determined as C
1
= 1.0. Given expression for C
1
allows better estimate of the maximum
deformation of elasto-plastic SDOF system related to the maximum deformation of the
linear SDOF system.
It is well known that the system response is influenced by two types of
degradation, stiffness and strength degradation. The C
2
coefficient includes only the effect
of stiffness degradation according to modification method and may be determined from
expression:
2
2
1 1
1
800
R
C
T
| |
= +
|
\ .
(10)
For the fundamental period of structure less than 0.2 s, C
2
coefficient is taken
according to (10), while for the period greater than 0.7 s, it is taken equal to 1.0. Increase of
nonlinear deformation due to cyclic degradation depends on the characteristics of hysteretic
behaviour. Expression Error! Reference source not found. is determined based on
extensive statistical analysis of different types of cyclic degradation of inelastic system.
138
Modified coefficient C
3
from the CSM, has been replaced in the DMM with a
minimum strength (by using R
max
) necessary to avoid dynamic instability. Reduction factor
R
max
can be determined from expression:
max
4
t
e
d
y
R
o
A
= +
A
(11)
where t is taken as t = 1 + 0,15lnT, while
d
,
y
and
e
are determined according to Fig. 4.
Figure 4. Multilinear approximation of force-displacement relationship
4 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Four and eight storey frames have been analyzed. To determine the required
reinforcement in beams and columns, preliminary seismic analysis was made, where the
seismic effects were determined using the equivalent static method. The RA 400/500
reinforcement and concrete class of MB 30 were used to design. Adopted dimensions of
beams and columns, and amount of reinforcement are shown in Fig. 3. Afterwards, force-
deformation curves were defined for all plastic hinges according to FEMA 273 and FEMA
356 [2].
139
Figure 5. Input data for considered four and eight storey frame
Figure 6. Pushover curves of four storey frame for different lateral load distribution
140
Table 1. Analysis results of 4 storey frame
Four storey frame n = 4
Distribution Method: CSM CF ELM DMM
F
t
(kN) 578.1 570.1 578.8 570.1
u
t
(cm) 9.1 16.4 8.7 16.4
Uniform T
e
(s) 1.534 1.027 1.027 1.027
eff
(%) 25.4 10.3
F
t
(kN) 508.5 488.1 509.7 488.1
u
t
(cm) 10.1 18.4 9.5 18.4
Equivalent T
e
(s) 1.729 1.521 1.521 1.152
eff
(%) 26.2 9.6
F
t
(kN) 505.7 484.9 506.8 484.9
u
t
(cm) 10.1 18.3 9.5 18.3
Modal T
e
(s) 1.735 1.146 1.146 1.146
eff
(%) 26.2 9.9

Figure 7. Distribution of interstorey drifts of four storey frame for different load
distribution
141
Figure 8. Pushover curves of eight storey frame for different lateral load distribution
Figure 9. Distribution of interstorey drifts of eight storey frame for different load
distribution
142
Table 2. Analysis results of 8 storey frame
Eight storey frame n = 8
Distribution Method: CSM CF ELM DMM
F
t
(kN) 1215.1 1182.6 1214.7 1182.6
u
t
(cm) 10.1 18.7 9.8 18.7
Uniform T
e
(s) 1.679 1.168 1.168 1.168
eff
(%) 24.5 9.5
F
t
(kN) 1034.2 1007.2 1034.7 1007.2
u
t
(cm) 11.9 21.8 11.6 21.8
Equivalent T
e
(s) 1.973 1.365 1.365 1.365
eff
(%) 24.5 9.8
F
t
(kN) 1017.4 990.2 1018.1 990.2
u
t
(cm) 12 21.9 11.6 21.9
Modal T
e
(s) 1.999 1.371 1.371 1.371
eff
(%) 24.8 10.0
Based on the previously described methods of analysis and formed numerical
models, pushover curves were developed to obtain the control node displacement in seismic
design situation. The developed pushover curves for regular structures with plastic hinges at
the ends of elements are shown in Fig. 4 for four storey frame and in Fig. 8 for eight storey
frame. Results of analysis for various lateral load distributions and by using different
procedures for estimation of target displacement are shown in Table 2 (4storey frame) and
Table 2 (8storey frame). Distribution of inelastic deformation over the height of buildings,
i.e. interstorey drifts, for various lateral load distributions that are applied are presented in
Fig. 7 for 4storey frame, and in Fig. 8 for 4storey frame.
5 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents application of various analysis methods, which are used for the
estimation of the structural behaviour under seismic action. They are based on the
simplified procedure which combines nonlinear static (pushover) analysis and response
spectrum method. Two mathematical models were used for the seismic analysis of multi-
storey frames. One mathematical model is a system with multi degrees of freedom, and the
other is an equivalent system with one degree of freedom. To calculate action effects of the
MDOF model, the nonlinear static analysis is used to develop the pushover curve, which is
then idealized to determine the characteristics of the equivalent SDOF system. The target
displacements of considered regular frame structures with different stories are performed
using capacity spectrum method, equivalent linearization method, coefficient method and
displacement modification method.
Most important parameters that can be determined from the developed pushover
curves are: stiffness, yield strength and ductility of considered multi storey structure.
Uniform distribution of lateral loads leads to higher values of the base shear force in
relation to the equivalent and modal distribution. It is obtained as for four stories and also
for eight storey frame. However, with uniform distribution less target displacement is
143
obtained than with the equivalent and modal distribution of lateral loads. Also, smaller
ductile behaviour is achieved by using uniform distribution in relation to the equivalent and
according to the first mode shape distributions. This is particularly expressed in four storey
frame. Adaptive analysis also points to smaller ductile behaviour as for four stories and also
for eight storey frame.
Comparing methods of analysis for estimation of the target displacements it can be
observed two groups of method according to similarity of obtained results. The first group
includes capacity spectrum method and equivalent linearization method, and the second
group contains coefficient method and displacement modification method. Methods that
belong to the first group provide lower values of the target displacements than when using
methods that belong to the second group.
The results indicate that the distribution of interstorey drifts over the height of
structure significantly depends on the number of stories. Increase of the height of structure
leads to highly unequal distribution of inelastic storey deformations along height. Thereby,
the distribution of interstorey drifts in tall buildings much more depends on the distribution
of applied lateral load distribution than in low-rise buildings.
For all the applied distribution of lateral loads were obtained almost identical
levels of strength capacity, stiffness and ductility. This indicates that the regular frames that
are sized according to preliminary design using simplified method of analysis develop
favourable plastic mechanisms.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper has been undertaken as part of project No. 16017 funded by the
Ministry of Sciences of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1] ATC-40, Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings, ATC-40
Report, Vol. 1 and 2, Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, California,
1996.
[2] FEMA 356, Pre-Standard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation
of Buildings, American Society of Civil Engineers, Federal Emergency
Management Agency, Washington D. C., 2000.
[3] FEMA 440, Improvement of Nonlinear Static Seismic Analysis
Procedures, Applied Technology Council (ATC-55 Project), Federal Emergency
Management Agency, Washington D. C., 2005.
[4] Lainovi ., osi M.: Pushover analiza viespratnih okvira, SGIS,
Zemljotresno inenjerstvo i inenjerska seizmologija, Prvo nauno-struno
savetovanje, Soko Banja, 2008.
[5] EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance,
Part 1, General Rules, Seismic Actions and Rules for Buildings, CEN, Brussels,
2004.
[6] Earthquake Resistant Regulations A World List. IAEE: Regulations for
Seismic Design, Tokyo, 1992, Supplement 1996, 2000, 2004 and 2008.
145
Goran Simonovi
120
, Branislav Verbi
221
,
PRAENJE STANJA KONSTRUKCIJE I ISTRAIVANJE
SEIZMIKE OTPORNOSTI ZIDANIH ZGRADA
:
U radu je diskutovan proraun seizmike otpornosti zidanih zgrada. Predstavljena
su tri softvera, 3MURI koji je razvijen u Italiji, MINEA koja se razvija na Katedri
za graevinsku statiku i dinamiku Univerziteta u Aachenu u Njemakoj i pristup
razvijen na platformi poznatog programa SAP2000 od autora ovoga rada.
Usporeene su razlike u seizmikom kapacitetu jedne zidane zgrade dobivene
softverima. Pokazano je da uobiajeni pristup proraunu, uz zanemarivanje
preuzimanja seizmikog optereenja okomito na ravan zidova, podcjenjuje stvarni
kapacitet zidane zgrade.
Kljune rijei: Zidane zgrade, zemljotres, elementarni blok, kapacitet,...
RESEARCH IN SEISMIC RESIDENCE OF THE MASONRY
BUILDING
Summary:
In the paper are discussed seismic analyses of masonry buildings. Presented are
three software, 3MURI developed in Italy, MINEA witch currently being
developed at the Technical University in Aachen Germany and an approach de-
veloped using known engineering software SAP2000 developed by authors of this
paper. Softwares are compared by seismic analysis of a typical one family house
and obtained are small differences in the seismic capacity of the house. It was
demonstrated that ordinary design of the construction without limited out-of-plane
behavior undervalues the bearing capacity of the masonry buildings
Key words: Masonry buildings, earthquake, elementary block, capacity,...
1
Mr.dipl.in.gra., vii asistent, Graevinski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, Sarajevo
2
Dr.dipl.in.gra, redovni profesor Graevinskog fakulteta u Sarajevu u penziji i dopisni lan Akademije nauka i
umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine, Graevinski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, Sarajevo
146
1 UVOD
Za zidane konstrukcije, kao najstariji oblik konstrukcija koje ljudska zajednica
koristi, jo uvijek ne postoji razvijen numeriki model kojim bi se uspjeno simuliralo
stvarno ponaanje zgrada pogotovo pod zemljotresnim optereenjem. Razlozi za nepo-
stojanje ope prihvaenog modela koji bi obuhvatio sve specifinosti zidanih konstrukcija
su mnogobrojni. Izmeu pojedinih zajednica postoje razlike u neimarskoj tradiciji, razlike u
mehanikim i geometrijskim osobinama maltera i zidarskih blokova, razlike u konstru-
ktivnom sistemu i u meusobnim vezama izmeu pojedinih konstruktivnih elemenata itd.
U radu je predstavljen koncept nelinearnog aseizmikog prorauna programom
SAP2000 na bazi formiranja makroelemenata koje smo nazvali Elemetarni blok.
Proraunat je kapacitet jedne tipine porodine zidane zgrade koja je bila subjektom analize
opsenih istraivakih projekata diljem Europske Unije. Numeriki model zgrade je
prostorni model sa zidovima koji preuzimaju seizmiko optereenje u sopstvenoj ravni.
Modelom je obuhvaeno sadejstvo armiranobetonske tavanice sa zidovima kao i torzioni
efekti.
U cilju verifikacije predloenog koncepta zgrada je proraunata koritenjem
softvera 3MURI zasnovanog na primjeni makro elemenata i softvera MINEA zasnovanog
na bibliotekama eksperimentima utvrenih kapaciteta pojedinih zidova na osnovu kojih se
formira kapacitet zgrade. Radom su predstavljene specifinosti ova dva sutinski razliita
suvremena pristupa proraunu zidanih zgrada i izvrena komparacija sa rezultatima
dobivenim koritenjem programa SAP2000. Usporeenjem rezultata pokazano je da se
koritenjem elementarnih blokova moe uspjeno numeriki simulirati ponaanje zidane
zgrade uz pretpostavke o nelinearnom ponaanju materijala.
Dalje usavravanje kapacitetnog prorauna primjenom koncepta elementarnih
blokova podrazumijeva razvijanje blokova koji prenose optereenje i okomito na ravan
zida. Univerzalnost koncepta elementarnih blokova za odreivanje otpornosti zidane
konstrukcije omoguava njihovu implementaciju u druge softvere kojima se vri analiza
konstrukcija po pretpostavkama o nelinearnom ponaanju materijala uz koritenje osnovnih
nelinearnih elemenata. Time model zgrade koji je napravljen koritenjem elementarnih
blokova postaje podoban i za druge naprednije oblike analize koje suvremeni softveri
pruaju.
2 ELEMENTARNI BLOK
Iz teorije konstrukcija je poznato da se kod okvirnih sisteme najvea naprezanja
konstrukcije, za uobiajena optereenja, javljaju u vezama greda i stubova, odnosno u
vezama zidova i ploa, pa je mogue predvidjeti mjesta u konstrukciji gdje e najprije doi
do pojave nelinearnih deformacija. Iz toga je prizila ideja da se manje napregnuti dijelovi
konstrukcije tretiraju kao elastini, linearni, homogeni i izotropni, zapreminski ili ravanski
elementi, a da se sva nelinearnost deava tamo gdje su najvea naprezanja, odnosno na
potencijalnim mjestima otkazivanja konstrukcije.
Slian pristup primijenjen je u ovom radu u analizi ponaanja zidane konstrukcije
pod dejstvom vanjskog optereenja. Umjesto da se svaka opeka i malterska spojnica
modeliraju posebno, cijeli nizovi opeka i maltera u manje napregnutim dijelovima zida
zamjenjuju se jednim elementom veih dimenzija koji emo nazvati elementarni blok
[5,6,7,8].
147
Vezama izmeu elementarnih blokova simuliramo otkazivanje malterske spojnice
tamo gdje oekujemo da u stvarnoj konstrukciji ta spojnica i otkae. Na slijedeoj slici
prikazani su usporedo stvarni zid od opeke i zid sastavljen od elementarnih blokova
unaprijed izabranih dimenzija. Dijagramima su prikazane i karakteristike veznih elemenata.
3d prikaz loma prikazan je za mjerodavnu spojnicu zbirno i komponentalno.
Slika 1. Model zidanog zida napravljen od elementarnih blokova
Sa jedne strane imamo blok unutar koga vrijedi teorija elastinosti, dok sa druge
strane veza elementarnih blokova predstavlja diskontinuitet u elastinim osobinama zida.
Preko veze elementarnih blokova moe se unijeti nelinearnost u strukturu zida koji se
analizira. U daljim fazama ovoga rada veze izmeu elementarnih blokova modelirane su
nelinearno pomou posebnih elemenata kojima se uspostavlja veza izmeu dijelova
konstrukcije a implementirani su u programu SAP2000. Unutranji dio elementarnog bloka
deformie se linearno i uticaje koje prenosi kroz sebe predaje vezi sa susjednim eleme-
ntarnim blokom. Veza elementarnih blokova, u sluaju pojave prekoraenja mehanikih
osobina materijala, simulira nelinearno ponaanja materijala. Sva nelinearnost se deava
iskljuivo na nivou mjerodavne malterske spojnice, odnosno u podruju n-link elementa. U
ovome radu se ograniavamo na materijalnu nelinearnost dok geometrijska nelinearnost
(stabilnost zidnih elemenata, uticaj teorije II reda) nije tretirana.
148
Elementarnim blokovima simulira se konstrukcija u prostoru. Ravan pojedinih
elementarnih blokova odgovara ravnima zidova u konstrukciji. Debljina i duina
elementarnih blokova odgovara debljini i duini zida. Visina zida se elementarnim
blokovima dijeli na vie dijelova tako da pojedini elementarni blokovi imaju kvadratnu
formu to ne mora biti pravilo. Na jednoj spojnici moraju se formirati bar etiri n-link
elementa. Unutranjost elementarnih blokova modelirana je sa konanim elementima koji
imaju naprezanje u svojoj ravni i okomito na svoju ravnu (thin-shell). Podjela elementarnih
blokova na mreu konanih elemenata treba biti takva da vorovi konanih elemenata lee
u dodirnim takama n-link elemenata. Po duini zida broj konanih elemenata je za jedan
manji od broja n-link elemenata, dok po visini zida konani elementi bi trebalo da imaju
visinu tako da se podijeljena povrina elementarnog broja oblikom pribliava kvadratnoj
formi. Za prostornu analizu u kojoj ponaanje zidova okomito na njihovu ravan nee biti
analizirano mogu se koristiti i membranski elementi (membrane), ali u tom sluaju se mora
voditi rauna o stepenima slobode n-link elemenata radi adekvatnog formiranja matrice
krutosti.
Zid prikazan na slici 1 modeliran je sa sedam tipova n-link elemenata. Svi n-link
elementi su aksijalno nelinearni. Poprenu silu linearno prenose n-link elementi oznaeni sa
3a i 3b, dok n-link element 4 poprenu silu prenosi nelinearno. Ukoliko se analizira i
ponaanje zida okomito na njegovu ravan tada n-link elementi oznaeni sa 1a, 2a i 3a se
modeliraju linearno a n-link elementi 1b, 2b, 3b i 4 nelinearno. Spojnice A, B, C i
D su modelirane aksijalno nelinearne ime se ostvaruje simuliranje loma zida na dejstvo
centrine ili ekscentrine sile pritiska ili zatezanja. Spojnice A, B, i C prenose
poprenu silu linearno dok spojnica D ima implementiranu nelinearnu vezu izmeu
poprenih sila i poprenih deformacija. Spojnice A i D su prethodno rotaciono
limitirane.
3 DVIJE SUVREMENE METODE PRORAUNA
Prednosti modela kojim bi se obuhvatile realne nelinearne osobine zidanih
konstrukcija su oigledne. Pojedinanim lomovima, odnosno prethodno planiranim
lomovima, troi se velika koliina energije. Otkazivanje, odnosno teenje pojedinog zida ne
znai i lom konstrukcije jer po teenju, uslijed preraspodjele, omoguava se drugim
zidovima u konstrukciji da preuzmu optereenje. Poveava se duktilnost konstrukcije to je
naroito znaajno kod zemljotresa. Nema potrebe za provjerom napona jer su definirani
plastini zglobovi. Otvaranjem prslina konstrukcija postaje meka, period oscilovanja raste,
tako da konstrukcija prima manje seizmike sile i slino. Poznavanjem kapaciteta
konstrukcije na prijem seizmikog optereenja mi faktiki znamo koliku imamo sigurnost
to nije sluaj ukoliko dokaz sigurnosti radimo po doputenim naponima.
Ukratko e biti predstavljena dva danas koritena koncepta modeliranja kon-
strukcija uz pretpostavke o nelinearnom ponaanju materija. Dugo godina je softver 3MU-
RI bio vodei europski softver iz oblasti zidanih konstrukcija to je i oekivano jer Italija
kao izrazito trusna zemlja primorana je ivjeti sa seizmikim rizikom. U zadnje vrijeme, po
usvajanju novih seizmikih propisa, moe se rei da Njemaka kola preuzima primat u
analizi zidanih konstrukcija na seizmika dejstva. Koncept je implementiran u softver
MINEA. Od ostalih softvera, koji svojom uinkovitou i rasprostiranjem imaju znaajno
mjesto, izdvojimo i italijanski softver ANDILWALLS.
149
3.1. Proraun zidanih konstrukcija konceptom implementiranim u softveru 3MURI
3MURI je jedan od vodeih europskih softvera za proraun zidanih konstrukcija.
Program je godinama evoluirao iz softvera koritenog u DOS-u do suvremene WINDOWS
platforme. Grafiko okruenje softvera je pregledno mada samo koritenje softvera ima
svojih specifinosti pogotovo za korisnike koji su navikli raditi u drugim platformama. Sam
tok prorauna konstrukcije podijeljen je u tri faze koje se sastoje od unosa podataka,
prorauna i pregled rezultata. Svi moduli softvera su obogaeni modernim grafikim
sueljem koje omoguava prostorni pregled konstrukcije u osjenanom obliku, animacije
kako ulaznih podataka tako i animacije dostizanja lomova konstrukcije u postprocesiranju,
te mogunosti pravljenja ilustrativnih tekstualnih izvjetaja sa grafikom.
Softver je nastao na italijanskoj neimarskoj tradiciji to mu je sa jedne strane
velika prednost, ali sa druge strane i mana. Za mnoge zemlje EU i njihovu neimarsku
tradiciju njegova upotreba nije adekvatna. Naime, upotreba horizontalnih serklaa i greda u
horizontalnoj ravni sa relativno tankim ploama, ili sitnorebrastim konstrukcijama, je
uobiajena u Italiji. Njemaka tradicija upotrebe zidanih konstrukcija preferira upotrebu
debljih tavanica armiranobetonskih ploa, bez horizontalnih serklaa i gotovo bez ikakvih
greda u horizontalnoj ravni. Eventualni serklai u njemakoj tradiciji su samo na vrnim
etaama izvedeni kao parapeti. Nadvratnici, nadprozornici i drugi horizontalni elementi se
izvode lokalno bez kontinuiziranja u horizontalnoj ravni.
Inspiraciju za postavke softvera autori nalaze u oteenjima zidanih konstrukcija
nakon zemljotresa (slika 2). Karakteristine dijagonale i horizontalne prsline nakon
zemljotresa deavaju se oko otvora. Postojanje parapeta i horizontalnih serklaa uokviruje
konstrukciju tako da se konstrukcije mogu tretirati kao prostorni okviri.
Slika 2. Prikaz lomova zidova zidanih konstrukcija koje su inspirirale koncept 3MURI [1].
Autori softvera zidani zid zamjenjuju trodijelnim stubom. Gornji i donji dio stuba
nalaze se na mjestu suelja sa gredom dok centralni dio stuba zamjenjuje zid na dijelu
otvora. Grede su takoer podijeljene na tri dijela pri emu su krajnji dijelovi unutar zida a
centralni dijelovi tako podijeljenih greda na dijelu otvora. Prilikom unosa podataka za grede
se definiraju geometrijske i mehanike karakteristika tako da softver moe izraunati njihov
kapacitet. Prethodno softver napravi raspodjelu gravitacionog optereenja sa ploa na grede
i uticaj ploa na daljnje ponaanje modela zanemaruje.
150
Slika 3. Formiranje makro elementa [1].
Slijedi postupno guranje konstrukcije pri emu se u svakom od koraka prati stanje
sila u stubovima. Podijeljeni dijelovi stubova rade kao okidai po dostizanju odreenog
nivoa optereenja i za dalji prirast horizontalnih pomaka limitiraju razvoj sila u
konstrukciji. Princip je jasan kao i njegova implementacija. 3MURI analiza podrazumijeva
analizu konstrukcija u prostoru, pri emu se formiraju prostorni okviri, a svi pojedini zidovi
te konstrukcije raunaju iskljuivo na dejstva u svojim ravnima. Zidovi koji su okomiti na
pravac dejstva zemljotresa svojim poloajem u modelu doprinose seizmikoj otpornosti
zidnanih zgrada kroz promjenu normalnih sila u njima pri emu se stvara spreg sila. Softver
moe imati znaajnih problema prilikom formiranja mree makroelemenata. Konstrukcije
koje svojom geometrijom, pa i ponaanjem, nisu tipine okvirne konstrukcije zahtijevaju
veliku domiljatost korisnika kako da te konstrukcije modelira kao okvirne i prilagodi
potrebama softvera. To podrazumijeva ubacivanje lanih stubova i lanih greda,
odnosno modeliranje konstruktivnih elemenata tamo gdje ih u stvarnosti nema.
Mnogi realizirani objekti, uspjene sanacije objekata oteenih u zemljotresima, te
brojni nauni radovi koji su napisani zahvaljujui upotrebi 3MURI-a su zavidne reference
softvera bez obzira na njegove mane.
3.2. Proraun zidanih konstrukcija konceptom implementiranim u softveru MINEA
Istraivaki tim sa katedre za graevinsku statiku i dinamiku iz Aachena (RWTH-
LBB Rheinisch-Westflische Technische Hochschule - Lehrstuhl fr Baustatik und
Baudynamik) razvija potpuno novi pristup problemu seizmike otpornosti zidanih zgrada.
Analizirajui dosadanja saznanja iz modeliranja zidanih konstrukcija, ponaanja
materijala, nepoznanica u izvoenju, razlika u tradicijama i mnoge druge faktore,
zakljuuju da ih razvijanje modela koji bi se oslanjao na postulate teorije konstrukcija nee
zadovoljiti. Okreu se rezultatima eksperimenata kao jedinim pravim pokazateljima
stvarnog stanja stvari. Aktivno se povezuju sa drugim Univerzitetima i Institutima u
razmjeni podataka i meusobnih iskustava, te poinju sa ogromnim poslom pravljenja
biblioteke rezultata eksperimenata koji su uraeni.
Baziraju se na nosivost pojedinog zida u konstrukciji. Razvijaju algoritme za
interpolaciju rezultata eksperimenata u cilju dobivanja ponaanja zidova koji svojom
geometrijom i nivoom vertikalnog optereenja nisu eksperimentalno obraeni (slika 4).
Time se izbjegavaju numerike formule za dokaz nosivosti zida na prijem komponentalnih
naprezanja. Nosivost zida je jednoznana predstavljena kroz krivu kapaciteta zida, ime se
151
objedinjuju lomovi uslijed otvaranja spojnica na zatezanje, dostizanje gnjeenja na
pritisnutom dijelu zida pri dejstvu momenta, lomovi uslijed formiranja dijagonala, lomovi
uslijed klizanja, te razni drugi kombinirani lomovi koji su opisani u literaturi.
Slika 4. Osnova softvera MINEA i tok prorauna [4].
Formiranje krive kapaciteta konstrukcije zapoinje iterativno korak po korak
nanoenjem inkrementa pomjeranja u pravcu seizmikog djelovanja. Rezultanta poprenih
sila svih zidova prizemlja objekta nastaje iz kapacitetnih krivih pojedinih zidova. U sluaju
da dispozicija konstrukcije sadri nesimetrine glavne pravce nastaje rotacija centra masa.
Sistem unosi i inkrement rotacije u proceduru prorauna i traei ravnoteu ostvarenih sila
u svim zidovima nastavlja guranje. Na taj nain se formira pojedina toka u pushover
krivoj. Koraci se ponavljaju dok je ravnotea mogua. Na slici 4 prikazan je tok prorauna.
Proces je implementiran kroz softver MINEA. Iako posve jasan i jednostavan
princip njegova implementacija je izuzetno komplicirana. Stoga su autori softvera morali
koristiti i odreene pretpostavke. Pretpostavili su da se lom konstrukcije deava iskljuivo
na donjoj etai konstrukcije. Time se zanemaruju lomovi konstrukcije koji mogu nastati na
etaama iznad, a koji su mogui. Dalje, analizom su obuhvaeni samo oni zidovi koji idu
od dna do vrha zgrade. Normalne sile u pojedinim zidovima su konstantne veliine
odreene na osnovu raspodjele gravitacionog optereenja sa tavanica na zidove u zavisnosti
od njihovog poloaja. Shodno njemakoj tradiciji u tavanicama ne postoje grede, a ploe se
smatraju dovoljno krutim da zajedno sa zidovima iznad prizemlja osiguraju konturne uslove
koje odgovaraju zidovima ukljetenim na vrhu i dnu ime se mogu koristiti interpolacione
krive dobivene za obostrano ukljetene zidove. Zanemareni su meusobni kontakti zidova
L ili U oblika i oni se u analizi tretiraju kao razdvojeni zidovi. Autori koriste veliki broj
152
pretpostavki to je i razumljivo obzirom na karakter problema. Koncept u potpunosti
odbacuje tradicionalni pristup proraunu i uz naveden pretpostavke daje sliku graninog
stanja konstrukcije kroz mogui i realni mehanizam loma zgrade.
U trenutku pisanja rada tim intenzivno radi na implementaciji metode konanih
elemenata u softver ime bi se neke od prethodnih pretpostavki eliminisale. Prvenstveno
raspodjela optereenja sa tavanica na zidove uzimajui u obzir realne krutosti tavanica i
greda, kao i promjenu normalnih sila u zidovima prilikom guranja konstrukcije.
Rezultati prorauna daju pushover krivu koja u se u kombinaciji sa priguenjima
prevodi i prikazuje u obliku CSM (Capacity Spectrum Method) dijagrama koji su prije bili
rezervirani za armiranobetonske i eline konstrukcije. Implementacijom metoda
zasnovanih na pomjeranjima modeli zidanih konstrukcija postaju vjerodostojni. Pored
naprednog CSM metoda MINEA raspolae i drugim proraunskim modulima kojim se
verificiraju konstruktivna ogranienja shodno DIN-1053 te vre dokazi naponskih stanja.
Ovi moduli su interesantni za inenjersku praksu.
4 PRORAUN KAPACITETA JEDNE PORODINE ZGRADE
U ovom primjeru izvrena je analiza tipine njemake porodine zgrade tzv.
Reihenhaus koja ima sistem nosivih zidova u dva ortogonalna pravca x i y, pri emu je u
kraem pravcu zgrada izrazito seizmiki neotporna. Arhitektonski, u prostoru, formiranjem
nizova ovih jednostavnih zgrada, dobiva se cijelo urbano naselje. Zgrade lee jedna do
druge, dilatirane su, tako da konstruktivno predstavljaju neovisne jedinke. Zidovi naznaeni
kao W1 i W2 u dispoziciji rasprostiru se od podruma do krovita zgrade i oni su ukruujui
elementi za prijem horizontalnog optereenja u slabijem pravcu. Drugi zidovi u slabijem
pravcu noenja su pregradni i nemaju vertikalni kontinuitet. Shodno njemakoj neimarskoj
tradiciji zgrade se izvode sa monolitnim tavanicama raenim na licu mjesta bez ikakvih
greda.
Bath
room
dining
living
kitchen
y
x
W2
W2
W1
Slika 5. Plan konstrukcije tipine njemake porodine zgrade [4].
Navedeni tip zgrade je bio predmet i opsenih istraivanja u sklopu projekta
ESECMaSE iji izvjetaj D8.3. opisuje izvren eksperiment sa stvarnim dimenzijama
zgrade (full-scale) pri emu je uslijed simetrije izgraena i testirana samo jedna polovina
koja je bila izloena pseudodinamikom optereenju [2]. Shodno oekivanim ubrzanjima
153
tla pobuda je preko presa aplicirana na nivoima etaa za ekvivalentna ubrzanja tla
intenziteta do 0,22g. Rezultati su javno dostupni na internetu, ali naalost, svi ulazni
podatci tog istraivanja nisu dostupni.
Verifikacija ovog primjera je izvrena po ulaznim podacima dobivenim od strane
LBB-RWTH a sa kojima je kontrolni proraun uraen koristei softvere 3MURI i MINEA.
Dvije krive dobivene koritenjem softvera 3MURI su nastale prvenstveno zbog ogranienja
softvera u modeliranju zidanih zgrade bez greda pa je dio ploe modeliran kao greda
razliitih sudjelujuih irina. Usporedno je prikazana i kriva dobivena koritenjem
koncepta elementarnih blokova bez doprinosa (kriva SAP b) i sa doprinosom poprenih
zidova na ukupnu seizmiku otpornost zgrade (kriva SAP a).
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x (mm)
Fb (kN)
MINEA
SAP a
SAP b
3muri a
3muri b
Slika 6. Pushover krive dobivene koritenjem softvera 3MURI, MINEA i SAP-a.
Razlike u kapacitetu zgrade na prijem horizontalnog optereenja dobivene pomou
tri u potpunosti razliita pristupa postoje. Vidljivo je izuzetno dobro slaganje izmeu
rezultata dobivenih koristei softver MINEA i SAP2000 te odreeno odstupanje rezultata
dolivenih koristei 3MURI. Razlike u nagibu krivih su izraenije od razlika u kapacitetu to
je i oekivano uslijed razliitih pretpostavki. Naime, nagib krive MINEA odreen je
kombiniranjem iteracionih krivih iz biblioteka softvera, nagib krive 3MURI proistie iz
krutosti zidova koje su konstantne vrijednosti do trenutka okidanja makroelemenata
implementiranih u softver, dok nagib krivih u SAP-u je poloeniji uslijed kontinuiranog
otvaranja n-link elemenata koji simuliraju otvaranje pojedinih spojnica u zidovima
154
5 ZAKLJUAK
Na ovom jednostavnom primjeru porodine kue vidljivo je odlino slaganje
rezultata dobivenih pomou tri u potpunosti razliita pristupa odreivanja kapaciteta zidane
zgrade na dejstvo zemljotresa. Implementacijom koncepta elementarnih blokova u
inenjerske softvere kao to je SAP2000 otvaraju se mogunosti modeliranja svih
konstruktivnih elemenata unutar konstrukcije ime se u mnogo emu prevazilaze
ogranienja koritenjem visokospecijaliziranih softvera (3MURI, MINEA ili sl.) za
proraun zidanih konstrukcija. Dodajmo da se unutar modela mogu implementirali i
osobine materijala, te koristiti materijale koji su iroko u upotrebi bez ogranienja.
Stoga, model zidane konstrukcije, u kom su zidovi modelirani kao elementarni
blokovi, u svemu pokazuje svoju univerzalnost i iroku mogunost primjene. Razvijeni
elementarni blokovi se mogu implementirati i u druge inenjerske softvere kod kojih je
materijalna nelinearnost rijeena kroz elemente veze. Proraun moe biti u skladu sa svim
standardima ukljuujui i EC.
Mana pristupa je nemogunost ostvarivanja meusobne ovisnosti kapaciteta
zidova na prijem poprenih sila u zavisnosti od ostvarenih normalnih napona u pojedinim
spojnicama.
LITERATURA
>1@ 3muri, manuale d'uso 3.2.2., S.T.A. DATA srl - C.so Raffaello, Torino
>2@ ESECMaSE: Enhanced Safety and Efficient Construction of Masonry Structures in
Europe, http://www.esecmase.org
>3@ Eurocode 8, Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance, Comit Europen de
Normalisation, Brussels, 2004.
>4@ Capacity design of masonry buildings under cyclic loading /C. Butenweg, C.
Gellert, L. Reindl /, http://www.baustatik.rwth-aachen.de
>5@ Analiza uticaja poprenih zidova na nosivost zidanih zgrada na dejstvo
zemljotresa / G.Simonovi / Magistarski rad, Sarajevo 2008.
>6@ Doprinos poprenih nosivih zidova zidanih zgrada na nosivost zgrada pri dejstvu
zemljotresa / G. Simonovi, B. Verbi / GNP2008, drugi Internacionalni nauno-struni
skup, Graevinarstvo nauka i praksa, zbornik radova knjiga 1, Strane 463-468,
Univerzitet Crne Gore Graevinski fakultet, abljak 2008
>7@ Doprinos poprenih nosivih zidova seizmikoj otpornosti zidanih zgrada / G.
Simonovi, B. Verbi / Zemljotresno inenjerstvo i inenjerska seizmologija, Zbornik
radova, Strane 127-132, Savez graevinskih inenjera Srbije, Sokobanja 2008
>8@ Nonlinear model of masonry wall, / G. Simonovi, B. Verbi /, International
Scientfic Symposium Modeling of structures, Strane 653-664, University of Mostar,
Mostar 2008
155
.
122
-2 ''''

:
-2 '''' , ,

(
L
= 2.8
4.7) (
L
= 5.4). -
, 7. 13. ,

. -2
.
: , , , ,
SOIL STRUCTURE INTERACTION OF BK-2 BUILDING IN
BANJA LUKA
Summary:
Residential building BK-2 in Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, is a rare example of
an instrumented reinforced concrete building, which was exposed to action of
significant number of small earthquake (M
L
= 2.8 4.7) and to one moderate
earthquake (M
L
= 5.4). The recorded accelerograms in the sub-basement, on the 7
th
and 13
th
floors, make it possible to develop and to verify models for the dynamic
analysis of the response to earthquake shaking. The results of our investigations of
the BK-2 structure are presented in this paper.
Key words: earthquake, soil, structure, interaction, building BK-2, Banja Luka
1
, , , '''', , 62-64,
11000, , .
156
1
,
,
. -,

-, -
. -2 ,
-- ,
.
1972. , '''' 5 -
13- - [1-4].
, -2 ( -2, -2), -
, 1972. ,
[5].
,
. 1973. , -2 , 7.
13. .
1974. 1986.
(
L
= 2.8 4.7) (
L
= 5.4), 13.
1981. . , , 1982. 1983.
, -2
[6].
, 7. 13.

.
-2,
(1) ( ) (2)
( ). (2)

.
(N-S, E-W V)
, .
7. 13.
. : 1.
,

. 2. ,
,
(
L
= 5.4)
[7].
2
-2 ( 1)
. , 17,84
17,84 m. 2,47 m, 12 2,80 m,
157
3,40 m
.
1 -2, '''' ,
( .[12])
2 -2
, 7. 13 .
,
. -4,24 m,
.
158
2
.
4
7

m

+

1
3

x

2
.
8
0

m

=

3
8
,
8
7

m
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
Roof
4 bays @ 4.20 m = 16,80 m
6

x

2
.
8
0

m

=

1
6
,
8
0

m
2
.
4
7

m

+

6

x

2
.
8
0

m

=

1
9
,
2
7

m
N
A B C D E
3
,
4
0

m
1
,
3
5

m
2
,
4
7

m
4
,
2
4

m
SMA-1
SMA-1
SMA-1
1
3

x

2
.
8
0

m

=
3
6
,
4
0

m
2 -2 - (
.[12])
-
, .
15 cm . , , -
(38 38 cm)
159
3 .
22 cm.
.
-
.
() . -
, ,
.
3
-2,
( 1972.
), SAP 2000 10.0.2.
,
.
0.47 m.
, ( )
, 12. -2
( )
( 1972. ),
( 1973. ).
( 1972. )

1972. ,

, . [8].
1972. 0.59% ,
1972. 0.81% .
[8] 40%
N-S 30% E-W .

( 1972. ) :
M
FINAL
= 1.33M
NOSIV
(1)
M
EKSPL
= 1.67M
NOSIV
(2)
K
EKSPL-N-S
= K
FINAL-N-S
= 1.67K
NOSIV-N-S
(3)
K
EKSPL-E-W
= K
FINAL-E-W
= 1.43K
NOSIV-E-W
(4)
-2,
MODEL
NOSIV
, MODEL
FINAL
MODEL
EKSPL
,
. ,

( 3). ,
, -

160
, . , -
- -
, ,

-2.
Depth [m]
0
1.1
4.3
8.2
Vp = 350 m/s, Vs = 150 m/s, = 1.60 g/cm
2
Vp = 690 m/s, Vs = 250 m/s, = 1.80 g/cm
2
Vp = 1400 m/s, Vs = 400 m/s, = 1.85 g/cm
2
Vp = 2150 m/s, Vs = 650 m/s, = 2.00 g/cm
2
Gritty clay
Sandy gravel
Gritty gravel with clay
Marly clay
3 -2 (
.[12])

7. 13.
.

,
, , , .
.

[7], , 10 ,
,
-2 [5,6]
-2 [8-11].
4
4.1 ( 1972. )

E-W N-S
E-W N-S , -
( 5.1 [7]). -

161
, 1972. (PV
JUL72
),
(M
N-E-2
).
4% E-W , 8% N-S 3% ,
42% E-W , 1% N-S 4%
.
E-W
E-W , ,
.

1972. . , ,
M
N-E-2
( 4 5.1 [7]),
M
N-K
( 2 5.1 [7]),
,
[5,6,8-11].
4.2 ( 1972. )

.
E-W N-S a
.
( 5.2 [7]). ,

, 1972.
(PV
72
), (M
F-E-2
).
1% E-W , 5% N-S
2%, 20% E-W , 4% N-S
9% . , ( ),
M
F-E-2
( 4 5.2 [7]),
M
F-K
( 2 5.2 [7]),
,
[5,6,8-11].
4.3 ( 1973. )

.
( ),
.

M
L
= 3.3 4.7 ( 5.4 8 9
[7]).
-
M
L
= 5.4
13. 7. ( 4,)
162

0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00
Time [sec]
-6.00
-5.00
-4.00
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
P
o
m
e
r
a
n
j
e

[
c
m
]
Registrovano pomeranje na 13 spratu, Komp. N-S
Proracunato pomeranje na 13 spratu, Komp. N-S
ZGRADA BK-2, BANJA LUKA
ELASTICAN MODEL NA 1B SLOJ
Emodel = Epocetno, Lamda = 4.5%
Reversno zadate NS i EW, K=Kkonst
ZEMLJOTRES DOGODJEN
13 08 1981 02:58 (GMT)
Ml = 5.4, Edis = 8.4 km
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00
Time [sec]
-6.00
-5.00
-4.00
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
P
o
m
e
r
a
n
j
e

[
c
m
]
Registrovano pomeranje na 7 spratu, Komp. N-S
Proracunato pomeranje na 7 spratu, Komp. N-S
ZEMLJOTRES DOGODJEN
13 08 1981 02:58 (GMT)
Ml = 5.4, Edis = 8.4 km
4 ( ) (
) 13. 7. -2
M
L
= 5.4 N-S ( [7])
( 5.4 10 [7])
.

163
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00
Time [sec]
-6.00
-5.00
-4.00
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
P
o
m
e
r
a
n
j
e

[
c
m
]
Registrovano pomeranje na 13 spratu, Komp. E-W
Proracunato pomeranje na 13 spratu, Komp. E-W
ZEMLJOTRES DOGODJEN
13 08 1981 02:58 (GMT)
Ml = 5.4, Edis = 8.4 km
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00
Time [sec]
-6.00
-5.00
-4.00
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
P
o
m
e
r
a
n
j
e

[
c
m
]
Registrovano pomeranje na 7 spratu, Komp. E-W
Proracunato pomeranje na 7 spratu, Komp. E-W
ZEMLJOTRES DOGODJEN
13 08 1981 02:58 (GMT)
Ml = 5.4, Edis = 8.4 km
4b ( ) (
) 13. 7. -2 M
L
= 5.4 E-W
( [7])
N-S (f = 0.91 Hz) E-W (f
= 1.00 Hz) N-S E-W .
164
>1@ World Housing Encyclopedia Report (country: Yugoslavia) / . //

Earthquake Engineering Research Institute and International Association of
Earthquake Engineering, 2002, Oakland, California, Report 68, http://www.world-
housing.net/.
>2@ -
/ . // , 1982,
, IX, 1, 2-7.
>3@ / . // , 1982, ,
IX, 1, 8-17.
>4@
/ . // , 1982, , IX, 1, 18-25.
>5@ Forced-vibration test of 13 story building in Banja Luka, constructed by the system
IMS-Zezelj / J. Petrovski, D. Jurukvski, S. Perinkov // Institute of Earthquake
Engineering and Engineering Seismology, University Kiril i Metodij, 1975,
Skopj, Report DTL 3-75.
>6@ -2 -4 +12 ,
/ . , . //
, 1983, ,
83-86.
>7@ -2 : / .
// , 2009, , LXIII, 5-6, 189-210.
>8@ Comparison of analytically and experimentally determined dynamic behavior of a
multistory RC building / P. Fajfar, M. auevi, Y. Yaing // Proceedings of the
EUROBUILD 87, 1987, Dubrovnik, 134-139.
>9@ Mathematical model formulation of a fourteen story RC building using motion
recorded and parameter system identification / D. Jurukvski, Lj. Takov, V.
Trajkovski // Proceedings of the 8
th
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
1984, San Francisco, California, Vol. IV, 615-619.
>10@ Zemljotresno inenjerstvo visokogradnja / D. Anii, P. Fajfar, B. Petrovi, A.
Szavis-Nossan // Graevinska knjiga, 1990, Beograd.
>11@

/ . //
, ''. '', 1992, ,
.
>12@ Impulse response analysis of the Borik-2 13-story residential building in Banja Luka
during 20 earthquake 1974-1986) / M. Trifunac, M. Todorovska, M. Mani, B.
Bulaji // University of Southern California, Department of Civil Engineering and
University Ss. Cyril and Methodius, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and
Engineering Seismology (IZIIS), Report CE07-02, 2007, Los Angeles, California.
165
D. umarac
123
, Z. Petrakovi
2 24
KONTROLA OTEENJA I POPRAVKA RADI BEZBEDNOSTI
ZGRADA
Rezime:
Graevinski objekati, naroito zgrade, podloni su oteenjima i ruenju pod
uticajem zemljotresa. Novi DC damper sistem moe poveati otpornost kon-
strukcije i ojaati konstrukciju, ime se omoguava vea stabilnost objekata pod
uticajem seizmikih dejstava. Iskustva za dalji razvoj steena su tokom ekspe-
rimentalnih istraivanja, kao i kroz praksu saniranja vie od 350 oteenih obje-
kata na etiri kontinenta.
Kljune rei: zavareni spoj, elik, nesavrenosti, mikrostrukturna nehomogenost,
servisni uslovi, strukturni integritet
DAMAGE CONTROL AND REPAIR FOR SECURITY OF
BUILDINGS
Summary:
Civil engineeiring object, esspecially buildings, are prone to damage and failure
under earthquake impact. Invented DC Damper System can increase the resistance
and strengthen the construction, enabling tougher behaviour under seismic load.
The experience for next development has been achieved during experimental
research and in practice of repairing more than 350 damaged object on four
continents.
Keywords: welded joint, steel, imperfections, microstructural inhomogeneity,
service condition, structural integrity
INTRODUCTION
Earthquakes are very dangerous impacts on civil engineering structures. It is
practically impossible to understand the behaviour of buildings subjected to the seismic
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering University of Belgrade, Kralja Aleksandra 73, 11000
Belgrade, Serbia e-mail: sumi@eunet.rs
2
Faculty of Civil Engineering
University of Belgrade, Kralja Aleksandra 73, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
e-mail: sumi@eunet.rs
166
loads without essential knowledge of behaviour of the construction members from the view
point of low-cycle fatigue process as well as the complete stability of the construction
during all phases of earthquake activity, because masonry structures are very sensitive to
them. It is well known that those structures have large mass, and consequently, because of
bad cohesion between bricks (stones) and mortar they crack and suffer damage when
exposed to earthquakes, since they cant avoid non linear post elastic condition. Strong
need and desire to find a new effective object protection from seismic loads and realization
of the tougher concrete constructions resulted a new, The DC 90 Construction System
1
and
associate devices, presented in this article.
*To whom correspondence should be addressed: Zoran Petrakovi, Earthquake
engineering innovation center System DC 90, Vele Nigrinove 1, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail: dc90@eunet.yu
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DC 90 CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM
System DC 90 comprises a number of structural elements which strengthen brittle
walls and make them ductile and tough. They make floor slabs and ceilings stiff and
capable to transmit the load in their own plane, and connect them by foundation collars.
These elements make structure stronger to accept the horizontal and vertical loads. This
invention is based on the construction system with damper- absorber which makes the
building structures more resistant and lets them withstand the highest values of earth
tremors through elastic plastic work and plastic deformation (flow) control. The damper
member is tearing in low cyclic fatigue in accordance with engineered values of
accumulated dilatations so that can accept more than three or four high quakes. The
construction is very effective at the masonry objects of historical value, at the modern
nuclear power stations and other objects of any security importance during the life of
structure. The constructions capable to achieve higher level of post elastic non linear
condition (that means higher ductility) are likely to survive the damage that seismic loading
may cause to such structures. Analyzing the behaviour of different type of materials
commonly used for construction building (concrete, bricks, stone, wood, plastics) the
outstanding ductility of steel elements in building constructions is doubtless. The need to
provide deformation control that due to the inadmissibly large deformation scale may cause
the destruction of the elements or total structure collapse was particularly considered.
The essence of the new device (damper-absorber) is to provide an accurate and
controlled elastic-plastic work. The most important parameters that define the damper
construction and its properties are shown in Figs. 1 to 3, where , present stress, strain,
and P, force, displacement, respectively. It can be seen the damper behaviour under
cyclic activity through time, which depends on the following factors: accumulated strain,
frequency, cycle number and damper properties, defined by model testing in the laboratory
for dynamic testing
2
.
Special contribution represents the inovative design Damper DC 90. It is protected
by patent in U.S.A.
3
and awarded by Gold Medail in Bruxels. Damper is involved as a part
of vertical stiffener elements, and thanks controlled fatigue defines position of plastic
hinges, instant of its initiation, intensity of force and deformation, and their control,
167
affecting structure behaviour in seismic condition. The DC 90 Construction System defines
the points for DC Damper installation and the parameters of low-cycle fatigue.
The hard work from inventing and innovating to testing and final realization of the
technology all over four continents contribute to the understanding of new technology. The
permanent innovation of the device and technological process, model testing and in-situ
testing as well as technology transfer are of the significant importance.
Pecularity of damper design is the middle part shape (dog bone)3, with finished
surface to eliminate surface cracks and prevent undercuts. By three limit rings snd one
movable ring it controls displacement at predetirmened length of controlled low cycle
fatigue due to effect of variable sesmic loading, and by reduction of cross section the load
intensity is controlled. Local buckling stability of pressed elements is achieved by special
elements. In this way it is possible to locate and control the position of plastic hinge.
Changing system stifness and dynamic characteristics of the structure its operation is
controlled.
Three diagrams show the ability of the System DC 90 Damper design.
The principal feature of the hysteresis loop diagram force vs. displacement (Fig. 1)
is the possibility of deformation control.
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
-5,0 -4,0 -3,0 -2,0 -1,0 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
Displacement [mm]
F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]
Figure 1. Hysteresis loops diagram force vs. displacement of System DC 90 Damper
Diagram displacement vs. number of cycles (Fig. 2) shows a very good damper
performance even at high number of cycles. It is also obvious that accumulated strain
increase with decreasing number of cycles to collapse. This feature is used to determine the
damper dimensions and application field.
Energy increases with increasing accumulated strain, but decreasses with number
of cycles to collapse of damper, as presented in diagram in Fig. 3.
4
168
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
N
o
of cycles
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
m
]
-20000
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
N
o
of cycles
E
n
e
r
g
y

