Readiness to Learn and Assessment of Learning Outcomes on Off-Campus

Adult Learners

Sariwati Mohd Shariff¹, Fadzilah Azam Ahmad² and Shatina Saad³

¹Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA

²Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA
³Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA
sariwati@salam.uitm.edu.my

ABSTRACT: This conceptual paper seeks to identify the factors that influence working adults to
pursue continuing education and to ascertain their level of readiness to learn during discourse of
their educational study. Assessments of learning outcomes are also being studied to determine
effectiveness with respect to adult learners’ needs and the off campus programs’ objectives.
Based on literature review, intrinsic factors are cognitive, self development needs and personal
aspirations, and extrinsic factors are career, economic needs, social needs, cognitive interest,
family support and opportunity influence working adults to seek continuing education. The
learning outcomes on adult learners are evaluated based on the cognitive development, skills and
personal development, and affective development outcomes of the learners themselves.
Henceforth, based on this conceptual paper, a proposed study is intended to carry out in 2009 on
working adults who are currently studying in Off–campus Business Management programs in a
local public institution of higher education to determine their readiness to learn and assessing
their learning outcomes. Data collection will be done via quantitative survey which will be
carried out on all academic staff engaged in conducting off-campus programs to assess teaching
and learning of the adult students; as well as on the adult students’ perceptions towards their
learning outcomes. A descriptive analysis will be done using SPSS, version 12.0. Results of this
study can be used for future continual improvement on adult teaching and learning techniques,
and producing quality continuing educational programs towards achieving customer satisfaction
for the working adults to pursue lifelong learning and to be competitive in extension education
programs.

Keywords: Adult learning, learning outcomes, continuing education, lifelong learning

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Knowledge-driven economy, knowledgeable workers, transforming towards learning organizations,

human capital development have been extensively discussed by many parties for the past several years
since the year 2000; these are strategies to remain competitive in business, operations, market share for
business-organizational survival towards globalization. Nowadays, people are not only competing
towards competency and skilful on the jobs but also to equip oneself with new knowledge and new
technology to keep abreast with the fast changing world and to meet higher expectations and working
standards in a stiff world economy. The trends of working adults pursuing further education have been
increasing; either pursuing master programs or first degree programs via full time or part time basis.
Likewise, the numbers of institutions providing educational courses or academic programs have been
growing due to the increasing demand on working adults pursuing further education. With working
adults as students in class, the importance of adult learning principles cannot be denied. What
motivates working adults to pursue continuing education, and how learning help to improve work
performances and develop the human capital? This conceptual paper provides an insight on factors
influencing adults in continuing education, adult learning principles and its learning outcomes.

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1.1 The need for continuing education
Education has become a condition of existence inseparable from the quality of life (Nowlen,1988).
The demand for continuing education will intensify due to the fast changing information technology,
the changing nature of knowledge, increasing organizational complexity, the drive to maintain
excellence, to remain competitive, the public demand for professional accountability, rapid
development of new technologies and shifts in governmental regulations (Nowlen, 1988). As for the
context within Malaysia, opportunities for continuing education are ample to attract workers towards
acquiring higher academic qualifications, via various educational incentive schemes such as provision
of educational funds and easy withdrawal from employees provident funds. There are many options for
continuing education that vary from short courses, professional continuing educations, trainings,
seminars, and formal education. The more formal education one had, the more he/she participates in
learning experiences of all kinds throughout his/her life (Nowlen, 1998). Continuing education has its
episodic uses, involving continuing learning, self directed learning, informal learning experiences
towards development of higher performances, skills and proficiencies to meet the future challenges,
new responsibilities and professionalism. With the current global economic recession in 2009 that
resulted in worldwide retrenchments and jobless workers are increasing, one appropriate move is to
upgrade oneself by undertaking additional academic or professional qualifications so as to add personal
worth and value.

