Soils Acid Management

NATURE AND MANAGEMENT
OF
ACID SOILS IN ETHIOPIA
Mesfin Abebe May, 2007
Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia
Dedicated to
the toiling masses who taught us the love of soils and therefore the maintenance of soil fertility as the wellspring of life;
those that explored new ways for the sound management of soils
while in the process infused science and technology into tradition knowledge for their sustained utilization;
the mosaic people of Ethiopia and the forces of change that dared the
dark horizon of oppression for the realization of democracy as a capstone for sustainable development; and, therefore, the new generation of Ethiopians including my children Jorga, Sefanit, Kiyyaa, and Ifa to whom the future belongs.
Mesfin Abebe
May, 2007
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PREFACE
If we seek, we learn! And, the field of soil science has not been sufficiently tilled to help provide the basic element of life in Ethiopia. Conversely, yield increases are not fully realized on currently cultivated land. There are also large tracts of potentially arable lands that are now used only for extensive grazing or left to shrubs or not used at all. In contrast, close to forty percent of the country is occupied by acid soils. Out of this, some fifteen percent are highly acidic. Indeed, based on immense literature from research work done elsewhere and some of the information at home, there is much to be learnt about the place of acid soils in the agriculture of the country. Therefore, without paradigm re-cast, it is possible to revolutionize traditional agriculture and jump-start market-oriented development on acid soils. For instance, science and technology infused with indigenous knowledge and practices can go a long way for production and productivity milestones. Its icing would be the diverse combination of skillful management through increased understanding of these vital resources. As a consequence, land now under cultivation or new land that can be brought into production or areas which presently are unresponsive to diverse management or those that are unsuitable to agriculture can be improved. In this connection, many acid soils in Ethiopia have great potentials since with combination of innovations, they can be modified or reconstituted to drastically alter their original characteristics and put them to other use for high, efficient and sustained production. Further, the sound management of acid soils can be enhanced because the fallacy that people do not wish to adopt new technologies has been disproved and put to rest. Obviously, people bonded with the soil as an abiding verity can only wish to go beyond mere survival. That is why they seek forward looking rather than
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confrontational solutions. In this pursuit, if a new input that in reality fits their needs and is compatible with their local condition is demonstrated, they not only accept it but will make great efforts to find a way to pay for it. No less, there is now a great awakening that agriculture is not a simple enterprise. The adoption, wide dissemination, and remunerative returns from the use of improved agricultural inputs and technologies under the correct policy environment has demonstrated that. As a case in point, for the first time there is more than slender hope in the reversal of situations that once bordered on tragedy of cataclysmic dimension. One of these is the increased attention that is now being given to acid soils. acknowledged with profound appreciation and even relief. Emanating from the above, this modest work attempts at a sober treatment of acid soils in Ethiopia. It starts with the treatment of the much broader and complex field of soils as a background entry point to acid soils. By necessity, the fundamental principles behind their formation and nature are presented. For the sake of comprehensiveness, their classification is canvassed in general terms without rigorous application of soil taxonomic principles and is followed by description of their distribution. The discussion on basic principles on soils-plant relationship is meant to create the enabling environment is in consideration of their current management and utilization. It also sets the pace for a look into the outstanding factors that limit crop responses to native and/or applied amendments. Such an understanding is vital for the steps to be taken, with special reference to the amelioration measures towards their sound management and efficient utilization in accordance with their nature. As a consequence, specific reference is made to ion exchange reaction and the absorption of nutrients by plants in relation to acid soils. Then, a generalized discussion on nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and the micronutrients are presented. To cap it all, some fundamental concepts on soil acidity amelioration measures such as liming are highlighted with reference to the growing change in agriculture. This is
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Finally, the central theme, their future prospects and what is to be done is elaborated with a forward look. Therefore, it is not easy sloganlike answers that are entertained at the face of the demands that are liable to be made on acid soils to advance the wind of change in the country. Rather, it is the question of: How well acid soils respond to a management that is aimed to bring out their potential efficiency for dramatic increased production and productivity per unit of input, per unit of time and per unit of land? that is addressed. Accordingly, re-adjustments are needed to meet the challenges of a healthy and prosperous agriculture that offers qualitative leap in livelihood. Among others, this calls for the introduction of innovative technologies under fine-tuned sound soil management schemes to promote intensification, diversification and area specialization. To that end, the manuscript has highlighted some and a few recommendations are ventured in the process. In the description of the sound scientific principles for implementation in line with soil-plant relationships, technical jargon could not have been avoided; at least with the more technically informed readers in view. The purpose is to foster appreciation through basic understanding of the fundamental complex principles that determine the potentials and limitations of acid soils. One hopes that the difficulty can be bridged since such a reader is assumed to have basic knowledge of soil science. The reader with a ' diluted' background but searching for only a specific fact or dictum may find some practical ' hands-on' tool or answers. At the same time such a reader may appreciate that all is not so simple or so final as one might wish to think. On the whole, efforts were made to soft-pedal highly technical treatment in a manner that the manuscript would be suitable to students, extension agents, those engaged in agricultural development and users. In the preparation of the manuscript, the author has drawn liberally from many published works, too numerous to list, but dully acknowledged. Further, despite the immensity of the literature elsewhere, there is much restricted information on acid soils in Ethiopia. To fill that gap, the references are those that the writer
considered are suitable to the subject, knowing that often these are not necessarily the latest. Yet, there could be works that have been overlooked but ought to have been quoted even though a not exhaustive coverage of acid soils was not planned from the outset. The omission, however, was not intended. Further, the work was undertaken at a time when the author was in the pursuit of a much broader development agenda that went beyond soil science. But, there was the urge to seize the time and the opportunity through such a source material given the upsurge of sustainable development imperative on acid soils. In the process, there was the tendency to spread thin. Hence, for those interested in additional reading, a list of relevant references is provided. Mesfin Abebe May, 2007
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TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ................................................................................................ ii-v 1. THE SETTING..................................................................................... 1-4 2. FORMATION AND NATURE ......................................................... 5-15 2.1. Formation.....................................................................................5 2.1.1 General considerations................................................... 5-11 2.1.2 Specific..............................................................................11 2.2. Nature ................................................................................. 11-15 3. CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION ................................... 16-18 3.1 Classification ....................................................................... 16-18 3.2 Distribution ................................................................................18 4. SOME SOIL-PLANT CONSIDERATIONS..................................... 19-37 4.1. The Solid Phase ................................................................... 19-22 4.2. The Plant Phase.................................................................... 22-23 4.3. Some soil fertility and plant nutrition issues......................... 23-24 4.3.1. Nitrogen....................................................................... 24-26 4.3.2. Phosphorus .................................................................. 26-28 4.3.3. Potassium..................................................................... 29-33 4.3.4. Micronutrients ............................................................. 33-34 4.3.5. Liming ......................................................................... 34-37
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5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION ...................... 38-43 6. MEASURES FOR CONSERVATION-BASED MANAGEMENT . 44-51 61. The Environment ........................................................................44 6.2. Liming and lime requirement ............................................... 44-47 6.3. Types and fineness of liming materials ................................ 47-49 6.4. Placement...................................................................................49 6.5. Liming and small-scale irrigation......................................... 49-50 6.6. Organic matter as amendment ....................................................50 6.7. Indigenous knowledge and practices .................................... 50-51 7. THE ROAD AHEAD ....................................................................... 52-64 7.1. The Setting........................................................................... 52-53 7.2. Soil survey and mapping ..................................................... 53-55 7.3. Correlation studies ............................................................... 55-61 7.4. Selection of crop Species ..................................................... 61-63 7.5. Institutional arrangement ..................................................... 63-64 8. EPILOGUE....................................................................................... 65-71 Appendix I ........................................................................................... 72-75 The chemistry of soil pH..............................................................72 Appendix I I ......................................................................................... 76-79 The question of lime requirement ................................................76
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Neutralization value............................................................... 77-78 Limestone conversion factors................................................. 78-79 REFERENCES ................................................................................ 80-88
1.
THE SETTING
At a time when there was little documented knowledge on why and how things happened, indigenous knowledge and practices (IKP) were passed by fathers and mothers to sons and daughters. In places, these have accomplished feats that modern man has not yet duplicated. For instance, drawing upon wild stock, those with IKP have developed the major food plants and domesticated animals that are in use today. Their indigenous knowledge and practices on soils have also provided the means for survival even if it only kept body and soul together. This in itself is a great feat! They had to work under a setting where agriculture has been a gamble in rainfall and on soils that are inherently poor and had little sound management or received little improved inputs such as fertilizes (10; 22, 61). Now, the old and the new have met under a common denominator. The umbrella is accelerated and environmentally-friendly sustainable development for improved quality of life. Therefore, the stumble blocks can be removed through holistic studies on natural resources in general and definitive assessment of soils in particular. The urgency is acute given the glaring deficiency of knowledge on the threatened but very extensive acidic soils that are close to forty percent of the country. These are prominent and have great importance to the subsistence sector that depended on native fertility for mixed crop-livestock production. In contrast, at no time has agriculture in Ethiopia faced greater challenges as today. Further, at no time has agriculture in the country offered great opportunities to reach so far and touch the lives of so many people as today. Among others, it has a decisive role in the attainment of food security where both excesses and shortfalls during critical stages of crop growth have meant the difference between bounty and stark starvation. It must even go beyond it to usher plenty at the face of staggering population growth. Again, at no time has Ethiopia been so closely connected as now with world agriculture while at the same time striving to meet the gigantic increasing demand from its people. Then,
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not only has the country to reverse the above sorry state of affair but it also has to conquer new frontiers for market-oriented development to flourish. Thus, efforts are underway for sustained management and utilization of resources to undergirid socio-economic growth (1; 10; 22, 61). All of these are to be met where arable land has not been fully utilized or decreased in some places due to man-made and natural causes. Then, more food and fiber must be produced from the same or from lesser areas or from lands now uncultivated and considered marginal. This seeks science and technology fused research and development efforts. As a consequence, the principle of interaction between several practices has to be grasped by policy makers, agricultural leaders and cultivators. Its appreciation offers great possibilities for contrasting soils to have similar high levels of efficiency through the application of different sound practices. Then, not only production beyond the needs of the population but intensification, diversification and specialization can also be pursued on the mosaic soils under conservation-based watershade management. The qualitative leap in productivity and production can then contribute to help bail-out Ethiopian socio-economic development. This is also true for water harvesting for small-scale irrigation on acid soils. It is now being pursued supplemented by research-based appropriate technologies and such inputs as improved seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides etc. Yet, in reference to acid soils, knowledge-based good cultural practices and the use of research-based amendments are still at the infant stage. However, under a high level of sound management that also targets salinity control, they could offer gigantic economic windfalls while at the same time preserve the productive capacity of these fragile resources. The treatment of acid soils must also be cognizant of the fact that heavy investment in agriculture is bound to be massive even for the precipitation of continuous cultivation on land currently under production. Elsewhere, the use of
improved varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, etc. for greater return is bound to mount. This will inevitably lead to the expansion of the cultivated area through the clearing of even pristine forests that have protected acid soils for eons. But, these soils are prone to irreversible damage and, therefore, require continuous disciplined and knowledgeable management. To this end, the principles involved in acid soils have to be understood with knowledge acquired on how to manipulate them to best advantage under good management. As a corollary, concrete guidelines have to be formulated and made available to enhance the efficiency of these soils. This would only the first step in the right direction. The above have to be supplemented by soil survey information and maps for planning an efficient agriculture. Nevertheless, except for limited areas, most acid soils lack such information. It is not difficult to imagine its significance on the present arable land either on the newly developed areas or the potentially arable land not now being used. Thus, such information is needed to avoid waste from the introduction of new systems for use on acid soils which for the most part are poor. As a consequence, lessons can be drawn from past mistakes as essential to both conventional and improved use of these soils. That is why a concerted effort is needed on their sound soil management. Among others, there is need to harmonize action for their sustained use that embraces diversity. Then, not only what is out of balance and why, but the processes that help avoid mega-disaster from the irreversible damage of these resources in fragile eco-systems could be put in motion. Otherwise, the havoc that looms large would not be mere mirage on shifting sands. Therefore, there is need to come to grips with their ill-practice and with what would-be an eminent danger. To that end, a variety of critical management tools including the generation and adoption of meaningful R & D technology could help establish milestones in their sustainable utilization. This is evermore true because continually new ways are found to improve and to rehabilitate old arable soils of low productivity. For
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instance, the standard for the boundary between arable soils and not potentially arable is changing and is being pushed back with new knowledge and technology. It then follows that acid soils even with their profound variations in nature and properties can not be factors that limit productivity and production to threaten sustained growth in Ethiopia. Instead, they can be considered asset than liability. All that is called for is their conservation-based sound management. Here is where research and development technologies make a difference if exploited to best advantage. It is with this in perspective that modest attempts are made to integrate information for deeper insight under the title: The Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia. In the process, the work is hoped to make a dent in the reversal of the vicious circle arising from degradation of acid soils into a snowballing virtuous circle of conservation-based prosperity towards the fulfilment of the quest for improved quality of life.