[
k
N
m
m
]
Figure 2. Diagram displacement vs.
number of cycles
Figure 3. Energy decreasses with number
of cycles to collapse of damper
NUMERICAL MODELLING OF BUILDING AND ITS
VERIFICATION
Earthquakes are more dangerous impact on civil engineering structures, and
masonry structures are sensitive to them. It is known that those structures have large mass,
and because of very bad cohesion between bricks (stones) and mortar they suffer damage
by cracking under the effect of earthquakes.
Development of numerical model
Addtional contribution to the System DC 90 Damper design is obtained by finite
elements (FE) modelling of building. It is necessary for retrofitting by DC 90 technology of
damaged building. Testing of specified dampers, including vibro platform, was performed
in order to verify obtained models
Typical damage of two store building made from bricks and mortar is presented in Fig.
4, showing that cracks grow in direction of cross diagonals started from openings (windows,
doors). The building is modeled by shell FE (Fig. 5)
5
.
Figure 4. Damage of two store building Figure 5. Building modelled by shell FE
169
The earthquake is represented by El Centro response
6
. The analysis, performed for
two directions of earthquake effect, shows that the largest tensile stresses, responsible for
cracking, occur between holes (Fig. 6).
The building design was strengthened, and new model is presented in Fig. 7.
Vertical elements - walls are strengthened by vertical stiffeners that connect all
horizontal slabs and the foundation. Vertical stiffeneers trussess consist of the vertical
ties, which are pre-stressed, and the other elements are diagonals with the seismic energy
absorber and horizontals as a part of stiff floor slabs. Walls strengthened in this way
become tough and capable to accept the alternative horizontal dynamic displacements.
If horizontal element are not stiff in their own plane, floor slabs and ceilings are
being strengthened by impregnation with a thin, lightly reinforced, concrete slab or
incorporating horizontal bracings, connected with the vertical stiffeners.
Figure 6. Position of largest tensile stresses Figure 7. FE model redesigned building
The foundation structure is confined with the foundation collar, connected by
anchors and in which the vertical stiffening elements are anchored.
Testing of dampers
Produced dampers for DC 90 system (Fig. 8) were tested by variable loading on
MTS servo-hydraulic closed-loop machine (Fig. 9) in Military Technical Institute (VTI),
Belgrade
7
. Obtained hysterezis loop diagram is given in Fig. 10.
170
Figure 8.Typical dampers of DC 90 system Figure 9. Damper testing on MTS machine
Figure 10. Hysteretis loop diagram obtained by testing of dampers
Analysing of diagrams force-displacement one can conclude that clasic low cycle
fatigue is in question. During operation, in displacement control, permanent plastic defor-
mations appear, or in another words, with increasing number of cycles material weakeneds
and maximum force reduces: when force decreases for the same deflection, material is
weaker. For smaller displacement, number of cycles needed for failure is greater
8
. This is
not classical failure of the sample, this is above all weakening of the sample.
Testing of retrofit and non-retrofit objects
Experimental testing on non-retrofit and retrofit object in Mionica, Serbia (Fig.
11), performed by Institute for earthquake engineering and engineering seismology
(IZIIS)
9
, Skopje, by methods of ambient and forced vibrations, have shown that dominant
frequencies of built objects are within the range of 6-8 Hz, while after retrofit stiffness
raises up to approximately 35%.
171
Figure 11. Experimental testing of building
TESTING by QUASIDYNAMIC LOADING of HOLLOW BLOCKS
WALL
Figure 12 presents testing by quasidynamic loading of experimental two store
wall, made of hollow blocks 19x19x25, framed by girders, as classical solution, (left), as
strengthened according to DC 90 system (midlle) and during testing. after few cycles(right):
for displacement 10 mm of console top point, extended flaws of 8-10 mm appeared in the
first area from the point of force application. In the area to the wall constraint, cracks
typical for dominant bending stresses appeared
10
.
Initial shear stiffness was E
s-start
= 60/6 = 10 kN/mm; after few cycles for deflection
of about 30 mm, it decreased to E
s-end
= 9/6 = 1.5 kN/mm. This multiple decrease of wall
stiffness can be considered as a collapse of the wall and whole building.
Figure 12. Two-store wall model, before retrofit, after retrofit and during testing
Shear stiffness at testing of strengthened - retrofitted wall was initially
E
s
= 20/3.5 = 5.7 kN/mm, and later it slightly decreased, mostly due to yield of lower
anchorage tie, and then it rised up again. That leads to the conclusion that anchorage must
be done properly, and that quality control of performed works must be done.
Wall behaves much tougher at cyclic loading. For loading of 60 kN, for top
displacement of 25 mm far less cracks occurred, with openings 2 to 3 mm.
Tested stiffener has carrying capacity for larger deformation, shows sufficient
durability and probably can, as part of the vertical stiffening frame, preserve the building
during increasing deflections and keep it from collapse, making the building safer during
172
earthquake, especially if building is built without girders. Described testing was performed
in the Institute for material testing (IMS), Belgrade.
SHAKING TABLE TEST OF A wall MODEL
Exerimental research of models (1/10) of masonry walls strengthened by DC 90
system was performed with shaking table (Fig. 13) in the Dynamic Testing Laboratory of
Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology (IZIIS)
11
in Skopje,
Macedonia. Three models have been constructed in scale 1/10, with length of 30 cm, height
of 25 cm and thickness of 3.5 cm, made of gitter bricks, of plane burned bricks and of plane
dried bricks. Each type of model was made as conventional and as strengthened by DC 90
System.
Model 1. Hollow brick Model 2. Burned brick Model 3. Dried brick
Figure 13. Shaking table test of a wall model
The single component shaking table has been used to test the models under
harmonic excitation within the frequency range of 1.0-100 Hz and amplitude range (0-10)
g. The idea was to compare dynamic behavior of traditional and strengthening method of
construction for the same bricks type, and also to compare the effect of brick type on
dynamic behavior of the models.
The testing program consists of several phases:
- Definition of resonant frequencies
- Definition of elastic response of the models, comparing non-strengthened and
strengthened models
- Determination of limit state and fracture mechanism
Result of testing are presented in Table 1. The calculated stiffness should be
related to the scale factor 1/10 to obtain the actual stiffness of the real wall element. The
results have clearly shown increasing of stiffnesss of walls by f the elements of System DC
90.
Table 1. Calculated lateral stiffness of the models, kN/cm
Type of the model Strengthened model Non - strengthened.model
Model 1- hollow brick 35.53 24.75
Model 2- burned brick 19.95 10.49
Model 3- dried brick 6.48 4.40
173
From numerical analysis performed during this study and from experimental
results it can be concluded that System DC 90 is powerful tool for engineers to solve
problems of retrofitting of damaged structures. Since this system is cheap, fast and
applicable outside, it can be applied properly for earthquake regions, as it is done in
Kolubara region, Serbia, and in Algeria.
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION OF DC 90 SYSTEM
Thanks to your attractive performance, DC 90 System became very popular. It has
been successfuly applied on 4 continents: America, Africa, Asia and. Europe, Most
interesting applictions will be shortly presented.
Wall construction in hall of Bornuda Hydroelectric Power Station,
Quebec, Canada
The wall construction of the engineering hall at Bornuda Hydroelectric Power
Station in Quebec, Canada highlights some basic properties of applied Mionica+ type
damper. The designed damper construction was tested at VTI, Belgrade, and as presented
wall model testing at IZIIS, Skopje
12
. Numerous testing of more than 50 specimens were
conducted at Civil Engineerinf Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia, and VTI, Belgrade.
The estimated seismic loading of 0.20 g and frequent appearance of minor quakes
at the area of large hydroelectric objects in Quebec region, Canada, motivated the
HydroQuebec company to analytically approach the problem of damage risk estimation
as far as companys objects are concerned. Numerous detailed tests of materials and
constructions, model testing and numeric analyses were conducted to cover the topic. The
numeric analyses were made by Canadian, Britain and Indian expert teams, dynamic model
testing was executed by means of the vibrating platform at IZII, Skopje, and dynamic
testing of objects by ambient vibration method was made in Canada. All these events
precede the damper model testing at VTI, Belgrade
Numeric modeling
Numeric modeling of damper performance designed for wall construction of
engineering hall at Boauharnois Hydroelectric Power Station in Canada is made on the
base of following elements of stress strain curve ( )
13
.
a. Initial elasticity module to linear elastic limit E
o
=20.000 kN/cm
2
(that is valid
for strain values up to = 0.0011 and stress values up to o = 22 kN/cm
2
.
b. Elasticity module at yielding limit E
1
= 4.333 KN/cm
2
(up to = 0.0060 and o =
26 kN/cm2). As number of cycles and frequency increase (strain/sec), the elasticity module
decreases due to accumulated strain. For strain range from 0.0011 to 0.0060 stress values of
initial phase vary from 22 to 26 kN/cm
2
, it is about yield limit. It can be presented by any
approximate curve. However, for simplification this is done by means of COSMOS
software as a bilinear curve.
174
c. Elasticity module (actually, it is a curve slope in plastic regiime operation of the
damper) E
2
= 120 kN/cm
2
(for > 0,006 and o = 26-32 kN/cm
2
). As number of cycles and
frequency increase, the elasticity module increases.
The values of E
1
and E
2
elasticity module depend on:
- cycle number;
- accumulated strain;
- values of accumulated strain through time.
The Cofn-Manson relation is given as:
p
N
f
= C
1
1 p f
N C
o
c A =
where
p
is the cyclic plastic strain range (accumulated strain), N
f
is the number
of cycles to failure, and C
1
and are material constants. The exponent usually varies
between 0.5 to 0.7, and depends on whether torsion or axial loading is in question. The
constant C
1
is defined from damper serial test.
The Palmgren-Miner cumulative damage rule proposes that:
n/ N
f
= (n
1
/N
f1
) + (n
2
/N
f2
) + ........ = 1.0
1
1 0
k
i
i i
n ( t )
D( t ) .
N
=
= s _
where n
1
is the number of cycles at the stress or strain range level 1, and N
f1
is the
number of cycles to failure at that stress or strain range, etc. The problem of low-cycle
fatigue and operation of damper in large strain range up to 5% can be presented by numeric
methods, but bilinear relation would be quite enough for the analysis with elementary work
through time improvements.
General information on applied DC90 Damper performance
Bilinear stress - strain curve of the damper (the approximation of damper
operation can be presented by bilinear stressstrain curve, it is valid for the ascendant curve
and E
2
curve). The slope of the ascendant curve decreases depending upon the number of
cycles and accumulated strain according to the Cofn-Manson law (the function of two
coefficients: the number of cycles N
f
and the value of accumulated strain
p
).
If it is necessary to limit the displacement, for example, by 5 mm that corresponds
to the maximum strain of 5%, then it is possible, accordingly to calculate the average slope
of the ascendant curve. The slope of the E
2
curve for this type of damper is 3-10% of the
ascendant curve slope, obtained by experiments.
The consideration of frequency effect additionally complicates the diagram.
DC 90 Damper works in plastic area at 100 mm weakening length. So, the pipe,
having a size of 16x1 mm, should be weakening by two longitudinal cuts of 7 mm long.
The pipe surface is P = 0, 50 cm
2
. The surface of the weaken cross-section is P -
2x0.7x0.1=0.36 cm
2
. As damper design prevents lateral bending and local buckling by
means of external and internal elements built into the pipe (micro reinforced polymer
concrete and pipe covered by aluminum foil). The overall weakening length of the damper
should be covered by plastics. It is ca 100 mm. To simplify the matter one can consider the
average values of strain and stress for overall weakening length, i.e. the length that works in
175
plastic zone. Besides, to sustain the fatigue (low cycle fatigue) the surface of the pressed
part should be removed to exclude the possibility of any local or surface cracks (damages).
The damper is made of flexible structural steel of high ductility produced by US
Steel company (Smederevo, Serbia). All the dampers should be made of the steel of same
composition of guaranteed mechanical characteristics. There is a variety of steel
compositions with different tensile properties, but no one is beyond the guaranteed value.
The initial part of curve slope (E elasticity module) should be at standard level,
as well as yielding limit. But in this case the E
2
curve, as well as total strain increase that
provides damper effects (behaviour) at low cycle fatigue. The deformation is controlled by
distance control elements (rings). The lead addition affects the reduction of stroke and
brittle fracture as well as damper behaviour and work
Anyway, the above described design is supposed to provide high strain
(accumulated strain) during numerous large earthquakes.
The object of the research is to learn how to manage the materials crystal grid
disarrangement and to arrange it at the length of 100 mm. In real products the
disarrangement is concentrated on the small areas and cant be controlled at plastic hinge
area. Such method of the deformation control can be used in design made of reinforced
concrete (frames), steel or other systems.
Residency of Finland Ambassador in Algeria, Africa
The detailed research of construction condition, as well as a non linear dynamic
analysis and seismic strengthening of the object were conducted to meet the requirements
of Ministry of Foreign Affaires
14
. Intensive technological research was made during
realization of the object.
The realization of the object was aimed to investigate the technological process in
aspect of promotions humanization, economical realization and modifying or simplifying
construction solutions of the system in this work.
Principle features of the object
Object dimensions: 27.00x17.75x13.02m
Number of floors: basement, ground-floor, first floor, second floor, tower.
Walls: made of stone d = 80cm.
Inter-storey structure: Steel bracings I180 with bow of bricks (h = 40cm)
Foundation: stone wall, d=80cm
176
The view of the object during repairing action is presented in Fig. 14.
Figure 14. View of residency of Finland ambassador in Algeria under retrofitting
Technology and process features
Weight of steel elements: 3552 kg
Total number of dampers-absorbers is 41 pieces, consisting of 18 pieces of type
Algeria, 19 of type Mionica and 4 of 30 (4).
Total number of displacement compensators: 29
Total number of wall connectors: 59
Duration of cracks and splits repairing - from 21.11. to 28.11.2006, duration of
object strengthening from 06.12.2006 to 30.12.2006.
Total time spent on cracks and splits repairing: 553 hours.
Total time spent on construction strengthening: 2280 hours.
Working hours: 10 hours per day with eventual breaks caused by rain.
Engaged experts staff included 2 civil engineers, 1 interpreter, 4 metal structure
experts, 6 experts in erection and construction, 1 assistant, the cook.
Equipment. Classic pipe scaffolding, movable aluminum scaffolding, diamond
saw for wall cutting Stihl, drilling hand tools Bosch and Hilty, injecting pump,
electric arc welding equipment, concrete mixers, dozers and digital weighing machines,
equipment for control and measurements and necessary small instruments and appiencies.
Technologies applied on the object
Vertical wall bracings with dampers.
Horizontal tension of inter-storey structure by means of displacement
compensators - time deformations.
Vertical tension of the tower by means of damper and displacement compensators
through time.
Wall connectors at the positions of wall conjunction to preserve wall integrity and
avoid separation.
177
The conclusions made after technological research and analysis
The technological problems of high noise and huge amount of dust during wall
cutting is solved applying hydraulic machines with diamond saws and dust aspirators.
Alternative solution is moistering the surface during wall cutting.
The problem in construction, significant wall destruction after cutting procedure,
particularly refered to Algeria type of diagonal bracings, 100 mm, had been solved by
applying all bracing members (vertical, horizontal, diagonal) made of filled steel elements
(pipes) of square or round cross-section of minimal dimension 20 mm.
The technology of concrete pressing should be used. The concrete must have an
adequate consistence (WK).
Design solutions
The system should be based on the following assumption:
1. All the members (vertical, horizontal, diagonal) have filled square or round
cross-section. The construction members can be built inside or outside the walls with
specially designed details which provide the connection between walls and construction
elements.
2.The connection details should be typified and unified.
3.The life span of all steel elements is of great importance. The problem will be
studied by the experts in technology and structural integrity and life. All the conclusions
and recommendations gathere in this activity were taken into consideration during the
Azerbaidjan President Residence rehabilitation project.
Azerbaidjan President Residence, baku, Azerbaidjan, Asia
SERBAS Company, Baku, applied the DC 90 System technology to provide
seismic strengthening and protection of the Azerbaidjan President Residence building in
Baku
15
. In Fig. 15 are designed the location of applied retrottit action.
The results of the technological research conducted in Algeria contributed much to
technology promotion and elimination of all unfavourable observations during realization
of project in Baku.
(konceptualno resenje)
-1.03
600 2600 1280 2600 860
250 220
2600 640 880 1080 2600 1080 957
262
2600 850
245 190
2600 1330 2560
170
501
499 180
930 2385 875
170
900 990 1140 2515 1270
3131
2980
1550
3020
570 268
0.00
-1.42
1.05
1.15
0.07
401
1569
1200
5798 6707
2321
4974 1580
93
247
1240 1510 710 880 1600 1550 1610 740 210
580 1500 1640
245
4600 1530 720 1000 600 3320 612
900 760
0.25
730
6257
1500
738
4738
860
2900
6318
1550
630
8498
6328
1500
670
4380
3344
775 1789
2400
4310
900
5200
910
3120
550 3320 2320 1530 5050 900 535 1500 3140 1550 3190 1510
380
3450
2904
2993
650 1350 1385 2760 9050 900 8920 3300 550
1070
2895
1400
2370
1430
5200
902
3110
895
1225
728
1620 2760 1385 1350 850
204
324 3535
300
1000 1902 1220
300 159
3861 920
400
2360 1070 2930 1070 2270
210
862
250
811 2070 1730
16117
16060 6432
5784
13787
13753
7603
6976
5562
4322
7101
11631 10530
10787
8317
-0.15
6330
2420
R3394
6780
2566
3347
542
950
598
250
383
1580
270
240
816
2202
2106
327 1243
357
856 250
8498
2781 1080 920
490
1560 1730 2610 1560 2600 882 799 3800
420
0.00
-0.20
3657
525
100
871
536
540
560
3147
800
3277
500
400 2360 1070 2930 1070 2270
210
862 250
1001
1160
950
1237
4300
1090
1970
4936
2310
1381
1319
570
960
560
250 286
3088
1505
3038
855 380
1520
1530
400
3793
3320
1040
2631
1119
3554
1550 7701260
1540
410
4553
6976
7117
7576
8273
1053
653
2598
1 333
2587
6 20
605
320 1340 1100 2800
2800
6770
10252
10455
400
1580
350
39 22
1511
870
11519
974
30 02
287 810 2622
377
850
5109
2266 900
1061
4492
1069
6781
886
2421
850
880
1580
970
340 1160
920
2451 4558
358
124 2
32 7
856 250
270
1580
240
1910
280
3566
873
2680
4043
2417
973
210
890
210
1070
320
511
1420
730
1379
790
2940 500 600 600 572 4284
1 8 5 3
3 2 1 0
7 4 0
3 1 0
9 9 4
3 65
7 90
5 00
11 2 0
51 0
7 9 0
3 6 0 2860 1390 1970 1 59 0
1 3 4 0
1 51 0
522 954 4631
7546 7638
1 1 5 9
7 4 0
2 8 2
1987
2084
2061 865 2030
16 52
2053 508
1618
681
351 334
1400
1210
1360
3 281
197
802
1180
38 0
370 2796 314
0.00
? 1:100.
1 2 0 65
640 2930 1070 2280
210
900
162 698
2637
198
3195 1107 1530 996
3339
159
2565
1651 800
1112
1160
1163
697
1935
901
1370
830
960
436
901 337 781
2595
760 175 1181
P I
P I
5
A
6 7 8 9
4
1
B
V
G
3
R - II
P III
R - II
P III
2
- VI
R - VI
R - V
R - V
P IV
P IV
3800
DJ
D Y
9,5
3500
Y
9,A
. X J
. X D,J
J
.
Y
7,5
. X 6,5
polozaj horizontalnog utezanja
polozaj vertikalnih ukrucenja
L E G E N D A
B<3,2 m
TIP "K"
B>3,2 m
TIP "D"
vertikalno ukrucenje
damper "BAKU" damper "BAKU"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
"D" "D"
. XY 1
2795
XY 1`
3170
.
XY 2
.
3550
. X
Y
1-2
X
Y
1-2
3 860
3307
.
.
5453
4976
X
Y
5-6
X B,5-6
.
Y
5,A
-B 5 2 8 5
.
6496
X B,8
5640
Y
XY1
XY2
XY7 1
2
3 4
6
5
8
9
7
10
11 12 13
XY8
XY3
XY4
XY5
XY6
XY9
XY10
XY11
XY12
XY13
XY14
XY15
XY16
XY17
XY18
XY19
XY20
XY21
XY22
XY23
XY24
XY25
XY26
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22 23 24 25 26
27
28 29
30
31 32
33
34 35 36 37 38
39
40
41
42 43
44 45
46
47
48 49
50 51 52 53 54
55
8093
300 80
800 800
800 800
parket 2,5 cm
AB ploca 6,0 cm drvene grede 30/8 cm
drvene grede 30/8 cm
dascana oplata 2,5 cm
plafon 2,0 cm
?????? V-V.
? 1:100.
0.00
5.90
0.00
5.90
0.00
5.90
0.25
4.58
5.48 5.48
0.00
3.70
3.95
6.45 6.45
7.35
16.68
11.55
15.80
15.58
15.20
18.90
10.25
0.00
5.90
6.45
12.50
13.05 13.05
17.06
23.10
23.73
26.12
27.60
28.41
32.27
34.36
36.38
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
H=6,45 m
B<3,2 m
TIP "K" B>3,2 m
TIP "D"
vertikalno ukrucenje verical bracings
(konceptualno resenje) conceptual solucion
"D"
damper "BAKU"
vertikalno ukrucenje X B,8
.
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
.
vertikalno ukrucenje X B,5-6
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
damper "BAKU"
"D"
"D"
damper "BAKU"
damper "BAKU"
.
vertikalno ukrucenje XY 1-2
Figure 15. The locations of applied retroffitting on the Azerbaidjan President
Residence
178
Some examples of application of DC 90 System in Europe.
In Serbia, Montenegro and Slovenia many retrofitting projects have been realized
on different objects, mostly on the family houses (Fig.11). In January 2001 DC 90 System
Innovation center accepted an order for experimental strengthening of the six different
objects damaged by earthquake in Kolubara region (Fig. 4). The objects are situated in the
area of Ljig place.
After detailed experimental verification the technology was promptly apply to
rehabilitate 350 objects in six municipalities in trussed (critical) Kolubara region in Serbia.
The experimental reconstruction of house (property Lazi) and object strengthening by
applying DC 90 System technology are presented in Fig. 16.
16
Figure 16. Experimentally reconstructed house, Lazi property (left) and strenghten
object (right)
PROJECT PROHITECH
The project PROHITECH is a Euro-Mediterranean project aimed to provide an
earthquake protection of historical objects. It is leaded by Prof. F. M. Macovani from
Naples University, who invited the Innovation Centre for Seismic Engineering, Belgrade, to
participate in research and cooperation programs. Other participants in the projects are
institutes and universities from Israel, Ljubljana, Naples, Timisoara, Athens and Barcelona.
The DC 90 System technology was analyzed and tested in six WP projects
PROHITECH. The participants of the project are from Italy, Greece, Portugal, Morocco,
Romania, Macedonia, Belgium, Slovenia, Turkey, Israel, Egypt and Algeria.
As far as the research is under way the results are presented without any analysis
or comment. That type of damper was tested within PROHITECH Euro-Mediterranean
project with participation of twelve European and Mediterranean countries and fourteen
Institutes, Faculties and Research Centers.
DISCUSSION
It is well known for a long time that people always wish to preserve their buildings
from destructions caused by earthquake as beyond any doubt the most priceless heritage.
The process of creation, innovation and implementation of the invention in how to save or
retrofit the integrity of building enabled to apply with succss new damper system all over
179
the world (America, Africa, Asia and Europe). The invention as human creation is
generated and developed in accordance with the needs of its author at first and other users
afterwards.
It is reasonable here to cited the reflexion about his topic of great scientist Nikola
Tesla, probably the most brilliant inventor born. Invention is a crown of intellect. The
development of human kind is substantially depended on the invention, as most important
product of the creative brain. Final goal of human kind is to master the nature by intellect
and expoatation of its power for mankind needs. Nikola Tesla recognised well that science
cant be realised by mathematics alone, since the facts appropriate for demonstration by
symbolised process are minor and of less significance compared to great truth gathered by
experience.
It is not possible to imagine development of mechanics without knowledge of
substance essence of matter and physical fields (electrical, magnetic, gravity), mot only on
macro, but also at micro and nano level, and also beyond. Beyond is always present. It is
difficult to explain how at the end of infinity there is also next point, and how it is possible
to divide infinitesimal value on two, so is impossible to predict development of mechanics
and its un foreseeable capacity. In that sense we are prone to think that presented simple
innovation is a contribution in mastering the nature. In same category belongs the
development and implementation of new materials and structures, in this moment ended by
nano structures.
New design of dampers will ask for mew, more tougher material, and in the scope
of science and invention, this topic is steadily present.
CONCLUSION.
Considering the performed researches and investigation it became clear that the
system for object seismic strengthening needs to be innovated continuously. The
innovations should cover the areas of design of new systems, technology, and numeric
modeling as well as.
The analysis at levels of crystal grid disarrangement and inter-atoms connections
weakening, and even beyond that, determines the materials behaviour in non-elastic zone
are f major importance. It can stimulate the discovery of completely different materials or
structural members that react properly at seismic loads.
As far as bridge construction is concerned the investigations should be directed by
numeric analysis that can provide necessary damper performances (stress, strain and force,
displacement relations).
For special objects (nuclear power stations) the investigation should be made in
the same direction according to the design schemes, necessary damper performances should
be obtained by the numeric analysis.
The prior numeric and experimental damper behaviour investigations should be
continued to guarantee the adequate numeric model invention.
It is undoubtedly that further innovations will give numerous original and bettre
solutions of constructions and damper device designed for different building structures. The
technological research of the process conducted at experimental and exhibited objects is
one of the strategies of the DC 90 System Innovation Centre for Seismic Engineering.
180
After completion and equipping the laboratory for model innovation investigations
and organizing the international research coperation the step with permanent creation of
innovation and inventions willbe assured.
The loss of fracture ductility during the low-cycle fatigue process was investigated
from the viewpoint of the existence of small surface cracks. The relationship between the
growth of small cracks and the residual fracture strength during the low-cycle fatigue of
70/30 brass was investigated. The crucial cause for the loss of fracture ductility was
elucidated on the basis of microscopic observations. The results are summarised as follows:
1. The low-cycle fatigue process in an annealed medium carbon steel (0.46% C
steel) was almost 100% dominated by the growth process of a single crack. In an extreme
case, microcrack initiation was observed on the surface of a plain specimen during the rst
stress cycle.
2. The previous history of fatigue practically has no effect on fatigue damage and
hardly effects the subsequent growth of very small surface cracks.
3. The fracture ductility loss during the low-cycle fatigue was investigated from
the aspect of small surface cracks existence rather than historical comprehension of so
called fatigue damage phenomenon. If the surface of the fatigued specimen is removed by
machine turning and thereafter by electro-polishing to exclude the possibility of any surface
cracks there is no sign of the fracture ductility loss. In case of plain specimens the fracture
ductility loss becomes obvious only when the relative number of cycles (N/N
f0
) exceeds 0.6.
On the other hand, in case of holed specimens the critical number of cycles (N/N
f0
) is lower
in comparison with the plain specimens. Taking into consideration so obtained
experimental evidence the conclusion has been derived that the fracture ductility loss
during low cycle fatigue damage is caused by the existence of fatigue cracks on the
specimen surface.
4. After the material constants C
1
and are determined the DC 90 System
Damper behaviour obeysin satisfactory way both, the Cofn-Manson law and the
Palmgren-Miner rule.
REFERENCES:
[1] Z Petraskovic, Seismic Strengthening and protection of objects, Monograf
Sistem DC 90, Belgrade, 2005.
[2] Z.Petraskovic, D umarac, M. Anelkovi, S. Miladinovi, M.Trajkovi,
Retrofitting Damaged Masonry Structures by Technology DC 90, Journal of the society for
structural integrity and life, Belgrade, 2005, p. 59-71.
[3] Patent in USA No.10/555,131 from 31.10.2005, patent in Australia No. AU
2003254327A1 FROM 2004.11.23.
[4] Petrakovi, Z., Miladinovi, S., umarac, D., Technology of seismic
strengthening of masonry structures by applying vertical ties and diagonals with seismic
energy absorber System dc 90, International conference on earthquake engineering,
Parallell Session, Topic: Retrofit of structures, p T6-9, August-september 2005.
[5] D umarac, Z.Petraskovic, M. Maksimovi, S. Miladinoi, I.Duklevcki, N.
Triovi, Seismic Retrofit of masonry structures applzing vertical braces with dampers
181
Sistem DC 90 and newly designed wall buildings, Internacionalni nauni skup, abljak
Crna Gora, 2006, p. 373-381.
[6] The earthquake response, Institute IZIIS, Skoplje, Makedonia, 2005, p. 13-33.
[ 7] D. umarac, Z.Petraskovic, M. Maksimovi, S. Miladinoi, J.Petrakovi,
Structure Retrofit for residental house of Finlands Ambassador in Algier, Internacionalni
nauni skup, abljak Crna Gora, 2006, p. 367-373.
[8] Z. Petraskovic, .Petrakovi, from the anty-seismic dc 90 damper invencion
to its implementacion all over four continents, Internacionalni nauni skup, abljak Crna
Gora, 2008, p. 433-439.
[9] Tashkov, Lj., Manic, M., Petrashkovich, Z., Folich, R., Bulajich, B.:
Experimental verification of dynamic behavior of System DC 90 under seismic
conditions, Belgrade 2003.
[10] Takov Lj, Mani M, Shaking table test of a brick-masonry models in scale
1/10, strengthened by DC 90 System, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering
Seismology, University" Ss. Cyril and Methodius", Skopje, Republic of Macedonia,
Skopje, May 2004
[11] 20. Tashkov, Lj., Manich, M., Petrashkovich, Z.: Vibroplatform testing of
brick- masonry models strengthened by System DC 90 in 1:10 ratio, JGDK Symposion,
Vrnyachka Banya, 29.09. 01.10.2004.
[12] Mazzolani, F., Petraskovich, Z.: Sixth Framwork Program, Priority FP6-
2002-INCO-MPC-1, Erthquake Protection of Historical Buildings by Reversible Mixed
Technologies PROHITECH, WP6, Naples, 2004-2007.
[13] Petraskovich Z., Sumarac, D., Miladinovic, S., Trajkovic, M., Andjelkovic,
M., Trisovic, N.: Absorbers of seismic energy for damaged masonry structures,
Alexandropoulos,ECF 16, World Association for Structure Integrity. 2006.
[14] Lj. Takov, L.Krstavska, Z., Exparimental testing and strenthening of
president palace in Alzir by DC 90 System, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and
Engineering Seismology, University" Ss. Cyril and Methodius", Skopje, Republic of
Macedonia, Skopje, May 2005.
[15] Lj. Takov, L.Krstavska, Z. Petraskovic, Exparimental testing and
strenthening of president palace in Baku by DC 90 System, Internacionalni nauni skup,
abljak Crna Gora, 2008, p. 475-481.
183
Zoran Petrakovi
125
HISTEREZISNO PONAANJE KONSTRUKCIJE ELINIH DAMPERA
U POLJU ZAMORA ZEMLJOTRESNIM OPTEREENJEM VRLO
MALOG BROJA CIKLUSA
Rezime:
Niskociklini zamor se razmatra teoretski i eksperimentalno pomou koncepta
mehanike loma. Posebna se panja posveuje takozvanom zamoru sa vrlo malim
brojem ciklusa, u skladu sa istraivanjima Jean Lemaitre Razumevanje ponaanja
graevinskih konstrukcija, na dejstva zemljotresa je praktino nemogue bez
poznavanja ponaanja materijala i elemenata konstrukcije u procesu nisko-
ciklinog zamora. Nain propagacije inicijalnih prslina i nain naruavanja meu-
atomske veze materijala usled ciklinog dejstva, uz poznvavanje naina narua-
vanja stabilnosti elemenata konstrukcije bitno determiniu ponaanje konstrukcije
kao celine u zemljotresnim uslovima. Analiziraju se i utvruju parametri koji
definiu
histerezisni ponaanje elinog Dampera.
Kljune rei: histeresis, mehanika loma, damper, zamor
HYSTERESIS BEHAVIOR OF STEEL DAMPERS CONSTRUCTION IN
FATIGUE ZONE UNDER EARTHQUAKE LOADING OF EXTREMLY
LOW NUMBER OF CYCLES
Summary:
Low cycle fatigue can be revealed theoretically or by experimental evidence by
means of fracture mechanics concept. Special attention is devoted to so called low
cycle fatigue according to Jean Lemaitre investigation. It is practically impossible
to understand the behavior of the construction structures under the earthquake
loading without adequate comprehension of material and construction members
behavior under low cycle fatigue. The propagation of initial cracks caused by low-
cycle fatigue and the disturbance of the stability of the interatomic relations of the
material define the behavior of the construction in whole under earthquake
loading. All the parameters that define the hysteresis behavior of the steel damper
should be established and analyzed.
Key words: hysteresis, fracture mechanics, damper, fatigue
1
lan SAIN, dipl. gra. in., SISTEM DC 90, Beograd
184
UVOD
Fenomen niskociklinog zamora karakterie mali broj ciklusa i velike amplitude
dilatacija u plastinoj oblasti. Visokocilini zamor karakterie veliki broj ciklusa, obino
preko 10
5
i male amplitude dilatacija u elestinoj oblasti.
Niskociklini zamor karakterie broj ciklusa koji se obino kree u granicama
izmeu 10
2
i 10
4
. Nivo napona se kree oko granice teenja u elastinom i plastinom delu.
Od velikog je interesa za zemljotresno ininjerstvo razmatrati ponaanje materijala u polju
vrlo malog broja ciklusa, kao to i govore istraivanja od Dufailly i Lemaitre [1]. Broj
ciklusa se kree od svega par ciklusa do oko 100. Plastine dilatacije su vrlo velike kao i
plastini rad. Ovaj fenomen je vrlo znaajan za potrebe konstruisanja metalnih dampera u
konstrukcijama izloenih zemljotresnim uticajima. Tada se locira i kontrolie mesto zamora
materijala. Ni jedna graevinska konstrukcija ne moe opstati bez troenja energije u
plastinoj oblasti. U koliko bi se taj fenomen eleo izbei sa namerom da konstrukcije rade
samo elastino kao posledicu imali bi smo predimenzionsane i skupe konstrukcije. Dobro
poznavanje fenomena zamora u malom broju ciklusa je od presudnog znaaja za opstanak
konstrukcija u zemljotresnim uslovima, (11), (12).
ZAMOR MATERIJALA U VRLO MALOM BROJU CIKLUSA I
PRIMENA NA METALNIM DAMPERIMA U ZEMLjOTRESNOM
OPTEREENJU TEORETSKE ANALIZE I EKSPERIMENTALNI
REZULTATI TESTA ISTRAIVANjA NA MODELIMA.
Manson-Coffin zakon iz 1955:
( )
f p
N C
c = A (1)
je sa nekoliko parametra definisao ponaanje materijala na zamor u odnosu na broj ciklusa.
Forula (1) je definisana sledeim parametrima:
- N
f
je broj ciklusa zamora
-
p
je amplituda plastine akumulirane dilatacije i
- C i su konstante materijala [2], [3].
Dijagram na slici 1c je logaritamski i prikzuje zavisnos broja ciklusa i akumulirane
dilatacije. Ispitivani uzorci su oblika i dimezija datih na na slici 1a. Uzorci su oslabljeni
rupama razliitih prenika i dubina na osnovu sl.1b. i to 40 m, 100 m i 200 m. Ova
ispitivanja koja su obavili Japanski istraivai posluila su za definisanje stepena
povrinske obrade Dampera na delu t.z.v. pasja kost.
185
c)
Sl. 1. a), b) Uzorci sa prikazanim dimenzijama rupa za testiranje uzroka povrinske
inperfekcije i c) Dijagram zavisnosti akumulirane dilatacije (p) i broja ciklusa (N
f
).
Uticaj stepena povrinske obrade Dampera u pojasu oslabljenja (pasja kost) je
eksperimentalno dokazan i sa dijagrama se moe jasno uoiti pad broja ciklusa na uzorcima
sa veim stepenom poetne inperfekcije slika 3a.
Testiranja su obavljanja tokom inoviranja konstrukcije dampera u vie Instituta:
VTI Zarkovo, IMS Belgrade, IZIIS Skopje i na Graevinskom Fakultetu u Ljubljani, slike
2a i 2b, (13), (14), (15), (18), (20). Eksperimentalni rezultati za veliki broj ciklusa N
f
odgovaraju zakonu Manson-Coffin.

Sl.2. Damperi: a) Na test maini b) Vie tipova Dampera neposredno pre tesata
Na Sl.2a i 2b je prikazana test maina i serija dampera za testiranje .Histrezisni
dijagram Sila pomeranje za Damper tipa Mionica+ je dat na sl 3b. Na slici 3a su prikazane
rupe razliitih dijametara i dubina koje su nainjene na uzorcima pre testa.
Force vs. displacement
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
-5,0 -4,0 -3,0 -2,0 -1,0 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
Displacement [mm]
F
o
r
c
e
[
k
N
]
Sl.3.a)
Propagacija prslina na uzorcima b) Dijagram sila-pomeranje za Damper
186
Na sl.3a. Prikazan je nain oslabljenja uzoraka rupama prenika 40, 100 i 200 m.
Ovim uzorcima je dokazan uticaj stepena povrinske obrade na brzinu akumulaciju
dilatacija.
Dijagram sila pomeranja sl.3.b. prikazan je za uzorke ispitivane sa sl.2b. Dijagram
prikazuje dvostepeni nain rada Dampera. Prvi stepen do momenta maksimalnog
akumuliranja dilataja-do kolapsa i potom rad dampera u kontroli deformacija sa
prihvatanjem znaajne sile.
U tabeli 1, sl.3c. prikazana je karaketrizacija zamora u odnosu na broj ciklusa i
veliinu akumulirane dilatacije.
Na slici 4 i dijagramu(Nr,p) je prikazano bitno odstupanje zakononitosti
Manson-Coffin kod malog broja ciklusa ispod 100.
Sl.3c. Tabela 1
Sl. 4. Dijagram broj ciklusa-akumulirana dilatacija (Nr,p)
Broj ciklusa do
loma
Nivo napona Odnos dilatacija
p/e
Odnos energije
Wp/We
Visokociklini zamor >105 <y ~ 0 ~ 0
Niskociklini zamor 102do 104 y do u 1 do 10 1 do 10
Zamor sa vrlo malim
brojem ciklusa
1 do 100 Vee od u 10 do 100 10 do 100
187
TESTIRANJE DAMPERA TIPA BRIDGE =1000mm U VOJNO
TEHNIKOM INSTITUTU VTI U BEOGRADU
Potrebno je bilo inovirati novu konstrukciju metalnog histerezisnog ureaja-
Dampera koji bi kontrolisao velika pomeranja i znaajnije sile koje se jaljaju kod
mostovskih konstrukcija. Ovi tipovi Dampera se ugrauju u vrhu mostovskih stubova i
povezuju glavne mostoske nosae (gornji stroja) sa stubovima (donji stroj). Testiranje u
Institutu VTI u beogradu je prikazano na slici 5.
Sl.5. Testiranje DAMPERA tipa BRIDGE =1000mm u Vojnom Institutu VTI u
Beogradu.
Iz dijagrama sila-pomeranje vidi se dvostepeni rad ureaja sa ojaanjima oko
+_55mm. I kontrolom deformacija, SL.6. Takodje se uoava trostepeni rad dampera. U
elastinoj oblasti, u oblasti kontrole deformacija i u post-kolapsnoj oblasti sa kontrolom
deformacija i sile.
Sl.6. Dijagram Sila-pomeranje a novu konstrukciju dampera tipa MOST.
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
-80.0 -60.0 -40.0 -20.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0
Displacement [mm]
F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]
188
Na slici 7. prikazan je deo dijagrama koji se odnosi na post-kolapsni rad i na
kontrolu deformacija konstrukcije dampera Tipa Most. I posle kolapsa u fazi II stepena rada
Damper kontrolie pomeranje definisano razmakom prstenova i prihvata znaajne sile u oba
smera to e se videti na dijagramu Sl.9
Sl.7. Histerezisni dijagram u postkolapsnom periodu
Sledei dijagram prikazuje zavisnost pomeranja od broja ciklusa, gde se jasno
uoava post-kolapsno dejstvo i kontrola pomeranja.
Sl.8. Dijagram broj ciklusa pomeranje
Na Sl.9. je prikazan vrlo interesantan dijagram koji prikazuje zavisnost sile i broja
ciklusa sa jasno izraenim postkolapsnim dejstvom i prihvatanjem znaajnih sila.
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
-80.0 -60.0 -40.0 -20.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0
Displacement [mm]
F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]
Displacement vs. N
o
of cycles
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
N
o
of cycles
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
m
]
189
Sl.9. Dijagram broj ciklusa-sila
Vrlo interesantno poveavanje akumuliranja energije sa porastom broja ciklusa i u
post kolapsnom deformacijski kontrolisanom delu dijagrama, Sl.10., Posle 46-og ciklusa
vidan je nagli rast energija na osnovu poveanih kontrolisanih deformacija u okviru
elinih prstenova-graninika.
Sl.10.Dijagram Energija-broj ciklusa
ANALIZA HISTEREZISA I NISKOCIKLINOG ZAMORA
KOD METALNIH DAMPERA ZA PRIMENU
U ZEMLJOTRESNIM USLOVIMA
GEOMETRIJSKA ANALIZA HISTEREZISNIH DIJAGRAMA
Na sledeim slikama dati su osnovni uobiajeni parametri za definisanje
geometrije histerezisnog ponaanja (dijagram sila-pomeranje), Sl.11 i Sl.12.,(5), (6).
Energy vs. N
o
of cycles
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
N
o
of cycles
E
n
e
r
g
y

[
k
N
m
m
]
Max and min force vs. N
o
of cycles
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
N
o
of cycles
F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]
190
Sl.11. histeresis dijagram Sl.12. Elementi krive k, yleld,ratio, exp
Osnovni parametri koji definiu krive su:
Krutost elementa- k;
Granica elastinosti yield;
Krustos posle granice elastinosti ratio k;
Aproksimacija krive koja spaja dve prave linije-exp.
VAN GEOMETRIJSKI PARAMETRI DEFINIU ZAMOR
MATERIJALA I BEZ NJIH JE NEMOGUE RAZUMETI
HISTEREZISNO PONAANJE MATERIJALA, Sl.13.
Hystereses loop depends on :
p akumulirana plastina dilatacija,
Nf broj ciklusa do loma i
p/t-brzina promene dilatacije
Sl.13. Histerezisni dihagram ,, sa prikazom uzlazne (optereujue) i silazne
(rastereujue) krive
Ramberg-Osgood formula definisanja histerezisnog rada elinih elemenata izloenih
ciklinom van elastinom optereenju.:
Osnovna-skeletna kriva uzlazna i silazna kriva
+ = 1 (
Rp
R
yp
y
( )
Rp
R
r-1
) osnovna kriva
+
Rp
Ri R
yp
y y
2 2
1
( )
2Rp
Ri R
r
silazna kriva
191
+
+
=
+
Rp
Ri R
yp
y y
2 2
1
( )
2Rp
Ri R +
r
uzlazna kriva
Ove relacije su validne samo za mala pomeranja i veliki broj ciklusa bez uzimanja u
obzir inperfekcije geometrije i lokalne stabilnosti elemnta koji se optereuje. Za praktinu
upotrebu kod konstruisanja Dampera DC 90 bilo je potrebno pronai novu primereniju
zavisnost koja opisuje histerezisno ponaanje i uzima u obzir zamor materijala.
Na Konstrukciji Dampera sistema DC 90 tipa Mionica prikaza e se parametri koji
definiu zamor i karakteriu ureaj-Damper, Sl.14., (7), (8).
Sl.14.ematski prikaz konstrukcije Dampera tipa Mionica sa osnovnom histerezisnom
krivom
Parametri kojima se definiu zamorsko ponaanje Dampera u visokoplastinom
ciklinom naprezanju sa kontrolom deformacije (plastinosti) su:
- Prenik (procenta % redukcije osnovnog poprenog preseka, iskustveno i
eksperimentalno to je minimum 20% redukcije)
- Duina dela sa redukovanim poprenim presekom pasja kost (odgovara
maksimalno doputenoj dilataciji od 10%, to je iskustveno i eksperimentalno odreeno i
potvreno za odreene vretste konstrukcijskog elika-materijala koji se koriste za te
potrebe)
-Povrinska obrada elementa pasja kost.
-Elemenati za obezbeenje lokalne i globalne stabilnosti i klizanja , posebno za
fazu pritiska (betonsko jezgro, aluminijumski limovi, olovni prstenovi),
- C i konstante materijala i konstrukcije Dampera i
- Brzina promena deformacija (dilatacija u vremenu).
Posebna injenica da Manson-Coffine zakon ne defie adekvatne odnose za broj
ciklusa manji od 100 i speifinosti konstrukcije Dampera DC 90 zahtevaju definisanje
parametra koji mogu realnije opisati stvarno ponaanje konstrukcije na velike udare sa
malim brojem ciklusa do kolapsa.
192
Histerezisna kriva se definie sa:
Van geometrijske-materijalne karakteristike vezane za zamor materijala u skladu
sa zkonom Manson-Coffine (Zamor konstrukcije materijala vrlo malim brojem ciklusa
dinamikog naprezanja)
p akumulirana plastina dilatacija,
Nf broj ciklusa do loma i
p/t-brzina promene dilatacije i
Geometrisko prikazivanje hsiterezisne krive F (,)
Faze rada Dampera:
1. <y visoko ciklini zamor,
2. y < <u nisko ciklini zamor,
3. close to u zamor sa vrlo malim brojem ciklusa
4. > (5-10%) u ovom polju naprezalja-amplituda dilatacija damper radi sa
kontrolisanim pomeranja to omoguavaju sigurnosni prstenovi i olovni prstenovi, (16).
5. Posle kolapsa dampera dijagonale rade u elastinoj oblasti i njihov kolaps se
oekuje zbog gubitka stabilnosti ili u manjem broju slulajeva zbog zamora materijala
(sluaj spreenog izboavanja i izvijanjem ili ugradnjom dijagonala u zidove koji
onemoguavaju gubljene stabilnosti, to je eksperimentalno testovima u Institutu IMS i
dokazano.)
Sa dve linije (deo prave linije-du i kruni luk, kao deo kruga radijusa R) mogue
je definisati histerezisni dijagram, F (,) sa aspekta geometrije a sa aspekta materijala
uzima se u obzir zamor materijala.
Dve krive se mogu za potrebe numerike analize definisati sledeim relacijama:
1. fi(, ) =b+k , (line) and (i=1n), gde je b-otseak na y-osi a k nagib ka
x-osi
Prava linija i
2. fi(, ) (-
1
)
2
+(-
1
)
2
=R
2
(i=1n), gde je (
1
,
1
)-koordinate centra
kruga a R-radijus kruga
Zamor materijala se definie Manson-Coffine zakonom (, Np, ), uzimajui u
obzir istoriju akumulirane dilatacije i nivo trenutnog naprezanja koji je iskazan trenutnom
dilatacijom , kao i brzinu promene dilatacije
p
/t.
ZAKLJUAK
Zamor materijala sa vrlo malim brojem ciklusa od svega nekoliko do 20, to je
karakteristika za optereenje konstrukcija izloenih udaru zemljotresa, definie velika
akumilirana plastina deformacija. To je od velikog znaaja za konstruisanje dampera koji
se ugrauju u konstrukcije sa dominantnim dejstvom zemljotresa ili drugih ekcesnih
optereenja udara (eksplozije i sl.). Eksperimentalne analize pokazuju da Manson-Coffin
zakon ne prikazuje dobro zavisnost akumulirane deformacije i broja ciklusa sa broj ciklusa
malji od 10. Praktino je nemogue razumeti i shvatiti ponaanje graevinskih konstrukcija
u polju dejstva zemljotresa ili drugih udra (eksplozie i sl.) bez analize zamora materijala u
193
malom broju ciklusa. Lokalna i globalna stabilnost je takoe istovremeno znaajna jer
kolaps vitkih elinih elemenata vrlo esto pre dolazi zbog gubljenja stabilnosti nego zbog
lokalnog loma ili je meusobno povezan. Brzina promena deformacija (dilatacija u
vremenu) je takoe parametar koji je nezaobilazan za razumevanje ove pojave. Da bi se
posebnim ureajem-Damperom moglo kontrolisati i upravljati udarom, moraju se odrediti
njegove karakteristike.Karakteristike-parametri Dampera su; Prenik oslbljenja, t.j.
procenat % redukcije osnovnog poprenog preseka, Povrinska obrada dela dampera koji se
zamara pasja kost, postavljanje elemenata za obezbeenje lokalne i globalne stabilnosti,
posebno za fazu pritiska (betonsko jezgro, aluminijumski limovi, olovni prstenovi) duina
redukovanog poprenog preseka dela dampera, i koeficienti materijala-Dampera C i .
194
REFERENCES
Dufailly, J. and Lemaitre J. (1995), Modeling Very Low Cycle Fatigue, Int. J.
Damage Mechanics, 4, pp. 153-170.
Manson, S.S. (1954), Behaviour of Materials under Conditions of Thermal Stresses,
N.A.C.A.. Tech. Note, 2933.
Coffin, L.F. (1954), A Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal Stresses in a Ductile
Metal, Transactions of the A.S.M.E., 931, pp.76.
umarac, D. and Krajinovi D. (1990), Elements of Fracture Mechanics, Scientific
Book, Belgrade (In Serbian).
Z Petrakovic, Seismic Strengthening and protection of objects, Monograph System
DC 90, Innovation Centre Belgrade for Earthquake Engineering, Belgrade, 2005.
Z.Petraskovic, D umarac, M. Anelkovi, S. Miladinovi, M.Trajkovi, Retrofitting
Damaged Masonry Structures by Technology DC 90, Structural integrity and life
(IVK), Belgrade, Vol. 2, 2/2005, p. 59-71.
Patent in USA No.10/555,131 from 31.10.2005, patent in Australia No. AU
2003254327A1 FROM 2004.11.23.
Petrakovi, Z., Miladinovi, S., umarac, D., Technology of seismic strengthening of
masonry structures by applying vertical ties and diagonals with seismic energy
absorber System dc 90, International conference on earthquake engineering, Parallell
Session, Topic: Retrofit of structures, p T6-9, August-september 2005.
D umarac, Z.Petraskovic, M. Maksimovi, S. Miladinoi, I.Duklevcki, N. Triovi,
Seismic Retrofit of masonry structures applying vertical braces with dampers Sistem
DC 90 and newly designed wall buildings, Internacionalni nauni skup, abljak Crna
Gora, 2006, p. 373-381.
The earthquake response, Institute IZIIS, Skoplje, Makedonia, 2005, p. 13-33.
D. umarac, Z.Petraskovic, M. Maksimovi, S. Miladinoi, J.Petrakovi, Structure
Retrofit for residental house of Finlands Ambassador in Algier, Internacionalni nauni
skup, abljak Crna Gora, 2006, p. 367-373.
Z. Petraskovic, . Petrakovi, from the anty-seismic dc 90 damper invencion to its
implementacion all over four continents, Internacionalni nauni skup, abljak Crna
Gora, 2008, p. 433-439.
Tashkov, Lj., Manic, M., Petrashkovich, Z., Folich, R., Bulajich, B.: Experimental
verification of dynamic behavior of System DC 90 under seismic conditions,
Belgrade 2003.
Takov Lj, Mani M, Shaking table test of a brick-masonry models in scale 1/10,
strengthened by DC 90 System, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering
Skopje, May 2004
20. Tashkov, Lj., Manich, M., Petrashkovich, Z.: Vibroplatform testing of brick-
masonry models strengthened by System DC 90 in 1:10 ratio, JGDK Symposion,
Vrnyachka Banya, 29.09. 01.10.2004.
Mazzolani, F., Petraskovich, Z.: Sixth Framework Program, Priority FP6-2002-INCO-
MPC-1, Earthquake Protection of Historical Buildings by Reversible Mixed
Technologies PROHITECH, WP6, Naples, 2004-2007.
195
Petraskovich Z., Sumarac, D., Miladinovic, S., Trajkovic, M., Andjelkovic, M.,
Trisovic, N.: Absorbers of seismic energy for damaged masonry structures,
Alexandropoulos,ECF 16, World Association for Structure Integrity. 2006.
Lj. Takov, L.Krstevska, Z., Exparimental testing and strenthening of president palace
in Alzir by DC 90 System, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering
Skopje, May 2005.
Lj. Takov, L.Krstevska, Z. Petraskovic, Exparimental testing and strenthening of
president palace in Baku by DC 90 System, Internacionalni nauni skup, abljak Crna
Gora, 2008, p. 475-481.
La recherche des vibrations ambiantes, Institut IZIIS, Skoplje, Macedonie -CGS,
Algrie, lzir, La recherche des vibrations forces- le sisme artificiel , Institut IZIIS,
Skoplje, Macedonie -CGS, Algrie, Alzir, Le rapport du contrle dentreprise des
travaux , CTC, Ain Defla, Algrie
D. umarac, Z.Petrakovi, Demage control and repair for security of buildings, ARW
NATO-Science for Peace and Security Series, Portoro, 2008.
197
Milenko Stankovi
1
i Sran Stankovi
226
IVOT BEZ STRAHA OD ZEMLJOTRESA-POTREBA-VIZIJA-
IMPERATIV
Rezime:
"Priroda se samo monima pokorava. Nemone prezire i unitava." Gete
Rad nastoji promovisati i afirmisati potrebu kontinuirane meunarodne saradnje
nauno-strunih institucija u oblasti prirodnih rizika. Cilj je razmje-nom znanja i
iskustava, stvoriti povoljan ambijent, zatiti ljude i materijalna dobara, savladati
strah od zemljotresa, tj. ivot u Banjoj Luci uini izvjesni-jim i ugodnijim.
Profesionalna je obaveza da naune spoznaje iz ove oblasti ukljuimo u obrazovni
proces, tj. uinimo ih dostupnim strunoj javnosti, graa-nima, studentima i
nastavnicima. Za oekivati je da e Konferencija o zemljo-tresnom ininjerstvu
27
nainiti znaajan iskorak i dati jasan reper buduih istraivanja u graditeljstvu.
Nove spoznaje u oblasti prirodnih rizika su potreba, vizija i imperativ, za kreiranje
humanijeg model ivota - bez straha od zemljotresa, uz evidentnu potrebu za
inoviranjem graditeljskih pravila iz obla-sti seizmolokog ininjerstva.
Oekujemo da e pravovremeno i adekvatno informisanje graana o rezultatima
uinjene prevencije na zatiti od zemljo-tresa, doprinijeti afirmaciji ivota.
Ukazujui na potrebu kontinuiranog obrazovanja i prevencije, skreemo panju na
injenicu da su graditeljstvo, kultura i prirodni procesi postali nerazmrsivo
povezani na brojne i neoeki-vane naine.
Kljune rijei: ivot, zemljotres, graditeljstvo, potreba, vizija, imperativ
LIFE WITHOUT FEAR OF EARTHQUAKE-NEEDS-A VISION-AN
IMPERATIVE
Summary:
Nature obeys only the powerful. Weak , despised and destroyed." Goethe
The work seeks to promote and affirm the need for continued international
cooperation between scientific and professional institutions in the field of natural
risks. The aim is with exchange knowledge and experiences to create a favorable
environment, the protection of people and material goods, overcome the fear of
1
. , ..., , -
, , ...
2
, ,
26-28.10.2009. .
.
- ,
,
.
198
earthquakes, life in Banja Luka make safe and comfortable. Professional
obligation is scientific knowledge in this field include in the educational process,
make them available to the professional public, citizens, students and teachers. It is
expected that the Conference on seismic engineering make a significant step
forward and provide a clear benchmark for future research in architecture. New
knowledge in the field of natural risks are the needs, vision and imperative, to
create a more humane model of life - without fear of earthquakes, with the evident
need for innovation in the field of construction rules Seismological engineering.
We expect that the timely and adequately informing citizens about the results
made in the prevention of earthquake protection, will contribute to the affirmation
of life. Pointing to the need for continuous education and prevention, we draw
attention to the fact that the architecture, culture and natural processes have
become inextricably linked to the numerous and unexpected ways.
Key words: energy, building, ecology, need, vision, imperative
UVOD
"Nikad priroda ne kae jedno, a mudrost drugo". (D. Julius Juvenalis)
Graani Banjaluke i okruenja su prije etrdeset godine doivjeli panian strah od
nepoznatog, kada je proradila iskonska snaga zemlje, uz jako podrhtavanje tla, magnitude
7, 8 i 9 stepeni po MCS skali. Dva siva oktobarska dana (26. i 27.) bila su dovoljna da
izmijene razvojni tok grada Banjaluke i njene regije. U tom sukobu prirode i ovjeka 27.
oktobra 1969. u 9 sati i 11 minuta stao je normalan ivot u gradu.
Slika 1. Sat na Trgu Krajine u Banjoj Luci, danas podsjea nas i opominje
Ti su dani neizbrisivo utisnuti u srca svih graana Banjaluke. (1) Na sreu,
pobijedio je radni elan, ponos, prkos, humanost i solidarnost ljudi u okruenju, obnovljena
je Banjaluka regija. I danas, etrdeset godina kasnije, mnogi hroni-ari i graani mjere
vrijeme do zemljotresa i poslije njega. injenice govore da su i nai pretci znali za
opasnost koja im prijeti pri naseljavanju, ali je, oigledno, bogato prirodno okuenje bilo
prevelik izazov, pa su ove prostore gusto naselili. Prvi udar zemljotresa graani Banja Luke
su doekali potpuno nespremni, bez kodeksa ili pravila za bezbjedno ivljenje. Nedostajali
199
su tehniki normativi, zakonska regulativa za organizovanje i sprovoenje racio-nalne i
ekonomski opravdane seizmike preventive. Strah od ponovnog ruila-kog dejstva
zemljotresa rezultirao je intenzivnim izuavanjem ove pojave od strane domaih strunjaka,
ali i kroz meunarodnu razmjenu znanja i iskustva.
328
U okviru ininjersko-seizmolokih
prouavanja terena i izrade karte seizmike mikrorejonizacije date su preporuke za urba-
nistiko i arhitektonsko projekto-vanje, tj. pruena mogunost projektantima konstrukcija
da djeluju preventivno, sprijee tetne posljedica ove pojave i pravilno odrede dinamine
karak-teristike konstrukcija novih graevina. Od eminentnog skupa, povodom etrdeset
godina od zemljotresa u Banjoj Luci, se oekuje da inspirie nauno-strunu javnost da
istrauje i unapreuje spoznaje iz oblasti graditeljstva i seizmolokog ininjerstva, tj.
ponudi jasne koncepcije prevencije. Konferencija e poslati jasnu poruku organima vlasti i
graanima, da zajednikim djelovanjem stvore povoljne zakonske okvire, izrade i donesu
provodljiva podzakonska akta i odluke, sprovedu racionalne i ekonomski prihvatljive
seizmike preventive, to e ivot sa zemljotresom pribliiti svim graanima i time ga
uiniti manje stresnim.
PREDMET I METODE RADA
to god se mijenja, ono ve jest, a ono to god jest, ono ima svoj poetak.
(Vuk Karadi)
Seizmoloko ininjerstvo je aktuelna i znaajna tema u oblasti graditeljstva na
istraivanoj teritoriji. Rad analizira ovaj prirodni rizik kao osebnost urbanog identiteta
grada i njegove regije.(2) Sagledavajui periodinost ove pojave, pokuava se doi do
injenice: Da li postoje propusti (svjesni i nesvjesni) u razvoju grada, izradi planske i
tehnike dokumentacije? Da li pravilno i dosledno primjenjujemo propise o seizmikoj
zatiti? Moramo svi postati svjesni da propusti u zatiti od zemljotresa imaju nesagledive
posljedice na ljude i materijalna dobra. Ovom prilikom sugeemo iroj javnosti potrebu
kontinuirane kontrole procesa prevencije od prirodnih rizika. Iskustvo
429
nas je pouilo da
izostanak sveobuhvatnog sagledavanja i preventivnog djelovanja u prostoru vrlo esto
rezultira propustom, parcijalnim i ishitrenim rjeenjem problema. Burna prolost, ratna
zbivanja, ubrzan razvoj i tranzicija nameu opravdano pitanje: Da li je intenzivan razvoj
grada rezultirao djeliminim previdom preventive od zemljotresa? Zakonska regulativa je
precizna, svaka graevina se posebno valorizuju i titi od zemljotresa. ta se deava u
praksi, kakva je kontrola sistema-seizmike zatite, tj. kvalitet primjenjenih materijala i ko
ih kontrolie. Sama injenica da nije inovirana karta seizmike mikrorejonizacije do danas,
dovoljno govori o stanju u oblasti preventive. Smatramo da je profesionalna obaveza
podsticati stunu javnost, ali i sve graane, da daju aktivan doprinos zatiti od prirodnih
katastrofa, tj. omoguiti im ugodniji ivot, bez straha od zemljotresa. Istorijske, ambi-
jentalne, kulturne i umjetnike vrijednosti Banjaluke mame, prizivaju, ispiriu i podstiu
kreativna rjeenja, ali prirodni zakoni opominju da ih uskladimo s kapacitetom prirode. U
3
, -
, , 1971.
4
... ,

, , .
.
200
radu je koriten istorijski i uporedni metod, kako bismo iz raspoloive dokumentacije i
stanja na terenu, ponudili viziju razvoja grada u budunosti. Autori sugeriu aktivno uee
svih kreativnih snaga za kontinuiranu i adekvatnu kontrolu svih procesa prevencije, te
animiranje graana na aktivan i kreativan dijalog ivot sa zemljotresom.
REZULTATI
"Zemlja uvijek vraa sa kamatom ono to je dobila." Ciceron, I v.p.n.e.
Litosfera
530
je dio geoloke sredine, medij u kojem ovjek temelji sve graditeljske
aktivnosti. Ona ima svoje, vrlo stroge prirodne zakone po kojima funkcionie. Ne uskladi li
ovjek sopstveni razvoj sa prirodnim zakonima, graditeljske aktivnosti prerastaju u
ruilake, bez obzira da li su trenutne, povremene ili postepene. Razvoj se pretvara u
katastrofu koja unitava graditelja. Priroda je na taj nain zatvorila krug po svojim
zakonskim i podzakonskim aktima. Zapravo, priroda je na taj nain zatitila sebe od
nesavjesnog graditelja, koji nije bio svjestan injenice da zatitom prirode u stvari titi
sopstveni opstanak te obezbjeuje opstanak buduim pokoljenjima. ovjek u litosferi nalazi
skoro sve resurse neophodne za opstanak. Njegova elja da to vie tih resursa iskoristi za
napredak i prosperitet. To vrlo esto rezultira injenicom da ne vodi dovoljno rauna o
kapacitetu prirode. Sve to nije prirodno, nije ni dugovjeno, zato elje i potrebe ovjek
mora uskladiti sa mogunostima medija koji eksploatie (litosfere), ali i zatititi resurs koji
iskoriava (povrinsku i podzemnu vodu, mineralne sirovine, poljoprivredno zemljite,
ume, tlo kao graevinski medij i drugo). Ako se ne potuje put trajnog razvoja te ne
uspostavi ravnotea izmeu potreba ljudi i prirodnih mogunosti, zatvoriemo krug na tetu
ovjeka, a ivotna sredina ostae bez resursa te nee biti u prilici da odrava sopstvenu
vrstu ili e, u najblaem sluaju, ovjek morati promijeniti sopstveno stanite.
Litosfera kao eko-sistem permanentno je izloena prirodnim promjenama
izazvanim endogenim procesima (iz unutranjosti Zemlje) i promjenama izazvanim
egzogenim procesima (atmosfera, hidrosfera). Zajedniko ime i jednih i drugih su
procesi, oni su trajni, to znai da su i promjene trajne. Endogene procese (vulkanizam,
tektonika, potresi
631
izmjena stijena itd.), ovjek ne moe regulisa-ti. Izgradnju treba
prilagoditi uslovima terena u kojem vladaju ovi procesi. Treba se upravljati prema
prirodnim rizicima, jer se ne mogu potpuno otkloniti endogeni uticaji. Vrlo je vano, ali i
neophodno, da se u procesu planiranja, u timski rad ukljue strunjaci iz oblasti geologije,
tj. dati planerske i projektantske smjernice ta, gdje i kako graditi. Strunjaci ne mogu dati
smjernice bez principa upravljanja rizicima, kada se vagaju umnoci vjerovat-noa i
5
, .
,
.
1200C. , -
. ,
, , , 2001.
, .
6
, , , , 1998,
,
,
,

30 , , 1999.
201
posljedica. Time bi do sada uoene greke i propuste u prostoru prevazi-li, otklonili ili se
od njih pravovremeno zatitili. Egzogene procese (raspa-danje stijena, erozija, denudacija,
dejstvo povrnih i podzemnih voda, klizita i drugo) ovjek moe regulisati (mijenjati)
ininjerskim radom,
732
to je zadatak planera. Bilo bi dobro kada bi ovjek takve promjene
vrio samo u sluajevima kada se ne moe promijeniti mjesto graenja ili kada je
regulisanje jeftinije od primjene specijalnih konstrukcija zgrada i graevina prilagoenih
uslovima egzogenih, geodinamikih procesa. Detaljnim upoznavanjem zemljotresa priro-
dne pojave - nepogode prvo su strunjaci prevazili strah od nepoznatog, zatim su pristupili
edukaciji stanovnitva za ivot bez straha od zemljotresa. Sve to se nauilo o
seizmologiji i zemljotresnom ininjerstvu ugraeno je u zakonsku regulativu. Meunarodna
saradnja strunih institucija iz ove oblasti, uz razmjenu znanja i iskustava, stvorie
adekvatan ambijent zatite ljudi i materijalnih dobara; omoguie savaladavanje straha od
prirodne nepogode te ivot u budunosti uiniti sadrajnijim i kvalitetnijim. Potpisom
Sporazuma o saradnji na Ministarskoj konferenciji o seizmologiji u zemljotresnom ini-
njerstvu u Beogradu
833
podrane su regionalne aktivnosti, od kojih se oekuje proirenje
sopstvenih vidika, saznanja, poboljanje uslova iljenja sa ovom pojavom, kao i obe-
zbjeenje adekvatne prevencije. Promjene litosfere izazvane su i tehnogenim aktivnostima
(rad ovjeka), koje su najmasovnije u urbanim prostorima. Tehnogeni uticaji mogu biti:
direktni, indirektni, planski ili stihijski. U svakom sluaju, mijenjaju geoloku sredinu
promjenom naponskih stanja u stjenskim masivima, reimu povrinskih i podzemnih voda,
reljefa, biosfere... Temeljeli se na nedovoljnom poznavanju uslova geoloke sredine, obino
se izazivaju ekcesne situacije, koje za sobom povlae:
- Poveanje trokova za promjenu namjene prostora;
- Porast trokova izgradnje planiranih graevina;
- Kontinuirane trokove sanacije tokom cijelog perioda eksploatacije graevine;
- Nadoknadu tete za oteene graevine, jer se takva oteenja najee progla-
avaju elementarnim nepogodama.
Dobit od izgradnje graevine na taj nain pretvara se u troak. Promjene geoloke
sredine najmasovnije su u urbanim naseljima, u rubnim podrujima gradova. ivotni
prostor urbanih naselja i njihova ivotna sredina na istraivanoj teriroriji preoptereeni su u
prostornom i u ekolkom smislu. Geoloka sredina ima ogranien kapacitet, te je neophodno
na osnovu odgovarajuih studija utvrditi podruja koja:
- moraju biti zatiena i iskljuena iz daljnje izgradnje;
- ogranienog kapaciteta i intenziteta korienja;
- trae specijalni tretman, uz navoenje uslova njihovog korienja;
- mogu da se koristiti za izgradnju.
ovjek gradi, ali i razgrauje. Samim tim, mora nai naina da zatiti ono to je
sagradio, te da oplemeni, za svoje potrebe, ono to je razgradio, jer je sve to njegova
ivotna sredina. Prepusti li zatitu ovjekove sredine drugome, pa bilo to i prirodi, siguran
je gubitnik.
7
, , ,
, 2009.
8
29.9.2003. .
.
202
Slika 2 i 3. Ministarska konferencija o seizmologiji u zemljotresnom ininjerstvu u
Beogradu, uesnici i potpis sporazuma o saradnji govore o jasnoj svijesti u Republici
Srpskoj o potrebi obrazovanja ljudi za ivot sa zamljotresom.
DISKUSIJA
"Lake je razbiti atom nego predrasude." Ajntajn
Na stratekom mjestu, uzvienju ua rjeice Crkvene u Vrbas, lociran je
kompleks utvrde, koja dominira okruenjem. "Kastel" je arhitektonska batina grada
Banjaluke, mjesto njenog osnivanja, okosnica razvoja - urbani embrion i posebna duhovna
vrijednost.
Drevne kule i zidine, ali i pet zgrada Muzeja Bosanske Krajine u "Kastelu", nisu
odoljele udaru razornog zemljotresa. Arhitektonskoj batini grada u kompleksu "Kastel"
nanesena ogromna teta. (3) Analizom sa dananje distance, ovaj dogaaj ima sutinski, ali
i istorijski znaaj. U danima poslije zemljotresa kulturni ivot u Banjoj Luci bio je "zamro".
Pozorite i dom kulture preselili su se u veliki ator ispred "Kastela". Tu su organizovane
priredbe koje su znaajno doprinijele normalizaciji ivota u gradu na Vrbasu. Prostori oko
tvrave "Kastel" korieni su za pruanje gostoprimstva visokim gostima. U poljskoj
kuhinji, koja je locirana u tvravi. Tu je pripreman obrok za ambasadore velikog broja
drava, koji su u jesen 1969. posjetili razrueni grad, nudei pomo, svojih zemalja.
Solidarnost, humanast, ali i stvarne ljudske potrebe usmjerile su razvoj tamo gdje je
logino, istorijski provjereno, sigurno, na mjesto poetka razvoja u "Kastel" i oko njega.
Smatramo ovo kljunim momentom, kada se spontalno kulturni ivot i gradske
manifestacije preselile u "Kastel" (moe se rei silom prilika vratile u svoje istorijsko
sredite).
Evidentno je tokom proteklog civilizacijskog razvoja da ovjek gradi, ali i
razgrauje.
934
Na primjeru razvoja grada poslije zemljotresa ovjek nije uspio da ouva ono
to je sagradio, ali to prihvata u kritinom trenutku katastrofe - "Kastel". Ono to je
zabrnjavajue lei u injenici da urbanisti i gradska uprava tada nisu izvukli poruku iz te
katastrofe, tj. propustili istorijski trenutak da oive i oplemene prostor "Kastela", za
potrebe grada. Naprotiv, spletom okolnosti i ishitrenih aktivnosti, svjesno ili nesvjesno, oni
su razgradile kompleks "Kastel" i pretvorile ga u izolovano ostrvo. Trenutno stanje u
"Kastelu" potvruje da je u praksi zatieno kulturno dobro slobodno tretira, od strane
urbanista, arhitekata, pa i zatitara. Ukazuje na hitnu potrebu ponovnog aktiviranja
kompleksa, vizionarskim i planskim aktivnostima iz idejnog projekta, upoznajui iru doveli
u opasnost graane.
9
"" 1944.
203
Arhitektonsko-graevinski fakultet Univerziteta u Banjoj Luci je u okviru projekta
TEMPUS (Trans-European mobility scheme for university studies) CD_JEP-15012/2000
BiH Archicur organizovao seminar na temu "Odnos: rijeka-tvrava-grad" u kompleksu
"Kastela".
1035
(4) Cilj ovih aktivnosti bio je ponuditi smjernice za rjeavanja meusobno
povezanih funkcionalnih cjelina u srcu grada Banjaluke. Izlaui svoja vienja prisutnih
problema i potreba uesnicu seminara ukazali su na potencijale "Kastela", kao i njegov
odnosu na rijeku i grad. Predavanja domaih autora i gostiju ukazivala su na znaaj i
opravdanost tradicije, autohtonih naina gradnje, regionalnih osobenosti i potreba za
zdravim ivotom, odnosno potrebi uspostave harmonije prirodne i izgraene cjeline.
Izlaganjem nekoliko primjera uspjenog planiranja i projektovanja iz Evrope, nastojao se
strunoj javnosti i graanima prikazati stvaralaki proces projektovanja, od ideje do
materijalizacije. Radionice na temu "rijeka-tvrava-grad" ukazivale su na neke ekstremne
reakcije. Tokom seminara izdvojile su se etiri radionice. Prva radionica je preispitivala
stavove ljudi na licu mjesta i biljeila njihove reakcije. Druga radionica je imala suprotan
pristup od prve. Agresivnim navoenjem i usmjeravanjem ljudi da posjete tvravu, skretana
je panja na neiskoriteni potencijal u okruenju da bi pobudili svijest o znaaju
graditeljskog nasljea. Trea radionica je sagledala morfologiju terena, te ponudila
jedinstvo unutranjosti i spoljanosti Kastela, kao jasan opredjeljujui stav, odgovor na
zadatu temu. etvrta radionica je putem amaterskog filma prikazala sve orginalne faze koje
su se smjenjivale pri sagledavanju problema, svedei ih na ljudska ula. Komparacijom
uticaja ljudskih ula raznim sredstvima personifikuju uticaj kulturnog nasljea na ljudsku
svijest.
Znaajno je istai da seminar, predavanja i radionice nisu ostale samo na nivou
akademske rasprave i teoretskih dostignua, jer su mnogi studetni nastavili istraivanja o
Kastelu. Usledio je zatim raspis Meunarodnog konkursa za izradu idejnog urbanistiko-
arhitektonskog rjeenja remodelacije i revitalizacije tvrave "Kastel" u Banjoj Luci.
1136
Prvo nagraeni rad
1237
za izradu idejnog urbanistiko arhitektonskog reenja remodela-cije i
revitalizacije tvrave Kastel u Banja Luci postupio je u skladu sa sugestijama i
preporukama Konkursne komisije i graana, te izradio Idejni projekat remodelacije i
revitalizacije tvrave Kastel u Banjoj Luci poetkom 2008. Idejnim projektom predvieno
je fazno rjeavanje kompleksa, sa devet prostornih cjelina, i to: Hotel sa prateim
sadrajima; Kulturni centar; Usluni centar; Turistiki informa-tivni centar; Gradski trg i
javna garaa; Sportski centar; Gradski vrt; Priobalje; Grad-ski muzej i edukativni centar.
Sluajnost, solidarnost, ciljana aktivnost ili istorijski znaajan dogaaj da izrada
Glavnog projekta remodelacije i revitalizacije tvrave Kastel u Banja Luci pone ba u
ovom trenutku Konferencija povodom Banjalukog zemljotresa, etrdesetoj godini poslije.
10
31. 5. 2004. , .
11
7.8. 6.12.2006. .
, .
12
"01234",
"" ., .
13. 20. 2007. .
, ,
( : , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
., ., ..).
204
Oekujemo da gradska uprava ubrzati zapoete aktivnosti i aktivno doprinijeti integrisanju
istorijskog centra sa gradskim sredietem danas.
Preispitivanjem postojeeg naina korienja zatienih prostora i unoenjem
novih atraktivnih sadraja u zonama, komunikacijama i graevinama, moe se unaprijediti
vizuelno - estetske atrakcije, aktivirati izvorne vrijednosti centra grada po mjeri njegovih
stanovnika i posjetilaca. Estetska uklopljenost, vremenska slojevitost i modularna
povezanost sklopova iz razliitih epoha poveavaju atraktivnost i privlae korisnike u grad,
koji afirmie profesionalne kriterijume, savremene spoznaje i prakse istie osobenost,uva i
unapreuje sopstveni identitet .
ZAKLJUAK
"Prava priroda, vrijednost i cena ovekovog ivota na zemlji odreuju se u osnovi,
njegovim geografskim poloajem, to znai njegovim odnosom prema suncu i odnosom
sunca prema njemu". (Ivo Andri, Znakovi pored puta)
Prouavajui seizmike pojave i njihove posljedice po graane Banja Luke, ciljano
informiemo ira javnost o potrebi izrade i usvajanja novih pravila u graditeljstvu, kako
bismo osigurali to sigurnije graenje u ovom seizmiki aktivnom podruju, tj. graane
oslobodili straha od zemljotresa, ali i aktivno ukljuili u kontrolu svih procesa.
Osobenost ovog rada je injenica da u periodu katastrofe, ali i sumiranja rezultata
ove pojave, ponovo se vraamo neprolaznim vrijednostima, istorijskom sreditu. Navedeni
primjer vrednovanje naslea grada, na primjeru "Kastel," nudi mogu i ostvariv model
zatite i ouvanja, uz rjeavanje uoenih i skrivenih problema.
1338
. Nove funkcionalne
cjeline u kompleksu, fazna izgradnja i vienamjensko korienje, znak su i motivacija
graanima u zatiti javnog interesa i dobar primjer, kako timski rad i sinhronizovane
aktivnosti svih aktera u prostoru mogu ostvariti napredak. Ureenje kompleksa zahtjeva
kontinuiran i kontrolisan proces predvianja programiranja planiranja - projektovanja i
realizacije uz uee svih aktera i javnosti na partnerskim principima.
Spoj prirodnog okruenje i ambijentalnih karakteristikama arhitektonskog
naslea, ideja su vodilja za uspjean koncept i dizajn kompleksa. Ponueni sadraji (unutar
zidina), moraju osigurati dinamiku dogaana, otkrivanja, ukljuivanja, ali i kreiranja novih
scena, baziranih na komunikativnosti, prijatnosti, uz koritenje sinergetskih efekata.
Graani Banjaluke aktivno su se ukljuili tokom izlobe Konkursnih rjeenja i s
nestrpljenjem oekuju realizaciju ovog Projekta.
Briga o ljudima, afirmacija kompleksa, ali i jasna poruka planerima i graanima,
da su integralnost i predvidivost, nezaobilazni parametri u kreiranju ivota grada. (5)
Trasiranje puta za budunost je izazov, kako ouvati "duh mjesta," tj. ponuditi novu viziju,
specifikum naeg prostora, razviti kulturni prostor u "duhu vremena," primjeren Banjoj
Luci "po mjeri prirode i ovjeka-bez straha od zemljotresa."
13
, , , ,
, , ,
, , .
205
LITERATURA:
(1) Stankovi, M. 2007, edicija "Iskustva graditelja," knjiga pod nazivom "Harmonija i
konfli-kti u prostoru," Izdava Arhitektonski fakultet, tampa GrafoMark Laktai,
Banjaluka ISBN 978-99938-616-7-6, (str. 1-302)
(2) Stankovi, M. 2004, "Prostorno - teritorijalno odriv razvoj i LEAP," Izdava
Knjiev-na zadruga Republike Srpske, ISBN 99938-33-19-3, Banjaluka (str. 1-164)
(3) Karabegovi B. 1974. (urednik), Banjaluka pet godina poslije zemljotresa, Glas,
Banjaluka, (kultura str. 189-202)
(4) Tempus, "BiH Archicur," 2004-2008, Zbornik radova sa seminara projekta na temu:
Odnos: Rijeka-Tvrava-Grad, Arhitektonsko-graevinski fakultet, Univerziteta u
Banjoj Luci, ISBN 978-99938-616-9-0, Banjaluka (str. 1-140).
(5) Stankovi, M. i dr. 2008, Monografija nauno istraivakog projekta, "Urbana i
graditelj-ska obnova grada Banjaluke u duhu odrivog razvoja-uvodna razmatranja,"
Arhitektonsko-graevinski fakultet univerziteta u Banjaluci, ISBN 978-99938-6616-8-
3 (str. 1-475)
207
Lidija Krstevska
139
, Ljubia ivkovi
240
ISPITIVANJE OBJEKTA "NOVA BANKA" U BANJA LUCI
METODOM AMBIJENTALNIH VIBRACIJA
Rezime:
U radu su prikazani rezultati eksperimentalnog ispitivanja poslovnog objekta
"Nova Banka" u Banjaluci, Republika Srpska, Bosna i Hercegovina. Osnovni cilj
ispitivanja bio je odreivanje dinamikih karakteristika konstrukcije: rezonansne
frekvencije, tonovi oblici vibracija i koeficijenti priguenja. Objekat je meoviti
konstruktivni sistem - AB okviri i zidovi, i sastoji se iz dva krila odvojena
dilatacijom iznad nivoa temelja. Imajui u vidu dobivene rezultate evidentno je da
oba dela konstrukcije (krila) vibriraju intenzivnije za razliite frekvencije.
Kljune rei: ambijent vibracije, frekvencija, tonovi oblici vibracije, priguenje
IN SITU TESTING OF "NOVA BANKA" IN BANJA LUKA BY
AMBIENT VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS
Summary:
In this paper presented are the results from experimental in-situ testing of Nova
Banka in Banja Luka, Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Hercegovina. The main
objective of the testing was to define the dynamic characteristics of the structure-
resonant frequencies, mode shapes of vibration and damping coefficients. The
building is a reinforced concrete mixed system of frames and shear walls and it
consists of two wings, separated by a construction joint. Considering the obtained
results it is evident that the two parts of the structure vibrate separately more
intensively at different frequencies.
Key words: ambient vibration, frequency, mode shape, damping
1
Assoc. Prof. PhD., Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, University Ss. Cyril and
Methodius, 1000, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, Salvador Aljende 73. E-mail: lidija@pluto.iziis.ukim.edu.mk
2
Mr Sci student, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, University Ss. Cyril and
Methodius, 1000, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
208
1 INTRODUCTION
Experimental in-situ testing of "Nova Banka" in Banja Luka, Republika Srpska,
Bosnia and Hercegovina, was performed by ambient vibration measurements in September
2008 within the cooperation between "Projektinvest" d.o.o. Banja Luka and the Institute of
Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, University "St. Cyril and
Methodius", Skopje, Republic of Macedonia. The main objective of the testing was to
define the dynamic characteristics of the structure - resonant frequencies, mode shapes of
vibration and damping coefficients.
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE
"Nova Banka" is located in the centre of Banja Luka, Fig.1. The building is
designed and constructed as a reinforced concrete mixed system of frames and shear walls
and it consists of two wings - part A and part B, separated by a construction joint d=20cm
which starts above the foundation slab. Part A has dimensions in plan 7.0 x 26.7m while
part B is 18.9 x 12.2m in plan and has one level more than part A. The characteristic plan of
the building and vertical cross section is given in Figs. 2 and 3.
Figure 1 - Nova Banka in Banja Luka
Figure 2 - Nova Banka in plan
construction joint
d=20cm
PART A
PART B
209
Figure 3 - Vertical cross section of the structure
3 TESTING PROCEDURE AND APPLIED EQUIPMENT
Nova Banka was tested by ambient vibration testing method. This is widely
applied and popular full-scale testing method for experimental definition of structural
dynamic characteristics. It is based on measuring the structural vibrations caused by the
ambient. As ambient forces can be treated the wind, the traffic noise or some other micro-
tremor and impulsive forces like wave loading or periodical rotational forces of some
automatic machines. The method is very fast and the relatively simple procedure can be
performed on a structure in use, without disturbing its normal functioning.
The ambient vibration testing procedure consists of real time recording of
the vibrations and processing of the records. The initial test is the dynamic calibration test.
During this test all sensors (seismometers) are placed on the same position in the same
direction and the signals are recorded simultaneously and Fourier spectra obtained.
Resonant frequencies of the structure can be preliminary defined using the dynamic
calibration tests, but the final definition of the natural frequencies is possible after obtaining
the mode shapes of vibration. After this calibration test, the seismometers are placed at
different levels and different points of the structure, but at the same direction, for
simultaneous recording. This is necessary for obtaining the mode shapes of vibration. One
point is chosen as a reference one, usually at the highest level of the structure. The duration
of the recording should be long enough to eliminate the influence of possible non-stochastic
excitations which may occur during the test.
For recording of structural vibrations caused by some ambient excitation, a system
of seismometers, amplifiers and recorders is used. The seismometer measures the velocity
and it has limitations in frequency and amplitude range. The signal from the seismometer
through special cables is transmitted to the signal conditioning system which eliminates the
210
effect of higher frequencies. During the ambient vibration measurements of Nova Banka,
four seismometers Ranger type (a), Kinemetrics product, were used and the measured
signals were amplified by four channel Signal Conditioner (b) also Kinemetrics product.
The amplified and filtered signals from the seismometers were than collected by high-speed
data acquisition system (c) which transforms the analogue signals to digital. PC and special
software for on-line data processing has been used to plot time history and Fourier
amplitude spectra of the response at any recorded point (d). The equipment used for the
measurements is presented on Fig. 4.
Figure 4 - Equipment for measuring ambient vibrations
For post-processing and analysis of the recorded vibrations in all measuring points
ARTeMIS software was used. This software is based on the Peak Picking technique and Fre-
quency Domain decomposition and has possibilities for good graphical presentation of the
obtained data. The geometry of the structure generated by this software is given in Fig. 5.
Figure 5 - Geometry of Nova Banka generated by ARTeMIS software
a
b
c
d
PARTa
B
PART A
211
4 TEST SET-UP
Nova Banka was tested measuring vibrations in 63 points, including the reference
point R on the highest level (terrace) on part A. 67 tests were performed, including the
dynamic calibration tests. During the data acquisition process, 16 averages were
considered. The time duration of each particular record was 90 seconds and the sampling
frequency was 200 samples/sec.
The measurements were performed in both orthogonal (transversal) directions X
and Y at selected points on different levels for both wings of the building - part A and part
B. Presentation of measured points in plan is given in Figure 6, while spatial distribution of
measuring points and measured directions is given in Fig. 7 together with position of the
seismometers in some points.
Figure 6 - Disposition of measuring points in plan
Figure 7 - Spatial presentation of measured directions and points on the structure with
photos showing the seismometers
X
Y
R
212
5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The peak picking of the dominant frequencies of Nova Banka is presented in Fig.
8, while in Table 1 given are the values of these frequencies as well as the corresponding
damping coefficients.
Figure 8 - Peak-picking of the dominant frequencies of Nova Banka
Table 1 Dominant frequencies for Nova Banka
Mode Frequency
(Hz)
Damping
(%)
Mode 1 2.34 3.1
Mode 2 3.42 2.2
Mode 3 5.27 2.4
Mode 4 8.30 3.1
Mode 5 12.1 1.6
Mode 6 15.43 0.40
The frequency of 2.34Hz is the first resonant frequency of the structure, which
belongs to part (wing) A of the building, direction Y. The shape of vibration at this
frequency is given on Fig. 9.
The frequency of f=3.42Hz is the most expressed frequency for the structure and
at this frequency the shape of vibration is complex, with translational movement in
diagonal direction, Fig. 10.
The third dominant frequency is f=5.27 Hz and it belongs to translational vibration
of part (wing) B - X direction, Fig. 11.
213
Figure 9 - Shape of vibration for frequency f=2.34Hz
214
The next three frequencies dominating on the spectrum - f=8.30Hz, f=12.1 Hz and
f=15.43Hz belong to the higher modes.
6 CONCLUSIONS
- Dynamic testing of Nova Banka in Banja Luka has been performed by means of
ambient vibration method with main objective to define its dynamic characteristics.
- The measurements have been performed in both orthogonal directions on both
structural wings of the building - part A and part B.
- Total of 67 tests have been performed giving the comprehensive experimental data
related to dynamic properties of the structure.
- The investigated frequency range was 0-25 Hz.
- The natural frequencies are very well expressed and their values are the following:
f=2.34 Hz; f=3.42Hz; f=5.27Hz; f=8.30 Hz ; f=12.1Hz; f=15.43Hz
- The damping coefficients are in range 1.6 to 3.1 % of the critical damping.
- Comparing the mode shapes of the structure, it is visible that the two parts of the
structure vibrate separately more intensively at different frequencies. Even there is a
construction joint between the two wings A nad B, there is slight interaction
between them during vibration caused by the pavement connection at the floor
levels.
- The concentration of stresses during vibration caused by earthquake will be
probably at the central shear walls, near the staircases, due to the lateral movement
of the ends (wings) of the structure.
- As a general conclusion, it can be pointed out that obtained experimental data
represent very good and comprehensive base for verification of the numerical model
of the structure and evaluation of its seismic behaviour.
REFERENCES
>1@ In situ testing of "Nova Banka" in Banja Luka by ambient vibration measurements
/ L. Krstevska// Report IZIIS 2008-70
215
.
141
,
242

:

.
,
.
.
Mathematica
FORTRAN, .

