User's Guide

Version 12

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Content
Using help...................................................................................................................30 Using function Find...................................................................................................31 User defined environment..............................................................................................32 Window for application..............................................................................................32 Control menu...........................................................................................................33 Horizontal tool bars...................................................................................................34 Tool bar Files........................................................................................................34 Tool bar Scale and shift.........................................................................................35 Tool bar Plot setting..............................................................................................36 Tool bar Stage of construction................................................................................36 Tool bar 3D visualization........................................................................................37 Tool bar Selections................................................................................................37 Vertical tool bars......................................................................................................38 Setting visualization style..........................................................................................39 Style manager......................................................................................................40 Frames....................................................................................................................41 Tables.....................................................................................................................42 Dialogue windows.....................................................................................................44 Active dimensions and objects....................................................................................45 Unit metric / imperial................................................................................................46 Copy to clipboard.....................................................................................................46 Options...................................................................................................................47 Options copy to clipboard....................................................................................47 Options print picture..........................................................................................48 Options - input.....................................................................................................49 Common input.............................................................................................................50 Earth pressures - Analysis methods............................................................................50 Inputting and editing soils.........................................................................................51 Soil classification..................................................................................................52 Soil and rock labels...............................................................................................54 Manual classification of soil....................................................................................55 Interfaces in 2D environment.....................................................................................56 Adding interface...................................................................................................57 Editing interface...................................................................................................58 Corrector of inputted interface................................................................................59 World coordinates.................................................................................................60 -1-

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Assigning soils..........................................................................................................61 Design coefficients....................................................................................................62 Running more analyses / verifications.........................................................................62 Connecting programs................................................................................................63 Selecting and storing views........................................................................................64 Setting results visualization...................................................................................65 Setting color range...................................................................................................66 Scale color definition.............................................................................................67 Import - export DXF..................................................................................................68 Reading data into template....................................................................................69 Inputting data using template................................................................................70 Modifying template during data input......................................................................71 Export DXF..........................................................................................................72 Import gINT.............................................................................................................73 Import of terrain points.........................................................................................74 Import of soils and profile......................................................................................75 Heredity - stage of construction..................................................................................76 Input regimes and analysis............................................................................................76 Program Earth Pressure.............................................................................................76 Project................................................................................................................76 Analysis methods..................................................................................................77 Geometry............................................................................................................77 Profile.................................................................................................................78 Soils...................................................................................................................79 Basic data........................................................................................................80 Assign.................................................................................................................81 Terrain................................................................................................................82 Water..................................................................................................................83 Surcharge............................................................................................................84 Earthquake..........................................................................................................85 Settings...............................................................................................................86 Settings - EN and LRFD.........................................................................................87 Analysis...............................................................................................................87 Program Sheeting Design..........................................................................................88 Project................................................................................................................88 Analysis methods..................................................................................................89 Profile.................................................................................................................89 Soils...................................................................................................................90 -2-

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Basic data........................................................................................................91 Assign.................................................................................................................92 Geometry............................................................................................................93 Anchors...............................................................................................................94 Props..................................................................................................................95 Supports.............................................................................................................96 Pressure determination.........................................................................................97 Terrain................................................................................................................98 Water..................................................................................................................99 Surcharge..........................................................................................................100 Applied forces.....................................................................................................101 Earthquake........................................................................................................102 Settings.............................................................................................................103 Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................104 Analysis.............................................................................................................104 Program Sheeting Check..........................................................................................106 Project..............................................................................................................106 Analysis method.................................................................................................106 Profile...............................................................................................................107 Modulus of subsoil reaction..................................................................................108 Soils..................................................................................................................109 Basic data......................................................................................................110 Geometry..........................................................................................................111 Adding and editing section...............................................................................112 User catalogue...............................................................................................113 Assign...............................................................................................................114 Excavation.........................................................................................................115 Terrain...............................................................................................................116 Water................................................................................................................117 Surcharge..........................................................................................................118 Applied forces.....................................................................................................119 Anchors.............................................................................................................120 Props................................................................................................................121 Supports............................................................................................................122 Earthquake........................................................................................................123 Settings.............................................................................................................124 Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................125 Analysis.............................................................................................................126 -3-

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Internal stability.................................................................................................128 External stability.................................................................................................129 Envelopes..........................................................................................................130 Program Slope Stability...........................................................................................131 Project..............................................................................................................131 Analysis methods................................................................................................132 Interface............................................................................................................132 Embankment......................................................................................................133 Earth cut...........................................................................................................134 Soils..................................................................................................................135 Basic data......................................................................................................136 Rigid body..........................................................................................................137 Assign...............................................................................................................138 Anchors.............................................................................................................139 Reinforcements...................................................................................................140 Surcharge..........................................................................................................141 Water................................................................................................................142 Earthquake........................................................................................................143 Settings.............................................................................................................144 Settings EN........................................................................................................145 Analysis.............................................................................................................145 Constrains on the optimization procedure...........................................................147 Height multiplier.............................................................................................148 Program Cantilever Wall..........................................................................................149 Project..............................................................................................................149 Analysis method.................................................................................................150 Geometry..........................................................................................................150 Material.............................................................................................................151 Profile...............................................................................................................152 Soils..................................................................................................................153 Basic data......................................................................................................154 Assign...............................................................................................................155 Terrain...............................................................................................................156 Water................................................................................................................157 Surcharge..........................................................................................................158 Front face resistance...........................................................................................159 Applied forces.....................................................................................................160 Earthquake........................................................................................................161 -4-

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Base anchorage..................................................................................................162 Settings.............................................................................................................163 Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................164 Verification.........................................................................................................164 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................165 Dimensioning.....................................................................................................166 Stability.............................................................................................................168 Program Masonry wall.............................................................................................169 Project..............................................................................................................169 Analysis methods................................................................................................170 Types of blocks...................................................................................................170 Geometry..........................................................................................................171 Material.............................................................................................................172 Profile...............................................................................................................173 Soils..................................................................................................................174 Basic data......................................................................................................175 Assign...............................................................................................................176 Terrain...............................................................................................................177 Water................................................................................................................178 Surcharge..........................................................................................................179 Front face resistance...........................................................................................180 Applied forces.....................................................................................................181 Earthquake........................................................................................................182 Base anchorage..................................................................................................183 Settings.............................................................................................................184 Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................185 Verification.........................................................................................................185 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................186 Dimensioning.....................................................................................................187 Stability.............................................................................................................189 Program Gravity Wall...............................................................................................189 Project..............................................................................................................189 Analysis methods................................................................................................190 Geometry..........................................................................................................191 Material.............................................................................................................191 Profile...............................................................................................................192 Soils..................................................................................................................193 Basic data......................................................................................................194 -5-

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Assign...............................................................................................................195 Terrain...............................................................................................................196 Water................................................................................................................197 Surcharge..........................................................................................................198 Front face resistance...........................................................................................199 Inputted forces...................................................................................................200 Earthquake........................................................................................................201 Settings.............................................................................................................202 Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................203 Verification.........................................................................................................203 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................204 Dimensioning.....................................................................................................205 Stability.............................................................................................................206 Program Prefab Wall................................................................................................207 Project..............................................................................................................207 Analysis methods................................................................................................208 Geometry..........................................................................................................208 Profile...............................................................................................................209 Soils..................................................................................................................210 Basic data......................................................................................................211 Assign...............................................................................................................212 Terrain...............................................................................................................213 Water................................................................................................................214 Surcharge..........................................................................................................215 Front face resistance...........................................................................................216 Inputted forces...................................................................................................217 Earthquake........................................................................................................218 Settings.............................................................................................................219 Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................220 Verification.........................................................................................................220 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................221 Dimensioning.....................................................................................................222 Internal sliding...................................................................................................223 Stability.............................................................................................................224 Program RediRock Wall............................................................................................225 Project..............................................................................................................225 Analysis methods................................................................................................226 Blocks...............................................................................................................226 -6-

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Setbacks............................................................................................................227 Geometry..........................................................................................................228 Footing..............................................................................................................229 Types of reinforcements.......................................................................................230 Reinforcements...................................................................................................231 Profile...............................................................................................................232 Soils..................................................................................................................233 Basic data......................................................................................................234 Assign...............................................................................................................235 Terrain...............................................................................................................236 Water................................................................................................................237 Surcharge..........................................................................................................238 Front face resistance...........................................................................................239 Inputted forces...................................................................................................240 Earthquake........................................................................................................241 Settings.............................................................................................................242 Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................243 Verification.........................................................................................................243 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................244 Dimensioning.....................................................................................................245 Internal sliding...................................................................................................246 Stability.............................................................................................................247 Program Gabion......................................................................................................248 Project..............................................................................................................248 Analysis methods................................................................................................249 Material.............................................................................................................249 Geometry..........................................................................................................250 Profile...............................................................................................................251 Soils..................................................................................................................252 Basic data......................................................................................................253 Assign...............................................................................................................254 Terrain...............................................................................................................255 Water................................................................................................................256 Surcharge..........................................................................................................257 Front face resistance...........................................................................................258 Inputted forces...................................................................................................259 Earthquake........................................................................................................260 Settings.............................................................................................................261 -7-

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................262 Verification.........................................................................................................262 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................263 Dimensioning.....................................................................................................264 Stability.............................................................................................................265 Program Spread Footing..........................................................................................266 Project..............................................................................................................266 Analysis methods................................................................................................267 Partial factors according to LRFD.......................................................................268 Profile...............................................................................................................268 Soils..................................................................................................................269 Basic data......................................................................................................270 Assign...............................................................................................................271 Foundation.........................................................................................................272 Load..................................................................................................................273 Import of loading............................................................................................274 Geometry..........................................................................................................275 Sand-gravel cushion............................................................................................277 Material.............................................................................................................278 Surcharge..........................................................................................................279 Water, incompressible subsoil...............................................................................280 Settings.............................................................................................................281 Settings EN........................................................................................................282 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................283 Settlement and rotation.......................................................................................284 Dimensioning.....................................................................................................285 Program Pile...........................................................................................................286 Project..............................................................................................................286 Analysis methods................................................................................................287 Profile...............................................................................................................287 Modulus of subsoil reaction..................................................................................288 Soils..................................................................................................................289 Basic data......................................................................................................290 Assign...............................................................................................................291 Load..................................................................................................................292 Geometry..........................................................................................................293 Material.............................................................................................................294 Water, incompressible subsoil...............................................................................295 -8-

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Negative skin friction...........................................................................................296 Settings.............................................................................................................297 Settings - EN......................................................................................................298 Vertical bearing capacity analysis based on classical theory...................................298 Vertical bearing cap. - Spring method....................................................................299 Settlement linear loading curve (Poulos).............................................................300 Settlement nonlinear loading curve (Masopust)....................................................301 Horizontal bearing capacity..................................................................................302 Program Settlement................................................................................................303 Project..............................................................................................................303 Analysis methods................................................................................................304 Interface............................................................................................................304 Embankment......................................................................................................305 Earth cut...........................................................................................................305 Incompressible subsoil........................................................................................306 Soils..................................................................................................................307 Assign...............................................................................................................308 Surcharge..........................................................................................................309 Water................................................................................................................310 Settings.............................................................................................................311 Analysis.............................................................................................................312 Consolidation parameters.................................................................................313 Program Abutment..................................................................................................315 Project..............................................................................................................315 Analysis methods................................................................................................315 Geometry cut.....................................................................................................316 Wings................................................................................................................317 Geometry plane view...........................................................................................318 Foundation steps................................................................................................319 Material.............................................................................................................320 Profile...............................................................................................................321 Soils..................................................................................................................322 Basic data......................................................................................................323 Loading - LC.......................................................................................................324 Assign...............................................................................................................325 Terrain...............................................................................................................326 Water................................................................................................................327 Surcharge..........................................................................................................328 -9-

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Front face resistance...........................................................................................329 Inputted forces...................................................................................................330 Earthquake........................................................................................................331 Settings.............................................................................................................332 Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................333 Verification.........................................................................................................333 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................334 Dimensioning.....................................................................................................335 Stability.............................................................................................................337 Program Nailed slopes.............................................................................................337 Project..............................................................................................................337 Analysis methods................................................................................................338 Geometry..........................................................................................................338 Types of nails.....................................................................................................339 Geometry of nails...............................................................................................340 Material.............................................................................................................341 Profile...............................................................................................................342 Soils..................................................................................................................343 Basic data......................................................................................................344 Assign...............................................................................................................345 Terrain...............................................................................................................346 Water................................................................................................................347 Surcharge..........................................................................................................348 Earthquake........................................................................................................349 Settings.............................................................................................................350 Settings - EN and LRFD.......................................................................................351 Internal stability.................................................................................................351 Verification.........................................................................................................352 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................353 Dimensioning.....................................................................................................354 External stability.................................................................................................355 Program Ground Loss..............................................................................................356 Project..............................................................................................................356 Analysis methods................................................................................................357 Buildings............................................................................................................357 Profile...............................................................................................................358 Soils..................................................................................................................359 Assign...............................................................................................................360 - 10 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Geometry..........................................................................................................361 Measurement.....................................................................................................362 Settings.............................................................................................................363 Analysis.............................................................................................................364 Damages...........................................................................................................365 Pogram Rock Stability..............................................................................................367 Project..............................................................................................................367 Analysis methods................................................................................................367 Terrain...............................................................................................................367 Rock..................................................................................................................368 Slip surface plane.............................................................................................369 Slip surface - polygonal.......................................................................................370 Parameters polygonal slip surface......................................................................371 Water plane slip surface....................................................................................372 Surcharge plane and polygonal slip surface.........................................................373 Anchors plane and polygonal slip surface............................................................374 Earthquake........................................................................................................375 Settings.............................................................................................................376 Analysis plane slip surface.................................................................................377 Analysis polygonal slip surface...........................................................................378 Geometry..........................................................................................................378 3D View.........................................................................................................379 Slip surface rock wedge....................................................................................380 Parameters rock wedge.....................................................................................381 Surcharge rock wedge......................................................................................382 Anchors rock wedge.........................................................................................383 Water rock wedge............................................................................................384 Analysis rock wedge.........................................................................................385 Program Terrain......................................................................................................386 Project..............................................................................................................386 Basic data..........................................................................................................387 Global coordinate system.................................................................................387 Soils..................................................................................................................388 Assign...............................................................................................................389 Points................................................................................................................390 Import of points..............................................................................................391 Automatic calculation of height.........................................................................392 Edges................................................................................................................394 - 11 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Water................................................................................................................395 Bore holes.........................................................................................................396 Earth grading.....................................................................................................398 Generate...........................................................................................................401 Modeling terrain on edges................................................................................401 Point constructions..............................................................................................402 Line constructions...............................................................................................404 Launching..........................................................................................................405 Program Micropile...................................................................................................407 Project..............................................................................................................407 Analysis methods................................................................................................407 Profile...............................................................................................................408 Soils..................................................................................................................409 Basic data......................................................................................................410 Geometry..........................................................................................................411 Material.............................................................................................................412 Assign...............................................................................................................413 Load..................................................................................................................414 Water................................................................................................................415 Settings.............................................................................................................416 Verification of cross-section..................................................................................417 Root verification..................................................................................................418 Program FEM..........................................................................................................419 Topology............................................................................................................419 Coordinate systems.........................................................................................420 Project...........................................................................................................422 Analysis methods............................................................................................423 Stability analysis.........................................................................................423 Tunnels......................................................................................................424 Advanced input...........................................................................................424 Ko procedure..............................................................................................426 Water flow.................................................................................................427 Interfaces......................................................................................................427 Soils..............................................................................................................428 Materials models.........................................................................................429 Linear models.........................................................................................430 Elastic model......................................................................................431 Modified elastic model.........................................................................431 - 12 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Nonlinear models....................................................................................432 Mohr-Coulomb (MC)............................................................................433 Mohr-Coulomb model with tension cut off...........................................434 Modified Mohr-Coulomb (MCM).............................................................434 Drucker-Prager...................................................................................435 Softening and hardening......................................................................435 Angle of dilation..................................................................................437 Influence of material model..................................................................437 Modified Cam-clay model (MCC)............................................................439 Generalized Cam clay model (GCC).......................................................441 Numerical implementation of MCC and GCC models.................................442 Material models in flow analysis................................................................445 Coefficient of permeability........................................................................446 Basic data..................................................................................................448 Geostatic stress, uplift pressure....................................................................450 Rigid bodies...................................................................................................451 Assign...........................................................................................................452 Contact types.................................................................................................453 Contact elements........................................................................................455 Lining............................................................................................................456 Module Lining - FEM....................................................................................458 Free points.............................................................................................458 Free lines...............................................................................................459 Line refinement......................................................................................460 Settings.................................................................................................461 Generator of shape of lining.........................................................................462 Generator of anchored regions......................................................................464 Stages of construction.................................................................................465 Free points.....................................................................................................466 Free lines.......................................................................................................468 Point refinement.............................................................................................469 Line refinement..............................................................................................471 Mesh generation.............................................................................................472 Mesh generator warning..............................................................................474 Adjusting original geometry..........................................................................476 Standard boundary conditions......................................................................476 Construction stages.............................................................................................477 Activity..........................................................................................................478 - 13 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Activity of regions below GWT......................................................................480 Assign...........................................................................................................481 Lining............................................................................................................481 Beams.......................................................................................................482 Anchors.....................................................................................................483 Beam loads................................................................................................484 Generator of anchors on free line..................................................................485 Beams...........................................................................................................486 Types of cross-section.................................................................................488 Beam end-points connection.........................................................................489 Degradation and strengthening of beams.......................................................490 Catalogue of cross-sections..........................................................................491 Editor of cross-sections................................................................................492 Catalogue of materials.................................................................................492 Editor of materials.......................................................................................493 Contacts........................................................................................................494 Contacts and beams (water flow)......................................................................495 Point supports................................................................................................497 Point flow.......................................................................................................498 Line Supports.................................................................................................499 Line flow........................................................................................................500 Anchors.........................................................................................................501 Anchor end points.......................................................................................503 Anchors in the stability analysis....................................................................504 Props.............................................................................................................505 Reinforcements...............................................................................................507 Anchoring geo-reinforcements......................................................................509 Surcharges.....................................................................................................511 Beam loads....................................................................................................512 Water............................................................................................................514 Analysis.........................................................................................................514 Recommended modeling procedure...............................................................515 Loss of convergence of nonlinear analysis......................................................516 Setting and analysis description....................................................................517 Solution method.....................................................................................518 Change of stiffness matrix........................................................................518 Initial solution step..................................................................................519 Maximum number of iterations.................................................................520 - 14 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Convergence criterion..............................................................................520 Setting Newton-Raphson method..............................................................520 Setting Arc-length method.......................................................................521 Setting arc length...............................................................................522 Automatic arc length control.................................................................523 Line search method.................................................................................524 Plasticity................................................................................................525 Course of analysis.......................................................................................526 Results......................................................................................................527 Tool bar Results....................................................................................527 Setting visualization of results..................................................................528 List of variables......................................................................................529 Monitors........................................................................................................531 Monitors setting..........................................................................................532 Stability.........................................................................................................533 Setting basic parameters of slope stability analysis.........................................534 Setting driving parameters of relaxation of reduction factor..............................535 Analyzed examples.............................................................................................536 Terrain settlement file Demo01_EN.gmk..........................................................536 Task input..................................................................................................537 Mesh generation.........................................................................................539 1st stage of construction analysis...............................................................540 2nd stage of construction surcharge input...................................................541 2nd stage of construction - analysis..............................................................543 3rd stage of construction - analysis...............................................................544 Evaluation of results....................................................................................545 Analysis of collector lining file Demo02_EN.gmk...............................................546 Task input..................................................................................................546 Geometry input..........................................................................................548 Mesh generation.........................................................................................552 1st stage of construction - analysis...............................................................554 2nd stage of construction collector lining input.............................................556 2nd stage of construction analysis..............................................................558 Evaluation of results....................................................................................559 Sheeting structure file Demo03_EN.gmk.........................................................560 Task input..................................................................................................561 Interfaces and soils input.............................................................................562 Contacts input............................................................................................566 - 15 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Free points and free lines input.....................................................................567 Mesh generation.........................................................................................568 1st stage of construction - analysis...............................................................570 2nd stage of construction beams input........................................................571 2nd stage of construction soil excavation and GWT change............................573 2nd stage of construction - analysis..............................................................574 3rd stage of construction soil excavation, anchor input, GWT change..............577 3rd stage of construction analysis..............................................................579 Evaluation of results....................................................................................582 Slope stability analysis file Demo04_EN.gmk...................................................582 Task input..................................................................................................582 Type of analysis setting................................................................................583 Soil input and their assignment to interfaces..................................................584 Mesh generation.........................................................................................586 1st stage of construction analysis...............................................................587 2nd stage of construction surcharge, analysis..............................................589 3rd stage of construction anchor, analysis...................................................590 Evaluation of results....................................................................................593 Program Pile CPT....................................................................................................594 Project..............................................................................................................594 Analysis methods................................................................................................594 Profile...............................................................................................................595 Soils..................................................................................................................596 Basic data......................................................................................................597 Structure...........................................................................................................598 Group of piles.................................................................................................600 Geometry..........................................................................................................601 GWT + NSF........................................................................................................602 Experiments.......................................................................................................604 Experiment CPT Import...................................................................................606 Assign...............................................................................................................607 Settings.............................................................................................................608 Settings EN........................................................................................................609 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................609 Settlement.........................................................................................................610 Program Beam.......................................................................................................612 Project..............................................................................................................612 Analysis methods................................................................................................612 - 16 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Winkler-Pasternak parameters C1 a C2..............................................................613 Calculation of Winkler-Pasternak parameters C1 and C2 from geological profile......613 Calculation of Winkler-Pasternak constants from deformation parameters of soils. . .613 Geometry..........................................................................................................614 Subsoil..............................................................................................................614 Interface............................................................................................................615 Location.............................................................................................................616 Soils..................................................................................................................617 Basic data......................................................................................................618 Assign...............................................................................................................619 Water................................................................................................................620 Supports............................................................................................................621 Load cases.........................................................................................................622 Load case parameters......................................................................................623 Load..................................................................................................................625 Combination of ULS.............................................................................................626 Parameters of combinations of ULS...................................................................627 Generator of combinations...............................................................................628 Combinations SLS...............................................................................................631 Parameters of combinations of SLS...................................................................632 Generator of combinations...............................................................................633 Analysis.............................................................................................................633 Program Plate........................................................................................................634 Project..............................................................................................................634 Analysis methods................................................................................................635 Joints................................................................................................................635 Lines.................................................................................................................636 Macroelements...................................................................................................638 Openings...........................................................................................................639 Joint refinements................................................................................................640 Line refinements.................................................................................................641 Macroelement refinements...................................................................................643 Mesh generation.................................................................................................644 Mesh generator warning..................................................................................646 Joint supports.....................................................................................................648 Line supports.....................................................................................................649 Beams...............................................................................................................651 Catalogue of materials.....................................................................................652 - 17 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Editor of materials..........................................................................................654 Types of cross-section.....................................................................................655 Catalogue of cross-sections..............................................................................656 Editor of cross-sections....................................................................................657 Macroelement subsoils.........................................................................................658 Winkler-Pasternak parameters C1 a C2..............................................................660 Calculation of Winkler-Pasternak constants from deformation parameters of soils. . .661 Load cases.........................................................................................................661 Load case parameters......................................................................................662 Joint loads.........................................................................................................664 Line loads..........................................................................................................665 Temperature load............................................................................................666 Macroelement loads............................................................................................667 Free point loads..................................................................................................668 Free line loads....................................................................................................669 Free area loads...................................................................................................670 Combination ULS................................................................................................672 Parameters of combinations of ULS...................................................................672 Generator of combinations of ULS.....................................................................673 Combination SLS................................................................................................676 Parameters of combinations of SLS...................................................................677 Generator of combinations of SLS.....................................................................678 Dimensioning parameters....................................................................................678 Macroelement dimensionings................................................................................679 Analysis.............................................................................................................680 Procedure of analysis.......................................................................................681 Results..........................................................................................................682 Tool bar Results.......................................................................................683 Setting visualization of results......................................................................684 List of variables..........................................................................................684 List of variables of dimensioning...................................................................685 Values...............................................................................................................686 Distributions.......................................................................................................687 Outputs.....................................................................................................................688 Adding picture........................................................................................................689 Picture list.............................................................................................................690 Print and export document.......................................................................................690 Print and export picture...........................................................................................691 - 18 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Control menu Print and export..................................................................................692 Tool bar Print and export.........................................................................................693 Setting header and footer........................................................................................694 Page properties......................................................................................................696 Page numbering.....................................................................................................696 About company......................................................................................................697 Theory......................................................................................................................698 Verification methodology.........................................................................................699 Verification according to EN 1997..........................................................................699 Partial factors.................................................................................................699 Design Approaches......................................................................................700 Design approach 1..................................................................................701 Design approach 2..................................................................................702 Design approach 3..................................................................................703 National Annex (NA)....................................................................................704 Design situation..........................................................................................705 Partial factors on water....................................................................................705 Analysis of walls (support structures)................................................................706 Analysis of sheeting structures.........................................................................707 Analysis of foundations (spread footing, piles)....................................................707 Slope stability analysis....................................................................................708 Load combinations..........................................................................................709 Analysis according to LRFD..................................................................................710 Classical way......................................................................................................712 Stress in a soil body................................................................................................712 Geostatic stress, uplift pressure............................................................................712 Effective/total stress in soil..................................................................................713 Increment of earth pressure due to surcharge........................................................715 Increment of earth pressure under footing.............................................................716 Earth pressure........................................................................................................717 Sign convention..................................................................................................718 Active earth pressure..........................................................................................718 Active earth pressure the Mazindrani theory....................................................719 Active earth pressure - the Coulomb theory.......................................................720 Active earth pressure - the Mller-Breslau theory................................................721 Active earth pressure - the Caqouot theory........................................................722 Active earth pressure - the Absi theory..............................................................724 Active earth pressure total stress...................................................................725 - 19 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Passive earth pressure.........................................................................................725 Passive earth pressure - the Rankin and Mazindrani theory..................................726 Passive earth pressure - the Coulomb theory......................................................727 Passive earth pressure - the Caquot Krisel theory...........................................727 Coefficient of passive earth pressure Kp.........................................................728 Reduction coefficient of passive earth pressure...............................................730 Passive earth pressure - the Mller Breslau theory...........................................731 Passive earth pressure - the Absi theory............................................................732 Passive earth pressure - the Sokolovski theory...................................................732 Passive earth pressure total stress.................................................................735 Earth pressure at rest..........................................................................................735 Earth pressure at rest for inclined ground surface at the back of structure.............736 Alternate angel of internal friction of soil................................................................737 Distribution of earth pressures in case of broken terrain..........................................738 Influence of water...............................................................................................739 Without ground water, water is not considered....................................................739 Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind structure...........................................740 Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind and in front of structure......................740 Hydrodynamic pressure...................................................................................741 Special distribution of water pressure................................................................743 Uplift pressure in footing bottom.......................................................................744 Influence of tensile cracks................................................................................745 Minimal dimensioning pressure.............................................................................745 Earth - pressure wedge.......................................................................................746 Surcharge..........................................................................................................747 Surface surcharge...........................................................................................748 Strip surcharge...............................................................................................749 Trapezoidal surcharge......................................................................................750 Concentrated surcharge...................................................................................750 Line surcharge................................................................................................751 Surcharge in non-homogeneous soil..................................................................753 Surface surcharge...........................................................................................753 Strip surcharge...............................................................................................754 Trapezoidal surcharge......................................................................................755 Concentrated surcharge...................................................................................755 Surface surcharge...........................................................................................756 Influence of earthquake.......................................................................................757 MononobeOkabe theory.................................................................................759 - 20 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Arrango theory...............................................................................................760 Influence of water...........................................................................................761 EN 1998-5 Seismic effects...............................................................................762 Influence of friction between soil and back of structure............................................763 Table of ultimate friction factors for dissimilar materials.......................................765 Table of recommended values DELTA/F.............................................................766 Adhesion of soil..............................................................................................766 Parameters of rocks............................................................................................766 Nailed slopes..........................................................................................................768 Analysis of nails bearing capacity..........................................................................768 Estimated bond strength..................................................................................769 Analysis of internal stability..................................................................................770 Nail force.......................................................................................................771 Factor of safety...............................................................................................772 Theory of limit states.......................................................................................773 Verification of bearing capacity of nails..................................................................774 Dimensioning of concrete cover............................................................................774 Analysis of walls.....................................................................................................775 Verification limit states.....................................................................................776 Verification - factor of safety................................................................................777 Internal sliding...................................................................................................778 Reinforcements...................................................................................................779 Base anchorage..................................................................................................781 Accounting for wall jump.....................................................................................782 Dimensioning of masonry wall according to AS 3700...............................................783 Dimensioning of masonry wall according to EN 1996-1-1.........................................784 Bearing capacity of foundation soil........................................................................786 Wall dimensioning...............................................................................................786 Internal stability of gabion...................................................................................787 Internal stability of gabion wall limit states......................................................789 Internal stability of gabion wall factor of safety................................................791 Calculating abutment forces.................................................................................792 Reduced passive earth pressure............................................................................793 Sheeting design......................................................................................................794 Analysis of sheet pile wall....................................................................................794 Analysis of anchored wall fixed in heel...................................................................794 Analysis of anchored wall simply supported at heel.................................................796 Sheeting check.......................................................................................................797 - 21 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Method of dependent pressures............................................................................798 Modulus of subsoil reaction..................................................................................800 Modulus of subsoil reaction according to CUR 166...............................................801 Modulus of subsoil reaction according to Schmitt................................................802 Modulus of subsoil reaction according to Mnard.................................................802 Modulus of subsoil reaction according to Chadeisson...........................................803 Modulus of subsoil reaction derived from iterations.............................................804 Internal stability of anchors..................................................................................805 Braced sheeting..................................................................................................807 Nonlinear modulus of subsoil reaction....................................................................808 Slope stability........................................................................................................809 Soil body...........................................................................................................809 Influence of water...............................................................................................809 Surcharge..........................................................................................................811 Anchors.............................................................................................................812 Reinforcements...................................................................................................813 Earthquake effect................................................................................................814 Verification according to EN 1997..........................................................................815 Analysis according to the theory of limit states / factor of safety...............................815 Polygonal slip surface..........................................................................................816 Sarma...........................................................................................................817 Spencer.........................................................................................................819 Janbu............................................................................................................822 Morgenstern-Price...........................................................................................825 Optimization of polygonal slip surface................................................................829 Changing inclination of dividing planes..............................................................829 Circular slip surface.............................................................................................830 Fellenius / Petterson........................................................................................831 Bishop...........................................................................................................831 Spencer.........................................................................................................832 Janbu............................................................................................................832 Morgenstern-Price...........................................................................................832 Optimization of circular slip surface...................................................................833 Foliation............................................................................................................833 Influence of tensile cracks....................................................................................833 Analysis of bearing capacity of foundation..................................................................834 Bearing capacity on drained subsoil.......................................................................834 Standard analysis...........................................................................................835 - 22 -

GEO5 User's Guide

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Bearing capacity on undrained subsoil...................................................................836 Standard analysis...........................................................................................837 Bearing capacity of foundation on bedrock.............................................................837 Standard analysis...........................................................................................838 Solution according to CSN 73 1001...................................................................838 Analysis according to EC 7-1 (EN 1997-1:2003)..................................................839 Parameters to compute foundation bearing capacity............................................839 Horizontal bearing capacity of foundation...............................................................842 Homogenization of layered subsoil........................................................................843 Effective area.....................................................................................................844 Determination of cross-sectional internal forces......................................................846 Pile analysis...........................................................................................................847 Vertical bearing capacity......................................................................................847 Conventional theories......................................................................................847 NAVFAC DM 7.2..........................................................................................848 Pile base resistance.................................................................................848 Pile shaft resistance.................................................................................848 Bearing capacity factor Nq.......................................................................849 Coefficient of lateral earth pressure K........................................................849 Friction angle on pile skin.........................................................................851 Adhesion coefficient.................................................................................851 Critical depth..........................................................................................852 Tomlinson..................................................................................................852 Adhesion coefficient.................................................................................853 Effective length.......................................................................................853 Effective stress method................................................................................854 Coefficients of pile bearing capacity...........................................................855 CSN 73 1002..............................................................................................855 Classical way..............................................................................................856 Verification according to the theory of limit states.......................................856 Design coefficients..............................................................................857 Verification according to factors of safety...................................................857 Vertical bearing capacity - Spring method..........................................................858 Limit loading curve......................................................................................859 Shear strength of skin.................................................................................859 Coefficient of increase of limit skin friction.....................................................860 Depth of deformation zone...........................................................................860 Incompressible subsoil.................................................................................863 - 23 -

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Negative skin friction...................................................................................863 Influence of technology................................................................................864 Shear resistance on skin..............................................................................864 Stiffness of subsoil below the pile heel...........................................................865 Increments of vertical loading.......................................................................866 Distributions of forces acting on pile..............................................................866 Dependence of shear on deformation.............................................................866 Pile settlement...................................................................................................866 Nonlinear theory (Masopust)............................................................................866 Approach according to Masopust...................................................................867 Regression coefficients................................................................................869 Coefficients m1, m2....................................................................................870 Secant deformation modulus Es....................................................................870 Settlement coefficient Is..............................................................................871 Linear theory (Poulos).....................................................................................871 Piles resting on stiff subsoil..........................................................................872 Piles floating in compressible subsoil.............................................................873 Corrective factor for Poissons number Rv......................................................874 Corrective factor for stiffness soil layer Rb......................................................874 Tip load proportion for incompressible pile BETAo............................................875 Corrective coefficient for pile compressibility Ck..............................................876 Corrective coefficient for influence of Poissons number of soil Cv.....................877 Corrective coefficient for stiffness soil stratum Cb...........................................877 Pile stiffness factor K...................................................................................878 Basic settlement influence coefficient Io.............................................................879 Corrective factor for pile compressibility Rk........................................................880 Corrective factor for finite depth of layer on a rigid base Rh.................................880 Horizontal bearing capacity..................................................................................881 Constant distribution of modulus of subsoil reaction............................................882 Linear modulus of subsoil reaction....................................................................882 Modulus of subsoil reaction according to CSN 73 1004.........................................883 Modulus of subsoil reaction after Matlock and Rees.............................................884 Modulus of subsoil reaction after Vesic...............................................................884 Settlement analysis.................................................................................................884 Stress in the footing bottom.................................................................................885 Overall settlement and rotation of foundation.........................................................887 Influence of foundation depth and incompressible subsoil........................................887 Influence of sand-gravel cushion...........................................................................888 - 24 -

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Analysis using the oedometric modulus.................................................................889 Analysis using the compression constant...............................................................889 Analysis using the compression index....................................................................890 Analysis according to NEN (Buismann, Ladd)..........................................................890 Analysis using the Soft soil model.........................................................................892 Analysis according to the Janbu theory..................................................................893 Analysis for cohesionless soils after Janbu..........................................................893 Analysis for coarse-grained soils after Janbu......................................................893 Analysis for sands and silts after Janbu..............................................................894 Analysis for overconsolidated sands and silts after Janbu.....................................894 Analysis for cohesive soils after Janbu...............................................................895 Analysis for overconsolidated cohesive soils after Janbu.......................................895 Settlement analysis using DMT (constrained modulus).............................................896 Theory of settlement...........................................................................................896 Primary settlement..........................................................................................898 Secondary settlement......................................................................................900 Consolidation analysis.....................................................................................900 Determination of the depth of influence zone..........................................................902 Theory of structural strength............................................................................903 Method of restriction of the magnitude of primary stress......................................904 Characteristics of settlement analyses...................................................................905 Compression index..........................................................................................905 Oedometric modulus.......................................................................................908 Compression constant.....................................................................................909 Compression constant 10.................................................................................910 Void ratio.......................................................................................................911 Recompression index.......................................................................................911 Janbu characteristics.......................................................................................912 Influence of loading history..............................................................................913 Coefficient m..................................................................................................914 Modified compression index..............................................................................914 Index of secondary compression.......................................................................915 Overconsolidation index of secondary compression..............................................916 Analyses in program Ground Loss.............................................................................917 Analysis of subsidence trough...............................................................................917 Volume loss....................................................................................................917 Recommended values of parameters for volume loss analysis...........................918 Classical theory..............................................................................................920 - 25 -

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Analysis for layered subsoil..........................................................................921 Shape of subsidence trough.............................................................................923 Coefficient of calculation of inflection point.....................................................924 Subsidence trough with several excavations.......................................................924 Analysis of subsidence trough at a depth...........................................................924 Calculation of other variables............................................................................925 Analysis of failure of buildings..............................................................................926 Tensile cracks.................................................................................................926 Gradient damage............................................................................................927 Relative deflection...........................................................................................927 Failure of a section of building..........................................................................928 Rock slope.............................................................................................................929 Plane slip surface................................................................................................930 Stepped slip surface........................................................................................931 Tensile strength of rock................................................................................932 Undulating slip surface....................................................................................933 Anchorage of rock slope...................................................................................933 Surcharge of rock slope...................................................................................934 Influence of water acting on slip surface............................................................934 GWT above toe of slope...............................................................................935 GWT on tension crack..................................................................................936 GWT on tension crack, max..........................................................................937 Water acting on tension crack only................................................................938 Own water force acting on slip surface only....................................................939 Own water force behavior............................................................................940 Polygonal slip surface..........................................................................................940 Geometry of rock block....................................................................................941 Anchor forces, surcharge.................................................................................942 Influence of water...........................................................................................943 Solution procedure..........................................................................................944 Rock wedge........................................................................................................945 Geometry of rock wedge..................................................................................946 Stereographic projection..............................................................................947 Influence of ground water................................................................................947 Resolution of acting forces...............................................................................949 Verification.........................................................................................................950 Verification according to the factor of safety.......................................................950 Verification according to the theory of limit states...............................................950 - 26 -

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Rock - shear resistance criteria.............................................................................951 Mohr - Coulomb..............................................................................................951 Parameters Mohr Coulomb.........................................................................952 Hoek - Brown.................................................................................................952 Parameters Hoek Brown............................................................................953 Calculation of Hoek-Brown parameters..........................................................956 Barton - Bandis..............................................................................................957 Barton Bandis parameters.........................................................................958 Bulk weight of rocks............................................................................................961 Influence of seismic effects..................................................................................962 Micropile................................................................................................................963 Verification based on limit states...........................................................................963 Verification based on factor of safety.....................................................................964 Verification of the micropile tube...........................................................................965 Coupled section bearing capacity......................................................................965 Micropile life time........................................................................................966 Coefficient Fut........................................................................................966 Coefficient of influence of corrosion...........................................................966 Bearing capacity of cross-section loaded by normal force.................................967 Bearing capacity of cross-section loaded by combination of bending moment and normal force...............................................................................................968 Influence of buckling...................................................................................969 Internal stability of section...............................................................................970 Geometric method (Euler)............................................................................971 Salas theory...............................................................................................973 Constant A reflecting the type of support in the micropile head.....................974 Coefficient f............................................................................................974 Vas-Souche theory....................................................................................974 Modulus of horizontal reaction of subsoil....................................................975 Calculation of the modulus of horizontal reaction of subsoil Er..................975 Values of the modulus of subsoil reaction Ep...............................................976 Bearing capacity of the micropile root section.........................................................977 Lizzi theory....................................................................................................978 Skin friction of the micropile root..................................................................978 Littlejohn theory.............................................................................................980 Zweck theory.................................................................................................980 Bowles theory.................................................................................................981 Vas theory....................................................................................................981 - 27 -

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Coefficients of type of application of micropile................................................983 Bearing capacity of the root in rock...................................................................983 Skin friction and bearing capacity of the micropile root in rock..........................983 Analyses in program Pile CPT...................................................................................984 Bearing capacity.................................................................................................985 EN 1997-2.....................................................................................................985 NEN 6743......................................................................................................986 LCPC (Bustamante).........................................................................................987 Determination of equivalent average cone tip resistance..................................987 Schmertmann.................................................................................................988 Determination of average cone tip resistance.................................................989 Correlation coefficient K...............................................................................990 Negative skin friction.......................................................................................991 Shaft friction coefficient ALFA s.........................................................................992 Influence of overconsolidation (OCR).................................................................994 Pile shape coefficient s.....................................................................................995 Expanded pile toe coefficient BETA....................................................................995 Pile toe coefficient ALFA p................................................................................996 Pile group......................................................................................................997 Calculation of pile toe settlement l........................................................................998 Graphs to calculate settlement.........................................................................998 Calculation of limit load curve.........................................................................1000 Verification.......................................................................................................1000 Verification according to EN 1997-2.................................................................1000 Correlation coefficients for evaluating standard values of bearing capacity........1002 Verification according to factor of safety...........................................................1002 Verification according to limit states................................................................1003 Dimensioning of concrete structures........................................................................1003 EN 1992 1-1 (EN2)............................................................................................1003 Materials, coefficients, notation.......................................................................1003 Standard values of coefficients........................................................................1004 RC rectangular cross-section under M..............................................................1005 RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force............................................................................................................1006 Verification of spread footing for punching shear...............................................1007 Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete......................................1008 Verification of circular RC cross-section............................................................1009 Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates..................................................1009 - 28 -

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CSN 73 1201 R.................................................................................................1010 Materials, coefficients, notation.......................................................................1010 Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete......................................1011 RC rectangular cross-section under M..............................................................1012 RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force............................................................................................................1012 Verification of spread footing for punching shear...............................................1013 Verification of circular RC cross-section............................................................1014 Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates..................................................1015 Design of shear reinforcement for plates..........................................................1016 PN-B-03264.....................................................................................................1016 Materials, coefficients, notation.......................................................................1017 RC rectangular cross-section under M..............................................................1017 RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force............................................................................................................1018 Verification of spread footing for punching shear...............................................1019 Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete......................................1020 Verification of circular RC cross-section............................................................1021 Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates..................................................1022 BS 8110...........................................................................................................1023 Materials, coefficients, notation.......................................................................1023 RC rectangular cross-section under M..............................................................1023 RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force............................................................................................................1024 Verification of spread footing for punching shear...............................................1025 Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete......................................1026 Verification of circular RC cross-section............................................................1027 Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates..................................................1027 IS 456.............................................................................................................1028 Materials, coefficients, notation.......................................................................1029 RC rectangular cross-section under M..............................................................1029 RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force............................................................................................................1030 Verification of spread footing for punching shear...............................................1031 Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete......................................1033 Verification of circular RC cross-section............................................................1033 Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates..................................................1034 IS Road Bridges................................................................................................1035 ACI 31802........................................................................................................1035 - 29 -

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Materials, coefficients, notation.......................................................................1035 Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete......................................1035 RC rectangular cross-section under M..............................................................1036 RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force............................................................................................................1037 Verification of spread footing for punching shear...............................................1038 Verification of circular RC cross-section............................................................1039 Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates..................................................1039 AS 3600-2001..................................................................................................1040 Materials, coefficients, notation.......................................................................1040 Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete......................................1041 RC rectangular cross-section under M..............................................................1042 RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force............................................................................................................1043 Verification of circular RC cross-section............................................................1044 Verification of spread footing for punching shear...............................................1044 Verification according to CSN 73 6206.................................................................1045

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Using help
The text hint of all GEO programs is displayed in standard Windows EXPLORER viewer. The help dialogue window can be launched either through the program menu (items " Help", "Content") or using the Fn button "F1" anywhere in the program. Some dialogue windows (e.g., "Add soil") allow for opening the corresponding chapter of the help by pressing the help button " The dialogue window contains: Bar with basic tool buttons. The "Hide (Show)" button hides (shows) tree with a list help topics. The ("Back/Forward") buttons allow for listing pages, which have been already displayed. The "Print" button opens the printing dialogue window and the " Options" buttons opens the menu to set the EXPLORER window properties. Bar containing the tab sheet "Content" (shows tree with individual topics), tab sheets "Index" and "Search". "Tree" with a list hint topics individual items in the tree are opened/closed by clicking the symbols "+"/"-" in front of the name. Window for displaying the help itself the window header contains currently shown items and the "Back/Forward" buttons that function in the same way as already described buttons on tool bar. The text of each help may further contain cross references to other items. The text of these references is underlined highlighted in blue color. ".

Dialogue window "Help of GEO" - tab sheet "Contents" - 31 -

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Using function Find

Function "Search" allows for finding an arbitrary text in the subject help. The searched text is written into the field "Input searched text" and button "List of topics" lunches the search. The list of found topics containing the searched text is displayed in the column under the buttons. Clicking the mouse on the topic title and pressing the "Show" button displays the corresponding topic in the right part of the window (the double-clicking option is also available). The searched text is highlighted in blue color. Switching back to "Content" tab sheet shows the topic location in the tree (help content).

Frame "Help" - tab sheet "Find"

User defined environment

The programs GEO5 are standard windows applications. Managing the application environment (application window, dialogue windows, control menu, tables, frames, tool bars, copy to clipboard) applies to standard properties of the Windows environment. The programs support operating systems WIN 98, WIN 2000, WIN NT and WIN XP. The minimum hardware and software configuration corresponding to class of PC PENTIUM III with 128 MB of operating memory and minimum resolution of graphic adapter and monitor of 1024x768 pixels with 256 bit color range is required. Recommended configuration corresponds to a class of PC computers of Pentium 4, 512 MB of operating memory.

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Window for application

The program is launched in standard dialogue window containing all managing tools typical for the Windows environment (minimizing, maximizing and closing the application window). The window header displays information on currently executed task (file name and location) see figure:

Managing tools of window for application

The desktop constitutes the window of application. It includes the control menu, horizontal tool bars, space for graphic visualization of the executed task and vertical tool bars to select individual inputting modes to specify the task. The bottom part of the desktop displays frames that allow the user to introduce various input parameters into the task. Location of individual elements on the desktop is evident from the following figure:

Managing tools of window for application

Control menu
Selecting an item from the menu is performed by clicking the left mouse button, or alternatively using keyboard by pressing ALT + underlined letter in the selected menu item.

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As typical for the WINDOWS environment, some of the options in the menu can be replaced with the buttons on individual tool bars, or with abbreviated commands entered through the keyboard (providing it exists it is displayed next to the command in the menu e.g., Save file CTRL+S). Some of the options in the program can be set only with the help of menu e.g., program "Options".

Control menu of program

Horizontal tool bars

The program contains the following tool bars: Tool bar "Files" Tool bar "Scale and shift" Tool bar "Plot setting" Tool bar "Stage of construction" Tool bar "3D visualization" Tool bar "Selections"

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Tool bar Files

The tool bar contains the following buttons:

Tool bar "Files" Individual buttons function as follows: New file opens a new file if there is an existing task opened in the same window, the program prompts the user to save the unsaved data opens an existing file - if there is an existing task opened in the same window, the program prompts the user to save the unsaved data saves data of currently opened task if no name is assigned to the task, the program opens the "Save as" dialogue window returns the last performed step (the function is available only in programs with 2D environment and must be allowed in dialogue window "Options") restores one returned step (the function is available only in programs with 2D environment and must be allowed in dialogue window "Options") opens the dialogue window to create, edit and print output documents opens the dialogue window to create, edit and print the current drawing displayed on the desktop copies the current picture displayed on the desktop or the inputted soil profile into clipboard inserts the soil profile stored in the clipboard (this option allows the user to copy the soil profile created in a different GEO program e.g., from program "Pressures" to program "Gravity wall"

Open file

Save data into file

Undo

Redo

Print and export document Print and export picture Copy Insert

Tool bar Scale and shift

The tool bar buttons serve to manage all plots displayed on the desktop (zoom in/out, move). The following figure shows locations of individual buttons:

Tool bar "Scale and shift" Scale up scales up desktop view while keeping location of the point under the axis cross unchanged this action is repeated using the left mouse button, the right button leaves the zooming mode scales down the desktop view while keeping location of the point under the axis cross unchanged this action is - 35 -

Scale down

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Shows marked region Move displayed region

shows and scales up the marked region - the region is selected using the left mouse button moves the current view in an arbitrary direction to proceed move mouse in the desired location while keeping the left mouse button pressed scales up the displayed region while keeping the region centered scales down the displayed region while keeping the region centered scales the view such that all objects are visible modifies view scale - returns the original view scale prior to the last applied scale action

Scale up Scale down Modify scale Use previous scale

Tool bar Plot setting

The button on a tool bar serves to set the setting visualization style on the desktop (colors, thickness and style of lines, background.).

Toll bar "Plot setting" Plot setting The button opens the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window that allows for setting all parameters of the picture displayed on the desktop. Tlatko oteve dialogov okno "Vbr zobrazovanch rozhran", ve kterm lze definovat, jak rozhran m bt zobrazeno na desktopu

Vbr zobrazovanc h rozhran

Tool bar Stage of construction

Tool bar buttons serve to work with stages of construction. Picture shows location of individual buttons:

Tool bar "Stage of construction" Adds construction stage Removes construction stage Construction stage 1,2 ... adds new stage of construction at the end of list removes the last stage of construction from the list switches between individual stages of construction selection is performed using the left mouse button

In all programs GEO5 this bar allows for defining stages of construction. Construction stages serve to model gradual building of a construction (essential for programs Sheeting - 36 -

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verification, Settlement, FEM). This function can be also used for parametric studies and in each stage of construction assume different soil assignment or different design coefficients. It is rather advantageous to model earthquake effects on a structure in a separate stage of construction as it is then possible to assume different factors of safety or different design coefficients. For individual types of input (soil assignment, anchors, supports) there always exists relationship over construction stages (Heredity).

Tool bar 3D visualization

The following buttons are available in the tool bar:

Tool bar "3D visualization" Individual buttons have the following functions: Lighting direction Axonometric view Perspective view 3D view View along the X-axis View in opposite direction to X-axis View along the Y-axis View in opposite direction to Y-axis View along the Z-axis View in opposite direction to Z-axis Moves the displayed cut Opens the dialogue window, which allows us to set the lighting direction Sets the axonometric view of drawing Sets the perspective view of drawing Sets the predefined 3D view of drawing Sets the view in the direction of the X-axis Sets the view in the direction opposite to the X-axis Sets the view in the direction of the Y-axis Sets the view in the direction opposite to the Y-axis Sets the view in the direction of the Z-axis Sets the view in the direction opposite to the Z-axis Moves the displayed cut in an arbitrary direction to move the drawing slide the mouse while pressing the left mouse button Rotates the displayed drawing in an arbitrary direction to move the drawing slide the mouse while pressing the left mouse button Turns on an automatic rotation of drawing according to the last used rotation (use the "Rotate scene" button)

Rotates the scene

Automatic scene rotation

Tool bar Selections

The tool bar buttons allow for setting the way in which individual objects on the desktop are selected when adjusting the drawing. The picture shows positions of these buttons: - 37 -

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Tool bar "Selections" Selection individually Selection by crossing Selection using rectangle Selection using rhomboid Add to the selection set Remove from the selection set Invert selection in a given mode each mouse click adds one object into the selection set (point, edge) in a given mode each mouse click adds all objects crossed by the line into the selection set (point, edge) in a given mode each mouse click adds all objects found inside the rectangle into the selection set (point, edge) in a given mode each mouse click adds all objects found inside the rhomboid into the selection set (point, edge) adds additional objects to the overall list according to the assumed selection mode removes objects from the overall list according to the assumed selection mode inverts all selected objects depending on the assumed selection mode

Vertical tool bars

The vertical tool bars serve to select the desired mode (regime) of inputting data (project, geometry, profile.) including analysis type and verification. Selecting the mode from this bar displays in the bottom part of the desktop the corresponding frame for data input.

Tool bar for switching between input data regimes Standalone vertical tool bar serves to manage pictures. The "Add picture" button opens the "New picture" dialogue window. The next line in the bar provides the number of stored pictures in a given regime of data input. The "Total" line shows the total number of stored pictures. The "Picture list" button opens the list of pictures.

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Tool bar for controlling view manager editor

Setting visualization style

The "Setting visualization style" dialogue window serves to set the plot style (line type and color) for visualization on the desktop or for printout, respectively. It contains a group of tab sheets that correspond to individual data input regimes. The tab sheets serve to set the style for drawing objects, which are specified in the related input regime. The "Global" tab sheet defines the settings common to all input regimes (background color, color of elements to be deleted or modification and style of drawing of inactive elements). The program implicitly contains two standard settings of styles and colors, particularly for black or white background. The setting can be modified in combo list on the tool bar. User setting can be defined, i.e. the user can specify its own style of drawing and store that style with the help of button on the tool bar into the "Style manager".

Dialogue window "Setting visualization style" global setting The following picture shows an example of a tab sheet for setting the plot in the regime "Water". Individual columns of the table contain (moving from the left): Item Active list of items plotted in a given input rgime (here, e.g., water tables, dimensions, gradient, water pressure.) shows / hides a given item in the active regime "Water". In case the option cannot be turned off (the field has a gray base in this case items "Tables" and "Water pressure") the visualization on the desktop is mandatory! shows / hides a given item in other input data regimes. Visualization color depends on the assumed setting in the tab sheet "Global" determines the item color displayed on the desktop determines the item color displayed in the "Picture list" or on printout ("Print

Inactive Desktop Pictures

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GEO5 User's Guide and export picture", "Print and export document") Line type Thickness determines the line style determines the line thickness

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Dialogue window "Setting visualization style" setting for the input regime "Water"

Style manager
The red button on a tool bar of the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window opens the "New style" dialogue window. The window allows for setting the style name and its description. The "OK" button saves the selected style.

Saving the user profile of visualization style In such a way an arbitrary number of user profiles of visualization styles can be defined. The list of such profiles can be accessed from a combo list already containing implicitly predefined profiles (black and white background), or a view manager (can be opened by pressing the button on a tool bar) that allows for editing the profile. The buttons "Up" and "Down" serve to move within a list of the user defined profiles.

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Dialogue window "Style manager"

Frames
The frame is a permanently opened window in the bottom part of the application window. Frames are changed depending on the input data regime of a given task selected from the vertical control bar. The frame may contain the following items: table, combo list, fields for inputting data (h1, h2.) and command buttons. The function key "Tab" together with cursor arrows for moving within the selected element (e.g., combo list) and in case of command buttons the corresponding underlined letter (" Add" "A") are employed when selecting the data using keyboard.

Frame control elements The frame can be minimized using the button in the left upper corner. In this case the frame space is taken by the drawing space. In some cases it is more advantageous to exploit the frame space for increasing the drawing space, which is possible owing to the fact that the program uses the system of active dimensions and active objects so that the frame does not have to be displayed all the time. - 41 -

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Returning the frame to its original face is performed by pressing the button in left bottom corner of the desktop showing the frame name. Providing the frame is minimized, e.g. in the regime "Soils" it remains hidden even when switching to other input data regime.

Frame control elements

Tables
The table is a list of inputted data (for example a list of surcharges, soils, profile interfaces). The table header contains a list of items (surcharge, name, width, size) and in the upper left corner control elements to manage the table rows: selects all table rows cancels selection inverts selection The assumed selection can be also changed by pressing the desired row number. Buttons with numbers are "pressed". The "Add" button opens the corresponding dialogue window for inserting the table data. If the list of data in the table is empty then all input fields in the dialogue window are empty. If the table contains some already inputted elements then the input fields are filled with values taken from the current table row (an "arrow" is positioned next to the row number). Elements (rows) are inserted in the table by pressing the "Add" button in the dialogue window. New data are placed at the end of the table. Individual rows are edited with the help of the "Edit" button. Only the row marked with an arrow (see figure) will be edited regardless of other selected rows in the table. Some of the dialogue windows allows for editing a group of selected items using the "Edit selected" button. It is therefore possible to modify values in more rows all at once. Always the selected rows are edited. - 42 -

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The "Remove" button deletes all selected ("pressed") rows. More than one row can be removed at the same time. If not item is selected the program deletes the current row (marked with an "arrow"). It there is among rows selected for deletion a row, which cannot be deleted (e.g. starting point of a structure), the program stops the deletion process!

Table example Selection state of individual table rows corresponds to visualization state of objects on the desktop. An object on the desktop that corresponds to the current row in the table (an "arrow" is positioned next to the row number) is implicitly displayed extra bold. If the row is selected ("pressed") the corresponding object is displayed in green. Pressing the "Remove" button colors all objects selected for deletion red.

Visualization of selected objects

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Marking objects using these colors is implicitly set. This setting, however, can be modified in the "Setting visualization style" - tab sheet "Global".

Setting color for selecting objects

Dialogue windows
A dialogue window is one of the elements that allows for inputting data into program. In all GEO programs the dialogue windows apply to conventional windows management typical for the WINDOWS environment. A left mouse button is used when selecting objects in the window or alternatively the function key "Tab" when using keyboard. The cursor arrows, key "ENTER" or in case of command buttons the corresponding underlined letter ("Cancel" - "C", "OK" "O") are employed when moving within an object. A dialogue window can contain the following items: table, combo list, fields for inputting data (number, text) and command buttons. The "OK" command button confirms the selection, while the "Cancel" button leaves the input mode. Providing the window contains a certain non-typical control element (or this element has some other rather then typical effect) its function is described in the corresponding data input regime. As an example consider the following picture showing the "Edit surcharge" dialogue window that contains the "OK+ " and "OK+ " buttons. These buttons allow the user to move within the list of inputted surcharges and at the same time to confirm changes made in the window. Pressing this button results in the same action as if closing the window with the "OK" button and opening it again for the next element in the list.

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Dialogue window example

Active dimensions and objects

The system of active dimensions and objects allows for faster editing of the inputted data. Active dimension is a dimension that can be edited directly on the desktop. The value of active dimension is labeled by frame (dashed line). Positioning the mouse cursor and the frame changes its mask into a "hand". Clicking the value than changes the frame view (is plotted in a solid line), to cursor starts to blink and the dimension can be edited. The "Enter" button closes the editing mode. The change is immediately displayed on the desktop. Active object functions in a similar way. Changing the cursor mask into a "hand" and clicking the object (double click) than activates the editing mode. In this case, however, the values are not edited directly on the desktop, but rather in the dialogue window originally used to create the object. The picture shows an example of an active object (trapezoidal surcharge), when clicking on the desktop opens the "Edit surcharge" dialogue window.

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Example of using active dimensions and active objects

Unit metric / imperial

The program allows for choosing either metric or imperial units. Use combo list to select the desired type of units. A prompt message appears requesting to confirm the selection. By changing the unit system program updates concrete and reinforcement material and concrete standard. By selecting imperial units you can use ACI standard to design concrete constructions. After units change it is necessary to check selected materials in frame "Materials".

Dialogue window to confirm the change of units

Copy to clipboard
The program allows for using the Windows clipboard in two different ways: it is possible to copy the current desktop view. The picture can be then inserted into an arbitrary editor (MS Word, Drawing, Adobe Photoshop, etc.) Individual parameters are set in the "Options" dialogue window, tab sheet "Copy to clipboard" it is possible to copy the program input data (soil parameters, profile and interfaces, surcharges, water impact, terrain, etc.). The copied data can be then inserted into another - 46 -

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Copying to clipboard is available either from the control menu (items "Modifications", "Copy picture") or using the "Files" button on the tool bar.

Options
The "Options" dialogue window serves to set some of the special program functions (copy to clipboard, print view, grid and step, etc.). This dialogue window is opened from a control menu (items "Setting", "Options"). The window contains individual tab sheets (number and content may vary depending on individual programs) that allow for specifying corresponding settings.

Dialogue window "Options"

Options copy to clipboard

The "Copy to clipboard" tab sheet allows for setting the controlling parameters: Picture size the setting defines the picture size. Either the picture width or height can be assigned manually. The other dimension is always set automatically the setting defines the picture format (*.EMF, *.WMF, *.BMP), its resolution and color. Recommended setting is displayed in the figure (format: *.EMF, resolution: 600 dpi, color) the setting defines the picture frame and header. If both options are checked, the picture contains both the frame and header

Picture format

Options

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Dialogue window "Options" tab sheet "Copy to clipboard"

Options print picture

This dialogue window is opened from the control menu (items "Setting", "Options"). The "Print picture" tab sheet allows for setting the picture parameters assumed for printout or export in the "Print and export picture" dialogue window. Options the setting defines the picture frame and header. If both options are checked, the picture contains both the frame and header

The "Default" button in the window sets original implicit values.

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Dialogue window "Options" tab sheet "Print picture"

Options - input
The "Options" dialogue window, tab sheet "Input" allows for setting the "Grid" parameters and parameters of functions "Back" and "Repeat". This tab sheet is implemented only in 2D programs (Slope stability, Settlement, Beam, etc.). Grid Show grid Snap to grid sets the grid origin and step in the X and Z directions shows / hides grid on the desktop turns on / off the snap to grid option using mouse (when shifting the mouse the cursor jumps over the defined grid a point off the grid can be specified by holding the "CTRL" key) shows / hides horizontal rule with a scale of distances on the desktop shows / hides vertical rule with a scale of distances on the desktop turns on / off the possibility of using these functions in the program (on horizontal tool bar these buttons are "foggy"

Horizontal rule Vertical rule Functions Back and Repeat

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Dialogue window "Options" - tab sheeet "Input"

Common input
This chapter contains the hint sections that either provide details on the chapter " Data input and analysis regimes" or are common to several GEO programs.

Earth pressures - Analysis methods

The "Project" frame tab sheet "Earth pressures" contains basic settings driving the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers presetting for various countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France.) and "Standard setting" recommended by the authors for countries stored in the list. When the "User" option is selected it is possible choose from an arbitrary type of analysis offered by the program: Earth pressure analysis Methods to compute active pressure Caqout-Kerisel Coulomb (CSN 730037) Mller-Breslau (DIN 4085) Mazindrani (Rankin) Absi Methods to compute passive pressure Caqout-Krisel (CSN 730037) Coulomb Mller-Breslau Sokolovski (DIN 4085) Mazindrani (Rankin) Absi Earthquake analysis

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Frame "Project" - tab sheet "Earth pressures"

Inputting and editing soils

The "Add new soil" dialogue window serves to input name soil parameters that should be obtained from laboratory measurements or geological survey. All inputting fields in the window must be filled. The only exception is the value of sat (bulk weight of saturated soil) in the window section "Uplift". Should this filed remain empty the program autonatically adds the value of (bulk weight of soil). Cliking the hint button " " provides information about the theory of analyses linked to individual values being inputted. Color and soil sample are selected in "Soil and rock symbols" dialogue window. To open this window press the "Sample and color" button. If no geological survey or laboratoray experiments are available, the soil can be specified with the help of soil database containg approximate values of basic characteristics. The "Classify" button opens the "Soil classification" dialogue window with the values offered for inserting into the window. The "Delete" button allows for removing the information about classified soil from the catalogue. Soil parameters that do not appear in the catalogue ("Friction angle struc-soil" in the picture) must be in any case assigned manually. The specified soil is inserted into the list of soils by pressing the "Add" button.

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Dialogue window "Adding new soils"

Soil classification
Approximate values of soils can be obtained from the catalogue of soils. The combo list serves to select the desired soil and specify its consistency or compactness, respectively. The soil parameters obtained from the catalogue appear in the window.

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Dialogue window "Soil classification" Pressing the "OK" button shows in the "Add new soil" recommended values next to corresponding input fields (see Fig.). Pressing the " OK+Assign" button then assigns to individual input fields the average values of soil parameters. The " Cancel" button leaves the window with no action. The "Manual" button opens the "Manual soil classification" dialogue window that allows for classifying the soil if its parameters are known, e.g., from laboratory measurements (grading, moisture, compactness.).

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Soil classification recommended range of values

Soil and rock labels

The soil inputted either manually or inserted from the catalogue of soils can be assigned a sample (type of hatching) and color to be shown in the profile on the desktop. A color selected from the "Desktop" combo list is the color used to plot soils (rocks) on the desktop. A color selected from the "Pictures" combo list is the color used to visualize soils (rocks) in pictures that are either stored in the "Picture list" or printed with the help of "Print and export pictures". The sample color to be sufficiently visible should be chosen with respect to the desktop background or printout paper, respectively.

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Dialogue window "Soil and rock symbols"

Manual classification of soil

This dialogue window allows for specifying the soil parameters, which serve to add the soil into a catalogue of soils. The "OK" button switches back to the "Soil classification" dialogue window with setting and classified soil.

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Dialogue window "Manual classification of soil"

Interfaces in 2D environment
The left part of the desktop contains a table with the list of interfaces. Interfaces are ordered in the table from top to bottom. For currently selected interface the program displays in the mid section of the desktop another table listing individual interface points. A tool bar in the top part of the desktop contains control buttons to manage interfaces.

Tool bar "Interface"

Margins Add

opens the "World coordinates" dialogue window that allows for setting the world dimensions (left and right edge). turns on the regime for inputting a new interface individual interfaces can be added in an arbitrary order. Each interface is automatically stored in the list of interface when leaving the input mode turns on the regime for editing an interface this regime is also activated by clicking the desired interface on the desktop upon pressing the "Remove" button the program marks the selected interface with a red color and opens the dialogue window to confirm this action

Modify remove

Every change made to a given interface can be put back using the "UNDO and REDO" buttons on the horizontal tool bar.

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Frame "Interface"

Adding interface
The "Add" button starts the regime for inputting points of a new interface. Other buttons on the same tool bar assumed for inputting and editing interface points become active. The " OK" button (tinged green) closes the input regime and stores the inputted points. The " Cancel" button (tinged red) closes the input regime without accounting for changes. Two options are available to specify coordinates of individual interface points: Using table: interface points are introduced in the "New interface points" table. The "Add" button opens the "New point" dialogue window that allows for specifying coordinates of a new point. The "Add" button then inserts the point into the table. The "Cancel" button is serves to close the input mode when all interface points are introduced. The "Edit" and "Remove" buttons allow for either editing or deleting the inputted points. Each change in interface geometry immediately appears on the desktop. Using mouse: individual buttons on the vertical tool drive this inputting mode. The following modes are available: Add point the point is inserted by clicking the left mouse button on the desktop - the grid option can be exploited when inserting the point - the inputted point is automatically rounded to two decimal digits both mouse and keyboard input modes are therefore identical pressing the existing interface point using the left mouse button allows for selecting this point and then moving it to a new position clicking the existing interface point opens the dialogue window

Edit point using mouse Edit point in

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pressing the existing interface point using the left mouse button opens the "Remove point" dialogue window when confirming this action the point is deleted

When inputting points, it is possible to utilize the template obtained from import DXF. The program allows also for introducing vertical interfaces in such a case the program requests to insert the point either to the left or to the right. The buttons that serve to confirm the action are colored the same color is also used to visualize both input variants on the desktop. The "OK" button (tinged green) is used to store the inputted interface when all interface points are introduced. The program also contains an automatic corrector of inputted interface that determines the interface end points and then adds the interface to the list of interfaces.

Frame "Interface"

Editing interface
The "Modify" button turns on the regime of inputting points of a new interface. The program also opens the currently selected interface (it is selected from the "List of interfaces" table; it is displayed as a solid thick line on the desktop). An interface can be selected also as an active object by clicking a point, line or interface using the left mouse button. The actual editing procedure (adding, shifting, deleting points) is the same as for adding interface input mode. The "OK" button closes the editing regime and stores all performed changes. The "Cancel" button closes the regime without accounting for all previously made modifications. After leaving the edit mode (similarly to adding interface), the program immediately runs the corrector of the inputted interface to check for the interface shape and if necessary to modify the interface end points. - 58 -

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Corrector of inputted interface

When the inputting or editing process is completed the program automatically modifies the inputted interface to comply with the program requirements, i.e. the end points touch the world edges or other interfaces. The automatic corrector can be further used to simplify the input process e.g., if only one point is used to specify an interface the program automatically creates a horizontal interface containing the inputted point. If the interface touches another interface the corrector creates new end points of the current interface. These points then also become the points of the interface being touched. All lines of individual interfaces thus start and end in a point. In case of an incorrect input (see the picture below) the interface cannot be stored. In this case the interface must be modified or the inputting process must be stopped using the "Cancel" button. Here we present examples of interface corrector functions (correct and incorrect input):

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Correct and incorrect interface shapes

World coordinates
The dialogue window serves to specify world coordinates (dimensions) for a given task left and right edges. The third data is auxiliary it determines the depth of drawing earth profiles on the desktop it has no effect on the performed analysis. The world coordinates can be changed at any time when increasing dimensions all inputted interfaces are automatically prolonged, when reducing dimensions all points falling off the new world coordinates are automatically removed.

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Dialogue window "World coordinates"

Assigning soils
Two options are available to assign soils into individual profile layers. Clicking the left muse button on the tool bar button above the table selects the desired soil (positioning the mouse cursors in the bar above the soil button displays a bubble hint with the soil name). The soil is inserted by moving the mouse cursor (the cursor mask changes into a " hand") first into a specific layer and then by pressing the left mouse button. The second option requires opening a combo list of a specific interface and then selecting the desired soil to be assigned. All changes in the soil assignment are automatically displayed on the desktop.

Frame "Assigning"

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Design coefficients
The "Analysis" or "Verification" (for verification methodology - classical way) frames that display the list of computed forces allow for specifying design coefficients. A design coefficient multiplies the corresponding force. When inputting the coefficient the results are automatically recomputed and the desktop shows modified forces. Design coefficients are advantageous for example for: structure testing when a structure response to an increase of force specified directly in the analysis window can be visualized excluding several forces from verification or their reduction Specifying design combinations e.g., different coefficients can be assigned in the sense of EC to main load variables and side variable loads The following combinations can be for example specified when performing the wall verification: Analysis 1 Wall Active pressure Surcharde 1 Surcharde 2 Surcharde 3 1,0 1,0 1,0 0,5 0,5 Analysis 2 1,0 1,0 0,5 1,0 0,5 Analysis 3 1,0 1,0 0,5 0,5 1,0

Frame "Verification" application of design coefficients

Running more analyses / verifications

Most frames that display the analysis results allow for defining more than one analysis to be run. Several analyses within one construction stage are carried out for example for: - 62 -

GEO5 User's Guide dimensioning structure in more locations analyses of various slip surfaces verification with various design coefficients The bar in the top part of the frame serves to manage individual analyses.

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Frame "Analysis" tool bar "Running more analyses / verification" Add Remove Analysis 1,2,3 ... adds additional analysis on the bar removes the currently selected analysis switches between individual analyses

Frame "Analysis" - "running more analyses / verification"

Connecting programs
In some cases it is possible to launch a new program from a currently running program. For example, the "Cantilever wall" program allows for running the "Slope stability" program to verify the external stability of a structure, or the "Spread footing" program to verify the bearing capacity of a footing of a structure. The new program loads the data of structure and then it behaves as a stand alone program closing the program, however, is different. Pressing the "OK" button (on the right below the tool bars) closes the program and the analysis data are passed to the original program. This is not the case if closing the program with the help of the "Cancel" button. - 63 -

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The program, when running it for the first time, creates the data of a structure and passes on the structure dimensions, geology, loads, surcharges and other data. The program then requires inputting some additional data, e.g. the analysis method, analysis setting, slip surfaces, stages of construction, etc. When running it again (always necessary if some changes were made in the original program) the program regenerates the data to be passed on, but keeps the data already inputted in this program. For example, when connecting the original program with the "Spread footing" program the new program keeps the additionally inputted sand-gravel cushion together with inputted soil the footing dimensions, foundation geometry, and geological profile are, however, regenerated. Some actions are not allowed in the new program e.g. to change the basic setting of the project, unit, etc. The generated task, however, can be saved into new data using the " Save as" button and work with it as with any other independent task.

Run the program "Spread footing" from program "Cantilever wall"

Selecting and storing views

The programs offers a number of ways of displaying results. A specific option can be selected from the "View results" dialogue window. Quite often is necessary to go through a complex and tedious setting of views for example, if we are interested in the distribution of internal forces developed in beams using FEM, it is necessary to turn off the color range, draw only undeformed structure, select a variable to be displayed, select a suitable magnification, etc. To simplify the way of managing individual views the programs allow us, using the "Selecting and storing views" bar, to store the current view and also to go from one view to the other in a relatively simple way. The stored view keeps: all settings from the "View results", MKP - Setting visualization of results" resp. - 64 -

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The view is stored for all stages of construction if it is not possible in a certain construction stage to perform such a setting (e.g. in the first construction stage the settlement and depression are not defined) the programs displays the closest possible setting and the defined view is switched to <none>.

Control units of a tool bar "Views"

The following control units are available to manage views: Define view opens the "Setting results visualization" dialogue window, which serves to define details for displaying the results a combo list allows for selecting an already specified and stored view opens the "New view" dialogue window to store a new view opens the window with a list of views

Select view Store current view Open view manager

Setting results visualization

The "Settlement - results visualization setting" dialogue window provides tools for a lucid way of displaying the results both on the screen and in the printed format: parameters to draw depression line and influence zone setting surface views and color scale drawing setting and drawing tilted sections The programs based on the finite element method further allow for setting: parameters to draw the finite element mesh parameters to draw construction deformed / undeformed (note that undeformed option must be selected when displaying beam internal forces) distribution of internal forces along interfaces and on beam elements - 65 -

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All information specified in this window (including the setting of current magnification) can be stored using the selecting and storing views bar.

Dialogue window "Settlement results visualization setting"

Setting color range

The color range is an important tool providing a lucid way of visualization of results. The program offers two predefined types of color ranges "Uniform" and "Across zero". Both ranges have a moving minimum and maximum value and predefined colors. The minimum and maximum values are automatically regenerated whenever the variable or a stage of construction is changed. The "Uniform" range means that colors are uniformly spread from the minimum to the maximum value. The "Across zero" range draws the positive values using warm colors (yellow, red), while cold colors (green, blue) are used to represent negative values. The program allows for introduction of user-defined ranges with both the fixed minimum and maximum and the moving minimum and maximum. A user-defined range is specified in the "Scale color definition" dialogue window. The range is always defined for the current unit (e.g. kPa, m) when switching the units the program always adjusts the range particular for a given unit.

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Control units of a tool bar "Ranges"

The following control units are available to manage ranges: Select range Define color ranges Store current range Open range manager a combo list allows for selecting an already specified and stored range opens the "Scale color definition" dialogue window to create a user-defined range opens the "New range" dialogue window to store a new range opens the window with a list of automatic and user-defined ranges

Scale color definition

The "Scale color definition" dialogue window serves to cerate a user-defined color scale. The "Floating minimum and maximum" check box determines the basic type of a scale. If checked, the minimum and maximum values of a scale are automatically adjusted whenever the corresponding variable or a construction stage is changed. In such a case it possible to adjust the following: scale refinement (the minimum number of levels is four and the maximum is 100) scale color uniform scale / across zero The number of scale levels and scale type are specified in the "Scale generation" dialogue window, which opens after pressing the "Generate values" button. It is possible to adjust both values and colors in the table in the left part of the dialogue window. The range values can be easily changed in the table. If the box in the "Control color" column is checked, it is possible to choose an arbitrary color from the combo box. The color on intermediate not checked rows are automatically blended from the inputted colors in checked rows. The default values can be recalled anytime after pressing the "Predefined colors" button. An important property of the program is a definition of ranges with the fixed minimum and maximum. If the "Floating minimum and maximum" check box is not checked, the color - 67 -

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range is fixed and its minimum and maximum values are inputted. As oppose to the moving range it is further possible to specify: range end points (in the "Scale generation" dialogue window) colors to display values out of the range When changing a variable or a construction stage the color range remains still the same, keeping the same end ranges. The values found outside the range (below the minimum or above the maximum value) are drawn using colors specified in the right part of the window. The minimum and maximum range values are inputted in the "Scale generation" dialogue window. The inputted minimum and maximum values are linked to the same unit e.g. when specifying the rage of 0-200 kPa, this range is kept the same for all variables being specified in kPa when changing the currently displayed variable to the variable settlement, the current range is switched to that corresponding to the unit of settlement. For both the fixed and floating scale it is possible to choose whether the colors in the ranges are distributed uniformly or across zero. The "Uniform" scale means that colors are smoothly spread from the minimum to the maximum value of the scale. The "Across zero" scale draws the colors above the selected value using warm colors (yellow, red), while cold colors (green, blue) are used to represent the colors below the selected value.

Dialogue window "Scale color definition"

Import - export DXF

Programs 2D (Slope stability, Settlement, FEM) allow for importing and exporting data in DXF format. The 1D programs (Cantilever wall, Gabion, Spread footing, Piles,) allow only for exporting data in the *.DXF format. The program main menu (item "File") contains items "Import" and "Export" "Format DXF". These items are accessible in the menu even if the module "Import-export DXF" has not been purchased. If the module is not implemented, the program displays a warning message.

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Warning message for missing module If the module is purchased, the desktop contains a tool bar for handling the imported data.

Menu and tool bar for module "Export-import DFX" Data import proceeds in two steps: Reading data into template Inputting data using template Modifying template during data input The data inputted in the program can be exported in DXF format anytime.

Reading data into template

To proceed, use the program menu (item "File") and choose the item "Import", "Format DXF". Next, select the file intended for import. The loaded data are displayed in the dialogue window, which allows for selecting individual layers to be subsequently read into a template. All data are always loaded into the program so that the layer selection can be modified anytime. When importing data it is possible adjust the world margins based on the imported data this is particularly useful when defining a new task. Imported data are not transferred directly into the program. Instead, they are read into a template, which is used to transfer data into program later on. When the data are loaded the template is displayed on the desktop and the buttons on a horizontal tool bare, which are used to manage the template, are made available.

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Reading data into a template

Modifying world margins

Inputting data using template

Inputting data using a template is essentially the same as a standard input of data in the program. The main difference appears in the possibility of adding a point from a template into the data being inputted. During input the mouse cursor appears as an axial cross when approaching the template it turns into a small cross and long axes disappear. When a point is now inputted (using the left mouse button) the point from the template is inserted (the inputted point has now the same coordinates as the point in the template). To accelerate the input of individual lines it appears useful to employ the zooming tools. After interfaces are inputted, the procedure can be applied to input other entities. During input it is possible to modify template anytime.

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Inputting data using a template

Modifying template during data input

When inputting data, the template can be modified anytime. In particular, pressing the "Modify" button on the "Template DXF" tool bar opens a dialogue window with individual layers of the template. For example, when inputting anchors, it is possible to turn off all layers except for anchors inputting anchors then becomes simple and lucid.

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Turning on/off layers in a template

Display after modifying layers in a template

Export DXF
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Information regarding the performed data export The exported data can be verified by importing them back into the program GEO5.

Check of exported data

Import gINT
The program GEO5 makes possible to import data in the gINT (*.gi*) format. The gINT (*.gi*) format is used to process and present geotechnical, geological and hydrological data. Detail information regarding this company can be found on www.gintsoftware.com and www.fine.cz/gint. The main program menu (item "File") contains the "Import" - "Format GI*" items. The GEO program allow for loading three types of files from the gINT program: *.GI1 points of terrain for program "Terrain" *.GI2 soils and geological profile for all GEO programs *.GI3 CPT data for program "Pile CPT" - 73 -

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Menu "Import gINT"

Import of terrain points

The program "Terrain" allows for importing the points of terrain surface. The gINT file is in this case written as *.gi1. The main program menu (item "File") contains the "Import" "Format GI1 (gINT interface points)" items. Using the "Open" button in the "Import of data in gINT format" dialogue window makes possible to load the gINT file import a set of points of terrain surface. Using the "Add" button then opens the way to import in the gINT format an arbitrary number of interfaces. Using the "Open" button in the bottom part of the dialogue window it is possible as described above to load the "File of points of water" While importing the program automatically transform the format of units of the imported data into the one used in the program.

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Dialogue window "Import of data on format gINT"

Import of soils and profile

Using the "Open" button in the "Import gINT (soils and profile)" dialogue window makes possible to load the gINT file. The gINT file is in this case written as *.gi2. The " Selected profile" combo list serves to choose the profile. The type of import (Import soils, Import profile, Import assignment) is then determined in the "Import parameters" sheet. While importing the program automatically transform the format of units of the imported data into the one used in the program. V programu "Tern" lze importovat vce profil (vrt) najednou (volba "Vechny profily" v rozbalitelnm seznamu "Vybran profil"). Vechny importovan vrty mus mt stejn poet vrstev. Jestlie vrty obsahuj rzn poad piazench zemin, provede se piazen podle prvnho vrtu.

Dialogue window "Import gINT" (soils and profile)

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Heredity - stage of construction

For individual types of input (soil assignment, anchors, supports) there always exists relationship over construction stages. There are two types: Defined heredity (anchors, supports, surcharges) these objects always remember the stage, in which they were created. This is also the stage where these objects can be edited. In all subsequent stages these objects can be either removed or it is possible to change some of their properties (post-stressing anchor, changing surcharge magnitude, translating support). When defining a new construction stage these objects are automatically carried over to that stage. Automatic heredity (assigning soil, terrain profile, water impact, analysis setting) for such types of inputs the properties from the previous stage are carried over to a new one if created. When changing properties in the current construction stage the program proceeds as follows: if the property in the next stage remains the same as in the previous stage it also receives the tag new this change also applies to all subsequent stages if the property in the next stage differs from the one in the previous stage (this means that this property has been in the next stage already changed) then this change is not carried over to subsequent stages

Changes within stages of construction automatic heredity

Input regimes and analysis

This capture contains basic description of individual regimes of inputting data into the program:

Program Earth Pressure

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

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Frame "Project"

Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame contains table listing the points of a structure. Adding (editing) points is performed in the "Add (edit) point" dialogue window. The existing geometry points can be further edited on the desktop with the help of active objects double clicking on a selected point opens a dialog window to edit the point. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Earth Pressure". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the help "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint (Parameter chart) of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters (h1, h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of z (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients kh and kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters.

Frame "Setting"

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Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame settings serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997-1 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods". When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same.

Frame "Settings"

Analysis
The frame "Analysis" shows the analysis results. Several computations can be carried out for a single task. The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as secondary one. This is explained in more details in section "Load combinations". Providing the analysis is carried out according to "Design approach 1", it is necessary to enter the combination number in the right part of the window. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. The "Analysis" frame displays the analysis results. The frame serves to select type of computed earth pressure (active pressure, pressure at rest, passive pressure). Two options "Create soil wedge" and "Minimum dimensioning pressure" are available when computing the active earth pressure. The analysis results are displayed on the desktop and are updated immediately for an arbitrary change in input data or setting. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Analysis"

Program Sheeting Design

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program. These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in det;ail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame is used to specify the depth of a construction ditch and by pressing the button to choose the shape of a bottom. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") appears in the left part of the frame. The dimensions of a structure can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The frame can be further used to input surcharge of a construction ditch bottom and coefficient of reduction of earth pressure below the ditch bottom (this coefficient serves to analyze braced sheeting). The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

Anchors
The "Anchors" frame contains a table with a list of inputted anchors. Adding (editing) anchors is performed in the "New anchor (Edit anchor)" dialogue window. The inputted anchors can be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Anchors"

Props
The "Props" frame contains a table with a list inputted props. Adding (editing) props is performed in the "New prop (Edit prop)" dialogue window. The inputted props can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively.

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Frame "Props"

Supports
The "Supports" frame contains a table with a list of inputted supports. Adding (editing) supports is performed in the "New support (Edit support)" dialogue window. The inputted supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively.

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Frame "Supports"

Pressure determination
The "Pressure specification" frame allows by pressing the button "Analyze" ("Input", respectively) for selecting a method for the calculation of active earth pressure. Choose option "Analyze" if you wish the active earth pressure to be computed automatically based on specified earth profile. In some special cases (redistribution of earth pressures due to presence of anchors, nonstandard rotation of a structure) it advisable to specify the distribution of earth pressure on a structure manually. Selecting the option "Input" opens a table in the frame with a list of inputted points and the corresponding pressure value. The pressure is specified up to the depth of structure increased by the depth of zero point (the depth of zero point is introduced in the top part of the frame). The depth of zero point equal to zero is selected if we wish to specify the pressure values only up to the depth of construction ditch. Below the ditch the programs computes the pressure values based on the specified geological profile. Providing the earth pressure is specified manually the program does not account for the influence of terrain profile, surcharge and water.

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Frame "Pressure determination"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters h1, h2 can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Applied forces
The "Applied forces" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "New force (edit force)" dialogue window. The inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Applied forces"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients kh and kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option " User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters.

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Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame setting serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997-1 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods". When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1.0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same.

Frame "Settings"

Analysis
The "Analysis" frame displays the analysis results. The analysis is carried out by pressing the "Analyze" button in the right part of the frame. The frame has two variants. The first variant applies to a wall free of anchors (sheet pile) and the second one to an anchored (strutted) wall. A coefficient of reduction of passive earth pressure (or factor of safety) together with a choice whether to consider a minimal dimensioning pressure behind the structure is specified for a non-anchored wall. A type of heel support (fixed, free) and analysis parameters (coefficient of reduction of passive pressure, minimum dimensioning pressure) are specified for an anchored wall. When performing the analysis according to EN 1997 or LRFD the design coefficients are introduced in the frame "Analyses methods". Providing the analysis is carried out according to Design approach 1, it is necessary to also enter the combination number. The analysis results are displayed on the desktop. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Analysis" - non-anchored wall

Frame "Analysis" - anchored wall

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Program Sheeting Check

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

Analysis method
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake. The frame allows the user to specify subdivision of a wall in to finite elements (by default the number of elements equals to 30).

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Frame "Analysis methods"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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The frame "Profile"

Modulus of subsoil reaction

This frame serves to specify a type of analysis for computation of the modulus of subsoil reaction, which is an important input parameter when analyzing a structure using the method of dependent pressures. The program makes possible to input the distribution of the modulus of subsoil reaction (along the length of a structure, as a soil parameter), iterate from soil material parameters, or to compute it. The modulus of subsoil reaction can be either linear or nonlinear. Selecting the option "Input by distribution" opens a table in the frame that allows for specifying the values of the modulus of subsoil reaction both in front and behind the structure. When selecting other options the required information needed to compute the modulus value are inputted as soil parameters in the frame "Soils".

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Frame "Modulus of subsoil reaction"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Sheeting check". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest", "Uplift pressure" and "Modulus of subsoil reaction". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame contains a table with a list of inputted structural sections forming the sheeting wall. For each section the table stores its cross-sectional characteristics (A area, I Moment of inertia) and material characteristics (E Modulus of elasticity, G Shear modulus these variables are always expressed with respect to 1m of a construction length). Adding (editing) sections is performed in the "New section (Edit section)" dialogue window. The program allows for adding (inserting) another section in between two already existing sections of a structure. Inserting a new section is performed in the " Insert section" dialogue window that complies with the "New section" dialogue window. The inserted section is ordered such as to precede the currently selected section of a structure. The inputted sections can be further edited on the desktop with the help of active objects double clicking on a structure opens a dialog window with a given section. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format. - 111 -

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Frame "Geometry"

Adding and editing section

The "New section (Edit, section, Insert section)" dialog window contains the following items: Type of wall combo list containing individual types of walls to create a sheeting (pile wall, reinforced concrete rectangular wall, sheet pile wall, steel I cross-section, or own generation of desired cross-sectional characteristics use input field to specify length of sheeting wall or length of a given section of a structure, respectively coefficient allowing for computation of braced sheeting (for classical sheeting is set equal to one) contains information about geometry for a given structural variant (e.g., for pile wall it contains pile cross-section and spacing of piles, for reinforced concrete wall its thickness, etc.) contains information about profile for the selected structural variant "steel I cross-section" (buttons "Catalogue" and "Edit" open the "Rolled section steel profiles", which contains a list of these cross-sections) contains information about material of a given structural variant (e.g., for pile wall it contains a catalogue of materials to select the type of concrete, for sheet pile wall the elastic modulus, etc.) contains overview of cross-sectional characteristics of the inputted cross-section area and moment of inertia are always - 112 -

Section length Coeff. of reduc. of earth press. below ditch bottom Geometry

Profile

Material

Information

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The "User catalogue" button in the bottom part of the window opens the "User catalogue" dialogue window.

Dialogue window "New section"

User catalogue
The user catalogue allows the user to define and store own cross-sections and their characteristics that appear in the construction of a wall. At first use of the catalogue (has not been yet created) the program prompts a warning message that no catalogue was found. Then, pressing the button "OK" opens the "Save as" dialogue window that allows for entering the catalogue name and saving it into a specified location by pressing the " Save" button (by default a folder used for saving the project data is assumed). The program allows the user to create more than one catalogue. The next catalogue is created by pressing the "New" button the program asks, whether the current catalogue should be replaced (the currently loaded catalogue is not deleted!) and saves the new catalogue under a new name. The "Open" button allows for loading an arbitrary user catalogue and by pressing the "Save as" button for saving it under a different name. Aktuln naten uivatelsk katalog lze exportovat do textovho souboru pomoc tlatka "Export TXT"

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Dialogue window at first use user catalogue of cross-sections The "User catalogue" dialogue window contains a table listing the user defined crosssections. The Add item button opens the New catalogue item dialogue window that allows for specifying and subsequent saving of characteristics of a new cross-section into the catalogue. Buttons Edit item and Remove item serve to edit individual items in the table. The "Accept current" button accepts the current cross-sectional characteristics of a crosssection specified in the "New section" dialogue window and opens the "New catalogue item" dialogue window that allows for modifying and saving the current cross-section.

Dialogue windows "User catalogue" and "New catalogue item"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Excavation
The "Excavation" frame serves to input the depth of a construction ditch and by pressing the button to select the shape of the ditch base. The selected shape with a graphic hint "Parameter chart" appears in the left part of the frame. The dimensions of a structure can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The frame also allows for specifying surcharge acting on the ditch base or a thickness of madeup ground of new soil below the ditch base (the soil can be selected from a combo list containing soils inputted in the regime "Soils"). When introducing the made-up ground with brace sheeting it is assumed that there is a sheeted structure in the location of made-up ground, i.e., all pressures are acting on the entire width of a structure as above the construction ditch base.

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Frame "Excavation"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint (Parameter chart) of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters (h1, h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of z (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Applied forces
The "Applied forces" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "New force (edit force)" dialogue window. The inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Forces"

Anchors
The "Anchors" frame contains a table with a list of inputted anchors. Adding (editng) anchors is performed in the "New anchor (Edit anchor)" dialogue window. The inpuuted anchors can be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. You are asked to input the anchor location, its length and inclination, pre-stress force and parameters needed to determine the anchor stiffness (cross-sectional area, modulus of elasticity). The anchor is introduced automatically on already deformed structure (obtained from the previous stage of construction). The anchor stiffness becomes effective in subsequent stages of construction. In subsequent stages the anchor can no longer be edited. The only action available is the change of anchor pre-stress force. Note: The program does not check the anchor bearing capacity against breakage.

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Frame "Anchors"

Props
The "Props" frame contains a table with a list inputted props. Adding (editing) props is performed in the "New prop (Edit prop)" dialogue window. The inputted props can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. You are asked to input the prop location, its length and parameters needed to determine the prop stiffness (cross-sectional area, modulus of elasticity). The prop is introduced automatically on already deformed structure (obtained from the previous stage of construction). In subsequent stages the props can no longer be edited. The only action available is the change of prop stiffness. Note: The program does not check the prop bearing capacity neither for compression nor for buckling.

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Frame "Props"

Supports
The "Supports" frame contains a table with a list of inputted supports. Adding (editing) supports is performed in the "New support (Edit support)" dialogue window. The inputted supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. You are asked to specify the support type (free, fixed, and spring) and its location. The support is inputted automatically on already deformed structure (obtained from the previous stage of construction). In subsequent stages the supports can no longer be edited. The only action available is the introduction of prescribed (forced) displacement in a support.

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Frame "Support"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients kh and kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters. The "Other" tab sheet contains setting for minimum dimensioning pressure and setting of parameters of internal stability of a structure. The program "Sheeting check" is useful particularly when modeling real behavior of a structure consequently we recommend the analysis to be performed without reduction of input characteristics of soils ("Standard setting").

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Frame "Settings" - tab sheet "Pressure calculation"

Frame "Settings" - tab sheet "Other"

Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame setting serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997-1 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods". When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1.0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same. The frame also allows specification of minimal dimensioning pressure.

Frame "Settings"

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Analysis
The frame "Analysis" displays the analysis results. Switching to this regime automatically runs the analysis. The frame contains three buttons to show the analysis results: Kh + pressures Variation of the modulus of subsoil reaction is displayed in the left part of the desktop (by default a blue color with hatching) is assumed. Referring to the method of depending pressures some of the springs (values of modules of subsoil reaction) are removed (spring stiffness set equal to zero) from the analysis. The analysis may fail to converge providing the critical (limit) state developed both in front and behind the structure and there is not enough constrains available (anchors, supports). The program exists without finding a solution. An error message appears in the bottom part of the frame such a case calls for modification in problem input e.g., add an anchor, change a depth of excavation, improve soil parameters, etc. Some construction stages display (by default a yellow dotted line is assumed) deformation at the onset of mobilization of the earth pressure at rest this is a complementary information showing plastic deformation of a structure. Distributions of limiting pressures (by default a green dashed line is assumed) are presented in the right part of the window (passive pressure, pressure at rest and active pressure). The actual pressure acting on a structure is plotted in a solid blue line. Both deformed (by default a solid red color is assumed) and undeformed structure appears in the right part of the desktop. Forces and displacements developed in anchors, supports and props are also shown. Internal forces Plot of a structure together with forces acting in anchors, reactions and deformations of supports and props appear in the left part of the desktop. Distributions of bending moment and shear force are then plotted on the right. Deformations + Stresses Plot of a structure together with forces acting in anchors, reactions and deformations of supports and props appear in the left part of the desktop. The deformed shape of a structure together with overall pressure acting on a structure is then plotted on the right. Providing the modulus of subsoil reaction is found by iteration it is necessary to check the course of iteration in the dialogue window. Details are provided in the theoretical part of the hint "Modulus of subsoil reaction determined by iteration".

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Frame "Analysis" - modulus of susoil reaction, earth pressures and deformations

Frame "Analysis" - bending moment and shear force

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Frame "Analysis" - deformation and pressure acting on structure

Internal stability
This frame serves to check the internal stability of anchors the frame is therefore accessible only in stages, in which the anchors are introduced. For each row of anchors the table shows inputted anchor forces and the maximum allowable forces in each anchor. Overall check for the most stressed row of anchors is displayed in the right part of the frame.

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Frame "Internal stability"

External stability
Pressing the "External stability" button launches the "Slope stability" program. This program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if the program "Slope stability" is installed. After completing all analyses press the "OK" button to leave the program all data are then carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Sheeting verification" program.

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Frame "External stability"

Envelopes
The frame "Envelopes" allows for displaying an envelope of internal forces and displacements from all analyses (stages of constructions). By default the envelope is constructed from the results from all construction stages. It can, however, be created only from the selected stages (pressing buttons selects the constructions stages that are used to generate the current envelope). The program makes possible to construct more envelopes with various combinations. The maximum internal forces and displacements are displayed in the right part of the frame.

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Frame "Envelopes"

Program Slope Stability

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to input the type of verification methodology according to EN 1997 or classical way. When performing the analysis according to EN 1997 standard the "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either select or modify partial factors and design approaches according to EN 1997. For design approach 1 it is necessary to specify, using the "Partial factors" window, for which combination of partial factors should the analysis be carired out. The Classical way corresponds to the verification methodology used in programs GEO5 up to version 10. The verification parameters are inputted in the frame "Settings". The structure can be verified according to the theory of limit states or factors of safety. The "Analysis" tab sheet is used to specify whether the analysis is performed in total or effective parameters.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Interface
The "Interface" frame serves to introduce individual soil interfaces into the soil body. Detailed description how to deal with interfaces id described herein. The program makes possible to import or export interfaces in the *.DXF format. They can also be imported in the gINT format.