2.
FORMATION AND NATURE
2.1. Formation: Basically, soils are functions of inter-dependent dynamic environmental conditions that relate to changes in the entire ecosystem. In essence, the external factors such as diverse parent materials, topography, climate, and organisms (both flora and fauna) work through time where physical, chemical, and biological processes simultaneously work to fashion heterogeneous soils (28). By the same token, soils in Ethiopia are quite variable chemically and physically (29; 30; 37; 42; 61; 66; 67). 2.1.1. General considerations: For the most part, acid soils have developed on a wide range of parent material such as volcanic, metamorphic and sedimentary. Examples are granites, marble, sandstones and limestone, respectively. Acidic igneous rocks with greater than 66% SiO2 are rich in silica and aluminium. A good example is granite. These are termed sialic (This is indicative of the combined symbols of Si for silica and Al for aluminium). Basic igneous rocks such as basalt with 45-52% SiO2 are rich in magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe). These are termed mafic based on the same approach in the designation of a monomer. Such differences in chemical composition are also the source of mosaic soils in Ethiopia that seek tailored or customized management. Grass vegetation is less effective than forests in the weathering of parent material for the formation and development of acid soils. The process is such that secondary minerals are destroyed and altered on weathering. The sequence depends on the intensity of the weathering environment and time (28). To elaborate this, consider the richness of weathering which is a reflection of the quantity and variety of elements in the parent material that is capable of being brought into the soil solution. In areas of high temperatures and rainfall that promote lush vegetation as in the western and southern Ethiopia, weathering intensity becomes great and this brings elements into solution. Or, with strong
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intensity of leaching under high soil permeability, there would be increased removal of such elements as Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, Cl-, SO4= and HCO3-. The result is higher H+ activity (28). It can then be surmised that since the process of weathering is the same in all climates, acid soils did form from parent materials that initially must have contained appreciable quantities of weatherable basic minerals (46). This underlines the fact that depending on the external factors of soil formation and the processes involved, distinctt soils in Ethiopia can have the same parent materials and chronological age but could result in different soils due to different intensities of weathering and leaching (61). The phenomenon can be illustrated with the weathering of the primary minerals orthoclase and microcline (both KAlSi3O8) (28). The pattern equally applies to the major igneous feldspars such as albite (NaAlSi3O8), anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8), biotite [K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2] and muscovite [KAlSi3O10(OH)2] (19; 26; 28; 38). Then, imagine a light shower falling upon the surface of muscovite which is unstable in water at room temperature and pressure. During the first stage of weathering in the initial transformation of rocks and minerals to soils, the reaction of the mica with water leads to the dissolution of basic ions. This is represented as: KAlSi3O8 + 4H2O K+ + Al3+ + 3Si(OH)4 . Eq. 1
Therefore, in slightly weathered arid region soils in Ethiopia, where leaching is weak, considerable alkali and alkaline earth cations such as Ca, Mg, Na, and K are released. These soluble salts as initial products of weathering lead to soil salinity. In other words, since hydrogen ion is consumed, the consequence of initial weathering is alkalinity (pH>7). As a result, saline-nonsodic soils occur. Conversely, excess sodium results in sodicity (alakalinity) i.e. non-salinesodic soils. The combination of both salinity and alkalinity leads to saline-sodic soils. The latter two are difficult to reclaim unless treated with chemical amendments. This can be illustrated with the weathering of albite - (NaAlSi3O8)):
NaAlSi3O8 + 4H2O
Na+ + Al3+ + 3Si(OH)4
Nevertheless, these young soils as in the Afar and Somali regions are laden with mineral nutrients. If successfully irrigated under sound water management scheme that regulates the rise of water table and the development of salinity or sodicity, they could make a difference in the fast-track attainment of food security. If not a panacea, they can even go a long way to facilitate market-oriented development. That as it is, the alkalinity due to the variety of new soluble salt is partially neutralized by carbon dioxide. It is produced by the organic cycle and secondary carbonates of calcium, magnesium, sodium etc. That is why most arid soils in Ethiopia are calcareous and these could have negative effects especially on micronutrient nutrition. CO2 + H2O H2CO3 or 2H+ + CO3- - Eq. 2 2K+ + CO3- - K2 CO3
While the neutralization by the weak acidity of carbonic acid favours continued weathering, it is the abundance of water that controls the rate. Thus, with increased rainfall, the alkali and alkaline-earth metals and all of the silica as Si(OH)4 are removed and weathering continues. This could be the over-riding situation in the high rainfall central and northern Ethiopia. On the other hand, resistant elements such as iron and aluminum accumulate. For instance, the formation and concentration of free alumina, for example gibbsite, requires the rapid and almost immediate removal of soluble weathering products such as silica. This is only possible under free drainage, heavy rainfall, and a position above the water table. Then, ferrous iron produced by hydrolysis is oxidized and eliminated from the reaction by precipitation as ferric iron.
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As indicated earlier, the weathering of igneous acid rocks such as granite that are rich in silica and aluminum is much slower than the decomposition of basic rocks that are rich in magnesium and iron. Under this condition, the aluminium and silica concentrations reach their solubility maxima. Subsequently clay minerals are synthesized. In this case the formation of kaolinite predominates. Al+3 + Si(OH)4 + 1/2 H2O soluble silica 3H+ + Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Eq. 3. kaolinite
This indicates that the dominant secondary mineral in these soils is not gibbsite but kaolinite. The reason is that desilication processes seldom reach the extreme intensities needed for gibbsite formation at this stage. It could either be due to the fact that silica is not always removed from the reaction sites, or the soil solution remains in contact with weathering minerals which produce silica. As a case in point, these primary silicates may continue to weather and the slow hydrolysis of feldspars such as biotite can supply silica to the soil solution to favor the formation of kaolinite. The clay minerals so formed have large surface area and are charged because of unsatisfied chemical bonds. The high surface energies offer them cation and anion adsorption potentials (35). This is of significance in nutrient availability and determent of ions from leaching losses. Examples where Eq.3. operates are some soils in the central highlands and the western plateau that have reddish-brown permeable clays with easy workability. With further leaching under high temperatures and rainfall as in the western and southern part of the country, the release and even depletion of basic cations is heightened. Such conditions eventually lower the silica concentration enough that kaolinite becomes unstable and the formation of gibbsite predominates with the remaining silica released (56). At this stage, acid soils come into the picture. These predominant in Ethiopia and are represented by some Alfisols, the Oxisols and Ultisols Thus, we have:
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 5H2O kaolinite
2Si(OH)4 + Al(OH)3 Eq.4. soluble silica gibbsite
Put differently, hydrogen-clays become unstable and spontaneously decompose to yield aluminium ions and silicic acid. Thus, kaolinite degrades to gibbsite that becomes insoluble and accumulate in soils because it is resistant to weathering. While some of it is adsorbed on the clay, that in the soil solution hydrolyzes around pH 4 and pH 5 to give hydrogen and aluminium hydroxide. This leads to the depicted series of reactions that contribute to soils acidity. Al+3 + 3H2O 3H+ + Al(OH)3 . Eq. 5.
On the whole, it is the eventual hydrolysis reactions of aluminium and iron that produces soil acidity (25; 28; 45). Al+3 + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H2O Al(OH)21+ + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H+ Al(OH)21+ + H+ Al(OH)3 + H+
Therefore, during weathering where intense leaching of bases occurs with the formation of gibbsite, three moles of hydrogen ion are produced. The process is related to soil pH, clay mineralogy and organic matter. Amounts are greatest in soils with low pH values and large quantities are in 2:1 clays. The other phenomenon is the cyclic oxidation and reduction of iron in the weathering of clays as well as the development of soil acidity (21; 41; 72). Another dimension is the development of reducing conditions in a previously oxidized environment in which the soil is partially saturated with exchangeable
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aluminium and ferric compounds (12). This is the rule in acid soils in general. Those highly weathered acid soils in Ethiopia are not exceptions as represented by: [Clay]2Al(OH)2+ + 3Fe(OH)3 + 3e [Clay]3Fe(OH)2+ + 2 Al(OH)2+ + 5OH
The reaction reveals that ferrous iron displaces exchangeable aluminium through reduction. Then, the ferrous iron is re-oxidized and forms ferric compounds which can again be reduced to complete the cycle in the process termed "ferrrolysis" (14). Thus, we have:[CLAY] 3Fe)2+ + 3OH- + 6H2O [CLAY] 6H+ + Fe(OH)3 + 3e
In all stages of weathering, the re-instatement of oxidizing conditions results in the formation of ferric compounds. Such iron oxide when reduced can replace basic cations and thereby accelerate their loss through leaching. With further increase in rainfall as in western and southern Ethiopia, a point is reached at which the rate of removal of bases exceeds the rate of liberation of ions from nonxchangeable forms. At this stage, the partial breakdown of clays release large quantities of iron and aluminum to the system (26; 27). As the main source of exchangeable acidity, it contributes to absence of nutrients and lower soil pH, therefore, the infertility of acid soils. The enrichment with respect to these ions means that poorly drained soils are frequently more acidic. Another manifestation in the context of the above discussion is that the soluble form of iron can easily migrate with the ground water to more oxidizing loci for re-oxidation as goethite and/or hematite. As a consequence of this, drained acid soils have rusty reddish-dark mottles. The ferrous form of relatively soluble reduced iron, on the other hand, results in grayish or light-colored mottles than comparable better drained soils. Repetition of the cycle leads to zones with high and low free iron contents with corresponding reddish-brown and gray colors, respectively (4; 69). Such is the case in the high rainfall parts of south-western
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and southern Ethiopia. Here, it is the intensity of leaching under high rainfall and humid conditions and not accumulation of bases that is the dominant process for the prevalence of acid soils. 2.1.2. Specific: Given the above general consideration, as elsewhere, destructive and constructive processes have dominated in Ethiopia for the formation of acid soils. To that end, various decomposition stages are observed in the Basement Complex and those materials regarded as mid-Tertiary in origin where most of the soils have developed in situ on Trap Series (42; 64; 67). Their parent materials could be weathered rhyolites, iron and aluminum rich felsic materials and metamorphosed Precambrian basement rocks. Large areas are also developed on alluvial and colluvial materials (69). At the highest level of generalization, the acid soils in the country could be considered as some Inceptisols, quite a few Alfisols, most Oxisols and Ultisols. These are found in association with other soil Orders such as Chromic Vertisols. As a consequence, the mineral stress and, therefore, their infertility can be attributed to excesses of aluminum, or iron or manganese on the one hand; and to deficiencies of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and a host of micronutrients on the other (3; 60; 61; 73; 74; 95; 96). Thus, their nature is treated below for an in-depth understanding to foster their sound management and sustained utilization. 2.2. Nature: From a historical perspective, the belief was that the exchange complex of acid soils was primarily hydrogen saturated. While hydrogen is derived from several sources, one of these is water (H20). It ionizes slightly to produce the positively charged hydrogen ion (H+) and the negatively charged hydroxyl ion (OH-). However, because water is very stable its ionization does not produce much (H+) and (OH-) ions. In fact only about one molecule in ten million is ionized at any one time (Appendix I).