ABAQUS.
: , ,
STOHASTIC VIBRATIONS OF PLATE IN BENDING USING THE
FINITE STRIP METHOD
Summary:
This paper presents modelling of plate structures bending response due to arbitrary
dynamic loading. Equations of motion are solved by transformation to normal
coordinates and the step by step method is used to obtain the solution of modal
equations. Total structure response is obtained with modal superposition.
Algorithm described here was implemented in Mathematica and FORTRAN and
the result is program MKTSV. Code verification is done by comparing the results
from commercial FEM software ABAQUS.
Key words: finite strip method, earthquake, dynamic analysis
1
. , . . , - ,
2
. . , - ,
216
1

. -
,
. -
.

-
.

().
()

. 4
-
.
2

x y z t (. 1).
w y
.
1

Ritz- ,

217
1 1
( ) ( )
r c
m k km
m k
f Y y x
= =
=
_ _
N q , (2.1)

, . 1,
| |
1 2 3 4
1
r
wm wm
m
w Y N N N N
=
=
_
q , (2.2)
:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 2 3
1 2
2 3 2 3
3 4
1 3 / 2 / , / 2 / / ,
3 / 2 / , / / ,
N x b x b N b x b x b x b
N x b x b N b x b x b
(
= + = +

(
= = +

(2.3)

:
- :
( ) sin( / ), , 2 ,....,
m m m
Y y y a m t t t = = ; (2.4)
- :
( ) sin( / ) sinh( / ),
sin( ) (4 1)
, 3.9266, 7.0685,....., ;
sinh( ) 4
m m m m
m
m m
m
Y y y a y a
m
o
t
o
=
+
= =
(2.5)
- :
| |
( ) sin( / ) sinh( / ) cos( / ) cosh( / ) ,
sin( ) sinh( ) (2 1)
, 1.8750, 4.6940,....., ;
cos( ) cosh( ) 2
m m m m m m
m m
m m
m m
Y y y a y a y a y a
m
o
t
o

=
+
= =
+
(2.6)
- :
| |
( ) sin( / ) sinh( / ) cos( / ) cosh( / ) ,
sin( ) sinh( ) (2 1)
, 4.7300, 7.8532,....., ;
cos( ) cosh( ) 2
m m m m m m
m m
m m
m m
Y y y a y a y a y a
m
o
t
o

=
+
= =
(2.7)
:
| |
1 1 2 2
T
wm m m m m
w w = q , (2.8)
.
3

(2.4-2.7),
.
N

:
218
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t t t t + + = Mq Cq Kq F , (3.1)
M, C K N x N , , ;
( ) t q , ( ) t q , ( ) t q N x 1 ,
F(t)

( ) ( )
g
t u t = F MI , (3.2)
I N x 1 ( )
g
u t .

: .

,
.

.
, .

.
C ,

. ,
2
nn n n
c e = .
n

n .

( ) ( ) 0 t t + = Mq Kq . (3.3)

, ( )
i t
t e
e
= q q , (3.3)
( )
1
2
1
0,
e
= = K M I q , (3.4)
. (3.4)
N- ,
N
1 2
, ,...., ,.....
n N
N

1 2
, ,..., ,...,
n N
q q q q .
( 1/
n n
e = )
. FORTRAN-
, Mathematica
.
u
(3.4)
219
| |
1 2
... ...
n N
q q q q u = . (3.5)
(3.4) , .
, ,
. .
,
. -

.
:
M
T
n n n
= q Mq (3.6)
n
q . ,

n
q
M
-1/ 2
n n n
= q q , (3.7)

u , .

T
= M I u u
2

T
e = K I u u ,
I .
:

, , , = = = q q q q q q

u u u
(3.1)
:

( )
T T T T
t + + = M q C q K q F

u u u u u u u

2
2 ( )
T
t e e + + = q q q F

u , (3.8)

, .

2
T
e = C I u u .
(3.8) N
.
,
:

, , . = = = q q q q q q

u u u (3.9)
.

[2].
.
0.005 ,
.
220
n-

R( ) ( )
T
t t = F u ,
2
q 2 q q R ( ), 1, 2,... .
n n n n n n n
t n N e e + + = =

(3.10)
, ,
, ,
.
R( ) t
(. 2).
2 ,
Dt
1
R( ) 1 R R
i i
t t
t
t t
| |
= +
|
A A
\ .
, (3.11)
t .

1 1 2 1 3 1 4
1 1 2 1 3 1 4
1 1 2 1 3 1 4
q( ) ( ) q ( ) q ( ) R ( ) R ,
q( ) ( ) q ( ) q ( ) R ( ) R ,
q( ) ( ) q ( ) q ( ) R ( ) R .
i i i i
i i i i
i i i i
t A t A t A t A t
t A t A t A t A t
t A t A t A t A t

= + + +
= + + +
= + + +

(3.12)
1.
(3.12) (3.10). (3.12)
t A ,
:
1 1 2 1 3 1 4
1 1 2 1 3 1 4
1 1 2 1 3 1 4
q ( ) q q R R ,
q ( ) q q R R ,
q ( ) q q R R .
i i i i i
i i i i i
i i i i i
t A A A A
t A A A A
t A A A A

= + + +
= + + +
= + + +

(3.13)
221
1 -
2 2
0 1 0
2 3 1 2 4 1 5 0 6 2
2
2
7 5 6 8 5 9 10
1 / 1 2 / 1
1/ /
/ 2
D
D
D D D
a t a a
a t a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a
e e e e e
e
e e e ee
= = = = A = +
= A = = = =
= = = =
| |
9 10
9 10
1 2 3 1 2 3 4
2
4 5 6 7
2
( ) sin( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) cos( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
( ) ( )
t
D D
t
D D
D
S t e t S t S t C t S t a S t a C t
C t e t C t C t S t C t a C t a S t
A t C t S t A t S t A t a a t a S t a C t
A t a a t a S t a
e
e
e e e
e e e
e
e
e
= = + = +
= = + = +
= + = = + + +
= + + +

| |
8 5 6
7 2 3 4 8 6 7 8 9
2 2
10 11 3 4 12 7 8
2 2
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
D
D
C t A t C t S t A t S t
A t a a S t a C t A t a a S t a C t A t C t S t
A t S t A t a S t a C t A t a S t a C t
e e
e
e e
= + =
( ( = + + = + + = +

( ( = = + = +

1 12
A A . ,
12 9 .
10
-6

. 200
50 0.01, . 100
1 .
Fourier-
Duhamel- .
,
.
4

[1] -
. 3.
222
3
223
-
ABAQUS, .
-
:
2
15 , 10 , 0.12 , 31500000 / , 0.0. L m B m t m E kN m v = = = = =
0.05.
. -
Dzce 21.11.1999. (. 4) 7.2 [3].
4 Dzce
5 - ABAQUS-
6 - -
.
,
, .
- ( )
(w
min
=-
7.69cm) ABAQUS- 300
.
224

, (. 7 8).
7 - , 0.12 t m =
8 - , 0.05 =
,

,

.
>1@ Finite strip method in computational engineering / . . // Faculties

of civil engineering: Subotica, Belgrade and Budapest, 1997,
>2@ Static and Dynamic Analysis of Structures /E.L.Wilson// Computers & Structures,
2002.
>3@ http://peer.berkeley.edu/
225
Mihail Garevski
143
Veronika Sendova
244
and Blagojce Stojanoski
345
REKONSTRUKCIJA PRAVOSLAVNOG SABORNOG HRAMA "SV.
BOGORODICA" U SKOPLJU
Rezime:
Pravoslavna saborna crkva Sveta Bogorodica datira iz 1835 godine, 1943 godine je
izgorila i nakon toga sruena do temelja. 2003 godine Skopska mitropolija donosi
odluku da rekonstruie crkvu. Na osnovu definiranog i usvojenog izgleda obnovljenog
hrama, IZIIS, Skopje, je izradio Glavni projekat za rekonstrukciju crkve, koji sadri
definisanje konstruktivnog sistema i fundiranje objekta iznad postojeih temelja, kao i
detaljnu statiku i dinamiku analizu konstrukcije sa verifikacijom stabilnosti i
kapaciteta nosivosti i deformabilnosti.
Kljune rei: rekonstrukcija postojeih spomenika, analiza seizmike sigurnosti,
troslojni nosivi zidovi
RECONSTRUCTION OF THE ORTHODOX CATHEDRAL
CHURCH OF THE VIRGIN MARY IN SKOPJE
Summary:
St.Bogorodica Orthodox Church, dating back to 1835, was damaged in 1943 fire
and utterly demolished later on. In April 2003 Macedonian Orthodox Church
carried out a decision for reconstruction of St.Bogorodica Church. According to
the defined and adopted appearance of the renovated Church, IZIIS, Skopje has
prepared the Main Project for Church Reconstruction. It includes definition of the
basic structural system for reconstruction, definition of the foundation conditions
over the existing foundations and their consolidation as well as detailed static and
dynamic analysis of the structures with verification of their stability and ultimate
bearing capacity.
Keywords: reconstruction of existing monuments, analysis of seismic safety, three-
layered bearing walls
1
Prof. Dr. Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, IZIIS, P.O.Box 101, 1000 Skopje,
Republic of Macedonia
2
Prof. Dr, IZIIS, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
3
Ass. Researcher, M.Sc., IZIIS, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
226
1. INTRODUCTION
The orthodox cathedral church of the Virgin Mary, (fig.1) constructed by the
most eminent Macedonian and Balkan builder Andrea Damjanov, was put on fire in 1943
and later torn to the ground. On the remains of the foundation walls of the church, a youth
hostel was constructed in 1962 and was ruined in during the Skopje earthquake in 1963.
Figure 1. Air shot of the church of the Virgin Mary
In April 2003, based on the initiative launched by the established Board for
Renovation of the Church of the Virgin Mary in Skopje, the reconstruction of the church
was entrusted to the Institute for Protection of Cultural Monuments of the City of Skopje.
Based on the decisions made, a working group composed of eminent experts from among
all the necessary profiles was established to elaborate a project on the reconstruction of the
church of the Virgin Mary upon the existing foundation, (Fig.2) with full consideration of
its authentic appearance.
Figure 2. Remains of the authentic foundation walls
Based on the defined and adopted appearance of the renovated church, the Institute
of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology IZIIS, Skopje elaborated the
227
main project on the reconstruction of the church of the Virgin Mary containing definition
of the principal structural system for the reconstruction of the church and its belfry, the
conditions for founding the renovated church on the existing foundation and its
consolidation as well detailed static and dynamic analysis of the designed structures with
verification of their stability considering the ultimate bearing capacity.
2. DEFINITION OF THE PRINCIPAL STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CHURCH OF THE VIRGIN
MARY IN SKOPJE
The main project on the structure of the church of the Virgin Mary - Skopje has
been elaborated in accordance with the Preliminary Project that was adopted by the
Investor. The church of the Virgin Mary will be reconstructed in its authentic shape and
position. The church is of the type of a three-nave basilica with outline proportions of 36.70
m/26.40 m, with an elevated central nave with a storey height of 11.90 m in respect to the
side naves with a storey height of 8.47 m (Fig. 3).

Figure 3. Ground floor plan and cross section
The adopted variant of foundation of the structure involves circular reinforced
concrete caissons with a diameter of 80 cm and a length of 5.0 m that are to be constructed
at level 2.00 m on both sides of the existing foundation walls, i.e., below the columns in
the central nave and the paraccleseion. The existing foundation walls and the caissons are to
be structurally connected by reinforced concrete foundation beams. At level +0.00 m, a
floor reinforced concrete slab with a thickness of 16 cm is anticipated to be constructed.
The main characteristic of the structural system arising from the priorities
regarding the appearance of the church on one hand and its seismic safety on the other, is
228
the solution of the bearing fasade massive walls with a total thickness of 1.16 m. In the
interior, these are to be constructed of solid bricks in cement lime mortar and to have a
thickness of 38 cm, while on the exterior, these are to be constructed of broken and dressed
stone in cement lime mortar and to have a thickness of 53 cm. In the central part, a
continuous reinforced concrete wall with a thickness of 25 cm is anticipated to be
constructed. To connect the reinforced concrete and the masonry part of the wall, 2
reinforced concrete cramps are anticipated to be incorporated at each square metre, in
accordance with the details on the reinforcement.
The central colonnades consist of a total of 16 reinforced concrete round columns
with a diameter of 45 cm, connected to a system of reinforced concrete arches. The floor
structures are anticipated to be constructed as reinforced concrete flat slabs with a thickness
of 12 cm at all the three levels. All the walls constructed of stone and brick end with
reinforced concrete belt courses with corresponding dimensions at all the platforms.
3. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Such a designed structure has been analyzed by consideration of gravity and
seismic loads in compliance with the valid regulations and the proposed European
regulations using two methods:
1. Static and equivalent seismic three-dimensional analysis of the structure by using
the finite element method used as a basis for proportioning all the structural
elements;
2. Analysis of the bearing and deformability capacity of the structure composed of
designed and proportioned structural elements;
3. Dynamic analysis of the structure involving analysis of the structure with
consideration of the nonlinear response spectrum related to the Petrovats
earthquake, N-S component, and nonlinear dynamic analysis of the church
structure applying the method of concentrated masses.
1. Based on the defined structural system, static and equivalent analyses have been
performed by using the finite element method using the computer software package SAP
2000. The reinforced concrete slabs and the bearing walls have been modeled by using
SHELL elements, while reinforced concrete columns and beams have been modeled by 3D
FRAME elements. 3D TRUSS elements have been used to model the steel ties, (fig. 4).
229
a) Southeast view b) Southwest view
Figure 4. Three-dimensional mathematical model of the church of the Virgin Mary
2. The methodology used for definition of the bearing capacity of the structure in
the form of ultimate storey shear force that compared to the equivalent seismic force yields
the safety factor against failure, represents a procedure that is widely applied in equivalent
static analysis of masonry structures at IZIIS. Applying this methodology and considering
the already proportioned structural elements, the bearing and deformability capacity of the
structure of the church of the Virgin Mary has been analyzed. The results obtained from the
analysis are in the form of storey Q-A diagrams and output digital results for each
individual wall and the integral structure separately for both the orthogonal directions.
From the obtained results (Table 1), it can be considered that each individual wall has a
sufficient bearing and deformability capacity whereat the safety factor at occurrence of the
first cracks and particularly failure of all the storeys is greater than 1 (Fj > 1, Fu > 1).
230
Table 1: Summary results on the church of the Virgin Mary
storey stiffness
Ki (kN/cm)
x-x y-y
ultimate bearing
capacity
Qu (kN)
x-x y-y
safety factor
Fu=Qu/S
x-x y-y
storey 3 8782 12257 4462 4018 2.52 2.27
storey 2 30289 38217 11157 9183 2.06 1.70
storey 1 37492 50952 17020 23381 1.87 2.57
3. The main dynamic parameters of the structure have been defined in the form of
fundamental periods and mode shapes as a constituent part of the three-dimensional
analysis of the church structure by using SAP2000 programme package, (Tx = 0.1012 sec
and Ty = 0.1406 sec). The structure has a higher stiffness in the longitudinal direction X-X
where the massive bearing walls have greater lengths.
Within the three dimensional analysis of the church structure performed by using
the SAP2000 programme package, dynamic analysis has been carried out using the
nonlinear response spectrum related to the Petrovats earthquake, N-S component, which has
been selected as the most unfavourable one. The analysis has been carried out for the
design level of input acceleration (a
max
= 0.34 g). For the needs of the analysis, the linear
spectrum has been reduced by reduction coefficients R depending on the period and the
adopted level of ductility of the church structure. From the obtained results it can be
concluded that, due to the high stiffness of the structure, relatively small deformations due
to the nonlinear acceleration spectrum are obtained, i.e., this load case is not referent for the
analysis of the structure.
Applying modeling with concentrated masses that assumes concentration of
distributed structural characteristics at the characteristic levels, a nonlinear dynamic
analysis has been performed by application of a corresponding storey hysteretic model
obtained by summing up the elastic-plastic characteristics of each of the bearing walls,
whereat the bearing capacity of each of them has been limited to the lower value of bending
or shear bearing capacity. These input data are, in fact, the results from the analysis of the
bearing and deformability capacity of the church structure (Table 1). Three different types
of earthquakes (Petrovets N-S, 1979, Ulciw Olimpik N-S, 1979 and El Centro, 1940) with
input acceleration of a
max
= 0.34 g and 0.40 g and return periods of 475 and 1000 years,
respectively, have been applied.
It has been concluded that the Y-Y direction is logically more flexible wherefore
higher ductility is obtained in this direction. It can be concluded that such designed
structure possesses sufficient bearing and deformability capacity, i.e., that its dynamic
behaviour complies with the established design criteria. Ductility of <1.5 for a design
earthquake with a return period of 475 years, i.e., <2.0 for the maximum expected
earthquake with a return period of 1000 years have been obtained.
231
4. CONCLUSIONS
- The church of the Virgin Mary possesses sufficient bearing and deformability capacity
in respect to the designed level of seismic protection;
- The church of the Virgin Mary satisfies the design safety criteria;
- It is generally concluded that the designed structure of the church of the Virgin Mary
completely satisfies the prescribed requirements and criteria for such type of structures
of special importance.
The reconstruction of the church of the Virgin Mary over the existing foundation
walls and in compliance with the solutions anticipated with the main project started in the
summer of 2004. After a year, the finishing works on the roof structure are being carried
out (Fig. 5).
Figure 5. Construction of the church of the Virgin Mary
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
IZIIS and the participants in this project would like to extend their gratitude to the
Macedonian Orthodox Church the Skopje diocese and the Institute for Protection of
Cultural Monuments of the City of Skopje for the entrusted task and the continuous
cooperation throughout the realization of this project.
REFERENCES
[1] Garevski, M., Sendova, V., Stojanoski, B. (2004), Main Project for the Structure of
the Church of the Virgin Mary, Skopje, IZIIS Report 2004-20, Skopje
233
Veronika endova
146
Predrag Gavrilovi
247
, Blagoje Stojanoski
348
Goran Jeki
449
INTEGRIRANI PRISTUP SANACIJE I SEIZMIKOG OJAANJA
MUSTAFA PAINE DAMIJE U SKOPLJU
Rezime
Potujui moderne principe zatite kulturno istoriskih spomenika, kao to su primena
novih materijala i tehnologija, reverzibilnost i nevidlljivost, izraen je projekat o
sanaciji i ojaanju Mustafa Paine Damije u Skoplju. Koncept ojaanja, radi
postizanja projektovanog nivoa seimike zatite, selektiran je na osnovi: (i)
istraivanja uslova tla, (ii) istraivanje karakteristika ugraenih materijala, (iii)
istraivanje osnovnih dinamikih karakteristika objekta i (iv) prethodna
eksperimentalna istraivanja modela damije u razmeru.
Klkune rei: istoriski spomenik, sanacija i ojaanje, zemljotresna zatita, novi
materijali i tehnologije
INTEGRATED APPROACH TO REPAIR AND SEISMIC
STRENGTHENING OF MUSTAFA PASHA MOSQUE IN SKOPJE
Summary:
A project on repair and strengthening of Mustafa Pashas mosque has been
elaborated respecting the modern requirements in protection of historical
monuments, i.e. application of new technologies and materials, reversibility and
invisibility of the applied technique. The concept of structural strengthening and
repair aimed at reaching the designed level of earthquake protection has been
selected based on: (i) investigations of the soil conditions, (ii) investigations of the
characteristics of the built-in materials, (iii) investigation of the main dynamic
characteristics, and (iv) previous experimental investigation of the mosque model.
Key words: historic monument, repair and strengthening, earthquake protection,
new materials and techniques
1
2
Emeritus Professor, IZIIS, Republic of Macedonia
3
Ass. Researcher, M.Sc, IZIIS, Republic of Macedonia
4
Ass. Researcher, IZIIS, Republic of Macedonia
234
1. INTRODUCTION
The repair and/or strengthening of historical monuments in seismic regions is
highly dependent on the earthquake conditions to which they have been exposed in their
past history and the ground motion to which they are expected to be frequently exposed in
future, as well as the materials and methods used for their construction. Due to these
reasons, it will be of importance that repair and/or strengthening, as a part of preservation,
conservation and restoration of historical monuments be planned based on detailed studies
of the following factors: seismic hazard; local soil conditions and its dynamic behaviour
under earthquake loading; dynamic properties of the structural systems and their strength
and deformability and the dynamic response of the structure under the expected ground
motions.
Considering that the above factors are of main importance for the determination of
the earthquake response of historical monuments, as well as the fact that seismic analysis
cannot be performed using seismic design codes for modern buildings, determination of the
criteria, methods and techniques for strengthening and the process of restoration and
preservation should be based on detailed studies with consideration of the cost effectiveness
of the alternative solutions.
3. IZIIS' EXPERIENCE IN PROTECTION OF CULTURAL
HERITAGE
Within the frames of the IZIIS research activities, in addition to seismic design and
protection of modern structures, particularly noteworthy is also the experience gathered in
the field of protection of structures pertaining to the cultural historic heritage. During a
period of more than 30 years of activities in this field, the Institute has realized important
scientific research projects involving experimental and analytical research, field surveys of
historic structures and application of knowledge during earthquake protection of important
cultural historic structures and monuments.
Within the frameworks of the scientific research projects realized at the Institute in the
period 1990-2000 for the purpose of development of appropriate methods for repair and
strengthening of the Byzantine monuments in general, and particularly the Byzantine
churches located within Macedonia, shaking table testing of a church model in a realistic
geometrical scale was performed for the first time in the world, [1]. 1:2.75 scaled model of
St. Nikita church was constructed and tested on the seismic shaking table in the IZIIS
laboratory in its original state, strengthened state by use of "ties and injection", and as a
base isolated model. The knowledge gained in this way is unique and incomparable and
hence necessary for seismic strengthening of individual important cultural-historic
structures where it is important to have an insight into the effect of the interventions upon
the authenticity of the monument.
After realization of these projects, IZIIS became partner of the Republic Institute for
Protection of Cultural Historic Monuments which enabled direct application of the gained
knowledge in actual conditions and for specific historic monuments. Presented further are
the two most characteristic examples of application of the developed methodology by
implementation of vertical and horizontal strengthening elements.
1. Reconstruction and seismic strengthening of the St. Athanasius church, [3]:
On August 21, 2001, during the armed conflict in R. Macedonia, the monastic church of St.
235
Athanasius in Leshok experienced strong detonation, which resulted in its almost complete
demolition, (Fig. 1). From structural aspects, there have been two approaches taken in the
attempt to renovate and reconstruct the structure, (Fig.2). Based on the performed detailed
analysis of the structure, (i) solution for repair and strengthening of the existing damaged part
of the monastic church and (ii) solution for seismic strengthening of the ruined part of the
church to be reconstructed were made.
Image 1. The Church after detonation Image 2. The church after reconstruction
2. Reconstruction of the St. Pantelymon church in Ohrid, [2]: In the process of
conservation and rebuilding of the St. Panteleymon church, Ohrid, (Fig. 3) having in mind
the importance and specific nature of the structure representing a historic monument
classified in the first category and a structure of a particular national interest, it was
necessary to design a building structure that will satisfy the stability conditions in the
process of application of the conservation principles regarding shape, system and
identification of materials. Seismic strengthening was provided in accordance with the
previously developed and verified methodology, (Fig.4).
Image 3. The church during reconstruction Image 4. The rebuilt St. Panteleymon church
236
4. INTEGRATED APPROACH TO REPAIR AND
STRENGTHENING OF HISTORIC MONUMENTS
The decisions for repair and strengthening of a historic structure should be tho-
roughly clarified and justified in advance because of the existence of some unusual aspects
(compared to modern structures) that have to be taken into account. The characteristic
structural entity, the variety of the built-in material, the complex history of successful
modifications done in the past, as well as the degree of deterioration makes each historic
structure a case for itself. Only a team of experts of different profiles, (architects,
archaeologists, art historians, conservators and other profiles), who are completely
competent in their fields but sufficiently flexible to accept the arguments of the others can
successfully protect a historic structure. Nevertheless, protection of structures in seismically
active regions is mainly a task to be done by a civil engineer - a structural engineer.
Extensive research activities have been performed by IZIIS for the purpose of
evaluation of a procedure for repair and strengthening of valuable historic monuments.
Such a procedure is based on conventional understanding of retrofitting, although, in our
concepts, there are also techniques, which are based on the idea of structural control. As a
result of several decades of gathering of experience, it can be said that an integral approach
to seismic protection of extraordinarily important cultural historic structures has been
adopted by the Institute. This approach, first of all, complies with all the restoration and
conservation requirements set in a number of international documents and declarations, as
well as procedures and legislative regulations for high category structures. This integrated
approach to repair and seismic strengthening of historic monuments should encompass the
following:
o Definition of expected seismic hazard;
o Definition of soil conditions and dynamic behaviour of soil media;
o Determination of structural characteristics along with the bearing and
deformability capacity of existing structures;
o Definition of criteria and development of a concept for repair and/or
strengthening;
o Design of structural methods, techniques, materials and types of excitation;
o Determination of the response of repaired and/or strengthened structures and
verification of their seismic stability;
o Definition of field works, execution and inspection.
Although the above stated seems to be the "normal procedure", it is the only
way of providing high quality in protection of cultural heritage. This task is certainly much
more than simply listing of what is to be done since it requires a lot of knowledge and
efforts.
4. REPAIR AND SEISMIC STRENGTHENING OF MUSTAFA
PASHA MOSQUE IN SKOPJE
Mustafa Pasha's Mosque is one of the biggest and the best preserved monuments
of the Ottoman sacral architecture in Skopje and the Balkan. The building style belongs to
the early Constantinople period at the beginning of the second half of the 15
th
century. The
structural system of the mosque consists of massive peripheral walls in both orthogonal
237
directions with a thickness of about 170 cm constructed partially of hewn stone and brick.
The walls of the building are original in principle. They are constructed with two faces
between which there is an infill of lime mortar and pieces of bricks and stone.
The catastrophic Skopje earthquake of 1963 inflicted damage to the mosque
structure that dominantly affected the central dome and the domes of the porch, the east
facade and the minaret. In 1968, these damages were repaired by injection of cement mortar
based mixtures as well as incorporation of RC belt courses, (Fig.5).
Image 5. Mustafa Pasha Mosque after the 1963 Skopje earthquake
Today, Mustafa Pashas Mosque represents a cultural historic monument of an
extraordinary importance for the city of Skopje and Republic of Macedonia. As such, it is
under the protection of the Law on Protection of Cultural Heritage and it is categorized as a
structure belonging to the first category.
The authors of this paper had the opportunity and the challenge to design a system for
seismic strengthening of the structure, (financed by the Turkish foundation TIKA) for the
needs of the conservation project on repair of Mustafa Pasha Mosque prepared by the
Foundation of the University of Gazi in cooperation with the Ministry of Culture and
Tourism of Turkey, the Ministry of Culture of Republic of Macedonia and the National
Conservation Centre in Skopje and realized in 2006.
Respecting the modern requirements in the field of protection of historical monuments,
as is the application of new technologies and materials, reversibility and invisibility of the
applied technique, the authors have decided to choose a concept of repair and strengthening
involving the use of composite materials. In realization of this project, the established
integrated approach has thoroughly been respected. The concept of structural strengthening
and repair aimed at reaching the designed level of earthquake protection has been selected
based on:
(i) investigations of the characteristics of the built-in materials,
(i) investigation of the main dynamic characteristics,
(ii) shaking table testing of the mosque model;
(ii) investigations of the soil conditions;
(iii) detailed geophysical surveys for definition of geotechnical and
geodynamic models of the site.
238
4.1. INVESTIGATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
BUILT-IN MATERIALS AND THE MAIN DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTIC
In the course of 2006, within the bilateral scientific project with the Yildiz
University, Turkey, the dynamic characteristics of the Mustafa Pasha Mosque structure
were investigated by use of the ambient vibration technique, [4]. The obtained natural
periods of the structure were Tx=3.0s and Ty=3.2s, whereas the fundamental period of the
minaret structure is T=1.04s. Within this project, the mechanical characteristics of the built
in materials were also investigated through testing of samples of material taken from the
structure. These data are particularly important and necessary for correct analysis of the
seismic stability of the monument.

Image 6. Damages to the mosque model Image 7. Strengthening of the model
4.2. SHAKING TABLE TESTING OF THE MODEL OF MUSTAFA
PASHA MOSQUE
Experimental shaking table tests on a model of the Mustafa Pasha Mosque were
carried out in IZIIS within the frames of PROHITECH project Earthquake Protection of
Historical Buildings by Reversible Mixed Technologies, [5]. The 1:6 scaled model has
been subjected to the effect of a series of earthquakes that caused damage (Fig. 6). Then the
model was strengthened by application of CFRP elements and subjected to iterative tests
(Fig. 7). The results from the investigation, although obtained for small geometrical scale,
have shown that the system is efficient, which was the starting point in making the decision
about the concept of strengthening of the prototype.
239
4.3. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE SOIL CONDITIONS
To define the bearing capacity of the local soil and identify the foundation level of
the structure, geomechanical drilling (3 sondages down to the depth of 8.00 m) was carried
out in June 2007. These geomechanical investigations enabled sufficient definition of the
lithological composition of the soil, definition of the geotechnical soil profiles below the
structure as well as definition of the physical-mechanical characteristics of the present
materials. It has been also concluded that the structure is founded at level 4.00 m on a
layer of semi-bound to well compacted sandstone of high bearing capacity.
4.4 DETAILED GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS FOR DEFINITION OF
GEOTECHNICAL AND GEODYNAMIC MODELS OF THE SITE
The main purpose of these investigations has been to define the seismic
parameters for evaluation of the seismic stability of the structure. Namely, for structures of
extraordinary importance according to the valid technical regulations, it is necessary to
define the seismic input concretely for the site of the structure in order to perform correct
dynamic analysis. The investigations have been carried out in compliance with the latest
achievements in the field of earthquake engineering, [6]. The main concept of the applied
procedure is to consider the expected earthquake effect through a probabilistic approach,
including also the local soil effects through nonlinear dynamic analysis of a representative
geotechnical model. Table 1 shows the expected values of maximum acceleration for
different return periods, whereas Table 2 shows the defined seismic design parameters
through input acceleration and characteristic spectra for the design and maximal
earthquake. For such defined input parameters, the characteristic records whose frequency
content covers the frequency range of interest have been selected in the dynamic analysis.
Table 1 - Maximal acceleration (in g) for different return periods
Return period (years) DAF
50 100 200 500 1000
Bedrock 1.00 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.27 0.36
Foundation level 1.35 0.176 0.257 0.338 0.365 0.480
Table 2. Seismic design parameters
Serviceability
life (years)
Level of seismic risk
(%)
Earthquake Max. acceleration
a
max
(g)
30-40 Design 0.34 100 and more
10-20 Maximum 0.39
240
4.5. CONCEPT FOR SEISMIC STRENGTHENING OF MUSTAFA
PASHA MOSQUE
Based on these investigations and the defined seismic parameters, as well as
detailed analysis of the seismic stability of the structure, the solution of structural
strengthening has been accepted, (Fig. 8, 9), that complies thoroughly with the conservation
principles for repair and strengthening of cultural historic monuments, [7]. It consists of
incorporation of strengthening elements in the process of conservation of the architecture of
the structure and in accordance with the existing project on conservation of the structure,
with the main purpose of providing integrity to the structure as well as simultaneous
behaviour of the bearing walls at the corresponding levels.
Image 8. Strengthening of Mustafa Pasha Mosque, (facade)
241
Image 9. Strengthening of Mustafa Pasha Mosque, (cross section)
DOME: After removal of the cement mortar layer over the dome placed in 1968,
the following is anticipated to be carried out: (1) coating of the formerly constructed
reinforced concrete ring in the base of the main dome with an injection mixture based on
lime mortar and (2) placement of a CFRP strip in a layer of epoxy glue along the
perimeter of the dome base within a width of 2.9 m. Then the entire dome is anticipated
to be externally coated with a protective layer of lime mortar and covered in accordance
with the project on the conservation of the architecture, (Fig.9-A).
TAMBOUR, BEARING WALLS: After cleaning of all the joints on the outside
with a depth of 8 10 cm, it is anticipated to place CFRP bars of defined mechanical
characteristics (tensile strength of ft = 1800 2000 MPa) in an epoxy mortar layer and
connect them in the vertical joints. Then, it is planned to fill the joints with pointing lime
mortar in accordance with the project on conservation of the architecture, (Fig.9-
B,C,D,E,G,H).
FOUNDATION STRUCTURE: The solution consists of construction of a
reinforced concrete wall with a thickness of d=25 cm along the perimeter of the foundation
walls, on the external side, below the terrain level and down to the foundation level. From
conservation reasons, this reinforced concrete wall will be physically separated from the
existing foundation walls by a polyurethane coating for the purpose of separating the
concrete from the existing stone masonry. To ensure interaction between the newly
designed RC wall and the existing foundation structure, the solution anticipates placement
of anchors made of chrome steel to an alternating length according to the reinforcement
details, in previously formed openings filled with epoxy mortar (mixture of quartzite sand
and epoxy) in accordance with the enclosed scheme, (Fig.9-F).
Existing RC belt course
Existing RC belt course
242
In the entire part of the structure extending above the terrain level, it is anticipated
to remove the cement mortar injected in the cracks after the 1963 earthquake. With the
project on conservation of the architecture, it is anticipated that these cracks as well as all
the cracks detected after the opening of the external joints be injected with lime mortar with
defined mechanical characteristics.
5. REALIZATION OF THE PROJECT
Strengthening of the mosque structure in accordance with the designed system
started in the fall of 2007 with strengthening of the foundation structure. The solution
consists of construction of a reinforced concrete wall with a thickness of d=25 cm along the
perimeter of the foundation walls, on the external side, below the terrain level and down to
the foundation level. From conservation reasons, this reinforced concrete wall was
physically separated from the existing foundation walls by a polyurethane coating for the
purpose of separating the concrete from the existing stone masonry. To ensure interaction
between the newly designed RC wall and the existing foundation structure, the solution
anticipates placement of anchors made of chrome steel to an alternating length according to
the reinforcement details, in previously formed openings filled with epoxy mortar (mixture
of quartzite sand and epoxy) in accordance with the enclosed scheme, (Fig. 10).
The realization of the project continued with the parallel working on the dome
structure and bearing wall which strengthening is still under construction in compliance
with the following:
Dome: After removal of the cement mortar layer over the dome placed in 1968,
the following is anticipated to be carried out: (1) coating of the formerly constructed
reinforced concrete ring in the base of the main dome with an injection mixture based on
lime mortar and (2) placement of a CFRP strip in a layer of epoxy glue along the perimeter
of the dome base within a width of 2.9 m. Then the entire dome is anticipated to be
externally coated with a protective layer of lime mortar and covered in accordance with the
project on the conservation of the architecture.
Bearing Walls: After cleaning of all the joints on the outside with a depth of 8
cm, (Fig. 11), it is anticipated to place CFRP bars of defined mechanical characteristics
(tensile strength of ft = 1800 2000 MPa) in an epoxy mortar layer and connect them in the
vertical joints. Then, it is planned to fill the joints with pointing lime mortar in accordance
with the project on conservation of the architecture.
Image 10. Strengthening of the foundation Image 11. Strengthening of bearing wall
243
In the entire part of the structure extending above the terrain level, it is anticipated to
remove the cement mortar injected in the cracks after the 1963 earthquake. With the
project on conservation of the architecture, it is anticipated that these cracks as well as all
the cracks detected after the opening of the external joints be injected with lime mortar with
defined mechanical characteristics.
REFERENCES
[1] Seismic Strengthening and Repair of Byzantine Churches / P. Gavrilovic, V.
Sendova and W.S.Ginell,// Journal of Earthquake Engineering,, Vol. 3 No. 2, 1999
[2] Consolidation and Reconstruction of St. Panteleymon Church in Ohrid/ P.
Gavrilovic, G. Necevska Cvetanvska, R. Apostolska, // IZIIS Report 2001, IZIIS -
Skopje, 2001.
[3] Main Project on Repair, Strengthening and Reconstruction of St. Ahtanasius
Church in Leshok / V. Sendova, B. Stojanoski, // IZIIS Report 2004, IZIIS Skopje,
2004.
[4] Experimental testing of the historical monuments from / Lj. Tashkov, L.
Krstevska, Bilateral scientific research project, Yildiz Technical University, Tureky
IZIIS Skopje, 2006.
[5] Shaking Table Testing of Mustafa Pasha Mosque Model / L. Krstevska, Lj.
Tashkov, F. Mazzolani, K. Gramatikov, // EU-FP6 Programme, Project PROHITECH,
WP7, 2007.
[6] Definition of the seismic parameters for the evaluation of seismic stability of
Mustafa Pasha Mosque in Skopje / V. Sesov et al., // IZIIS Report 2007-47, Skopje
2007.
[7] Main Project on Repair and Strengthening of the Mustafa Pasha Mosque in
Skopje / V. Sendova, B. Stojanoski, P. Gavrilovic// IZIIS Report 2007-41, Vol.1- 3,
Skopje 2007.
245
Veronika endova
150
, Zoran Rakievi
251
,Predrag Gavrilovi
352
, Dimitar Jurukovski
453
SEIZMIKA ZATITA VIZANTIJSKIH CRKVI PRIMENOM
SISTEMA ZA PASIVNU KONTROLU
Rezime
Prezentirani su rezultati eksperimentalnih i analitikih istraivanja za primenu
seizmike izolacije kod Vizantiskih crkvi. Testovi su pokazali da seizmika izolacija
nudi zatitu i sigurnost kulturno istoriskih spomenika, a njena primena bi trebala
postati imperativ u njihovoj zemljotresnoj zatiti. Da bi iskoristili prednost sistema, a
istovremeno bili u saglasnosti sa konzervatoskim zahtevima, izvrene su analize za
ukljuenje sistema viskoznih dampera, radi konroliranja amplitude horizontalnih
pomeranja u oba ortogonalna pravca.
Kqune rei: vizaniske crkve, zemljotresna zatita, izolacija
RETROFITTING OF BYZANTINE CHURCH USING PASSIVE
BASE CONTROL SYSTEM
Summary:
This paper presents the results from the experimental and analytical investigations
performed to develop a methodology for application of seismic isolation in
Byzantine churches. The experimental tests have proved that the seismic base
isolation offers safety and protection and that its application should become an
imperative in earthquake protection of historic monuments in future. To benefit
from the advantages of base isolation and to be in compliance with the
conservators' requirements, an attempt has been made to insert passive control
viscous dampers to control the horizontal displacement amplitudes in both
orthogonal directions.
Key words: Byzantine churches, earthquake protection, seismic isolation
1
2
Assoc.Prof. Dr., IZIIS, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
3
4
246
1. INTRODUCTION
Traditional stone and brick masonry structures, whether or not they are historic
monuments, have low ductility, and, due to their stiff and brittle structural components, are
usually severely damaged during strong earthquakes. The main reasons for damage or
collapse are the lack of ductility of the masonry components, high displacements that the
structure cannot afford, and amplification of dangerously high frequencies due to their
dynamic behaviour in response to earthquake action making them vulnerable to those
harmonies of the ground motion. In order to improve the behaviour of these masonry
structures in response to earthquake forces, strengthening measures that emphasize the use
of reinforcing steel have been widely adopted in building codes. In this practice, steel
reinforcement is placed within piers and walls at critical areas to compensate for the lack of
tensile strength and ductility and to increase the stiffness of these elements. Horizontal
bands are provided at different levels in order to ensure "box-like" action and to reduce the
possibility of "out-of-plane" failures. These strengthening concepts have met with success
by greatly decreasing the potential of collapse. However, these methods are quite intrusive,
may require the partial disassembly of building elements, can destroy valuable and
irreplaceable interior finishes, and can also alter the external appearance of a building. In
spite of these interventions, masonry structures can still be cracked during earthquakes of
medium or higher intensity. Therefore, alternative design philosophies for seismic
strengthening need to be explored for historic masonry structures where the conservation of
historic fabric is paramount. One of the main tasks and problems in retrofitting of historic
monuments in seismic regions in the process of their reconstruction and protection is to
answer the question as to how far we should go as to the level of safety on one hand and the
extent of the intervention on the other. Modern approach to protection of cultural heritage
should be a multidisciplinary one sticking to the maxim of "minimum intervention -
maximum protection", which should serve as a basis for introducing of criteria for
protection against earthquake effects considering all the specificities of the site and the
expected level of seismic effect as well as the specific characteristics of the monuments,
their historic, cultural importance, their structure and characteristics of materials used for
their construction.
2. CONCEPT OF BASE ISOLATION AND ITS APPLICATION IN
CULTURAL HERITAGE
Seismic base isolation would appear to be an attractive alternate to the widely
adopted seismic strengthening techniques discussed above. With base isolation seismic
loads can be reduced to the same order of magnitude as the existing strength of the historic
buildings and this in turn will decrease and may eliminate altogether the need for
intervention above the level of isolation. In this manner, the interior and exterior fabric can
be left undisturbed. With base isolation, a major part of the earthquake energy that would
have been transferred into the building structure would be absorbed at the base level.
Consequently, ductility demand to the structure is greatly reduced; displacement would be
strictly controlled by the addition of an appropriate amount of damping within the base
isolation system; and the frequency of the isolated structure is decreased to a value below
that which dominates in a typical earthquake. So the three damaging criteria discussed
above, lack of ductility, high displacements, and amplification of high frequencies are
247
addressed. In addition, the application of the technique of base isolation to increase the
seismic safety of monuments with high cultural-historic value is promising where other
possible strengthening techniques do not seem to be applicable. The main advantages of
implementation of this methodology in the case of Byzantine churches are:
Isolators may give large reductions in the seismic loads for those structures, with short
periods and low damping, which are most prone to suffer severe seismic attack if unisolated.
Selected isolators may give very large reductions in the seismic loads on secondary
structures and on the contents of appropriate structures.
The complete intervention (construction work) is done at the foundation level so that
only conservation work is done on the existing upper structure.
The fresco-paintings on all the walls of the interior of churches are maximally protected
against possible damage in the course of structural strengthening of the structures so that the
process of fresco-conservation and protection runs independently of the structural
intervention.
A great number of churches that possess extremely valuable frescoes are quite small in
size. Seismic isolation is very efficient and simple for their conservation.
The flaws of the above methodology are the following:
The intervention carried out by incorporation of devices for seismic isolation at the
foundation level represents a huge task that modifies, in a certain way, the basic concept
of the existing structure. This represents a problem in the sense that conservators have
to accept this as a possible way of protection in each concrete case.
An isolator, which is effective in reducing seismic attacks on a structure, must have
features, which result in relatively large isolator displacements. These large
displacements, i.e. large movements of the monument structure in its base is, for other
reasons, unacceptable for the conservators and the specialist dealing with protection of
cultural heritage, although in that way the total structural displacements are little larger
than the displacements of the supporting isolator.
The isolation devices are modern technological products, which are costly and are
produced by specified companies. The cost of seismic protection by application of such
devices is higher than that of traditional seismic protection. However, for historic
monuments, it is difficult to estimate the cost of such a protection since seismic
isolation has so far been done on a very limited number of monuments.
It must be pointed out that application of seismic isolation in historical buildings is
recommendable and its wider application should be expected in future if all the
requirements of the involved specialists would be satisfied. In addition the cost of the base
isolation, due to its advancement, has decreased significantly.
3. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE BASE ISOLATED
CHURCH MODEL
To develop appropriate approaches for repair and strengthening of Byzantine
churches, in general, and particularly churches located within Macedonia, research projects
on seismic strengthening, conservation and restoration, including seismic isolation of
Byzantine Churches in the Republic of Macedonia were realized in the period 1990-2000,
(Gavrilovic et al., 1995, Gavrilovic et al., 2001). To experimentally verify the
methodologies, a model of the church of St. Nikita, selected as a representative prototype
248
Byzantine church in Macedonia, was constructed to a scale of 1:2.75 and tested on the
seismic shaking table in the Dynamic Testing Laboratory of IZIIS in its original,
nonretrofitted state (M-SN-EXIST), strengthened state by use of "ties and injection", (M-
SN-STR) and as a base isolated model (M-SN-BIC). Taking into account the previously
acquired knowledge, the practice and the main assumptions from the aspect of analytical
and experimental behaviour of the system, the concept of isolation within the framework of
the investigation project is "laminated rubber bearing with stopper elements", (Fig. 1.) with
two clearly distinguished elements:
A. Laminated rubber bearing element for receipt and transfer of vertical gravity forces and
limited displacement (insulation) in horizontal direction,
B. "Stopper element", which is introduced in trying to satisfy the criterion of "limited
displacement", one of the elements of specific behaviour and requirements for historic
monuments regarding their protection in seismic conditions.
Image 1 Seismic isolator in action
For this system and according to the main characteristics of the structure (weight, stiffness
and expected-desirable behaviour), a total of 8 bearings with their main characteristics have
been specially designed with the characteristics as given in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of seismic isolators
Circular cross-section, D=13.1 cm F = 134.7 cm2
Total height
H = 15.1 cm
No. of rubber elements
Ng = 10
No. of steel sheets
Nc = 9
Thickness of rubber element
Dg = 1.06 cm
Thickness of steel sheet
Dc = 0.5 cm
Sliding modulus of rubber
G ~.20 kN/cm2
Stiffness of an isolator
K =2.5 kN/cm
Stiffness of a system of 8 isolators
K8 =20 kN/cm
Mass of the church model
m = 29.6 t
Expected (designed) period of the model M-SN-BIC
T=0.80-1.0 sec
249
Image 2 Model M-SN-BIC on the shaking table
In accordance with the possibilities and the objectives of the project (to
demonstrate the effect of seismic isolation, not to produce isolators) these isolators have
been completely manufactured in Republic of Macedonia. A steel structure for connection
of the isolators with the church model structure and the seismic shaking table, (Fig. 2) has
been designed and constructed for this system.
The model was subjected to the same series of dynamic tests as for the previously
tested nonretrofitted model, (M-SN-EXIST) and the model strengthened by use of "ties and
injection" (M-SN-STR). However, due to the base energy dissipation characteristics of the
base isolated model, the tests were also continued at higher intensities. Detailed
experimental investigations were performed for different levels of input acceleration and
different earthquake records. The results obtained from the tests on model M-SN-BIC are
given in Table 2, while Table 3 shows the comparison among the experimentally obtained
results for all the three models. In accordance with the programme, the stopper elements
were activated only during the last three tests.
250
Table 2. Response to different intensities of El Centro earth-quake.
* with stopper elements
Table 3. Comparison among the experimental results obtained for the three models.
Output acceleration (in g) for the church
models
Earthquake
Input
acc
(g)
M-SN-
EXIST
M-SN-
STR
M-SN-
BIC
lev 1 lev 2 lev 1 lev 2 lev 1 lev 2
El Centro 0.17 0.29 0.55 0.20 0.47 0.08 0.10
El Centro 0.30 - - 0.65 1.10 0.11 0.16
El Centro 0.49 - - 0.91 1.59 0.26 0.39
El Centro 0.54 - - 0.77 1.41 0.35 0.68
El Centro 0.60 - - - - 0.42 0.82
Petrovac 0.19 0.39 0.76 0.27 0.48 0.09 0.15
Petrovac 0.40 - - 0.77 1.36 0.15 0.28
Breginj 0.28 - - 0.20 0.40 0.10 0.16
Breginj 0.38 - - 0.34 0.79 0.14 0.23
From the comparison of the experimental results, the following can be concluded:
The results from these tests, especially compared with the results from the previously
tested model strengthened by use of "ties and injection", pointed to a decrease of input
acceleration in the model structure for 50-60%.
It was evident that the output acceleration and the relative displacement through the
height of the base isolated model were considerably smaller than those for the
strengthened model.
There was also a significant difference in the amplification of the dynamic response of
the dome structure; in the case of M-SN-BIC, it was negligible.
The base isolated model did not suffer damage under low and moderate earthquake
intensities, while the damages under the expected accelerations with a return period of
1000 years, (a
max
=0.54g) were minimal and absolutely allowable and repairable.
Input Foundation Top of the dome
Acc
(g)
Disp
(mm)
Acc
(g)
Disp
(mm)
Acc
(g)
Disp
(mm)
0.17 9.0 0.07 11.0 0.10 12.0
0.30 18.0 0.10 23.0 0.16 35.0
0.40 27.0 0.19 32.0 0.22 40.0
0.49* 33.0 0.24 44.0 0.39 65.0
0.54* 36.0 0.27 48.0 0.68 73.0
0.60* 42.0 0.30 63.0 0.82 97.0
251
Finally, to conceive the efficiency of the applied seismic isolation system, the model
was tested under the maximum earthquake intensity, (El Centro, a
max
=0.60g). Under this
intensity, the monument was evidently stable and safe, with the exception of some
minor damage.
However, from the detailed analysis of the model response, particularly when tested
under high input acceleration, the following can be concluded:
It is a characteristic of the Byzantine churches that they are symmetric in respect to the
longitudinal axis (x-x direction). During the experimental tests, the excitation was
applied in the transverse direction (y-y) wherefore the model response was
characterized by torsion.
Under the highest input accelerations, horizontal displacements of up to 63 mm were
observed in the middle of the model base (Table 2), i.e., up to 90 mm at the base of the
east part of the model (at the apse). In accordance with the geometrical scale to which
the model was built, these displacements would amount up to 25 cm in the case of the
prototype, i.e., in real conditions. From the discussions held with specialists working in
the field of protection of cultural heritage, it turns out that such displacement at the base
of the Byzantine churches is unacceptable for the conservators although the relative
displacements along the height of the structures in the case of base isolation would be
negligible. Consequently, the problem is to be solved in another way.
4. ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF BASE ISOLATED
CHURCH MODEL M-SN-BIC
4.1. MODELING AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE ANALYTICAL
RESULTS WITH THE EXPERIMENTAL ONES
To model the response of the M-SN-BIC model structure, the SAP 2000 computer
package was used. Taking into account the complexity and the specific characteristics of
the structural system and the materials built in the model of the structure on one hand and
the possibilities offered by the programme package on the other hand, an attempt was made
to define the church structure model in the most appropriate way by using finite elements,
(Fig. 3). A moderately dense network of a total of 2548 nodes and 1604 elements was
adopted to encompass the global geometrical characteristics of the model disregarding the
inhomogeneity of the material. The reinforced concrete platform, the massive bearing walls
and the walls of the tambour were modeled by a total of 1376 SOLID elements, while the
vaults and the dome were modeled by a total of 220 SHELL elements. The isolators were
modeled by a total of 8 LINK elements of the type of rubber isolators. The previously
obtained experimental values were used as input data on the physical mechanical
characteristics of all these elements.
252
Image 3. SAP2000 model with isolators
While analyzing the model by using SAP 2000, the option for nonlinear time
history analysis was used whereat the same input excitations (harmonics and earthquakes)
that were applied physically on the shaking table during the experimental tests were used as
input time histories. Being complicated for precise analysis, those tests in which the stopper
elements were activated in accordance with the programme (Table 2) were omitted from the
analyses. The identification of the analytical results with the experimental results was done
for all the conducted tests through comparison of the displacements and accelerations
obtained at the characteristic points. The results are displayed through comparative
presentation of the displacements and the accelerations at the level of foundation and the
top of model obtained experimentally and analytically under the El Centro earthquake with
a
max
=0.40g (Fig. 4).
Image 4. Comparison of obtained displacements, (El Centro, a
max
=0.40g)
Top of the dome
Foundation
253
4.2. ANALYTICAL SIMULATION OF MAXIMAL
EARTHQUAKE EXCITATIONS
To obtain the analytical values of the church model response under the maximal
possible excitations, the developed analytical model was used whereat the time history of
the same excitation but with increased intensity (El Centro, amax = 0.60 g) was used. The
results from this analysis spoke for themselves about the increased values of displacement
and acceleration in the midst of the model base (disp
max
= 86 mm, a
max
=3431 mm/s
2
),
whereat the relative displacements and the amplification along the height of the church
model remained negligible (disp
max
top
= 97 mm, a
max
top
=3672mm/s
2
). However, what is
important for the behaviour of the model is the torsion which can be seen through the
comparative presentation of the displacements of the isolators L1 and L3 (Fig. 5a), i.e., the
difference between the displacements of L1 and L3 during the excitation duration, which
amounts to 59 mm at a certain moment (Fig. 5b).
a) Displacement of L1and L3
b) Difference between displacements of L1and L3
Image 5. Analytical results for the isolators L1 an L3, (El Centro, a
max
=0.60g)
4.3. INCORPORATION OF VISCOUS DAMPERS
To benefit from the evident advantages of base isolation over the other techniques
used for retrofitting and also to comply with the requirements of the conservators, an
attempt was made analytically to insert passive control viscous dampers to control the
horizontal displacement amplitudes in both orthogonal directions. For that purpose, 4 new
LINK elements of the damper type were inserted at the level of the model base (Fig. 6),
254
two in the longitudinal x-x direction (DX1and DX2 in line with L1) and two in the
transverse y-y direction (DY1 in line with L1 and DY2 in line with L3).
Image 6. SAP2000 model with dampers
Numerous parametric analyses were performed during further investigations for
the purpose of more precise definition of the necessary characteristics of the dampers. To
get an insight into the effect of the dampers upon the maximum horizontal displacements
and decrease the effect of torsion, the values of the viscous damping of isolator L3 were
varied (from C=12 kNs/m to C=72 kNs/m), whereas those for the isolator L1 were kept
constant (C=12kNs/m, C=18kNs/m, C=24kNs/m, C=36kNs/m). The results from the
analysis show that, depending on the requirements of the conservators, the horizontal
displacements at the base of the model can be reduced up to 40% for total damping in the
analyzed direction of C
DY1+DY2
=48kNs/m or 13% of the critical damping and up to 60% for
total damping in the analyzed direction C
DY1+DY2
=96kNs/m or 26% of the critical damping,
whereat there is extensive reduction of torsion (Fig. 7).
Image 7. Time history of the difference between the displacements of L3 and L1
for the model without and with dampers (C
DY1
=36 kNs/m, C
DY2
= 60kNs/m)
255
5. CONSLUSIONS
The seismic isolation system in historic monuments provides protection through
reduction of the seismic loads and relative displacements, as well as absorption of the
hysteretic energy. This has been demonstrated by the experimental test, whose results
point to complete control of the behaviour of the base isolated church model.
To satisfy the "limited displacement" criterion, viscous dampers can be inserted in
the base of the historic monuments by previously defining their location and characteristics.
In addition to the considerable reduction of deformations at the base (even up to 60%), the
analytical investigations have demonstrated the effect of the dampers as to controlling and
reducing the torsional effects.
The performed experimental and analytical investigation has undoubtedly proved
that the new technology of seismic base isolation of historic monuments by installation of
dampers offers absolute safety and protection and that its application should become an
imperative in earthquake protection of historic monuments in future.
References
[1] Earthquake Protection of Byzantine Churches Using Seismic Isolation/ Gavrilovic
P., Sendova V. & Kelley S. // Macedonian US joint research & PHARE Cultural
Development Program, Report IZIIS-2001-59, 2001
[2[ Seismic Strengthening, Conservation and Restoration of Churches Dating from
Byzantine Period in Macedonia / Gavrilovic P., Ginell W. & Sendova V.,// Joint
research project, IZIIS - Skopje, GCI -LA; Reports IZIIS 500-76-91, 92-71, 94-68,
(1991-1995)
[3] The Application of Seismic Isolation for the Retrofit of Historic Buildings/ Kelly,
S. J// EERC, University of California at Berkeley. 2000
[4] Analytical Modeling of Dynamic Behavior of a Frame Structure with and without
Base Control System/ Rakicevic Z., D. Jurukovski and P. Nawrotzki // Paper ID-
181, 4WCSCM, San Diego, 2006
257
Roberta Apostolska
154
Golubka Necevska-Cvetanovska
255
Zdravko Bonev
356
Elena Vasseva
457
Dylian Blagov
558
and Julijana Cvetanovska
659
METODA SPEKTRA KAPACITETA ZA OCENU SEIZMIKOG
PONAANJA AB ZGRADA NA DEFORMABILNOM TLU
Rezime:
Metoda spektra kapaciteta (CSM) je pouzdana alatka za ocenu seizmikog ponaanja
konstrukcije. U radu je prikazan seizmiki odgovor 3D AB konstrukcije sastavljene od
nosivih zidova dobijen primenom CSM sa ukljuenim deformacijama tla. Kao rezultat
push-over analize dobivena su ciljna pomeranja i faktor ponaanja. Kao rezultat
fleksibilnosti tla analizirani 3D sistem je fleksibiniji, seizmiki zahtevi su redukovani,
a ciljna pomeranja su poveana. Sistem je manje disipativan i njegovo ponaanje moe
biti znaajno razliito. Uticaj tla kombiniran sa neregularnou je znaajan naroito
posle ruenja nekih od zidova.
Kljune rei: metoda spektra kapaciteta, push-over analiza, ciljno pomeranje, fleksibilnost tla
CAPACITY SPECTRUM METHOD FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF
RC BUILDINGS INCLUDING SOIL FLEXIBILITY
Summary:
Capacity Spectrum Method (CSM) is a reliable tool to predict seismic
performance of structures. Seismic response of 3D RC wall systems using CSM
which is consider for soil flexibility is presented in the paper. Calculated target
displacement and behaviour factor as results from push-over analysis is elaborated.
Due to the soil flexibility 3D wall system became more flexible, seismic demands
are reduced and the target displacements are increased. The structure is less
dissipative and the design performance could significantly changed. The influence
of the soil conditions combined with irregularity is very important after collapse of
some walls happened.
Key words: capacity spectrum method, push-over, target displacement, soil flexibility
1
Assoc. professor, D-r, grad.civil eng., UKIM-IZIIS, Skopje, Macedonia; email:beti@pluto.iziis.ukim.edu.mk
2
Professor, D-r, grad.civil eng., UKIM-IZIIS, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
3
Assoc. professor, D-r, grad.civil eng., UACG, Sofia, Bulgaria
4
Assoc. prof. D-r, grad. civil eng., BAS, Sofia, Bulgaria
5
D-r, grad. civil eng., UACG, Sofia, Bulgaria
6
Grad. civil eng., Student on postgraduate studies, UKIM-IZIIS, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
258
1 INTRODUCTION
The Capacity Spectrum Method (CSM), [1] by means of a graphical procedure,
compares the capacity of the structure with the demands of earthquake ground motion on
the structure. The capacity of the structure is represented by a nonlinear force-displacement
curve, sometimes referred to as a pushover curve. The recent advent of performance based
design has brought the nonlinear static push-over analysis to the forefront as one of the
most simplified procedure for evaluation of structural capacity. The base shear forces and
roof displacements are converted to equivalent spectral accelerations and spectral
displacements, respectively, by means of coefficients that represent effective modal masses
and modal participation factors. These spectral values define the capacity spectrum. The
demands of the earthquake ground motion are represented by response spectra. A graphical
construction that includes both capacity and demand spectra results in an intersection of the
two curves that estimates the performance of the structure due to earthquake action.
Capacity Spectrum Method is a reliable tool to predict seismic performance of
structures subjected to design earthquake. The CSM is applicable to a variety of uses such
as a rapid evaluation technique for a large inventory of buildings, a design verification
procedure for new construction of individual buildings, an evaluation procedure for an
existing structure to identify damage states, and a procedure to correlate damage states of
buildings to amplitudes of ground motion.The great advantage of the method is its relative
simplicity and opportunity to visualize Newmarks postulates being related with peak
responses of both purely elastic and elastic perfectly plastic systems. As is recommended
by the new generation of seismic resistant design codes the method can be used for
evaluation of seismic demands and for capacity assessment of newly designed or existing
building structures. This procedure is implemented into Eurocode 8 [2] and enables
calculation of behaviour factor and peak seismic response of the structure.
During the passed couple of years the Capacity Spectrum Method is under active
development. The main goal is to extend the method with inclusion a variety of relevant
factors that may influence the structural behavior.
It is already recognized that one of the factor that can significantly affect the
seismic response and performance of structure is soil flexibility. Bonev [3] reported the
possibility to apply Capacity Spectrum Method to soil-foundation-structure problem and
how the method should be generalized including soil influence.
The subject of interest in this paper is 3D RC structure being designed as a wall
system. It is shown in FEMA 450 [4] that the wall systems are much more sensitive to soil
deformations because the most stiff elements - RC walls dictate internal force distribution.
In this paper only linear soil properties are taking into account being represent by unit
foundation modulus (Winkler's constant). Due to the footing flexibility the target
displacements are increased and the global ductility of the structure is reduced. It is shown
that for soft soils the design performance of the structure may remain completely elastic. In
countrary, for stiff soils seismic demands are large enough to develop significant inelastic
deformations. It is found that the influence of accidental eccentricity is much essential after
collapse of the maximum loaded walls. Considering the analysis of the obtained numerical
results some important conclusions is presented in the paper.
259
2 NUMERICAL MODEL AND ANALYSIS METHOD
The influence of foundation flexibility on the capacity curve and on capacity
spectrum method as a whole is studied on 3D RC building structure with RC walls as a
primary bearing elements.The model is consisting of RC walls, columns and slabs and its
general view is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1 - General 3D view of the mathematical model and structural layout
The numerical model used in calculations is defined with compliance of the
assumptions listed below:
Floor slab is treated as a rigid diaphragm in its own plane. The membrane stiffness of
the floors is practically infinitely large and the slab may move horizontally as absolutely
rigid body. On the other hand the slabs distribute the seismic loads between the walls.
The vertical loads are carried by shear walls and columns. Lateral loads are carried by
the shear walls only. Slab to column connection is not designed as moment resisting. It
is assumed that columns are pinned at both ends and could bear only vertical loads.
Shear walls are modelled by vertical frame elements. The potential locations of plastic
hinges are considered at each floor level.
The structure is symmetric in plan with respect to X- and Y- axis.
Bending stiffness of the slab is taken into account only to obtain the vertical loads
distribution between the vertical elements walls and columns.
Single footing under each wall is used. The foundation is supported by soil with vertical
resistance. The elastic soil properties are implemented by the unit foundation modulus
(Winklers constant).
Loading pattern used for pushover analysis in both X- and Y- directions has the shape
of inverted triangle and implies linear force distribution in elevation. Forces are applied
in CM for each floor level.
The calculation of each spring stiffness implies that only rocking motion of the footing
is considered.
e
e
y CR
CM
M
260
Torsion effects due to different disposition of CM with respect to CR are taken into
account. The influence of accidental eccentricities is accounted for as a source of
torsion.
Axial forces are remaining constant during the lateral pushover analysis and plastic
hinge properties once determined after application of the vertical loads are kept the
same.
The potential location of the first plastic hinge is at the base of the shear wall (in the
centre of the plastic zone). The plastic zone approach is based on distributed plasticity
model. The typical constitutive relationship is moment-curvature. Distribution of
elastic/inelastic curvature for a simple wall element is shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2- A single wall designed as dissiptive wall
Capacity spectrum method is used as evaluation tool where the use of design demand
spectra is recommended. A version of the method based on elastic demand spectrum is
available in Annex B of Eurocode 8 [2]. The global behavior of the structures is indicated
by the base shear top displacement relationship. For the mathematical model of RC
building structures a series of nonlinear push-over analysis were carried out using SAP2000
computer program, [5]. Lateral load is increased until collapse prevention state is reached.
Two simplified and independent analyses in each X- and Y- direction are carried out. Two
equivalent single degree of freedom systems are used. After that the capacity spectrum
method is applied in both orthogonal directions in order to calculated values of behaviour
factors, performance points and target displacements with including influence of the
foundation flexibility, [6,7].
3 RESULTS FROM ANALYSIS
The numerical model described above is subjected to monotonically increasing vertical
and horizontal loads. Six values of unit foundation modulus are used in calculations: fixed
base (infinitely large modulus), 60 000, 50 000, 40 000, 30 000 and 20 000 in kN/m
3
metric
units. After completion of vertical loading procedure the horizontal loading pattern is
applied. The effects of accidental torsion are studied considering eccentricity of 15% (large
eccentricity and irregular structure) and 0% (regular structure). Selected numerical results
are presented further. More detailed information can be find in [7].
M
z
L
p
/2
L
L
p
d
|(z) = |
el
(z)
z
x
z
261
Figure 3, (3a and 3b) illustrate that global ductility demand is reduced with increasing
the footing flexibility and the initial (elastic) stiffness is reduced due to flexibility. At the
same time the base shear strength is relatively slightly influenced by the footing flexibility.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
Roof Displacement, [m]
B
a
s
e