1.2 Models for participation in continuing education

According to the update model (Nowlen,1988), one pursue continuing education through short
courses, seminars, specific programs to update with new information, requirements, knowledge,
practices to fulfil the needs to keep current or well-informed. Being up to date is only one aspect of the
relationship of knowledge and skill to competence. Workers need to demonstrate the art, skills and
wisdom that reflect competence at work. To be competent is to possess the generic knowledge, the
ability to demonstrate skills and behaviours related to processes or performances, traits and self schema
or image as a professional. The competency model encompasses four clusters of abilities, namely
socio-emotional maturity, entrepreneurial, intellectual and interpersonal abilities. Competence also
include motivation, the process of values and goals recurrently driving behaviour, attitudes, motives,
traits and their interplay have relative impact on worker’s performance. A working adult normally and
gradually moves through successive working cultures as one progress throughout his/her job careers;
meaning a worker executes a variety and multiple cultural roles through the occupational, civic,
interpersonal and familial environments. Each role experience can strengthen the individual’s drive for
better performance. Contrary to the update model and competency model, pursuing continual learning
would enhance one’s work performance as the performance model elicits that successful performance
directly resulted when an individual achieves a level of competence; thus he is capable to move on to
new challenges. A good performance leads to sustain effectiveness and able to assimilate innovations
towards both personal and organizational development (Nowlen, 1988). Based on the performance
model in continuing education, the performance of a worker is the result of interacting social and
personal influences: the worker’s mastery on baseline knowledge and skills, the ability to challenge
new roles, possess requisite human relations skills, critical skills of mind, proficiency in self managed
learning, individual development progress, organizational developmental balance, the skills in coping
with life surprises as well as its anticipative transitions; and understanding of the influences of
environments and culture and skills to orchestrate them (Nowlen, 1988).
Other models on adult learning participation such as Miller’s Force-Field analysis model
exemplifies that working adults from lower socio-economic group participate simply for job related
and basic skills reasons; while adults from higher social groups would seek education to satisfy
achievement and self-realization needs; the Rubenson’s Expectancy-Valence Model addressed the
decision to participate in later education is a combination of both socialization and structural
dimensions as well as the individual orientation; meaning the expectancy consist of the anticipation of
being successful in an educational situation, and valence relates to the value a person puts in the
education (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). However, the Cross’s Chain-of-Response Model illustrates
adult participation learning is the result of a chain of responses to both psychological and
environmental factors, staring with self evaluation as to whether achievement in an educational
situation is possible; evaluation of attitudes about education; evaluation of the importance of goals and

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expectations; life events and transitions; opportunities and barriers towards learning; and if all the
responses along the chain are positive, then the result will be participation in education.
2.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING CONTINUAL LEARNING

Whenever we ask working adults why they pursue continuing education, they would most often
mention that their education is sponsored by their organizations, secondly there are ample learning
opportunities (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Within Malaysia, there are many learning opportunities
and choices for working adults. There are independent organizations such as training and consultancy
organizations, business or residential associations and learning centres providing informal learning or
educational programs; private and public educational institutions offering wide choices on formal
learning through part time academic programs.
Adults pursue learning where they perceived a performance gap; and that gap is perceived as
opportunities for learning. Secondly, concern for measurement: the ability to meet defined, or specific
quantifiable measures are seen as ne w learning activity in particular when venturing into new areas.
The urge to learn arise when workers develop experimental mindset to adapt to changes in work
processes, policies and structures and are willing to try out to learn. Thirdly, the openness and
accessibility of information with the advancement in technology triggers that need to learn (Merriam
and Caffarella, 1999).
Based on studies in US and UNESCO, the most common cited reasons for engaging in continual
learning are firstly, job related motives; secondly personal development; thirdly personal interest and
then professional or career upgrading; these clearly show that there is a strong link between an adult
work’ life and participation in adult education (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Other studies also
shown that working adults pursue education for future changes in the lives, due to life transitions, and
learning for its own sake. Houle (1961) described that adults have different sets of learning
orientations: some adults are goal-oriented learners who use education as a means for achieving some
other goals; activity oriented learners who participate for the sake of the activity itself; and the
learning oriented adults who seek knowledge for its own sake.
Morstain and Smart (1974) research revealed the six-factors on why adults engage in continual
education: 1) social relationship factor: this factor reflects participation in order to make new friends;
2) external expectations factor: complying with the wishes or directives of an authority; 3) social
welfare factor: this factor reflects an altruistic orientation; the learners are involved because they want
to serve others or their community; 4) professional advancement factor: this factor is strongly
associated with job enhancement or professional advancement; 5) escape or stimulation factor: this
factor is indicative of learners who are involved as a way of alleviating boredom or escaping home or
routines; 6) cognitive interest factor: the adults are engaged for the sake of learning itself.
In summary, adults are responsive to external motivational factors such as getting a better job,
earning a higher income, to move on or to start a new career, to fulfill social needs and family support,
and opportunities for continual learning; while the intrinsic motivators within the individuals are the
desire for knowledge, personal development and self aspiration.