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It is now recognized that there are several causes for acidity in soils. These could be due to: i) high rainfall that leaches soluble nutrients such as calcium and magnesium that will be replaced specifically by aluminium, from the exchange sites; ii) acidic parent material that furnish aluminium and silicon ions; iii) hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum in exchangeable form, iv) humus from organic matter decay; v) large quantities of carbonic acid produced by microorganisms and higher plants including through other physico-chemical and biological processes though the effect from its dissociation is relatively small because most of it is lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide; vi) removal of lime elements especially from soils with small reservoir of bases due the harvest of high yielding crops and vii) low buffer capacity from little clay and organic matter. Another source of soil acidity is contact exchange between exchangeable hydrogen on root surfaces and the bases in exchangeable form on soils. Where leaching is limited, microbial production of nitric and sulfuric acids also occurs. More specifically, it is the liberation of aluminium by weathering of aluminiumbearing minerals and the decomposition of organic matter that are the main sources of exchangeable aluminium. It is the hydrolysis of water in the presence of aluminium to form hydrogen ions that is reflected in pH values below seven. Hence, aluminium is dominant in most acid soils of pH 5 or lower. As a matter of fact, it is one thousand times greater at pH 4.5 than at pH 5.5 and such toxic levels cause what is known as root pruning such that they deteriorate and plants eventually stop growing or die altogether (24; 25; 47; 48). Concomitant increases in cation exchange sites that accompany higher clay content also lead to more polymerized hydroxy-aluminium ions which accumulate between the layers of the clay crystals (45). Further, organic matter forms complexes involving the functional groups with hydroxy-iron and aluminium compounds. It also forms chelate-acidic cations in forms not readily exchangeable
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with others. In addition, iron and manganese also become more soluble and their concentration on the exchange complex increases. The other principal source of hydrogen in soils is the exchange that occurs with soluble acids that arise in several different ways. Further, the oxidation of iron sulfide or pyrite to sulphuric acid is also another sources of acidity. Acid sulphate soils develop when sulphide materials are exposed to oxygen in the atmosphere. As a case in point, the production of acid from the oxidation of pyrite exceeds the neutralizing capacity of organic matter in the soil or other materials, and often, the pH levels drop below four. The reaction is:4FeS2 + 1502 + 14H20 4(Fe0H)3 + 8SO42- + 16H+
solid pyrite dissolved oxygen colloidal iron sulfuric acid
Under waterlogged soils that favor the formation of pyrite as in flooded conditions, it has no adverse effects. But, when sufficiently drained, the oxidation of pyrite brings significant levels of aluminum and iron into the soil solution. These soluble acids are common to all soils, including those in Ethiopia. As a result, they could have detrimental effects on flora and fauna. Incidentally, the symptoms from efforts at fast-track agricultural developments through the drainage of wet areas, swamps and bottomland aimed at their conversion into productive agricultural lands are being manifested in parts of the country. These soils should be regarded with caution and handled with care based on lessons from elsewhere. In essence, their drainage could lead to uncalled for but unimagined undesirable consequences. The preferred environmentally responsible and cheapest strategy would be not to disturb such hot spots in the first place. If they cannot be avoided, their disturbance should be minimized or that they be given special treatment to neutralize their acidity. Certainly, avoidance or limiting of ground water extraction helps. Either way, a monitoring program is needed as part of any management plan before and after their disturbance in the name of development.
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These "oxide" soils also have surface charge density and sign of charge that are predominantly pH dependent though some amount of permanent charge is present. This means that they have both cation and anion exchange properties. These arise from organic matter functional groups that react with hydroxy iron and aluminium compounds that hydrolyze to form hydrogen ions. This reversible nature of surface charge has far reaching significance in their management. For one, calcium and magnesium would be replaced by aluminium from the exchange site and be lost by leaching with adverse effects (25; 26; 27; 47; 4 8). In contrast, phosphorus and molybdenum become sorbed by colloids such as kaolinite, iron and aluminium oxides that render them unavailable to plants (2; 47, 48). There are also many chemical, mineralogical, and biological effects associated with soil acidity. In aggregate, acid soils have poor nutrient status and deleterious effects from some toxicities which can at times be devastating (59; 74; 75; 92; 93). Yet, they do not present workability problems. Thus, land can be prepared without great difficulty even shortly after precipitation. This good drainage arises from their behavior like sandy soils due to the deep, fairly uniform, dark reddish brown clay that is associated with segregation of iron oxide by alternating oxidation and reduction (33). Further, such soils do not disperse because they are rich in aluminum, an effective flocculating agent in itself. As a result of their good physical characteristics and well developed permeable structures that present water and air permeable rooting zone, their moisture retention properties differ from others with similar clay content. In a positive note, such conditions favor the proliferation of large soil volume at depth by roots. In the process, mineral and moisture stresses are partly compensated. It is of particular relevance where, for the most part, bicycling of nutrients by the native vegetation is the major source of nutrient replenishment in some acid soils. But, in the absence of weatherable minerals, bicycling in itself is not
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completely efficient since continued loss of nutrients through leaching and erosion lead to low base status. Further, when vegetation cover is removed such as the clearing of natural vegetation, or under those practices that perpetuate the depletion of organic matter or those that do not promote the accumulation of humus, they tend to become infertile. Worse still, they tend to set hard on drying when exposed to direct sunlight. This irreversible brick-like degradation of soils rich in iron and aluminum has been referred to as laterization. It can be a major menace in Ethiopia if there is a disregard of conservation-based sound management on these soils to ensure their sustained utiization
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3.
CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION
3.1. Classification: Description of the various rigorous soil classification systems is not attempted here. Only for the sake of completeness and in the interest of the general reader are the different classification systems that have relevance to acid soils touched upon here. Thus, in earlier classification, acid soils were considered as Laterites in view of the brick-like cementation and drying under direct sunlight in the absence of vegetation cover. Other have designated them as Latosols (23). They were also included within the great soil groups known as Reddish-Brown Lateritic soils, Yellowish-Brown Lateritic soils, Red-Yellow Podzolic soils, and the several kinds of Latosols (60; 87). All these are indicative of their high degree weathering and their subsequent enrichment with oxide minerals such as iron and aluminium. Under the descriptive Soil Classification (59) soils in Ethiopia range from the slightly weathered Inceptisols and Entisols to the highly weathered Oxisols and Ultisols. Soils of intermediate weathering are the Alfisols, Vertisols, Mollisols, and Aridisols. Accordingly, these soils can be subsumed, for the most part, under the Alfisols (indicative of their high aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) content), Oxisols (in reference to their oxide nature) and Ultisols (to depict their ultimate level of weathering). Then, without loosing sight of the various classification systems, some of the Alfisols but most of Oxisols and Ultisols can, for the most part, be considered as the acid soils in Ethiopia. These soils fit the description provided under Formation and Nature. They occur on the west, north-western, south-western and southern part of the country and accompanying lowlands. They are found in the gently slopping to steep land within the slope range of 2 to 16 slope on flat and undulating lands, low plateaus, gentle hills and mountains side slopes.
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In another note, if a cross-reference of the Alfisols, Oxisols and Ultisols can be made with the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of Africa (34) which, in the strictest sense is not a true classification system, vast areas in Ethiopia have been mapped as Eutric Nitosols. These occur in various associations with other soils and include: the Dystric Nitisols that are relatively high in organic matter and base saturation in the top layer. The Acrisols are generally developed from acidic parent material and occur in the high rainfall areas where depletion of bases by leaching from strong weathering occurs. Therefore, they are often left under natural vegetation for grazing purposes. The Dystric Cambisols occur at relatively high altitudes on very steep slopes wherever conditions are not favorable for soil forming processes and, therefore, are shallow in depth. Even then, in areas of high population pressure these soils are intensively cultivated. Otherwise, they are mainly under natural vegetation. As rainfall increases the shallow Lithosols occur on steep landforms where erosion pressure is also high. In areas where fine textured alluvium and colluvium have concentrated, Cambisols grade to chromic and vertic Luvisols. Where rainfall permits, Chromic Vertisols occur on gentle slopes that are somewhat drained. Whatever the semantics of classification, the west, southern, south-western and the north-western part of the country have widespread acidic soils. Often, they lack distinct horizons except for a darkened surface layer due to the large amounts of iron oxides formed by strong weathering under humid conditions. As a consequence, they are well drained but the smoking gun of erosion is here at wok. It has become a frequent phenomenon due to a variety of man-made and natural factors in the absence of conservation-based sound soil management. Such soils have low cation exchange capacity, exchangeable bases, available phosphorus, and organic matter (3). As a consequence, supplies of plant nutrients are low. Due to the high exchangeable aluminium their capacity to fix phosphorus is high. All of these have compounded the problem of soil acidity in Ethiopia (2o; 42; 59; 66; 67).
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In contrast, where conditions permits and under sound soil management, they have been very productive and this is testimony to their high potential for agriculture. Then, all that is called for is the rectification of the stresses. As a result, their well drained stable structure offers high water storage and ease of land workability even in the dry season and/or shortly after rain. This and many more opportunities can be exploited to better advantage to tap the high potential that the vast acid soils offer. 3.2. Distribution: Acid soils are rampant and occupy about 40.9 percent of the country (83). They extend from south-west to north-west with east-west distribution. They are concentrated mainly in the western part of the country including the lowlands but are limited by the eastern escarpments of the Rift Valley. Out of the 40.9 percent total coverage, 27.7 percent are moderate to weakly acidic (pH of 5.5 - 6.7); 13.2 percent are strong to moderately acidic (pH < 5.5) and nearly one-third have aluminum toxicity problem (83). As a case in point, a site specific study of soils around Asosa and Welega revealed that in aggregate, some 67 percent had pH values less than 6 and were very strongly to strongly acidic (88). Of these, 2.2 percent were extremely acidic (pH<4.5). Thirty four percent were very strongly acidic (pH = 4.5 to 5.0), 32.8 percent were strongly acidic (pH = 5.1 to 5.5.) and 27 percent were moderately acidic with pH range of 5.6 to 6.0. Of the total, only three percent were slightly acidic (pH = 6.1 6.5), and 1 percent neutral. There are also indications that problems of soil acidity have begun to be visible in the northwestern and northern parts of the country. Acid soils are extremely variable due to a spectrum of parent materials, land form, vegetation and climate pattern. They are found in all but the very driest climate. They are predominant in those areas that receive up to 2000 mm annual rainfall and small seasonal variation in temperature. As a consequence, forests are their characteristic natural landscapes. Yet, they occur under a variety of
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natural vegetation including savannas depending on precipitation. These have become sparse and merged into woodland or open savanna that are used for both sedentary agriculture and agro-pastoral livestock grazing. In themselves, these people also seek technologies for better productivity and production.
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4.