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Frame "Interface"

Embankment
The "Embankment" frame allows for inputting interfaces to create an embankment above the current terrain. The frame contains a table with a list of interfaces forming the embankment. A table listing the points of currently selected interface of the embankment is displayed in the mid section of the frame. Inputting an embankment interface follows the same steps as used for standard interfaces. An embankment cannot be specified in the first stage of construction. An embankment cannot be built if there is an earth cut already specified in a given stage - in such a case either a new stage of construction must be introduced for embankment input or the existing open cut must be first removed.

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Frame "Embankment"

Earth cut
The "Earth cut" frame serves to specify the shape of an open cut. This function allows for modifying the terrain profile within a given stage of construction. Several earth cuts can be introduced at the same time. In such a case some of the lines in the cut appear partially above the terrain. A table listing individual interface points is displayed in the left part of the frame. Inputting an earth cut interface follows the same steps as used for standard interfaces. An open cut cannot be specified in the first stage of construction. An earth cut cannot be built if there is an embankment already specified in a given stage - in such a case either a new stage of construction must be introduced for earth cut input or the existing embankment must be first removed.

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Frame "Earth cut"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Slope stability". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Uplift pressure", "Foliation" and "Parameters for rapid draw down". An input of parameters further depends on the selected type of analysis (effective / total stress state), which is set in the frame "Analysis methods". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Slope stability analysis".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Rigid body
The "Rigid bodies" frame contains a table with a list of inputted rigid bodies. The rigid bodies serve to model regions with a high stiffness e.g., sheeting structures or rock subgrade. This table also provides information about the currently selected rigid body displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) rigid bodies is performed in the "Add new rigid body" dialogue window. This window serves to input the unit weight of the rigid body material and to select color and pattern. The rigid bodies are in the frame "Assign" ordered after inputted soils. Rigid bodies are introduced in the program as regions with high strength so they are not intersected by a potential slip surface. Providing we wish the slip surface to cross a rigid body (e.g., pile wall) it is recommended to model the rigid body as a soil with a cohesion corresponding to pile bearing capacity against slip.

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Frame "Rigid bodies"

Assign
The Assign frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Anchors
The "Anchors" frame contains a table with a list of inputted anchors. Adding (editing) anchors is performed in the "New anchor (Modify anchor parameters)" dialogue window. The inputted anchors can be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. You are asked to input the anchor location (starting point), its length and inclination, anchor spacing and pre-stress force. The anchor starting point is always attached to the terrain. All inputted parameters can be modified in the stage of construction, in which the anchor was introduced. In subsequent stages the program allows only for modifying the anchor pre-stress force (option "Anchor post-stressing"). Anchors can also be introduced with help of a mouse click. Mouse input mode is determined by pressing buttons on the horizontal bar "Anchor". The following modes are available: Add clicking the left mouse button allows for specifying the starting and end point of an anchor. The grid function can be exploited in the input mode. The starting point is always "attached" to the terrain. The coordinates of inputted points are automatically round up to two digits both input modes (manual, mouse) are therefore identical clicking the left mouse button on already existing anchor opens the "Modify anchor property" dialogue window, where the selected anchor can be modified clicking the left mouse button on an anchor opens the dialogue window to confirm the reinforcement removal confirming this action then removes the anchor

Modify

Remove

Effect of anchors on the analysis is described in more details in the theoretical part of the hint.

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Note: The program does not check the anchor bearing capacity against breakage.

Frame "Anchors"

Reinforcements
The "Reinforcements" frame contains a table with a list of inputted reinforcements. Adding (editing) reinforcement is performed in the "New reinforcement (Modify interface properties)" dialogoue window. The inputted reinforcements can be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. Properties like reinforcement location, anchorage length from both left and right end and reinforcement strength must be specified. All inputted parameters can be modified only in the stage of construction, in which the reinforcement was introduced. In subsequent stages the geo-reinforcement can only be removed. Reinforcements can also be introduced with help of a mouse click. Mouse input mode is determined by pressing buttons on the horizontal bar "Reinforcement". The following modes are available: Add clicking the left mouse button allows for specifying the starting and end point of a reinforcement. A predefined grid can be used in the input mode. The starting point is always "attached" to the terrain. The coordinates of inputted points are automatically round up to two digits both input modes (manual, mouse) are therefore identical clicking the left mouse button on already existing reinforcement opens the "Modify reinforcement property" dialogue window, where the selected reinforcement can be modified clicking the left mouse button on reinforcement opens the dialogue window to confirm the reinforcement removal confirming this action then removes the reinforcement - 140 -

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Including reinforcements in the analysis is described in more details in the theoretical part of the help.

Frame "Reinforcements"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. All inputted parameters of a surcharge can be modified in the construction stage where the surcharge was specified. Only the surcharge magnitude can be modified in all subsequent construction stages (option "Adjust surcharge"). Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Influence of surcharge on stability analysis of slopes is described in the theoretical part of the hint.

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Frame "Surcharge"

Water
The "Water" frame serves to set the type of ground water table. Six options to specify the type of water are available from the combo list. Inputting the ground water table or isolines, respectively, is identical with the standard input of interfaces. A field for specifying a value of coefficient Ru or pore pressure appears next to the table if introducing water using isolines of Ru-interfaces or pore pressure, respectively. Pressing the button with a blue arrow next to the input field opens the "Coefficient Ru" or "Pore pressure" dialogue window to enter the desired value. It is advantageous to input all values at once using the "OK+ " and "OK+ ". The value of a given quantity found in a specific point between two isolines is approximated by linear interpolation of values pertinent to given isolines. The first (the most top one) always coincides with terrain it therefore cannot be deleted. The ground water table (resp. table of suction or original GWT) is specified as continuous interfaces, which can be located even above the terrain. If the inputted data in individual stages are different, the program then allows for accepting the data from the previous stage of construction by pressing the "Accept" button. The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients Kh and Kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Slope stability analysis while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings to assess the slope stability. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and "Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. Changing settings in the combo list modifies previously set values in corresponding windows. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Safety factor" allows the user to specify in input field own value of the factor of safety. Selecting the option "Limit states" allows for specifying individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters and coefficient of overall stability.

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Settings EN
The frame setting serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997-1 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods".

Frame "Settings"

Analysis
The "Analysis" frame displays the analysis results. Several analyses can be performed for a single task. The starting point in the slope stability analysis is the selection of the type of slip surface. The input is available from a combo list in the left top part of the frame containing two options circular slip surface and polygonal slip surface. After introducing the slip surface the analysis is started using the "Analysis" button. The analysis results appear in the right part of the frame. The type of analysis is selected in the mid section of the frame three methods are available for the circular slip surface (the Bishop, Fellenius/Petterson or Spencer method), the polygonal slip surface is analyzed exploiting either the Sarma or Spencer method. For both cases of the assumed slip surfaces it is possible to perform the analysis employing all methods at once (in such a case, however, the slip surface cannot be optimized). The actual verification of slope stability can be performed, depending on the setting in the frame "Analyses methods", as: - according to EN 1997, where the loading is reduced by the analysis partial factors and the verification is performed according to the theory of limit states - according to the classical theory with the verification based on the factor of safety / theory of limit states depending on the setting in the frame "Settings". Based on the "Settings" in the frame the verification of the slope stability is performed using either the factor of safety concept or the theory of limit states. Checking the box "Optimize slip surface" allows for optimizing either the circular or polygonal slip surface. This step also activates the "Constrains" button pressing this button changes the frame appearance and makes possible to introduce constrains on optimization procedure. It is also possible to specify how to deal with anchors in the analysis (box "Infinite anchor - 145 -

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The slip surface, even the optimized one, must be introduced in the frame several possibilities are available: Circular slip surface using mouse press the "Input" button to active the input regime and then by clicking the left mouse button enter three points to define a circular slip surface (the introduced slip surface can be further modified using the "Modify" button or specified again with the help of the "Replace" button using the dialogue window pressing the "Input" button in the "Circular slip surface" frame opens the "Circular slip surface" dialogue window that allows for specifying the radius and coordinates of center Polygonal slip surface using mouse - press the "Input" button to active the input regime entering the surface points proceeds in the same steps as when specifying interfaces using table pressing the button "Input" actives several buttons that allow for filling the adjacent table with the coordinates of slip surface points (buttons "Add", "Modify", "Remove") The analysis results appear in the left part of the frame and the optimized slip surface on the desktop. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Analysis" - circular slip surface

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Frame "Analysis" - polygonal slip surface

Constrains on the optimization procedure

The "Analysis" frame allows (after pressing the "Constrains") for specifying constrains on the optimization process. Regardless of the assumed type of slip surface it is possible to introduce into the soil body (with the help of mouse) segments, which should not be crossed by the optimized slip surface. These segments also appear in the table in the left part of the frame. Polygonal slip surface also allows for excluding some points from optimization, either entirely or partially only in specified direction. " Keeping the point fixed" during optimization process is achieved by checking the box in the table with corresponding point. This input mode is quitted by pressing the red button "Return to analysis regime".

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Frame "Analysis" - constrains on slip surface optimization by segments

Height multiplier
Providing the analyzed slope is too long or has small height the plotted slip surface might not be sufficiently visible. This problem can be solved by selected courser scale in the vertical direction with the help of height multiplier. The value of this multiplier is set in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window, tab sheet "Global 2D". Using standard setting ("Height multiplier" equal to one) plots undistorted structure proportional to its dimensions. Only polygonal slip surface can be inputted graphically when exploiting the height multiplier option. The circular slip surface must be in such a case inputted manually in the "Circular slip surface" dialogue window using the "Input" button.

Setting height multiplier

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Visualization of the resulting slip surface when using height multiplier

Program Cantilever Wall

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis method
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame allows for introduciong the standard for concrete structures dimensioning. Referring to the selected standard the types of concrete and steel are then inputted in the frame "Material" and the program performs dimensioning of structure cross-sections in the frame "Dimensioning". Some standards require inputting additional information. - CSN 73 1201 calls for specifying whether the stress in foundation base for front wall stem verification is assumed uniform (CSN) or trapezoidal (Eurocode). - EN 1992-2 (EC-2) allows for specifying individual coefficients of analysis which may vary for various National application documents. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame allows by pressing the button for selecting the wall shape. The selected shape with a graphic hint "Wall geometry chart" appears in the left part of the frame. The shape of a wall can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. In case the structure is composed of inclined segments it is required to enter the ratio of sides of an inclined segment 1:x. The straight structure is specified by entering the value zero. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

Material
The "Material" frame allows for the selection of material parameters for concrete and longitudinal steel reinforcements. Two options are available when selecting the material type: the "Catalogue" button opens the "Material catalogue" dialogue window (for concrete or steel reinforcements), the list of materials then serves to select the desired material the "User" button opens the "Edit material concrete" dialogue window (for concrete) or the "Edit material concrete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal steel reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters The catalogues content depends on the selection of standard for the design of concrete structures set in the "Analysis methods" frame. The input field in the upper part of the frame serves to specify the wall unit weight.

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Frame "Material"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program. These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters (h1, h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The combo list serves to specify whether the influence of uplift pressure of water due to different tables at the foundation joint is considered. The uplift pressure can be assumed to be linear, parabolic or it may not be considered at all. When verifying the wall, the uplift pressure in base of footing joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z" (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Front face resistance

The "Front face resistance" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying the terrain shape and parameters of front face resistance. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values are displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. Combo lists in the frame allows the user to select the type of resistance and a soil (the combo list contains soils introduced in the regime "Soils"). The magnitude of terrain surcharge in front of the wall or soil thickness above the wall lowest points can also be specified in the frame. The resistance on a structure front face can be specified as a pressure at rest, passive pressure or reduced passive earth pressure. The resulting force due to reduced passive pressure is found as a resultant force caused by passive pressure multiplied by a corresponding coefficient, which follows from the inputted type of reduced passive pressure.

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Frame "Front face resistance"

Applied forces
The "Inputted forces" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "New force (edit force)" dialogue window. The inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Inputted forces"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients kh and kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Base anchorage
The frame "Base anchorage" serves to input parameters (anchorage geometry, bearing capacity against pulling-out and pulling-apart) specifying an anchorage of the wall foundation. Geometry of footing anchorage can be edited either in the frame by inserting values in the inputting boxes or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The bearing capacity values can be either inputted or computed by the program from the inputted parameters.

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Frame "Base anchorage"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. Evaluating the structure according to theory of limit states also calls for the input of coefficient of overall stability of a structure. When subjecting the wall to overall verification this coefficient is used to multiply the resisting moment Mres and the resisting shear force Hres. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option " User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters. The "Other" tab sheet serves to specify the type of pressure acting on a wall based on the allowable wall deformation. Providing the wall is free to move an active pressure is assumed, otherwise, a pressure at rest is used. For wall with footing jump it is possible to choose in the tab sheet " Other" the way of accounting for the wall footing jump.

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Frame "Settings"

Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods" When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1.0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same. The frame setting serves to specify the type of pressure acting on a wall based on the allowable wall deformation. Providing the wall is free to move an active pressure is assumed, otherwise, a pressure at rest is used. For wall with footing jump it is possible to choose in the tab sheet " Other" the way of accounting for the wall footing jump.

Frame "Settings"

Verification
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The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. The wall is loaded either by active pressure or pressure at rest depending on input in the frame "Settings". Procedure for wall verification is described in the theoretical part of the hint. The computed forced are displayed on the desktop and are automatically updated with every change of input data and setting. The right part of the frame shows the result of verification of a wall against overturning and translation. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Verification"

Bearing capacity
The "Bearing capacity" frame displays the results from the analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. The stress in the footing bottom (assumed constant) is derived from all verifications performed in the frame "Verification". The program "Spread footing" then considers all verifications as loading cases.

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GEO5 User's Guide Three basic analysis options are available in the frame: Input the foundation soil bearing capacity

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The input field serves to specify the foundation soil bearing capacity. The results of verification analysis of a soil for eccentricity and bearing capacity are displayed in the right part of the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that displays detailed listing of the results of verification analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. When performing the analysis according to EN 1997 Design approach 2 resp. LRFD, the assigned bearing capacity is reduced by the corresponding design coefficient of resistance.

Compute the foundation soil bearing capacity using the program "Spread footing"

Pressing the "Run "Spread footing" button starts the program "Spread footing" that allows for computing the soil bearing capacity or settlement and rotation of a footing. Pressing the "OK" button leaves the analysis regime the results and all plots are copied to the program "Cantilever wall". The program "Spread footing" must be installed for the button to be active. The foundation soil bearing capacity is not computed.

Do not compute (pile footing)

Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Bearing capacity"

Dimensioning
The "Dimensioning" frame serves to design and verify the reinforcement of wall cross-section the cross-section subjected to dimensioning is selected in the combo list. - 166 -

GEO5 User's Guide Wall stem verification Construction joint verification Wall jump verification Verification of heel of wall

Fine Ltd. 2011

depth of construction joint from construction top edge is specified

The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. Calculation of forces and their action on the analyzed cross-section is described here. The wall stem and construction joint are always loaded by the pressure at rest. When verifying the front wall jump the wall is loaded either by the active pressure or the pressure at rest depending on input specified in the frame "Settings". Procedure to derive distribution of internal forces in individual cross-sections is described in the theoretical part of this hint. Dimensioning of the steel-reinforced concrete structure is performed according to the standard set in the frame "Analysis methods". Several computations for various cross-sections can be carried out. Various design coefficients of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Dimensioning"

Stability
Pressing the "Stability" button launches the "Slope stability" program. This program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if the program "Slope stability" is installed. After completing all analyses press the "OK" button to leave the program all data are then carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Cantilever wall" program.

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Frame "Stability"

Program Masonry wall

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame allows for introduciong standard for masonry structures dimensioning (according to EN 1996-1-1 or AS 3700) and the standard for concrete structures dimensioning. Referring to the selected standard the types of concrete and steel are then inputted in the frame "Material" and the program performs dimensioning of structure cross-sections in the frame "Dimensioning". Some standards require inputting additional information. - CSN 73 1201 calls for specifying whether the stress in foundation base for front wall stem verification is assumed uniform (CSN) or trapezoidal (Eurocode). - EN 1992-2 (EC-2) allows for specifying individual coefficients of analysis which may vary for various National application documents. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Types of blocks
The "Types of blocks" frame contains a table with a list of inputted blocks. Adding (editing) blocks is performed in the "New type of block (Edit type of block)" dialogue window. This dialogue window serves to define the geometry of a block (width and height). The program allows for adding (inserting) another block in between two already existing blocks of a structure. Inserting a new block is performed in the "Inserted type of block" dialog window that complies with the "New type of block" dialogue window. The inserted block is ordered such to proceed the currently selected block of a structure. - 170 -

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Frame "Types of blocks"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame allows by pressing the button for selecting the wall shape. The selected shape with a graphic hint "Wall geometry chart" appears in the left part of the frame. The shape of a wall can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. Based on the selected shape of a wall, you specify in the frame "Geometry of masonry" the number and dimensions of masonry blocks in individual columns, or if applicable also the thickness of vertical joint between blocks. In addition it is necessary to input compressive strength of masonry, which serves as the basic input parameter for the bearing capacity verification of reinforced masonry (according to EN 1996-1-1 or AS 3700). The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

Material
The "Material" frame allows for the selection of material parameters for concrete and longitudinal steel reinforcements. Two options are available when selecting the material type: the "Catalogue" button opens the "Material catalogue" dialogue window (for concrete or steel reinforcements), the list of materials then serves to select the desired material the "User" button opens the "Edit material concrete" dialogue window (for concrete) or the "Edit material concrete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal steel reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters The catalogues content depends on the selection of standard for the design of concrete structures set in the "Analysis methods" frame. The input field in the upper part of the frame serves to specify the wall unit weight.

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Frame "Material"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Cantilever wall". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters (h1, h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The combo list serves to specify whether the influence of uplift pressure of water due to different tables at the foundation joint is considered. The uplift pressure can be assumed to be linear, parabolic or it may not be considered at all. When verifying the wall, the uplift pressure in base of footing joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z" (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Front face resistance

The "Front face resistance" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying the terrain shape and parameters of front face resistance. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values are displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. Combo lists in the frame allows the user to select the type of resistance and a soil (the combo list contains soils introduced in the regime "Soils"). The magnitude of terrain surcharge in front of the wall or soil thickness above the wall lowest points can also be specified in the frame. The resistance on a structure front face can be specified as a pressure at rest, passive pressure or reduced passive earth pressure. The resulting force due to reduced passive pressure is found as a resultant force caused by passive pressure multiplied by a corresponding coefficient, which follows from the inputted type of reduced passive pressure.

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Frame "Front face resistance"

Applied forces
The "Inputted forces" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "New force (edit force)" dialogue window. The inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Inputted forces"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients kh and kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Base anchorage
The frame "Base anchorage" serves to input parameters (anchorage geometry, bearing capacity against pulling-out and pulling-apart) specifying an anchorage of the wall foundation. Geometry of footing anchorage can be edited either in the frame by inserting values in the inputting boxes or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The bearing capacity values can be either inputted or computed by the program from the inputted parameters.

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Frame "Base anchorage"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. Evaluating the structure according to theory of limit states also calls for the input of coefficient of overall stability of a structure. When subjecting the wall to overall verification this coefficient is used to multiply the resisting moment Mres and the resisting shear force Hres. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters. The "Other" tab sheet serves to specify the type of pressure acting on a wall based on the allowable wall deformation. Providing the wall is free to move an active pressure is assumed, otherwise, a pressure at rest is used. For wall with footing jump it is possible to choose in the tab sheet " Other" the way of accounting for the wall footing jump.

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Frame "Settings"

Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods" When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1,0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same. The frame setting serves to specify the type of pressure acting on a wall based on the allowable wall deformation. Providing the wall is free to move an active pressure is assumed, otherwise, a pressure at rest is used.

Frame "Settings"

Verification
The frame "Verification" shows the analysis results. Several computations can be carried out for a single task. The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. - 185 -

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Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. The wall is loaded either by active pressure or pressure at rest depending on input in the frame "Settings". Procedure for wall verification is described in the theoretical part of the hint. The computed forced are displayed on the desktop and are automatically updated with every change of input data and setting. The right part of the frame shows the result of verification of a wall against overturning and translation. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Verification"

Bearing capacity
The "Bearing capacity" frame displays the results from the analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. The stress in the footing bottom (assumed constant) is derived from all verifications performed in the frame "Verification". The program "Spread footing" then considers all verifications as loading cases. Three basic analysis options are available in the frame: Input the foundation soil bearing capacity The input field serves to specify the foundation soil bearing capacity. The results of verification analysis of a soil for eccentricity and bearing capacity are displayed in the right part of the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that displays detailed listing of the results - 186 -

GEO5 User's Guide

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Compute the foundation soil bearing capacity using the program "Spread footing"

Pressing the "Run "Spread footing" button starts the program "Spread footing" that allows for computing the soil bearing capacity or settlement and rotation of a footing. Pressing the "OK" button leaves the analysis regime the results and all plots are copied to the program "Cantilever wall". The program "Spread footing" must be installed for the button to be active. The foundation soil bearing capacity is not computed.

Do not compute (pile footing)

Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Bearing capacity"

Dimensioning
The "Dimensioning" frame serves to design and verify the reinforcement of wall cross-section the cross-section subjected to dimensioning is selected in the combo list. Construction joint verification Wall jump verification Verification of heel of wall The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for - 187 the number of a joint between masonry blocks is inputted

GEO5 User's Guide every change of data and setting in the frame.

Fine Ltd. 2011

Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. Calculation of forces and their action on the analyzed cross-section is described here. The wall is loaded either by the active earth pressure or by the pressure at rest depending on the setting in the frame "Settings". Procedure to derive distribution of internal forces in individual cross-sections is described in the theoretical part of this hint. Joints between masonry blocks are verified according to AS 3700 or EN 1996-1-1 depending on the setting in the frame "Analysis methods". The program verifies the bearing capacity for bending, shear and combination of compression and bending. Reinforcement can be specified on both front and back sides of a structure. An additional loading applied to a cross-section (bending moment, compressive normal force and shear force) can also be specified. These additional forces are added to the computed ones. Dimensioning of steel-reiforced concrete structure is performed according to the standard set in the frame "Analysis methods". Several computations for various cross-sections can be carried out. Various design coefficients of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Dimensioning"

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Stability
Pressing the "Stability" button launches the "Slope stability" program. This program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if the program "Slope stability" is installed. After completing all analyses press the "OK" button to leave the program all data are then carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Masonry wall" program.

|Frame "Stability"

Program Gravity Wall

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

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Frame "Project"

Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame allows for introduciong the standard for concrete structures dimensioning. Referring to the selected standard the types of concrete and steel are then inputted in the frame "Material" and the program performs dimensioning of structure cross-sections in the frame "Dimensioning". Some standards require inputting additional information. - CSN 73 1201 calls for specifying whether the stress in foundation base for front wall stem verification is assumed uniform (CSN) or trapezoidal (Eurocode). - EN 1992-2 (EC-2) allows for specifying individual coefficients of analysis which may vary for various National application documents. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

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Geometry
The "Geometry" frame allows by pressing the button for selecting the wall shape. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("Wall geometry chart") appears in the left part of the frame. The shape of a wall can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. In case the structure is composed of inclined segments it is required to enter the ratio of sides of an inclined segment 1:x. The straight structure is specified by entering the value zero. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

Frame "Geometry"

Material
The "Material" frame allows for the selection of material parameters for concrete and longitudinal steel reinforcements. Two options are available when selecting the material type: the "Catalogue" button opens the "Material catalogue" dialogue window (for concrete or steel reinforcements), the list of materials then serves to select the desired material the "User" button opens the "Edit material concrete" dialogue window (for concrete) or the "Edit material concrete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal steel reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters The catalogues content depends on the selection of standard for the design of concrete structures set in the "Analysis methods" frame. The input field in the upper part of the frame serves to specify the wall bulk weight.

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Frame "Material"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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The frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Gravity wall". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The Assign frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters (h1, h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The combo list serves to specify whether the influence of uplift pressure of water due to different tables at the foundation joint is considered. The uplift pressure can be assumed to be linear, parabolic or it may not be considered at all. When verifying the wall, the uplift pressure in foundation joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z" (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Front face resistance

The "Front face resistance" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying theterrain shape and parameters of front face resistance. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values are displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. Combo lists in the frame allows the user to select the type of resistance and a soil (the combo list contains soils introduced in the regime "Soils"). The magnitude of terrain surcharge in front of the wall or soil thickness above the wall lowest points can also be specified in the frame. The resistance on a structure front face can be specified as a pressure at rest, passive pressure or reduced passive earth pressure. The resulting force due to reduced passive pressure is found as a resultant force caused by passive pressure multiplied by a corresponding coefficient, which follows from the inputted type of reduced passive pressure.

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Frame "Front face resistance"

Inputted forces
The "Inputted forces" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "New force (edit force)" dialogue window. The inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Inputted forces"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients kh and kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. Evaluating the structure according to theory of limit states also calls for the input of coefficient of overall stability of a structure. When subjecting the wall to overall verification this coefficient is used to multiply the resisting moment Mres and the resisting shear force Hres. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters.

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Frame "Settings"

Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods" When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1,0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same.

Frame "Settings"

Verification
The frame "Verification" shows the analysis results. Several computations can be carried out for a single task. The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. - 203 -

GEO5 User's Guide Procedure for wall verification is described in the theoretical part of the hint.

Fine Ltd. 2011

The computed forced are displayed on the desktop and are automatically updated with every change of input data and setting. The right part of the frame shows the result of verification of a wall against overturning and translation. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Verification"

Bearing capacity
The "Bearing capacity" frame displays the results from the analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. The stress in the footing bottom (assumed constant) is derived from all verifications performed in the frame "Verification". The program "Spread footing" then considers all verifications as loading cases. Three basic analysis options are available in the frame: Input the foundation soil bearing capacity The input field serves to specify the foundation soil bearing capacity. The results of verification analysis of a soil for eccentricity and bearing capacity are displayed in the right part of the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that displays detailed listing of the results of verification analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. Pressing the "Run "Spread footing" button starts the program "Spread footing" that allows for computing the soil bearing capacity or settlement and rotation of a footing. Pressing the "OK" button leaves the analysis regime the results and all plots are copied to the program "Gravity wall". The program "Spread footing" must be installed for - 204 -

Compute the foundation soil bearing capacity using the program "Spread footing"

GEO5 User's Guide the button to be active. Do not compute (pile footing)

Fine Ltd. 2011

The foundation soil bearing capacity is not computed.

Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Bearing capacity"

Dimensioning
The "Dimensioning" frame serves to design and verify the reinforcement of wall cross-section the cross-section subjected to dimensioning is selected in the combo list. Wall stem verification Construction joint verification Wall jump verification The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. Calculation of forces and their action on the analyzed cross-section is described here. depth of construction joint from construction top edge is specifiedse

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The wall stem and construction joint are always loaded by the pressure at rest. When verifying the front wall jump the wall is loaded either by the active pressure or the pressure at rest depending on input specified in the frame "Settings". Procedure to derive distribution of internal forces in individual cross-sections is described in the theoretical part of this hint. Dimensioning of the steel-reinforced concrete structure is performed according to the standard set in the frame "Analysis methods". Several computations for various cross-sections can be carried out. Various design coefficients of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Dimensioning"

Stability
Pressing the "Stability" button launches the "Slope stability" program. This program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if the program "Slope stability" is installed. After completing all analyses press the "OK" button to leave the program all data are then carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Gravity wall" program.

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Frame "Stability"

Program Prefab Wall

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project" - tab sheet "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame contains a table with a list of inputted structural precast units (blocks) of a wall (the lowest block is labeled as No. 1). Adding (editing) blocks is performed in the "New block (Edit block)" dialogue window. This dialogue window serves to define the geometry of a block, parameters of reinforcement (length, anchorage length, tensile strength, pull out resistance) and material characteristics (self weight, shear resistance between two blocks, cohesion). The program allows for adding (inserting) another block in between two already existing blocks of a structure. Inserting a new block is performed in the "Insert block" dialog window that complies with the "New block" dialogue window. The inserted block is ordered such to proceed the currently selected block of a structure. The inputted blocks can be further edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects - double clicking on a structure opens a dialog window with a given block. When using the regime of active objects the visualization of detailed dimensions must be turned off in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Block wall". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" frame allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters h1, h2 can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The combo list serves to specify whether the influence of uplift pressure of water due to different tables at the foundation joint is considered. The uplift pressure can be assumed to be linear, parabolic or it may not be considered at all. When verifying the wall, the uplift pressure in foundation joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z" (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Front face resistance

The "Front face resistance" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying the terrain shape and parameters of front face resistance. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values are displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. Combo lists in the frame allows the user to select the type of resistance and a soil (the combo list contains soils introduced in the regime "Soils"). The magnitude of terrain surcharge in front of the wall or soil thickness above the wall lowest points can also be specified in the frame. The resistance on a structure front face can be specified as a pressure at rest, passive pressure or reduced passive earth pressure. The resulting force due to reduced passive pressure is found as a resultant force caused by passive pressure multiplied by a corresponding coefficient, which follows from the inputted type of reduced passive pressure.

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Frame "Front face resistance"

Inputted forces
The "Inputted forces" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "New force (edit force)" dialogue window. The inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Inputted forces"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients kh and kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. Evaluating the structure according to theory of limit states also calls for the input of coefficient of overall stability of a structure. When subjecting the wall to overall verification this coefficient is used to multiply the resisting moment Mres and the resisting shear force Hres. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option " User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters.

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Frame "Settings"

Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods" When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1,0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same.

Frame "Settings"

Verification
The frame "Verification" shows the analysis results. Several computations can be carried out for a single task. The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. - 220 -

GEO5 User's Guide Procedure for wall verification is described in the theoretical part of the hint.

Fine Ltd. 2011

The computed forced are displayed on the desktop and are automatically updated with every change of input data and setting. The right part of the frame shows the result of verification of a wall against overturning and translation. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Verification"

Bearing capacity
The "Bearing capacity" frame displays the results from the analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. The stress in the footing bottom (assumed constant) is derived from all verifications performed in the frame "Verification". The program "Spread footing" then considers all verifications as loading cases. Three basic analysis options are available in the frame: Input the foundation soil bearing capacity The input field serves to specify the foundation soil bearing capacity. The results of verification analysis of a soil for eccentricity and bearing capacity are displayed in the right part of the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that displays detailed listing of the results of verification analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. Pressing the "Run "Spread footing" button starts the program "Spread footing" that allows for computing the soil bearing capacity or settlement and rotation of a footing. Pressing the "OK" button leaves the analysis regime the results and all plots are copied to the program "Block wall". The program "Spread footing" must be installed for - 221 -

Compute the foundation soil bearing capacity using the program "Spread footing"

GEO5 User's Guide the button to be active. Do not compute (pile footing)

Fine Ltd. 2011

The foundation soil bearing capacity is not computed.

Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Bearing capacity"

Dimensioning
The "Dimensioning" frame allows for verifying joints between individual blocks of a wall. The "Joint above block No." field serves to select the desired joint subjected to verification analysis. The verification against overturning and translation is performed in the same way as for the entire wall friction between blocks and cohesion of a block material are inputted in the frame "Geometry". The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. Several computations for various cross-sections can be carried out. Various design coefficients of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results.

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Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Dimensioning"

Internal sliding
The frame serves to verify the limit state for slip along reinforcement the frame is therefore accessible only in stages, where the reinforcements are defined. The window requires inputting the reinforcement number the forces entering verification analysis together with the shape of sliding block are then displayed. The calculated forces are stored in the table. Several calculations for various reinforcements can be carried out. Various design coefficients of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results. The verification procedure depends on "Settings" either based on factors of safety or according to the theory of limit states. The solution procedure is described herein.

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Frame "Internal sliding"

Stability
Pressing the "Stability" button launches the "Slope stability" program. This program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if the program "Slope stability" is installed. After completing all analyses press the "OK" button to leave the program all data are then carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Block wall" program.

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Frame "Stability"

Program RediRock Wall

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Blocks
The "Blocks" frame is used to input the parameters of blocks. This function is available only to the manufacturer. Editing and adding new types blocks in the freeware version is not allowed.

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Frame "Blocks"

Setbacks
The "Setbacks" frame is used to input the allowable setbacks. This function is available only to the manufacturer. Editing and adding new distances of jumps of blocks in the freeware version is not allowed.

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Frame "Setbacks"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame contains a table with a list of inputted structural precast units (blocks) of a wall (the lowest block is labeled as No. 1). Adding (editing) blocks is performed in the "New block (Edit block)" dialogue window. An group of blocks that is defined by a number of blocks and jumps between them is entered at once. The program allows for adding (inserting) another group in between two already existing blocks of a structure. Inserting a new group is performed in the "Insert" dialog window that complies with the "Add" dialogue window. The inserted block is ordered such to proceed the currently selected block of a structure. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

Footing
The "Footing" frame is used to input the footing below the foundation. The footing dimensions and its material parameters are required. A soil footing requires the user to introduce the footing bearing capacity, a concrete footing then requires its shear bearing capacity and friction between a concrete footing and the first block. The bearing pad is accounted for as specified by the user. A restriction according to Fig. 44, page 73 of NCMA manual is neither automatically enforced nor checked by the program. The bearing pad must be introduced into the program such that it complies with the design criteria.

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Frame "Footing"

Types of reinforcements
The frame "Types of reinforcements" contains table with a list of inputted types of reinforcements. Adding (editing) reinforcement is performed in the "New type reinforcement (Edit type of reinforcement)" dialogue window. The dialogue window serves to specify parameters of the reinforcement (ultimate tensile strength,....). Calculation of reinforcement bearing capacity is described in detail herein. Design tensile strength of reinforcement (Rt) is given by equation:

where:

Tult RFD RFID

-ultimate tensile strength -durability reduction factor -installation damage reduction factor

RFCR -creep reduction factor FSUNC -overall factor of safety

Pullout bearing capacity (Td) is given by equation:

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Frame "Types of reinforcements"

Reinforcements
The frame "Reinforcements" contains table with a list of inputted reinforcements. A reinforcement is placed below the block selected in the table (the lowest block is labeled as No. 1). Adding (editing) reinforcement is performed in the " New reinforcement (Edit reinforcement)" dialogue window. The dialogue window serves to specify the block number and reinforcement length. The combo list then serves to select the type of reinforcement inputted in the frame"Types of reinforcements". The inputted reinforcements can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects.

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Frame "Reinforcements"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Redi-rock wall". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" frame allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters h1, h2 can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The combo list serves to specify whether the influence of uplift pressure of water due to different tables at the foundation joint is considered. The uplift pressure can be assumed to be linear, parabolic or it may not be considered at all. When verifying the wall, the uplift pressure in foundation joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z" (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Front face resistance

The "Front face resistance" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying the terrain shape and parameters of front face resistance. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values are displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. Combo lists in the frame allows the user to select the type of resistance and a soil (the combo list contains soils introduced in the regime "Soils"). The magnitude of terrain surcharge in front of the wall or soil thickness above the wall lowest points can also be specified in the frame. The resistance on a structure front face can be specified as a pressure at rest, passive pressure or reduced passive earth pressure. The resulting force due to reduced passive pressure is found as a resultant force caused by passive pressure multiplied by a corresponding coefficient, which follows from the inputted type of reduced passive pressure.

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Frame "Front face resistance"

Inputted forces
The "Inputted forces" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "New force (edit force)" dialogue window. The inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Inputted forces"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients kh and kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (USA, Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and "Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. The tab sheet "Others" serves to specify the parameters for the Redi-Rock wall program. The check button "Hinge height concept" determines, whether the HInge height concept defined in the second addition of the NCMA manual will be used. Furthermore, the masonry friction reduction factors, which reduce the bearing capacity of the joint between the soil and concrete, are defined. Concrete-concrete or soil-soil joints do not account for the MRF in the program. Evaluating the structure according to theory of limit states also calls for the input of coefficient of overall stability of a structure. When subjecting the wall to overall verification this coefficient is used to multiply the resisting moment Mres and the resisting shear force Hres. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters.

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Frame "Settings" - tab sheet "Wall check"

Frame "Settings" - tab sheet "Other"

Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods" When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1,0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same.

Frame "Settings"

Verification
The frame "Verification" shows the analysis results. Several computations can be carried out for a single task. The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. - 243 -

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Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. Procedure for wall verification is described in the theoretical part of the hint. The computed forced are displayed on the desktop and are automatically updated with every change of input data and setting. The right part of the frame shows the result of verification of a wall against overturning and translation. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window. To better understand the solution procedure it is possible to go through the sample hand calculation.

Frame "Verification"

Bearing capacity
The "Bearing capacity" frame displays the results from the analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. The stress in the footing bottom (assumed constant) is derived from all verifications performed in the frame "Verification". The program "Spread footing" then considers all verifications as loading cases. The bearing pad is accounted for as specified by the user. A restriction according to Fig. 44, page 73 of NCMA manual is neither automatically enforced nor checked by the program. The bearing pad must be introduced into the program such that it complies with the design criteria. Three basic analysis options are available in the frame: Input the foundation soil The input field serves to specify the foundation soil bearing - 244 -

GEO5 User's Guide bearing capacity

Fine Ltd. 2011 capacity. The results of verification analysis of a soil for eccentricity and bearing capacity are displayed in the right part of the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that displays detailed listing of the results of verification analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. Pressing the "Run "Spread footing" button starts the program "Spread footing" that allows for computing the soil bearing capacity or settlement and rotation of a footing. Pressing the "OK" button leaves the analysis regime the results and all plots are copied to the program "Block wall". The program "Spread footing" must be installed for the button to be active. The foundation soil bearing capacity is not computed.

Compute the foundation soil bearing capacity using the program "Spread footing"

Do not compute (pile footing)

Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Bearing capacity"

Dimensioning
The "Dimensioning" frame allows for verifying joints between individual blocks of a wall. The "Joint above block No." field serves to select the desired joint subjected to verification analysis. The verification against overturning and translation is performed in the same way as for the entire wall friction between blocks and cohesion of a block material are inputted in the frame "Geometry". The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for - 245 -

GEO5 User's Guide every change of data and setting in the frame.

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Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. Several computations for various cross-sections can be carried out. Various design coefficients of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Dimensioning"

Internal sliding
The frame serves to verify the limit state for slip along reinforcement the frame is therefore accessible only in stages, where the reinforcements are defined. The window requires inputting the reinforcement number the forces entering verification analysis together with the shape of sliding block are then displayed. The calculated forces are stored in the table. Several calculations for various reinforcements can be carried out. Various design coefficients of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results. The verification procedure depends on "Settings" either based on factors of safety or according to the theory of limit states. The solution procedure is described herein.

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Frame "Internal sliding"

Stability
Pressing the "Stability" button launches the "Slope stability" program. This program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if the program "Slope stability" is installed. After completing all analyses press the "OK" button to leave the program all data are then carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Block wall" program.

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Frame "Stability"

Program Gabion
Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Material
The "Material" frame contains a table with a list of inputted filling (aggregates) and material parameters of applied gabion wire netting. Adding (Editing) material and netting is performed in the "New material (Edit material)" dialogue window. The material parameters of filling and netting of currently selected gabion block are displayed in the right part of the frame.

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Frame "Material"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame contains a table with a list of inputted blocks of a wall (the lowest block is labeled as No. 1). Adding (editing) blocks is performed in the "New block (Edit block)" dialogue window. This dialogue window serves to define the geometry of a block, and parameters of mesh overhang (overhang length, overhang anchorage, bearing capacity against pull out). The program allows for adding (inserting) another block in between two already existing blocks of a structure. Inserting a new block is performed in the "Insert block" dialog window that complies with the "New block" dialogue window. The inserted block is ordered such to proceed the currently selected block of a structure. The inputted blocks can be can be further edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects - double clicking on a structure opens a dialog window with a given block. When using the regime of active objects the visualization of detailed dimensions must be turned off in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Gabion". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters (h1, h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The combo list serves to specify whether the influence of uplift pressure of water due to different tables at the foundation joint is considered. The uplift pressure can be assumed to be linear, parabolic or it may not be considered at all. When verifying the wall, the uplift pressure in foundation joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z" (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Either permanent or variable surcharge can be introduced. Selecting the particular type of surcharge also renders the corresponding design coefficient to multiply the resulting loading action. Favorably acting variable surcharge is not considered in the program. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Front face resistance

The "Front face resistance" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying theterrain shape and parameters of front face resistance. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values are displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. Combo lists in the frame allows the user to select the type of resistance and a soil (the combo list contains soils introduced in the regime "Soils"). The magnitude of terrain surcharge in front of the wall or soil thickness above the wall lowest points can also be specified in the frame. The resistance on a structure front face can be specified as a pressure at rest, passive pressure or reduced passive earth pressure. The resulting force due to reduced passive pressure is found as a resultant force caused by passive pressure multiplied by a corresponding coefficient, which follows from the inputted type of reduced passive pressure.

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Frame "Front face resistance"

Inputted forces
The "Inputted forces" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "New force (edit force)" dialogue window. The inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Inputted forces"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. If not provided by measurements the coefficients kh and kv can be calculated following the approach adopted from EN 1998-5. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. Evaluating the structure according to theory of limit states also calls for the input of coefficient of overall stability of a structure. When subjecting the wall to overall verification this coefficient is used to multiply the resisting moment Mres and the resisting shear force Hres. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option " User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters. The "Other" tab sheet allows for specifying the coefficient of reduction of friction between blocks.

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Frame "Settings"

Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods" When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1,0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same.

Frame "Settings"

Verification
The frame "Verification" shows the analysis results. Several computations can be carried out for a single task. The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. - 262 -

GEO5 User's Guide Procedure for wall verification is described in the theoretical part of the hint.

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The computed forced are displayed on the desktop and are automatically updated with every change of input data and setting. The right part of the frame shows the result of verification of a wall against overturning and translation. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Verification"

Bearing capacity
The "Bearing capacity" frame displays the results from the analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. The stress in the footing bottom (assumed constant) is derived from all verifications performed in the frame "Verification". The program "Spread footing" then considers all verifications as loading cases. Three basic analysis options are available in the frame: Input the foundation soil bearing capacity The input field serves to specify the foundation soil bearing capacity. The results of verification analysis of a soil for eccentricity and bearing capacity are displayed in the right part of the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that displays detailed listing of the results of verification analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. Pressing the "Run "Spread footing" button starts the program "Spread footing" that allows for computing the soil bearing capacity or settlement and rotation of a footing. Pressing the "OK" button leaves the analysis regime the results and all plots are copied to the program "Gabion". The program "Spread footing" must be installed for the button to be active. - 263 -

Compute the foundation soil bearing capacity using the program "Spread footing"

GEO5 User's Guide Do not compute (pile footing)

Fine Ltd. 2011 The foundation soil bearing capacity is not computed.

Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Bearing capacity"

Dimensioning
The "Dimensioning" frame allows for verifying individual joints of gabion blocks. The "Joint above block No." field serves to select the desired joint subjected to verification analysis. The verification against overturning, translation, for side pressure and joint between blocks is performed. The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. Several computations for various cross-sections can be carried out. Various design coefficients of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Dimensioning"

Stability
Pressing the "Stability" button launches the "Slope stability" program. This program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if the program "Slope stability" is installed. After completing all analyses press the "OK" button to leave the program all data are then carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Gabion" program.

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Frame "Stability"

Program Spread Footing

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame allows for introduciong the standard for concrete structures dimensioning. Referring to the selected standard the types of concrete and steel are then inputted in the frame "Material" and the program performs dimensioning of structure cross-sections in the frame "Dimensioning". Some standards require inputting additional information. - CSN 73 1201 calls for specifying whether the stress in foundation base for front wall stem verification is assumed uniform (CSN) or trapezoidal (Eurocode). - EN 1992-2 (EC-2) allows for specifying individual coefficients of analysis which may vary for various National application documents. Three variants are available for the analysis of vertical bearing capacity of shallow foundation foundation on drained subsoil, foundation on undrained subsoil and foundation on rock subsoil. The "Analysis method" frame then serves to choose the analysis standard or solution procedure, respectively, based on the selected variant. Options to determine the foundation vertical bearing capacity: Analysis for drained conditions Analysis for undrained conditions Foudation on rock subsoil analysis Standard approach CSN 73 1001 PN IS EC7 NCMA Options for settlement and foundation rotation analysis With the help of oedometric modulus With the help of compression constant With the help of compession index NEN (Buissman, Ladd) Soft soil model Janbu theory Analysis based on DMT Options for determination of depth of influence zone when computing settlement Using structural strength Using percentage of geostatic stress Standard approach CSN 73 1001 PN IS EC7 Standardn approach CSN 73 1001 EC7

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Frame "Analysis methods"

Partial factors according to LRFD

When performing the design according to LRFD the analysis proceeds according to the theory of limit states (bearing capacity limit state, service limit state). In case of program Spread footing the partial factors are used to pre-multiply the footing self-weight and the weight of soil above the footing only. Individual components of loading must be pre-multiplied by corresponding partial factors the program does not modify the inputted load any further.

Dialogue window "Partial factors" analysis according to LRFD

Profile
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Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Spread footing". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Uplift pressure", "Foundation bearing capacity" and "Settlement". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. An input of parameters further depends on the selected type of analysis, which is set in the frame "Analysis methods". The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Analysis of bearing capacity of foundation".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Foundation
The "Foundation" frame allows for selecting a type of foundation. The selected type with graphic hint ("Geometry chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The values can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The frame also serves to specify the bulk weight of overburden. The following types of foundations can be selected: Centric spread footing Eccentric spread footing Strip footing Stepped centric spread footing Stepped eccentric spread footing The soil profile is specified from the original ground. The foundation bearing capacity depends mainly on the depth of foundation measured from the finished grade. Providing the finished grade is found above the original ground it required to assign the same depth to both the finished grade and original ground and introduce into subsoil a layer with a new made-up-ground. This frame also allows for inputting the foundation thickness. When completed the foundation is usually filled up with a soil its bulk weight must be specified (Overburden bulk weight). Providing the analysis follows the theory of limit states its weight is multiplied by the coefficient inputted in the frame "Settings". For foundations with an undrained subsoil (type of analysis is selected in the frame "Analysis methods") it is possible to introduce an inclination of the finished grade and footing - 272 Circular spread footing Circular stepped spread Centric spread footing with batter Eccentric spread footing with batter

GEO5 User's Guide bottom. In all other cases both the gound and footing bottom are horizontal.

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Frame "Foundation"

Load
The "Load" frame contains a table with a list of inputted loads. Adding (editing) loads is performed in the "New (edit) load" dialogue window. Input of individual forces follows the sign convention displayed in the right part of the dialogue window. The following types of loading can be specified: - design load serves to verify the foundation bearing capacity - service load serves to compute the foundation settlement and rotation Dimensioning of reinforcements assumed for the foundation is carried out for both types of loading. When performing the analysis according to EN 1997 or LRFD (selected in the frame "Analysis methods") it is assumed that the design load is determined in accordance with the corresponding standards and individual components of loading are already pre-multiplied by corresponding partial factors - the program does not modify the inputted load any further. If assuming the analysis according to EN 1997 Design approach 1 it is necessary to specify, whether the loading is considered for the calculation of Combination 1 or Combination 2, respectively. The foundation is loaded always in the contact point between column and foundation. The program automatically computes the foundation self weight and the weight of overburden. When inputting loads the program allows by pressing the " Service" button for creating the service loads by dividing the already inputted design loads by design coefficient. The program also allows for import of loading using the "Import" button. - 273 -

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Frame "Loading"

Import of loading
It is possible to import values of loading into the program from text files. Import parameters are set in the "Import loading" dialogue window. In the "Column" input boxes you define the column number in the text file, from which you wish to read data. The "Multiplier" box allows for multiplying the original value by an arbitrary number (e.g. using the number one with a minus sign changes the load direction). The "Import" button opens the "Open" dialogue window, which allows for loading the respective text file. The names of individual loadings if contained by the first column of the text file can loaded while importing the data by checking the "Name in the first column" box.

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Dialogue window "Import of loading" The program allows for importing data from an arbitrary text file (*.TXT). All rows in the text file marked at the beginning by a semicolon are ignored by the program. The figure shows a listing of imported data, where values of individual forces start in the fourth column.

Example of file "Import of loading"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame allows for specifying the foundation shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Geometry chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The values can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the - 275 -

GEO5 User's Guide desktop with the help of active dimensions. Foundation type and its thickness are specified in the "Foundation"frame.

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The program automatically computes the self weight of both foundation and overburden above the foundation. The foundation self weight is specified in the "Material" frame. Providing the analysis is carried out employing the theory of limit states the footing self weight is multiplied by coefficients specified in the "Settings" frame. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

Frame "Geometry" The "Dimensions design" button opens the "Foundation dimensions design" that serves with the help of program to compute dimensions of a foundation. The dialogue window allows for inputting the bearing capacity of foundation soil Rd or to select the option " Analyze". In such a case the program determines all dimensions of a foundation based on inputted parameters (soils, profile, water impact, send-gravel-cushion, setting, etc.). While leaving the dialogue window by pressing the "OK" button the specified dimensions are loaded into the "Geometry" frame.

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Dialogue window "Foundation dimensions design"

Sand-gravel cushion
The "Sand-gravel cushion" frame allows for inputting parameters of the sand-gravel cushion below foundation. The cushion thickness and overhang over foundation edge are required. The values can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The cushion filling can be selected from a combo list that contains soils specified in the regime "Soils". The inputted sand-gravel cushion influences the analysis of both the foundation load bearing capacity and settlement.

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Frame "Sand - gravel cushion"

Material
The "Material" frame allows for the selection of material parameters for concrete and longitudinal and transverse steel reinforcements. Two options are available when selecting the material type: the "Catalogue" button opens the "Material catalogue" dialogue window (for concrete or steel reinforcements), the list of materials then serves to select the desired material the "User" button opens the "Edit material concrete" dialogue window (for concrete) or the "Edit material concrete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal and transverse steel reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters The catalogues content depends on the selection of standard for the design of concrete structures set in the "Analysis methods" frame. The input field in the upper part of the frame serves to specify the wall bulk weight.

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Frame"Material"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The values are specified according to "Geometry" chart displayed in the right part of the dialogue window. The inputted surchages can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The z-coordinate measured from the foundation joint of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a depth different from the depth of foundation joint. The surcharge is considered only when computing settlement and rotation of a foundation, in which case it increases the stress in soil below foundation. When computing the foundation bearing capacity, the surcharge is not considered its presence would increase the bearing capacity.

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Frame "Surcharge"

Water, incompressible subsoil

The "Water + IS" frame serves to specify the depth of ground water table and level of incompressible subsoil. The values can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The influence of water is manifested by the change of ground water pressure below foundation. The incompressible subsoil cuts off the influence zone below foundation and also influences reduction in settlement.

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Frame "Water, incompressible subsoil"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings to assess the footings. The program offers presetting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Safety factor" allows the user to specify in input fields own values of the factor of safety for vertical and horizontal bearing capacity. Selecting the option "Limit sates" allows for specifying individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters and coefficients for computing the self weight of both foundation and overburden. The frame further serves for inputting the design coefficients to determine the vertical bearing capacity and the horizontal bearing capacity of a foundation, respectively.

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Frame "Settings" - safety factor

Frame "Settings" - limit states

Settings EN
The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods" When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1,0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same.

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Frame "Settings"

Bearing capacity
The "1. LS" frame serves to verify the verital and horizontal bearing capacity of a footing. More computations can be performed in the frame. The verification can be performed either for individual loads or the program finds the most critical one (can be selected from a combo list). The analysis follows the theory approach selected in the frame "Analysis methods". This frame serves to choose the verification methodology (according to EN 1997, LRFD, classical verification). The vertical bearing capacity analysis requires selection of the type of contact pressure (general shape, rectangle). The shape of contact pressure is plotted in the left part of the desktop. The horizontal bearing capacity analysis requires selection of the type of earth resistance that can be assumed as the pressure at rest, passive pressure or the reduced passive pressure. The soil parameters (friction angle structure-soil, cohesion structure-soil) can be further reduced when computing the horizontal bearing capacity. Detailed listing of the results is displayed in the right part of the desktop. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "1.LS - bearing of a footing"

Settlement and rotation

The "2.LS" frame serves to compute the foundation settlement and rotation. The frame allows for more analyses. The verification can be performed either for individual loads or the program finds the most critical one (can be selected from combo list). The analysis of foundation settlement and rotation is carried out according to the theory specified in the frame "Analysis methods". The stress in the footing button can be subtracted from the geostatic stress given by: original ground finished grade not specified Distributions of the geostatic stress and the stress increment below foundation are displayed in the left part of the desktop. The label below footing represents the depth of deformation zone. The stress is drawn below footing at the point with a characteristic deformation. The frame also allows for specifying the coefficient of reduction of computation of settlement. The detailed listing of the verification analysis results is displayed in the right part of the desktop. It can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "2. LS - settlement and rotation of a footing"

Dimensioning
The "Dimensioning" frame allows for designing and verifying the longitudinal reinforcement of a foundation and also for verifying the foundation against being pushed through. The verification can be performed either for individual loads or the program finds the most critical one (can be selected from a combo list). The program derives the stress in the construction joint and determines the internal forces in individual cross-sections. Dimensioning of the steel-reinfoced concrete structure is performed according to the standard set in the frame "Analysis methods". The resulting information are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Dimensioning"

Program Pile
Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to define standards or methods to be used in the analysis. One needs to select the type of analysis of pile vertical bearing capacity: - Classical theory - Finite element method (FEM) In case of classical theories of analysis of vertical bearing capacity one needs to further select - analysis method (NAVFAC DM 7.2, Tomlinson, effective stress method, CSN 7310 02) - verification method (classical approach, according to EN 1997-1). In case of analysis according to EN 1997 -1 the frame further allows for opening the dialogue window for setting partial factors and a design approach. The frame further serves to specify the type of pile settlement analysis nonlinear (Masopust) and linear (Poulos). The bottom part of the frame serves to specify a standard for dimensioning of concrete structures. Entering types of concrete and steel in the frame "Material" and performing verification of steel in the frame the frame "Horizontal bearing capacity" then depends on the selected standard.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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The frame "Profile"

Modulus of subsoil reaction

The combo list serves to select one of the methods for the evaluation of modulus of subsoil reaction the required material parameters of soils are inutted in the frame "Soils" based on the selected method. Selecting the option "Input by distribution" opens a table that allows for specifying the values of the modulus of subsoil reaction along the pile.

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Frame "Modulus of subsoil reaction"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics needed in the program are further specified in the following chapters: "Basic data", "Uplift pressure", "Oedometric modulus", "Modulus of subsoil reaction", "Empirical coefficient of adhesion" and "Consistency coefficient". The specified soil parameters depend on the set up of modulus of subsoil rection and selected theory of analysis specified in the frame "Analysis methods". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Pile analysis".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Load
The "Load" frame contains a table with a list inputted loads. Adding (editing) load is performed in the "New (edit) load" dialogue window. The forces are inputted following the sign convention displayed in the upper part of the dialogue window. The program also allows for import of loading using the "Import" button.

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Frame "Load"

Geometry
The "Geometry" frame allows for specifying the pile cross-section (circular, circular variable, rectangle, I-type cross-section) based on the theory of analysis (specified in the "Analysis methods" frame). The selected shape with graphic hint is displayed in the central section of the frame. Input fields serve to specify dimensions of the selected cross-section. Cross-sectional characteristics (area and moment of inertia) are computed by default, but they can also be specified (tubes, hollow cross-sections, steel I-profiles). The bottom part of the frame serves to specify the pile location (pile lift out and the depth of finished grade). The pile lift out can also be negative in such a case the pile is placed " inground". Providing the pile is analyzed using the finite element method it is possible to account for influence of pile technology by selecting the specific type of pile or directly by inputting coefficients. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

Material
The "Material" frame allows for specifying the material parameters. The bulk weight of a structure and material of a pile (concrete, timber, steel) are introduced in the input field in the right part of the frame. The elastic and shear moduli need to be specified when assuming timber or steel piles. In case of a concrete pile the concrete material and parameters of transverse and longitudinal steel reinforcements are required. Two options are available when selecting the type of material: the "Catalogue" button opens the "Material catalogue" dialogue window (for concrete or steel reinforcements), the list of materials then serves to select the desired material the "User" button opens the "Edit material concrete" dialogue window (for concrete) or the "Edit material concrete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal and transverse steel reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters The catalogues content depends on the selection of standard for the design of concrete structures set in the "Analysis methods" frame.

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Frame "Material"

Water, incompressible subsoil

The "Water + IS" frame serves to specify the depth of ground water table and level of incompressible subsoil. The values can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The influence of water is manifested by the change of ground water pressure. The incompressible subsoil cuts off the influence zone below foundation and also influences reduction in settlement.

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Frame "Water, incompressible subsoil"

Negative skin friction

The "Negative skin friction" frame serves to specify the settlement of surrounding terrain and the depth of influence zone. For more information on the influence of negative skin friction the user is referred to theoretical section. The setting option in the frame is active only when the finite element method is selected for the analysis in the frame "Analysis methods".

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Frame "Negative skin friction"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for footings verification. The program offers presetting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters. The setting in the frame becomes available only if the type of analysis FEM is selected in the frame "Analysis methods".

Frame "Settings"

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Settings - EN
The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates a set of partial factors applied on load, material and resistance in the analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods".

Frame "Settings"

Vertical bearing capacity analysis based on classical theory

The "Vertical bearing capacity" frame serves to verify the vertical bearing capacity of a pile. Several analyses can be carried out in the frame. The verification can be performed for individual loads, or the program locates the most critical one (can be selected from a combo list). The frame appearance changes depending on the setting in the frame "Analysis methods". The analysis is performed based on the theory defined in the frame "Analysis methods" (NAVFAC DM 7.2, Tomlinson, Effective stress method, CSN 73 1002). Parameters needed in individual methods are specified in the bottom part of the frame. Verification analysis is performed based on the methodology selected in the frame "Analysis methods" (classical approach, EN 1997-1). The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window containing detailed listing of the verification results. The analysis results are displayed in the right part of the desktop. Visualization of the results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Vertical bearing capacity" - analysis based on classical theory

Vertical bearing cap. - Spring method

The "Vertical bearing capacity" frame allows for verifying the pile vertical bearing capacity. The analysis is performed automatically when swtiching to this frame. More computations can be performed in the frame. The verification can be performed either for individual loads or the program finds the most critical one (can be selected from a combo list) The analysis is performed with the help of Shear depression spring method. The results are automatically updated whenever one of the analysis parameters " Maximal deformation", "Coefficient increasing limit skin friction due to technology " or "Procedure determining influence zone bellow heel" is changed. Two options are available to determine influence zone below the heel: By default the analysis follows the procedure described in the theoretical part of the hint in secton "Depth of influence zone". The second options assumes the depth influence zone to be set a k-th multiple of the pile diameter. During gradual increase of pile surcharge the depth of influence zone is continuously changed from zero at the onset of loading to the k-th multiple of the pile diameter when exceeding the total load. The second method, originaly used in the old verision GEO4, with the value of k=2,5 offers less accurate results and usually underestimates the pile bearing capacity. Therefore a new option that allows for specifying the depth of influnece zone through anlsysis is offered and is also recommeded by default setting. Switching between results is avaiable in the left part of the frame (limit loading curve, distributions of internal forces, dependence of shear on displacement). The shear-displacement relationship is derived for a given depth measured from the pile head. The results are updated whenever the depth is changed. - 299 -

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The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis. VsledkyVisualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Vertical bearing capacity - analysis according FEM"

Settlement linear loading curve (Poulos)

The "Settlement" frame serves to display the pile loading curve. More analyses can be performed in the frame. The combo list allows for choosing the type of pile (bored into compressible subsoil, bearer pile). Next, it is necessary to enter the value of limit settlement. The program constructs the loading curve always such that this limit settlement is not exceeded. The analysis is carried out according to the selected theory of settlement analysis (linear). The analysis theory is selected in the frame "Analysis methods". The table in the bottom part of the frame directly allows with the help of mouse for editing the defined parameters. The " Edit Es" button opens the dialogue window with a help section for parameters specifying the secant deformation modulus. Pressing the "OK" button in a particular window stores the inputted parameters for a given layer into the table. The analysis results are displayed in the right part of the desktop. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window containing detailed listing of the verification results. The analysis results (loading curve) are displayed in the right part of the desktop. Visualization of the results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Settlement" - linear loading curve (Poulos)

Settlement nonlinear loading curve (Masopust)

The "Settlement" frame serves to display the pile loading curve. More analyses can be performed in the frame. The combo list serves to choose the type of loading (design, service). Next, it is possible to enter the coefficient of influence of pile shaft. The loading curve analysis is always performed up to the limit settlement of 25 mm. The analysis is performed according to the selected theory of settlement analysis (nonlinear). The analysis theory is selected in the frame "Analysis methods". The table in the bottom part of the frame directly allows with the help of mouse for editing the defined parameters. Buttons "Edit a, b", "Edit e, f" a "Edit Es" open dialogue windows with a help section for entered parameters of regression coefficients and secant deformation modulus. Pressing the "OK" button in a particular window stores the inputted parameters for a given layer into the table. The analysis results are displayed in the right part of the desktop. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window containing detailed listing of the verification results. The analysis results (loading curve) are displayed in the right part of the desktop. Visualization of the results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Settlement" - nonlinear loading curve (Masopust)

Horizontal bearing capacity

The horizontal bearing capacity of a pile is verified in the "Horizontal bearing capacity" frame. Several analyses can be carried out. The verification analysis can be carried out for individual loads, prescribed displacements, or the program finds the most critical load (can be selected from a combo list). Assuming the prescribed displacement type of load requires introduction of boundary conditions in pile head (translation and rotation). The fixed end type of boundary condition prescribed in the pile heel can be assumed for all types of loading. For steel reinforced concrete pile the programs allow for verifying the reinforcement based on the standard selected in the frame "Analysis methods". The combo list serves to specify the direction of pile verification (x,y); for a circular pile the program allows for displaying the results in the most stressed direction. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the verification results. The analysis results are displayed on the desktop. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Horizontal bearing capacity"

Program Settlement
Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The frame serves to select the theoretical approach for the settlement analysis, the way of reducing the influence zone and possibility of consolidation analysis.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Interface
The "Interface" frame serves to introduce individual soil interfaces into the soil body. Detailed description how to deal with interfaces id described herein. The program makes possible to import or export interfaces in the *.DXF format. They can also be imported in the gINT format.

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Embankment
The "Embankment" frame allows for inputting interfaces to create an embankment above the current terrain. The frame contains a table with a list of interfaces forming the embankment. A table listing the points of currently selected interface of the embankment is displayed in the mid section of the frame. Inputting an embankment interface follows the same steps as used for standard interfaces. An embankment cannot be specified in the first stage of construction. An embankment cannot be built if there is an earth cut already specified in a given stage - in such a case either a new stage of construction must be introduced for embankment input or the existing open cut must be first removed.

Frame "Embankment"

Earth cut
The "Earth cut" frame serves to specify the shape of an open cut. This function allows for modifying the terrain profile within a given stage of construction. Several earth cuts can be introduced at the same time. In such a case some of the lines in the cut appear partially above the terrain. A table listing individual interface points is displayed in the left part of the frame. Inputting an earth cut interface follows the same steps as used for standard interfaces. An open cut cannot be specified in the first stage of construction. An earth cut cannot be built if there is an embankment already specified in a given stage - in such a case either a new stage of construction must be introduced for earth cut input or the existing embankment must be first removed.

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Frame "Earth cut"

Incompressible subsoil
The frame "Incompressible subsoil" serves to input a depth of incompressible subsoil. Inputting the depth of incompressible subsoil is the same as when inputting standard interfaces. Inputting an incompressible subsoil is one the options how to restrict an influence zone if inputted, then both ranges and tilted sections are drawn up to a depth of incompressible subsoil. No ground deformation appears below the incompressible subsoil.

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Frame "Incompressible subsoil"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Settlement", further details are described in chapters: "Uplift pressure" and "Settlement analysis". In consolidation analysis the coefficient of permeability must be entered. The input parameters of soils are determined based on the selected theory of analysis in the frame "Analysis methods". The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. All inputted parameters of a surcharge can be modified in the construction stage where the surcharge was specified. Only the surcharge magnitude can be modified in all subsequent construction stages (option "Adjust surcharge"). Influence of surcharge on the change of stress in the soil body is described in the theoretical part of the help section.

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Frame "Surcharge"

Water
The "Water" frame serves to set the type of ground water table. Inputting the ground water table or isolines, respectively, is identical with the standard input of interfaces. If the inputted data in individual stages are different, the program then allows for accepting the data from the previous stage of construction by pressing the "Accept" button.

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Frame "Water"

Settings
The frame "Settings" allows for specifying the position of control holes and thicknesses and locations of layers where the stress values are calculated. The program determines stresses at individual control holes. The terrain is always subdivided into twenty holes with even spacing. Additional holes are automatically generated in points specifying terrain, embankment, GWT, soil layer interfaces and end points of surcharge. The control (calculation) holes can be plotted in the frame "Analysis". Individual holes are divided into layers according to the inputted values. The first layer always coincides with the original ground. In addition, all points specifying interfaces, GWT and incompressible subsoil are included. The default setting of thicknesses of layers ensures reasonable speed and accuracy of the analysis. The layers are introduced up to depth of 250m. In actual analyses, however, the depth of influence zone is restricted either by the inputted incompressible subsoil or by the reduction of magnitude of stress change or by the structural strength, respectively (depending on the setting in the frame "Analysis methods"). The number and location of calculation holes can be adjusted when selecting the option " user defined". In such a case it is possible to select both the location of doles and thicknesses and location of layers. The holes are then created according to the input in addition, the program automatically includes all important points. When selecting the option exact distribution, the holes are included into all terrain points, soil layer interfaces, embankments, GWP and into end points of surcharge. When selecting the option minimal distribution, the holes are not included into points of interfaces of soil and embankment layers. For standard analyses we recommend to keep the default setting of the analysis.

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Frame "Settings"

Analysis
The "Analysis" frame displays the analysis results. The analysis is carried out based on the calculation theory selected in the frame "Analysis methods". The depth of influence zone is determined either by inputted incompressible subsoil, by the theory restriction of primary stress or by the theory of structural strength. Information regarding the course of analysis, maximum settlement and the depth of influence zone are printed out in the bottom section of the frame. In consolidation analysis (set in the frame "Analysis methods") this section of the frame serves for entering consolidation parameters. The results, as the main output, are displayed on the screen. To view the results, use the horizontal bar in the upper section of the screen, which allows for adjusting the way the resulting values are plotted. The bar contains the following control items: - the button to display the "Settlement - results visualization setting" dialogue window. This dialogue window allows for specifying all drawing parameters: parameters to display depression line and influence zone, to set color range, to draw tilted sections, isosurfaces and isolines, etc. - option to store individual views - selecting values for visualization either total values, or their change during the last calculation stage or their change in comparison with previous stages can be plotted. The setting is available only in problems where it makes sense. It is therefore possible to display the change of stress, settlement or deformation in comparison with previous stages however, always the current depth of influence zone is plotted. - selecting variables SigmaZ,tot SigmaZ,eff Settlement Deformation - overall vertical total stress [kPa,ksf] - overall vertical effective stress [kPa, ksf] - settlement of a point [mm, feet] - relative settlement of a layer [-]*1000

Pore pressure - stress due to water [kPa, ksf]

- plotting option (do not plot, isosurfaces, isolines) The color range is visible on the right part of the desktop. The buttons for setting the color range are located below. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window. - 312 -

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Frame "Analysis"

Consolidation parameters
In consolidation analysis (set in the frame "Analysis methods") the bottom window in the frame "Analysis" serves for entering consolidation parameters. In the first construction stage of calculation following characteristics are required: top and bottom interface of consolidated soil layer and direction of water outflow from this layer (upwards, downwards and both downwards and upwards).

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Frame "Analysis" consolidation (first construction stage) In another construction stages time of stage duration and load action are entered. Program allows two ways of load acting: whole loading introduced at the beginning of stage or load linearly increases during stage duration. Calculation is proceed only in the construction stage where "Overall settlement" is checked (may be checked in all stages except first one).

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Program Abutment
Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame allows for introduciong the standard for concrete structures dimensioning. Referring to the selected standard the types of concrete and steel are then inputted in the frame "Material" and the program performs dimensioning of structure cross-sections in the frame "Dimensioning". Some standards require inputting additional information. - CSN 73 1201 calls for specifying whether the stress in foundation base for front wall stem verification is assumed uniform (CSN) or trapezoidal (Eurocode). - EN 1992-2 (EC-2) allows for specifying individual coefficients of analysis which may vary for various National application documents. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

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Frame "Analysis methods"

Geometry cut
The frame "Geom. cut" allows for selecting the shape of bridge abutment. The selected shape with a graphic hint "Wall geometry chart" appears in the left part of the frame. The shape of a wall can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. In case the structure is composed of inclined segments it is required to enter the ratio of sides of an inclined segment 1:x. The straight structure is specified by entering the value zero. The frame serves to specify the final shape of abutment including the closure wall. The abutment can be verified also for the construction state (without the closure wall) based on the choice in the frame "Loading - LC". The abutment length and the length of abutment foundation is specified in the frame "Geometry plane view". The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry cut"

Wings
The frame "Wings" allows for inputting the bridge wings dimensions. The wings can be either symmetrical or unsymmetrical. Assuming unsymmetrical wings requires inputting the right and left wing dimensions separately. The screen always displays the currently inputted wing only the left wing is then visualized in the remaining frames. The frame "Geometry plane view" can also be used to input or edit the wing thicknesses and lengths. The Wing-abutment joint cross-section can also be verified in the frame "Dimensioning". The loading due to moment is considered. The whole wing is loaded by active pressure developed behind the wall. The "Dimensioning" dialogue window serves to input the magnitude of surface surcharge to determine the wing pressure. The surcharge specified in the frame "Surcharge" is then not taken into account and the terrain behind the wing is considered as flat. The resulting moment applied to the joint is obtained by multiplying the overall magnitude of soil pressure acting on the wall surface and by the difference of centroids of the pressure resultant and the joint. The length of cross-section used for dimensioning is considered by default as the wing height a different length of wing-abutment joint can also be specified after selecting the option "Reduce for dimensioning". When using prolonged wing walls it is possible to input dimensions of the foundation below the wall. Such foundation jumps are reflected in the analysis by computing a fictitious width of the foundation as:

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Fine Ltd. 2011 overall area of foundation including all jumps length of abutment foundation fictitious width of foundation for verification analysis

Atot S dfict

The foundation is then considered as being rectangular, which is simplified but rather conservative assumption.

Frame "Wings"

Geometry plane view

The frame "Geometry plane view" allows for inputting the abutment length, length of abutment foundation and also dimensions of abutment wings. Dimensions can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. For details on the effect of abutment dimensions on verification analysis we refer the reader to section "Calculating of abutment forces". The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry plane view"

Foundation steps
The frame "Foundation steps" serves to input the steps of foundation below abutment. This option thus allows for specifying additional shapes of bridge abutment. Adding (editing) foundation step is performed in the " New step" dialogue window. Inputted foundation steps can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively.

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Frame "Foundation steps"

Material
The "Material" frame allows for the selection of material parameters for concrete and longitudinal steel reinforcements. Two options are available when selecting the material type: the "Catalogue" button opens the "Material catalogue" dialogue window (for concrete or steel reinforcements), the list of materials then serves to select the desired material the "User" button opens the "Edit material concrete" dialogue window (for concrete) or the "Edit material concrete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal steel reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters The catalogues content depends on the selection of standard for the design of concrete structures set in the "Analysis methods" frame. The input field in the upper part of the frame serves to specify the abutment unit weight.

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Frame "Material"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Cantilever wall". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Loading - LC
The frame "Loading LC" serves to specify individual loading cases (construction, service) and the loading caused by the bridge and approach slab. Verification and dimensioning analyses of the whole bridge abutment or only its part are carried out according to the specified type of LC. When using analysis according to EN1997 or LRFD, input forces from bridge and plate are not INCREASED by any partial factors. Forces must be entered as design in accordance with standards EN 1990, EN 1991. No load specified in the case of construction state and the abutment is verified in a given stage of construction without a closure wall and bridge wings. In the case of service state the abutment is loaded by the bridge and approach slab, the whole abutment is verified. For abutment verification it appears advantageous to exploit the stage of construction and specify in individual stages different load cases (e.g. construction state, service state without live load, service state with all loads). Individual stages then allow inputting different loads, surcharges, terrain shapes, type of pressure analysis (active, at rest), design coefficients, etc.

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Frame "Loading - LC"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters (h1, h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The combo list serves to specify whether the influence of uplift pressure of water due to different tables at the foundation joint is considered. The uplift pressure can be assumed to be linear, parabolic or it may not be considered at all. When verifying the wall, the uplift pressure in base of footing joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of " z" (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Front face resistance

The "Front face resistance" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying the terrain shape and parameters of front face resistance. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values are displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. Combo lists in the frame allows the user to select the type of resistance and a soil (the combo list contains soils introduced in the regime "Soils"). The magnitude of terrain surcharge in front of the wall or soil thickness above the wall lowest points can also be specified in the frame. The resistance on a structure front face can be specified as a pressure at rest, passive pressure or reduced passive earth pressure. The resulting force due to reduced passive pressure is found as a resultant force caused by passive pressure multiplied by a corresponding coefficient, which follows from the inputted type of reduced passive pressure.

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Frame "Front face resistance"

Inputted forces
The "Inputted forces" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "New force (edit force)" dialogue window. The inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Inputted forces"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. Evaluating the structure according to theory of limit states also calls for the input of coefficient of overall stability of a structure. When subjecting the wall to overall verification this coefficient is used to multiply the resisting moment Mres and the resisting shear force Hres. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters. The "Other" tab sheet serves to specify the type of pressure acting on a wall based on the allowable wall deformation. Providing the wall is free to move an active pressure is assumed, otherwise, a pressure at rest is used.

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Frame "Settings"

Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods" When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1,0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same. The frame setting serves to specify the type of pressure acting on a wall based on the allowable wall deformation. Providing the wall is free to move an active pressure is assumed, otherwise, a pressure at rest is used.

Frame "Settings"

Verification
The frame "Verification" shows the analysis results. Several computations can be carried out for a single task. The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the - 333 -

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loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. The wall is loaded either by active pressure or pressure at rest depending on input in the frame "Setting". Procedure for wall verification is described in the theoretical part of the hint. The computed forced are displayed on the desktop and are automatically updated with every change of input data and setting. The right part of the frame shows the result of verification of a wall against overturning and translation. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Verification"

Bearing capacity
The "Bearing capacity" frame displays the results from the analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. The stress in the footing bottom (assumed constant) is derived from all verifications performed in the frame "Verification". The program "Spread footing" then considers all verifications as loading cases. Three basic analysis options are available in the frame: Input the foundation soil bearing capacity The input field serves to specify the foundation soil bearing capacity. The results of verification analysis of a soil for eccentricity and bearing capacity are displayed in the right part of the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that displays detailed listing of the results of verification analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. - 334 -

GEO5 User's Guide Compute the foundation soil bearing capacity using the program "Spread footing"

Fine Ltd. 2011 Pressing the "Run "Spread footing" button starts the program "Spread footing" that allows for computing the soil bearing capacity or settlement and rotation of a footing. Pressing the "OK" button leaves the analysis regime the results and all plots are copied to the program "Abutment". The program "Spread footing" must be installed for the button to be active. The foundation soil bearing capacity is not computed.

Do not compute (pile footing)

Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Bearing capacity"

Dimensioning
The "Dimensioning" frame serves to design and verify the reinforcement of abutment crosssection the cross-section subjected to dimensioning is selected in the combo list. The table shows the abutment forces. Offer of cross-sections that can be verified depands on the selected load case (construction, service). The following cross-sections are available for both the construction and service state: Wall stem verification Construction joint verification Wall jump verification The service state makes also possible to verify: depth of construction joint from construction top edge is specified

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the surface surcharge due to terrain is inputted, for actual analysis we refer to section "Wings"

The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. The abutment is loaded either by active pressure or pressure at rest depending on the input specified in the frame "Settting", an active earth pressure is used when analysing wing walls. Procedure to derive distribution of internal forces in individual cross-sections is described in the theoretical part of this hint. Dimensioning of the steel-reinforced concrete structure is performed according to the standard set in the frame "Analysis methods". Verification analysis based on the standard CSN 73 6206 "Design of concrete and steel reinforced concrete bridge structures " is described herein. Several computations for various cross-sections can be carried out. Various design coefficients of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Stability
Pressing the "Stability" button launches the "Slope stability" program. This program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if the program "Slope stability" is installed. After completing all analyses press the "OK" button to leave the program all data are then carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Abutment" program.

Frame "Stability"

Program Nailed slopes

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

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Frame "Project"

Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The type of Verification methodology (according to EN 1997, according to LRFD, classical way) is selected from the combo list. The "Partial factors" button opens the dialogue window to either choose or modify partial factors according to EN 1997 or coefficients according to LRFD, respectively. The frame allows for introduciong the standard for concrete structures dimensioning. Referring to the selected standard the types of concrete and steel are then inputted in the frame "Material" and the program performs dimensioning of structure cross-sections in the frame "Dimensioning".Pro EN 1992-2 (EC-2) lze zadat jednotliv souinitele vpotu, kter se mohou u rznch Nrodnch ploh liit. The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures and earthquake.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Geometry
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The inputted points can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects doubleclicking an already inputted point then opens a dialogue window for its editing. One needs to specify depth (z-coordinate from the top point of a structure positive direction is assumed downwards) and an x-coordinate (negative direction is assumed to the left, no overhang of a structure is allowed. The program makes possible to export the structure geometry in the *.DXF format.

Frame "Geometry"

Types of nails
The frame "Types of nails" serves to specify a nail type in a specific table. The strength parameters of nails can be either inputted by the user or directly determined by the program depending on the inputted data. The table lists the following input data, either inputted or computed tensile strength, pull out resistance, nail head strength per 1m (1ft).

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Frame "Types of nails"

Geometry of nails
The frame "Geometry of nails" contains a table with a list of inputted nails. Adding (editing) nails is performed in the "New nail (Edit nail)" dialogue window. The inputted nails can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The user is required to specify the nail depth, depth of a bench from a given nail (the next nail must be introduced as deep as to be located below the bench of the upper nail), nail length, its diameter and distance. Sklon heb se uvauje od vodorovn ve smru hodinovch ruiek a je jednotn pro vechny heby.

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Frame "Geometry of nails"

Material
The "Material" frame allows for the selection of material parameters for concrete and longitudinal steel reinforcements. Two options are available when selecting the material type: the "Catalogue" button opens the "Material catalogue" dialogue window (for concrete or steel reinforcements), the list of materials then serves to select the desired material the "User" button opens the "Edit material concrete" dialogue window (for concrete) or the "Edit material concrete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal steel reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters The catalogues content depends on the selection of standard for the design of concrete structures set in the "Analysis methods" frame.

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Frame "Material"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Nailed slopes". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Either effective or total parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified depending on the setting in the "Stress analysis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water conditions. One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are listed in the table of recommended values. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Terrain
The "Terrain" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The selected shape with graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top point of a structure. Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".

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Frame "Terrain"

Water
The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters (h1, h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The combo list serves to specify whether the influence of uplift pressure of water due to different tables at the foundation joint is considered. The uplift pressure can be assumed to be linear, parabolic or it may not be considered at all. When verifying the wall, the uplift pressure in base of footing joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force. The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two tab sheets "In front of structure" and "Behind structure" appear with tables. The table is filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z" (z-axis). The ground water table can also be specified above the structure or earth profile, respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value. Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the hint chapter "Influence of water". The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.

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Frame "Water"

Surcharge
The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found off the terrain the computer prompts an error message. Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint, chapter "Influence of surcharge".

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Frame "Surcharge"

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and " Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Reduce soil parameters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters. The tab sheet "Other" is used to specify a procedure for the verification of internal stability of a structure. When using factors of safety it is possible to input different factors of safety for the plane and broken slip surfaces, respectively.

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Frame "Settings"

Settings - EN and LRFD

The frame "Settings" serves to specify the type of Design situation (persistent, transient, accidental, seismic). When performing the analysis according EN 1997 the chosen design situation designates set of partial factors, that are applied on load, material and resistance in analysis. Partial factors can be changed in the frame "Analysis methods" When performing the analysis according to LRFD the persistant design situation considers partial factors specified in the frame "Analysis methods". For transient, accidental or seismic design situations these partial factors are equal to 1,0. The coefficients reducing resistance remain for all combinations the same.

Frame "Settings"

Internal stability
The frame allows for the verification of internal stability of a structure assuming either plane or broken slip surface. The verification can be carried out depending on "Settings" using either factor of safety or the theory of limit states. Individual steps of the verification procedure are described herein. This frame also allows for the verification of nails bearing capacity. This analysis must be checked in the frame "Settings" tab sheet "Other".

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Frame "Internal stability"

Verification
The frame "Verification" shows the analysis results. Several computations can be carried out for a single task. The frame appearance is adjusted based on the selected verification methodology. Classical analysis the column F in the table allows for inputting the design coefficients, which multiply the calculated forces. These forces are displayed on the desktop and are updated for every change of data and setting in the frame. Analysis according to EN 1997 the column G in the table allows for specifying whether the loading acting on a structure is considered as a secondary one. This is explained in more details in section Load combinations. Analysis according to LRFD in the case the column F is not displayed. To verify the external stability a fictitious structure (wall) is created and further subjected to the verification analysis. A fictitious wall consists of the structure front face, a line connecting end points of individual nails, a vertical line constructed from the end point of the first nail up to the terrain depth and from the end point of the last nail up to the structure depth (thus the bottom edge of a fictitious structure is always horizontal). The wall points that cause a concave curvature of the structure back face are automatically excluded by the program. The structure is loaded by an active earth pressure. Procedure for wall verification is described in the theoretical part of the hint. The computed forced are displayed on the desktop and are automatically updated with every change of input data and setting. The right part of the frame shows the result of verification of a wall against overturning and translation. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Verification"

Bearing capacity
The "Bearing capacity" frame displays the results from the analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. The stress in the footing bottom (assumed constant) is derived from all verifications performed in the frame "Verification". The program "Spread footing" then considers all verifications as loading cases. Three basic analysis options are available in the frame: Input the foundation soil bearing capacity The input field serves to specify the foundation soil bearing capacity. The results of verification analysis of a soil for eccentricity and bearing capacity are displayed in the right part of the frame. The "In detail" button opens the dialogue window that displays detailed listing of the results of verification analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity. Pressing the "Run "Spread footing" button starts the program "Spread footing" that allows for computing the soil bearing capacity or settlement and rotation of a footing. Pressing the "OK" button leaves the analysis regime the results and all plots are copied to the program "Nailed slopes". The program "Spread footing" must be installed for the button to be active. The foundation soil bearing capacity is not computed.

Compute the foundation soil bearing capacity using the program "Spread footing"

Do not compute (pile footing)

Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Bearing capacity"

Dimensioning
The frame "Dimensioning" allows for the design and verification of the reinforcement of the structure concrete cover. The upper part of the frame serves to choose whether the vertical or horizontal reinforcement and its location will be verified. The program then determines internal forces developed on the selected section. The table in the bottom part of the frame serves to specify locations for the verification of the designed reinforcement depending on the inputted standard for dimensioning of steelreinforced concrete structures (the standard is specified in the frame "Analysis methods"). A cross-section is loaded by the bending moment in a given point. An amount of the tensile reinforcement in the cross-section is inputted. If the moment is negative, the designed reinforcement is placed at the structure front face and if it is negative, then at the structure back face.

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Frame "Dimensioning"

External stability
Pressing the "External stability" button launches the "Slope stability" program. This program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if the program "Slope stability" is installed. After completing all analyses press the "OK" button to leave the program all data are then carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Nailed slopes" program.

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Frame "External stability"

Program Ground Loss

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The frame "Analysis methods" allows for selecting the method for determining subsidence trough (Volume loss, Classical theories) and its shape (Gauss, Aversin). It also serves to input the coefficient of calculation of inflection point, (for classical theories only), which influences the shape of subsidence trough.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Buildings
The frame "Buildings" serves to input objects above excavation. An arbitrary number of buildings can be specified both on a ground surface and at a given depth.

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Frame "Buildings"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". Inputting data in the frame is allowed providing the classical theory of analysis is selected in the frame "Analysis methods". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. Inputting data in the frame is allowed providing the classical theory of analysis is selected in the frame "Analysis methods". The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. Possible values of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are available in chapter "Rocks parameters". The program makes possible import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. Inputting data in the frame is allowed providing the classical theory of analysis is selected in the frame "Analysis methods". The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Geometry
The frame "Geometry" contains a table with a list of inputted excavations. The "New excavation (Edit excavation)" dialogue window serves to add (edit) excavations. The inputted excavations can also be modified on the desktop with help of active objects. Parameters of excavation differ depending on the analysis method selected in the frame "Analysis methods". Each excavation can be specified either by the radius or the area of excavation. Providing a sequential excavation is being inputted it is useful to specify the excavation area and place a fictitious center of excavation to a center of gravity of this area. Additional input parameters are explained in more details when describing individual analysis methods (Volume loss, Classical theories). The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Dialogue window "New excavation"

Frame "Geometry"

Measurement
The frame "Measurement" contains a table with a list inputted measurements. The "New measurement (Edit measurement)" dialogue window serves to add (edit) measurements. The inputted measurements can also be modified on the desktop with help of active objects. Inputted measurements do not influence the actual analysis their introduction into the program has resulted purely from designers needs. After excavating the first part of a sequential tunnel it is useful to input the values measured in the construction site into the program and subsequently to add the excavation input parameters such that the calculated - 362 -

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and measured values are the same. Practical experience shows that the values of input parameters acquired from this procedure (e.g. coefficient of volume loss) are valid also for subsequent stages.

Frame "Measurement"

Settings
The frame "Settings" allows for introduction of boundaries of tensile and gradient damage. These values serve to verify the building damage in the frame "Damages". The program offers a default pre-setting (default setting for masonry buildings) and a user-defined setting here it is possible to define arbitrary criteria recommended by standards or gained from practical experience for arbitrary types of buildings. The boundary values must be defined either in a descending or ascending order, respectively. Providing we wish to define fewer regions than specified in the program it is possible to characterize certain boundaries by the same value.

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Frame "Settings"

Analysis
The frame "Analysis" provides the results from the analysis of subsidence trough. More than one analysis at different depths below the terrain surface can be performed for a single task. The computed values are displayed on a desktop and are continuously updated whenever a certain change in the inputted data or setting in the frame is introduced. For a quick switch between different styles of graphical presentation of results ( subsidence trough, distribution of values) the user may use the buttons in section "Visualization". Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Analysis" - "Settlement"

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Frame "Analysis" - "Distributions"

Damages
The frame "Failures" provides the results of failure analysis of buildings. The program offers four types of verifications - verification of tensile cracks - verification of gradient damage - verification of relative deflection of buildings (Hogging, sagging) - verification of the inputted section of a building The program allows the user to perform an analysis for the current and all previous stages (envelope from all stages) or it is possible to input individual stages and evaluate their influence. Such a procedure makes possible to find, e.g. an optimal process of excavation of sequantial tunnels. Several analyses can be carried out for a single task. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Damages" - visualization of tensile cracks

Frame "Damages" - visualization of gradient damage

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Pogram Rock Stability

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame Project

Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The tab sheet "Analyses" serves to select the type of rock slope analysis. There are three options available: - plane slip surface - polygonal slip surface - earth wedge Content of the vertical tool bar depends on the selected type of analysis.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Terrain
The frame "Terrain" contains a table with a list of defined sections of a rock slope. The coordinates of the origin the first point of terrain followed by defined sections are entered in the upper part of the frame. In the program the slope is always oriented from the - 367 -

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Adding (editing) section is performed in the "New section (Edit section)" dialogue window. These sections can also be edited on desktop with the help of active objects. Each section can be defined by its dip, by the overall length of section, by the horizontal length and height of section of a rock slope. Only two selected values are used while the others are determined by the program automatically (if more than two entry fields are checked than the input and computation are not carried out). Both vertical and horizontal sections as well as overhangs can be represented. In case of a proper input the program automatically plots the defined section on desktop using dashed line, so that before accepting the defined section by pressing the "Add" button it is possible to check, whether the section is correctly defined.

Frame "Terrain"

Rock
The frame "Rock" allows for entering the material parameters of a rock slope (depending on the type of shear strength) including the bulk weight of a rock. Three types of shear strengths on a slip surface are available in the program: - Mohr - Coulomb - Barton - Bandis - Hoek - Brown Material parameters of rock are then entered based on the selected method.

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Frame "Rock"

Slip surface plane

The frame "Slip surface" serves to specify the shape and parameters of a plane slip surface. The slip surface is defined by a point in the rock body and by its gradient. The program automatically determines intersections of the slip surface with terrain. The program also allows for defining a tension crack with an arbitrary gradient (not available for stepped slip surface). The crack is defined by a horizontal distance from the origin and by its gradient. The plane slip surface can further be labeled as smooth, undulated or stepped. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Slip surface - plane"

Slip surface - polygonal

The frame "Slip surface" contains a table with a list of defined sections of a slip surface. Adding (editing) section is performed in the "New section (Edit section)" dialogue window. These sections can also be edited on desktop with the help of active objects. The coordinates of the slip surface origin a point on the slip surface followed by other sections are entered in the upper part of the frame. This point can be found even out of the soil body the program then automatically calculates the intersection of slip surface with terrain. Individual sections of the slip surface can be defined by their dip, by the overall length of section, by the horizontal length and height of section of a rock slope. Only two selected values are used while the others are determined by the program automatically (if more than two entry fields are checked than the input and computation are not carried out). Both vertical and horizontal sections as well as overhangs can be represented. In case of a proper input the program automatically plots the defined section on desktop using dashed line, so that before accepting the defined section by pressing the "Add" button it is possible to check, whether the section is correctly defined. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Slip surface - polygonal"

Parameters polygonal slip surface

The frame "Parameters" contains a table with a list of blocks, which are created by entering a polygonal slip surface. Parameters of individual blocks are edited in the "Edit block" dialogue window. Blocks can also be edited on desktop with the help of active objects. The Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters on a slip surface and in the joints separating individual blocks icluding the bulk weight of a rock are specified here. This window also serves to introduce forces due to water in rock blocks.

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Frame "Parameters" polygonal slip surface

Dialogue window "Edit block" - vymnit!!!!!

Water plane slip surface

The "Water" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type together with a graphic hint ("Parameter chart") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. Water parameters can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. - 372 -

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Solution procedure when accounting for water is described in the theoretical part of the help "Influence of water on slip surface"

Frame "Wster" - plane slip surface

Surcharge plane and polygonal slip surface

The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. The inputted surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively. Introducing surcharge forces into the analysis differs for a plane and a polygonal slip surface.

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Frame "Surcharge" - plane and polygonal slip surface

Anchors plane and polygonal slip surface

The "Anchors" frame contains a table with a list of inputted anchors. Adding (editing) anchors is performed in the "New anchor (Modify anchor parameters)" dialogue window. The inputted anchors can be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The following is specified location (origin), depth, free length, anchor slope, spacing between anchors and anchor force. The anchor origin can automatically be positioned on terrain (by checking the particular entry field). All anchor parameters can be modified only in the construction stage, where it was introduced. The subsequent stages allow only for adjusting the anchor force (option "Post-stressing anchor"). The plane slip surface allows for defining active and passive anchors. Only active anchors are allowed with the polygonal slip surface.

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Frame "Anchors" - plane and polygonal slip surface

Earthquake
The "Earthquake" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop. Rock slope analysis while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".

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Frame "Earthquake"

Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings to assess the slope stability. The program offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and "Standard setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in corresponding windows are changed. An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option "Safety factor" allows the user to specify in input field own value of the factor of safety. Selecting the option "Limit states" allows for specifying individual values of the coefficients of reduction of soil parameters and coefficient of overall stability.

Frame "Settings" analysis according to factor of safety

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Frame "Settings" analysis according to limit states

Analysis plane slip surface

The "Analysis" frame displays the analysis results. Several analyses can be performed for a single task. Verification of the rock slope can be carried out according to the factor of safety / theory of limit states based on the input in the frame "Setting". The analysis results are displayed in the frame in the bottom part of desktop. In this frame the program makes possible to determine the anchor force needed for obtaining the required safety factor. In such a case the "Compute required anchor force" entry field must be checked and the slope of anchor force from horizontal must be entered. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Analysis" plane slip surface

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Analysis polygonal slip surface

The "Analysis" frame displays the analysis results. Several analyses can be performed for a single task. Verification of the rock slope can be carried out according to the factor of safety / theory of limit states based on the input in the frame "Setting". The analysis results are displayed in the frame in the bottom part of desktop. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Frame "Analysis" polygonal slip surface

Geometry
The frame "Geometry" allows for entering the shape of a rock slope (earth wedge). Geometry of earth wedge is defined by directions and gradients of fall lines of faces forming the wedge. Geometry of earth wedge is displayed on desktop using a stereographic projection. The "3D view" button opens the dialogue window for viewing an earth wedge in space. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry" input using directions and gradients of fall lines of faces

3D View
3D view allows for graphical check of defined values. The picture can be rotated, translated, zoomed in and out and highlighted in a standard way. A direct print out of the picture is not in this version allowed.

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Dialogue window "3D view"

Slip surface rock wedge

The frame "Slip surface" serves to enter the shape of a slip surface using directions and gradients of fall lines of faces forming the wedge. A tension crack can also be defined. Geometry of earth wedge is displayed on desktop using a stereographic projection. The "3D view" button opens the dialogue window for viewing an earth wedge in space.

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Frame "Slip surface" - rock wedge

Parameters rock wedge

The frame "Parameters" serves to enter parameters of an earth wedge. The bulk weight of a rock and the Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters of slip surfaces must be specified.

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Frame "Parameters" - rock wedge

Surcharge rock wedge

The "Surcharge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharge is performed in the "New (edit) surcharge" dialogue window. Surcharge forces are introduced into the stability analysis of earth wedge using resolution of forces.

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Frame "Surcharge" - rock wedge

Anchors rock wedge

The "Anchors" frame contains a table with a list of inputted anchors. Adding (editing) anchors is performed in the "New anchor (Modify anchor parameters)" dialogue window. Anchor forces are introduced into the stability analysis of earth wedge using resolution acting of forces.

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Frame "Anchors" - rock wedge

Water rock wedge

The frame "Water" allows for introducing water into analysis. If the influence of water is taken into account then checking the respective entry field opens the field for entering the height of GWT above the lowest point of an earth wedge. Solution procedure when accounting for water is described in the theoretical part of the help "Influence of ground water". The "3D view" button opens the dialogue window for viewing an earth wedge in space.

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Frame "Water" - rock wedge

Analysis rock wedge

The "Analysis" frame displays the analysis results. Several analyses can be performed for a single task. Verification of the rock slope can be carried out according to the factor of safety / theory of limit states based on the input in the frame "Settings". The analysis results are displayed in the frame in the bottom part of desktop. In this frame the program makes possible to determine the anchor force needed for obtaining the required safety factor. In such a case the "Compute required anchor force" entry field must be checked and the slope of anchor force from horizontal and its direction must be entered. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Rm "Vpoet" - horninov kln

Program Terrain
Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial). In this input regime the assumed setting can be modified only in the first construction stage.