2.1 Adult learning

An adult learner is just a person typically within the age of thirties to forties whom has completed
high school education or more, works full time and most often in white collar occupations, earning an
average income, married and has children and lives in an urbanized area whom decides to engage in
further education with the desire to acquire some knowledge and skills to satisfy personal aspirations
(Merriam and Caffarella, 1999).
Andragogy is the art of and science of helping adults to learn (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999).
Andragogy or adult learning principles are based on five assumptions about the adult learner: 1) as a
person matures, his/her concept moves from that of a dependent personality towards one of a self-
directing human being; 2) an adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience, which is a rich
resource for learning; 3) the readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks
of his/her social roles; 4) an adult is more problem-centred than subject-centred in learning; 5) adults
are motivated to learn by internal factors rather that external factors (Knowles, 1980). However, adult
learning principles may not be applicable across the board; it is dependable on situations. Henceforth,
at times both pedagogy-andragogy principles are applicable within a continuum range from teacher-
directed to student-directed learning, and that both approaches are appropriate with children and adults.

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 Adult learning is defined as the process of adults gaining knowledge and expertise; and that these
learners want to have control over their learning process (Knowles, Holton and Swanson, 1999).
Adult learning is largely practical and skill oriented; its subject matter is directly useful in the
performance of every tasks and obligations.

2.2 Motivation to learn

Adult learners are motivated to learn when they believe that they can learn new things and learning
will help them deal or solve a problem that is important in their jobs or tasks. In fact, they learn new
knowledge, understanding, skills, values and attitudes most effectively when they are presented in the
context of applications to real life situations (Knowles, Holton and Swanson, 1998). Similarly, adults
are motivated to participate in learning activities by development issues and changes in their lives
(Merriam and Caffarella, 1999).

2.3 Readiness to learn

Adults become ready to learn those things they need to know and be able to do in order to cope
effectively with their real life situations. The implication of this assumption is the importance of
timing and learning experiences to coincide with their developmental tasks and social roles. Adults
have a self concept of being responsible for their own decisions, for their own lives. Once they have
arrived at that self concept, they develop a deep psychological need to be seen by others and treated as
being capable of self direction (Knowles, Holton and Swanson, 1998). Certain tasks arise at a certain
period in a person’s life, and when that development tasks evolve, that itself produces ‘a readiness to
learn” which at its peak presents a “teachable moment” (Knowles, 1980).

2.4 Self directed learner

Young adults at times are self directed learners who take primary initiatives for planning, carrying
out and evaluating their own learning experiences. The process of self directed learning are a
combination of factors such as learning opportunities people find in their environment, the personality
characteristics of learners, cognitive processes and the context of learning which collectively interact to
form episodes of self directed learning (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). These authors described that
adult learners should predispose themselves towards taking primary responsibility for their own
learning, and have a positive concept and readiness to learn. Self directed learning is somewhat linear
in nature where a learner moves through a series of steps to reach the learning goals through self
planned learning activities.

3.0 LEARNING

Learning cannot be fully understood or handled unilaterally (Illeris, 2003); so does learning is
central to human behavior yet so elusive to understand (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Learning must
be understood as all process leading to permanent capacity change: physical, cognitive, emotional and
social in nature. The learning concept also extends to such functions as personal development,
socialization, qualification and competence development (Illeris, 2003). Learning involves two
processes which are closely integrated: interaction process and the learner and the surroundings, and
the inner mental acquisition and elaboration process in the individual.
Learning is a process by which behavior changes as a result of experience based on behaviorist
theories (Garavan, 1997). Learning involves change that enables the individual to make both personal
and social adjustments. Learning process is not a single event; learning has to involve understanding;
and learning is essentially a humanistic process (Jarvis, 1995). Gagne (1972) describes there are five
domains of learning: “motor skills, which are developed through practice; verbal information, the
major requirement for learning being its presentation within an organized, meaningful context;
intellectual skills; cognitive learning; and attitudinal learning through the use of human model and
reinforcement” cited in Knowles, Holton and Swanson, 1998).
Learning defies precise definition because it is put to multiple uses (Smith, 1982). Learning can be
a process, a function and as a product. Learning is a process because it involves change (in an
individual); a product where learning is being reflected in that change in behavior as the result
(outcome) of learning experience, and as a function which emphasize certain critical aspects of
learning such as motivation, retention and transfer (Knowles, Holton and Swanson,1998). Learning as

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a process emphasizes what happens during the course of learning experience. On the other hand,
learning is often described as the observable phenomena and viewed as outcome or a product where
the learning objectives were predetermined and written in behavioral terms. Learning is deemed to
have occurred if the learning objectives have been achieved.