SOME SOIL-PLANT CONSIDERATIONS
General: Most people consider soils as one of the stable components of the environment that change very little, if undisturbed by man. But, soils are dynamic where the relative intensity of the physical, chemical and biological processes are at work on diverse parent materials that have geographic distribution and lead to heterogeneous soils (19). Factors such as addition, removal, transfers and transformation of materials are also powerful tools that lend the particular properties and attributes of any soil (28). In essence, the combinations of patterns in a given soil are due to three forms of matter solids, liquids and gases. 4.1. The solid phase: It consists of organic and inorganic materials. The organic fraction is made up of plants and animals residues in all stages of decomposition. The stable phase formed through biological degradation is termed humus. The inorganic fraction is composed of primary and secondary minerals. In fact, its components are the: sand of two millimeter, silt of twenty microns plus clay and humus of less than two microns effective diameter. It is within the inorganic and humus colloidal solid phase that the essential elements for plant growth originate. Though slow, mineral weathering and organic matter decomposition furnish nutrients to plants through the soil solution and the soil solid-liquid interface. The usual path to the plant root is from the solid phase to the surrounding liquid phase or the soil solution. However, for the nutrients not to be lost through leaching but be retained and become available to plants, cation exchange is necessary (25; 26; 27). This is where positively charged cations, referred to as exchangeable cations, are attracted to negatively charged surfaces due to unbalanced forces in the solid phase. Thus, cation exchange that retains ions against loss is the reversible process by which positive ions or exchangeable cations are exchanged between the negatively charged solid and the liquid phase of soils. Or, cation exchange capacity
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(CEC) is the quantity of exchangeable cations that are necessary to neutralize the negative charge of unit quantity of soil under a given set of conditions. The charge for cation exchange on the inorganic clay fraction arises from two sources. The first is isomorphous substitution which is fairly uniform and arises from the substitution of an atom with a similar geometry but of lower charge. Such is the case in the substitution of the quadrivalent silicon by the trivalent aluminum atom. The result is the development of excess negative charge that arise from the crystal structure. This is the permanent charge and as the name implies, it persists under all conditions. The charge is greater for such 2:1 clays as montimorrilonite that occupy over ten million hectares of highland Ethiopia (61) than on the 1:1 clays as kaolinite that are widespread in the context of acid soils. As a rule, higher valence ions are held more tightly than monovalent cations. Also, the greater the degree to which the ion is hydrated, the less tightly it is held. The quantity of balancing ions or exchangeable cations in the vicinity of the particle surface depends on the inherited characteristic of soils, its previous history and past management. Keeping such considerations in perspective would be vital in the design and implementation of acid soils amelioration measures. The other dimension is that clay minerals also have pH-dependent charges. It results from the ionization of hydroxyl (OH) groups attached to the silicon atoms (SiOH groups) at the broken exposed crystal edges of the tetrahedral planes (36). It is illustrated in the following equation: SiOH + H2O SiO- + H3O+
Acid soils rich in iron and aluminium also display pH-dependent charge. It increases with rise in soil pH. Such pH-dependent charge is also a function of the kind of clay. The chemical nature of soil organic matter, more particularly humus, is such that it only has pH-dependent charge. It arises from the ionization of hydrogen from carboxyl (COOH) and phenol groups (OH) and perhaps to some
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extent from the amide (NH2) groups. The dissociation of H ion accordingly contributes to soil acidity. On the other hand, the negative charges on organic and mineral colloids are neutralized by cations attracted to the surface of these colloids. Also, the greater the degree to which the ion is hydrated, the less tightly will it be held. The strength with which ions are bound to mineral and organic particles also depends on the nature of the ions, characteristics of particle charges as well as to their source and magnitude. The ease with which ions are exchanged one for another is further related to the binding energy. These considerations have significant implication on the nature of soil acidity and the amelioration with lime or other amendments. In this context, one of the important properties of a soil is its degree of base saturation. It is defined as the percentage of the total CEC occupied by such basic cations as calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Another important consideration is that the exchangeable cations that arise in the mineral and organic fraction are much larger than the amounts of cations in the soil solution. However, because the liquid phase contains dissolved salts, these ions become immediately available to plants. Further, the soil solution is dynamic. Interaction and exchange of ions between the solid and liquid phase take place continuously. Ions are continuously removed by plants roots from the soil solution, from an assortment of minerals and inorganic compounds, and those released from the decomposition of soil organic matter. Simultaneously, other ions renew this solution through the slow breakdown of minerals as well as ion exchange and from the decomposition of organic matter. Another phenomenon is that if two solid phases are in contact, ion exchange may take place between their surfaces through what is known as contact exchange. In addition to cation exchange, soils have the capacity to retain anions and this is high with a decrease in pH or increased acidity in soils. It is much greater in soils high in 1:1 clays such as kaolinite and those acid soils that contain hydrous
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oxides of iron and aluminum than in soils with 2:1 clays (40; 57). This is the mirror-image of cation retention due to permanent charge. The mechanism can be generally explained by the lowering of soil pH that increases the activation of basic groups by increasing their acceptance of protons. As an example: ROH + HSO4 RNH2 + HCl ROH2 + SO4 RNH3 + Cl -
In this position the anion will exchange for others in the soil solution. Therefore, to a certain extent anions such as nitrate, chloride, sulfates and phosphate would be adsorbed. While it minimizes their loss through leaching, it will increase their unavailability, especially that of phosphorus due to fixation. Thus, there would be inefficiency of phosphate fertilizer use unless well placed and the subsequent residual effects are exploited to best advantage. 4.2. The plant phase: The transfer of the nutrient to the plant root occurs either by mass flow or diffusion or contact exchange. In this soil-plant interrelationship process, nutrient absorption and accumulation by plants embraces the transfer of the nutrient ions across the interfaces of soil and root into the cellular structure of the plant. Such nutrient absorption and accumulation is regulated by both external and internal factors. Of the external factors, the rate of nutrient absorption is not independent of the concentration in the soil solution and is proportional to the concentration of specific ion species present. Then, whether the soil as a medium for plant growth is basic or acidic makes a difference since ionic compositions vary accordingly. In reference to the internal factor, nutrient absorption can only occur with the expenditure of energy by the plant. Or, no significant absorption takes place in the absence of metabolic activity. When this activity is inhibited, nutrient accumulation drops. Indeed, the unfavourable environment around the rhizosphere
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of acid soils impinges adversely on this. The surface of roots like soils carry negative charge and exhibit cation exchange properties. Roots also vary in their feeding power or their capacity to absorb nutrients. The presence of younger tissue with the capability for growth and elongation, the extensiveness of the root system, and the volume of soil they trap do matter. But, root pruning is a common occurrence in aluminium-rich acid soils. Again, for the most part, the above optimum conditions do not fully prevail in Ethiopia unless acid soils are ameliorated under sound management. These are considered below. 4.3. Some soil fertility and plant nutrition issues: If the generalized quality of an ideal soil is considered, it would be discovered that any soil has a unique combination of many features. Among these are: a balanced supply of plant nutrients available to the roots from minerals and organic matter; absence of soils acidity; adequate rooting depth with good permeability for growth; capacity to store and release water to roots; optimum soil texture that provides adequate water infiltration with minimum waterlogging; structural stability such that it does not slip down the slope or cause no erosion hazard etc. Two other requirements are also essential in the management of soil in general and acid soils in particular. One is the kind and variety of crop, be it in monoculture or mixtures or sequences, with genetic potential to respond to the modified soil and environment. Equally, crops must be protected from insects, diseases and other hazards. Otherwise, the other management practices may come to nothing. The above considerations underscore the fact that production and productivity on acid soils depend on complex interactions among their many features to ensure their sound management. This is where the principle of interaction in soil use is of the utmost importance. It needs to be emphasized in newly developed areas or in changing from traditional to modern agriculture. In accordance with the law of the minimum, each one in the system has effect on the others such that rarely does an improvement in one practice such as irrigation, fertilizers, lime, or
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improved seeds alone give a satisfactory result. Therefore, to achieve high and efficient production, agricultural leaders and cultivators must have a working knowledge of this important principle. Under sound management, one partly changes the soil and partly selects management practices and crops to develop a system that gives the optimum yield with efficiency in terms of output over input. It is with this perspective and with the conviction that agriculture in Ethiopia is not a simple enterprise attempts are made to treat the salient features of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and liming in relation to acid soils. 4.3.1. Nitrogen: Much of the nitrogen in soils occurs in very complex organic compounds. Additions of organic nitrogen also occur annually through its immobilization as crop residue. But, it is not readily available to plants. It is the mineralization of organic nitrogen to the inorganic form which determines the amount of nitrogen that will be available to plants. In other words, the two processes of organic matter formation and decomposition tend to balance each other. Then, under any cropping system and soil management, it is their enter-play that determines the parallel gains and losses of soil nitrogen. In this regards, nitrogen is probably more often deficient than any other essential element in soils in general and acid soils in particular. For one thing, it requires little sophistication to appreciate the diverse loses under varied climatic conditions where the menace from erosion is high. With their high erosivity, the magnitude of acid soil loss from this insidious phenomenon far exceeds the accumulation of nitrogen. Improper cultural practices such as the annual burning or removal of vegetation or plant residue under the traditional system of land preparation or the use of fire to initiate new grass growth for livestock are also major contributors to the loss. No less important is leaching which leads to substantial losses of available nitrogen under high rainfall and highly permeable soil conditions. Even soil burning or "guie" that dates since antiquity can ultimately contribute to loss of nitrogen though its immediate effect is the mineralization of organic nitrogen with
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the formation of ammonium-nitrogen to sustain a few years of cereals-legume crops (5; 7; 58; 59; 60; 61; 77; 78; 98). On the other hand, it is not unlikely that complex formation of organic matter with oxides and hydroxides of iron and aluminum in acid soils can affect organic nitrogen to protect it against mineralization. The subsequent mineralization of such complexed organic nitrogen offers many potentialities. For one, this a time when the expensive inputs, fertilizers, are purchased with direly needed foreign exchange. Then, the efficient utilizatin of such "residual" nitrogen similar to that of "residual" phosphorus exploitation is necessary. Equally, sound native soil fertility management could also be applied to this end. In the meantime, it is encouraging that some inroads are being made through compost preparation and use. Undeniably, increased level of soil nitrogen means a higher content of stable organic matter and a general increase in soil fertility (96). Therefore, its tempo must be maintained with appropriate starters in recognition of the room for improvement through the infusion of tailored R & D information. In regards to nitrogen nutrition, indeed, liming plays a vital role since most of the organisms responsible for the conversion of ammonia to nitrate require large amount of active calcium. To that end, soils often are limed to pH of 6.0 or pH 6.5 to enhance nitrification. The decomposition of plant residues and the return of larger amount of nitrogen are also more rapid in this pH range rather than under acidic conditions. The process of atmospheric nitrogen fixation, both symbiotic and non-symbiotic, is also favoured by adequate liming. Regrettably, there has not been much undertaking to that end. Now, however, there is the beginning of the awakening with the imperative to understand the processes in these soils in relation to nitrogen. This will further fine-tune their sustained management for enhanced economic benefits with bearings on the cardinal issue of the environment. Then, an in-depth study of nitrogen transformation in acid soils, with and without amendments, is needed for a strong impact upon both crop and
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livestock production under varied sound farming systems. Given the diverse agro-ecology, understanding nitrogen accretion and losses, can help fine-tuned sound soil management that have to be imposed on acid soils for greater economic benefits from intensification, diversification and specialization. 4.3.2. Phosphorus: This element can be classed as organic or inorganic. The organic form is found in humus and other organic materials which may or may not be associated with it. The inorganic fraction occurs in numerous combinations with iron, aluminium, calcium, fluoride, and other elements that are very slightly soluble in water. Its general formula is M(H20)3H2PO4) where M represents iron or aluminium. It also reacts with clays to form insoluble clay-phosphate complexes (101). It is also present in plant tissues and in soils in smaller amounts than are nitrogen and potassium. The generally small quantities of phosphorus in soils and its tendency to react with soil components to form relatively insoluble, hence unavailable to plants, makes it a topic of major importance in the realm of soil fertility in Ethiopia (56). The phenomena are glaringly manifested in the case for acid soils that are of weathering great age. But, until greater sophistication is achieved, even liming without fertilizers can make the difference in its availability for a concomitant yield increase. As it is, next to nitrogen, phosphorus is the nutrient that is often deficient in Ethiopian soils (61). The situation is more magnified in varying degrees from the prevalence of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminum. The diverse amorphous colloidal materials, 1:1 type clay and organic matter also render phosphorus less available (56). Here, complex phosphorus adsorption or fixation occurs. The magnitude of phosphorus sorption or fixation follows:- amorphous hydrated oxides > crystalline oxides > 1:1 clay > 2:1 minerals (36). It is also highly correlated with exchangeable and extractable forms of iron and aluminium. The role of aluminium is more important than that of iron under acid or neutral conditions (74; 75; 92). Phosphorus fixation can even be very high in volcanic ash