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Basic data
The frame "Basic data" serves to input basic parameters of the task. The frame contains a table with a list of specified layers. Layers can be added, inserted or removed using the buttons on the right from the table. The first layer can be neither removed, nor can another layer be inserted in front of it. The frame section "Basic setting" serves to define world dimensions of the task. When increasing or decreasing these dimensions the program prompts possible consequences of this action. The section "Inputting grid" serves to define an origin and step of the grid in the X and Y directions. The dialogue window, which allows for setting these parameters, is described in the hint section "User-defined environment", chapter "Input". Crossing the item "Input in the global coordinate system" opens the way for introducing the data in the global coordinate system (JTSK, Gauss-Kreger). In the "Type of layers input" combo list it is possible to determine the way of inputting layers. Layers can be introduced with the help of layers thicknesses or their points. In this input regime the assumed setting can be modified only in the first construction stage. Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift" and "Plot setting".

Frame "Basic data"

Global coordinate system

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Esential advantage is the possibility of specifying the coordinates of points and bore holes both in the local and global coordinate systems and switching between the two systems. Orientation of the global coordinate system with respect to the local one is defined using two points, where one point is always introduced in the local coordinate system and its image in the global coordinate system. Direction and sign convention is displayed for each type of the global coordinate system in the legend chart.

Dialogue window "Coordinate system"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The program Terrain calls only for specification of the coefficient of bulkage to compute yardage of excavation pits or embankments. The remaining data are used only for possible export into other GEO programs and have no effect on actual calculations performed in program "Terrain". The program makes possible import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. In subsequent stages of construction the program automatically adds a new layer, to which a soil adjacent to terrain is automatically assigned. In many cases (excavation pits) this layer may have no volume its introduction is necessary providing the new terrain is found above the terrain of the previous stage. The soil is always assigned, since it is not possible to a priory estimate, whether some part of the terrain in the new stage will be located above the original one. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Points
The frame "Points" serves to define the coordinates of terrain points. There are two options available to define coordinates of individual points: With the help of table: points are defined in the table. Pressing the "Add" button opens the "New point" dialogue window; coordinates of points are then specified and by pressing the "Add" button added to the table. An arbitrary number of points can be defined in this way. The "Cancel" button is used at last to close the window. These points can be further modified (in the dialogue window) using the "Edit" button or removed with the help of "Remove" button (more points can be marked in the table to remove them all at once before removing, the selected points are displayed on the desktop in red). Each change is immediately reflected on the desktop. With the help of mouse: this inputting mode is turned on by pressing a respective button on the horizontal bar. The following options are available: Add to input a point, click the left mouse button on the desktop (the mouse cursor changes see picture) the program then opens the "New point" dialogue window, which allows for modifying the point coordinates, or to input its Z-coordinate after pressing the "OK" button the program adds this point into the table. Providing the point cannot be added (e.g. duplicity of coordinates) the program prompts a warning message grid functions can also be used when specifying a point Edit clicking an already existing point (see active object) using the left mouse button opens the "Edit point" dialogue window, which allows for editing the point coordinates - in the dialogue window the following buttons ("OK+ " and "OK+ ") can be used - 390 -

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clicking the point using the left mouse button opens a dialogue window, which requests to confirm deletion of the selected point

Selec actives the regime of graphical selection of points (type of selection is set in the tool t bar "Selection" The selected points can also be imported from files in formats TXT, Atlas DNT, respectively DXF. When defining points the program in some cases automatically calculates their Z-coordinates. Only one point can be assigned to a single coordinate X, Y. Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift", "Selections" and "Plot setting".

Frame "Points"

Import of points
The program allows for data import in formats DXF, ATLAS DMT and TXT. When importing, all old data are deleted and replaced by the new ones. The world dimensions are automatically determined according to minimal and maximal values of coordinates x and y it is therefore desirable to subsequently adjust the world dimensions in the frame "Basic data". The program allows for importing TXT data from respective files. Each point is written on a separate line of the file, coordinates are separated by comma. If the file contains for each point first its name, it is necessary to check the item "Labeling of pints". In the dialogue window is then necessary to specify the order of coordinates. If the data have an opposite sign convention, it possible to multiply the corresponding line by the value -1. The data import is - 391 -

GEO5 User's Guide performed after pressing the "Import" button. The program also allows for importing terrain points in format gINT.

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Dialogue window "Import" format "TXT"

Dialogue window "Import" format "Atlas"

Automatic calculation of height

When defining points, bore holes and points of ground water table the program in some cases automatically calculates the point height (z-coordinate) and eventually the layer thickness. This function is particularly valuable when editing terrain or layers. The possibility of height calculation depends on the status of generated terrain: if no terrain is generated, the height is not calculated and the respective field remains empty (blank) if terrain is generated for the current data (displayed on the desktop in a non-transparent mode and in regimes Generation, Point constructions, Line constructions and Launching also in a color mode), the required values are then automatically calculated from the model of terrain for a point it is the Z-coordinate, for a bore hole the program - 392 -

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further determines the layer thickness and possibly also the depth of the ground water table when a point or a bore hole is specified the status of generated terrain is changed and the drawing is switched to a transparent mode (the terrain is generated for the original input, not for the current input) when the terrain is generated, but it is not the current one, the Z-coordinates and layers thicknesses are automatically calculated for the last generated terrain Information regarding the terrain status (not generated, generated, generated for the original data) are displayed on the vertical tool bar. The frame "Generate" allows for terrain generating or removing the generated model.

Dialogue window add new point and calculate the Z-coordinate

Dialogue window add new bore hole and calculate the Z-coordinate, thickness of GWT and layer thicknesses

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Edges
The frame "Edges" serves to input edges connecting the terrain points. Two options are available to define edges: With the help of table: edges are defined in the table. Pressing the "Add" button opens the "New edge" dialogue window; sequence numbers of the starting and end points are then specified and by pressing the "Add" button added to the table. An arbitrary number of edges can be defined in this way. The "Cancel" button is used at last to close the window. These edges can be further modified (in the dialogue window) using the "Edit" button or removed with the help of "Remove" button (more edges can be marked in the table to remove them all at once before removing, the selected edges are displayed on the desktop in red). Each change is immediately reflected on the desktop. With the help of mouse: this inputting mode is turned on by pressing a respective button on the horizontal bar. The following options are available: Add to input an edge, click the starting and end points using the left mouse button (the mouse cursor changes see picture) after clicking the end point the program adds the corresponding edge into the table and at the same time displays this edge on the desktop. Providing the edge cannot be added (duplicity reason, crossing, etc.) the program prompts a warning message clicking an already existing edge (see active objects) using the left mouse button opens the "Edit edge" dialogue window, which allows for editing the sequence numbers of the starting and end points of the edge - in the dialogue window the following buttons ("OK+ " and "OK+ ") can be used clicking the edge using the left mouse button opens a dialogue window, which requests to confirm deletion of the selected edge actives the regime of graphical selection of edges (type of selection is set in the bar "Selections")

Edit

Remove Select

Edges can intersect neither other edges nor earth grading. Only one edge can be defined between two points. Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift", "Selections" and "Plot setting".

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Frame "Edges"

Water
The frame "Water" serves to specify the ground water table (GWT). A combo list " Type of water" contains the following items: No water no water specified Water specified by points the GWT points are defined in the table in the same way as when defining terrain points. This approach is particularly suitable if having a horizontal water table then it is sufficient to define only one point of a given coordinate Z and the program automatically generates a horizontal line representing the GWT. Water specified in bore holes Ground water is defined within bore holes. A particular depth of GWT measured from terrain surface is specified. This approach is suitable when bore holes with measured depths of GWT are available. Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift" and "Plot setting".

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Frame "Water"

Bore holes
The frame "Bore holes" serves to define bore holes, which allow for the modeling individual geological layers (depending on the setting in the frame "Basic data") or ground water tables (depending on the setting in the frame "Water"). To input points that determine the location of individual bore holes proceed in the similar way as when defining terrain points. Apart from coordinates it is necessary to enter the bore-hole name and thicknesses of layers. The generated geological profile can be easily modified exploiting the option of automatic calculation of height z from the thicknesses of individual layers. Bore holes can be defined only in the first stage of construction. The program automatically assures that a lower layer always lies below an upper layer "Crossing of layers" is not acceptable the dominant layer is always the upper layer. Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift" and "Plot setting". The program also allows for importing bore holes in format gINT at once.

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Frame "Bore holes" input, edit

Frame "Bore holes" defined bore holes

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Earth grading
The frame "Earth grading" serves to define terrain earth grading. The earth grading cannot be defined in the first stage of construction. The earth grading should considerably simplify an input of excavation pits or embankments. The essential part of earth grading is the shape of bottom, form which the slopes of excavations or embankments are directed towards the original terrain. The original terrain points and edges, found in the region of earth grading, are during generation automatically removed. More than one earth grading can be defined within a single stage of constructions. They must not, however, cross each other. If that happens, they need to be combined into a single earth grading. No part of earth grading can also exceed the world dimensions in such a case one should realize that faces of earth grading may exceed the world dimensions even if the bottom is defined well inside. The earth grading can be edited only in the stage, where it is defined. In to next stage of construction, the earth grading is transferred in terms of terrain new points and edges. With the help of table: earth grading is defined in the table. The "Add" button opens the "New earth grading" dialogue window, which allows for specifying the name of earth grading (by checking individual boxes it is possible to define a uniform depth of the bottom and a uniform gradient of the slope). This dialogue window contains further a table to introduce points, which define the ground plan (general polygon) of earth grading. To enter these points, proceed in the similar way as when defining terrain points. Pressing the "Add" button closes the dialogue window and the new earth grading is inserted into the table. The earth grading can be further modified (in the dialogue window) using the "Edit" button or removed with the help of "Remove" button (more than one earth grading can be marked in the table to remove them all at once - before removing, the selected earth grading is displayed on the desktop in red). Each change is immediately reflected on the desktop. With the help of mouse: this inputting mode is turned on by pressing a respective button on the horizontal bar. The following options are available: A To input an earth grading, click the left mouse button on the desktop to successively d define individual points of the polygon, which determines a ground plan of an earth d grading the polygon must be closed (the last clicked point serves as the first point of the polygon) after closing the polygon the program opens the "New earth grading" e dialogue window; to continue follow the same steps as when an input using the table is a assumed - providing the earth grading cannot be defined, or it overlays an already r existing one, the program prompts a warning message t h g r a d i n g E clicking an already existing earth grading using the left mouse button (see active objects) d opens the "Edit earth grading" dialogue window, which allows for editing the respective i grading (is possible use buttons in the dialogue window "OK+ " a "OK+ ") t

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R clicking an earth grading using the left mouse button opens a dialogue window, which e requests to confirm deletion of the selected earth grading m o v e e a r t h g r a d i n g Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift" and "Plot setting".

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Frame "Earth grading" input, edit

Frame "Earth grading" defined earth grading

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Generate
The frame "Generate" serves to generate a model of the terrain. Parameters to generate the model, which are valid for all subsequent stages, are specified in the first stage of construction. These are model smoothing (none, medium, maximal) active edge allows for modeling of terrain along edges The frame further serves to define drawing parameters (grid step, contour line step). The actual model is generated by pressing the "Generate" button. The generated model can be canceled by pressing the "Cancel model" button this can be useful to enhance clarity of input. Selecting the option "Compute yardage" allows for yardage calculation (in a combo list it is possible input the construction stage number for which the calculation should be carried out). This choice in not available in first stage of construction. Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift" and "Plot setting".

Frame "Generate"

Modeling terrain on edges

A special attention has to be given to boundary condition to correctly create a digital model of terrain heights of points in corners and boundaries (edges) of the world (world dimensions). The corner points can be either entered or they are inserted automatically during the first - 401 -

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stage of construction. When automatically generated, the corner point receives the same height as has the closest point or bore hole already defined. When generating terrain the corner points are connected by an edge. In some cases (slopes) we wish the edges to model the overall shape and inclination of terrain. In such cases an active edge option can be used. An active edge is introduced as a percentage fraction of the world dimensions. All points found on an active edge are, during generation, automatically projected in the normal direction on to an edge new points are then created at the same locations (on edge) having the same z-coordinate. The new points are stored in data associated with the next stage of construction. Subsequent layers of the terrain model behave the same way. The thicknesses of these layers on edges are calculated according to thicknesses of layers of the closest bore holes. The role of an active edge is evident from the following figure.

Terrain generated without and with an active edge

Point constructions
The frame "Line constructions" serves to introduce line constructions into the terrain. To input points that determine the location of individual point constructions proceed in the similar way as when defining terrain points (using either table or mouse). The "New point construction" ("Edit point construction") dialogue window allows also for specifying the name of the program to analyze the corresponding construction. The frame "Launching" is then used to run the calculation program and to transfer thicknesses of layers and assignment of soils into the program. Point constructions can be defined only if a correct model of the terrain is generated. Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift" and "Plot setting".

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Frame "Point constructions" input, edit

Frame "Point constructions" defined constructions

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Line constructions
The frame "Line constructions" serves to introduce line constructions into the terrain. To input lines that determine the location of individual line constructions proceed in the similar way as when defining terrain edges (using either table or mouse). The "New line construction" ("Edit line construction") dialogue window allows for specifying the name and type of a construction line: "Longitudinal line construction" is defined by coordinates of the starting and end points (the table is a part of the dialogue window). A combo list serves to select a particular calculation program (Settlement, Slope stability, FEM). To run the program, use the frame "Launch". Terrain shape and interfaces are transferred in the same way as when assigning soils to layers. "Line with points" is defined by coordinates of a broken line and can be used to specify new point construction. Point constructions are defined in the table "Point constructions on line", which is a part of the "New line construction" dialogue window. The frame "Launch" is then used to run the calculation program and to transfer thicknesses of layers and assignment of soils into the program. Line constructions can be defined only if a correct model of the terrain is generated. Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift" "Plot setting".

Frame "Line constructions" input, edit

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Frame "Line constructions" defined constructions

Launching
The frame "Launching" contains a table with a list of defined point or line constructions. Based on the selection in the table and after pressing the " Launch" button the program associated with a particular task is launched (the corresponding calculation module must be purchased). The required data are transferred into the program. The program then allows for performing the specific calculations and verifications. If the program is not purchased, the launching button is not accessible. When all calculations are completed the program is exited by pressing the "OK" button the results and defined pictures are transferred back into a corresponding calculation protocol in program "Terrain".

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Frame "Launching"

Launching program "Spread footing" from program "Terrain"

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Program Micropile
Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The "Analyses" tab sheet allows for choosing the course of calculation of external bearing capacity (critical force) and the analysis method of calculating bearing capacity of the micropile root. The following methods are available for calculating external forces: - geometric (Euler method) - Salas - Souche The following methods are available for calculating bearing capacity of the micropile root: - Lizzi - Littlejohn - Zweck - Bowles - Vas - root in rock

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Frame "Analysis methods"

Profile
The "Profile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Micropile". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data" "Uplift pressure". These parameters depend on the theory of analysis specified in the frame "Analysis methods". The program makes possible import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. When calculating the tube bearing capacity according to Salase, moreover, enters elastic modulus E. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Micropile".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Geometry
The frame "Geometry" serves to input a micropile cross-section (welded, rolled). The selected shape with a graphical hint of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame. The micropile cross-section is selected in dialogue windows opened by pressing the "Enter welded" "Enter rolled" buttons (the selection for rolled cross-sections is performed from a catalogue in the dialogue window). An info window, displaying a detailed description of data of the selected cross-section, can be activated in the window. The selected data can be edited after choosing the type of micropile cross-section. The basic geometrical data are specified in the right top part of the frame: free length of micropile (distance between the micropile head and the origin of micropile base is considered) root length root diameter micropile inclination (range from -60 to 60 measured from vertical, a positive value of an inclination angle is measured counterclockwise) head offset (end of micropile above terrain (range from 0 to 10 m)). The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

Material
The frame "Material" serves to specify material parameters of cement mixture and steel. Standard strength of cement mixture in compression, standard strength of steel and modulus of elasticity of the selected steel and concrete mixture are entered. These values are required for verification of the micropile tube - coupled section bearing capacity.

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Frame "Material"

Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Load
The "Load" frame contains a table with a list inputted loads. Adding (editing) load is performed in the "New (edit) load" dialogue window. Forces and moments are entered according to the sign convention displayed in the right part of the dialogue window.

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Frame "Loading"

Water
The frame "Water" serves to enter a depth of groud water table. The values can be edited either in the frame by entering values into particular fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions.

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Frame "Water"

Settings
The frame "Settings" contains basic setting for the verification analysis of the micropile. Verification analysis based either on the factor of safety or on limit states is available.

Frame "Settings" verification based on factor of safety

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Frame "Settings" verification based on limit states

Verification of cross-section
The results of the analysis of the micropile tube bearing capacity loaded either in tension or compression are displayed in the frame "Verification of cross-section". More computations can be carried out for a single task. When calculating the tube bearing capacity (micropile cross-section) the program differentiates between a micropile loaded in tension or in compression. In case of tension the program determines coupled section bearing capacity (strength of cement mixture is not considered). In case of compression the program examines both, coupled section bearing capacity and internal stability of section, depending on the method set in the frame "Analysis methods". The results of the verification analysis are displayed in the right part of the window. The " In detail" button opens a dialogue window listing in detailed the results of the analysis.

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Frame "Verification of cross-section"

Root verification
The analysis results are displayed in the frame "Root verification". Several calculations can be carried out for a single task. The limit skin friction can be specified in the left part of the frame. Procedure to examine the micropile root is described in details herein. The results of the verification analysis are displayed in the right part of the window. The " In detail" button opens a dialogue window listing in detailed the results of the analysis.

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Frame "Root verification"

Program FEM
Topology
To input data in the GEO FEM program slightly differs from other GEO5 programs in that it requires defining the topology of the structure prior to any calculation. This step includes introduction of interfaces between individual layers of soils, line constructions, parameters of soils and interfaces and at last generation of the finite element mesh. To avoid unexpected errors when creating a computational model the user should first become familiar with available coordinate systems. The topology input regime is selected by clicking the Topo button on the horizontal bar.

Bar "Stages of construction" switching between "Topology" regime and calculation stages The actual analysis is performed in individual stages of construction (calculation stages), which allow the user to define activity of structures, to input beams, anchors and surcharge, to model the effect of water, etc. - 419 -

GEO5 User's Guide Depending on the selected regime the vertical tool bar also adjusted.

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Coordinate systems
Global coordinate system - is right-handed - the positive X axis is directed from the left to the right - the positive Z axis is directed from the bottom to the top - the positive Y axis drills in to the XZ plane - the rotation about the Y axis is positive when measured clockwise

- The GCS is used for coordinates - in general, the positive surcharge is assumed to act in the opposite direction to the positive axis and the positive rotation follows the positive sense of the global rotation - particular definitions of the positive direction must be carefully examined for all cases

Surcharge - is always assumed to act along the horizontal line (or at a point) - the origin (point) and the length are the required input data - the positive surcharge at zero angle is assumed to act in the opposite direction to the positive direction of the Z axis - the zero angle corresponds to vertical surcharge - the angle increases clockwise - the angle ranges from -180 to 180

Anchors - 420 -

GEO5 User's Guide - an anchor can also be specified by the origin and an angle - the zero angle corresponds to the direction of the X axis - the angle increases clockwise

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- the angle ranges from -180 to 180

Prescribed displacements and rotation of supports - prescribed displacements are positive in the directions of the X, Z axes and about the Y axis - displacements are positive when developed in the opposite direction to the positive directions of the coordinate axes

- the positive rotation is measured clockwise

Loading of beams - the local coordinate system is right-handed - the positive XL axis of the beam is assumed in direction from the starting to the end point - the positive ZL axis is perpendicular and rotated counterclowise by 90 from the beam axis - loading can be applied three directions: - global Z - global X - local normal (Z) - the positive loading in the global direction acts in the opposite direction to the positive direction of the corresponding axis - the positive loading in the normal direction acts in the opposite direction to the positive direction of the local ZL axis - the positive loading angle is measured clockwise - the moment is positive when acting clockwise

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- definition of loading along the XL axis - coordinates, coordinates of the origin - loading span - types of loading (always in above mentioned directions) - concentrated force - concentrated moment - distributed uniform over the whole beam - distributed trapesoidal over the whole beam - distributed uniform over a segment of the beam - distributed trapesoidal over a segment of the beam

Stresses and strains - positive normal stress Sigma corresponds to compression, negative to tension - positive normal strain Epsilon corresponds to compression, negative to tension

Internal forces along beams - positive normal force corresponds to tension, negative to compression - positive normal strain Epsilon corresponds to compression, negative to tension

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

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Frame "Project"

Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The "Analyses" tab sheet allows the user to define the basic characteristics of the analysis to be carried out including the type of the problem and analysis, the method of calculating the initial stress (geostatic stress, Ko procedure) and available standards for concrete and steel structures. The available problem (plane, axisymmetric) and analysis (stress, stability, water flow, tunnels) types depend on the purchased configuration of the program. Providing all modes are available we recommend to proceed with extreme caution when selecting the type analysis more complex types require distinctively larger number of input data and may unnecessarily complicate the use of the program. This tab sheet also allows for choosing the option "Enhanced input", which affects both the input parameters of the program and possibilities of presenting the analysis results. This tab sheet also serves to select the method for calculating the initial stress in the first stage of construction either standard calculation of geostatic stress or the Ko procedure.

Frame "Analysis methods"

Stability analysis
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2) to run the module in the "Slope stability" regime in an arbitrary stage of construction of a standard analysis by pressing the "Stability" button in such a case, a new secondary task (which can be saved independently) is generated. The solution then proceeds as in the step 1. Creating model and inputting data in the " Slope stability" regime is performed in the same way as in the "Stress" regime just the "Analysis" button launches the slope stability analysis of a given structure. Individual slope stability analyses in construction stages are completely independent and have no relation to the previous stages and calculations.

Tunnels
The frame "Analysis methods" in conjunction with the "Analyses" tab sheet allows for selecting the option "Tunnels". (This module has to be purchased by the user otherwise this option is not available). When selecting the "Tunnels" regime it is possible to define and calculate: - Excavations (Modeling a 3D effect at the tunnel face assuming the New Austrian method) - gradual degradation of beams - subjecting beams to thermal loading - thermal loading applied to selected regions (Advanced input is required) - prescribing swelling stress to selected regions - monitoring results The mode "Tunnel" can be switched on/off at any time. The previous results will be, however, deleted. While switching from a standard regime to the "Tunnels" regime is safe, proceeding in the opposite direction results into deleting all inputted data a warning message, however, appears before this action is completed.

Warning message about data modification when canceling the "Tunnels" regime

Advanced input
The frame "Analysis methods" in conjunction with the "Analyses" tab sheet allows for selecting the option "Advanced input". The advanced input offers in addition: - defining additional material parameters of soils (e.g. the Biot parameter, bulk modulus of water, coefficient of thermal expansion) - three node elements become available - additional output parameters become available By default this option is turned off. On the other hand, it may become particularly useful when doing research or during teaching. This input mode can be turned on/off at any time, but this action will always result into deleting all previous results. Adopting Enhanced input option in the frame "Analysis methods" allows the user to further specify the selected material model by choosing the type of soil and setting the Biot parameter - 424 -

GEO5 User's Guide and the coefficient of thermal expansion t.

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Default setting assumes drained (long term) boundary conditions (steady state conditions). In such a case the deformation of soil does not change the values of the prescribed pore pressure. Pore pressures then appear as an additional source of external load and stay constant during the analysis (state at the end of consolidation after full dissipation of the excess pore pressure ue). This particular component of total active pore pressure u is denoted as us. On the contrary, undrained boundary conditions assume that entire boundary surrounding the particular soil is impermeable. This results in the solution of a fully coupled problem of evolution of pore pressures in dependence on the deformation of soil assuming that all changes are instantaneous (short term conditions) with no influence of time (state at the beginning of consolidation). These excess pore pressures are denoted in the program as ue. The overall active pore pressure then follows from:

The analysis requires specification of the effective bulk modulus of water Ke:

where:

Ke Ks Kw n

- effective bulk modulus - bulk modulus of grains - bulk modulus of water - porosity (volume of pores / volume of skeleton) - Biots parameter

The actual value of this parameter does not have a major influence on the resulting pore pressures providing it is sufficiently high. Typically it is chosen from the interval 1000-10000. The Biot parameter depends on the bulk modulus of skeleton Ksk and grains Ks of the basic material in the form:

where:

- Biots parameter - bulk modulus of skeleton - bulk modulus of grains

Ksk Ks

Default setting assumes incompressibility of grains (Ks>>Ksk) and therefore =1. The total stress then provided by:

where:

- total stress tensor

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- effective stress tensor - overall strain tensor

Dijkl

- elastic stiffness tensor - Kroneckers delta

- active pore pressure

Ko procedure
st Ko procedure is the method that allows for the calculation of geostatic stress (1 stage) when particular ration between vertical and horizontal stress components is needed. For example, when dealing with overconsolidated soils the actual horizontal stress can attain much higher values than found in normally consolidated soils.

When adopting standard analysis the initial stress is determined through the application of the finite element method. Nonlinear material models can be used to account for evolution of st possible failure surfaces already in the 1 calculation stage. In the case of elastic response the ratio between vertical z and horizontal x stress components is provided by:

where:

z x

- vertical normal stress - horizontal normal stress - Poissons number

This analysis may lead to evolution of plastic strains. The Ko procedure generates only elastic response. The horizontal stress in the 1 construction follows from:
st

stage of

where:

Ko
z x

- coefficient of horizontal stress at reast defined by the user - vertical normal stress - horizontal normal stress

The Ko coefficient is assumed to be a soil parameter. If the Ko parameter is not assigned, it is derived from the relation:

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nd The resulting stresses may, however, violate the plasticity condition in the 2 stage of construction when nonlinear material models are used. Iteration of equilibrium is then carried nd out even if no changes occur in the 2 stage.

Water flow
When selecting the "Water flow" analysis regime the program performs the steady state analysis in a soil body. Individual stages of construction are independent from each other. The program introduces two material models of transition zone for the analysis of problems of unconfined flow, either the Log-linear or the Van Genuchten model. The first step in the analysis calls for defining the boundary conditions, either at a point or along a boundary line. Beam and contact elements can be introduced inside the soil body. The analysis results are presented in the form of pore pressure and hydraulic head distributions, velocities and directions of flow and information about the total inflow/outflow in to/out of the soil body.

Interfaces
The frame "Interfaces" servers to input interfaces between individual soils. Detailed description how to deal with interfaces id described herein. The width of the geometrical model can be usually estimated without much of a trouble (care must be take in the stability analysis to provide for sufficiently large space surrounding the critical region). The depth of a mesh however is quite important. The lowest point of a mesh can be imagined as incompressible subsoil. If there is no such layer of the soil or rock material in the geological profile it is possible to assume that at a certain depth from the ground the internal forces will vanish so that there will be no deformation. This will be the lowest point of the geometrical model. If you are not certain about the margins of the geometrical model it is useful to proceed as follows: - First enter larger margins, use coarser mesh and compute changes in the stress distributions within a soil body. - In the next step modify the initial margins (regions with no apparent deformation or changes in stresses can be cut off), generate new and finer mesh and carry out a new and more accurate analysis. Interfaces can be also imported from other modules of the software package GEO using clipboard. The program makes possible to import or export interfaces in the *.DXF format. They can also be imported in the gINT format.

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Frame "Interface"

Soils
The frame "Soils" contains a table with the list of inputted soils. Basic information regarding the current soil are displayed in the right part of the frame. The soil input parameters depend on the selected material model. The basic material parameters are the Young modulus of elasticity E and the Poisson ratio (they are needed in all models). Most nonlinear models require defining the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil. The program allows for modeling either drained boundary conditions (analysis is carried out under steady state conditions after full dissipation of excess pore pressure) or undrained boundary conditions (the state at the onset of consolidation is represented so that the pore pressure distribution follows directly from the analysis assuming full saturation and no outflaw of water). In both cases the analysis adopts effective parameters of the angle of internal friction eff and cohesion ceff. The required list of material parameters to input also depends on the selected input mode. Assuming advanced input (can be selected in the frame "Analysis methods") allows us to define additional (advanced) material parameters (e.g. the Biot parameter, Effective bulk modulus of water,etc.). In most practical applications these material parameters are not particularly important and serve mostly to academic purposes. Individual material models can be combined in the analysis each soil can be assigned its own material model. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Materials models
Selecting the most suitable material model together with inputting the required material parameters is one the most important but also one of the most difficult tasks when modeling a structure using the finite element method. The material model attempts to describe the soil (or rock) behavior as close to reality as possible. They can be divided into two basic groups linear and nonlinear models. Selecting a proper material model is essential for the prediction of a real soil response. Most tasks require nonlienar models (e.g., modeling of sheeting structures with linear models yields totally wrong results). In some cases, however, using linear models may prove useful and adequat and may considerably simplify the analysis.

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" selection of a material model

Linear models
Linear models give relatively fast, but not very accurate estimate of the true material response. These models can be used in cases, where only the stress or deformation states of a soil mass are of interest. They provide no information about locations and possible mechanisms of failure. They can be used to model soil behavior in regions, where only the local failure with no effect on the evolution of global failure occurs, but which may cause premature loss of convergence. Providing the main interest is in a reliable description of the soil behavior it is necessary to employ nonlinear models. The linear models include: Elastic model Modified elastic model

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Elastic model
The linear model is the basic material model that assumes a linear relationship between the stress and strain given by the Hooke law. The following data are required: bulk weight of soil Poisson number modulus of elasticity

In a one dimensional problem the Hooke law describes the linear dependence of stress on strain via the Young modulus E (modulus of elasticity), see figure. In this framework the linear model provides a linear variation of displacements as a function of applied loads.

Stress-strain relationship for LM

Modified elastic model

It is clear that for soils the linear behavior is acceptable only for relatively low magnitudes of applied loads. This becomes evident upon unloading that usually shows a rather small amount of elastic deformation compare to the overall deformation. The modified linear model attempts at least to some extent to take this into account by considering different modulus for loading and unloading as plotted in figure. A drop in the material stiffness along a given loading path attributed to the plastic yielding is reflected through a deformation modulus Edef, which can be imagined as a secant modulus associated with a certain stress level. An elastic response is assumed upon unloading. To increase clarity of model formulation the elastic modulus for the unloading branch is replaced by the unloading-reloading modulus Eur that governs the response of a soil upon unloading and subsequent reloading up to the level of stress found in the material point prior to the unloading. With reference to figure these moduli are given by:

where:

Edef
ur

-Deformation modulus [MPa] -Unloading/reloading modulus [MPa]

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(a) Real stress-strain diagram of soil, (b) Simplified stress-strain diagram for MLM During primary loading the response of a soil is therefore governed by the secant modulus while upon unloading it follows the path set by the unloading-reloading modulus (modulus of elasticity) An approximate value of this modulus is 3*secant modulus . In any case, both parameters should be obtained from reliable experimental measurements.

Nonlinear models
The basic nonlinear models can be again divided into two groups. The first class of models originates from the classical Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. In particular, the Drucker-Prager, Mohr-Coulomb and Modified Mohr-Coulomb models fall in this category. A common feature to these models is the evolution of unbounded elastic strains when loaded along the hydrostatic axis. This is evident from the figure below that shows projections of the yield surfaces into deviatoric and meridian planes, respectively. An example of the effect of the selected model is given here. The second group of basic material models is represented by the Modified Cam-clay model employing the concept of the critical state of soil.

Projection of yield surfaces into (a) deviatoric, (b) meridian plane Employing nonlinear models allows us to capture the typical nonlinear response of soils. These models describe evolution of permanent (plastic) deformation of a soil material. The onset of plastic deformation is controlled by so-called yield surface. The yield surface can be either constant (elastic-rigid plastic material), or it can depend on the current state of stress - 432 -

GEO5 User's Guide (material with hardening/softening).

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Stress-strain diagram for nonlinear models In addition to basic material parameters decribed in section "Elastic model" the nonlinear models call for the introduction of certain strength characteristics of the soil needed in the definition of a given yield surface. With reference to the first group of materials the following parameters are must be specified. - angle of internal friction [] - cohesion of soil [kPa] - dilation angle []

The angle of internal friction and cohesion determine the onset of plastic deformation. The angle of dilation controls an evolution of plastic volumetric strain (dilation). The angle of dilation controls an amount of plastic volumetric strain developed during plastic shearing and is assumed constant during plastic yielding.

Mohr-Coulomb (MC)
The model requires inputting the following input parameters: modulus of elasticity E, the Poisson ratio, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The latter two parameters serve to define the yield condition. The formulation of constitutive equations assumes effective parameters of angle of internal friction eff and cohesion ceff. The angle of dilation must also be specified. The Mohr-Coulomb yield surface can be defined in terms of three limit functions that plot as a non-uniform hexagonal cone in the principal stress space. Projections of this yield surface into deviatioric and meridian planes appear in the figure. As evident from this figure (part a) the MC yield function has corners, which may cause certain complications in the implementation of this model into the finite element method. The advantage on the other hand is the fact that the traditional soil mechanics and partially also the rock mechanics are based on this model.

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Projection of yield surfaces into: (a) deviatoric, (b) meridian plane

Mohr-Coulomb model with tension cut off

The original formulation of the Mohr-Coulomb material model is extended by introducing the Rankine type of plasticity condition, see figure (a), allowing for the reduction of tensile strength of soil, which in the case of standard Mohr-Coulomb model is given by c.cotg, where c is cohesion and the angle of internal friction. This value can be reduced by specifying the value of tensile strength t as evident from figure (b). If t >c.cotg the program automatically sets t =c.cotg. This model can be used if the advanced input option is on.

a) Projection of the Rankine yield condition in the deviatoric plane b) Projection of the extended Mohr-Coulomb yield condition into the 1,3 plane

Modified Mohr-Coulomb (MCM)

The model requires inputting the following input parameters: modulus of elasticity E, the Poisson ratio, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The latter two parameters serve to define the yield condition. The formulation of constitutive equations assumes effective parameters of angle of internal friction eff and cohesion ceff. The angle of dilation must also be specified. Similarly to the DP model the Modified Mohr-Coulomb model smoothes out the corners of the MC yield surface. As suggested in the figure the projection of the MCM yield surface into the deviatoric plane passes through all corners of the Mohr-Coulomb hexagon and as the MC yield function the MCM yield function depends on the effective mean stress m and the Lode angle . - 434 -

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With reference to its definition a slightly stiffer response of the material can be expected with the MCM plasticity model when compared to the MC and DP models.

MCM and MC yield surfaces in the deviatoric plane

Drucker-Prager
The model requires inputting the following input parameters: modulus of elasticity E, the Poisson ratio, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The latter two parameters serve to define the yield condition. The formulation of constitutive equations assumes effective parameters of angle of internal friction eff and cohesion ceff. The angle of dilation must also be specified. The Drucker-Prager model (sometimes also known as the extended von Mises model) modifies the Mohr-Coulomb yield function to avoid singularities associated with corners. Unlike the Mohr-Coulomb model the Drucker-Prager yield surface is smooth and plots as a cylindrical cone in the principal stress space. Similarly to the MC model the DP yield surface depends on the effective mean stress m. The current version of the DP model implemented in GEO FEM builds upon the assumption of triaxial extension. In other words, the yield surface projection 0 into the deviatoric plane touches the inner corners of the Mohr-Coulomb hexagon ( = -30 ), where is the Lode angle.

DP and MC yield surfaces in the deviatoric plane

Softening and hardening

Standard formulation of the Drucker-Prager and Modified Mohr-Coulomb models assumes - 435 -

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elastic rigid-plastic behavior of the soil, when the strength parameters of soil c and remain constant during the analysis. The enhanced version of both models (advanced input option on) allows for evolution of these parameters as a function of the equivalent deviatoric plastic strain:

, where: - equivalent deviatoric plastic strain is given by the following expressions:

where:

- equivalent deviatoric plastic strain - deviatoric plastic strain tensor - plastic strain tensor - volumetric plastic strain - Kroneckers delta

The assumed, piecewise linear, variation strength parameters is evident from figure.

Assumed evolution of parameters as a function of the deviatoric plastic strain Dilation angle can be assumed either constant or it may evolve as a function of the angle of - 436 -

GEO5 User's Guide internal friction following the Rowes dilation theory:

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where cv is the angle of internal friction at constant volume consistent with the critical state of soil (state at which the soil deforms at zero volumetric plastic strains). To prevent an infinite increase of dilation angle (increase of tensile volumetric plastic strains) it must be bounded, e.g. in dependence on the maximum volume ratio emax, which is yet acceptable for a given material. The Rowes dilation theory requires introduction of the following parameters: cv - angle of internal friction at constant volume [-] - initial void ratio - maximum void ratio [-]

e0 emax

The current void ratio e can be expressed in terms of the current volumetric strain v and the value of initial void ratio e0 as:

where:

e e0
v

- current void ratio - initial void ratio - overall volumetric strain

When the current void ratio e exceeds the maximum void ratio emax, the dilation angle is set to 0.

Angle of dilation
The angle of dilation controls an amount of plastic volumetric strain developed during plastic shearing and is assumed constant during plastic yielding. The value of =0 corresponds to the volume preserving deformation while in shear. Clays (regardless of overconsolidated layers) are characterized by a very low amount of dilation (0). As for sands, the angle of dilation depends on the angle of internal friction. For non-cohesive soils (sand, gravel) with the angle of internal friction >30 the value of dilation angle can be estimated as = -30. A negative value of dilation angle is acceptable only for rather loose sands. In most cases, however, the assumption of = 0 can be adopted. Unlike the modified linear model the nonlinear models require to specify only the elastic modulus. A drop in the material stiffness is a result of evolution of plastic strains and corresponding redistribution of stresses. This consequently yields an instantaneous tangent material stiffness as a function of the current state of stress represented in the figure belowby an instantaneous tangent modulus ET.

Influence of material model

To illustrate the effect of a particular model used to predict a structural response we present an example of a shallow foundation loaded by the distributed loading q. A certain simplification of this task is the assumption of an infinitely stiff foundation loaded by the prescribed - 437 -

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The geometrical model and finite element mesh for individual tasks appear in the figure. The influence of soil and foundation self-weight on the resulting response is neglected. Owing to the symmetry of the model only one half of the structure is analyzed.

Task assignment: strip foundation

Geometrical model and the finite element mesh

Analysis results The results suggest a considerably stiffer response of the soil to the external loading when using the MCM model in comparison to the DP and MC models, which in the present example show a similar behavior. - 438 -

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Modified Cam-clay model (MCC)

The MCC model was originally developed for triaxial loading conditions. Experimental measurements on soft clays provided the background for the development of the constitutive model expressing the variation of void ratio e (volumetric strain v) as a function of the eff logarithm of the effective mean stress m , as evident from the following figure. Both graphs are related as follows:

, - slope of swelling line [kPa] - Slope of NCL (normal consolidation line) [kPa] - current void ratio [-]

Material response during isotropic consolidation (constitutive model) The graph consists of a normal consolidation line (NCL) and a set of swelling lines. On the first loading the virgin soil moves down the NCL. Next, suppose that the soil was consolidated to a certain level of stress, which is termed the preconsolidation pressure pc, and subsequently unloaded up the current swelling line. Then, upon reloading the soil initially moves down the swelling line until reaching the stress state given by the parameter pc, which existed prior to the unloading. At this point the soil begins to move again down the normal consolidation line (primary loading compression line). Parameters and can be estimated from the following expressions:

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Cc Cs

one-dimensional compression index one-dimensional swelling index

These parameters follow from a simple oedometric test. The yield surface is smooth without the possibility of evolution of tensile stresses. The MCC model allows, unlike the first group of models, a direct modeling of strain hardening or softening for normally consolidated or overconsolidated soils, a nonlinear dependence of the volumetric strain on the effective mean stress and limit conditions of ideal plasticity. When using the MCC model the soil loaded in shear can be plastically deformed without collapse (points 1,2 for hardening, point 2 for softening) until reaching the critical state (points 3 and 2 for hardening and softening, respectively). The soil deforms further in shear under the eff assumption of ideal plasticity without the change of e and m .

Projection of yield function into meridial and deviatoric planes

Evolution of the yield surface (hardening/softening) is driven by the current preconsolidation pressure pc

where:

- current preconsolidation pressure - increment of volumetric plastic strain

- current void ratio

Apart from parameters and , the self-weight and the Poisson ratio the MCC model requires specifying the following three parameters:

Mcs OCR e0

- slope of the critical state line [-] - overconsolidation ratio [-] - initial void ratio [-]

Reliable initialization of the model is described in section "Numerical implementation of MCC and GCC models". - 440 -

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Generalized Cam clay model (GCC)

This model represents a considerable improvement of the Modified Cam clay (MCC) model, particularly when modeling soils in supercritical domain, see figure, where the failure surface follows the classical models of Mohr-Coulomb, Drucker-Prager and Modified Mohr-Coulomb models. Unlike the Modified Cam clay model (dashed line) the GCC model plots, similarly to the MMC model, as a rounded triangle into the deviatoric plane. The MCC model plots, similarly to the Drucker-Prager model, as a circle. In the subcritical domain both models behave identically. GCC model is available only when advanced input is on. Reliable initialization of the model is described in section "Numerical implementation of MCC and GCC models".

Projection of yield surface of MCC and GCC models into meridial and deviatoric planes The material parameters required for the Generalized Cam clay model are identical to material data of MCC and MMC models: - slope of swelling line - slope of normal consolidation line (NCL) - initial void ratio - overconsoliodation ratio - cohesion angle of internal friction angle of internal friction at constant volume [-] Poissons ratio

e0 OCR c
cv

Parameters and can be estimated from the following expressions:

where:

Cc Cs

one-dimensional compression index one-dimensional swelling index - 441 -

GEO5 User's Guide These parameters follow from a simple oedometric test.

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Similarly to the MCC model the formulation of the GCC model is based on the relation between the void ratio (volumetric strain) and the mean effective stress as shown in the following figure. Both graphs are linked as follows:

Response of material during isotropic compression (constitutive law) Evolution of the yield surface (hardening/softening) is driven by the current preconsolidation pressure pc

where:

- current preconsolidation pressure - increment of volumetric plastic strain

- current void ratio

Numerical implementation of MCC and GCC models

An important step, ensuring a reliable application of MCC and GCC both models, is the in determination of the initial preconsolodation pressure pc and the corresponding bulk modulus in K . These two parameters, however, are not directly specified by the user. Instead, they are derived by the program based on the assumed distribution of intial geostatic stress. Recall three basic options to derive the intial geostatic stress: 1. Using Ko procedure - 442 -

GEO5 User's Guide The use of Ko procedure yields the following value of the initial mean stress:

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where:

Ko

- coefficient of earth pressure at rest - bulk weight of soil - current depth below terrain

in Assuming normal consolidation the value of pc is determined such that the stress derived using the Ko procedure fullfils the yield condition:

where:

Mcs - slope of critical state line J

m - equivalent deviatoric stress - mean stress

Values J and m of are defined by the following expressions:

where:

Ed eij
ij v ij

- equivalent deviatoric stress - deviatoric strain tensor - overall strain tensor - volumetric strain - stress tensor - deviatoric stress tensor - Kroneckers delta - elastic stiffness tensor

sij
ij

Dijkl

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G K E

- elastic shear modulus - elastic bulk modulus - Youngs modulus - Poissons number

In the case of triaxial compression or extension it is possible to determine the slope of critical state line Mcs from the following expressions:

In the case of overconsolidated soils the initial value of pc

in

is modified as:

The initial value of the bulk modulus follows from:

where the current void ratio e is written as:

For small stresses

we get:

2. Standard (elastic) analysis Recall that the program allows for replacing the material model between stages of construction. Providing the Ko procedure cannot be used it is possible to carry out the analysis assuming elastic response of the clayey soil. The resulting stresses are used to derive the in in initial values of pc and K employing the previously defined expressions. In the next stages of construction the original elastic material model is replaced by the required MCC or GCC - 444 -

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3.Standard (plastic) analysis This option allows the soil to be consolidated under the assumption of nonlinear behavior when generating the geostatic stress. This results in the evolution of plastic strains already in the first stage of construction. As in the Ko procedure we consider a normally consolidated soil which, during the course of deformation, moves down the normal consolidation line with the in in initial values of pc and K given by:

, Before the next analysis step the resulting plastic strains are set equal to zero. In some cases such an analysis may fail to converge.

Material models in flow analysis

The steady state flow analysis is driven by Darcys law specifying the relationship between the flow velocity and the gradient of hydraulic head. The current version of the program assumes constant values of coefficients of permeability independent of pore pressure. The program also requires specifying the initial void ratio e0 for the determination of current porosity n and subsequently the actual velocity of water flowing through pores only vs=v/n, where v is the average flow velocity through the whole seepage area. By introducing the relative coefficient of permeability Kr the program allows for tracking the transition zone between fully saturated (S=1, Kr=1) and unsaturated (Kr => 0) region of the soil body. As an example we may consider the problem of unconfined flow. The process of tracking the transition zone is governed by one of the two models of transition zone determining the evolution of relative coefficient of permeability Kr as a function of pore pressure, see figures.

(a) Log-linear model [1], (b) Van Genuchten model [2]

Log-linear model The Log-linear transition zone model described e.g. in [1] is defined by the following parameters:

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pmin PTZ R

- minimum value of pore-pressure in fully saturated region [kPa] - transition zone width [m] - reduction parameter, a sufficiently large number R=100-1000 [-]

Van Genuchten model In this case the value of relative coefficient of permeability Kr is given by:

where , n ,m=1-1/n are model parameters. Their values can be obtained from laboratory measurements of retention curves approximated by:

where:

Ssat Sirr

- Degree of saturation of fully saturated soil, default setting Ssat=1 - Irreducible degree of saturation, default setting Sirr=0

Literature: Details can be found in [2]. [1] D.M. Potts, L. Zdravkovi, Finite element analysis in geotechnical engineering theory, Thomas Telford, London, 1999. [2] M. Th. Van Genuchten, A closed formulation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils, Journal Soil Science Society of America 44 (1988), 239-259.

Coefficient of permeability
Ability of porous body (soils, rocks) to transport water of given properties (e.g. ground water) is denoted as seepage. The amount of water flowing through a certain area can be represented by the coefficient of permeability. The coefficient of permeability represents the slope of a linear dependence of water flow velocity on the hydraulic gradient (gradient of hydraulic head) in Dracys law written as: - 446 -

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where:

vs

- velocity of water flowing through pores - porosity - relative coefficient of permeability

n Kr

Ksat - Permeability matrix storing coefficients of permeability of fully saturated soil kx , ky , which may be different along individual coordinate axes

- hydraulic head

Hydraulic head at a given point of region of flow is defined a sum of vertical coordinate and pressure head and as such it determines the height of water in piezometer at a given point:

where:

the weight of water

Example values of coefficients of permeability for various soils (Myslivec) Type of soil Coefficient of permeability Motion of water particle by 1 cm for k hydraulic gradient i=1 per time [m/day] Soft sand Clayey sand Loess loam Loam Clayey soil Clay

10 - 10 10 10 10 10 10
-1 -2 -4 -5 -6

6 s 10 min 100 min 18 hod. 18 hod. 70 dn 70 dn 2 roky 2 roky 20 rok 20 -200 rok

- 10 - 10 - 10 - 10 - 10

-2 -4 -5 -6 -7

There are several ways for determining the coefficient of permeability k. They grouped as follows: a) Laboratory measurements
4 -6 Several types are available for the range of k 10 - 10 m/day.

b) Field measurements
6 Dwell or sink tests, measurement of filtration velocity of flow, for the range of k 10 - 1 m/day.

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GEO5 User's Guide c) Using empirical expressions

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6 Suitable for non-cohesive soils, k 10 - 10 m/day, they produce only guidance values e.g. according Terzaghi:

where:

d10 e

diameter of effective solid particle void ratio

d) By calculation from time dependent consolidation process One must know the coefficient of consolidation cv and consolidation curve (semi-logarithmic dependence of deformation on time). This is only an indirect determination from the expression:

where:

e0 cv
w

initial void ratio coefficient of consolidation bulk density of water gravitational acceleration coefficient of compressibility

g av

Basic data
The following material parameters are required for all material models. Unit weight the bulk weight of a dry soil (soil above the ground water table, GWT) is assumed. The bulk weight of a soil below the GWT is calculated from other parameters introduced in section "Uplift". Modulus of elasticity E The modulus of elasticity describes the material stiffness that is assumed constant over the entire loading interval. In case of soils this assumption is, however, valid only for a very narrow interval of recoverable deformations. U nelinernch model po splnn podmnky plasticicty (zplastizovn zeminy) nem na chovn zeminy modul prunosti E podstatn vliv. A straightforward answer to what definition and what value of this material parameter (initial, tangent, secant) one should use in a given material model is, unfortunately, not available. To select a given type of modulus one needs know the soil behavior in the analyzed geotechnical task and to assign a particular magnitude the results from a triaxial test for corresponding stress paths are necessary. Nevertheless, a certain recommendations can be provided. The following interpretation of Youngs modulus E of elasticity is available: -instantaneous modulus E0 in case of small loads (assumption o linear dependence of strain and stress) or when instantaneous settlement is calculated -secant modulus E50 is determined for a reference stress equal to 50% of stress at the onset of failure (used for example when analyzing spread foundations) -deformation modulus Edef is determined from a loading curve derived experimentally, it is - 448 -

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required when using the modified elastic model (this model assumes different behavior for loading and unloading) using this modulus when solving the problem of soil unloading (e.g., underground structures, heaving of bottom a foundation ditch) leads to larger deformations than when using the elastic modulus Eu determined from unloading branch r of the loading curve an approximate relation is applicable:

-oedometric modulus Eoed which depends on the level of stress in the soil should be used depending on the expected range of stress in the soil may experience the relation between Edef and Eoed is provided by:

where:

- Poissons number - deformation (secant) modulus

Ede
f

-modulus of elasticity Eur determined from the unloading branch is used when solving the problem of soil unloading (excavations) must be defined when using the modified elastic model The values of modules of elasticity should be determined, if possible, from a triaxial experiment. If other methods (penetration tests, piesometers, etc.) are used then it becomes necessary to introduce some correlation coefficients described in literature. For actual modeling we recommend to perform an elastic analysis first and check the resulting strain field such strains according to Hookess law are linearly dependent on the applied load and the used elastic modulus. If the resulting strains (displacements) are already too large the user should reassess the magnitude of the originally applied elastic modulus. Poisson number coefficient of transverse contraction is in the case elastic homogeneous material loaded by normal stress in one direction given by:

where:

y x

- vertical strain - horizontal strain

The Poisson number is relatively easy to determine. To select its value one may take advantage of the built-in soil database. If small loads are assumed and the instantaneous modulus E0is used, then also the value of the Poisson number 0 determined for the initial loading should be employed.

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Geostatic stress, uplift pressure

Stress analysis is based on existence of soil layers specified by the user during input. The program further inserts fictitious layers at the locations where the stress and lateral pressure th (GWT, points of construction, etc.) change. The normal stress in the i layer is computed according to:

where:

hi
i

- thickness of the ith layer - unit weight of soil

If the layer is found below the ground water table, the unit weight of soil below the water table is specified with the help of inputted parameters of the soil as follows: - for option "Standard" from expression:

where:

sat w

- saturated unit weight of soil - unit weight of water

- for option "Compute from porosity" from expression:

where:

n
s w

- porosity - specific weight of soil - unit weight of water

where:

V Vp
d

- volume of soil - volume of voids - dry unit weight of soil

3 Unit weight of water is assumed in the program equal to 10 kN/m or 0,00625 ksi.

Assuming inclined ground behind the structure ( 0) and layered subsoil the angle , when th computing the coefficient of earth pressure K, is reduced in the i layer using the following expression:

where:

- unit weight of the soil in the first layer under ground - unit weight of the soil in the ith layer under ground - 450 -

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- slope inclination behind the structure

Rigid bodies
The frame "Rigid bodies" contains a table with the list of inputted rigid bodies. The program allows for adding the rigid bodies. Here the only required input parameter is the bulk weight of the rigid body. The material of the rigid body is assumed an infinitely stiff. These bodies serve mainly to model massive concrete structures and walls in both standard and stability analyses. Adding (editing) rigid bodies is performed in the dialogue window "Add new rigid body".

Frame "Rigid body"

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Dialogue window "Add new rigid body"

Assign
The frame "Assign" contains a list of layers of the profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. The procedure to assign a soil into a layer is described in details herein. Unlike other programs the soils, which become active in calculations stages, are assigned to regions rather than to interfaces. The regions are created automatically when creating the computational model. When a new soil is assigned in a topology regime, it is automatically assigned to all regions in a given geological layer. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Contact types
The frame "Contact types" contains a table with the list of types of contacts. Adding (editing) contacts is performed in the "New types of contact" dialogue window. This dialogue window serves to define new contact elements which can be subsequently introduced into the program using the "Beams" and "Contacts" frames. The material model of a contact element can be either linear or nonlinear.

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Frame "Contact types" The contact elements are used in applications that require studying an interaction of a structure and a soil. They can be further used to model joints or interfaces of two distinct materials (soil rock interface). A typical example of using contact elements is the modeling of sheeting structures, retaining walls or tunnel lining . In such applications the contact elements are used to model a relatively thin layer of a soil or rock loaded primarily in shear. Contacts can be defined also independently along individual soil interfaces.

Location of contact elements when modeling a gravity wall The contact element is an element with a zero thickness allowing for calculating an interfacial stress as a function of a relative displacement developed along the interface.

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Construction of a sheeting wall represented by beam and contact elements

Contact elements
Two options of the contact element material model are available. One may select either the elastic model with the possibility of plotting contact stresses while assuming the elastic behavior along the interface or the plastic model. The plastic model is based on the classical Mohr-Coulomb model extended by including the tension cut-off. This model is therefore well suited when modeling tensile separation. In certain applications such as sheeting structures this model is vital for receiving meaningful predictions of the soil and structure response. The basic model parameters are the cohesion c, coefficient of friction and angle of dilation . The parameters c and can be specified also indirectly by reducing the soil strength parameters c and tan() of adjacent to the contact. If the contact is assumed between two soils (rocks) then the one having smaller values of c and is used in the reduction step. The contact parameters are then defined as:

If no better information regarding the reduction of parameters is available one may use the following values. For steel structures in sandy soils the reduction parameter equal to 2/3 is reasonable while for clays the value of 1/3 can be used. These parameters usually attain higher values when concrete structures are used. In general, the reduction parameters should be less than 1. The dilation angle plays the same role as in the case of standard soil models. Just recall that by setting = 0 we a priory assume elastic behavior in the tension/compression. The plastic deformation is thus limited to shear. Additional parameters of the contact material model are the elastic stiffnesses in the normal and tangential directions kn and ks, respectively. They can be imagined as spring stiffnesses along a given interface. A reliable selection of the values of these parameters is not an easy task and is usually problem dependent. To shed a light on this subject one may relate these stiffnesses to the material parameters of the soil adjacent to the contact. The following relations then apply: - 455 -

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where:

t G E

-assumed (fictitious) thickness of contact (interface) layer -shear modulus of elasticity -Youngs modulus of elasticity

In case of distinct materials (E1, E2, G1, G2) we take the lower value of ks and kn. Although in the case of a fully plastic behavior the selection of parameters ks and kn is not essential, the values assigned to these parameters are decisive for the success of the solution of a given nonlinear problem. Providing these values are two large (above 100000 kN/m3) the iteration process may oscillate. On the other hand, setting the values of ks and kn too low (below 10000 kN/m3) lead to nonrealistic deformations of structure. The default setting in the program is 10000 kN/m3.

Visualization of elastic stiffnesses

Lining
The frame "Lining" contains a table with the list of inputted linings. This frame becomes accessible in the program once the "Tunnel" regime is activated in the frame "Analysis methods". The "Lining - FEM" module simplifies modeling and positioning of individual tunnel linings. The "Lining - FEM" module is an independent program used to design linings. Free points, free lines, line refinement, anchors, beams and beam loads created in this module are passed into the FEM program. Although behaving in a standard way, they cannot be edited in the FEM program. Editing is only possible in the "Lining - FEM" module. Adding (editing) lining is performed in the "Lining - FEM" module. The following modes are available: Add Position Pressing the "Add" button launches the "Lining - FEM" module which allows for creating a new lining. Pressing the "Position" button opens the "Adjust lining location" dialogue - 456 -

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window, which allows for modifying coordinates of the lining location. To adjust lining in the FEM program is possible even without launching the "Lining - FEM" module.

Dialogue window "Adjust lining location" Modify Remove Pressing the "Modify" button launches the "Lining - FEM" module, which allows for editing the selected lining Pressing the "Remove" button opens the dialogue window for confirming this action upon accepting the selected lining is removed

The lining can also be modified, positioned and removed using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar " Lining". After choosing a particular mode the lining is selected on the desktop using the left mouse button. To continue follow the steps already described above. Further details are available in chapter "active objects".

Frame "Lining"

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Module Lining - FEM

The "Lining FEM" module simplifies modeling and positioning individual linings of tunnels. The module disposes of the features of the main FEM program including the "Topology" regime and stages of construction. In the "Topology" regime the module contains the "Free points", "Free lines", "Line refinement" and "Settings" frames. Frames accessible from stages of constructions are described within the stages of construction regime of the FEM program. The "OK" button can be used to terminate the work in the module and to transmit data into the FEM program, whereas the "Cancel" button just terminates the work without data transmission. The program makes possible to import data in the *.DXF format. The data of the lining module can be independently saved or loaded while in this dialogue using standard functions "Open" and "Save". This way allows for transmitted the lining between several analyzed tasks or within a single task. Loading a lining, having less number of stages than the current state, will add the remaining stages. In the case of lining having more stages, the corresponding stages are first added to the dialogue and than to the main window. The data from the lining regime cannot be loaded directly into the main window.

Module "Lining FEM"

Free points
The frame "Free points" contains a table with the list of inputted free points. Working with free points follows the same guidelines as in the FEM program frame "Free points". The frame differs by the functions on the horizontal tool bar, which contains the "Generator of shape of lining" and "Generator of anchored regions" buttons. The function of the "Range" button is identical to that in the FEM program frame "Interface". - 458 -

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Frame "Free points"

Free lines
The frame "Free lines" contains a table with the list of inputted free points. Working with free lines follows the same guidelines as in the FEM program frame "Free lines". The frame differs by the functions on the horizontal tool bar, which contains the "Generator of shape of lining" and "Generator of anchored regions" buttons.

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Frame "Free lines"

Line refinement
The frame "Line refinement" contains a table with the list of inputted point refinements. Working with free lines refinement follows the same guidelines as in the FEM program frame "Line refinement".

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Frame "Line refinement"

Settings
The frame "Settings" allows for redefining the location of a point to be subsequently positioned in the main window of the FEM program. The point location can be associated with the selected free point or determined by the coordinate system origin or by an arbitrary coordinate. This way allows for an exact positioning of a given point of the lining structure in the main window of the FEM program. The use of a second tube can be activated in the right part of the frame. The second tube will appear in the frame "Settings" as a preview, and then after treansmitting it into the FEM program. The second tube is a clone of the first one. It differs only in the positionong with respect to the originally defined structure.

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Frame "Settings"

Generator of shape of lining

Depending on particular parameters the generator creates corresponding elements which are then operated on independently with no possibility for being parametrically modification. If the parameters of generation are acceptable, the program displays during their modification the current graphical representation of generated elements. Six basic shapes of linings is available for generating free points and free lines in the " New shape of lining" dialogue window. Each shape is defined by several parameters (radii, angles, height, spacing, subdivision number, control points).

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Dialogue window "New shape of lining" tab sheet "Basic shape" The "Bottom arch" tab sheep allows us to choose, whether the lining invert will be flat of arched, determined parametrically either by a radius or an angle.

Dialogue window "New shape of lining" tab sheet "Bottom arch" The "Location" tab sheet allows, using coordinates, for changing the lining location.

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Dialogue window "New shape of lining" tab sheet "Location"

Generator of anchored regions

Depending on particular parameters the generator creates corresponding elements which are then operated on independently with no possibility for being parametrically modification. If the parameters of generation are acceptable, the program displays during their modification the current graphical representation of generated elements. The "New anchored region" dialogue window serves to generate free points and free lines based, however, on already inputted lines. This generates a closed region, which is then assigned in the FEM program a special soil characterizing a densely anchored region. The dialogue window requires specifying a line number and parameters based on the type anchoring system (over entire line, angle sector, origin and length).

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Dialogue window "New anchored region"

Defining anchored region

Stages of construction
Stages of construction in the "Lining - FEM" module and in the FEM program correspond to each other. They, however, may vary in several features. Different behavior of stages in the "Lining - FEM" module: Possible to switch to stages of construction from the "Topology" regime without generating the FE mesh - 465 -

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Stages of construction added in the "Lining - FEM" module are, after confirming, transferred also into the FEM program. Stages of construction, preceding the stage from which the "Lining - FEM" module was launched, cannot be used. Stages of construction defined prior to lanching the "Lining - FEM" module cannot be deleted.

Free points
The frame "Free points" contains a table with the list of inputted free points. Adding (editing) free points is performed in the "New free point" dialogue window. The free points can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Free points". The following modes are available: Add Adjust The point is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on the desktop. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free point opens the "Adjust free point properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free point opens the free point removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected free point.

Remove

The free points can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program allows for inputting an arbitrary number of free nodes anywhere inside or outside the structure. Free nodes have several main functions: - nodes to define structure (tunnel opening, lining, sheeting, beams) - auxiliary points for the mesh refinement - points to define a boundary condition, to input forces, etc. If a free node is found inside or on the boundary of a structure, it becomes automatically a part of the finite element mesh . This option allows an adjustment of the finite element mesh or makes possible to create own mesh.

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Frame "Free points"

Mesh generated without free points

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Mesh with free points

Free lines
The frame "Free lines" contains a table with the list of inputted free points. Adding (editing) free points is performed in the "New free line" dialogue window. The lines are defined between individual points (segments, arcs, circles) or around individual points (circles). The lines can be introduced both between free points and between points located on interfaces including the terrain surface. The lines may intersect each other and may have an arbitrary number of contact points intersections of individual lines are determined by the program when adjusting the geometrical model. The free lines may be used to introduce beam elements into the model. The free points can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Free points". The following modes are available: Add The line is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on the desktop. - segment Clicking individual points on the desktop with the left mouse button creates a point to point line - arc Use the combo list to choose a particular mode of defining an arc segment (third point, center, radius, height). Clicking the left mouse bottom on the desktop then selects points to define an arc. When selecting one of the following options center, radius or, you are further requested to select from the combo list the orientation (positive, negative).

Line type A combo list is used to select the desired line (segment, arc, circle).

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GEO5 User's Guide - circle

Fine Ltd. 2011 Use the combo list to choose a particular mode of defining a circle (center and radius, three points). Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop then selects points to define a circle. The combo list is also used to select the orientation (positive, negative).

Adjust

Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free line opens the " Adjust free line properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free line opens the free line removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected free line.

Remove

The free lines can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Free lines" different types of free lines

Point refinement
The frame "Point refinement" contains a table with the list of inputted point refinements. Adding (editing) a point refinement is performed in the "New point refinement" dialogue window. Refining the finite element mesh around points is an important feature, which allows us to create an appropriate finite element mesh. Both free points and points pertinent to individual interfaces including terrain can be used to refine the original finite element mesh. Refining the finite element mesh around points can also be performed using the mouse. Several input modes are available depending on the selected button on the "Point refinement" horizontal bar: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop selects the point for refining the mesh. The "New point refinement" dialogue window serves to input - 469 -

GEO5 User's Guide the required parameters. Adjust

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Clicking the left mouse button on already existing (refined) point opens the "Adjust point refinement properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying individual parameters of the refinement. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing (refined) point opens the point refinement removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected point refinement.

Remove

The point refinement can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Point refinement"

Dialogue window "New point refinement"

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Line refinement
The frame "Line refinement" contains a table with the list of inputted point refinements. Adding (editing) a line refinement is performed in the " New line refinement" dialogue window. Refining the finite element mesh around lines is an important feature, which allows us to create an appropriate finite element mesh. Both free lines and lines pertinent to individual interfaces including terrain can be used to refine the original finite element mesh. Refining the finite element mesh around points can also be performed using the mouse. Several input modes are available depending on the selected button on the "Line refinement" horizontal bar: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop selects the line for refining the mesh. The "New line refinement" dialogue window serves to input the required parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing (refined) line opens the "Adjust line refinement properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying individual parameters of the refinement. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing (refined) line opens the line refinement removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected line refinement.

Adjust

Remove

The line refinement can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Line refinement"

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Dialogue window "New line refinement"

Mesh generation
The frame "Mesh generator" serves to define the basic setting to generate mesh (left part) and to view information about generated mesh (right part). A successfully generated mesh completes the topology input stage the analysis then proceeds with the calculation stages. When generating mesh the program automatically introduces standard boundary conditions. Information about the resulting mesh including warnings for possible weak points in the mesh is displayed in the right bottom window. Correctly generated finite element mesh is the major step in achieving accurate and reliable results. The program GEO FEM has an automatic mesh generator, which may substantially simplify this task. Nevertheless, certain rules should be followed when creating a finite element mesh: - The basic mesh density can be specified in the "Mesh generator" dialog window. I is generally accepted that the finer the mesh the better the results computation as well as post-processing, however, may slow down substantially. The goal thus becomes to find an optimum mesh density this mainly depends on the user experiences. Meshes generated in example problems may serve as an initial hint.

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, Frame "Mesh generation" a mesh with no local refinement - The finite element mesh should be sufficiently fine in locations in which large stress gradients are expected (point supports, corners, openings, etc.). To that end, it is possible to specify the mesh refinement in the neighborhood of these locations. The mesh refinement can be specified around individual points or lines. The spread of refinement should be at least 3-5 times the desired refinement in the center of the refinement. Also, both values (density and spread of refinement) should be reasonable in view of the prescribed mesh density that applies to the surrounding region. This assures a smooth transition between regions with different mesh densities. Singular lines should be tackled in the same way. For more complicated problems it is useful to first carry out the analysis with a rather coarse mesh and then after examining the results to refine the mesh accordingly.

Defining mesh refinement around a circular line

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New mesh after refining the original mesh around a circular line By default program assumes 6-node triangular elements with mesh smoothing. The accuracy of the results more or less corresponds to twice as fine mesh composed of 3-node triangular elements. The 3-node elements are available only in the "Extended setting" mode (check box "6-node elements") and serve merely for research and testing purposes. The stability analysis, however, can be performed with 6-node triangular elements only. In case of nonlinear analysis, these elements should be used exclusively.

Mesh generator warning

In the Warning structure critical locations dialog window the user is prompted for possible locations on the structure that may cause problems during automatic mesh generation. When positioning the cursor on individual warnings the corresponding critical region on a structure is highlighted with a red color. The following items are checked: -whether the distance between two points is greater than one tenth of the required element edge length -whether the distance between a point and a line is greater than one tenth of the element edge length -whether the area of a region is greater than twice the element edge length -whether points and/or lines are found inside the structure (in the soil) These warnings suggest locations, in which the mesh generator experience problems. The following possibilities may occur: -the mesh is not generated => this calls for a new input of geometrical data -the mesh is generated => in this case it is up to the user to decide whether the mesh is reasonable in any case, the warning can be further ignored and the analysis can be carried

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Warning after identifying critical sections in FE mesh

Critical section after zooming in two points are too close to each other

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Adjusting original geometry

The program contains a build in automatic corrector of the specified geometry. This means that prior to the mesh generation the program automatically locates all points of intersection of lines, locates all closed regions and creates a corresponding geometrical (calculation) model. Such new regions can be then deactivated or they can be assigned a new soil. The main advantage of this system becomes evident when creating a geometrical model for tunnels (step by step excavation) or for sheeted structures. Creating even a very complicated model thus becomes rather simple and can be performed very efficiently. Correcting the original geometrical model may cause some points in the model to be too close to each other or too small regions might be created. Warning message then appears in the right bottom window identifying such week points in the model.

Regions after performing an automatic adjustment of the geometrical model

Standard boundary conditions

The program automatically generates standard boundary conditions. Therefore, in routine problems the user does not have to enter the step of specifying supports. The standard boundary conditions are: - smooth pin along the bottom edge of the geometrical model - Sliding pin along vertical edges of the geometrical model

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Standard boundary conditions

Construction stages
The actual analysis is performed in individual stages of construction (calculation stages) after the geometrical model and generating the finite element mesh (topology stage). One can move between calculation stages and the "Topology" regime using the buttons on the horizontal tool bar.

Tool bar "Construction stages" switching between "Topology" regime and other stages of constructions The calculation stages serve to model gradually build structures. Their correct definition and proper sequence is very important. The analysis of each stage builds (except for the stability analysis) upon the results derived in the previous stage. Information about individual objects and their properties are carried over from one stage to the other when editing an existing stage or creating a new stage the program applies the principle of heredity. Some frames ("Water", "Activity", "Assign") contain at the right part of the bar the "Adopt" button. The button becomes active once the data defined in the frame differ from those defined in the previous stage. After pressing this button the corresponding data (" Water", - 477 -

GEO5 User's Guide "Activity") are adopted from the previous stage.

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Changing input data accepting data from the previous stage of construction The first stage of construction (calculation of geostatic stress) represents the initial state of the soil (rock) body before the onset of construction displacements associated with this stage are therefore set equal to zero. Loss of convergence may occur for a certain stage of construction. In this case (the results are not available for non-converged structure) the subsequent stages cannot be analyzed. To avoid modeling errors we recommend the user to follow the recommended way of the modeling and analysis of a structure.

Activity
The program allows for removing (deactivating) soils from individual regions. As an example we consider an embankment analysis. In such a case, it must be accounted for st already in the topology regime when creating the overall geometrical model. In the 1 calculation stage, however, it can be deactivated. Similar approach applies also to underground or open excavations (tunnels, sheeting structures). When deactivating a region below the ground water it is necessary to correctly model the region boundary.

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Modeling embankment 1

st

calculation stage

The embankment can be subsequently reactivated in the next calculation stage.

Modeling embankment activity of embankment body

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Activity of regions below GWT

There are two cases to be considered when deactivating a region below the GWT. 1) The soil subjected to excavation is completely enclosed by active beam elements. The beam is then considered to be impermeable and both the soil and water are removed (removing total stresses inactive region is free of water). Owing to impermeability of the beam elements, the pore pressure distribution remains unchanged, see the figure.

Pore pressure distribution after removing soil from region enclosed by active beams 2) The removed soil is not enclosed by beam elements. In such case we assume that water in the excavated region is still active. This state is evident from the pore pressure distribution in the figure.

Pore pressure distribution after removing soil Its effect can be removed by changing the ground water table.

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Pore pressure distribution after modifying the ground water table

Assign
The frame "Assign" contains a list of layers of the profile and associated soils. Its functions are similar to the case of assigning soils in the topology regime. In calculations stages, the active soils are assigned to regions rather than to interfaces. The regions are created automatically when creating the computational model.

Frame "Assign"

Lining
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To adjust the lining the program launches the module "Lining - FEM". Its function is described in detail in the "Topology" regime. In stages of construction the "Lining - FEM" module contains the "Beams", "Anchors" and "Beam loads" frames.

Frame "Lining"

Beams
The frame "Beams" contains a table with the list of inputted beams. Actions applying to beams are identical to those used in stages of construction in the FEM program, frame "Beams". Types of contacts to introduce contacts on beams are adopted from the FEM program.

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Frame "Beams"

Anchors
The frame "Anchors" contains a table with the list of inputted anchors. Actions applying to beams are identical to those used in stages of construction in the FEM program, frame "Anchors". The frame differs by the function on the horizontal tool bar having the "Generator of anchors on free line" button.

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Frame "Anchors"

Beam loads
The frame "Beam loads" contains a table with the list of inputted loads. Actions applying to beam loads are identical to those used in stages of construction in the FEM program, frame "Beam loads".

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Frame "Beam loads"

Generator of anchors on free line

Depending on particular parameters the generator creates corresponding elements which are then operated on independently with no possibility for being parametrically modification. If the parameters of generation are acceptable, the program displays during their modification the current graphical representation of generated elements. The "New anchors" dialogue window is an extension of the standard dialogue window allowing for a uniform distribution of several identical anchors along a line. Spacing of anchors is generated the same way as used in the generator of anchored regions (over the entire line, over a part defined by the angle or length). There are three options to generate the number of anchors: by the number over a length, by the angle or spacing between individual anchors. The generated anchors are attached in the FEM program to the free line defined therein.

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Dialogue window "New anchors"

Beams
The frame "Beams" contains a table with the list of beams. Adding (editing) beams is performed in the "New Beams" ("Adjust beam properties") dialogue window. Beams can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Beams". The following modes are available: Add Adjust The beam is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on the desktop. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free point opens the "Adjust beam properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing beam opens the beam removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected beam. The beam location is selected from the combo box (mesh line, terrain - 486 -

Remove

Location

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The inputted beams can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program employs the following coordinate systems. The beam elements serve to model beams, linings, sheeting walls, etc. Distribution internal forces such as moment, normal and shear forces developed along a beam axis can are derived from the beam element end forces. Beams are assigned to already defined lines (free lines, terrain segments) the corresponding line then represents the beam axis. The program offers several basic types of cross-sections. Nevertheless, the user is free to introduce the required cross-section independently. An important step when modeling beams is the definition of contact elements characterizing the interface behavior between the beam and the soil. Contact (interface) elements can be assigned to both sides of a beam . A correct definition of contacts is essential especially when modeling sheeting walls. Types of end points connections can be specified for each beam. In subsequent stages the beam can be either strengthened or degraged. The program automatically includes the beam self-weight into the analysis. This feature, however, can be turned off when defining the beam. Beams are modeled using the beam elements with three degrees of freedom at each node. The beam elements are formulated on the basis of the Mindlin theory. The theory assumes that the plane cross-section normal to the beam axis before deformation remains plane after deformation but not necessarily normal to the deformed beam axis. At present, the internal forces are evaluated at the element nodes and from the beam end forces.

Dialogue window "New beams"

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Frame "Beams"

Types of cross-section
The program allows the user to either input the cross-section parameters digitally or to choose from one of the predefined types of the cross-section. The type of material of the cross-section is selected from the catalogue of materials or is introduced digitally using the editor of materials. The following types of the beam cross-section are implemented: - rectangular concrete wall a beam wall thickness must be specified - pile wall a pile diameter and their spacing must be specified - steel sheet pile selected from the built-in database - steel I cross-section a type of cross-section from the built-in database is selected, their spacing must be specified (the type of cross-section is selected from the "Catalogue of cross-sections", or is defined in the "Editor of cross-sections", the type of material is selected from the "Catalogue of materials" or is specified digitally in the "Editor of materials") All inputted cross-sections are automatically recalculated per 1m (feet) run. The results of internal forces developed along the beams are also presented per 1m (feet) run of a structure. Thus if necessary, for piles or I cross-sections they must be adjusted depending on their spacing by the user. Providing you have your own database of sheet piles, which is not yet built in the program, we will be happy to implement it. You may reach us at hotline@fine.cz.

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Dialogue window "New beams" selection of the type of cross-section

Beam end-points connection

The program allows for three types of beam end-points connection: fixed hinge foot The foot is a special type of a beam end-point support in the soil. It is applicable for the beam end-point located in the soil body. When the fixed type of connection is assumed the beam and the soil element are connected at one point (a singular connection) often causing evolution of plastic strains in the surrounding soil and loss of convergence. The foot allows for more realistic redistribution of contact stresses and prevents the beam from "penetrating" into the soil, consequently stabilizing the convergence process. By default the foot length is assumed to be equal to the beam width it can be arbitrarily adjusted (for example to enlarge the pile heel). standard type (is used to introduce an internal hinge in between beams locations with zero bending moment)

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Connection (a) without (b) with a foot

Degradation and strengthening of beams

In subsequent stages the inputted beams cannot be edited in a standard way. Therefore, one of the following options must be selected to modify them: removing the selected beam from the analysis degrading the selected beam (applicable only in the "Tunnels" regime) strengthening the selected beam cross-section modifying the beam contact properties

The type of modification is selected from the "Adjust beam properties" dialogue window. A degree of beam degradation is specified in percentage, one hundred percent corresponds to beam removal. Strengthening a beam element with a rectangular cross-section can be achieved by enlarging its width (e.g., increasing the shotcrete thickness). Other cross-sections are modified by directly inputting new (larger) values of the cross-section parameters.

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Dialogue window "Adjust beam properties" beam strengthening

Catalogue of cross-sections
In the case of steel cross-sections the program allows for choosing a particular cross-section from the catalogue of cross-sections. Only the type of cross-section has to be specified in the dialogue window. The type of material of the cross-section is selected similarly to other crosssections (rectangular wall, pile wall, sheet pile) from the "Catalogue of materials", or defined in the "Editor of materials". The type of cross-section (beam) is selected in the "New beams" dialogue window.

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Editor of cross-sections
In the case of steel cross-section the program allows for introducing the user defined crosssection. Only the shape of cross-section has to be specified in the dialogue window. The type of material of the cross-section is selected similarly to other cross-sections (rectangular wall, pile wall, sheet pile) from the "Catalogue of materials", or defined in the "Editor of materials". The type of cross-section (beam) is selected in the "New beams" dialogue window.

Dialogue window "Editor of cross-section solid welded"

Catalogue of materials
The program contains a built-in catalogue of materials for concrete and steel. Only the type of material is has to be specified in the dialogue window. The shape of cross-section is selected from the "Catalogue of cross-sections", or defined in the "Editor of cross-sections". For other types of cross-sections (rectangular wall, pile wall, sheet pile) the type of cross-section is selected in the "New beams" dialogue window.

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Dialogue window "Catalogue of materials" steel

Dialogue window "Catalogue of materials" concrete

Editor of materials
Apart from using the "Catalogue of materials" the program allows the user to enter the material parameters for steel and concrete digitally. Only the type of material (material parameters) has to be specified in the dialogue window. The shape of cross-section is selected from the "Catalogue of cross-sections", or defined in the "Editor of cross-sections". For other types of cross-sections (rectangular wall, pile wall, sheet pile) the type of cross-section is selected in the "New beams" dialogue window.

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Dialogue window "Editor of materials Structural steel"

Dialogue window "Editor of materials Concrete"

Contacts
The frame "Contacts" contains a table with the list of contacts. Adding (editing) contacts is performed in the "New Contacts" dialogue window. The contact elements are used in applications that require a proper representation of structure-soil interaction. They can be further used to model joints or interfaces of two distinct materials (soil rock interface). Contacts are assigned to already defined lines free lines or - 494 -

GEO5 User's Guide mesh lines (interfaces). The contact is defined by its type.

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Contacts can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Contacts". The following modes are available: Add Adjust The contact is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on the desktop. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing contact opens the "Adjust contacts properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing contact opens the contact removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected contact. The contact location is selected from the combo box (mesh line, terrain segment).

Remove

Location

The inputted contacts can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Contacts"

Contacts and beams (water flow)

The frame "Contacts" ("Beams") contains a table with the list of contacts (beams). Adding (editing) contacts is performed in the "New Contacts" dialogue window. The contact elements are used in applications that require a proper representation of structure-soil interaction. They can be further used to model joints or interfaces of two distinct materials (soil rock interface). Contacts are assigned to already defined lines free lines or mesh lines (interfaces). The contact is defined by its type. Contacts can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an - 495 -

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appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Contacts". The following modes are available: Add Adjust The contact is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on the desktop Clicking the left mouse button on already existing contact opens the "Adjust contacts properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing contact opens the contact removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected contact.

Remove

The inputted contacts can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. Beam or contact element can be defined as: permeable impermeable partially permeable

Contact elements allow us to model a certain barrier for flow in the soil body. Consider for example a sheeting wall represented in the stress analysis by beam elements. The sheeting wall anchored into the inside region can be considered either as fully permeable, or fully impermeable or partially permeable. Although the first two cases can also be treated using contact elements placed along the corresponding line, they are handled by the program automatically without needing these elements. The third case represents a problem of flow in a thin zone having a given thickness d, see figure:

Partially permeable contact Corresponding fluxes in the tangent direction (s-direction) qs and normal direction (n-direction) qn are given by:

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Defining contact elements therefore requires inputting the following parameters:

ks kn

- permeability in tangent direction (permeability longitudinal), [m/day] - permeability in normal direction (permeability transverse), [m/day]

Point supports
The frame "Point supports" contains a table with the list of point supports. Adding (editing) point supports is performed in the "New point supports" dialogue window. Point supports can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Point supports". The following modes are available: Add The point support is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on the desktop. The required parameters are introduced in the "New point supports" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing point support opens the "Adjust point supports properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing point support opens the point support removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected point support.

Adjust

Remove

The inputted point supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program employs the following coordinate systems. The program contains a built-in automatic generator of standard boundary conditions. Therefore, in most problems the boundary (support) conditions are not required to be specified. The following types of point supports are considered: free fixed spring prescribed deformation

Supports are defined in the global coordinate system.

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Frame "Point supports"

Point flow
The frame "Point flow" contains a table with the list of point flows. Adding (editing) a point flow is performed in the "New point flow" dialogue window. A point flow can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Point flow". The following modes are available: Add The point flow is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on the desktop. The required parameters are introduced in the "New point flow" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing point flow opens the "Adjust point flow properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing point support opens the point flow removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected point flow.

Adjust

Remove

The inputted point flows can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The following boundary conditions can be specified: a) Pore pressure at a point Numerically the value of pore pressure at a given point is specified [ kPa, ksf] By specifying the location of ground water table (hydraulic head) coordinate of GWT is specified

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3 3 b) Point inflow/outflow - pumping/injection rate is specified [m /day/m, ft /day/ft ]

Line Supports
The frame "Line supports" contains a table with the list of line supports. Adding (editing) line supports is performed in the "New line supports" dialogue window. Line supports can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Line supports". The following modes are available: Add The line support is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on the desktop. The required parameters are introduced in the "New line supports" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing line support opens the "Adjust line supports properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing line support opens the line support removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected line support. The line support location is selected from the combo box (free line, terrain segment, mesh line).

Adjust

Remove

Location

The inputted line supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program employs the following coordinate systems. The program contains a built-in automatic generator of standard boundary conditions. Therefore, in most problems the boundary conditions are not required to be specified. When assigning supports to a line it is first necessary to select the type of line ( free line, interface, mesh line). The following types of line supports are considered: free fixed deformprescribedation

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Frame "Line supports"

Line flow
The frame "Line flow" contains a table with the list of line flows. Adding (editing) a line flow is performed in the "New line flow" dialogue window. A line flow can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Line flow". The following modes are available: Adjust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing line flow opens the "Adjust line flow properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters.

The inputted line flows can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. Flow boundary conditions must be defined on all boundary lines. The following boundary conditions can be specified: a) Impermeable b) Permeable c) Pore pressure - distribution of pore pressure p can be specified numerically - distribution of pore pressure can be specified by inputting the location of ground water table (by prescribing the hydraulic head h) d) Inflow/outflow on a line q it is specified in velocity units e.g. [m/day , ft/day] the flow velocity into/out of the region is specified. The default setting corresponds to an impermeable Pore pressure on a given line is equal to zero

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e) Seepage surface this boundary condition is introduced providing the boundary cannot be uniquely divided into the part with prescribed pore pressure and the part with prescribed inflow/outflow (the exit point is not known). In such a case the analysis is performed in two steps. In the first step the program locates the exit point. The actual flow analysis with known boundary conditions is then carried in the second step. In some cases both steps must be repeated several times. When enhanced input is considered the program requires entering a fictitious permeability kv in units [m/day]. This is essentially a penalty term, a sufficiently large number in general, ensuring that along an impermeable boundary the value of hydraulic head h will be equal to a y-coordinate of a given point (q=0), For a part of boundary with no flow condition we have kv=0. Variables q and h are then related by: if>0 (S=1) inside soil body if h<0 (S<1) inside soil body

Anchors
The frame "Anchors" contains a table with the list of anchors. Adding (editing) anchors is performed in the "New anchors" dialogue window ("Adjust anchor properties"). Anchors can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Anchors". The following modes are available: Add By clicking the left mouse button on the desktop we define the starting and the end point of an anchor. Exploiting the function of grid may simplify this step. The starting point is hooked to the ground and its coordinates are rounded up to two significant digits using mouse or keyboard is therefore identical. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing anchor opens the "Adjust anchor properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing anchor opens the anchor removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected anchor.

Adjust

Remove

The inputted anchors can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program employs the following coordinate systems. The anchor head (starting point) can be automatically hooked to the ground, an arbitrary interface or opening (tunnel lining). The anchor head is then automatically positioned in to the intersection of the anchor line determined by the inputted points and the selected line. The anchor can also be introduced directly by specifying coordinates of the two end points. Anchors as stabilizing or reinforcing elements are represented by elastic tensilecompressive bar element with constant normal stiffness. The maximum allowable tensile force the element can sustain controls tensile failure of the anchor. The bar element is anchored into the soil only at its staring and end points. No mutual interaction between the soil and the anchor along the anchor length is considered. Anchors are defined by their starting and end points and by their stiffness. The program automatically links the anchor element degrees of freedom to the actual degrees of freedom of the predefined finite element mesh. Therefore, the anchor can be introduced anywhere in the structure. - 501 -

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The anchor stiffness is specified in terms of the elastic modulus and its area. The program makes also possible to enter the anchor diameter the area is then determined automatically. In stability analysis problems the anchor stiffness is not considered. Its action is realized only through the pres-stress force introduced automatically as external compressive force acting at the anchor head.. Other important parameters are the pre-stress force and the tensile strength (the anchor breaks when the tensile strength is exceeded). For elements with no pre-stress the pre-stress force is set equal to zero. Sufficiently large value of the anchor tensile strength may be specified to avoid anchor failure. By default the anchor does not support a compressive force anchor elements loaded in compression during a certain stage of calculation are temporarily disabled. If tension occurs in subsequent analysis run (due to change in loading, geometry or material parameters of soil), the program automatically introduces these elements back into the analysis. The program makes also possible to include compressive response of an anchor. However, for elements loaded primarily in compression we recommend to define these elements as props. The anchor deforms during analysis. Such deformation together with the deformation of the surrounding soil may cause reduction of the specified pre-stress force in the anchor. Providing we wish to achieve a specific pres-stress force in the anchor, it is necessary to either post-stress the anchor to a given value in the next calculation stage or to use a sufficiently large magnitude of the pre-stress force right from the beginning to compensate for a possible drop (the resulting anchor force after completion of the calculation step is displayed at the anchor head below the prescribed pres-stress force). In subsequent stages the program allows only for anchor post-stressing - change of the initial pre-stress force, or for removing the anchor from the analysis. Introducing pre-stressed anchors into the soil may lead to plastic deformation of the soil in the vicinity of the anchor head or root. Some modifications of the original input are than required to avoid often encountered loss of converge.

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Anchor input

Anchor end points

Introducing pre-stressed anchors into the soil may lead to plastic deformation of the soil in the vicinity of the anchor head or root the analysis then often fails to converge. In such a case we recommend the following modifications of the original input: - to place a beam element under the anchor head (this results into a better transition of load into the soil) - to place the anchor root into a sufficiently stiff soil (use the elastic or modified elastic material model for the soil layer around the anchor)

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Plastic regions in the vicinity of anchor head or root

Anchors in the stability analysis

When performing the stability analysis the actual pre-stressed anchor is automatically replaced by corresponding compressive point forces acting at the anchor head. The soil at the point of the applied force may, however, undergo plastic deformation. One should therefore carefully assess the resulting distribution of plastic strains. Note that the localization of equivalent plastic strain identifies the location of the potential slip surface. Therefore, if the plastic strains at the anchor head become decisive, it is necessary to introduce some modifications of the original input.

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Modeling anchor in the slope stability analysis

Props
The frame "Props" contains a table with the list of anchors. Adding (editing) props is performed in the "New props" dialogue window ("Adjust prop properties"). Props can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Props". The following modes are available: Add By clicking the left mouse button on the desktop we define the starting and the end point of a prop. Exploiting the function of grid may simplify this step. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing prop opens the "Adjust prop properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing prop opens the prop removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected prop.

Adjust

Remove

The inputted props can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program employs the following coordinate systems. The prop end points can be automatically hooked to the ground, an arbitrary interface or opening (tunnel lining). These points are then automatically positioned in to the intersections of the prop line determined by the inputted points and the selected lines. The prop can also be introduced directly by specifying coordinates of the two end points. Props are represented by elastic compressive bar element with constant normal stiffness. The props can sustain only compressive loading. When found in tension they are removed from the analysis. - 505 -

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The prop is linked to the finite element mesh in its two end points. No interaction is considered between the soil and the prop along its length when places into the soil. Props are defined by their starting and end points and by their stiffness. The program automatically links the prop element degrees of freedom to the actual degrees of freedom of the predefined finite element mesh. Therefore, the prop can be introduced anywhere in the structure. The prop stiffness is specified in terms of the elastic modulus and its area. The program makes also possible to enter the prop diameter the area is then determined automatically. In subsequent stages the prop cannot be edited it can be either removed or inputted again.

Prop input

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Frame "Props"

Reinforcements
The frame "Reinforcements" contains a table with the list of reinforcements. Adding (editing) reinforcements is performed in the "New reinforcements" dialogue window ("Modify reinforcement parameters"). Reinforcements can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Reinforcements". The following modes are available: Add By clicking the left mouse button on the desktop we define the starting and the end point of a reinforcement. Exploiting the function of grid may simplify this step. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing reinforcement opens the "Modify reinforcement parameters" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing reinforcement opens the reinforcement removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected reinforcement.

Adjust

Remove

The inputted reinforcements can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program employs the following coordinate systems. The reinforcement end points can be automatically hooked to the ground, an arbitrary interface or opening (tunnel lining). These points are then automatically positioned in to the intersections of the prop line determined by the inputted points and the selected lines. The reinforcement can also be introduced directly by specifying coordinates of the two end points. Reinforcements are tensile reinforcing elements (geotextiles, geodrids), which are defined - 507 -

GEO5 User's Guide by their starting and end points and their stiffness.

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Unlike anchors or props, the reinforcement is linked to an underlying finite element mesh along its entire length. However, similar to anchors the program introduces the reinforcement end points into the finite element mesh automatically so the reinforcement can be specified anywhere within the mesh. Similar to anchors the reinforcement is modeled by a tensile/compressive bar element with the possibility of transmitting only normal force. Owing to its geometrical characteristics, the reinforcement calls for the input of the crosssectional stiffness taken per 1m (foot) run of its width . The user should contact the manufacturer for this information. In subsequent stages the reinforcement cannot be edited it can be only removed.

Reinforcement input The program allows us to consider the reinforcement also in compression by default however, the part of reinforcement found in compression is disabled for the analysis. This state is simulated in the figure showing the distribution of normal tensile forces over active parts of individual reinforcements. The compressive part of the reinforcement is temporarily excluded from the analysis. Similar to anchors, however, it can be automatically activated once loaded again in tension.

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Tensile stress in reinforcements

Anchoring geo-reinforcements
When introducing the reinforcement into the soil body it is necessary to keep in mind a sufficient anchorage of the reinforcement since the program does not check the reinforcement against the shear failure. A sudden increase of the normal force as shown in the figure suggests singularity in contact stresses and probable shear failure of the reinforcement. From that point of view the displayed results are misleading and essentially unrealistic. In such a case, the reinforcement should be either removed from the analysis or ensure its sufficient anchorage as plotted in the figure.

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,
Insufficiently anchored reinforcement

Correctly anchored reinforcement

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Surcharges
The frame "Surcharges" contains a table with the list of surcharges. Adding (editing) surcharges is performed in the "New surcharges" dialogue window ("Adjust surcharge properties"). The inputted surcharges can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program employs the following coordinate systems. All inputted parameters of the surcharge can be modified in the stage of construction, in which the surcharge was introduced. In subsequent stages it is only possible to modify its magnitude (option "Adjust magnitude"). This frame serves to introduce surcharges applied only to the soil body. The surcharge applied to a beam element is introduced in the frame beam load. An arbitrary number of surcharges can be specified in individual stages. The surcharge may act either on the existing interface (including ground surface) or can be applied anywhere in the soil body. In subsequent stages we are free to either remove the inputted surcharge or to modify its magnitude. Note that applying the surcharge directly on the ground surface may lead to excessive plastic deformations in the vicinity of the surcharge and the analysis may fail to converge. In such a case, one may either place a beam element under the applied surcharge, or to choose an elastic or modified elastic material model for the soil below the surcharge.

Frame "Surcharge"

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t
Dialogue window "New surcharges"

Beam loads
The frame "Beam loads" contains a table with the list of loads. Adding (editing) beam loads is performed in the "New beam loads" dialogue window. Beam loads can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Beam loads". The following modes are available: Add Adjust Remove By clicking the left mouse button on the selected beam. The load parameters are entered in the "New beam loads" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing beam opens the "Adjust beam loads" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing beam opens the beam load removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected beam load.

The inputted loads can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program employs the following coordinate systems. All inputted parameters of the load can be modified in the stage of construction, in which the load was introduced. In subsequent stages it is only possible to modify its magnitude (option "Adjust magnitude").

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Frame "Beam loads"

t
Dialogue window "New surcharges"

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Water
There are three options in the program to introduce ground water: The ground water table can be specified as a continuous interface below and above the ground surface. In such a case, the program automatically adjusts the soil self-weight below the ground water table. The pore pressure values are entered via isoline. The first isoline always coincides with the ground surface. The remaining isolines are introduced in the same way as interfaces between individual soil layers. The pore pressure values are inserted into the table "List of interfaces" in the left bottom part of the screen. The values between isolines follow from linear interpolation. The pore pressure coefficient ru represents the ration between pore pressure and the geostatic stress in the soil. The values of the coefficient ru are specified for individual isolines. The first isoline always coincides with the ground surface. The remaining isolines are introduced in the same way as interfaces between individual soil layers. The values are inserted into the table "List of interfaces" in the left bottom part of the screen. The values between isolines follow from linear interpolation. When entering the values of pore pressure or the values coefficients ru the bulk weight of soil is assumed in the whole body to be equal to the bulk weight regardless of the values of pore pressures or coefficients ru. The simplest way to check the input of water is to plot the distribution of pore pressure in the output window.

Visualization of pore pressure

Analysis
The analysis is performed for individual calculation stages in the frame "Analysis" after - 514 -

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During analysis the program attempts to arrive at such a solution that satisfies for given loading and boundary conditions the global equilibrium. In most cases this step results into an iterative process. The process of iteration and convergence of the solution is displayed on the screen. The analysis can be stopped any time by pressing the "Interrupt" button. The results are then available for the last converged load increment. The correct results are obtained when 100% of the applied load is reached. Due to convergence failure the program may stop before reaching the desired load level - only a fraction of the total applied load is reached. In such a case it is possible to adjust standard parameters of the analysis setting. When modeling more complex engineering tasks we encourage the user to follow the recommended modeling procedure. The analysis results together with information about the course of analysis appear on the screen immediately after completing the analysis. Detailed information about the actual modeling approach are presented in section "Setting and analysis description". The way the results appear on the screen can be set in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Screen after completing analysis

Recommended modeling procedure

Solving geotechnical problems using the finite element method is a relatively complex task. But yet, most users attempt to analyze the entire complex structure right from the beginning to find the cause of possible loss of convergence may then become rather difficult. WE therefore recommend the following approach:

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GEO5 User's Guide 1) Define the whole topology of the structure 2) Assume elastic response of soils and contact elements (use linear models) 3) Generate coarse mesh 4) Define all calculation stages

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5) Perform analysis of all calculation stages (it is sufficient to launch the analysis of the last stage of construction analyses of all previous stages are carried out automatically). 6) Asses the course of analysis If the analysis fails, the computational model is not correctly defined e.g. beams have too many internal hinges resulting into a kinematically undetermined structure, props are not properly hooked to the structure, etc. The program contains a number of built-in checking procedures to warn the user for possible drawbacks in the model definition. Some of the errors, however, cannot be disclosed prior to running the program. If all stages were successfully analyzed, we recommend the user to check the resulting displacements and this way also the objectivity of the used soil parameters and structure stiffness. Note that using nonlinear models always results into larger displacements in comparison to the pure elastic response should the elastic displacements be already excessively large, we must first adjust the computational model before adopting any of the available plasticity models. If the analysis succeeded and the displacements are reasonable, we may proceed as follows: 7) Replace linear models with suitable plastic models (Mohr-Coulomb, Drucker-Prager) 8) Perform analysis and evaluate the results according to step 6 9) Add nonlinear contact elements 10) Perform analysis and evaluate the results according to step 6 11) Refine and adjust the finite element mesh and perform the final analysis. Although this approach may seem rather cumbersome and complicated, it may save a considerable amount of time when searching for the cause of failure (loss of convergence) of the analysis of complex problems.