3.1 Constructivist Approach

There are many learning theories in existence since the early nineteen centuries that range from the
behaviorist theories, social theories and the humanistic approaches. One of it is the constructivist
approach. A constructivist orientation maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is
how people make sense of their experience (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Reality is a social
construct; it is personally constructed. Meaning is made by the individual and is dependent on his
previous and current knowledge structure. Constructivist learning is seen as an individual or personal
activity that involves a progressive adaptation of the individual’s cognitive schemes to the physical
environment (Merriam, 2001). Learning is an internal cognitive activity. From the social constructivist
view, knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activities about shared
problems or tasks. Making meaning is thus a dialogic process involving persons in conversation, and
learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled
members (Merriam and Cafferella, 1999).Hence, the context of learning here mainly focuses on self
directed learning among adults.

3.2 Self directed Learning

Adults are self directed learners; they are capable of taking control of the goals and purposes of
learning and assuming ownership of learning (Knowles, Holton, Swanson, 1998). Self directed
learning is a process of learning in which people take the primary initiatives for planning, carrying out
and evaluating their own learning experiences; and being self directed in one’s learning is a natural
part of adult life (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Self directed learning is situational; at the early stage
a learner is dependent on the lecturer and requires close supervision and coaching, but when he has
adapted into the learning culture and involved in the system, the facilitator may only need to monitor,
and subsequently the rest lies on the learner to be in control of his learning. Hence, self directed
learning can be described as self management, motivation and self monitoring.

3.3 Evaluation System

Effective training or program must have value for the organization, the institution and the
participant. Evaluation emphasizes on the total value of a training or program, in the form of cost
benefits and general outcomes such as the value of the improved performances of the participant
(Lewis and Thorhill, 1994). Evaluation process completes the cycle of training/learning; it is the key
role of quality control on the program by assessing and providing feedback on its effectiveness, the
achievement of the objectives set by both facilitator and learner, and whether it satisfy the needs of the
related parties, both organizational and individual (Noe, 2003; Kirkpartrick,1998; Bramley,1991).
In order to determine whether a training or program is effective, a good evaluation schema needs to
look into of the relationships of instructional content to work place needs, instructor performance,
trainee’s or learner’s achievement and the application of acquired knowledge and skills on the job, and
determine if the program should be continued, expanded, modified based on labor market demand and
graduate placement (Campbell, 1998). The most common form of evaluation is based on the four
levels of evaluation: reactions of participants, learning results, job behavior and returns for the
organization (Kirkpatrick, 1998).
Good evaluation system should be able to prove that the program achieves the important skills,
knowledge and attitude objectives, the knowledge is used effectively on the job, and provides valuable
and cost effective organizational benefits.The most fundamental issue of evaluation is whether the
learner has learnt in the training or program; the transfer of learning which reflects the degree to which
the participant effectively apply the knowledge, skills and attitudes gained in training context to the
job, and for the transfer to have occurred, learned behavior in the job context must be maintained over
a period of time. In this context of formal learning and in formal education, evaluation of learning is
most appropriate in terms of learning outcomes of the adult learners.

3.4 Learning Outcomes

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 Development of an individual involves learning, thinking, doing and feeling (Garavan, 1997). From
the human resource development’s perspective, adopting learning orientations are most relevant to the
context of working adults’ learning. Illeris (2003) describes learning from three dimensions: cognitive,
emotional and social–societal dimensions. The context learning outcomes in this paper adopts the five
learning orientations: behaviorist, cognitivist, humanist, social learning and constructivist (Merriam and
Caffarella, 1999) as the trends of current educational approach now in Malaysia are shifting towards
outcome based education.