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soils that are rich in silica, iron and alminium as those in the Rift Valley. Here too form the diverse insoluble compounds such as calcium phosphate at high pH values. On the whole, the adsorbed phosphorus includes the portion that is held in exchangeable form on the surface of soil solids and is changed into complex iron and aluminium compounds. Under certain conditions they precipitate, where as under other, they are adsorbed to the surface of soil clays and minerals (101). From the foregoing, it can be concluded that fixation of phosphorus at both ends of the pH spectrum can be substantial (3; 79; 94). Not only is its economic consequences high, but it can also pose serious environmental hazard. Given the high ersoitivity of Ethiopian soils, acid soils or volcanic ash soils laden with phosphorus from fertilizer and other sources can lead to phosphorus enrichment of water bodies or lead to what is known eutriphication. As a result of this enrichment (that also includes nitrogen), there would be algal bloom in many lakes be it in the Rift Valley or water bodies elsewhere. As consequence, the biological oxygen demand (BOD) becomes critical. Eventually the water bodies would be devoid of life and will only remains as mere water bodies in the physical sense. Little economic or aesthetic value but death that has for long been around the corner, becomes eminent. And, they die! Instead of a loose-loose situation, the sound management and use of such soils could not have resulted in land degradation and eutriphication. Rather, rich as they are from applied nutrient(s), such expensive inputs should not be wasted through erosion loss and be the cause for the death of vital water resources. Instead, it should be efficiently utilized for remunerative returns! If such soils are limed, aluminium and iron could be inactivated to correspondingly increase the level of soil pH. Then, phosphate availability to plants will be increased. The other end of the soil reaction spectrum is that, if certain soils are excessively limed, calcium and magnesium phosphates precipitate. Again, the enrichment of water bodies by these nutrients sets in while soils are deprived and
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become deficient in these and other elements. Therefore, liming of acid soils such that the pH can be kept between 6.0 and 7.0 can offer maximum benefit from applied phosphorus and minimize eutriphication. The usual practice is not to lime above 6.5 because the availability of certain micronutrients could decrease. Other sources of phosphorus could also have great bearing on the sustainability of small-scale agriculture. For instance, studies at Holetta revealed that rape seed has been able to utilize phosphorus from rock phosphate and bone meal (89). Thus, all sources of phosphorus with the exception of Egyptian rock phosphate supplied adequate amount of phosphorus for barley as well as rape seed. If so, why then, there is need for focus on the study of phosphorus availability from such materials. Accordingly, issues of intensity, quantity, and rate factors in phosphorus nutrition have to be assessed since they control the availability and uptake of phosphorus from soils. It also goes without saying that liming, depending upon climatic conditions and sound soil management practices, offers possibilities for considerable phosphorus availability on acid soils in Ethiopia. Among others, it contributes to the quantity factor, the "labile pool" or the pool of readily desorbable phosphate that is associated with the solid phase. This is not completely unavailable to plants. In time, it contributes to phosphate in the soil solution, the intensity factor. As a matter of fact, since the rate factor depends on the ease with which phosphorus is desorbed into the soil solution, applied but fixed phosphorus fertilizer can even be regarded as an investment given its availability to crops in subsequent years. Even with liming alone its availability would be enhanced. Undoubtedly, even without added investment on fertilizers "residual" phosphorus can benefit subsequent crops without yields being diminished substantially or not at all. When ssupplemented with judicious use of fertilizers, no doubt that yields could be qualitatively improved. There are some studies to this effect (61; 74; 75; 89; 90; 93). Sadly, the findings were not fully disseminated to users. Yet, had the
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information on the availability of "residual" phosphorus been implemented, it could certainly have saved farmers the unnecessary labor and high cost from wasteful fertilizer application. Of no less important, it could have minimized negative impacts on the fragile environment. The renewed pursuit of such ventures can save the country its meager foreign exchange. Otherwise, it would have to be used for the purchase of the expensive input, fertilizers. 4.3.3. Potassium: Exclusive of that added in fertilizers, potassium in soils originates from the disintegration and decomposition of potassium-containing rocks and primary minerals. Potassium is required by plants in large amounts than in any other mineral elements except nitrogen and phosphorus (16; 101). But, of the total amount, only a small fraction can be utilized by plants. In fact, crops may even respond to its addition on soils that contain a large amount of total potassium. If the large amount of total potassium is not available to plants, then the secret is locked in the form that potassium exists in soils. These are:a) The relatively unavailable or fixed form: It is the component of potassium which is fixed and not available to plants. It occurs as a part of the crystal structure of primary minerals that are not weathered or slightly weathered potash feldspars such as muscovite and biotite. (Eq.1. under "Formation"). b) The slowly available form: Potassium is also found in soils in the form of secondary or clay minerals as hydrous mica, vermiculite, chlorite, and interstratified minerals. The slowly available form is gradually taken up by plants through the reaction of such minerals with the exchangeable form of potassium and that in the soil solution. Example: KAlSi3O8 + HOH Kaolinite water HAlSi3O8 + KOH acid clay potassium hydroxide
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Every time potassium in the soil solution decreases due to leaching or plant uptake, more potassium would be released from this form to maintain equilibrium. Example: [CLAY]K, Ca, H K+, Ca2+, H+ .(in solution)].
c) The readily available form: This is the fraction that can be readily absorbed by pants. It is the combination of water-soluble and exchangeable potassium and is either in the soil solution or is held by the soil colloids in exchangeable form. At the end of the day, the above divisions are rather arbitrary. In actuality, the boundaries are diffuse and are not at all sharp as these categories would imply. Nevertheless, they serve in a general way to define the types of potassium in the soil and the relative availability of each to plants. The three forms are also considered to be in equilibrium, and a change in the system tend to be offset by appropriate shifts in equilibria. Yet, because of the continuous potassium removal from soils by leaching and crops, a static equilibrium in the strictest sense of the word is never obtained. Instead, there would be a continuous but slow transfer of potassium from primary minerals to the exchangeable and slowly available forms. Some reversion to the slowly available form can occur, especially under high application of potassium fertilizers (101). Then, when all is said and done, the above considerations may shade some light on why potassium in Ethiopian soils can not be claimed to be non-deficient. The claim that that these soils have good potassium supplying power; or that they are non-responsive to potassium fertilizer has also been refuted (11; 15; 29; 30; 61; 66; 67; 91; 92; 93; 94; 95 96; 101). That in itself ought not have been so contentious. Further, there are soils that are derived from sandstones and some parent materials which are inherently low in potassium. Often, these soils are exposed to intensive continuous cropping with disregard to potassium application. As a consequence, where crop removal of potassium could be high, such
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continued and intense potassium mining can lead to hidden hunger of crops with inevitable diminished yield. This is true for all soils and more so for acid soils. Substantial losses are also partly due to traditional practice such as burning of crop residue that lead to accelerated erosion depending on intensity of rainfall. Then, the assertion that Ethiopian soils do not respond to potassium application can not be unequivocal. It is in accordance with this that Birch (15) came to the conclusion that potassium in Ethiopian soils "is not a fertilizer whose use can entirely be disregarded." This is further highlighted by Atanasiu (11) who asserted that potassium affects yield on different Ethiopian soils. He summarized the situation with the observation that: "In contrast to other opinions, it can be stated that potassium application does have favourable effects on Ethiopian soils." The observation was not made based on a unique scenario where improved cultivars were deprived of their high fertilize needs. But, if local cultivars can respond to potassium, it is not difficult to imagine how miserably improved varieties could perform. At best, they would manifest syndromes of deficiencies and then die! In contrast, the seeming lack of response to potassium could be due to the use of low yielding cultivars. The lack of response may also be due to the rapid weathering, depending on their weatherability, of basic potassium-bearing rocks and minerals such as feldspars and mica that contain easily weatherable potassium than acidic rocks such as granite. Equally, alluvial soils could have high potassium since their clay fractions could have some mixed layer minerals that might have fixed potassium. This is not an irreversible process. The intensity of gains also depend to a large extent under drying and wetting cycles from the transformation of non-exchangeable to exchangeable form (16). From these it can be deduced that soils that have high exchangeable potassium and with medium to high exchange capacity could have high buffer capacity. If so, these may be cropped for long periods without potassium stress. Thus, potassium deficiency
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may not be an acute problem in the central and northern highlands than in the weathered acidic soils of the south and south-wesern part of the country. For the reasons stated, acid soils in Ethiopian have undergone intense weathering and lost their weatherable minerals such as calcium, magnesium and potassium. These substantial loss of basic nutrients, mostly through leaching and erosion, are not only reflected in low pH values or acidic reaction but also in the deficiency of these elements in soils that have high intensity but low buffer capacity. As a result they could become rapidly depleted from potassium due the low availability and uptake from non-exchangeable form. Further, despite the generally accepted principle that potassium in exchangeable form and in the soil solution are considered available to plants, present knowledge shows that potassium availability cannot be based on exchangeable potassium alone. This is usually low and plants have to use considerable amount of non-exchangeable form held within the crystalline structure of clay minerals and this affects potassium availability. Among others, the labile pool is controlled by the equilibrium between the release of potassium from the weathering of primary minerals and organic matter mineralization, on the one hand and leaching, cropping and fixation on the other (66). Other factors may affect the pool. These include the type of exchangeable cations present, the soil reaction or pH, clay content and mineralogical composition. This means that the sole use of exchangeable potassium as a guide to fertilizer requirement could not prove useful in the potassium nutrition of plants (92). Rather, the rate of potassium release from the non-exchangeable form calls for multifactor correlation studies. Yet, due to limited knowledge on the potassium dynamics in Ethiopian soils, including acid soils, and/or due to the seeming absence of a remarkable response to potassium application in the central and northern part of the country, there has been sweeping generalization on potassium status in Ethiopian soils. As a result, there has not been adequate focus to potassium in the national fertilizer scheme.
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This ' disregard'could only aggravate the problem. Therefore, to avoid further pitfalls, various soils need to be treated differently in potassium fertility management. If not potassium could become an acute production nightmare. For certain, it could be a more glaring concern in the south and south-western part of Ethiopia where acid soils reside. Soon, the scenery would assume significance in the central and northern part of the country unless sound measures are taken. Therefore, for a start, the intellectual straight-jacket from the sweeping claim that potassium is not deficient in Ethiopian soils must be removed. In parallel, the issue of potassium must be re-visited with steps that go beyond mere tinkering. This is crucial now more than ever because high yields are targeted from increased use of improved cultivars under high nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers alone. Then, with these high feeders depletion of potassium is bound to occur sooner or later because the law of the minimum would set in. As a result, potassium would be the weakest link in the production chain. The process can lead to soil productivity nightmares even when the country has one of the largest potash deposits in the world. These resources have to be reserved and wisely exploited especially with face-lift that is now given to acid soils. 4.3.4. The micronutrients: The descriptive term micronutrient for those elements that are only needed in very small amounts was introduced by Arnon (9) since it does not suffer from limitations as do the terms minor elements and trace elements. Studies, though minuscule, have demonstrated that their deficiencies are widespread in acid soils at several locations in Ethiopia (32; 37; 50; 84; 85; 94; 111). Their deficiencies are due to one of the following: low soil nutrient reserves; special soil conditions that influence their availability e.g. pH too low (molybdenum) or too high (manganese and/or iron), or excess phosphate (zinc). It has also been confirmed that with the exception of molybdenum, whose deficiency decreases with increase in soil pH, the availability of the other micronutrients increases with decrease in soil pH or increase in soil acidity.