S
h
e
a
r
,

[
k
N
]
rigid base
c=60000
c=50000
c=40000
c=30000
c=20000
Figure 3a - Capacity curves in X-direction (ecc. 0%) obtained for different Winkler's constants
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Roof Displacement, [m]
B
a
s
e

S
h
e
a
r
,

[
k
N
]
Figure 3b - Capacity curves in Y-direction (ecc. 0%) obtained for different Winkler's constants
Results form the investigations show that the largest values for the behaviour factor
could be achieved if the fixed base is considered, (fig. 4). The smallest target displacements
are observed in the same case. If the foundations are flexible (fig. 5 and 6) target
displacement is increased but the behaviour factor decreases. When the soil is soft and
structure reaches the target displacement the global behaviour of the structure may remain
completely elastic. This mode of deformation implies that the soil fails before yielding
happens in structure. Safe design solutions could be provide if soil deformations are taken
into account in capacity curves.
262
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
u*, [m]
S
d
,

V
/
m
,

[
m
/
s
2
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
u*, [m]
S
d
,

V
/
m
,

[
m
/
s
2
]
Figure 4 - Capacity spectrum method applied to fixed-base structure:
(a) in X-direction; (b) in Y-direction.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
u*, [m]
S
d
,

V
/
m
,

[
m
/
s
2
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
u*, [m]
S
d
,

V
/
m
,

[
m
/
s
2
]
Figure 5 - Capacity spectrum method applied to structure with flexible foundations
(UFM 60 000 kN/m
3
)-(a) in X-direction; (b) in Y-direction.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
u*, [m]
S
d
,

V
/
m
,

[
m
/
s
2
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
u*, [m]
S
d
,

V
/
m
,

[
m
/
s
2
]
Figure 6 - Capacity spectrum method applied to structure with flexible foundations
(UFM 20 000 kN/m
3
)-(a) in X-direction; (b) in Y-direction.
q=10
u
*
t,0
=0.064m
u
*
t,15
=0.067m
q=10
u
*
t,0
=0.074m
u
*
t,15
=0.075m
(a
)
(b
)
q=4.25
u
*
t,0
=0.18m
u
*
t,15
=0.19m
q=4.25
u
*
t,0
=0.16m
u
*
t,15
=0.22m
(a
)
(b
)
q=4.25
u
*
t,0
=0.23m
u
*
t,15
=0.23m
(a
)
q=4.25
u
*
t,0
=0.22m
u
*
t,15
=0.23m
(b
)
263
4 CONCLUSIONS
Considering the analysis of the numerical results presented above the following conclusions
could be made:
The foundation flexibility caused by soil deformations influence essentially the capacity
curves. The global ductility factor is seriously being reduced due to significant increase
of elastic part of deformations. Participation of soil deformation in overall structural
deformation is significant with tendency to become more essential in case of plastic soil
deformations and foundation uplift.
Target displacements are increased if the soil is becoming softer. The behaviour factor
however shows decreasing tendency for weaker soils which is not on the safety side.
Safe design solutions could be expected if soil deformations are taken into account in
capacity curves.
The influence of accidental torsion effects is small considering the elastic behaviour of
the structure. More important influence is observed when some plastic hinges yield and
when some walls are collapsed. The capacity curves are sensitive to accidental torsion
when wall elements yield or collapse occurs.
The global structure strength is relatively independent of soil stiffness and accidental
torsion effects.
It is concluded that wall systems are sensitive to flexible soil conditions in a large extent.
Better results for the structure could be expected if pile foundations are used to decrease
the effect of soil deformations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are indebted to Ministry of Education and Science of R. Macedonia, National
Science Foundation at Ministry of Education and Sciences of Bulgaria, (project grant No. BM-
6/2006) and University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy Sofia, Bulgaria,
(project grant No. BN-84/2008).
264
REFERENCES
[1] Freeman, S., Development and use of Capacity Spectrum Method, Paper No. 269, Proc.
of the 6
th
U. S. National Conference of Earthquake Engineering, Seattle, Washington,
1998.
[2] EN 1998: 2004 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part 1:
General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings.
[3] Bonev, Z. et al., Behavior factor evaluation accounting for the elastic foundation, Proc.
of the International Conference on EE "Earthquake Engineering in the 21st Century,
IZIIS 40 EE-21C, 27th August-1st September, 2005, Skopje/Ohrid, Macedonia.
[4] Fema 450 (2003) NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New
Buildings and other Structures, Commentary C7A.
[5] Wilson and Habibullah. SAP 2000 - Structural Analysis Programme. CSI, Berkeley,
California, 2006.
[6] Necevska-Cvetanovska G., Vasseva E., Bonev Z., Apostolska R. et al., "Reduction of
seismic vulnerability of RC building structures based on EC8-Application in Bulgaria
and Macedonia", Joint Macedonian-Bulgarian project, IZIIS Report 2008-54.
[7] Blagov D., V. Georgiev and Z. Bonev, Influence of Flexible Foundations on the
Design Response of Buildings with Accidental Eccentricity, Proceedings of the 5-th
European Workshop on Irregular and Complex Structures (EWICS), 16-17 September
2008, Catania, Italy.
265
Golubka Necevska-Cvetanovska
160
Roberta Apostolska
261
, Nataa Miri
362
and Julijana Cvetanovska
463
KONSTRUKTIVNEMERE ZA POBOLJANJE SEIZMIKOG
PONAANJA BEZGREDNIH KONSTRUKTIVNIH SISTEMA
Rezime:
Bezgredni konstruktivni sistem za razliku od tradicionalnog AB ramovskog sistema je
seizmiki povredljiviji. U cilju evaluacije seizmikog ponaanja bezgrednog sistema,
uraene su komparativne analize izmeu pet razliitih modela konstruktivnih sistema i
referentne ramovske konstrukcije. Istraivani su efekti predloenih konstruktivnih mera
na dinamike karakteristike i na kapacitet nosivosti i deformabilnosti bezgredne kon-
strukcije. Rezultati analize pokazuju da projektovane konstruktivne mere poboljavaju
mali kapacitet nosivosti i poveavaju otpornost i krutost ovih sistema. U papiru su
prikazani selektirani rezultati analitikih istraivanja.
Kljune rei: bezgredna ploa, seizmiko ponaanje, obodne grede, konstruktivne mere
STRUCTURAL MEASURES FOR IMPROVING SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF
FLAT-SLAB BUILDING STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Summary:
Flat-slab structural system is more vulnerable under seismic events than traditional
RC frame system. To evaluate the seismic performance of the flat-slab structural
system, comparative analyses have been made between five different models of
structural systems and the referent frame structure. The effects of structural
modifications upon the dynamic characteristics as well as upon the bearing and
deformability capacity of the flat-slab structure have been investigated. Results from
the analysis show that the design structural measures improve small bearing capacity
of the system and increase its strength and stiffness. Selected result from the analysis
are presented in the paper.
Key words: flat-slab, seismic performance, perimeter beams, structural measures
60
Professor, D-r, grad. civil eng., UKIM-IZIIS, Skopje, Macedonia, email:golubka@pluto.iziis.ukim.edu.mk
61
Assoc. professor, D-r, grad. civil eng., UKIM-IZIIS, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
62
M. Sc., grad. engineer architect, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
63
Grad. civil eng., Student on postgraduate studies, UKIM-IZIIS, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
266
1 INTRODUCTION
In design and engineering practice, the selectively defined design of space, design of
structure, speed and efficiency of realization represent an extraordinarily important factor
for the Investor. This assertion is supported by the fact that the flat-slab RC system has
lately been increasingly imposed as a more acceptable and more attractive structural system
in the world and in Macedonia as well. What is rational and optimal for these flat-slab
structures is that they enable simple design, pure and clear space with absence of beams
(the role of the beams is transferred to the RC floor slab), faster construction and time
saving.
The system consists of columns resting directly on floor slabs for which sufficient
strength and ductility should be provided to enable sustaining of large inelastic
deformations without failure. The absence of beams, i.e., the transferring of their role to the
floor RC structure which gains in height and density of reinforcement in the parts of the
hidden beams, the bearing capacity of the structural system, the plate-column and plate-
wall connection, all the advantages and disadvantages of the system have been tested
through long years of analytical and experimental investigations. For the last 20 to 30 years,
the investigations have been directed toward definition of the actual bearing capacity,
deformability and stability of these structural systems designed and constructed in
seismically active regions.
The paper displays part of the results from analyses of six types of structural systems for
a prototype of a residential building in Skopje for the purpose of defining the seismic
behaviour and resistance of flat-slab structural systems [1].
2 ANALYSIS OF SEISMIC RESISTANCE OF RC FLAT-SLAB
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
2.1 GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ANALYZED
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
To evaluate the seismic behaviour and resistance of a flat-slab RC system, analyses of a
typical prototype of a residential building in Skopje with B +GF +4 + A have been carried
out (Fig. 1).
Figure 1- Characteristic plan and cross-section
267
For the chosen prototype of the residential building six types of structural systems
have been analyzed. Geometrical characteristics of each of these structural systems are
presented in the table 1 and figure 2.
Table 1- Geometrical characteristics of the analyzed structural systems
Type of structural system plate
[cm]
columns
[cm]
beams
[cm]
perimeter
beams [cm]
RC
walls
Frame M1 14 60/60 40/40 No No
Purely flat-slab M2 20 60/60 No No No
Purely flat-slab M3 25 60/60 No No No
Flat-slab strengthened by a
perimeter beam
M4 20 60/60 No 40/40 No
Flat-slab strengthened by RC
walls
M5 20 60/60 No No Yes
Flat-slab strengthened by
perimeter beam and RC walls
M6 20 60/60 No 40/40 Yes
Figure 2- Characteristic plans purely flat-slab system and flat-slab system strengthened
by perimeter beams and RC walls
2.2 SEISMIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND RESULTS FROM
ANALYSIS
To evaluate the seismic behaviour and resistance of the flat-slab structural system,
comparative analyses have been made between the models of structural systems M2, M3,
M4, M5 and M6 and the referent frame structure model M1. The effects of the designed
modifications upon the dynamic characteristics as well as upon the bearing and
deformability of the flat-slab structure have been investigated.
The analyses have been performed by using the finite element method and the
SAP2000v10.0.9Advanced computer programme [2]. The 3D mathematical model of each
of the analyzed structures has been formulated by discretization of the bearing system into
268
finite elements. The vertical loads have been defined in accordance with the valid national
technical regulations and the purpose of the structures.
Seismic analysis has been carried out in compliance with the national regulations
for design of high rises in seismically prone areas, [3]. The horizontal loads have been
defined in the form of a design spectrum of acceleration in accordance with Eurocode 8, [4]
scaled in such a way that it generates the total shear force at the base to the amount of 10%
of the weight of the structure.
Dynamic analysis has been carried out for selected structural systems (model M1,
M2 and M4) exposed to the effect of the El Centro earthquake with a
max
=0.32g.
The results obtained from the analyses of different structural systems are presented
in the form of: dynamic characteristics (periods and mode shapes), maximal displacements
and relative storey drifts in both orthogonal directions, time histories of absolute
displacements at the top as well as bearing capacity and deformability of the selected
structural systems (model M1 and model M2), [5].
Presented further are some of the results obtained from the ample analytical
investigations. The first mode shape of vibration of the structural system of model M1 and
model M2 is given in Fig. 3.
Figure 3- First mode shape for model M1 and model M2
Table 2 shows the maximal values of moments due to vertical loads above support
and in the middle of the span for the analyzed models of structural systems. The
distribution of maximal moments under vertical loads over the plate of the second story of
models M1 and M2 is presented in Fig. 4.
Table 2 - Comparison of maximal moments due to vertical loads in the plate
at the second story
Type of structural system Maximum moments [kNm]
Mmax, support Mmax, middle
span
Frame M1 -4.55 3.90
Purely flat-slab M2 -25.2 11.2
M3 strengthened with a perimeter beam M4 -19.8 8.8
M3 strengthened with perimeter beam and RC walls M6 -21.6 9.6
T
1
=0.767sec
T
1
=0.991sec
269
Figure 4 - Maximal moments in the plate at the second storey for model M1 and model M2
The time histories of displacements at the top of the structure for model M2 and
model M4 are presented in Figure 5.
Figure 5 - Time histories of maximum displacement
2.3 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
After the performed analytical investigations, comparative analyses have been
performed for: the fundamental period of vibration (T
1
), the maximal horizontal
displacements in both orthogonal directions (Table 3), the time histories of displacement as
well as bearing and deformability capacity for selected structural systems.
The results have shown that the purely flat-slab system has a greater fundamental period
and greater displacements in respect to the frame system. The occurrence of torsion in the
first mode shape is also characteristic. The best behaviour has been exhibited by model M6
whose fundamental period is less than that of the frame system, with reduction of
displacements of 40%. The relative storey displacements (Fig. 6) show the same tendency.
d=5.114cm d=3.352cm
270
Table 3 - Comparison of periods and maximal displacements of the analyzed models
Type of structural system plate T
1
Max. displacements [cm]
[cm] [sec] X-X
direction
Y-Y
direction
Frame M1 14 0.767 2.725 2.662
Purely flat-slab M2 20 0.998 3.522 3.416
Purely flat-slab M3 25 0.794 2.743 2.676
M3 strengthened with a perimeter
beam
M4 20 0.789 2.786 2.752
M3 strengthened with RC walls M5 20 0.956 1.970 2.592
M3 strengthened with perimeter
beam and RC walls
M6 20 0.740 1.719 2.310
Fig. 7 shows the comparative results from the analysis in nonlinear range referring
to bearing and deformability capacity of structural systems carried out for models M1 and
M2. The obtained results show that the strength and stiffness capacity of the flat-slab
system are lower for 38% in respect to the frame system.
Figure 6 - Relative storey displacements in x direction [cm]
4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purely flat-slab RC structural system is considerably more flexible for
horizontal loads than the traditional RC frame structures which contributes to the increase
of its vulnerability to seismic effects. The critical moment in design of these systems is the
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
1
3
5
7
M3 0.17 0.3a1 0.335 0.309 0.26 0.199 0.134
M2
0.313 0.635 0.708 0.656 0.542 0.4 0.268
M1
0.29 0.535 0.56 0.5 0.399 0.278 0.163
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
271
slab-column connection, i.e., the penetration force in the slab at the connection, which
should retain its bearing capacity even at maximal displacements. The ductility of these
structural systems is generally limited by the deformability capacity of the column-slab
connection.
To increase the bearing capacity of the flat-slab structure under horizontal loads,
particularly when speaking about seismically prone areas and limitation of deformations,
modifications of the system by adding structural elements are necessary.
The realized investigations have shown that the flat-slab structural system with
well defined modifications can exhibit a favourable and rational factor of behaviour
compliant with Eurocode 8 and can thus be treated as a system with acceptable seismic risk.
The modification with certain structural elements improves the low bearing capacity and
deformability of the system and leads to more adequate seismic behaviour of the purely
flat-slab structure.
Figure 7- Comparison of bearing capacity and deformability
Displacement
Shear force [kN]
Model M-1
Model M-2
272
REFERENCES
o Mircic N. (2006). "Seismic Resistance of Flat-slab RC Structural Systems
of High Rise Buildings, Master Thesis, IZIIS, Ss. Cyril and
Methodius University, Skopje.
o Wilson and Habibullah. SAP 2000 - Structural Analysis Programme. CSI,
Berkeley, California, 2006.
o Rulebook on Technical Norms for Construction of High-rises in
Seismically Prone Areas (1981)
o EN 1998: 2004 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake
resistance. Part 1:
General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings.
o Necevska - Cvetanovska G., Petrusevska R. (2000)."Methodology for
Seismic Design of R/C Building Structures", Proc. of the XII-th World
Conference of Earthquake Engineering, (12WCEE), New Zealand,
February 2000.
273

164

265
2

2

. -

.
-
,
2 .
.
: 2 , ,
POSSIBILITIES FOR 2D GEODETIC NETWORKS UTILIZATION
FOR SEISMIC EVENTS DETERMINATION
Summary
In this paper accuracy of one 2D geodetic network form are being analyzed and
possibilities for utilization of crustal movements determining. Reliability and
possibilities for of geodetic networks point movements determination are of
special interest in this paper. Geodetic networks are analyzed in dependence on
geodetic instruments and measurement methods which are used. The results of
utilization classical terrestrial geodetic methods, GPS methods and their
combination are analyzed. Also, short review of the up-to date utilization of
geodetic methods in seismic events research is given.
Key words: 2D geodetic networks, reliability, measurement methods
1
. , . . . , , milantri@eunet.rs
2
. . . ., , nzarko07@gmail.com
274
1

. 20
.

.

.

.

.

.
2 2

2 (,. ,., 1984, ,., 1981, 1982,
1985 1990).
.

. 2
. 2 16
() 25km x 25 km. 2
10000 km
2
. 1 2
.
1
275
3 2

( ) .

.

.
. .

, ,
5 km.

.
.
.

.

.
( )
.

.
.

.
, ( 2
)
.
.
.

.
4

.

.
.
(W.F. Caspary,1987
. , 1986):
276
(1)
(1)
:
- ,
- ,
- ,
-
- .
2
,

. (
).
.
(W.F. Caspary,1987 .
,1989).
.
(. , 1989; . ..,1994)

.

.

. 2

.
. -
,
.
()
(., ..,1994) :
(2)
:
- ,
- ,
- ,
- .
.
277
5
2
.
,
. .
, 2
.
2 10000 km
2
,
100 km 100 km. 25
25 km.
.

2

.
. .
2 :
- ,
- ,
-
,
- ,
-
.
1.
.
1 2
u
ii
r
ii
a b
P D P D
1 105.3 mm 90.9 mm 0.32 / 0.68 / 16.8 ppm
2 10.0 mm 8.1 mm / 0.33 / 0.67 1.4 ppm
3 9.8 mm 8.0 mm 0.01 0.32 0.99 0.68 1.4 ppm
4 19.3 mm 15.7 mm / 0.33 / 0.67 2.7 ppm
5 18.5 mm 15.2 mm 0.02 0.31 0.98 0.69 2.6 ppm

.

. 2 3

2 .

278
.

,
.

:
- ,
;
- ,
;
- ,

- ,
.

.
.
6
2

.
2 .

.
2 -
.
2
.