Loss of convergence of nonlinear analysis

Loss of convergence of the solution of nonlinear analysis calls for certain modifications of the undelying computational model the following steps can be adopted: Increase the stiffness of the structure Decrease the applied loads Split the soil excavation in more steps Improve material parameters of existing soils Change material model of soils in places of plasticity Add reinforcing members (beams, anchors) Add supports Change parameters settings affecting the iteration process (increase number of iterations). Distribution of plastic strains may provide some explanation to why the analysis failed to converge. Note that the distribution of equivalent plastic strain locates the regions of probable evolution of critical failure surfaces. - 516 -

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Analysis failed to converge plot of equivalent plastic strain

Setting and analysis description

The default setting of parameters that drive the solution analysis is optimized to ensure sufficient accuracy and efficiency of the analysis. Nevertheless, an experienced user may require to change the default setting, or to examine the influence of parameters on the accuracy and course of the analysis. The parameters setting can be adjusted in the " Analysis setting" dialog window. However, the change of standard setting deserves a word of caution. Prior to making any changes, the user should be well aware of possible consequences. In particular, improper setting may substantially slow down the computation process, may cause divergence and eventually lead to incorrect results. - Solution method - Change of stiffness matrix - Initial solution step - Maximum number of iterations - Convergence criterion - Newton-Raphson method setting - Arc-length method setting - Line search method - Plasticity The default setting can be always recovered by pressing the "Standard" button.

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Solution method
The program GEO FEM serves to analyze geotechnical problems characterized by nonlinear response of the soil or rock body. A successful analysis of most of such problems calls for an iterative solution of a given boundary value problem. Applying the finite element method (FEM) then leads to an incremental form of the equilibrium conditions written as:

where:

u f

- instantaneous stiffness matrix - vector of nodal displacement increments - vector of out-of-balance force increments

This equation can be solved only approximately using a suitable numerical method. The goal of the method is to arrive, during the process of iteration, at such a state of stress and strain that satisfies the condition f = 0. To that wend, the program offers two basic methods: 1. Newton-Raphson method NRM 2. Arc-length method ALM.

Analysis setting setting the solution method

Change of stiffness matrix

The full Newton-Raphson method assumes that the instantaneous tangent stiffness matrix is formed at the beginning of each new iteration. Forming a new tangent stiffness matrix only at the beginning of a new load increment leads to so-called modified Newton-Raphson method. - 518 -

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If the stiffness matrix is formed only once at the beginning of the solution analysis we obtain so called initial stress method. Individual methods can be selected from the "Analysis settings" dialog window section "Stiffness update". The correspondig settings are: 1) Keep elastic initial stress method, 2) Each iteration full Newton-Raphson method, 3) Each load step modified Newton-Raphson method. The default setting assumes the full Newton-Raphson algorithm ( stiffness update after each iteration). Note that the formulation of stiffness matrix is consistent with the stress update algorithm. Such a formulation then ensures quadratic convergence of the full Newton-Raphson (NRM) unlike the modified NRM or the initial stress method that, in comparison with the full NRM, require considerably more interactions to attain equilibrium. On the other hand, it is fair to mention that the computational cost per iteration is mainly determined by the calculation and factorization of the tangent stiffness matrix. Assuming elastic response of a structure it is clearly meaningless to set up the structural stiffness matrix more then once (stiffness update keep elastic). On the contrary, increasing the degree of nonlinearity suggests more frequent stiffness reformulations (stiffness update Each iteration).

Newton-Raphson method stiffness matrix update options

Initial solution step

The actual analysis is carried out incrementally in several load steps until the overall prescribed load is reached. The program requires setting the initial load step only. - 519 -

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This parameter represents the ratio between the load applied in a given load step to the overall prescribed load. Depending on the course of iteration this parameter is adaptively adjusted. The default setting assumes 25% of the total prescribed load. Similarly to what we have already mentioned it holds that increasing the solution complexity from the nonlinear response point of view requires reduction of this parameter. However, in the case of elastic response this parameter can be set equal to 1, which corresponds to the solution of a given problem in one load step.

Maximum number of iterations

This parameter represents the maximum number of iterations allowed for a single load step to reach the state of equilibrium. Exceeding this value prompts the program to automatically reduce the current value of the assumed load step and restarts the solution from the last load level that complies with the state of equilibrium. Similar action is taken when oscillation or divergence of the program is imminent.

Convergence criterion
For the incremental solution strategy based on one of the iterative methods to be effective, it is necessary to select suitable criteria (preset tolerances for reaching equilibrium) for the termination of the iteration process. Note that loose convergence criteria may result in inaccurate results while too tight convergence tolerances may lead to unjustified increase of computational cost spent to arrive at the results of superfluous accuracy. In the program the convergence is checked against the change of nodal displacement increments, the change of out-of-balanced forces and also the change of internal energy. The last criterion gives a certain idea about how both displacements and forces approach their equilibrium values. The corresponding settings are: 1) Displacement error tolerance tolerance for the change of displacement increment norm. 2) Out-of-balanced forces tolerance tolerance for the change of out-of-balance force norm. 3) Energy error tolerance - tolerance of the change of internal energy. The default setting is 0.01 for all convergence tolerances.

Setting Newton-Raphson method

With the Newton-Raphson method the course of iteration can be driven by setting the following parameters: 1) Relaxation factor it represents the value of reduction of the current load step for the restart providing the solution fails to converge. A new value of the assumed load step is found from the expression: new load step = old load step / relaxation factor. 2) Max. No. of relaxations for a single load step this parameter determines how many times it is possible to invoke the above action during the entire analysis. Exceeding this value prompts the program to terminate the analysis. The results are then available for the last successfully converged load level. - 520 -

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3) Min. No. of iterations for a single load step this parameter allows for possible acceleration of the analysis. In particular, providing the number of iterations to converge in the last load step is less than the minimum one set, the load step for a new load increment is increased as follows: new load step = old load step * relaxation factor. The default setting of the above parameters corresponds to values displayed in the figure:

Parameters driving the iteration process

Setting Arc-length method

The Arc-length method (ALM) is relatively robust method particularly suitable for the solution of problems that require the search for the collapse load of a structure. Stability analysis of earth structures (slopes, embankments) is just one particular example of such a task. Unlike the NRM where the solution is driven purely by prescribing load increments, the ALM introduces an additional parameter representing a certain constraint on the value of load increment in a given load step. The value of the load step thus depends on the course of iteration and is directly related to the selected arc length. The basic assumption of the method is that the prescribed load varies proportionally during the calculation. This means that a particular level of the applied load can be expressed as:

where:

F F

- current fraction of the total applied load - coefficient of proportionality - overall prescribed load

Note that with ALM the load vector F represents only a certain reference load that is kept - 521 -

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constant during the whole response calculation. The actual value of the load at the end of calculation is equal to the multiple of F; < 1 represents the state when the actual bearing capacity of a structure is less than the prescribed reference load; if at the end of response calculation exceeds 1, the program automatically adjusts the arc length in order for the solution to converge to value = 1 within a selected tolerance equal to 0.01 (1% the maximum applied load). This value cannot be changed. The literature offers a number of ALM formulations. The program supports the method suggested by Crisfield and the consistently linearized method proposed by Ramm. The latter one is considerably simple, at least from the formulation point of view, than the Crisfield method. On the other hand it is reportedly less robust. The default setting is the Crisfield method. Other important parameters of the method are "Setting arc length" and "Automatic arc length control".

Arc-length setting the type of Arc-length method

Setting arc length

The arc length is the basic parameter affecting the response calculation. An indicator for the selection of arc length can be the course of iteration in the previous solution stage. Regardless of that the program enables the following setting: Determine from load step the arc length is determined automatically from the initial load step. Assign from the previous stage the value of arc length at the end of the previous calculation stage is used as a starting value for a new stage. This option becomes active in the second stage of construction. Input the value of arc length can be directly prescribed.

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Providing the structure response cannot be determined a priory we recommend to use the first option. Depending on the course of calculation it is possible to adjust the value of arc length and repeat the calculation. At no event, however, it is possible to ensure convergence for an arbitrary value of arc length selected. Similarly to NRM, if the convergence problems occur the program allows for the reduction of the current arc length and restarts the calculation. The next parameter driving the iteration process is the Maximum No. of load steps. The program always carries on the prescribed number of load steps providing: - parameter exceeds 1, - the maximum number of relaxations of arc length is exceeded. Providing the analysis is terminated due to exceeding the maximum number of prescribed load steps and parameter is less than 1, it is necessary to increase the number of steps and restart the analysis.

Arc-length arc length setting

Automatic arc length control

Automatic arc length control strategy constitutes very important part of implementation of any numerical method. The program makes possible to adaptively adjust the current arc length for a new load step depending on the course of iteration in the previous step by activating option Optimize. The program will then attempt to select a value of arc length that keeps the desired number of iterations in each load step needed for convergence option Optim. No. of iter. in a single load step. The next parameter driving the process of iteration is the Ratio load/displacement. This parameter represents a scalar factor, which adjusts the scales of load given by parameter and displacement vector u. providing this parameter is sufficiently large the analysis is essentially driven by load increment. Setting this parameter equal to 0 (default setting) we obtain so-called cylindrical ALM and the analysis will be driven by displacement increment. This - 523 -

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approach is more stable and recommended by the authors. Nevertheless, the program allows for optimization of this parameter by activating the option Optimize. In such a case the current value of this parameter is set equal to the Bergan current stiffness parameter that provides a scalar measure of the degree of nonlinearity. With increasing the degree of nonlinearity this parameter is decreasing. In the vicinity of collapse load the value of this parameter approaches zero and the solution is driven by displacement increment. This strategy thus supports the use of cylindrical method having the Ratio load/displacement parameter equal to zero. As for the default setting this option is turned off.

Arc-length automatic arc length control

Line search method

The basic goal of the Line search method is to determine a scalar multiplier that is used to scale the current displacement increment so that the equilibrium is satisfied in a given direction. The actual displacement vector at the end of the i-th iteration thus becomes:

Consequently, the calculation process is either accelerated, >1, or damped, <1. Obviously, with the Line search performed each iteration, the expense of the iteration increases. On the other hand, this drawback is compensated by less number of iterations needed for convergence and by the possibility of avoiding divergence or oscillation of the process of iteration. By default the use of the Line search is enabled. An inexperienced user is recommended to employ the default setting evident from the figure.

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Line search method setting

Plasticity
The Plasticity dialog window serves to set parameters driving the stress update procedure. The parameter Return to yield surface tolerance suggests the tolerance for satisfying the selected yield condition. Assuming nonlinear hardening/softening as in the case of modified cam clay model the stress return mapping requires an iteration process. The maximum number of iterations allowed is then given by the Max. No. of iterations for a single plastic step parameter. When employing the rigid-plastic version of the MohrCoulomb, the Drucker-Prager or the modified Mohr-Coulomb model, these parameters will not apply. The default setting, evident in the figure, is recommended.

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Parameters driving the stress return mapping

Course of analysis
The course of analysis can be viewed in the bottom part of the screen. An elastic analysis is completed in one computational step. A nonlinear analysis is performed in several steps the external loading is gradually increased in several loading (calculation) steps. The analysis is completed successfully if there is no loss of overall convergence so that 100 percent of the required load is reached. The default setting of parameters that drive the solution analysis is optimized to ensure sufficient accuracy and efficiency of the analysis. Nevertheless, an experienced user may require to change the default setting, or to examine the influence of parameters on the accuracy and course of the analysis. The parameters setting can be adjusted in the "Analysis setting" dialog window. The Percent of the applied load parameter gives percentage of the overall load (excepted value) at the end of the current load step assuming successful convergence for the current load step. The Step size parameter provides the current scaling factor for the determination of load increment in

the current load step

The Safety factor parameter corresponds to the expected value of the safety factor assuming successful convergence for given parameters c, . The course of iteration within a given load step is characterized by the change of convergence parameters: -eta Line search method parameter -change of the displacement increment norm - 526 -

GEO5 User's Guide -change of the out-of-balance force norm, -change of internal energy

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If all three errors are smaller than the preset error tolerance (can be edited in "Setting" dialogue window), the analysis is for the calculation step terminated. The "Interrupt" button serves to terminate the calculation process. The results are then available for the last load level that complies with the state of equilibrium.

Course of analysis

Results
Visualization (plotting) of results is one of the most important features of the program. The program allows us to select from several basic styles of graphical outputs, which are defined in the "FEM setting visualization of results" dialogue window. - draw deformed mesh - surface plot of variables developed inside the soil/rock body (the total values or their increments with respect to other calculation stage can be displayed) - internal forces distributed along beams, contacts - forces in anchors and reaction forces - depression curve - tilted sections of variables - vectors and directions of variables To display results the program employes the following coordinate systems. The tool bar "Results" in the upper part of the screen serves to selected variables to be displayed and the way they should appear on the screen. The color scheme is shown in the right part of the desktop. Its particular setting can be adjusted using the "Color scheme" tool bar. Because properly setting outputs might be often time consuming, the program disposes of a comfortable system of storing and managing various settings. All outputs and selected results can be further printed out from the analysis protocol.

Tool bar Results

The tool bar contains the following operating elements: - 527 -

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Tool bar "Setting visualization of graphical outputs" Individual elements operate as follows: Plotting style setting List of plots Save plot opens the "FEM - setting visualization of results" dialogue window which allows the user to be more specific in defining the plotting style a combo list containing names of plots saved by the user saves the current plot displayed on the desktop, the dialogue window serves to enter the name of the plot opens the "Manager of plots" dialogue window which serves to manage (delete, change order, rename) already saved plots displays calculated values (either total or incremental values can be seen) displays the selected variable turns on/off plotting of isolines, isosurfaces turns on/off the style of plotting the FE mesh (only edges, or according to the setting in the "FEM setting visualization of results" dialogue window selects the style of plotting deformed mesh undeformed/deformed (deformed by the magnitude, deformed by the coefficient)

Manager of plots

Values in stages of analysis Variable type Surface plot Mes

Displacements plot

The tool bar contains the most often used operating elements needed to view the results on the desktop. Detailed setting of the style of plotting the results is available in the "FEM setting visualization of results" dialogue window. Similar to other programs in GEO5 system the results can be saved and printed. The plotting style can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Setting visualization of results

The "FEM - setting visualization of results " dialogue window serves to select the type of variable to be displayed and the way it should appear on the screen. Individual settings can be later saved using the "Results" tool bar. The tab sheet "Basic" serves to set the basic parameters driving the visualization of surface variables and FE mesh other tab sheets are used to define other types of outputs.

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Dialogue window "FEM setting visualization of results" tab sheet "Basic" Owing to the clarity of graphical presentation it is not possible to plot some of the results at the same time. It is not possible to plot a deformed mesh together with distributions of internal forces along beams only one option must be selected. If an unacceptable combination is selected, the displays a warning message in the bottom part of the dialogue window. The present example shows an unacceptable combination of deformed mesh/values in mesh grid set in the tab sheet "Basic".

Warning for conflict in plotting of results

List of variables
The following variables can be displayed (values in the soil/rock body): List of variables displayed by the program basic variables Notation Sednut DZ Sednut DX Sigma Z, tot. Sigma Z, eff. Description Displacement in the Z direction Displacement in the X direction Total normal stress in the Z direction Effective normal stress in the Z direction Variabl e Unit

dz dx
z.tot z.eff

[mm] [mm] [kPa] [kPa]

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GEO5 User's Guide Prov tlak u. Sigma X, tot. Sigma X, eff. Tau X, Y. Epsilon eq. Pore pressure Total normal stress in the X direction Effective normal stress in the X direction Shear stress Equivalent strain

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u
x.tot x.eff xz eq eq,pl

[kPa] [kPa] [kPa] [kPa] [-] [-]

Epsilon eq., pl. Equivalent plastic strain

List of variables displayed by the program variables available in the regime "Extended input". Notation Epsilon vol. Sigma st., tot. Description Volumetric strain Mean total normal stress Variabl e vol. st.tot st.eff Unit

[-] [kPa] [kPa] [kPa] [-] [-] [-]

Sigma st., eff. Mean total normal stress Sigma eq. Epsilon vol., pl. Epsilon X Epsilon Z Gama XZ Epsilon 1, princ. Epsilon 2, princ. Epsilon 3, princ. Sigma 1, princ. Sigma 2, Equivalent deviatoric stress Volumetric plastic strain

J
vol.pl x z xz 1.princ 2.princ 3.princ 1.princ 2.princ

Normal strain in the X direction Normal strain in the X direction Shear strain in the XZ plane Maximal principal strain

[-] [-] [-] [kPa] [kPa]

Intermediate principal strain

Minimal principal strain

Maximal principal stress

Intermediate principal stress

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Sigma 3, princ. Epsilon X, pl. Epsilon Z, pl Gama XZ, pl.

Minimal principal stress

3.princ

[kPa] [-] [-]

Normal plastic strain in the X direction Normal plastic strain in the Z direction Shear plastic strain in the XZ plane

x.pl z.pl xz.pl

Monitors
The frame "Monitors" contains a table with the list of inputted monitors. Adding (editing) monitors is performed in the "New monitors" dialogue window. Either point or line-monitors can be introduced. The dialogue window then serves to specify coordinates of the monitor and monitor activity. The monitors can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Monitors". The following modes are available: Add Modify The monitor is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on the desktop. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing monitor opens the "Adjust monitor" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing monitor opens the monitor removal dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected free point.

Remove

The monitors can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The program allows for inputting an arbitrary number of point and line-monitors anywhere in the structure and also out of it. Monitors have several functions: displaying values of variables in a given point (point-monitor) displaying values of the difference of distance of two points in comparison with the previous stage d[N] or in comparison with the input stage, where N is the stage number (line-monitor) The list of variables plotted for individual monitors is set in the "Monitor setting" dialogue window. To open the window use the "Setting" button in the horizontal tool bar "Monitors".

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Frame "Monitors"

Monitors setting
The "Monitor setting" dialogue window serves to set variables whose values will be plotted for a given monitor (point-monitors). Setting for a given list of variables can be adopted from the previous stage of construction using the "Adopt from the previous stage" button. Four variables are displayed by default. Additional variables can be added to the list using the " Add" button. The variable can be removed from the list using the "Remove" button. For line-monitors the dialogue window serves to activate the plot of values in comparison with the previous stage or the input stage, respectively. For both point and line-monitors it is possible to specify the color range of plotted values.

Dialogue window "Monitors setting"

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Stability
In stability (safety factor) analysis the program reduces the original strength parameters - angle of internal friction and cohesion until failure occurs. The analysis then results into a factor of safety that corresponds to the classical methods of limit equilibrium. The safety factor analysis requires using six-node elements. Since plastic slip is the main failure mechanism we also require that the Mohr-Coulomb, the modified Mohr-Coulomb or the Drucker-Prager plasticity model be used for all soils. Default setting can be adjusted in the "Analysis setting" dialogue window. In the stability analysis mode the only variables available for graphical representation are displacements (in the Z and X-directions) and equivalent total and plastic strains. The deformation of a soil body corresponds to the state of failure attained for the reduced soil parameters - therefore, it does not correspond to real state of deformation of the soil body. Instead, it provides a good insight about the entire slope response of earth structure in general at the onset of failure. A suitable way of presenting the stability analysis results are vectors of displacements plotted together with the equivalent plastic strain. The localized plastic deformation provides visible evidence about the possible location of the critical slip surface.

Frame "Stability"

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Plot of equivalent plastic strain slip surface

Setting basic parameters of slope stability analysis

The safety factor analysis is based on the assumption that the total load applied to the soil/rock body is introduced in a single load step. The actual factor of safety is evaluated using the method of reduction of strength parameters c, . Regarding this the factor of safety is defined as a scalar multiplier that reduces the original parameters c, to arrive at the state of failure. Mathematicaly, the factor of safety is expresses as:

where:

original failure

the original value of the angle of internal friction the value of the angle of internal friction at failure

Searching for the critical value of the factor of safety requires a systematic modification (reduction) of strength parameters c, leading to failure. In the framework of the NRM the state of failure is determined as the state for which the solution fails to converge. The process of searching for critical c, is driven by the following parameters. 1) Reduction reduction factor (scalar multiplier) to reduce parameters c, . During the course of analysis this parameter is progressively updated. 2) Min. reduction factor the limit value, below which the value of reduction factor should not fall during the searching process. This parameter ensures that the computation will not continue for needless low values of the reduction factor. It is one of the parameters to - 534 -

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3) Reduction of soil parameters this parameter allows us to define which of the parameters c, should be reduced. The default setting assumes that both parameters are reduced at the same time.

Basic parameters of slope stability analysis

Setting driving parameters of relaxation of reduction factor

Similar to standard analysis the program adaptively adjusts the value of reduction factor. Providing the solution fails to converge for a given set of parameters c, , the reduction factor is relaxed and the analysis is restarted. This approach is driven by the parameters set in the "Analysis settings" tab sheet Newton Raphson. The Relaxation factor serves to relax the current value of the Reduction factor. The analysis is terminated once the value of reduction factor drops below the minimum one or the maximum number of allowable reductions is exceeded. When selecting the NRM the program allows us to determine the parameters c, which bring a soil body to a stable state in cases, where the solution with the original parameters c, was not found. The program then precedes in the opposite way so that parameters c, are systematically increased until the stable solution is found.

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Parameters driving the process of reduction of strength parameters c,

Analyzed examples
Apart from the help chapters, which provide a detailed description of individual operating elements of the FEM program, the installation CD further supplies solutions of several example problems to highlight some important features of the finite element code. Terrain settlement (file "Demo_01.gmk") Analysis of collector lining (file "Demo_02.gmk") Sheeting structure (file "Demo_03.gmk") Slope stability analysis (file "Demo_04.gmk")

Terrain settlement file Demo01_EN.gmk

The example solves a relatively simple task of the settlement of a flat ground loaded by a uniform vertical surcharge. Individual steps of the solution procedure are described in the following chapters: Task Input Mesh generation 1st stage o construction - analysis 2nd stage of construction surcharge input 2nd stage of construction - analysis 3rd stage of construction unloading, analysis

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Task input
Consider a flat ground loaded by a uniform surcharge of the magnitude of 250 kPa and spread symmetrically over the width of 4m. Determine its settlement both at the end of the loading step and after unloading. The geological profile is homogeneous and the soil has the following parameters: 3 Bulk weight of soil [KN/m ]

19 15 0,35 8 29 0 19

[] [E] [ ] [ c] [] [] [sat]

Modulus of elasticity [MPa] Pissons number [ - ] Cohesion [kPa]

o Angle of internal friction [ ] o Angle of dilation [ ] 3 Bulk weight of saturated soil [KN/m ]

The Mohr-Coulomb material model with no hardening/softening is selected to model the soil response (the results derived for other material models are compared at the end of this example).

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,
Soil parameters input In the next step we define margins of the geometrical model and the soil profile using the mode Interface. Margins are specified such as to have the vertical boundaries of the geometrical model sufficiently far from the applied load. The selected depth of the model is set equal to 15m - the soil below this level is therefore considered as incompressible. Finally we assign the specified soil to the selected interface (region bounded by the ground surface and boundaries of the geometrical model).

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Terrain shape and assigned soil The next step of the topology input is to generate the finite element (FE) mesh.

Mesh generation
The next step of the topology input is to generate the FE mesh. To that end, we switch to the "Generate mesh" input mode. Then, select the mesh density equal to 1.5m and by pressing the "Generate" button generate the FE mesh.

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Generated finite element mesh After completing this step we switch to the 1st stage of construction to perform the actual analysis.

1st stage of construction analysis

In the 1st stage of construction we first select the frame "Analysis" and then after pressing the "Analyze" button we determine the initial stress state (geostatic stress).

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Analysis of 1st stage of construction geostatic stress To continue we add a new calculation stage (a new stage of construction).

2nd stage of construction surcharge input

In the 2nd stage of construction we select the "Surcharge" input mode. Pressing the "Add" button then opens the "New surcharge" dialogue window, which allows for inputting the required parameters of the selected type of surcharge.

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Surcharge input The following figure displays the inputted surcharge.

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2nd stage of construction - analysis

The procedure is identical with the 1st stage select the mode " Analysis" and then press the "Analyze" button to carry out the calculation. When the analysis is completed the program displays the deformed mesh and the distribution of the total vertical normal stress.

Analysis results: 2nd stage of construction Sigma Z total vertical normal stress To view the distribution of the vertical displacement you switch to "Displ. dz". The result appears in the following figure.

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2nd stage of construction vertical displacement due to surcharge As evident from the color scheme the maximum vertical displacement is 106,9 mm. To view the same results after unloading we add a new (third) construction stage.

3rd stage of construction - analysis

In the 3rd stage of construction the load is removed again with the help of the "Surcharge" input mode. Pressing the "Analyze" button in the frame "Analysis" then performs the claculation. The result is potted in the following figure showing the maximum displacement after unloading equal to 19,7 mm.

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3rd stage of construction vertical displacement due to surcharge Summary of the obtained results is available in the next chapter - "Evaluation of results".

Evaluation of results
The example clearly shows that the FE analysis can be largely affected by the selected material model, elastic modulus, type of element and mesh density. The following table stores the results derived for various material models implemented in GEO FEM and different FE meshes. The results provided by other codes such as GEO 5 settlement and ATENA are presented for comparison. Resulting maximum settlement in mm Demo01_EN.gmk: Model/program Mesh Elastic Elastic Elastic Elastic DP DP DP 1,0 1,5 2,0 1,0* 1,0 1,5 2,0 2nd stage 88,30 88,40 82,90 85,90 122,9 120,7 119,1 3rd stage 0 0 0 0 * - 3 noded element 36,8 32,9 41,0 Comment

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GEO5 User's Guide DP MC MC MC MC MCM MCM MCM Atena DP Geo5 - Settlement 1,0* 1,0 1,5 2,0 1,0* 1,0 1,5 2,0 1,0* 113,9 108,0 106,9 106,2 99.8 97,6 96,3 95.5 113,2, 74,1 -

Fine Ltd. 2011 27,5 * - 3 noded element 25,4 19,7 28,3 13.6 * - 3 noded element 11,2 7,8 16,2 27,3 * - 3 noded element Elastic subspace

Several important remarks can be drawn from the above table: The Drucker-Prager model appears to be more compliant (in the present example) than the Mohr-Coulomb and the Modified Mohr-Coulomb material models. As expected, a finer mesh leads to more accurate results including evolution and spread of plastic strains. The results derived with 6-node elements "correspond" to the results found for 3-node elements with approximately twice as fine mesh as used for 6-node elements. This result, however, cannot be generalized. The Modified elastic model that attempts to substitute nonlinear models by introducing different modules for primary loading (Edef) and unloading/reloading (Eur) branch was not included in the table the resulting settlement merely depends on the magnitude of the secant modulus (Edef).

Analysis of collector lining file Demo02_EN.gmk

A detailed analysis of the response of a collector lining is presented in this example. Individual steps of the solution procedure are described in the following chapters: Task input Geometry input Mesh generation 1st stage of construction - analysis 2nd stage of construction collector lining input 2rd stage of construction - analysis Evaluation of results

Task input
The goal of this example is to perform a detailed analysis of a collector lining subjected to - 546 -

GEO5 User's Guide loads exerted by the surrounding soil. parameters is assumed: Soil parameters 3 Bulk weight of soil [KN/m ]

Fine Ltd. 2011 A homogeneous soil with the following material

20 12 0,40 12 21 4 20

[] [E] [] [ c] [] [Edef] [sat]

Modulus of elasticity [MPa] Poissons number [ - ] Cohesion [kPa]

o Angle of internal friction [ ]

Deformation modulus [MPa]

3 Bulk weight of saturated soil [KN/m ]

The collector geometry is depicted in the following figure. The bottom is found at a depth of 12m. The lining is made from a steel-reinforced-concrete with a thickness of 0,1m.

Collector scheme The first step is to create the geometrical model. Margins (world coordinates) are again set to -15m and +15m. An incompressible soil is assumed to be at a depth of 20m. This ensures that the collector is built sufficiently far from the model boundaries.

Task dimensions input

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Interface input The collector is built next.

Geometry input
The collector is introduced into the computational model using free points and free lines. Free points determine individual corners of the collector and are defined through the " Free points" input mode (frame) together with the "New free points" dialogue window.

New free point input

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u Desktop after entering free points In the next step we introduce the geometrical lines connecting collector points using the mode "Free lines". Pressing the "Add" button on the horizontal tool bar then allows us to connect individual points using mouse.

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For entering an arc segment it is necessary to select a new type of line on the tool bar.

Switching the type of line to "Arc" Next, by clicking on the arc end points we define the arc vertical rise.

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The inserted arc can be further adjusted in the " Edit new line properties" dialog window in our particular case we change the value of the center point coordinate from 1,08m to 1,0m (the desired one). This completes the geometry input step.

Adjusting arc parameters in the dialogue window

Desktop after defining geometry To complete the topology input step we proceed with generating the finite element (FE) mesh.

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Mesh generation
Switch to the "Generate mesh" input mode, select the mesh density equal to 2m and then press the "Generate" button to create the finite element mesh.

Generated finite element mesh It is easily seen that the mesh in the vicinity of the collector is rather coarse and calls for refinement. The mesh can be refined either around lines or points. In the present example the following procedure is recommended: - enter a free point somewhere in the center of excavation - refine the mesh around this point

Adding new free point

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Defining mesh refinement around a point

Defined mesh refinement around a point This step considerably improves the mesh around the collector geometrical lines, which now becomes more suitable for numerical analysis.

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Generated mesh with local refinement After generating the finite element mesh we proceed to the 1st stage of construction.

1st stage of construction - analysis

However, before running the analysis it is yet necessary to define the soil parameters. These are introduced in the "Topolgy" regime using the "Soils" input mode. Since no plastic strains are expected to occur the elastic modified model is employed.

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Soil parameters input In the 1st stage of construction we first select the mode " Analysis" and then after pressing the "Analyze" button we determine the initial stress state (geostatic stress).

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Analysis results: 1st stage of construction geostatic stress The next step is to add the 2nd stage of construction.

2nd stage of construction collector lining input

In this stage we introduce the collector lining into the analysis. In particular, use the mode "Beams" and select the "Add" button on the horizontal tool bar to open the "New beams" dialogue window, which allows for entering the required parameters of the beam element. This window also serves to select on what geometrical entity the beam should be positioned a free line in this particular case. The line number, cross-sectional dimensions and material type are entered next. Finally, pressing the "Add" button then adds a new beam to a list of beams shown in the frame. We continue with the same procedure to add all lining segments. The program automatically offers the last specified beam so only the line number needs to be changed if all other parameters remain the same.

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Beam input The following figure shows the desktop after entering all beam elements.

Desktop after entering beam elements The next step is to run the numerical analysis.

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2nd stage of construction analysis

In this stage we perform the excavation step. To do so select the "Activity" mode and "excavate the soil" the region bounded by collector geometrical lines is set as inactive.

Soil excavation setting the region inactive Next, switch to the "Analysis" mode and run the calculation of the 2nd stage. The results are plotted in the following figure:

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2nd stage of construction - analysis Summary of the obtained results is available in the next chapter - "Evaluation of results".

Evaluation of results
Press the "Draw" button on the results tool bar in the frame "Analysis" to open the "FEM setting visualization" of results dialogue window and then choose to plot the distributions of bending elements along beams.

Dialogue window "FEM setting visualization of results" The distribution of bending moment appears on the desktop. Warning: distributions of internal forces are avaialble only for undeformed mesh. In the deformed mesh visualization mode the internal forces are hidden.

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Distribution of bending moment along the collector lining The resulting distributions of internal forces are available also in the text mode.

u Text output of distributions of internal forces on beams of the collector lining

Sheeting structure file Demo03_EN.gmk

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presented in this example. Individual steps of the solution procedure are described in the following chapters: - Task input - Interfaces and soils input - Contacts input - Free points and free lines input - Mesh generation - 1st stage of construction analysis - 2st stage of construction beams input - 2nd stage of construction excavation and GWT change - 2st stage of construction analysis - 3rd stage of construction soil excavation, anchor input, GWT change - 3rd stage of construction analysis - Evalualtion of results

Task input
The goal of this example is to perform a detailed analysis of an anchored steel-concrete sheeting structure of a rectangular cross-section having the thickness of 0,5m. The following material parameters of the selected soils are assumed: Soil parameters - Bulk weight of soil [KN/m3] - Modulus of elasticity [MPa] - Poissons number [ - ] - Cohesion [kPa] - Angle of internal friction [o] - Dilation angle [o] 3 Bulk weight of saturated soil [KN/m ]

Class S4 18 10 0,30 4 29 0 18

Class F6, rigid consistency 21 4,5 0,40 10 19 0 21 [] [E] [] [ c] [] [] [sat]

The structure geometry is depicted in the following figure.

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1st stage of construction excavating soil up to depth of 3,5 m

2st stage of construction adding anchor and excavating soil up to depth of 5,5 m The first step is to create the geometrical model the wall is 10m deep and evolution of plastic strains is expected. The world dimensions are therefore set 20m on each side from the wall. This ensures that the wall is built sufficiently far from the model boundaries and that the boundary conditions will not affect evolution of expected failure zones.

Task dimensions input The next step is to define interfaces and soils.

Interfaces and soils input

The interfaces are introduced using the "Interface" input mode. They may either separate layers of distinct soils or layers of soils to be excavated in individual stages of construction. In this example the terrain and the desired horizontal interfaces are found at depths of 0.00m, -3.00m, -3.50m and 5.50m. A free point on terrain surface having coordinates [0.00, 0.00] is introduced to denote the upper end point of the sheeting wall.

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Shape of terrain and interfaces input Individual soils together with material models are selected next using the " Soils" input mode. The "Assign" mode is used to introduce individual soils into the profile. Choosing a plastic material model representing the soil response is essential to correctly capture the distribution of earth pressures. In this example, both soils are assumed to follow the Mohr-Coulomb plasticity model.

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Soil parameters input

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Soil parameters input The following figure shows the soils assigned to individual interfaces of the profile.

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Assigning soils to the profile The next step requires introduction of contact elements.

Contacts input
Providing we choose beam elements to model the sheeting wall it is necessary to use contact elements with plastic material model (Mohr-Coulomb), which ensures that the soil-beam interaction is properly addressed. The "Contact type" input mode combined with the "Add" button allow for defining the required parameters. In the present example we assume that the contact material parameters correspond to about 30% of shear strength parameters of the surrounding soil (c=0.3, =0.3). 3 Standard setting is considered for the elastic stiffnesses kn and ks (10000 kN/m ).

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Type of contact input The next step requires entering free points and lines to represent the sheeting wall.

Free points and free lines input

The wall geometry is introduced into the computational model using free points and free lines. The "Free points" input mode is used to enter the lower end point of the wall having coordinates [0.00; -10.00]. To introduce a free line use the "New free line" dialogue window in the "Free lines" input mode. The free line is created by connecting the free point and the point located on the terrain surface.

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Entering free line to represent a sheeting structure The result of this step is displayed in the following figure.

Inputted free line sheeting structure To complete the topology input step we proceed with generating the finite element (FE) mesh.

Mesh generation
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structure We choose the refinement diameter equal to 5m and the step length equal to 0.5m.

Defining mesh refinement around a free line Next, switch to the "Generate mesh" input mode, select the mesh density equal to 2m and then press the "Generate" button to create the finite element mesh.

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After generating the finite element mesh we proceed to the 1st stage of construction.

1st stage of construction - analysis

After generating the finite element mesh we proceed to the 1st stage of construction and using the "Water" input mode we enter the ground water table.

1st stage of construction GWT input In the 1st stage of construction we first select the mode "Analysis" and then after pressing the "Analyze" button we determine the initial stress state (geostatic stress).

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1st stage of construction geostatic stress The next step is to add the 2nd stage of construction.

2nd stage of construction beams input

After adding the 2nd stage of construction we define a new beam element and assign it to the pre-defined free line. Pressing the "Add" button in the "Beams" input mode opens the "New beams" dialogue window, which allows for entering the required beam parameteres.

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Beam parameters input The following figure shows the desktop after entering the beam element.

Inputted beam The next step in the 2nd stage is to excavate a particular soil layer and to change the GWT.

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2nd stage of construction soil excavation and GWT change

In this stage we perform the excavation step. To do so select the "Activity" mode and "excavate the soil" the excavated region (the first layer from the left of the wall) is set as inactive. It is seen on the desktop that the built-in corrector of geometry automatically subdivided interfaces crossed by the wall into individual bounded regions.

2nd stage of construction soil excavation The "Water" input mode is then selected to enter the new ground water table.

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2nd stage of construction GTW change Next, switch to the "Analysis" mode and run the calculation of the 2nd stage.

2nd stage of construction - analysis

We now proceed by running the finite element analysis. Some of the available results are plotted in the following figures.

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Analysis of 2nd stage of construction stress z

Analysis of 2nd stage of construction deformed mesh

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,
Analysis of 2nd stage of construction distribution of bending moment

Analysis of 2nd stage of construction equivalent plastic strains and vectors of displacements The next step is to add the 3rd stage of construction.

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3rd stage of construction soil excavation, anchor input, GWT change

After adding the 3rd stage of construction we follow the previous step and excavate the next layer of soil using again the "Activity" input mode.

3rd stage of construction soil excavation Next, we switch to "Anchors" input mode. Pressing the add button then opens the "New anchors" dialogue window to enter the required parameters of the pre-stressed anchor (F=185 kN). An anchor cannot be hooked to a vertical interface. Instead, the anchor head must be defined by entering its coordinates [0.00m, -2.90m].

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.
3rd stage of construction adding anchor Finally we adjust the ground water table.

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3rd stage of construction adding anchor Performing calculation in the 3rd stage of construction is the last step of overall analysis.

3rd stage of construction analysis

To complete the task, run the finite element analysis and evaluate the available results.

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Analysis of 3rd stage of construction stress z

Analysis of 2nd stage of construction deformed mesh

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,
Analysis of 3rd stage of construction distribution of bending moment

Analysis of 3rd stage of construction equivalent plastic strains and vectors of displacements Summary of the obtained results is available in the next chapter - "Evaluation of results".

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Evaluation of results
The following table compares the finite element results of the bending moment with the results provided by the program module GEO5 Sheeting verification. Maximal value of the bending moment developed along the sheeting wall Msto 2nd stage 3rd stage - anchor 3rd stage - field MKP - MC 21,8 85,9 -66,3 MKP - MCM 14,7 85,6 -81,3 Sheeting verification 48,1 99,5 -67,2 MKP DP 22,0 86,0 -65,0

Slope stability analysis file Demo04_EN.gmk

The goal of this example is to address stability of a certain structure by calculating its factor of safety. Individual steps of the solution procedure are described in the following chapters: Task input Type of analysis setting Soil input and their assignment to interfaces Mesh generation 1st stage of construction - analysis 2nd stage of construction surcharge, analysis 3rd stage of construction anchor, analysis Evaluation of results

Task input
The goal of this example is to address stability of a certain structure by calculating its factor of safety. A simple slope free of water and external loading is analyzed first. The influence of external surcharge applied on top the embankment is examined in the 2nd stage of construction. The stabilizing effect of anchors is assessed in the 3rd stage. Soil parameters - Bulk weight of soils [KN/m3] - Modulus of elasticity [MPa] - Poissons number [ - ] - Cohesion [kPa] - Angle of internal friction [o] - Angle of dilation [o] 3 Bulk weight of saturated soil [KN/m ]

Sandy silt 18 21 0,30 9 22,7 0 18 20

Class R4 [] [E] [] [ c] [] [] [sat]

300 0,2 120 38 0 20

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Terrain shape Point No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Interface 1 (terrain) Coord. X [m] 00.00 11.00 21.00 29.50 32.25 40.00 Coord. Z [m] -9.00 -9.00 -2.50 -2.50 -4.00 -4.00 1 2 3 4 Point No. Interface 2 (terrain) Coord. X [m] 00.00 14.00 21.00 40.00 Coord. Z [m] -11,50 -11.00 -9.25 -9.00

Surcharge 2nd stage Mag.1 [kN/m2] 35.00 Mag.2 [kN/m2] 35.00 x1 [m] 22.00 x2 [m] 29.00

Surcharge 3rd stage Mag.1 [kN/m2] 35.00 72.00 Mag.2 [kN/m2] 35.00 15.28 x1 [m] 22.00 x2 29.00 -6.22 287.0 z1 [m] alfa [m] [st.]

The next step is to select the type of analysis.

Type of analysis setting

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in the "Project" input mode using the "Analyses" tab sheet. The "Slope stability" item is then selected from the "Analysis type" combo box.

Defining type of analysis The next step is to define individual soils and to assign them to particular interfaces (regions).

Soil input and their assignment to interfaces

Being in the toplogy input mode we define the structure geometry and material parameters of soils. Note that the safety factor analysis requires selection of plastic models to predict the material response (Mohr-Coulomb, Drucker-Prager). In this example we select the DruckerPrager material model owing to a less stiffer response of the structure when compared to the Mohr-Coulomb predictions. The results obtained for individual material models are summarized in the table at the end of this example.

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Soil parameters input Individual soils are then assigned to given layers as shown in the following figure.

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Soil assignment To complete the topology input step we proceed with generating the finite element (FE) mesh.

Mesh generation
Switch to the "Generate mesh" input mode and press the "Generate" button to create the finite element mesh. Note that the mesh density has a significant impact on the resulting factor of safety. The used mesh should be always sufficiently fine. To demonstrate this effect we carried out the analysis for several mesh densities assuming an average element edge length equal to 1.0, 1.3, 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 m. In this example the element edge length equal to 1.5m is used.

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Generated finite element mesh After generating the finite element mesh we switch to the 1st stage of construction.

1st stage of construction analysis

Next, switch to the "Analysis" mode and by pressing the "Analyze" button run the calculation of the factor of safety. Here, only the effect of material self-weight is examined. The course of analysis and a gradual increase of the factor of safety can be viewed in the bottom part of the frame.

Course of slope stability analysis After completing the analysis the program displays the resulting factor of safety on the bottom part of the frame.

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1st stage of construction calculated factor of safety The potential slip surface can be identified by plotting the localized distribution of equivalent plastic strain EpsEq_Plast.

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2nd stage of construction surcharge, analysis

In the 2nd stage we select the "Surcharge" input mode to define parameters of the desired type of surcharge as shown in figure.

Surcharge parameters input Next, switch to the "Analysis" mode and by pressing the "Analyze" button run the calculation of the factor of safety. The resulting factor of safety appears on the bottom part of the frame.

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2nd stage of construction equivalent plastic strain and factor of safety The last step is to add an anchor and to calculate the factor of safety for the 3rd stage of construction.

3rd stage of construction anchor, analysis

In the 3rd stage we select the "Anchors" input mode to define parameters of the anchor as shown in the figure.

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Anchor parameters input Next, switch to the "Analysis" mode and by pressing the "Analyze" button run the calculation of the factor of safety. The resulting factor of safety appears on the bottom part of the frame.

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3rd stage of construction equivalent plastic strain and factor of safety A back check of the shape of the resulting slip surface may prove to be quite important in some examples as a local failure may occur in other locations than we expect. The next plot shows evolution of plastic strains around the anchor head when relatively fine mesh is used (element edge length = 1m). If this occurs some action must be taken for example: increase the length of element edges increase strength of soil at anchor head introduce beam elements at anchor head

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Evolution of plastic strains at anchor head Summary of the obtained results is available in the next chapter - "Evaluation of results".

Evaluation of results
The following table stores the results of the same example for various material models available in GEO 5 FEM and for several mesh densities. The analytical results provided by the Bishop and Sarma methods are added for comparison. Model/program Bishop Sarma DP DP DP DP DP MC MC 1,0 1,3 1,5 2,0 3,0 1,0 1,3 Mesh 1st stage 1,50 1,58 1,65 1,69 1,67 1,71 1,78 1,54 1,56 2nd st. 1,32 1,38 3rd st. 1,50 1,66 * - soil plastification at anchor head (local failure) Comment

1,41 0,81* 1,44 1,42 1,48 1,52 1,69 1,71 1,74 1,81

1,33 0,81* 1,35 - 593 1,56

* - soil plastification at anchor head (local failure)

GEO5 User's Guide MC MC MC MCM MCM MCM MCM MCM 1,5 2,0 3,0 1,0 1,3 1,5 2,0 3,0 1,56 1,60 1,69 1,76 1,81 1,78 1,83 1,93 1,32 1,37 1,44 1,60 1,62 1,67

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1,54 0,90* 1,56 1,76 1,52 1,83 1,60 1,85 1,65 1,93

* - soil plastification at anchor head (local failure)

Program Pile CPT

Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. Verification methodology is selected in this frame. Pile bearing capacity is verified by one of the following standards: - EN 1997-2 - classical way (factor of safety or limit states) - NEN 6743 - 594 -

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The "Analyses" tab sheet serves to select the type of analysis to determine the toe and skin pile bearing capacity. The following standards are available to perform the particular analysis: - EN 1997-2 - NEN 6743 - LCPC (Bustamante) - Schmertmann This tab sheet also allows for the introduction of negative skin friction into the analysis. Parameters of the negative skin friction are defined in the frame "GWT+NSF".

Frame "Analysis methods"

Profile
The frame "Profile" contains a table with the list of inputted interfaces. After specifying interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) interface" dialogue window. The zcoordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified. The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the " Change terrain elevation" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from program "Terrain". The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.

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Frame "Profile"

Soils
The frame "Soils" contains a table with the list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about the currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Pile CPT". These characteristics are further specified in chapters: "Basic data" and "Uplift pressure". These parameters depend on the theory of analysis specified in the frame "Analysis methods". The program makes possible import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight, angle of internal friction and cohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils. The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Analyses in program Pile CPT".

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Structure
The frame "Structure" serves to select the type of structure a single pile or a group of piles. This frame also serves to input the values of surcharge design and standard value. The design value is used to calculate the pile bearing capacity, while the standard value is used to calculate the pile settlement, for both types of loading when the NEM standard is employed (state 1B and 2).

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Frame "Structure" single pile If the option "Consider influence of negative skin friction" is set in the frame "Analysis methods", then it is also possible to enter the surface surcharge using the "GWT + NSF" frame.

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Group of piles
When defining a group of piles it is necessary to input the structure stiffness, which then the drives the analysis and verification of the structures. The basic assumption is that for a stiff structure all piles experience the same settlement, while for a compliant structure each pile deforms independently. When running the analysis according to NEM6473 this frame also serves to select the way the CPT is carried out. For both stiff and compliant structures the program allows for defining locations of individual piles using their coordinates. In such a case the coordinates of each pile are required (in the x, y coordinate system) and the loading acts on each inputted pile. If the option "Consider influence of negative skin friction" is set in the frame "Analysis methods", then it is also possible to enter the surface surcharge using the "GWT + NSF" frame. Adding (editing) a new pile is performed in the "New pile" dialogue window.

Frame "Group of piles" entering locations of piles using their coordinates If the user does not enter the coordinates of piles locations, then their parameters are defined directly in the frame of the structure. Selecting the stiff structure allows for specifying the number of piles below the structure (the piles are then spread uniformly).

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Frame "Group of piles"

Geometry
The frame "Geometry" serves to input the pile cross-section (circular, rectangular, circular with enlargement, rectangular with enlargement) and a type of the pile (cast in place screw piles, prefabricated screw pile, continuous Flight Auger (CFA)). Using input fields the crosssection dimensions are then specified for the selected cross-section. This frame also serves to input a material of the pile (timber, concrete, steel) a geometry of positioning the pile (a pile length in the soil, a pile head offset and a depth of finished grade). The selected shape with a graphical hint of inputted values is displayed in the right part of the frame. The toe bearing capacity coefficient p is specified in the center part of the frame. This coefficient is by default automatically calculated based on the selected procedure while taking into account the type of pile and the surrounding soil. When analyzing rectangular piles the pile shape coefficient s is introduced to reduce the toe bearing capacity. When analyzing piles with enlargement the expanded pile toe coefficient is introduced to adjust the expanded toe bearing capacity. The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.

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Frame "Geometry"

GWT + NSF
The frame "GWT" ("GWT + NSF") serves to specify the depth of ground water table and the level of incompressible subsoil. The values can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The influence of water is manifested by the change of geostatic pressure. The incompressible subsoil cuts off the influence zone below foundation. It also influences a reduction of the settlement.

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Frame "GWT" without influence of NSF If the option "Consider influence of negative skin friction" is set in the frame "Analysis methods", then it becomes possible to enter parameters of the negative skin friction using the "GWT + NSF" frame boundaries of the region, where the influence of negative skin friction is considered, or sliding region and its material and cohesion.

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Frame "GWT" with influence of NSF

Experiments
The frame "Experiments" contains a table with list of inputted tests of static penetration. Individual parameters of the test are defined in the "New test" ("Edit test") dialogue window. This window serves to enter a name of the test, a depth of the first point of the CPT test from the finished grade, location of CPT (in the x,y coordinate system) and measured values of penetration resistance qc with respect to a depth z measured from the original ground (when calculating according to Schmertmann local friction fs must be entered). The "Add" button in the dialogue window opens the "New value of skin resistance" ("Edit skin resistance") dialogue window, which serves to input the measured values of penetration resistance. Each inputted penetration test is automatically linked to the standard profile specified using the "Profile" input mode. To introduce the penetration test into a specific profile check the "Adjust parameters of standard profile" input field, which is located in the bottom part of the dialogue. Individual input fields are then used to specify new parameters. User can change entered values in dialogue window "Edit CPT". Inserting values between already entered values is realised in dialogue window "Inserted CPT". The results of CPT tests can also be imported.

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Dialogue window "New test" Editing (inserting a test in between already defined tests) is performed in the " Insert test" dialogue window.

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Frame "Tests"

Experiment CPT Import

The program "Pile CPT" allows for importing the CPT test results in the CPT format (*.cpt), gINT (*.gi3) a TXT (*.txt). The "Import CPT" dialogue window contains a table with the list imported tests. The combo lists serve to select the type of file and the desired system of units. *.CPT - a text file standard particularly for Nederland (used e.g., in programs Geodelft MSerie), which serves to input elevations of individual points and values of penetration resistance (may contain more CPTs)

*.GI3

- a text format, which transports tests data from program gINT Software this file contains a set of units, individual test points are specified by their depth from the origin 1st row [test name] string 2nd row [elevation of the test origin] number (an empty row can be entered) 3rd row [point depth][penetration resistance] points separated by space

*.TXT - a general text format with the following definition:

A TXT format allows for selecting a particular system of units to store data of the test. When importing the program automatically converts the adopted system of units to the one used in the program. For a correct calculation the test must be introduced into the soil body therefore the window requires us to input an elevation of the original ground. The particular test is then inserted into the soil body according to its specified elevation. If no elevation is given the origin of the test is automatically placed on the original ground. Providing you use a certain standard of a CPT text file not supported by the program, feel free - 606 -

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to contact us at hotline@fine.cz it will be introduced into the forthcoming version.

Dialogue window "Import CTP"

Assign
The frame "Assign" contains the list of layers of the profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or it is accessible from a combo list associated with each layer of the profile. The procedure to assign a soil to a layer is described in details herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assignment"

Settings
The frame "Settings" serves to define the basic setting for the pile verification analysis. Appearance of this frame changes according to the verification methodology set in the frame "Analysis methods". When classical way is performed, verification analysis according to the theory of limit states or the factor of safety is available. Based on the selected verification analysis it is possible to either enter the factor of safety or coefficients of reduction of parameters. When performing the analysis according to the NEN 6743 standard the program automatically follows this standard so the frame "Settings" is disabled. When using Schmertmann correlation coefficient of skin friction K is entered.

Frame "Settings" verification according to the factor of safety

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Frame "Settings" verification according to limit states

Settings EN
The frame "Settings" serves to specify the coefficients for verification according to EN 1997-2. When using Schmertmann correlation coefficient of skin friction K is entered.

Frame "Settings"

Bearing capacity
The frame Bearing capacity serves to verify the pile vertical bearing capacity. The analysis results are plotted in the right bottom part of the frame. The "In details" button opens the dialogue window, which contains a detailed printout of results from the verification analysis. The plotting scheme can be modified in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Bearing capacity"

Settlement
The frame "Settlement" serves to verify the pile settlement. The analysis results are plotted in the right bottom part of the frame. The "In details" button opens the dialogue window, which contains a detailed printout of results from the verification analysis. When calculating settlement according to the NEN6743 standard the program plots, apart from the limit load curve, also the loading diagram (force/displacement curve). The analysis results are displayed in the top part of the frame. The plotting scheme can be modified in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Settlement" Limit loading curve

Frame "Settlement" Distributions force/settlement

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Program Beam
Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The combo lists allow for selecting standards for loading and combinations (EN 1990, or general) and for concrete structures (types of concrete are then specified in the frame "Geometry" based on the selected standard).

Frame "Analysis methods" This frame also serves to specify subdivision of the wall into finite elements (default setting is 20 elements). Next it is possible to define whether the soil acts in tension we always recommend calculating assuming tension cutoff of soils. A combo list allows for choosing one of the three ways of defining the Winkler-Pasternak subsoil: - calculation of C1 and C2 - the Winkler-Pasternak parameters of subsoil are calculated by the program from inputted parameters of the geological profile - 612 -

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- input of C1 and C2 - the Winkler-Pasternak parameters of subsoil are directly specified - input of Edef,ny,hz the Winkler-Pasternak parameters of subsoil are calculated from the deformation modulus Edef, Poisson number and depth of influence zone hz In the first case, when parameters C1 and C2 are calculated, the frame "Subsoil" is not accessible. For the remaining two approaches the frames "Interface", "Location", "Soils", "Assign", and "Water" are not accessible.

Winkler-Pasternak parameters C1 a C2
The Winkler - Pasternak model for the solution of an elastic layer introduces the balance equation in the vertical direction as:

where:

c1, c2 w fz

parameters of the Winkler Pasternak model deflection in the vertical direction vertical load acting on a layer

The program makes it possible to calculated the parameters C1, C2 from deformation parameters of soils or from geological profile.

Calculation of Winkler-Pasternak parameters C1 and C2 from geological profile

A characteristic combination of loading must be chosen when calculating the Winkler Pasternak parameters (C1, C2) from the geological profile. This combination should be considered as service and should correspond to the most frequently appearing load. Using this combination a surcharge at the footing bottom is calculated next followed by calculation of the influence zone. Deformation parameters (Poissons number, deformation modulus) are determined for the calculated influence zone as a weighted average of deformation parameters of soils. Given these parameters the WinklerPasternak constants (C1, C2) are then calculated in the following way.

Calculation of Winkler-Pasternak constants from deformation parameters of soils

The Winkler Pasternak constants C1 and C2 are calculated in the program from the condition of equal compliance matrices of infinitely stiff infinite strip footing resting on the Winkler Pasternak and elastic subsoil. This condition is represented by the following equalities:

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where:

[C] b c1w, c2w H

matrix of constants C1 a C2 half width of foundation Winklers constants depth of deformation zone

Geometry
The frame "Geometry" contains a table with a list of inputted beam sections. Adding (editing) points is performed in the "New segments (Edit segment properties)" dialogue window. The window requires defining the section length, width and height (for rectangular crosssection). The program allows for defining a general cross-section of a beam (cross-sectional area and moment of inertia are specified). Material of the cross-section is specified next, either using the program catalogue, or by entering the material parameters (modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, self-weight).

Frame "Geometry"

Subsoil
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Pasternak subsoil C1 and C2 or deformation parameters of soils (Edef, ny, hz), respectively, depending on the setting in the frame "Analysis methods". Inputting or editing parameters mode is selected from a combo list. The table shows values of the parameter that is selected from the combo list above the table. Adding (editing) points is performed in the "New subsoil parameters" dialogue window. The window serves to specify the X coordinate and the value of the parameter.

Frame "Subsoil"

Interface
The frame "Interface" serves to introduce individual soil interfaces into the soil body. Detailed description how to deal with interfaces id described herein. The program makes possible to import or export interfaces in the *.DXF format. They can also be imported in the gINT format.

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Frame "Interface"

Location
The frame "Location" serves to specify the beam location. One needs to specify the beam origin point having x and z coordinates.

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Frame "Location"

Soils
The frame "Soils" contains a table with the list of inputted soils. The table also provides information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The soil parameters needed in program are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Settlement oedometric modulus", "Settlement determination of the depth of influence zone" and "Uplift pressure". The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.

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Frame "Soils"

Basic data
This part of the dialogue window serves to specify the unit weight.

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Dialogue window "Add new soils" - "Basic data"

Assign
The frame "Assign" contains a list of layers of the profile and associated soils. The list of soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or it is accessible from a combo list for each layer of the profile. Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in detail herein. The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.

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Frame "Assign"

Water
The frame "Water" serves to input the ground water table. Distribution GWT is introduced the same way as interfaces of soils.

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Frame "Water"

Supports
The frame "Supports" contains a table with the list of inputted supports. Adding (editing) supports is performed in the "New supports (Edit support properties)" dialogue window. Editing can be carried out with the help of "Modist" button or by clicking the row with the required support in the list using the left mouse button. The type of support is determined according to a particular boundary condition specified at a given point (translation, rotation). The following boundary condition can be specified at a point: free fixed deformation spring

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Frame "Supports"

Load cases
The frame "Load cases" contains a table with the list of inputted load cases. Adding (editing) load cases and their parameters is performed in the "New load case" dialogue window. Editing can be carried out with the help of "Modify" button or by clicking the row with the required load case in the list using the left mouse button.

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Frame "Load cases"

Load case parameters

The following parameters are defined in the "New load case" dialogue window: Load case identifier The load case identifier, which is composed of the load case number and a uniliteral prefix, is displayed in front of the field for entering the name of the load case. The prefix is determined by the type of load case: G Q A permanent loading variable loading accidental loading

The load case identifier is mainly used in printouts of combinations. Load case code The load case code determines, what loading can be specified for this loading. The following options are available. Self-weight In this load case the load represents the structure self-weight and it is generated automatically by the program. Only one load case with this code can be considered in each task. An arbitrary type of force loading (forces, moments) can be introduced into the load case with this code. The number of LCs is not limited.

Force Load type

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particular type of load corresponds to classification according to EN 1990 standard, art. 4.1.1. Load coefficients It allows for specifying the load partial factor f. This coefficient accounts for unfavorable deviations of values of loads from the representative ones. For permanent loading it is necessary to introduce different values for favorable (f, inf) and for unfavorable (f, sup) load action in a combination. If the load input follows EN 1990 the default values of coefficients are taken from table A1.2(B). Category Classification of load cases into categories corresponds to the classification of load according to table A1.1 of EN 1990 standard. Based on this the variable load cases are assigned combination coefficients 0, 1 a 2. The category of "User-defined input" allows for defining the user self-values of these coefficients. Choosing a category is possible only for load cases inputted according to EN 1990 (the frame "Analysis methods" serves to select the particular standard). Combination coefficients Basic values of coefficients to create combinations arise from EN 1990 standard and depend on the load case category. When user input is assumed, it is possible to define the user self-values of these coefficients. The following coefficients are used to create a combination: - Coefficient of reduction of permanent loads in alternative combination this coefficient is assigned to all permanent loads and is used when compiling alternative combinations for the bearing capacity limit state (combination to relation 6.10.b, EN 1990). - Coefficient of combination value coefficient for variable loads, it is used when compiling combinations for both the bearing capacity and service limit states - Coefficient of frequent value coefficient for variable loads, it is used when compiling accidental combinations and combinations for the service limit state Coefficient of quasi-permanent value - coefficient for variable loads, it is used when compiling accidental combinations and combinations for the service limit state

0 1 2

The combination coefficients are available only for load cases inputted according to EN 1990 (the frame "Analysis methods" serves to select the particular standard).

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Dialogue window "New load case"

Load
The frame "Load" contains a table with the list of inputted loads. Adding (editing) a load is performed in the "New loads (Edit loads)" dialogue window. Editing can be carried out with the help of "Modify" button or by clicking the row with the required load in the list using the left mouse button. Each load is assigned to a load case. The load case can be selected from the " Active load case" combo list above the table.

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Frame "Load"

Combination of ULS
The frame "Combinations ULS" contains a table with the list of inputted combinations of the bearing capacity limit state. Adding (editing) combinations and their parameters is performed in the "New combination of load cases" dialogue window. Editing can be carried out with the help of "Modify" button or by clicking the row with the required combination in the list using the left mouse button. The built in generator of combinations of load cases can be used to create individual combinations.

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Frame "Combination of ULS"

Parameters of combinations of ULS

The following parameters are specified in the "New combination of load cases" dialogue window: New combination A brief description of combination is displayed in front of the field where the combination is defined. All considered load cases are tagged using their identifiers. The major variable loads are moved at the beginning of the list and separated from the remaining LCs by colon. Type of combination (for combinations based on EN 1990 only) The following combinations can be created for the bearing capacity limit state: Basic Alternative Basic combination based on expression 6.10 of EN 1990 standard Combinations based on expressions 6.10a and 1.10b of EN 1990 standard. In this case, two variants of combination are used in the analysis, one with reduced permanent LCs and the other with reduced major variable LC. Accidental combination based on 6.11 of EN 1990 standard.

Accidental

Selection of load cases The table listing individual load cases allows for their selection to create a combination. The load case can be introduced into a combination by checking the field in the column "Consider" for a particular LC. Further setting in the table depends on the selection of way of inputting loads in the frame "Analysis methods".

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GEO5 User's Guide Loading according to EN 1990:

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A second field is available for each load case in the column "Consider". This field allows for assigning a favorable effect of action to permanent LCs (adopting coefficient f, inf) or for specifying a variable loading as the major one, respectively. The number of major variable loads in the combination is not limited. An accidental load can be introduced into combinations tagged as "Accidental" (only LCs tagged as "Accidental" are available for the selection). For accidental combinations it is also necessary to choose, whether a major variable load should be reduced by the coefficient 1 or 2. General loading A coefficient of usability can be specified for each load case to adjust the degree of usability of the load case in the combination.

Dialogue window "New combination of load cases"

Generator of combinations
The "Generator of combinations 1st order" dialogue window allows for a collective compilation of combinations of load cases based on the introduced combination rules. Referring to standard EN 1990 the number of generated combinations can be relatively large and in extreme cases could considerably slow down calculations. Owing to this, information about expected number of combinations to be generated is displayed in the right bottom corner. Therefore, before launching generation the user may check, how many combinations will be generated and possibly adjust generator conditions. The top part of the window serves to define conditions for generating combinations; the bottom part contains various generator settings.

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Dialogue window "Generator of combinations - 1st order"

Mutually interacting load states and groups This part makes possible to merge those load states that should appear in combinations always together. Permanent and variable loads cannot be merged into one group. If the field All permanent loads always in combination is checked in the Generator parameters, the creation of groups of permanent loads has no effect on their appearance in combinations as each generated combination will always contain all permanent LCs. In such case, merging permanent LCs will only influence consideration of favorable/unfavorable effects of LCs providing the field Permanent loads act only unfavorably is not checked.

Dialogue window "Generator of combinations" Mutually interacting load states

Excluded interaction of load states This part makes possible to define, which LCs should not appear in a combination together. Arbitrary load cases or merged groups can be mutually excluded in dependent of the type of load case. Two options are available to define groups to be excluded: Mutual exclusion An arbitrary number of load cases can be introduced into one group. In such a case, the program will not generate any combination that contains at least two - 629 -

GEO5 User's Guide load cases from this group. Exclusion by pairs

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Providing it is necessary to create a larger number of excluding groups of two sorts, where one LC is the same (e.g. exclusion of assembly variants of permanent loads with all service load cases), it is possible to adopt this option. A load case to be excluded is first selected in the first column. The second column is then used to select an arbitrary number of LCs, which are needed to create excluding groups.

Dialogue window "Generator of combinations" Excluded interaction of load states

Load cases and groups acting as the main variable load This part is available only when inputting loads according to EN 1990 is considered (the standard is selected in the frame "Analysis methods"). When automatic regime is assumed then each variable load is taken as major in created combinations. If this regime is turned off, it is possible to manually adjust the list of major variable loads. For example, it is possible to remove an arbitrary load case from the list so that it will not be considered as major variable in combinations. If a new item with more load cases is add to the list then all load cases will be considered as major variable in those combinations, where they appear together.

Dialogue window "Generator of combinations" Load cases and groups acting as the main variable load

Generator parameters (parameters that can be set in the bottom part of the dialogue window). Combo list "Original combinations" Retain original combinations - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will add new combinations, created according to the specified rules, to the original ones

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GEO5 User's Guide Remove all combinations Remove generated combinations Remove all combinations of the current type Remove generated combinations of the current type

Fine Ltd. 2011 - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will delete all original combinations and will replace them by the new ones - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will delete older combinations and will add new ones created according to the specified rules - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will delete all combinations of a given type and will replace them by the new ones - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will delete older combinations of a given type and will add new ones created according to the specified rules

Combo list "Generate combinations" The following types of generated combinations can be chosen for loads based on EN 1990: Basic Alternative - Generates basic combinations for the bearing capacity limit state based on expression 6.10 of EN 1990 standard - Generates combinations for the bearing capacity limit state based on expressions 6.10a and 1.10b of EN 1990 standard. This variant generates two times more combinations but it provides better results. - Generates accidental combinations for the bearing capacity limit state based on 6.11 of EN 1990 standard. An accidental load case to appear in accidental combinations can be specified. It is also necessary to choose, whether a major variable load will be reduced by the coefficient 1 or 2.

Accidental

Permanent loads act only unfavorably If this setting is not checked, the program creates all possible combinations, where introduction of all variants of favorable and unfavorable actions of permanent loads will be considered. All permanent loads always in combination If this setting is not checked, the program creates combinations in such a way that a successive introduction of all LCs into a combination will be considered.

Combinations SLS
The frame "Combinations SLS" contains a table with the list of inputted combinations of the service limit state. Adding (editing) combinations and their parameters is performed in the "New combination of load cases" dialogue window. Editing can be carried out with the help of "Modify" button or by clicking the row with the required combination in the list using the left mouse button. The built in generator of combinations of load cases can be used to compile individual combinations.

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Frame "Combination SLS"

Parameters of combinations of SLS

Combinations SLS serve to evaluate states that refer to the structure appearance, comfort of people or to functioning of a structure while in ordinary use. Typically, only deformations, vibrations, etc. are checked. The "New combination of load cases" dialogue window (similarly to combinations for ULS) serves to define the following parameters: Type of combination according to EN 1990 The following combinations can be created for the service limit state: Characteristic Frequent Quasi-permanent - combination based on expression 6.14 of EN 1990 standard - combination based on expression 6.15 of EN 1990 standard - combination based on expression 6.16 of EN 1990 standard

Selection of load cases The table listing individual load cases allows for their selection to create a combination. The load case can be introduced into a combination by checking the field in the column "Consider" for a particular LC. A coefficient of usability can be specified for generally inputted combinations (select in the frame "Analysis methods") to adjust the degree of usability of the load case in the combination.

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Dialogue window "New combination of load cases"

Generator of combinations
The "Generator of combinations 1st order" dialogue window allows for a collective compilation of combinations of load cases for the service limit state. Functions of generator of combinations are explained in section devoted to the generator of combinations for the bearing capacity limit state. If inputting loads according to EN 1990 is set in the frame "Analysis methods", it is possible to generate the following combinations for the service limit state: Characteristic Frequent Quasi-permanent - combination based on expression 6.14 of EN 1990 standard - combination based on expression 6.15 of EN 1990 standard - combination based on expression 6.16 of EN 1990 standard

Analysis
The frame "Analysis" also serves to display the analysis results. The analysis is carried using the finite element method incorporating the Winkler-Pasternak subsoil. Several analyses, including presentation of results, can be carried out for one task. Information about the performed analysis is displayed in the top right corner of the frame. Should the analysis parameters change it is necessary to re-run the analysis by pressing the " Analyze" button. If the subsoil parameters are calculated from the geological profile, it is necessary to choose "Characteristic combination for subsoil analysis" in the combo lit. The "Results" combo list serves to set combinations of loading for ULS or SLS (possibly envelopes of combinations of load cases) for which the results should be displayed on the desktop. The bottom part of the window serves to define, which variables are visualized (Displacements, Shear force, Moment) and the way of their appearance on the desktop.

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Frame "Analysis"

Program Plate
Project
The "Project" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are further used in text and graphical outputs. The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).

Frame "Project"

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Analysis methods
The frame "Analysis methods" serves to specify verification methodology, standards or methods that are used to perform the analysis. The combo lists allow for selecting standards for loading and combinations (EN 1990, or general) and for concrete and steel structures (dimensioning analysis).

Frame "Analysis methods" The frame also allows for inputting EC2 coefficients. The "user-defined" option in the combo list activates the "Modify" button, which opens the "Values of coefficients for EC" dialogue window. The "Value" column displays the predefined values of EC coefficients. Its value can be edited by checking the corresponding field in the "User value" column.

Dialogue window "Values of coefficients for EC"

Joints
The frame "Joints" contains a table with the list of inputted joints. Adding (editing) joints is - 635 -

GEO5 User's Guide performed in the "New joints" dialogue window.

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Joints can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Joints". The following modes are available: Add Modify Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the joint location. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing joint opens the "Modify properties of joint" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the joint opens the remove joint dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected joint. Clicking the left mouse button on the joint highlights the selected joint. The joint is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several joints at once (e.g. deleting).

Remove Select

The inputted joints can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Joints"

Lines
The frame "Lines" contains a table with the list of inputted lines. Adding (editing) lines is performed in the "New lines" dialogue window. The lines are defined between individual points (segments, arcs, circles) or around individual points (circles). The lines may arbitrarily cross or touch each other intersection of inputted lines are identified by the program automatically when correcting the inputted geometry. - 636 -

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Lines can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Lines". The following modes are available: Add Line type Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the line location. A combo list is used to select the desired type of line (segment, arc, circle). Clicking the left mouse button on the joint introduces the line location. segment - arc Use the combo list to choose a particular mode of defining an arc segment (third point, center, radius, height). Clicking the left mouse bottom on the desktop then selects points to define the arc. When selecting one of the following options center, radius or included angle, you are further requested to select the orientation (positive, negative) from the combo list. Use the combo list to choose a particular mode of defining a circle (center and radius, three points). Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop then selects points to define the circle. The combo list is also used to select the orientation (positive, negative).

- circle

Modify Clicking the left mouse button on already existing points opens the "Modify properties of line" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Remove Clicking the left mouse button on already exiting free points opens the remove line dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected line. Select Clicking the left mouse button on the line highlights the selected line. The line is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several lines at once (e.g. deleting).

The lines can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Lines"

Macroelements
The frame "Macroelements" contains a table with the list of inputted macroelements. Adding (editing) macroelements is performed in the "New macroelements" dialogue window. The dialogue window servers to input a list of lines defining the macroelement outline, its thickness and material. The macroelement material can be either selected from the catalogue of materials or its material parameters can be inputted manually using the "Edit material" dialogue window. Macroelements can also be introduced using mouse. This inputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Macroelements". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the lines introduces the borders macroelement. Adding macroelement is performed in the "New macroelement" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing macroelement opens the "Modify properties of macroelement" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the macroelement opens the remove macroelement dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected macroelement. Clicking the left mouse button on the macroelement highlights the selected macroelement. The macroelement is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several macroelements at once (e.g. - 638 -

Modify

Remove

Select

GEO5 User's Guide deleting).

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The inputted macroelements can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Macroelements"

Openings
The frame "Openings" contains a table with the list of inputted openings. Adding (editing) openings is performed in the "New openings" dialogue window. Openings can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Openings". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the lines introduces the borders openings. Adding opening is performed in the "New opening" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing macroelement opens the "Modify properties of opening" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the opening opens the remove opening dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected opening. Clicking the left mouse button on the opening highlights the selected opening. The opening is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several openings at once (e.g. deleting).

Modify

Remove Select

The inputted openings can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Openings"

Joint refinements
The frame "Joint refinements" contains a table with the list of inputted joit refinements. Adding (editing) joit refinements is performed in the "New joit refinements" dialogue window. Refining the finite element mesh around joints is an important feature, which allows us to create an appropriate finite element mesh. Joit refinements can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Joit refinements". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the joit. Adding joit refinement is performed in the "New joit refinement" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing joit refinement opens the "Modify properties of joint refinement" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the opening opens the remove joit refinement dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected joit refinement. Clicking the left mouse button on the joit refinement highlights the selected joit refinement. The joit refinement is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several joit refinements at once - 640 -

Modify

Remove

Select

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The inputted joit refinements can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Joint refinements"

Dialogue window "New joint refinements"

Line refinements
The frame "Line refinements" contains a table with the list of inputted line refinements. Adding (editing) line refinements is performed in the " New line refinements" dialogue window. Refining the finite element mesh around lines is an important feature, which allows us to create an appropriate finite element mesh.

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Line refinements can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Line refinements". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the line. Adding line refinement is performed in the "New line refinement" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing line refinement opens the "Modify properties of line refinement" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the line refinement opens the remove line refinement dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected line refinement. Clicking the left mouse button on the line refinement highlights the selected line refinement. The line refinement is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several line refinements at once (e.g. deleting).

Modify

Remove

Select

The inputted line refinements can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Line refinements"

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Dialogue window "New line refinements"

Macroelement refinements
The frame "Macroelement refinements" contains a table with the list of inputted macroelement refinements. Adding (editing) macroelement refinements is performed in the "New macroelement refinements" dialogue window. Refining the finite element mesh of macroelements is an important feature, which allows us to create an appropriate finite element mesh. Macroelement refinements can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar " Macroelement refinements". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the macroelement. Adding line refinement is performed in the "New macroelement refinement" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing macroelement refinement opens the "Modify properties of macroelement refinement" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the macroelement refinement opens the remove macroelement refinement dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected macroelement refinement. Clicking the left mouse button on the macroelement refinement highlights the selected macroelement refinement. The macroelement refinement is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several macroelement refinements at once (e.g. deleting).

Modify

Remove

Select

The inputted macroelement refinements can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Macroelement Line refinements""

Dialogue window "New macroelement refinements"

Mesh generation
The frame "Mesh generator" serves to define the basic setting to generate mesh (element edge length, mesh type, mesh smoothing) and to view information about the generated mesh (right part). The "Error analysis" button allows for visualization of error listing in the right part of the frame (list of problems the structure has). Information about the resulting mesh including warnings for possible weak points in the mesh is displayed in the right bottom window. An arbitrary part of the plate specified by lines (segments, arches and circles) can be meshed. The plate can be formed by one or more macroelements all having a constant thickness and identical material properties and may contain an arbitrary number of openings. In addition, it is possible to introduce internal points and lines which are then considered as mesh nodes and - 644 -

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edges. The joints along lines and inside macroelements allow for mesh refinement, which is characterized by the required length of element edges in the center of the refinement and by the refinement radius. The user may choose either a purely triangular mesh or a hybrid mesh consisting of both triangular and quadrilateral elements. The meshing algorithm is based on Delaunay triangulation enhanced by several methods to modify and optimize the finite element mesh. The mesh nodes are automatically renumbered to minimize the computational effort. Properly generated finite element mesh is the stepping stone for obtaining accurate results. Optimal are equilateral triangular and square quadrilateral elements. The program contains a built-in automatic mesh generator considerably simplifying this task. The basic mesh density is specified in the "Mesh generator" window. Refining the mesh increases accuracy of the results. However, high mesh density considerably slows down both the solution and subsequent visualization of the results. The goal is thus to create an optimally refined mesh this strongly depends on users experience. Thanks to efficiency of the mesh generator there is no problem to adjust input parameters until obtaining an optimal mesh. The mesh quality is further maintained with the help of builtin smoothing algorithm, which can be, however, turned off. The actual analysis step is extremely fast even for relatively dense meshes. The following procedure to generate the finite element mesh is recommended: Correctly generated finite element mesh is the major step in achieving accurate and reliable results. The program GEO FEM has an automatic mesh generator, which may substantially simplify this task. Nevertheless, certain rules should be followed when creating a finite element mesh: - First, a uniform mesh linked to the plate thickness (1-5 multiple of its thickness) is generated throughout the plate.

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- The finite element mesh should be sufficiently fine in the locations where large stress gradients are expected (point supports, corners, openings, etc.). The mesh refinement can be specified around individual joints, lines and on the macroelements. Its radius should be at least 2-3 multiple of the density assumed in the center of the refinement and both values (density, radius) should be reasonable with respect to the refinement prescribed for the neighboring regions. This assures a smooth transition between regions with different mesh densities. Singular lines should be tackled in the same way.

Defining mesh refinement around a circular line

New mesh after refining the original mesh around a circular line

Mesh generator warning

In the "Mesh generation result" dialog window the user is prompted for possible locations on the structure that may cause problems during automatic mesh generation. When positioning - 646 -

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the cursor on individual warnings the corresponding critical region on a structure is highlighted with a red color. The following items are checked: -whether the distance between two points is greater than one tenth of the required element edge length -whether the distance between a point and a line is greater than one tenth of the element edge length -whether the area of a region is greater than twice the element edge length -whether points and/or lines are found inside the structure (in the soil) These warnings suggest locations, in which the mesh generator experience problems. The following possibilities may occur: -the mesh is not generated => this calls for a new input of geometrical data -the mesh is generated => in this case it is up to the user to decide whether the mesh is reasonable in any case, the warning can be further ignored and the analysis can be carried out

Warning after identifying critical sections in FE mesh

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Critical section after zooming in two points are too close to each other

Joint supports
The frame "Joint supports" contains a table with the list of inputted joint supports. Adding (editing) joint supports is performed in the "New joint supports" dialogue window. Joint supports can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Joint supports". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the joint location. Adding (editing) joint support is performed in the "New joint support" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing joint support opens the "Modify properties of joint support" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the joint support opens the remove joint support dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected joint support. Clicking the left mouse button on the joint support highlights the selected joint support. The joint support is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several joint supports at once (e.g. deleting).

Modify

Remove

Select

The inputted joint supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The following types of joint supports are considered:

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Frame "Joint supports"

Dialogue window "New joit support"

Line supports
The frame "Line supports" contains a table with the list of inputted line supports. Adding - 649 -

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(editing) line supports is performed in the "New supports of lines" dialogue window. Line supports can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Line supports". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the line support location. Adding line support support is performed in the "New support of line" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing line support opens the "Modify properties of support of line" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the line support opens the remove line support dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected line support. Clicking the left mouse button on the line support highlights the selected line support. The line support is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several line supports at once (e.g. deleting).

Modify

Remove

Select

The inputted line supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The following types of line supports are considered: free fixed spring

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Dialogue window "New support of line"

Beams
The frame "Beams" contains a table with the list of beams. Adding (editing) beams is performed in the "New beams" dialogue window. The dialogue widow serves to define the line number of the beam location and material and cross-section of the beam. Choosing the type of material (concrete, steel, other) then allows for assigning the material parameters either from the catalogue of materials or manually using editor of materials. The cross-section parameters (based on type of cross-section) can be either calculated in the window "Calculation of cross-sectional parameters" or manually inputted in the "Input of cross-sectional parameters" window. Beams can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Beams". The following modes are available: Add Modify Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the beam location. Adding beam is performed in the "New beam" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing beam opens the "Modify properties of beam" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the beam opens the remove beam dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected beam. Clicking the left mouse button on the beam highlights the selected beam. The beam is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several beams at once (e.g. deleting).

Remove Select

The inputted beams can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Beams"

Dialogue window "New beam"

Catalogue of materials
The program contains a built-in catalogue of materials for concrete, steel and other materials. Only the type of material is has to be specified in the dialogue window. The type of cross- 652 -

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section is selected from the "Calculation of cross-sectional parameters" dialogue window or "Input of cross-sectional parameters" dialogue window.

Dialogue window "Catalogue of materials" - concrete

Dialogue window "Catalogue of materials" - steel

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Dialogue window "Catalogue of materials" - other

Editor of materials
Apart from using the "Catalogue of materials" the program allows the user to enter the material parameters for steel, concrete and other materials (dialogue window " Editor of material - General") digitally. Only the type of material (material parameters) has to be specified in the dialogue window. The type of cross-section is selected from the "Calculation of cross-sectional parameters" dialogue window or "Input of cross-sectional parameters" dialogue window.

Dialogue window "Editor of material - Concrete"

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Dialogue window "Editor of material - Structural steel"

Dialogue window "Editor of material - General"

Types of cross-section
The program allows the user to either input the cross-section parameters in "Calculation of cross-sectional parameters" and "Input of cross-sectional parameters" dialogue windows. The cross-sectional characteristics is selected from the catalogue of cross-section, editor of cross-section dialogue windows.

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Dialogue window "Calculation of cross-sectional parameters"

Dialogue window "Input of cross-sectional parameters"

Catalogue of cross-sections
In the case of steel cross-sections the program allows for choosing a particular cross-section from the catalogue of cross-sections. Only the type of cross-section has to be specified in the dialogue window. The type of material of the cross-section is selected from the "Catalogue of materials", or defined in the "Editor of materials". The cross-sectional characteristics is selected from the editor of cross-sections dialogue windows.

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Dialogue window "Katalog prez"

Editor of cross-sections
In the case of steel and concrete cross-section the program allows for introducing the user defined cross-section. Only the shape of cross-section has to be specified in the dialogue window. The cross-sectional characteristics is selected from the catalogue of materials, editor of materials dialogue windows.

Dialogue window "Cross-section editor - Structural steel, solid welded"

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Dialogue window "Cross-section editor - Structural steel, composite rolled"

Dialogue window "Cross-section editor - Concrete, standard"

Macroelement subsoils
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subsoils. Adding (editing) line supports is performed in the "New macroelement subsoils" dialogue window. The dialogue window serves to define the macroelement number and parameters C1 and C2. The Winkler-Pasternak constants C1 and C2 can specified either directly or calculated by the program. The latter option further requires inputting deformation parameters of soils (deformation modulus, Poissons number and depth of influence zone) in the " Compute C1 and C2" dialogue window. These parameters can be determined using the program "Spread footing" (2. limit state) and introduced into the program. Macroelement subsoils supports can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar " Macroelement subsoils". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the macroelement subsoil location. Adding macroelement subsoil support is performed in the "New macroelement subsoil" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing macroelement subsoil opens the "Modify properties of macroelement subsoil" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the macroelement subsoil opens the remove macroelement subsoil dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected macroelement subsoil. Clicking the left mouse button on the macroelement subsoil highlights the selected macroelement subsoil. The macroelement subsoil is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several macroelement subsoil at once (e.g. deleting).

Modify

Remove

Select

The inputted macroelement subsoils can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Macroelement subsoils"

Dialogue window "New macroelement subsoil"

Winkler-Pasternak parameters C1 a C2
The Winkler - Pasternak model for the solution of an elastic layer introduces the balance equation in the vertical direction as:

where:

c1, c2 w fz

constants characterizing the Winkler Pasternak model displacement in the vertical direction vertical load acting on a layer

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The elastic subsoil is introduced into the program using local stiffness matrices which are added to the stiffness matrices of individual elements resting on the subsoil. The contact stress is provided as an output.

Calculation of Winkler-Pasternak constants from deformation parameters of soils

The Winkler Pasternak constants C1 and C2 are calculated in the program from the condition of equal compliance matrices of infinitely stiff infinite strip footing resting on the Winkler Pasternak and elastic subsoil. This condition is represented by the following equalities:

where:

[C] b c1w, c2w H

matrix of constants C1 a C2 half width of foundation Winklers constants depth of deformation zone

Load cases
The frame "Load cases" contains a table with the list of inputted load cases. Adding (editing) load cases and their parameters is performed in the "New load case" dialogue window. Editing can be carried out with the help of "Modify" button or by clicking the row with the required load case in the list using the left mouse button.

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Frame "Load cases"

Dialogue window "New load case"

Load case parameters

The following parameters are defined in the "New load case" dialogue window: - 662 -

GEO5 User's Guide Load case identifier

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The load case identifier, which is composed of the load case number and a uniliteral prefix, is displayed in front of the field for entering the name of the load case. The prefix is determined by the type of load case: G Q A permanent loading variable loading accidental loading

The load case identifier is mainly used in printouts of combinations. Load case code The load case code determines, what loading can be specified for this loading. The following options are available. Self-weight In this load case the load represents the structure self-weight and it is generated automatically by the program. Only one load case with this code can be considered in each task. An arbitrary type of force loading (forces, moments) can be introduced into the load case with this code. The number of LCs is not limited.

Force Load type

It determines the character of load cases based on their variability in time. Selecting a particular type of load corresponds to classification according to EN 1990 standard, art. 4.1.1. Load coefficients It allows for specifying the load partial factor f. This coefficient accounts for unfavorable deviations of values of loads from the representative ones. For permanent loading it is necessary to introduce different values for favorable (f, inf) and for unfavorable (f, sup) load action in a combination. If the load input follows EN 1990 the default values of coefficients are taken from table A1.2(B). Category Classification of load cases into categories corresponds to the classification of load according to table A1.1 of EN 1990 standard. Based on this the variable load cases are assigned combination coefficients 0, 1 a 2. The category of "User-defined input" allows for defining the user self-values of these coefficients. Choosing a category is possible only for load cases inputted according to EN 1990 (the frame "Analysis methods" serves to select the particular standard). Combination coefficients Basic values of coefficients to create combinations arise from EN 1990 standard and depend on the load case category. When user input is assumed, it is possible to define the user self-values of these coefficients. The following coefficients are used to create a combination: - Coefficient of reduction of permanent loads in alternative combination this coefficient is assigned to all permanent loads and is used when compiling alternative combinations for the bearing capacity limit state (combination to relation 6.10.b, EN 1990). - Coefficient of combination value coefficient for variable loads, it is used when compiling combinations for both the bearing capacity and service limit states - Coefficient of frequent value coefficient for variable loads, it is used when compiling accidental combinations and combinations for the service limit state - 663 -

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Coefficient of quasi-permanent value - coefficient for variable loads, it is used when compiling accidental combinations and combinations for the service limit state

The combination coefficients are available only for load cases inputted according to EN 1990 (the frame "Analysis methods" serves to select the particular standard).

Dialogue window "New load case"

Joint loads
The frame "Joint loads" contains a table with the list of inputted joit loads. Each joint load is assigned to a certain load case and inputted joint. Selection of the load is performed in the "Active load case" combo list. Adding (editing) joit loads is performed in the "New load of joints" dialogue window. The program allows for specifying either mechanical (e.g. forces) or deformational (e.g. prescribed displacements of supports) actions. Joint loads can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Joit loads". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the joint location. Adding joint load is performed in the "New load of joint" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing joint load opens the "Modify properties of joint load" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the joint load opens the remove joint load dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected joint load. Clicking the left mouse button on the joint load highlights the selected joint load. The joint load is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several joint loads at once (e.g. deleting).

Modify

Remove

Select

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The inputted joint loads can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Joint loads"

Line loads
The frame "Line loads" contains a table with the list of inputted line loads. Each line load load is assigned to a certain load case and inputted lines. Selection of the load is performed in the "Active load case" combo list. Adding (editing) line loads is performed in the "New loads of lines" dialogue window. The program allows for specifying either mechanical (e.g. forces), deformational (e.g. prescribed displacements of supports), or temperature actions. Joint loads can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Joit loads". The following modes are available: Add Modify Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the line location. Adding line load is performed in the "New load of line" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing line load opens the "Modify properties of load of line" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the line load opens the remove line load dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected line load. Clicking the left mouse button on the line load highlights the selected line load. The line load is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several line loads at once (e.g. deleting). - 665 -

Remove

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The inputted line loads can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Line loads"

Dialogue window "New load of line"

Temperature load
Temperature load assumes a linear distribution of temperature throughout the plate thickness. Such thermal gradient causes moments in the plate given by: - 666 -

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where:

E h

- elastic modulus - Poissons number - plate thickness - coefficient of thermal expansion - temperature difference

Macroelement loads
The frame "Macroelement loads" contains a table with the list of inputted macroelement loads. Each macroelement load is assigned to a certain load case and inputted macroelement. Selection of the load is performed in the "Active load case" combo list. Adding (editing) macroelement loads is performed in the "New macroelement loads" dialogue window. The program allows for specifying either mechanical (e.g. forces) or temperature actions. Joint loads can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Joit loads". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the macroelement location. Adding macroelement load is performed in the "New macroelement load" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing macroelement load opens the "Modify properties of macroelement load" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the macroelement load opens the remove macroelement load dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected macroelement load. Clicking the left mouse button on the macroelement load highlights the selected macroelement load. The macroelement load is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several macroelement loads at once (e.g. deleting).

Modify

Remove

Select

The inputted macroelement loads can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Macroelement loads"

Free point loads

The frame "Solitary point loads" contains a table with the list of inputted solitary point loads. Each solitary point load is assigned to a certain load case and can receive an arbitrary location on the plate surface. Selection of the load is performed in the "Active load case" combo list. Adding (editing) solitary line loads is performed in the "New free point loads" dialogue window. Solitary line loads can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Free point loads". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop defines point specifying the loaded. The load parameters are defined in the "New free point load" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing solitary point load opens the "Modify properties of free point load" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the solitary point load opens the remove point load dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected solitary point load. Clicking the left mouse button on the solitary point load highlights the selected solitary point load. The solitary point load is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several solitary point loads at once (e.g. deleting). - 668 -

Modify

Remove

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The inputted solitary point load can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Solitary poit loads"

Free line loads

The frame "Solitary line loads" contains a table with the list of inputted solitary line loads. Each solitary line load is assigned to a certain load case and with using points it can receive an arbitrary direction and location on the plate surface. Selection of the load is performed in the "Active load case" combo list. Adding (editing) solitary line loads is performed in the "New free line loads" dialogue window. Solitary line loads can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Free line loads". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop defines points specifying the loaded line. The load parameters are defined in the "New free line load" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing solitary line load opens the "Modify properties of free line load" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the solitary line load opens the remove line load dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected solitary line load. Clicking the left mouse button on the solitary line load highlights the selected solitary line load. The solitary line load is simultaneously marked - 669 -

Modify

Remove

Select

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in the table list. The option allows for editing several solitary line loads at once (e.g. deleting). The inputted solitary line load can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Solitary line loads"

Free area loads

The frame "Solitary area loads" contains a table with the list of inputted solitary area loads. Each solitary area load is assigned to a certain load case and with using points it can receive an arbitrary shape and location on the plate surface. Selection of the load is performed in the "Active load case" combo list. Adding (editing) solitary area loads is performed in the "New free surface loads" dialogue window. Solitary area load can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Free surface loads". The following modes are available: Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop defines points specifying the loaded region. The load parameters are defined in the "New free surface load" dialogue window. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing solitary area load opens the "Modify properties of free surface load" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the solitary area load opens the remove solitary area load dialogue window accepting this action removes the - 670 -

Modify

Remove

GEO5 User's Guide selected solitary area load. Select

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Clicking the left mouse button on the solitary area load highlights the selected solitary area load. The solitary area load is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several solitary area loads at once (e.g. deleting).

The inputted solitary area load can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Solitary area loads"

Dialogue window "New free surface load"

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Combination ULS
The frame "Combinations ULS" contains a table with the list of inputted combinations of the bearing capacity limit state. Adding (editing) combinations and their parameters is performed in the "New combination of load cases" dialogue window. Editing can be carried out with the help of "Modify" button or by clicking the row with the required combination in the list using the left mouse button. The built in generator of combinations of load cases can be used to create individual combinations.

Frame "Combination ULS"

Parameters of combinations of ULS

The following parameters are specified in the "New combination of load cases" dialogue window: New combination A brief description of combination is displayed in front of the field where the combination is defined. All considered load cases are tagged using their identifiers. The major variable loads are moved at the beginning of the list and separated from the remaining LCs by colon. Type of combination (for combinations based on EN 1990 only) The following combinations can be created for the bearing capacity limit state: Basic Alternative Basic combination based on expression 6.10 of EN 1990 standard Combinations based on expressions 6.10a and 1.10b of EN 1990 standard. In this case, two variants of combination are used in the analysis, one with - 672 -

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reduced permanent LCs and the other with reduced major variable LC. Accidental Accidental combination based on 6.11 of EN 1990 standard.

Selection of load cases The table listing individual load cases allows for their selection to create a combination. The load case can be introduced into a combination by checking the field in the column "Consider" for a particular LC. Further setting in the table depends on the selection of way of inputting loads in the frame "Analysis methods".

Loading according to EN 1990: A second field is available for each load case in the column " Consider". This field allows for assigning a favorable effect of action to permanent LCs (adopting coefficient f, inf) or for specifying a variable loading as the major one, respectively. The number of major variable loads in the combination is not limited. An accidental load can be introduced into combinations tagged as "Accidental" (only LCs tagged as "Accidental" are available for the selection). For accidental combinations it is also necessary to choose, whether a major variable load should be reduced by the coefficient 1 or 2. General loading A coefficient of usability can be specified for each load case to adjust the degree of usability of the load case in the combination.

Dialogue window "Nov kombinace zatovacch stav"

Generator of combinations of ULS

The "Generator of combinations 1st order" dialogue window allows for a collective compilation of combinations of load cases based on the introduced combination rules. Referring to standard EN 1990 the number of generated combinations can be relatively large and in extreme cases could considerably slow down calculations. Owing to this, information about expected number of combinations to be generated is displayed in the right bottom corner. Therefore, before launching generation the user may check, how many combinations will be generated and possibly adjust generator conditions. The top part of the window serves to define conditions for generating combinations; the bottom part contains various generator settings.

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Dialogue window "Generator of combinations - 1st order" Mutually interacting load states and groups This part makes possible to merge those load states that should appear in combinations always together. Permanent and variable loads cannot be merged into one group. If the field All permanent loads always in combination is checked in the Generator parameters, the creation of groups of permanent loads has no effect on their appearance in combinations as each generated combination will always contain all permanent LCs. In such case, merging permanent LCs will only influence consideration of favorable/unfavorable effects of LCs providing the field Permanent loads act only unfavorably is not checked.

Dialogue window "Generator of combinations" Mutually interacting load states

Excluded interaction of load states This part makes possible to define, which LCs should not appear in a combination together. Arbitrary load cases or merged groups can be mutually excluded in dependent of the type of load case. Two options are available to define groups to be excluded: Mutual exclusion An arbitrary number of load cases can be introduced into one group. In such a case, the program will not generate any combination that contains at least two

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GEO5 User's Guide load cases from this group. Exclusion by pairs

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Providing it is necessary to create a larger number of excluding groups of two sorts, where one LC is the same (e.g. exclusion of assembly variants of permanent loads with all service load cases), it is possible to adopt this option. A load case to be excluded is first selected in the first column. The second column is then used to select an arbitrary number of LCs, which are needed to create excluding groups.

Dialogue window "Generator of combinations" Excluded interaction of load states

Load cases and groups acting as the main variable load This part is available only when inputting loads according to EN 1990 is considered (the standard is selected in the frame "Analysis methods"). When automatic regime is assumed then each variable load is taken as major in created combinations. If this regime is turned off, it is possible to manually adjust the list of major variable loads. For example, it is possible to remove an arbitrary load case from the list so that it will not be considered as major variable in combinations. If a new item with more load cases is add to the list then all load cases will be considered as major variable in those combinations, where they appear together.