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Studies have also revealed that liming acid soils in excess of pH 7.0 can causes the inactivation of these elements that are present in anything other than minute concentration. Thus, the addition of excess lime can also be detrimental because of the toxic nature of molybdenum under alkaline conditions. As a result, the liming of soils between pH of 6.0 to 6. 5 could be satisfactory from the standpoint of minimum toxicity and adequate availability of these elements. The validity of this or the modification thereof under Ethiopian conditions has as yet to be ascertained. Admittedly, the variety of chemical combinations and their seasonal trends in the soil-plant system, and other factors make their assessment a monumental task. However, what is frightening is that low priority is currently accorded to them. As a consequence, there is paucity of information. Little compiled work is at hand on the nature, availability, and fate of native as well applied micronutrients on acid soils to efficiently exploit the new frontiers in soil-plant-nutrition (13). For instance, this is an era of slow-release fertilizers. Chelates are also available as foliar sprays to address special problems that may not be adequately coped with (or not at all) by application of fertilizer or by soil amendment such as lime. Therefore, to meet up to rising expectations, there is the urgent need to embark upon soil micronutrients-plant correlation studies with particular reference to acid soils under different agro-ecology and management conditions. 4.3.5. Liming: Liming of acid soils starts from the basic assumption that neutral soils are base-saturated while acid soils that contain exchangeable hydrogen and aluminium are base-unsaturated. With this as a background, the response of crops to the major nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is the direct result of overcoming a deficiency of one of these nutrient elements. On the other hand, it is assumed, and usually correctly, that soils differ considerably in their reaction, and that total acidity is always greater than active acidity, measured as pH. These differences are then reflected in the vegetation or crop they sustain. But, for quite a while it was not clear how far these differences were due to the
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sensitivity of the plant root to hydrogen-ion concentration of the soil or the soil solution, and how far to secondary effects brought about by the reaction. However, solution culture experiments have demonstrated that hydrogen-ion per se is not the sole agent for the adverse effects manifested under acid soil conditions where aluminium is dominant. Indeed, each soil has a region of buffering. In other words, soils behave like buffered weak acid and resist sharp changes in reaction (pH) with the addition of bases. That is why two or more acid soils could have identical pH values but vary in total acidities. For instance, an acid soil rich in organic matter could have similar pH values with a soil poor in organic matter. As a result, the amount of base or lime required to neutralize it to a desired level of total acidity could be diametrically different than the soil poor in organic matter. In other words, the percentage base saturation or the proportion of the cation exchange sites balanced by basic cations would be different. Conversely, if such soil is progressively neutralized with bases, the quantity of base needed to reach pH 7 is considered to be a measure of the total acidity of that soil or its lime requirement. (Appendix I) Therefore, soil pH is not an index of total acidity or a measure of the acid required to bring acid soil to neutrality. This has been demonstrated by the large amount of base required to raise the pH of a 2:1 clay soil such as montimorrilonite with high cation exchange capacity than an acid soil rich in iron and aluminium or soils in which the predominant minerals are 1:1 clays such as kaolinite with low cation exchange capacity. These situations are rampant in Ethiopia. Nevertheless, the generally accepted practice of using lime to improve nutrient availability in such soils has been to raise the pH of the soil to neutrality. As a result, lime as calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate (calcite), and calcium-magnesium carbonate (dolomite) have produced striking response in plant growth and yield. Such responses may not always be attributed to the plant-nutrient value of calcium or magnesium, though their importance is not questioned. The scope of benefits
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derived from the application of lime is much broader than would be expected from a simple direct response to the addition of a deficient nutrient element. These have ambivalent nature that can be attributed to excesses of aluminium, iron or manganese on the one hand; and to deficiencies of the macro- and microelements on the other (24; 25; 26; 27; 74; 75; 88; 89; 90; 92). The many effects of lime other than its role on soil physical condition include its effects on phosphorus and micronutrient availability, nitrification and nitrogen fixation. Given the widespread infertile acid soils, its implication is high for their management under a setting where the need to reclaim them has now been fully realized. For instance, lime, nitrogen and phosphorus application studies were undertaken as far back as the early 1980s. The work of Adugna (3) on the strongly acidic soils of Ghimbi and Nejo in the high rainfall areas of western Ethiopia can be cited. He found that that they are high in exchangeable aluminium but low in cation exchange capacity, exchangeable bases, available phosphorus, and organic matter. Under these conditions, lime and phosphorus application were significantly correlated with many agronomic parameters and had significant interaction effects. But, soybean and haricot bean showed no significant response at Nejo though yields were increased (6). Others have equally shown positive response of crops to lime application. As a case in point, yields of finger millet and maize were increased in Welega by the application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers along with the use of calcium carbonate at 3 t ha-1 (88). On the other hand, while barley at Chencha in the south of Ethiopia gave significant response, wheat at Holeta in the central highlands did not though yields were increased (6). It was concluded that additional tests be made before an accurate diagnosis of the problem can be made. In spite of that, only a limited number of lime trials have been carried out in the field, laboratory and greenhouse conditions. Even the tentative finding of three ton per hectare of limestone was not translated into action is when it is painfully realized
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that the use of lime figures prominently to ameliorate these soils for increased production and productivity. For pragmatic and cost effective and sustainable nutrient management to be sharp focused under lime there is need for information on such factors as the rate of lime, time and method of application for different crops since these vary on factors that could range from beneficial to the detrimental (36; 47; 48; 74; 75; 83; 94; 96). Along with the use of such amendments in view of their long-term advantages, it might also prove useful to select or develop cultivars which are tolerant to acid soil conditions. This is a fertile area of research. Fortunately some work is underway towards their amelioration. It is hoped that major breakthroughs would be made for great strides within the soil-plant continuum for production bonanza. In the process or in tandem, the abundant liming material in Ethiopia (83) needs to be surveyed, quantified, carefully reserved and guarded against less efficient but competing use such as construction and industry.
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5.
CURRENT MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION
Acid soils occupy close to 40 percent of Ethiopia. This is a huge chunk of the country. Although considered poor agricultural soils due to intense leaching of nutrient, those in climatically favorable areas and with comparatively good fertility support widespread subsistence mixed traditional agriculture. As a consequence, small quantities of a wide range of crops on holding usually less than one hectare per household are produced. These include cereals such as maize, sorghum, barley wheat, millet and tef; roots as anchote and enset; tubers as potatoes; pulses like field peas, faba bean, chickpeas; spices as ginger; stimulants as coffee, tea and chat; fruits such as banana, pineapples, cirus etc. Some of these are cultivated around homesteads where farmers apply manure. Other than its value in soil fertility enhancement, farmer-yard manure is a good amendment to ameliorate acid soils. Crop rotation is also practiced to restore soil fertility where fertilizers are not used to any extent. Further, beans are often inter-sown with maize or sorghum in some regions. This has increased the carrying capacity of land beyond unity. Unfortunately, such cultivation of pulses has decreased in some areas due to decline in soil fertility. This is in part related to diminished capacity of microorganisms to fix nitrogen under soil acidity. The use of fallow to rest the soils and recover its fertility is also on the decline. On those agro-ecologies with tree canopy, the perennial organic coffee is abundant in the wild. As a matter of fact, these acid soils otherwise known as Nitosols are regarded as the coffee soils of Ethiopia. Currently, coffee is cultivated with some improved inputs in Southern Nations, Nationalites and Peoples Regional State, Oromia, pockets of Benshangule Gumez, and Amhara National Regional States. Even then, no more does the country depends with foolhardiness on the fabled on strategic crop. With diversification and specialization such foreign exchange earning export commodities as flowers, vegetables, tea, oil crops, fruits, spices etc. are cultivated.
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Mixed or multiple cropping or growing a number of crops together on the same piece of land is also common. The practice may appear to result in a rather chaotic type of cultivation, but it has offered vast benefits given the production of crops with differences in maturities. This assures a more regular food supply and increased land use efficiency beyond unity where the total yield from a given area could well be higher that when a single crop is grown in pure stand. The varying rooting habits of different crops also permit plants to tap nutrients from various soil depths more effectively. As the season progresses, the crops cover the soil so well that the vegetation becomes a more effective protection against the effect of sun and rain drop impact. Mixed cropping also minimizes the risk of crop failure due to climate or incidence of diseases and pests. Further, such a field would have little need for the time-consuming job of weeding such that farmers could make better use of their time. Livestock rearing, though practiced, does not play a significant role in the generation of cash. It is, however, important as draught power; as a source of meat and milk for home consumption; and for sale in time of cash needs. But, in certain lowlands under relatively mild population pressure and where land is relatively available, the predominant activity is livestock production. The setting also allows for shifting cultivation that is well suited ecologically. Large areas are also used for grazing with seasonal fires as regular feature to regenerate new grass growth but with deleterious erosion hazard. Nevertheless, with improved inputs under sound water management and where there is adequate rainfall and/or under irrigation, remunerative crop-livestock production has been realized. Under these conditions, acid soils can be regarded as relatively good soils of tremendous agricultural value. This means that they can be manipulated under a wide range of conditions for meaningful productivity and production windfalls provided the habitat and ecology are not disrupted.
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While some acid soils display lush vegetation, farmers rarely sow these soils to crops during the short rains because of little residual moisture to see a crop through a dry period. Again, despite the illusion created by the lush natural vegetation that belies their inherently poor fertility, they are mismanaged and they are subjected to severe erosion. Further, during those seasons when precipitation exceeds the capacity of the soil to retain water but to percolate through the soil, leaching losses of nutrients occurs in relatively short time due to low organic matter in these soils. On the other hand, under such traditional practices as the slash-and-burn cultivation, the removal of vegetative cover that otherwise could have intercepted substantial soil loss from raindrop impact leads to sheet and gully erosions. The search for land paradoxically causes a concomitant over-stretched carrying capacity of land. Thus, where vegetation cover has been removed, drought conditions are created for crop production to be critical even in few rainless days. This means that there is the need for caution in the context of forest or bush clearing to ensure the maintenance of organic matter. Since the damage to the ecosystem could accentuate the prospects of irreversible and irreparable damage to these soils, the corresponding removal of vegetative cover should be minimized or totally avoided. Thus, to avert pitfalls but ensure high production and productivity in a setting of population pressure, there have to be soil management schemes that take into account the state and resilience of acid soils. Otherwise, it would be like closing the door after the horse has left the barn. In regards to nutrient status, one notes that next to nitrogen, phosphorus is the nutrient which is often deficient in Ethiopian acid soils. Varying degrees of phosphorus fixation also occurs. The other drawback of these soils is their physical characteristics. Their moisture retention properties differ from other soils with similar clay content due to stable micro-aggregates related with the abundance of iron and/or aluminium oxides that forms complexes combined
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with humus to produce strong aggregates. Consequently, infiltration rates are rapid due to the stable structure that makes them permeable and well drained. Thus, even under high rainfall conditions, these soils loose, and rather rapidly, most of the water they contain. This could have adverse impact in those parts of Ethiopia where they are associated with long dry season; especially, in areas where vegetation has been removed. Of the several management options, manure and compost singly or in combination with other inputs such as lime can make a difference in the amelioration of acid soils. After all, these constituents have nitrogenous plant components and much of the humus is at least one-third or more soil organic nitrogen (18; 19). Such complex compounds must first be mineralized before nitrogen could be utilized by plants. The sequence is: organic nitrogen ammonium nitrite nitrate. Yet, in the decomposition of organic matter, the amount of nitrate produced depends on the relative amount of easily decomposable carbonaceous materials present (17; 18; 101). If this carbon to nitrogen ratio is high, little nitrogen will appear as nitrate. The intermediate compounds would be utilized by micro-organisms for further decomposition of organic substrates. It can be deduced that organic matter determines the availability of nitrogen through mineralization and immobilization. Then, the decomposition of manure and compost singly or in combination with other inputs furnish supplies of plant nutrients, improves soil physical conditions while at the same time ameliorates acidity. Further, nutrient re-cycling has great significance in these soils. If the traditional practice of merely lopping rather than cutting trees like the leguminous acacia that fixes nitrogen is promoted and given a scientific touch, the roots would continue to bind the soil and protect it against erosion. Equally, since they take up nutrients, their maintenance is vital on these not-rich soils. Given the drastic decline of such practice, their usefulness should be appreciated for their efficient
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perpetuation and continue to fix nitrogen. As it is, the reality is that there is little fixation due to low available phosphorus and from the adverse effects that soil acidity has on nitrogen fixing legume bacteria. It then follows that such traditional practices must not only be encouraged but must also be scientifically fine-tuned. That this is important is highlighted by the laboratory incubation experiment using residues of Vicia faba, Leucaena leucocephala, Zea may, and Sesbania sesban on the role of nitrogen mineralization in an acid Nitosol (97). The overall results indicated that for plant residue of low C:N ratio and a high nitrogen content like sesbania and leucaena, the nitrogen content in the residue was enough to meet the immobilization needs of soil microorganisms and for the surplus to be released as mineral nitrogen into the soil. The reverse was true for residues with high C:N ratio like maize straw. The work shades light in the area of residue management for the replenishment of nutrients and organic matter build-up to aid in stable soil structure development. Much more can be extrapolated from the finding. It is indicative of the significant role that organic matter can play in acid soils. It is encouraging to note that there are now steps taken in the right direction where compost preparation packages are being implemented in some areas of sedentary agriculture. For one, there are abundant coffee and floricultural byproducts which currently are dumped as waste with adverse impact on the environment such as water and air pollution. When combined with judicious application of fertilizers these as composts can improve both the physical and chemical status of these soils. To this end, the current emphasis placed on the use of organic compost and manure must be strengthened through research in view of their synergy on sustainable soils management. On the other hand, those traditional practices that enhance the depletion of organic matter must be curtailed. The perpetuation of such practices would increase the tendency of nutrient losses from lack of retention by soils and due to leaching and accelerated erosion. As case in point, with population pressure that
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requires increased food security but contrasted with the wind of change that advocates profit-oriented investment, more forested land is bound to be cleared and converted into large scale farms under coffee, tea, pineapples, spices etc. Without sound management scheme this would lead to several interactions, many undesirable. For instance, heavy machinery pulverizes the soil and expose soil organic matter to accelerated oxidation. The consequence of increased bulk density from compaction from such mechanization also leads to reduction in porosity and hence reduced water infiltration. Instead of timely light cultivation to increase soil porosity, the outcome of heavily mechanized agriculture, therefore, is aggravated situations where accelerated erosion becomes rampant with inevitable reduction in the carrying capacity of acid soils. This means that with better conservation-based sound soil fertility management coupled with measures against the threats of erosion, and, a win-win situation can be created with enhanced increased yields but not where expediency is sough for quick profit. Accordingly, these are treated at length below.