.
279
>1@
() / . , . ,// , 1984,
>2@ II, I / . // , 2. , 1981,
>3@ II, II / . // , 2. , 1982,
>4@ III / . // , 1985,

>5@ , / . // ,
1990,
>6@ / . , .,., //
, 1994,
>7@ / . // ,
1989,
>8@ / . // , 1986,
>9@ / . // , 2005,
>10@ Concepts of network and deformation analysis / W.F. Caspary// School of Surveying
The University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia 1987
>11@ Geodetic strain in peninsular Italy betwen 1875 and 2001/ Hunstad, I. et al.: //,
vol.30,No.4,1181, doi: 10.1029/2002GL016447,2003
281
Prof Boidar Pavievi
1 66
PROSTORNO-URBANISTIKO PLANIRANJE KAO KLJUNI
ASPEKT INTEGRALNOG UPRAVLJANJA SEIZMIKIM
RIZIKOM
Rezime:
U radu se pledira na neodlonoj potrebi rehabilitacije i uvaavanja svojstvenih
domaih iskustava na tretiranju i smanjenju seizmikog rizika, steenih nakon
razornog Crnogorskog zemljotresa, 1979. Naalost, tako voluntaristiki igno-
risanih kroz novodonijeti PPR Crne Gore i krajnje kontraverzni novi republiki
Zakon o ureenju prostora i izgradnji objekata (2008). Elaborira se stav o
nunosti hitnog prevazilaenja postojeeg stanja i zakonskog uvodjenja zdravog
sistema prostorno-urbanistikog planiranja, ukljuivo donoenje posebnog zakona
za utemeljenje sveobuhvatne nacionalne strategije za integralno upravljanje
seizmikim rizikom, a time i za racionalno upravljanje prostorom. Apostrofira se
aspekt regionalne saradnje u tretiranju relevantne problematike, ukljuivo i domen
Eurocode 8.
Kljune rijei:Seizmiki rizik, mitigacija, urbanstiko planiranje, Lex Specialis.
LAND USE PLANNING AS THE KEY ASPECT OF INTEGRATED
SEISMIC RISK MANAGAMENT
Summary:
Some effects of the disastrous earthquake that struck Montenegro in 1979 are
presented, and the need to learn from experience gained in this catastrophic
earthquake is emphasized. The position that the existing situation should be
improved through coordination of all relevant approaches is advocated. The
adoption of a special law, on which the strategy of an integrated seismic risk
management would be based, is proposed. The regional cooperation, as well as
adoption Eurocode 8 NPDs, on the national level is considered significant.
Key words: Seismic risk, mitigation, land-use planning, Lex Specialis, codes.
1
Profesor (Mostovi, Aseizmiko projektovanje, Aseizmiko planiranje;ef Katedre za zemljotresno inenjerstvo), u
penziji; bivi Gen. direktor RZUP-a, Titograd (u vrijeme i nakon Crnogorskog zemljotresa 1979); ekspert UNEP-
a; Koordinator Programa SEISMED&UNEP/MAP Priority Action: "Land-Use Planning in Mediterranean
Earthquake zones", PAP/RAC, Split; osniva i bivi predsjednik CDZI-a&YUZI-a, odnosno CAZI-a; Poasni
predsjednik CAZI-a; M: EERI, US Forum, EAEE; etc. E-mail: bozidarp@t-com.me
282
1 UVODNE NAPOMENE I IZAZOVI
1.1 RIJE (za) UNAPRIJED
Kada je, u pitanju vremenski kontekst odnosno termin odravanja ove vrlo zna-
ajne meunarodne Konferencije sticajem okolnosti, moe se konstatovati da je rije o
krajnje dobrodolom i viestruko izazovnom trenutku. Naime, termin odravanja ovog
skupa koincidira upravo sa svojevrsnim razmeem obiljeavanja 45-te godinjice velikog
Skopskog i tekue 30-te godinjice razornog Crnogorskog zemljotresa, 1979. kao
dogaaja meaa u razvoju zemljotresnog ininjerstva i zatite od zemljotresa ne samo na
naim prostorima nego i sa najirim uticajem i znaajem.
Ovaj prvi - sa specifinim odrazom na zaetak jugoslovenskog i evropskog
zemljotresnog inenjerstva kao i na odluno razjanjenje uloge arhitekture u praksi
aseizmikog projektovanja u zgradarstvu, a ovaj drugi - na prepoznavanju kljune uloge
prostorno-urbanistikog planiranja (rijeju, integralnog planiranja odrivog razvoja) u
pogledu efektivne kontrole i smanjenja seizmikog rizika.
1.2 NA IVOT SA ZEMLJOTRESOM vs SEIZMIKI BRISANI
PROSTOR
Pri datim okolnostima - autoru se ini dodatno znaajnim i potencijalno ire izazovnim
to se ovaj skup deava i u situaciji kada se Crna Gora (valjda ne i zemlje iz njenog
najblieg okruenja) nalazi pod autogenim iracionalnim pristupom/pritiskom nekritikog
uklanjanja svih vrsta tzv. barijera biznisu
2
67 naroito onih u domenu korienja prostora.
Sve to, pod izgovorom - radi otvaranja vrata stranom kapitalu (alias, radi to breg pribli-
avanja Evropskoj Uniji, itd.). Naravno da se kao glavna barijera pri tome, ispostavlja i
oznaava njen dosadanji sistem prostornog i urbanistikog planiranja (iako svojevremeno
meritorno verifikovan kao sistem najbolje svjetske prakse), ak - ne samo kao takav nego i
kao pojmovna kategorija, uopte.
Otuda, navodno - po ugledu na praksu nekih susjednih zemalja (bliskih ulasku u
Evropsku uniju), po skraenom i hitnom postupku donosi se aktuelni zakon takoe
skraenog naziva: "Zakon o ureenju prostora i izgradnji objekata".
Na ovaj nain je, konano, ta jedna od glavnih prepreka biznisu tj. prethodno postojei
sistem urbanistiog planiranja (apostrofirajui pored ostalog njegovu okosnicu GUP,
Generalni urbanistiki plan) decidno uklonjena, a samo planiranje, eksplicitno i generalno
preputeno investitorima biznismenima, "budui da oni najbolje znaju ta im treba", a
drava e tek zakonski sprovoditi "monitoring stanja u prostoru"... (SIC!)
Moe se rei da je ovim i ovakvim republikim zakonom (ijim su stupanjem na snagu
prestali da vae dosadanji: Zakon o planiranju i ureenju prostora; Zakon o graevins-
kom zemljitu; Zakon o izgradnji objekata; te Zakon o urbanistikoj i graevinskoj
inspekciji), kaogod i prethodno donijetim novim Prostornim planom Republike - izveden
potpuni otklon ne samo od jednog prethodno utemeljenog i trajno aktuelnog koncepta
integralnog upravljanja prostorom odnosno fizikim i odrivim razvojem Republike, nego
i od svih elementarnih iskustava steenih nakon Crnogorskog zemljotresa od 1979. Inae,
svojevremeno sublimiranih kroz dalje naznaene dokumente, istraivanja, studije i projekte
2
Naalost, sve to uz preutnu i grubu zamjenu teza s obzorom da se nareeni relavantni stavovi i uslovi
Evropske Unije eksplicitno odnose na vjetake i administrativne prepreke trgovini (tj. jedinstvenom evropskom
tritu).
283
- a posebno kroz Projekat UNDP-YUG/79/104 (Prostorni Plan Republike i GUP-ovi
optinskih centara Crne Gore). I to, uz striktno isticanje zatite od zemljotresa i zatite
okoline - kao vodeih komponenti planiranja toga razvoja.
Odustajui od zalaenja u znaenje uinjenog otklona i njegov odraz na faktiko
uruavanje odnosno potiranje i same ideje o integralnom upravljanju prostornim razvojem
Republike (jer, prostorom upravlja svako ko ga mijenja) neminovno i nezaobilazno
ostaje sasvim otvoreno (za upuene i dramatino zabrinjavajue) pitanje upravljanja seizmi-
kim rizikom, ukupno i kroz njegove kljune pojavne oblike i aspekte. Podrazumijevajui
pri tome sve naznaene integrativne aspekte i opcije smanjenja seizmikog rizika - pa u
odreenom smislu, i apostrofirajui one koji se odnose na oblast aseizmikog prostorno-
urbanistikog planiranje , projektovanja i izgradnju objekata kao i infrastrukturnih sistema
(life lines).
Ovo zadnje dodatno poprima na znaaju - specifino u okolnostima predstojee trans-
pozicije Eurocode 8 u nacionalno zakonodavstvo (kaogod i izrade korespodentnog Nacio-
nalnog aneksa, NDPs), s obzirom na evidentno uvrijeeno poimanje o njegovoj samo-
dovoljnosti tj. kao dovoljnom iskazu mjera kontrole ukupnog seizmikog rizika. to,
naravno, nije tano i ne moe biti prihvatljivo ni u kom sluaju a posebno ne za
seizmogene zone sa nivoom hazarda kakvome je izloena teritorija Crne Gore odnosno
Junog Jadrana, ukljuivo i ire okruenje odnosno i Balkanski region u cjelini. Inae, o
stavu autora u vezi sa navedenim (eksplicitno iznijetim i na Eurocodes Workshopu, Brisel,
februara 2008.) bie vie rijei na drugom mjestu.
Ergo, pri naznaenom stanju stvari a smatrajui to vie izazovnim i prigodnim priliku
odravanja tako znaajnog skupa kao to je BE40CE, te obilljeavanja tekue 30-te
godinjice razornog Crnogorskog zemljotresa od 1979., osnovna intencija i profesionalno-
etika posveenost ovog autora okrenuta je - uslovno govorei, prema nastojanju rehabili-
tacije ciljeva nacionalne strategije za smanjenje seizmikog rizika proizale nakon velikog
Crnogorskog zemljotresa (korespodentno ojaane aktuelnim napretkom u projektima,
studijama i istraivanjima realizovanim u meuvremenu), a ije se polazne osnove i
koncept izlau u nastavku rada.
Uz sve prethodno navedeno, ini se vrlo oiglednim da je pri datoj situaciji neophodan
urgentni korektivni zaokret na nivou drave, ostvariv jedino hitnim donoenjem posebnog
zakona o sveobuhvatnoj zatiti od zemljotresa - Lex Specialis (ve ako ne nadomjetaj za
ve uinjene hendikepe - a ono barem za nuno i interventno predupreenje za njihove
potencijalno dalekosene posledice). Nime, time bi se u sutini i jedino efektivno moglo
postii nadilaenje postojeeg stanja i takorei otvorenog brisanog prostora za seizmiki
rizik, naroito kod primorskog i najvie ugroenog regiona, proizvoljno preputenog
neprihvatljivom i sve veem seizmikom riziku. Najzad, zapravo bi se iskazala odgovorna
javna svijest o trajno prisutnoj visokoj seizmikoj ugroenosti zemlje i na jedini cjelishodan
nain obezbijedilo legislativno utemeljenje adekvatne nacionalne strategije za efekasno
integralno upravljanje seizmikim rizikom tj. identifikovali, koordinirali i harmonizovali
raznorodni sektorski pristupi i procedure
3
.
68
Time bi se kreirali neophodni uslovi za zdrav i
dugotrajno ordiv razvoj zemlje.
3
Novousvojeni Zakona o zatiti i spaavanju (2007) predstavlja komplement nacionalnoj strategiji upravljana
seizmikim rizikom kao njen dodatni ali ne i sastavni dio. Naime, kada je u pitanju upravljanje seizmikim rizik
om (izuzimajui odreene aspekte pripremljenosti) njegov domaaj treba smatrati ogranienim na upravljanje
katastrofom.
284
2 POLAZNE OSNOVE I KONCEPTI PLANIRANJA
2.1 OSVRT NA NEKE EFEKTE I ISKUSTVA IZ CRNOGORSKOG
ZEMLJOTRESA OD 1979. GODINE
Kao to je poznato, katastrofalni Crnogorski zemljotres od 15. aprila 1979.godine
bio je najjai zemljoters koji se ikada dogodio u Evropi. Imao je intenzitet I=IXo/Xo
stepeni MCS skale i magnitudu M = 7 (prema Richter-u) - i bio praen velikim brojem
serija jakih naknadnih udara, izmeu njih je bio najsnaniji onaj to se desio 24. maja i
imao intenzitet VIIIo MCS skale, odnosno magnitudu M = 6,10 (prema Richter-u).
Ovaj zemljotres je prouzrokovao ogromne tete na cijelom Crnogorskom primorju
i velikom podruju jednog broja optina kontinentalnog dijela Crne Gore (Slika 1). Inae,
kao to je dobro poznato, zemljotres je zahvatio teritoriju veliine od preko 50.000 km2
bive Jugoslavije, ukljuivo i Dubrovaku regiju u Hrvatskoj. Takoe, u isto vrijeme
pogodio je i podruje Skadra i Lea u Albaniji.
to se tie posljedica u odnosu na Republiku Crnu Goru sa aspekta ukupnih
gubitaka i teta, izmeu ostalog, od naroitog znaaja je ukazati na sljedee:
- da je, srenim sticajem okolnosti, u ovom zemljotresu izgubljen samo 101 ljudski
ivot u Crnoj Gori i 35 u Albaniji,
- da je, meutim, preko 100 hiljada ljudi bilo ostalo bez krova nad glavom,
- da je ukupni obim teta, kako direktnih tako i indirektnih, iznosio ne manje od 4,
5 milijardi tadanjih USA dolara (uz konverziju danas vrijednih mnogostruko vie), to je
inilo oko 4 godinja bruto nacionalna dohotka Crne Gore za 1979.godinu, odnosno
priblino 10% ukupnog bruto nacionalnog dohotka tadanje SFR Jugoslavije.
Pri naznaenom, ini se krajnje primjerenim podsjetiti da je prevazilaenje tako
dramatinih posljedica bilo mogue ostvariti prevashodno uz solidarnu pomo bivih
jugoslovenskih republika ispoljenoj kako u neposrednoj i urgentnoj post-zemljotresnoj
fazi tako i u kasnijoj fazi obnove i izgradnje postradalog podruja.
U prethodno naznaenom kontekstu moe se sagledati znaaj i uloga okvirnog
Programa neposrednih i daljih postzemljotresnih aktivnosti na prevazilaenju efekata ovog
zemljotresa, spontano pokrenutog i pripremljenog od strane Republikog zavoda za
urbanizam i projektovanje (RZUP), za vladine i druge nadlene organe SR Crne Gore.
Inae, kako je to ve ire poznato, ovim programom bile su trasirane osnovne post-
zemljotresne mjere i aktivnosti, kao to su bili identifikovani i glavni faktori i segmenti
opte seizmike sigurnosti, na kojima se imaju temeljiti kako sve pomenute mjere i
aktivnosti na sanaciji i obnovi postradalog podruja tako i svi planovi rekonstrukcije i
daljeg fizikog razvoja u Crnoj Gori.
Svakako da prva globalna aktivnost koju iz toga programa treba izdvojiti - jeste
Projekat utvrivanja i klasifikacije oteenja objekata sa ocjenom njihove upotrebljivosti.
Projekat je izveden prema metodologiji pripremljenoj od strane RZUP-a Titograd, u
saradnji sa IZIIS-om, Skopje. Ovaj projekat, kroz iju realizaciju je obuhvaena inspekcija i
pregled preko 64.000 objekata (razliite namjene, vrste materijala i tipova konstrukcije),
predstavlja jedinstven poduhvat u svjetskim razmjerama. Inae, cio poduhvat je sproveden
uz angaovanje preko 660 inenjera, arhitekata i tehniara iz itave ondanje Jugoslavije -
285
uz voenje i organizaciju cijele operacije od strane RZUP-a, u tijesnoj koordinaciji sa
nadlenim dravnim organima iz pojedinih republika odnosno optinama sa postradalog
podruja.
Slika 1- Diskretna raspodjela oteenja objekata u Crnogorskom zemljotresu 1979,
(predstavljena po optinama)
Veoma znaajnu podrku pruila je i meunarodna zajednica, iz koje se za ovu
priliku posebno ukazuje na tehniku pomo Ujedinjenih nacija, realizovanu preko njenog
Programa za razvoj (UNDP) odnosno njenih korespodentnih specijalizovanih agencija. U
navedenom kontekstu i naroito za ovu priliku treba apostrofirati osobito onu tehniku
pomo UNDP-a koja je bila orijentisana ne samo ka rehabilitaciji pogoenog podruja
nego i na savremeni - i po mnogo emu pionirski pristup integralnom planiranju
dugoronog prostornog i urbanistikog razvoja Republike, ije su vodee komponente bile
smanjenje seizmikog rizika i zatita okoline (UNDP/UNCHS Project YUG/79/104:
Prostorni plan Republike i generalni urbanistiki planovi optinskih centara Crne Gore). S
tim u vezi, svakako, treba istai da su produkti iz ovog poduhvata (odnosno projekata
pokrenutih za njegovu podrku - kako na nacionalnom tako i na regionalnom nivou) u
meunarodnim okvirima tj. kroz sistem UN bili naili na iroku afirmaciju, te preuzimani
kao obrazac planiranja i zatite odrivog razvoja u podrujima izloenim zemljotresu
posebno u regionu Mediterana.
U prethodno navedenom smislu, izmeu ostalog, ini se veoma ilustrativnim
izdvojiti programe regionalne saradnje (ostavrene kroz realizaciju pomenutog kao i drugih
regionalnih UNDP projekata), apostrofirajui Stalni koordinacioni komitet za smanjenje
seizmikog rizika Balkanskih zemalja (Balkan PCC); takoe i Kooperativni program za
smanjenje seizmikog rizika u regionu Mediterana (SEISMED), i dr.
Sa pravom se moe ustvrditi da su iskustva steena nakon ovog zemljotresa
svojevremeno prerasla i bila sublimirana u jedan svojstven, sutinski autentian i savremen
koncept sistema integralnog planiranja odrivog razvoja - uz potenciranje i njegove zatite
upravo sa aspekata smanjenja seizmikog rizika. Time su, moe se slobodno ustvrditi, bile
istovremeno uspostavljene temeljne i programske osnove (u najveoj mjeri i danas aktu-
286
elne) za izgradnju savremene i cjelovite strategije upravljanja seizmikim rizikom ne samo
u Crnoj Gori nego i ire.
2.2 NEKI VANIJI POSTZEMLJOTRESNI PROJEKTI I
ISTRAIVANJA SA CILJEM SMANJENJA SEIZMIKOG
RIZIKA
2.2.1. Meunarodni postzemljotresni projekti Nacionalnog i regionalnog karaktera
U datom kontekstu uz ve apostrofirani UNDP Project YUG/79/104 (Prostorni
plan Republike i generalni urbanistiki planovi Crne Gore), valja podsjetiti i na ostale
projekte iz okvira tehnike pomoi Ujedinjenih nacija realizovane na regionalnoj osnovi i
uz uee cijelog niza specijalizovanih agencija iz sistema UN-a koji su primarno sluili
kao naposredna podrka prethodno navedenom projektu YUG/79/104. Ali, istovremeno bili
orijentisani i na diseminaciju i promociju njegovih rezultata odnosno iskustava na cio
region Balkana, a kasnije i Mediterana. U tom smislu, dakle, posebno se apostrofiraju
sljedei projekti meunarodnog karaktera.
- Prostorni plan Republike i generalni urbanistiki planovi Crne Gore
(UNDP/UNCHS/UNDRO Project YUG/79/104);
- Meunarodni konsultativni odbor za pitanja obnove i rekonstrukcije podruja
Crne Gore postradalog u zemljotresu od 1979. (UNDP/UNCHS/UNDRO Project
YUG/79/003);
- Smanjenje seizmikog rizika u regionu Balkana (UNDP/UNESCO Project
RER/79/014);
- Izgradnja objekata pod seizmikim uslovima u regionu Balkana (UNDP/UNIDO
Project RER/79/015).
- Prostorno-urbanistiko planiranje u zemljotresnim zonama Mediterana
(UNEP/MAP Program PAP/RAC/83/6: Land-Use Planning in Mediterranean Earthquake
Zones) Sintezni produkt ovog projekta sabran je u njegovom finalnom izvjetaju Seismic
Risk Reduction in the Mediterranean Region, MAP Technical Reports Series No 17,
UNEP/PAP/RAC, Athens/Split, 1987. Kasnije, ovaj projekat je prerastao u tzv. Projekat
SEISMED: Kooperativni program za smanjenje seizmikog rizika u regionu Mediterana,
sa sjeditem u enovi, Italija. Inae, participacija Crne Gore, SFR Jugoslavija, u ovom
projektu, odnosno programu, prekinuta je sa nastupanjem njenog raspada, da bi ipak,
zadnjih godina uee Crne Gore bilo nastavljeno u izvjesnim domenima, preko JU
Morsko dobro.
2.2.2 Svojstvena iskustva sa nivoa prolog PPR Crne Gore i GUP-ova (UNDP Project
YUG 79/104) i domaa istraivanja sa ciljem smanjenja seizmikog rizika
U predmetnom kontekstu odnosno neposrednoj vezi sa iznijetim, u kontekstu irih
jugoslovenskih prilika, smatra se posebno primjerenim i cjelishodnim ovom prilikom
posebno podsjetiti i ukazati na istrajna i dugogodinja nastojanja koja su u naznaenom
smislu tokom IDNDR 1996.-2000. (Meunarodna decenija za smanjenje prirodnih
nepogoda), odnosno tokom minulog perioda, inili Graevinski fakultet Univerziteta Crne
Gore (i sam osnovan nakon ovog zemljotersa, 1980.) i Republiki seizmoloki zavod,
zajedno sa JUZI-em, kao sljedbenikom Jugoslovenskog drutva za zemljotresno
287
inenjerstvo osnovanog nakon Skopskog zemljotresa 1963. (inae prvom / najstarijom
asocijacijom te vrste u Evropi).
a) Metodoloki i razvojno planski aspekti
Kao to je to ve pomenuto, polazei od poznatih i naprijed navedenih okolnosti,
programsko-metodoloki pristup u tretiranju komponente smanjenja seizmikog rizika na
nivou cjelovitog projekta UNDP-YUG/79/104 (Prostorni plan Republike i generalni
urbanistiki planovi optinskih centara), bio je formiran tokom izrade prve faze Prostornog
plana Republike, nazvane Osnove Plana. Metodoloko-planerski pristup, dat u vidu
zaokruenog koncepta ugraenog i kao posebno poglavlje Seizmiki hazard i kontrola
seizmikog rizika, bio je konsekvetno verifikovan i korien u daljim fazama realizacije
ovog Projekta u cjelini, tj. kako pri izradi Prostornog plana Republike, tako i svih
generalnih urbanistikih planova.
Pri tome, moe se rei da je tamo izloeni pristup i koncept djelotvorno ispunio
svoje obje vodee funkcije: koordinirajuu i usmjeravajuu - kako u odnosu na sam
Prostorni plan Republike, tako i u odnosu na sve ostale prostorne i urbanistike planove
nieg reda, a posebno generalne urbanistike planove optinskih centara.
Inae, izrada Prostornog plana Republike (PPR) bila je zasnovana na prethodnoj
izradi preko 30 baznih studija koje su pokrivale odreene posebne sektore razvoja. Izmeu
ostalih, ovim programom bila je obuhvaena i posebna Studija vulnerabiliteta za potrebe
PPR (IZIIS, Skopje / RZUP, Titograd).
b)Istraivanje i analiza dogoenog odnosno oekivanog seizmikog vulnerabiliteta
Ve pomenuta i izuzetno vrijedna dokumentaciona osnova dobijena iz programa
inspekcije, utvrivanja i klasifikacije pregledanih objekata pored preliminarnih ciljeva:
utvrivanje upotrebljivosti oteenih objekata i procjene prouzrokovanih ekonomskih teta
- neminovno je poprimila i proirenu namjenu nauno-istraivakog karaktera.
Prethodno naznaena istraivanja izvrena nakon zemljotresa od 1979. (kaogod i
nivo teta koje je prouzrokovao), odnosno seizmika aktivnost i uestalost pojave
zemljotresa visokog intenziteta koja se moe oekivati na cijeloj teritoriji Republike, a
posebno u njenom primorskom regionu, evidentno i rigorozno potvruju injenicu da e
ljudi i njihova imovina , ako i sva drutvena dobra - biti permanentno izloeni dejstvu
velikog broja manjih i srednje jakih zemljotresa te sa velikom vjerovatnoom i dejstvu
razornih zemljotresa velike magnitude, sline magnitude katastrofalnog zemljotresa od 15.
aprila 1979.
c) Neki specifini uslovi i ogranienja
Uspostavljanje, obezbjeenje i sprovoenje ire drutvene politike blagovremene
prevencije kroz odgovarajue planiranje (ukljuivo naznaene i druge relevantne aspekte
prostornog i urbanistikog planiranja, izgradnju investicionih objekata i realizaciju drugih
razvojnih projekata), svakako da podrazumijeva potrebu komplementarnog praenja,
podrke i osiguranja adekvatnom zakonodavnom, urbanistikom, tehnikom i drugom
regulativom (ukljuivo relevantne norme i standarde), pogotovu u domenu i u vezi sa
korienjem i politikom korienja zemljita. U tom smislu, i na koherentnoj osnovi, bile su
date i odgovarajue smjernice za sprovoenje Prostornog plana Republike.
Dakle, strategija zatite od zemljotresa tretirana je kao dio strategije razvojnih
ciljeva. Kako svaki plan prostornog razvoja, pa i Prostorni plan Republike, definie obrazac
("Plan struktura") prostorne distribucije razvojnih programa i slike oekivanog stanja
ovjekove sredine u nekom datom vremenskom periodu (u konkretnom sluaju do 2000.
288
odnosno 2025. godine), tako i proces njegovog uspjenog sprovoenja mora biti zasnovan
na strategijskom konceptu potrebnih prostorno-ekonomskih razvojnih operacija. Ovo, uz
definisanje vodeih faktora toga razvoja i njihove meuzavisnosti.
Otuda, kod izrade Prostornog plana Republike - nametao se itav niz posebnih
zadataka i ogranienja, kako je dato u Odjeljku 2.3.2 ovog rada .U vezi sa prethodnim stoji,
moe se rei, najvanija strategijska obaveza prostornog planiranja - da definie podruje
tih konflikata, karakter samih koflikata, kao i da formulie razliite mogunosti razvojnih
obrazaca i kriterija za njihovo prevazilaenje i razrjeavanje.
2.3 KONCEPT KONTROLE I SMANJENJA SEIZMIKOG RIZIKA
KROZ PROSTORNO I URBANISTIKO PLANIRANJE
2.3.1. Opti osvrt i premise
Sve prethodno navedene injenice i podaci konsekventno potvruju i od ranije
poznata saznanja da region Balkana predstavlja seizmiki najaktivnije i najugroenije
podruje Evrope, kao i injenicu da u tom okviru teritorija Crne Gore i neposrednog
okruenja ima eksponiranu poziciju sa izrazito visokim nivoom hazarda.
Pri svemu, ne moe a da se ne oznai paradoksalnom injenica da, i pored toga to
je inicijativa da UN proglase IDNDR (pokrenuta na VIII Svjetskoj konferenciji za
zemljotresno inenjerstvo, San Francisko, 1984.) bila dobrim dijelom podstaknuta i
iskustvima iz Crnogorskog zemljotresa od 1979.godine niti na nivou same Crne Gore niti
na nivou Jugoslavije nijesu preduzimane nikakve mjere i akcije predviene okvirom
meunarodnih aktivnosti tokom ove Decenije, proglaene Rezolucijom Generalne
Skuptine OUN br. 44/236.
Meutim, s obzirom na okolnosti i prirodu stvari, ini se svrsishodnim ukazati na
i danas aktuelne glavne faktore i aspekte seizmike sigurnosti i njihove komponente u
kontekstu iskustava steenih nakon zemljotresa 1979., tj. kao to slijedi:
- Formulisanje i razvoj opte politike smanjenja seizmikog rizika, zasnovane na
integralnom pristupu (ukljuivo razvoj institucionalnih sposobnosti zemlje i dravnih
programa za predvianje, upozoravanje, prevenciju i ublaavanje posljedica, sa posebnim
naglaskom na urbane sredine);
- Uspostavljanje i razvijanje multidisciplinarnog pristupa i sveobuhvatnog
koncepta upravljanja seizmikim rizikom (ukljuivo sicio-ekonomske aspekte, aseizmiko
projektovanje objekata, prostorno planiranje,urbanistiko planiranje i projektovanje, nauno
istraivaki rad u oblasti zemljotresnog inenjerstva), i td.;
- Revizija postojeih i izrada novih prostornih i urbanistikih planova, uz
razvijanje svih relevatnih aspekata smanjenja seizmikog rizika kao integralnog dijela ovih
planova;
- Identifikacija elemenata seizmikog rizika, istraivanje i utvrivanje
vulnerabiliteta ovih elemenata (apostrofirajui vulnerabilitet postojeih zgrada i drugih
izgraenih struktura, definisanje prihvatljivog nivoa seizmikog rizika, kao i obezbjenje
potrebne seizmike sigurnosti kod postojeih objekata);
- Identifikacija ekonomskih dobiti od mjera i akcija ublaavanja posljedica
seizmikog hazarda, zasnovana na identifikaciji post-zemljotresnih ekonomskih posljedica
(ukljuivo tete po osnovu izgubljenih ivota i povrijeenih, kotanje oteenja, gubitak
proizvodnje i trita, trokove odnosno zahtjeve po osnovu osiguranja, kao i kotanje
izgubljene dinamike razvoja);
289
- Uspostavljanje sistema sveobuhvatne pripremljenosti na zemljtores, uz njegovo
permanentno unapreivanje i jaanje (ukljuivo kontigentno planiranje i planove za
vanredno okolnosti, obebjeenje uslova za preivljavanje stanovnitva neposredno nakon
katastrofe, programe i uslove za obnovu i izgradnju poslije zemljotresa, i dr.);
- Razvijanje kolektivne svijesti u drutvu, u odnosu na seizmiki rizik (ukljuivo
obrazovanje u cilju ublaavanja posljedica, informisanje javnosti, obuku za ponaanje u
sluaju katastrofe, i dr.).
U takvom kontekstu treba snano naglasiti naroit znaaj koji se mora pridavati
potrebi adekvatne institucionalne i kadrovske izgraenosti i obavijetenosti, odnosno
kompetentnosti raznih subjekata involviranih o svim relevantnim podrujima.
Pri svemu, iako se to podrazumijeva, valja ukazati da neophodan nivo i obim
odgovarajue obavijetenosti i kompetentnosti naznaenih subjekata - koji, u principu,
obuhvata kako opti koncept i nivoe odgovornosti, tako i sistem specifinih mjera i
procedura korespodentan pripadajuem po pravilu, specijalistikom podruju.
2.3.2. Specifine mjere na nivou Prostornog plana Republike
Prostorno i urbanistiko planiranje raspolae (po prirodi stvari, a i po zakonskoj
definiciji) svojstvom, snagom i mogunostima da usmjerava sve razvojne projekte i druge
akcije u odnosu prema prirodnoj sredini i to na takve naine kod kojih e se ili izbjei
sam hazard ili kod kojih e se primijeniti odgovarajue ekonomski opravdane mjere zatite,
i/ili koji e usmjeravati na izbore manje povredljivih prostornih razvojnih ema sa niim i
razliitim nivoima hazarda, odnosno seizmikog rizika.
U sutini, jedino je tako i mogue na obuhvatan nain formulisati strategiju zatite
na seizmiki i druge prirodne hazarde, a koja bi uz odgovarajuu ocjenu prihvatljivih
trokova za razliite preventivne mjere postala sastavni dio racionalnog planiranja u cjelini.
Uspostavljanje, obezbjeenje i sprovoenje ire drutvene politike blagovremene
prevencije kroz odgovarajue planiranje (ukljuivo naznaene i druge relevantne aspekte
prostornog i urbanistikog planiranja, izgradnju investicionih objekata i realizaciju drugih
razvojnih projekata), svakako da podrazumijeva potrebu komplementarnog praenja,
podrke i osiguranja adekvatnom zakonodavnom, urbanistikom, tehnikom i drugom
regulativom, (ukljuivo relevantne norme i standarde), pogotovu u domenu i u vezi sa
korienjem i politikom korienja zemljita. Dakle, strategija zatite od zemljotresa mora
biti tertirana kao dio strategije razvojnih ciljeva.
Kod izrade novog Prostornog plana Republike propraenog odgovarajuim
strategijskim konceptom njegove realizacije, kako je to bilo i kod izrade prethodnog PPR-a,
pored ostalog stajao je i bio sugerisan itav niz posebnih zadataka i dilema, kao to su:
- Dalje istraivanje hazarda, odnosno veliine i karaktera kao i drugih parametara
zemljotresnog dejstva neophodnih pri detaljnom urbanistikom planiranju i projektovanju,
- Ograniavanje tehnikih ekonomskih i drutvenih posljedica katastrofe shodno
oekivanom vulnerabilitetu zgrada, objekata vitalne infrastrukture i drugih drutvenih
dobara odnosno izgraene sredine,
- Definisanje drutveno i ekonomski usaglaenih ogranienja i trokova kao
kriterijuma zatitnih mjera i prihvatljivog nivoa seizmikog rizika,
- Uspostavljanje i razmatranje sistema i mahanizma pripremljenosti na zemljotres, itd.
Isto tako, otvarao se i odreen broj specifinih pitanja i konflikata, relativno trajnog
znaenja, meu kojima su najvaniji:
290
- Konflikt izmeu nivoa hazarda i atraktivnosti izgradnje i razvoja na odreenom
podruju,
- Konflikt izmeu ekonomije obima i decentriralizovanog modela prostornog razvoja;
- Konflikt izmeu ekonomskog kotanja i cjelishodnosti u odnosu na druge drutvene i
politike kriterije,
- Konflikt izmeu trenutnih i dugoronih pogodnosti i koristi,
- Konflikti izmeu vlasnikih, grupnosvojinskih i drutvenih interesa.
U vezi sa tim stoji, moe se rei, najvanija strategijska obaveza prostornog i
urbanistikog planiranja da definie poduje tih konflikata, karakter samih konflikata kao i
da formulie razliite mogunosti razvojnih obrazaca i kriterija za njihovo prevazilaenje.
Inae, u ovom razmatranju, samo su naznaeni neki osnovni elementi pristupa i
ilustracija problema podrazumijevajui nastojanje da njihov odgovarajui tertman bude
sproveden, shodno stavovima Studijske osnove odnosno i Finalnog izvjetaja Projekta SS-
AE
69
, kako kod izrade novog Prostornog plana Republike, tako i kroz reviziju i izradu
generalnih urbanistikih planova pojedinih optina, prevashodno.
2.3.3. Glavni principi i elementi planiranja
a) Opte. Planske mjere za mitigaciju seizmikog rizika po prirodi i optem
konceptu,u sutini su komplementarne ili se ak poklapaju sa opte prihvaenim pravilima
regularnog oblikovanja ovjekove okoline. Naime, veina postojeih dosljedno
primijenjenih standarda i regulative iz planiranja i projektovanja djeluje istovremeno i u
prilog kontrole vulnerabiliteta i mitigacije rizika, dok isto tako veina planskih mjera na
kontroli hazarda i vulnerabiliteta podupire najsavremenije pristupe i ideje na oblikovanju
okoline i formiranju funkcionalne strukture naselja i gradova.
Dakle, ne postoji opte oprenosti izmeu zahtjeva da se istovremeno planira i
dobar i siguran grad, iako uvijek preostaje mnotvo posebnih konfliktnih situacija koje se
moraju razrjeavati i prevazilaziti.
U svakom sluaju moe se opravdano rezimirati da e biti prihvatljiv samo takav
sistem prostornog i urbanistikog planiranja, koji e na sveobuhvatan nain, kombinovati i
razvoj i mitigaciju rizika i to kroz bilo koji nivo i/ili obrazac tzv. planskih struktura.
Pri tome je razumljivo da planske mjere za mitigaciju rizika do izvjesnog stepena
variraju u zavisnosti od prirode i nivoa seizmikog rizika, zatim, od nivoa prostornog i
urbanistikog planiranja, a isto tako je i njihova praktina primjenljivost u odreenoj mjeri
zavisna od drutveno-ekonomskih i drugih uslova koji se odnose na dato podruje odnosno
zemlju u cjelini.
b) Mjere za prilagoavanje hazardu. Glavni planerski koraci odnose se, po
pravilu, na manipulisanje izmeu zona sa razliitim nivoima hazarda i razvojnih programa
sa razliitim nivoima osjetljivosti. Obadvije grupe ovih nivoa trebalo bi da za svako
podruje stoje u inverznom odnosu.
U ovom pogledu, odnosna strategija na nivou Prostornog plana Republike nalazi
svog neposrednog odraza (kao rezultat istraivanja seizmikog hazarda i njegovog
sukobljavanja sa postojeim razvojnim obrascima, trendovima i ciljevima), kroz
diferenciranje na:
- podruja koja se mogu smatrati kontraverznim, gdje su razvojni trendovi u
konfliktu sa prirodom i nivoom hazarda,
69
vidjeti Odjeljak 2.4
291
- podruja ogranienim ili zatvorenim za odreene vrste razvoja i
- poduja gdje dati razvojni programi imaju prioritet i gdje e biti primijenjene sve
potrebne mjere za mitigaciju rizika (zone sa izraenim prednostima, potencijali budueg
razvoja, prioriteti kroz obnovu i rekonstrukciju postojeih naselja, neki hidroloki i drugi
projekti i sl.).
Pri svemu tome treba istai da se na nivou generalnih urbanistikih planova
postoji ira mogunost, ali i vea odgovornost za ostvarenu interpretaciju zoniranja
hazarda kako u svrhu definisanja namjene zemljita, tako i za funkcionalno tertiranje
naselja.
S tim u vezi, ve najjednostavnija klasifikacija zona prema seizmikom hazardu
(relativno): na najbolje, srednje i najloije, prua planerima odgovarajue smjernice na koja
podruja bi se moglo locirati najvanije i najosjetljivije razvojne programe i koja bi
podruja mogla biti zatvorena za razvoj. U tom pogledu postoji ve dovoljno planerskog i
praktinog iskustva, (ukljuivo uslove zahtjeva za potrebe tzv. pripremljenosti na
zemljotres), o tome kakvi se obrasci meuzavisnosti izmeu funkcionalnog i zoniranja
hazarda trebaju primjenjivati, i dr.
c) Distribucija kao sredstvo kontrole vulnerabiliteta. Nasuprot hazardu, iji nivo
zavisi od prirodnih uslova i sila, nivo vulnerabiliteta (povrjedljivosti) ljudskih naselja zavisi
prevashodno od rezultata ovjekove aktivnosti, od primijenjenih rjeenja kroz obrasce
prostornog i urbanistikog planiranja, aseizmikog projektovanja odnosno seizmike
sigurnosti objekata, primijenjenih materijala i tehnologije, funkcionalnih programa i
najzad, ali ne i najmanje vano, od primijenjenih mjera preventivne zatite i mitigacije.
U vezi sa ovim moe se rei da su koncentracija i gustina dva kljuna razvojna
elementa koja se definiu na svakom nivou urbanistikog planiranja, predstavljajui bitne
faktore njihove ekonomske implikacije. U podrujima podlonim jakim zemljotersima (to
i jeste sluaj sa veim dijelom teritorije Crne Gore), ova dva aspekta razvoja, po pravilu,
direktno uslovljavaju kako veliinu same katastrofe tako i njene dalje posljedice.
Kako su obadva elementa, i koncetracija i gustina, izvedeni iz obrasca distribucije
to su planski koncepti prostorne distribucije stanovnitva, zgrada i drugih drutvenih
dobara i aktivnosti upravo od direktnog uticaja na nivo seizmikog rizika.
d) Glavne mjere kontrole na nivou generalnih urbanistikih planova. Aspekt
koncentracije i gustine, kao to je ve napomenuto, na lokalnom nivou planiranja izraavaju
se kroz opredjeljivanje namjene povrina i funkcionalni zoning. Ovaj zoning, posebno za
urbana naselja, fiksira specifine funkcije za svaku oblast (kao to stanovanje, kolstvo,
trgovina, industrija, zdravstvo, rekreacija, itd.), i to u okvirima izvrenog mikrorejoniranja
na seizmiki hazard. Pored predvienih i propisanih funkcija za svaku oblast ovaj, zoning
treba takoe da definie intenzitet korienja prema svakom izdvojenom elementu funkcije
urbanog zemljita (dozvoljena gustina, odnos izgraenog dijela prema ukupnoj povrini
podruja, fiksiranje minimalnog iznosa otvorenih povrina u okviru svake lokacije,
dozvoljena visina zgrada, karakter, i vrsta konstrukcija otpornih na zemljotres, vrste
materijala i dr.).
U svakom sluaju, Generalni urbanistiki planovi naseljenog mjesta predstavljaju
zakonske dokumente sa punom i obavezujuom snagom primjene za svakog od subjekata
planiranja razvoja na tom podruju.
e) Kontrola vulnerabiliteta kroz detaljne urbanistike planove i urbanistike
projekte. Sa stanovita mjera kontrole vulnerabiliteta detaljni urbanistiki planovi
292
predstavljaju najvaniju sponu izmeu prostornog/urbanistikog planiranja i odgovarajuih
projektantskih mjera. Ovi planovi ukljuivo urbanistiko tehnike uslove koji iz nih
proizilaze, u sutini prevode namjenu povrina i funkcionalni zoning iz generalnih
urbanistikih planova u realan urbanizovani prostor.
S tim u vezi sve elemente ovog nivoa planiranja treba smatrati jednako vanim sa
stanovita njihove osjetljivosti i vulnerabiliteta. Ovo se istie stoga to iskustvo pokazuje da
su planeri odnosno projektanti, do sada, glavnu ako ne iskljuivu panju posveivali
otpornosti i sigurnosti pojedinanih zgrada i objekata.
Meutim, treba imati u vidu znaaj svakog od elemenata u kontekstu njihove
ukupne funkcionalne korelacije, a posebno u uslovima nakon zemljotresa, i to polazei od
tzv. urbanistikog interijera (ulice, skverovi, pjeake staze i drugo), pojedinih specifinih
gradskih sadraja, do problematike vezane za pravilno aseizmiko projektovanje objekata i
tretiranje njegovih osnovnih principa, i to naroito u pogledu zasnivanja poeljnih i
primjerenih konstruktivnih oblika.
Sasvim posebna situacija u zatiti od posljedica zemljotersa nastaje u odnosu na
seizmiku sigurnost ve izgraene sredine tj. postojee objekte, kulturno-istorijske
spomenike kao i stara kulturno-istorijska gradska jezgra i stare gradove, gdje se mora
souiti sa dosta ogranienim mogunostima intervencije u jednu ve vrsto zasnovanu i
postojeu fiziku strukturu.
2.4. Osvrt na tretman i domaa istraivanja vulnerabiliteta i prihvatljivog seizmikog
rizika u okviru Projekta UNDP-YUG/79/104, kao i Projekta GTZ-UCG&RZUP,
2006
Kao to je evidentno, iskustva iz Crnogorskog zemljotresa 1979. donijela su
mnoge po svemu specifine i izuzetno znaajne rezultate, izraene posebno kroz nove
multidisciplirane pristupe kako u mitigaciji seizmikog rizika, tako i u postzemljotresnom
upravljanju. Pri tome, polazei ak i od same definicije i klasifikacije znaenja osnovnih
pojmova (odnosno tehnikih termina) za Hazard, Rizik, Vulnerabilitet, i dr, kao i njihovog
uzajamnog odnosa (R=H xV).Ukljuivo temeljna istraivanja i adekvatne metodologije za
utvrivanje vulnerabiliteta i to kako zgrada tako i vitalne infrastrukture, odnosno
korespodentnog rizika.
Apstrahujui ostale veoma znaajne medjunarodne/regionalne i domae/savezne
projekte i studije realizovane u postzemljotresnom periodu, za ovu priliku se posebno
izdvaja bazina Studija povredljivosti i prihvatljivog seizmikog rizika za potrebe PPR
Crne Gore (Projekat UNDP-YUG/79/104). Inae, ova obimna Studija bila je realizovana sa
1984, od strane IZIIS/Skoplje i RZUP-a Titograd (uz uee i ovog autora). Programski
ciljevi ove Studije direktno su korespondirali kako sa ciljevima i metodologijom tadanje
izrade PPR i GUP-ova Crne Gore, tako i sa ciljevima ranije pomenutog regionalnog
UNDP/UNESCO Projekta RER/79/014 (Smanjenje seizmikog rizika u regionu Balkana).
Kao to je to ve iskazano, polaznu osnovu za ovo istraivanje predstavljala je
ranije spomenuta inspekcija i pregled 64 000 oteenih objekata, uz njihovu klasifikaciju
prema dogodjenom odnosno opaenom vulnerabilitetu. Pri tome je analizirano ukupno 40
000 objekata (sa teitem na primorske Optine i Cetinje) uz njihovu diferencijaciju prema
namjeni, tipu konstrukcije, spratnosti, materijalu, tipu temelja, i uslovima temeljnog tla.
Ova obimna Studija (od est tomova), saeta u Zavrni elaborat (iz dvije knjige) bila je
prilagodjena potrebama za praktino korienje njenih rezultata od strane direktnih
korisnika, u prvom redu nosilaca izrade i sprovodjenja GUP-ova i drugih urbanistikih
293
planova i projekata. Naime, opte prihvaeno je da prostorni i urbanistiki planovi
naroito generalni, GUP-ovi (a takodje i detaljni, DUP-ovi) po svojoj statutornoj prirodi i
zakonskoj snazi, u sutini predstavljaju polaznu i kljunu osnovu za smanjenje seizmikog
rizika a time i za izgradnju i sprovoenje odgovarajue efektivne strategije za upravljanje
seizmikim rizikom i to kako sa nivoa Republike tako i na lokalnom nivou.
Ne uputajui se u analizu efektivnog korienja i potovanja rezultata ove Studije
tokom perioda vaenja i sprovodjenja prethodnog PPR-a (posebno kroz nareeni
tranzicioni period) mora se oznaiti krajnje indikativnom koincidencija nekih vrlo
relevantnih okolnosti. Sa jedne strane, da prilikom izrade novousvojenog PPR-a ista nije
bila uopte tretirana od strane obraivaa Plana, niti dostupna nosiocu i obradjivau
projekta tzv. Studijske osnove SS-AE, (Projekat GTZ/UCG&RZUP, 2006., realizovanom
za potrebe upravo njegove izrade), kaogod i - sa druge strane, da se kroz upravo donijeti
novi Zakon o uredjenju prostora i izgradnji objekata vri ukidanje GUP-ova (ime se
sutinski ukida svako sistemski potavljeno i realno promiljano urbanistiko planiranje).
Otuda, u odnosu na opti kontektst ovog razmatranja, a imajui u vidu injenicu da
GUP-ovi predstavljaju kljuni instrument upravljanja prostorom i za realizaciju osnovnih
smjernica sa nivoa PPR-a, kaogod i nosioca sistema urbanistikog planiranja u cjelini,
sasvim je oigledno da se na ovaj nain derogiraju prethodno ostvareni kapitalni rezultati
istraivanja oekivanog vulnerabiliteta i prihvatljivog seizmikog rizika, posebno kod
najugroenijih (primorskih) optina. tovie, time se kompromituje svaka mogunost
racionalnog pristupa smanjenju i kontroli tzv. urbanog seizmikog rizika, ukljuivo i
korespodentno integralno i efektivno planiranje adekvatne pripremljenosti na zemljotres,
kaogod i postzemljotresnih operacija i aktivnosti na obnovi i rekonstrukciji postradalog
podruja.
Naalost, to sve i pored smjernica i koncepata datih kroz prethodno navedeni
projekat Studijske osnove SS-AE, specifino kroz tzv. posebnu Sektorsku studiju (SS-AE)
4.12, posveenu upravo seizmikom riziku kao i riziku od ostalih prirodnih hazarda i
akcidenata. Dakle, izmeu ostalog, zasnovane u cjelini na pristupu i konceptu
multihazardnog zemljotresnog ininjerstva i integralnog upravljanja seizmikim rizikom.
3. ZAKLJUNI OSVRT
Na samom kraju - iako se to ve i po sebi ini evidentnim, vodei motiv ovog rada
mogao bi se izraziti kroz osjeaj i uvjerenje autora da 40-ta godinjica zemljotresa u Banja
Luci kao i tekua 30-ta godinjica Crnogorskog zemljotresa, predstavljaju obavezujuu i
neponovljivu priliku za jedan dodatni podsticaj ozbiljnijem i adekvatnom tretiranju
zemljotresne opasnosti i aseizmikoj zatiti odrivog razvoja zemlje. I to, zasnovanoj na
sveobuhvatnom pristupu - ali i po svim relevantnim integrativnim aspektima, shodno
njihovoj prirodi i domaaju.
U prethodno navedenom kontekstu, iskustvo iz Crnogorskog zemljotresa,
zasnovano na vanrednim rezultatima citiranih fundamentalnim meunarodnih i nacionalnih
projekata (realizovanih u bivoj SFRJ, kao i regionima balkana i Mediterana) te preteih
istraivanja nedvosmisleno je dovelo od saznanja o kljunoj ulozi prostornog i
urbanistikog planiranja u smanjenju seizmikog rizika. I to kao pretpostavci sine qua non
za racionalno i integralno upravljanje prostorom - a time i seizmikim rizikom.
Meutim, za puno razumijevanje i ostvarenje te uloge i uspostavljanje zdravih
koncepata, uz prepoznavanje relevantnih inilaca i utvrivanje primjerenih procedura, prvi i
294
osnovni preduslov predstavlja odgovarajue definisanje statusa i koherentnog sistema
prostornog i urbanistikog planiranja.
Na domaem nivou, kaogod i u okruenju, pri svemu naznaenom na poetku
ovog rada, taj status bi morao biti radikaln rehabilitovan. Na irem nivou, a time i za
domae uslove izvjesna skoranja mogunost bi se mogla otvoriti kroz izradu Nacionalnog
aneksa (NDPs) za Eurokod 8. Ovo bi se najprikladnije moglo postii, s jedne strane kroz
zajedniki i kooperativni nastup svih zemlja Balkanskog regiona, kao i s druge strane, ako
se ima u vidu upravo zakljueni Memorandum o razumijevanju Evropske komisije i GRF
Davos (Global Risk Forum), s obzirom na njegovu krajnje primjerenu aktivnost i misiju
posveenu upravo istim ciljevima i sa slinim ako ne i istim pristupom.
REFERENCES
>1@Pavievi, B.S. / Aseizmiko projektovanje i upravljanje zemljotresnim rizikom (
Aseismic Design and Earthquake Risk Management, Univerzitet Crne Gore, Podgorica,
Obod, 2001, Cetinje.
>2@Pavievi, B.S. / Seizmiki hazard i kontrola seizmikog rizika. Prostorni plan SR Crne
Gore, Osnove Plana (UNDP/UNCHS Project YUG/79/104), RZUP-Titograd, UNCHS-
Nairobi, UNDRO-eneva, 1983, Titograd.
>3@Petrovski, J. / B.S. Pavievi / Methodology on Vulnerability and Seismic Risk Analysis
Applied in the Studies of the Coastal Region of SR Montenegro, Yugoslavia. Yugoslav
National Report, WG B and C, UNDP/UNESCO Project, RER/79/014 (Earthquake Risk
Reduction in the Balkan Region), IZIIS/Skopje-RZUP/Titograd, 1982, Titograd.
>4@ Pavievi, B.S., editor: Seismic Risk Reduction in Mediterranean. Priority Action Land
Use Planning in earthquakes Zones, MAP Technical report No.17(245p.), UNEP/MAP,
Athens and PAP/RAC, 1988, Split.
>5@Strategy from Yokohama and Plan of actions for Safer World, Final Document, UN-
World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, 1994,Yokohama/Japan
>6@ Hays, W., B. and J. Mohammadioun: Seismic Zonation, Monograph. The IDNDR
Activity in conjunction with XIth ECEE, Paris, Ouest Editions, 1998, Paris.
>7@ Global Cooperation in Seismic Disaster Mitigation - A Story of WSSI , The WSSI
Board of Directors WSSI (World Seismic Safety Initiative), 12th WCEE, 2000, Aukland.
>8@ UNEP/UNESCO Project RER/88/004 (Permanent Coordination Comitee for
Earthquake Risk Reduction in the Balkan Region, PCC): Report on the seventh Session of
PCC. IZIIS, Skopje, 1992, Skopje.
>9@ Meguro, K./ Yoshimura, M./ Integrated information system for total Disaster
Management, Institute of Industrial science, University of Tokio, Bulletin of ERS Centre
No.37, 2004.
>10@Oliveira C.S. / A.Roca / X.Goula / Assesing and managing eartquake risk. Springer,
2006.
>11@Pavievi B. / R.Zejak: Izvjetaj o ueu na Workshop-u Evropske komisije
EUROCODES: Background and Applications, Brisel, 18-20 februar 2008. Institut za
standardizaciju Crne Gore, Gradjevinski fakultet UCG & CAZI, 2008, Podgorica.
>12@Aman J.W. / Integrated Disaster Risk Managament and Disaster Resilience Capacity
Building, Global Risk Forum GRF Davos, IDRC Changdou 2009, July 2009, Changdou,
China.
295
Prof Boidar Pavievi
170
, Jadranka Mihaljevi
271
GENERALISANI KONCEPT INTEGRALNOG UPRAVLJANJA
ZEMLJOTRESNIM RIZIKOM U SAVREMENIM USLOVIMA
Rezime:
U radu se pledira na rehabilitaciji svojstvenih iskustava na smanjenju seizmikog
rizika steenih nakon Crnogorskog zemljotresa 1979. S tim u vezi naglaava se
potreba razvijanja savremene nacionalne strategije za sveobuhvatno upravljanje
seizmikim rizikom, u skladu sa aktuelnim meunarodnim strategijama i novim
iskustvima. Apostrofiraju se njegovi relevantni integrativni aspekati, istiui klju-
nu ulogu prostorno-urbanistikog planiranja. Poseban osvrt dat je na znaaj etike
u zemljotresnom inenjerstvu i tretiranju seizmikog rizika.
Kljune rijei: Hazard, seizmiki rizik, mitigacija, integralno upravljanje, etika.
GENERAL CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED SEISMIC RISK
MANAGAMENT
Summary:
The article deals with the rehabilitation of authentic expirience in seismic risk
mitigation gained after the 1979 Montenegro earthquake. The ephasize is given on
evolvement of comprehensive national seismic risk managament strategy based on
current intenernational strategies and new experiences. Importance of basic
relevant integrative aspects and the specific importance of land-use planning are
explined in more details. Role of ethic aspects in this field is stressed out.
Key words: Seismic risk, mitigation, integrated management, vulnerability, ethics.
1
Profesor (Mostovi, Aseizmiko projektovanje, Aseizmiko planiranje;ef Katedre za zemljotresno inenjerstvo),
u penziji; bivi Gen. direktor RZUP-a, Titograd (u vrijeme i nakon Crnogorskog zemljotresa 1979); ekspert
UNEP-a; Koordinator Programa SEISMED&UNEP/MAP Priority Action: "Land-Use Planning in
Mediterranean Earthquake zones", PAP/RAC, Split; osniva i bivi predsjednik CDZI-a&YUZI-a, odnosno CAZI-
a; Poasni predsjednik CAZI-a; M: EERI, US Forum, EAEE; etc. E-mail: bozidarp@t-com.me
2
Jadranka Mihaljevic, dipl.in. gra, kosultant za zemljotresno inenjerstvo, Seizmoloki zavod, Vlada Crne Gore
296
1. UVOD
1.1 ZNAAJ I ODRAZ ISKUSTAVA IZ CRNOGORSKOG
ZEMLJOTRESA 1979. NA DEFINISANJE FILOZOFIJE I
UTVRIVANJA SEIZMIKOG RIZIKA
Kao to je evidentno i upuenima dobro poznato, iskustva iz Crnogorskog
zemljotresa 1979. donijela su mnoge po svemu specifine i izuzetno znaajne rezultate,
izraene posebno kroz nove multidisciplirane pristupe kako u mitigaciji seizmikog
rizika, tako i u postzemljotresnom upravljanju. Pri tome, polazei ak i od same definicije i
klasifikacije znaenja osnovnih pojmova (odnosno tehnikih termina) za Hazard, Rizik,
Vulnerabilitet, i dr, kao i njihovog uzajamnog odnosa (R=H xV)
3
.
72
Ukljuivo temeljna
istraivanja i adekvatne metodologije za utvrivanje vulnerabiliteta i to kako zgrada tako i
vitalne infrastrukture, odnosno korespodentnog seizmikog rizika.
Apstrahujui ostale veoma znaajne medjunarodne/regionalne i domae/savezne
projekte i studije realizovane u postzemljotresnom periodu, za ovu priliku se posebno
izdvaja bazina Studija povredljivosti i prihvatljivog seizmikog rizika za potrebe PPR
Crne Gore (Projekat UNDP-YUG/79/104). Inae, ova obimna Studija bila je realizovana sa
1984. godine, od strane IZIIS/Skoplje i RZUP Titograd (uz uee i ovog autora).
Programski ciljevi ove Studije direktno su korespondirali kako sa ciljevima i
metodologijom tadanje izrade PPR i GUP-ova Crne Gore, tako i sa ciljevima ranije
pomenutog regionalnog UNDP/UNESCO Projekta RER/79/014 (Smanjenje seizmikog
rizika u regionu Balkana).
Polaznu osnovu za ovo istraivanje predstavljala je ranije spomenuta inspekcija i
pregled 64 000 oteenih objekata, uz njihovu klasifikaciju prema dogodjenom odnosno
opaenom vulnerabilitetu. Pri tome je analizirano ukupno 40 000 objekata (sa teitem na
primorske Optine i Cetinje) uz njihovu diferencijaciju prema namjeni, tipu konstrukcije,
spratnosti, materijalu, tipu temelja, i uslovima temeljnog tla. Ova obimna Studija (od est
3
Klasifikacija i znaenje nekih termina u ovoj oblasti upotrijebljeni su prema konceptu i definiciji usvojenim od
strane UNDRO-a (eneva, jula 1979.) i UNEP (Najrobi, januara 1980.), a prihvaenim i kroz UNDP/UNESCO
Project RER/79/014 Projekat Smanjenje seizmikog rizika u regionu Balkana (Herceg Novi, aprila 1981. i
Skoplje, januara1983.).Usvojena formula glasi: R = V x X, (gdje su R Rizik; V Vulnerabilitet/povrjedljivost;
H Hazard).
U vezi sa tim takoe su usvojene i sljedee definicije:
Hazard (prirodni) oznaava vjerovatnou pojave zemljotresa ili nekog drugog potencijalnog ruilakog prirodnog
fenomena, a u okviru specifinog vremenskog perioda i na odreenom prostoru.
Vulnerabilitet oznaava stepen gubitka nanesenog datom elementu rizika ili skupu takvih elemenata, zbog pojave
prirodnog fenomena date magnitude, a izraava se u skali od 0 (bez tete) do 1 (totalni gubitak).
Elementi rizika oznaavaju stanovnitvo, zgrade i druge graevinske objekte, ekonomske aktivnosti, javne servise
suprastrukturu, infrastrukturu i druge elemente izloene riziku na datom prostoru.
Specifini rizik oznaava oekivani stepen gubitka izazvan pojavom odreenog prirodnog fenomena i predstavlja
funkciju zavisnu i od prirodnog hazarda i od vulnerabiliteta.
Rizik oznaava oekivni broj izgubljenih ivota, povrijeenih osoba, oteenja i gubitaka na imovini, poremeaja
privredne aktivnosti usljed odreenog prirodnog fenomena i sl., te prema tome, predstavlja proizvod specifinog
rizika i elemenata izloenih riziku.
297
tomova), saeta u Zavrni elaborat (iz dvije knjige) bila je prilagodjena potrebama za
praktino korienje njenih rezultata od strane direktnih korisnika, u prvom redu nosilaca
izrade i sprovodjenja GUP-ova i drugih urbanistikih planova i projekata. Naime, opte
prihvaeno je da prostorni i urbanistiki planovi naroito generalni, GUP-ovi (a takodje i
detaljni, DUP-ovi) po svojoj statutornoj prirodi i zakonskoj snazi, u sutini predstavljaju
polaznu i kljunu osnovu za smanjenje seizmikog rizika a time i sprovoenje
odgovarajue efektivne strategije za upravljanje seizmikim rizikom kako sa nivoa
Republike tako i na lokalnom nivou.
1.2 ANALIZA URBANOG RIZIKA
Ne uputajui se u detaljniji prikaz ovih studija i dobijenih rezultata, zasnovanoih
kako na podacima o ogromnom fondu oteenih zgrada tako i znaajnog dijela vitalne
infrastrukture, moe se rei da je time bila uspostavljena relavantn podloga za definisanje
adekvatnih metodologija i iza utvrivanje tzv. urbanog rizika.
Imajui u vidu propulzivan napredak na ovim podrujima ostvaren prethodnih
godina u zemljama regiona, prikladno je naznaiti jedan od modela artikulisan tokom
realizacije ve pomenutih projekata, slika 1. atairan sistemima vitalne infrastrukture.
Slika1 - Metodologija za utvrivanje vulnerabiliteta i prihvatljivog rizika kod vitalnih
infrastrukturnih sistema
U vezi sa navedenim modelom moe se uspostaviti i bliska analogija sa
metodologijom za utvrivanje urbanog rizika. Pri tome, (kaogod i kod sistema vitalne
infrastrukture za sebe) analiza urbanog rizika mora obuhvatiti razmatranje svih elemenata
rizika ljude, materijalne (zgrade, infrastrukturu, vitalne sisteme, arhitektonsko nasljee,
prirodne resurse, itd.) i/ili nematerijalne (kulturne, drutveno-ekonomske, spomenike,
idr.), ali takoe i funkcionalne relacije izmeu tih elemenata, urbanih aktivnosti (proizvo-
dnja, potronja, razmjena), odnosno gradske uprave kao i relacije kroz veze sa mjestima iz
okruenja, itd.
298
Dakle, dijagnoza vulnerabiliteta mora pokriti cio urbani sistem tj. sve konstitutivne
elemente - pojedinano i kao homogenizovane grupe, ali i sistem kao takav - sa njegovom
strukturom, komponenatama, unutranjim funkcionisanjem kaogod i spoljnjim vezama.
N.B. Kada je pak rije o karakteru pouka i ukupnih iskustava steenih nakon
Crnogorskog zemljotresa 1979. koji su bili i ostali od izuzetnog znaaja ne samo za
domae okvire ve i iru meunarodnu zajednicu, o njihovom odrazu moe se posredno
zakljuiti i kroz sljedee Poglavlje 2. Meutim, ono to s tim u vezi, valja i ovdje istai
jeste sticaj okolnosti da je tada po prvi put promovisana nezaobilazna uloga prostorno-
urbanistikog planiranja u mitigaciji zemljotresnog rizika. Isto tako, pri tome je (uz
izvanrednu tehniku pomo Ujedinjenih Nacija) praktino ostvaren pionirski pristup
integralnom upravljanju seizmikim rizikom.
2. PROGRAMSKA USMJERENOST I CILJEVI SAVREMENE
STRATEGIJE ZA SMANJENJE SEIZMIKOG RIZIKA
2.1. STRATEGIJA IZ JOKOHAME I PLAN AKCIJE ZA
BEZBJEDNIJI VIJET U BUDUNOSTI (UN WR, YOKOHAMA /
JAPAN, 1994.)
Na polovini UN IDNDR (Meunarodne decenije za zatitu od prirodnih katastrofa,
1990-2000)
4
,
73
pod pokroviteljstvom UN - odrana je Svjetska konferencija o smanjenju
rizika od prirodnih katastrofa (Jokohama, Japan, maj 1994). Tom prilikom Konferencija je
usvojila Zavrni dokument pod naslovom Strategija iz Jokohame i Plan akcije za
bezbjedniji svijet u budunosti smjernice za prvenciju prirodnih katastrofa, pripremljenost
i mitigaciju (ublaavanje).
Usvojeni pristup, intencije i filozofija prevencije i pripremljenosti na prirodne
katastrofe, u prvom redu na seizmiki hazard komuniciraju sa pionirskim doprinosom,
pristupima i konceptima ustanovljenim i realizovanim kroz Projekat izrade Prostornog
plana Republike i generalnih urbanistikih planova Crne Gore (UNDP/UNCHS/UNDRO
Project YUG/79/104), izveden nakon Crnogorskog zemljotersa od 1979.godine.
Zavrni dokument iz Jokohame strukturno (i krajnje instruktivno) pored ostalog,
obuhvatio je sljedee aspekte: (1) Principi, (2) Strategija i (3) Plan akcije.
U odnosu na Principe definisane u ovom dokumentu u cjelini, posebno se istiu
sljedei stavovi i smjernice:
- Preventiva i pripremljenost za prirodne katastrofe su od primarnog znaaja za
smanjenje i otklanjanje posljedica prirodnih katastrofa;
- Preventivu i pripremljenost za prirodne katastrofe treba smatrati integralnim
aspektima razvojne politike, uz planiranje na nacionalnom, regionalnom i lokalnom
nivou, te bilateralnim, multilateralnim i globalnim uslovima;
4
IDNDR je bila proglaena od strane UN na predlog WCEE (San Francisko, 1984 godine), podstaknut u prvom
redu efektima Crnogorskog zemljotresa 1979. kao i zemljotresa El Asnam/Alir, 1980. Prema njenim glavnim
smjernicama sve zemlje lanice UN bile su dune da donesu svoje nacionalne programe. Pri tome, mandat za
pripremu takvog programa na nivou SFRJ imali su SHMZ, Beograd i IZIIS, Skoplje uz uee SDSGJ iji je rad
bio prekinut nakon raspada SFRJ. Inae, nakon formiranja SRJ - na njenom nivou bio je nastavljen rad na pripremi
i donoenju takvog programa,takoe od strane SHMZ u saradnji sa JUZI-em (i uz uee ovog autora).
299
- Zatita ivotne sredine kao komponente odrivog razvoja u skladu sa otklanjanjem
siromatva je od primarnog znaaja u sprjeavanju i ublaavanju prirodnih
katastrofa.
U odnosu na Strategiju, specifino u vezi sa procjenom aktuelnog stanja u oblasti
smanjenja katastrofa, izmeu ostalog, posebno su apostrofirani sljedei stavovi:
- Svijest o potencijalnim koristima od smanjanja katastrofa jo uvijek je ograniena
na usko specijalizovane krugove, i jo uvijek nije uspjeno preneena na sve sektore
drutva, naroito ne na one koji donose odluke, kao ni na iru javnost;
- Programi obrazovanja i obuke za one ljude i subjekte koji su profesionalno
ukljueni i/ili obavezni, kao i za iru javnost, nijesu dovoljno razvijeni niti
postaknuti, sa teitem na naine i sredstva smanjivanja katastrofa. Takoe,
potencijali informativnih medija, nauna zajednica, privreda, javni i privatni sektor
u cjelini - nijesu, uopte ili bar ne dovoljno, mobilisani;
- Iskustvo je pokazalo da (iako to nije bio dio zadataka Decenije), koncept smanjenja
katastrofa treba proiriti da obuhvati i druge prirodne situacije ukljuivo ekoloke
i tehnoloke katastrofe i havarije kao i njihove meusobne odnose koji mogu imati
znaajan uticaj na drutvene, ekonomske, kulturne i druge sisteme ivotne sredine,
naroito u zemljama u razvoju.
2.2. DOKUMENTI SVJETSKE KONFERENCIJE ZA SMANJENJE
KATASTROFA (UN WCDR, 2005., KOBE/JAPAN).
Generalna Skuptina Ujedinjenih nacija na svom 58. zasijedanju od 23. decembra
2003. godine donijela je Rezoluciju o Meunarodnoj strategiji za smanjenje katastrofa
(A/RES/58/214: International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) kao i korespodentnu
Rezoluciju o prirodnim katastrofama i vulnerabilitetu/povredljivosti (A/RES/58/214: Natu-
ral Disaster and Vulnerability). U okviru ovih rezolucija Generalna skuptina je isto-
vremeno donijela odluku o sazivanju (druge) Svjetske konferencije o smanjenju katastrofa
(WCDR, Kobe-Hygo, Japan, januar 2005.) Inae, neki od glavnih dokumenata te Konfe-
rencije su: Hyogo Declaration & Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 (Building the
Resiliance of Nations and Communnities to Disasters).
3. BAZINI KONCEPTI I PREDUSLOVI
3.1. OKVIRNI STRUKTURNO-INTEGRATIVNI PRISTUP
Podrazumijevajui mogunost i drugaijeg konceptualnog pristupa odnsono i
drugaijih interpretacija, ovaj autor smatra da je strategiju i sistem integralnog upravljanja
seizmikim rizikom (odnosno smanjenje neprihvatljivog sezmikog rizika) pogodno
najsaetije opisati i okarakterisati putem korelativne sprege i korespodentnog ukrtanja
funkcionalih skupova koje ine: (a) Strukturno-tematska matrica PPI/STAPLE, i (b)
Integrativni aspekti/opcije smanjenja seizmikog rizika.
Ad (a): Strukturno-tematska matrica PPI/STAPLE. Pojedine komponente u
navedenom matrinom sklopu, oznaene preko poetnih slova njihovog naziva - u datom
kontekstu, imaju znaenja prema navodu kako je dato u Tabeli.
300
- Politika (koja konstituie politike tenje i ciljeve u smanjenju ljudskih,
materijalnih i ekonomskih gubitaka kao i nematerijalnih teta od buduih
zemljotresa i to kako na nacionalnom tako i na regionalnom odnosno lokalnom
nivou);
- Planiranje (koje obuhvata i podrazumijeva formulisanje aktivnosti i programa sa
raznih podruja putem razliitih oblika i nivoa, orijentisanih na prevoenje
politika smanjenja seizmikog rizika u potreban postupak sprovoenja odnosno
realizaciju); i
- Implemantacija (odnosno sprovoenje, koje ukljuuje donoenje potrebne
legislative, zakona, propisa, pravilnika, standarda, uzansi i dr.; pripremu specifinih
planova i mjera predvienih u planovima i programima vieg reda za smanjenje
seizmikog rizika; uspostavljanje odgovarajueg institucionalnog sistema za utvr-
ivanje i jaanje mehanizama potrebnih za primjenu i sprovoenje donijetih
planova i programa).
Tabela 1 - Glavne faze, PPI:
PPI / STAPLE Politika Planiranje Izvravanje
Socijalni * * *
Tehniki * * *
Administrativni * * *
Politiki * * *
Legislativni * * *
Ekonomski * * *
Opti aspekti, STAPLE: Shodno svakoj od prethodno navedenih glavnih faza - kao
imanentni i od naroitog znaaja, izmeu ostalih, posebno se izdvajaju sljedee aspekti:
Socijalni, Tehniki, Administrativni, Politiki, Legislativni i Ekonomski.
Ad (b): Integrativni aspekti i opcije smanjenja seizmikog rizika. Kao osnovni
integrativni aspekti smanjenja seizmikog rizika, tretirajui ih istovremeno kao komponente
jedinstvenog integralnog sistema upravljanja seizmikim rizikom, u kontekstu ciljeva ovog
razmatranja, mogu se uslovno oznaiti sljedea podruja:
- Utvrivanje zemljotresnog hazarda,
- Utvrivanje seizmikog rizika i njegovog prihvatljivog nivoa,
- Aseizmiko projektovanje i izgradnja objekata i infrastrukturnih sistema,
- Prostorno-urbanistiko planiranje u seizmikim uslovima,
- Mitigacija seizmikog rizika (legislativno-institucionalni aspekti, i sl.,
- Pripremljenost na zemljotres, u irem i savremenom znaenju,
- Upravljanje zemljotresnim rizikom, kao i
- Integrisani informacioni sistem sa bazom podataka o prostoru i izgraenoj sredini
(GIS), za totalno upravljanje seizmikim rizikom (kao i rizikom od drugih priro-
dnih hazarda).
301
Slika 2 - Upravljanje seizmikim rizikom, ukljuivo i postzemljotresni odgovor
U navedenom kontekstu, pod pojmom upravljanja seizmikim rizikom
podrazumijevaju se sve aktivnosti na predzemljotresnom planiranju i izvrenju. Pri tome
ovdje nijesu eksplicitno ukljuene operacije spaavanja i drugih prateih vanrednih
intervencija na saniranju urgentnog stanja, kaogod ni na postzemljotresnoj obnovi i
rekonstrukciji. Meutim, prema prirodi stvari i one su bitan institucionalno-organizacioni
aspekt ukupnog sistema zatite od prirodnih katastrofa i tehnolokih havarija na svim
nivoima drutvene zajednice (od drave do lokalne samouprave, ukljuivo ulogu graana
odnosno javnosti), Slika 2.
3.2. POLITIKE ZA SAVREMNO UPRAVLJANJE SEIZMIKIM
RIZIKOM
Politika seizmike sigurnosti konstituie politike tenje u smanjenju ljudskih,
materijalnih i ekonomskih gubitaka. U sutini ona predstavlja odreene planove, pravila,
strunu i profesionalnu praksu ili, pak, druge naine koji djeluju sa snagom zakona a
usmjereni su na ispunjenje cilja za smanjenje seizmikog rizika kroz mitigaciju, pripre-
mljenost, emergentni odgovor, obnovu i rekonstrukciju. Ukljuivo potrebne odgovarajue
mjere i regulativu koje se odnose na sve vjerovatne vanredne okolnosti koje mogu zadesiti
zemljotresu izloeno - odnosno od njega postradalo podruje.
Sve te mjere i regulativa treba da omogue zajednici planiranje za neizbjene
zemljotrese, tj. da kontrolie predvidive posljedice ali i da preduprijedi one nepredvidive,
ukljuivo razna i mogua iznenaenja. Oigledno, pod navedeni generalni okvir politike
seizmike sigurnosti potpada i opta javna politika u ovoj oblasti, kaogod i svi ostali
relevantni aspekti i segmenti (sintetski spregnuti putem tzv. strukturno-tematske matrice
PPI/STAPLE), uz njihovo adekvatno rekognosciranje i tretiranje kroz navedena inte-
grativna podruja.
Inae, u kontekstu savremenog pristupa upravljanju seizmikim rizikom polaznu
osnovu moraju predstavljati: (a) identifikovanje i utvrivanje samog hazarda - uz
odgovarajue seizmiko zoniranje (Slika 2); kao i (b) prepoznavanje globalnog procesa
utvrivanja seizmikog rizika - uz uspostvljanje odgovarajueg konzistentnog sistema za
njegovo smanjenje.(Slika 3) - korespodentno integrativnim aspektima navedenim u
Odjeljku 3.3
3.3. NAINI I OPCIJE ZAJEDNICA ZA SMANJENJE
NEPRIHVATLJIVOG SEIZMIKOG RIZIKA
Ovi naini i opcije tretirajui ih u dosta generalisanoj formi i korespodentno
prethodnim odjeljcima, mogu se najsaetije predstaviti kao to slijedi:
Usvajanje postojeeg i osvajanje novog znanja. Ovo je neophodno da bi neka
zajednica mogla stvarano i uspjeno upravljati svojim seizmikim rizikom. Drugaije ree-
302
no, ona mora biti sposobna da mijenja i prilagoava javnu politiku u ovoj oblasti i to na
bazi naunih, tehnikih, politikih i zakonskih usaglaenosti. Ove, pak, po prirodi stvari
treba progresivno da evoluiraju sa vremenom - budui da je zajednica prinuena da ivi sa
zemljotresima, i to uz stalno poveanje rizika od tog hazarda. Pri tome sasvim je razu-
mljivo da upravljanje seizmikim rizikom moe biti uspjeno, najprije, ako je zasnovanao
na iskustvima svoje zemlje odnosno (ak jo i vie) na iskustvima drugih naprednijih
zemalja.
Mitigacija. Mitigacija (ublaavanje) obuhvata itav niz razliitih aspekata
ukljuivo politike, legislativne mandate, strunu i profesionalnu praksu i osposobljenost,
kao i razna drutvena, strukturna i nestrukturna prilagoavanja - orijentisana i projektovana
za zatitu, smanjenje i svoenje na najmanju moguu mjeru seizmikog rizika odnosno
efekata zemljotresa na odreenu zajednicu. Kategorije mitigacionih mjera i regulacija,
onako kako se tretiraju u zadnjih dvije dekade, ukljuuju: (1) propise i standarde za
izgradnju objekata i urbanistiko planiranje; (2) prostorno-urbanistiko planiranje i
upravljanje; (3) aseizmiko projektovanje objekata; (4) seizmiku dijagnozu i rehabilitaciju
postojeih objekata; (5) kontrolu i zatitu propisnog sprovoenja radova; (6) predvianje,
javnu svijest i planiranje; (7) planiranje obnove i rekonstrukcije u post-zemljotresnim
uslovima, uz planiranje daljeg razvoja; (8) fianasiranje i (9) osiguranje.
Slika 3 - Seizmiko zoniranje kao okvir konzistentne veze izmeu utvrivanja
rizika i upravljanja tim rizikom
Pripremljenost. Uloga pripremljenosti je da olaka predvianje i prevazilaenje
oekivanih i neoekivanih posljedica zemljotresa. Ona, takoe, ukljuuje cio niz politika,
zakonskih mandata, profesionalnog znanja i drutvenih prilagoavanja i angaovanja
obuhvatajui sve potencijalne uesnike procesa - od pojedinaca, preko raznih organizacija i
zajednica, do nivoa vladinih institucija odnosno drave. Podrazumijeva se da se na takvom
predvianju i scenarijima zasnivaju i donose korespodentni planovi za urgentni odgovor
koji treba da uslijedi odmah nakon zemljotresa, kaogod i planovi potreba za kasniju obnovu
i rekonstrukciju. Ovi planovi, po pravilu, donose se po dnevnoj vremenskoj dinamici tj. za
prve dane odmah nakon zemljotresa a zatim sukcesivno - po nedjeljama, mjesecima i
godinama. Pripremljenost na zemljotres, svakako, podrazumijeva i ukljuuje obavezno
303
stvaranje odgovarajuih instiucionalnih kapaciteta, osposobljenih i opremljenih shodno
povjerenim zadacima.
Opcije za olakanje predvianja odgovarajuih aktivnosti kao i za neophodnu
pripremljenost na katastrofu ukljuuju: (1) javnu svijest; (2) scenarije zemljotresa; (3)
predvianje same pojave i njene posljedice; (4) obuku; (5) pregled i klasifikaciju oteenih
objekata, uz ocjenu njihove useljivosti i upotrebljivosti; (6) metodologiju za procjenu
prouzrokovanih teta; (7) post-zemljotresna istraivanja; (8) ugrentni odgovor; (9) traganje
i spaavanje; (10) predplaniranje za obnovu; (11) predplaniranje rekonstrukcije i izgradnje.
Opcije za stvaranje novih institucionalnih kapaciteta, izmeu ostalog, ukljuuju
naroito: (a) komisije za seizmiku sigurnost; (b) relevantne istraivake centre i (c)
odgovarajue zemljotresne konzorcije; i dr.
Emergentni (urgentni) odgovor. Ovaj odgovor korespondira u svemu sa
pristupom usvojenim kroz pripremljenost, uz proirenje na obezbjeenje hitnih slubi za
djelovanje odmah nakon zemljotresa, tj. shodno i postojeem Republikom zakonu o
zatiti i spaavanju.
Pri tome, glavne opcije za obezbjeenje hitnih slubi ukljuuju: (1) pomo
pojedincima i organizacijama u okviru njihovih domova i radnih mjesta, te pomo zajednici
na spaavanju i zatiti ivota kao i zatiti imovine; (2) alokaciju resursa, zadataka, kao i
uvrivanje vremena za obezbjeenje kontinuiteta u sinhronizovanom funkcionisanju
organizacionih struktura i procedura u okviru date zajednice; i (3) utvrivanje integralnog
obrasca komunikacije i povezivanja pojedinaca i organizacija angaovanih na traganju i
spaavanju, kao i meu drugim hitnim slubama.
Obnova i rekonstrukcija. Pojam obnove i rekonstrukcije takoe u svemu kore-
spondira sa pristupom i premisama naznaenim u odnosu na pripremljenost, uz evidentnu
orijentaciju na ponovno uspostavljanje kljunih slubi i funkcija, kao i na krajnje osmiljen
pristup obnovi i izgradnji postradalog podruja prema vremenskoj dinamici iskazanoj u
nedjeljama, mjesecima i godinama to slijede nakon zemljotresa.
Pri tome, podrazumijeva se, moraju biti ukljuene u proces i odgovarajue mjere
predostronosti i mitigacije, kako bi se zaustavili odnosno preduprijedili mogui dalji
gubici, posebno usljed efekata after-okova.
Inae, glavne akcije i rjeenja za restauraciju lokalnih slubi, kao i za obnovu i
izgradnju nakon zemljotresa, ukljuuju odgovarajue i blagovremeno strategijsko planiranje
prije zemljotresa, zasnovano na harmonizovanom i sinhronizovanom multi-legislativnom
pristupu.
Integrisani informacioni sistem za totalno upravljanje rizikom. Pripremljenost
drutvenih zajednica i njihovih graana na katastrofu ne moe biti efektivna ako svi oni
prethodno ne mogu razumjeti kako takve situacije uopte izgledaju. To ukljuuje sve
lanove drutva, a prije svega: politiare, javne zvaninike, istraivae, ljude iz mas-medija,
profesionalce iz raznih struka i oblasti, javnosti itd. Bazirajui se na prolom iskustvu,
ukljuivo i ono iz Crnogorskog zemljotresa od 1979., bie potpuno jasno da nedostatak
sposobnosti ljudi da zamisle situaciju potencijalnog zemljotresa predstavlja jedno od
najvanijih pitanja za pravovremenu pripremu adekvatnog odgovora, kako onog urgentnog
za vrijeme samog dogaaja tako i nakon njega, tj. obnove i rekonstrukcije postradalog
podruja.
304
3.4. OSVRT NA DRUGE AKTUELNE KONCEPTE I NEKE
SPECIFINE PROJEKTE
Ovaj osvrt, s obzirom na okolnosti, moe imati tek provizoran eventualno i
podsticajan karakter (tj. naroito u odnosu na neposredno domae okruenje).
Moe se rei da su, na globalnom nivou, vrlo vanu ulogu odigrale razne
supranacionalne organizacije kao to su Evropska (EAEE) i Svjetska (IAEE) asocijacija za
zemljotresno inenjerstvo. Takodje, a posebno kada je rije o analizi i utvrdjivanju
seizmikog hazarda na globalnom nivou, noseu ulogu u razvijanju brojnih projekata imale
su Medjunarodna asocijacija za seizmologiju i fiziku unutranjosti zemlje (IASPEI),
Evropska seizmoloka komisija (ESC), idr. Iz toga okvira, kao svojstven i veoma znaajan,
moe se izdvojiti Projekat Globalni seizmiki hazard (GSHAP, Gobal Seismic Hazard
Project).
Kada su, pak, u pitanju neki drugi aspekti integralnog upravljanja seizmikim
rizikom, svakako da izmedju niza manje/vie u Svijetu razvijenih i poznatih projekata, treba
izdvojiti: Projekat HAZUS, proizveden od strane FEMA (USA); kao i Projekat RADIUS,
razvijen od strane UN-ISDR,uz namjenu za gradove zemalja u razvoju.
Inae, inicijativa za razvijanje odredjene saradnje evropskih zemalja na ovom
podruju posebno onih iz regiona Mediterana, bila je pokrenuta kroz Projekat: Program
prioritetnih akcija (UNEP/MAP PAP/RAC, Split), odnosno njegov Kooperativni program
tzv. SEISMED, enova 1986. Otuda, je kasnije dolo i do ideje da se u jedinstven koncept
Evropske regulative za gradjevinarstvo (Stuctural Eurocodes), uvede i seizmika
regulativa tj. EC 8 (Eurocode 8: Projektovanje objekata za zemljotresnu otpornost ).
Takoe, i do (sada ve uveliko proklamovanog ) sporazuma o iroj saradnji zemalja medi-
teranskog regiona.
Izmedju brojnih EU projekata realizovanih tokom minulog estogodinjeg ciklusa
(naalost bez znaajnijeg uea Crne Gore, ako se izuzme Projekat DPPI) valja spomenuti
i takve kao to su: Euro Seis Test; Euro Seis Mod; Euro Seis Risk, PROCHTECH, ISARD,
kao i Risk-UE.
Pri svemu, kao izuzetno znaajan doprinos Medjunarodnoj strategiji za smanjenje
rizika od prirodnih katastrofa (UN WCDR, Kobe/Japan 2006) kao i za Evro-Mediteransku
saradnju na zatiti od rizika, apostrofira se Sporazum Savjeta Evrope EUR OPA Major
Hazard Agreement, sa irokom mreom korespodentnih Evro Mediteranskih centara
rasporedjenih po svim zemljama lanicama Savjeta Evrope.
Takoe, ali za nae uslove i konkretnu priliku kao posebno znaajan, treba navesti
i apostrofirati Projekat Harmonizacija mapa seizmikog hazarda za zemlje zapadnog
Balkana, iji je nosilac koordinacije Republiki seizmoloki zavod, Podgorica. Za
poeljeti je i oekivati da to bude tek poetak obnove dalje i ire saradnje ukljuenih
zemalja kao i drugih relevantnih meunarodnih subjekata na smanjenju seizmikog rizika u
naem regionu.
Na kraju, ali ne i zadnje po znaaju naprotiv, jesu uloga i kontinualna dragocjena
aktivnost GRF (Global RiskForum) Davos, vajcarska. Iz tog konteksta (sa velikim
uvaavanjem injegovoh prethodnih aktivnosti i poduhvata) ini se osobito znaajnim u ovoj
prilici ukazati na dva sasvim skoranja postignua i to: (1) GRF Davos IDRC Changdu,
2009 (International Desaster Reduction Conference), Changdu, 13-15 July, 2009, China,
kao i (2) upravo potpisani Memorandum o razumijevanju zakljuen sa Evropskom komi-
sijom.
305
4. ETIKI ASPEKTI I UPRAVLJANJE ZEMLJOTRESNIM
RIZIKOM
4.1. NEKA OPTA RAZMATRANJA
Osvrt na osnovne obrasce primijenjene i inenjerske etike.U ovom osvrtu
pojmovi etiki i moralan koriste se kao sinonimi, uz povezanost njihove definicije sa onim
principima na kojima se mora temeljiti odluivanje kada ljudi treba i/ili moraju primjereno
postupiti i ispravno djelovati u odreenim posebnim situacijama.
U sutini, iako esto zanemarivana, etika je veoma prisutna u zemljotresnom ine-
njerstvu i vana u procesu smanjenja seizmikog rizika. Svi uesnici u tom procesu, kada
god se etiki izazovi javljaju ostaju sami pri suoavanju sa njima, pa odluke koje tada
donose bivaju uglavnom zasnovane na intuiciji i iskustvu, odnosno njihovoj linoj i
ukupnoj kompetentnosti.
Imajui u vidu multidsciplinarnost zemljotresnog inenjerstva to etiku u njegovom
kontekstu valja posmatrati i tretirati iroko: razjanjavajui i osvjetljavajui razlike u
shvatanjima, razmatranjima, obavezama i ogranienjima, tj. uz suoavanje i sueljavanje
raznih strunjaka i donosilaca odluka u oblasti smanjenja seizmikog rizika. Inae, mnogo
je raznih disciplina ukljueno u ovu oblast, kao to su: graevinsko i drugo inenjerstvo,
arhitektura, seizmologija, geologija, ekonomija, drutvene nauke, prostorno-urbanistiko
planiranje, javna politika, itd. Takoe, lanovi ove tzv. zajednice zemljotresnog inenjerstva
su razni struni konsultanti, vladini slubenici, istraivai, profesori, poslovni investitori i
vlasnici, strunjaci u osiguranju, projektanti, planeri, preduzetnici odnosno izvoai, itd. I
dok svi oni imaju svoje razliite profesionalne obaveze, ono to bi moralo da im bude
zajedniko jeste odreeno specijalizovano znanje o zemljotresnom hazardu, relevantnim
aspektima seizmikog rizika, te prateim rizicima i posljedicama, naini razumijevanja i
analize rizika, kao i putevi izlaska na kraj sa njima kroz inenjerstvo, upravljanje rizikom,
javno informisanje, legislativu, kaogod i kroz ukupnu razvojnu politiku.
Priroda veine ovih podruja je takva da ona nose karakter unaprijed teko
odredljive izvjesnosti pa - otuda, ukljuuju nesigurnost i prosuivanje, usklaivanje
razliitih interesa koji esto zahijevaju donoenje beskompromisnih (ponekad i
kontraverznih politikih) odluka, itd. Potrebno je da svi involvirani subjekti a posebno
profesionalci moraju imati na umu promjenljivu prirodu seizmikog rizika, kako njegovog
permanentnog uveanja - tako i naina njegovog smanjenja. I da li te brze promjene, kao i
nae saznajne mogunosti, u tom pogledu mijenjaju i uveavaju nae obaveze?
Konano, da li su etike dimenzije iste za svaku od involviranih disciplina,
odnosno kategorija odgovornosti? Da li inenjer i geolog mogi imati istu moralnu
odgovornost u zatiti javnog dobra kakvu ima, na primjer, ministar? I obratno, da li neki
gradonaelnik odnosno administrator i/ili slubenik - nadlean za planiranje i izgradnju
uopte moe da ima istu individualnu odgovornost za svoj rad, kakvu ima jedan
kompetentni akademski istraiva i profesionalni specijalista?
Pristupi etikom donoenju odluka. Model etikog ponaanja. Donoenje
ispravnih i dobrih etikih odluka nije uvijek lak zadatak. Inae, genralno uzevi, model
etikog ponaanja sadri etiri osnovne komponente: (1) moralnu osjetljivost; (2) moralno
prosuivanje; (3) moralnu obaveznost; (4) moralnu hrabrost.
Naravno, ne uputajui u bilo kakvo detaljnije razmatranje ovdje navedenih
komponenata, treba ukazati da izostanak ili prenebregavanje makar i jedne od ovih
306
karakteristika kompromituje etinost u datom sluaju, odnosno obara model etikog
ponaanja u cjelini. Ukljuivo, podrazumijeva se, i same donosioce odluka iz sfere javne
odgovornosti.
4.2. RELACIJE PREMA SEIZMIKOM RIZIKU
a) Utvrivanje i razotkrivanje rizika. Jedan od najvanijih problema u irokom
podruju smanjenja seizmikog rizika jeste identifikovanje, razumijevanje i prihvatanje
rizika. U stvari, rizik je ivotna injenica. Nikada ga se ne moe u potpunosti eliminisati.
tovie, nae znanje o ovom riziku iako sutinsko, ustvari je jo uvijek nekompletno i sa
karakterom znaajne nedostatne nesigurnosti. Upravo ova karaketristika nesigurnosti,
obiljeava svaku odluku u vezi sa zemljotresima, izuzev onih koje se donose nakon ve
dogoenog zemljotresa.
ta znamo o zemljotresnom riziku, koliko smo sami sigurni o tome ta znamo, kako
interpretiramo raspoloive podatke i postojee injenice, kako pristupamo rjeavanju datog
problema i uz koliko zasnivanja na naoj profesionalnoj pripremljenosti i osposobljenosti,
naem obrazovanju i kulturi, elementu vremena povezanom sa onim to znamo, ansama
koje elimo zadobiti sve su to aspekti i dimenzije istog problema, tj. nesigurnosti. Znanje
predstavlja sr onoga to profesionalni poslenici iz raznih oblasti zemljotresnog ine-
njerstva rade, i ono je to koje u razliitim formama moe kreirati obaveze i izazvati razliite
etike i moralne dileme, kako za pojedince tako i za zajednicu.
b) Prihvatljivi rizik. Kada je rizik jednom utvren i razotkriven moramo se suoiti
sa pitanjem (inae, detaljnije razmatranim na drugom mjestu): koliko visok rizik moe biti
tolerisan i po koju cijenu, odnosno koji je nivo rizika prihvatljiv? Naravno, pri tome se ne
moe govoriti o nekoj jasnoj cijeni koju treba pripisati vrijednosti ljudskih ivota, ali
kotanje razliitih nivoa oteenja na zgradama i drugim strukturama, kaogod i kotanje
odgovarajuih nivoa sigurnosti objekata i mitigacije rizika, moe i treba biti procijenjeno.
Takoe je vano napomenuti da razni ljudi, pogotovu neposerdno zainteresovani, imaju
razliite procjene i stavove o tome ta predstavlja prihvatljiv rizik za jednu te istu situaciju.
c) Profesionalne odgovornosti. Svi koji rade na podrujima povezanim sa
smanjenjem sezimikog rizika imaju svoje profesionalne odgovornosti. Neke profesije, kao
to su planeri, dravni lokalni administratori, nadleni zvaninici zadueni za izgradnju,
kao i drugi vladini slubenici, imaju iroke odgovornosti budui da su zadueni da slue
optem javnom dobru. Ove odgovornosti je ponekad teko uravnoteiti, jer su interesi
specifinih grupa u zajednici ili drutvu, veoma esto u konfliktu. Drugi strunjaci, odnosno
profesionalci, kao to su graevinski inenjeri, seizmolozi, geolozi i arhitekte imaju
direktne zakonske odgovornosti sa nivoa pojedinanih projekata. Oni se, takoe, ponekad
mogu nai u meusobnom konfliktu. Jedan inenjer, na primjer, moe biti suoen sa
balansiranjem sukobljenih interesa investitora i njegovog poslodavca. Uopte uzevi,
profesionalne odgovornosti moemo razvrsat, u sljedee kategorije: javnost i njeni organi
(dakle, nosioci vlasti odnosno javnih ovlaenja stakeholders); klijenti; poslodavci;
konkurenti; i kolege. Valja podrazumijevati da svaka zemljotresna profesija ima odreenu
odgovornost u svakoj od navedenih kategorija.
d) Uloga i odgovornosti profesionalnih asocijacija i udruenja. Mnogostrana
priroda zemljotresne problematike i upravljanja seizmikim rizikom, neminovno podra-
zumijeva i potencira postojanje odreenih odgovornosti takozvanih profesionalnih udru-
enja i asocijacija, a koje se razlikuju od individualnih obaveza i akcija. Radei kroz
307
profesionalne organizacije, kaogod i kroz razna tijela iz okvira javne politike obrazovana
na nivou pojedinih zajednica (dravne odnosno lokalne) mogu se zahtijevati i adresirati i
takve ire odgovornosti kao to su priprema i sprovoenje potrebnih i relevantnih propisa
ili, pak, izmjene odgovarajue druge legislative. Dodatno, profesionalna asocijacija za
zemljotresno inenjerstvo trebalo bi da moe preuzeti vostvo u promociji boljeg
razumijevanja ukupne problematike upravljanja seizmikim rizikom i, naroito u promociji
razumijevanja kako narasla multikulturna priroda zemljotresnih profesija moe i mora
uticati na izbor alternativnih akcija i rjeenja, odnosno na njihovu primjerenu optimizaciju.
Takoe, jedna druga osobita odgovornost ovih asocijacija (odnosno zajednice)
posebno u domaim uslovima, morala bi biti pokretanje i voenje rasprave o etikim
implikacijama brzog razvoja ve naznaenih novih aspiracija i trendova u preduzetnitvu
(situiranih u krajnje neregularne i, toboe, neizbjeno propratne uslove tzv. drutva u
tranziciji) - posebno u oblastima izgradnje objekata odnosno projektovanja i prostorno
urbanistikog planiranja.
3. ZAKLJUNI REZIME I PREPORUKE
Na samom kraju - iako se to ve i po sebi ini evidentnim, vodei motiv ovog rada
mogao bi se izraziti kroz osjeaj i uvjerenje autora da 30-ta godinjica Crnogorskog
zemljotresa od 1979. godine predstavlja obavezujuu i neponovljivu priliku za jedan novi
poetak u tretiranju i zatiti odrivog razvoja zemlje i to po vie osnova. Prije svega i
posebno u razvijanju djelotvorne kampanje za svojevrsnu rehabilitaciju ukupne javne i
drutvene svijesti o injenici da je ona trajno upuena na tzv. ivot sa zemljotresom.
Otuda i na njeno primjereno i adekvatno dravno organizovanje, u skladu sa ve opte
prihvaenim principima i savremenom strategijom efektivne paraseizmike zatite. Inae,
generalno sublimiranim kroz tzv. Strategiju iz Jokohame i Plan akcije za bezbjedniji svijet
u budunosti smjernice za prevenciju prirodnih katastrofa, pripremljenost i mitigaciju.
Uz nepretencioznu konstataciju da su iskustva steena nakon Crnogorskog
zemljotresa 1979. predstavljala relevantan prilog takvoj strategiji nadati se da i ovaj
referat moe dodatno inovirati i ojaati platformu za produktivan doprinos njihovoj
reafirmaciji u aktuelnim uslovima. Otuda, treba smatrati neophodnim konzistentan pristup
donoenju i sprovoenju odgovarajueg okvirnog programa prioritetnih akcija i aktivnosti,
i to kako na nacionalnom tako i na regionalnom nivou.
Inae, na nacionalnom nivou kao inicijalno kljuni, izdvajaju se sledei elementi i
komponente takvog programa.
Legislativni i razvojno upravno aspekti:
a) Donoenje sistemskog Lex Specialis: Zakona o zatiti od zemljotresa (alias,
Zakona o integralnom upravljanju seizmikim rizikom), kao preduslova za sveobuhvatno
smanjenje i kontrolu seizmikog rizika.
b) Rekognosciranje relevantne sektorske zakonske i tehnike regulative
(koordinirane sa nivoa prethodno navedenog zakona kao hijerarhijski najstarijeg), uz
donoenje nove i/ili uz harmonizaciju postojee.
c) Uspostavljanje koherentnog sistema upravnog organizovanja (na dravnom i
lokalnom nivou), primjerenog prirodi i jedinstvu koncepata upravljanja prostorom i zatitom
ivotne sredine tj. u kontekstu proklamovanih principa odrivog razvoja i tzv. ekoloke
drave.
308
Institucionalni okviri
a) Osnivanje Dravne agencije /Centra za zatitu od zemljotresa, sa ulogom i
ingerencijom promocije i nadzora nad primjenom profesionalnih i regulativnih odredbi
definisanih zakonom i odgovarajuim propisima.
b) Konstituisanje ili formiranje odgovarajue republike institucije za prostorno-
urbanistiko planiranje i ivotnu sredinu (uz naputanje pogubne prakse trinog tretiranja
razvojnih prostorno-urbanistikih planova).
c) Rekognosciranje i uspostavljanje harmonizovanog sistema/mree relevantnih
institucija stratekih nosilaca razvojnih aktivosti i operativnih odgovornosti u oblastima
upravljanja prostorom i seizmikim rizikom.
Neka posebno aktuelna pitanja i sugestije
a) Promovisanje ekspertnosti i istraivanja, sa insistiranjem na adekvatnoj
edukovanosti i profesionalnoj kompetentnosti svih nosilaca javne odgovornosti (ukljuivo
tzv. stake holders ).
b) Uspostavljanje strategije za obezbjeenje potrebne zemljotresne sigurnosti
postojeih objekata kroz njihovu sistematsku seizmiku evaluaciju, rehabilitaciju i
ojaanje.
c) Istraivanje i razvijanje autentinih metodologija za utvrivanje urbanog
vulnerabiliteta i prihvatljivog sezmikog rizika, kao i vulnerabiliteta i prihvatljivog rizika
kod vitalnih infrastrukturnih sistema (life lines).
d) Razvijanje meunarodne saradnje i promovisanje obnove stalne saradnje
balkanskih drava u kontekstu ranijih UNDP projekata orjentisanih na smanjenje
seizmikog rizika u regionu Balkana, kaogod i u kontekstu tekuih aktivnosti na
transpoziciji Eurokodava u nacionalno zakonodavstvo a naroito pri uzradi nacionalnih
aneksa ( NDPs) uz Eurokod 8 .
*
Najzad, valja podrazumijevati da razmatranja i sugestije iznijete u odnosu na
ostale aspekte opte strategije integralnog upravljanja seizmikim rizikom na nivou
Republike (tretirane kroz pojedine odjeljke izloenog rada) treba naelno smatrati
sastavnim dijelom i ovog rezimea odnosno datih preporuka.
309
REFERENCES
>1@ Pavievi, B.S. / Aseizmiko projektovanje i upravljanje zemljotresnim rizikom (
Aseismic Design and Earthquake Risk Management, Univerzitet Crne Gore, Podgorica,
Obod, 2001, Cetinje.
>2@ Pavievi, B.S. / Seizmiki hazard i kontrola seizmikog rizika. Prostorni plan SR Crne
Gore, Osnove Plana (UNDP/UNCHS Project YUG/79/104), RZUP-Titograd, UNCHS-
Nairobi, UNDRO-eneva, 1983, Titograd.
>3@ Petrovski, J. / B.S. Pavievi / Methodology on Vulnerability and Seismic Risk Analysis
Applied in the Studies of the Coastal Region of SR Montenegro, Yugoslavia. Yugoslav
National Report, WG B and C, UNDP/UNESCO Project, RER/79/014 (Earthquake Risk
Reduction in the Balkan Region), IZIIS/Skopje-RZUP/Titograd, 1982, Titograd.
>4@ Pavievi, B.S., editor: Seismic Risk Reduction in Mediterranean. Priority Action Land
Use Planning in earthquakes Zones, MAP Technical report No.17(245p.), UNEP/MAP,
Athens and PAP/RAC, 1988, Split.
>5@Strategy from Yokohama and Plan of actions for Safer World, Final Document, UN-
World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, 1994,Yokohama/Japan
>6@ Hays, W., B. and J. Mohammadioun: Seismic Zonation, Monograph. The IDNDR
Activity in conjunction with XIth ECEE, Paris, Ouest Editions, 1998, Paris.
>8@ UNEP/UNESCO Project RER/88/004 (Permanent Coordination Comitee for
Earthquake Risk Reduction in the Balkan Region, PCC): Report on the seventh Session of
PCC. IZIIS, Skopje, 1992, Skopje.
>9@ Meguro, K./ Yoshimura, M./ Integrated information system for total Disaster
Management, Institute of Industrial science, University of Tokio, Bulletin of ERS Centre
No.37, 2004.
>10@Oliveira C.S. / A.Roca / X.Goula / Assesing and managing eartquake risk. Springer,
2006.
>11@ Hyogo Declaration & Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015, UN World
Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction (WCDR, Kobe 2005, Hyogo, Japan.
>12@ Aman J.W. / Integrated Disaster Risk Managament and Disaster Resilience Capacity
Building, Global Risk Forum GRF Davos, IDRC Changdou 2009, July 2009, Changdou,
China.
311
Violeta Mirevska
1
Vladimir Bikovski
2
BEM REENJE HIDRODINAMIKOG PRITISKA
Rezime:
Fenomen interakcije fluid-konstrukcija za prvi par tretiran od Westergaard-a, koji
je dao fiziko objanjene fenomena i teoretsko reenje koje bazira na odreene
aproksimacije i pretpostavke ime se fenomen uproava i onda se moe analitiki
reiti. Postoji sofisticiraniji nain reavanja ovog problema korienjem metode
graninih elemenata. Metod se koristi da bi definirao intenzitet i distribuciju HDP
u zavisnosti od manifestovanja akceleracija na licu brane i oblik kanjona. Koristei
teoretske principe BEM BEL3-ver.1 softwer razvijen u IZIISU-u, a rezultati su
usporeeni sa reenjem Westergaard-a.
Kljucne reci: Hidrodinamicki pritisak, metod granicnih elemenata, lucna brana
USE OF BEM IN SOLVING FLUID STRUCTURE INTERACTION
Summary:
This phenomenon of fluid-structure interaction has been treated for the first time
by Westergaard. He gave a physical and mathematical explanation to this
phenomenon, based on certain assumptions by which the phenomenon is
simplified in order to be solved analytically. There is a more sophisticated
approach to solving this phenomenon by using the boundary element method. This
method is used to define the intensities and the distribution of the hydrodynamic
pressures depending on the exhibit accelerations at each moment of the dynamic
response of the dam fluid system as well as the geometrical shape of the canyon.
Using the theoretical principles of the boundary element method, the BEL3-ver.1
computer program has been developed in IZZIIS, and the solution has been
compared to the classic Westergaards one.
Keywords : boundary element method, hydrodynamic pressure, arch dam
________________________________
1
.Assoc. Prof. Dr., (IZIIS),Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
2
. Prof.Emeritus, (IZIIS), Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
312
1. INTRODUCTION
When the dam-water fluid is exposed to strong dynamic excitation, there is
interaction between both media. The inertial forces that occur when the wavy fluid stroke
the dam are known as hydrodynamic forces. The intensity of the hydrodynamic forces and
pressures depends on the geometrical shape of the dam and the canyon as well as the
deformability characteristics of the dam. This phenomenon has been treated for the first
time by Westergaard. He gave a physical and mathematical explanation to the phenomenon,
based on certain assumptions simplifying the phenomenon, in order to be solved
analytically. Later, it has been treated by other authors as Zangar, Napetvaritze and Clough.
They have applied the principle of added masses for solving HDP that was originally
proposed by Westergaard. Their solutions are based on the assumptions that the water fluid
is ideally incompressible and that the motion of the fluid in the reservoir is a stationary
process. Since the inertness of the water mass is considerably higher in respect to the
ground motion, the velocity of the water particles is characterized by relatively small
amplitudes wherefore this motion is treated as a stationary wavy motion. However, unlike
the fluid motion, the motion of the dam body is considerably more expressed and with
higher values of total accelerations and relative velocities. However the real structures are
deformable and the dam is not ideally rigid body as it is treated by Westergaard. The
manifested total accelerations at certain zones of the dam are characterized by a variable
value and are defined as a sum of the relative accelerations and the ground motion
accelerations. There is a more sophisticated approach in solving this phenomenon by use of
BEM. The advantage of using BEM is the possibility to take under consideration the
geometrical shape of the dam and the canyon as well as the deformability characteristics of
the dam since it essentially affect the intensity of the HDP. Using the theoretical principles
of the boundary element method, the BEL3-ver.1 computer program has been developed in
IZZIIS, and the solution has been compared to the classic Westergaards one.
2. MODEL OF BOUNDARY ELEMENTS
The main equation by which the stationary type of motion of the incompressible
fluid is solved is the Laplaces differential equation of the second order amended by the
functions of the boundary conditions.
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
W
y
W
x
W
) , , ( z y x O = O
(1)
2
) , , , ( ) , , (
I e
c
c
=
c
c
n
t z y x W
n
z y x W
1
) , , , ( I e = t z y x W W
(2)
The Laplaces differential equation can be solved by the application of the method of final
difference method, finite elements method and boundary elements method. In this work, the
solution of boundary element method is presented.
The Laplace's differential equation for the stationary motion of an ideally incompressible
fluid (1) is expressed through function
) , , , ( t z y x W W =
and represents distribution of
313
hydrodynamic pressure in the O domain. The solution of equation (1) is not possible
without definition of the functions of the boundary conditions. There are two different types
of boundary conditions as follows:
- Boundary conditions of the essential type, when the values of the hydrodynamic
pressure function ) , , , ( t z y x W W = are defined in part of contour I
1
of the O
domain, Fig. (1).
Boundary conditions of the natural type, when the values of the derivation of the
hydrodynamic pressure
- function are defined in part of contour I
2
in the O domain, Fig. (1). The derivation
is in the direction of the normal to the surface is as follows:
n
t z y x W
n
z y x W
c
c
=
c
c ) , , , ( ) , , (
(3)
Figure 1: Boundary conditions at the BE model
The Laplaces differential equation contains derivations of the hydrodynamic
pressure of the second order. To apply the BE method, it is necessary to transform the
derivations of the second order into derivations of the first order for decreasing the order of
the Laplaces differential equation. Applying the method of weight residuals upon the
Laplaces differential equation and the corresponding functions of the boundary conditions,
and applying several mathematical transformations, equation 4, which is suitable for
application of the boundary element method, is obtained.
2
2
1
1
) ( ) (
2
1
I
c
c
c
c
)
+ I
c
c
c
c
)
=
I I
d
n
p
W p
n
W
d
n
p
W p
n
W
W
m
(4)
Expression (4) represents a typical equation referring to one discrete point M located on
contours I
1
or I
2
. The digital form of equation (4) is obtained when the boundary areas of
the type of I
1
and I
2
are represented as an assemble of small boundary areas, which
represent, for us boundary elements.:
dBE
n
p
W p
n
W
dBE
n
p
W p
n
W
W
NEL
i
NEL
e
m
) ( ) (
2
1
2 1 1 1
c
c
c
c
)
_ +
c
c
c
c
)
_ =
I = I =
(5)
314
3. Analysis results
Comparison is made between both, BEM and Westergaared solutions. The
comparison serves to some extend for verification of the solution obtained by the
application of the BEL3D-ver1 program. The computation is achieved by application of the
first 1000 terms of the infinite row of sine and cosine functions that constitute the
Westergaards solution, using the simple program Westgard-IZIIS. Westergaards solution
treats a rigid and ideally straight dam and assumes that the dam-fluid system manifests a
stationary wavy motion of low speed, whereat the intensities of hydrodynamic pressure are
given in function of the period of the harmonic motion of the fluid, fig(2). For this case, the
applied acceleration is 1g. In order to compare Westergaards solution with the
corresponding solution obtained by application of BEM fig (3), it is necessary, the BE
model to be as much as it is possible close to the assumptions on which the Westergaards
solution is based. For that reason applied is unit acceleration at all points of the dam, and
the dam is treated as a rigid one. Furthermore, assumed are the following dimensions of the
BE model, H=100m B = 100 m and L = 1000 m. The length of 1000m is sufficient to
approach the assumption of infinitely long reservoir. However the width of 100m is not
correct to simulate the 2D effect of the Westergaard solution. So we could discuss on this
issue, below. As the period of the sinusoidal excitation is smaller, the length (
VsT l =
) of
the generated stationary wave of motion is shorter which result in higher mobility of the
wave motion and bigger HD pressures on the dam face. According Westergaard solution
there is a critical case when for the certain value of the dam height and the period of the
sinusoidal excitation the effect of resonance in the water occur which results in extremely
high pressures. In this case, for H=100m, the effect of resonance occur at T=0.269 sec.
However, as the period of the sinusoidal excitation is bigger, the length of the generated
stationary wave of motion is higher which result in inert wave motion and smaller HD
pressures on the dam face. The BEM solution, treating the 3D effect and under assumption
of rigid dam body, is closer to the Westergaard solution in case of inert wave motion. If the
value of the model width gets small than 100m the solution would be much closer to the
Westergaard.
Figure 2: Westergaards solution of HDP, H=100m and acc=1g in function of the vibration
period (T) of the system dam-fluid - obtained by using the Westergaard-software-IZIIS
315
Figure 3: Hydrodynamic pressure [kN/m2]in a dam H=100m B=1000m L=1000m
and acc=1g obtained by using the BEL3D ver 1 software
Presented below is a discrete model of boundary elements and the intensities of
developed hydrodynamic pressures calculated by applied unit acceleration at all point on
the upstream face of the dam treating it as a rigid and using the BEL3D program, fig (6).
The generation of the boundary elements of the extrados of the arch dam, both banks, the
reservoir bottom, the water mirror and the end of the reservoir is automatic, is by direct
extraction of the coordinates of the boundary elements from the general FE model, fig (4),
which is generated for computation of the stress-strain state of the arch dam using the
ARCHver2IZIIS program. On figure (5) presented is BE mesh at the dam extrados face
and both banks while on figure (6) presented is BE mesh at the reservoir bottom and the at
the water mirror. The BE model is used
316
Figure 5: BEM model for solving dam-fluid interaction by use of software BEL3D IZIIS
boundary elements at the dam extrados face and both banks
Figure 6: BEM model for solving dam-fluid Figure 7: Hydrodynamic pressure[kN/m2]
interaction by use of software BEL3D IZIIS upon the arch dam. Hw=70m acc=1g
boundary elements at the reservoir bottom (effect of the dam shape upon
and water mirror pressure intensity)
4. Conclusion
The comparison of both solutions serves for verification of the solution obtained by the
BEL3D software. Given is explanation for the difference in the results obtained by use of
both methods.
References
[1] Water Pressure on Dams During Earthquakes,Westergaard H. M ,Trans. Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng., 98, 418-33,
[2] Study on Boundary Element Method and Hydrodynamic Pressures , Mircevska,
V., Bickovski, V., Software BEL3D ver. 1, IZIIS, Skopje, 2007
317
Zoran Rakievi
1
, Aleksandra Bogdanovi
2
, Dimitar Jurukovski
3
ASEIZMIKO PROJEKTOVANJE ELINIH RAMOVSKIH
KONSTRUKCIJA SA DODATNIM PRIGUENJEM
Rezime:
Koliko treba da bude ukupni kapacitet prigusuvanja viskoznih prigusivaca, da bi se
zadovoljio EK8. Da se odgovori na ovo pitanje i da se demonstrira koncept
projektiranja konstrukcije sa dodanim prigusivanjem, hipoteticka pet spratna celicna
knstrukcija projektovana je prema propisima EK3 i EK8 za zabrzanja od 0.2g.
Napravljena je serija analiza pri cemu je menjana velicina prigusivanja od 10-30% i
ulazno zabrzanje do 0.6g. Bice demonstrirano da sa dodanim prigusivacima po
spratovima mogu da budu isprojektovane bolje i sigurnije upravljane konstrukcije od
sezmickih dejstava.
Kljucne rei: Celicne konstrukcije, kontrolirane konstrukcije, dodato prigusivanje.
ASEISMIC DESIGN OF STEEL FRAME STRUCTURES WITH ADDED
DAMPING
Summary:
What should be the total damping capacity of these devices in order to meet the EC8
design requirements? To give an answer to this question and demonstrate this concept
of structural design with added damping a hypothetical five storey three bay steel
frame structure is designed for ground acceleration of 0.2g and 0.4g based on EC 3 and
EC 8 regulations. A series of analysis have been performed varying the viscous
damping of the dampers from 10-30%, as well as increasing the peak ground motion
up to 0.6 g. It will be demonstrated that by adding of devices at the floor levels more
advanced and safer structure could be designed and the response of the structure could
significantly be improved.
Keywords : steel structures, controlled structures, added damping
1
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology (IZIIS),
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, Zoran Rakicevic
2
Research Assistant, Phd student, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology (IZIIS),
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, Aleksandra Bogdanovic
3
Prof. Emeritus Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology (IZIIS)
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, Dimitar Jurukovski
318
1. INTRODUCTION
The behaviour of structural systems when responding to dynamic loads is mainly
associated with their ability to dissipate the kinetic and the potential energy through
hysteretic and viscous mechanisms of the structures. Vibration of structures and associate
forces could be reduced and controlled through damping of the structure. The damping
compensates for structural nonlinearity through which the external energy should be
dissipated (absorbed). Also, the effect of damping can be has influence on the vulnerability
of the structure, particularly that of the non-structural elements, which means that the
overall cost for retrofitting is also decreased.
In general, the damping in steel structures consists of inherent-viscous damping,
which is usually low (1%-5% of critical), hysteretic damping through nonlinear behaviour
of structural elements and damping as a result of added different energy dissipation
systems.
According to Eurocode 8 (EC8) requirements, earthquake resistant steel buildings
shall be designed in accordance of two concepts: a) low-dissipative structural behaviour
and b) dissipative structural behaviour. In concept a), the action effects may be calculated
based on an elastic global analysis without taking into account a significant non-linear
material behaviour and this concept is recommended for designing of steel structures in low
seismicity regions. In concept b) the capability of parts of the structure, so called
dissipative zones, to resist earthquake actions through inelastic behaviour is taken into
account. Structures designed in accordance with this concept belongs to structural ductility
classes medium or high, which correspond to increased ability of the structure to dissipate
energy in plastic mechanisms of the main structural elements.
Contrary to this approach, for proper seismic design, the amount of hysteretic
energy dissipated by the structure has to be minimized, which means that additional
damping has to be introduced in the structure.
Possibility of introduction of additional energy dissipating mechanisms into the
structure, either passive or semi-active, which should be designed to consume a portion of
the input energy, reduces the damage to the main structure caused by hysteretic dissipation.
What should be the total damping capacity of these devices and their contribution in the
overall effective damping of the structure in order to meet the EC8 design requirements,
such as total top displacement, inter-story drifts, stress level in the main columns, beams,
diagonal elements etc. represents a crucial question.
In this paper is presented a set of data by which it will be demonstrated that by
adding of devices at the floor levels more advanced and safer structure could be designed
and the response of the structure exposed to time dependent loads could significantly be
improved. Comparative analysis of moment resisting frame and the same frame with added
dampers, exposed to time dependent loads in linear and non-linear range is conducted. As
much as the added damping is increased the structural response is improved resulting in a
decrease of storey drifts and hysteretic damping demand towards its vanishing and linear
structural response. Through an amount of added damping, it is possible to control the
nonlinearity and storey drifts to a required level defined in the Eurocode 8.
319
2. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF HYPOTHETICAL STRUCTURE
Two hypothetical 5 stories steel frame structures, with three bays, have been
designed as Moment Resisting Frame (MRF) according to EC8 and EC3 requirements for
ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states, taking into account design response
spectrum calculated for soil type B, PGA=0.20g, and PGA=0.40g damping of 2% and for
two different q-factors, q=2 and q=4. So, total three steel frame structures have been
designed. For all structures the bay length is 6.0 m and storey height is 3.0 m. The
SAP2000 computer program has been used for modelling and optimizing of the structural
sections during the design phase and preliminary linear response history analysis only. The
masses representing the weight at each floor level, including the weight of the beams and
the columns and a portion of live load (24%), are concentrated at the beam-column joints.
The total storey mass is 62.10 t. Beams and columns are modelled as frame elements with
specified end length offsets and rigid-end factors, typically taken as 0.7. For such a model,
at the final design phase it was found that the period of the first mode of vibration for the 5
storey structures designed for PGA=0.2g are T
1
=1.00 s and T
1
=1.38 s, designed for q=2 and
q=4 respectively. For the 5 storey structure designed for PGA=0.4g and q=4 the first period
of vibration T
1
=1.011 s
Modelling and analysis of the designed steel frame structures for the purpose of
non-linear response history analysis was done using computer program NONLIN-Pro, Ref
[4], in which the analysis engine is the DRAIN-2DX computer program. Both steel frame
structures are designed as 2D structures, using several types of elements that are available
in DRAIN-2DX program. Namely Beam and columns are modelled as plastic hinge beam-
column elements Type 02, taking into account the axial-flexural interaction for columns.
The columns were modelled using the built-in yielding functionality of the DRAIN-2DX
program, wherein the yield moment is a function of the axial force in the column. All
beams are modelled to respond linearly, since for beams with flexural yielding that is
independent of axial force, it better to explicitly model the hinges using simple connection
element Type 04 as explained ad in the following context. The plastic hinges, located 30 cm
away from the column face, in all beams are modelled using zero length rotational
connection elements (springs), which means that 100% of the inelastic rotation is assumed
to occur in the rotational plastic hinges. It has to be pointed out that DRAIN-2DX does not
have the capability to model loss of strength after first yielding, so it is assumed bilinear,
inelastic moment-rotation behaviour for the spring having 3% post yielding stiffness ratio.
Since a very significant portion of the total story drift of a moment-resisting frame may be
due to deformations that occur in the panel zone region of the beam-column joint, the panel
zones are modelled using an approach developed by Krawinkler, Ref [4]. In DRAIN-2DX it
consists of a frame of Type 02 beam-column elements connected at the four corners by
compound nodes. The upper left compound node utilizes a rotational Type 4 spring to
represent the panel zone web stiffness and strength. The upper right compound node
utilizes a Type 04 rotational spring to represent column flange contributions. The other two
compound nodes are simple flexural hinges. So, each panel zone was modelled using 12
elements and 12 nodes, and has 28 degrees of freedom. Also, in each panel zone 20 mm
thick doubler plate has been taken into account. Both rotational springs were modelled
assuming bilinear, inelastic moment-rotation behaviour for the spring having 3% and 1%
post yielding stiffness ratio for flange component and for panel component, respectively.
320
Figure 1: Mathematical models for non-linear response history analysis
The mathematical model with viscous dampers (VISC) is presented in Figure 1.
The main structural elements beams, column and panel zones are the same as for MRF
model. The viscous dampers are located in the middle bay along the height of the model
and are modelled using two inelastic truss bar elements Type 01 in parallel. Both springs
are modelled to respond linearly having very low stiffness, k = 0.01 kN/cm, with that
difference that one has very high beta value (element stiffness proportional damping
factor), and the other has beta value zero. The product of the stiffness and the beta value is
equal to the desired damping coefficient, C. The use of a very low stiffness is consistent
with the behaviour of a viscous fluid damper which has a near zero storage stiffness (if
excited below its cut off frequency).
The diagonal viscous dampers have linear force versus velocity relationship, so the
damper force is expressed as:
dj j dj
F C u = (1)
where C
j
is the damping coefficient for the damper at level j, while
dj
u is the relative
velocity between the damper joints along its axis. The added viscous damping, for each
separate vibration mode can be calculated according to: Ref [5]
( )
2 2
1 2
cos
,
4
j j rj
j
m
vm rj jm j m
i im
i
C
T
m
u |
| | | |
t |
| |
= =
|
\ .
_
_
(2)
where, T
m
undamped natural frequency of the m-th mode, cosu is the damper inclination
angle, |
im
are the ordinates of the m-th undamped mode, |
rj
is the modal drift and m
i
is the
321
storey mass. For the analysis the C
j
coefficient is the same for all dampers along the height
of the structures and it is derived from Eq. (2) in order to introduce a predetermined
additional damping in the first fundamental mode (10, 20 and 30% of the critical for each
analysed case respectively.
Table 1: Earthquake records used in analysis
Earthquake Registration PGA (g) Name
Taiwan 1999 Chi-Chi CHY028 NS 0.82 CHI
Imperial Valley 1940, California El Centro Copmp180 0.35 ELC
Erzincan 1992 Turkey Mudurlugu N279 0.51 ERZ
Loma Prieta 1989 Santa Cruz Mountains CSMIP 4725 Comp 0 0.37 LOP
Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu , Kobe Japan 1995 Kobe University N-S 0.28 KOB
Montenegro 1979 Petrovac-Oliva NS 0.45 PET
Montenegro 1979 Ulcinj-Albatros EW 0.22 UAL
Montenegro 1979 Ulcinj-Olimpic NS 0.29 UOL
San Fernando 1979 OWNER 0241 Comp 360 0.25 SAN
Northridge 1994 Sylmar LADWP 306 Comp S38E 0.75 SYL
Modelling of inherent damping of 2% of critical in the first fundamental mode was
done through mass proportional damping only, for both MRF and VISC models. The values
of stiffness proportional damping factor for all elements in both models, excluding the
viscous damping elements, are taken to be zero.
Ten different time history records of real earthquakes, given in Table 1, taking the
first 40 s of shaking duration have been used in the analysis. The earthquakes have been
chosen based on their frequency content and elastic response spectra, as well as taking into
account dynamic properties of the four designed MRF structures.
Non-linear response history analysis has been conducted on three structures two 5
storey, MODEL05_q2 and MODEL05_q4, and one 5 storey, MODEL05A_q4, where q2
or q4 means which q-factor have been used in the design process. Further the response
history analysis was done for constant time step dt = 0.001, for scaled earthquake time
histories to PGA=0.2g, 0.4g and 0.6g, and all model have been analysed as MRF(0% of
added viscous damping), while the first two models, MODEL05_q2 and MODEL05_q4
have been analysed for 3 values of added viscous damping, 10%, 20%, 30% of critical
(VISC). Since for all 3 structures the first natural mode of vibration is dominant and has
approx 80% participation in the structural response the damping coefficients for the viscous
dampers are obtained from the condition to introduce additional damping 10, 20, and 30%
of critical damping in the first mode of vibration. This means that for one structure total
number of analyse are 120, and the total conducted analyses for all structures is 360.
3. ANALYSIS RESULTS
Having in mind above, analysis results will be presented and discussed for
maximum storey drifts, base shear forces, top displacements and top accelerations and for 5
selected earthquakes (CHI, ELC, ERZ, PET and SAN) from Table 1.
322
In general, for all selected five earthquakes scaled to 0.2g the storey drifts for the 5
storey structures (MODEL05_q2 and MODEL05_q4) are within the storey drift limit for
elastic analysis defined in EC8 (0.01h = 3.0 cm), for MRF and VISC models. The
exception from this is the case for MODEL05_q4 exposed to SAN earthquake scaled to
0.2g for MRF and VISC model with 10% of added viscous damping only. For
MODEL05_q2, in the case for MRF, for all 5 earthquakes scaled to 0.4g all storey drifts are
larger up to 1.5 times than EC8 limit. The inertial base shear force is within the range of
24% - 35%, the top acceleration is between 0.83g to 1.03g, while the top displacement is in
the range 15.50 cm 17.21 cm.
In Figure 2 are presented the envelopes of maximum storey drifts, along the
height, as line graphs, as well as the extreme values of inertia base shear force, top
displacement and top acceleration in tabular form, for MODEL05_q2 exposed to PET
earthquake scaled to 0.2g and 0.4g for MRF case (0 added damping) and VISC case (10,
20, 30 % added damping).
Figure 2: Maximum storey drifts, base shear force, top displacement and top acceleration
for MODEL05_q2, Petrovac earthquake scaled to PGA=0.2g and 0.4g
displacement and top acceleration in tabular form, for MODEL05_q4 exposed to ELC
earthquake scaled to 0.2g and 0.4g for MRF case (0 added damping) and VISC case (10,
20, 30 % added damping).
For the same model, in the case for VISC, all storey drifts are smaller than EC8
limit, and for added 20% of damping the storey drifts are between 1.5 cm and 2.5 cm. For
the same added damping the inertial base shear force is within the range of 18% - 27%, the
top acceleration is between 0.62g to 0.79g, while the top displacement is in the range 8.32
cm 10.74 cm.
For MODEL05_q4, in the case for MRF, for all 5 earthquakes scaled to 0.4g all
storey drifts are larger up to 2.4 times than EC8 limit. The inertial base shear force is within
323
the range of 20% - 24%, the top acceleration is between 0.73g to 0.94g, while the top
displacement is in the range 13.83 cm 21.12 cm. In the case for VISC and for added 20%
of damping, the storey drifts are smaller than EC8 limit for CHI, ELC and PET earthquake.
For ERZ and SAN earthquake the drifts from first to third storey are above the EC8 limit,
up to 1.5 times at second storey. The inertial base shear force is within the range of 17% -
24%, the top acceleration is between 0.64g to 0.81g, while the top displacement is in the
range 8.98 cm 17.30 cm.
for MODEL05_q4, El Centro earthquake scaled to PGA=0.2g and 0.4g
Figure 4: Maximum storey drift at 4-th storey, for MODEL05_q2 and MODEL05_q4, for 5
selected earthquakes scaled to PGA=0.2g, 0.4g and 0.6g and for added damping of 20%
In Figure 4 are presented the envelopes of maximum storey drifts, for the 4-th
storey, for all 5 selected earthquakes scaled to 0.2g, 0.4g and 0.6g, for the MODEL05_q2
and MODEL05_q4 with added 20% of viscous damping. It can be seen that only for CHI
and SAN earthquakes scaled to 0.6g the 4-th storey drift is slightly above the EC8 limit.
324
D
R
I
F
T