Dialogue window "Generator of combinations" Load cases and groups acting as the main variable load

Generator parameters (parameters that can be set in the bottom part of the dialogue window). Combo list "Original combinations" - 675 -

GEO5 User's Guide Retain original combinations Remove all combinations Remove generated combinations Remove all combinations of the current type Remove generated combinations of the current type

Fine Ltd. 2011 - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will add new combinations, created according to the specified rules, to the original ones - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will delete all original combinations and will replace them by the new ones - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will delete older combinations and will add new ones created according to the specified rules - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will delete all combinations of a given type and will replace them by the new ones - By pressing the "Generate" button the program will delete older combinations of a given type and will add new ones created according to the specified rules

Combo list "Generate combinations" The following types of generated combinations can be chosen for loads based on EN 1990: Basic Alternative - Generates basic combinations for the bearing capacity limit state based on expression 6.10 of EN 1990 standard - Generates combinations for the bearing capacity limit state based on expressions 6.10a and 1.10b of EN 1990 standard. This variant generates two times more combinations but it provides better results. - Generates accidental combinations for the bearing capacity limit state based on 6.11 of EN 1990 standard. An accidental load case to appear in accidental combinations can be specified. It is also necessary to choose, whether a major variable load will be reduced by the coefficient 1 or 2.

Accidental

Permanent loads act only unfavorably If this setting is not checked, the program creates all possible combinations, where introduction of all variants of favorable and unfavorable actions of permanent loads will be considered. All permanent loads always in combination If this setting is not checked, the program creates combinations in such a way that a successive introduction of all LCs into a combination will be considered.

Combination SLS
The frame "Combinations SLS" contains a table with the list of inputted combinations of the service limit state. Adding (editing) combinations and their parameters is performed in the "New combination of load cases" dialogue window. Editing can be carried out with the help of "Modify" button or by clicking the row with the required combination in the list using the left mouse button. The built in generator of combinations of load cases can be used to compile individual combinations.

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Frame "Combination SLS"

Parameters of combinations of SLS

Combinations SLS serve to evaluate states that refer to the structure appearance, comfort of people or to functioning of a structure while in ordinary use. Typically, only deformations, vibrations, etc. are checked. The "New combination of load cases" dialogue window (similarly to combinations for ULS) serves to define the following parameters: Type of combination according to EN 1990 The following combinations can be created for the service limit state: Characteristic Frequent Quasi-permanent - combination based on expression 6.14 of EN 1990 standard - combination based on expression 6.15 of EN 1990 standard - combination based on expression 6.16 of EN 1990 standard

Selection of load cases The table listing individual load cases allows for their selection to create a combination. The load case can be introduced into a combination by checking the field in the column "Consider" for a particular LC. A coefficient of usability can be specified for generally inputted combinations (select in the frame "Analysis methods") to adjust the degree of usability of the load case in the combination.

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Dialogue window "Combination of load cases"

Generator of combinations of SLS

The "Generator of combinations 1st order" dialogue window allows for a collective compilation of combinations of load cases for the service limit state. Functions of generator of combinations are explained in section devoted to the generator of combinations for the bearing capacity limit state. If inputting loads according to EN 1990 is set in the frame "Analysis methods", it is possible to generate the following combinations for the service limit state: Characteristic Frequent Quasi-permanent - combination based on expression 6.14 of EN 1990 standard - combination based on expression 6.15 of EN 1990 standard - combination based on expression 6.16 of EN 1990 standard

Dimensioning parameters
The frame "Dimensioning parameters" serves to define data for dimensioning longitudinal and shear reinforcement. The combination number (or all combinations) of a combination to be analyzed must be specified. The material of longitudinal reinforcements is selected either from "Catalogue of materials", or can be introduced manually in the "Editor of materials". Shear reinforcement is specified in terms of crooks, or stirrups (crooks require to define their angle). When running the dimensioning analysis the program generates values of the following quantities. The analysis is carried out according to the standard set in the frame "Analysis methods".

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Frame "Dimensioning parameters"

Macroelement dimensionings
The frame "Macroelement dimensioning" contains a table with the inputted macroelements. Editing reinforcement properties (reinforcement direction and distance of centroid of top and bottom reinforcement from the plate edge can be modified) is performed in the " Modify properties of macroelement dimensioning". When running the dimensioning analysis the program generates values of the following quantities. The analysis is carried out according to the standard set in the frame "Analysis methods". Macroelement dimensioning can also be modify using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar " Free point loads". The following modes are available: Modify Clicking the left mouse button on already existing solitary point load opens the "Modify properties of dimensioning of macroelement" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the macroelement dimensioning highlights the selected macroelement dimensioning. The macroelement dimensioning is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several macroelement dimensionings at once (e.g. deleting).

Select

The macroelement dimensioning can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

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Frame "Macroelement dimensionings"

Analysis
The analysis results are displayed in the frame "Analysis". The "Analysis" is carried out using the finite element method. The dimensioning analysis is performed according to the standard set in the frame "Analysis methods". The analysis can be stopped any time by pressing the "Interrupt" button. Upon completing the analysis the program immediately displays the results and information about the solution process. This information (with possible listing of errors) is shown in window in the bottom part of the frame. The principal output tool is the visualization of results on the screen. The tool bar in the top part of the screen serves to manage the graphical representation of output quantities. The color range and the bottom for its setting are found in the top part of the desktop. The way the results appear on the screen can be set in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

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Frame "Analysis" - screen after completing analysis

Procedure of analysis
The solution procedure is split into several steps including localization of the global stiffness matrix while taking into account the support conditions (fixed or spring supports at joint or along lines, elastic subsoil), setting up the load vector and analysis of the system of equations using the Gaussian method with the Cholesky decompositions of the global stiffness matrix, which in this case is symmetric and band. The values of primary variables wz, x a y calculated at mesh nodes are then used to determine the internal forces mx, my, mxy, vx and vy together with the derived quantities m1, m2 and the values of reactions developed in supports. 2D-elements The quality of results of the plate problem derived using the finite element method is strongly influenced by the type of plate element. The present formulation exploits a deformation variant of the finite element method to derive triangular and quadrilateral elements denoted as DKMT and DKMQ (Discrete Kirchhoff-Mindlin Triangle a Quadrilateral). Formulation of the plate element implemented in the program is based on the discrete Kirchhoff theory of bending of thin plates, which can be considered as a special case of the Mindlin plate theory developed upon the following assumptions: - compression of plate in the z-direction is negligible compare to the vertical displacement Wz - normals to the mid-plane of the plate remain straight after deformation but not necessarily normal to the deformed mid-plane of the plate - normal stress z is negligible compare to stresses x, y - 681 -

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DKMT and DKMQ elements have 9 and 12 degrees of freedom, respectively three independent displacements at each node:

W - deflection in the direction of z-axis

z

- rotation about x-axis x - rotation about y-axis y The elements satisfy the following criteria: the stiffness matrix has correct rank (no zero energy states are generated) fulfill the patch test are suitable for the analysis of both this and thick plates they show good convergence properties not computationally expensive

In case of well generated mesh the quadrilateral elements are preferable as show better behavior compare to triangular elements. 1D-elements The plate can be reinforced by beams formulated on the basis of one dimensional beam element with embedded torsion and is compatible with plate elements (details can be found in literature). The primary variables are Wz, x and y and corresponding internal forces are M1, M2 and V3 (twisting and bending moments and shear force). The beam is characterized by the moment of inertia It a I2 (torsion, bending), area A and shear area As. These parameters can be calculated by the program based on the type of cross-section. The analysis constructs 6x6 local stiffness matrices subsequently localized in to the global stiffness matrix of the structure.

Literature: I. Katili, A new discrete Kirchhoff-Mindlin element based on Mindlin-Reissner plate theory and assumed shear strain fields part I: An extended DKT element for thick-plate bending analysis, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng., Vol. 36, 18591883 (1993) I. Katili, A new discrete Kirchhoff-Mindlin element based on Mindlin-Reissner plate theory and assumed shear strain fields part II: An extended DKQ element for thick-plate bending analysis, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng., Vol. 36, 18851908 (1993) Z. Bittnar, J. ejnoha, Numerick metody mechaniky, VUT, Praha, 1992

Results
Visualization and interpretation of results is one of the most important parts of the program. Based on the tool bar setting the program displays variables (deflection, moments, rotation) for an arbitrary load case or LC combination, or if needed variables for dimensioning (values of necessary reinforcement areas calculated according to the standard selected in the frame "Analysis methods"). Calculation of values in user-defined points, or on lines, can be set in frames "Values" or "Distributions", respectively.

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The program provides several basic types of graphical output defined in the "Plate setting visualization of results" dialogue window. - plotting structure - surface plot of quantities - plotting finite element mesh - plotting grid - plotting distributions (diagrams) - plotting values on surface - plotting directions of moments and reactions The tool bar "Results" in the upper part of the screen serves to selected variables to be displayed and the way they should appear on the screen. The color range is shown in the right part of the desktop. Its particular setting can be adjusted using the "Color range" tool bar. Because properly setting outputs might be often time consuming, the program disposes of a comfortable system of selecting and storing view settings. All outputs and selected results can be further printed out from the analysis protocol.

Tool bar Results

The tool bar contains the following operating elements:

Tool bar "Setting visualization of graphical outputs" Individual elements operate as follows: Plotting style setting opens the "Plate - setting visualization of results" dialogue window which allows the user to be more specific in defining the plotting style a combo list containing names of plots saved by the user saves the current plot displayed on the desktop, the dialogue window serves to enter the name of the plot

List of plots Save plot

Manager of plots opens the "Manager of plots" dialogue window which serves to manage (delete, change order, rename) already saved plots Results (loads, load cases, combination, dimensioning) Type of variable Surface plot displays the selected load cases, combination (ULS, SLS), envelopes (ULS, SLS) or dimensioning displays the selected variable or variable of dimensioning turns on/off plotting of isolines, isosurfaces

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GEO5 User's Guide Mesh

Fine Ltd. 2011 turns on/off the style of plotting the FE mesh (only edges, or according to the setting in the "Plate setting visualization of results" dialogue window plotting of topology of construction

Plotting of topology

The tool bar contains the most often used operating elements needed to view the results on the desktop. Detailed setting of the style of plotting the results is available in the "Plate setting visualization of results" dialogue window. Similar to other programs in GEO5 system the results can be saved and printed. The plotting style can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.

Setting visualization of results

The "Plate setting visualization of results" dialogue window serves to specify the values to be plotted and the way of their visualization. Individual settings can be later saved using the tool bar "Results". The item "Basic" serves to set the basic parameters for plotting the results, areal quantities and mesh information additional items can be then used to define visualization of other outputs.

Dialogue window "Plate - results visualisation settings"

List of variables
List of quantities displayed by the program for individual load cases, combinations of load cases (ULS, SLS) or envelopes (ULS, SLS) Variable Deflection Wz Rotation x Rotation y Moment mx Moment my Unit Description Displacement in the Z-direction Rotation about X-axis Rotation about Y-axis Value of the moment about X-axis Value of the moment about Y-axis

[mm] [mrad] [mrad] [kNm/m] [kNm/m]

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GEO5 User's Guide Moment mxy Shear force Vx Shear force Vy Moment m1 Moment m2 Shear force Vmax Contact stress

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[kNm/m] [kN/m] [kN/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kN/m] [kN/m ]

2

Value of moment Value of the shear force in the X-direction Value of the shear force in the Y-direction Value of the principal (extreme) moment Value of the principal (extreme) moment Value of the shear force (extreme) Value of the contact stress

List of variables of dimensioning

To perform dimensioning analysis it is first necessary to choose the option "Carry out dimensioning" in the frame "Dimensioning parameters". Visualization of values for dimensioning can be set in the tool bar "Results". Notation of variables (particularly indexes of variables) changes according to the standards used for dimensioning of concrete and steel structures set in the frame "Analysis methods". List of quantities displayed by the program for dimensioning Variable Moment Mdim1, min Moment Mdim1, max Moment Mdim2, min Moment Mdim2, max Reinforcement area Au1 Reinforcement area Ab1 Reinforcement area Au2 Reinforcement area Ab2 Ratio of reinforcement h1 Unit Description Minimal dimensioning moment in direction of reinforcement 1 Maximal dimensioning moment in direction of reinforcement 1 Minimal dimensioning moment in direction of reinforcement 2 Maximal dimensioning moment in direction of reinforcement 2 Area of upper reinforcement in direction 1

[kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m]

2

[mm /m] [mm /m] [mm /m] [mm /m] [%]

2 2 2

Area of bottom reinforcement in direction 1 Area of upper reinforcement in direction 2

Area of bottom reinforcement in direction 2

Reinforcement ratio of upper reinforcement in direction 1

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GEO5 User's Guide Ratio of reinforcement d1 Ratio of reinforcement h2 Ratio of reinforcement d2 Shear force VEd Reinforcement area Ab,nut Shear force VRd, c Shear force VRd, max

Fine Ltd. 2011

[%] [%] [%] [kN/m]

Reinforcement ratio of bottom reinforcement in direction 1 Reinforcement ratio of upper reinforcement in direction 2 Reinforcement ratio of bottom reinforcement in direction 2 Dimensioning shear force

2 2 [mm /m ] Requested area of shear reinforcement

[kN/m] [kN/m]

Shear strength of cross-section without shear reinforcement Maximal allowable shear force

Values
The frame "Values" allows for defining points (or joints) arbitrarily placed on the plate surface. For these points (joints) it is possible to display variables (deflections, moments, rotations) for an arbitrary load case or LC combination, or if needed variables for dimensioning (values of necessary reinforcement areas calculated according to the standard selected in the frame "Analysis methods"). The frame contains a table with the list of inputted points (joints). Adding (editing) is performed in the "New values" dialogue window. The window serves to specify the type of input (point, joint), coordinates and for what load case, combination, or dimensioning the resulting quantities should be displayed. The value in the supported joint corresponds to the reaction force at this support. In the dimensioning analysis some quantities can be denoted by symbol [*]. In such a case the necessary reinforcement area and minimal degree of reinforcement is required. If the point is found on the boundary of two macroelements, the program displays two sets of values for dimensioning. Values (points) can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "New values". The following modes are available: Add Modify Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop introduces the point location (value). Clicking the left mouse button on already existing point (value) opens the "Modify properties of value" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the point (value) opens the remove point dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected point (value). Clicking the left mouse button on the point (value) highlights the selected point (value). The point (value) is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several points (values) at once (e.g. deleting).

Remove

Select

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The inputted points (values) can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Values"

Distributions
For these segments (lines) it is possible to display variables (deflections, moments, rotations, etc.) for an arbitrary load case or LC combination, or if needed variables for dimensioning (values of necessary reinforcement areas calculated according to the standard selected in the frame "Analysis methods"). The frame contains a table with the list of inputted segments (lines). Adding (editing) is performed in the "New distributions" dialogue window. The window serves to specify the type of input (segment, line), coordinates of the first and the last point, load case, combination, dimensioning and quantity. The frame displays: - general distributions general distributions (diagrams) on an arbitrary segment (line) - distributions on beams - distributions on supported line if a beam is assigned to the line it is possible to display distributions (diagrams) of other quantities (shear force V3, bending moment M2, twisting moment M1) if the line is supported it is possible to display distributions (diagrams) of other quantities (vertical reaction rz, moment reaction rm, t).

Distributions can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Distributions". The following modes are available: - 687 -

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Clicking the left mouse button on the joint introduces the distribution location. Clicking the left mouse button on already existing distribution opens the "Modify properties of distribution" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters. Clicking the left mouse button on the distribution opens the remove distribution dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected distribution. Clicking the left mouse button on the distribution highlights the selected distribution. The distribution is simultaneously marked in the table list. The option allows for editing several distributions at once (e.g. deleting).

Remove

Select

The inputted distributions can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.

Frame "Distributions"

Outputs
The program contains three basic output options: Print and export document Print and export picture Copy to clipboard

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Adding picture
The program allows for storing the current picture irrespectively of the program regime. To that end, press the "Add picture" button on the vertical tool bar. The button opens the "New picture" dialogue window and inserts the current view on the desktop view in the window. The picture is always linked to a certain input regime or analysis. (The current regime is displayed next to the picture name). When printing document the picture is automatically added to a specific regime in the tree. The program allows for defining the picture either for a specific stage of construction (or for the current analysis) or adjusting the setting such that the picture is added to the document in all stages of construction (or all analyses). The latter option is assumed when selecting " all" in the "Stages" combo list (or "Analysis" list). Warning: All inputted pictures are automatically regenerated whenever modifying data. The picture view can be adjusted with the help of vertical tool bar in the left part of the window (edit size and location). See "Tool bar - scale and shift" section for more details on individual buttons. The last button on the bar allows for adjusting the picture page ratio. The " Picture setting" frame in bottom part of the dialogue window further allows for adjusting colors and style of line (object) drawing see "Setting visualization style". The "OK" button stores the picture into the "Picture list". It can be then opened and modified at any time. The picture can be also printed out from this window pressing the "Print" button opens the dialogue window for printing and exporting pictures. If the picture is active over all stages (or all analyses), then all possible combinations of pictures are printed all at once (each picture on a separate page).

Dialogue window "New picture"

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Picture list
Pictures stored with the help of the "New picture" dialogue window are ordered in the table in "Picture list". The "Picture list" dialogue window is opened using the button on the vertical tool bar. The table of list of pictures contains the picture name and description, the regime in which it was created and stage of construction or the analysis number. Individual pictures can be edited using the "Modify" button, which opens the "Picture modification" dialogue window (this window corresponds to the "New picture" dialogue window both in the way it looks and in the way it functions). These pictures can be printed out from the window by pressing the "Print" button that opens the dialogue window for printing and exporting the picture. Providing the picture is active over all stages of construction (over all analyses, respectively) then the program prints all possible combinations of the picture (each picture on a separate page). Providing more pictures are selected then all selected pictures are printed out.

Dialogue window "Picture list"

Print and export document

The "Print and export document" dialogue window can be opened either from the control menu (items "Files", "Print document") or using the "Files" button on the horizontal tool bar. The page print preview with a generated text appears in the window. This window generates output document including pictures stored in the "Picture list". This window allows either for printing the created protocol or exporting it for further use. The document is always up to date the program creates the document again based on inputted data (even with regenerated pictures) whenever opening this window. Only specific parts of the document including pictures can be generated by checking the corresponding "tree" item in the left part of the window. Selecting or deselecting an arbitrary - 690 -

GEO5 User's Guide item prompts the program to regenerate the document automatically.

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The dialogue window contains its own "Control menu" and "Tool bar" for finalizing the page face (header and footer definition, page size and edges definition and definition page numbering). A mouse ball or scroll bar can be also used to view the document. The button part of the dialogue window displays current information (defined page size, current document page and the total number of pages).

Dialogue window "Print and export document"

Print and export picture

This window serves to print or export one or more pictures. Three options are available to open this window: using the control menu (items "Files", "Print view") or the "Files" button on the tool bar to print data from the desktop. using the "New picture" dialogue window by pressing the "Print" button using the "Picture list" dialogue window by pressing the "Print" button The window may contain more than one picture at the same time (when printing more construction stages or analyses) when printing more pictures from the list. Each pictured is printed on a separate page. The picture preview can be adjusted using buttons on the tool bar or a mouse ball. The dialogue window contains its own "Control menu" and "Tool bar" for finalizing the page face (header and footer definition, page size and edges definition and definition page numbering). The button part of the dialogue window displays current information (defined page size, - 691 -

GEO5 User's Guide current document page and the total number of pages).

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Dialogue window "Documents" print and export current picture (view)

Control menu Print and export

The control menu of the "Print and export document" and "Print and export pictures" dialogue windows contains the following items: Document Save as opens the "Save as" dialogue window that allows for saving the file in format *.PDF, or *.RTF opens the dialogue window for mail client an adds the picture as an attachement in format *.PDF opens text editor (associated in the Windows system with *.RTF extenison) that allows for editing the page manulally opens the "Page properties" dialogue window that allows for specifying the page style (size, edges, layout)

Send

Open for edit

Page properties

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GEO5 User's Guide Header and footer opens the "Header and footer" dialogue window that allows for inputting the document headers and footers opens the system window for "Print" closes the dialogue window

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Print Close

Edit Copy copies the selected picture (text) to clipboard parameters are set in the "Options" dialogue window tab sheet "Copy to clipboard" marks all on page (on document) into block cancels entire selection (picture, text)

Sellect all Unsellect all

View Full page modifies the page size such that the entire page in the dialogue window is visible fits the page to a maximum width of the document dialogue window

Page width

Page (this item appers in the menu only if the document has more than one page) First page Previous page Following page Last page shows the document first page shows the previous page shows the following page shows the document last page

Tool bar Print and export

The tool bar of the "Print and export document" and "Print and export picture" dialogue windows contains the following buttons:

Tool bar "Print and export" Individual buttons function as follows:

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GEO5 User's Guide Save as Print Page properties

Fine Ltd. 2011 opens the "Save as" dialogue window that allows for saving the file in format *.PDF, or *.RTF opens the system window for "Print" opens the "Page properties" dialogue window that allows for specifying the page style (size, edges, orientation) opens the "Header and footer" dialogue window that allows for inputting the document headers and footers determines the style of picture view (color, gray scale, black & white) copies the selected picture (text) to clipboard parameters are set in the "Options" dialogue window tab sheet "Copy to clipboard" shows the document first page shows the previous page shows the following page shows the document last page moves the current view in an arbitrary direction to proceed move mouse in the desired location while keeping the left mouse button pressed scales up the desktop view while keeping location of the point under the axis cross unchanged this action is repeated using the left mouse button, the right button leaves the zooming mode scales down the desktop view while keeping location of the point under the axis cross unchanged this action is repeated using the left mouse button, the right mouse button leaves the zooming mode allows for selecting the text under the axis cross to proceed move mouse over the desired text while keeping the left mouse button pressed modifies the page size such that the entire page in the dialogue window is visible fits the page to maximum width of the document dialogue window

Header and footer Color style Copy

First page Previous page Next page Last page Move

Zoom in

Zoom out

Text selection

Full page Page width

Setting header and footer

The dialogue window serves to define properties of the document header and footer. The "print header (footer)" check box determines whether to print the document header (footer). Header and footer lines may contain an arbitrary text and inserted objects implicitly defined by the program. These objects receive program information such as: - 694 -

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from the "Company data" dialogue window (company name, logo, address) from the "Project" frame (name and task description, author) from the document system data (date, time, page numbering) Objects can be introduced using the "Insert" button (the button opens a list of objects). The button is active only if the cursor is found in one of the line that allows for inserting text (object). Inserted objects are written in an internal format different from other text and placed in curly brackets. The program allows for defining various headers for the first page or odd and even pages, respectively. Individual headers are in such a case defined in separate tab sheets. The "use as default" option sets the inputted header and footer parameters as default for the newly created data. The assumed default setting is common for all GEO programs. Different computer users may use different settings. Writing format and the resulting view are evident from the following pictures.

Dialogue window "Header and footer"

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View of document header and footer

Page properties
The dialogue window allows for setting the page layout (paper format, print orientation and edges). The "use as default" option sets the inputted page properties as default for the newly created data. The assumed default setting is common for all GEO programs. Different computer users may use different settings.

Dialogue window "Page properties"

Page numbering
This dialogue window allows the user to set page numbering. The combo list serves to define the numbering style (Arabic digits, roman digits, with the help of symbols). A constant text can be placed both in front and behind the page number. The "Numbering from" option allows for starting the page numbering from an arbitrary number. The "use as default" option sets the inputted page numbering properties as default for the newly created data. The assumed default setting is common for all GEO programs. Different computer users may use different settings.

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Dialogue window "Page numbering"

About company
The dialogue window is launched from the managing menu (items "Setting", "Company"). The "Basic data" tab sheet serves to specify the basic information about company. The inputted data are used by the program when printing and exporting documents (pictures), in the document header or footer. The "Company logo" tab sheet allows the user to load the company logo. The " Load" button opens the dialogue window which allows for opening the picture in various formats (*.JPG, *.JPEG, *.JPE, *.BMP, *.ICO, *.EMF, *.WMF). The "Employees" tab sheep allows for inputting the list of program users (employees). When filling the name list it is no longer necessary fill the author's name in the frame "Project".

Dialogue window "About company" tab sheet "Basic data" - 697 -

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Dialogue window "About company" tab sheet "Company logo"

Dialogue window "About company" tab sheet "Employees"

Theory
The theoretical part of help contains all theoretical basis employed in computations with the GEO5 programs.

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Verification methodology
The program allows for structure verification according to three methodologies: -verification according to EN 1997 -verification according to LRFD -classical analysis employing verification according to limit states or safety factors, respectively The actual calculations (e.g., pressure calculation, determination of bearing capacity of foundation soil) are the same for all three methodologies they differ only in the way of introducing the design coefficients, combinations and the procedure for verifying the structure reliability. When adopting the classical approach it is possible to model the structure using in general any type of standard and therefore also EN 1997 or LRFD for significant complexity of these methods, however, the program was enhanced to allow for their direct application.

Verification according to EN 1997

Designing a structure according to EN 1997-1 is based on the analysis of limit states. The stepping stone for a safe design is a correct settings of partial factors for the selected "National Annex" or "Design approach", respectively. Partial factors are identical for analyses in given program, for individual stages it also possible to choose a "Design situation". The programs can be grouped into several categories based on the analysis approach and the degree on automation: - Analysis of walls, supporting structures (walls, abutment, nailed slopes) - Analysis of sheeting structures (sheeting design, sheeting check, earth pressure) - Foundation analysis (spread footing, pile) - Slope stability analysis

Partial factors
The "Partial factors" dialogue window serves to enter the analysis partial factors. Individual combo lists allow for choosing a design approach and the way of inputting these coefficients. The choice in the "Input of partial factors" combo list determines the way of inputting the analysis partial factors. For default setting the window offers values of partial factors recommended by Eurocode 19971. The "Design approach" combo list allows for selecting one of the three "Design approaches". Based on the selected design approach, the bottom part of the dialogue window displays partial factors on action, material or resistance, respectively , and combination factors for variable actions. In such a case the values of partial factors cannot be modified. A partial factor adjusting the action of water is an exception. The user setting allows for specifying arbitrary values of partial factors. Default values, according to national annexes, can be copied into the user values by pressing the "Take over values" button. Furthermore, it is also possible to choose individual EU countries the window then displays partial factors corresponding to the selected national annexes (NA). In most cases, only one - 699 -

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Design approach is then allowed based on NAD and the program (the type of the analyzed geotechnical task). The program allows for inputting each set of parameters four times for individual design situations (persistent, transient, accidental and seismic). The program then adopts coefficients based on the design situation set in the frame "Setting".

"Partial factors" dialogue windows for analysis according to EN 1997 Choice of coefficients

Design Approaches
EN 1997 introduces design approaches into the analysis; they differ by application of partial factors. According to EN 1997-1 the partial factors are generally applied to loading actions or their effect, to properties of foundation soil M, or to resistances R or both. The values of partial factors differ not only by the assumed design approach, but also by the type of geotechnical task (support structures, pile, etc.). The values of partial factors are in general specified by Eurocode in Annexes A; the national choice of values of partial factors specifies NA. The program automatically displays the required coefficients depending on the selected design approach (or possible according to National Annex). Regarding the fact that individual Design approaches introduce the partial factors into the analysis in a different way, it is logical that the results attributed to these design approaches may also considerably differ. If National Annex does not recommend for a given geotechnical - 700 -

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task a Design approach, it is up to the designer to select it (and therefore also to evaluate whether the results correspond to the analyzed situation). Design approach 1 Verification is performed for two sets of coefficients ( Combination 1 and Combination 2) used in two separate analyses. Coefficients are applied to loading actions and to material parameters. Design approach 2 Applies partial factors to loading actions and material resistance (bearing capacity) Design approach 3 Applies partial factors to loading actions and at the same type to material (material parameters of soil)

"Partial factors" dialogue windows for analysis according to EN 1997 Choice of design approach

Design approach 1
It is used in UK and Portugal. Verification is performed for two sets of coefficients (Combination 1 and Combination 2) used in two separate analyses. For combination 1 the partial factors are applied to loading actions only, the remaining coefficients are equal to zero. For combination 2 the partial factors are applied to material parameters (material parameters of soil) and to variable loading actions, the remain coefficients are equal to 1,0. In programs analyzing walls the analysis is carried out for both combinations automatically and - 701 -

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the results are presented for the most severe situation. Detailed description of the results for both combinations is available in the output protocol. This approach is not applicable for programs "Sheeting check" and "Slope stability". The combination, for which the analysis should be carried out, must be selected in the "Partial factors" dialogue window. Programs "Spread footing" and "Pile" require specifying the combination number for the inputted load the analysis then adopts the corresponding partial factors based on the type of combination.

Default values recommended by EN 1997-1 for design approach 1

Design approach 2
It is used in most countries EU (Germany, Slovakia, Italy.........). The design approach 2 applies the partial factors to loading actions and to material resistance (bearing capacity).

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Default values recommended by EN 1997-1 for design approach 2

Design approach 3
It is used in Netherland and further in most countries for the slope stability analysis. The design approach 3 applies the partial factors to loading actions and at the same type to material (material parameters of soil). Compare to other design approaches it extends geotechnical loads State GEO (loading attributed to soils e.g. earth pressures, pressures due to a surcharge, water action) and loads applied to structures State STR (the program considers the self weight of a structure, inputted forces acting on a structure, anchors, geo-reinforcements, mesh overhangs). A different set of coefficients, specified in the "Partial factors" dialogue window, is used for each type of loading. Partial factors applied to geotechnical loads are mostly smaller than those applied to structure loads.

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Default values recommended by EN 1997-1 for design approach 3

National Annex (NA)

The program allows for choosing a national annex in the "Partial factors" dialogue window.

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National annex (NA) offers in detail how to apply Eurocode on national level (in individual EU countries) and it was usually issued together with ENV of a given country. The National Annex therefore determines the choice of partial factors on national level and application of Design approaches for individual geotechnical tasks. Owing to the fact that content of NA remains open in some member countries, not all national annexes are implemented into individual programs yet. Our goal is to continuously update the list of national annexes. Therefore we appreciate any information from users from individual EU countries (to that end use email hotline@fine.cz).

Design situation
Programs allow for defining four design situations in the frame "Setting". - Persistent considers actions acting on the structure during the assumed lifetime (conventional service of a structure) - Transient considers actions acting on the structure over a short time interval (e.g. load actions attributed to construction) - Accidental considers exceptional actions on a structure (e.g. blast, vehicle impact, flood, etc.) - Seismic considers actions on a structure during seismic activity Design situations determine which set of partial factors will be used in the analysis. Selection of design situation makes possible to change partial factors in individual stages of calculation within one task.

Partial factors on water

Partial factors adjusting the load action of water can be modified in the "Partial factors" dialogue window for all variants of input. The partial factor on influence of water adjusts the magnitude of force due to water action; the magnitude of pore pressure respectively.

Partial factors applied to action of water Applying a partial factor to action of water is possible, since EN 1997 offers several ways how - 705 -

GEO5 User's Guide to account for influence of water. The two basic approaches are:

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Variant 1 the coefficient of influence of water is set to 1,3 or 1,35, respectively (some EU countries). In this case the actual ground water table is considered and its influence is multiplied by the inputted partial factor. Variant 2 - the influence of water is not adjusted in the analysis and the corresponding partial factor is therefore assume to be equal to 1,0. In this case the maximum allowable ground water table must therefore be considered.

Partial factors on water Selection of a particular option for verification remains upon the user.

Analysis of walls (support structures)

Load reduction (DA1, DA2, DA3): All design approaches consider partial factors reducing load. These are used to multiply all forces entering the analysis. For actual verification of individual modes of failure the program determines, whether the force or pressure acts favorably or unfavorably . Depending on that these actions are then multiplied by the corresponding partial factor. Information regarding the applied partial factors are stored in the analysis protocol.

Analysis protocol The frame analysis allows for defining "Secondary variable actions" corresponding partial factors are then multipied by combination coefficients of load. Reduction of material (DA1, DA3): Soil parameters are automatically reduced by corresponding partial factors. Reduction of resistance (DA2): Corresponding magnitudes of resistant forces, moments and bearing capacities are reduced. When performing the analysis according the Design approach 1, all verifications are carried out twice for both combinations of load. For a given limit state the highest stressed design is - 706 -

GEO5 User's Guide displayed on the desktop.

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Analysis of sheeting structures

Load reduction (DA1, DA2, DA3): In programs that consider the overall earth pressure in the analysis (Earth pressure, Sheeting design, Sheeting check) the partial factors are used to multiply individual components of pressure acting on a structure. The basic assumption of the analysis is that active earth pressure acts unfavorably whereas passive earth pressure is considered as favorable. Individual pressure diagrams are therefore multiplied by the corresponding partial factor. Reduction of material (DA1, DA3): Parameters of soils are automatically reduced by corresponding partial factors. Reduction of resistance (DA2): not considered. In simple words, DA1 Combination 2 and DA3 increase the magnitude of active pressur e and reduce the magnitude of passive pressure , while DA1 combination 1 and DA2 only increase the magnitude of active pressure. This approach may therefore change in some cases the structure behavior and deliver misleading results. Caution must therefore be exercised when reducing input parameters.

Response of sheeting structure upon unloading

Analysis of foundations (spread footing, piles)

Load reduction (DA1, DA2, DA3): Loading on foundation is taken as a result of the analysis of upper structure. - load cases are determined according to rules provided by EN 1990:2002 - combinations of load cases are calculated according to EN 1991 The results of calculated combinations the serve as an input into programs Spread footing and Pile. Either design (bearing capacity analysis, dimensioning of footing) or service (analysis of settlement) load is considered. The combination number (1,2) is inputted for the Design approach 1. - 707 -

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Only the structure self-weigh or the weight of soil above footing is multiplied by partial factors in the program. The specified design load must be determined in accord with EN 1990 and EN 1991 standards individual components of load must be multiplied by corresponding partial factors the program does not change the inputted load any further. For design approach 1 each load case is analyzed separately with corresponding partial factors depending on the assumed type of combination. Reduction of material (DA1, DA3): Parameters of soils are automatically reduced by corresponding partial factors. Reduction of load (DA2), for piles (DA1, DA2, DA3): The program "Pile" assumes partial factors being dependent on the type of pile (bored, driven, CFA). The window serves to define all partial factors. The analysis then adopts partial factors depending on the type of pile selected in the frame "Geometry". Verification of the tensile pile always considers the pile self weight. For the compressive pile the pile self weight can be neglected depending on the setting in the frame "Loading". The actual verification analysis is performed according to the theory of limit states. Vertical and horizontal bearing capacity of foundation is reduced in program "Spread footing".

Slope stability analysis

Load reduction (DA1, DA2, DA3): Permanent as well as variable loads are reduced in the analysis by partial factors G and Q, respectively. Depending on the inclination of slip surface the program evaluates whether the gravity force acting on a given block, is favorable or not. If the favorable effect of force is greater than the unfavorable one the program adopts the favorable coefficient. Based on that the weight of block W is pre-multiplied by the partial factor for permanent load. Influence of water (pore pressure and water above terrain) also reduced by partial factor w.

Determining whether the force action is favorable or not For inputted surcharges the program first evaluates whether these act favorably or not then pre-multiplies the overall loading by the corresponding partial factor. Reduction of material (DA1, DA3): Parameters of soils are automatically reduced by corresponding partial factors. Reduction of resistance (DA2): - 708 -

GEO5 User's Guide Resistance on a slip surface is reduced.

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WARNING ! Calculation of slope stability according to DA2 or DA1 (comb. 1) using !! total parameters gives very unrealistic results. These are caused by different reduction of self-weight massive (favourable and unfavourable). In case of using above mentioned approaches we recommend hand change of reduction partial factors (i.e. increase partial factor on overall stability and decrease partial factors on actions).

Load combinations
Actions of loads that act simultaneously are introduced into the analysis with the help of load combinations defined in EN 1990 Basis of Structural Design. Most of the loads are considered as permanent. Surcharges and inputted forces can be specified as variable loading. The program automatically determines the values of individual partial factors depending on whether a given load acts in favor or unfavorably. By default the variable loadings are considered as primary. Nevertheless, the "Verification" and "Dimensions" frames allow for specifying the variable loads as secondary such a load is then pre-multiplied by the corresponding coefficient reducing its magnitude. Providing that all loads are considered in the basic combination as secondary the program prompts a warning and the verification is not accepted. Four types of combinations can be specified in the frame "Setting": Persistent and transient design situation:

where:

Gk,,j
G, j

-characteristic value of j-th permanent loading -partial factor of j-th permanent loading -characteristic value of secondary j-th variable loading -characteristic value of primary variable loading -partial factor of j-th variable loading -factor for quasi-permanent value of variable loading

Qk,i Qk,1
Q, i 0

Accidental design situation:

where:

Gk,,j Qk,1
1 2

- characteristic value of j-th permanent loading - characteristic value of primary variable loading - factor for frequent value of variable loading - factor for combination value of variable loading - design value of extreme loading

Ad

Seismic design situation:

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where:

Gk,,j Qk,i
2,i

-characteristic value of j-th permanent loading -characteristic value of secondary j-th variable loading -factor for quasi-permanent value of variable loading -design value of seismic loading

AEd

Loading partial factors and combination coefficients are introduced in the "Partial factors" dialogue window.

Input of secondary loads

Analysis according to LRFD

The analysis according LRFD (Load Resistance Design Factor) introduces two types of design coefficients coefficients modifying the load magnitude (Load factors) and coefficients reducing the soil resistance (Resistance factors).

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Dialogue window "Partial factors" analysis according to LRFD When checking individual cases of failure the program determines, whether the force or pressure act favorably or not and then pre-multiply the force by the corresponding partial factor. The overall resistance of a structure against failure is in the final verification premultiplied by the corresponding resistance factor. The program offers a set of basic coefficients. However, it is often necessary to modify individual design coefficients by the user depending on the type of structure and the way of determining soil parameters. User defined setting allows for inputting arbitrary userdefined values of partial factors. Default values according to national supplements can be copied into the user defined values using the "Adopt values" button. Information about application of partial factors is listed in the analysis protocol.

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Analysis protocol

Classical way
The Classical way corresponds to the verification methodology of programs GEO5 up to version 10. The verification parameters are inputted in the frame Settings. The structure can be verified according to the theory of limit states or factors of safety. The advantage of the classical approaches is its lucidity and uniqueness the calculated forces acting on the structure are determined by the input. The frames "Verification" and "Dimensioning" then allow for modifying individual design coefficients and visualize the subsequent response of the analyzed structure.

Stress in a soil body

Calculation of stress in soil in the GEO5 programs is described in the following chapters: - geostatic stress in a soil body, computation of uplift pressure - effective / total stress - stress increment due to surcharge - stress increment under footing

Geostatic stress, uplift pressure

Stress analysis is based on existence of soil layers specified by the user during input. The program further inserts fictitious layers at the locations where the stress and lateral pressure th (GWT, points of construction, etc.) change. The normal stress in the i layer is computed according to:

where:

hi
i

- thickness of the ith layer - unit weight of soil

If the layer is found below the ground water table, the unit weight of soil below the water table is specified with the help of inputted parameters of the soil as follows: - for option "Standard" from expression:

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where:

sat w

- saturated unit weight of soil - unit weight of water

- for option "Compute from porosity" from expression:

where:

n
s w

- porosity - specific weight of soil - unit weight of water

where:

V Vp Gd

- volume of soil - volume of voids - weight of dry soil

3 Unit weight of water is assumed in the program equal to 10 kN/m or 0,00625 ksi.

Assuming inclined ground behind the structure ( 0) and layered subsoil the angle , when th computing the coefficient of earth pressure K, is reduced in the i layer using the following expression:

where:

- unit weight of the soil in the first layer under ground - unit weight of the soil in the ith layer under ground - slope inclination behind the structure

Effective/total stress in soil

Vertical normal stress z is defined as:

where:

z ef

- vertical normal total stress - submerged unit weight of soil - depth bellow the ground surface - unit weight of water

z
w

This expression in its generalized form describes so called concept of effective stress: - 713 -

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where:

ef

- total stress (overall) - effective stress (active) - neutral stress (pore water pressure)

Total, effective and neutral stress in the soil Effective stress concept is valid only for the normal stress , since the shear stress is not transferred by the water so that it is effective. The total stress is determined using the basic tools of theoretical mechanics, the effective stress is then determined as a difference between the total stress and neutral (pore) pressure (i.e. always by calculation, it can never be measured). Pore pressures are determined using laboratory or in-situ testing or by calculation. To decide whether to use the total or effective stresses is no simple. The following table may provide some general recommendations valid for majority of cases. We should realize that the total stress depends on the way the soil is loaded by its self weight and external effects. As for the pore pressure we assume that for flowing pore water the pore equals to hydrodynamic pressure and to hydrostatic pressure otherwise. For partial saturated soils with higher degree of it is necessary to account for the fact that the pore pressure evolves both in water and air bubbles. Assume conditions short term long term Drained layer effective stress effective stress Undrained layer total stress effective stress

In layered subsoil with different unit weight of soils in individual horizontal layers the vertical total stress is determined as a sum of weight of all layers above the investigated point and the pore pressure:

where:

z - vertical normal total stress - unit weight of soil - unit weight of soil in natural state for soils above the GWT and dry layers

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GEO5 User's Guide - unit weight of soil below water in other cases

Fine Ltd. 2011

d z

- depth of the ground water table below the ground surface - depth bellow the ground surface

w - unit weight of water

Increment of earth pressure due to surcharge

Earth pressure increment in a soil or rock body due to surcharge is computed using the theory of elastic subspace (Bousinesque). Earth pressure increment in the point inside the soil or rock body due to an infinite strip surcharge is obtained from the following scheme:

Computation of earth pressure due to infinite strip surcharge

A trapezoidal surcharge is automatically subdivided in the program into ten segments. Individual segments are treated as strip surcharges. The resulting earth pressure is a sum of partial surcharges from individual segments. Stress increment due to concentrated surcharge is computed as follows:

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Surcharge related to point "O"

where:

Increment of earth pressure under footing

In the program "Spread footing" the stress distribution below foundation is determined by combining the basic loading diagrams:

Chart of foundation loading

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Chart of foudation loading

Chart of foudation loading

Earth pressure
Program system GEO5 considers the following earth pressures categories: active earth pressure passive earth pressure earth pressure at rest When computing earth pressures the program GEO5 allows for distinguishing between the effective and total stress state and for establishing several ways of calculation of uplift pressure. In addition it is possible to account for the following effects having on the earth pressure magnitude: - 717 -

GEO5 User's Guide influence of loading influence of water pressure influence of broken terrain friction between soil and back of structure wall adhesion influence of earth wedge at cantilever jumps influence of earthquake

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The following sign convention is used in the program, text and presented expressions. When specifying rocks it is also necessary to input both the cohesion of rock c and the angle of internal friction of rock. These values can be otained either from the geological survey or from the table of recommended values.

Sign convention
The following sign convention is used in the program, text and presented expressions.

Sign convention for calculation of earth pressures

inclination of the ground surface is positive, when the ground rises upwards from the wall inclination of the back of structure is possitive, when the toe of the wall (at the back face) is placed in the direction of the soil body when measured from the vertical line constructed from the upper point of the structure friction between the soil and back of structure is positive, if the resultant of earth pressure (thus also earth pressure) and normal to the back of structure form an angle measured in the clockwise direction

Active earth pressure

Active earth pressure is the smallest limiting lateral pressure developed at the onset of shear - 718 -

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failure by wall moving away from the soil in the direction of the acting earth pressure (minimal wall rotation necessary for the evolution of active earth pressure is about 2 mrad, i.e. 2 mm/m of the wall height). The following theories and approaches are implemented for the computation of active earth pressure assuming effective stress state: The Mazindrani theory The Coulomb theory The Mller-Breslau theory The Caqouot theory The Absi theory For cohesive soils the tension cutoff condition is accepted, i.e. if due to cohesion the negative value of active earth pressure is developed or, according to more strict requirements, the value of "minimal dimension pressure" is exceeded, the value of active earth pressure drops down to zero or set equal to the "minimal dimensioning pressure". The program also allows for running the analysis in total stresses.

Active earth pressure the Mazindrani theory

Active earth pressure is given by the following formula:

where:

- vertical geostatic stress - coefficient of active earth pressure due to Rankin - slope inclination - weight of soil - assumed depth - coefficient of active earth pressure due to Mazindrani

Ka

where:

- slope inclination - angle of internal friction of soil - cohesion of soil

Assuming cohesionless soils (c = 0) and horizontal ground surface ( = 0) yields the Rankin solution, for which the active earth pressure is provided by:

and the coefficient of active earth pressure becomes:

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where:

- angle of internal friction of soil

Horizontal and vertical components of the active earth pressure become:

where:

- active earth pressure - angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

Literature: Mazindrani, Z.H., and Ganjali, M.H. 1997. Lateral earth pressure problem of cohesive backfill with inclined surface. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(2): 110112.

Active earth pressure - the Coulomb theory

Active earth pressure is given by the following formula:

where:

- vertical geostatic stress - effective cohesion of soil - coefficient of active earth pressure - coefficient of active earth pressure due to cohesion

cef Ka Kac

The coefficient of active earth pressure Ka is given by:

The coefficient of active earth pressure Kac is given by: for:

for: - 720 -

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where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - slope inclination - back face inclination of the structure

Horizontal and vertical components of the active earth pressure become:

where:

- active earth pressure - angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

Literature: Arnold Verruijt: Soil mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2001, 2006, "http://geo.verruijt.net/"

Active earth pressure - the Mller-Breslau theory

Active earth pressure is given by the following formula:

where:

- vertical geostatic stress - effective cohesion of soil - coefficient of active earth pressure - coefficient of active earth pressure due to cohesion

cef Ka Kac

The coefficient of active earth pressure Ka is given by:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - slope inclination - back face inclination of the structure

The coefficient of active earth pressure Kac is given by:

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for:

for:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - slope inclination - back face inclination of the structure

Horizontal and vertical components of the active earth pressure become:

where:

- active earth pressure - angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

Literature: Mller-Breslau's Erddruck auf Stutzmauern,Stuttgart: Alfred Kroner-Verlag, 1906 (German)

Active earth pressure - the Caqouot theory

Active earth pressure is given by the following formula:

where:

- vertical geostatic stress - effective cohesion of soil - coefficient of active earth pressure

cef Ka

Kac - coefficient of active earth pressure due to cohesion

The following analytical solution (Boussinesque, Caqouot) is implemented in GEO5 to compute the coefficient of active earth pressure Ka:

where:

Ka Ka
Coulomb

- coefficient of active earth pressure due to Caquot - coefficient of active earth pressure due to Coulomb

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GEO5 User's Guide - conversion coefficient see further

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where:

- slope inclination behind the structure - angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil

The coefficient of active earth pressure Kac is given by: for:

for:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - slope inclination behind the structure - back face inclination of the structure

Horizontal and vertical components of the active earth pressure become:

where:

- active earth pressure - angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

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Active earth pressure - the Absi theory

Active earth pressure is given by the following formula:

where:

- vertical geostatic stress - effective cohesion of soil - coefficient of active earth pressure - coefficient of active earth pressure due to cohesion

cef Ka Kac

The program takes values of the coefficient of active earth pressure Ka from a database, built upon the values published in the book: Krisel, Absi: Active and passive earth Pressure Tables, 3rd Ed. A.A. Balkema, 1990 ISBN 90 6191886 3. The coefficient of active earth pressure Kac is given by: for:

for:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - slope inclination - back face inclination of the structure

Horizontal and vertical components of the active earth pressure become:

where:

- active earth pressure - angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

Literatura: Krisel, Absi: Active and Passive Earth Pressure Tables, 3rd ed., Balkema, 1990 ISBN 90 6191886 3

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Active earth pressure total stress

When determining the active earth pressure in cohesive fully saturated soils, in which case the consolidation is usually prevented (undrained conditions), the horizontal normal total stress x receives the form:

where:

x z

-horizontal total stress (normal) -vertical normal total stress -coefficient of earth pressure -total cohesion of soil

Kuc cu

The coefficient of earth pressure Kuc is given by:

where:

Kuc cu au

-coefficient of earth pressure -total cohesion of soil -total adhesion of soil to the structure

Passive earth pressure

Passive earth pressure is the highest limiting lateral pressure developed at the onset of shear failure by wall moving (penetrating) in the direction opposite to the direction of acting earth pressure (minimal wall rotation necessary for the evolution of passive earth pressure is about 10 mrad, i.e. 10 mm/m of the wall height). In most expressions used to compute the passive earth pressure the sign convention is assumed such that the usual values of corresponding to vertical direction of the friction resultant are negative. The program, however, assumes these values to be positive. A seldom variant with friction acting upwards is not considered in the program. The following theories and approaches are implemented for the computation of passive earth pressure assuming effective stress state:

The Rankin and Mazindrani theory The Coulomb theory The Caquot Krisel theory The Mller Breslau theory The Absi theory The Sokolovski theory The program also allows for running the analysis in total stresses.

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Passive earth pressure - the Rankin and Mazindrani theory

Passive earth pressure follows from the following formula:

where:

- vertical geostatic stress - coefficient of passive earth pressure due to Rankin - slope inclination - weight of soil - assumed depth - coefficient of passive earth pressure due to Mazindrani

Kp

The coefficient of passive earth pressure Kp is given by:

where:

- slope inclination - angle of internal friction of soil - cohesion of soil

If there is no friction ( = 0) between the structure and cohesionless soils (c = 0), the ground surface is horizontal ( = 0) and the resulting slip surafce is also plane with the slope:

, the Mazindrani theory then reduces to the Rankin theory. The coefficient of passive earth pressure is then provided by:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil

Passive earth pressure p by Rankin for cohesionless soils is given:

where:

- unit weight of soil - assumed depth - coefficient of passive earth pressure due to Rankin

z Kp

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GEO5 User's Guide Literature: Arnold Verruijt: Soil mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2001, 2006, http://geo.verruijt.net/

Fine Ltd. 2011

Mazindrani, Z.H., and Ganjali, M.H. 1997. Lateral earth pressure problem of cohesive backfill with inclined surface. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(2): 110112.

Passive earth pressure - the Coulomb theory

Passive earth pressure follows from the following formula:

where:

- effective vertical geostatic stress - coefficient of passive earth pressure due to Coulomb - cohesion of soil

Kp
c

The coefficient of passive earth pressure Kp is given by:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - slope inclination - back face inclination of the structure

The vertical pv and horizontal ph components of passive earth pressure are given by:

where:

- angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

Literature: Arnold Verruijt: Soil mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2001, 2006, http://geo.verruijt.net/

Passive earth pressure - the Caquot Krisel theory

Passive earth pressure follows from the following formula:

where K - coefficient of passive earth pressure for = -, see the table - 727 -

GEO5 User's Guide :

p

Fine Ltd. 2011

- reduction coefficient for ||<, see the table

c - cohesion of soil
- vertical geostatic stress z The vertical pv and horizontal ph components of passive earth pressure are given by:

where:

- angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

Coefficient of passive earth pressure Kp

Coefficient of passive earth pressure Kp for = - [] []

Kp when 0 5 1,41 1,70 2,08 2,81 3,42 4,73 8,87 10 1,53 1,92 2,42 2,98 4,18 5,87 8,77 2,08 2,71 3,88 5,01 7,21 2,92 4,22 5,98 8,78 4,43 8,94 7,40 10,8 12,50 13,80 0 17,2 24,80 25,40 0 90,6 38.90 49,10 0 28,40 60,70 69,1 0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

10 15 20 25 -30 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 -20 30

1,17 1,30 1,71 2,14 2,78 3,75 5,31 8,05 1,36 1,68 2,13 2,78 3,78

11,00 13,70

10,70 14,20 18,40 23,80 1,58 1,97 2,52 3,34 4,81 1,70 2,20 2,92 3,99 8,58 2,38 3,22 4,80 8,81 3,51 5,29 7,84

5,57 9,12 9,77

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35 40 45 10 15 20 25 -10 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 0 30 35 40 45 10 15 20

5,38 8,07 13,2 1,52 1,95 2,57 3,50 4,98 7,47 12,0 21,2 1,84 2,19 3,01 4,28 8,42 10,2 17,5 33,5 1,73 2,40 3,45

8,89

8,28

10,10 12,20

14,8 17,40 19,00 0 25,5 38,50 37,80 0 48,9 82,30 78,80 0 42,20 97,30 111,0 4 .

10,40 12,00 18,50 20,00 17,50 22,90 29,80 38,30 1,72 2,23 2,98 4,14 8,01 9,24 1,83 2,57 3,42 4,90 7,19 2,88 3,75 5,82 8,51 4,09 8,45 10,10

8,81 11,7 12,80 0 20,1 23,70 2,00 0 37,1 53,20 55,10 0 77,3 908,2 124,00 0 0 61,80 153,00 178, 00

11,30 13,80 18,70

15,40 19,40 24,10 29,80 27,90 38,50 47,20 80,80 1,81 2,46 3,44 5,02 7,69 1,93 2,73 3,91 5,81 9,19 2,91 4,42 8,72 4,66 7,71

8,16 14,8 15,90 0 28,9 31,70 34,90 0 53,3 78,40 79,10 0 120, 153,0 174,00 00 0 88,70 240,00 275, 00

10,80 12,70

12,60 15,30 18,80 22,30 22,30 28,00 34,80 42,90 44,10 57,40 74,10 94,70 1,87 2,65 3,90 1,98 2,93 4,40 3,12 4,96 5,23

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10

25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20

5,17 8,17 13,8 25,5 52,9 1,78 2,58 3,90 6,18 10,4 18,7 37,2 84,0

5,99 9,69

6,90

7,95

9,11

9,67 18,5 19,90 0 35,8 42,30 46,60 0 76,4 110,0 113,00 0 0 i88,0 239,0 303,00 0 0 127,00 375,00 431,00

11,40 13,50 15,90

16,90 20,50 24,80 29,80 32,20 40,40 49,90 61,70 69,40 90,90 116,0 148,00 0 1,89 I 2,01 2,821 3,11 4,38 7,12 4,92 8,17 3,30 5,53 9,39 5,83 10,70

20

25 30 35 40 45

11,4 0 23,2 25,00 0 48,0 56,80 62,50 0 111, 00 158,0 164,00 0 185,00 592,00 680,00

12,30 14,40 16,90 20,00 22,80 27,60 33,30 40,00 46,90 58,60 72,50 89,30 110,0 143,0 184,0 234,00 0 0 0

297, 378,0 478,00 00 0

Reduction coefficient of passive earth pressure

Reduction coefficient for ||<

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GEO5 User's Guide [] 1,0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,8 0,999 0,979 0,968 0,954 0,937 0,916 0,886 0,848 0,6 0,962 0,934 0,901 0,860 0,811 0,752 0,682 0,600 for ||< 0,4 0,929 0,881 0,824 0,759 0,686 0,603 0,512 0,414 0,2 0,898 0,830 0,752 0,666 0,574 0,475 0,375 0,276

Fine Ltd. 2011

0,0 0,864 0,775 0,678 0,574 0,467 0,362 0,262 0,174

Passive earth pressure - the Mller Breslau theory

Passive earth pressure follows from the following formula:

where:

K - coefficient of passive earth pressure

p

- cohesion of soil

z - vertical normal total stress The coefficient of passive earth pressure Kp is given by:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - slope inclination - back face inclination of the structure

The vertical pv and horizontal ph components of passive earth pressure are given by:

where:

- angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

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Literature: Mller-Breslau's Erddruck auf Stutzmauern,Stuttgart: Alfred Kroner-Verlag, 1906 (German)

Passive earth pressure - the Absi theory

Passive earth pressure follows from the following formula:

where:

Kp - coefficient of passive earth pressure c

- cohesion of soil z - vertical normal total stress

The program takes values of the coefficient Kp from a database, built upon the tabulated values published in the book: Krisel, Absi: Active and passive earth Pressure Tables, 3rd Ed. A.A. Balkema, 1990 ISBN 90 6191886 3. The vertical pv and horizontal ph components of passive earth pressure are given by:

where:

- angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

Literature: Krisel, Absi: Active and Passive Earth Pressure Tables, 3rd ed., Balkema, 1990 ISBN 90 6191886 3

Passive earth pressure - the Sokolovski theory

Passive earth pressure follows from the following formula:

where:

Kpg - passive earth pressure coefficient for cohesionless soils Kpc - passive earth pressure coefficient due to cohesion Kpg - passive earth pressure coefficient due to surcharge
z - vertical normal total stress

Individual expressions for determining the magnitude of passive earth pressure and slip surface are introduced in the sequel; the meaning of individual variables is evident from Fig.:

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Passive eart pressure slip surface after Sokolovski Angles describing the slip surface:

, where: p - angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - slope inclination

Slip surafce radius vector:

Provided that < 0 the both straight edges of the zone r1 and r2 numerically overlap and resulting in the plane slip surface developed in the overlapping region. The coefficients of passive earth pressure Kpg, Kpp, Kpc then follow from: - 733 -

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where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

Auxiliary variables: ipg, ipp, ipc, gpg, gpp, gpc, tpg, tpp, tpc f o r :

where: For soils with zero value for the angle of internal friction the following expressions are employed to determine the coefficients of passive earth pressure:

where:

Literature: Sokolovski, V.V., 1960. Statics of Soil Media,Butterworth, London.

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Passive earth pressure total stress

When determining the passive earth pressure in cohesive fully saturated soils, in which case the consolidation is usually prevented (undrained conditions), the horizontal normal total stress x receives the form:

where:

x z

horizontal total stress (normal) vertical normal total stress coefficient of earth pressure total cohesion of soil

Kuc cu

The coefficient of earth pressure Kuc is given by:

where:

Kuc cu au

coefficient of earth pressure total cohesion of soil total adhesion of soil to the structure

Earth pressure at rest

Earth pressure at rest is the horizontal pressure acting on the rigid structure. It is usually assumed in cases, when it is necessary to minimize the lateral and horizontal deformation of the sheeted soil (e.g. when laterally supporting a structure in the excavation pit up to depth below the current foundation or in general when casing soil with structures sensitive to nonuniform settlement), or when structures loaded by earth pressures are due to some technological reasons extremely rigid and do not allow for deformation in the direction of loading necessary to mobilize the active earth pressure. Earth pressure at rest is given by:

For cohesive soils the Terzaghi formula for computing Kr is implemented in the program:

where:

- Poisson ratio

For cohesionless soils the Jky expression is used:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil

When computing the pressure at rest for cohesive soils 0 using the Jky formula for the determination of coefficient of earth pressure at rest K0, it is recommended to use the alternate angle of internal friction n. - 735 -

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The way of computing the earth pressure at rest can be therefore influenced by the selection of the type of soil (cohesive, cohesionless) when inputting its parameters. Even typically cohesionless soil (sand, gravel) must be introduced as cohesive if we wish to compute the pressure at rest with the help of the Poisson ratio and vice versa. For overconsolidated soils the expression proposed by Schmertmann to compute the coefficient of earth pressure at rest Kr is used:

where:

Kr OCR

-coefficient of earth pressure at rest -overconsolidation ratio

The value of the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can be inputted also directly. Influence of the inclined ground surface at the back of structure on earth pressure at rest is described here.

Literature: Arnold Verruijt: Soil mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2001, 2006, http://geo.verruijt.net/

Earth pressure at rest for inclined ground surface at the back of structure
For inclined ground surface behind the structure (0< ) the earth pressure at rest assumes the form:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - slope inclination - vertical geostatic stress - coefficient of earth pressure at rest

Kr

For inclined back of wall the values of earth pressure at rest are derived from:

where:

- back face inclination of the structure - vertical geostatic stress - coefficient of earth pressure at rest

Kr

Normal and tangential components are given by:

where:

- back face inclination of the structure - 736 -

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- vertical geostatic stress - coefficient of earth pressure at rest

Kr

The deviation angle from the normal line to the wall reads:

where:

- back face inclination of the structure - coefficient of earth pressure at rest

Kr

Alternate angel of internal friction of soil

In some cases it appears more suitable for the analysis of earth pressures to introduce for cohesive soils an alternate angle of internal friction n that also accounts for the influence of cohesive soil in conjunction with the normal stress developed in the soil. The magnitude of the normal stress for determining the value of alternate angle of internal friction depends on the type of geotechnical problem, foundation conditions, etc. For deep seated foundation pits or constructions in homogeneous or relatively simple environment the normal stress is introduced in the centroid of the loading mass. In case of shallow pits or complex environment the normal stress is assumed in the heel of the loading diagram see figure:

Determination of normal stress for alternate angle of internal friction of soil n The alternate angle of internal friction of soil is given by:

where:

- vertical geostatic stress - angle of internal friction of soil - cohesion of soil

When computing the pressure at rest for cohesive soils r using the Jky formula for the determination of coefficient of earth pressure at rest K0, it is recommended to use the alternate angel of internal friction n.

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Determination of alternate angel of internal friction of cohesive soil

Distribution of earth pressures in case of broken terrain

Figures show the procedure of earth pressure analysis in the case of sloping terrain. The resulting shape of earth pressure distribution acting on the construction is obtained from the sum of triangular distributions developed by individual effects acting on the construction.

Principle of the earth pressure computation in the case of broken terrain

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Principle of the earth pressure computation in the case of broken terrain for >

Influence of water
The influence of ground water can be reflected using one of the following variants: Without ground water, water is not considered

Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind structure

Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind and in front of structure

Hydrodynamic pressure

Special distribution of water pressure

Without ground water, water is not considered

Without ground water, water is not considered

In this option the influence of ground water is not considered. Complementary information: If there are fine soils at and below the level of GWT, one should carefully assess an influence of full saturation in the region of capillary attraction. The capillary attraction is in the analysis reflected only by increased degree of saturation, and therefore the value of sat is inserted into parameters of soils. - 739 -

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To distinguish regions with different degree of saturation, one may insert several layers of the same soil with different unit weights. Negative pore pressures are not considered. However, for layers with different degree of saturation it is possible to use different values of shear resistance influenced by suction (difference in pore pressure of water and gas ua- uw).

Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind structure

Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind structure

The heel of a structure is sunk structure is prevented. Water is acting on the front face. Such a due to gravity or deep drainage pressure:

into impermeable subsoil so that the water flow below the found behind the back of structure only. There is no water case may occur when water in front of structure flow freely is used. The back of structure is loaded by the hydrostatic

where:

-unit weight of water -water tables difference

hw

Action of hydrostatic pressure

Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind and in front of structure

Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind and in front of structure

The heel of a structure is sunk into impermeable subsoil so that the water flow below the structure is prevented. The loading due water is assumed both in front of and behind the - 740 -

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structure. The water in front of structure is removed either with the help of gravity effects or is shallowly lowered by pumping. Both the face and back of structure is loaded by hydrostatic pressure due to difference in water tables (h1 and h2). The dimension hw represents the difference in water tables at the back and in front of structure - see figure:

Action of hydrostatic pressure

Hydrodynamic pressure
Hydrodynamic pressure

The heel of a structure is sunk into permeable subsoil, which allows free water flow below the structure see figure. The unit weight of soil lifted by uplift pressure su is modified to account for flow pressure. These modifications then depend on the direction of water flow.

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Action of hydrodynamic pressure When computing the earth pressure in the area of descending flow the program introduces the following value of the unit weight of soil:

and in the area of ascending flow the following value:

where:

su

- unit weight of submerged soil - alteration of unit weight of soil - an average seepage gradient - unit weight of water

i
w

An average hydraulic slope is given:

where:

i hw dd du

- an average seepage gradient - water tables difference - seepage path downwards - seepage path upwards

If the change of unit weight of soil provided by:

where:

i
w

- an average seepage gradient - unit weight of water - 742 -

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is greater than the unit weight of saturated soil su, then the leaching appears in front of structure - as a consequence of water flow the soil behaves as weightless and thus cannot transmit any loading. The program then prompts a warning message and further assumes the value of = 0. The result therefore no longer corresponds to the original input is safer.

Special distribution of water pressure

Special distribution of water pressure

This option allows an independent (manual) input of distribution of loading due to water at the back and in front of structure using ordinates of pore pressure at different depths. The variation of pressure between individual values is linear. At the same time it is necessary to input levels of tables of full saturation of a soil at the back h1 and in front h2 of structure including possible decrease of unit weight y in front of structure due to water flow. Example: Two separated horizon lines of ground water. There are two permeable layers (sand or gravel) with one impermeable layer of clay in between, which causes separation of two hydraulic horizon lines see figure:

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Example of pore pressure distribution The variation of pore pressure above the clay layer is driven by free ground water table GWT1. The distribution of pore pressure below the clay layer results from ratio in the lower separated ground water table GWT2, where the ground water is stressed. The pore pressure distribution in clay is approximately linear. The capillary attraction is in the analysis reflected only by increased degree of saturation, and therefore the value of sat is inserted into parameters of soils. To distinguish regions with different degree of saturation, one may insert several layers of the same soil with different unit weights. Negative pore pressures are not considered. However, for layers with different degree of saturation it is possible to introduce values of shear resistance influenced by suction.

Uplift pressure in footing bottom

The variation of uplift pressure in the footing bottom due to difference in water tables is assumed according to expected effect linear, parabolic or is not taken into account.

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Uplift pressure in footing bottom

Influence of tensile cracks

The program makes possible to account for the influence of tensile surface cracks filled with water. The analysis procedure is evident from the figure. The depth of tensile cracks is the only input parameter.

Influence of tensile cracks

Minimal dimensioning pressure

When determining the magnitude and distribution of earth pressures it is very difficult to qualify proportions of individual effects. This situation leads to uncertainty in the determination of earth pressure loading diagram. In reality we have to use in the design the most adverse distribution in favor of the safety of structure. For example, in case of braced structures in cohesive soils when using reasonable values of strength parameters of soil along the entire structure we may encounter tensile stresses in the upper part of the structure see figure. Such tensile stresses, however, cannot be exerted on the sheeting structure (consequence of separation of soil due to technology of construction, isolation and drainage layer). In favor of the safe design of sheeting structure particularly in subsurface regions, where tensile stresses are developed during computation of the active earth pressure, the program offers the possibility to call the option "Minimal dimensioning pressure" in the analysis. To determine the minimal dimensioning pressure the program employs for layers of cohesive soils as the minimal value of the coefficient of active earth pressure an alternate coefficient Ka = 0,2. Therefore it is ensured that the value of the computed active earth pressure will not drop below 20% of the vertical pressure (Ka 0,2) see figure. Application of the minimal dimensioning pressure assumes for example the possibility of increasing the lateral pressure due to filling of joint behind the sheeting structure with rain water. If the option of minimal dimensioning pressure is not selected the program simply assumes tension cutoff (Ka 0,0).

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Minimal dimensioning pressure

Earth - pressure wedge

Providing a structure with a cantilever jump (foundation slab of cantilever wall, modification for reduction of earth pressures) is considered when computing earth pressures it is possible to compute earth pressures acting either on the real back of structure with the inputted angle of friction 2/3 or on an alternate back of structure. The alternate back of sheeting structure replaces the real broken one by a slip plane passing from the upper point of the back of wall towards the outer upper point of the jump and forms an earth wedge see figure. A fully mobilized angle of friction = is assumed along this plane. The weight of earth wedge created under this alternate back further contributes to loading applied to the structure. To introduce the alternate back of structure into the analysis it is necessary to select in the program GEO5 Earth pressures the option "Consider developing of earth-pressure wedge". In other programs the earth wedge is introduced automatically.

Calculation with and without earthpressure wedge

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Determination of earthpressure wedge in case of active earth pressure The slip plane of the earthpressure wedge is inclined from the horizontal line by angle a given by:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - slope inclination - angle of friction structure - soil - unit weight of soil - back face inclination of the structure - height of earth wedge

The shape of the earth wedge in the layered subsoil is determined such that for individual layers of soil above the wall foundation the program computes the angle a, which then serves to determine the angle as. Next, the program determines an intersection of the line drawn under the angle as from the upper right point of the foundation block with the next layer. The procedure continues by drawing another line starting from the previously determined intersection and inclined by the angle as. The procedure is terminated when the line intersects the terrain or wall surface, respectively. The wedge shape is further assumed in the form of triangle (intersection with wall) or rectangle (intersection with terrain).

Surcharge
The following types of surcharges are implemented in the GEO5 program: Active earth pressure - 747 -

GEO5 User's Guide Surface surcharge

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Strip surcharge

Trapezoidal surcharge

Concentrated surcharge

Line surcharge

Earth pressure at rest

Surface surcharge

Strip surcharge

Trapezoidal surcharge

Concentrated surcharge

Passive earth pressure

Surface surcharge

Surface surcharge
The increment of active earth pressure at rest due to surface surcharge is given by:

where:

p Ka

-vertical uniform loading -coefficient of active earth pressure

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height of the structure a constant increment of active earth pressure see figure:

Increment of active earth pressure due to vertical uniform ground surface surcharge

Strip surcharge
For vertical strip loading fa acting parallel with structure on the ground surface along an infinitely long strip the trapezoidal increment of active earth pressure applied to the structure over a given segment hf is assumed see figure.

Diagram of increment of active earth pressure due to strip loading fa This segment is determined by intersection of the structure and lines drawn from the edge points of the strip loading having slopes associated with angles and a. The angle a corresponding to critical slip plane follows from:

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The formula is described in details in section "Active earth pressure line surcharge". Variation of pressure increment is trapezoidal; the larger intensity of fs is applied at the upper end while the smaller intensity of fi at the bottom end. The two increments are given by:

where:

fa b hf

-magnitude of strip surcharge -width of the strip surcharge acting normal to the structure -section loaded by active earth pressure increment

where:

-angle of critical slip plane -angle of internal friction of soil -angle of friction structure - soil

The resultant of the increment of active earth pressure due to strip loading fa is provided by:

where:

-angle of critical slip plane -angle of internal friction of soil -angle of friction structure - soil -magnitude of strip surcharge -width of the strip surcharge

fa b

For non-homogeneous soils the program proceeds as follows.

Trapezoidal surcharge
The trapezoidal surcharge is subdivided in the program in ten segments. Individual segments are treated as strip loadings. The resulting earth pressure is a sum of partial surcharges derived from individual segments.

Concentrated surcharge
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transformed into a line load with a limited length. If the width of surface loading b is smaller than the distance a from the back of wall (see figure) the alternate line loading f having length 1+2(a+b) receives the form:

where:

F a l b

- resultant due to surface or concentrated load - distance of loading from the back of wall - length of load - width of surface loading

If the width b of surface loading is greater than the distance a from the back of wall (see figure) the alternate line loading f having length 1+2(a+b) and width (a+b) reads:

where:

F a l b

- resultant due to surface or concentrated load - distance of loading from the back of wall - length of load - width of surface loading

Alternate loading for calculation of increment of active earth pressure For non-homogeneous soils the program proceeds as follows.

Line surcharge
Vertical infinitely long line loading f acting on the ground surface parallel with structure leads to a triangular increment of active earth pressure applied to the structure over a given segment - 751 -

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hf see figure:

Diagram of increment of active earth pressure due to vertical line loading acting on ground surface Action of the line surcharge is deterimened such that two lines are drawn from the point of application following angles and a (corresponding to the critical slip surface), which is provided by:

where:

- angle of internal friction of soil - angle derived from the following formulas

where:

- slope inclination - angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure - cohesion of soil - unit weight of soil - 752 -

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For non-homogeneous soil and inclination of ground surface smaller than the angle of internal friction of the soil the value of the angle is given by:

where:

- slope inclination - angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - back face inclination of the structure

The resultant of the increment of active earth pressure due to line loading f is provided by:

where:

- angle of critical slip plane - angle of internal friction of soil - angle of friction structure - soil - magnitude of line surcharge

For non-homogeneous soils the program proceeds as follows.

Surcharge in non-homogeneous soil

For non-homogeneous soil we proceed as follows: compute the angle a for a given soil layer determine the corresponding magnitude of force Sa and size of the corresponding pressure diagram determine the magnitude of earth pressure acting below the bottom edge of a given layer, and its ratio with respect to the overall pressure magnitude the surcharge is reduced using the above ratio, then the location of this surcharge on the upper edge of the subsequent layer is determined compute again the angle a for the next layer and repeat the previous steps until the bottom of a structure is reached or the surcharge is completely exhausted

Surface surcharge
An increment of uniformly distributed earth pressure at rest r caused by the vertical surface loading applied on the ground surface behind the structure is computed using the following formula:

where:

-magnitude of surface surcharge

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Kr

Diagram of increment of earth pressure at rest due to vertical uniform loading acting on ground surface

Strip surcharge
Uniform strip loading fa acting on the ground surface behind the structure parallel with vertical structure (see figure) creates an increment of earth pressure at rest r having the magnitude given by:

where:

fa
,1,2,

- vertical strip surcharge - evident from figure

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Increment of earth pressure due to vertical strip surcharge

Trapezoidal surcharge
The trapezoidal surcharge is subdivided in the program in five segments. Individual segments are treated as strip loadings. The resulting earth pressure is a sum of partial surcharges derived from individual segments.

Concentrated surcharge
Application of concentrated load yields an increment of earth pressure at rest r acting on the vertical structure and having the magnitude of:

where:

F x,z

- concentrated force acting on ground surface - coordinates evident from figure

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Increment of earth pressure at rest due to vertical concentrated force

Surface surcharge
For passive earth pressure only an increment due to vertical uniform loading fa is determined using the formula:

where:

fa Kp

-vertical surface surcharge -coefficient of passive earth pressure

The vertical uniform loading q acting on the ground surface therefore results in a constant increment of passive pressure applied over the whole length of wall - see figure.

Increment of the passive earth pressure

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Influence of earthquake
Earthquake increases the effect of active pressure and reduces the effect of passive pressure. The theories used in GEO5 (Mononobe-Okabe, Arrango) are derived assuming cohesionless soils without influence of water. Therefore, all inputted soils are assumed cohesionless when employing these theories to address the earthquake effects. Earthquake effects due to surcharge are not considered in the program the user may introduce these effects (depending on the type of surcharge) as "Inputted forces" The coefficient kh is assumed always positive and such that its effect is always unfavorable. The coefficient kv may receive both positive and negative value. If the equivalent acceleration av acts downwards (from the ground surface) the inertia forces kvWs will be exerted on the soil wedge in the opposite direction (lifting the wedge up). The values of equivalent acceleration av (and thus also the coefficient kv) and inertia forces kvWs are assumed as positive. It is clearly evident that the inertia forces act in the direction opposite to acceleration (if the acceleration is assumed upwards av = - kv*g then the inertia force presses the soil wedge downwards: -kvWs. The direction with most unfavorable effects on a structure is assumed when examining the seismic effects. For sheeting structures it is possible to neglect the effect of vertical equivalent acceleration kvWs and input kv = 0.

Sign convention The seismic angle of inertia is determined from the coefficients kh and kv (i.e. angle between the resultant of inertia forces and the vertical line) using the formula:

where:

kv kh

- seismic coefficient of vertical acceleration - seismic coefficient of horizontal acceleration

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Increment of active earth pressure due to seismic effects (computed from the structure bottom) follows from:

where:

- unit weight of soil in the ith layer

Kae, - coefficient of active earth pressure (static and seismic) in the ith layer
i

Ka hi kv

- magnitude of earth pressure in the ith layer due to Coulomb - thickness of the ith layer - seismic coefficient of vertical acceleration

Reduction of passive pressure due to seismic loading (computed from the structure bottom) is provided by:

where:

- unit weight of soil in the ith layer

Kpe, - coefficient of active earth pressure (static and seismic) in the ith layer
i

Kp hi kv

- magnitude of earth pressure in the ith layer due to Coulomb - thickness of the ith layer - seismic coefficient of vertical acceleration

Active earth pressure coefficients Kae,i and Kpe,i are computed using the Mononobe-Okabe theory or the Arrango theory. If there is ground water in the soil body the program takes that into account. The basic assumption in the program when computing earthquake is a flat ground surface behind structure with inclination . If that is not the case the program approximates the shape of terrain by a flat surface as evident from figure:

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Terrain shape approximation Point of application of resultant force The resultant force is automatically positioned by the program into the centre of the stress diagram. Various theories recommend, however, different locations of the resultant force owing to that it is possible to select the point of application of the resultant force in the range of 0,33 - 0,7H (H is the structure height). Recommended (implicit) value is 0,66H. Having the resultant force the program determines the trapezoidal shape of stress keeping both the inputted point of application of the resultant force and its magnitude.

MononobeOkabe theory
The coefficient Kae for active earth pressure is given by:

The coefficient Kpe for passive earth pressure is given by:

where:

unit weight of soil height of the structure angle of internal friction of soil angle of friction structure - soil back face inclination of the structure slope inclination seismic coefficient of vertical acceleration - 759 -

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kh

seismic coefficient of horizontal acceleration seismic inertia angle

Deviation of seismic forces must be for active earth pressure always less or equal to the difference of the angle of internal friction and the ground surface inclination (i.e. - ). If the values of is greater the program assumes the value = - . In case of passive earth pressure the value of deviation of seismic forces must be always less or equal to the sum of the angle of internal friction and the ground surface inclination (i.e. + ). The values of computed and modified angle can be visualized in the output in latter case the word MODIFIED is also displayed.

Example of the program output

Literature: Mononobe N, Matsuo H 1929, On the determination of earth pressure during earthquakes. In Proc. Of the World Engineering Conf., Vol. 9, str. 176 Okabe S> 1926 General theory of earth pressure. Journal of the japanese Societz of civl Enginners, tokz, Japan 12 (1)

Arrango theory
The program follows the Coulomb theory to compute the values of Ka and Kp while taking into * * account the dynamic values ( , ). For active earth pressure:

For passive earth pressure:

where:

- slope inclination - back face inclination of the structure - seismic forces inclination

The coefficients of earth pressures Kae and Kpe are found by multiplying the coefficients Fae and Fpe by the values of Ka and Kp, respectively.

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where:

- back face inclination of the structure - seismic forces inclination

* * If the value of the angle becomes larger than the program assumes the value ( = ). * The values of computed and modified angle can be visualized in the output in latter case the word MODIFIED is also displayed. It is the user's responsibility to check in such case whether the obtained results are realistic.

Example of the program output

Literature: Design of sheet pile walls, Pile Buck Inc., Vero beach, Florida, www.pilebuck.com

Influence of water
When examining the influence of ground water on the magnitudes of earth pressure the program GEO5 differentiates between restricted water and free water. Restricted water
-3 This type is used in soils with lower permeability app. below the value of k = 1x10 cm/s. In such soils the water flow is influenced, e.g. by actual grains (by their shape and roughness) or by resistance of fraction of adhesive water. General formulas proposed by Mononobe-Okabe or Arrango are used to analyze seismic effects. The only difference appears in substituting the * value of the seismic angle by :

where:

sat su

- unit weight of fully saturated soil - unit weight of submerged soil - seismic coefficient of horizontal acceleration - seismic coefficient of vertical acceleration

kh kv
Free water

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-1 This type is used in soils with higher permeability app. above the value of k > 1x10 cm/s. In such soils it is assumed that water flow in pores is more or less independent of soil grains (e.g. turbulent flow in coarse grain soils). General formulas proposed by Mononobe-Okabe or Arrango are used to analyze seismic effects. The only difference appears in substituting the + value of the seismic angle e by e :

where:

d su

- unit weight of dry soil - unit weight of submerged soil - seismic coefficient of horizontal acceleration - seismic coefficient of vertical acceleration - specific gravity of soil particles

kh kv GS

where:

S w

- density of the soil solids - density of water

Apart from dynamic pressure the structure is also loaded by hydrodynamic pressure caused by free water manifested by dynamic pressure applied to the structures. The actual parabolic distribution is in the program approximated by the trapezoidal distribution. The resultant of hydrodynamic pressure Pwd is distant by ywd from the heel of structure:

where:

- height of the structure

and its magnitude follows from:

where:

- unit weight of water - seismic coefficient of horizontal acceleration - height of the structure

kh H

EN 1998-5 Seismic effects

If the coefficients kh and kv are not obtained from measurements it is necessary, providing the analysis is carried out according to 1998-5 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance - Part 5: Foundations, retaining structures and geotechnical aspects, to input these coefficients as follows: - 762 -

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where:

- ratio of the design ground acceleration on type A ground (ag / g) - soil factor defined in EN 1998-1:2004, chapter 3.2.2.2 - factor for the calculation of the horizontal seismic coefficient see tab.

S R
for:

for other cases: Type of sheeting structure Free gravity walls that can accept a displacement up to

R 2

Free gravity walls that can accept a displacement up to

1,5

Flexural reinforced concrete walls, anchored or braced walls, reinforced concrete walls founded on vertical piles, restrained basement walls and bridge abutments

More detailed description can be found in EN 1998-5 chapter 7.3.2.2 Seismic effects

Influence of friction between soil and back of structure

The magnitude of active or passive earth pressure, respectively, depends not only on the selected solution theory but also on friction between the soil and the back of wall and by the adhesion of soil to the structure face represented by the angle . If = 0 then the pressure acts in the direction normal to the back of wall and the resultant of earth pressure P is also directed in normal to the back of wall see figure:

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Distribution of earth pressure along structure for = 0 Providing the friction between the soil and the back of wall is considered in the analysis of earth pressures, the earth pressure and also its resultant P are inclined from the back of wall by the angle . Orientation of friction angles from normal to the back of wall must be introduced in accord with the mutual movement of structure and soil. With increasing value of the value of active earth pressure decreases, i.e. the resultant force of active earth pressure deviates from the normal direction see figure:

Distribution of earth pressure along structure for 0 The magnitude can be usually found in the range of 1/3 to = 2/3 . The values of orientation of the friction angle between the soil and the structure are stored in table of values of for various interfaces and in table of recommended values for || / . The value of 1/3 can be used if assuming smooth treatment of the back of sheeting structure (foil and coating against ground water). For untreated face it is not reasonable to exceed the value of = 2/3 . When selecting the value of it is necessary to reflect also other conditions, particularly the force equation of equilibrium in the vertical direction. One should decide whether the structure is capable of transmitting the vertical surcharge due to friction on its back without excessive vertical deformation. Otherwise it is necessary to reduce the value of , since only partial mobilization of friction on the back of wall may occur. In case of uncertainty it is always safer to assume smaller vale of .

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Table of ultimate friction factors for dissimilar materials

Values of the angle for different interfaces (after NAVFAC) Interface material Mass concrete on the following foundation materials: Clean sound rock Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, coarse sand Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium to coarse sand, silty or clayey gravel Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sand Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt Very stiff and hard residual or preconsolidated clay Medium stiff and stiff clay and silty clay Steel sheet piles against the following soils: Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded rock fill with spalls Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture, single size hard rock fill Silty sand, gravel or sand mixed with silt or clay Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt Formed concrete or concrete sheet piling against the following soils: Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixture, well-graded rock fill with spalls Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture, single size hard rock fill Silty sand, gravel or sand mixed with silt or clay Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt Various structural materials: Dressed soft rock on dressed soft rock - 765 Friction factor tg () Friction angel

0,7 0,55 to 0,6 0,45 to 0,55 0,35 to 0,45 0,30 to 0,30 0,40 to 0,50 0,30 to 0,35

35 29 to 31

19 to 24 17 to 19 22 to26 17 to 19

0,4

22

0,3

17

0,25 0,20

14 11

0,40 to 0,50

22 to26

0,3 to 0,4

17 to 22

0,3 0,25

17 14

0,7

35

GEO5 User's Guide Dressed hard rock on dressed soft rock Dressed hard rock on dressed hard rock Masonry on wood (Gross grain) Steel on steel at sheet pile interlocks

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0,65 0,55 0,5 0,3

33 29 26 17

Table of recommended values DELTA/F

Recommended values || / Material Surface Loose noncohesive soil Firm noncohesive soil Dense noncohesive soil Silt Clayey soil Clay Concrete Smooth 0,85 0,8 0,7 0,8 0,8 0,8 Rough 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,9 0,9 0,9 Steel Smooth 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,6 0,5 0,5 Rough 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,8 0,7 0,6 Wood Smooth 0,75 0,7 0,65 0,8 0,7 0,6 Rough 0,8 0,7 0,65 0,9 0,8 0,7

Adhesion of soil
When performing the analysis in the total stress state it is necessary not only to use the total shear strength parameters of soil u , cu but also to know the adhesion a of soil to the structure face. The value of adhesion a is usually considered as a fraction of the soil cohesion c. The typical values of a for a given range of the cohesion c are listed in the following table. Common values of the adhesion of soil a Soil Soft and very soft cohesive soil Cohesion c [kPa] 0 - 12 Adhesion a [kPa] 0 12 12 24 24 - 36 36 46

Cohesive soil with medium consistency 12 - 24 Stiff cohesive soil Hard cohesive soil 24 - 48 48 - 96

Parameters of rocks
Rock parameters of orientation with respect to strength of rock in pure compression

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GEO5 User's Guide Compressive strength of rock ci [MPa] 150 80 50 30 20 15 5 25 12 16 15 8 10 10 Strength parameter of rock after Hoek GSI [-] Cohesion of rock

Fine Ltd. 2011 Angle of internal friction of rock []

mi[-] c [kPa]
75 50 75 65 30 24 20 7000 - 13000 3000 - 4000 2000 - 4000 1000 - 2000 400 - 600 300 - 500 90 - 100 46 - 68 30 - 65 40 - 60 40 - 60 20 - 44 24 - 38 23 - 28

Unlike soils (both cohesive and cohesionless) the magnitude of the angle of internal friction (sometimes refer to as the angle of shear strength) varies and depends on the current state of stress in the rock body. Graphically it is represented by the angle of the tangent to the envelope of Mohr circles constructed for the ultimate stress state. The value of gradually decreases with the increasing value of stress . If the elastic regime is exceeded (onset of plastic deformation) we set = 0. As a representative value of the angle of internal friction we denote the value 0 associated with the stress = 0. In practical applications the part of the Mohr envelope between tensile Rt and compressive Rd circles is usually replaced by the tangent to both circles (see Fig.) The magnitude of the angle of internal friction then follows from:

Determination 0 from Mohr circle The angle of internal friction can be estimated by measuring angles of slip planes on remaining parts of tested specimens together with the following formula:

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GEO5 User's Guide Some values of orientation: weathered sand conglomerate, lowly cracked unweathered clay slate, medium cracked unweathered tuff, medium cracked unweathered diabase unweathered phantanite, lowly cracked

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35 44 30 - 40 33 42 39 50 45 52

Nailed slopes
The program "Nailed slopes" allows for the following verifications: - verification of structure internal stability - verification fictitious wall - the same as gravity wall - verification of structure concrete cover - verification nails bearing capacity - verification of overall stability using the program "Slope stability"

Analysis of nails bearing capacity

For each nail the following bearing capacities are either computed or inputted:

Rf Rt Tp

nail cap bearing capacity nail strength against breaking pull-out nail bearing capacity

Strength characteristics of a nail represent the basic parameters to compute the actual force in a nail. The nail strength against breaking follows from:

where:

Rt ds fy

- strength against breaking - nail diameter - strength of nail material

SBT - factor of safety against breaking

The pull-out nail bearing capacity is provided by:

where:

Tp d

- pull-out nail bearing capacity - hole diameter

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a SBp

- ultimate bond strength - factor of safety against pull-out

The nail head strength is given by:

where:

l Rt Tp Rf
-

- nail length

Smax - maximum spacing of nails in a structure

nail strength against breaking pull-out nail bearing capacity nail cap bearing capacity

Providing the nail is not anchored to the structure cap, it is possible set the nail cap bearing capacity to zero.

Estimated bond strength

Estimated bond strength of soil nails in soil and rock (source: Elias a Juran, 1991) Material Construction method Rock Rotary drilled Marl / limestone Phyllite Chalk Soft dolomite Fissured dolomite Weathered sandstone Weathered shale Weathered schist Basalt Slate / hard shale Cohesionless soils Rotary drilled Sand / gravel Silty sand Silt Piedmont residual Soil / rock type Ultimate bond strength qs [kPa] 300 - 400 100 - 300 500 - 600 400 - 600 600 - 1000 200 - 300 100 - 150 100 - 175 500 - 600 300 - 400 100 - 180 100 - 150 40 - 120 40 - 120

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Fine colluvium Driven casing Sand / gravel low overburden high overburden Dense moraine Colluvium Augered Silty sand fill Silty fine sand Silty clayey sand Jet grouted Sand Sand gravel Fine - grained soils Rotary drilled Driven casing Augered Silty clay Clayey silt Loess Soft clay Stiff clay Stiff clayey silt Calcareous sandy clay Note: Convert values in kPa to psf by multiplying by 20.9 Convert values in kPa to psi by multiplying by 0.145

75 - 150 190 - 240 280 - 430

380 - 480 100 - 180 20 - 40 55 - 90 60 - 140 380 700 35 - 50 90 - 140 25 - 75 20 - 30 40 - 60 40 - 100 90 - 140

Analysis of internal stability

An internal stability of a structure is checked assuming two types of a slip surface: - plane slip surface:

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Plane slip surface - broken slip surface:

Broken slip surface In both cases a specific slip surface is examined for a variation of angle . When running an optimization analysis the calculation is carried out for all benches with a variation of the angle of slip surface changing from 1 up to 89 degrees with a one degree step. A verification analysis of internal stability can be performed using either the factor of safety or the theory of limit states depending on the setting in the frame "Setting". The analysis checks whether a ratio of resisting and shear (driving) forces acting on a slip surface is greater than the inputted factor of safety. The following forces are employed: Shear forces:
-

component of gravity force parallel to slip surface in case of broken slip surface component of active earth pressure acting on vertical part of structure and parallel to slip surface (pressure is determined without reduction of input parameters) horizontal forces due to earthquake

Resisting forces:
-

soil friction and cohesion along slip surface sum of forces transmitted by nails

Nail force
The nail force is determined based on the location of its intersection with a slip surface. If a nail is found completely in front of the slip surface, then it does not enter the calculation. If a nail crosses the slip surface, then its force is determined as:

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where:

x y Rf Rt Tp

- nail length behind slip surface in direction of soil body - nail length in front of slip surface - nail cap bearing capacity - nail strength against breaking - pull-out nail bearing capacity

Distribution of tensile force along nail

Factor of safety
The analysis checks whether a ratio of resisting and shear (driving) forces acting on a slip surface is greater than the inputted factor of safety. A factor of safety on the inputted slips forces is thus provided by:

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where:

G Sa,sv Sa,vod di d Fh,n ci

i

- gravity force - vertical component of active pressure - horizontal component of active pressure - length of ith section slip surface - length of slip surface - bearing capacity of nth nail behind slip surface per 1 running meter - cohesion of ith soil layer - angle o internal friction of ith layer - inclination of slip surface - inclination of nails from horizontal direction

Theory of limit states

The analysis checks whether the passive (resisting) forces Fp acting on a slip surface are greater than the active (shear) forces Fa:

where:

G Sa,sv Sa,vod di d Fh,n

- gravity force - vertical component of active pressure - horizontal component of active pressure - length of ith section slip surface - length of slip surface - bearing capacity of nth nail behind slip surface per 1 running meter

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ci
i

Verification of bearing capacity of nails

This verification is required only in certain countries and is performed only when checked in the frame "Setting". The magnitude of active earth pressure is reduced using a coefficient Kn, which can also be introduced in the frame "Setting". The recommended (experimentally determined) value is Kn = 0,85. Forces transmitted by individual nails are determined such that a particular portion of the calculated earth pressure is assigned to a given bench. Each nail is then loaded by the corresponding portion of the active earth pressure.

Forces transmitted by individual nails The nail force is provided by:

where:

- nail spacing - nail inclination - reduction coefficient

kn

Ta,vod - active earth pressure acting on a given bench

Dimensioning of concrete cover

The concrete cover of a nailed slope is designed to sustain an active earth pressure. So, the structure is assumed to be subdivided into individual intermediate design strips. In the vertical direction the nail cap is modeled as a support and joint between benches as an internal hinge. In the horizontal direction the program generates (by default) a structure with five supports - 774 -

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uniformly loaded by the magnitude of active pressure up to a depth of the nail cap. The program further allows for the verification of concrete cover reinfocement of a structure loaded by the bending moment. Constructing scheme of the model design including loading is evident from the figure:

Dimensioning of concrete cover

Analysis of walls
Verification analysis of walls can be performed with the help of: theory of limit states factor of safety In addition, the bearing capacity of foundation soil is examined for both cases. Following forces are used in the verification: weight of wall depends on the shape and unit weight of wall (for input use the "Material" dialogue window) uplift pressure is introduced for walls found below the groundwater table resistance on front face when inputting the resistance on front face the corresponding force acts as the pressure at rest, or passive pressure or reduced passive pressure gravity forces of earth wedges an arbitrary number of these forces may occur depending on the shape of structure active earth pressure or pressure at rest acting on the structure the basic loading of - 775 -

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structure due earth pressures - depending on the selected option in the frame "Settings" the pressure is computed either with or without reduction of input soil parameters forces due to water effects or pore pressure, respectively forces due to surcharge a single force corresponds to each inputted surcharge. If the magnitude of force due to surcharge is equal to zero (the surcharge has no effect on a structure) then it does not appear in the picture but only in the table listing inputted forces forces entering the analysis are displayed forces due to earthquake several forces enter the analysis due to earthquake increase of earth pressure acting on a structure, reduction of passive pressure on the front face of a structure, or force due to free water behind structure mesh step joints and reinforcements are displayed and included providing they appear in the analysis base anchorage of wall

Verification limit states

After computing forces acting on the structure the program determines the overall vertical and horizontal forces Fv and Fh, computes the forces acting on the footing bottom (normal force N and tangent force T):

Forces acting on the footing bottom Next the program performs verification for overturning stability and slip. For walls with a flat footing bottom and specified jump it is possible to account for the wall jump either in the form of pressure acting on the front face or by considering a wall with an inclined footing bottom. Check for overturning stability (the moment rotates around the point B of the wall - see picture):

where:

Movr
s

- overturning moment - coefficient of overall stability of structure - resisting moment

Mres
Check for slip:

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where:

N
d

- normal force acting on the footing bottom - design angle of friction structure-soil - design cohesion structure-soil - width of wall heel - eccentricity - coefficient of overall stability of structure - tangent force acting on the footing bottom

cd d e
s

T
where eccentricity e:

where:

Movr Mres N d

- overturning moment - resisting moment - normal force acting in the footing bottom - width of wall heel

Verification - factor of safety

After computing forces acting on the structure the program determines the overall vertical and horizontal forces Fv and Fh, computes the forces acting in the footing bottom (normal force N and tangent force T):

Forces acting on the footing bottom Next the program performs verification for overturning stability and translation. For walls with a flat footing bottom and specified jump it is possible to account for the wall jump either in the form of pressure acting on the front face or by considering a wall with an inclined footing bottom. - 777 -

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Check for overturning stability: (the moment rotates around the point B of the wall - see picture)

where:

Movr Mres FS

-overturning moment -resisting moment -factor of safety against overturning

Check for slip:

where:

-normal force acting in the footing bottom -angle of friction structure of soil -cohesion structure-soil -width of wall heel -eccentricity -coefficient of overall stability of structure -factor of safety against translation

c d e

FS
where eccentricity e:

where:

Movr Mres N d

-overturning moment -resisting moment -normal force acting in the footing bottom -width of wall heel

The "Settings" frame serves to assign the factors of safety FS (standard values are set to 1,5).