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6. MEASURES FOR CONSERVATYION-BASED MANAGEMENT

6.1. The environment: A marked feature of agriculture in Ethiopia is the sharp contrast in climate and weather pattern. This roulette has varied considerably not only between years but also from location to location. Even in those areas where acid soils allow remunerative crop and/or livestock production, it has posed disadvantages and difficulties. For one, it has imposed rigid scheduling of agricultural operations. This has forced people to walk between the raindrops even for the production of low yielding crops. Subsistence was all that mattered! The consequence is that farmers are forced to sow their crops on the advent of the rain whose timing is uncertain. Even then, they made considerable contribution to agricultural development. It is heartening that they acid soils are accorded high priority for increased production and productivity. It is with this as a background that some sound measures are treated towards their conservation-based management and market-oriented sustained utilization. 6.2. Liming and lime requirement: There has been the fallacious reasoning behind the contention that it must be the presence of acidity in the soil that brings crop failure. This was because liming improved crop yields. However, it is now recognized that it is not the presence of soil acidity per se that is the enemy. Rather, it is the absence of soil fertility, perpetuated by the acidity, that is the real trouble. To that end, solution culture experiments have demonstrated that in as long as the right amount and proportion of nutrients are present, it is possible to decrease the pH without adverse effects on plants (8). Thus, the pH dilemma is that while lime treatment will route acidity as the enemy, it does not necessarily lead to successful crops unless other conditions are fulfilled. Some soil acidity can even be beneficial as in the availability of certain nutrients and the combat of some soil-borne diseases. Nonetheless, mainstream agriculture continued to combat unfavorable soil conditions and other limiting factors due to acidic reaction.
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As long as calcium amendments were used, the above contention worked. However, there are more important management considerations in the management of acid soils. Among these are: should one regard the soil acidity as inherent and crop these soils accordingly, be it with local cultivars or improved acid-tolerant crop varieties, or should the acidity be neutralized under sound soil management practices to have greater freedom of cropping? Depending on cost and the outcome sought, combinations of both options are applicable to attain synergy for fast-track development. To that end: a) appropriate technologies and other improved inputs can be employed to avoid their degradation but increase productivity and production on them; and b) exploitation of genetic variability in crops either through selection or genetic manipulation offer ample opportunities with such tools of biotechnology and genetic engineering around. In terms of amendments, a smaller and less frequent dressing of lime would be sought for financial reasons. With this view, early soil chemists developed methods to estimate the minimum amount of lime that must be applied to neutralize the acidity of a soil. Correspondingly, they called this quantity of lime as its "lime requirement." However, there is no definite meaning to the phrase "to neutralize the acidity of a soil" and the term does not necessarily refer to the amount of lime needed to neutralize an acid soil. It can even be inferred that liming acid soils to neutrality based on pH or active acidity alone can at times lead to detrimental effects. With their inherent low nutrient holding capacity liming can even create over-saturation with calcium. The result would be the precipitation and depressed availability of several macro- and micronutrients with the inevitable consequence of yield reduction. Nor can lime requirement be defined as the amount of lime needed for maximum crop yields, since crops vary in their requirements. Then, the true meaning of lime requirement of a soil can only be defined to reflect the amount of lime needed for maximum economic return from a particular crop on a particular
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soil. This clarity can help users make informed decision even if the amount, time and frequency of liming may not necessarily be made with precision given the number of factors that influence each choice. Another issue is the confusion on the word lime. With present knowledge, lime usually refers to the white powder calcium oxide, commonly known as unslaked lime, burned lime, or quicklime. Incidentally, quicklime is a product of high energy requiring limestone calcination or lime burning between 900 and 12000C. After intensive calcination, agricultural hydrated lime has a neutralizing value of 136 percent. In contrast, dolomite has 106 and ground limestone 100 percent (Appendix II). However, as the term applies to agriculture, liming is the addition to the soil of calcium or calcium- and magnesium-containing "liming material" that is capable of reducing acidity. The phrase "liming material" includes such materials as calcium oxide or its hydroxide, calcium carbonate as can be seen in the use of the common word limestone in its place, and calciummagnesium carbonate. These alone are not enough to reclaim soil acidity. The accompanying anion must also be one that reduces the hydrogen ion activity. Other alternative materials include silicates of calcium or calcium and magnesium, wood ash and several industrial by-products such as slag that can produce modest amounts of other nutrients such as phosphorus and calcium. But, caution should be exercised due to environmental concerns from heavy metal contamination. Termite mounds, known for their naturally enhanced fertility, have also some liming properties. They are used by farmers as soil amendment. Inadvertently, they have helped to reduce soil pH, provide additional organic matter, and free calcium carbonate. Liming materials also differ markedly in their reactivity and their value depends on the quantity of acid that a unit weight of the material would neutralize. Therefore, some measure of the reactivity of the liming material or its "lime requirement" should be assessed for their costeffective utilization (Appendix II).
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6.3 Type and fineness of liming material: Along with other inputs, acid soils can be ameliorated with lime to make them highly productive on sustainable bases. In this connection, the good news is that there are vast lime resources within Ethiopia and these can be systematically exploited (83). These include marble, limestone, dolomite, and marl from Proterozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic era. Since the primary aim of liming is the neutralization of exchangeable hydrogen and aluminum while increasing the degree of base saturation and pH value, molecular constitution and freedom from impurities such as clay are vital. But, they are not the only ones that reveal the effectiveness of agricultural limestone. The degree of fineness is equally important in the selection of a liming material since the speed with which the various materials will react is dependent on the surface area that is in contact with the soil. If coarse, the reaction would be slight; but if fine, the reaction will be extensive. Therefore, for materials such as calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide that are by nature powdery, no problem of fineness is involved. On the other hand, limestone is entirely a different matter since its reaction is related to particle size. This is true for both calcite and dolomite. But, dolomite is less reactive than calcite for each of the size separated. In this conjunction, lime as calcium oxide is currently obtained from cement factories within the country. This cold only be an interim measure. Then, the question to be asked is whether energy should be used to calcine or burn limestone to convert it into the oxide or hydroxide form. What must also be posed is whether any particular form of liming material is better than any other. In fact, the use of calcium oxide or its hydroxide may not be of any practical consequence in most cases. These finely divided materials even when immediately mixed with soils are rapidly converted into calcium carbonate. In other words, it may cake because absorbed water causes it to form slakes or granules. These granules harden because calcium carbonate may form on their
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surfaces. In this condition they may not be reactive and remain in the soil for long. The caustic oxide or hydroxide forms of calcium, however, might be preferred where there is an easy way to convert the rock into a powder, or where rapid results are required than can be obtained from finely ground limestone within the time sought. But, when used, the caustic forms should be well spread ahead of sowing to prevent injury to germinating seeds. In contrast, with crushing machinery now available, liming materials or limestone can be ground to any degree of fineness. Such ground marble, limestone, and dolomite found in the country (82) could easily be made available fairly quickly and thereby make the process cheaper. Crushing limestone also produces fragments of many sizes. These can range from fine dust upwards. Thus, limestone crushed to pass a 10-mesh (aperture of 2.0 mm), or a 30-mesh sieve (aperture of 0.59 mm) may contain a considerable amount of fine material that passes a 100-mesh sieve (aperture of 0.15mm). Such considerable variation in particle size ensures rapid action initially from the finer particles. However, these have the propensity to wash out quicker in the drainage water. In contrast, reasonably longer and rather higher residual effect can be obtained from the coarser ones than the fine. That as it may be, the long-term effects of all liming materials on other soil properties appear to be independent of whether calcium oxide or carbonate is used, be it fine or coarse. Indeed, limestone coarser than two mm is an inefficient liming material. However, that which is crushed to pass a 10-mesh screen (aperture of 2.0 mm), but to be retained by a 30-mesh (aperture of 0.59 mm) takes longer to affect the pH of a soil than if it is crushed to pass a 100-mesh sieve (aperture of 0.15mm). But, several months after application, the effects of the coarse and the fine materials may be about equal (101). All that is required is adequate reaction time with the liming material applied a few months before crops are sown. Then, given the fact that acid soils figure prominently in Ethiopia and due to the need
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of cost-effective wide application, limestone with variation in particle size is agriculturally preferable to a material that is crushed and screened to a uniform size as in the oxides and hydroxides of calcium. Even then, the preferable upper limit size has to be worked out for the various liming materials for effective response under diverse conditions and heterogeneous acid soils in Ethiopia. At this stage in the game, the critical issue is a continuous and ready availability of even the coarser materials at a reasonable price. This is decisive. 6.4. Placement: For both direct and indirect effects on soils and plants, placement is decisive since lime particles do not move readily in soils. Consequently, it must be placed where needed and completely mixed with the soil to ensure uniform distribution. For instance, lime applied on the surface of an acid sub-soil could lead to transitory effects since it does not readily and substantially move to effectively bring about the intended soil reaction change for fertility improvement. This means that deeper plowing would be necessary for through blending with the soil. 6.5. Liming and small-scale irrigation: Where water has been the key to unlock land productivity, its harvesting has now become the order of the day in Ethiopia. Therefore, pragmatic liming of acid soils supplemented by fertilizers and small-scale irrigation under properly planned efficient water management can help attain increased land use efficiency. Not only the extension of the growing period, but production and productivity increases could also occur under intensification, diversification and specialization. At the same time, the resource base would also be sustained. Success stories are possible even from small locally produced limestone and other liming materials. This can be realized under cost-effective and sustainable schemes. As a result, knowledge has to be built on the interactions of irrigation water with lime and soil nutrients/ fertilizer for the maximized exploitation of acid soils in the country.
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6.6. Organic matter as amendment: It has long been demonstrated that organic matter raises pH and thereby causes the precipitation of some aluminium ions as aluminum hydroxide. Manure amended soils correct acidity while at the samt time provide mineralized ammonium-nitrogen and nitrate-nitrogen with increased availability of other nutrients at higher pH values. This can be attributed to buffering from organic acids and bicarbonates. However, organic matter should not be considered as an alternative or total substitute for lime. Liming acid soils has several immediate consequences other than raise soil pH. It increases the lime potential and the calcium ion concentration in the soil solution that ultimately results in the displacement of aluminum ions from the soil. Even then, the current trend of organic matter addition as compost and farm yard manure should be encouraged to mitigate some of the problems associated with acid soils to promote productivity and production. The concomitant loss of soil from human-induced accelerated erosion and the perpetuation of other undesirable interactions can also be mitigated in the process. On the other hand, traditional practices that enhance the depletion of organic matter should be curtailed. Otherwise, acid soils become strongly nutrient deficient after burning or clearing of vegetation cover. Their life span due to subsequent loss of fertility would be reduced to only few years of cultivation. As it is, the fast degradation of these not-rich soils is only around the corner. 6.7. Indigenous knowledge and practices: These have figured prominently for the conservation-based sound management of acid soils in Ethiopia. However, some people have tended to benignly neglect them. Others have even wrongly assumed that agriculture is a simple enterprise and that people do not wish to adopt new technologies. The demonstrated fact is that when shown a new technology that in reality fits their needs and is compatible to their local conditions, people not only accept it but they will make great efforts to find a way to pay for it. Examples are such input as crop variety, fertilizers and cultural
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practice. Therefore, by necessity people would welcome knowledge and experience at hand and seek improvement of their traditional knowledge on the management of native fertility. Accordingly, their traditional knowledge and practices must be fine-tuned with a science and technology touch to allow their perpetuation through efficient utilization. Therefore, the use of development-oriented technology generated at home or the adoption from elsewhere is a must and a necessity. Examples are the application of crop residue and/or manure, cultural practice such as crop rotation, cultivation of legumes, improved traditional implements and tools etc. These can provide vital synergy for their sustainable sound management with high dividends. On these, a number of improved appropriate innovations such as new varieties, introduced or selected, with judicious use of both lime and fertilizers based on correlation studies could be superimposed. Yet, these concerns cry out for targeted action to advance accelerated but sustained development.