(
c
m
)
CHI ELC ERZ PET SAN CHI ELC ERZ PET SAN
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
q=2
0.2g
0.4g
0.6g
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
q=4
0.2g
0.4g
0.6g
4.50
Figure 5: Maximum storey drift at 2-th storey, for MODEL05_q2 and MODEL05_q4, for 5
selected earthquakes scaled to PGA=0.2g, 0.4g and 0.6g and for added damping of 20%
Figure 5 shows the envelopes of maximum storey drifts, for the 2-nd storey, for all
5 selected earthquakes scaled to 0.2g, 0.4g and 0.6g, for the MODEL05_q2 and
MODEL05_q4 with added 20% of viscous damping. As presented, for q=2, for CHI and
SAN earthquakes scaled to 0.6g the 2-nd storey drift is above the EC8 limit; while for q=4
for all five earthquakes scaled to 0.6g the obtained drift for the second storey is above the
EC8 limit.
DRIFT (cm)
S
T
O
R
E
Y
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
10
20
30
EC8
PGA = 0.2g
PGA = 0.4g
BSF (%)TD (cm) TA (g)
0 18.66 12.19 0.82
10 12.79 6.58 0.36
20 12.27 5.17 0.35
30 11.80 4.33 0.34
BSF (%) TD (cm) TA (g)
0 34.64 14.28 1.14
10 24.82 12.28 0.71
20 24.06 9.93 0.69
30 23.46 8.56 0.69
PGA = 0.2g
PGA = 0.4g
for MODEL05A_q4, Petrovac earthquake scaled to PGA=0.2g and 0.4g
Figure 6 compares the envelopes of maximum storey drifts, along the height, as
line graphs, as well as the extreme values of inertia base shear force, top displacement and
top acceleration in tabular form, for the studied steel frame structure designed for 0.4g
325
exposed to Petrovac earthquake scaled to 0.2g and 0.4g for MRF case (0 added damping)
and the structure designed for 0.2g VISC case (10, 20, 30 % added damping).
In general, for the model designed to 0.4g, for all selected five earthquakes scaled
to 0.2g the story drifts for the five story structure (MODEL05A_q4) are within the story
drift limit for elastic analysis defined in EC8, for MRF and VISC model. For the same
model in the case for MRF, for all 5 earthquakes scaled to 0.4g, all story drifts are larger up
to 1.7 times than EC8 limit. The inertial base shear force is within the range of 23%-37%,
the top acceleration is between 0.84g to 1.14g, while the top displacement is in the range
14.28cm 19.74cm.
In the case for VISC all storey drifts are smaller than EC8 limit, and for added
20% of damping the storey drifts are between 1.5 cm and 2.5 cm. For the same added
damping the inertial base shear force is within the range of 18% - 27%, the top acceleration
is between 0.62g to 0.79g, while the top displacement is in the range 8.32 cm 10.74 cm.
S
T
O
R
E
Y
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
1
2
3
4
5
PGA = 0.2g PGA = 0.4g
0
10
20
30
EC8
DRIFT (cm)
BSF (%) TD (cm) TA (g)
0 18.39 12.39 0.64
10 10.49 5.97 0.45
20 10.43 4.61 0.41
30 10.13 3.87 0.38
BSF (%) TD (cm)TA (g)
0 30.25 14.61 0.97
10 20.41 10.65 0.89
20 20.16 8.98 0.81
30 19.74 7.87 0.75
PGA = 0.4g
PGA = 0.2g
for MODELL05A_q4, El Centro earthquake scaled to PGA=0.2g and 0.4g
displacement and top acceleration in tabular form, for the studied steel frame structure
designed for 0.4g exposed to El Centro earthquake scaled to 0.2g and 0.4g for MRF case (0
added damping) and the structure designed for 0.2g VISC case (10, 20, 30 % added
damping).
It has to be pointed out that both structures with added viscous damping of 20%f
and 30% for all 5 presented earthquakes when scaled to 0.2g responded in linear range. For
the input level twice as much as designed one, 0.4g, both structures with added viscous
damping of 20% and 30% respond approaching the linear limit, slightly above it or with
minor damages. MRF structures, MODEL05_q2 and MODEL05_q4, for the input of 0.4g
collapsed or suffer heavy damages which are not economically repairable. For the
326
MODEL05A_q4 MRF structure, for the input of 0.4g the structure is not in the high
damage limit, which is not case for the 0.6g where the structure suffers from heavy
damages and collapsed. This point out that the added 20% of viscous or any other type of
damping, by introducing passive or semi-active devices, in existing or new structures,
compensates for the structural nonlinearity by which the external energy should be
dissipated (absorbed) and could withstand earthquake which is twice as much as designed
one. Also, the effect of added damping can be expressed through decreasing of
vulnerability of the structure, particularly that of the non-structural elements, which leads to
a decrease of the overall cost for retrofitting.
CONCLUSION
Possibility of introduction of additional energy dissipating mechanisms reduces
the damage of the structure caused by hysteretic dissipation. By analytical simulation it was
demonstrated that the optimal damping capacity of these devices in order to meet the EC8
design requirements, such as inter-storey drift is around 20%. It was demonstrated also, that
the structures with added dampers that can introduce at least 20% of damping can withstand
earthquakes with intensities twice as much as designed one, having no or minor damages. It
was also noticed that when the dampers has the same mechanical properties along the
height of the structure the storey drift decreases as the height increases. This means, by
proper optimization of damping devices more favourable reduction of storey drifts could be
achieved, which leads to lower cost solution for the damping devices. Also, the effect of
added damping can be expressed through the decrease of the vulnerability of the structure,
particularly that of the non-structural elements, which leads to a decrease of the overall cost
for retrofitting.
Unfortunately, although this technology has been proven, both analytically and
practically, to be very effective still it is not covered by the new European Codes for
earthquake resistant design. On the other hand, USA and Japan have advanced in this field
by making provisions, guidelines and recommendations.
327
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1998-1 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance Part 1: General
rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings, December 2004.
[2] EN 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules
for buildings, May 2005.
[3] NEHRP Recommended Provisions for seismic regulations for new buildings and other
structures, FEMA 450, Part1: Provisions and Part2: Commentary 2003 Edition.
[4] NEHRP Recommended Provisions: Instructional Materials, FEMA 451B June 2007.
[5] Development and Evaluation of Simplified Procedures for Analysis and Design of
Buildings with Passive Energy Dissipation Systems Ramirez, O.M., Constantinou, M.C.,
Kircher, C.A., Whittaker, A.S., Johnson, M.W., and Gomez, J.D., , Technical Report
MCEER-00-0010, SUNY, Buffalo, 2000.
[6] Passive Energy Dissipation Systems in Structural Engineering Soong, T.T., and
Dargush, G.F.,John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
[7] Supplemental Energy Dissipation: State-of-the-Art and State-of-the-Practice,
Engineering Structures 24,Soong, T.T., and Spencer, B.F. Jr, pp 243-259, 2002.
[8] From Ductility Demand to Flexibility and Damping Demand, Iemura, H., , Proc. Of 3
rd
WCSC, Vol. 1 pp 85-94, Como, Italy, 2002.
[9] Optimum Design of Passive Controlled Steel Frame Structures, Rakicevic, Z., and
Jurukovski D.IZIIS Report 2001-59, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, 2001.
[10] Effectiveness of Viscous Damping in Controlling Storey Displacement, Rakicevic, Z.,
and Jurukovski D., Proc. Of 3ECSC Vol. 2 S6-60 S6-63, Vienna, Austria 2004.
[11] Optimal Damping Capacity of Steel Frame Structures, Rakicevic, Z., Jurukovski D and
Zlateska A., Proc. Of 4ECSC St Petersburg, Russia, September 8-12 2008.
[12] Earthquake resistant design needs structural control, Rakicevic, Z., Jurukovski D and
Zlateska A., 14WCEE, Beijing, China, October 12-17 2008.
329
Viktor Hristovski
14
, Marta Stojmanovska
25
, and Mihail Garevski
3
1 :
(XLAM)
:

(XLam)
.
. 2

, ,
2005
: , , ,
PART 1: PROPOSED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR
CONNECTIONS OF XLAM PANELS
Summary
In this paper, new computational constitutive relationships for a semi-rigid type
joint applied in cross-laminated (XLam) panels have been developed and
implemented into a computer program. Friction has also been taken into account
as an important modeling parameter. In Part II a comparative numerical study has
been performed using quasi-static test results from experiments on panels
performed in the Laboratory of the Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering in
Ljubljana, Slovenia 2005.
Keywords: constitutive relationships, friction, semi-rigid joints
1
PhD, Professor, University Ss.Cyril and Methodious, IZIIS Skopje, Macedonia
2
MSc, Research Assistant, University Ss.Cyril and Methodious, IZIIS Skopje, Macedonia
3
330
1 INTRODUCTION
XLam structures (made of cross-laminated wooden panels) are becoming widely
accepted constructive systems in Europe due to their obvious advantages (see Ceccoti et al.
2006) making them one of the best choices among timber-based systems, particularly, when
speaking of their application in seismic prone areas. However, research on the behavior of
these systems under seismic loadings for the sake of establishing practical design rules,
which will improve the existing Euro-codes (5 and 8), is still needed. On the other hand, the
computational constitutive modeling of new materials and connections has always been a
challenging task. In this paper, an attempt to propose constitutive relationships for
connections between panels and foundations has been made.
Generally, the behavior of timber buildings consisting of massive wooden wall
panels during earthquakes is influenced by a number of factors. Usually, if the panel is
treated as a rigid one compared to the connections, the following types of the panel's
response behavior can be expected: 1. Pure rocking behavior; 2. Mixed rocking and shear
behavior and 3. Pure shear behavior (see Dujic et al. 2005). Which of these types of
behavior will occur, depends on several factors. First, the axial load level is one of the most
important factors influencing the racking strength of the panel elements and also
determining their response behavior mode. The geometry and the ratio between the height
and the width of the panel element can also be crucial. If the panel width is much greater
than the panel height, the panel will behave closer to the shear mode. The existence of
openings can reduce the panel stiffness, contributing to a kind of a bending mode of
behavior, different than the previously mentioned modes. In reality, for lower XLam
buildings (which is the usual case) it can be assumed that the dominant mode of behavior of
the panels will be pure rocking or mixed (rocking and shear) behavior, since the self-weight
will not constrain the rocking degree of freedom.
Usually, in practice the panels are designed to be much stiffer and stronger than
the connections in order that the seismic energy be dissipated through the link devices,
rather than through the panel that could lead to brittle failure mode. For this reason, the
XLam panel is treated to behave as a linear-elastic orthotropic material that is usually a
very realistic assumption. Regarding the connections, semi-rigid types of anchors have been
investigated (see Dujic et al.2006) and inelastic constitutive relationships for separation and
sliding have been proposed. These types of anchors are usually installed at a few specified
places along the contact surface (in our examples, 4 for each panel element) and the
remaining area of the contact zone between the wood and the concrete contributes to the
panel racking strength by friction force. Observing the contact zone, it can be concluded
that the greater vertical load is applied, the greater friction force is obtained. However, the
friction force can exist only in cases where the contact between the panel and the
foundation is fully established, i.e. where there is compression state of stresses. For the case
of separation, the friction forces are equal to zero. In this study, the friction has been treated
using the foregoing mentioned assumptions, formulating it to behave in elastic-plastic
manner with variable limit of the full friction force depending on the actual normal force
during the seismic response and predefined friction coefficient.
The proposed constitutive relationships have been implemented into the
FELISA/3M software package (Hristovski and Noguchi 2002). In Part II their verification,
using the tests performed in Laboratory of the Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering in
Ljubljana, Slovenia 2005 (Dujic et al. 2005, Dujic et al. 2006) on massive cross-laminated
wooden panels with a semi-rigid type of anchorage system, have been made.
331
2 PROPOSED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR TIMBER,
ANCHORS, CONTACT AND FRICTION BETWEEN PANELS
AND FOUNDATIONS
2.1 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR THE TIMBER
MATERIAL
The behavior of the timber is assumed to be orthotropic linear-elastic, in spite of
the fact that for shear forces near the ultimate racking capacity, the panel could crack in the
vicinity of the connections. However, we can justify the linear-elastic assumption by
considering these failure modes as local ones, treating the local cracked zones as parts of
connection devices. On the other hand, having in mind the seismic design strategies based
on strong panels and weak connections, the post-cracking timber behavior is not of
practical interest at the moment but probably it could be of some academic interest in the
future.
In this study, the following four independent constants (properties) have been
adopted for the wooden panel material in the orthotropic plane-stress situation, according to
the experimentally obtained ones (Dujic et al. 2005). The orientation of the material axes is
given in Fig. 1, direction 1 is parallel to the x axis, and direction 2 is parallel to the y axis.
Fig. 1. Orientation of the material axes
From the elasticity theory, the basic constitutive relations are:
D =
(2)
where D is the elastic constitutive matrix. For orthotropic case, it can be found (with
E
1
/E
2
=n and G
2
/E
2
=m) that:
( )(
(
(
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 0 0
0 1
0
1
v
v
v
v
n m
n
n n
n
E
D

(3)
2
2
/ 900 cm kN E E
y
= =
2
1
/ 445 cm kN E E
x
= =
neglected E
z
=
2
2
/ 50 cm kN G =
25 . 0
2
= v (1)
332
where
=
xy
y
x
t
o
o
are in-plane stresses, and
=
z
xy
y
x
c
c
c
are strains.
2.2 PROPOSED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR THE
ANCHORS
The real behavior of anchors under pulling-out and slippage was investigated and
described by the basic tests performed in Ljubljana 2005 (Dujic et al. 2005). The
experimental setup configuration (Fig. 2) consisted of small panels with semi-rigid anchors
fixed to the panel by 4 mm nails with a length of 40 mm and to the foundation with two
bolts M12 (Fig. 3). The pullout (tension) tests were performed with boundary conditions to
simulate anchor's behavior in the case of pure panel rotation, while shear tests were carried
out to simulate anchor's behavior in the case of pure shear deformation.

Fig. 2. Basic tests on small Xlam panels with semi-rigid anchors a) Tension Test; b)
Shear Test
Fig. 3. The considered semi-rigid type of anchor fixed to a wooden panel by nails and to
concrete foundation by bolts
a)
b)
333
The behavior of the anchors is described by the specially proposed computational
constitutive relationships for both tangential and normal directions, as approximations of
the basic tests. In tangential direction, for shear force - slip modelling, a bi-linear envelope
with a descending branch has been proposed (Fig. 4) in both positive and negative
directions. Both directions are symmetrical. The accumulated slippage is the principal
physical parameter for the control of the cyclic rules proposed within the model. The idea is
that the connection in tangential direction cannot support any shear force unless the
absolute value of the actual slip is greater than the absolute value of the previous
accumulated slip, as experimentally observed (see the basic experimental diagram in Fig.
6). In normal direction, for tension, a kind of a hook-type of behavior is proposed for the
anchor, i.e., the real working diagram is approximated with a linear-elastic-plastic-softening
diagram according to the basic test on tension (see basic experiment diagram in Fig. 7),
however in compression it is assumed to be linear-elastic (Fig. 5). It is important to
emphasize that both the proposed constitutive models contain descending lines, which are
necessary to model the post-peak behavior of the system (for cases where timber cracking
does not occur and consequently does not have influence on the overall structural post-peak
behavior). The cyclic rules for tangential and normal direction are given in Fig. 4 and Fig.
5, respectively.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
11
s [m]
12
14
15
16
17
13
T

[
k
N
]
T
u
T
y
-T
y
-T
u
s
y
s
u s
0
-s
y -s
u
-s
0
y
y
u
u
Fig. 4. Proposed computational constitutive relation shear force - slip for considered anchors
1
2
3
4
5
6
u[m]
N

[
k
N
]
N
y
u
y
u
0
y
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

(
+
)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n

(
-
)
(separation)
(sinking)
Fig. 5. Proposed computational constitutive law axial force - separation of considered
anchors
334
The connection device itself has been modelled using a standard link element, with
zero length and consisting of two points, each having two degrees of freedom, translations
in horizontal and vertical direction (Fig. 8).
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Shear Slide [mm]
S
h
e
a
r

F
o
r
c
e

o
n

A
c
t
i
o
n

[
k
N
]
times
Fig. 6. Experimentally obtained constitutive behavior shear force slip (cyclic quasi-static
test) of semi-rigid types of anchors(nails 4.0/40mm)given in Fig.3
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Up-lift of the Panel [mm]
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

F
o
r
c
e

o
n

A
c
t
i
o
n

[
k
N
]
Fig.7. Experimentally obtained constitutive behavior tension force-separation (cyclic quasi-
static test) of semi-rigid types of anchors(nails 4.0/40mm)given in Fig.3
Fig. 8. Formulation of the link element for connections as well as for gap/friction
335
For the element stiffness matrix in a global coordinate system, the following can be written:
| |
(
(
(
(
=
3 2 3 2
2 1 2 1
3 2 3 2
2 1 2 1
s s s s
s s s s
s s s s
s s s s
K
e
where
u u
u u u u
u u
2 2
3
2
2 2
1
cos sin
sin cos cos sin
sin cos
s n
s n
s n
K K s
K K s
K K s
+ =
=
+ =
(5)
Parameter
n
K represents the tangent stiffness in axial direction;
s
K is tangent
stiffness in tangential direction. u represents the directional angle of the element related to
the global x-axis (see Fig. 8). The stiffness parameters
n
K and
s
K , together with the
stress-update (in terms of element forces T and S) which are the necessary input for the
Newton-Raphson iterative procedure for solution of nonlinear system equations, can be
obtained from the previously defined constitutive laws (as first derivations of the
constitutive law functions).
2.3 PROPOSED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR
CONTACT AND FRICTION
For the sake of computational simplicity, the first constitutive and numerical FEM
models implemented by the authors in analysis of XLam panels and structures took into
account the friction only as a constant parameter along the contact zones which did not
change during the system response (Dujic et al. 2006, Hristovski and Stojmanovska 2005).
For this purpose Dujic at al. (2006) used SAP2000 (2004) software package and Hristovski
and Stojmanovska (2005) used FELISA/3M program (Hristovski 2003). However, using
this approach, although the correlations with the experimental tests in relation with the
numerically obtained pushover force-displacement curves were satisfactory, the pullout
response and consequently the rocking response of the walls was underestimated, leading
toward a conclusion that a pure sliding failure mode mechanism occurred, which was not
true. One of the conclusions after this previous research was that the applied simplified
friction model overestimated the friction force at places with small axial force (or even
tension) and underestimated the friction force at places where intensive compression
occurred (particularly at the points of rotation). Hence, in this research, a new friction
model has been considered, taking into account the relation between the variable (actual)
axial force and the friction force using the Mohr-Coulomb friction model. In this way,
although the degrees of freedoms of pullout and sliding have been separated in the FEM
analysis (using the assumption of uncoupled equations), these two degrees of freedom have
practically been connected by the Mohr-Coulomb's model. In the numerical
implementation, a uni-axial elastic-perfectly plastic relation has been assumed (Fig. 9),
however with a variable yielding shear force T
y
, depending on the actual axial force N on
compression, as follows:
336
N f T
y
=
(6)
where f is a friction constant depending on the contact surfaces. Of course, for
cases when the axial force is in tension, T
y
will be equal to zero. For the sake of simplicity,
in Fig. 12, the constitutive law is presented for the case when T
y
is constant. However, T
y
changes, according to Eq. (6), and in that case, the constitutive law will be much more
complex. Also, although the perfect-plastic behavior is the real nature of friction, for
numerical reasons only, a narrow elastic part, having some real value of elastic stiffness has
been added herein.
In the already mentioned previous investigation, the friction constant was assumed
to be equal to f = 0.3 (Hristovski and Stojmanovska 2005) and f = 0.7 (Dujic et al. 2006) for
the concrete-wood contact. The best is if this coefficient can be determined experimentally.
However, since the considered experimental tests (Dujic et al. 2005, Dujic et al. 2006) have
not covered this parameter, in this research preliminary parametric analyses have been
performed in order to obtain the most realistic value for the friction coefficient f. These
analyses have showed that the best fitting with the experimental results has been achieved
with the friction coefficient of f = 0.1. Therefore, this value for the friction coefficient has
been adopted in this research.
Apart from friction, which acts tangentially on the contact zones, the separation
and sinking have also been modelled assuming "gap" behavior of the contact. It means that,
for the case of compression force acting on the contact, the stiffness becomes infinite (the
numerical model assumes some finite value) and the behavior is linear-elastic. However,
for the case of tension, the contact does not bear any force and consequently, separation
occurs (Fig. 10). This model for separation has been applied along the whole contact zone
together with the friction model using one link element for both degrees of freedom. The
two degrees of freedom (sinking or separation in the "gap" normal model and slippage in
the tangential, friction model) are connected via axial force acting on the contact, as
explained previously (see Eq. 6).
T (friction)
S(slippage)
T
y
T
y
Fig. 9 Constitutive relationship for friction (Friction force slippage) , assuming elastic-
perfect-plastic behavior
Using these models for contact and friction, more realistic simulation of the panel
behavior has been obtained. The more correct modelling of the friction has contributed
toward emphasizing the rocking response of the panel, behaving as a rigid body rotating
337
around one point (especially for the solid wall specimens, without openings), together with
some amount of sliding, which was observed by the experimental tests. The numerical FEM
models and the obtained results are presented in the third section.
Compression (sinking)
Tension (separation)
N
T (friction)
N
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n

T
e
n
s
i
o
n
Separation Sinking
Fig. 10 a) Constitutive relationship for contact zone in normal direction (axial
force separation , and axial force sinking), assuming "gap" behavior, b)
Contact zone
2.4 SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROPOSED
CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
The software implementation of the proposed constitutive models has been done using
the general computer program for structural analysis FELISA/3M developed by Hristovski
(2003). Newly coded subroutines written in Fortran 95 programming language for stress
update to follow the material constitutive laws for anchors and contact zones have been
incorporated into the program. These newly added subroutines have been designed to work
together with the link elements that already existed within the FELISA/3M finite element
library. The basic role of these subroutines is to calculate the stresses in each link element
for each incremental step of the nonlinear analysis, based on the calculated displacements at
the structural level. Also, the stiffness coefficient K
n
and K
s
(see Fig. 8), which are
necessary for assembling the new tangent stiffness matrix of the system for the next
iteration or step, are the output of these subroutines. Then, based on the calculated stresses,
the unbalanced forces are calculated. The nonlinear procedure is iterative and based on the
Newton-Raphson scheme, using the displacement control option, which is suitable for
pushover analyses in order to obtain the descending branch of the force-displacement
diagrams. This is consistent with the conducted cyclic quasi-static testing procedures on the
panels (Dujic et al. 2005), where the displacement control was also used. These
experimental tests have been used for verification of the proposed models. The results of
the analyses using the FELISA/3M software package are presented in the next chapter. For
the dynamic analyses, the force control procedure has been used, which was found to be
more suitable for this case. The results from the dynamic analyses of a realistic 2D three-
story wooden structure are presented in the fourth section.
a)
b)
338
CONCLUSIONS
New computational constitutive relations for a semi-rigid type of connections
applied in XLam panels have been developed and verified using the results from the
previously preformed experimental investigation in Laboratory of the Faculty of Civil and
Geodetic Engineering in Ljubljana, Slovenia 2005 (Dujic et al. 2005, Dujic et al. 2006).
Based on the obtained experimental results and using the FELISA/3M computer
package, finite element models have been developed. Special numerical constitutive
relations, describing the connections behaviour in normal and tangential direction, have
been used. Having the obtained hysteretic responses approximation numerical models were
defined taking into consideration the curve hardening as well as the softening. Additionally
in order to achieve a more realistic simulation of the panels behaviour, constitutive
relationships for contact and friction have been developed. Uni-axial elastic-perfectly
plastic friction model has been applied with friction coefficient between wooden panel and
concrete foundation equivalent to 0.1. For a contact zone in normal direction, a model for
separation has been employed together with the friction model using one link element for
both degrees of freedom. In this way, the rocking response of the panel has been pointed
out together with some amount of sliding, as observed during the experimental tests. In Part
II the proposed constitutive models will be incorporated into the FELISA/3M program and
pushover and dynamic analyses are going to be run.
Acknowledgements
This research has been carried out within the bilateral scientific cooperation
between Republic of Slovenia and Republic of Macedonia. The support of the Ministries of
Education and Science of both countries is gratefully acknowledged. Also, the authors
would like to express special thanks to Dujic, B. and Zarnic, R. for the possibility of using
their test results from the Ljubljana tests performed in 2005.
REFERENCES
[1] Seismic Behavior of Multi-Storey XLam Buildings, A.Ceccotti and M.Follesa Proc.
Of the International Workshop on Earthquake Engineering on Timber Structures, 2006,
Coimbra, Portugal, pp. 81-95.
[2] Investigation on In-Plane Loaded Wooden Elements Influence of Loading and
Boundary Conditions B.Dujic, S. Aicher, and R. Zarnic, Otto-Graf-Journal (Otto-Graf
Institute, MPA University, Stuttgart) 2005, 16: 259-272.
[3] Influence of Openings on Shear Capacity of Massive Cross-Laminated Wooden
Walls .B.Dujic, S. Klobcar, and R. Zarnic, Proc. of the International Workshop on
Earthquake Engineering on Timber Structures, 2006, Coimbra, Portugal, pp. 105-118.
[4] Comparative Study of FEM Based Reinforced Concrete Analytical Models and Their
Numerical Implementation: Software Package FELISA/3M V.Hristovski, and H.Noguchi,
Proc. of the 1
st
Fib Congress, Section 13: Failure mechanism and non-linear analysis for
practice, 2002, Osaka, Japan, pp. 403-410.
[5] Experimental and Analytical Evaluation of the Racking Strength of Massive Wooden
Wall Panels -Preliminary Project Phase V.Hristovski and M.Stojmanovska, Proc. of the
Earthquake Engineering in 21
st
century Conference (EE21C), 2005, Skopje-Ohrid,
Macedonia
339
Viktor Hristovski
16
, Marta Stojmanovska
27
, and Mihail Garevski
3
2 :
-

(XLam). 1
(XLam)
. , 2

,
, 2005.

.
: pushover , ,
PART 2: PROPOSED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR

CONNECTIONS OF XLAM PANELS-FE IMPLEMENTATION
Summary
This is the second of two companion papers on the constitutive relationships for
connections of wooden cross-laminated (XLam) wall panels. In Part 1 new
computational constitutive relationships for a semi-rigid type joint applied in
XLam panels have been developed and implemented into a computer program.
Here in Part II attention turns to an implementation and verification of the
proposed constitutive models using quasi-static test results from experiments on
panels performed at the ULFGG Ljubljana, Slovenia 2005. The obtained results
from the analyses have proved the applicability of the proposed constitutive and
FEM analytical models.
Keywords: pushover analysis, dynamic analysis, constitutive relationships
1
2
MSc, Research Assistant, University Ss.Cyril and Methodious, IZIIS Skopje, Macedonia
3
340
1 INTRODUCTION
Cross laminated wooden structures are becoming very popular product in Europe.
Wooden structures have always had a good reputation when subjected to seismic events,
mainly due to the woods high strength to weight ratio and its enhanced strength under
short term loading. The connections of wooden structures are normally more ductile than
the timber parts themselves which results in an overall ductile behaviour of wooden
buildings and their good seismic performance. However seismic response of wooden
structure is complex issue and still a lot of uncertainties exist and need to be clarified and
quantified. Having reliable research results will in no doubt lead to the improvement of the
design rules and standards for the seismic design of structure and will provide seismic safe
homes. In Part 1 efforts have been made towards development of to the modelling of the
constitutive relationships that describe the anchors behaviour in tangential and normal
direction and their programming and incorporation into the general program for structural
analysis FELISA/3M. As the main source of nonlinearity is actually the connection itself,
good correlation between the experimental and finite element results can be expected only
by their proper modelling. For their verification, tests performed in Laboratory of the
Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering in Ljubljana, Slovenia 2005 (Dujic et al. 2005,
Dujic et al. 2006) on massive cross-laminated wooden panels with a semi-rigid type of
anchorage system, have been used. The tests have been performed using a special
equipment to simulate realistic boundary conditions on the tested panel, which could appear
during a real earthquake. From the performed analyses, it can be concluded that the
numerical results are closer to the experimental results with applied A type of boundary
condition (intended to simulate pure bending behavior mode) compared to other types (B
and C, intended to simulate rocking and combined shear-rocking behaviour accordingly),
that was normally to be expected. More details about the types of applied boundary
conditions (A, B and C) can be found in Dujic et al. (2005).
2 FE MODELLING OF TESTED SPECIMENS: PUSHOVER
ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION
As examples for verification of the proposed constitutive relationship described in
Part 1, two sets of experimental tests performed in Ljubljana, 2005 (Dujic et al. 2005, Dujic
et al. 2006) on massive XLam type wooden panels with semi-rigid types of anchors have
been used. The first series of 4 quasi-static cyclic tests were performed on solid panel
elements without openings with dimensions and cross-section given in Fig. 1.
The second series of other 4 quasi-static cyclic tests were performed on panel
elements with openings as shown in Fig.2. For both series, "A" and "B" boundary condition
cases were applied. Although more information about these boundary conditions can be
found in Dujic et al. (2005), only the basic definitions will be mentioned herein. The
boundary condition case "A" assumes a rocking mechanism, simulated by supporting one
edge of the panel by the firm base while the other edge can freely translate and rotate. The
boundary condition case "B" assumes restricted rocking mechanism, where one edge of the
panel is supported by the firm base while the translation and rotation of the other edge is
limited by the ballast translating only vertically without rotation.
341
Fig.1. Finite element model for specimens of series 1 (walls without openings)
Fig.2. Finite element model for specimens of series 2 (walls with openings)
The finite element models for the first and the second series of specimens are also
given in Fig. 1 and 2, respectively. For the panel itself, a 2D FE mesh has been used
employing iso-parametric plane-stress elements with 4 nodes applying the 2x2 integration
rule. For connections (semi-rigid types of anchors) and for modelling gap/friction between
the panel and the concrete foundation, the link elements described in the previous chapter
342
have been applied. Here, we should emphasize the basic difference between the conditions
under which the tests have been performed and the conditions assumed in the analyses,
which is related to the applied constraints on the degrees of freedom. The experimentally
simulated "A" and "B" boundary conditions (implemented for the reasons explained in
Dujic et al. 2005), lead to more expressed unsymmetrical behavior of the panels (although
initially the lack of symmetry for the case of solid specimens without openings was not so
much emphasized), resulting in "shifted" cycles in the lateral force lateral displacement
envelope capacity diagram. In order to get a clear insight into the behavior of the proposed
constitutive models, in the numerical FEM models, no constraints have been applied, i.e.
the experimentally produced boundary constraints have not been numerically simulated.
Hence, the FEM models (given in Fig.1 and 2) assume that all degrees of freedom are
engaged (translations in x and y) in all the nodal points (excluding the fixed bottom nodal
points) allowing each nodal point of the panel to translate in both x and y directions
including the rotation of the panel as a rigid body around the axis perpendicular to the x-y
plane. Using this assumption, analytical pushover capacity curves have been obtained for
both types of panels (without and with openings), which are comparatively presented with
the experimental test envelopes in Figs.3 and 4, respectively.
For both cases, a reasonable correlation regarding the obtained stiffness, yielding
point and descending parts of diagrams has been obtained. Because of the mentioned
differences in the tests and the numerical models, the unsymmetrical response has not been
so much expressed in the numerical results. However, the main trend of the panel behavior
and especially the failure mechanism have been simulated (see Fig. 3 for panel without
openings and Fig. 4 for panel with openings).
-80
-40
0
40
80
-40 -20 0 20 40
Displacement [mm]
S
h
e
a
r

F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]
FE Analysis
Exp: Sp. 1/1
Fig. 3. Numerically obtained pushover curve for specimens of series 1 (solid walls without
openings) and correlation with the envelope curve from the quasi-static experimental test
(specimen 1/1 with "A" boundary condition)
343
-80
-40
0
40
80
-80 -40 0 40 80
Displacement [mm]
S
h
e
a
r

F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]
FE
Analysis
Exp: Sp.2/1
Fig. 4. Numerically obtained pushover curve for specimens of series 2 (walls with
openings) and correlation with the envelope curve from the quasi-static experimental test
2 SIMULATION OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF A THREE STORY
TIMBER BUILDING SUBJECTED TO REAL SEISMIC
EXCITATION: DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
In reality, when subjected to real seismic loading, separate panels built in a multi-
story wooden building can manifest different behavior modes depending on the produced
boundary conditions at their bottom ends as a result of the history of displacements during
the response (see Fig. 5).
u
R
a (t)
g
Fig. 5. Realistic response of a building built of wooden XLam panels subjected to seismic
loading
344
So, depending on the applied connection devices, the level of the dead (axial) load
and the position of the panel in the building, the panel's response can be of a pure shear
mode, mixed shear and rocking mode, or pure rocking mode, as discussed in the
Introduction. For example, the bottom panel in Fig. 5 can behave in a more expressed shear
manner, since the dead load does not allow it to rotate freely as a rigid body. On the other
hand, the constraint related to the dead load for the upper panel is not so emphasized,
allowing it to rotate as a rigid body. In this case, the level of the manifested shear behavior
mode, i.e. slippage deformation between the panels (translation of the upper panel as a rigid
body related to the bottom one) depends on the connection device applied. One of the aims
of the experimental tests performed on panels in Ljubljana (Dujic et al. 2005) was to
investigate the mentioned three behavioral modes of the panels, constructing a special
testing equipment for simulation of the boundary cases "A", "B" and "C", described in the
previous section. Also, the idea of the tests was to pay attention to the existing analytical
methods for design and experimental tests for determination of the racking strength of these
types of panels (especially according to Eurocodes), which are mainly based on the
assumption of a pure shear behavior of panels.
On the other hand, the constitutive relationships and the FEM based numerical
models proposed in the paper should simulate the behavior of real wooden structures
subjected to seismic loading, taking into account the discussed behavioral modes
automatically, depending on the response history. Therefore, an example of a three-story
wooden XLam building structure (see Fig. 6) consisting of panels with openings (having
the same geometric and material properties as the series of panels with openings analyzed
in the previous section) is presented herein.
q=4.33kN/m
q=4.33kN/m
q=4.33kN/m
K
h
K
v
i
j
i
j
Xloc
y
loc
Fig. 6. Finite element model for a realistic three-story building built of wooden XLam
panels with openings
345
The structure has been analysed subjected to real time-history acceleration record
(El-Centro) with peak ground acceleration of 0.6g. Initially, the structure has been
subjected to self-weight and additional dead load on each floor level (4.33 kN/m'), which
have been incrementally applied. The connections in the base are modelled as semi-rigid
types of anchors, using the proposed constitutive relationships. The vertical connections
between the horizontal floor panels and the vertical wall panels have been assumed as self-
drilling screws described in Ceccotti et al. (2006) and they have been modelled by non-
linear bar (BAR2DN) elements following elastic-plastic Von-Mises mixed-hardening
constitutive law. Steel angles with similar properties as considered anchors have been
assumed for horizontal connection between the panels and floors. The principal concept of
the chosen structural system was based on the strategy for proper dissipation of seismic
energy during an earthquake, which assumes energy dissipation first in the base semi-rigid
anchors and in the horizontal connections between the walls and the panels, than in the
vertical joints, and finally in the panels. The mode shapes have been calculated taking into
account the initial stiffness of the connections and the mass due to the self weight and the
given dead load . The analytical response in terms of force-displacement hysteretic curve
for the first floor is given comparatively with the experimentally obtained force-
displacement capacity diagram in Fig. 7.
-80
-40
0
40
80
-60 -30 0 30 60
Displacement [mm]
S
h
e
a
r

F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]
Dynamic Analysis,
El Centro 0.6g
Exp. Envelope: Sp. 2/1
Fig. 7. Correlation of the analytical dynamic response of the first floor (El Centro record
a
max
= 0.6g) with the experimental capacity envelope for the wall panel with openings
The time-history responses are presented in Figs. 8.1 to 8.4 from where it can be
concluded that the structure behaves as base-isolated, as a result of the applied dissipation
energy strategy.
The results have shown that the inter-story drift of the first floor is in total equal to
15 mm (including the base displacements of 6 mm), which is greater than the inter-story
drift between the first and the second floors d
12
= 5 mm, and the inter-story drift between
the second and the third floor d
23
= 5 mm. Probably, the additional door opening contributes
to the more flexible behavior of the first floor. However, it is obvious that the main seismic
energy dissipation occurs in the base due to the frictional properties of the base contact and
the energy dissipative characteristics of the base anchors. Also the absolute acceleration
differs very little from the first to the third floor (the structure responds mostly as a rigid
body), and the amplification factor for the third floor relatively to the input (base) peak
acceleration is approximately f
a
= a
max
/a
g
= 1.4g/0.6g = 2.33.
346
Time-History of Displacements
Time
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-.005
-.004
-.003
-.002
-.001
0
.001
.002
.003
.004
.005
.006
Node 307x
Fig. 8.1 Displacement time-history response for the basement (in m)
Time-History of Displacements
Time
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-.025
-.020
-.015
-.010
-.005
0
.005
.010
.015
.020
.025
Node 1301x
Fig. 8.2 Displacement time-history response for the third floor (in m)
347
Time-History of Accelerations
Time
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
Node 401x
Fig. 8.3 Absolute acceleration time-history response for the first floor (in m/sec
2
)
Time-History of Accelerations
Time
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-10
-5
0
5
10
Node 1301x
Fig. 8.4 Absolute acceleration time-history response for the third floor (in m/sec
2
)
5 CONCLUSIONS
The main objective of this research was the development of new computational
constitutive relations for a semi-rigid type of connections applied in XLam panels for the
purpose of practical seismic assessment. Generally, during seismic actions, the following
modes of wooden panels' behavior can be expected: rocking, mixed rocking and shear, and
pure shear behavior. In Part I new computational constitutive relations for a semi-rigid type
of connections applied in XLam panels have been developed and verified using the results
348
from the previously preformed experimental investigation in Laboratory of the Faculty of
Civil and Geodetic Engineering in Ljubljana, Slovenia 2005 (Dujic et al. 2005, Dujic et al.
2006).
Herein, a comparative numerical study of the panels' behavior has been performed
using quasi-static tests results from experiments performed in Ljubljana 2005. The
proposed computational constitutive relationships for anchors in both normal and tangential
directions have been implemented into the general-purpose software package FELISA/3M
(Finite Element Inelastic Structural Analysis Program) program and pushover and dynamic
analyses have been run. The provided results have shown a reasonable correlation with the
experimental results (especially with the specimens of "A" boundary condition type)
simulating the main trend of the panel behavior and the failure mechanism. Although in this
research, constitutive models for a semi-rigid type of anchors with specified characteristics
have been proposed, the same computational constitutive models can be used for other
types of similar connections with provided necessary basic experimental data in terms of
force-displacements relationships. In this case, the proper choice of the non-linear
parameters (as yielding and ultimate points) necessary for the approximation of the axial
force-separation and shear force slip constitutive diagrams is of crucial importance.
Acknowledgements
This research has been carried out within the bilateral scientific cooperation
between Republic of Slovenia and Republic of Macedonia. The support of the Ministries of
Education and Science of both countries is gratefully acknowledged. Also, the authors
would like to express special thanks to Dujic, B. and Zarnic, R. for the possibility of using
their test results from the Ljubljana tests performed in 2005.
REFERENCES
[1]Seismic Behavior of Multi-Storey XLam Buildings, A.Ceccotti and M.Follesa Proc. Of
the International Workshop on Earthquake Engineering on Timber Structures, 2006,
Coimbra, Portugal, pp. 81-95.
[2] Investigation on In-Plane Loaded Wooden Elements Influence of Loading and
Boundary Conditions B.Dujic, S. Aicher, and R. Zarnic, Otto-Graf-Journal (Otto-Graf
Institute, MPA University, Stuttgart) 2005, 16: 259-272.
[3]Influence of Openings on shear Capacity of MassiveCross-Laminated Wooden Walls
.B.Dujic, S. Klobcar, and R. Zarnic, Proc. of the International Workshop on Earthquake
Engineering on Timber Structures, 2006, Coimbra, Portugal, pp. 105-118.
[4] Comparative Study of FEM Based Reinforced Concrete Analytical Models and Their
Numerical Implementation: Software Package FELISA/3M V.Hristovski, and H.Noguchi,
Proc. of the 1
st
Fib Congress, Section 13: Failure mechanism and non-linear analysis for
practice, 2002, Osaka, Japan, pp. 403-410.
[5]Quasi-Static and Pseudo-Dynamic Tests on XLAM Wallsand Buildings Lauriola, M.
P. and Sandhaas, C, Proc. of the International Workshop on Earthquake Engineering on
Timber Structures, 2006, Coimbra, Portugal, pp. 119-133.
349
Radmila B. ALI
18
, Mihail A. GAREVSKI
29
, Zoran V. MILUTINOVI
310
ODGOVOR KONSTRUKCIJA IZOLIRANIH OLOVNO-GUMENIM
LEITIMA
Rezime:
Detaljna analiza uticaja sistema za seizmiku izolaciju od olovno-gumenih leita
(LRB) na seizmiko ponaanje P+7 spratne, ortogonalno skoro simetrine stambene
kule od AB nosivih zidova, je izvrena na osnovu GPS sinhroniziranih merenja
ambijent vibracija objekta i ARTeMIS obrade dobijenih signala. LRB sistem od 32
olovno-gumena leita je projektovan prema USB-97 odredbama za maksimalno
oekivan zemljotres. Kvantitativna analiza i poreenje nelinearnih odgovora
ukljetene u osnovi i seizmiki izolirane konstrukcije je izvreno za 4 karakteristine
vremenske istorije ubrzanja. U radu su detaljno prezentirani rezultati i zakljuci
izvrenih istraivanja.
Kljune rei: Seizmika izolacija, olovno-gumena leita, ambijent vibracije,
dinamika analiza.
RESPONSE OF LEAD-RUBBER BEARING ISOLATED
STRUCTURE
Summary:
A GF+7 storey, orthogonally almost symmetric, shear wall residential tower
building has been studied in all details (GPS synchronized ambient vibration
measurements, ARTeMIS processing of acquired signals) to clarify the influence
of lead-rubber bearings (LRB) seismic isolation system upon its seismic
performance. The LRB system consisting of 32 LR bearings has been designed for
USB-97 maximum expected earthquake and 4 characteristic earthquake time
histories were used to quantitatively define and compare nonlinear responses of
fixed-base and LRB isolated structures. The paper presents in all details results
and findings of this study.
Key words: Seismic isolation, lead-rubber bearings, ambient vibrations, dynamic
analysis.
1
Research Assistant, M.Sc., Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, Skopje, Macedonia
2
Professor, Director, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, Skopje, Macedonia.
3
Professor, Head RDM-IZIIS, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, Skopje,
Macedonia.
350
1 INTRODUCTION
Analytical and experimental results presented are derived under the NATO
Science for Pease SfP978029 Project Development of Low-Cost Rubber Bearings for
Seismic Protection of Structures in Macedonia and Balkans, launched in a support to
affirmation of seismic isolation concept in the Republic of Macedonia and Balkans as an
efficient strategy of building protection against destructive earthquake effects.
The dynamic response of the real seven-story residential building in Skopje (Img.
1a) has been studied in all details for elucidating potential influence of seismic isolation
under the maximum expected earthquake actions at a site of construction.
Image 1- Building: 1, Settlement: Taftalidze 1, Skopje
The buildings structural system consists of reinforced concrete shear walls in two
orthogonal directions (Fig. 1b). The building has ground floor /GF/, seven stories and loft
/L/ (GF+7+L). The disposition of RC shear walls is almost symmetrical in both orthogonal
directions.
To assure adequate vertical load resistance due to high vertical stiffness, sufficient
horizontal flexibility and energy dissipation mechanism the Lead-Rubber Bearing (LRB)
isolation system was chosen.
2 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REAL STRUCTURE
To identify the parameters of FB mathematical model, the ambient vibration
measurements were performed on the real structure.
Ambient vibration measurements were performed by six GPS synchronized
TROMINO (Micromed, Italy) seismometers. Two, placed at the top of the building were
set as referent ones (Img. 2b). Other four, the mobile set (Img. 2c), had been moved from
story to story, from top to the bottom of the building, providing ten minutes 3D
measurements at all four corners and each storey.
(a) (b)
351
Image 2 - TROMINO instruments arrangement
Fig. 3 Amplitude spectras
The mode shapes, natural frequencies (Table 1) and damping ratios of the real
structure have been defined based on Fourier analyses of amplitude spectras (Img. 3) of
recorded signals, as well as by ARTeMIS (Ambient Response Testing and Modal
Identification Software) processing of 34 GPS synchronized 3D signals.
Table 1 - Natural frequencies/comparative results
Ambient vibration testing Modal analysis
Frequency f
A
(Hz) Direction f
M
(Hz) Direction
f
M
/f
A
(%)
F
1
2.40 Torsion 2.16 Torsion 10.0
F
2
3.10 Translation x 3.10 Translation -x 0.0
F
3
3.20 Translation y 3.15 Translation -y 1.6
(b) (c)
(a)
352
3 MATHEMATICAL MODELING and analysis
3.1 MODELING
Two mathematical models were defined for evaluating and comparison of the
response of the real structure: (1) The Fixed Base (FB) model representing dynamic
behavior of the real structure; and (2) Seismic Isolated (SI) model representing the dynamic
behavior of the structure isolated by LRB seismic isolation system (Img. 4).
Fig. 4 Mathematical models
Dynamic analyses of both models have been performed by ETABS (Nonlinear
version 9.0.4). Used shell elements combine membrane behavior and bending of the plates.
The finite element model was chosen to satisfy the needs of the analysis.
The total mass for dynamic analyses (structural system plus additional loading of
2.5kN/m2, distributed uniformly on all floor elements) has been defined based on the study
of actual building loadings tuned to fit the elastic frequencies of the FB model that were
determined by ambient vibration measurements.
Parameters of adopted FB mathematical model, viz dynamic characteristic of the
real structure obtained by ambient vibration testings, are presented comparatively in Table
4 indicating fear identification of the geometry and material parameters of the principal
structural system.
3.2 SEISMIC ISOLATION SYSTEM
Seismic isolation system applied consists of 32 LRB, uniformly arranged in the base,
placed at intersections of structural modulus. Three different LRB bearing groups were
designed based on the calculated axial forces. Each of these groups was designed according
to UBC-97 designing procedure which also includes deformation and stability checks.
(FB) model (SI) model
353