Internal sliding
This limit state evaluates the possibility of structure to slide along the reinforcement. For the o selected reinforcement the program searches for a critical slip surface in the range of 45-90 from the end of given reinforcement. For each slip surfaces the program calculates the shear and resisting forces and performs verification. The shear forces include: active pressure on a fictitious wall - 778 -

GEO5 User's Guide forces due to surcharge behind the wall

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The resisting forces include: - resistance of the wall structure against slip (it is calculated as for the wall dimensioning) - friction between reinforcement and the sliding block - forces due to other reinforcements The resisting force due to friction between reinforcement and the sliding block is given by:

where:

- normal force acting on reinforcement (due to self weight of soil and surcharge behind the fictitious wall) - angle of internal friction of soil surrounding the reinforcement

Cds - coefficient of reduction of friction on reinforcement

The actual verification is then performed based on the input specified in the frame "Setting" according to the theory of limit states and factor of safety. It has to hold: resp.

where:

Fres Fact

- resisting force - active force

SBinp - required factor of safety

Reinforcements
Reinforcements or overhangs of mesh behind the wall, respectively, may considerably increase the wall stability. The basic parameter of reinforcement is the tensile strength Rt. A design value of this parameter is used in all programs (except for the RediRock wall program), i.e. the tensile strength of reinforcement reduced by coefficients taking into account the effect of durability, creep, environment chemistry and installation damage. The force transmitted by reinforcement can never exceed the assigned tensile strength Rt (a default value of 40kN/m is used for gabions). The second characteristic is the pull-out strength Tp. This parameter determines the anchoring length, i.e. the required length of reinforcement in the soil, for which the reinforcement is fully stressed attaining the value Rt. Since the realistic values of the pull-out strength are difficult to determine, the program offers three options for their calculation, respectively for the calculation of the force F transmitted by the reinforcement.

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Length of mesh step joint or reinforcement behind blocks, respectively Calculate pull-out force The pull-out force F is given by:

where:

- normal stress due to self weight at the intersection of mesh and slip surface - angle of internal friction of soil - coefficient of interaction (0,8 by default) - length of mesh step joint behind the slip surface into the soil body

C l

Computation of the angle a is described in chapter earth wedge. Input reinforcement anchor length lk An anchoring length lk is specified. This parameter is determined by the shear strength developed between the mesh and the soil gradually increasing from zero to its limit value (measured from the end of reinforcement fixed in soil).

where:

l lk Rt

- length of mesh step joint behind the slip surface into the soil body - anchoring length of reinforcement - tensile strength

Input mesh pull-out resistance Tp The pull-out force F is given by: - 780 -

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where:

l Tp

- length of mesh step joint behind the slip surface into the soil body - pull-out resistance of mesh

Base anchorage
An anchorage of wall footing can be specified for cantilever walls. It is necessary to specify an anchor location, dimensions of a drill hole, and spacing of anchors. Two limit states of bearing capacity are defined for an anchor bearing capacity against pulling-out Tp (kN/m) and strength of anchor Rt (kN). Final force is determined as minimum of these forces.

Base anchorage Bearing capacities can be either input or computed from the input values using the following expressions:

where:

Tp d a FSp
-

- pull-out resistance drill hole diameter - ultimate bond - safety factor against pulling-out

where:

RT ds fy

- strength of anchor - anchor diameter - yield strength of anchor - 781 -

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FST

- safety factor against pulling-apart

Approximate values of bearing capacity against pulling-out Material Ultimate bond

2 [N/mm ]

Ultimate strength for specified hole diameter [kN/m] 65 mm 42 - 169 169 - 350 175 - 281 204 - 310 351 - 562 281 - 562 75 mm 49 - 195 195 - 407 202 - 325 235 - 358 405 - 562 325 - 562 90 mm 59 - 234 234 - 486 243 - 390 282 - 429 486 - 562 390 - 562 100 mm 65 - 260 260 - 543 270 - 433 314 - 477 540 - 562 433 - 562 150 mm 98 - 391 391 - 562 405 - 562 471 - 562 562 - 562 562 - 562

Soft shale Sandstone Slate, Hard Shale Soft Limestone Granite, Basalt Concrete

0,21 0,83 0,83 1,73 0,86 1,38 1,00 1,52 1,72 3,10 1,38 2,76

Accounting for wall jump

Two options are available to account for the foundation wall jump in the analysis as shown in the figure.

Options to account for wall jump If the jump is assumed as an inclined footing bottom, then a new shape of the footing bottom is considered and the structure front face resistance is included only up to a depth of the wall front face. If the jump influence is considered as a front face resistance the analysis assumes a flat footing bottom (as if there was no jump), but the structure front face resistance included up to - 782 -

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a depth of jump. In such a case computation of the structure front face resistance must also be inputted otherwise the jump influence is neglected. The jump introduced below the wall foundation is always considered as a structure front face resistance.

Assuming wall jump in the middle

Dimensioning of masonry wall according to AS 3700

Reinforced masonry is verified for loading due to bending moment, shear force and combination of compressive normal force and bending moment. When loading due normal force is considered, it is necessary to specify also the slenderness ratio Sr. Design for members in compression and bending

where:

Fd

- the design compression force acting on the cross-section - the capacity reduction factor - 0,75 - a reduction factor taken as 1,18 - 0,03 Sr but not greater than 1,0 - the characteristic uncofined compressive strength of masonry - the characteristic compressive strength of masonry - the bedded area of the masonry cross-section - the design yield strength of reinforcement - the total cross-sectional area of main reinforcement

ks fuc fm Ab fsy As

Design for members in bending

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where:

Md

- the design bending moment acting on the cross-section of member - the capacity reduction factor - 0,75 - the design yield strength of reinforcement - the portion of the cross-sectional area of the main tensile reinforcement used for design purposes in a reinforced masonry member

fsy Asd

the lesser of

and Ast

fm d fuc

- the characteristic compressive strength of masonry - the effective depth of the reinforced masonry member - the characteristic uncofined compressive strength of masonry

Out-of-plane shear in wall A reinforced wall subject to out-of-plane shear shall be such that:

but not more than:

where:

Vd

- the design shear force acting on the cross-section of the masonry wall - the capacity reduction factor - 0,75 - the characteristic shear strength of reinforced masonry - 0,35 Mpa - the effective depth of the reinforced masonry wall - the design shear strength of main reinforcement - 17,5 Mpa - the design yield strength of reinforcement - the cross-sectional area of fully anchored longitudinal reinforcement in the tension zone of the cross-section

fvm d fvs fsy Ast

Dimensioning of masonry wall according to EN 1996-1-1

The reinforced masonry is verified for the loading caused by the combination of the compressive normal force and the bending moment and for the loading due to the shear force. Verification for pressure and bending - 784 -

GEO5 User's Guide Analysis assumptions: - plane cross-sections remain plane - the strain of steel is the same as the strain of the attached masonry - the tensile strength of masonry is assumed equal to zero - the limit strain of masonry in compression is 0.0035 - the limit strain of steel in tension is 0.01

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- variation of stress as a function of strain of masonry is assumed parabolic-rectangular - variation of stress as a function of strain of steel is assumed bounded by a horizontal upper branch - the properties of filling concrete are considered the same as the properties of masonry (it is necessary to use the worse of the two materials) - design strength of masonry (concrete) is provided by:

where:

fk
M

- characteristic strength of masonry (concrete) - shear force - 1,8

- if the slenderness ratio given by the ratio of the height and the width of the wall is greater than 12, the effect of the II-nd order theory is considered by including an additional design bending moment given by:

where:

NEd hef t

- design value of the normal force - buckling height of wall - wall thickness

- If the slenderness ratio is greater than 27, then it is not possible to perform the analysis and it is necessary by changing geometry to obtain more favorable slenderness ratio.

Verification for shear

where:

VEd fvd t l

- design value of the shear force - design value of the shear strength of masonry (concrete) - wall thickness - wall length 1 running meter

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Bearing capacity of foundation soil

Verification analysis of the bearing capacity of foundation soil takes into account forces obtained from all already performed verifications of the overall stability of structure (limit states, factor of safety). To that end, the following relationships are used:

where:

N d Rd e ealw

-normal force acting in the footing bottom -width of wall heel -bearing capacity of foundation soil -eccentricity -allowable eccentricity

Wall dimensioning
After computing forces acting on the structure the program determines all internal forces in the verified cross-section (normal force N, shear force Q and moment M) and then verifies the cross-section bearing capacity employing one of the standards selected in the frame "Project". Only the forces found above the verified joint (see figure) are assumed for dimensioning. These forces are not multiplied by any design coefficients.

Forces entering the analysis The front jump of wall as well as the back jump of wall is verified against the loading caused by the bending moment and shear force. Stress in the footing bottom can be assumed either constant (CSN) or linear (EC). Assuming linear variation of stress in the footing bottom the distribution of stress is provided by:

or when excluding tension:

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where:

e d N

- eccentricity of normal force N - width of wall foundation - normal force acting in the footing bottom (see verification according to limit states or factor of safety, respectively)

Bending moment and shear force are determined as reaction developed on the cantilever beam as shown in figure:

Internal forces acting on wall jump Verification of the back jump of wall (top tensile reinforcement in the wall jump, respectively) is performed only in some countries and usually is not required. The programs "Cantilever wall" and "Reinforced wall" allow in version 5.5 for designing the reinforcement in the back jump of wall. The cross-section is then assumed to be loaded by the self weight of structure, earth wedge, surcharge, anchorage force and the force associated with contact pressure in the soil. Forces due to pressure are accounted for only if having a negative impact. Forces introduced by the user are not reflected at all. The cross-section is checked against the loading caused by the bending moment and shear force.

Internal stability of gabion

The internal stability of gabion wall can be examined with the help of: - the theory of limit states - factor of safety Verification of joints between individual blocks is performed in the " Dimensioning" frame. The structure above the block is loaded by active pressure and corresponding forces are determined in the same way as for the verification of the entire wall. A loose filling is used in the analysis not hand-placed rockfill but its effect can be simulated using a very high angle of internal friction. It can be assumed that after some time due to action of filling aggregate the stress in meshes will drop down. Individual sections of the gabion wall are checked for the maximum normal and shear stress. With the help of these variables it is possible to modify the slope of structure face by creating terraces or by increasing the slope of face of wall . Assuming loading applied to the bottom block is schematically represented as:

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Loading on the bottom block Normal stress in the center of the bottom block is given by:

where:

N B e M h

- normal force acting on the bottom block - width of upper block - eccentricity - moment acting on the bottom block - height of bottom block - unit weight of the bottom block material - gabion slope

Pressure acting on the wall of the bottom block is determined as an increased active pressure:

where:

- design angle of internal friction of the bottom block material - design cohesion of the bottom block material - unit weight of material of the bottom block - 788 -

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h B

- height of bottom block - width of upper block - gabion slope - average value of pressure acting on face of the bottom block - maximal normal stress acting on the bottom block

Widths of meshes of the bottom block per one running meter of the gabion wall are:

where:

Dhor v h

- width of upper mesh between blocks loaded in tension

Dcelk - overall width of meshes loaded in compression T

- spacing of vertical meshes - height of bottom block

The program allows for analysis of gabions with both simple and double mesh placed between blocks. For double meshes the inputted tensile strength of mesh (the " Edit material" frame) should be twice as large as the value assumed for simple meshes.

Geometry of gabions

Internal stability of gabion wall limit states

Reduced parameters of the gabion material, which depend on the coefficients set in the "Settings" frame, are used in the verification analysis. a) Check for overturning stability: - 789 -

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where:

Movr Mres

- overturning moment - resisting moment

b) Check for slip:

where:

N
d

- normal force acting on the upper joint of the bottom block - design angle of internal friction of the bottom block material - width of upper block - design cohesion of the bottom block material - shear force

B cd Q

c) Check for bearing capacity with respect to the lateral pressure:

where:

T S Su b h

- average value of pressure acting on the face of bottom block - force per one running meter of the joint - joint bearing capacity (for input use the "Material" frame) - width = 1m - height of the block

Dcelk - overall width of meshes loaded in compression T

d) Check for bearing capacity of joint between blocks:

where:

Nd Nu Qtr kt h Dcelk Dhor

- tensile force per one running meter of the upper joint of the bottom block - strength of mesh (for input use the frame "Material") - shear force transmitted by friction and cohesion between blocks - coefficient of reduction of friction between blocks (for input use the frame "Setting" default value is 0,66) height of the block overall width of meshes loaded in compression T width of upper mesh between blocks loaded in tension

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Internal stability of gabion wall factor of safety

The following cases are assumed when examining the internal stability of the gabion wall using the concept of factor of safety: a) Check for overturning stability:

where:

Movr Mres FSovr

- overturning moment - resisting moment - factor of safety against overturning

b) Check for slip:

where:

- normal force acting on the upper joint of the bottom block - angle of internal friction of the bottom block material - width of upper block - cohesion of the bottom block material - shear force - factor of safety against sliding

B c Q FSslip

c) Check for bearing capacity with respect to the lateral pressure:

where:

T S Su FSmesh b h Dcelk

- average value of pressure acting on face of the bottom block - force per one running meter of the joint - joint bearing capacity (for input use the frame "Material") - factor of safety of stressed mesh (for input use the frame "Settings" default value is 1.5) - width = 1m height of the block overall width of meshes loaded in compression T

d) Check for bearing capacity of joint between blocks:

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where:

Nd Nu FSmesh Qtr kt h Dcelk Dhor

- tensile force per one running meter of the upper joint - strength of mesh (for input use the frame "Material") - factor of safety of stressed mesh (for input use the frame "Settings" default value is 1.5) - shear force transmitted by friction and cohesion between blocks - coefficient of reduction of friction between blocks (for input use the frame "Settings" default value is 0,66) - height of the block - overall width of meshes loaded in compression T - width of upper mesh between blocks loaded in tension

Calculating abutment forces

An abutment is analyzed per 1m (1ft). All forces entering the analysis are therefore adjusted in the program as follows: the abutment self weight, assumed per 1m (1ft), is calculated from the inputted transverse cross-section reactions inserted by the bridge and the approach slab are inputted in kN (kpi) using the values for the whole abutment, these values are in the analysis divided by the abutment length soil pressure is determined per 1m (1ft) and then multiplied by the ratio length of load due to soil / abutment length, weight of soil wedges is determined per 1m (1ft) and then multiplied by the ratio length of load due to soil / abutment length, surcharge is determined per 1m (1ft) and then multiplied by the ratio length of load due to soil / abutment length, inputted forces and front face resistance are assumed per 1m without reduction wing walls the wing walls self-weight is computed from their geometry; before introduced in the stem design and foundation verification it is divided by the abutment length (it is the user responsibility to either include or exclude the effect of wing walls in from the analysis). Computation of individual abutment forces is described in more details in chapter "Wall analyses". All forces acting in the foundation joint that are introduced in the verification analysis (except for the front face resistance) are multiplied by the ratio abutment length / foundation length.

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Geometry of bridge abutment

Reduced passive earth pressure

Evolution of passive earth pressure p corresponds to the maximal displacement of a structure pushed into the soil. Such a displacement might not, however, occur (e.g. in the case of fixed sheeting structures) and the structure is loaded by the reduced passive earth pressure ps. The value of reduced passive earth pressure ps can range from the value of earth pressure at rest r (in the case of zero deformation) up to the value of passive earth pressure p. Figure shows the dependence of values of earth pressure of a cohesionless soil (soil resistance) on the actual displacement d to maximal displacement dmax ratio (when activating passing earth pressure p).

Dependence of earth pressure values on the ratio of actual structure deformation

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Sheeting design
Analyses in the program "Sheeting design" can be divided into three groups: - analysis of anchor free walls (e.g. sheet pile wall) - analysis of anchored walls fixed at heel - analysis of anchored walls simply supported at heel Analysis of braced sheeting is also available in the program.

Analysis of sheet pile wall

A sheet pile wall is analyzed using standard approach that account for effect of earth pressures. Iin general, the active earth pressure develops behind the structure while the passive earth pressure appears in front of the structure. Based on the theory of limit states the program searches in an iterative way a point on the wall to satisfy the moment equation of equilibrium in the form:

Moverturning = Mresisting
Once this is accomplished, the program continues by determining the wall heel location for which the equilibrium of shear forces is fulfilled (computation of depth of fixed end). The overall length of the analyzed structure is found this way. When applying approach based on the factor of safety the program searches, in an iterative way, a point to get:

It is obvious that the distribution of internal forces resulting from this approach is not very realistic. In some countries, however, this approach is required. The computation can be driven either by choosing a minimal dimensioning pressure or by reduction of passive pressure. Assuming the actual magnitude of the passive earth pressure provides deformations of the analyzed structure, which cannot usually occur. The actual passive pressure can attain for walls free of deformation the value of pressure at rest as well as all intermediate values up to the value of passive pressure for fully deformed wall (rotation app. 10 mRad i.e. deformation 10 mm per 1m of structure height). Therefore it is reasonable to consider reduced values of the passive earth pressure by setting the value of the "Coefficient of reduction of passive pressure " to less than or equal to one. The following values are recommended: 0,67 reduces deformations app. by one half, 0,5 approximately corresponds to deformation of structure loaded by increased active earth pressure, 0,33 approximately corresponds to deformation of structure loaded by the pressure at rest, structure reaches app. 20 percent of its original deformations.

Analysis of anchored wall fixed in heel

Anchored wall fixed in heel is analyzed as a continuous beam using the deformation variant of the finite element method in order to comply with the assumption of heel fixed in the soil. The actual analysis is preceded by the determination of load due to earth pressure applied to the - 794 -

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structure. The pressure acting on the back of a structure is assumed to be the active pressure, while the front face is loaded by the passive pressure. The passive pressure can be reduced with the help of the coefficient of reduction of passive pressure. Assuming the actual magnitude of the passive earth pressure provides deformations of the analyzed structure, which cannot usually occur. The actual passive pressure can attain for walls free of deformation the value of pressure at rest as well as all intermediate values up to the value of passive pressure for fully deformed wall (rotation app. 10 mRad i.e. deformation 10 mm per 1m of structure height). Therefore it is reasonable to consider reduced values of the passive earth pressure setting the value of the " Coefficient of reduction of passive pressure" to less than or equal to one. The following values are recommended:

0,67
0,33

- reduces deformations app. by one half, - deformations attain approximately twenty percent of their original values

The program offers two options to determine active pressure: calculation from inputted soil parameters, water, surcharge, terrain including introduction of the minimal dimensioning pressure inputting an arbitrary distribution of earth pressure up to the depth of zero point (this way it is possible to introduce an arbitrary redistribution of earth pressure) Zero-value point, i.e. the point at which the overall pressure equals zero is determined by the following expression:

where:

u K

depth of zero-value point magnitude of active pressure behind structure at the ditch bottom coefficient of overall pressure unit weight of soil below the ditch bottom

a -

The analysis of structure fixed at heel assumes that the point of zero loading N (at depth u) is identical with the point of zero moment. For the actual analysis the structure is divided into two parts an upper part (upper beam) up to zero-value point and a lower beam:

Analysis of anchored wall fixed in heel

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The upper beam is analyzed first together with evaluation of anchor forces F and the reaction force R at the zero-value point. Then, the lower beam length x is determined such that the moment equilibrium condition with respect to the heel is satisfied (the beam is loaded by the reaction R and by the difference of earth pressures). To satisfy the shear force equilibrium the computed length of fixed end is extended by the value x as shown in figure:

Determination of the extension of the length of wall by x

Analysis of anchored wall simply supported at heel

Anchored wall simply supported at heel is analyzed as a continuous beam using the deformation variant of the finite element method in order to comply with the assumption of simply supported structure at heel. The actual analysis is preceded by the determination of load due to earth pressure applied to the structure. The pressure acting on the back of a structure is assumed as active presure, while the front face is loaded by passive pressure. The passive pressure can be reduced with the help of the coefficient of reduction of passive pressure. Assuming the actual magnitude of the passive earth pressure provides deformations of the analyzed structure, which cannot usually occur. The actual passive pressure can attain for walls free of deformation the value of pressure at rest as well as all intermediate values up to the value of passive pressure for fully deformed wall (rotation app. 10 mRad i.e. deformation 10 mm per 1m of structure height). Therefore it is reasonable to consider reduced values of the passive earth pressure setting the value of the "Coefficient of reduction of passive pressure" to less than or equal to one. The following values are recommended:

0,67
0,33

- reduces deformations app. by one half, - deformations attain approximately twenty percent of their original values.

The program offers two options to determine active pressure: - calculation from inputted soil parameters, water, surcharge, terrain including introduction of the minimal dimensioning pressure - inputting an arbitrary distribution of earth pressure up to the depth of zero point (this way it is possible to introduce an arbitrary redistribution of earth pressure). Zero-value point, i.e. the point at which the overall pressure equals zero is determined by the following expression:

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GEO5 User's Guide where:

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u
a

- depth of zero-value point - magnitude of active pressure behind structure at the ditch bottom - coefficient of overall pressure - unit weight of soil below the ditch bottom

For simply supported structures it is assumed that the moment and shear force are zero at the heel. The program first places the end of a structure into the zero-value point, and then it looks for the end beam location x, where the above condition is fulfilled (see Fig.). Solution procedure for multiplied anchored walls is identical.

Analysis of anchored wall simply supported at heel

Sheeting check
The program evaluates the inputted structure using the method of dependent pressures. The loading applied to the structure is derived from its deformation, which allows for realistic modeling of its behavior and provides cost effective designs. The analysis correctly accounts for the construction process such as individual stages of progressive construction of the wall (stages of constructions) including gradual evolution of deformations and post-stressing of anchors, makes possible to model braced sheeting. The use of the method of dependent pressures requires determination of the modulus of subsoil reaction, which is assumed either linear or nonlinear. The program also allows the user to check internal stability of the anchorage system. The actual analysis is carried out using the deformation variant of the finite element method. Displacements, internal forces and the modulus of subsoil reaction are evaluated at individual nodes. The following procedure for dividing the structure into finite elements is assumed: first, the nodes are inserted into all topological points of a structure (starting and end points, points of location of anchors, points of soil removal, points of changes of crosssectional parameters), based on selected subdivision the program computes the remaining nodes such that all elements attain approximately the same size. A value of the modulus of subsoil reaction is assigned to each element it is considered as the Winkler spring of the elastic subsoil. Supports are placed onto already deformed structure - 797 -

GEO5 User's Guide each support then represents a forced displacement applied to the structure.

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Anchors, in the load case at which they were introduced or post-stressed, are considered as forces (variant I in Fig). In other load cases, the anchors are modeled as forces and springs of stiffness k (variant II. in Fig):

Braced sheeting

The change of anchor force due to deformation is provided by:

where:

v
w

-horizontal distance between anchors -deformation increment the point of anchor application -anchor Youngs modulus -anchor cross-sectional area -anchor length -anchor stiffness -anchor inclination

E A l k

Method of dependent pressures

The basic assumption of the method is that the soil or rock in the vicinity of wall behaves as ideally elastic-plastic Winkler material. This material is determined by the modulus of subsoil reaction kh, which characterizes the deformation in the elastic region and by additional limiting deformations. When exceeding these deformations the material behaves as ideally plastic. The following assumptions are used: the pressure acting on a wall may attain an arbitrary value between active and passive pressure but it cannot fall outside of these boundaries - 798 -

GEO5 User's Guide the pressure at rest acts on an undeformed structure (w=0)

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The pressure acting on a deformed structure is given by:

where:

-pressure at rest -modulus of subsoil reaction -deformation of structure -active earth pressure -passive earth pressure

kh w
a p

The computational procedure is as follows: the modulus of subsoil reaction kh is assigned to all elements and the structure is loaded by the pressure at rest see figure:

Scheme of structure before first iteration the analysis is carried out and the condition for allowable magnitudes of pressures acting on the wall is checked. In locations at which these conditions are violated the program assigns the value of kh=0 and the wall is loaded by active or passive pressure, respectively see figure:

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Scheme of structure during the iteration process

The above iteration procedure continues until all required conditions are satisfied. In analyses of subsequent stages of construction the program accounts for plastic deformation of the wall. This is also the reason for specifying individual stages of construction that comply with the actual construction process.

Modulus of subsoil reaction

The following options are available in the program to introduce the modulus of subsoil reactions: - in the form of distribution (the assumed distribution of the modulus of subsoil reaction in front and behind the structure is inputted) - as a soil parameter with a respective value (either linear or nonlinear) - according to Schmitt - according to CUR166 - according to Mnard - according to Chadeisson - iterate using deformation characteristics of soils The modulus of horizontal reaction of a soil body generally corresponds to spring stiffness in the Winkler model describing the relation between load applied to a rigid plate and the resulting soil deformation in the form:

where:

p k y

- load acting along plate-soil interface - stiffness of Winkler spring - translation of plate into subsoil

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Definition of the modulus of subsoil reaction

Modulus of subsoil reaction according to CUR 166

The following table stores the values of the modulus of subsoil reaction derived from experimental measurements carried out in Netherlands (described in CUR 166). The table offers secant modules, which are in the program directly transformed into secant modules of subsoil reaction see nonlinear modulus of subsoil reaction.

kh,1(kN/m ) p0 < ph< 0,5 ppas

Sand loose medium dense dense Clay soft stiff very stiff Peat soft stiff where: 1000 - 2250 2000 - 4500 2000 - 4500 4000 - 9000 6000 - 13500 12000 - 27000 20000 - 45000 40000 - 90000

kh,2 (kN/m ) 0,5 ppas ph 0,8 ppas

6000 - 13500 10000 - 22500 20000 - 45000

kh,3 (kN/m ) 0,8 ppas ph 1,0 ppas

3000 - 6750 5000 - 11250 10000 - 22500

800 - 1800 2000 - 4500 4000 - 9000

500 - 1125 800 - 1800 2000 - 4500

500 - 1125 800 - 1800

250 - 560 500 - 1125

p0

- value of pressure at rest in kN/m2

ppas - passive pressure in kN/m2 ph

- horizontal pressure in kN/m2 corresponding to a given shift of a structure

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Diagram of determination of the modulus of subsoil reaction

Literature: CUR 166 Damwandconstructies, available at Civieltechnisch Centrum Uitvoering Research en Regelgeving: P.O.Box 420, 2800 AK Gouda (NL)

Modulus of subsoil reaction according to Schmitt

This analysis builds on the relation between oedometric modulus and stiffness of the structure o introduced by Schmitt in Revue Francaise de Gotechnique n 71 and 74:

where:

EI

-structure stiffness -oedometric modulus

Eoed

Literature: Schmitt. P.(1995). "Estimating the coefficient of subgrade reaction for diaphragm wall and sheet pile wall design", in French. Revue Franaise de Gotechnique, N. 71, 2 trimestre 1995, 3-10

Modulus of subsoil reaction according to Mnard

Based on the results from experimental measurements (presiometer) of soil response loaded by rigid plate Mnard derived the following expression:

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where:

EM
a

-presiometric modulus, if necessary it can be substituted by oedometric modulus of soil -characteristic length depending on a depth of fixed-end structure, according to Mnard assumed at a depth of 2/3 of length of fixed-end structure below final depth of sheeted ditch -rheological coefficient of soil

Values of rheological coefficient of soil : Clay Overconsolidated Normally consolidated Non-consolidated 1 2/3 1/2 Silt 2/3 1/2 1/2 Sand 1/2 1/3 1/3 Gravel 1/3 1/4 1/4

Literature: Menard L., 1975, "The Menard Pressuremeter: Interpretation and Application of the Pressuremeter Test Results to Foundations Design", Sols-Soils, No. 26, Paris, France.

Modulus of subsoil reaction according to Chadeisson

Based on measurements on sheeting structures in different soils and computation of a shift of structure needed to mobilize the limit value of passive pressure R. Chadeisson derived expression for the determination of the modulus of subsoil reaction in the form:

where:

EI

structure stiffness unit weight of soil coefficient of passive pressure coefficient of soil pressure at rest effective cohesion - 803 -

Kp K0 c

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011 coefficient of influence of cohesion (1 - 15)

Ap

Literature:
th Chadeisson, R. 1961 Parois continues moules dans le sols. Proceedings of the 5 European Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,Vol. 2. Dunod, Paris, 563-568"

Modulus of subsoil reaction derived from iterations

The program allows for automatic calculation of the modulus of subsoil reaction from deformational characteristics of soil from iteration process. The procedure builds on the assumption that deformation of the elastic subspace characterized by the deformation modulus Edef [MPa] when changing the stress state associated with the change of earth pressures is the same as deformation of the underground wall.
3 The goal therefore is to find such values of kh [MN/m ] so that the continuity of deformations of wall and adjacent soil is maintained. Plastic deformation of structure is not considered when performing analysis with kh iteration. This approach is schematically cleared by th computing the modulus of subsoil reaction of the i segment of wall free of anchor, see figure:

Determination of modulus of subsoil reaction of i

th

segment

For change of stress r - the program determines uniform loading ol [MPa] of individual th segments of a structure. Next, the overall change of stress passing the i segment (i*l [MPa*m]) is computed. This change is caused by additional loading of the soil body due to segments 1 to n (ol,1 - ol,n). The overall change of stress i is reduced by structural strength mior,i [MPa]. The new value of the spring stiffness then follows from:

where:

Edef - deformation modulus of elastic subspace

ol - uniform load applied to segments of structure

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GEO5 User's Guide il - overall change of stress behind ith segment of structure

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The change of stress inside the soil body is determined according to Boussinesque. Inserting the new value of k directly into the next calculation would cause instable iteration therefore the value of k that is introduced into the next analysis of the wall is determined from the original value of kp and the new value of kn of the modulus of subsoil reaction.

where:

kp kn

- original value of modulus of subsoil reaction - new value of modulus of subsoil reaction
th

Maximum modulus of the subsoil reaction of the i

layer is limited by the value:

where:

Edef,i

- deformation modulus of ith layer

The iterative procedure used when computing the modulus of subsoil reaction is as follows: 1) Determine the matrix of influence values for deriving change of stress in a depth of the soil th body passing the i segment of a structure due to surcharge caused by the change of stress in other segments. 2) The first approximation of the modulus kh in front of the wall is introduced a triangular 3 distribution of values at the wall heel kh = 10 MN/m is assumed. 3) Perform analysis of the wall. 4) Compute new values of kh and determine new values for the next analysis. 5) The dialogue window to check the iteration appears and the program waits till the next command. If the next n iterations are selected, the steps 3 and 4 are repeated ntimes to arrive again at the step No. 5. The analysis is terminated in this dialogue window by pressing the "Stop" button. This iterative process is controlled by the user he or she has to decide whether the results make sense.

Internal stability of anchors

The internal stability of an anchorage system of sheeting is determined for each layer independently. The verification analysis determines an anchor force, which equilibrates the system of forces acting on a block of soil. The block is outlined by sheeting, terrain, line connecting the heel of sheeting with anchor root and by a vertical line passing through the center of anchor root and terrain. The theoretical footing of sheeting construction is the point where the sum of horizontal forces under the bottom of the construction pit is equal to zero. If this point lies under the footing of the sheeting wall, the theoretical point is the footing of this wall. The analysis is performed per one running meter of a sheeting structure. Anchor forces are therefore computed with respect to their spacing in individual layers.

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Analysis of internal stability

th Scheme for verification of the i layer of anchors is shown in the figure. The force equilibrium for the block ABCD is being determined. The following forces enter the analysis:

EA EAi Gi

resultant of active earth pressure acting on sheeting (on line AD) resultant of active earth pressure above the root of verified anchor (on line BC) weight of the soil block ABCD; in addition, this value incorporates the surcharge p applied on the ground surface providing the slope q of slip surface AB is greater than an average value of the angle of internal friction on this surface; in case of a smaller slope of slip surface AB the ground surchage is not considered resultant of soil cohesion on slip surface AB
th th of the i layer, whether a given anchor (say the m one) will enter the equilibrium of th the i block is determined as follows: o from two anchors m, i select the lower one, a plane slip surface, inclined by 45 n/2 from a vertical line, is placed in a body such that it passes through the center of the selected anchor (lines ab and Bc in figure), n is an average value of the angle of internal friction above the root of lower anchor location of the root of th anchor found above the inserted slip surface is then decisive, if the i root is found th th above the m one and the i root is located outside the block cut by the slip surface, th then the m anchor force is included into the analysis and vice versa, figure shows

Ci

Fj, Fk, - forces developed in other anchors; only some of them enter the equilibrium analysis

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an example in which the force Fj is included while the force Fk is excluded from the th stability analysis of the i block

Qi Fi

reaction on slip surface AB force in the analyzed anchor, the maximum allowable magnitude of this force is the th result of the equilibrium analysis carried out for the i block

Solution of the equilibrium problem for a given block requires writing down vertical and horizontal force equations of equilibrium. These represent a system of two equations to be solved for the unknown subsoil reaction Qi and the maximum allowable magnitude of the anchor force Fi. As a result the program provides the maximum allowable anchor forces for each row of anchors. These are them compared with those actually prescribed in anchors.

Braced sheeting
When analyzing braced sheeting the following approach is adopted to determine the earth pressures: Up to the depth of ditch the pressures are determined with respect to one running meter of the structure width. Below the ditch bottom the earth pressures are multiplied by the coefficient of reduction k (the "Coeff. of reduction of pressures below ditch bottom " can be inputted in the frame "Geometry" as a parameter of the section of a structure) the pressures are determined with respect to a reduced structure width k*b. In case of continuous wall the coefficient is set to one and no reduction of pressures is assumed. If " Landing of soil" above the ditch ("Excavation" dialog window) is inputted, then the pressures within this section are computed with respect to the whole width of wall (k=1). The coefficient k can be approximately determined (for very conservative design) according to:

where:

m t

-longitudinal spacing of soldier beams -width of soldier beam

Actual value of the coefficient also depends on the soil type and space effect of earth pressure. Real values of coefficients (based on experiments) are two- or three-times higher than values calculated with the help of the previous formula.

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Braced sheeting

Nonlinear modulus of subsoil reaction

Nonlinear model describes dependence of the modulus of subsoil reaction kh i.e. change of kh in between the threshold values corresponding to failure due to passive earth pressure Tp and active earth pressure Ta see figure (the modulus of subsoil reaction is given by the slope of the curve; for pore pressure at rest acting on a structure it is possible to consider the value of kh1). This model also accounts for spring supports and forced deflections of the structure, various boundary conditions, application of struts and anchors, etc.

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GEO5 User's Guide Interaction model to determine kh

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The values of the modulus of subsoil reaction can be derived subsequently from the values of secant modules of subsoil reaction (CUR 166) see figure:

Interaction model to determine kh - CUR 166

Slope stability
The slope stability problem is solved in a two dimensional environment. The soil in a slope body can be found below the ground water table, water can also exceed the slope ground, which can be either partially or completely flooded. The slope can be loaded by a surcharge of a general shape either on the ground or inside the soil body. The analysis allows for including the effect of anchors expected to support the slope or for introduction of horizontal reinforcing elements reinforcements. An earthquake can also be accounted for in the analysis. Two types of approaches to the stability analysis are implemented in the program classical analysis according to the factor of safety and the analysis following the theory of limit states. The slip surface can be modeled in two different ways. Either as a circular one, then the user may choose either from the Fellenius/Petterson, Bishop, Spencer, Janbu or Morgenstern-Price method, or as a polygonal one, in which case the program exploits the Sarma, Spencer, Janbu or Morgenstern-Price method.

Soil body
The soil body is formed by a layered profile. An arbitrary number of layers can be used. Each layer is defined by its geometry and material. The material of a layer is usually represented by a soil with specified properties. The geostatic stress in a soil body is determined during the analysis. A layer can be specified also as a rigid body. Such layer then represents bedrock or a sheeting wall. The slip surface can never pass through the rigid body.

Influence of water
Ground water can be assigned to the slope plane section using one of the five options: Ground water table The ground water table is specified as a polygon. It can be arbitrarily curved, placed totally within the soil body or introduced partially above the ground surface. - 809 -

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Presence of water influences value of pore pressure acting within a soil and reducing its shear bearing capacity. The pore pressure is considered as the hydrostatic pressure, i.e. unit weight of water is multiplied by reduced height of the water table:

where:

- unit weight of water - reduced height of water table

hr
where:

where:

- vertical distance of point, where pore pressure is calculated and point on the water table - inclination of the water table

Resultant force of pore pressure at certain section of the block is used in the calculation:

where:

u l

- pore pressure in the point - length of section

Below the ground water table the analysis proceeds using the unit weight of saturated soil sat and uplift pressure; above the ground water table the analysis assumes the inputted unit weight of soil . The shear forces along the slip surface are provided by:

where:

T N U

- shear force along slip surface segment - normal force along slip surface segment - pore pressure resultant along slip surface segment - angle of internal friction - cohesion - length of slip surface segment

c d

In case of total stress (entered in the frame "Analysis methods") total parameters are used and pore pressure is considered zero. Ground water table including suction Suction table can be introduced above the inputted ground water table. A negative value of pore pressure u is then assumed with the region separated by the two tables. Suction increases as negative hydrostatic pressure from the ground water table towards the suction table.

Rapid draw down Original table can be introduced above the inputted ground water table. Original table simulates state before rapid draw down. First of all the initial pore pressure u0 is calculated (to original water table). Change of pore pressure in the area between original and ground water - 810 -

GEO5 User's Guide table is defined:

Fine Ltd. 2011

where:

- unit weight of water - reduced height (from original to water table)

hr

Change of pore pressure u is multiplied by coefficient of reduction of initial pore pressure B, which is required for all soils (dialogue window "Soils"). B coefficient of the soil in the area of pore pressure determination is used (NOT soil in the area between original and ground water table). In case of permeable soil B = 1, in other case B = 0. Final pore pressure is evaluated as:

where:

u0 B
u

- initial pore pressure - coefficient of reduction of initial pore pressure - change of pore pressure

Coefficient of pore pressure Ru The coefficient of pore pressure Ru represents the ratio between the pore pressure and hydrostatic pressure in a soil body. In the area, where Ru is positive, entered unit weight of saturated soil sat is considered, in other case unit weight of soil is used. The values of Ru are introduced with the help of isolines connecting points with the same value of Ru. Linear interpolation is assumed to obtain intermediate values. Pore pressure is established as geostatic stress reduced by coefficient Ru:

where:

Ru hi
i

- coefficient of pore pressure - height of i-th soil layer - unit weight of i-th soil layer

Pore pressure values Ground water can be introduced directly through the pore pressure values within the plane section of a soil body. In the area, where u is positive, entered unit weight of saturated soil sat is considered, in other case unit weight of soil is used. The pore pressure values are introduced with the help of isolines connecting points with the same value of pore pressure. Linear interpolation is assumed to obtain intermediate values. Pore pressure values are then derived from the values of pore pressure obtained in specific points within the slope plane section.

Surcharge
The slope stability analysis takes into account even the surcharge caused by neighboring structures. The surcharge can be introduced either as a concentrated force or distributed load acting either on the ground surface or inside the soil body. - 811 -

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Since it is usually assumed that the surcharge is caused by the weight of objects found on the slope body, the vertical component of surcharge having the direction of weight (material component) is added to the weight of blocks. It means that if the earthquake effects are included this component is also multiplied by the factor of horizontal acceleration or vertical earthquake. Material surcharge component also influences the position of block centroid. The components that do not act in the direction of weight are assumed in equations of equilibrium written for a given block as weightless thus neither contribute to inertia effects of the earthquake nor position of block centroid. The surcharge is always considered in the analysis with respect to one running meter. Providing the surcharge, essentially acting over the area b x l, is introduced as a concentrated force it is transformed before running the analysis into a surface loading spread up to a depth of slip surface along the slope 2:1 as displayed in figure.

Scheme of spreading the concentrated load on the slip surface The analysis then proceeds with the resultant of surface load p having the value:

Anchors
Anchor is specified by two points and a force. The first point is always located on the ground surface; the force always acts in the direction of a soil body. The anchor force when computing equilibrium on a given block (slice) is added to the weightless surcharge of the slope. Two options are available to account for anchors: Compute anchor lengths analysis assumes infinite lengths of anchors (anchors are always included in the analysis) and computes the required lengths of links anchors (distance between the anchor head and intersection of anchor with the slip surface) subsequently. The anchor root is then placed behind the slip surface. This approach is used whenever we wish the anchor to be always active and thus contribute to increase the slope stability and we need to know its minimum distance. Analysis with specified lengths of anchors the analysis takes into account only those anchors that have their end points (center of roots) behind the slip surface. This approach is used always whenever we wish to evaluate the current state of slope with already existing anchors, since it may happen that some of the anchors may prove to be short to intersect the critical slip surface so that they do not contribute to increase the slope stability.

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Reinforcements
Reinforcements are horizontal reinforcing elements, which are placed into the soil to increase the slope stability utilizing their tensile strength. If the reinforcement intersects the slip surface, the force developed in the reinforcement enters the force equation of equilibrium of a given block. In the contrary case, the slope stability is not influenced. The basic parameter of reinforcement is the tensile strength Rt. A design value of this parameter is used - i.e. the strength of reinforcement reduced by coefficients taking into account the effect of durability, creep and installation damage. The force transmitted by reinforcement can never exceed the assigned tensile strength Rt.

Scheme of accounting for reinforcement The second characteristic is the pull-out strength Tp. This parameter determines the anchoring length, i.e. the required length of reinforcement in the soil, for which the reinforcement is fully stressed attaining the value Rt. Since the realistic values of the pull-out strength are difficult to determine, the program offers three options for their calculation, respectively for the calculation of the force F transmitted by the reinforcement.

Calculate reinforcement bearing capacity The pull-out force F is given by:

where:

- normal stress due to self weight at the intersection of reinforcement and slip surface see Fig. - angle of internal friction of soil - coefficient of interaction (0,8 by default) - length of reinforcement step joint behind the slip surface into the soil body

C l

Input reinforcement anchor length lk An anchoring length lk is specified. This parameter is determined by the shear strength developed between the reinforcement and the soil gradually increasing from zero to its limit value (measured from the end of reinforcement fixed in soil).

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where:

l lk Rt

- length of reinforcement behind the slip surface into the soil body - anchoring length of reinforcement - tensile strength

Input reinforcement pull-out resistance Tp The pull-out force F is given by:

where:

l Tp

- length of reinforcement behind the slip surface into the soil body - pull-out resistance of reinforcement

Earthquake effect
The program allows for computing the earthquake effects with the help of two variables factor of horizontal acceleration Kh or the coefficient of vertical earthquake Kv. Coefficient of vertical earthquake Kv The coefficient of vertical earthquake either decreases (Kv > 0) or increases (Kv < 0) the unit weight of a soil, water in a soil and material surcharge by multiplying the respective values by 1-Kv. It is worth to note that the coefficient Kv may receive both positive and negative value and in case of sufficiently large coefficient of horizontal acceleration the slope relieve (Kv > 0) is more unfavorable than the surcharge. Factor of horizontal acceleration Kh In a general case the computation is carried out assuming a zero value of the factor Kh. This constant, however, can be exploited to simulate the effect of earthquake by setting a non-zero value. This value represents a ratio between horizontal and gravity accelerations. Increasing the factor Kh results in a corresponding decrease of the factor of safety FS. The coefficient of horizontal acceleration introduces into the analysis an additional horizontal force acting in the center of gravity of a respective block with the magnitude Kh*Wi, where Wi is the block overall weight including the material component of the slope surcharge. The following table lists the values of the factor Kh that correspond to different degrees of earthquake based on M-C-S scale. M-C-S degree (MSK-64) 1 2 Horizontal acceleration
2 [mm/s ]

Factor of horizontal acceleration

Kh
2,5 5,0 0,0 0,00025 - 0.00025 - 0.0005

0,0 2,5 - 814 -

GEO5 User's Guide 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 5,0 10,0 25,0 50,0 100,0 250,0 500,0 1000,0 2500,0 > 10,0 25,0 50,0 100,0 250,0 500,0 1000,0 2500,0 5000,0 5000,0 0,0005 0,001 0,0025 0,005 0,01 0,025 0,05 0,1 0,25

Fine Ltd. 2011 - 0.001 - 0.0025 - 0.005 - 0.01 - 0.025 - 0.05 - 0.1 - 0.25 - 0.5 > 0.5

Verification according to EN 1997

Analysis according to EN 1997 is verified according to the limit state theory. When performing the verification analysis according to EN 1997 in combination with design approach 2 the program reduces the resisting moment (by reciprocal value of Rs). The value of capacity utilization Vu is calculated and then it is compared to 100%. The value of capacity utilization is given by:

where:

Movr
Rs

- overturning moment - resistance on slip surface reduction factor - resisting moment

Mres

In the case of design approaches 1 and 3 the program reduces the strength parameters of soil (angle of internal friction and cohesion). The value of capacity utilization is then given by:

where:

Movr Mres

- overturning moment - resisting moment

Analysis according to the theory of limit states / factor of safety

The verification analysis can be carried out according to the theory of limit states: - 815 -

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where:

Movr
s

- overturning moment - coefficient of overall stability of structure - resisting moment

Mres

Soil parameteres (angle of internal friction, cohesion) are in this case reduced using the design coefficients introduced in the frame "Settings". The value of utilization Vu is calculated and then compared with the value of 100%. The value of utilization is given by:

where:

FS
s

- factor of slope stability computed with reduced soil parameters - coefficient of overall stability of structure

The second option offers the verification analysis using the factor of safety:

where:

Movr Mres FS

- overturning moment - resisting moment - factor of safety for overturning

Polygonal slip surface

Solution of the slope stability problem adopting the polygonal slip surface is based on the determination of the limit state of forces acting on the soil body above the slip surface. To introduce these forces the slip surface above is subdivided into blocks by dividing planes. Typically, these planes are assumed vertical, but this is not a required condition, e.g. the Sarma methods considers generally inclined planes.

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Static scheme of block The figure shows forces acting on individual blocks of soil. If the region above the slip surface is divided in blocks, then for the evaluation of unknowns we have: n normal forces Ni acting on individual segments and corresponding n shear forces Ti; n-1 normal forces between blocks Ei and corresponding n-1 shear forces Xi ; n-1 values of zi representing the points of application of forces Ei, n values of li representing the points of application of forces Ni and one value of the factor of safety FS. Forces Xi can be in some methods replaced by the values of inclination of forces Ei. To following set of equations is available to solve the problem of equilibrium: n horizontal and n vertical equations of equilibrium written for individual blocks, n moment equations of equilibrium for individual blocks and n relations between Ni and Ti forces developed on blocks according to the Mohr-Coulomb theory. In total there are 4n equations for 6n-2 unknowns. This suggests that 2n-2 unknowns must be chosen a priory. Individual methods differ from each other in the way these values are selected. Most often points of application of individual forces acting between blocks or their inclinations are selected. Solving the problem of equilibrium it proceeds in an iterative manner, where the selected values must allow for satisfying both the equilibrium and kinematical admissibility of the obtained solution. The program allows for adopting one of the following methods: - Sarma - Spencer - Janbu - Morgenstern-Price Optimization of polygonal slip surface searches the most critical surface (the lowest factor of safety).

Sarma
The Sarma method falls within a category of general sliced methods of limit states. It is based on fulfilling the force and moment equilibrium conditions on individual blocks. The blocks are created by dividing the soil region above the potential slip surface by planes, which may have - 817 -

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in general experience a different inclination. Forces acting on individual blocks are displayed in the following figure.

Static scheme Sarma method Here, Ei , Xi represent the normal and shear forces between blocks. Ni , Ti are normal and shear forces on segments of a slip surface. Wi is the block weight and Kh.Wi is the horizontal force that is used to achieve in the Sarma method the limit state. Generally inclined surcharge can be introduced in each block. This surcharge is included in the analysis together with the surcharge due to water having the free water table above the terrain, and with forces in anchors. All these forces are projected along the horizontal and vertical directions, which are then summed up into components Fxi and Fyi. Kh is a constant named the factor of horizontal acceleration and it is introduced into the analysis in order to satisfy the equilibrium on individual blocks. There is a relationship between Kh and the factor of slope stability FS allowing for the safety factor computation. In ordinary cases the analysis proceeds with the value of Kh equal to zero. A non-zero value of Kh is used to simulate the horizontal surcharge, e.g. due to earthquake (see below). Analysis process Computation of limit equilibrium The computation of limit equilibrium requires the solution of 6n-1 unknowns, where n stands for the number of blocks dividing the soil region above the potential slip surface. These are:

Ei Ni Ti Xi zi li Kh

- forces developed between blocks - normal forces acting on slip surface - shear forces acting on a slip surface - shear forces developed between blocks - locations of points of applications of forces - locations of points of applications of forces - factor of horizontal acceleration

5n-1 equations are available for the required unknowns. In particular, we have: a) horizontal force equations of equilibrium on blocks: - 818 -

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b) vertical force equations of equilibrium on blocks:

c) moment equations of equilibrium on blocks:

where rxi and ryii are arms of forces Fxi a Fyi d) relationship between the normal and shear forces according to the Mohr-Coulomb theory:

where:

PWi - resultant force of pore pressure on dividing planes

- average value of internal friction angle on dividing plane - average value of cohesion on dividing plane

It is evident that n-1 must be selected (estimated) a priory. Relatively small error is received when estimating the points of application of forces Ei. The problem then becomes statically determined. Solving the resulting system of equations finally provides the values of all remaining unknowns. The principal result of this analysis is the determination of the factor of horizontal acceleration Kh. Computation of factor of slope stability FS The factor of slope stability FS is introduced in the analysis such as to reduce the soil strength parameters c and tg. Equilibrium analysis is then performed for the reduced parameters to arrive at the factor of horizontal acceleration Kh pertinent to a given factor of slope stability FS. This iteration is repeated until the factor Kh reaches either zero or a specified value. Influence of external loading The analyzed slope can be loaded on its ground by inclined loading having generally trapezoidal shape. This loading enters the analysis such that its vertical material component (if having the direction of weight) is added to the weight of a corresponding block. This results in change of both the slice weight and its center of gravity. Providing the vertical component acts against the direction of gravity it is added to force Fyi. The horizontal component is added to force Fxi. The load centroid is always assumed on the ground.

Literature: Sarma, S. K.: Stability analysis of embankments and slopes,Gotechnique 23, 423433, 1973.

Spencer
The Spencer method is a general method of slices developed on the basis of limit equilibrium. It requires satisfying equilibrium of forces and moments acting on individual blocks. The blocks - 819 -

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are created by dividing the soil above the slip surface by dividing planes. Forces acting on individual blocks are displayed in the following figure.

Static scheme Spencer method Each block is assumed to contribute due to the following forces:

Wi Kh.Wi Ni Ti Ei , Ei+1 M1i Ui

- block weight, including material surcharge having the character of weight including the influence of the coefficient of vertical earthquake Kv - horizontal inertia force representing the effect of earthquake, Kh is the factor of horizontal acceleration during earthquake - normal force on the slip surface - shear force on the slip surface - forces exerted by neighboring blocks, they are inclined from horizontal plane by angle

Fxi Fyi - other horizontal and vertical forces acting on block

- moment of forces Fxi Fyi rotating about point M, which is the center of the ith segment of slip surface - pore pressure resultant on the ith segment of slip surface

The following assumptions are introduced in the Spencer method to calculate the limit equilibrium of forces and moment on individual blocks: - dividing planes between blocks are always vertical - the line of action of weight of block Wi passes through the centre of the ith segment of slip surface represented by point M - the normal force Ni is acting in the center of the ith segment of slip surface, at point M - inclination of forces Ei acting between blocks is constant for all blocks and equals to , only at slip surface end points is =0 The solution adopts the following expressions: (1)

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(3)

(4)

(5)

Equation (1) represents the relationship between effective and total value of the normal force acting on the slip surface. Equation (2) corresponds to the Mohr-Coulomb condition representing the relation between the normal and shear forces on a given segment of the slip surface. Equation (3) represents the force equation of equilibrium in the direction normal to the ith segment of the slip surface, whereas Equation (4) represents equilibrium along the i th segment of the slip surface. FS is the factor of safety, which is used to reduce the soil parameters. Equation (5) corresponds to the moment equation of equilibrium about point M, where ygi is the vertical coordinate of the point of application of the weight of block and yM is the vertical coordinate of point M. Modifying equations (3) and (4) provides the following recursive formula:

This formula allows us to calculate for given values of and FS all forces acting between blocks. This solution assumes that at the slip surface origin the value of E is known and equal to E1=0. Additional recursive formula follows from the moment equation of equilibrium (5) as:

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This formula allows us to calculate for a given value of all arms z of forces acting between blocks, knowing the value on the left at the slip surface origin, where z1=0. The factor of safety FS is determined by employing the following iteration process: 1. The initial value of is set to zero = 0. 2. The factor of safety FS for a given value of follows from Equation (6), while assuming the value of En+1 = 0 at the end of the slip surface. 3. The value of is provided by equation (7) using the values of E determined in the previous step with the requirement of having the moment on the last block equal to zero. Equation (7) does not provide the value of zn+1 as it is equal to zero. For this value the moment equation of equilibrium (5) must be satisfied. 4. Steps 2 and 3 are then repeated until the value of does not change. For the process of iteration to be stable it is necessary to avoid unstable solutions. Such instabilities occur at points where division by zero in expressions (6) and (7) takes place. In equation (7), division by zero is encountered for = /2 or = -/2. Therefore, the value of angle must be found in the interval (-/2;/2). Division by zero in expression (6) appears when:

Another check preventing numerical unstability is verification of parameter m - following condition must be satisfied:

Therefore before iteration run it is required to find the highest of critical values (FSmin) satisfying above mentioned conditions. Values below this critical value FSmin are in area of unstable solution, therefore iteration begins by setting FS to a value "just" above FSmin and all result values of FS from iteration runs are higher than FSmin.

Literature: Spencer, E. 1967. A method of analysis of the stability of embankments assuming parallel interslice forces. Gotechnique, 17(1): 1126.

Janbu
Janbu is a general method of slices developed on the basis of limit equilibrium. It requires satisfying equilibrium of forces and moments acting on individual blocks (only moment equilibrium at last uppermost block is not satisfied). The blocks are created by dividing the soil above the slip surface by dividing planes. Forces acting on individual blocks are displayed in the following figure:

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Static scheme Janbu method Each block is assumed to contribute due to the following forces:

Wi Kh.Wi Ni Ti Ei , Ei+1 M1i Ui

- block weight, including material surcharge having the character of weight including the influence of the coefficient of vertical earthquake Kv - horizontal inertia force representing the effect of earthquake, Kh is the factor of horizontal acceleration during earthquake - normal force on the slip surface - shear force on the slip surface - forces exerted by neighboring blocks, they are inclined from horizontal plane by angle i resp. i+1 and lie at the height zi resp. zi+1 above slip surface

Fxi Fyi - other horizontal and vertical forces acting on block

- moment from forces Fxi Fyi rotating about point M, which is the center of the ith segment of slip surface - pore pressure resultant on the ith segment of slip surface

The following assumptions are introduced in the Janbu method to calculate the limit equilibrium of forces and moment on individual blocks: - dividing planes between blocks are always vertical - the line of action of weight of block Wi passes through the centre of the ith segment of slip surface represented by point M - the normal force Ni is acting in the center of the ith segment of slip surface, at point M - position zi of forces Ei acting between blocks is assumed, at slip surface end points is z=0 Choice of position zi can have significant infuence on convergency of method. If we make a bad assumption of position zi for a given slope, it can become impossible to satisfy equilibrium conditions (algorithm does not converge). Heights zi above slip surface are set approximately to one third of height of interface between the blocks. In case of unsatisfying equilibrium conditions algorithm changes heights to a different position, e.g. slightly higher within passive - 823 -

GEO5 User's Guide zone, near the toe, and lower within active zone, near the crest of slope. The solution adopts the following expressions:

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(1) (2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Equation (1) represents the relationship between effective and total value of the normal force acting on the slip surface. Equation (2) corresponds to the Mohr-Coulomb condition representing the relation between the normal and shear forces on a given segment of the slip surface. Equation (3) represents the force equation of equilibrium in the direction normal to the ith segment of the slip surface, whereas Equation (4) represents equilibrium along the i th segment of the slip surface. FS is the factor of safety, which is used to reduce the soil parameters. Equation (5) corresponds to the moment equation of equilibrium about point M, where ygi is the vertical coordinate of the point of application of the weight of block and yM is the vertical coordinate of point M. Modifying equations (3) and (4) provides the following recursive formula (6): ( 6 )

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This formula allows to calculate all forces Ei acting between blocks for given values of and FS. This solution assumes that at the slip surface origin the value of E is known and equal to E1=0. Formula for calculating angles i (7) follows from the moment equation of equilibrium (5) as: ( 7 )

This formula allows to calculate angles i for a given values of zi, knowing the values at slip surface end points =0. The factor of safety FS is determined by employing the following iteration process: 1. The initial value of angles are set to zero i = 0 and positions zi to approximately one third of interface height. 2. The factor of safety FS for a given value of i follows from equation (6), while assuming the value of En+1 = 0 at the end of the slip surface. 3. The value of i is provided by equation (7) using the values of Ei determined in the previous step. 4. Steps 2 and 3 are then repeated until the value of FS does not change. It is necessary to avoid unstable solutions for successful iteration process. Such instabilities occur at points where division by zero in expression (6) takes place, i.e.:

Another check preventing numerical unstability is verification of parameter m - following condition must be satisfied:

Therefore before iteration run it is required to find the highest of critical values ( FSmin) satisfying above mentioned conditions. Values below this critical value FSmin are in area of unstable solution, therefore iteration begins by setting FS to a value "just" above FSmin and all result values of FS from iteration runs are higher than FSmin.

Literature: Janbu, N. 1954. Application of Composite Slip Surface for Stability Analysis. European Conference on Stability Analysis, Stockholm, Sweden. Janbu, N. 1973. Slope Stability Computations. Embankment Dam Engineering - Casagrande Volume, R.C. Hirschfeld and S.J. Poulos, eds., John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 47-86.

Morgenstern-Price
Morgenstern-Price is a general method of slices developed on the basis of limit equilibrium. It - 825 -

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requires satisfying equilibrium of forces and moments acting on individual blocks. The blocks are created by dividing the soil above the slip surface by dividing planes. Forces acting on individual blocks are displayed in the following figure:

Statick schma Morgenstern-Pricova metoda Each block is assumed to contribute due to the same forces as in Spencer method. The following assumptions are introduced in the Morgenstern-Price method to calculate the limit equilibrium of forces and moment on individual blocks: - dividing planes between blocks are always vertical - the line of action of weight of block Wi passes through the centre of the ith segment of slip surface represented by point M - the normal force Ni is acting in the center of the ith segment of slip surface, at point M - inclination of forces Ei acting between blocks is different on each block (i) at slip surface end points is =0 The only difference between Spencer and Morgenstern-Price method is shown in the above list of assumptions. Choice of inclination angles i of forces Ei acting between the blocks is realized with the help of Half-sine function one of the functions in the following figure is automatically chosen. This choice of the shape of function has a minor influence on final results, but suitable choice can improve the convergency of method. Functional value of Half-sine function f(xi) at boundary point xi multiplied by parameter results the value of inclination angle i.

Half-sine function The solution adopts the following expressions: - 826 -

GEO5 User's Guide

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(3)

(4)

(5)

(1) relationship between effective and total value of the normal force acting on the slip surface (2) Mohr-Coulomb condition representing the relation between the normal and shear forces on a given segment of the slip surface (Ni a Ti) (3) force equation of equilibrium in the direction normal to the ith segment of the slip surface (4) force equation of equilibrium along the ith segment of the slip surface (5) moment equation of equilibrium about point M Modifying force equations (3) and (4) provides the following recursive formula (6): ( 6 )

This formula allows to calculate all forces Ei acting between blocks for given values of i and FS. This solution assumes that at the slip surface origin the value of E is known and equal to E1=0.

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Additional recursive formula (7) follows from the moment equation of equilibrium (5) as: ( 7 ) This formula allows to calculate all arms zi of forces acting between blocks for a given values of i, knowing the value on the left at the slip surface origin, where z1=0. The factor of safety FS is determined by employing the following iteration process: 1. The initial value of angles i is set according to Half-sine function (i = * f(xi)). 2. The factor of safety FS for a given value of i follows from equation (6), while assuming the value of En+1 = 0 at the end of the slip surface. 3. The value of i is provided by equation (7) using the values of Ei determined in the previous step with the requirement of having the moment on the last block equal to zero. Functional values f(xi) are same all the time during the iteration, only parameter is iterated. Equation (7) does not provide the value of zn+1 as it is equal to zero. For this value the moment equation of equilibrium (5) must be satisfied. 4. Steps 2 and 3 are then repeated until the value of i (resp. parameter ) does not change. It is necessary to avoid unstable solutions for successful iteration process. Such instabilities occur at points where division by zero in expressions (6) and (7) takes place. In equation (7), division by zero is encountered for i = /2 or i = -/2. Therefore, the value of angle i must be found in the interval (-/2;/2). Division by zero in expression (6) appears when:

Another check preventing numerical unstability is verification of parameter m - following condition must be satisfied:

Therefore before iteration run it is required to find the highest of critical values (FSmin) satisfying above mentioned conditions. Values below this critical value FSmin are in area of unstable solution, therefore iteration begins by setting FS to a value "just" above FSmin and all result values of FS from iteration runs are higher than FSmin.

Literature: Morgenstern, N.R., and Price, V.E. 1965. The analysis of the stability of general slip surfaces. Gotechnique, 15(1): 7993. Morgenstern, N.R., and Price, V.E. 1967. A numerical method for solving the equations of stability of general slip surfaces. Computer Journal, 9: 388393. Zhu, D.Y., Lee, C.F., Qian, Q.H., and Chen, G.R. 2005. A concise algorithm for computing the factor of safety using the MorgensternPrice method. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 42(1): 272278.

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Optimization of polygonal slip surface

The slip surface optimization proceeds such that the program changes subsequently locations of individual points of this surface and checks, which change of location of a given point results in the maximal reduction of the factor of slope stability FS. The end points of the optimized slip surface are moved on the ground surface, internal points are moved in the vertical and horizontal directions. The step size is initially selected as one tenth of the smallest distance of neighboring points along the slip surface. With every new run the step size is reduced by one half. Location of points of slip surface is optimized subsequently from the left to the right and it is completed when there was no point moved in the last run. When optimizing the polygonal slip surface the iteration process may suffer from falling into the local minimum (with respect to gradual evolution of locations of nodal points) so not always the process is terminated by locating the critical slip surface. Especially in case of complex slope profile it is therefore advantageous to introduce several locations of the initial slip surface. Combination with the approach used for circular slip surfaces is also recommended. Therefore, the critical slip surface assuming circular shape is found first and the result is then used to define the initial polygonal slip surface. The optimization process can be restricted by various constraints. This becomes advantageous especially if we wish the searched slip to pass through a certain region or to bypass this region. The restriction on optimization process can be performed in two different ways:
1. 2.

Optimization constrains are specified as a set of segments in a soil body. The optimized slip surface is then forced to bypass these segments during optimization. Another way of constraining the optimization process is to fix location of selected points along the optimized slip surface or allow for moving these point only in one of two directions, either vertically or horizontally.

Changing inclination of dividing planes

It is evident from figure that the planes dividing individual blocks do not have to be vertical and not even mutually parallel. In the first stage of analysis when the optimization procedure moves points along the slip surface it assumes vertical alignment of dividing planes. To arrive at even smaller value of the slope stability it is possible to change the mutual alignment of dividing planes. This process is again performed in several runs with limited value of rotation step and this step is again reduced in the course of optimization. This stage of optimization is o terminated once the rotation step drops below the value of 1 and no change of rotation occurred during the last optimization run.

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Static scheme Sarma method

Circular slip surface

All methods of limit equilibrium assume that the soil body above the slip surface is subdivided into blocks (dividing planes between blocks are always vertical). Forces acting on individual blocks are displayed in figure.

Static scheme of slice Here, Xi and Ei are the shear and normal forces acting between individual blocks, Ti and Ni are the shear and normal forces on individual segments of the slip surface, Wi are weights of individual blocks. Individual methods of slices differ in their assumptions of satisfying the force equations of equilibrium and the moment equation of equilibrium with respect to the center O. The program allows for adopting one of the following methods: - Fellenius / Petterson - Bishop - Spencer - 830 -

GEO5 User's Guide - Janbu - Morgenstern-Price

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Ground water specified within the slope body (using one of the five options) influences the analysis in two different ways. First when computing the weight of a soil block and second when determining the shear forces. Note that the effective soil parameters are used to relate the normal and shear forces. Introducing anchor forces and water above the ground surface into the analysis Anchor forces are considered as external loading applied to the slope. They are taken with respect to one running meter [kN/m] and introduced into the moment equation of equilibrium. These forces should contribute to additional stability, if that cannot be achieved in a different way. There is no limitation to the magnitudes of anchor forces and therefore it is necessary to work with realistic values. Influence of water above the ground surface is considered as a set forces acting perpendicular on the ground surface together with pore pressure along the slip surface, which is derived depending on the depth of slip surface measured from the ground water table. The forces acting on the ground surface enter the moment equation of equilibrium as forces acting on respective arms measured towards the center of the slip surface. Optimization of circular slip surface searches the most critical surface (the lowest factor of safety).

Fellenius / Petterson
The simplest method of slices assumes only the overall moment equation of equilibrium written with respect to the center of the slip surface. The shear and normal forces between blocks Xi and Ei are neglected. The factor of safety FS follows directly from the following expression:

where:

ui ci, i Wi Ni
i

- pore pressure within block - effective values of soil parameters - block weight - normal force on the segment of the slip surface - inclination of the segment of the slip surface - length of the segment of the slip surface

li

Literature: Petterson KE (1955) The early history of circular sliding surfaces. Geotechnique 5:275296

Bishop
The simplified Bishop method assumes zero Xi forces between blocks. The method is based on satisfying the moment equation of equilibrium and the vertical force equation of equilibrium. - 831 -

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The factor of safety FS is found through a successive iteration of the following expression:

where:

ui ci, i Wi
i

- pore pressure within block - effective values of soil parameters - block weight - inclination of the segment of the slip surface - horizontal width of the block

bi

Literature: Bishop, A.W. (1955) "The Use of the Slip Circle in the Stability Analysis of Slopes", Geotechnique, Great Britain, Vol. 5, No. 1, Mar., pp. 7-17

Spencer
This method assumes non-zero forces between blocks. The resultants of shear and normal forces acting between blocks have constant inclinations. The Spencer method is a rigorous method in a sense that it satisfies all three equations of equilibrium the force equations of equilibrium in the horizontal and vertical directions and the moment equation of equilibrium. The factor of safety FS is found through the iteration of inclination of forces acting between blocks and the factor of safety FS. Further details can be found in section describing the analysis of polygonal slip surface.

Janbu
Janbu method assumes non-zero forces between blocks. Method satisfies the force equations of equilibrium in the horizontal and vertical directions for all blocks and the moment equation of equilibrium for all but the last (uppermost) slice. Assumption of this method is choice of position of forces acting between the blocks. The factor of safety FS is found through the iteration of forces acting between blocks and then inclinations of these forces are calculated. Further details can be found in section describing the analysis of polygonal slip surface.

Morgenstern-Price
This method assumes non-zero forces between blocks. The resultants of shear and normal forces acting between blocks have different inclinations at each block (shape of Half-sine function). Morgenstern-Price is a rigorous method in a sense that it satisfies all three equations of equilibrium the force equations of equilibrium in the horizontal and vertical directions and the moment equation of equilibrium. The factor of safety FS is found through the iteration of inclination of forces acting between blocks and the factor of safety FS. Further details can be found in section describing the analysis of polygonal slip surface.

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Optimization of circular slip surface

The goal of the optimization process is to locate a slip surface with the smallest factor of slope stability FS. The circular slip surface is specified in terms of 3 points: two points on the ground surface and one inside the soil body. Each point on the surface has one degree of freedom while the internal point has two degrees of freedom. The slip surface is defined in terms of four independent parameters. Searching for such a set of parameters that yields the most critical results requires sensitivity analysis resulting in a matrix of changes of parameters that allows for fast and reliable optimization procedure. The slip surface that gives the smallest factor of slope stability is taken as the critical one. Parameters of individual slip surfaces and results from optimization runs can be displayed in output document. This approach usually succeeds in finding the critical slip surface without encountering the problem of falling into a local minimum during iteration. It therefore appears as a suitable starting point when optimizing general slip surfaces such as the polygonal slip surface. The optimization process can be restricted by various constraints. This becomes advantageous especially if we wish the searched slip surface to pass through a certain region or to bypass this region. Optimization constrains are specified as a set of segments in a soil body. The optimized slip surface is then forced to bypass these segments during optimization.

Foliation
Soils can be introduced with foliation. It means that along an angle specified in terms of a certain interval, which in turn is introduced as one of the soil parameters <Starting Slope ; End Slope> the soil experiences significantly different (usually worse) parameters (c a ). If the slope of a slip surface segment or the slope of interface between blocks is assumed within the interval < Starting Slope ; End Slope>, the analysis proceeds with the modified parameters of c and .

Influence of tensile cracks

The program makes possible to account for the influence of tensile cracks that appear on terrain surface and are filled with water h. The only input parameter is the depth of tensile cracks. The effect of cracks is incorporated when calculating normal and shear forces in sections of a slip surface containing cracks in a section with tensile cracks the shear strength parameters are set to zero (c = 0, = 0). Next, a horizontal force F due to presence water in a tensile crack is introduced in the analysis (see figure):

Influence of tensile cracks

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Analysis of bearing capacity of foundation

The vertical bearing capacity of the foundation soil is verified according to the theory of limit states using the following inequality:

or based on the factor of safety as:

where:

- extreme design contact stress at the footing bottom - design bearing capacity of foundation soil

Rd

RV - coefficient of vertical bearing capacity of foundation (for input use the frame "Settings")

FS

- inputted factor of safety

Extreme design contact stress at the footing bottom is assumed the form:

where:

Vde Aef

extreme design vertical force effective area of foundation

The vertical bearing capacity of the foundation soil Rd is determined for three basic types of foundation conditions: - drained subsoil - undrained subsoil - bedrock The above computations are applicable only for the homogeneous soil. If there is a nonhomogeneous soil under the footing bottom (or there is ground water present), then the inserted profile is transformed into a homogeneous one.

Bearing capacity on drained subsoil

One of the following approaches is available to assess the bearing capacity of a foundation if drained conditions are assumed: - standard analysis - according to CSN 731001 "Zkladov pda pod plonmi zklady" approved 8.6. 1987 - according to Polish standard PN-81 B - 03020 "Grunty budowiane, Posudowienie bezporednie budowli, Obliczenia statyczne i projekktowanie" from year 1982 - according to Indian standard IS:6403-1981 "Code of Practice for Determination of Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations" from year 1981 - according to EC 7-1 (EN 1997-1:2003) "Design of geotechnical structures Part 1: General rules" - according to NCMA Segmental retaining walls manual, second edition. All approaches incorporate coefficients due to Brinch Hansen (see standard analysis) to - 834 -

GEO5 User's Guide account for inclined ground surface and inclined footing bottom.

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Assuming drained conditions during construction the soil below spread footing deforms including both shear and volumetric deformations. In such a case the strength of soil is assumed in terms of effective values of the angle of internal friction ef and the effective cohesion cef. It is also assumed that there is an effective stress in the soil equal to the total stress (consolidated state). Effective parameters ef , cef represent the peak strength parameters. Owing to the fact that the choice of drained conditions depends on a number of factors (rate of loading, soil permeability, degree of saturations and degree of overconsolidation) it is the designer's responsibility to decide, depending on the actual problem being solved, if the effective parameters should be used.

Standard analysis
By default the solution proposed by J. Brinch Hansena is used, where the bearing capacity of foundation soil follows from:

where:

coefficients of bearing capacity:

for: > 0 for: = 0

coefficients of influence of depth of foundation:

coefficients of slope of footing bottom:

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coefficients of influence of slope of terrain:

Notation of angels and coefficients b,g

where:

c q0 d

- cohesion of soil - equivalent uniform loading accounting for the influence of foundation depth - depth of footing bottom - unit weight of soil above the footing bottom - width of foundation - objemov tha zeminy - coefficient of bearing capacity - coefficients of shape of foundation - coefficients of influence of foundation depth - coefficients of influence of slope of loading - coefficients of influence of slope of terrain - angle of internal friction of soil - length of foundation - angle of deviation of the resultant force from the vertical direction - slope of terrain - slope of footing bottom

Nc,Nd,Nb sc,sd,sb dc,dd,db ic,id,ib gc,gd,gb

Literature: Brinch Hansen, J. (1970), A revised and extended formula for bearing capacity, Danish Geotechnical Institute, Bulletin 28,5-11

Bearing capacity on undrained subsoil

One of the following approaches is available to assess the bearing capacity of a foundation if undrained conditions are assumed: - standard analysis - 836 -

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- according to CSN 731001 "Zkladov pda pod plonmi zklady" approved 8.6. 1987 - according to Indian standard IS:6403-1981 "Code of Practice for Determination of Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations" from year 1981 - according to EC 7-1 (EN 1997-1:2003) "Design of geotechnical structures Part 1: General rules" In addition the coefficients due to Brinch Hansen are used to account for inclined footing bottom (see standard analysis). In case of undrained conditions it is assumed that during construction the spread footing undergoes an instantaneous settlement accompanied by shear deformations of soil in absence of volumetric changes. When the structure is completed the soil experiences both primary and secondary consolidation accompanied by volumetric changes. The influence of neutral stress appears in the reduction of soil strength. The strength of soil is then presented in terms of total values of the angle of internal friction u and the total cohesion cu (these parameters can be considered as the minimal ones). Depending on the degree of consolidation the value of the total angle of internal friction uranges from 0 to ef, the total cohesion cu is greater than cef. Owing to the fact that the choice of undrained conditions depends on a number of factors (rate of loading, soil permeability, degree of saturations and degree of overconsolidation) it is the designer's responsibility to decide, depending on the actual problem being solved, if the effective parameters should be used. Nevertheless, the total parameters are generally used for fine-grained soil.

Standard analysis
The following formula is used by default:

with dimensionless coefficients:

where:

cu b l d

- total cohesion of soil - width of foundation - length of foundation - depth of foundation - angle of deviation of the resultant force from the vertical direction - slope of footing bottom from horizontal direction - oberburden pressure at the level of foundation base

Bearing capacity of foundation on bedrock

The following methods can be used to compute the design bearing capacity Rd of the foundation with a horizontal footing bottom supported by the rock mass composed of rocks or weak rocks: Standard approach

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GEO5 User's Guide Solution according to CSN 73 1001 Solution according to EC7

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Standard analysis
The bearing capacity of foundation soil composed of rocks or weak rocks is found from the 1 expression proposed by Xiao-Li Yang and Jian-Hua Yin :

where:

where:

s GSI D Ns,Nq,N Ns
c

- nonlinear parameter depending on rock properties (according to Hoek and Brown) - Geological Strength Index - coefficient reflecting damage of a rock mass - coefficients of bearing capacity depending on the angle of internal friction - coefficient of strength of a rock depending on GSI and strength parameter mi - angle of internal friction of rock - uniaxial compressive strength of rock > 0,5 MPa - equivalent uniform loading accounting for the influence of foundation depth - unit weight of soil above the footing bottom - width of foundation

q0
2

Xiao-Li Yang, Jian-Hua Yin: Upper bound solution for ultimate bearing capacity with a modified HoekBrown failure criterion, International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 42 (2005),str. 550560

Solution according to CSN 73 1001

The bearing capacity of foundation soil composed of rocks or weak rocks follows from articles 97 99 of standard CSN 73 1001 "Foundation soil below spread footing" approved 8.6. 1987. As input parameters the analysis requires the unit weight of soil , uniaxial compression - 838 -

GEO5 User's Guide strength c, Poisson's ratio and deformation modulus Edef.

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Analysis according to EC 7-1 (EN 1997-1:2003)

The bearing capacity of the foundation Rd with a horizontal footing bottom is determined according to a design method for the derivation of expected bearing capacity of spread footings resting on a bedrock outlined in a supplement G (informative) EC 7-1 (EN 19971:2003) "Design of geotechnical structures Part 1: General rules". For low strength or damaged rocks with closed discontinuities including chalks with low porosity less than 35% the derivation of expected bearing capacity follows from classification of rocks into groups of rocks stored in the table below. The analysis further requires an input of discontinuity spacing Sd, unit weight of rock , Poisson's ratio and uniaxial compressive strength c. It is assumed that the structure is able to transmit a settlement equal to 0,5 % of the foundation width. The expected values of bearing capacity for other settlements can be estimated using direct proportion. For weak and broken rocks with opened or filled discontinuities it is recommended to use lower values than the expected ones. Rock groups Group 1 Pure limestones and dolomites Carbonate sandstones of low porosity 2 Igneous Oolitic and marly limestones Well cemented sandstones Indurated carbonate mudstones Metamorphic rocks, including slates and schist (flat cleavage / foliation) 3 Very marly limestones Poorly cemented sandstones Slates and schist (steep cleavage / foliation) 4 Uncemented mudstones and shales Type of rock

Literature: Eurocode 7:Geotechnical design Part 1:General rules

Parameters to compute foundation bearing capacity

Parameters to compute vertical bearing capacity of a foundation resting on bedrock The following parameters are used in program GEO5 to compute the foundation vertical bearing capacity: - values of coefficient D reflecting a state of damage of a rock mass - values of strength parameter mi - strength of rocks in simple compression c - 839 -

GEO5 User's Guide - Poisson's ratio of rocks - bulk weight of rocks Estimating disturbance coefficient D Description of rock mass Rock mass, intact strong rock, excavation by blasting or by open TBM Rock mass, poor quality rock, mechanical excavation with minimal disturbance Rock mass, poor rock, mechanical excavation, significant floor heave, temporary invert or horizontal geometry of excavation sequence Rock mass,very poor rock often very altered, local damage of surrounding rock (app. 3 m ) Rock slope or rock outcrop, modification with controlled blasting

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Suggested value of D 0 0 0,5

0,8 0,7

Rock slope or rock outcrop, modification with blasting results 1,0 to the some disturbance Open pit mines, excavation with blasting Open pit mines, mechanical excavation Values of strength parameter mi Type of rock Carbonate rocks with well developed cleavage Lithified argillaceous rocks Arenaceous rock with strong crystal and poorly developed crystal cleavage Fine grained polyminerallic igneous crystalline rocks Coarse grained polyminerallic igneous and metamorphic rocks Representative rocks Dolomite, limestone and marble Mudstone, siltsone shale, slate Sandstone and qurtzite 1,0 0,7

mi [-]
7 10 15

Andesite, dolerite, diabase, ryolite Amphibolite, gabbro, gneiss, granite and quartz diorite

17 25

Uniaxial compressive strength c , Poisson's ratio and Unit weight of rock

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GEO5 User's Guide Strength of rocks Types of rock (examples) Uniaxial compr. strength c Poisson number

Fine Ltd. 2011 Unit weight of rock

3

[kN/m ]0

[MPa]
Extremely hard rock Very hard, intact rock >150 strong and solid quartzite, basalt and other extremely hard rock Very hard granite, quartz porphyry, quartz slate, very hard sandstones and limestones 0,1 28,00 - 30,00

Very hard rock

100 - 150 0,15

26,00 - 27,00

Hard rock

Solid and compact 80 - 100 granite, very hard sandstone and limestone, silicious iron veis, hard pudding stones, very hard iron ores hard calcite, not very hard granite, hard sandstone, marble, dolomite, pyrite Normal sandstone, medium hard iron ore, sandy shale, flagstone 50 - 80

0,20

25,00 - 26,00

Fairly hard rock

0,25

24,00

Medium hard rock

Hard mudstones, not 20 - 50 very hard sandstones and calcite, soft flagstone, not very hard shales, dense marl 5 - 20

0,25 0,30 23 - 24,00

Fairly weak Soft schist, soft rock limestones, chalk, rock salt, frost soils, anthracite, normal marl, disturbed sandstones, soft flagstones and soils with aggregates Weak rock

0,3 0,35

22,00 26,00

Compact clay, hard 0,5 - 5 soil (eluvium with soil

0,35 0,40 22,00 - 18,0

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GEO5 User's Guide texture)

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Horizontal bearing capacity of foundation

The foundation horizontal bearing capacity is verified according to the theory of limit states using the following inequality:

or based on the factor of safety as:

where:

where:

- angle of internal friction between foundation and soil - cohesion between foundation and soil - effective area of foundation - earth resistance - components of horizontal force - extreme design vertical force - coefficient of horizontal bearing capacity of foundation (for input use the frame "Settings" - factor of safety

ad Aef Spd Hx,Hy Q

RH

FS

When adopting the analysis methodology according to EN 1997 the term with cohesion (ad . Aef) is excluded for drained conditions whereas the term with friction between foundation and soil (Q . tand) is excluded for undrained conditions. The analysis depends on the design angle of internal friction below the footing bottom d, the design value of cohesion below the footing bottom cd and the design value of earth resistance Spd. If the soil-footing frictional angle and the soil-footing cohesion are less than the values of soil below the footing bottom, then it is necessary to use those values. The earth resistance is assumed as displayed in figure:

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The earth resistance Spd is found with the help of the reduction of passive earth pressure or pressure at rest employing influence coefficients:

where:

Sp

- passive earth pressure, pressure at rest or reduced passive pressure

mR - coefficient of reduction of earth resistance (for input used the frame "Settings") - for the analysis according to CSN it assumes the value mR = 1,5 for passive pressure, mR = 1,3 for pressure at rest Coefficients of earth pressures are clear from the following formulas: for passive pressure:

for pressure at rest in drained soils:

for pressure at rest in other soils:

When determining the reduced passive pressure, the resultant force includes contributions due to the passive pressure and pressure at rest. The passive pressure can be considered, if the deformation needed for its activation do not cause unallowable stresses or deformations in upper structure.

Homogenization of layered subsoil

If the soil below the footing bottom is inhomogeneous (or if there is ground water present) then the inputted profile is transformed into a homogeneous soil based on the Prandtl slip surface (see Fig.), which represents the type and location of failure of the foundation.

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The Prandtl slip surface Determination of equivalent values of (angle of internal friction), c (cohesion of soil) (unit weight of soil below footing bottom) is evident from the following formulas. The unit weight of soil above foundation is derived in the same way.

Procedure for computation of auxiliary values

Effective area
When solving the problem of eccentrically loaded foundations the program GEO5 offers two options to deal with an effective dimension of the foundation area: a rectangular shape of effective area is assumed general shape of effective area is assumed - 844 -

GEO5 User's Guide Rectangular shape

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A simplified solution is used in such cases. In case of axial eccentricity (bending moment acts in one plane only) the analysis assumes a uniform distribution of contact stress applied only over a portion of the foundation l1, which is less by twice the eccentricity e compared to the total length l.

Determination of effective area in case of axial eccentricity

An effective area (b * l1) is assumed to compute the contact stress, so that we have:

In case of a general eccentric loading (foundation is loaded by the vertical force V and by bending moments M1 and M2 the loading is replaced by a single force with given eccentricities:

The size of effective area follows from the condition that the force V must act eccentrically:

General shape of contact stress In case of an eccentric loading the effective area is determined from the assumption that the resultant force V must act in the center of gravity of the compressive area. The theoretically correct solution appears in Fig.

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Determination of contact stress for general eccentricity general shape Owing to a considerable complexity in determining the exact location of the neutral axis, which in turn is decisive when computing the effective area, the program GEO 5 follows the solution 1) proposed by Highter a Anders , where the effective areas are derived with help of graphs.

1)

Highter, W.H. Anders,J.C.: Dimensioning Footings Subjected to Eccentric Loads Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. ASCE, Vol. 111, No GT5, pp 659 - 665

Determination of cross-sectional internal forces

Longitudinal reinforcement of a foundation is checked for the loading due to bending moment and shear force. The stress in the footing bottom is assumed as linear. Stresses in individual directions x, y are determined independently. When the linear distribution of stress in the footing bottom is considered the distribution of stress over the cross-section is provided by:

or when excluding tension:

where:

e
d

- eccentricity of normal force N - width of foundation - normal force acting at the footing bottom

Bending moment and shear force are determined as reaction developed on the cantilever beam as shown in figure:

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Internal forces acting on wall jump Internal forces in the cross-section corresponding to constant distribution of stress are provided by:

where:

- maximal stress in the footing bottom - eccentricity of normal force N - width of wall foundation - normal force acting at the footing bottom

dv - length of jump e d N

Pile analysis
Analyses available in the program "Pile" can be divided into three main groups: - analysis of vertical bearing capacity - pile settlement - analysis of horizontal bearing capacity

Vertical bearing capacity

Analysis of pile vertical resistance can be carried out using: - conventional methods - shear depression spring method

Conventional theories
The conventional theories assumes that the pile total compressive resistance Rc is derived as a sum of the pile base resistance Rb and the pile shaft resistance Rs (developed due to friction of the surrounding soil along the shaft). The following generally accepted methods are implemented into the program: - NAVFAC DM 7.2 - 847 -

GEO5 User's Guide - Tomlinson - Effective stress method - CSN 73 1002

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For the above specified methods it is possible to choose one of the following verification methodologies: - classical way - EN 1997-1 When running the compression pile analysis, the pile self-weight is introduced depending on the setting in the frame "Load". As for the tensile pile, the pile self-weight is always taken into account automatically. Based on the inputted load the program itself performs the verification analysis for either compression or tensile pile.

NAVFAC DM 7.2
Calculation of vertical pile resistance is performed according to the publication: NAVFAC DM 7.2, Foundation and Earth Structures, U.S. Department of the Navy 1984, where all approaches are described in detail. The analysis provides the pile base resistance Rb and the pile shaft resistance Rs. For non-cohesive, the program takes into account the critical depth.

Pile base resistance

Pile base resistance for non-cohesive soils is given by:

where:

efb

- effective stress on the pile base - bearing capacity factor - area of pile base

Nq Ab

The bearing capacity factor Nq is back calculated by the program; however, its values can be manually modified. For cohesive soils the following expression holds:

where:

cu Ab

- undrained shear strength at the base - area of pile base

Pile shaft resistance

Pile shaft resistance for non-cohesive soils is given by:

where:

Kj

- coefficient of lateral earth pressure in the j-th layer

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GEO5 User's Guide ef, j - effective strength of soil in the j-th layer j

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- pile skin friction angle (between pile material and surrounding soil in the jth layer) - area of pile shaft in the j-th layer

Asj

The lateral earth pressure coefficient K is back calculated by the program; however, its values can be manually modified in the "Add new soils" dialogue window. For cohesive soils the following expression holds:

where:

- skin friction coefficient in the j-th layer - undrained cohesion in th j-th layer - area of pile shaft in the j-th layer

cu, j Asj

Bearing capacity factor Nq

Reference values of the bearing capacity factor Nq are listed in the table. If jet grouting is used when constructing the pile, then the maximum angle of internal friction is equal to 28 . Bearing capacity factor Nq Angle of internal friction [] Bearing capacity factor Nq for driven piles Bearing capacity factor

26 10 5

28 15 8

30 21 10

31 24 12

32 29 14

33 35 17

34 42 21

35 50 25

36 62 30

37 77 38

38 86 43

39

40

120 145 60 72

Nq for bored piles

Literature: NAVFAC DM 7.2, Foundation and Earth Structures, U.S. Department of the Navy, 1984.

Coefficient of lateral earth pressure K

The soil around a driven pile is compressed during construction and the lateral earth pressure of this soil acting on the pile skin is greater than the earth pressure at rest (given by coefficient K0) and smaller than the maximum earth pressure (passive earth pressure given by coefficient Kp):

Reference values of the coefficient of lateral earth pressure K are listed later in the table. The - 849 -

GEO5 User's Guide coefficient of lateral earth pressure K is approximated as follows:

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where:

K0

- coefficient of earth pressure at rest

- angle of soil shear resistance - coefficient of passive earth pressure

Kp

Ka

- coeffiecient of active earth pressure

Tlak na pilotu Reference values of the lateral earth pressure coefficient K Type of pile Driven H-piles Driven displacement piles (round and square) Driven displacement tapered piles Driven jetted piles Bored piles (less than 70cm)

K for compression piles 0,5 1,0 1,0 1,5 1,5 2,0 0,4 - 0,9 0,7

K for tensile uplifted piles 0,3 0,5 0,6 1,0 1,0 1,3 0,3 - 0,6 0,4

Literature: NAVFAC DM 7.2, Foundation and Earth Structures, U.S. Department of the Navy, 1984.

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Friction angle on pile skin

Reference values of friction angle between the pile skin material and the surrounding noncohesive soil are listed in the following table: Friction angle on pile [] Pile material Steel piles Timber piles Steel reinforced concrete piles where: - angle of internal friction of soil []

20 0,75 0,75

Literature: NAVFAC DM 7.2, Foundation and Earth Structures, U.S. Department of the Navy, 1984.

Adhesion coefficient
Reference values of the adhesion coefficient are listed in the following table:

Empirical adhesion coefficient Pile material Soil consistency Cohesion range Adhesion coefficient [-]

cu [kN/m ]
Timber and concrete piles Very soft Soft Medium stiff Stiff Very stiff Steel piles Very soft Soft Medium stiff Stiff Very stiff

0 - 12 12 - 24 24 - 48 48 - 96 96 - 192 0 - 12 12 - 24 24 - 48 48 - 96 96 - 192

0,00 - 1,00 1,00 - 0,96 0,96 - 0,75 0,75 - 0,48 0,48 - 0,33 0,00 - 1,00 1,00 - 0,92 0,92 - 0,70 0,70 - 0,36 0,36 - 0,19

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GEO5 User's Guide Literature: NAVFAC DM 7.2, Foundation and Earth Structures, U.S. Department of the Navy, 1984.

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Critical depth
For non-cohesive soils the skin friction does not increases infinitely with depth as e.g. effective stress, but from a certain so called critical depth it acquires a constant value see the following figure, where dc is the critical depth, Sc is the skin friction at critical depth and d is the pile diameter. Similar rule holds also for the pile base resistance in non-cohesive soils, where the same values of the critical depth dc are considered for simplicity.

Crtitical depth The reference value of the critical depth for soft sand is 10d (d is the pile diameter or its width), for medium compact sand and compact sand the values are 15d and 20d, respectively. The coefficient of critical depth kdc can be specified in the "Ver. capacity". The critical depth follows from:

where:

kdc d

- critical depth coefficient - pile diameter

Tomlinson
This widely used method adopts undrained shear strength parameters to calculate the pile bearing capacity. It further assumes that the pile shaft resistance depends on the pressure due to overburden surcharge. The pile shaft resistance is given by:

where:

ca, j - adhesion in the j-th layer (shear stress between the pile skin and the
surrounding soil)

As, j - area of pile shaft in the j-th layer

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- empirical adhesion coefficient (depends on the type of soil, type of pile, etc.) in the j-th layer

cu, j - undrained cohesion in the j-th layer (undrained shear strength)

The empirical adhesion coefficient is back calculated by the program. Its values, however, can be manually adjusted in the "Add new soil" dialogue window.

The pile base resistance is given by:

where:

qb Ab cu

- unit pile base resistance - pile base area - undrained shear strength

Adhesion coefficient
The empirical adhesion coefficient takes into account the behavior of soil around the pile skin and depends on the pile material, quality of the pile skin surface and the type of surrounding soil. Values of this coefficient are introduced into the program employing the following graph taken from M.J. Tomlinson: Pile Design and Construction Practice.

Graph to determine adhesion coefficient

Effective length
The effective length D determines the pile length, which effectively transfers the load from the pile into the soil. If the whole pile is placed into the resistant soil, in which the load is transferred by skin friction, then the effective length corresponds to the pile length below terrain see Fig. A. In case of layered medium, highly compressible layers (in which the load is not transferred into the soil by skin friction) and the layers above are not counted into the effective length D see Fig. B. Introduction of effective length into the analysis and its magnitude are set in the frame "Vertical capacity".

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Fig. A Effective length in resistant soils

Fig. B Effective length in layered medium

Effective stress method

The effective stress method allows for calculating the vertical bearing capacity of an isolated pile in both cohesive and non-cohesive soils. This method is suitable for drained conditions i.e. conditions that prevail after sufficient time passed the construction. The pile shaft resistance is given by:

where:

qs, j

- shaft resistance in the j-th layer

p,j - coefficients according to Bjerrum and Burland in the j-th layer 0, j - average effective stress due to overburden acting along the pile in the j-th layer

Asj

- pile shaft area in the j-th layer

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GEO5 User's Guide The pile base resistance is given by:

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where:

qp Ab Np
p

- unit pile base resistance - pile base area - pile base resistance coefficient (according Fellenius) - effective stress due to overburden acting at pile base

Coefficients of pile bearing capacity

Recommended ranges of values of coefficients of pile base resistance Np and coefficient are listed in the following table. The coefficient is usually found in the given range, it seldom exceeds the value 1,0. Range of coefficients Np and (Fellenius, 1991) Type of soil Clay Silt Sand Gravel ef 25 50 28 34 32 40 35 - 45

Np
3 30 20 40 30 150 60 - 300

0,23 - 0,40 0,27 - 0,50 0,30 - 0,60 0,35 - 0,80

Literature: Felenius, B.H.: Foundation Engineering Handbook, Editor H.S. Fang, Van Nostrand Reinhold Publisher, New York, 1991, 511 - 536

CSN 73 1002
There are two methods implemented in the program to compute the pile vertical bearing capacity following the Commentary to the CSN 73 1002 standard "Pile foundation": - analysis according to the theory of the 1st group of limit states The solution procedure is described in the Commentary to the CSN 73 1002 standard "Pile foundation" in Chapter 3 "Design" part B general solution according to the theory of the 1st group of limit states (pp. 15). All computational approaches are based on formulas presented therein. The original geostatic stress or is assumed from the finished grade. The coefficient of conditions of the behavior of foundation soil is considered for the depth z (measured from the finished grade).

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The effective pile length used for the computation of skin bearing capacity is reduced by a segment:

where:

pile diameter

- analysis of pile resting on incompressible subsoil Analysis of a pile resting on incompressible subsoil (rocks class R1, R2) is based on part G Analysis of vertical bearing capacity Uvd according to CSN 73 1004 - Commentary to CSN 73 1002 "Pilotov zklady". The description begins in page 27 titled "Piles resting on incompressible subsoil". The solution procedures used in the program are identical. The influence coefficient of settlement Iwp is interpolated from Table 16, which is also built in the program. If the "Classical way" verification methodology is used, the verification analysis is carried out exclusively according to SN 73 1002 standard and the frame "Settings" is not accessible. If the verification analysis according to EN 1997-1 is adopted, the program does not consider coefficients according to CSN 73 1002 and performs general verification according to the theory of limit states using partial factors taken from EN 1997-1.

Classical way
The "Classical way" option maintains the verification methodology used in programs GEO5 up to the version 10 i.e. the possibility of verification of structures according to the theory of limit states and factors of safety, respectively. Actual analyses (e.g. assessment of the pile base resistance) are the same for both options they differ only by incorporation of design coefficients, combinations and in the way of demonstrating the structure safety. Design coefficients (verification parameters) are specified in the frame "Settings". If the verification methodology is used, the verification analysis is carried out exclusively according to CSN 73 1002 standard and the frame "Settings" is not accessible.

Verification according to the theory of limit states

When running verification analysis according to "Limit states", it is possible to introduce the required value of design coefficients in the frame "Settings". The program performs verification of the compression pile as:

where:

Rc Rb Rs
b s

- pile compressive resistance - pile base resistance - pile shaft resistance - partial factor on pile base resistance - partial factor on pile shaft resistance

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GEO5 User's Guide t - partial factor on total pile resistance - extreme vertical load acting on a pile - pile self-weight

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Vd Wp

For tension pile the following verification applies:

where:

Rsdt Rs
st s

- pile tensile resistance - pile shaft resistance - partial factor on tensile pile shaft resistance - partial factor on pile shaft resistance - extreme vertical load acting on a pile - pile self-weight

Vd Wp

Design coefficients
The frame "Settings" serves to specify two groups of design (partial) coefficients: Partial factors on soil parameters m mc m partial factor on internal friction partial factor on effective cohesion partial factor on unit weight

It is also possible to choose reduction of tg. Partial factors on pile resistance b s b st partial factor on pile base resistance partial factor on pile shaft resistance partial factor on total pile resistance partial factor on pile tensile shaft resistance

The values of individual coefficients are listed in corresponding standards.