3.4.1 Behaviorist Orientation

Learning brings about desired change in behavior in individuals. Propounded by behavioral
scientists (such as Skinner, Thorndike, Watson, Pavlov, et el.) learning is manifested by a change in
observable behavior; secondly the environment shapes behavior, what one learns is determined by the
elements in the environment; thirdly the principles of continuity and reinforcement. The facilitator’s
role in the training is to elicit the desired behavior change in an individual (Merriam and Caffarella,
1999). From the behaviorist orientation, it looks into the change in the ability of the adult learner to
conduct oneself in a behavioral manner and adapting to the communities of practice, namely: the
psychomotor skills and the human senses and its dimensions (Schon,1987).

3.4.2 Cognitive Orientation

Perception, insight and meaning are key contributors to cognitivism from Gestalt learning theorists
(Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Learning is a cognitive phenomenon. This orientation lies with the
individual learner while behaviorist lies in the environment. Within the cognitive framework, the
emphasis is on what the learners know versus how they behave. This knowing involves the acquisition
of new knowledge in the organization; learning is accumulative in nature. The act of learning involves
three simultaneous processes: acquisition of new information, transformation of knowledge to make it
fit new task, and evaluation on the way we manipulated information is adequate to the task (Knowles,
1984). From the cognitive orientation, the perspective of learning is seen from not knowing to a state
of knowhow and knowwhy.

3.4.3 Humanistic orientation

The humanistic orientation of learning views on human potential for growth. Rogers (1969)
describes learning as: (quote)
i. personal involvement where the whole person inclusive of his feelings and cognitive
aspects are involved in the learning event;
ii. self initiation, even when the impetus or stimuli comes from the outside, the sense of
discovery, of reaching out, of grasping and comprehending, comes from within;
iii. pervasiveness, learning makes a difference in the behavior, attitudes and perhaps
even the personality of the learner;
iv. evaluation by the learner, the learner knows whether the learning meets personal
needs, whether it leads toward what the individual wants to know;
v. its essence in meanings, when such learning takes place, the element of meanings to
the learner is built into the whole experience.
From this orientation, the learning perspective will be autonomous, growth oriented, develops
confidence as a worker, developing sense of responsibility and commitment in participating in daily
tasks. From the context of human development, it expands the worker’s potential to take a future role
within the organization (Noe, 2003).

3.4.4 Social Learning

The fourth orientation is social learning. Learning occurs through the observation of people in
one’s immediate environment. Learning is a function of the interaction of the person, the environment
and the behavior (Merriam and Cafarella, 1999). Learning is a continuous lifelong process resulting
from acting and doing tasks through observations and direct interactions. Participation in everyday
work activities assist in developing the knowledge required for work performance, and this knowing is
distributed across social environment. Therefore, learning is not only ongoing in our everyday
thinking and acting; it is mediated by the circumstances in which individual act (Billet, 2000).

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Learning new skills or behavior comes from directly experiencing the consequences of using behavior
or skills or the process of observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior (Noe, 2003).

3.5 Summary
Integrating the literature review on adult education, adult learning and their learning processes, it
can be summarized that the characteristics of adult learner consists of motivation-related constructs
(motivation to learn, readiness to learn and self directed learning) and ability constructs (knowledge
acquisition, situation identification and personal capacity to transfer (transfer learning) which can be
termed as self efficacy. The common factors why working adults pursue continuing education can be
categorized into: a) intrinsic factors such as cognitive needs, self-development needs, personal
aspiration needs; b) extrinsic factors such career (job), income, social needs, cognitive interest, family
support, opportunity and professional advancement.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Working adults pursue continuing education not only to seek for new knowledge, nor to improve
themselves towards personal development and self actualization, but the current economic and
development scenarios such as learning opportunities, advancement in technology, social and family
pressures, job and organizational needs motivate them to engage in continual learning. Working adults
possess rich background of work and life experiences; hence they are self directed learners whose
needs must be understood by facilitators when facilitating them. Adult teaching and learning is more
challenging despite facing the work challenges and organizational commitments at their work places;
their learning processes can be enriching for both facilitator and learner, and their learning outcomes
are attainable with respect to the formal educational structure and meeting the program objectives
towards becoming quality, mature and experienced graduates.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Many thanks and appreciations go to the respective proponents, experts and writers especially in
the field of adult education, learning theories and principles mentioned in this text; as well as the
professors in Universiti PUTRA Malaysia for their teaching and guidance in extension education and
professional studies. Thanks are also extended to the management and staff of Faculty of Business
Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam for their endless support in providing and
teaching the off campus part time working adult learners over the years.

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