3.3 SELECTED EARTHQUAKE TIME HISTORIES
Dynamic responses of FB and SI models have been calculated for four types of real
earthquake time histories of different frequency characteristics, scaled to 0.3g, which value
is determined based on the detailed site response analyses. The paper presents and discusses
results related only to El-Cento (a(x)max=2.942m/sec2, a(y)max=1.809m/sec2).
Image 6 - Scaled El-Centro time histories (0.3g)
3.4 REPRESENTATIVE NODES FOR DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Four representative nodes (Fig. 7) have been selected to elucidate the seismic isolation
effects of studied building:
1. node P_682 in the base of the structure;
2. node P_682 on level 400 (fifth floor);
3. node P_682 on level 100 (second floor); and
Table 2 - LRB Design
parameters
Image 5 - LRB
Table 3 - LRB Link
parameters
354
4. node P_682 on level 700 (loft).
The results derived are presented in terms of dynamic characteristics of studied FB and
SI models (Table 4), base shear force (Table 5), storey displacements (Table 6), interstory
drifts (Table 7), and in (Table 8) as storey accelerations.
Image 7 - Representative nodes
Table 4 - Periods of vibration
FB Model SI Model
Mode
T (sec) Direction T (sec) Direction
1 0.4637 Torsion 2.38 Translation y
2 0.3225 Translation -y 2.38 Translation x
3 0.3178 Translation -x 2.32 Torsion
4 0.1336 Torsion 0.26 Torsion
5 0.0961 Translation -y 0.18 Translation y
6 0.0943 Translation -x 0.18 Translation x
7 0.0517 Translation -x 0.99 Torsion
8 0.0467 Translation -y 0.083 Torsion
9 0.0376 Translation -y 0.07 Translation x
10 0.0267 Translation -x 0.07 Translation y
Table 5 - Base shear force
Shear force (kN), Direction X Shear force (kN), Direction Y
FB model SI Model Reduction (%) FB model SI Model Reduction (%)
max. 12232.30 2890.29 76.4 8533.40 3362.09 60.6
min. 15006.70 3266.24 78.2 9674.37 2768.30 71.4
355
Table 6 - Story displacements
Displacement (m), Direction X Displacement (m), Direction Y
FB model SI Model
Amplification
(%)
FB model SI Model
Amplification
(%)
Level 100 0.0046 0.1439 96.8 0.0032 0.1516 97.9
Level 400 0.0128 0.1449 91.2 0.0083 0.1528 94.6
Level 700 0.0197 0.1458 86.5 0.0127 0.1538 91.7
Table 7 - Interstory drifts
Drift (m), Direction X Drift (m), Direction Y
Level BASE 0.0000 0.0000 / 0.0000 0.0000 /
Level ISO / 0.1431 / / 0.1507 /
Level 001 0.0021 0.0004 81.0 0.0016 0.0005 68.8
Level 100 0.0025 0.0003 84.0 0.0016 0.0004 75.0
Level 200 0.0027 0.0004 88.9 0.0017 0.0004 76.5
Level 300 0.0027 0.0003 85.2 0.0017 0.0004 76.5
Level 400 0.0028 0.0003 89.3 0.0017 0.0004 76.5
Level 500 0.0025 0.0003 88.0 0.0016 0.0004 75.0
Level 600 0.0024 0.0003 87.5 0.0015 0.0003 80.0
Level 700 0.0020 0.0003 85.0 0.0013 0.0003 76.9
Level 800 0.0016 0.0002 87.5 0.0012 0.0003 75.0
Table 8 - Story accelerations
Acceleration (m/sec
2
), Direction X Acceleration (m/sec
2
), , Direction Y
Level 100 3.106 3.025 2.60 2.026 1.931 4.70
Level 400 6.779 3.034 55.2 3.629 1.932 46.8
Level 700 9.045 2.944 67.5 4.362 1.918 56.0
4 CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions resulting from analytical and experimental study of the selected structure
entirely verify positive aspects of the seismic isolation on the structural earthquake
response.
1. Increase of natural period (Table 4). As result of the increased flexibility of
the system, natural period of the structure increased from =0.46sec to T=2.38sec,
shifting natural period of the system from the predominant periods of the expected
earthquake actions.
2. Reduction of base-shear (Table 5). Reduction of the base-shear force is
evident in the model with implemented seismic isolation. The base-shear force
under the El-Centro earthquake excitation has been reduced 4.6 in X direction in
3.5 times in Y direction.
356
3. Increase of displacements (Table 6). Increased flexibility of the system led to
increase of the total displacements due to the elasticity of the existing isolation.
Displacements of the system are concentrated at the isolation plane level. Total
displacement at the level 700 under the El-Centro earthquake excitation has risen
from 0.0197m to 0.1458m in X direction and from 0.0127m to 0.1538m in Y
direction.
4. Reduction of interstory drifts (Table 7). Implementation of the isolation system
resulted into the reduction of the interstory drifts to negligible level, so it can be said
that they practically do not exist. This reduction enables the structure to behave as
almost ideally stiff. In this way the damage risk of the structural and non-structural
elements is minimized.
5. Reduction of story accelerations (Table 8). Analysis of SI Model has shown
significant reduction of the story accelerations. Acceleration at platform 700 under
the El-Centro earthquake excitation have been reduced from 9.045m/sec
2
to
2.944m/sec
2
(3.07 times) in X direction, and from 4.362m/sec
2
to 1.918m/sec
2
(2.27
times) in Y direction.
6. Energy dissipation mechanism. Contrasting the classical structure where the
energy dissipation mechanism is based on the plastic deformations at certain points
of the structure, in the seismically isolated structure energy dissipation mechanism
is concentrated at the isolation level enabling simple design, control and eventual
repair.
REFERENCES
[1] Influence of Lead-Rubber Bearings on the Response of Seismically Isolated Structures
/ Salic, R., Master Thesis, IZIIS, University Ss. Cyril and Methodius, 2007, Skopje,
Republic of Macedonia.
[2] Structural Bearings / Eggert, H., Kauschke, W., Earnst & Sohn, 2002.
[3] Evaluation of the Proper Functioning of the Rubber Isolators of the Primary School
Pestalozzi in Skopje Under Strong Earthquake / Garevski, M., Kelly, J.M., 2001,
IZIIS-Skopje.
[4] Engineering with Rubber / Gent, Alan N., 2001, Carl Hanser Verlag.
[5] Base Isolation of Structures / Kelly, Trevor E., Base Isolation of Structures, Holmes,
Consulting Group Ltd.
[6] Seismic Isolation for Earthquake-Rasistant Design / Komodromos, P., 2000,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
[7] Design of Seismic Isolated Structures / Naeim, F. and Kelly, J., 1999, John Wiley &
Sons.
[8] Experimental Dynamic Testing of the First Structure in the World Isolated by Rubber
Bearings / Garevski, M., Kelly, J., Bojadziev, M., 1998, Proceedings of the Eleventh
European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paris.
[9] Earthquake-Resistant Design with Rubber / Kelly, J., 1996, 2nd. edition, Springer-
Verlag, London.
357
Ljubomir Takov
111
, Lidija Krstevska
212
SEIZMIKA BAZNA IZOLACIJA REZERVOARA I ZGRADA
SA PRIMENOM SISTEMA ALSC
Rezime:
ALSC sistem pretstavlja specifino tehniko reenje kada konstrukcija je do-
vedena u stanju lebdenja primenom konstantnog potiska (uzgona) u kontaktu, ime
je omogueno lako klizanje. Efikasnost ALSC sitema je demonstrirana na modelu
rezervoara u razmeri 1/3 sa masom od 10 t, kao i na modelu crkve u razmeri 1/3.5
sa masom od 30 t. ispitivanjem na seizmikoj platformi u IZIIS-u. Isti pozitivni
efekat seizmike izolacije je dobiven u oba sluaja, obezbeujui kompletnu
zatitu od ruenja ak i kod najjaih potresa.
Kljune rei: Sistem za baznu izolaciju ALSC, efekat klizanja, potisak
SEISMIC BASE ISOLATION ON RESERVOIRS AND BUILDINGS
BY APPLICATION OF THE ALSC SYSTEM
Summary:
The ALSC system represents a specific technical solution when the main structure
is split from the supporting structure, thus allowing the main structure to slide. The
structure is kept in floating position by application of constant hydraulic up-lifting
pressure at the contact, allowing easy sliding. The effectiveness of the ALSC
system is demonstrated on a model of reservoir in scale 1/3 with mass of 10 tons,
as well as on a model of church in scale 1/3.5 with mass of 30 tons, tested on IZIIS
shake table. The same positive effect of seismic isolation was obtained in both
cases, providing complete protection against collapse even for the strongest
earthquakes.
Key words: ALSC base-isolation system, sliding effect, up-lifting pressure.
1
Prof. PhD, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, University Ss. Cyril and
Methodius, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, taskov@pluto.iziis..ukim.edu.mk
2
Assoc. Prof. PhD, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, University Ss. Cyril and
Methodius, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, lidija@pluto.iziis..ukim.edu.mk
358
1. DESCRIPTION OF ALSC SEISMIC BASE-ISOLATION
SLIDING SYSTEM
Almost Lifted Structure Concept represents a specific solution belonging to the
group of sliding concepts. The upper structure slides over a smooth surface under low
pressure. Under horizontal load effect, the structure slides along the foundation base. By
controlling the pressure of the liquid, which is located in the empty space under the sliding
base, the friction force and the sliding of the structure are controlled as well. The friction
force at the contact surface is defined by the following equation:
Fr=N
(1)
a) Ordinary sliding: N=G, L=0
(2)
b) ALSC sliding: N= G-L, G>L >> N
N > 0 L=pS ;
(3)
(for L=G ; N becomes 0 and Fr=0 i.e. floating state)
Fr = friction force;
= friction coefficient at the contact surface;
N = active compressive force;
L = uplifting force produced by the liquid;
G = weight of the principal structure;
p=liquid pressure;
S= contact surface between the sliding and the fixed plate
The contact surface must be smooth to reduce the friction between the plates
and prevent leakage of the liquid, which is under pressure. Sufficient smoothness can be
achieved by coating both contact surfaces with epoxy resin.The sliding and fixed
foundation plates are designed to sustain the pressure of the liquid. The zone of the empty
space between the two plates is filled with liquid on which pressure is exerted.The
horizontal displacement of the structure as well the designed frequency is controlled by
horizontal springs. The centering springs keep the structure in centered position always
when sliding starts. The springs are designed as much flexible as possible, but stiff enough
to resist the wind effects. ( Figs. 1 and 2).The low horizontal rigidity of the lateral springs
and the very low friction force at the contact surface, contribute to a significant reduction of
transmission of the vibration from the ground to the upper superstructure. The dimensions
of the centering springs as well as the amount of the lifting pressure under the sliding
foundation plate depend on the main dynamic characteristics of the structure, its weight,
rigidity, designed vibration period, available space for lateral relative displacement between
the sliding base and the fixed base, etc.
359
2. Description of the system for automatic control of the liquid
pressure
The automatic system for activation of the working pressure under the sliding plate
and keeping it constant as long as needed plays an important role in the effectiveness of the
ALSC base-isolation system. During the tests, the system for pressure control was active,
correcting and keeping the pressure at the required level. Having this system, the structure
doesn't need to be subjected to a permanent pressure for a long time waiting for the
earthquake. It will be activated just a few seconds before the shear seismic waves attack the
structure. In the case of the shake-table test, the system for pressure control was activated a
few seconds before the shake-table started to move and remained active throughout the
testing time. Basically, the automatic pressure control system consists of a steel reservoir
filled with liquid under pressure, kept constant by means of a compressor and a servo-
valve. The servo-valve is closed until the pressure of the liquid under the sliding plate is
decreased for more than 10%. After that, the valve opens and the liquid from the steel
reservoir comes to the sliding plate increasing the pressure up to the required level. Some
details of the automatic system for control of liquid pressure are shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
Figure 3 - Supply of the liquid under Figure. 4 - System for automatic
control the foundation of the liquid pressure
Figure 1 - Seismic base isolation by
ALSC system, model of reservoir, 1/3
Figure 2 - Seismic base isolation by
ALSC system, model of church, 1/3.5
360
3. TEST RESULTS
3.1 TEST RESULTS from the model of reservoir in scale 1/3
The shake-table test on the model of reservoir was performed in the Laboratory of
the Institute for Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology in Skopje in the year
2003 and 2004. The objective of the test was to verify the efficiency of a base isolation
system "ALSC". First step of the program was to investigate the sliding-friction force at the
contact between RC plates under static and dynamic conditions, considering different
springs and liquid pressure conditions. Three series of tests have been conducted for
different type of dynamic excitations produced by shaking table. First of all, the resonant
frequency of the model has been defined by random excitation test. In the next step, a series
of harmonic excitations has been applied within the frequency range of 0.5-15.0 Hz,
producing an acceleration of the shaking table within the range of 0.1-1.25g in horizontal
and 0.1-0.5g in vertical direction. A series of earthquake excitations has been applied in the
last phase of testing program in horizontal as well as by-axial, h-v direction. The same
testing program has been applied for fixed base model. The test results are presented in
table and graphs given bellow.The general expression about model behavior is that the
base-isolated model behaves very stable under different earthquake and harmonic excitation
both in horizontal and vertical direction. The amplification of the base motion on the top
was les than one (0.2-0.32), which means that the input motion was attenuated 3-5 times.
On the other hand, the fixed base model behaves very unfavorable, by damaging the fixing
anchors at the base and producing large amplification on the top of the model (2.0-5.0).
Table 1 Response parameters of the model of reservoir under earthquake excitations
N Record frequency
(Hz)
inp.acc
(g)
acc. base
(g)
acc top
(g)
rel. displ.
(mm)
1 IZMIT -H 1.71 0.22 0.17 0.24 2.74
2 IZMIT -H 1.71 0.09 0.13 0.20 6.64
3 IZMIT -H 1.71 0.14 0.18 0.27 16.3
4 IZMIT -H 1.71 0.18 0.23 0.32 35.3
5 KOBE-H 0.83 0.10 0.14 0.23 4.6
6 KOBE-H 0.83 0.23 0.21 0.27 39
7 ELCENTRO-H 1.46 0.20 0.23 0.35 23.9
8 ELCENTRO-H 1.46 0.28 0.25 0.37 31.5
9 PETROVAC-H 1.46 0.38 0.48 0.79 76.5
10 NORTHRIDGE 1.07 0.29 0.20 0.37 64.2
11 MEXICO-H 0.48 0.19 0.11 0.17 4.5
12 ALMA ATA-H 2.39 0.14 0.17 0.32 16.4
13 ALMA ATA-H 2.39 0.37 0.24 0.44 53.4
14 ALMA ATA-H 2.39 0.44 0.26 0.43 67.6
361
Figure 5 - Comparative presentation of performance of the model of reservoir isolated by
ALSC system and fixed base model under earthquake excitation
3.2 Test results from the model of church in scale 1/3.5
The shake-table test of the church model was performed in the Laboratory of the
Institute for Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology in Skopje in the year
2008. The model of the church was designed to the length scale of 1:3.5 according to the
"gravity force neglected" modeling principles. The main objective of the testing was to
investigate experimentally the effectiveness of the proposed reversible technology: base
isolation of historical monuments by ALSC floating-sliding system. According to that, the
seismic shake-table testing was performed in two main phases: phase 1-testing of the base-
isolated model with the ALSC floating-sliding system and phase 2-testing of the original
fixed-base model. The base-isolated model was tested by 5 different levels of input
acceleration: 0.45g, 0,8g, 1.2g and 1.45 g. Uniform sliding of all parts of the structure was
recorded (sliding plate, walls and tambour).The maximum response acceleration of the
sliding plate in all the cases was about 0.2-0.3g (Table 2 and Fig.6). This level of
acceleration didnt produce any cracks in the model, except an increased relative sliding
displacement between the basin and the sliding plate.
Table 2 Response parameters of a church model under harmonic and earthquake
excitations
Acceleration(g) Rel. displ.(mm) Tes
t
Excitation Freq.
( Hz) base sliding
plate
top-
tambour
tambour-
sl.plate
base-
sl.plate
1 Harmonic 7Hz 0.80 0.15 0.12 0.20 7.0
2 Harmonic 5Hz 0.60 0.15 0.16 0.22 3.0
3 Petrovac 7.7 0.20 0.20 0.18 0.15 3.5
4 Petrovac 7.7 0.45 0.25 0.18 0.20 6.0
5 Petrovac 7.7 0.80 0.25 0.25 0.30 15.0
6 Petrovac 7.7 1.20 0.32 0.35 0.38 20.0
7 Petrovac 7.7 1.45 0.25 0.22 0.28 35.0
362
On the other hand, the behavior of the fixed base church model was very
unfavorable, producing the damage collapse of the dome and heavy damage of the walls on
the intensity of earthquake 0.45g-0.70g. The amplification factor of the response of the
model was 2-3.
Figure 6 - Response of the church model base-isolated by ALSC floating-sliding system
acceleration respons of the model-fixed base,
Petrovac scaled 3.5 times
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
0 50 100 150 200
span of the input
a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)
inpaccfix
raccwall
raccdome
Figure 7 - Response of the church model fixed to the base
acceleration response of sliding plate-petrovac
scaled 3.5 times
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
0 100 200 300 400 500
span of the input acceleration
a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
g
)

input acc
ALSC acc
363
4. Conclusions
- The comparative test between the base-isolated model by ALSC system and the
classical fixed base model clearly shows the superior behavior of the ALSC
floating-sliding base-isolation system. The same conclusion is valuable both for
model of reservoir and church model. The excitation of 1.5g (maximum capacity
of the shaking table and maximum peak acceleration of the Montenegro
earthquake-scaled by a factor of 3.5) was not enough to produce any damage to the
reservoir as well as the church.
- The tests show that the ALSC floating-sliding baseisolation system can protect
the structure in any frequency and/or amplitude range and against the strongest
earthquake, because of the specific property: limited transmissibility (0.2-0.3g for
the scaled model i.e. 0.07-0.08g for the real structure), which can not produce
damage. Unlike this model, the fixed base models are very vulnerable.
- The automatic system for control of the liquid pressure under the sliding plate was
successfully designed. It effectively controls the pressure and keeps it constant all
the time during the performed test.
- The role of the springs, controlling the lateral motion was also effective, allowing
the structure to slide in the desired and controlled range.
- Comparative results between sliding model of reservoir and sliding model and
church model show the same isolation effect, which means that ALSC system can
be successfully applied in all type of structures which height to length ratio is less
than 2.0
5. Acknowledgement
The authors of the paper express their deep gratitude to the Ministry of Education
and Science of Macedonia and TUBITAC, for financing the test of the model of reservoir
as well as to the European Commission for financing of the project PROHITECH within
the sixth frame program FP6, in which the testing of the church model was realized.
REFERENCES
[1] "Seismic Base Isolation Based on Almost Lifted Structure Concept" Lj. Tashkov,
A.Antimovski, M. Kokalevski, 9-th International Symposium of MASE, Ohrid,
Republic of Macedonia, 2001
[2] "Comparison Between Fixed Base and Seismic Base Isolated Liquid Storage Tank
by ALSC System" Lj. Tashkov, L. Krstevska, EE-21C-International Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, 27.08-01.09. 2005, Skopje-Ohrid, CD Proceedings
[3] Shake-Table Test of Model of St. Nicholas Church in Reduced Scale 1/3.5 Lj.
Tashkov, L.Krstevska, K. Gramatikov, F. Mazzolani, Proceedings, Protection of
Historical Buildings, Conference Prohitech 09, Rome, Italy, 2009, Taylor &
Francis Group, London, ISBN978-0-415-55803-7, Vol 2, pp 1691-1697
365

1

Rezime

.
,
, .
. : 1) -
2)
. / -

.
Keywords: vulnerability models; spatial and temporal translation; Eurocode 8
CODE BASED CALIBRATION OF VULNERABILITY MODELS
Summary
A method for spatial and temporal translation of vulnerability models is recently
proposed. It is based on the aseismic design codes in the region of interest since it
is assumed that if they are strictly followed in the construction practice, the
seismic performance and level of damageability of building are "controlled by
them". Two basic factors are considered: 1) the design base shear; and, 2) the
ultimate deformation capacity of buildings. The referent vulnerability model is
translated / calibrated to target vulnerability model through combination of a shift
and rotation quantified by the differences in the building codes and construction
practices.
Keywords: vulnerability models; spatial and temporal translation; Eurocode 8
_____________________________________________
, , novakpupavac@yahoo.com
366
1
j
-
. ()
. -

. -

:
- ( )
( ), ,
- () .

.

.

:
1.

2.
3. : / .

.

.
-
-

,
-
. ,

.

, .
367
1.1.

.
,
,
. , ,

. ,
.

.

() ()

() .
1.2.

.

.
,
.

.
:
(1)
(2) .
:
, ,

. .

.
,
(MDR)
. ,
368

.
2.

,
,
.
(I),
I I- (I- MDR) .
,
(SA)
(PGA). (SA) (PGA) I
:
MMI b a PGA Log or SA Log * ) ( _ _ ) ( + ~
(2-1)

:
b
V V
K I
R T
) / log(
1
= A
(2-2)
I ; R
,
. PGA-MMI
Murphy & OBrien (1977) : (Log(PGA)=0.25+0.25MMI).

, MMI 6-7
V
T
and V
R
.(2-2).
.
I a I MDR
,
I 6-7.

,
I MMI (fig. 1).
, MMI 7
.
. MDR
MMI MMI ,

369
. MMI .
, MDR
original
,
I :
) ( ) ( ) (
1 1
I MDR I I MDR
original
A = A
(2-3)

(2-4)
I
inelastic

. I
inelastic
7-8

. .
(2-3)
"intermediate" - (fig.1.).
Fig. 1.
3.
,

("intermediate" )
>
s s
s
=
) ( 1
) 5 ( )
5
5
(
) 5 ( 0
) (
2
1
inelastic
inelastic
inelastic
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
370
, I
inelastic

MMI , I
severe
,
:
(2-5)

R

.
2
MDR .
,
.
,
2
1.
MMI 10.
MMI 10
.
MMI I
inelastic
,

. .
'''' I
inelastic

:
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
1
SEVERE SEVERE
SEVERE INELASTIC
MDR I MDR I
I I
u
A
=
(2-6)
MDR
:
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2 1
1
1
0
1
1 1
1
0 1
INELASTIC
INELASTIC
INELASTIC
I I
MDR I
MDR I MDR I MDR I I I and
MDR I
MDR I
I I and
MDR I
| |
A = A > >
|
|
A
\ .
| |
> s
|
|
A
\ .
(2-7)
MDR :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 T R
MDR I MDR I MDR I MDR I = + A + A
(2-8)

, ,
. ,
T
R
severe R
severe T
K
I MDR
I MDR
o
o
2 2
) (
) (
= =
371

.
MMI
, (,
) , .
5.
EC-8

.

( ) , (
).

.
4.1.

RSA-83.
- YUS-81.
.
.

Vt Vr
:
Vt/Vr=0.05/0.08=0.893 ( 8. )
A I= log(0.625)/0.25=-0.816
MMI :

I(inelastic)=7+A I=6.184
I(severe) =10+A I=9.184
'''' (RSA-83) '''' (YUS-81)
:
-or=1.5(reference ultimate drift) ,
- ot=h/600 x dukt.(8)=ili 1.33(target ultimate drift)
372
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
5 7 9 11
MMI
M
D
R
REFERENCE OMV
TARGET-JUS

, .
,
. 1. :
2. (OMV)
(YUS-81) .
,
.
( ) .
Fig. 2. (Victor Mendes)
:

(Victor Mendes )
( 4-1)
. Iv,c=20 ( 2.).

'''' :
(4-1)
( )
{
}
0, 5 0, 45 arctan 0, 55 10, 2 0, 05
V
d I I = + + (

373
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 MMI
M
D
R
reference-OMV
target-JUS
reference-JUS
Fig. 3.
4.2.
-
- (,
-) YUS-81-a
EC8. . (-

Iv,c.
:
1. RC1 (Iv=20)
2. RC4 (Iv=10)
a)
b)
3.- RC2 (Iv=0)
a)
( ):

374
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
I
M
D
R
r
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
M
D
R
r
RC2
RC4
RC1
Fig. 4.
-

, RC1
( ) RC2 (-) .
,
.

Fig. 5.
(Iv):
1.
.

Iv,c=20 RC 1
Iv,c=10 RC 4
Iv,c=0 RC 2
DUAL SYSTEM
WALL SYSTEM
FRAME SYSTEM
375
RC 1 Iv=20 Iv,c=6.316
RC 2 Iv=0 Iv,c= -29.627
RC 4 Iv=10 Iv,c= -7.52
-
YUS-81 .
1.
:
1.
2. ( )
3. ( )
4. A I
5. : I
inelastic
I
severe
6. o
r
o
t
7. -
( )
1
MDR I A
8. -
( )
2
MDR I A
9.
( )
T
MDR I
376
[1] Bertero, V.V. (1997). Performance-based seismic engineering: A critical review

of proposed guidelines. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Seismic
Design Methodologies for the Next Generation of Codes, P.Fajfar and H.
Krawinkler (editors), Bled Slovenia, June 1997, A.A. Balkema, Roterdam, 1997.
[2] Chopra, A.K. and R.K. Goel (2000). Capacity-demand diagram methods based
on inelastic design spectrum, Proceedings of the 12WCEE, Auckland,
New Zealand,2000
[3] EUROCODE 8: Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures. Part
1.1 General rules Seismic actions and general requirements for structures. DD
ENV 1998-1-1: 1996.
[4] Freeman, S.A. (1998). The capacity spectrum method as a tool for seismic
design. Proceedings of the 11ECEE, 1998 Balkema, Rottedam, ISBN 90 54 10
982 3
[5] Giovinazzi, S. and S. Lagomarsino (2001). A methodology for the vulnerability
analysis of built-up areas, Department of structural and Geotechnical
Engineering, University of Genoa, 2001.
[6] HAZUS-Earthquake loss estimation methodology. Prepared by National Institute
of Building Sciences for federal Emergency Management Agency, 1997.
[7] HAZUS 99 SR2 - Earthquake loss estimation methodology (1999). Prepared by
National Institute of Building Sciences for Federal Emergency Management
Agency, Washington DC, 1999.
[8] Holms, W.T. (1996). Seismic evaluation of existing buildings-State of the
practice. Proceedings of the 11WCEE, Paper No. 2008 1996 Elsevier Science
Ltd, ISBN 0 80 Tokyo- Kyoto, Japan (Vol. II).
[9] Huo, J.R., R.S. Lawson and N.G. Kishi (1998). Translation of earthquake
vulnerability functions. Proceedings of 11
th
ECEE, 1998 Balkema Rotterdam,
ISBN 90 5410 982 3
[10] Kerstin Lang-Seismic vulnerability of existing building Zurich February 2002
[11] King, S. and C. Rojahn (1996). A comparison of earthquake damage and loss
methodologies. Proceedings of the 11WCEE, Paper No. 1482 1996 Elsevier
Science Ltd, ISBN 0 80 042822 3.
[12] Lungu D., A. Aldea, C. Arion, R. Vacarenau, F. Petrescu, and T. Cornea (2001).
European distinctive features, inventory database and typology, RISK-UE WP1
Report, December 2001 typology of objects
[13] Milutinovic, Z., T. Olumceva and G. Trendafiloski (1998). Earthquake related
emergency capability of large hospital campus in Republic of Macedonia,
Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology, Report IZIIS
98-43/1, World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen,
Denmark, September 1998.
[14] Milutinovic, Z.V. and G.S. Trendafiloski (2003). WP4: Vulnerability of current
buildings, RISK-UE Handbook, September 2003.
[15] Murphy, J. R. & OBrien,L.J.1997.The correlation of peak ground acceleration
amplitude with seismic intensity and other physical parameters, Bulletin of
Seismological Society of America,67(3):877-915
377
[16] Newmark, N.M., and E. Rosenblueth (1971). Fundamentals of Earthquake
Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1971.
[17] Nozar G. Kishi, Jun-Rong Huo, R. Scott Lawson-Regional translation of
earthquake vulnerability functions. Proceedings of 6
th
National Conference on
Earthquake Engineering.
[18] Petrovic Bosko Selected chapters from the earthquake engineering
Gradjevinska knjiga
[19] Priestley, M.J.N. (2000). Performance based seismic design, Proceedings of the
12WCEE, Auckland, New Zealand, 2000.
[20] Regulations for seismic design A world list 2004. International Association for
Earthquake Engineering (IAEE), 2004.
[21] Singhal, A. and A.S. Kiremidijan (1996). Method for probabilistic evaluation of
seismic structural damage, Journal of structural Engineering ASCE, Vol.122,
No. 12, December, 1996, pp. 1459-1467
[22] Trendafiloski, G.S. (2003). GIS-oriented method for elaboration of probabilistic
earthquake scenarios, Doctoral Dissertation, Institute of Earthquake Engineering
and Engineering Seismology (IZIIS-Skopje), Skopje, January 2003 (in
Macedonian).
[23] Vcreanu, R. (1998). Seismic risk analysis for high rise buildings, Proceedings
of the 11ECEE, Paris, 1998.
[24] Williams, M.S. and R.G. Sexsmith (1995). Seismic damage indices for concrete
structures: A state- of-the-review. Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 11 No. 2, May 1995.
[25] Vladimir Sigmund, Mirjana Bosnjak, Ivica Guljas, Andreas Stanic Comparison
of the implementation of the Croatian regulations and Eurocode 8 Gradjevinar
52(2000)
[26] YUS-81, Code of Technical Regulations for the Design and Construction of
Building in Seismic Regions (Official Gazette of S.F.R. Yugoslavia, No.31/81)
379
Violeta Mirevska
1
Vladimir Bikovski
2
Mihail Garevski
3
BENCHMARK TEST softvera PROC3DN-IZIIS
Rezime
Cilj ove analize je benchmark test geotehnikog softwera PROC3DN-ver.1.2
razvijen u IZIIS-u sa ciljem demonstriranje objektivnosti i primenljivosti izlaznih
rezultata. Za usporeujui softwer odabran je komercijalni geotehniki
kompjuterski program PLAXIS-ver.8.1 Univ. of Delft-Netherland. Sporeeni
rezultati su dobijeni od oba programa kao efektivna naprezanja, deformacije,
manifestovane zone plastinosti kao i vrednosti koeficijenta sigurnosti sistema
brana-duboki iskop, budui naponsko-deformaciono stanje je tipa plone
deformacije i kako PLAXIS podrava 2D analize a PROC3DN 3D podrava 3D
analize, komparativni model definiran je graninim uslovima koji u celosti
simuliraju povrinsko stanje deforamcija..
Kljucne reci: koeficenat sigurnosti, benchmark test.
A BENCHMARK TEST OF THE SOFTWARE PROC3DN-IZIIS
Summary
The objectiv of this work is a benchmark run of the geotechnical software
PROC3DN-ver.1.2 developed at IZIIS in oder to assess its objective performance
as well as correctness and applicability of the software output results. For
benchmarking software choosen is the comercial geotechnical computer programs
PLAXIS ver.8.1 Univ.of Delft Netherland. Compared and presented are the
obtained results from both computer programs, such as the effective stresses, the
deformations, the manifested plastic zones as well as the value of short term
coefficient of safety of the dam-excavation system. The stress-strain state is of
plain strain type. PLAXIS supports 2D analysis while PROC3DN supports 3D
analyses wherefore the comparative model has been defined by a boundary
conditions that thoroughly simulate the plain strain state of deformations.
Keywords : temporary safety coefficient, benchmark test
_______________________________________________
1
2
3
. Prof. Dr., (IZIIS) Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
380
1. INTRODUCTION
The existing analyzed dam belongs to the type of low hydrotechnical structures
with a height of ~ 12 m from the lake bottom to the dam crest. The width of the dam crest
is ~ 10.50 m. The slopes on the upstream and the downstream side of the dam are ~ 1:3.
The lithological composition of the terrain is assumed to consist of 8 layers,. The layers are
mainly described as subclay brown color media, dust subclay beige to brown color,
subsand, dusty sand beige to yellow color, airy sandy layer, gray to beige color, airy
alevrolit gray to beige color, airy clay, gray to beige color with blue stains, etc. The layers
are compacted sufficiently enough. The physical-mechanical characteristics of the materials
within the dam body and the terrain are presented in the text below. The objective of the
performed analysis is the proving of the short term stability of the dam Arti-ficial Lakes
Dyke in the vicinity of Tirana immediatelly after the excavation of the construction pit for
the purpose of construction of the Building for Living and Services , at level + 8 above
ground and level 2 below ground. For that reason, it is anticipated to cut the downstream
slope of the dam at a distance of 10 m from the dam crest, parallel to the direction of the
crest within length of ~ 40 m. With this cut with a depth of ~ 7 m, the consolidated stability
of the dam-soil system is disturbed. It is necessary to stabilize the dam-excavation system.
The supporting structure adopted in the analyses represents an RC wall with a thickness of
~ 1,0 m along the entire length of the excavation with embedment of 2m. Since PLAXIS
ver. 8 supports a 2D analysis, the stress-strain state of the system has been defined as a
plain state of deformations. The PROC3DN program supports 3D analyses wherefore the
corresponding plain strain conditions has been defined by use of 1 m thickness and
boundary conditions that thoroughly simulate the plain state of deformations. The discrete
model evaluated in using the PLAXIS version 8 program is composed of 2D triangular
finite elements with 15 nodal points. The corresponding discrete model evaluated in using
the PROC3DN program is composed of 3D finite elements with 8 nodal points. In both
analyses, the Mohr-Coulombs criterion for nonlinear behaviour of soil media has been
treated. Both applied models for analysis define the stress and strain state in the media as
well as the expected coefficient of safety of the system.
2. BENCHMATK RESLUTS FROM THE STATIC ANALYSIS
The static analysis of the dam-deep excavation system has been carried out for the
effect of gravity forces (self weight of the system), the hydrostatic pressure of the water in
the reservoir and the active pore pressure resulting from the steady seepage state in the
model under the effect of the active filtration forces. It has been defined the short term
coefficient of safety against failure of the dam-wall support -deep excavation system.
Futher on presented are the output results of the analysis by use both computer programs.
381
Figure 1: Total displacement increments indicating the most possible failure mechanism
382
Figure 2: Coefficent of safetty for the most critical sliding surface
Figure 3: Deformed mesh of the analysed system
m U
x
011 . 0
max,
=
Figure 4: Deformed mesh of the analysed system
m U
x
01 . 0
max,
=
383
Figure 5: Plastic points and tension cut-offpoints in the model
Figure 6: Plastic points in the model
Figure 7: tension cut-off points in the model
384
Figure 8: Shear stresses
2
/ 28 . 70 m kN xy = t
Figure 9: Shear stresses
2
/ 35 . 70 m kN xy = t
385
Figure 10: Vertical effectiv stresses
2 '
/ 77 . 263 m kN yy = o
Figure 11: Vertical effectiv stresses
2 '
/ 94 . 253 m kN yy = o
386
Figure 12: Horizontal total stresses
2
/ 22 . 318 m kN xx = o
Figure 13: Horizontal total stresses
2
/ 18 . 320 m kN xx = o
387
MohrCoulomb 1 2 3 4
unsat
[kN/m] 22.00 19.00 Undrain B=1 Undrain B=1
sat
[kN/m] Drain B=0 Drain B=0 19.500 19.30
E
ref
[kN/m] 150000.000 100000.00 80000.000 30000.00
v

[-] 0.260 0.250 0.350 0.300
G
ref
[kN/m] 59523.810 40000.000 29629.630 11538.46
E
oed
[kN/m] 183531.746 120000.00 128395.062 40384.61
c
ref
[kN/m] 1.00 1.00 100.00 25.00

[] 40.00 33.00 19.00 21.00
MohrCoulomb 5 6 7 8
unsat
[kN/m] Undrain B=1 Undrain B=1 Undrain B=1 Undrain B=1
sat
[kN/m] 19.60 19.60 19.80 19.90
E
ref
[kN/m] 30000.000 43200.000 60000.000 84000.00
v

[-] 0.280 0.280 0.300 0.350
G
ref
[kN/m] 11718.750 16875.000 23076.923 31111.111
E
oed
[kN/m] 38352.273 55227.273 80769.231 134814.81
c
ref
[kN/m] 20.00 45.00 75.00 80.00

[] 24.00 21.00 20.00 22.00
Figure 14: Geotechnical properties of the layers
4. CONCLUSION
Comparing the corresponding analyses carried out by use of the PLAXIS and
PROC3DN programs it can be concluded that there is a certain identity of compared values.
While analyzing the strain states, the difference is negligible. Comparing the corresponding
stress states, it can be concluded that the shape of the zones of concentration of stresses is
identical whereat the difference in intensity is less than 3-5% . The shape and the
propagation of the manifested plastic zones and tension cut of zones coincide. The
difference between the computed minimal safety coefficient obtained by application of
Plaxis and the corresponding coefficient obtained by using the PROC3DN program results
from the differences in the method for definition of the safety coefficient within each
program. According Plaxis factor of safety is defined as a ratio of the true strength to the
computed minimum strength required for equilibrium calculated by use of the step by step
iterative Phi-C- reduction procedure. The procedure is special kind of plastic analysis based
388
on reduction of the strength parameters in the same proportion that equals the value of the
total multiplier. The value of this multiplier at the last step of the iterative procedure that
maintains equilibrium is the value of the coefficient of safety. So Plaxisi is giving us
coefficient as a ratio of available extreme strength and minimum strength needed for
equilibrium of the system. According PROC3DN the factor of safety is a ratio of the
available extreme shear strength producing passive shear forces and the manifested working
shear stresses producing active shear forces. If the element is in elastic behaviour then the
active working shear stress is always less than the those needed for maintaining the limit
equilibrium at the beginning of the plastic flow.
REFERENCES
[1] "Study on the Stress-Deformation State for Preparation of Own Software for 3D
Static and Dynamic Nonlinear Analysis of Earth-Fill Dams PROC3DN ver 1.2,
IZIIS,Skopje, V.,Mircevska, V., Bickovski,
[2] Finite Element Code for Soil and Rock Analyses, " PLAXIS version. 8.1,
Technical University of DELFT- Netherland
[3] A 3D Nonlinear dynamic analysis of a rock-fill dam based on IZIIS software ,V.
Mircevska, V., Bickovski, M., Garevski, ACTA GEOTECHICA SLOVENICA
vol.4, 2007/2,pp.17-32
389
Violeta Mirevska
1
Vladimir Bikovski
2
Mihail Garevski
3
BENCHMARK TEST softwera FILT3D-IZIIS
Rezime
Cilj ove analize je benchmark test geotehnikog softwera FILT3D-ver.1.2 razvijen
u IZIIS-u sa ciljem demonstriranje objektivnosti i primenljivosti izlaznih rezultata.
Za usporeujui softwer izabran je komercijalni geotehniki kompjuterski
program FLAXIS ver.8.1 Univ. Of Delft-Nitherland. Usporeeni su rezultati
dobijeni od oba programa kao porni pritisci, potencijali i brzine filtracija, za sistem
brana-duboki iskop. Budui da je filtraciono stanje plonog tipa a kako PLAXIS
podrava 2D analizu a FIL3D podrava 3D analizu, komparativni model je
definisan graninim uslovima koji u potpunosti simuliraju povrinsko stanje
filtracije.
Kljucne reci: stacionarna filtracija, benchmark test
A BENCHMARK TEST OF THE SOFTWARE FILT3D-IZIIS
Summary
The objectiv of this work is a benchmark run of the geotechnical software
FILT3Dver.1.2 developed at IZIIS in oder to assess its objective performance as
well as its correctness and applicability. For benchmarking software choosen is
the comercial geotechnical computer programs PLAXISver.8.1,univ.Delft
Netherland. Analyzed and compared are the distribution of potentials, pore
pressures and filtration velocities through the porous media. PLAXIS program
supports 2D analysis while FILT3D program supports 3D analyses wherefore the
comparative model has been defined by boundary conditions that thoroughly
simulate the plain state of filtration
Keywords : stationary filtration. benchmark test
___________________________________________
1
2
3
. Prof. Dr., (IZIIS) Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
390
1. INTRODUCTION
The existing analyzed dam belongs to the type of low hydrotechnical structures
with a height of ~ 12 m from the lake bottom to the dam crest. The width of the dam crest is
10. m. The slopes on the upstream and the downstream side of the dam are ~ 1:3. This dyke
forms an artificial lake, with depth of 3 m. On the downstream side of the dam, for the
needs of construction of the Building for Living and Services, a cut in the dam body, at 10
m from the crest, parallel to the direction of the crest within length of 40 m, is to be made.
With this cut with a depth of 7 m, the consolidated stability of the dam-soil system is
disturbed. It is necessary to stabilize the system dam-excavation. The supporting structure
adopted in the analyses represents an RC wall with a thickness of 1,0 m along the entire
length of the excavation with embedment of 2m. The objective of the analysis has been the
proving of the short term stability of the dam Artificial Lakes Dyke in the vicinity of
Tirana after the excavation. The filtration state of the dam-excavation system is of a plain
type since the geometry of the filtration domain and the filtration conditions existing at the
boundaries of the filtration domain are invariable in longitudinal direction of the dam, i.e.,
the dam crest. The PLAXIS ver. 8.1 program supporting 2D analysis has been used. The
FILT3D ver. 1.2 program supports 3D analyses wherefore the corresponding comparative
model has been defined by a thickness of 1 m and boundary conditions that thoroughly
simulate the plain state of deformations.
2. RESULTS FROM THE STEADY SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
The analysis of stationary filtration through the dam and the soil has been carried
out for a reservoir water level at altitude of 117.25. The filtration coefficients for the whole
porous media have been adopted as follows
sec / 10
7
m k k k
zz yy xx
= = =
. The filtration
conditions on the external geometry boundaries of the mathematical model are of two
types. The prescribed specific discharge normal to the bottom boundary and both lateral
boundaries are of type
. 0 / = c c n W
, which means that the specific discharge is equal to
zero. The prescribed active groundwater head (potential) on the face of the upstream side of
the dam and the bottom of the reservoir has a value equal to 21.73m, which is, in fact, the
water level in the reservoir in respect to the referent coordinate system selected for analysis
of the stationary filtration. In reality, this corresponds to the altitude of 117.25. At all free
surfaces, the value of the active ground water head equals the geodetic height in respect to
the referent coordinate system, fig (1). Fig. (2) shows the active ground water head, whose
extreme value amounts to
m W 73 . 21
max
=
, whereas its minimal value is
m W . 13
min
=
obtained by use of Plaxis, whereat the corresponding results obtained by use of FILT3D are
presented on fig.(6). Figures (3) and (4) show the distribution of the active pore pressure
obtained by use of Plaxis. The extreme value of the pore pressure is
2
max
/ 217 m kN U =
and minimal value is
2
min
/ 0 . 0 m kN U =
. The pore pressure in the
zone below the left supporting wall ranges within
2
/ 75 50 m kN U =
. The corresponding
results obtained by use of FILT3D are presented on fig.(7). Fig. (5) shows the velocity of
391
the stationary filtration of the water fluid through the porous media, obtained by use of
Plaxis. Extreme value of filtration velocity is detected in the immediate vicinity below the
left supporting wall amounting to
sec / 10 * 06 . 75
9
max
m V
=
. The corresponding results
obtained by use of FILT3D are presented on fig.(8).
Figure 1: Filtration conditions on the boundaries of the analyzed domain
Figure 2: Active groundwater head with extreme head Wmax=21.73m
392
Figure 3: Active pore pressures with extreme pore pressure Umax=217.19kN/m
2
Figure 4: Active pore pressure Umax=217.19kN/m
2
393
Figure 5: Velocity of the flow with extreme value Vmax=75.06 10-9 m/sec
Figure 6: Active groundwater head with extreme head Wmax=21.725m
Figure 7: Active pore pressure with extreme value Umax=220.5kN/m
2
394
Figure 8: Velocity of the flow with extreme value Vmax=78.10 10-9 m/sec
4. Conclusion
Generating completely the same mathematical model for analysis of stationary
filtration and assigning the same boundary filtration conditions, the steady seepage state has
been solved by using both software FILT3D ver.1.2 IZIIS and Plaxis ver. 8.1 - Technical
University of Delft Netherland.. The obtained results are almost identical.
References
[1] "Study on Stationary Filtration Processes in porous media Software FILT3D ver
1.2, IZIIS,Skopje, V.,Mircevska, V., Bickovski,
[2]Finite Element Code for Soil and Rock Analyses, " PLAXIS version. 8.1,
Technical University of DELFT- Netherland
[3] A 3D Nonlinear dynamic analysis of a rock-fill dam based on IZIIS software ,V.
Mircevska, V., Bickovski, M., Garevski, ACTA GEOTECHICA SLOVENICA
vol.4, 2007/2,pp.17-32
395
Dragan Luki
113
, Elefterija Alatanovi
214
MERODAVNI INIOCI SEIZMIKE ANALIZE DVA PARALELNA
BLIKA TUNELSKA OBJEKTA
Rezime:
Danas je u svetu sve ea praksa izgradnja dva paralelna tunelska objekta ije su
prednosti smanjenje prenika tunelskog profila, a samim tim i veliine pomeranja
tla izazvanog konstrukcijom tunela. Do dananjih dana, naime, veoma mali broj
naunostraivakih radova se bavio odgovorom dva pralelna tunelska iskopa na
veoma bilskom meusovnom rastojanju, njihova interakcija ne moe biti
zanemarena. U prvom delu rada analizira se ponaanje ove vrste objekata na
osnovu iskustva nekih od najznaajnijih zabeleenih zemljotresa. U drugom delu
posebno su istaknuti merodavni parametri seizmike analize dva bliska tunelska
objekata.
Kljune rei: zemljotres, odgovor tunela na seizmike uticaje, dva bliska tunelska
objekata, merodavni inioci
RULING PARAMETRES FOR SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF
TWIN'TUNNELS
Summary:
Two smaller one-way tunnels are preferred to construct nowadays, which presents
major advantages, such as the reduction of both the tunnel diameter and the soi8l
movement resulting from the tunnel construction. Up to now, however, rather
limited work has been focused on the dynamic response of two proximate paralllel
tunnel structures, particularly from the aspect of their minimum safe distance,
which is important especially during earthquakes. If twin tunnnels are very close,
their interaction is not negligible. The firs part of the paper discusses an analysis of
behavoir of this type of facilities given according to some of the most significatnt
earthyuakes experienced so far. In the second part, a special attention was given to
the problem of ruling parameters for seismic analysis of two tunnels driven in clos
proximity.
Keywords: earthyuake, seismic response of a tunnel, twin-tunnels, ruling
parameters
1
Associated professor, grad.civ.eng., Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of subotica,
Serbia
2
Assistant, grad.civ.eng., Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of nis,
Serbia
396
1. INTRODUCION
Modern flows and everyday people's lives point out the fact that the need to make
use of space under the ground today is the greatest than ever. Ever increasing population of
large cities, density of transportation and need for storage capacity have led, invetably, to
an increased use of undergound facilities, that are an tegral part of the intreastructure of the
modern society and are used for a wide range of applications, including subways and
railways, higways, material storage, and swage and water transport. For the reasosns of the
overpppulation and the lake of a space, tunnels have a significant role in the development
of urban areas. Some of these areas are prone to frequakes. Even fifty percent of the world's
population live in urban areas, and seventy percent of that population live in earthquake
prone areas. The city of Ni, Serbia, and Balkan region as well, are in the seismic active
area.
Initially, tunnels were designed with no regard to seismic effects, while, being
confined by the surrounding rock or soil, these structures habe long been assumed to have
good antiseismic ability, unless they are located within active faults, or within liquefied soil
zones. Thus in a very big time, the damage of tunnels did not take enough atention as free-
standing structures. A s the tunnel number and its seismic damage incereased, particularly
during several recent earethyuakes, the assumption is shown to be incorrect. There is an
increasing awareness of the vulnerability of these structures to seismic activity and this
problem attracts the attention of experts of all countries, reviving the interest in the
associated analysis and desing methods.
Quite often tunnels are located under densely populated urban areas, and reyuire
very high standards in a sense of their safety. Yet, even in the most developed industial
countries this engineering tiled is not fully researched and well known so far, and there is a
huge discrepancy between current regulations for underground facilities, particularly in
terms of earthyuake acitvity, and the requirements for desing and construction of
cost'efficient and safe underground structures.
2. ANALYSIS OF BEHAVOIR OF TUNNELS ACCORDING TO
SOME OF THE MOST SIGNFICANT EARTHQUAKES
Historically, underground facilities have experienced a lower rate of damage than
surface structures. Nevertheless, some underground structures have experienced significant
damage in recent large earthquakes, including the 1995 Kobe, Japan earthquake, the 19999
Chi-Chi, Taiwan earthquake, and the 1999 kocaeli and the 2001 Duzce, Turkey
earthguakes.
In 1923, Kanto earthyuake in japan, when over 80% of the more than hunderd
tunnels in the disaster area damaged, in one of the structures movement of the arc wall
reached 25 cm, the tunnel bottom knobbed reach to 1 m, the shrinkage of cross section
reached 50 cm.
In 1971, St. Fernando earthquake of USA it was the first time that earthquake
engineers linked the structural damage caused by an earthquake to the impulisve character
of the nearfault grund motion. One tunnel close to Sylmar fault reached vertical
displecement up to 2.29 m.
397
Hyogoken Nanbu (Osaka-Kabe) earthquake in 1995 is the first case of severe
earthquakeinduced damage to modern underground facilities. The earthquake caused the
failure of parts of undergrund Daikai Station that was located away from an active fault,
and where the ground did not experience soil liquefaction. The earthquake stimulated the
sharp rise in demond for rational desing procedures for urban facilities.
In Chi-Chi earthquake of Taiwan in 1999, tunnel damage have a lot to do with the
construction age 44% of damaged tunnels were those built before 1980, 14% built after
1980.
In 2001, Duzce earthquake in Turkey, 400 m long stretch under construcition of
the Bolu tunnel collapsed.
Some ilustrative examples are presented at the folloxing figures:
Image 1 Behavoir of tunnels according to some most significant earthquakes: a) Kern
County earthquake; b) Mid North Iwate earthquake, c) Off Iyu Oshima earthquake
1952 Kern County earthquake the rails are bent, showing that the 46-cm-thick
tunnel wall was lifted up enough for the rail to silde underneath.
1998 Mid Nort Iwate earthquake (Kakkonda hydroelectric power station) outlet
tunnel was crack up into sevaral large block, some thick blocks were pushed in the tunnel
reducing the tunnel's cross-section, one of them completely fell down allowing the soil with
big boulderes (30-50 cm) to fall into the tunnel.
1970 Off Izu Oshima earthquake the example given herein shows that a tunnel
can keep its cross section almost intact even after experiencing some large fault
dislocations, reaching about 1m .The cross sections were only pushed slightly out of shape.
Dowing and Rozen (1978) studied the response of 71 tunnels in rock to earthquake
motions. The dmage ranged from cracking to slosure in 42 cases. Sharma and Judd )1991)
compiled a database on the response od 192 tunnels during 85 earthquakes throughout the
world; 94 of the tunnels suffered from small to heavy damage. More than half the damage
reporeted was caused by events that exsceeded magnitude 7 od the Richter scale, and nearly
75% of the damage reported occurred within 50 km of the earthquake epicenter. There was
no damage in tunnels where the horizontal peak ground accelartation was up to 0.2 g. In
most cases where damage was reported, the peak ground accelartions were larger than 0.4
g. The data show that shalow tunnels are at greater risk during earthquakes than deeper
tunnels; roughly 60% of the total cases had overburden depths less than 50 m and suffered
some damage. Ground type is also important; 79% of the opening sxcavated in soil were
reported to have suffered some damage [1]
398
3. RESPONSE OF TUNNEL STRUCTURES TO SEISMIC WAVES
Ground shaking refers to the deformation of the fround procuced by seismic waves
propagating throungh the earth's crust. The major factors influencing shaking damage
inculude the shape, dimaensions and depth of the structure, the properties of the
surrounding soil or rock, the preoperties of the structure and the severtiy of the ground
shaking.
Underground structures have features that make their seimic behavior distinct
from most surface structures, most notably, their complete enclosure in soil or rock, and
their significant length. The design of underground facilities to withstand seismic loading
thus has aspects that are very different from the seismic desing of surface structures. In
general, seismic desing load for underground structures are characteriyed in terms of the
deformation and stains imposed on the structure by the surroundin ground (image 2, left
above), often due to the interaction betweren these two. In contrest, surface structures are
desingned for the inertial forces caused by ground yccelartions. Earthyuake damage to
tunnel structures has also proven to be better coralated with paticle velocity and
displacement than accelaration.
Seismic desing of tunnel structures is unique in several ways. For most
underground structures, the inertia of the surrounding soil is large realtive to the inertia of
the structure. Up to now experience has shown that the response of a tunnel is dominated by
the surrounding ground response and not the inertial properies of the tunnel structure itself.
The focus of underground seismic desing is on the free-field deformation of the fround and
its interaction with the structure. The emphasis on displacement is in stark contrest to the
design of surface structures, which focuses on inertal effects of the structure itself.
Tunel structure fround intereaction under seismic impact is to a great extent
more complex agains that one considering surface structures, in which case only
foundations are exposed to soil-structure interaction, and vibrations of soil particles
imposed to fundations are being transmitted to a structure above the ground. On the
contraty, as to tunnel structures, soilstructure interaction is induced along an overalll
controur of the structure, and a shape of interaction depends mainly on a type of a
construction prcedure, i.e. on a methodology of excavation and instalin of a tunnel support
system.
For long structures such as tunnels, different ground motions may be encountered
by different parts of the structure (the motion could vary significantly in amplitude and
phase along tunnel's length), and traveling wave effects must be considered. This spatial
incoherence may have a significant imapct on the response of the structure, since it tend to
increase the strains and stresses in the longituidanal direction. There are forum major
factors that may cause spatial incoherence: wave-passage effects, extended source effects,
ray-path effects saused by inhomogenties along the travel path and local soil site effects.
The generation of ground motion time histories with appropriate spatial incoherence is a
critical task if the designer is to compute differential strains and force buildup along a
tunnel length. The designer will have to work closely bith and engineering seismologist to
identify the relevant factors contributing to ground motion incohernce at a spesific site and
to generate appropriate ground motion time histories.
399
The deformation can be quite complex due to the interaction of seismic waves
with surficial sof deposits and the generation of surface waves. For engineering desing
purposes, these complex deformation modes are simplified into their primary modes.
Tunnel structures can be assumed to undero three primary modes of deformation during
seismic shaking [2
3.1. AXIAL DEFORMATIONS
Axial deformations (imate 2, right above) are the simpliest mode to consider, and
they are generated by the cmponents of seismic waves that procude motion parallel to the
axis of the subsurface exavation and couse alternating longitudinal compession and tension.
The casse of a tunnel structure subjected to an axially propagating wave is slightly more
complex since there will be some interaction between the structure and the ground. The
interaction becomes more important if the ground is soft and shear stress transfer between
the ground and the structure is limited by the interaface shear strength.
3.2. CURVATURE (BENDING) DEFORMATIONS
Bending deformations (image 2, lift below) are caused by the components of
seismic waves that propagate in the drection along tunnel axis, producing partical motions
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Diagonally propagating waves subject different parts
of the structure to out-of-phase displacements (image 2, middle below), resulting in a
longitudinal compression-rarefaction wave traveling along the structure. In general, larger
displacement amplitudes are associated with longer wavelengths, while maximum
curvatures are produced by shorter wavelengths with relatively small displacement
amplitudes (Kuesel, 1969).
3.3. SHEAR DEFORMATIONS
Ovaling defromations of a tunnel section (image 2, right below) develop when
shear waves propagate normal or nearly normat to the tunnel axis, resulting in a distrorsion
of the cross-sectional shape of the tunnel lining.
Image 2 Propagation of seismic waves and three types of deformations as the response of
tunnel structures to seismic motions (Owen and Scholll, 1981).
400
4. TWIN TUNNEL STRUCTURES
The latest research studies in the field of tunneling and earthquake engineering has
underlined developing udnerground traffic as very imperative. For a single tunnel, a large
cross section area would be necessary, in which case the volume of excavated material, the
influence range and required techniques for contruction would be much greater than the
construction of twin tunnnels. Thus two smaller one-way tunnels are proffered to construct
nowadays (image 3, a), which present major advantages, such as the reduction of the both
the tunnel diameter and the soil movement resulting from the tunnel construction. In some
cities, the geotechnical and underground conditions impose the construction of new tunnels
close to existing one.
In the recent time, construction of the third tunnel between two main structures
became a practice, for safety tunnels in case of bursting out the fire (image 3, b), or as a
ramp for the need to connenct the main tunnels located deep underground to ground level
(image 3, c) [6 ]
Image 3 Examples of tunnel structures as multiple closely spaced cavities
One of the most interesting cesses in a contemporary world practice is the
Wushaoling Tunnnel, famous for the length of22.05 km (the longest tunnel in China at
present, it has been completed), along which are encountered severeal regional fault yonse.
The Tunnel comprised of two parallel separate tunnels. Especially, within the Fault Zone
No. 7 that has a width of about 785 m, and the most complex geological conditions such as
squeezing strata, due to excessive deformations, in order to speed up the tunnel
construction, another two advancing drifts were made to go throught the collapsed regions.
There exist four closely spaced tunnels within the fault zone, and the distances between
every two tunnels are 40 m (centre-to-centre).
Image 4 Four tunnels driven in squeeying fault yone of Wushaoling Tunnel [3]
401
Up to now, however, rather limited work has been focused on the dynamic
response of twvo proximate parallel tunnel structures. Considering all the facts above, a
main goal of this work is to highlight a great importance of finding an optimal solution for
the construction of twin-tunnels, particularly from the aspect of their minimum safe
distance, which is important especially during earthyuakes. If twin parallel tunnels are very
close, their interaction (i.e. overlapping of indluence zones of individual tunnel) is not
negligible. The interaction is an important factor to affect the ground settlement.
6. IMPORTANT ASPECTS AND RULING PARAMETERS OF
SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF TWIN TUNNELS
5.1. Analytical solutions on tunneling-induced movements are useful; however,
they cannot accommodate all important factors such as complex soil stress-strain behavior,
construction details and geological conditions. A potential course of the research is
numerical study to be done. The complex nature of the seismic soil-structure interaction
problem for tunnel structures may require the use of numerical methods. The method of
dynamic analysis or the soil-structure interaction is based on the fact that the presence of
an underground structure modifies the fre field ground deformation. In this approach, a
dynamic soil-structure interaction is conducted using numerical analysis tools such as
finite element or finite difference methods. Dynamic analysis approach is mostly applicable
in a case of structures laid in saturated soil of low bearing capacity [4], which will
contribute to developing a new or to improving the existing desing models.
Besides, for the sake of the comprehensive understanding of the effects induced by
construction of tunnels or by an earthquake action, it would be appropriate to combine both
the experimental (image 5) and numerical analysis of the seismis response of tunnels. A
verification of the proposed mathematical model would be based on a comprison of
computed values with values measured at an experimental model of a tunnel. Thus, the
obtained results of a numerical analysis would be verified, justifiability of application of the
initial hypotheses would be checked, and by that a detailed and comprehensive seismic
analysis of twin-tunnels could be accomplished. Realization of experimental investigations
is often not certain, because of the too complex requirements, not only for the financial
reasons, but also from the aspect of place and time needed for organizing the experiment.
Image 5 Seismic response analysis of twin-tunnels in shaking table test [5]
When the word about the type of the analysis is (2D or 3D), it should be
emphasiyed that there could be inconsistencies between twvo analyses. Namely, 2D and 3D
402
analyses do not agree in the soft soil, and 2D underestimates displacements occur ar
different time steps. One of the possibilities is to approach the problem from the aspect of a
plane-strain state, but conditions such as the model dimensions, boundary conditions and
analysis constants are to be set identically to those in the 3D analysis (image 6).
Image 6 Comparision between 2D and Image 7 Horizontal, vertical and
3D analyses [6] inclined alignment of twin-tunnels [7]
5.2. A research sould be done referring to three configurations of the twin
tunnels: aligned horizontally, vertically and inclined. The highest soil settlement is
obtained for vertical aligned tunnels, while horizontal aligend tunnels cause the lowest
setlements (image 7).
5.3. When it comes to surrounding medium, there are plenty of possibilities:
- tunneling-induced soil movement in soft ground is increasingly common
geotechnical activity for construction of transportation in populated urban; this is because
ground setlement and subsurface movement usually cause potential damge to existing
structures (image 8).
Image 8 Twin tunnels' induced Image 9 Fluid saturated
settlement in soft soils [8] porous elastic formation [9]
- the analytical or numerical solutions involving multiple cavities in a fluid
saturated porous elastic formation (multi-phase medium) seem to be nonexsistent in the
literature (image 9); presence of water in the soil with low bearing capacity (soft soil)
further aggravates soil response to seismic influence [15], [16]; namely, when subjected to
action of seismic waves, such deposits are prone toliquefaction (soil flow), which results in
floating of the tunnel structure on the water saturated subsoil;
- layered formations with different material proparties, because of usually
encountering in urban areas (image 10);
403
Image 10 Multi-layered soil medium two and three layers [10]
- fractured medium, considering that fractures not only reflect seismic
energy, but also serve as host for interface waves that can propagate for long distances with
less attenuation than direct waves.
5.4. In oreder to include soil-structure interaction, the analysis should empoloy
lined circular tunnels where the lining could be sonsidered as integrated or jointed.
Esitmation of the dynamic internal forces in the lining structure is a key procedure in the
seismic design of tunnels, allowing a better understanding of fynamic interaction between
the lining and its surrounding media. In the course of the past years, appliance of TBM
gave rise to the jointed linings where could be distinguished straight-jointed and staggered-
jointed rings. Presence of joints could result in up to 50% reduction in the developed
moment (image 11).
Image 11 Straight-jointed and Image 12 Interaction of twvin
straggered-jointed lining structures [11] tunnels depth relationship [8]
5.5. Tunnel structure deformation decreases with the increase of the thickness of
layer above the tunnel and the deep-laid tunnels are safer and less sensitive to earthyuakes,
as opposed to the tunnels with shallow embedement depth. Taking into consideration the
conclusion that when burial depth is large, interaction of the twin-tunnels is smaller, for the
sake of the safe construction in urban areas, it would be favorable to study shallow-buried
tunnel structures, as the interaction is an important factor to affect the ground settlement
(image 12).
5.6 When it comes to the loading which should be employed in the analysis, three
different stress fields could be pointed out:
404
a) Initial stress field (in situ stresses prior to tunnel excavation) induced by weight
of soil, earth pressure, and eventually water pressure. Impact of initial stresses on the over-
stressed zones for tunnels for the first time was considered recently. As depicted in the
following figures, firmer soil influence over-stressed zone decreasing (image 13, left), and
when K (horizontal pressure vertical pressure ratio) closes to 1, overstressed zones and
induced displacements around each tunnel cecome more symmetry (image 13, right);
Image 13 Impact of initial stresses [10]
b) Induced stresses should be taken into consideration in the form of disturbed or
degraded zone around bored tunnels (image 14) due to the effects of construction and
disturbance on the in situ stress field, which results in increasing moment and decreasing
thrust [15], [16]. It would be of great importance to try take into consideration the influence
of TBM loading (image 15), and to examine what would be the seismic response of a tunnel
when it is under construction. Thus there could be two comparable possibilities
simultaneous excavation of twin-tunnels vs. excavation of a new tunnel close to existing
one [17].
Image 14 Degraded yone Image 15 Analysis of the
around a bored tunnel [12] influence of TBM loading [13]
c) Incident (special) loading by seismic waves and faults.
Dynamic response of twin-tunnels could be analyzed drugin the passage of
compressive and shear waves (separately of combined) [9]. In case of shallow-buried
tunnels surface Rayleigh waves should be considered too, because of the fact that they
induce motions and stresses in the soil and structure which are substantially different.
Despite the significant progress in understanding the seismic behavior of underground
structures, vey little is known about their response, when the soil is excited from the
passage of Rayleigh waves. The deformation of the strcture is usually greater under these
405
waves, and the bending deformation is the greatest [14]. Earthyuake effects on tunnel
structures take the form of deformations that cannot be changed significantly bu
strengthening the structure. The structure should instead be designed with sufficient
ductility to absorb the imposed deformations without losing the capacity to carry static
loads.
A careful review of the damages saused by earthyuakes to underground structures
shows that most damaged tunnels were located in the vicinity of the causative fault. Uner
such conditions ground motion in affected by near-fault effects and the induced strain filed
is quite complex, characterized by a strong intensity and a relatively short duration (pulse-
like motion). Thus, instead of investigation of on wave scattering of seismic waves,
alternative in raserach work could be twin-tunnels affected by the focal mechanism, the
direction of rupture propagation relative to the site (directivity effects) and by the
permanent ground displacement resulting from the fault slip (fling step), where one tunnel
structure is at a footwall, and the other one at the hanging wall of the fault [17]. The general
philosophy is to desing the structure to accommodate expacted fauld displacements and
allow repair of damaged lining afterwards.
6. CONCLUSION
Analysis of seismic behavior of a tunnel is a complex task since it involves the
interaction with several disciplines including soil, rock and structural dynamics, structural
geology, seismotectonics and engineering seismology. In addition, underground structures
are crucial elements in transporation network and the occurrence of a seismic event not
only determine a potential loss of human lives, but also damages to the infrastructures that
could severaly affect the economy of a region due to the time required to restore the
functionality of the network.
Taking all into account, finding an optimal solution for the construction of twin-
tunnels is assumed to be a serious task, but it would be of great importance, particularly
considering that desing rules for tunnels are not introduced in Eurocode 8 (EN 1998-5,
2003).
REFERENCES
[1] Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Simplified analyses with case studies
and examples / Mulutin Srbulov // Springer , 2008, 244 pages
[2] Seismic design and analysis of underground structures / Hasash Y. et al. //
Tunneling and Underground Space Technology 16, 2001, pp. 247-293
[3] Interaction of four runnels driven in squeeying fault zone of Wushaoling
Tunnel / Yang J.S., Yan L., Deng S.J, Li G.L. // Tunneling and Underground Space
Technology 21, 2006
[4] Determination of the minimum seismically safe distance between two parallel
tunnels / Fotieva NN. // Osnovania, Fundamenti I Mehanika Gruntov, 1980
[5] Numerical simulation of dynamic soil-structure interaction in shaking table
testing / Pitilakis D., Dietz M., Wood D.M., Clouteau D., Modaressi A. // Soil Dynamics
and Earthquake Engineering 28, 2008, pp. 453-467
406
[6] Full 3D seismic response analysis of underground ramp tunnel using large-
scale numerical computation / Dobaschi H. et al. // World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Beijing, China, 2008
[7] Numerical analysis of the interaction between twin tunnels: Influence of the
relative position and construction procedure / Hage Chehade, Shahrour // Tunneling and
Underground Space Technology 23, 2008, pp. 210-214
[8] Twin tunnels-induced ground settlement in soft soils / Wang et al. // Sino-
Japanese Symposium on Geotechnical Engineering, Beijing, China, 2003
[9] Harmonic wave diffraction by two circular cavities in o poroelestic formation /
Seyyed Hasheminejad M., Avazmohammadi R. // Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering 27, 2007, pp. 29-41
[10] Mechanical behavior of a twin-tunnel in multi-layered formations / Bin-Li
Chu et al. // Tunneling and Underground Space Technology 22, 2007, pp. 351-362
[11] Dynamic behavior of shield tunnels in the transverse direction considering
the effects of secondary lining / Mizuno, Koiyumi // European Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Geneva, Swityerland, 2006
[12] Simplified analysis of seismic in-plane stresses in composite and jointed
tunnel lining / Hany El Naggar et al. // Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 28,
2008, pp. 1063-1077
[13] On the influence of face pressure, grouting pressure and TBM design in soft
ground tunneling / Kasper T., Meschke G. // Tunneling and Underground Space
Technology 21, 2006, pp. 160-171
[14] Dynamic response of lutility tunnel during the passage of Raylegh waves /
Yue Q.X., Li J. // World Conference on Earthyuake Engineering, Deijing, China, 2008
[15] Seismic loading on shallow-laid underground structures / Zlatanovi E.,
Luki D. // International Conference on Civil Engineering Desing and Donstruction,
Subotica, Serbia, 2007, pp. 377-382
[16] Influence of earthquakes on the stress and strain state of the shallow-buried
tunnel structures in saturated soil of low bearing capacity / Zlatanovi E. // Scientific
journal Facta Universitatis, Serise: Architecture and Civil Engineering Vol. 6, No 2, Ni,
Serbia, 2008, pp. 221-227
[17] Twin-tunnel structures from the aspect of seismic influences / Zlatanovi E. //
1 st SCEES German Sout East Eruopean Conference on Civil and Environmental
Engineering Sciences, Bochum, Germany, Decembar 7-10, 2008
407
Ratko Salati
115
DISIPACIJA ENERGIJE U POLUKRUTIM VEZAMA
Rezime:
Energija zemljotresa predata konstrukciji apsorbuje se i disipira na razliite naine.
U elinim ramovima najvei deo energije se disipira u vornim vezama kroz
mehanizam histerezisnog ponaanja. Polukrute veze smanjuju ukupnu krutost
ramova, ali istovremeno znaajno poveavaju kapacitet disipacije enrgije rama.
Ova injenica se moe iskoristiti za projektovanje seizmiki otpornih objekata.
Formiran je numeriki model grede kojim se moe obuhvatiti i histerezisno i
viskozno priguenje u vezama. Fleksibilna veza je modelirana oprugom sa
nelinearnom vezom moment-rotacija. Numeriki rezultati analize desetospratnog
rama dati su na ilustrativnim dijagramima.
Kljune rijei: polukrute veze, viskozno i histerezisno priguenje
ENERGY DISSIPATION IN SEMI-RIGID CONNECTIONS
Summary:
In structures subjected to earthquake, the input energy is absorbed and dissipated
through different mechanisms. The main source of energy dissipation in steel
frames can be hysteretic behavior of connections. Semi-rigid connections reduce
the overall frame stiffness, but also significantly increase the energy dissipation
capacity of steel frames. This conclusion may be used to achieve economical
earthquake-resistant building structures. A numerical element model of beam that
can involve both hysteretic and viscous damping is developed. A flexible
connection is modeled by rotational spring with nonlinear moment rotation
relationship. The results of ten-story frame calculations have been presented with
illustrative diagrams and figures.
Key words: Semi-rigid connections, Viscous and hysteretic damping
1
, , , e
73
408
1 INRODUCTION
The analysis of steel frames is traditionally based on the assumption that a
connection between beam and column is either infinitely rigid or perfectly pinned.
However, numerous experimental investigations show that the actual response of joints is
between these two extreme cases, i.e. all connections transmit some moments and exhibit
certain degree of flexibility. This problem is of particular importance in frames subjected to
earthquake loading as a substantial amount of energy is dissipated in connections due to
friction, local buckling, plastic yielding and distortions. According to this concept the
whole energy dissipation is lumped in joints.
Viscous damping due to relative rotational velocity in connection is introduced.
The flexural complex stiffness matrix for a beam element with semi-rigid connections and
viscous rotational dashpots is evaluated.
Flexible connections through energy dissipation greatly influence the dynamic
behaviour of steel frames. Under cyclic loads, the connection hysteretic loop increases the
energy absorption capacity and hysteretic damping may significantly reduce dynamic
response of real structures. Therefore, modeling of the nodal connection is important for the
design and accuracy in the dynamic frame structure analysis.
Two types of nonlinearities are considered: geometric nonlinearity of the structure
and material (constitutive) nonlinearity of the connections. Numerical experiments are
conducted on a simple frame subjected to seismic excitation in order to show the influence
of various parameters on dynamic response due to hysteretic and viscous damping in
connections.
2 BEAM ELEMENT WITH SEMI-RIGID CONNECTIONS
In our research, semi-rigid connections between beams and columns are modelled
by rotational springs with nonlinear moment-rotation relationships. The proposed element
has the same number of degrees of freedom as the corresponding model in the conventional
analysis used for the frames with fully rigid connections. In order to study viscous damping
phenomena in beams with flexible connections, rotational springs and rotational viscous
dashpots are attached at beam ends (Fig.1). Note that a finite size of nodal assemblages is
considered and beam ends are assumed to be at distances e
1
and e
2
from the nodal points.
Figure 1- A beam element with flexible, eccentric and viscous damping connections
409
1.1 STIFFNESS MATRIX, MASS MATRIX, DAMPING MATRIX
For a uniform beam with rotational springs and dashpots attached at its ends the
complex dynamic stiffness matrix is obtained. The stiffness matrix has been obtained based
on analytical solutions of governing differential equations second order analysis, so that
each beam represents one element. Nodal displacements and rotations are chosen as the
primary unknowns, while displacements and rotations of the element ends are eliminated.
Thus, the number of degrees of freedom is the same as for the system with rigid
connections. Besides, the consistent mass matrix and damping matrix of element are
derived. These matrices are based on the physical properties of the member and given in an
explicit form, Sekulovic [1].
Expanding the elements of the dynamic stiffness matrix in series with respect to
the circular frequency e and neglecting higher terms than the third order, the following
expansion is obtained in the decomposed form:
...
2 *
+ + = m c k k e e j ,
(1)
where k is the static stiffness matrix, c the damping matrix and m the mass matrix for the
uniform beam with flexible springs and dashpots at its ends.
1.2 SEMI-RIGID CONNECTION MODELING
Numerous experimental results show that connection moment - rotation
relationships are non-linear in entire range of loading. In this study three-parameter power
model, Richard [2] is used. The generalized form of this model is:
( ) | |
n
n
k
M
1
0
0
1 u u
u
+
=