Verification according to factors of safety

When running verification analysis according to "Factors of safety", it is possible to introduce the required value of factor safety FS for vertical bearing capacity in the frame "Settings". The program performs verification of vertical bearing capacity of compression pile as:

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where:

Vd Rc Wp

- extreme vertical load acting on a pile - pile compressive resistance - pile self-weight (introduction into the analysis based on the setting in the frame "Load")

and for tension pile:

where:

Vd Rst Wp

- extreme vertical load acting on a pile - pile tensile resistance - pile self-weight

Vertical bearing capacity - Spring method

This analysis provides the limit loading curve and distributions of forces and displacements developed along the pile. The main advantage of this module is availability of the required input parameters of soils around the pile the user is asked to specify the angle of internal friction, cohesion, unit weight and deformation modulus of a given soil. The solution procedure is based on a semi-analytical approach. The pile is represented by standard beam elements. The response of surrounding soil follows from the well known solution of layered subsoil as a generalization of the Winkler-Pasternak model. The elastic rigid plastic response in shear is assumed along the pile-soil interface in view of the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. The normal stress acting on the pile is determined from the geostatic stress and soil (concrete mixture) pressure at rest. The influence of water in the vicinity of pile is not only introduced into the shear bearing capacity of the pile skin, but also affects the depth of influence zone below the pile heel. The pile may reach incompressible subsoil, which substantially influences its response. This effect is also taken into account in the program. The pile settlement can also be influenced by the settlement of the surrounding terrain. In particular, settlement of soil may reduce the pile bearing capacity. The pile settlement increases without increasing load. This phenomenon is modeled in the program as so called negative skin friction. The analysis may also account for the influence of technological process of pile construction on the stiffness of pile foundation. The solution procedure consists of several steps: 1) The pile is represented as a member composed of several beams. Subdivision into individual element complies with the condition that the ratio between the pile length and its diameter should be approximately equal to 2,5. The minimum number of beams, however, is 10. 2) Each element is supported at its bottom node by a spring. The spring stiffness serves to model both the shear resistance of skin and at the pile heel the stiffness of soil below the - 858 -

GEO5 User's Guide pile heel.

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3) For each element the limit value of shear force transmitted by skin Tlim is determined. 4) The pile is loaded at its top end by increments of the vertical load. For each load increment the magnitude of spring force for each element is determined. This value is then compared with the value of Tlim for a given element. If a certain spring force exceeds the value of Tlim its magnitude is set equal to Tlim. Analysis for this load increment is then repeated so that the force is redistributed into other springs. Such an iteration within each load increment proceeds as long as each currently active spring does not transmit force that is less than its corresponding Tlim. Gradual "softening" of individual springs results in deviation of the limit loading curve from linear path. It is evident that for a certain load level all springs will no longer be capable of increasing its force and the pile begins to settle in a linear manner supported only by the heel spring that has no restrictions on the transmitted force. 5) As a result the analysis provides the limit loading curve, forces developed in the pile and a graph showing variation of shear as a function of deformation at a given location.

Limit loading curve

The limit loading curve describes the variation of vertical load Q as a function of the pile settlement. By default the program offers the construction of this curve for the maximal value of settlement equal to 25 mm. This magnitude, however, can be adjusted up to the value of 100 mm before running the calculation. An example showing a typical shape of the limit loading curve appears in the figure.

Limit loading curve

Shear strength of skin

For each beam element of the analyzed pile the program determines the limiting value of the - 859 -

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force that can be transmitted by the pile skin at the location of a given element. Its value depends on the geostatic stress z found at a depth of a given element.

where:

unit weight of soil depth below the ground surface

Summation sign denotes that z is summed over individual layers of the soil. The allowable shear stress is then given by:

where:

cohesion of soil at the location of beam angle of internal friction of soil at the location of beam coefficient of increase of allowable skin friction due to technology

If the beam is found below the ground water table, the allowable skin friction is then reduced to receive the form: , where:

pore pressure below the ground water table

The allowable shear force then follows from: , where:

O l

length of perimeter of pile skin length of pile beam

Coefficient of increase of limit skin friction

A specific input parameter is the coefficient of increase of limit skin friction k due to applied technology of construction. By default the value of this coefficient is set equal to one. There is no recommendation by standard for its specific value its adjustment depends solely on the practical experiences of the designer. It has been found from the in situ measurements on real piles that the value of k is usually greater than 1 and may reach the value of 1.5. Theoretically, however, it may attain values even less than 1.

Depth of deformation zone

The assumed depth of influence is a variable, which considerably influences the stiffness of soil below the pile heel. It is one of the input parameters for the determination of parameters C1 and C2 of the Winkler-Pasternak model. The deeper the influence zone the smaller the stiffness of subsoil. When the depth of influence zone approaches in the limit zero the stiffness of subsoil tends to infinity. The depth of influence zone depends both on subsoil parameters and magnitude of the applied surcharge, thus on stress below the pile heel. The program assumes that the depth of influence zone is found in the location, where the stress below the heel equals the geostatic stress. Such an idea is depicted in the following figure:

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Determination of the depth of influence zone below the pile heel

For digital determination of the depth of influence zone H serves the function F(). Its distribution appears in figure. This function was derived using the above assumptions and in the program appears in the form of table. Its application is evident from the following steps. The values of F() are determined for the current value of stress fz below the pile heel and for the original geostatic stress h. For this value of F() we determine the parameter . This value serves to determine for the actual value Poisson's number and pile diameter r the corresponding depth of influence zone H.

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The depth of influence zone can be affected by the presence of ground water. In such s case its determination is outlined in following figure:

Determination of the depth of influence zone below the pile heel including water For digital determination of the depth of influence zone H is then used the function G(). Its distribution appears in figure. In the analysis this function is exploited in the similar way as function F(). The only difference when determining the values of G() appears in the use of hydrostatic pressure whw.

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Variation of function G()

Incompressible subsoil
At a certain depth below the ground surface it is possible to specify incompressible subsoil. If the pile exceeds this specified depth then all beam elements found below this value are fixed instead of being spring supported. The pile then essentially experiences no settlement. If there is incompressible subsoil below the pile heel but not deeper than the reach of influence zone below the heel, the depth of influence zone for the stiffness computation is then reduced such that the influence zone just reaches the incompressible subsoil. This way also the incompressible subsoil below the heel increases its stiffness and consequently also the bearing capacity of the pile heel. If the incompressible subsoil is found below the reach of the influence zone, then it does not influence the analyzed pile.

Negative skin friction

A negative skin friction is a phenomenon that arises from a settlement of soil in the vicinity of a pile. The soil deforming around the pile tends to pull the pile downwards thus reducing its bearing capacity for a given pile settlement. The input parameters for assessing the influence of negative skin friction is the settlement of ground surface w and a depth of influence zone of this deformation h. For a uniformly distributed load around the pile the value of w should be measured in the distance equal to three times the pile diameter from its outer face. The value then represents the depth influenced by the ground surface settlement and below which the soil is assumed - 863 -

GEO5 User's Guide incompressible with no deformation.

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Computation of negative skin friction is carried out first while determining the limit shear forces transmitted by the pile skin Tlim. The solution procedure assumes that the soil settlement decreases linearly with depth from the value of w on the ground surface up to 0 at a depth of h. The specific value of the soil settlement is therefore assumed for each level below the ground surface till the depth of h. The forces developed in springs (springs supporting individual elements) due to their deformation are determined and then subtracted from Tlim to reduce the bearing capacity of the pile skin. From the presented theory it is evident that for large settlement w or large depth h the values of Tlim may drop down to zero. In extreme cases the negative skin friction may completely eliminate the skin bearing capacity so that the pile is then supported only by the elastic subsoil below the pile heel.

Influence of technology
The pile bearing capacity is considerably influenced by technological processes applied during construction. The module Pile FEM allows for specifying the technology of pile construction. The mobilized skin friction and the resistance at the pile heel are then reduced with the help of reduction coefficients depending on the selected technology. The values of these coefficients follow from the Dutch standard NEN 6743 Pile foundation. Apart from technologies offered by the program and corresponding coefficients the users are free to assign to these coefficients their own values. This way the users may introduce their own practical experiences or information provided by other sources into the analysis.

Shear resistance on skin

The shear resistance on pile skin is in the analysis represented by stiffness of springs supporting individual beams of a pile. This stiffness is associated with material parameters of the Winkler-Pasternak model C1 and C2. The values of C1 and C2 are determined from parameter Edef. They depend on the depth of influence zone, which varies with the pile deformation (settlement). The variability of influence zone is in the analysis determined such that for zero deformation it receives the value of 1x the pile diameter and for deformation at the onset of skin failure equals 2,5x the pile diameter. The decisive parameter for the determination of magnitudes of C1 and C2 is the deformation modulus. Caution must be taken when estimating the value of Edef from deformational characteristics of soil using standards. In particular, in case of long piles we are essentially dealing with deep seated foundations and the soil at the pile heel will certainly experiences higher stiffness than that proposed by the standard for spread footings. This holds particularly for cohesive soils. The most reliable estimates are of course those obtained directly from experimental measurements. Formulas given below serve to determine the stiffness of springs representing the shear resistance of pile skin as a function of computed parameters of the elastic subsoil. They depend on the shape of cross-section and for the implemented cross-sections they receive the following forms: Circle:

where:

radius of pile cross-section - 864 -

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C1, C2

subsoil parameters values of the modified Bessel functions

K1( r), K2( r) Parameter attains the value:

. Rectangle: , where a,b are lengths of rectangle edges and C1, C2 are subsoil parameters and kred is the reduction coefficient, which reduces the stiffness with respect to slenderness of the rectangle. It receives the following values for: ,

for: Croos, "I-section":

where a is the length of a shorter edge of the rectangle and H is the depth of influence zone. For these cross-sections the stiffness is derived from the stiffness of rectangular cross-section reduced by subtracting the stiffness corresponding to four "removed" parts of the crosssection.

a1, b1 - evident from the following figure

Stiffness of subsoil below the pile heel

The soil stiffness below the pile heel follows from the value of stiffness of the Winkler model C1. The value of C1 is determined for soil parameters Edef and at the location of pile heel. The value of C1 further depends on the depth of influence zone beneath the heel. The spring - 865 -

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stiffness introduced into the support of the beam at the pile heel is then provided by:

,
where:

cross-sectional area at the pile heel

Increments of vertical loading

The analyzed pile is loaded gradually in ten increments. The magnitude of load increments in individual steps is determined prior to the actual analysis. In particular, the program searches for such a magnitude of load that causes the pile to exceed the limiting value of settlement specified for the computed limit loading curve. This value is then divided into 10 increments subsequently applied to the structure.

Distributions of forces acting on pile

Apart from the limit loading curve it is also possible to keep track of the distribution of normal force in the pile and the distribution of shear force developed along the pile skin. The normal forces decreases from the top to the bottom as the load is gradually taken by the shear force developed along the pile skin. Unlike the normal force the shear force thus increases from the top to the bottom. Both forces are evaluated in relative values related to the magnitude of vertical load.

Dependence of shear on deformation

At an arbitrary (selected) depth it is possible to view the distribution of skin friction as a function of deformation (settlement) of a given point of the pile. This graph shows the process of gradual reduction of shear stiffness of pile skin until zero with increasing deformation. This dependency is initially linear, particularly in stage, where the spring force does not exceed the value Tlim. When this value is exceeded the spring stiffness starts to gradually decrease manifested by the flattening of the curve.

Pile settlement
Two options are available to perform the pile settlement analysis: - linear theory (Poulos) - nonlinear theory (Masopust)

Nonlinear theory (Masopust)

The nonlinear theory constructs the loading curve (Load settlement curve) assuming that evolution of settlement as a function of resistance up to full shaft resistance activation can be represented by parabola. After that the relationship is linear as displayed in Figure. This method was derived from equations of regression curves constructed on the basis of statistical analysis of the results of static loading tests of piles and for the determination of vertical bearing capacity it employs regression coefficients. Further details are provided herein.

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Loading curve Literature: Masopust Jan: Vrtan piloty, Praha, Cenk a Jeek, 1994

Approach according to Masopust

The loading curve is constructed in the following way: 1) The ultimate shaft resistance qs is determined as follows:

where:

a, b vi di

- regression coefficient of the ultimate shaft resistance - depth from terrain up to the middle of the i-the layer - pile diameter in the i-the layer

and pile shaft resistance is the provided by:

where:

m1 m2 di hi qsi

load type coefficient shaft protection coefficient pile diameter in the i-the layer thickness of the i-the layer ultimate shaft resistance in the i-th layer

2) The pile base bearing capacity qb follows from:

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where:

e, f D db

- regression coefficient of the shaft resistance - pile length inside soils - pile length inside soils

3) The load transferred to pile base coefficient is written as:

where:

qb

- pile base bearing capacity - weighted average of shaft resistance

D db

- pile length inside soils pile base diameter

The load to mobilize skin friction Rsy is then given by:

where:

Rs

pile shaft resistance load transferred to pile base coefficient

4) The Load at the shaft resistance activation Rsy reads:

where:

Is Rsy d Es

- settlement coefficient - load at the shaft resistance activation - pile diameter - secant deformation modulus of the surrounding soil

5) The load at the pile base for the prescribed settlement (for limiting settlement of 25 mm) follows from:

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GEO5 User's Guide where: - load transferred to pile base coefficient - load at the shaft resistance activation - limiting settlement (described), usually 25 mm settlement at shaft resistance activation

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Rsy slim sy

aThe pile resistance attributed to a given settlement Slim is then provided by:

where:

Rblim Rs

- load on pile base for prescribed settlement - pile shaft resistance

Approach according to Masopust

Regression coefficients
The specific skin friction depends on regression coefficients a, b. The pile base resistance (at the full shaft resistance activation) depends on the regression coefficients e, f. The values of these regression coefficients were derived from equations of regression curves constructed on the basis of statistical analysis of the results of approximately 350 static loading tests of piles. The dialogue window for entering regression coefficients can be displayed in the frame "Settlement" using the "Edit a, b", "Edit e,f" buttons. When editing the dialogue window displays the recommended values of regression coefficients for various types of soils and rocks.

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Dialogue window "Input for loading curve" input of regression coefficients a, b (e, f)

Coefficients m1, m2
Load type coefficient m1: for service loading for extreme loading

0,7 1,0

Shaft protection coefficient m2: for concreting in dry shaft or under water for concreting with bentonite slurry for PVC sheet pile protection (thickness over 0,7 mm) for sheet pile protection and B system mesh for steel casing tube protection

1,0 0,9 0,7 0,5 0,15

Secant deformation modulus Es

The values of secant modulus Es should be determined experimentally by in-situ - 870 -

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measurements (presiometric tests). The dialogue window for entering the secant modulus can be displayed in the frame "Settlement" using the "Edit Es" button. When editing the window displays the recommended values of the secant modulus.

Dialogue window "Input for loading curve" secant deformation modulus Es

Settlement coefficient Is
The settlement coefficient depends on the depth of pile below the surface of a resistant layer D and the pile diameter d. The settlement coefficient Is is given by:

where:

I0 Rk Rh

- base settlement influence coefficient - corrective factor for pile compressibility - corrective factor for finite depth of layer on a rigid base

Linear theory (Poulos)

Construction of the limit loading curve is based on the solution described in the book by H.G. Poulos a E.H. Davis - Pile Foundations Analysis and Design and is based on the theory of elasticity and modifications attributed to in-situ measurements. Foundation soil is therefore characterized by the modulus of elasticity E and by the Poisson number . This method allows - 871 -

GEO5 User's Guide for constructing the limit loading curve for: piles resting on stiff subsoil piles floating in compressible subsoil

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The basic input parameters of the analysis are Rb and Rs. These values are obtained by the program from the analysis of bearing capacity based on the selected method. All partial factors of the analysis are assumed equal to one so that the resulting resistance is greater than the one obtained from actual bearing capacity analysis.

Loading curve Literature: H.G. Poulos a E.H. Davis - Pile Foundations Analysis and Design,

Piles resting on stiff subsoil

The basic assumption of the analysis is the determination of the load at the shaft resistance activation Rsy. At this point the shaft resistance no longer increases. Further loading is taken by the pile base only:

where:

Rs

pile shaft resistance load transferred to pile base coefficient

The load transferred to the pile coefficient is provided by:

where:

- tip load proportion for incompressible pile - corrective coefficient for pile compressibility

Ck

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C Cb

The corresponding settlement at shaft resistance activation sy is given by:

where:

I Es d Rsy

- settlement influence coefficient - deformation modulus of soil or secant deformation modulus of soil along pile shaft - pile diameter - load at the shaft resistance activation

The settlement influence coefficient I is written as:

where:

I0 Rk Rb Rv

- base settlement influence coefficient - corrective factor for pile compressibility - corrective factor for stiffness soil layer - corrective factor for Poissons number of soil

The total limit settlement follows from:

where:

I Rbu

- settlement influence coefficient - pile base bearing capacity - load transferred to pile base coefficient - pile diameter deformation modulus of soil or secant deformation modulus of soil along pile shaft

d Es

Piles floating in compressible subsoil

The maximum settlement slim is derived from:

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Is Es d Rsy

- settlement influence coefficient - deformation modulus of soil or secant deformation modulus of soil along pile shaft - pile diameter - load at the shaft resistance activation

The settlement influence coefficient Is is written as:

where:

I0 Rk Rh Rv

- basic settlement influence coefficient - corrective factor for pile compressibility - corrective factor for finite depth of layer on a rigid base - corrective factor for Poissons number of soil

Corrective factor for Poissons number Rv

The corrective factor for the influence of Poissons number R accounts for the influence of reduction of Poissons number of soils surrounding the pile on the values of pile settlement for constant modulus of these soils. These values are generally presented as a function of Poissons number of the surrounding soil s for various pile stiffness factors K. The graphs are implemented in the program in a digital format.

Corrective factor for influence of Poissons numberR

Corrective factor for stiffness soil layer Rb

The values of the corrective factor Rb are generally presented as a function of the ratio of moduli of elasticity of the soil at the pile base and the surrounding soil (Eb /E) for various pile stiffness factors K and various pile length to pile diameter ratios (l/d). The graphs are implemented in the program in a digital format.

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Corrective factor for stiffness soil layer Rb

Corrective factor for stiffness soil layer Rb

Tip load proportion for incompressible pile BETAo

The tip load proportion for incompressible pile 0 represents the influence of compression of elastic half-space, which adopts the load transferred by the pile from incompressible soil. The values of this coefficient are generally presented as a function of the pile length to pile diameter ratio (l/d) for various pile base diameter to pile diameter ratios (db/d). The graphs are implemented in the program in a digital format.

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Tip load proportion for incompressible pile0

Corrective coefficient for pile compressibility Ck

The values of the coefficient Ck are generally presented as a function of the pile stiffness factor K for various pile length to pile diameter ratios (l/d). The graphs are implemented in the program in a digital format.

Corrective coefficient for pile compressibility Ck

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Corrective coefficient for influence of Poissons number of soil Cv

The values of the coefficient C are generally presented as a function of Poissons number of the surrounding soil s for various pile stiffness factors K. The graphs are implemented in the program in a digital format.

Corrective coefficient for influence of Poissons number of soilC

Corrective coefficient for stiffness soil stratum Cb

The values of the coefficient Cb are generally presented as a function of the ratio of moduli of elasticity of the soil at the pile base and the surrounding soil (Eb /E) for various pile stiffness factors K and various pile length to pile diameter ratios (l/d). The graphs are implemented in the program in a digital format.

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Corrective coefficient for stiffness soil stratum Cb (L/d=10)

Corrective coefficient for stiffness soil stratum Cb (L/d=5)

Pile stiffness factor K

The pile stiffness factor is defined as:

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where:

Ep Es Ra

- elastic modulus of pile material - elastic modulus of surrounding soil or more precisely an average secant deformation modulus of soils along the pile shaft - ratio of area of pile section to area bounded by pile outer-circumference

where:

A1 A2

- average area of pile - area of pile shaft

(for stiff piles Ra= 1)

Basic settlement influence coefficient Io

The basic settlement influence coefficient Io depends on the pile length l and diameter d and the values of this coefficient are generally provided by the following graph also showing their ranges:

Basic settlement influence coefficientIo These graphs are implemented in the program in a digital format.

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Corrective factor for pile compressibility Rk

The corrective factor Rk represents the pile stiffness in dependence on the pile stiffness factor K for various ratios of the pile length to pile diameter (l/d). Its values are provided by the following graph are implemented in the program in a digital format.

Corrective factor for pile compressibility Rk

Corrective factor for finite depth of layer on a rigid base Rh

The corrective factor Rh represents the influence of incompressible layer below the pile base. Its values are again presented in the literature graphically for various pile length to pile diameter ratios (l/d) and ratios of pile length to thickness of compressible layer above the incompressible layer (l/h or h/l). The graphs are implemented in the program in a digital format.

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Corrective factor for finite depth of layer on a rigid baseRh

Horizontal bearing capacity

Horizontal bearing capacity of a pile, dimensioning The horizontally loaded pile is analyzed using the finite element method as a beam on elastic Winkler foundation. The soil parameters along the pile are represented by the modulus of subsoil reaction. By default the pile is subdivided into 30 segments. For each segment the program determines the values of the modulus of subsoil reaction, internal forces and deformations. The program also allows for dimensioning of the steel-reinforced concrete pile based on the standard specified in the frame "Project" The program also enables to analyze a pile loaded by the prescribed displacements (translation or rotation of the pile head). In such a case the analysis is carried out only with the prescribed displacement. The inputted mechanical loading is excluded. The following options for inputting the modulus of subsoil reaction are available in the program: - by distribution (distribution of the modulus of subsoil reaction along the pile is specified) - constant distribution - linear distribution (Bowles) - according to CSN 73 1004 - according to Matlock and Rees - according to Vesic In general, the modulus of subsoil reaction corresponds to the spring stiffness in the Winkler model. This model describes settlement of a rigid plate as a function of the applied load. The corresponding relationship is represented by the following formula:

where:

p k

- load acting along plate-soil interface - stiffness of Winkler spring - 881 -

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- translation of plate into subsoil

Definition of the modulus of subsoil reaction

Constant distribution of modulus of subsoil reaction

The modulus of subsoil reaction of the i-th layer is provided by:

where:

Edef - deformation modulus of soil r

- reduced width of pile given by:

where:

- pile diameter

- angle of dispersion is inputted with respect to the angle of internal friction in the range of /4-

Linear modulus of subsoil reaction

The modulus of subsoil reaction at a depth z follows from the formula:

where:

d l k r

-pile diameter -length of pile -soil parameter after Bowles -reduced width of pile

where:

-pile diameter -angle of dispersion introduced by the user is inputted with respect to the

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GEO5 User's Guide angle of internal friction in the range of /4-

Fine Ltd. 2011

3 Possible values of modulus k after Bowles [MN/m ] :

dense sandy gravel medium dense gravel medium-graded sand fine sand stiff clay saturated stiff clay plastic clay saturated plastic clay soft clay

200 - 400 150 - 300 100 - 250 80 - 200 60 - 180 30 - 100 30 - 100 10 - 80 2 - 30

Literature: Vesic, A.S., Design of Pile Foundations, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Synthesis 42, Transportation Research Board, 1977

Modulus of subsoil reaction according to CSN 73 1004

The modulus of subsoil reaction for cohesive soil assumes the form:

where:

Edef d

- deformation modulus of soil - pile diameter

For cohesionless soils it is provided by:

where:

nh d z

- modulus of horizontal compressibility - pile diameter depth of a given section from finished grade

Soil Relative density ID Dry sand and gravel Wet sand and gravel 0,33 1,5 2,5

nh [MN/m ]
0,50 7,0 4,5 0,90 18,0 11,0

Possible values of modulus nh for cohesionless soils

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Modulus of subsoil reaction after Matlock and Rees

This method is applicable for cohesionless soils. The modulus of subsoil reaction then follows from the expression:

where:

nh z

- modulus of horizontal compressibility depth of a given section from finished grade

Soil Dry sand and gravel - loose - medium dense - dense Wet sand and gravel - loose - medium dense - dense

nh [MN/m ] 1,8 2,2 5,5 7,0 15,0 - 18,0 1,0 1,4 3,5 4,5 9,0 - 12,0 Possible values of modulus nh for cohesionless soils

Modulus of subsoil reaction after Vesic

The modulus of subsoil reaction is provided by:

where:

Ep lp Es

- modulus of elasticity of pile - moment of inertia of pile - modulus of elasticity of soil - pile diameter - Poisson's ratio

Literature: Vesic, A.S., Design of Pile Foundations, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Synthesis 42, Transportation Research Board, 1977

Settlement analysis
One of the following method is available to compute settlement: - with the help of oedometric modulus - with the help of compression constant

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GEO5 User's Guide - with the help of compression index - according to NEN (Buismann, Ladde) - using the Soft soil model - employing Janbu theory - using DMT (constrained modulus) The program offers two options to constrain the depth of influence zone: - exploiting the theory of structural strength - using the percentage of the magnitude of geostatic stress

Fine Ltd. 2011

The theory of elasticity (Boussinesq theory) is employed to determine stress in a soil state in all methods available for the settlement analysis. General theories of settlement serve as bases in all the above methods. When computing settlement below the footing bottom the programs first calculates the stress in the footing bottom and then determines the overall settlement and rotation of foundation. The general approach in all theories draws on subdividing the subsoil into layers of a different thickness based on the depth below the footing bottom or ground surface. Vertical deformation of each layer is then computed the overall settlement is then defined as a sum of partial settlements of individual layers within the influence zone (deformations below the influence zone are either zero or neglected):

where:

s si

-settlement -settlement of the ith layer

Stress in the footing bottom

The stress in the footing bottom can be assumed as: rectangular (uniform in the footing bottom) general (trapezoidal) with different edge values General distribution of stress follows from figure:

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Stress in the footing bottom where:

where:

Q l,b eb M H N p

vertical loading of footing footing width and length loading eccentricity moment acting on the footing horizontal force normal force at eccentric footing column axis offset from the footing center

If in some points the stress becomes negative, the program continues with adjusted dimensions b*l while excluding tension from the analysis. Before computing the stress distribution due to surcharge the stress in the footing bottom is reduced by the geostatic stress in the following way:

There are three options in the program to specify the geostatic stress in the footing bottom: From the original ground It is therefore considered, whether the footing bottom in the open pit measured from the original ground is free of stress for the time less than needed for soil bulkage and subsequent loss of stress in the subsoil. From the finished grade The same assumptions as above apply. Not considered at all

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Overall settlement and rotation of foundation

The foundation settlement is substantially influenced by the overall stiffness of the system represented by foundation structure and foundation soil given by:

where:

Ezakl t

modulus of elasticity of footing foundation thickness zone

weighted average of the deformation modulus up to depth of influence Edef,prum -

footing dimension in the direction of searched stiffness

For k > 1 the foundation is assumed to be rigid and as a representative point for the determination of its settlement is assumed the characteristic point (distant by 0,37times the foundation dimension from its axis). For k < 1 the foundation structure is assumed to be compliant and as a representative point for the determination of foundation settlement is assumed the foundation center point. The foundation rotation is determined from the difference of settlements of center and of individual edges.

Influence of foundation depth and incompressible subsoil

When computing settlement it is possible to account for the influence of foundation depth by introducing the reduction coefficient 1: for strip footing:

for spread footing:

where:

d z

- depth of footing bottom - depth under footing bottom

Influence of incompressible layer is introduced into the analysis by the reduction coefficient 2:

where:

zic z

- depth of rigid base under footing bottom - depth under footing bottom

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Incorporating the above coefficients allows transformation of the vertical component of stress z such that the actual depth is replaced by a substitute value zr given by:

where:

1 2

- coefficient of footing bottom depth - coefficient of rigid base - depth under footing bottom

Influence of sand-gravel cushion

If the sand-gravel cushion is specified below the spread footing, the material parameters X in individual layers are computed in the following way: For layer ha,i :

where:

Xi Xc

- material parameters at ith layer - material parameters of sand-gravel cushion

For layer hb,i :

where:

Ac Xc bi li

- area of sand-gravel cushion - material parameters of sand-gravel cushion

Xb,i - material parameters of b,i layer

- cushion widths in the ith layer - cushion length in the ith layer

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Analysis Xi in the sand-gravel cushion

Analysis using the oedometric modulus

th Equation to compute compression of an i soil layer below foundation having a thickness h arises from the definition of oedometric modulus Eoed:

where:

z,i

- vertical component of incremetal stress in the middle of ith layer - thickness of the ith layer - oedometric modulus of the ith layer

hi Eoed,i

The oedometric modulus Eoed can be specified for each soil either as constant or with the help of an oedometric curve (ef / relation). When using the oedometric curve the program assumes for each layer the value of Eoed corresponding to a given range of original and final stress. If the value of oedometric modulus Eoed is not available, it is possible to input the deformation modulus Edef and the program carries out the respective transformation.

where:

Poisson's ratio deformation modulus

Edef

Analysis using the compression constant

th Equation to compute compression of an i soil layer below foundation having a thickness h arises from the definition of compression constant C:

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where:

or,i z,i

- vertical component of original geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer - vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression - thickness of the ith layer - compression constant in the ith layer

hi Ci

The program allows for inputting either the compression constant Ci or the compression constant C10 (the program itself carries out the transformation).

Literature: Arnold Verruijt: Soil mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2001, 2006, http://geo.verruijt.net/

Analysis using the compression index

Equation for settlement when employing the compression index Cc of the ith layer arises from the formula:

where:

or,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer z,i - vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression - initial void ratio - thickness of the ith layer - compression index in the ith layer

eo hi Cc,i

Literature: Arnold Verruijt: Soil mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2001, 2006, http://geo.verruijt.net/

Analysis according to NEN (Buismann, Ladd)

This method computes both the primary and secondary settlement. When computing the method accounts for overconsolidated soils and differentiates between two possible cases: (1) sum of the current vertical effective stress in the soil and stress due to external surcharge is less than the preconsolidation pressure so that only additional surcharge is considered (2) sum of the current vertical effective stress in the soil and stress due to external surcharge is greater than the preconsolidation pressure so that the primary consolidation is set on again. - 890 -

GEO5 User's Guide The primary settlement is then larger when compared to the first case Primary settlement

Fine Ltd. 2011

th Primary settlement of the i layer of overconsolidated soil (OCR > 1) is provided by:

for: or + z p (sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is less than the preconsolidation pressure)

for: or + z > p (sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is greater than the preconsolidation pressure)

where:

or,i z,i p,i

- vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer - vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression - preconsolidation pressure in the ith layer - initial void ratio - thickness of the ith layer - compression index in the ith layer - recompression index in the ith layer

eo hi Cc,i Cr,i

th Primary settlement of the i layer of normally consolidated soil (OCR = 1) reads:

where:

or,i z,i -

vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of i

th

layer

vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression initial void ratio thickness of the i
th

eo hi

layer

Cc,i Secondary settlement

th compression index the i layer

Secondary settlement of the ith layer assumes the form: for: or + z p (sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is less than the preconsolidation pressure)

for: or + z > p (sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is greater than the - 891 -

GEO5 User's Guide preconsolidation pressure)

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where:

hi Cr,i C tp ts

-thickness of the ith layer -secondary compression index below preconsolidation pressure in the ith layer -index of secondary compression in the ith layer -time to terminate primary consolidation -time required for secondary settlement

If we specify the value of preconsolidation index of secondary compression the same as for the index of secondary compression, the program does not take into account in the computation of secondary settlement the effect of preconsolidation pressure.

Literature: Netherlandish standard NEN6740, 1991, Geotechniek TGB1990 Basisen en belastingen, Nederlands normalisatie-Institut

Analysis using the Soft soil model

The analysis employs the modified compression index and is based on the Soft soil elasticplastic model developed in university of Cambridge. The soil deformation assumes the volumetric strain to be linearly dependent on the change of effective mean stress plotted in th natural logarithmic scale. The settlement of the i layer is then provided by:

kde:

or,i - vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer z,i - vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression

hi

- thickness of the ith layer - modified compression index in the ith layer

The analysis requires inputting the modified compression index usually obtained from triaxial laboratory measurements. If the modified compression index is not known, it is possible to specify the compression index CC together with an average value of the void ratio e (if that is also not know it is sufficient to provide the initial void ratio eo) and the program then performs an approximate computation of the modified compression index using the available information.

Literature: Burland J.B. The yielding and dilatation of clay (correspondence), Gotechnique, 15 (2),1965, - 892 -

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Analysis according to the Janbu theory

It is based on principles of nonlinear elastic deformation, where the stress-strain relationship is described by a function of two dimensionless parameters unique for a given soil. The parameters are the exponent j and the Janbu modulus m. Equations describing the settlement are obtained by specifying from the definition of deformation modulus Et and by subsequent integration. The program allows the user to compute settlement for the following types of soil: - cohesionless soils - coarse - grained soil - sands and silts - overconsolidated sands and silts - cohesive soils - overconsolidated cohesive soils

Literature: Method of settlement computation for various types of soils, Soil Mechanics and foundation engineering, Springer, 7 (3), 1970, str, 201-206

Analysis for cohesionless soils after Janbu

For cohesionless soils the stress exponent is not equal to zero. For layered subsoil the resulting settlement equals to the sum of partial settlements of individual layers:

where:

or,i z,i

- vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer - vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression - stress exponent in the ith layer - Janbu modulus in the ith layer - thickness of the ith layer

ji mi hi

Analysis for coarse-grained soils after Janbu

For dense coarse-grained soils (e.g. ice soil) the stress-deformation (settlement) relationship is usually assumed as "elastic", i.e. the stress exponent j is equal to one. Thus for j = 1 and the reference stress r = 100 kPa the resulting settlement equals to the sum of partial settlements of individual layers:

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Fine Ltd. 2011

z,i - vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression - i.e. change of effective stress

mi hi

- Janbu modulus in the ith layer - thickness of the ith layer

Analysis for sands and silts after Janbu

For sands and silts the stress exponent j receives the value around 0,5, for the reference stress r = 100 kPa the resulting settlement equals to the sum of partial settlements of individual layers. It can be derived from the following formula:

where:

or,i vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer z,i vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression

mi hi

th Janbu modulus in the i layer

thickness of the i

th

layer

Analysis for overconsolidated sands and silts after Janbu

Providing the final stress in soil exceeds the preconsolidation pressure (or + z > p), the settlement of layered subsoil is found from the following equation:

where:

or,i p,i z,i

- vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer - preconsolidation pressure in the ith layer - vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression - Janbu modulus in the ith layer - Janbu modulus of recompression in the ith layer - thickness of the ith layer

mi mr,i hi

If the stress due to surcharge does not cause the final stress to exceed the preconsolidation pressure (or + z p), it is possible to assume the following forms of equations for the computation of settlement of layered sand or silt subsoil:

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Fine Ltd. 2011

- vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer - preconsolidation pressure in the ith layer - vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression - Janbu modulus of recompression in the ith layer - thickness of the ith layer

mr,i hi

Analysis for cohesive soils after Janbu

In case of cohesive soils the stress exponent is equal to zero. For normally consolidated soils we obtain from the definition of the tangent modulus of deformation (by modification and subsequent integration) Et equation for the settlement of layered subsoil formed by cohesive soils in the form:

where:

or,i z,i

- vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer - vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression - Janbu modulus in the ith layer - thickness of the ith layer

mi hi

Analysis for overconsolidated cohesive soils after Janbu

Most cohesive soils in the original order except very young or organic clays are overconsolidated. If the final stress in the soil exceeds overconsolidation stress (or + z > p) than the settlement of the layered subsoil composites from cohesive soils is computed from following relation: for: or + z > p

for: or + z p

where:

or,i p,i

- vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of ith layer - preconsolidation pressure in the ith layer

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GEO5 User's Guide z,i

Fine Ltd. 2011

- vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure surcharge) inducing layer compression - Janbu modulus in the ith layer - Janbu modulus of recompression in the ith layer - thickness of the ith layer

mi mr,i hi

Settlement analysis using DMT (constrained modulus)

Constrained modulus MDMT [MPa] is defined as the vertical drained confined tangent modulus at vo. MDMT is obtained from dilatometer test. If the value of the constrained modulus MDMT is not available, it is possible to input the 2 coefficient of volume compressibility mV [m /MN] (determined from the oedometer test) and the program carries out the respective transformation:

where:

MDMT mV

- constrained modulus - coefficient of volume compressibility

The analysis employs the constrained modulus MDMT or coefficient of volume compressibility mV and is based on Marchetti method. This approach being based on linear elasticity, provides a settlement proportional to the load and is unable to provide non linear predictions. The settlement of the i
th

layer is then provided by:

where:

z,i

- vertical component of incremental stress in the middle of ith layer - thickness of the ith layer - constrained modulus

hi MDMT

Literature: Marchetti S. (1999) " The Flat Dilatometer and its applications to Geotechnical Design ", Lecture notes (90 pp) Intnl Seminar on DMT held at the Japanese Geot. Society, Tokyo, 12 Feb 1999

Theory of settlement
If the stress change in the soil or in the currently build earth structure, caused by ground surface surcharge, is known, it is possible to determine the soil deformation. The soil - 896 -

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deformation is generally inclined and its vertical component is termed the settlement. In general, the settlement is non-stationary dependent on time, which means that it does not occur immediately after introducing the surcharge, but it rather depends on consolidation characteristics of a soil. Permeable, less compressible soils (sand, gravel) deform fast, while saturated, low permeability clayey soils experience gradual deformation called consolidation.

Time dependent settlement of soils

Applied load yields settlement, which can be subdivided based on time dependent response into three separate components: - instantaneous settlement (initial) - primary settlement (consolidation) - secondary settlement (creep) Instantaneous settlement During instantaneous settlement the soil experiences only shear deformation resulting into change in shape without volumetric deformation. The loss of pore pressure in the soil is zero. Primary settlement This stage of soil deformation is characterized by skeleton deformation due to motion and compression of grains manifested by volume changes. If the pores are filled with water (particularly in case of low permeability soils), the water will be carried away from squeezed pores into locations with lower pressure (the soil will undergo consolidation). The consolidation primary settlement is therefore time dependent and is terminated by reaching zero pore pressure. Secondary settlement When the primary consolidation is over the skeleton deformation will no longer cause the change in pore pressure (theoretically at infinite time). With increasing pressure the grains may become so closely packed that they will start to deform themselves and the volumetric changes will continue this is referred to as creep deformation of skeleton or secondary consolidation (settlement). Unlike the primary consolidation the secondary consolidation proceeds under constant effective stress. Particularly in case of soft plastic or squash soils the secondary consolidation should not be neglected in case of overconsolidated soils it may represent app. 10% of the overall settlement, for normally consolidated soils even app. 20%.

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Primary settlement
The final primary settlement s is often is often substituted by the term settlement. Most of the computational approaches can be attached to one of the two groups: - linear elastic deformation - nonlinear elastic deformation Linear elastic deformation The linear stress-strain relationship follows the Hook law:

where:

ef

-induced deformation of the soil layer -induced change of effective stress in the soil layer -Young's modulus in the soil layer -Poisson's ratio

The applicability of Young's modulus E of elasticity is substantiated only in cases, in which the stressed soil is allowed to stretch in the horizontal direction. This, however, is acceptable only for small spread foundations. When applying the load over a larger area, the stressed soil cannot, except for its edges, to deform sideways and experiences therefore only a vertical (one-dimensional) strain related to the oedometric modulus Eoed, that is larger than the elastic modulus E. The settlement of a soil layer s is determined by multiplying the deformation of a soil layer by the layer thickness (height) Ho:

where:

-deformation of the soil layer -thickness of the soil layer

Ho

In case of layered subsoil we get the total settlement by summing up settlements of individual layers:

where:

s
i

-settlement of the layered subsoil -deformation of the ith soil layer -thickness of the ith soil layer

Hoi

Nonlinear elastic deformation For most soils the stress-strain relationship is nonlinear and often influenced by the loading history. This nonlinearity cannot be neglected, particularly when computing the settlement of fine-grained soils (silts, clays). Clearly, the procedure based on application of Young's modulus of elasticity is not generally applicable. Even if employing the stress dependent oedometric modulus of deformation, it will not be possible to receive reasonable estimates of the behavior of certain overconsolidated soils. Nonlinear elastic deformation is generally modeled using the void ratio and deformation characteristics derived from one-dimensional deformation of a soil sample (e.g. compression constant, compression index, etc.). Procedure for the computation of settlement of a compressible saturated soil layer using the - 898 -

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void e is described on the following soil element having the height Ho and the width B = 1 m:

Analysis of settlement from phase diagram Owing to the fact that the soil is a three phase medium (it contains solid particles and pore filled with fluid and gas) it is possible to describe the solid particles (rock particles and mineral grains) by their volume Vs (and assumed to be equal to unity), while the porous phase can be described using the void ratio e. The soil element is subjected on its upper surface to a uniform loading q causing the change in stress inside the sample and also the vertical displacement H, which in turn leads to the reduction of pores Vp and therefore also to the reduction of void ratio (from its original value eo to a new value e). The vertical strain of a soil sample is given by the ratio of H to the original sample height Ho, and can be expressed using the void ratio e:

where:

vertical relative compression vertical deformation origin height of the element settlement void ratio change of void ratio

Ho s e
e

By modifying this equation we arrive at the formula describing the sample settlement with the help of void ratio:

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where:

-vertical relative compression -origin height of the element -settlement -void ratio -change of void ratio

Ho s e
e

Secondary settlement
To describe a gradual creep of soil during secondary settlement the program employs the Buissman method (it incorporates the index of secondary compression C derived by Lade). From observations suggesting that the soil deformation follows a linear path when plotted in semi-logarithmic scale against time Buissman proposed the variation of due to long-term stress in the form:

where: - total deformation p - deformation associated with primary consolidation s - deformation associated with secondary consolidation - time of consolidation

t0 - refereference time

Time dependent variation of strain (primary and secondary consolidation)

Consolidation analysis
Program allows analysis of consolidation when set in the frame "Analysis methods". Consolidated layer, formed by impermeable, resp. lower permeable soil, subsequently settles - 900 -

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with increasing time. Consolidation affects values of pore pressure. Soil parameters influencing consolidation analysis are entered in the frame "Soils", other consolidation parameters are set in the frame "Analysis" in individual construction stages. Consolidation coefficient, depended on the soil properties, is calculated:

where:

Eoed k
w

- oedometric modulus of deformation - coefficient of permeability - unit weight of water

Consolidation analysis is also influenced by time factors, which are depended on the path of water outflow. This path is equal to the thickness of the consolidated layer in case of only one direction outflow (upwards or downwards) or half of the thickness in case of both directions outflow (upwards and downwards). Real time factor is evaluated according to the following formula:

where:

cv t H

- consolidation coefficient - real time - path of water outflow

Time factor of build duration is influenced by duration of load action. When the whole loading is introduced at the beginning of stage, build time is equal to zero. When load linearly increases during stage duration, then build time is equal to the time of stage duration. Time factor of build duration is calculated by formula:

where:

cv tc H

- consolidation coefficient - build time - path of water outflow

Degree of consolidation is evaluated by following formulas: fo r: fo r: w he re :

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GEO5 User's Guide where:

Fine Ltd. 2011 - real time factor - time factor of build duration

tv tc

Original value of deformation in consolidated layer in certain construction stage is multiplied by corresponding degree of consolidation Uav to obtain result value of deformation:

where:

fin

- result value of deformation - original value of deformation - degree of consolidation

Uav

Consolidation analysis also influences pore pressure values in consolidated layer. In the time of introducing the load action, pore pressure values are the highest. When time increases to teoretical infinity, pore pressure decreases to zero. Pore pressure: fo r: fo r: w he re : where:

tv tc H z u0

- real time factor - time factor of build duration - path of water outflow - depth, where value of pore pressure is evaluated - change of effective stress compared to previous stage (loading)

Literature: Braja M. Das. Advanced Soil Mechanics; Taylor & Francis: London, 2008.pp278 - 316 Verruijt A. Soil Mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2010, pp97-123, http://geo.verruijt.net/software/SoilMechBook.pd

Determination of the depth of influence zone

From the theoretical point of view when applying a load on the ground surface we may expect the change of stress in subsoil into an infinite depth. The soil, however, deforms only up to a certain depth within so called influenced zone. The program offers two options to specify the influence zone: - using the theory of structural strength - 902 -

GEO5 User's Guide - by specifying a certain percentage of the primary geostatic stress

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Theory of structural strength

The structural strength represents the resistance of soil against deformation for a loading at the onset of failure of its internal structure. With decreasing coefficient m the soil responds tends to be linear. If the structural strength is accounted for during settlement analysis, then: a) the influence zone is characterized by the depth below the footing bottom at which the increment of vertical stress z becomes equal to the structural strength of soil (determined by multiplying the original geostatic stress or by the coefficient m):

where:

m
or

-coefficient of structural strength -original geostatic stress

b) when computing the settlement of a layer, the increment of vertical stress z due to surcharge and reduced by the structural strength of soil is provided by:

where:

m
or z

-coefficient of structural strength -original geostatic stress -incremetal stress in the middle layer

and the settlement s then follows from the stress denoted in figure by hatching and is given by:

where:

m
or z

-coefficient of structural strength -original geostatic stress -incremetal stress in the middle layer

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Depth of influnece zone based on theory of structural strength (area of effective surcharge is hatched)

Method of restriction of the magnitude of primary stress

Pokud If we assume in the settlement analysis the constrains in terms of the percentage of primary geostatic stress, then: a) the influence zone is represented by a depth below the footing bottom where the incremental stress z reaches a certain percentage of the original geostatic stress:

where:

x%

-considered magnitude of the geostatic stress -geostatic stress

or

b) the settlement s is derived from stress value denoted in figure by hatching and it receives the form:

where:

z or

-incremetal stress -geostatic stress

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Depth of influence zone given by constraining the magnitude of primary stress

Characteristics of settlement analyses

Depending on the selected solution method the program GEO5 employs for the computation of settlement the following characteristics that may differ by the type of experiment needed for their determination or in the way of representation of measured variables: - Compression index Cc - Oedometric modulus Eoed - Compression constant C - Compression constant C10 - Void ratio e - Recompression index Cr - Janbu characteristics - Correcting coefficient m - Modified compression index - Index of secondary compression C - Overconsolidation index of secondary compressionC r

Compression index
It describes variation of the void ratio e as a function of the change of effective stress ef plotted in the logarithmic scale:

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Void ratio e versus effective stress ef It therefore represents a deformation characteristic of overconsolidated soil:

where:

e logef

variation of void ratio variation of effective stress

Range of compression index Cc (Naval Facilities Engineering Command Soil MechanicsDESIGN MANUAL 7.01) A typical range of the compression index is from 0,1 to 10. Approximate values for homogeneous sand for the loading range from 95 kPa to 3926 kPa attain the values from 0,05 to 0,06 for loose state and 0,02 to 0,03 for dense state. For silts this value is 0,20. For lightly overconsolidated clays and silts tested in USA Louisiana Kaufmann and Shermann (1964) present the following values: Soil Effective consolidation stress cef [kPa] 160 170 230 280 340 Final effective stress in the soil ef [kPa] 200 250 350 350 290 Compression index Cc [-] 0,34 0,44 0,16 0,84 0,52

CL soft clay CL hard clay ML silt of low plasticity CH clay of high plasticity CH soft clay with silt layers

Prof. Juan M.Pestana-Nascimento (University of California, Berkeley) offers the following typical values of the compression index Cc: - 906 -

GEO5 User's Guide Soil Normal consolidated clays Chicago clay with silt (CL) Boston blue clay (CL) Vickburgs clay - dray falls into lumps (CH) Swedish clay (CL CH) Canada clay from Leda (CL CH) Mexico City clay (MH) Organic clays (OH) Peats (Pt) Organic silts and claye silts (ML MH) San Francisco sediments (CL) Clay in the old San Francisco Bay Bangkok clay (CH)

Fine Ltd. 2011 Compression index Cc [-] 0,20 0,50 0,15 - 0,30 0,3 0,5 0,3 0,6 13 14 7 10 4 a vce 10 15 1,5 4,0 0,4 1,2 0,7 0,9 0,4

In addition, there are empirical expressions available to determine approximate values of Cc for silts, clays and organic soils; their applicability, however, is more or less local:

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GEO5 User's Guide Soil Transformed clays Clays Brazilian clays Sao Paulo clays Equations Reference

Fine Ltd. 2011

Skempton 1944 Nishida 1956 Cozzolino 1961

New York clays Clays of low plasticity Taipei clays and silts

Terzaghi a Peck 1948 Sowers 1970 Moh a kol. 1989

Clays

Pestana 1994

Oedometric modulus
If the results from oedometric test are represented in terms of oedometric curve ( = f(ef )), it becomes evident that for each point on the curve we receive a different ratio ef / .

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GEO5 User's Guide Determination of oedometric modulus Eoed

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If the stress-strain curve is replaced for a certain interval of two neighboring stresses 1ef - 2ef by a secant line, it is acceptable to assume a linear behavior of soil within this interval and represent the soil compressibility by as ef / called the oedometric modulus of deformation. The oedometric modulus of deformation is therefore a secant modulus linked to a certain stress interval 1ef - 2ef selected on the stress-strain diagram = (ef ):

In general, the oedometric modulus of deformation Eoed tends to decrease its value with the increasing stress interval. Therefore we should consider for each layer a specific value of Eoed pertinent to a given stress interval (from original to final stress state). This is reflected in the program by the way of inputting Eoed, where it is possible to specify for each soil the respective oedometric curve (ef / diagram). Practical experience, however, suggests (e.g. for clays) a several orders of magnitude difference between the value of Eoed derived from the deformation modulus Edef and that provided by the in situ measured loading curve. Approximate range of values of oedometric modulus of deformation Eoed for individual soils and typical stress range (Vanek: Mechanika zemin (soil mechanics)): Soil gravels medium dense sands to dense sands cohesive Oedometric modulus Eoed [MPa] 60 600 7 130 2 30

Compression constant
When plotting the effective vertical stress against the vertical strain in the semi-logarithmic scale we often arrive at a linear dependency.

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Detemination of compression constant C Slope of this curve is one of the soil parameters particularly in case of one-dimensional deformation and is referred to as the compression constant C:

where:

1ef 2ef

-initial effective stress of soil in oedometer -final effective stress of soil in oedometer

Margins of compression constant C (J.imek: Mechanika zemin) Soil Loess silt Clay Silts Medium dense and dense sands Sand with gravel Compression constant C [-] 15 45 30 120 60 150 150 200 > 250

Compression constant 10
In engineering practice the natural logarithm with base is sometimes replaced by logarithm with base 10 when plotting the stress ef. In this case it is common to denote the compression constant with subscript 10: C10. Since it holds:

it is possible to derive a relationship between compression constant C and C10: - 910 -

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Arnold Verruijt (Soil Mechanics) offers the following values of compression constant: Soil Sand Silt Clay Peat

C
50 500 25 125 10 100 2 - 25

C10
20 200 10 50 4 40 1 - 10

Void ratio
The void ratio e describes porosity of a soil and is provided by:

where:

Vp Vs

-volume of voids -volume of solid grains

Ranges of void ratio e (Braja M. DAS: Principles of Foundation Engineering) Soil Poorly graded sand with loose density Well graded dense sand Loose density sand with angular particles Dense density sand with angular particles Stiff clay Soft clay Loess Soft organic clay Glacial till Void ratio e [-] 0,8 0,45 0,65 0,4 0,6 0,9 1,4 0,9 2,5 3,2 0,3

Recompression index
The recompression index Cr is determined from the graph representing the variation of void ratio e as a function of the effective stress ef plotted in the logarithmic scale for unloading reloading sequence:

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Determination of recompression index Cr

where:

e logef

change of void ratio for the unloading-reloading curve change of effective stress for the unloading-reloading curve

If no results from either laboratory or in situ measurements are available, the recompression index Cr can be approximately derived from:

where:

Cc

-compression constant

Janbu characteristics
Values of the Janbu modulus m and of stress exponent j (according Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual 1992) Soil Very dense to dense till, glacial till Gravel Dense sand Medium condition sand Loose sand Dense silt Medium condition silt Janbu modulus m 1000 300 400 40 400 250 250 150 150 100 200 80 80 60 - 912 Stress index j 1 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5

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Loose silt Hard to very stiff clay Medium to stiff clay Soft claye silt Soft marine clays Organic clays Peats

60 40 60 20 20 10 10 5 20 5 20 - 5 51

0,5 0 0 0 0 0 0

Influence of loading history

The loading history has a substantial influence on the distribution of deformation curve and therefore also on the values of deformation characteristics. The following figure displays the deformation curve (e = f(ef) diagram) derived from oedometric loading test corresponding, e.g. to natural dense sandy soil.

Loading history a) Deformation curve for clayey soils from oedometric test b) Simplified interpretation of deformation curve VzorekThe soil sample was gradually loaded to reach the stress level bef, the stress-strain relationship (bef -) within the section a-b is linear and is denoted as primary or virgin (i.e., relative compression is encountered). Upon exceeding the stress level bef the sample was elastically unloaded and the soil moved up the b-c section of the deformation curve. Upon reloading the soil moved down the b-c section till reaching the original stress bef prior to unloading. When loading beyond bef the deformation curve aproaches asymptotically within the d-e section the primary line accompanied by inelastic deformation of a soil sample. Such a complex stress-strain curve is often simplified by the idealized deformation curve (fig. b). Such a curve characterizes so called overconsolidated soils, which were in the past subjected large stresses and subsequamtly unloded. The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) then represents the ratio between the maximum preconsolidation stress the soil has ever experienced and the current vertical stress. Overconsolidated soils typicaly follow the deformation curve given by points c-d-e. The change in slope along this line (given app. by point d) corresponds either to the vertical geostatic stress o (normally consolidated soils) or to preconsolidation pressure c (overconsolidated soils). This point influences the soil deformation, which is smaller within the c-d section when compared to the d-e section (where for the large degree of overconsolidation - 913 -

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the soil deformation increases). Additional deformation characteristics such as deformation modulus upon unloading Ee, one-dimensional swelling index Ce, recompression index Cr, etc. were introduced to describe such a complex soil behavior. Currently the most often used parameter is the recompression index Cr suitable for the computation of settlement of overconsolidated soils.

Coefficient m
Correction coefficient of surcharge due to structural strength m determines the structural strength of soil. Values of the correction coefficient of surcharge m Type of fundamental soil Very compressible fine soils class F1 -F8 - with deformation modulus Edef < 4 MPa - nonoverconsoludated - soft to hard consistency (all 3 attributes must be fullfiled), filling, made ground secondary and tertiary sedimets rocks class R1, R2 fine soils class F1-F8, not belonging to coefficient m = 0,1 nor 0,4 nor 0,6 sands and gravels class S1, S2, G1, G2 under GWT rock class R3, R4 Sands and gravels class S1, S2, G1, G2 above GWT sands and gravels with clay, silt or fine soil admixture soils class S3, S4, S5, G3, G4, G5 rocks class R5, R6 eluvium of igneous and metanorphic rocks 0,4 0,3 0,2

m
0,1

Modified compression index

The analysis employing the Soft soil model builds on the elastic-plastic model developed in the university in Cambridge. Here, the vertical deformation of soil assumes linear dependence on the logarithmic variation of effective stress in a soil. Application of this model requires an introduction of the modified compression index usually obtained from triaxial tests. If the modified compression index is not available from laboratory measurements, it can be approximately found from the compression index CC:

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where:

CC e

-compression index -average void ratio (if this value is not available, it can be approximately substituted by the initial void ratio eo)

Index of secondary compression

The index of secondary compression is proportional to the logarithm of time and the slope of primary consolidation (it is strongly dependent on the final effective stress in soil):

where:

C - index of secondary compression

- deformation of a soil layer - initial time of a period of monitoring (measured from the start of consolidation) - final time of a period of monitoring

t1 t2

Determining the value of index of secondary compression C requires either laboratory (e.g. one-dimensional consolidation in oedometer) or in-situ measurements:

Determination of index of secondary compression C

Ranges of values of index of secondary compression C sand silty loess clay 0,00003 0,00006 0,0004 0,01

The ratio between the index of secondary compression C and the compression index Cc is approximately constant for most of the normally consolidated clays for loading typical in engineering practice. Its average value is 0,05. Variation of natural moisture of soil as a function of the index of secondary compression C derived by Mesri appears in figure:

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Variation of natural moisture of soil as a function of the index of secondary compression C after Mesri 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Whangamarino clay Mexico City clay Calcareous organic silt Leda clay Norwegian plastic clay Amorphous and fibous peat Canadian muskeg Organic marine deposits Boston blue clay Chicago blue clay Organic silty clay

Overconsolidation index of secondary compression

The overconsolidation index of secondary compression depends on laboratory measurements - 916 -

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(e.g. one-dimensional consolidation) and is proportional to the logarithm of time and slope of virgin consolidation line providing the preconsolidation pressure was not exceeded:

where:

Cr -overconsolidation index of secondary compression

-deformation of a soil layer -initial time of a period of monitoring (measured from the onset of consolidation) -final time of a period of monitoring

t1 t2

Analyses in program Ground Loss

Analyses performed in the program "Ground Loss" can be divided into the following groups: - analysis of the shape of subsidence trough above excavations - analysis of failure of buildings The failure analysis of building is based on the shape of subsidence trough.

Analysis of subsidence trough

The analysis of subsidence trough consists of several sequential steps: - determination of the maximum settlement and dimensions of subsidence trough for individual excavations - back calculation of the shape and dimensions of subsidence trough providing it is calculated at a given depth below the terrain surface. - determination of the overall shape of subsidence trough for more excavations - post-processing of other variables (horizontal deformation, slope) The analysis of maximum settlement and dimensions of subsidence trough can be carried out using either the theory of volume loss or the classical theories (Peck, Fazekas, Limanov).

Volume loss
The volume loss method is a semi-empirical method based partially on theoretical grounds. The method introduces, although indirectly, the basic parameters of excavation into the analysis (these include mechanical parameters of a medium, technological effects of excavation, excavation lining etc) using 2 comprehensive parameters ( coefficient k for determination of inflection point and a percentage of volume loss VL). These parameters uniquely define the shape of subsidence trough and are determined empirically from years of experience.

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Settlement expressed in terms volumes The maximum settlement Smax, and location of inflection point Linf are provided by the following expressions:

where:

A Z k VL

- excavation area - depth of center point of excavation - coefficient to calculate inflection point (material constant) - percentage of volume loss

The roof deformation ua follows from:

where:

r - excavation radius V - percentage of volume loss L

Literature: "http://www.groundloss.com/"

Recommended values of parameters for volume loss analysis

Data needed for the determination of subsidence trough using the volume loss method: Coefficient to calculate inflection point k

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GEO5 User's Guide Soil or rock cohesionless soil normaly consolidated clay overconsolidated clay clay slate quartzite Percentage of volume loss VL Technology TBM Sequential excavation method VL 0,5-1 0,8-1,5 k 0,3 0,5 0,6-0,7 0,6-0,8 0,8-0,9

Fine Ltd. 2011

Several relationships were also derived to determine the value of lost volume VL based on stability ratio N defined by Broms and Bennermarkem:

where:

- overall stress along excavation axis v - excavation lining resistance (if lining is installed) t

S - undrained stiffness of clay

u

For N < 2 the soil/rock in the vicinity of excavation is assumed elastic and stable. For N < 2,4 local plastic zones begin to develop in the vicinity of excavation, for N < 4,6 a large plastic zone develops around excavation and for N = 6 the loss of stability of tunnel face occurs. Figure shows the dependence of stability ration and lost volume VL.

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Literature: Broms, B.B., Bennemark, H., 1967. Stability of clay at vertical openings. ASCE, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Division, SMI 93, 7194.

Classical theory
Convergence analysis of an excavation and calculation of the maximum settlement in a homogeneous body are the same for all classical theories. The subsidence trough analyses then differ depending on the assumed theory (Peck, Fazekas, Limanov). When calculating settlement the program first determines the radial loading of a circular excavation as:

where:

- geostatic stress in center of excavation z

K- coefficient of pressure at rest of cohesive soil

r

The roof ua and the bottom ub deformations of excavation follow from:

where:

Z - depth of center point of excavation r - excavation radius E- modulus of elasticity of rock/soil in vicinity of excavation
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GEO5 User's Guide - Poisson's number of rock/soil in vicinity of excavation

Fine Ltd. 2011

The maximum terrain settlement and the length of subsidence trough are determined as follows:

where:

Z - depth of center point of excavation r - excavation radius E- modulus of elasticity of rock/soil in vicinity of excavation
- Poisson's number of rock/soil in vicinity of excavation

When the tunnel roof displacement is prescribed the maximum settlement is provided by the following expression:

where:

Z - depth of center point of excavation r - excavation radius u - tunnel roof displacement

a

- Poisson's number of rock/soil in vicinity of excavation

Analysis for layered subsoil

When determining a settlement of layered subsoil the program first calculates the settlement at the interface between the first layer above excavation and other layers of overburden Sint and determines the length of subsidence trough along layers interfaces. In this case the approach complies with the one used for a homogeneous soil. Next (as shown in Figure) the program determines the length of subsidence trough L at the terrain surface.

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Analysis of settlement for layered subsoil The next computation differs depending on the selected analysis theory: Solution after Limanov Limanov described the horizontal displacement above excavation with the help of lost area F:

where:

L F

- length of subsidence trough - volume loss of soil per 1m run determined from:

where:

Lint - length of subsidence trough along interfaces above excavation Sint - settlement of respective interface

Solution after Fazekas Fazekas described the horizontal displacement above excavation using the following expression:

where:

- length of subsidence trough

Lint - length of subsidence trough along interfaces above excavation Sint - settlement of respective interface
Solution after Peck

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Peck described the horizontal displacement above excavation using the following expression:

where:

Lint - length of subsidence trough along interfaces above excavation Sint - settlement of respective interface Linf - distance of inflection point of subsidence trough from excavation axis at
terrain surface

Literatura: Szchy, Kroly, The art of tunelling,Budapest : Akadmiai Kiad, 1966

Shape of subsidence trough

The program offers two particular shapes of subsidence troughs according to Gauss or Aversin. Curve based on Gauss A number of studies carried out both in the USA and Great Britain proved that the transverse shape of subsidence trough can be well approximated using the Gauss function. This assumption then allows us to determine the horizontal displacement at a distance x from the vertical axis of symmetry as:

where:

Si

- settlement at point with coordinate xi

Smax - maximum terrain settlement Linf - distance of inflection point

Curve based on Aversin Aversin derived, based on visual inspection and measurements of underground structures in Russia, the following expression for the shape of subsidence trough:

kde:

Si L

- settlement at point with coordinate xi - reach of subsidence trough

Smax - maximum terrain settlement

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Literatura: Szchy, Kroly, The art of tunelling,Budapest : Akadmiai Kiad, 1966

Coefficient of calculation of inflection point

When the classical methods are used the inputted coefficient kinf allows the determination of the inflection point location based on Linf=L/kinf. In this case the coefficient kinf represents a very important input parameter strongly influencing the shape and slope of subsidence trough. Its value depends on the average soil or rock, respectively, in overburden literature offers the values of kinf in the range 2,1 - 4,0. Based on a series of FEM calculations the following values are recommended: - gravel soil G1-G3 - sand and gravel soil S1-S5,G4,G5, rocks R5-R6 - fine-grained soil F1-F4 - fine-grained soil F5-F8

kinf =3,5 kinf =3,0 kinf =2,5 kinf =2,1

The coefficient for calculation of inflection point is inputted in the frame "Project".

Subsidence trough with several excavations

The principal of superposition is used when calculating the settlement caused by structured or multiple excavations. Based on input parameters the program first determines subsidence troughs and horizontal displacements for individual excavations. The overall subsidence trough is determined subsequently. Other variables, horizontal strain and gradient of subsidence trough, are post-processed from the overall subsidence trough.

Analysis of subsidence trough at a depth

A linear interpolation between the maximal value of the settlement Smax at a terrain surface and the displacement of roof excavation ua is used to calculate the maximum settlement S at a depth h below the terrain surface in a homogeneous body.

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Analysis of subsidence trough at a depth The width of subsidence trough at an overburden l is provided by:

where:

L r Z z

- length of subsidence trough at terrain surface - excavation radius - depth of center point - analysis depth

The values l and S are then used to determine the shape of subsidence trough in overburden above an excavation.

Calculation of other variables

A vertical settlement is accompanied by the evolution of horizontal displacements which may cause damage to nearby buildings. The horizontal displacement can be derived from the vertical settlement providing the resulting displacement vectors are directed into the center of excavation. In such a case the horizontal displacement of the soil is provided by the following equation:

where:

x s(x) Z r

- distance of point x from axis of excavation - settlement at point x - depth of center point of excavation - excavation radius

The horizontal displacements are determined in a differential way along the x axis and in the transverse direction they can be expressed using the following equation: - 925 -

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where:

x Z r

- distance of point x from axis of excavation - depth of center point of excavation

s(x) - settlement at point x Linf - distance of inflection point

- excavation radius

Analysis of failure of buildings

The program first determines the shape and dimensions of subsidence trough and then performs analysis of their influence on buildings. The program offers four types of analysis: - determination of tensile cracks - determination of gradient damage - determination of a relative deflection of buildings (hogging, sagging) - analysis of the inputted section of a building

Tensile cracks
One of the causes responsible for the damage of buildings is the horizontal tensile strain. The program highlights individual parts of a building with a color pattern that corresponds to a given class of damage. The maximum value of tensile strain is provided in the text output. The program offers predefined zones of damage for masonry buildings. These values can be modified in the frame "Settings". Considerable experience with a number of tunnels excavated below build-up areas allowed for elaborating the relationship between the shape of subsidence trough and damage of buildings to such precision that based on this it is now possible to estimate an extent of compensations for possible damage caused by excavation with accuracy acceptable for both preparation of contractual documents and for contractors preparing proposals for excavation of tunnels. Recommended values for masonry buildings from one to six floors are given in the following table. Horizontal strains (per mille)

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GEO5 User's Guide Proportional h.s. (per mille) Damage Microcracks Little damage - superficial Little damage Medium damage, functional Large damage Description Microcracks

Fine Ltd. 2011

0.2 0.5 0.5 - 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.8 1.8 -

Cracks in plaster Small cracks in walls Cracks in walls, problems with windows and doors Wide open cracks in bearing walls and beams

Gradient damage
One of the causes leading to the damage of buildings is the slope subsidence trough. The program highlights individual parts of a building with a color pattern that corresponds to a given class of damage. The maximum value of tensile strain is provided in the text output. The program offers predefined zones of damage for masonry buildings. These values can be modified in the frame "Settings". Considerable experience with a number of tunnels excavated below build-up areas allowed for elaborating the relationship between the shape of subsidence trough and damage of buildings to such precision that based on this it is now possible to estimate an extent of compensations for possible damage caused by excavation with accuracy acceptable for both preparation of contractual documents and for contractors preparing proposals for excavation of tunnels. Recommended values for masonry buildings from one to six floors are given in the following table. Gradient Gradient Damage Microcracks Little damage - superficial Little damage Medium damage, functional Large damage Description Microcracks Cracks in plaster Small cracks in walls Cracks in walls, problems with windows and doors Wide open cracks in bearing walls and beams

1:1200 - 800 1:800 - 500 1:500 - 300 1:300 - 150 1:150 - 0

Relative deflection
Definition of the term relative deflection is evident from the figure. The program searches regions on buildings with the maximum relative deflection both upwards and downwards. Clearly, from the damage of building point of view the most critical is the relative deflection upwards leading to "tensile opening" of building.

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Relative deflection Verification of the maximum relative deflection is left to the user the following tables list the ultimate values recommended by literature. Type of structure Type of damage Ultimate relative deflection /l Burland and Wroth Meyerhof Polshin a SN Tokar 73 1001 0,0004 0,0004 0,0015

Unreinforced bearing walls

Cracks in walls

For L/H = 1 0.0004 For L/H = 5 0.0008

Cracks in bearing structures

For L/H = 1 0.0002 For L/H = 5 0.0004

Failure of a section of building

In a given section the program determines the following variables: - maximum tensile strain - maximum gradient - maximum relative deflection - relative gradient between inputted points of a building Evaluation of the analyzed section is left to the user the following tables list the recommended ultimate values of relative rotation and deflection.

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GEO5 User's Guide Type of structure Type of damage Ultimate relative gradient Skempton 1/150 1/300 Meyerhof 1/250 1/500 Polshin a Tokar 1/200 1/500 Bjerrum 1/150 1/500

Fine Ltd. 2011

SN 73 1001

Frame Structural structures Cracks in and walls reinforced bearing walls

1/500

Type of structure

Type of damage

Ultimate relative deflection /l Burland and Wroth Meyerho Polshin a SN f Tokar 73 1001 0,0004 0,0004 0,0015

Unreinforced bearing walls

Cracks in walls

For L/H = 1 0.0004 For L/H = 5 0.0008

Cracks in bearing structures.

For L/H = 1 0.0002 For L/H = 5 0.0004

Rock slope
Program for stability analysis of rock slope treats the following types of failure of rock faces: - sliding on the plane slip surface - translation on the polygonal slip surface - fall of the rock wedge

Failure of a rock face due to sliding on the plane slip surface

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Translation on the polygonal slip surface

Fall of the rock wedge

Plane slip surface

Failure on the plane slip surface is manifested by a rock block sliding down along this surface. The solution procedure requires determination of the normal force N acting on the slip surface, the shear force Tact (active) and the resisting shear force Tres (passive).

Forces on the slip surface The shear strength parameters and the normal force N acting on the slip surface are the main input data for the determination of the resisting shear forces Tres. Calculation of the active shear force Tact and the normal force N is further influenced by the weight of block (depends on the geometry and bulk weight of rock), anchorage, surcharge, influence of water and - 930 -

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seismic effects. The active force and the normal force are determined as a sum of all forces entering the analysis. The program offers several types of plane slip surfaces: - smooth - undulating - stepped The slip surface can be specified with a tension crack. The resulting verification can be carried out either according to the theory of limit states or factors of safety.

Literature: Charles A. Kliche:Rock slope stability, SME, USA, 1999,ISBN 0-87335-171-1

Stepped slip surface

If the rock body contains a system of parallel discontinuous cracks inclined to the top face of a rock and the second system is indistinctive, then it is possible to consider a formation of a stepped (jagged) slip surface in the rock body. This surface can be introduced into the program using the Calla and Nicholas theory, which increases resistance on the slip surface by .

where:

- normal stress acting in the direction normal to the slip surface - waviness angle - effective tensile strength of steps in the intact rock - part of the height ht associated with steps in the intact rock (not created by a secondary system of planes) - normal height of stepped wedge resting on an inclined plane of principal system of discontinuity planes - tensile strength of intact rock

T k

ht T0

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Stepped slip surface

Literature: Characterizing rock joint geometry with joint system models Journal Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Springer Wien ISSN 0723-2632 , Issue Volume 21, Number 1 / January, 1988 Pages 21-51

Tensile strength of rock

Tensile strength Te is 20 to 30 x smaller than the strength of rock in simple compression c. Strength in simple tension To for selected intact rocks [MPa] Basalt Gneiss Granite Limestone Marble Quarzite Sandstone Schist Slate Tuff 3 - 18 7 - 16 11 - 21 3-5 7 - 12 4 - 23 5 - 11 5 - 12 2 - 17 2-4

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Undulating slip surface

If undulating surface is considered (on scale I to 10 m) it is possible to account for waviness by angle :

where:

-slip surface gradient -gradient of the i-th fault of slip surface

The waviness increases the tensile strength on slip surface by :

where:

-normal stress acting in the direction normal to the slip surface -waviness angle

Undulating slip surface

Anchorage of rock slope

Two types of anchors can be defined when running the slope stability analysis on a plane slip surface: Active An active anchor is represented by a pre-stressed anchor, for which the anchor forces are activated before the sliding of a rock block takes place. The normal force increases the normal stress on a slip surface and as such also the resisting forces; the tangent component of the normal force is either added to or subtracted from the shear (active) forces. Passive A passive anchor is activated by sliding of a rock block (i.e. not pre-stressed anchors). The normal force increases the normal stress on a slip surface and as such also the resisting forces; the tangent component of the normal force is added to the resisting forces.

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Resolution of anchor force

Surcharge of rock slope

The surcharge resultant is determined first. The normal component of the resultant force increases the normal stress on a slip surface and as such also the resisting forces Tres, the tangent component is either added to or subtracted from the shear (active) forces Tact.

Resolution of surcharge

Influence of water acting on slip surface

The following options to account for water effects are available in the program: Without ground water, water is not considered

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GEO5 User's Guide Hydrostatic pressure, GWT above toe of slope

Fine Ltd. 2011

Hydrostatic pressure, GWT on tension crack

Hydrostatic pressure, GWT on tension crack, max

Hydrostatic pressure, water acting on tension crack only

Own water force acting on slip surface only

Own water force behavior

GWT above toe of slope

Hydrostatic pressure, GWT above toe of slope

The slip surface is either entirely or partially below the ground water table, the maximal water pressure is at the toe of face.

Hydrostatic pressure on slip surface The value of water pressure u at the heel of slope is given by:

where:

-bulk weight of water -height of GWT above toe of slope - 935 -

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The resulting compressive water force acting in the direction normal to the slip surface is given by:

where:

-bulk weight of water -height of GWT above toe of slope -deflection of slip surface from horizontal

ht

GWT on tension crack

GTW on tension crack

The slip surface is entirely below the ground water table; the GWT either intersects the tension crack or is aligned with terrain, the maximal value of uplift pressure is at the toe of face.

Hydrostatic pressure on slip surface and on tension crack, max. value at the toe of slope The value of uplift pressure u at the intersection of slip surface and tension crack is given by:

where:

-bulk weight of water -height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surface and tension crack

ht

The resulting compressive water force V acting in the direction normal to the tension crack is given by:

where:

-bulk weight of water -height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surface and tension

ht

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GEO5 User's Guide crack -deflection of tension crack from vertical

Fine Ltd. 2011

The value of pressure u1 at the toe of slope is given by:

where:

-bulk weight of water -height of GWT above toe of slope

Hw

The resulting compressive water force U acting in the direction normal to the tension crack is given:

where:

u u1 ht

-water pressure acting on the line of intersection of slip surface and tension crack -water pressure at toe of slope -height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surface and tension crack -deflection of slip surface from horizontal -height of GWT above toe of slope

Hw

GWT on tension crack, max

GWT on tension crack

The slip surface is entirely below the ground water table, the GWT either intersects the tension crack or is aligned with terrain, the maximal value of uplift pressure is at the intersection of tension crack and slip surface.

Hydrostatic pressure on slip surface and on tension crack The value of uplift pressure u at the intersection of slip surface and tension crack is given by:

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GEO5 User's Guide where: w -bulk weight of water

Fine Ltd. 2011

ht

-height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surface and tension crack

The resulting compressive water force V acting in the direction normal to the tension crack is given by:

where:

-bulk weight of water -height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surface and tension crack -deflection of tension crack from vertical

ht

The resulting value of pressure u1 at the toe of slope is equal to zero. The resulting compressive water force U acting in the direction normal to the tension crack is given:

where:

u ht

-water pressure acting on the line of intersection of slip surface and tension crack -height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surface and tension crack -deflection of slip surface from horizontal -height of GWT above toe of slope

Hw

Water acting on tension crack only

Water acting on tension crack only

The slip surface is fully dry; the GWT either intersects the tension crack or is aligned with terrain, the maximal value of uplift pressure is at the intersection of slip surface and tension crack.

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Water acting on tension crack only The value of uplift pressure u at the intersection of slip surface and tension crack is given by:

where:

-bulk weight of water -height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surface and tension crack

ht

The resulting compressive water force V acting in the direction normal to the tension crack is given by:

where:

-bulk weight of water -height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surface and tension crack -deflection of tension crack from vertical

ht

The value of water pressure acting on slip surface is equal to zero.

Own water force acting on slip surface only

Own water force acting on slip surface only

The program allows for a manual input of the value of water pressure ps in [kPa] acting on a slip surface, providing the pressure distribution is constant.

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Own value of water pressure acting on slip surface

Own water force behavior

Own water force behavior

The program allows for a manual input of the value of water pressure pt in [kPa] acting on a tension crack, providing the pressure distributions are constant.

Own values of water pressure on slip surface and on tension crack

Polygonal slip surface

The program performs stability analysis of rock blocks moving along the polygonal slip surface. Owing to the complexity of the general solution the program admits the following assumptions: motion of rock blocks is only translational blocks translate along the polygonal slip surface formed either by planar planes or planes with moderate waviness rock blocks are divided by joints with known directions

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GEO5 User's Guide actual deformation of rock mass inside the blocks is negligible

Fine Ltd. 2011

failure on the polygonal slip surface and along joints is driven by the Mohr-coulomb failure criterion the same factor of safety is assumed for all joints and along the entire polygonal slip surface all rock blocks are in contact (opening of joints is not allowed) the shear forces on the polygonal slip surface have the same sign The Mohr-Coulomb shear strength parameters on the slip surface and on joints separating individual block are the main input data for the determination of stability of rock blocks. The solution is further influenced by the weight of block (depends on the geometry and bulk weight of rock), anchorage, surcharge, influence of water and seismic effects. The basic theoretical grounds of the solution are described here.

Polygonal slip surface

Literature: Rock mechanics 8, Stabilittsberechnung ebener und rumlicher Felsbschungen,1976, pp. 73 113

Geometry of rock block

The block geometry is determined by the gradient , by the length of a given slip surface and by the gradient of a dividing joint separating the subsequent block as well as by the gradient and the length l of the top face of external surface of a rock slope (natural profile). Lengths of planes can be defined either by the total length or by the lengths of their horizontal and vertical projections. It is necessary to ensure the condition that all rock blocks are in contact (the opening between joints is not allowed).

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Geometry of the i-th element

Anchor forces, surcharge

It is possible to introduce anchor forces and surcharges of rock blocks. The resultant of forces acting on the i-th block in kN/m is then determined. All forces acting on the block excluding the water pressure on the slip surface and the joints are taken into account. Surcharge acting on the block It is possible to input surface, strip and trapezoidal surcharge of terrain. The program then determines their effect on individual rock blocks. Anchor forces The applied anchor force is adjusted per 1m run based on the specified horizontal spacing of anchors.

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External forces on the i-th element

Influence of water
The water pressure along the joints and on the slip surface can be taken into account. It is introduced as external loading: Water pressure on joints (water between blocks) Fv It must be introduced into the analysis whenever the presence of water in the joints between blocks is expected. It is applied as a resultant force Fv in kN (the pressure acting on the immerse part of the joint per 1m run is considered). Water pressure on the external slip surface (uplift pressure) U It is defined as hydrostatic pressure on each slip surface of the polygon (external slip surface) separately and introduced as an external loading (uplift pressure) U in kN, which can be reduced depending on the slip surface permeability (the pressure acting on the immerse part of the slip surface per 1m run is considered).

Water forces acting on a rock block

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Solution procedure
For each rock block resting on the polygonal slip surface the program applies the basic equation of the stability of rock slope sliding along the plane slip surface as:

where:

R k1 ,k2 c G

- resultant of all active forces - coefficients depending on slope gradient, inclination of anchor force, angle of internal friction and factor of safety - cohesion on slip surface - weight of a rock body in danger of sliding

such that the resultant of all active forces is assumed as an unknown interaction force Ki between rock blocks (see figure). If, apart from interaction force, the i-th rock block is further loaded by other external forces, it is possible to write the interaction force of the i-th block in the form:

where:

ci Gi Pi Pi
G K G K

- cohesion on slip surface of i-th block - weight of i-th rock block - overall external force acting on i-th block in vertical direction - overall external force acting on i-th block in the direction of interaction force - magnitude of interaction force on i-th block in vertical direction - magnitude of interaction force on i-th in the direction of K - coefficient depending on gradient of slip surface , gradient of external loading i, stability of rock slope and angle of internal friction i - coefficient depending on gradient of slip surface , gradient of external loading i, stability of rock slope and angle of internal friction i

Ki Ki

k1i k2i

By combining the above forces it is possible to implicitly express the gradient of interaction force Ki of the i-th block as:

where:

-gradient of interaction force Ki of i-th block -cohesion on slip surface of i-th block -slip surface of i-th rock block -interaction force on i-th block

ci Ai Ri

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GEO5 User's Guide F i

Fine Ltd. 2011 -ratio of maximal shear resistance and acting shear force -angle of internal friction on slip surface of i-th block

Forces acting on slip surfaces between blocks (internal slip surfaces)

Rock wedge
The program performs stability analysis of a rock wedge that is wedged in between two surfaces (planes) and slides in the direction of the line of interaction (tray) of these planes. Gradient of this intersection must be considerably larger than the angle of internal friction along dividing planes, whereas the falling line of both dividing planes must be directed towards the line of intersection. It is further assumed that the tray is located in a stable rock body. The solution requires determination of the normal force N, the shear force Tact (active) and the resisting (passive) shear force Tres acting on slip surfaces A1 and A2. The active force Tact and the normal force N are obtained as a summation all forces entering the analysis after performing the space resolution of these forces. The Mohr-Coulomb shear strength parameters and the normal force N acting on the slip surface are the main input data for the determination of the resisting shear forces Tres. Calculation of the active shear force Tact and the normal force N is further influenced by the weight of block (depends on the geometry and bulk weight of rock), anchorage, surcharge, influence of water and seismic effects. The slip surface can be specified with a tension crack. The resulting verification can be carried out either according to the theory of limit states or factors of safety.

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Components acting on a rock wedge

Literatura: Charles A. Kliche: Rock slope stability, SME, USA, 1999,ISBN 0-87335-171-1

Geometry of rock wedge

Entering geometry of a rock wedge using either gradient or falling line gradient direction requires definition of space orientation of the rock face, terrain (top face), slip surfaces N1 and N2 and/or tension crack, such that: Gradient (gradient angle) is an inclination angle representing inclination of surface from horizontal (it may receive values from 0 to 90) Gradient direction (falling line) is an angle between horizontal projection of the line normal to the strike direction measured as an azimuth angle (from the north in the clockwise direction) (the falling line corresponds to inclination of the plane), it may receive values from 0 to 360 The program when defining space orientation of planes displays these planes using a stereographic projection.

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Description of orientation of surfaces (vertical cut through a rock mass and plane projection)

Stereographic projection
When defining geometry of the wedge and slip surfaces using space projection, the program displays individual surfaces with the help of great circles of Lambert's hemispherical projection.

Hemispherical projection of the inclined plane

Influence of ground water

By default the program performs the stability analysis of a rock wedge without considering ground water. If interested on the influence of ground water on a rock wedge it is necessary to introduce the height of GWT from the line of intersection of slip surfaces and rock face (the GWT takes an arbitrary position over the entire height of a rock wedge). The program assumes that water can flow freely discontinuities located below the GWT (no restrictions, e.g. due to ice blocks, are considered). The water pressure acts in the direction normal to the slip surfaces against normal components of the passive forces. If the height yw above the point of maximal pressure Pmax is equal or larger than Z/2 and it is fully contained by the rock wedge, then its value is assumed to be equal to Z/2 (case A). If the height yw above the point of maximal pressure Pmax is less than Z/2 (case B), then its value reduced as:

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where:

L*
1

- length of the line of intersection of slip surfaces A1, A2 - gradient of rock face - gradient of the of line of intersection of slip surfaces

The resulting water pressure on slip surfaces 1 and 2 is given by:

where:

Z
x

- height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surfaces and rock face

Pma - maximal water pressure on the line of intersection of slip surfaces

w - bulk weight of water

A1 A2 A)

w - are of the wetted part of the slip surface 1 w - area of the wetted part of the slip surface 2

B)

Distribution of water pressure on the line of intersection of slip surfaces If a tension crack is found either entirely or partially below the GWT, then the influence of water pressure is reflected both on slip surfaces 1 and 2 through forces P1 and P2 acting on intersection of these surfaces and on tension crack through force P3 acting in the direction normal to the tension crack.

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Distribution of water pressure when considering GWT in tension crack

Resolution of acting forces

Forces acting on a rock wedge (weight of rock wedge, external loading, anchor force) are resolved into directions normal to planes A1 and A2 (the block is wedged in between these surfaces) and into the direction of their intersection. The resolution of forces results into the normal forces N1, N2 acting on planes A1 and A2, resisting (passive) forces Tres1, Tres2 acting along planes A1 and A2. This step further generates the shear (active) force Tact acting in the direction of the line of intersection of slip surfaces. The resulting shear (active) force Tact is obtained as a sum of individual shear forces Tact,i. The resisting (passive) force Tres is found by summing up the components Tres1, Tres2 (e.g. due to external loading) and friction forces on planes A1 and A2 due to normal forces:

where:

c1 c2
1 2

cohesion on slip surface A1 cohesion on slip surface A2 angle of internal friction on slip surface A1 angle of internal friction on slip surface A2 resisting forces on slip surface A1 resisting forces on slip surface A2

Tvzd1 Tvzd2

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Space resolution of self weight of earth wedge W

Verification
Verification can be carried out either according to the theory of limit states or factor of safety.

Verification according to the factor of safety

When performing verification according to the factor of safety the program directly determines the value of the factor of safety FS. Verification condition has the form:

where:

Tpos Tvzd Fs

shear forces along the slip surface passive forces along the slip surface required factor of safety

When analyzing the polygonal slip surface the program directly determines the value of the factor of safety FS. Verification condition has the form:

where:

FS SB

- calculated factor of safety - required factor of safety

Typical values for most cases when studying stability of rock slopes are, e.g. for walls of foundation pits F =1,1 to 1,25, for rock cuts of highways F =1,2 to 1,5, etc.

Verification according to the theory of limit states

When performing verification according to the theory of limit states the program reduces - 950 -

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material parameters of rocks (angle of internal friction or tangent of the angle of internal friction, cohesion) using partial coefficients entered in the frame "Settings". Verification condition has the form:

where:

Tpos Tvzd
s

shear forces along the slip surface passive forces along the slip surface coefficient of the overall stability of the structure

When analyzing the polygonal slip surface the program compares the calculated value with the value corresponding to the fully stressed design (state of equilibrium with zero reserve). Verification condition has the form:

where:

FS
s

-factor of safety calculated with the reduced material parameters -coefficient of the overall stability of the structure

Recommended partial coefficients according to EC7: - coefficient of reduction of the angle of internal friction - coefficient of reduction of the cohesion m = 1.25 mc = 1.25

Rock - shear resistance criteria

The shear strength is the basic criterion to determine resisting passive forces. The resisting force is given by the following expression:

where:

-shear strength on the slip surface -length of the slip surface

The shear strength for the planar slip surface can be written as: - Mohr - Coulomb - Hoek - Brown - Barton - Bandis

Mohr - Coulomb
The shear strength according to the Mohr-Coulomb is given by:

where:

N l c

- normal force acting on the slip surface - length of the slip surface - cohesion of soil / rock

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GEO5 User's Guide - angle of internal friction of soil

Fine Ltd. 2011

Approximate ranges of parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion for selected soils are given here.

Literatura: Charles A. Kliche: Rock slope stability, SME, USA, 1999,ISBN 0-87335-171-1

Parameters Mohr Coulomb

If possible the strength parameters should be determined in-situ measurements. The results of in-situ and laboratory experiments show that the angle of internal friction is found for majority of discontinuities in the rock mass in the range of 27 to 47. Approximate values of the angle of internal friction and cohesion c for rocks based on the RMR classification are stored in the following table: Rock class RMR angle of internal friction [] cohesion c [kPa] I 100 - 81 > 45 > 400 II 80 - 61 35 - 45 300 - 400 III 60 - 41 25 - 45 200 - 300 IV 40 - 21 15 - 25 100 - 200 V < 20 < 15 < 100

Hoek - Brown
The modified Hoek-Brown failure criterion describes the failure of a rock mass (based on the performed analyses of hundreds of underground structures and rock slopes) as:

where:

1ef 3ef c

- major principal stress during rock failure - minor principal stress during rock failure - strength of the intact rock in simple compression - nonlinear material constant depending on the rock quality - coefficient depending on the rock breaking

mb,s a

Basic parameters of the modified Hoek-Brown model should be determined from in-situ and laboratory measurements. To become more acquainted with this model, a brief list of ranges of individual parameters is provided. If rock mass classification using GSI is known then it is possible to let the program to determine the H-B parameters by itself. For actual analysis the H-B parameters are transformed into the M-C parameters. The solution procedure then becomes identical to that of the Mohr-Coulomb criterion. This transformation employs the solution derived by Hoek and Brown in 1990 for known value of the effective normal stress n, which is typical for the solution of slope stability problem.

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where:

- strength of the intact rock in simple compression - nonlinear material constant depending on the rock quality - coefficient depending on the rock breaking

m a

Literature: Stability analysis of rock slopes with a modified Hoek-Brown failure criterion, ANG Xiao-Li ; LIANG LI ; YIN Jian-Hua International journal for numerical and analytical methods in geomechanics ISSN 0363-9061, 2004, vol. 28, no2, pp. 181-190

Parameters Hoek Brown

Parameter of rock breaking a Parameter a is an exponent receiving values from 0,5 to 0,65 (for the original Hoek-Brown condition it is equal to 0,5) and depends on the degree of rock breaking. Nonlinear parameters mb = m, s for a = 0,5 (index r denotes residual values)

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GEO5 User's Guide Carbonate rocks with well developed cleavage dolomite, limestone, marble Intact rock material Laboratory specimens have no discontinuities RMR=100 Q=500 Argillaceous rocks mudstone, siltstone, shale, slate Arenaceous rocks sandstone, quartzite Fine grained igneous crystalline rocks andesite, dolerite, basalt, rhyolite

Fine Ltd. 2011 Coarse metamorphic and igneous rocks gabbro, gneiss, granite

m = 7.00

m = 10.00

m = 15.00

m = 17.00

m = 25.00

s = 1.00

s = 1.00

s = 1.00

s = 1.00

s = 1.00

mr = 7.00

mr = 10.00

mr = 15.00

mr = 17.00

mr = 25.00

sr = 1,00
Very good quality rock mass Rocks without isolated blocks, with nonweathered discontinuities RMR=85 Q=100

sr = 1.00 m = 3.43

s = 1.00 m = 5.14

s = 1.00 m = 5.82

s = 1.00 m = 8.56

m = 2.40

s = 0.082

s = 0.082

s = 0.082

s = 0.082

s = 0.082

mr = 4.10

mr = 5.85

mr = 8.78

mr = 9.95

mr = 14.63

sr = 0.189
Good quality rock mass Slightly damaged rocks with nonweathered discontinuities spaced from 1 to 3m RMR=65 Q=10

sr = 0.189 m = 0.821

sr = 0.189 m = 1.231

sr = 0.189 m = 1.395

sr = 0.189 m = 2.052

m = 0.575

s = 0.00293

s = 0.00293

s = 0.00293

s = 0.00293

s = 0.00293

mr = 2.006

mr = 2.865

mr = 4.298

mr = 4.871

mr = 7.163

sr = 0.0205
Fair quality rock mass Partially

sr = 0.0205 m = 0.183

sr = 0.0205 m = 0.275

sr = 0.0205 m = 0.311

sr = 0.0205 m = 0.458

m = 0.128

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GEO5 User's Guide weathered discontinuities spaced from 0,3 to 1 m RMR=44 Q=1

Fine Ltd. 2011

s = 0.00009 s = 0.00009 mr = 0.947 mr = 1.353 sr = 0.00198 sr = 0.00198 sr = 0.00198 m = 0.061 sr = 0.00198 m = 0.069 sr = 0.00198 m = 0.102 mr = 2.030 mr = 2.301 mr = 3.383 s = 0.00009 s = 0.00009 s = 0.00009

Poor quality rock mass

m = 0.029

m = 0.041

Numerous weathered s = 0.000003 discontinuities spaced from 30 to 500 mm RMR=23 Q=0,1

s = 0.000003

s = 0.000003

s = 0.000003

s = 0.000003

mr = 0.447

mr = 0.639

mr = 0.959

mr = 1.087

mr = 1.598

sr = 0.00019
Very poor quality rock mass

sr = 0.00019 m = 0.010

sr = 0.00019 m = 0.015

sr = 0.00019 m = 0.017

sr = 0.00019 m = 0.025

m = 0.007

Numerous extremely s = 0.0000001 s =0.0000001 weathered discontinuities with filling spaced by less than 50 mr = 0.313 mm, fine grained mr = 0.219 waste rock RMR=3 Q=0,01

s = 0.0000001

s = 0.0000001 s = 0.0000001

mr = 0.469

mr = 0.532

mr = 0.782

sr = 0.00002

sr = 0.00002

sr = 0.00002

sr = 0.00002

sr = 0.00002

Strength of rocks in simple compression c , Poisson's number and bulk weight of rock

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GEO5 User's Guide Rock strength Types of rock (examples) Strength c Poisson's number

Fine Ltd. 2011 Bulk weight of rock

[MPa]
Solid rock most hard solid rock, intact, >150 compact and dense quartz rock and basalt, other extraordinary hard rocks very hard granit rock, quartz porphyry, very hard granite, hard flinty shale, quartzite, very hard sand rock and very hard cacite granite, very hard sandstone and calcite, quarzite lode, hard conglomerate, very hard ore, hard limestone, marble, dolomite, pyrite sandstone, ore, medium sandy shale, flagstone

[kN/m ] 28,00 - 30,00

0,1

Highly hard rock

100 - 150

0,15

26,00 - 27,00

Hard rock

80 - 100

0,20

25,00 - 26,00

Rock Medium rock Soft rock

50 - 80

0,25 0,25 0,30 0,3 0,35

24,00 23 - 24,00 22,00 26,00

hard mudstone, softer sand rock and 20 - 50 calcite, chalky clay shale, soft limestone, calk, salt rock, 5 - 20 frozen ground, anthracite, marl, remoulded sandstone, soft conglomerate, ground with fels compact clay, soil eluvium, black coal

Weak soil

0,5 - 5

0,35 0,40

20,00 - 22,0

18,00 - 20,00

Calculation of Hoek-Brown parameters

If rock mass classification using GSI (Geological Structure Index) is known then it is possible to let the program to determine the H-B parameters as follows:

where:

GSI D

- Geological Structure Index - damage coefficient of rock mass

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mi

Values of damage coefficient D for rock slope Description of rock mass Small scale blasting in engineering slopes results in modest rock mass damage, particularly if controlled blasting is used. However, stress relief results in some disturbance. (Good blasting). Small scale blasting in engineering slopes results in modest rock mass damage, particularly if controlled blasting is used. However, stress relief results in some disturbance. (Poor blasting). Very large open pit mine slopes significant disturbance due to heavy production blasting and due to stress relief from overburden removal. (Production blasting). In some softer rocks excavation can be carried out by ripping and dozing and the degree of damage to the slope is less. (Mechanical excavation). Suggested value of coefficient D

0,7

0,7

Approximate vlaues of strength material constant of the intact rock mi (after Hoek) Type of rock Representative rocks

mi [-]
7 10 15

Limestone rocks with well Dolomite, calcite, marble developed crystalline cleavage Consolidated clayey rocks Mudstone, siltstone, silty shale, slate

Sandy rocks with solid crystals Sandstone, quarzite and poorly developed crystalline cleavage Fine grained igneous crystalline rocks Coarse grained and metamorphic rocks Andesite, dolerite, diabase, rhyolite Amphibolite, gabbro, gneiss, granite, diorite

17 25

Barton - Bandis
The Barton-Bandis shear strength failure criterion for the rock mass takes the following form:

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where:

JRC
n

- joint roughness coefficient - normal stress acting on the surface of the rock joint - joint compressive strength - basic angle of internal friction of the slip surface

JCS
b

If possible the shear strength parameters should be determined from in-situ measurements. Approximate ranges of parameters of the Barton-Bandis failure criterion are given here.