(2)
where M
u
is ultimate moment capacity, n shape parameter, k
0
initial connection stiffness
and u
0
=M
u
/k
0
reference plastic rotation. The shapes of the above equation for two types of
connections (Double Web Angle - DWA, Top and Seat Double Web Angle - TSDWA) are
shown in Fig. 2 (left). The details of these connections can be seen in Chen [3]. The
proposed moment-rotation relationship has been verified through a number of full-scale
experiments conducted by various investigators, Kishi [4]. However, the experimental data
for the connection behaviour under cyclic loading are rather poor.
410
Figure 2 - Three parameter power model and independent hardening model
To describe the nonlinear behaviour of the connection under cyclic loading, the
independent hardening model is used, Fig. 2-right. The effect of hysteretic damping on
dynamic behaviour of the structure is directly included through the connection constitutive
relation. The skeleton curve used in this model is obtained from three-parameter model.
3 ENERGY DISSIPATION
Energy dissipation exists in frame structures under dynamic loads. The primary
sources of energy dissipation may be hysteretic behaviour of connections and the friction
between elements forming the beam-column assemblage. In addition, different types of
energy dissipation devices can be installed into connection in order to increase the
structural energy absorption capacity. For this reason, in the present model, the total energy
dissipation is confided to the joint connections. Two types of energy dissipation are
assumed. They are: hysteretic damping due to nonlinear behaviour of connections and
viscous damping at the connections. In general, the effects of these dampings are coupled.
Also, they can be considered separately using either linear constitutive relation for the
connections or zero value for the viscous damping coefficients at the connections. As it is
assumed that all structural elements, except the connections, remain elastic through the
whole loading range, the energy dissipation at plastic hinges cannot be observed. Other
types of energy dissipation that may exist in real frame structures can be included in the
present model in a usual way, by mass and stiffness proportional damping matrix.
4 NUMERICAL PROCEDURES AND NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
The equations of motion of a frame are formed using well-known procedures. The
diagonal system mass matrix consisting of terms corresponding to translational degrees of
freedom is used. The system damping matrix and the system stiffness matrix are assembled
from element matrices. The equations of motions are integrated using Newmark average
acceleration method. Within each time step, an iterative algorithm based on evaluating
secant stiffness matrix and damping matrix has been performed to resolve unbalanced
forces to zero.
411
Figure 3 - Layout and properties of ten-story frame
Based on the above theoretical considerations, a computer program has been
developed and dynamic analysis of ten - story single bay steel frame has been carried out.
The geometrical and material properties of the frame investigated are shown in Fig. 3.
One type of semi-rigid connection (TSDWA- Top and Seat angle Double Web
Angle) with both linear and nonlinear moment-rotation relation is considered. In order to
compare obtained results, the same frame with fully rigid connections is analyzed. Linear
(first order) and geometrically nonlinear (second order) analyses were carried out.
The natural frequencies and the corresponding periods for the first three modes are
determined for the cases of fully rigid and linear semi-rigid connection and shown in Table
1.
Table 1 - Natural frequencies of the frame investigated
Type of
connection
Natural frequencies
(rad/s)
Periods
(s)
mode First Second Third First Second Third
Rigid 6.328 17.523 31.116 0.993 0.359 0.202
TSDWA 5.727 16.088 28.611 1.097 0.391 0.220
The frame is assumed to be subjected to the first four seconds of Petrovac, (NS
component) earthquake motion. The displacement response at the top of the frame with
both linear and nonlinear connection TSDWA and rigid jointed frame according to the
linear and second order analyses are plotted in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5.
There is a considerable difference between the responses for rigid jointed frames and
frames with nonlinear connections, due to hysteretic damping, which exists only in
nonlinear connections. The linear moment-rotation TSDWA connection type exhibits
similar behaviour as the fully rigid connection type and can be a good model only for low-
level loads. Fig.4 and Fig.5 show that in nonlinear types of connection there are permanent
deflection drift (due to large connection rotation) in both first order and second order
analysis.
412
The lateral displacement and shear force envelopes of the frame with the previous
connection types obtained according to the linear and second order analyses are shown in
Fig.6 and Fig.7. The frames with flexible nonlinear connection under applied earthquake
motion have smaller both lateral displacements and shear forces when compared with the
rigid jointed frame. That can be explained by taking into account the fact that any
earthquake is an excitation with wide range of frequencies. The predominant frequencies of
the applied earthquake are within the range from 2 to 10 Hz (periods 0.1 to 0.5 second).
The lowest natural frequencies of the investigated frames (Rigid, TSDWA) are much higher
than the predominant earthquake frequencies, while the second and the third natural
frequencies are within the range of predominant frequencies of the applied earthquake. It
obviously has a great influence on displacement response of these frames.
Time history acceleration responses of the frame with rigid and both linear and
nonlinear (TSDWA) connections according to linear and second order analyses are shown
in Fig. 8. There is a great hysteretic damping effect on the acceleration response of the
frame with nonlinear connection. On the contrary, in the case of rigid jointed frame, the
acceleration response is not dampened, so the large amplification of the acceleration
response exists. The hysteretic M-u loop at joint C of the frame with TSDWA type of
connection is shown in Fig.9. It can be seen that the connections undergo strong rotational
deformations during the applied earthquake motion.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, t(sec)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
,

u
A

(
c
m
)

-20
-10
10
20
TSDWA linear
TSDWA nonlinear
Rigid
Figure 4 - Time-history displacement at the top node of the frame, linear analysis
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, t(sec)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
,

u
A

(
c
m
)

-20
-10
10
20
TSDWA linear
TSDWA nonlinear
Rigid
Figure 5 - Time-history displacement at the top node of the frame, second-order analysis
413
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
F
l
o
o
r

l
e
v
e
l

TSDWA linear
TSDWA nonlinear
Rigid
10 20
Displacement, u(cm) Shear force, T (kN)
F
l
o
o
r

l
e
v
e
l

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
200 300 400 500 600 100
TSDWA linear
TSDWA nonlinear
Rigid
b) a)
Figure 6 - Lateral displacement and shear force envelopes according to the linear analysis
Shear force, T (kN)
F
l
o
o
r

l
e
v
e
l

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
200 300 400 500 600 100
b)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
F
l
o
o
r

l
e
v
e
l

10 20
Displacement, u(cm)
TSDWA linear
TSDWA nonlinear
Rigid
a)
Figure 7 - Lateral displacement and shear force envelopes, second order analysis
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, t(sec)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, t(sec)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

(
m
/
s
e
c
2
)
-20
-10
10
20
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

(
m
/
s
e
c
2
)
-20
-10
10
20
30
-30
TSDWA linear
TSDWA nonlinear
Rigid
TSDWA linear
TSDWA nonlinear
Rigid
a)
b)
Figure 8 - Time-history at the frames top node, first order (a), second-order (b) analysis
414
Rotation, u (rad) 10
-4
5
100
-10 -5 -20 -15 -25
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
m
e
n
t
,

M

(
k
N
m
)

200
300
400
500
-500
-400
-300
-100
-200
10
Figure 9: Hysteretic M-u loop at joint C with TSDWA connections
The foregoing results and conclusions based on time history responses and
displacement and force envelopes can be presented through energy balance approach. In the
case of fully rigid or flexible connections with linear moment-rotation relations, the input
seismic energy is transformed into potential and kinetic energy of the frame investigated,
Fig. 10a and Fig. 10b. On contrary, in the case of frame with flexible nonlinear
connections, the input energy is dissipated by hysteretic behaviour of joint connections,
which significantly decreases both the kinetic and recoverable (elastic) strain energy of the
system, which diminish at the end of ground shaking, Fig. 10c. Also, it can be noticed that
these three connection types do not absorb the same amount of input energy, which
decreases as the flexibility of frame connections increase. Time variation of energy
dissipated by both viscous and hysteretic damping for nonlinear TSDWA connection type
is shown in Fig.11. Viscous damping additionally decreases the kinetic energy of the frame
and dissipates less energy than the hysteretic damping.
5 CONCLUSION
An efficient method to perform the dynamic analysis of steel frame structures with
flexible connections has been presented in this paper. A numerical model that includes both
nonlinear connection behavior and geometric nonlinearity of the structure has been
developed. The stiffness matrix was derived according to the analytical solutions of the
second order analysis equations, so that each beam is one finite element. Based of the above
theoretical considerations and the results of the applied numerical analysis, it is evident that
the flexible joint connections greatly influence the dynamic behaviour of steel frames.
An increase in the connection flexibility reduces the frame stiffness, and thus the
eigenfrequencies, particularly the lower, which may have a primary influence on dynamic
response of the structure.
415
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, t(sec)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, t(sec)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, t(sec)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
E
n
e
r
g
y
,

E
(
0
k
J
)

10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
E
n
e
r
g
y
,

E
(
0
k
J
)

10
20
30
40
50
60
E
n
e
r
g
y
,

E
(
0
k
J
)

Input energy
Kinetic energy
Elastic strain energy
Hysteretic energy
Input energy
Kinetic energy
Strain energy
Input energy
Kinetic energy
Strain energy
Rigid connections
TSDWA linear
TSDWA nonlinear
a)
b)
c)
Figure 10 - Time variation of energy for various types of frame connections
416
10
20
30
40
50
60
E
n
e
r
g
y
,

E
(
0
k
J
)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, t(sec)
Input energy
Kinetic energy
Elastic strain energy
Hysteretic energy
TSDWA nonlinear
Viscous damping energy
c=10000 kNmrad/sec
Figure 11 - Time variation of energy dissipated by both viscous and hysteretic damping
The results of numerical examples show considerable difference in structural
responses of frames with flexible nonlinear connections and frames with conventional
connection types (fully rigid or linearly flexible). They also show that the effect of
hysteretic damping on structural response is significant. Therefore, the nonlinear
constitutive model for connections should be used in design and response analysis of real
frame structures. It can also be concluded that the viscous damping at connections may
considerably reduce the displacement response and internal forces of the frame. Moreover,
the conclusions based on the dynamic evaluation of displacements and forces completely
correspond to the results based on energy balance approach.
REFERENCES
1. Sekulovic M, Salatic R, Mandic R. Seismic analysis of frames with semi-rigid eccentric
connections. Twelfth Conference on Earthquake Engineering. New Zealand 2000
2. Richard RM, Abbott BJ. Versatile elastic-plastic stress-strain formula. Journal of
Engineering Mechanics Division, ASCE 1975; 101(EM4): 511-515.
3. Chen WF, Goto Y, Liew JYR. Stability design of semi-rigid frames. New York: John
Willey & Sons; 1996.
4. Kishi N., Chen WF, Steel Connection Data Bank Program, CE-STR-86-18, West Lafaete,
In: School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University
5. Chen WF, Cishi N. Semirigid steel beam-to-column connections: Data base and modeling.
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE; 120 (6): 1703-1717.
6. Chan SL, Shui PPT. Nonlinear static and cyclic analysis of steel frames with semi-rigid
connections. Elsevier; 2000.
7. Sekulovic M, Salatic R. Nonlinear analysis of frames with flexible connections. Computers
and Structures 2001; 79(11): 1097-1107.
8. Salati R. Analysis and Response Control of Steel Frames Subjected to earthquakes, Ph.D.
thesis (in Serbian), University of Belgrade, 2000.
9. Sekulovic M., Salatic R., Mandic R. and Nefovska M., Energy dissipation in steel frames
with semi-rigid connections, 12-th ECEE, London 2002.
417
Matja Godec
116
, Renato Vidrih
217
, Peter Sini
318
OSMATRANJE SEIZMINOSTI NA PODRUJU VELIKIH BRANA U
SLOVENIJI
Rezime:
Svake godine na naoj planeti nastane vie monih zemljotresa sa opsenim
posledicama takoe na veim objektima. Tu svrstavamo takoe velike brane od
kojih su mnoge izgraene na potresno aktivnim podrujima. Za prosuivanje
projektnih optereenja i ponaanje brana, u Sloveniji smo se odluili, da je za
obezbjeenje sigurnosti brana, potrebno nastaviti sa posmatranjem njihove
seizminosti. U slubenem listu RS godine 1999 je bio objavljen Pravilnik o
osmatranju seizminosti na podruju velikih brana, koji propisuje naine
osmatranja seizminosti, tehnike normative seizmolokih instrumenata te uslove
koje mora ispunjevati izvoa osmatranja uticaja seizminosti na velike brane.
Key words: velike brane, osmatranje seizminosti
SEISMOLOGICAL MONITORING OF LARGE DAMS IN SLOVENIA
Summary:
There are many strong earthquakes on our planet each year. They also cause
extensial consequences on large structures, such as large dams, which are often
build on active seismic regions. To estimate seismic actions and behaviour of the
dams, we decided it is necessary to continue seismic monitoring of the dams in
order to be sure of their safety. The Regulation of seismic monitoring of large
dams was issued in the National Gazette in 1999. It regulates methods of seismic
monitoring, technical standards of the seismological equipment, conditions which
must be fulfilled by the performer of the seismic monitoring and also defines the
conception of large dams.
Key words: large dam, seismological monitoring
1
Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje, Urad za seizmologijo in geologijo
2
dr., Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje, Urad za seizmologijo in geologijo
3
Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje, Urad za seizmologijo in geologijo
418
1 UVOD
Godinje je na zemlji zabiljeenih preko 3 miliona potresa. Veina od njih je tako
slaba da ih ljudi ne osjetimo. Meutim bar 900 potresa godinje je moniji od magnitude 5.
Takvi potresi mogu prouzrokovati takoe opsene posledice. Od godine 1900 je v
zemljotresima izgubilo ivot preko 1,6 miliona ljudi, posledice potresa u pojedinim
dravama znae pravu privrednu katastrofu. Mnoge brane u svijetu su izgraene na
potresno aktivnim podrujima i po znanim podacima je 74 brana pretrpjelo oteenje zbog
potresa, od toga 27 brana teka ili vrlo teka oteenja. Zbog potresa su tako pretrpjele
oteenja takoe nama blizu brane u Makedoniji, Rumuniji i Velikoj Britaniji (Huber,
1995).
Slika 1. Razorena brana prilikom zemljotresa 20. septembra 1999 na Tajvanu. Brana i
Gang je bila postavljena na tektonskem rasjedu, gdje je dolo pri potresu do povrinskog
pretrganja. Na jednoj strani rasjeda je dolo do dizanja 3 4 m, na drugoj pa do tonjenja
(spuanja) 1 2 m. (foto R. Vidrih).
2 OSMATRANJE SEIZMINOSTI
Sastavni dio ocjene potresne opasnosti podruja i lokaliteta brana objekata je
osmatranje seizminosti branskih objektata. Osim toga je to osmatranje bistveno vano za
ocjene potresne odtpornosti objekata. Tako dobijeni podaci omogoavaju smisaonost
projektne odluke kod novogradnji, kod ve postojeih brana pa omoguavaju to realnije
odluke kod popravaka ili ojaavanja poslije mogunih oteenja zbog potresa. Biljeke
419
stvarnih potresa nam znae jedine prave rezultate. Tako dobijeni rezultati nam slue za
prosuivanje projektnih optereenja, ponaanje i cjelokupnu ocjenu sigurnosti brana.
Na osnovu Pravilnika o tehnikih normativih za seizmiko osmatranje visokih
brana (Sl. l. SFRJ 6/88) i Zakona o zatiti okoline (Sl. l. RS 32/93) smo se zato u Sloveniji
odluili, da je za obezbjeivanje sigurnosti brana potrebno nastaviti sa njihovim potresnim
osmatranjem. Kod pripremanja pravilnika bila su upotrebljena kod osiguravanja potresnog
osmatranja takoe iskustva drugih drava. Iskustva sa potresnim osmatranjem imaju
izmeu ostalih u Australiji, Austriji, Kanadi, Italiji, Japanu, vajcarskoj i SAD (Fajfar,
1996).
Pravilnik o osmatranju seizminosti na podruju velikih brana objavljen u
Slubenem listu RS br. 92 godine 1999 propisuje:
- nain osmatranja inducirane seizminosti; koju priinjava voda u sabiralniku,
ograenom sa velikom branom,
- nain osmatranja dinaminog ponaanja tjela i temelja velikih brana, sabiralnika
(kolektora) vode, odnosno prostora za njima, te slobodne povrine u njihovoj
direktnoj blizini prilikom djelovanja potresa,
- tehnike normative seizmolokih instrumenata i normative za njihovo odravanje i
- uslove, koje mora ispunjevati izvoa osmatranja uticaja seizminosti na velike
brane.
2.1 VELIKA BRANA
Velika brana (dalje u tekstu brana) po tom pravilniku je:
- svaka brana, koja je via od 15 metara ili
- svaka brana izmeu 10 i 15 metara visine, koja ispunjava bar jedan od slijedeih
uslova:
- duina krune manja od 500 metara,
- sadraj sabiralnika, kojega napravi brana, ni manja od jednog miliona kubnih
metara,
- maksimalna visoka voda, koja utie na branu, ni manja od 2000 kubnih metara na
sekundu,
- brana je imala teke uslove kod postavljanju temelja i
- brana je neuobiajene konstrukcije.
Visina brane je opredeljena u skladu uzetog iz terminologije velikih brana, i visina
brane meri se od najnie take temelja do vrha brane (Zadnik, 1997).
2.2 CILJ PRAVILNIKA
Namjera pravilnika je osigurati osmatranje inducirane seizminosti i osmatranje
dinaminoga ponaanja brane.
Kod toga znai:
- osmatranje inducirane seizminosti obiljeavanje i zapisivanje promjena potresne
aktivnosti, koje nastaje zbog vode u sabiralniku, obuzdane u prostoru za velikom
branom,
- osmatranje dinaminoga ponaanja brane je oznaavanje in biljeenje odziva tjela
i temelja brane te slobodne povrine oko nje na potres.
Obveznik za obezbjeivanje osmatranja inducirane seizminosti i osmatranje
dinaminoga ponaanja brana po pravilniku je vlastnik brane.
420
Obveznik za postavljanje instrumenta odnosno instrumenata za osmatranje
inducirane seizminosti (seizmograf) i instrumenata za osmatranje dinaminoga ponaanja
brane (akcelerograf) je vlastnik brane.
Obveznik za obezbjeenje izvoenja radnoga monitoringa je onaj koji upravlja branom.
3 INDUCIRANA (TRIGERIRANA) SEIZMINOST
Pojavljanje potresa, koji su povezani sa djelatnosti ovjeka nazivamo inducirana ili
pravilnije trigerirana seizminost. Samo da se ta manifestuje u irokom prostorsko-
vremenskom i energetskom rasponu od mikropotresa u neposrednoj blizini izvora promjena
do ruilanih zemljotresa sa ariem u dubini veoj od deset kilometara.
Poznamo vie uzroka za induciranu (trigeriranu) seizminost. Najei su:
- vodna zajaenja,
- injektiranje tekuina i gasova u zemljinu unutranjost,
- crpanje nafte i gasa,
- rudarski radovi u kamenolomima,
- crpanje geotermalne energije,
- podzemne nuklearne probe,
Potresi trigerirani sa zajeenjima vode spadaju meu monije. Do sada je
nesumnjivo utvrena i dokumentirana pojava promjene potresne aktivnosti na bar 120
vodni zajeenja. Najmoniji su bili:
- Koyna, India, 10.12.1967, M = 6,5
- Kremasta, Grija 05.02.1966, M = 6,3
- Kariba, Rodezija Zambija, 23.09.1963, M = 5,8
U svim tim primjerima je bila dubina vode vea od 80 m. Jednostavna statistika
kae, da je svako pedeseto vodno zajeenje sa dubinom vode veom od 80 metara aktiviralo
potres magnitude 5,7 ali jo vie.
Najblii primeri Sloveniji su se desili u Piave de Cadore (Italija), gdje je
13.01.1960 nastao potres i Vajont u Italiji sa potresima magnitude oko 3.
Iako je istraenost ti pojava i znanje o njihovim uzrocima za sada prilino
nepotpuno dosta je vjerovatno, da te potrese ne priinjava ovjekova aktivnost. U podruju,
gdje taki potresi nastaju moraju postojati tektonsko ugodni uslovi za postanak potresa i
promjene seizminosti.
Za jedan put su utvrena dva mogua mehanizma, koji mogu aktivirati promjenu
prirodne seizminosti. U oba primjera ide za smetnje u prirodnom napetosnem stanju. Tea
vode u zajeenju izvodi dodatni pritisak u vertikalnom smjeru. Potresi, aktivirani sa tim
mehanizmom su po pravilu slabiji (jer je masa vode takoe kod najveih zajaenja relativno
mala u uspreivanju sa masom stijena ispod zajaenja) i pojavljuje se uskoro (nekoliko
dana ili mjeseci) po zaetku punjenja zajaenja na manjim dubina (do 3 km) i u
neposrednoj blizini. Vrlo esto je broj potresa povezan sa visinom vode ili sa brzinom
punjenja i pranjenja zajaenja. U odreenim uslovima je promjena taka, da se prirodna
seizminost smanji. Tako je u uslovima, gdje je najvea napetost vertikalna ili ima strm
pad, oekivati pojavu novi potresa (podruja, u kojima preovlauju normalni i strini
rasjedi) jer teina vode poveava prirodne napetosti. U podrujima, u kojima je najvea
napetost horizontalna, je esta pojava smanjenje prirodne seizminosti jer teina vode
djeluje suprotno od prirodnih uslova.
421
Drugi mehanizam je poveanje pornega pritiska podzemnih voda koji smanjuje
odpor stijene uz rasjed proti strinim napetostima. Potresi, aktivirani na taj nain nastaju u
veim dubinama (takoe veim od 10 km) mogu takoe na veoj udaljenosti (nekoliko puta
deset kilometara) od vodnog zajaenja. Poto je vodi potrebno prilino vremena da prodre
do dubina (odvisno od permeabilnosti stijena) taki potresi se prvi put pojavljuju takoe vie
godina po punjenju (do 20 godina). Potresi veih magnituda nastaju uz vee rasjede i
njihovo postajanje je preduslov takoe uz pojavu potresa. Vodna zajaenja su po pravilu u
rijenim dolinama, koje su postale sa eroziom u podrujima sa aktivnom tektonikom, koja
veinom presjecaju brojni razsjedi.
Dinamika pojava trigerirane seizminosti je lako razliita. Za sada su upoznali
nekoliko tipinih ponaanja:
- potresi odmah po punjenju (najei) su povezani sa promjenom nivoa vode i
ponekad se prestanu ponavljati poslije nekoliko godina,
- stalni potresi (rea pojava) govore na stalnu promjenu seizminosti,
- seizminost u podrujima krasa, koji je ponekad takoe u vezi sa vrlo malim
zajaenjima,
- aseizmina zajaenja, kod kojih dolazi do smanjenja potresne aktivnosti i
- mjeana, u kojima sa vremenom dolazi do prelaza iz jednog tipa u drugoga.
Pojavljanje idducirane seizminosti predstavlja opasnost kako za sam nasip tako
takoer za okolinu. U sluaju monijeg potresa moe doi do oteenja brane i oticanja
vode, ili do klizita u vodno zajaanje, koja brzo dignu vodni nivo i aktiviraju vodeni talas.
Rizikovanju su posebno izpostavljena podruja sa niskom prirodnom seizminostji jer
brane nisu projektovane za monije potrese, kao to je to po pravilu u podrujima sa
visokom seizminosti i jakim potresima u prolosti. (slika 1a in 1b).
Poznavanje problema inducirane seizminosti u vodnim zajaenjima je nedovoljno
i nije mogue sa sigurnou tvrditi, da bi bilo kakvo vodno zajaenje bilo gdje na svijetu
sigurno pred mogunostima induciranih potresa.
Kontinuirano praenje potresne aktivnosti u blizini vodnoga zajaivanja pomoe
boljemu razumjevanju pojava trigerirane seizminosti i mehanizama, koju prouzrokuju, kao
takoe tektonskih uslova, u kojima je ta pojava vie manje vjerovatnija. Za osmatranje
slabijih potresa je potrebna upotreba osjetljivih instrumenata u neposrednoj blizini, da
moemo utvrditi nastanak potresa i probamo ga usporediti sa drugim parametrima (visina
vode, brzina promjene nivoa vode ...) Za sve do sada utvrene mone trigerirane potrese je
ustanovljeno, da su im predhodili brojni manji potresi. Osmatranje trigeriranih potresa je
specifino podruje seizmologije, u kojem se strunjaci slau, da je prognoziranje potresa
mogue. Neki autori su ak miljenja, da je trigeriranu seizminost mogue kontrolirati sa
reimom djelovanja vodne brane.
Osmatranje inducirane seizmiosti se mora izvesti na branama, ija visina je vea
od 40 metara i to:
- brana, ija visina je vea od 100 m, mora imati na slobodnoj povrini u udaljenosti
do pet kilometara od obale sabiralnika vode (kolektora) lokalnu mreu najmanje
od tri seizmografa,
- brana, ija je visina izmeu 40 i 100 metara mora imati na slobodnoj povrini u
udaljenosti do pet kilometara od obale sabiralnika najmanje jedan seizmograf.
Za garantovanje optimalnog oznaavanja i zapisivanja te odreivanja parametara
lokalnih potresa je potrebno izraditi posebni projekat, u kojem se odrede lokaliteti
seizmografov, vrsta opreme i nain njenog postavljanja. Posebni projekat odobri
422
ministarstvo, pristojno za zatitu okoline. Ta posebni projekat je sastavni dio projekta za
pridobijanje dozvole za posezanje u prostor za gradnju brane.
Vlasnik brane mora osigurati poetak osmatranja inducirane seizminosti
najmanje tri godine prije poetka punjenja sabiralnika, odnosno prostora za branom te
obezbjediti to posmatranje deset godina poslije (prvog) zapunjavanja do kote punjenja,
odreene sa projektom za pridobijanje dozvole za posezanje u prostor za gradnju brane.
Ministarstvo moe poslije isteka predviene dobe na prijedlog obveznika odluiti
da osmatranje inducirane seizminosti prestane ako iz analize s posmatranjem dobijenih
podataka proizlazi da se seizminost podruja, na kojem stoji brana, zbog brane nije
promjenila.
U pravilniku je odreena oprema seizmografa.
4 OSMATRANJE DINAMINOGA PONAANJA BRANE
Zahtjevi pravilnika:
- za brane s visinom 60 ili vie metara mora biti postavljena mrea od najmanje
etiri akcelerografa, od koji je jedan u temelju, dva u tjelu brane, jedan na
slobodnoj povrini,
- za brane visine od 30 do 60 metra mora biti postavljena mrea od najmanje tri
akcelerografa, od koji je jedan u temelju, jedan u tjelu brane i jedan na slobodnoj
povrini,
- za druge brane moraju biti postavljena najmanje dva akcelerografa, od koji je
jedan u temelju brane, drugi na slobodnoj povrini.
Svi akcelerografi, postavljeni na pojedinoj brani, moraju biti povezani u jedinstven
sistem mjerenja i skupljanja podataka o osmatranju dinaminoga ponaanja brane.
Za osiguranje optimalnoga oznaavanja i zapisivanja dinaminoga osmatranja
ponaanja brane je potrebno upravo tako izraditi posebni projekat osmatranja, u kojem se
odredi broj i lokalitete akcelerografa, vrsta opreme i nain njenog postavljanja. Posebni
projekat odobri Ministarstvo i sastavni je dio projekta pridobivanje dozvole za posezanje u
prostor za gradnju brane.
Pravilnik propisuje opremu akcelerografa sastavne djelove odnosno osobine.
5 POSTAVLJANJE INSTRUMENATA
5.1 INSTRUMENTI NA SLOBODNOJ POVRINI
Zapisuju potresno njihanje tla, na koje ne utie postojanje brane i vodene
zajaitve. Pokazuju njihanje, koje bi bilo na podroju brane, ako te nebi bilo.
Instrumenti moraju biti postavljeni to blie brani. Meutim dovoljno daleko, da
moemo zanemariti uticaj objekta na biljeke (zapise).
Ta udaljenost bi morala biti jednaka duploj visini brane.
5.2 INSTRUMENTI U TEMELJU BRANE
Te instrumente instaliramo na karakteristina temeljna tla. Lokacijsko se
postavljaju u elije na betonskim temeljima, koje omoguuju povezanost sa osnovnom
stijenom, na kojoj stoji brana.
423
5.3 INSTRUMENTI U TIJELU BRANE
Sa tim instrumentima se mjeri odziv konstrukcije. Glavno mjesto je na najveoj
visini brane, gdje oekujemo najvee pomjerenje objekta.
6 OBEZBJEIVANJE OSMATRANJA
Osmatranje inducirane seizminosti i dinaminoga ponaanja brane moe za
obveznika iz pravilnika da izvodi pravna ili fizika osoba, koja ima punomo Ministarstva.
Ovlaenje Ministarstva moe dobiti pravna ili fizina osoba, koja ima registrovanu
geofizikalnu ili drugu odgovarajuu djelatnost osmatranja, mjerenja i kartiranja
(seizmoloki osmatra).
Ministrarstvo izdaje ovlaenje uz ispunjavanje uslova iz pravilnika u obimku za
kojega obveznik odnosno osoba zamoli, s obzirom na vrstu i obseg izvoenja osmatranja.
Seizmoloki osmatra mora za pridobivanje ovlaenja ispunjavati slijedee
uslove:
- da je privredna organizacija, zavod ili samostalni preduzima,
- da ima sjedite u Republici Sloveniji.
Seizmoloki osmatra dobije ovlaenje na osnovi molbe na Ministarstvu. Molba
mora sadravati podatke o moliocu te opis vrste i obsega izvoenja seizmolokog
osmatranja, za kojega molioc eli punomo.
Seizmolokom osmatrau se moe izdati punomo za najvie est godina.
Punomo se moe obnoviti na osnovi nove molbe, ako ispunjava uslove odreene u 26.
lanu toga pravilnika.
O osmatranju inducirane seizminosti te osmatranju dinaminoga ponaanja brane
za vrijeme potresa, seizmoloki osmatra je duan svake godine izraditi godinji izvjetaj u
propisanom obliku, najkasnije do 31. marta za prolu godinu.
Seizmoloki osmatra je duan prilikom svakog potresa, pri kojem ubrzanje na
vrhu na prostom povrju prelazi vrednost 5 procenata zemljinog ubrzanja, pripraviti
poseban izvjetaj, koji mora sadravati sve originalne registracije potresnoga njihanja i
odgovarjajuu obradu. Taj izvjetaj je potrebno dostaviti Ministarstvu u roku 30 dana po
dogaaju. Izvjetaj mora obveznik uvati deset godina.
Nadzor nad izvoenjem toga pravilnika vre inspektori, pristojni za ouvanje
okoline.
Bez obzira na odredbe pravilnika mogao je seizmoloki osmatra do 31.12.2004
dobiti punomo takoe, ako ispunjava slijedee uslove.
- da je privredna organizacija, zavod ili samostalni preduzima,
- da ima sjedite u Republiki Sloveniji,
- da ima odgovarajui broj tehnino i struno osposobljenih radnika sa
odgovarajuom strunom spremom i iskustvom za vrenje seizmolokoga osmatranja po
tom pravilniku,
- da razpolae sa odgovarajuim instrumentima te probno i merilno
opremo za izvoenje seizmolokoga osmatranja te za odravanje opreme u skladu sa tim
pravilnikom.
Ispunjavanje uslova utvruje Ministarstvo u saradnji sa upravnim organom,
pristojnim za standardizaciju i mjere.
424
Obveznici za izvoenje seizmolokoga osmatranja moraju za postojee brane
osigurati osmatranje u skladu sa tim pravilnikom najkasnije u jednoj godini po njegovoj
vanosti. U istom roku moraju obveznici usaglasiti sa odredbama pravilnika takoe
obstojee sisteme seizmolokoga osmatranja, koji su bili postavljeni po Pravilniku o
tehniki normativi za seizmino osmatranje visokih vodnih brana (Slubeni list SFRJ broj
6/88).
Bez obzira na odredbe 8. lana toga pravilnika moraju obveznici najkasnije u
jednoj godini po vanosti toga pravilnika obezbjediti takoe osmatranje inducirane
seizminosti za brane iz 5. lana pravilnika. To osmatranje mora trajati najmanje tri godine,
po isteku toga vremena pa moe prestati uz propisane uslove i po propisanom postupku.
Pregledna tablica 1 - Spisak velikih brana u Sloveniji
B
R
A
N
A
Z
A
J
A
I
V
A
N
J
E

G
O
D
I
N
A

I
Z
G
R
A
D
N
J
E

K
O
N
S
T
R
U
K
T
I
V
N
A

V
I
S
I
N
A

(
m
)

H
I
D
R
A
V
L
I
N
A

V
I
S
I
N
A

(
m
)

D
U
I
N
A

K
R
U
N
E

(
m
)

Z
A
P
R
E
M
I
N
A

Z
A
J
A
I
T
V
E

(
1
0
0
0
m
3
)
D
U
I
N
A

Z
A
J
A
A
V
E

(
k
m
)

B
R
O
J
A
K
C
E
L
E
R
O
G
R
A
F
A

B
R
O
J
S
E
I
Z
M
O
G
R
A
F
A

1 Dravograd 1942 23,0 8,9 180 7000 10,0 2
2 Vuzenica 1952 34,0 13,8 191 14200 12,0 3
3 Vuhred 1956 33,0 17,4 167 19300 13,0 3
4 Obalt 1960 33,0 17,4 167 12880 13,0 3
5 Fala 1928 34,0 14,6 248 4095 8,0 3
6 Mariborski 1943 33,0 14,2 184 18700 16,0 3
7 Melje 1977 17,0 8,2 160 4600 6,0 2
8 Zlatolije 1968 54,0 24,8 50 17,0 3 1
9 Markovci Ptujsko jez. 1968 19,0 11,5 120 23000 6,0 2
10 Formin 1977 49,0 29,0 49 8,0 3 1
11 Moste 1952 59,6 48,0 52 6240 5,0 3 1
12 Zavrnica 1914 15,0 32 135 1,0 2
13 Mavie 1986 38,0 17,5 118 10700 7,0 3
14 Medvode Zbiljsko jez. 1953 30,0 21,2 134 7000 6,0 3
15 Vrhovo 1993 24,0 8,1 140 8650 10,0 2
16 Botanj 2006 27,0 8,0 170 8000 10,0 2
17 Podsela Doblarsko j. 1939 55,0 56 5800 8,0 3 1
18 Ajba 1940 39,0 72 1600 5,0 3
19 Solkan 1984 35,0 22,0 138 7600 10,0 3
20 Loe martinsko j. 1970 16,0 11,0 205 6500 2,0 2
21 Tratna Slivniko j. 1975 17,0 13,0 81 4000 2,5 2
425
B
R
A
N
A
Z
A
J
A
I
V
A
N
J
E

G
O
D
I
N
A

I
Z
G
R
A
D
N
J
E

K
O
N
S
T
R
U
K
T
I
V
N
A

V
I
S
I
N
A

(
m
)

H
I
D
R
A
V
L
I
N
A

V
I
S
I
N
A

(
m
)

D
U
I
N
A

K
R
U
N
E

(
m
)

Z
A
P
R
E
M
I
N
A

Z
A
J
A
I
T
V
E

(
1
0
0
0
m
3
)
D
U
I
N
A

Z
A
J
A
A
V
E

(
k
m
)

B
R
O
J
A
K
C
E
L
E
R
O
G
R
A
F
A

B
R
O
J
S
E
I
Z
M
O
G
R
A
F
A

22 Raigaj Braslovko j.
cca 20
nepr
2
23 Trnava ovneko j. 1978 13,5 7,5 333 1720 1,5 2
24 Vodnarje Sotelsko jez. 1980 19,0 13,3 120 12400 6,5 2
25 Prigorica 9,8 7,3 960 8800 2
26 Vogrek 1988 37,0 31,0 200 8500 2,7 3
27 Klivnik 1987 28,0 252 4300 3,0 2
28 Mola 1979 23,5 90 4300 3,7 2
29 Vanganel 1964 19,0 17,3 130 244 0,2 2
30 Bukovlak 41,0 520 3 1
31 ZaTravnikom 49,0 630 3 1
32 Drtijica 2002 18,2 265 5900 0,5 2
UKUPNO 80 6
7 ZAKLJUAK
Postavljanje instrumenata je jedno od najracionalniji oblika i metoda zatite pred
potresom na branama. Podaci, dobijeni sa instrumentima za zapisivanje monih potresa, se
mogu koristiti kao osnovni podaci za definisanje projektnih kriterija i parametara. Bez
odgovarjajuih biljeenja takoe nije mogue uporeivati ponaanje brane u vrijeme
djelovanja potresa sa projektnim seizminim parametrima. Bez tih podataka takoe nije
mogue odluivati da li je jo brana sigurna ili je potrebno sanirati neposredno po potresu.
Iz navedenoga se preporuuje seizmino osmatranje sa instalacijom instrumenata
za zapisivanje potresa na svim hidrotehnikim objektima, a posebno na velikim branama,
koje su izgraene na potresno aktivnim podrujima.
Jo u SFRJ je vaio Pravilnik o tehnikim normama za posmatranje visokih brana
(Sl.l. SFRJ 6/1988). Na njegovoj osnovi je bio pripremljen i u slubenem listu RS godine
1999 objavljen Pravilnik o osmatranju seizminosti na podruju velikih brana, koji
propisuje naine osmatranja seizminosti, tehnike normative seizmolokih instrumenata te
uslove koje mora ispunjevati izvoa osmatranja uticaja seizminosti na velike brane.
Pravilnik izmeu nabrojanih uslova, odluuje takoe o pojmu velike brane, nadzor nad
njegovim izvoenjem izvravanju inspektori, pristojni za uvanje okoline.
426
Uvoenje svakog Pravilnika je povezano sa financijskim sredstvima, to su po
obiaju takoe tekoe. Zato se postavljanje instrumenata na branama ne odvija tako kao
to je bilo predvieno.
U Sloveniji je ukupno 32 brana, koje odgovaraju definiciji velike brane. Od toga je
10 brana na reki Dravi, 6 na reki Savi i 3 na reki Soi te 11 vodoprivrednih objekta, te jo 2
za spreavanje muljastih odpadaka. Na tim branama bie potrebno postaviti ukupno 80
akcelerografa i 6 seizmometara (u Preglednoj tablici 1 je prikazan spisak brana u Sloveniji).
Za sada (2009) se osmatranje seizminosti na podruju velikih brana u Sloveniji
izvodi na 18 velikih brana. Problem prestavlja ukupno 14 velikih brana na kojima se jo ne
izvodi osmatranje seizminosti.
LITERATURA
>1@ Earthquake Induced Damage to Dams Classification and Statistical Evaluation /
B.Huber // University of Technology Vienna, 1995, Vienna.
>2@ Tehnini slovar za pregrade / B.Zadnik // Slovenski nacionalni komite za velike
pregrade, 1997, Ljubljana.
>3@ Strokovne podlage za pravilnik o seizmolokem monitoringu velikih pregrad /
P.Fajfar, B.Zadnik //. Fakulteta za gradbenitvo in geodezijo, 1996, Ljubljana.
>4@ Pravilnik o opazovanju seizminosti na obmoju velike pregrade / Uradni list
Republike Slovenije t.92/99, 1999, Ljubljana.
427
Radenko Pejovi
119
, Radivoje Mrdak
220
, Jelena Pejovi
321
, Nina Serdar
422
,
SEIZMIKI ODGOVOR VISOKE LUNE BRANE MRATINJE
Rezime:
U ovom radu je prikazan dio rezultata iz numerike analize statike i seizmike
otpornosti visoke lune brame Mratinje. Za potrebe analize konstruisan je
proraunski model koji se temelji na unaprijed definisanim nelinearnim zonama i
presecima. Te zone su modelirane elementima tipa nelinearnih opruga. U
proraunski model za dinamiku analizu ove brane je ukljueno tijelo brane,
stjenski masiv, voda u akumulaciji, stvarne mehanike karakteristike materijala i
realni seizmiki parametari mikrolokacije. Analiza se sastoji od dva dijela. Prvi
dio je linearna analiza sistema brana-fundament-rezervoar za dejstvo projektnog
zemljotresa. Drugi dio je nelinearna analiza brane za dejstvo maksimalnog
zemljotresa relevantnog za sigurnost brane. U radu su prezentirani karakteristini
rezultati analize.
Key words: luna brana, seizmika analiza,brana-fundament,rezervoarat the most
SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF HIGH ARC DAM MRATINJE
Summary:
This paper shows part of results of static and seismic numeric analysis of high arc
dam Mratinje. For purpose of analysis design model with ahead defined
nonlinear zones and sections was created. Zones were modeled by nonlinear
spring elements. The numerical model for the dynamic analysis of this dam
included the dam body; rock mass, reservoir water, real material mechanical
characteristics and real seismic parameters of micro location. Analysis was
consisted of two parts. First part is linear analysis of the system dam-foundation-
reservoir for DBE-Design Basic Earthquake. Second part is nonlinear analysis of
dam for occurrence of Maximal Credible Earthquake (MCE), relevant for the dam
safety.
Key words: arch dam, seismic analysis, system dam-foundation-reservoir
1
Prof.dr,Univerzitet Crne Gore,Graevinski fakultet, Podgorica
2
Mr,Univerzitet Crne Gore,Graevinski fakultet, Podgorica
3
4
428
1. UVOD
U ovom radu prikazan je dio rezultata numerike analize stabilnosti betonske
lune brane Mratinje. Analiza je raena za potrebe Elektroprivrede Crne Gore A.D.
Niki iz Nikia, kao naruioca. Uraena je od strane Graevinskog fakulteta iz Podgorice
i Energoprojekta-hidroinenjeringa A.D. iz Beograda u skladu sa projektnim zadatkom
naruioca. Konsultanti pri izradi analize bili su Prof.dr Miodrag Sekulovi i Aleksandar
Saa Boovi.
Betonska luna brana Mratinje (sada nosi ime Piva) spada u red izuzetno
visokih brana. Graevinske visine je 220 m to je svrstava meu 25 najviih brana na
svijetu. Brana je zavrena 1976.godine, kada se poelo sa prvim probnim punjenima i
pranjenjima akumualcije, tj. nalazi se u eksploataciji preko 30 godina.
Provjere konstrukcije brane i njenih oslonaca vrene su korienjem tada
raspoloivih raunskih metoda. Uporedo sa raunskim analizama vrena su obimna
modelska istraivanja.
Provjere pogonskog stanja brane tokom njene eksploatacije vri se od strane
posebno formirane slube koja radi kontinuirano. Meutim, mjerni instrumenti, nain
mjerenja i prikupljanje podataka, nain obrade i interpretacija izmjerenih veliina praktino
se nijesu mijenjali od prvog probnog punjenja akumualcije 1976.godine do danas, iako je
ve realizovano preko 30 jednogodinjih ciklusa mjerenja. Pokazalo se da do sada
koriene metode obrade i interpretacije podataka ne mogu dati adekvatan odgovor i
objanjenja za sve pogonske dogaaje koje je brana pretrpjela u dosadanjem periodu
eksploatacije. S druge strane prikupljeni fond podataka samo je djelimino interpretiran, jer
nijesu napravljeni raunski modeli koji obuhvataju interakciju tijela brane sa okolnom
stijenom i vodom u akumulaciji (interakcija: brana fundament rezervoar). Brana Piva
analizirana je na numerikim modelima koji su bili na raspolaganju projektantu u momentu
projektovanja poetkom 70-tih godina.
Shodno navedenom, pristupilo se izradi novog, savremenijeg, numerikog modela
na osnovu koga bi se, uz korienje raspoloivih podataka, mogla uraditi provjera
projektnih veliina brane (dimenzije, naponi, pomjeranja i dr.).
Korienjem osavremenjenog proraunskog modela uraena je analiza stanja
napona i deformacija i na osnovu nje date ocijene:
-Postojeeg stanje brane u odnosu na projektovano i izvedeno stanje, kao i ocijena
njene sigurnost za statiko i dinamiko optereenje;
-Koje veliine izmjerenih deformacija brane, pri statikom optereenju mogu
ugroziti stabilnost objekta;
-Koje veliine maksimalnih urbranja i pomjeranja tla ili brane dovode u pitanje
seizmiku stabilnost brane.
U radu su prezentirani karakteristini rezultati linearne i nelinearne analize brane
Mratinje.
2. OSNOVNI PODACI O BRANI MRATINJE
Brana HE Piva(Mratinje) je betonska, nesimetrina, luna sa dvojnom
krivinom. Izgradnjom brane stvoreno je vjetako akumulaciono jezero ije se vode koriste
za proizvodnju vrne elektrine energije u pribranskom postrojenju HE Piva. Profil
pregradnog mjesta je geometrijski i geotehniki nesimetrian. Lijevi bok kanjona je strmiji
429
od desnog. U vrhu desnog boka moduli deformacije stijenske mase imaju niske vrijednosti
u odnosu na ostalu konturu. Zbog ovoga je brana konstruisana kao nesimetrina. U gornjoj
etvrtini na desnom boku se oslanja preko sistema horizontalnih ipova na bolje partije
stijenske mase koje imaju priblino iste geotehnike karakteristike kao i na odgovarajuim
nivoima u lijevom boku. U centralnom dijelu na kruni su tri prelivna polja irine po 13 m i
visine 5 m sa kotom praga 670,00 mnm.
Brana se sastoji do 18 konzola i ima pet revizionih galerija na kotama: 642, 602,
562, 522 i 482 mnm.
Osnovni tehniki podaci za branu su:
- Konstruktivna visina 220 m
- Hidraulina visina 190 m
- Duina luka u kruni 268,56 m
- Duina luka u nivou korita 40,00 m
- Debljine u tjemenim presjecima od 4,514 m u kruni do 29,917 m u dnu
- Debljine u temeljima od 6,46 m u kruni do 45,00 m u dnu
- Kota krune brane 678,00 mnm.
- Kota maksimalnog uspora 677,50 mnm
- Kota normalnog uspora 675,22 mnm
- Kota najnieg radnog nivoa 595,00 mnm
- Projektovan amarka betona MB 30
Osnovne karakteristike betona i stijene koje su usvojene u proraunskom modelu
utvrene su na osnovu rezultata ispitivanja i iznose:
Beton 41000 MPa
Stijena :
Lijevi Bok 10000 15000 MPa
Desni bok 5000 (7000) MPa until 15000 (16000) MPa
Za vodu u akumulaciji usvojen je modul kompresije 2.07 *10
6
MPa i v = 0.00.
Eksperimentalnim ispitivanjem brana Mratinje prinudnim vibracijama koje je
izvrio IZIIS Skoplje, 1980.godine izmjerene su dinamike karakteristike. Mjerene su
rezonantne frekvencije za vibracije u pravcu kanjona (radijalna komponenta) i popreno na
kanjon (tangencijalna komponenta), sopstveni oblici i kapacitet priguenja. Ispitivanja su
vrena za nivo vode u akumulaciji od 11.00 m ispod kote krune brane koja je zateena u
vrijeme izvodjenja eksperimenta.
Table 1 Izmjerene vrijednosti sopstvenih frekvencija
mode 1 mode 2 mode 3
S. frekfencija (Hz) (radijalna komponenta) 2.80 4.56 5.34
S. frekfencija (Hz)(tangencionalna komponenta) 2.18 4.07 4.46
430
U Tabeli 1 dat je prikaz izmjerenih vrijednosti sopstvenih frekvencija pri
eksperimentalnom ispitivanju brane. Izmjerene vrijednosti koeficijenta priguenja su u
granicama od 1.030 do 2.430 %. Malo priguenje je rezultat malog nivoa dinamike pobude
pri utvrivanju dinamikih karakteristika brane.
3. OSMATRANJE BRANE
Osmatranje visokih brana definisano je kao obavezujue za korisnika brane
domaim i stranim propisima. Meunarodni komitet za visoke brane ICOLD (International
Commission of Large Dams) definie kriterijume i nain osmatranja.
Tehniko osmatranje brane HE Piva sprovodi se u skladu sa Pravilnikom o
tehnikom osmatranju visokih brana, Sl. list SFRJ br. 7/66. Na HE Piva postoji posebna
sluba koja je vrila osmatranje u fazi izgradnje i nastavila u fazi eksploatacije i ona i danas
postoji. Osmatranje se vri na oko 1200 mjernih mjesta.
Seizmiko osmatranje brane vri se u skladu sa Pravilnikom o tehnikim
normativima za seizmiko osmatranje visokih brana, Sl. list SFRJ br. 6/88.
Postoji i poseban Pravilnik o tehnikom osmatranju brane HE Piva koji je
doneen 22.03.2988.godine. Ovim internim dokumentom izvrena je razrada i praktina
primjena vaeih zakonskih dokumenata i propisa u oblasti tehnikog osmatranja.
Obraene su vrste, nain i metodologija sprovoenja tehnikog osmatranja strunog tima
slube za osmatranje. Posebno poglavlje ovog Pravilnika odnosi se na postupanje u sluaju
opasnosti pri pojavi odreenih oteenja i defekata same brane ili pribranskog tla.
4. PRINCIPI NA KOJIMA JE ZASNOVANA URAENA
ANALIZA BRANE
Analiza ponaanja i proraun seizmikog odgovora visokih lunih brana su veoma
kompleksni problemi. Tome doprinose teina posljedica koje bi nastale njihovim ruenjem i
sloene geometrijske i geomehanike karakteristike brane i okolnog terena kao i stohastika
priroda zemljotresa. Savremeni zahtjevi u pogledu optimalnog projektovanja seizmiki
otpornih brana zasnivaju se na novim saznanjima o prirodi ponaanja materijala i
konstrukcija pri dejstvu zemljotresa kao i na novim mogunostima formulisanja i rjeavanja
sloenih matematikih modela. Klasini modeli koji se zasnivaju na predpostavkama o
krutoj vezi objekta i stijene ne obezbjeuju utvrivanje realnih dinamikih karakteristika
konstruktivnog sklopa brane i fundamenta u uslovima kada se voda nalazi u akumulaciji i
djeluje na branu i tlo. Usled toga ne postoji mogunost ni za kvalitativnu predstavu o
ponaanju objekta tokom seizmikog dejstva. Savremeni proraunski modeli za analizu
ponaanja lunih brana zasnivaju se na predpostavkama o interakciji tijela brane sa
okolnom stijenom i vodom u akumulaciji (interakcija: brana-fundament-rezervoar). Oni
omoguavaju obuhvatanje stvarne geometrije i karakteristika materijala kao i simulaciju
neogranienih medija stijene i vode i njihove interakcije pri dejstvu jakih zemljotresa. Pri
tom, modeli zasnovani na interakcijama dovode do redukcije uticaja u odnosu na klasine
modele.
Pri dejstvu zemljotresa umjerene jaine struktura brane ostaje u domenu linearne
teorije elastinosti. U drugoj fazi, pri dejstvu jakih zemljotresa brana postaje sistem
deformabilnih blokova sa odreenim unutranjim stepenima slobode, sa izrazitim
nelinearnim ponaanjem.
431
Analiza sigurnosti visoke lune brane podrazumijeva dvije vrste analize koje su
posledica razliitih kriterijuma za projektovanje i sigurnost objekta. Prvi nivo se odnosi na
optimalmo projektovanje (optimum earthquake-resistant design) za koji, kao kriterijum
stabilnosti, nijesu doputene pojave prslina. Radi se za sluaj spoljanjeg uticaja tipa
zemljotresa mjerodavnog za projektovanje (DBE-Design Basic Earthquake) u kombinaciji
sa drugim uticajima. Drugi nivo je procjena stabilnosti objekta (earthquake-resistant design)
za koji su dozvoljena oteenja izuzev onih koji ugroavaju globalnu stabilnost objekta.
Mjerodavni zemljotres za ovu analizu je maksimalno mogui zemljotres (MCE-Maximal
Credible Earthquake).
Za optimalno projektovanje i provjeru sigurnosti brana od presudne vanosti je
iznalaenje tanog seizmikog odgovora proraunskog modela. Model treba da to vjernije
aproksimira meusobnu interakciju sloenog sistema brana-fundament-rezervoar. Na
predpostavkama o simultanom radu objekta sa tlom i fluidom i njihovoj dinamikoj
interakciji, razvijen je veliki broj razliitih proraunskih modela na bazi njihove materijalne
diskretizacije. Mnogi problemi, a naroito oni iz domena nelinearne analize, istraivaki su
aktuelni. Zbog veliine sistema, raznorodnosti mehanikih karakteristika materijala, velikih
i nepravilnih kontaktnih povrina izmeu dijelova sistema, naroito su aktuelni problemi u
pogledu traenja modela racionalnih za primjenu.
Uovom radu je izloen originalan pristup konstrukciji racionalnog proraunskog
modela za nelinearnu analizu. Umjesto uobiajene racionalizacije modela za nelinearnu
seizmiku analizu sa usvajanjem grublje podjele kontinuma na manji broj elemenata polo
se od sledeih predpostavki koje dovode do uproenja modela:
- Linearnom analizom brane moe se odrediti zona u kojoj e se desiti nelinearno
deformisanje pri dejstvu zemlotresa sa nivoom mjerodavnim za ocjenu stabilnosti objekta.
Elementi za simulaciju nelinearnog ponaanja brane ugradili bi se samo u toj zoni. Na
osnovu dobijenih rezultata nelinearne analize model bi se, po potrebi, korigovao i analiza
ponovila na korigovanom modelu.
- Lune brane se grade od nearmiranog betona kao niz konzolnih blokova. Blokovi
su meusobno vezani nearmiranim kontaktnim spojnicama koje ne primaju napone
zatezanja pa predstavljaju potencijalno mjesto za pojavu i propagaciju prslina i pojavu
plastinih deformacija. Posle prestanka dejstva zemlotresa spojnice se , usled statikih
optereenja, zatvaraju. Blokovi i spojevi brane se razliito ponaaju. Pretean dio
deformacija brane ostvari se u spojevima pa se pri konstruisanju proraunskog modela
mogu uvesti predpostavke da su dijelovi brane izmeu spojeva linearno elastini i izotro-
pni dok nelinearno ponaanje nastaje samo u spojevima. Iz ovoga proizilazi da je mogue
samo spojnice blokova modelirati elestoplastinim vezama.
- Imajui u vidu tip nelinearnog ponaanja mogu se primijeniti jednostavni
kontaktni elementi sastavljen od nelinearnih opruga koji su ugraeni u vorovima mree
konanih elemenata du spojnica u zoni i u okolini zone u kojoj su se pojavila zatezanja. Za
simulaciju nelinearnog ponaanja mogu se primijeniti kontaktni elementi tipa nelinearnih
opruga kod kojih je odnos napon-deformacija nezavisan jedan od drugog.
Na navedenenim predpostavkama je konstruisan proraunski model i uraena
seizmika analiza visoke betonske lune brane Mratinje za koju su, eksperimentalnim
istraivanjima, utvrene dinamike karakteristike, ime je omoguena kontrola prora-
unskog modela i njegova kalibracija. U proraunski model za dinamiku analizu ove brane
je ukljueno tijelo brane, stjenski masiv, voda u akumulaciji, stvarne mehanike karak-
teristike materijala i realni seizmiki parametari mikrolokacije.
432
5. SEIZMIKI PARAMETRI
Za seizmiku analizu brane korieni su akcelerogrami zemljotresa koji se
dogodio u aprilu 1979.g na Crnogorskom primorju i to:
- Petrovac, hotel "Oliva", componenta N-S,15.04.1979.
- Petrovac, hotel "Oliva", componenta t N-S, 9 15.04.1979.
- Kotor, 24.05..1979.
- Budva, 24, 12.05.1979.
- Titograd-2, Seizmoloka stanica, komponenta N-S, 15.04.1979.
Svi zemlotresi su skalirani na maksimalno ubrzanje tla za nivo od 0.25 g za
projektni zemlotres (za linearnu analizu) i 0.40 g za maksimalno mogui zemljotres (za
nelinearnu analizu).
6. NUMERIKI MODELI
Model brana-fundament-rezervoar je sloen. dinamiki sistem po geometriji,
granicama domena, promjeni fizikih osobina i stohastikoj prirodu dinamike pobude.
Sastoji se od tijela brane, fundamenta kao beskonanog poluprostora i vode u akumulaciji.
U uslovima dejstva zemljotresa sastavni elementi modela se nalaze u simultanoj
dinamikoj interakciji brane-stijene i vode u akumulaciji. Za linearnu seizmiku analizu
brane Mratinje konstruisan je model baziran na numerikoj analizi simultanog
interaktivnog sistema brana-fundament-rezervoar korienjem 3-D konanih elemenata.
Dinamika analiza je sprovedena uz predpostavku o fundamentu bez mase i
kompresibilnom ponaanju vode u rezervoaru.
Slika 1- Proraunski model sistema brana-fundament-rezervoar brane Mratinje
Za diskretizaciju tijela brane i fundamenta upotrebljeni su 3-D elementi elastinog
kontinuma sa 24 stepena slobode. Za tijelo brane usvojena je debljina elemenata jednaka
etvrtini debljini brane. U proraunskom modelu za fundament, angaovana je debljinja
stjenske mase koja je priblino jednaka 1.5 H , gdje je H visina brane na mjestu centralne
433
konzole. Upotrebljeni su elementi prizmatinog oblika sa postepenim poveanjem
dimenzija elementa sa zalaenjem u stijensku masu.
Debljina stjenske mase od 1.5 H je usvojena na osnovu rezultata istrazivanja koja
su obavljena na brani "Andrijevo" na rijeci Morai gdje je pokazano da se ne mijenjaju
rezultati prorauna za usvojene vee debljine stjenske mase.Angaovana duina
fundamenta ispod rezervoara je: sa uzvodne strane brane 2H a sa nizvodne strane 1H.
Priguenje u proraunskom modelu je usvojeno kao zamjenjujue viskozno
priguenje sa koeficijentom priguenja od 0.05 i kree se u granicama koje su utvrene za
ovaj tip konstrukcije.
Model za nelinearnu analizu formiran je pod predpostavkom da e se, usled
prekoraenja vrstoe betona na zatezanje u spojnicama, od poetnog monolitnog stanja
tijelo brane transformisati u niz blokova sa fleksibilnim vezama du spojnica. Osnovni vid
nelinearnog ponaanja je pojava i propagacija prslina i pojava relativnih pomjeranja du
spojnica (otvaranje, zatvaranje i smicanje).
Usled prekoraenja vrstoe betona u spojnicama na zatezanje od poetnog
monolitnog stanja tijelo brane e se transformisati u niz blokova sa fleksibilnim vezama du
spojnica.
Za nelinearnu analizu sistema upotrebljen je modifikovani model upotrebljen za
linearnu analizu unoenju u model nelinearne elemenata. Oni su postavljeni u vertikalnim
spojnicama izmeu solid elemenata kojima je diskretizovano tijelo brane gdje su linearnom
analizom ustanovljena najvea zatezanja. Polazei od predpostavke da je osnovni vid
nelinearnog ponaanja je pojava i propagacija prslina i pojava relativnih pomjeranja du
spojnica (otvaranje, zatvaranje i smicanje za simulaciju relativnih pomjeranja primijenjeni
su kontaktni elementi tipa nelinearnih opruga koji su ugraeni u vorovima mree konanih
elemenata duz spojnica u zoni u kojoj su se pojavila zatezanja . Svaki nelinearni elemenat
sastavljen je od est nelinearnih opruga, za svaku od est unutrasnjih deformacija. Usvojeno
je da je odnos napon-deformacija ovih opruga nezavisan jedan od drugih.
7. REZULTATI I DISKUSIJA
U prikazu rezultata uraene linearne analize istie se veoma veliki uticaj
frekventnog sastava zemljotresa.
Analizirajui uticaj zemljotresa razliitog frekventnog sastava, a u cilju izbora
merodavnog akcelerograma, uoena je bitna razlika u veliini za pojedine vrste
zemljotresa. Za ilustraciju, na slici 2a, prikazani su dijagrami maksimalnih pomjeranja
vorova na centralnoj konzoli nastalih usled dejstva zemljotresa sa razliitim frekventnim
karakteristikama koji su skalirani za isti nivo maksimalnog ubrzanja. Na dijagramu se jasno
uoava da se uticaji, usled razliitih akcelerograma, kreu u veoma irokim granicama.
Maksimalno pomjeranje vrha centralne konzole za akcelerogram Petrovac je za preko
deset puta vei od odgovarajueg pomjeranja za akcelerogram Budva
Na slici 2b dat je prikaz maksimalnog pomjeranja vorova na centralnoj konzoli
nastalih usled dejstva zemljotresa sa istim karakteristikama na modelima za linearnu i
nelinearnu analizu.Istie se da je sraunato maksimalno pomjeranje na modelu za
nelinearnu analizu vee za 2,38 puta.
434
Maximum displacements of joints during five characteristic earthquakes
8.3
7.7
6.5
5.9
4.9
3.9
3.2
2.3
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.9
8.5
7.9
7.3
6.7
6.1
5.1
3.0
2.6
2.4
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.0
3.2
3.0
2.7
2.4
2.1
1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.0
13.3
12.2
11.1
10.0
9.0
7.0
5.3
4.0
1.5
0.5
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
0 5 10 15
Displacements U1 (cm)
Z

c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
e

(
m
)
max displacements KO
max displacements PET 15.04
max displacements PG
maxdisplacements BD
max displacements PET 9.04
Slika 2- Max. pomjeranje vorova centralne konzle a/ usled zemljotresa sa razliitim
karakteristikamab/ za modele za linearnu i nelinearnu analizu
Slika 3- Slika napona u tangencijalnom pravcu Slika 4- Slika napona u tangencijalnom
s22max(uzvodna strana),linearna analiza, pravcu s22max(uzvod. strana),ne linearna
za sluaj kombinacija optereenja: analiza, za sluaj kombinacija optereenja:
ST+HS1+T1+HD+Z2 ST+HS1+T1+HD+Z2
Maximum displacement for earthquake in Montenegro derived from
linear and non linear analysis
20.3
18.0
14.3
13.3
11.5
9.9
8.4
13.3
14.4
14.7
14.1
13.3
11.9
10.2
8.4
6.5
4.5
1.7
1.3
1.5
1.5
8.5
7.9
7.3
6.7
6.1
5.1
3.0
2.6
2.4
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.0
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
0 5 10 15 20 25
Pomjeranja U1 (cm)
K
o
t
a

(
m
)
displacements from non-linear
analysis
displacements from linear analysis
b/ a/
435
Na slikama 3 i 4 dat je prikaz maksimalnih tangencionalnih napona sa uzvodne
strane brane za linearnu i nelinearnu analizu.
Rezultati pokazuje veliku redukciju uticaja nakon ulaska brane u nelinearno
podruje deformisanja U odnosu na linearnu analizu naponi su i za 20% manji.
Na slici 5 dat je prikaz ubrzanja vrha centralne konzole usled pobude akce-
lerogramom Petrovac. Faktor amplifikacije iznosi 15,6 i pokazuje veliku osjetljivost bra-
ne na dejstvo zemljotresa sa ovakvim frekventnim karakteristikama,
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (s)
a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
/
s
2
)
Slika 5- Akceleracija vrha centralne konzle
Na osnovu uporeenja rezultata izvrene seizmike analize brane i ekspe-
rimentalnih rezultata, pri istom nivou vode u akumulaciji, moe se zakljuiti da je odabrani
proraunski model brane u koga je ukljuena interakcija brana-stijena-voda i stvarne
mehanike karakteristike materijala pogodan za iznalaenje dinamikih karakteristika i
dinamikog odgovora sklopa. Dinamiki odgovor proraunskog modela, dobijen usled
dejstva zemljotresa razliitog frekventnog sastava, se kree u veoma irokim granicama i
ukazuje na veliku vanost istraivanja seizmikih parametara mikrolokacije.
Maksimalni glavni zateui naponi u brani usled sopsvene teine, hidrostatikog
pritiska i dejstva zemljotresa (projektni zemljotres sa maksimalnom akceleracijom od 0.25
g) je manji od dozvolenih za beton koji je ugraen u tijelo brane. Usled dejstva zemljotresa
sa maksimalnim ubrzanjem od 0.40 g (MKE) u kombinaciji sa sopsvenom teinom i
hidrostatikim pritiskom, glavni naponi zatezanja prora;unati na nelinearnom modelu su u
granicama dozvoljenih. Zona najveih glavnih napona zatezanja je u gornjoj treini brane u
zoni oko centralne konzole.
Uporeenje rezultata nelinearne analize usled maksimalno mogueg zemljotresa
mjerodavnog za sigurnost brane (maksimalnim ubrzanjem od 0.40 g) sa rezultatima
linearne analize, za zemljotres istog inteziteta, pokazuje velike razlike u pogledu
pomjeranja, rasporeda i nivoa napona. Pokazano je da brana pri dejstvu zemjotresa MKE
ulazi u nelinearno podruje deformisanja, trpi oteenja, ali da pri tom nije ugroena
stabilnost brane.
REFERENCES
>1@ M.Sekulovic R. Pejovic, R..Mrdak , Earthquake response of high arch dams 11
ECEE, Paris, 1998.
>1@ M.Sekulovic R. Pejovic, R..Mrdak , Analysis of seismic safety of high arch dam,
12 WCEE, Auckland, New Zeland,2000.
CIP -

,
711.4 : 624.131.55(082)
624.042.7(082)
550.34(082)
INTERNATIONAL conference on earthquake
engineering (2009 ; Banja Luka)
, ,

=
Planning, design, construction and rehabilitation
seismically active areas / [editors Mirko Ai,
Drago Trkulja]. - Banja Luka : Zavod za izgradnju
= Institute for Construction, 2009 (Banja Luka :
Nezavisne novine). - 423 str. : ilustr. ; 24 cm
Radovi na srp. i engl. jeziku. - Tira 500. -
Bibliografija uz sve radove.
ISBN 978-99955-630-4-2
COBBISS.BH-ID 1255960

Planning, Design, Construction and Rehabilitation

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Planning, Design, Construction and Rehabilitation

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

/ORGANIZER:

>1@ World Housing Encyclopedia Report (country: Yugoslavia) / . //

>1@ Finite strip method in computational engineering / . . // Faculties

>2@ II, I / . // , 2. , 1981,

>3@ II, II / . // , 2. , 1982,

>4@ III / . // , 1985,

PART 2: PROPOSED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR

[1] Bertero, V.V. (1997). Performance-based seismic engineering: A critical review

Potrebbero piacerti anche