Literature: Bromhead, EM (1992). The Stability of Slopes (2nd Edition), Blackie Academic & Professional: London

Barton Bandis parameters

Joint roughness coefficient JRC If the value of JRC cannot be determined by direct measurements on the joint surface, it is possible to obtain this value from the Barton graph (see figure) showing the variation of the coefficient JRC as a function of length of profile and roughness depth.

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Diagram to determine JRC (after Barton) Rock joint roughness profiles showing the typical range of JRC are plotted next.

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Rock joint roughness profiles showing the typical range of JRC (Barton & Chubey 1977)

Compressive strength of discontinuity JCS Methods allowing us to determine the compressive strength of discontinuity (slip surface) JCS are generally recommended by ISRM. The value of JCS can be obtained from the Deer-Miller graph showing its dependence on the rock strength found from the Schmidt hammer measurements, see figure below.

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Basic angle of internal friction on slip surface b The basic value of the angle of internal friction on the surface is approximately equal to the residual value r . Nevertheless, it can be generally measured in laboratories using shear measurement devices (typical area of the specimen is 50 x 50 mm). Typical ranges of the basic angle of internal friction for weathered rock surfaces are 25 to 35.

Bulk weight of rocks

Bulk weight or rock

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GEO5 User's Guide Rock strength Rock category (examples)

Fine Ltd. 2011

Bulk weight of rock [kN/m ]

3

Solid rock

most hard solid rock, intact, compact and dense quartz rock and basalt, other extraordinary hard rocks very hard granit rock, quartz porphyry, very hard granite, hard flinty shale, quartzite, very hard sand rock and very hard cacite granite, very hard sandstone and calcite, quarzite lode, hard conglomerate, very hard ore, hard limestone, marble, dolomite, pyrite sandstone, ore, medium sandy shale, flagstone hard mudstone, softer sand rock and calcite, chalky clay shale, soft limestone, calk, salt rock, frozen ground, anthracite, marl, remoulded sandstone, soft conglomerate, ground with fels compact clay, soil eluvium, black coal

28,00 - 30,00

Highly hard rock Hard rock

26,00 - 27,00

25,00 - 26,00

Rock Medium rock Soft rock

24,00 23 - 24,00 22,00 26,00

Weak soil

20,00 - 22,0

18,00 - 20,00

Influence of seismic effects

The programs allows for taking into account the earthquake effects using two variables coefficient of horizontal acceleration Kh and coefficient of vertical acceleration Kv. The coefficient of acceleration is a dimensionless number, which represents the seismic acceleration as a fraction of the gravity acceleration. Earthquake effects are introduced through the seismic force S, which is determined by multiplying the weight of the rock subjected to earthquake (i.e. rock block) by the coefficient of acceleration. When assuming seismic waves only in the horizontal direction the seismic force is given by:

where:

Kh W

-coefficient of horizontal acceleration -weight of the rock body

The seismic force always acts in the center of gravity of the rock body. Usually, only seismic effects in the horizontal direction are considered. Nevertheless, the program also allows for treating the vertical direction (with the help of vertical coefficient of acceleration Kv). Effects in both directions are then combined.

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GEO5 User's Guide M_C_S grade horizontal acceleration

Fine Ltd. 2011 coefficient of horizontal acceleration

(MSK-64) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

[mm/s ] 0,0 2,5 5,0 10,0 25,0 50,0 100,0 250,0 500,0 1000,0 2500,0 > 2,5 5,0 10,0 25,0 50,0 100,0 250,0 500,0 1000,0 2500,0 5000,0 5000,0 0,0 0,00025 0,0005 0,001 0,0025 0,005 0,01 0,025 0,05 0,1 0,25

Kh > 0.00025 0.0005 0.001 0.0025 0.005 0.01 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.5

The values of factor Kh correspond to individual degrees of earthquake according to M-C-S scale

Literature: Charles A. Kliche:Rock slope stability, SME, USA, 1999,ISBN 0-87335-171-1

Micropile
The program performs verification analysis of micropiles (reinforced by steel tube) based on limit states based on factor of safety Both the root section and micropile tube (micropile cross-section) are examined for both cases. When examining the micropile tube the analysis may include excpected lifetime of the micropile.

Verification based on limit states

The program performs verification analysis of the micropile tube and root: Verification of the cross-section (tube) Both, internal stability of section and coupled section bearing capacity, are verified. 1. Internal stability of section - 963 -

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where:

Nmax Ncrd

-maximal normal force, entered in frame "Load" -design critical normal force

where:

Ncr
mf

-standard critical normal force, calculated in dependence on the method set in the frame "Analysis methods" -reduction coefficient of critical force, entered in frame "Settings" (limit states)

2. Coupled section bearing capacity

where:

-stress in steel, calculated according to the way of loading (section loaded only by normal force or by combination of bending moment and normal force) -design strength of steel

Rsd

where:

Rs
ms

-standard strength of steel, entered in frame "Material" -reliability coefficient of steel, entered in frame "Settings" (limit states)

Verification of the root

where:

Nmax Qrd

-maximal normal force, entered in frame "Load" -design root bearing capacity

where:

Q
mr

-standard root bearing capacity, calculated in dependence on used method (see "Bearing capacity of the micropile root section") -reduction coefficient of root resistance, entered in frame "Settings" (limit states)

Verification based on factor of safety

The program performs verification analysis of the micropile tube and root: Verification of the cross-section (tube) Both, internal stability of section and coupled section bearing capacity, are verified.

1. Internal stability of section - 964 -

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where:

Ncr Nmax FS

-standard critical normal force, calculated in dependence on the method set in the frame "Analysis methods" -maximal normal force, entered in frame "Load" -critical force safety factor, entered in frame "Settings"

2. Coupled section bearing capacity

where:

Rs
s

-standard strength of steel, entered in frame "Material" -stress in steel, calculated according to the way of loading (section loaded only by normal force or by combination of bending moment and normal force) -safety factor of section resistance, entered in frame "Settings"

FS

Verification of the root

where:

Q Nmax FS

-standard root bearing capacity, calculated in dependence on used method (see "Bearing capacity of the micropile root section") -maximal normal force, entered in frame "Load" -root resistance safety factor, entered in frame "Settings"

Verification of the micropile tube

When calculating the tube bearing capacity (micropile cross-section) the program differentiates between a micropile loaded in tension or in compression. In case of tension the program determines coupled section bearing capacity (strength of cement mixture is not considered). In case of compression the program examines both, coupled section bearing capacity and internal stability of section, depending on the method set in the frame "Analysis methods".

Coupled section bearing capacity

In the case of coupled section bearing capacity, the micropile tube is examined against the failure due to loading caused by normal force or by combination of bending moment and normal force. When determining the coupled section bearing capacity it is possible to involve influence of the expected life time of the micropile. - 965 -

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Micropile life time

The micropile life time is introduced by reducing the area of the reinforcing tube using the reduction coefficient of the influence of corrosion of steel tube re and coefficient Fut taking into account connection of the micropile and the surrounding soil.

where:

D t Fut re

-external diameter of reinforcing tube -wall thickness of reinforcing tube -coefficient taking into account connection of micropile and surrounding soil -coefficient of influence of corrosion of steel tube

Literature: BS EN 14199:2005 Execution of special geotechnical works. Micropiles British-Adopted European Standard / 30-Mar-2005 / 52 pages ISBN: 0580457249

Coefficient Fut
Coefficient Fut taking into account connection of micropile and surrounding soil Type Using sleeve of external double spiral without reduction in cross-section Spiral with increasing cross-section Other types of connection Other cases

Fut [-] 1,0 1,0 1,0 0,5

Coefficient of influence of corrosion

Coefficient of influence of corrosion of steel tube re [mm] (based on EN 14199)

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GEO5 User's Guide Type of soil

Fine Ltd. 2011 Required life time of micropile [years]

5
Soils in natural deposition Soils in natural deposition contaminated Organic soils Loose soils Special soils (containing soluble salts)

25 0,30 0,75 1,00 0,70 2,00

50 0,60 1,50 1,75 1.20 3.25

75 0,90 2,25 2,50 1,70 4,50

100 1,20 3,00 3,25 2,20 5,75

0,0 0,15 0,20 0,18 0,50

Note.: Values of the coefficient of influence of corrosion of steel tube reare for intermediate values.

Bearing capacity of cross-section loaded by normal force

Tension normal force In case of tension force, the stress in steel part of cross section is calculated using following formula:

where:

- stress in steel - normal force acting in section - area of the steel part of the micropile cross-section

N As

Compressive normal force Bearing capacity of the cross-section in compression, reduced by buckling coefficient, is determined as:

where:

- buckling coefficient - area of the steel part of the micropile cross-section - area of the cement mixture part of the micropile cross-section - design strength of steel - design strength of cement mixture in compression

As Ac Rs
d

Rc
d

Design strengths are equal to standard values in verification based on factor of safety. - 967 -

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Design strengths of steel and cement mixture are calculated in verification based on limit states using following formulas:

where:

Rs

- standard strength of steel, entered in frame "Material"

m - reliability coefficient of steel, entered in frame "Settings" s

Rc

- standard strength of cement mixture in compression, entered in frame "Material"

m - reliability coefficient of cement mixture, entered in frame "Settings" c The stress in the steel part of the cross-section is determined as:

where:

- normal force acting in section influence of buckling

Nc,u - bearing capacity of the cross-section in compression, reduced by Rsd

- design strength of steel

Bearing capacity of cross-section loaded by combination of bending moment and normal force
A cross-section loaded by combination of bending moment and normal force requires the determination of neutral axis, dividing the cross-section into tensile and compressed part. When searching the position of neutral axis, influence of buckling is included, i.e. normal force is increased by dividing it by coefficient of buckling . The neutral axis is searched following the procedure known from the dimensioning of concrete cross-sections, reinforced by steel, as a limit equilibrium method. Compression is transmitted by a part of a steel tube and cement mixture filling. Tension is taken by the remaining part of the steel tube, cement mixture in tension is not considered. The bearing capacity in bending is determined by the following formula:

where:

Rs
d

- design strength of steel

As, - area of the tensile part of the steel micropile cross-section

t

As, - area of the compressed part of the steel micropile cross-section

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c

Fine Ltd. 2011

Ac, - area of the compressed part of the cement mixture cross-section

c

ts,t - location of the centre of tensile steel part ts,c - location of the centre of compressed steel part tc,c - location of the centre of compressed cement mixture part Rc
d

- design strength of cement mixture in compression

Design strengths are equal to standard values in verification based on factor of safety. Design strengths of steel and cement mixture are calculated in verification based on limit states using following formulas:

where:

Rs

- standard strength of steel, entered in frame "Material"

m - reliability coefficient of steel, entered in frame "Settings" s

Rc

- standard strength of cement mixture in compression, entered in frame "Material"

m - reliability coefficient of cement mixture, entered in frame "Settings" c The stress in the steel part of the cross-section is determined as:

where:

M Mu Rsd

- bending moment acting in section - bearing capacity in bending - design strength of steel

Influence of buckling
The analysis is preceded by the determination of characteristics of an ideal cross-section, in which the effect of cement mixture cross-section is transformed into steel. Slenderness of element is determined as:

where:

lcr

- element buckling length - 969 -

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- radius of gyration of the ideal cross-section

where:

E I Ncr

- modulus of elasticity of the ideal cross-section - moment of inertia of the ideal cross-section - standard critical normal force, calculated in dependence on the method set in the frame "Analysis methods"

Recounted slenderness p is determined next:

where:

Rsd

- design strength of steel (in calculation based on factor of safety design strength is equal to standard strength)

where:

Rs
ms

- standard strength of steel, entered in frame "Material" - reliability coefficient of steel, entered in frame "Settings" (limit states)

Buckling coefficient is determined according to slenderness p with the help of following formulas:

Internal stability of section

Internal stability of section examines the failure of a micropile due to buckling into the surrounding soil. The crucial step for the determination of internal stability of section is the calculation of the normal force Ncr that depends on the micropile length, the surrounding soil and other effects. User can choose one of the following solution methods in the frame "Analysis Methods" for calculating critical normal force Ncr: - Geometric method (Euler) - Salas theory - Vas-Souche theory

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Geometric method (Euler)

The soil surrounding the micropile is represented in the program by the modulus of subsoil reaction Ep (Winkler constant k) defined by the user in the frame "Verification of crosssection". A model of a structure is displayed in the figure.

Model of structure For a micropile in compression it is expected that a varying number of half waves occurs depending on the geometry and stiffness of the structure and surrounding soil, respectively. The solution of this case arises from the equation of bending of a straight beam.

After some manipulations the bending equation can be expressed as:

where:

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Integration constants are found from four boundary conditions depending on the assumed end point supports.

Assuming hinges on both ends the following equation can be derived:

providing the number of half waves in the form:

where:

Ei Ii lp n

- modulus of elasticity of ideal cross-section - moment of inertia of ideal cross-section - micropile length

Ep - modulus of subsoil reaction

- number of half waves

Assuming hinge on the one side and fixed end on the other side the following equation holds:

providing the number of half waves in the form:

where:

Ei Ii lp n

- modulus of elasticity of ideal cross-section - moment of inertia of ideal cross-section - micropile length

Ep - modulus of subsoil reaction

- number of half waves

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GEO5 User's Guide Force Ncr is determined from the following equation by iterations:

Fine Ltd. 2011

where:

Ei Ii lcr

- modulus of elasticity of ideal cross-section - moment of inertia of ideal cross-section

Ncr - critical normal force

- buckling length of micropile cross-section in compression

Salas theory
The critical force Ncr for basic support conditions in the micropile head (determining micropile deflection) follows from:

where:

EaIa l lef A

-bending stiffness of micropile reinforcing tube -free length of micropile length -length of fictitious fixed end -constat reflecting the type of support in micropile head

where:

f le

-coefficient depending on the ratio of modulus of elasticity of soil in micropile head and base -elastic length of micropile given by:

where:

EaIa El

-bending stiffness of micropile reinforcing tube -modulus of elasticiy of soil in the micropile base

Literature: Jimnez Salas J.A. a kol:Geotecnica y Cimientos III, Capitulo 3, Rueda, Madrid (Spanish)

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Constant A reflecting the type of support in the micropile head

Constant A reflecting the type of support in the micropile head Type of support in the micropile head Hinged Free Fixed Horizontally movable

A [-] 2.045 0,25 4,0 1,0

Coefficient f
Coefficient f

Eo/ El 0 0,5 1
1)

1)

[-]

f [-] 1,70 1,25 1,00

Eo- the modulus of elasticity of soil below terrain surface (at the micropile head) El - the modulus of elasticity of soil at the micropile root

Vas-Souche theory
Calculation of the force Nc follows from graphs published by Vas and Souche (see literature). The graphs for the determination of the critical normal force Ncr are constructed for dimesionless quatitites ,m:

where:

lP EaIa

-micropile length -bending stiffness of micropile reinforcing tube -ratio of free length of micropile (from beginning of base) and its length in soil -design value of modulus of horizontal reaction

Erd

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GEO5 User's Guide where:

Fine Ltd. 2011 -reaction of soil in horizontal direction -coefficient reducing the value of Er (Fw = 1,25)

Er Fw

Literature: Vase, Souche: tude du fla,berment de pieux partiellernent immergs dans offrant latralement une raction lastique pure, Annales de IITBTP, No. 423, Sene Soils et Foundations, 187, mars avril 1984, str. 38 60 (French)

Modulus of horizontal reaction of subsoil

The soil surrounding the micropile can be represented using horizontal springs along micropile characterized by the Winkler constant k. For buckling of micropile into the soil in the direction of the x axis it is possible to write:

where:

ph kh x

-reaction of soil caused by the shift of micropile in direction of x axis (soil in compression) -stiffness of Winkler spring (modulus of subsoil reaction Ep) -shift of micropile in direction of x axis

Providing we consider the reaction of soil to pressing of micropile per one meter run of the micropile we arrive at:

where:

Er Ph x

-reaction of soil in horizontal direction -reaction of soil caused by shift of micropile in direction of x axis per one meter run of micropile shift of micropile in direction of x axis

3 The above equations identify the relation between the modulus of subsoil reaction Ep [kN/m ] 2 and the reaction of soil in the horizontal direction Er [kN/m ] (assuming constant Er in the soil):

where:

D kh

-diameter of micropile -stiffness of Winkler spring (modulus of subsoil reaction Ep)

Reaction of soil in the horizontal direction Er can be post calculated based on the knowledge of the modulus Em.

Calculation of the modulus of horizontal reaction of subsoil Er

The modulus of horizontal reaction of subsoil can be determined when knowing the pressuremeter modulus Em and coefficient p as:

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kde:

Em
p

- pressuremeter modulus - coefficient of type of soil (see the table below)

Reference values Em and Plim Soils non-cohesive loose medium dense dense very dense cohesive slush soft stiff solid hard

Em [Mpa] 0 3,5 3,5 12 12 22,5 > 22,5 0 2,5 2,5 5 5 12 12 25 >25

Plim [MPa] 0 0,5 0,5 1,5 1,5 2,5 >2,5 0 - 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4 0,8 0,8 1,6 >16

Values of coefficient of type of soil p Type of soil peat p overconsolidated normally consolidated methamorfous 1 clay, silt p 1 >16 2/3 9-16 1/2 7-9 sediment sand sand and gravel

Em/Plim p

Em/Plim p

Em/Plim p

Em/Plim

2/3 >14 1/2 8-14 1/2 5-8

1/2 >12 1/3 7-12 1-3 5-7

1/3 >10 1/4 6-10 1|4 -

Values of the modulus of subsoil reaction Ep

Values of the modulus of subsoil reaction Ep [MN/m3]

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3 3

Soil
soft clay stiff clay solid clay sand naturally wet loose sand naturally wet medium dense sand naturally wet dense sand aquiferous loose

Ep Min/Max [MN/m ] 20 - 50 30 - 80 60 - 160 60 - 130 200 - 400 450 - 900 40 - 80

Average value kh [MN/m ] 35 55 110 95 300 675 60 150 450 45 70 125 65 220 340 50 90 125

sand aquiferous medium dense 100 - 200 sand aquiferous dense sandy clay soft sand clay stiff sandy clay solid clayey sand wet loose

300 - 600 30 - 60 50 - 90 80 - 170 40 - 90

clayey sand wet medium dense 120 - 320 clayey sand wet dense clayey sand aquiferous loose

240 - 440 35 - 65

clayey sand aquiferous medium 70 - 110 dense clayey sand aquiferous dense

115 - 135

Bearing capacity of the micropile root section

The micropile bearing capacity can be determined computationally using one of the approaches available in the literature and standards. The program GEO5 "Micropile" provides a set of methods representing the basic approaches to the solution of bearing capacity of the micropile root. The analysis is accrued out according to setting in the frame "Analysis methods" employing one of the following procedures: Lizzi theory Littlejohn theory Zweck theory - average limit friction on root skin is specified - grouting pressure is specified - method depends on geostatic stress and soil parameters of surrounding soil

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GEO5 User's Guide Bowles theory Vas theory root in rock

Fine Ltd. 2011 method depends on geostatic stress and soil parameters of surrounding soil

- the way the micropile is built and soil parameters of surrounding soil are specified - rock parameters of surrounding soil are specified

Lizzi theory
The Lizzi method is currently the most popular method used. The root bearing capacity is provided by:

where:

d l
m

-root diameter -root length -average limit skin friction -coefficient reflecting influence of bore hole

Coefficient J reflects the influence of the bore hole diameter it ranges from 1,0 for hole up to 100mm and 0,8 for hole from 200mm. Average limit skin friction of the micropile root can be found in the literature. The program contains three tables with reference values of limit skin friction. The first one is created by the program authors using various literature sources, the second one contains values of m according to DIN 4128, the third one includes values published in by Klein and Miov (Inenrsk stavby, 1984). Third table contains measured values of skin friction of anchor roots for various soils, root diameters, number if groutings, etc. - using this table yields rather realistic results.

Literature: Lizzi, F. (1982). "The pali radice (root piles)". Symposium on soil and rockimprovement techniques including geotextiles, reinforced earth and modern pilingmethods , Bangkok, D-3.

Skin friction of the micropile root

Reference values of limit skin friction (recommend by the authors) Soil soft clay stiff clay solid clay sand naturally wet, loose sand naturally wet, medium dense sand maturally wet, dense - 978 Skin frition [kPa]

40 60 65 - 85 130 170 110 150

140 180 170 230

GEO5 User's Guide aquiferous sand, loose aquiferous sand, medium dense aquiferous sand, dense sandy clay, soft sandy clay, stiff sandy clay, solid clayey sand, wet, loose clayey sand, wet, medium dense clayey sand, wet, dense clayey sand, aquiferous, loose clayey sand, aquiferous, medium dense clayey sand, aquiferous, dense 80 130 120 160 160 200 50 70 75 95 125 165 90 135 135 165 150 170 80 105 90 130 115 155

Fine Ltd. 2011

Values of limit skin friction according to DIN 4128 Soil Average limit skin friction piles in compression [kPa] piles in tension [kPa] medium to coarse-grain sand sand and gravel sand cohesive soils

200 150 100

100 80 50

Recommended parameters of anchor roots (Miove, Klein, Inenrsk stavby 5/1986)

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GEO5 User's Guide Type of support of micropile in head Final grouting press. Number of groutings Root diameter

Fine Ltd. 2011 Root length Skin friction

[mm]

[m]

[kPa]

[MPa]
bedrock semirock gravel, injectable soils gravel, non-injectable soils medium and fine-grain sand cohesive stiff and solid soils cohesive solid to rigid plastic soils cohesive soft plastic soils

0,5-3,0 1,0 2,0-4,0

1,5-4,0 1,5-3,0 1,0-2,5 0,5-2,0

0 0-1 1-2 1-2 2-3 1-3 2-3 3-4

120 120-220 250-400 280-350 220-350 200-280 150-400 300-450

5-3 7-3 7-5 7-5 12-7 17-8 20-9 27-13,5

1000-1600 300-1000 250-320 230 150-180 130-190 100-130 50-70

Littlejohn theory
When using the Littlejohn method the root bearing capacity is provided by:

where:

d l pi

-root diameter -root length -magnitude of grouting pressure

It follows from experimental measurements of micropiles that their bearing capacity also depends on the course of grouting and on the grouting pressure (grouting course often governs the micropile bearing capacity). The bearing capacity considerably increases with repeated grouting. Grouting pressures range from 0,1 to 3 Mpa, in some case they may reach up to Mpa. The Littlejohn method gives the bearing capacity directly proportional to the grouting pressure.

Literature: LITTLEJOHN, G. S. y BRUCE, D. A. (1975).: "Rock Anchors -State of the Art. Part 1. Design". En Ground Engineering, Vol. 8, N 4.

Zweck theory
The Zweck and Bowles methods were developed for the analysis of anchor roots they depend mainly on the geostatic stress in the location of the micropile root. These methods arise from the same priciples the pressure magnitude is however reduced using the coefficient of pressure at rest Ko.

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where:

d l Ko
z

-root diameter -root length -magnitude of pressure at rest -average geostatic stress at the micropile root -average value of friction angle at the micropile root

Bowles theory
The Bowles solution allows for incorporating the influence of the cohesion on the root bearing capacity therefore it is more suitable for cohesive soils.

where:

d l Ko
z

-root diameter -root length -coefficient of pressure at rest -average geostatic stress at the micropile root -average magnitude of angle of internal friction at the micropile root

Literature: J.E. Bowles - Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw Hill book Company

Vas theory
This solution takes into account the effect of geostatic stress at the micropile root and course of grouting. Bearing capacity of the micropile root is provided by:

where:

Rbk Rsk

-bearing capacity of the micropile root -skin bearing capacity of the micropile root

Micropile skin bearing capacity:

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GEO5 User's Guide where:

Fine Ltd. 2011

n Asi qsi

-number of layers passed by the micropile root -area of wall of the micropile base in the i-th layer -skin friction in the i-th layer

Bearing capacity of the micropile root is provided by:

Skin friction qs at a depth of z below the terrain surface:

where: z

depth z bellow the terrain surface, where the magnitude of skin friction is determined effective cohesion of soil at a depth of z friction angle along the interfave of the micropile root and the soil at a depth of z:

effective angle of internal friction of soil at a depth of z h( horizontal component of geostatic stress at a depth of z:

z)
for grouting course of type IR and IRS (with monitoring of grouting pressure) and depth z 5 m:

other cases:

coefficient of earth pressure at rest Ko for normally consolidated soils:

for overconsolidated soils:

v(z vertical component of geostatic stress at a depth of z

) pi
grouting pressure for grouting course of type IR and IRS and depth

z 5 m, in other cases pi = 0
coefficients of type of application of micropile Fc, F

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Literature: Vase, Souche: tude du fla,berment de pieux partiellernent immergs dans offrant latralement une raction lastique pure, Annales de IITBTP, No. 423, Sene Soils et Foundations, 187, mars avril 1984, str. 38 60 (French)

Coefficients of type of application of micropile

Coefficients of type of application of micropile

Type of application of micropile Newly constructed foundations Existing foundations

Fc [-] 1,50 1,20

F [-]

1,50 1,20

Bearing capacity of the root in rock

This solution is suitable for the mircopile root reaching into rocks with index RQD > 60 or having the strength in simple compression c > 20 MPa (ISRM < III). The root bearing capacity is given by:

where:

As qsr Ab qbr

-area of wall of micropile root -skin friction in rock -area of the micropile root -bearing capacity of the microple root in rock

Literatura: Gua para el proyecto y la ejecucin de micropilotes en obras de carretera, Ministerio de fomento, 2005 (Spanish)

Skin friction and bearing capacity of the micropile root in rock

Skin friction in rock qsr and bearing capacity of the micropile root in rock qbr

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GEO5 User's Guide Type of rock Sediments slates and fylits Sandstones Lime stones and dolomites granites, basalts
1)

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qsr [MPa] 0,15 0,40 0,20 0,30 0,30 0,45 0,40 0,50 0,40 0,60

qbr [MPa] 0,07 c 0,07 c 0,07 c 0,10 c 0,10 c

1)

c - strength in simple tension vMPa

Analyses in program Pile CPT

The program Pile CPT serves to verify the bearing capacity and settlement of a single pile or a group of piles based on the results of penetration tests. The main objective is to determine the toe and shaft bearing capacities. This analysis can be carried according to the following standards and approaches: - EN 1997-2 - NEN 6743 - LCPC (Bustamante) - Schmertmann For all methods the essential input parameters are dimensionless coefficients adjusting the magnitude of bearing capacity and shaft friction, respectively. Different notation of these parameters can be encountered in various publications. The following notation is used in program Pile CPT: p s -pile toe coefficient -shaft friction coefficient

These coefficients are automatically calculated based on the type pile and the surrounding soil these parameters can be, however, also specified manually (p can be entered in the "Geometry" input mode, s as a soil parameter). When analyzing rectangular piles the pile shape coefficient s is introduced to reduce the toe bearing capacity. When analyzing piles with enlargement the expanded pile toe coefficient is introduced to adjust the expanded toe bearing capacity. When calculating the toe bearing capacity the program automatically accounts for the influence of the change of terrain elevation. The program allows for the calculation of limit load curve and pile settlement for a given load. This analysis adopts the values of calculated toe and shaft bearing capacities and follows the NEN 6743 standard. A negative skin friction can also be taken into account when calculating pile settlement. Verification of pile bearing capacity depends on the verification methodology selected in the frame "Analysis methods".

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Bearing capacity
The maximum bearing capacity of a single pile based on the values of tip resistance qc of the ith static penetration test is given by:

where:

Fmax,i Fmax,toea,i Fmax,shaft,i

maximum bearing capacity of the pile from i-th CPT test maximum toe resistance from i-th CPT test maximum shaft resistance from i-th CPT test

Providing there is n CPT tests then the bearing capacity of a single pile is obtained as an arithmetic average of n calculated bearing capacities:

If performing the analysis according to the NEN 6743 standard then the approach for more CPT tests is different and follows directly the NEN 6743 standard (article 5.3.2.2). The maximum pile toe resistance Fmax,toe is provided by:

where:

Atoe pmax, toe

pile toe cross-sectional area maximum pressure at pile toe from CPT results

The maximum shaft resistance Fmax,shaft is provided by:

where:

Op pmax, shaft
L

pile periphery in bearing soil maximum force on shaft (friction) from CPT results pile length, either length of actived shaft friction or length of expanded toe vertical dimension alog pile axis

Actual calculation of the maximum pressure at pile toe pmax,toe and the maximum force developed along the shaft pmax,shaft (determined according to the selected type of analysis selected in the frame "Analysis methods").

EN 1997-2
The EN 1997-2 standard determines the maximum pressure at pile toe (maximum resistance) pmax,toe from the corresponding i-th penetration test as follows: - 985 -

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where:

qc,I,m qc,II,m qc,III,m

p

mean from values qc,I (see Addenum D.7 in EN 1997-2) mean of the minimum cone tip resistances qc,II (see Addenum B4 in EN 1997-3) mean of the cone tip resistance qc,III (see Addenum B4 in EN 19973) pile toe coefficient (pile class factor) pile shape coefficient expaned pile toe coefficient

The maximum value of penetration pressure qc is limited by the value of 15 MPa. In cohesionless soils the analysis takes into account the influence of overconsolidation (OCR). The maximum shaft friction (shaft resistance) pmax,shaft is given by:

where:

shaft friction coefficient tip resistance at depth h

qc,z,a

Literature: EN 1997-2 Geotechnical design. Ground investigation and testing

NEN 6743
The NEN 6743 "Piled Foundations" standard determines the maximum pressure at pile toe pmax,toe from the corresponding i-th penetration test as follows:

kde:

qc,I,m qc,II,m qc,III,m

p

mean of the cone tip resistance qc,I (see article 5.3.3.3 in NEN 6743 standard) mean of the minimum cone tip resistance qc,II (see article 5.3.3.3 in NEN 6743 standard) mean of the cone tip resistance qc,III (see article 5.3.3.3 in NEN 6743 standard) pile toe coefficient pile shape coefficient

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The maximum pressure at pile toe pmax,toe is limited by the value of 15 MPa. In cohesionless soils the analysis takes into account the influence of overconsolidation (OCR). The maximum shaft friction pmax,shaft is given by:

where:

shaft friction coefficient tip resistance at depth h

qc,z,a

Literature

NEN 6743:1991/A1:1997, Geotechniek - Berekeningsmethode voor funderingen op palen Drukpalen

LCPC (Bustamante)
The LCPC - Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausees method (also known as Bustamante method based on the works of Bustamanteho and Gianeselliho) determines the maximum pressure at pile toe pmax,toe as follows:

where:

pile toe coefficient equivalent average cone tip resistence

qc,eq

The maximum shaft friction pmax,shaft is given by:

where:

shaft friction coefficient tip resistence

qc,z,a

Determination of equivalent average cone tip resistance

An equivalent average cone tip resistance is obtained in the following way: 1) calculate the average tip resistance qc,m at the tip of the pile by averaging qc values over a zone ranging from 1,5d below the pile tip to 1,5d above the pile tip (d is the pile diameter) 2) eliminate qc values in the zone which are higher than 1,3 multiple of the mean of the cone tip resistance qc,m and those are lower than 0,7 multiple of the mean of the cone tip resistance qc,m as shown in figure 3) calculate the equivalent average cone tip resistance qc,eq by averaging the remaining cone tip resistance (qc) values over the same zone that were not eliminated (i.e. from values in the range 0,7 to 1,3 multiple of the cone tip resistance qc,m)

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Determination of equivalent average cone tip resistance qc,eq

Literature: Tom Lunne, Peter K. Robertson, John J.M. Powell: Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice, Spon Press, 1997, London

Schmertmann
The Schmertmann method determines the maximum pressure at pile toe pmax,toe as follows:

where:

pile toe coefficient modified equivalent average cone tip resistance

qupr

where:

qc1, qc2

minimum value of mean of the cone tip resistance

In cohesionless soils the analysis takes into account the influence of overconsolidation (OCR). The maximum shaft friction pmax,shaft is given by following formulas: - for cohesionless soils:

where:

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As d D
- for cohesive soils:

area of the pile shaft surface in given interval diameter of pile embedded pile length

where:

s,i

th shaft friction coefficient according Tomlinson in the i layer th mean value of penetrometer sleeve local friction fs in the i layer

As,i

th area of the pile shaft surface in the i layer

Literatura: Schmertmann J.H.: Guidelines for Cone Penetration Test, Performance and deign, U.S. Departments of Transportation, report No. FHWA-TS-78-209, Washington,D.C., 1978

Determination of average cone tip resistance

The minimum mean value of the cone tip resistance qc s determined by the minimum value of the mean of the cone tip resistance qc over the influenced zone ranging from 0,7d, to 4d below the pile toe (d is the pile diameter). The minimum mean value of the cone tip resistance qc2 is determined over the influence zone extending from 8d above the pile toe (d is the pile diameter). The procedure for obtaining the mean value of the cone tip resistance qc1, qc2 is as follows (see figure): 1) determine two averages of the cone stress within the zone below the pile toe, one for a zone depth of 0,7d and one for 0,4d along the path "a" through "b". The smaller of the two is retained. (The zone height 0,7d applies to where the cone stress increases with depth below the pile toe). 2) determine the smallest cone stress within the zone used for the Step 1 3) determine the average of the two values per Steps 1 and 2. Step 4 is determining the average cone stress in the zone 4) determine the average cone stress in the zone 8d above the pile toe that gives the value qc. Finally, the average of the Step 3 and Step 4 values is determined.

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Determination of average cone tip resistance qc1, qc2

Correlation coefficient K
Correlation coefficient of skin friction K is entered in the frame "Settings". Value of this coefficient is equal to ratio of unit pile shaft resistance and unit penetrometer sleeve local friction. Correlation coefficient K can be expressed for example by function of embedded pile length see following graphs.

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Function of embedded pile length (D - embedded pile length, b - pile width or diameter)

Literature: FHWA HI 97-013: Design and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations, Workshop manual Volume 1, National Highway institute

Negative skin friction

A negative skin friction is an effect that arises as a result of the settlement of soil around the pile. A soil deforming around the pile tends to pull the pile down thus reducing its bearing capacity. In extreme cases this effect may completely eliminate the influence of shaft friction. The pile is then supported only by elastic subsoil below the pile toe. The negative skin friction Fs,nk,rep is given by:

where:

Op n hi K0,i,rep
i,rep

pile periphery number of layers in the negative friction zone depth of i-th layer representative value of the coefficient of earth pressure at rest friction between soil and pile at i-th layer

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representative value of the angle of internal friction at i-th layer

v,i-1,rep horizontal stress in soil at i-1 layer v,1,rep horizontal stress in soil at i-th layer surcharge at i-th layer

pi,a,rep
the following relation holds:

i,v,w,rep change of vertical stress v i-th at layer

If a slip surface is defined then the value of negative skin friction Fs,nk,rep is provide by:

where:

Op hi ci,rep

pile periphery depth of i-th layer representative cohesion of slip surface

3 2 - for bitumen 10.10 N/m 3 2 - for bentonite 20.10 N/m 3 2 - for synthetic material 50.10 N/m

The value of representative cohesion along a slip surface can also be introduced directly by the user.

Shaft friction coefficient ALFA s

The coefficient reducing the shaft friction s differs based on the applied method and the type of soil. The following values are built into the program: - according to EN 1997-2 and NEN 6743 The values for sands and sands with gravel are listed in the following table: Piles prefabricated driven piles or steel piles Franki pile driving wooden pile vibrating cast in place screw piles prefabricated screw pile cast in place screw piles with additional grouting - 992 s [-]

0,010 0,014 0,012 0,012 0,009 0,009 0,006

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prefabricated screw pile with additional grouting steel tubular piles continuous Flight Auger (CFA) bored piles or piles sheeted by bentonite suspense bored piles with steel casing

0,006 0,0075 0,006 0,006 0,005

For very coarse-grained sands and gravels the above values are reduced in both methods by a reduction coefficient ( coarse-grained 0,75, gravel 0,5). For pit the value of s = 0 is considered. For clay and silt the values of s are taken from EN 1997-2. If the LCPC (Bustamante) method is used the shaft friction coefficient s is used depending on the tip resistance qc (orientation values are available in the following table). Orientation values of the shaft friction coefficient s based on the cone tip resistance qc LCPC (Bustamante) Soil type Clay Cone stress (tip resistance) s for bored piles 0,011 0,025 0,017 0,017 0,010 0,007 s for driven piles 0,033 0,011 0,008 0,008 0,005 0,005 15 35 35 35 80 120 Maximum shaft resistance

qc [MPa] <1 1 < qc < 5 5 < qc

[kPa]

Sand

qc < 5 5 < qc < 12 12 < qc

When using Schmertmann method, coefficient s reducing shaft friction according to Tomlinson is considered. Values used in program are derived from following graph mentioned in publication M.J. Tomlinson: Pile Design and Construction Practice.

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Literature: Tomlinson T.J.: Pile Design and Construction Practice, Taylor and Franci, 1994, ISBN 10: 0419184503

Influence of overconsolidation (OCR)

For sand and gravel the maximum pressure at pile toe pmax,toe (determined according to the selected type of analysis selected in the frame "Analysis methods") is reduced depending on the value of overconsolidation OCR (defined as a soil parameter in the frame "Soils") as follows: Analysis accroding to EC 7-3, NEN 6743: - for all cohesionless soils the maximum pressure at pile toe pmax,toe is 15 MPa - for OCR 2 no reduction is performed - for 2 < OCR 4 the maximum pressure at pile toe pmax,toe is multiplied by 0,67 - for OCR > 4 the maximum pressure at pile toe pmax,toe is multiplied by 0,50 When using the Schmertmann method the reduction is performed according to the following graph:

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Reduction of equivalent mean cone tip resistance according to OCR (Schmertman)

Pile shape coefficient s

This coefficient represents the influence of a rectangular pile, the b/a ratio in particular. Its values are evident from the following graph (function of b/a):

Graph to determine pile shape coefficient s (a length of the smallest side, b the largest side)

Expanded pile toe coefficient BETA

This coefficient denoted as represents the influence of an expanded pile shank (toe), its values are evident from the following figure:

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(as a function

of

):

Graph to determine the coefficient where:

H Deq deq

pile length equivalent pile diameter equivalent pile shank diameter

Pile toe coefficient ALFA p

The pile toe coefficient of capacity reduction p identifies the type of pile. Its values are determined from one of the available calculation methods or they can be entered manually by the user. For NEN 6743 a EC 1997-2 methods the following built-in values of the coefficient p are available: Piles prefabricated driven piles or steel piles Franki pile driving wooden pile Vibrating cast in place screw piles p [-]

1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 0,9

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GEO5 User's Guide prefabricated screw pile cast in place screw piles with additional grouting prefabricated screw pile with additional grouting steel tubular piles continuous Flight Auger (CFA) bored piles or piles sheeted by bentonite suspense bored piles with steel casing

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0,8 0,9 0,8 1,0 0,8 0,5 0,5

For LCPC and Schmertmann the coefficient is back-calculated based on the value of penetration resistance qc (the values are stored in the following table): Orientation values of the pile toe coefficient s based on the cone tip resistance qc LCPC (Bustamante) Soil type Cone stress (tip resistance) p for bored piles 0,04 0,35 0,45 0,40 0,30 p For driven piles 0,50 0,45 0,55 0,50 0,40

qc [MPa]
Jl

<1 1 < qc < 5 5 < qc

Psek

qc < 12 13 < qc

Pile group
Analysis of a group of piles depends on the structure stiffness. The basic assumption is that for a stiff structure all piles experience the same settlement, while for a compliant structure each pile deforms independently no interaction is assumed. The maximum bearing capacity of a rigid pile foundation is given by:

where:

M Fr,max,rep

number of piles in the pile foundation single pile bearing capacity in the pile foundation

If adopting the NEN6743 standard then a coefficient of capacity reduction is introduced into the analysis depending on the number piles M and the number of CPT tests (article 5.3.2.1). The maximum bearing capacity of a compliant pile foundation is determined according to the bearing capacity of the most stressed pile in the group as:

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Fine Ltd. 2011 bearing capacity of fully stressed pile in the group

Fr,i

Calculation of pile toe settlement l

The magnitude of pile head settlement w1,d is determined as follows:

where:

wtoe,d

pile toe settlement due to acting force

wtoe,d,1 wtoe,d,2 wel,d

pile toe settlement due to force acting at toe pile toe settlement due to force acting on the shaft pile settlement due to elastic compression

The magnitudes of settlements wtoe,d,1 and wtoe,d21 are determined from built in graphs according to the NEN6743 standard. The value wel,d is given by:

where:

L Fmean,d Aplast Ep,mat,d

pile length mean of force acting on the pile pile shank cross-sectional area modulus of elasticity of pile material

Graphs to calculate settlement

Graphs to calculate settlement are taken from the NEN6743 standard (article 6.2.1), which allow us to determine: pile settlement due to toe vertical force (pile settlement in percentage of the equivalent pile diameter plotted as a function of the toe vertical force given in percentage of the maximum toe resistance Fmax,toe) pile settlement due to shaft force (pile settlement in mm plotted as a function of the shaft force given in percentage of the maximum shaft resistance Fmax,shaft)

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Graph to determine wtoe,d,1 (1 driven piles, 2 continuous auger, 3 bored piles)

Graph to determinewtoe,d,2 (1 driven piles, 2 continuous auger, 3 bored piles)

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Calculation of limit load curve

One of the program outputs is a loading diagram of vertically loaded pile limit load curve, which plots the pile vertical settlement as a function of the applied load. The limit load curve is determined as a sum of the settlements due to forces at the pile toe and on the shaft derived from graphs used to calculate the pile settlement. A typical example of the limit load curve appears in the following figure.

Limit load curve

Verification
Verification of pile (or group of piles) bearing capacity depends on the verification methodology selected in the frame "Analysis methods": EN 1997-2 classical way (according to factor of safety or limit states) NEN 6743 In settlement calculation it is possible to use either a limit load curve or a load-displacement curve when adopting the NEN 6743 standard.

Verification according to EN 1997-2

When verification according to EN 1997-2 is set, required coefficients are specified in frame "Settings". Program determines the toe and shaft bearing capacities. Result is N values of total bearing capacities for N CPT experiments:

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Fine Ltd. 2011 -total bearing capacity from ith CPT experiment -toe bearing capacity from ith CPT experiment -shaft bearing capacity from ith CPT experiment

Rc,i Rb,i Rs,i

Each value of bearing capacity is reduced by model coefficient cal:

Model coefficient cal is established according to design values and in-situ pile experiments (statistical evaluation). Coefficient can be set in frame "Settings". Program evaluates automatically standard values of pile resistance in compression: - from minimal value

where:

- from mean value

where:

Correlation coefficients 3 and 4 for evaluating standard values of bearing capacity are set automatically according to number of CPT experiments. Constructions with sufficient stiffness and resistance can be modelled by reducing of the correlation coefficients by value 1,1 (result cannot be less than 1,0 after dividing). Reduction of coefficients 3 and 4 is set in frame "Settings". Result standard value is minimal value from both values (minimal and mean bearing capacity):

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GEO5 User's Guide Design values of bearing capacities are calculated from standard values: - from minimal value

Fine Ltd. 2011

- from mean value

Bearing capacity is reduced by coefficients b and s (toe and shaft). Default values are set to 1,0. Values of coefficients can differ depending on various methodologies and countries user should specify them in frame "Settings". Result value of design bearing capacity is minimal value from both values (minimal and mean bearing capacity):

Verification of pile for bearing capacity is given by following formula:

where:

Fs,d Rc,d

-design load -design pile bearing capacity

Correlation coefficients for evaluating standard values of bearing capacity

Correlation coefficients for evaluating standard values of bearing capacity from results of soil experiments (n number of CPT test profiles) for n= 3 4

1 1,40 1,40 1,35 1,27

2 1,33 1,23

3 1,31 1,20

4 1,29 1,15

5 1,27 1,12

10 1,25 1,08

Verification according to factor of safety

The verification analysis according to factor of safety is selected in the frame "Settings". This frame also serves to define the required factor of safety for bearing capacity. Pile verification then assumes the form:

where:

Fs,d FS

pile loading required safety factor for bearing capacity

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Fr,d

The pre-set value of the factor of safety for bearing capacity is 1,5, the values recommended in literature are in the range of 1,5 to 3,0.

Verification according to limit states

The verification according to limit states is selected in the frame "Settings", including setting of pile bearing capacity reduction coefficient. When using the NEN 6743 standard the program automatically performs the verification analysis as specified by this standard and therefore the frame "Settings" is not accessible. Pile verification for the first limit state assumes the formula:

where:

Fs,d
t

design pile loading pile bearing capacity reduction coefficient (range 0,5 - 1,0) design pile bearing capacity

Fr,d

Dimensioning of concrete structures

Concrete structures can by analyze by folowing standards: EC2 (EN 1992 1-1) CSN 73 1201R PN-B-03264 BS 8110 IS 456 ACI 31802 AS 3600-2001

EN 1992 1-1 (EN2)

This help contains the following computationals methods: Materials, coefficients, notation Standard values of coefficiens RC rectangular cross-section under M RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force Verification of spread footing for punching shear Verification of cross-section made from plain concrete Verification of circular RC cross-section

Materials, coefficients, notation

The following notation for material parameters is used: - 1003 -

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fck fcd fcm fctd fyk fyd

- charakteristic value of cylindrical strength of concrete in copression - design strength of concrete in compression - average value of tensile strength of concrete

fctk0,05 - doln hodnota charakteristick pevnosti betonu v tahu

- design strength of concrete in tension - characteristic strength of steel - design strength of steel in tension

The characteristic compressive strength of concrete is the basic input parameter given by the class of concrete it serves to derive the remaining coefficients of reliability.

pro: pro :

Standard values of coefficients cc,c,ct,s are built in the program these values can also be inputted by the user depending on the selected National supplement. The most common notation for geometrical parameters:

b h d z

cross-section width cross-section depth effective depth of cross-section lever arm (arm of internal forces)

Standard values of coefficients

The standard contains a number of coefficients, which can be adjusted in supplements of National standards. The table provides description of individual coefficients, their values and corresponding artical of the standard. In some cases the formula contains a variable, which has no symbol in the standard - in such a case the variable in the expression is denoted by - 1004 -

GEO5 User's Guide X. Coefficient c s cc ct cc,pl ct,pl Value 1,5 1,15 1 1 0,8 0,8 1,1 1,5 0,0013 0,26 0,04 0,18 0,5 Annotations Article 2.4.2.4 2.4.2.4 3.1.6 3.1.6 12.3.1 12.3.1 2.4.2.4 12.6.3 9.2.1.1 9.2.1.1 9.2.1.1 6.2.2 6.2.2 6.2.2 6.2.2

Fine Ltd. 2011

kf k
min

X
max

X
min

RC rectangular cross-section under M

The cross-section is rectangular, reinforced on one side and loaded by the bending moment Msd. The permissible moment for a given area of reinforcements As reads:

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The computed degree of reinforcement is checked using the following expressions:

Standard values of coefficientsmin, max are built in the program these values can also be inputted by the user depending on the selected National supplement.

RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force
The cross-section is rectangular, unilaterally reinforced and loaded by the bending moment M and normal compression force. The location of the neutral axis follows from:

where:

For x < xlim permissible normal force is given by:

For x > xlim the corrected location of neutral axis is found from:

where:

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Permissible normal force is given by:

Permissible bending moment is provided by:

Compression reinforcement is not taken into account.

Verification of spread footing for punching shear

It is loaded by the prescribed moments MEx, MEy and by the shear force VE provided by:

where:

A V At

area of footing assigned vertical force developed in column hatched area in fig.

Dimensioning of shear reinforcement area At The program constructs control sections at distances from 0.5d to 2d in case of footing without shear reinforcement. In case of reinforced footing, the distances are from 0.5d to 4d, where d is the effective depth of footing. The shear reinforcement is considered in control sections, which are in the distance of less than 2d from the column. The control sections are considered in intervals of 0.25d. The load stress VEd in each control section is found using 6.4.3 (3), the punching shear - 1007 -

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resistance of footing without shear reinforcement VRd, c follows from 6.4.4 (2) and if necessary the punching shear resistance of reinforced footing VRd, cs is given by 6.4.5 (1). Furthermore, the compression chord resistance at the column perimeter VRd,max is calculated according to 6.4.5 (3). VRd,max depends on column dimensions and the footing thickness. The control section with the worst ratio of loading and resistance is considered as critical and marked in the program. Literature: EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings

Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete

The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment Msd, normal force Nsd (applied in the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force Vsd. The shear strength is provided by:

where:

Acc - tlaen plocha betonu

Standard value of the coefficient k is built in the program (Art. 12.6.3) this value can also be adjusted in the program based on the selected National supplement. Strength of concrete cross-section subject to the combination of bending moment and normal force is derived from the following expressions depending on the normal force eccentricity e:

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Standard values of coefficients cc,pl, ct,pl, c are built in the program these values can also be inputted by the user depending on the selected National supplement.

Verification of circular RC cross-section

The program verifies a reinforced concrete pile using the method of limit deformation. The maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 0,002 - 0.0035. Cocrete strength *fcd is reduced by ten percent due to shape of cross-section (Art. 3.1.7). The degree of reinforcement is checked using the formula:

where:

pile diameter cross sectional area of reinfocement

As -

Standard values of coefficientsmin, max are built in the program these values can also be inputted by the user depending on the selected National supplement.

Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates

The design of reinforcement is performed for loading caused by the bending moment Msd. The program provides the required area of tensile and compressive (if needed) reinforcement. It takes into account conditions for the minimum and maximum degree of reinforcement in a given cross-section. First, the program determines the location of neutral axis as:

Providing the location of neutral axis is less than the allowable one (x<xmax), the program determines the area of tensile reinforcement Ast from the expression:

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Providing the location of neutral axis is greater than the allowable one (x>xmax), the program determines the areas of both compressive (Asc) and tensile (Ast) reinforcement from the expressions:

The limit location of neutral axis is found from: for concrete C40/45 and lower for concrete C45/50 and higher The minimum area of tensile and compressive reinforcement, respectively, is determined in the same way as for a rectangular cross-section reinforced on one side. If the maximum degree of tensile reinforcement (t,max=0.04) or compressive reinforcement (max=0.08), respectively, is exceeded, the program informs the user that the longitudinal reinforcement cannot be designed for a given cross-section.

CSN 73 1201 R
This help contains the following computationals methods: Materials, coefficients, notation Verification of cross-section made from plain concrete RC rectangular cross-section under M RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force Verification of spread footing for punching shear Verification of circular RC cross-section

Materials, coefficients, notation

The following notation for material parameters is used:

Rbd
u

- design strength of concrete in compression

Rbtd - design strength of concrete in tension

- coefficient of the shape of cross-section

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- lever arm (arm of internal forces)

Coefficient u is given by equation:

The most common notation for geometrical parameters:

b h he z

cross-section width cross-section depth effective depth of cross-section lever arm (arm of internal forces)

Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete

The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment M, normal force N (applied in the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force Q. The cross-section bearing capacity subjected to bending moment is given by:

The shear strength is provided by:

Strength of concrete cross-section subject to the combination of bending moment and normal force is derived from the following expressions depending on the normal force eccentricity e: for:

The ultimate bearing capacity is checket using the following formula:

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RC rectangular cross-section under M

The cross-section is rectangular, reinforced on one side and loaded by the bending moment Md. The ultimate moment is provided by:

The program further checks whether the location of neutral axis x is less than the limit location of neutral axis xlim given by:

The computed degree of reinforcement is checked using the following expressions:

RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force
The cross-section is rectangular, unilaterally reinforced and loaded by the bending moment M and normal compression force. The location of the neutral axis follows from:

where:

For x < xlim permissible normal force is given by:

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GEO5 User's Guide For x > xlim the corrected location of neutral axis is found from:

Fine Ltd. 2011

where:

Permissible normal force is given by:

Permissible bending moment is provided by:

Compression reinforcement is not taken into account.

Verification of spread footing for punching shear

The program allows for the verification of spread footing for punching shear or for the design of shear reinforcement. The critical section loaded in shear Ucr is distant from the column edge by one half of the footing thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments Mx, My and by the shear force Qr provided by:

where:

A Q

area of footing assigned vertical force developed in column hatched area in fig.

At -

- 1013 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Dimensioning of shear reinforcement area At The program computes the maximal shear force Qdmax developed in the critical section, the shear force transmitted by concrete with no shear reinforcement Qbu, and the maximal allowable force Qmax:

where for:

is:

or else:

For Qdmax < Qbu no shear reinforcement is needed. For Qdmax > Qbu and Qdmax < Qmax the shear reinforcement must be introduced. The ultimate shear force is given by:

where:

Ucr -

critical cross-section span is angle of crooks overall area of crooks in footing

As -

For Qdmax > Qmax the shear reinforcement cannot be designed. It is therefore necessary to increase the cross-section height.

Verification of circular RC cross-section

The program verifies a reinforced concrete pile using the method of limit deformation. The maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 0,002 - 0.0035. The degree of - 1014 -

GEO5 User's Guide reinforcement is checked using the formula:

Fine Ltd. 2011

where:

pile diameter reinforcement area

As -

Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates

The design of reinforcement is performed for loading caused by the bending moment M. The program provides the required area of tensile and compressive (if needed) reinforcement. It takes into account conditions for the minimum and maximum degree of reinforcement in a given cross-section. First, the program determines the location of neutral axis as:

Providing the location of neutral axis is less than the allowable one (x<xlim), the program determines the area of tensile reinforcement Ast from the expression:

Providing the location of neutral axis is greater than the allowable one (x>xlim), the program determines the areas of both compressive (Asc) and tensile (Ast) reinforcement from the expressions:

The limit location of neutral axis is found from:

The minimum area of tensile and compressive reinforcement, respectively, is determined in the same way as for a rectangular cross-section reinforced on one side. If the maximum degree of tensile reinforcement (st,max=0.03) or compressive reinforcement (max=0.04), respectively, is exceeded, the program informs the user that the longitudinal reinforcement cannot be designed for a given cross-section.

- 1015 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Design of shear reinforcement for plates

The program allows determination of the required amount of shear reinforcement form by stirrups and crooks, respectively. First, the program computes the limit shear force in a given section the shear force transmitted by concrete Qbu and the maximum allowable shear force Qmax.

where:

for: for: for:

je q=1,25 je q=1,50 je q=1,60

As for stirrups the necessary reinforcement area is given by:

As for crooks the necessary reinforcement area is given by:

where:

The magnitude of c is bounded by the following expression:

PN-B-03264
This help contains the following computationals methods: Materials, coefficients, notation RC rectangular cross-section under M RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force Verification of spread footing for punching shear Verification of cross-section made from plain concrete Verification of circular RC cross-section

- 1016 -

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Fine Ltd. 2011

Materials, coefficients, notation

The following notation for material parameters is used:

fck fcd fctk fctd fyk fyd fctm

characteristic strength of concrete in compression design strength of concrete in compression characteristic strength of concrete in tension design strength of concrete in tension characteristic strength of steel design strength of steel design strength of steel in tension

where:

cc=1 ct=1 c=1,5 c=1,8 -for steel reinforced concrete structures -for concrete strustures

The most common notation for geometrical parameters:

b h d z

cross-section width cross-section depth effective depth of cross-section lever arm (arm of internal forces)

RC rectangular cross-section under M

The cross-section is rectangular, reinforced on one side and loaded by the bending moment Md. The permissible moment for a given area of reinforcements As reads:

The program further checks whether the location of neutral axis x is less than the limit location of neutral axis xlim given by: - 1017 -

GEO5 User's Guide - for steel class A0 - for steel class AI - for steel class AII - for steel class AIII - for steel class AIIIN

Fine Ltd. 2011

The computed degree of reinforcement is checked using the following expressions:

where:

RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force
The cross-section is rectangular, unilaterally reinforced and loaded by the bending moment M and normal compression force. The location of the neutral axis follows from:

where:

For x < xlim permissible normal force is given by:

For x > xlim the corrected location of neutral axis is found from:

- 1018 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

where:

Permissible normal force is given by:

Permissible bending moment is provided by:

Compression reinforcement is not taken into account.

Verification of spread footing for punching shear

The critical section loaded in shear u is distant from the column edge by one half of the footing thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments Mx, My and by the shear force Nsd provided by:

where:

A V At

area of footing assigned vertical force developed in column hatched area in fig.

- 1019 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Dimensioning of shear reinforcement area At The program computes the maximal shear force Nsd developed in the critical section, the shear force transmitted by concrete with no shear reinforcement Nrd1 and the maximal allowable force Nmax:

For Nsd < Nrd no shear reinforcement is needed. For Nsd > Nrd and Nsd < Nmax the shear reinforcement must be introduced. The ultimate shear force is given by:

where:

critical cross-section span is angle of crooks overall area of crooks in footing

Asw

For Nsd > Nmax the shear reinforcement cannot be designed. It is therefore necessary to increase the cross-section height.

Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete

The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment Msd, normal force Nsd (applied in the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force Vsd. The cross-section bearing capacity subjected to bending moment is given by:

The shear strength is provided by:

- 1020 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

where:

Strength of concrete cross-section subject to the combination of bending moment and normal force is derived from the following expressions depending on the normal force eccentricity e:

where:

Verification of circular RC cross-section

ProgramThe program verifies a reinforced concrete pile using the method of limit deformation. The maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 0,002 - 0.0035. The degree of reinforcement is checked using the formula:

where:

where:

pile diameter reinforcement area

As -

- 1021 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates

The design of reinforcement is performed for loading caused by the bending moment Msd. The program provides the required area of tensile and compressive (if needed) reinforcement. It takes into account conditions for the minimum and maximum degree of reinforcement in a given cross-section. First, the program determines the location of neutral axis as:

Providing the location of neutral axis is less than the allowable one (x<xmax), the program determines the area of tensile reinforcement Ast from the expression:

Providing the location of neutral axis is greater than the allowable one (x>xmax), the program determines the areas of both compressive (Asc) and tensile (Ast) reinforcement from the expressions:

The limit location of neutral axis is found from: for steel class A0 for steel class AI for steel class AII for steel class AIII for steel class AIIIN The minimum area of tensile and compressive reinforcement, respectively, is determined in the same way as for a rectangular cross-section reinforced on one side. If the maximum degree of tensile reinforcement (t,max=0.04) or compressive reinforcement (max=0.08), respectively, is exceeded, the program informs the user that the longitudinal reinforcement cannot be designed for a given cross-section.

- 1022 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

BS 8110
This help contains the following computationals methods: Materials, coefficients, notation RC rectangular cross-section under M RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force Verification of spread footing for punching shear Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete Verification of circular RC cross-section

Materials, coefficients, notation

The following notation for material parameters is used:

fcu fy fyd

- characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete - characteristic strength of reinforcement - design strength of steel in tension

The characteristic compressive strength of concrete is the basic input parameter given by the class of concrete. The most common notation for geometrical parameters:

b h d z

cross-section width cross-section depth effective depth of cross-section lever arm (arm of internal forces)

All computations are carried out according to the theory of limit states.

RC rectangular cross-section under M

The cross-section is rectangular, reinforced on one side and loaded by the bending moment M. The permissible moment for a given area of reinforcements As reads:

The program further checks whether the location of neutral axis x is less than the limit location of neutral axis xmax given by:

- 1023 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

The computed degree of reinforcement is checked using the following expressions:

where:

- for fy = 460 N/mm - for fy = 250 N/mm

2 2

RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force
The cross-section is rectangular, unilaterally reinforced and loaded by the bending moment M and normal compression force. The location of the neutral axis follows from:

where:

For x < xlim permissible normal force is given by:

For x > xlim the corrected location of neutral axis is found from:

where:

- 1024 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Permissible normal force is given by:

Permissible bending moment is provided by:

Compression reinforcement is not taken into account.

Verification of spread footing for punching shear

The critical section loaded in shear (Ucr) is distant from the column edge by one half of the footing thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments Mx, My and by the shear force Vr provided by:

where:

A Q

area of footing assigned vertical force developed in column hatched area in fig.

At -

Dimensioning of shear reinforcement area At The program computes the maximum shear force V developed in the critical section, the shear force transmitted by concrete with no shear reinforcement Vc, and the maximal allowable force Vu:

- 1025 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

where:

is design concrete shear stress given by following table: Effective dept d [mm]

100.As / b.h 150

1,15 0,25 0,50 0,75 1,00 1,50 2,00 3,00 0,50 0,60 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,08 1,19 1,36

175 0,48 0,57 0,73 0,83 0,91 1,04 1,15 1,31

200 0,47 0,55 0,70 0,80 0,88 1,01 1,11 1,27

225 0,45 0,54 0,68 0,77 0,85 0,97 1,08 1,23

250 0,44 0,53 0,65 0,76 0,83 0,95 1,04 1,19

300 0,42 0,50 0,63 0,72 0,80 0,91 1,01 1,15

400 0,40 0,47 0,59 0,67 0,74 0,84 0,94 1,07

2 1/3 The c values are for fcu below 40N/mm multiplied by (fcu/40) or 5 N/mm2

is ultimate shear stress

For V<Vc no shear reinforcement is needed. For V>Vc and Vc<Vu it is necessary to design shear reinforcement. The permissable shear force is given by:

where:

critical cross-section span angle of crooks overall area of crooks in footing

Aus

For Vc>Vu the shear reinforcement cannot be designed. It is therefore necessary to increase the cross-section depth.

Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete

The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment M, normal force N (applied in the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force V. - 1026 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Strength of concrete cross-section subject to the combination of bending moment and normal force with eccentricity e is derived from the following expressions:

where:

The shear strength is provided by:

where:

c - is the design value of shear stress in concrete for degree of longitudinal reinforcement =0 (see :Verification of spread footing for punching shear).

Verification of circular RC cross-section

The program verifies a reinforced concrete pile using the method of limit deformation. The maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 0,002 - 0.0035. The degree of reinforcement is checked using the formula:

where:

- for fy = 460 N/mm - for fy = 250 N/mm where:

2 2

pile diameter reinforcement area

As -

Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates

The design of reinforcement is performed for loading caused by the bending moment Md. The program provides the required area of tensile and compressive (if needed) reinforcement. It takes into account conditions for the minimum and maximum degree of reinforcement in a - 1027 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

given cross-section. First, the program determines the location of neutral axis as:

Providing the location of neutral axis is less than the allowable one (x<xmax), the program determines the area of tensile reinforcement Ast from the expression:

Providing the location of neutral axis is greater than the allowable one (x>xmax), the program determines the areas of both compressive (Asc) and tensile (Ast) reinforcement from the expressions:

The limit location of neutral axis is found from:

The minimum area of tensile and compressive reinforcement, respectively, is determined in the same way as for a rectangular cross-section reinforced on one side. If the maximum degree of tensile reinforcement or compressive reinforcement, respectively, is exceeded, the program informs the user that the longitudinal reinforcement cannot be designed for a given cross-section.

IS 456
This help contains the following computationals methods: Materials, coefficients, notation RC rectangular cross-section under M RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force Verification of spread footing for punching shear Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete Verification of circular RC cross-section

- 1028 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Materials, coefficients, notation

The following notation for material parameters is used:

fck fcd fctk fctd fyk fyd

- characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete - design strength of concrete in compression - characteristic strength of concrete in tension - design strength of concrete in tension - characteristic strength of steel - design strength of steel in tension

The characteristic compressive strength of concrete is the basic input parameter given by the class of concrete it serves to derive the remaining coefficients of reliability.

The most common notation for geometrical parameters:

b h d z

cross-section width cross-section depth effective depth of cross-section lever arm (arm of internal forces)

All computations are carried out according to the theory of limit states.

RC rectangular cross-section under M

The cross-section is rectangular, reinforced on one side and loaded by the bending moment M. The permissible moment for a given area of reinforcements As reads:

- 1029 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

The program further checks whether the location of neutral axis x is less than the limit location of neutral axis xmax given by: - for steel Fe 250 - for steel Fe 400 - for steel Fe 500 The computed degree of reinforcement is checked using the following expressions:

RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force
The cross-section is rectangular, unilaterally reinforced and loaded by the bending moment M and normal compression force. The location of the neutral axis follows from:

where:

For x < xlim permissible normal force is given by:

For x > xlim the corrected location of neutral axis is found from:

- 1030 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

where:

Permissible normal force is given by:

Permissible bending moment is provided by:

Compression reinforcement is not taken into account.

Verification of spread footing for punching shear

The critical section loaded in shear Ucr is distant from the column edge by one half of the footing thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments Mx, My and by the shear force Vr provided by:

where:

A Q

area of footing assigned vertical force developed in column hatched area in fig.

At -

- 1031 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Dimensioning of shear reinforcement area At The program computes the maximum shear force V developed in the critical section, the shear force transmitted by concrete with no shear reinforcement Vc, and the maximal allowable force Vmax:

where:

where:

cx,cy
c,max

are dimensions of footing column is the maximum allowable shear stress in concrete listed in table 20 of the IS 456 standard

For V<Vc no shear reinforcement is needed. For V>Vc and Vc<Vmax it is necessary to design shear reinforcement. The permissable shear force is given by:

where:

critical cross-section span is angle of crooks overall area of crooks in footing

Aus

For Vc>Vmax the shear reinforcement cannot be designed. It is therefore necessary to increase the cross-section depth. - 1032 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete

The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment M, normal force N (applied in the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force V:

The shear strength is provided by:

where:

c - is the design value of stress in concrete obtained from table 19 of the IS456 standard for degree of longitudinal reinforcement =0.

Strength of concrete cross-section subject to the combination of bending moment and normal force with eccentricity e is derived from the following expressions:

where:

Verification of circular RC cross-section

The program verifies a reinforced concrete pile using the method of limit deformation. The maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 0,002 - 0.0035. The degree of reinforcement is checked using the formula:

where:

- 1033 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

where:

pile diameter reinforcement area

As -

Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates

The design of reinforcement is performed for loading caused by the bending moment Mrd. The program provides the required area of tensile and compressive (if needed) reinforcement. It takes into account conditions for the minimum and maximum degree of reinforcement in a given cross-section. First, the program determines the location of neutral axis as:

Providing the location of neutral axis is less than the allowable one (x<xmax), the program determines the area of tensile reinforcement Ast from the expression:

Providing the location of neutral axis is greater than the allowable one (x>xmax), the program determines the areas of both compressive (Asc) and tensile (Ast) reinforcement from the expressions:

The limit location of neutral axis is found from: for steel Fe 250 for steel Fe 400 for steel Fe 500 The minimum area of tensile and compressive reinforcement, respectively, is determined in the same way as for a rectangular cross-section reinforced on one side. If the maximum degree of tensile reinforcement (t,max=0.04) or compressive reinforcement (max=0.08), respectively, is exceeded, the program informs the user that the longitudinal reinforcement cannot be designed for a given cross-section. - 1034 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

IS Road Bridges ACI 31802

This help contains the following computationals methods: Materials, coefficients, notation Verification of cross-section made from plain concrete RC rectangular cross-section under M RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force Verification of spread footing for punching shear Verification of circular RC cross-section

Materials, coefficients, notation

The following notation for material parameters is used:

fc Ec

- design strength of concrete in compression - modulus of elasticity

The modulus of elasticity is provided by:

The most common notation for geometrical parameters:

b h d

cross-section width cross-section depth effective depth of cross-section

Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete

The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment M, normal force N (applied in the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force Vn. The shear strength is provided by:

Strength of concrete cross-section subject to the combination of bending moment and normal force is derived from the following expressions:

- 1035 -

GEO5 User's Guide for compression side: where:

Fine Ltd. 2011

A1 - loaded area

for tension side:

where:

RC rectangular cross-section under M

The cross-section is rectangular, reinforced on one side and loaded by the bending moment Md. The ultimate moment is provided by:

The computed degree of reinforcement is checked using the following expressions:

- 1036 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force
The cross-section is rectangular, unilaterally reinforced and loaded by the bending moment M and normal compression force. The location of the neutral axis follows from:

where:

For x < xlim permissible normal force is given by:

For x > xlim the corrected location of neutral axis is found from:

where:

Permissible normal force is given by:

- 1037 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Permissible bending moment is provided by:

Compression reinforcement is not taken into account.

Verification of spread footing for punching shear

The program allows for the verification of spread footing for punching shear or for the design of shear reinforcement. The critical section loaded in shear Ucr is distant from the column edge by one half of the footing thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments Mx, My and by the shear force Vu provided by:

where:

A V At

area of footing assigned vertical force developed in column hatched area in fig.

Dimensioning of shear reinforcement area At The program computes the maximal shear force Vu developed in the critical section, the shear force transmitted by concrete with no shear reinforcement Vc, and the maximal allowable force Vmax:

For Vu < Vc no shear reinforcement is needed. - 1038 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

For Vu > Vc and Vc < Vmax the shear reinforcement must be introduced. The ultimate shear force is given by:

where:

Ucr

critical cross-section span is angle of crooks overall area of crooks in footing

As

For Vc > Vmax the shear reinforcement cannot be designed. It is therefore necessary to increase the cross-section height.

Verification of circular RC cross-section

The program verifies a reinforced concrete pile using the method of limit deformation. The maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 0,002 - 0.0035. The degree of reinforcement is checked using the formula:

where:

pile diameter reinforcement area

As -

Design of longitudinal reinforcement for plates

The design of reinforcement is performed for loading caused by the bending moment Msd. The program provides the required area of tensile and compressive (if needed) reinforcement. It takes into account conditions for the minimum and maximum degree of reinforcement in a given cross-section. First, the program determines the location of neutral axis as:

Providing the location of neutral axis is less than the allowable one (x<xmax), the program determines the area of tensile reinforcement Ast from the expression:

- 1039 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Providing the location of neutral axis is greater than the allowable one (x>xmax), the program determines the areas of both compressive (Asc) and tensile (Ast) reinforcement from the expressions:

where: The limit location of neutral axis is found from:

The minimum area of tensile and compressive reinforcement, respectively, is determined in the same way as for a rectangular cross-section reinforced on one side. If the maximum degree of tensile reinforcement or compressive reinforcement, respectively, is exceeded, the program informs the user that the longitudinal reinforcement cannot be designed for a given cross-section.

AS 3600-2001
This help contains the following computationals methods: Materials, coefficients, notation RC rectangular cross-section under M RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force Verification of spread footing for punching shear Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete Verification of circular RC cross-section

Materials, coefficients, notation

The following notation for material parameters is used:

f'c Ec

- characteristic copressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days - mean value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete at 28 days - density of concrete , in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) - characteristic flexural tensile strength of concrete - 1040 -

f'cf

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

f'ct fsy

- characteristic principal tensile strength of concrete - yield strength of reinforcing steel

The characteristic compressive strength of concrete is the basic input parameter given by the class of concrete. The most common notation for geometrical parameters:

b D d z

cross-section width cross-section depth effective depth of cross-section lever arm (arm of internal forces)

All computations are carried out according to the theory of limit states.

Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete

The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment M, normal force N (applied in the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force V. The shear strength is provided by:

Strength of concrete cross-section subject to the combination of bending moment and normal force is derived from the following expressions:

where:

- 1041 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Ag - loaded area

RC rectangular cross-section under M

The cross-section is rectangular, reinforced on one side and loaded by the bending moment M. The permissible moment for a given area of reinforcements As reads:

The program further checks whether the of neutral axis parameter Ku is less than the limit value:

where:

x - depth of neutral axis

The computed degree of reinforcement is checked using the following expressions:

where:

The program further checks ultimate shear strength:

- 1042 -

GEO5 User's Guide where:

Fine Ltd. 2011

RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force
The cross-section is rectangular, unilaterally reinforced and loaded by the bending moment M and normal compression force. The location of the neutral axis follows from:

where:

For x < xlim permissible normal force is given by:

For x > xlim the corrected location of neutral axis is found from:

where:

Permissible normal force is given by:

- 1043 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Permissible bending moment is provided by:

Compression reinforcement is not taken into account.

Verification of circular RC cross-section

The program verifies a reinforced concrete pile using the method of limit deformation. The maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 0,002 - 0.0035. The degree of reinforcement is checked using the formula:

where:

pile diameter reinforcement area

As -

Verification of spread footing for punching shear

The program allows for the verification of spread footing for punching shear. The critical section loaded in shear Ucr is distant from the column edge by one half of the footing thickness. It is * loaded by the prescribed moments Mx, My and by the shear force V provided by:

where:

A V At

area of footing assigned vertical force developed in column hatched area in fig.

- 1044 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Dimensioning of shear reinforcement area At The program checks, whether the cross-section bursting strength is sufficient according to the relation:

where:

where:

the ratio of the longest overall dimension of the effective loaded area, Y, to the overall dimension, X, measured perpendicular to Y the dimension of the critical shear perimeter measured parallel to the * direction of M v the bending moment transferred from the slab to a support in the direction being considered

* M v-

The analysis is carried out independently in directions xand y, as the decisive one the lower value of Vu is accepted.

Verification according to CSN 73 6206

When selecting "CSN 73 6206", frame "Project", the verification analysis of decisive joints is performed according to the standard CSN 73 6206 "Design of concrete and steel reinforced concrete bridge structures", including changes a-10/1989 a Z2/1994. The program allows for verification of cross-sections from plain concrete or single-ended steel reinforced concrete. All - 1045 -

GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

calculations related to concrete are carried out using the theory of allowable stresses. The main difference when compared to other standards appears in the dimensioning of concrete joints where the earth pressure is computed always without reduction of input parameters independently of the input in the frame "Settings". When performing the verification analysis of cross-sections made either from plain or steel reinforced concrete it is possible input the coefficient of allowable stress according to art. 47 CSN 73 6206 to increase the material allowable stress. The following joints can be verified by the program: Abutment stem foundation, construction joint - the cross-section can be made either from plain or steel reinforced concrete. The joint is verified for the load due to normal force and bending moment. The allowable stresses of concrete, steel and concrete in concentric pressure are checked. In case of reinforced concrete the program also checks the degree of reinforcement, cross-sections from plain concrete are then checked for overturning ( h/2e<1,35) and translation (N.f<1,5; friction concrete-concrete is assumed as f=0.5), Closure wall - bearing block - the cross-section is verified for the load due to normal force and bending moment. The steel reinforced concrete cross-section is always assumed. The allowable stresses of concrete and steel and the degree of reinforcement are checked. Wing wall abutment the joint can be made either from concrete or steel reinforced concrete. The allowable stresses of concrete, steel and concrete in concentric pressure are checked. In case of reinforced concrete the program also checks the degree of reinforcement. Front jump of abutment foundation the front jump of abutment is verified according to its projection. In case of jump projection v < 0.5 hz (hz is the height of foundation jump) the program checks the magnitude of stress in principal tension due to forces developed in the above-foundation joint. The stress is determined as:

where:

d M,N

- width of above-foundation joint - moment and normal force in above-foundation joint

In case of jump projection v > 0.5 hzthe jump is analyzed as cantilever bended by the reaction (stress) of foundation soil. The joint can be made either from concrete or steel reinforced concrete. The allowable stresses of concrete, steel and concrete in concentric pressure are checked. In case of reinforced concrete the program also checks the degree of reinforcement.

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GEO5 User's Guide

Fine Ltd. 2011

Index
1st stage of construction analysis...............................................................................561 2nd stage of construction - analysis..............................................................................536 2nd stage of construction collector lining input............................................................546 2nd stage of construction surcharge input...................................................................536 2nd stage of construction surcharge, analysis..............................................................582 3rd stage of construction anchor, analysis...................................................................582 3rd stage of construction soil excavation, anchor input, GWT change..............................561 ACI 31802...............................................................................................................1003 Active earth pressure..............................................................718-722, 724, 747, 750, 758 Activity.........................................................................................477, 478, 558, 573, 577 Adhesion coefficient....................................................................................................851 Advanced input..........................................................................................................424 Analyses in program Pile CPT.......................................................................................597 Analysis. 62, 63, 77, 82-85, 87, 89, 98-100, 102, 104, 106, 116-118, 123, 125, 126, 132, 135, 145, 147, 150, 151, 156-158, 161, 164, 165, 167, 170, 172, 177-179, 182, 185, 186, 188, 190, 191, 196-198, 201, 203, 205, 206, 208, 213-215, 218, 220, 222, 226, 236-238, 241, 243, 244, 246, 249, 255-257, 260, 262, 264, 267, 270, 272, 273, 278, 282-285, 287, 289, 293, 294, 296-298, 300-302, 304, 307, 311-315, 320, 326-328, 331, 333, 334, 336, 338, 341, 346-349, 351, 352, 354, 357-361, 364, 367, 377, 378, 385, 407, 409, 417, 423, 424, 428, 456, 481, 514, 517, 519, 526, 533, 535, 536, 540, 543, 544, 555, 558, 559, 570, 574576, 580, 581, 584, 587, 589, 591, 594, 596, 599, 600, 603, 608, 612, 615, 624, 627, 630, 632, 633, 635, 663, 664, 673, 675, 677-680, 682, 685-687, 689, 699, 785, 794, 810, 812, 815, 818, 825, 832, 847, 856, 859, 871, 872, 889, 900, 901, 964, 965, 970, 977, 981, 984, 985, 994, 997, 1000 Anchors...............................94, 120, 139, 374, 383, 420, 482, 483, 501, 577, 590, 798, 980 Angle of dilation..................................................................................................537, 582 Applied forces.....................................................................................................101, 119 Arrango theory...........................................................................................................758 AS 3600-2001..........................................................................................................1003 Assign.......53, 81, 92, 114, 137, 138, 155, 176, 195, 212, 235, 254, 271, 291, 308, 325, 345, 360, 389, 413, 452, 477, 481, 522, 563, 607, 613, 619 Automatic arc length control.................................................................................522, 523 Barton - Bandis...................................................................................................368, 951 Base anchorage...................................................................................................162, 183 Basic data79, 90, 109, 135, 153, 174, 193, 210, 233, 252, 269, 289, 322, 343, 387, 391, 396, 409, 596, 617, 697 Beam loads.................................................................................................482, 484, 512 Beams............................................................453, 482, 486, 487, 495, 556, 571, 651, 652 Bearing capacity. .165, 186, 204, 221, 244, 263, 334, 353, 609, 849, 964, 965, 967, 981, 982, 1002 - 1047 -

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Fine Ltd. 2011

Bishop..........................................................................................145, 593, 809, 830-832 Blocks................................................................................................................226, 371 Bore holes.................................................................................................................396 Bowles theory............................................................................................................978 BS 8110..................................................................................................................1003 Buildings...................................................................................................................357 Catalogue of cross-sections...........................................................................488, 492, 493 Catalogue of materials.............................................................488, 491-493, 654, 656, 678 Change of stiffness matrix...........................................................................................517 Circular slip surface.............................................................................................146, 148 Classical theory..........................................................................................................287 Classical way...............................................................................................132, 712, 856 Coefficient of influence of corrosion...............................................................................966 Coefficient of permeability...........................................................................................447 Coefficients of type of application of micropile................................................................983 Combinations SLS.................................................................................631, 632, 676, 677 Compression constant..........................................................................................905, 910 Compression index...............................................................................................905-907 Concentrated surcharge...............................................................................................748 Consolidation analysis..........................................................................................901, 902 Construction stages......................................................................................................36 Contact elements........................................................................................................496 Contact types.............................................................................................................453 Contacts.......................................................................................453, 454, 494-496, 561 Control menu.............................................................................................................691 Convergence criterion.................................................................................................517 Coordinate systems....................................................................................................387 Copy to clipboard....................................................................................47, 688, 693, 694 Coupled section bearing capacity...........................................................................964, 965 CSN 73 1002........................................................................................298, 848, 855, 856 Damages...................................................................................................................363 Design approach 1...................................................................87, 104, 273, 701, 706, 707 Design approach 2...............................................................................................166, 701 Design approach 3......................................................................................................701 Design coefficients................................................................................................62, 856 Design situation....87, 104, 125, 145, 164, 185, 203, 220, 243, 262, 282, 298, 333, 351, 699, 705 Determination of average cone tip resistance.................................................................990 - 1048 -

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Determination of equivalent average cone tip resistance..................................................988 Dimensioning......150, 166, 167, 170, 187, 188, 190, 205, 206, 222, 245, 264, 267, 273, 285, 315, 317, 335, 336, 338, 354, 678, 685, 686, 712, 787, 846, 1007, 1014, 1020, 1025, 1032, 1038, 1045 Distributions.........................................................................................126, 284, 682, 687 Drucker-Prager........................................................432, 435, 441, 516, 525, 533, 546, 584 Earth cut............................................................................................................134, 305 Earth grading.............................................................................................................398 Earth pressure....50, 79, 80, 91, 109, 110, 153, 154, 174, 175, 193, 194, 210, 211, 233, 234, 252, 253, 322, 323, 343, 344, 707, 715, 735, 746, 748 Earthquake......50, 85, 102, 123, 143, 161, 182, 201, 218, 241, 260, 331, 349, 375, 757, 962 Edges........................................................................................................................394 Editor of cross-sections.................................................................................488, 492, 493 Editor of materials.........................................................................488, 491, 492, 656, 678 Effective stress method........................................................................................298, 848 Elastic model......................................................................................................430, 433 Embankment...............................................................................................133, 305, 825 EN 1997-2.............................................................594, 595, 609, 984-986, 992, 993, 1000 Envelopes..................................................................................................................130 Estimated bond strength..............................................................................................769 Evaluation of results........................................................537, 545, 546, 559, 581, 582, 593 Excavation..................................................................................................115, 424, 807 Experiments...............................................................................................................604 External stability.................................................................................................129, 355 Fellenius / Petterson....................................................................................................830 Foliation....................................................................................................................135 Footing...............................................................................................................229, 846 Foundation steps........................................................................................................319 Frame. . .32, 33, 38, 41, 42, 45-48, 50, 62, 63, 76-79, 81-90, 92-104, 106-109, 111, 114-126, 128, 130-135, 137-147, 149-153, 155-167, 169-174, 176-193, 195-210, 212-223, 225-233, 235-246, 248-252, 254-264, 266-273, 275-289, 291-313, 315-322, 324-343, 345-354, 356365, 367-378, 380-391, 393-396, 398, 401, 402, 404, 405, 407-409, 411-418, 422-424, 427, 428, 431, 451-453, 456, 458-461, 466, 468, 469, 471, 472, 477, 481-484, 486, 494, 495, 497-501, 505, 507, 511, 512, 514, 531, 534, 540, 544, 548, 556, 559, 587, 589, 591, 594596, 598-604, 607-610, 612-617, 619-622, 624-627, 630-636, 638-641, 643, 644, 648, 649, 651, 658, 661, 663-665, 667-670, 672, 673, 675-680, 682, 685-687, 689, 695, 697, 700, 705, 706, 708, 709, 712, 771, 774, 776, 778, 779, 786, 787, 789-792, 807, 810, 816, 834, 842, 843, 848, 853, 856-858, 869, 871, 881, 900, 901, 924, 926, 927, 951, 964, 965, 968971, 977, 984, 985, 990, 994, 1000-1003, 1045, 1046 Frames................................................................................................................41, 458 Free line loads............................................................................................................669 Free lines.....................................................................................458, 459, 468, 549, 567 - 1049 -

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Free point loads..................................................................................................668, 679 Free points......................................................................456, 458, 466-468, 548, 561, 567 Front face resistance.......................................................159, 180, 199, 216, 239, 258, 329 Generate............................................67, 393, 401, 516, 539, 552, 569, 586, 630, 631, 676 Generator of anchored regions..............................................................................458, 459 Generator of anchors on free line..................................................................................483 Generator of combinations.....................................................................628, 633, 673, 678 Generator of shape of lining..................................................................................458, 459 Geometric method (Euler)...........................................................................................970 Geometry 77, 93, 111, 112, 150, 162, 171, 183, 191, 208, 222, 228, 245, 250, 272, 275, 276, 279, 293, 316-318, 338, 340, 361, 378, 380, 411, 546, 601, 612, 614, 708, 807, 984 Global coordinate system.............................................................................................420 Graphs to calculate settlement.....................................................................................998 GWT + NSF..........................................................................................599, 600, 602, 603 GWT above toe of slope........................................................................................935-938 GWT on tension crack..........................................................................................935, 937 Height multiplier.........................................................................................................148 Hoek - Brown......................................................................................................368, 951 Horizontal bearing capacity...........................................................................287, 302, 881 Hydrodynamic pressure........................................................................................739, 741 Hydrostatic pressure, ground water.......................................................................739, 740 Import gINT.................................................................................................................75 Incompressible subsoil................................................................................................306 Index of secondary compression...................................................................................905 Influence of ground water............................................................................................384 Influence of water...........83, 99, 117, 157, 178, 197, 214, 237, 256, 327, 347, 373, 708, 831 Initial solution step.....................................................................................................517 Inputting data using template........................................................................................69 Interface.....................................56, 132, 304, 427, 458, 538, 561, 562, 583, 613, 615, 765 Internal stability...........................................................................................963, 964, 970 IS 456............................................................................................................1003, 1032 Janbu.................................267, 809, 817, 822, 823, 825, 831, 832, 885, 893-896, 905, 912 Joint loads...................................................................................................664, 665, 667 Joint refinements.................................................................................................640, 641 Joint supports.....................................................................................................648, 649 Joints.........................................................................................................188, 635, 636 Ko procedure......................................................................................................423, 426 Launching...................................................................................................392, 402, 405 - 1050 -

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LCPC (Bustamante)...............................................................................595, 984, 993, 997 Line constructions........................................................................................392, 402, 404 Line flow....................................................................................................................500 Line loads...........................................................................................................665, 666 Line refinement......................................................................458, 460, 471, 641, 642, 644 Line search method......................................................................................517, 524, 526 Linear models.............................................................................................................430 Lines..................................................................................................................636, 637 Lining....................................................................................456-458, 465, 466, 481, 482 List of variables...................................................................................................529, 530 Littlejohn theory.........................................................................................................977 Lizzi theory................................................................................................................977 Load......87, 165, 167, 186, 188, 203, 205, 220, 222, 244, 246, 262, 264, 273, 292, 316, 324, 334, 336, 352, 414, 421, 458, 622-625, 628, 630, 661, 663, 673, 675, 697, 706-708, 710, 846, 848, 858, 866, 868, 870, 913, 964, 965 Location............................................................33, 454, 463, 486, 495, 499, 613, 616, 829 Macroelement loads....................................................................................................667 Macroelement refinements...........................................................................................643 Macroelement subsoils..........................................................................................658-660 Macroelements...........................................................................................................638 Material. 46, 112, 150, 151, 170, 172, 190, 191, 249, 267, 276, 278, 287, 294, 315, 320, 338, 341, 368, 412, 614, 766, 769, 775, 782, 790-792, 812, 964, 965, 968-970, 1003, 1010, 1016, 1023, 1028, 1035, 1040 Maximum number of iterations.....................................................................................517 Measurement.............................................................................................................362 Mesh generation.............................................................473, 536, 546, 561, 582, 645, 646 Micropile.......................................................................................409, 410, 966, 977, 981 Minimal dimensioning pressure.....................................................................................745 Modified compression index.........................................................................................905 Modified elastic model..........................................................................................430, 546 Modifying template during data input..............................................................................69 Modulus of subsoil reaction............................................................................109, 126, 289 Mohr - Coulomb..................................................................................................368, 951 Monitors....................................................................................................................531 Morgenstern-Price..................................................................809, 817, 825, 826, 831, 832 Nailed slopes........................................................................................343, 353, 355, 768 NAVFAC DM 7.2.....................................................................................287, 298, 847-852 Negative skin friction...................................................................................................296 NEN 6743......................................594, 595, 608, 864, 984-987, 992, 994, 996, 1000, 1003 - 1051 -

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Numerical implementation of MCC and GCC models.................................................440, 441 Oedometric modulus.....................................................................................289, 905, 909 Openings...................................................................................................................639 Options............................................................................31, 34, 35, 46-49, 267, 693, 694 Overconsolidation index of secondary compression.........................................................905 Own water force acting on slip surface only............................................................935, 939 Own water force behavior.....................................................................................935, 940 Page properties...................................................................................................692, 694 Partial factors....77, 87, 89, 104, 106, 125, 132, 145, 150, 164, 170, 185, 190, 203, 208, 220, 226, 243, 249, 262, 267, 282, 298, 315, 333, 338, 351, 699, 702-705, 710, 857 Passive earth pressure....................................................................725-727, 731, 732, 748 Picture list..........................................................................................38, 39, 54, 689-691 Pile analysis...............................................................................................................290 Pile base resistance.....................................................................................................848 Pile shaft resistance....................................................................................................848 Plasticity............................................................................................................517, 525 PN-B-03264.............................................................................................................1003 Point constructions.......................................................................................392, 402, 404 Point flow..................................................................................................................498 Point refinement..................................................................................................469, 470 Point supports............................................................................................................497 Points........................................................................................................................390 Polygonal slip surface...................................................................................146, 147, 941 Primary settlement..............................................................................................891, 897 Print and export document..........................................................35, 40, 688, 690, 692, 693 Print and export picture..........................................................35, 39, 48, 54, 688, 692, 693 Profile.....78, 89, 107, 112, 152, 173, 192, 209, 232, 251, 268, 287, 321, 342, 358, 408, 595, 604 Project......50, 76, 88, 106, 131, 149, 169, 189, 207, 225, 248, 266, 286, 303, 315, 337, 356, 367, 386, 407, 422, 433, 434, 440, 584, 594, 612, 634, 695, 697, 786, 881, 924, 1045 Props....................................................................................................95, 121, 505, 506 RC rectangular cross-section under M....................1003, 1010, 1016, 1023, 1028, 1035, 1040 Reading data into template............................................................................................69 Recompression index...................................................................................................905 Reinforcements.............................................................................140, 231, 507, 779, 813 Results..................................................................................527, 528, 633, 683-685, 803 Rigid bodies........................................................................................................137, 451 Rock.....242, 359, 368, 375, 766, 769, 779, 838-840, 931, 932, 941, 946, 952, 954, 956, 959, 962, 963, 980 - 1052 -

GEO5 User's Guide

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Root verification.........................................................................................................418 Salas theory...............................................................................................................970 Sand-gravel cushion....................................................................................................277 Sarma...........................................................................................145, 593, 809, 816-819 Scale color definition...............................................................................................66, 67 Schmertmann....................................595, 604, 608, 609, 736, 984, 988, 989, 993, 994, 997 Secondary settlement..........................................................................................891, 897 Selecting and storing views............................................................................................64 Setbacks...................................................................................................................227 Setting and analysis description....................................................................................515 Setting arc length.......................................................................................................522 Setting results visualization...........................................................................................65 Setting visualization of results........................................................................................64 Setting visualization style 36, 39, 40, 44, 87, 104, 146, 148, 165-167, 186-188, 204-206, 208, 221-223, 244-246, 250, 263, 264, 283-285, 298, 300-302, 312, 334-336, 352, 353, 364, 365, 377, 378, 385, 387, 391, 394-396, 399, 401, 402, 404, 515, 528, 609, 610, 680, 684, 689 Settings. .86, 103, 124, 132, 144, 145, 163-165, 167, 184-186, 188, 202, 203, 206, 219, 220, 223, 242, 243, 246, 261, 262, 272, 276, 281, 282, 297, 298, 311, 332, 333, 350, 351, 363, 376, 385, 416, 458, 461, 608, 609, 712, 776, 778, 789, 791, 792, 816, 834, 842, 843, 856, 857, 926, 927, 951, 964, 965, 968-970, 990, 1000-1003, 1046 Settlement..........37, 49, 65, 68, 269, 300, 301, 307, 312, 404, 546, 610, 617, 869, 871, 918 Sheeting check.....................................................................................109, 124, 702, 707 Sheeting design..................................................................................................707, 794 Slope stability. . .49, 63, 68, 129, 135, 136, 143, 168, 189, 206, 224, 247, 265, 337, 355, 404, 423, 424, 536, 584, 699, 702, 768 Soil classification.....................................................................................................51, 55 Soil input and their assignment to interfaces..................................................................582 Soils. .42, 79, 90, 108, 109, 115, 135, 153, 159, 174, 180, 193, 199, 210, 216, 233, 239, 252, 258, 269, 277, 288-290, 307, 308, 322, 329, 343, 359, 388, 409, 428, 554, 563, 596, 613, 617, 803, 811, 833, 901, 967, 975, 976, 983, 994 Solution according to CSN 73 1001...............................................................................838 Solution method.........................................................................................................517 Solution procedure.......................................................................................373, 384, 797 Special distribution of water pressure.....................................................................739, 743 Spencer..........................................................145, 809, 817, 819, 820, 822, 826, 830, 832 Stability.......168, 189, 206, 224, 247, 265, 337, 424, 521, 533, 819, 825, 832, 920, 953, 958 Stages of construction..........................................................................................465, 466 Standard values of coefficients.................................................................1004, 1006, 1009 Stress in the footing bottom.........................................................................................786 Strip surcharge...........................................................................................................748 - 1053 -

GEO5 User's Guide

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Structure.......................................................................................598, 599, 848-852, 956 Style manager.............................................................................................................39 Subsoil...............................................................................................................613, 614 Supports........................................................................................96, 122, 497, 621, 797 Surcharge.....84, 100, 118, 141, 158, 179, 198, 215, 238, 257, 279, 309, 317, 328, 348, 373, 382, 420, 511, 541, 544, 583, 589, 709, 942 Surface surcharge.......................................................................................................748 Tables...........................................................................................................39, 724, 732 Task input...................................................................................................546, 561, 582 Temperature load........................................................................................................666 Terrain....73, 74, 78, 82, 89, 98, 107, 116, 152, 156, 173, 177, 192, 196, 209, 213, 232, 236, 251, 255, 269, 287, 321, 326, 342, 346, 358, 367, 388, 404, 405, 408, 536, 539, 595 Tomlinson......................................................................287, 298, 848, 853, 989, 993, 994 Topology..............................................................................................458, 465, 477, 482 Trapezoidal surcharge..................................................................................................748 Tunnels..............................................................................................................424, 490 Type of analysis setting...............................................................................................582 Types of blocks...........................................................................................................170 Types of nails.............................................................................................................339 Types of reinforcements.......................................................................................230, 231 User catalogue....................................................................................................113, 114 Values. 443, 528, 635, 682, 686, 765, 803, 822, 825, 828, 840, 853, 912, 914, 957, 967, 976, 979, 993, 1002 Vas theory...............................................................................................................978 Vas-Souche theory....................................................................................................970 Verification. 62, 77, 89, 106, 150, 164, 165, 167, 170, 185-187, 190, 203, 204, 208, 220, 221, 226, 243, 244, 249, 262, 263, 267, 298, 315, 324, 333, 334, 336, 338, 352, 353, 377, 378, 385, 416, 417, 594, 701, 708, 709, 712, 775, 784-787, 928, 950, 951, 963, 964, 971, 984, 1000, 1002, 1003, 1010, 1016, 1023, 1027, 1028, 1035, 1040 Vertical bearing capacity.......................................................................................298, 299 Void ratio....................................................................................................905, 906, 911 Volume loss........................................................................................................357, 361 Water 39, 83, 99, 117, 142, 157, 178, 197, 214, 237, 256, 280, 295, 310, 327, 347, 372, 384, 395, 396, 415, 427, 477, 570, 573, 613, 620, 740, 938, 943 Wings................................................................................................................317, 336 World coordinates.........................................................................................................56 Zweck theory.............................................................................................................977

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GEO5 User's Guide

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Fine Ltd. 2011 www.finesoftware.eu

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