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7.
THE ROAD AHEAD
7.1. The Setting: It has been underscored that the country has mosaic of soils among which are the rampant acid soils. These have seemingly "unique" chemistry of formation but one that is not basically different from those which occur in other soils. What is "unique" of them is the sequence of changes under high rainfall and temperature in the continuous passage from parent material to soil. Accordingly, the piece has canvassed acid soils drawing upon knowledge, experience and research information from within the country and from elsewhere. To that end, their: formation and nature; classification and distribution; and the basic processes that affect their cost-effective amelioration for their sound management have been covered. What follows is an attempt to answer the question of what is to be done on the road ahead. For certain, the productivity prospect of acid soils is unequivocally bright in terms of their contribution towards environmentally-friendly sustainable increased production that goes beyond national food security. However, its attainment seeks a range of sound and effective soil management for remunerative returns in accordance with their state and resilience. Towards that goal, such prominent components as: the establishment of data-base; their inventory; soil survey and mapping; and soil-plant nutrient related correlation studies as they reflect on production are treated. The development and use of acid tolerant crop through classical breeding or through the new frontiers of biotechnology-cum-genetic engineering is suggested for increased exploration. The above considerations are by no means the only ones that facilitate the wise use of acid soils. Even with the above instruments, continued environmental tampering has imposed disturbance on the fragile eco-system. It is, therefore, one of the weak links in the quest of sustainable development. Contrast this with the increase in population that would ultimately lead to a concomitant over-stretched
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carrying capacity of land. Added to it is the wind of change in the country. Then, accelerated market-oriented development is bound to mushroom because agriculture will increasingly be regarded as business. This is desirable but caution should be exercised because this is where we will sink together when the boat sinks does not work. It would only lead to ultimate loss of productivity on these vital resources. Worse, it might precipitate a down-the-energy gradient spiral for their fast degradation. Instead, since those who jump into deep water with two legs must know how to swim the market-oriented development agenda must be infused with R&D technology such that these "senile" soils would have conservation-based sound management. 7.2. Soil survey and mapping: People in rural Ethiopia currently eke out some level of production on acidic and other soils that have a range of variability. But, their distribution has not been assessed for sound management. Further, soil fertility database are wanting in the country. Whatever data available have not been updated to enhance their management (13; 39; 40; 61; 71). Nor has meaningful interpretation of the available soil classification and survey data been undertaken. Further, the phenomenon of soil acidity has not been adequately investigated. Then, there is a need to quantify the status and extent of these soils with reflection on their current and future potentials. Again, this is an era where agriculture in Ethiopia is on fast-track. Then, precise and reliable information is sought through the appraisal of resources to help locate promising broad area for development and for a workable suggestion on the steps to be taken. This in itself is cause enough for soil surveys to be undertaken and research expanded into new frontiers. Then, it is only proper that we seize the time and the opportunity. One vital initiative, therefore, is to take the bold step for the preparation of soil maps based on systematic survey. As a matter of fact, a modest first approximation can be attempted without complete soil survey consistent with
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soil classification principles and based upon combinations of acid soil characteristics. This does not require a full set of long-time experiments, latest facilities for research, or highly equipped laboratories. Hence, while detailed soil maps of a larger scale, say around 1:50,000 or 1:20,000, could have given sound basis for multipurpose operational planning, but until such a time these are initiated, soil maps at scales of 1:250,0000 to 1:1,000,000 would help general planning with emphasis given to concerns of natural resources. The other dimension is that while large scale or detailed soil maps can help when and if available, no rationale is needed for the development of soil fertility map. Such a map could be of great relevance for major crop growing areas under diverse farming system within the mosaic agro-ecology of the country. With particular reference to subsistence agriculture that by necessity have for long depended on native fertility, but in view of its transformation into marketoriented development in a setting where acid soils occupy close to forty percent of the country, the importance of soil fertility map can not be stressed enough. Here, prominent mineral stress features are associated with either depletion or toxicities that cause constraints for both crop and livestock production. Then, crop surveys that illustrate the actual crop use pattern on soils of diverse reaction could be prepared to indicate their range of tolerance. A list can also be drawn of crops that do well on slightly acid to neutral soils or on those that tolerate more acid conditions. These can be used in setting their optimum range. It can even be a vital tool and valuable input for an investor who has to make informed decision. Another dividend is that such maps enable geographic correlation. As a result, it can offer the opportunity whereby knowledge, research findings and management experience on similar soils from elsewhere can be transferred to areas of like soils within the country. Among others, this can help facilitate sound soil resource management based on identified stresses or excesses, assist in the selection of crop varieties, and fine-tune recommendation for increased
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efficiency of inputs. Then, both soils and crops can be much improved with local methods worked out within the framework of services, materials, and skills available. Ultimately, this gives people a bridge between the body of agricultural knowledge for specific application for abundant agriculture that stimulates economic growth. 7.3. Correlation studies: Based on systematic research on soils in general and acid soils in particular, great understanding can be attained on the factors that impinge performance on these soils as media for higher production. Therefore, going beyond the sphere of soil chemistry, the continued development of research and development technology can promote the unabated improvement of acid soils through sound management. Among these is the need to assess their potential and establish methods to quantify their state and resilience. This means that there is the need to focus on soil testing and plant analysis that correlate nutrient uptake and yield for maximum returns on these soils. Subsequently, the approaches and methodologies for their improvement could be worked out through continuous collection, description, and prediction of data to arrive at packages of technology for high levels of production that nearly approach the genetic limits of crops. Then, the attendant key issues and various constraints can be systematically resolved in a cost-effective and efficient manner. Hitherto, soil and plant analyses for the most part were of a routine nature. Occasionally, they were used for basic research purposes without correlation of nutrient uptake with yield. Hence, their usefulness as an advisory tool or in the evaluation of the capacity that soils have as medium of plant growth has not provided meaningful output. Therefore, for whatever purpose a soil or plant tissue is to be analyzed, plans should be made in advance on what analyses are required, why they are required and what level of accuracy is needed. Yet, correlation studies on the relative importance of the major consequences due to soil acidity in view of their sound management have not been fully recognized.
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Then, while any soil or plant may be analyzed for varied reasons (43), several other considerations underline the burning issue of correlation studies. For instance, in dealing with correlation studies, it has to be underscored that the total amount of nutrients in soil is high in comparison with the requirements of crops. Much of this potential, however, is tightly bound in forms that are not released to crops fast enough to produce satisfactory growth. The fact is also that deficiencies of the major nutrients, low bases such as calcium and magnesium, high aluminium and manganese in acid soils affect crops differently. Further, nutrients brought up from deep layers and concentrated in the top through nutrient re-cycling provide the bulk of nutrients for plants in acid soils. That is why the above considerations have to figure prominently in correlation studies to promote maximized sound exploitation of these soils keeping in perspective market-oriented intensification, diversification and specialization. To offer some background, chemical analysis for available soil nutrients is based on the assumption that plant roots will extract nutrients from the soil in a manner comparable to chemical soil extractants and that there is a relationship between the extractable nutrients in the soil and their uptake by plants. This may be true for some nutrients and crops, but it is not universally true. For one, chemical analysis may not correlate reasonably well with plant growth and response to fertilizers. This means that soil chemical analysis is arbitrary and does not entirely simulate the extractive and absorptive power of plant roots. Nor does routine soil analysis for advisory purposes can take into account the differential nutrient extracting power of plants, the relative bonding power of colloids for different ions, the complementary ion effects, ion antagonism etc. That is why there is the need to evaluate different analytic methods to assess the direct and interaction effects of amendments through a more meaningful correlation with plant uptake and yield. On the other hand, leaf analysis can be used as a guide to the nutritional status of plants. But, it is post-mortum at times when used singly. Therefore, timely and
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more reliable results are obtained when combined with soil analysis, Yet, for meaningful analysis to be performed, the appropriate leaf to be sampled, the size and time of sample for each crop has to be established. The result from such sample either from field, pot or culture trial or their combination when correlated with soil analysis, yield, and other parameters can help address concerns of nutrient uptake as well as threshold levels of nutrients associated with deficiency, sufficiency, and excess. In this regard, the concept of critical nutrient percentages in leaf dry matter was introduced by Macy as early as 1936. (55). Others are: the critical nutrient level or that range of concentration at which growth is restricted in comparison to that of plants at a higher level (104); the S value (mg-atom per 100 g of dry matter) which maintains that growth is correlated with concentration and absolute amount (54) etc. Nevertheless, Macy held that there exists a fixed critical percentage for any given plant nutrient: amounts in excess of this requirement represents luxury consumption, and amounts below represents a poverty adjustment range that finally reaches a minimum percentage. The critical percentage is thought of as an essentially fixed ideal value characteristic of a given plant of a given age but subject to some variations from other growth factors. Thus, correlation and nutrient calibration studies should be undertaken on representative sites with the three ranges in mind, These include the: i) narrow minimal percentage range where response may increase but internal concentration remains constant; ii) poverty adjustment range where both response and internal concentration rise; and iii) luxury consumption range in which response remains constant but concentration increases. Such studies have to be undertaken for each crop of interest on samples selected on the bases of a given agro-ecology and farming system. Therefore, in roads have to be made for the generation and compilation of information on such concerns as poverty consumption where the deficiency of the nutrient results in reduced yield; the adjustment with approach to
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the critical concentration for optimum yield; and luxury consumption beyond which nutrient uptake is not reflected in yield increase. Studies should also be undertaken on the fertilizer history of the soil. This is of significance given the fact that there is the widespread use of urea and the water soluble diammonium phosphate (DAP) in these soils. While the initial reaction of urea and DAP is alkaline, both eventually lead to acidity in soils. True, the actual extent of soil degradation caused by acidification from urea depends on the magnitude of ammonia volatilization, denitrification, nitrate-nitrogen uptake and leaching. Nevertheless, conditions in most soils favor the nitrification reaction. Then, ammonium from urea categorically increases soil acidity when converted to nitrate nitrogen on oxidation to form nitric acid (HNO3). NH4+ + 1 O2 NO2- +2H+ + H2O NO3HNO3
NO2- + O2 H+ + NO3-
Hence, non-acidifying fertilizers should be given due attention in future amelioration schemes such that these soils, which in the first place are acidic, would not become even more so. Therefore, with or without lime application, meaningful correlation of non-acidulating fertilizers and plant uptake has to be established ultimately. Another important issue is that of phosphorus fixation from applied DAP due to abundance of iron and aluminum. In view of the limitations imposed on acid soils under fragile ecosystems, this can be serious. But, if the use of DAP is to be continued, sound liming is central to prevent inefficient use of phosphorus fertilizers and in the process curtail soil degradation. Yet, using lime as a costeffective means of improving phosphorus availability has varied from the
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beneficial to the detrimental. Then, the important question of liming in relation to the availability of other nutrients and their interactions thereof has to be evaluated meaningfully for the cost-effective sound management of acid soils in Ethiopia. Among others, is the need to assess the intensity, quantity and rate of nutrient release, availability and uptake from limed or not limed acid soils with prominence given to the establishment of critical concentrations as contrasted with the total quantities involved. There is also the need for an in-depth assessment of different methods of analysis for a more meaningful correlation with plant uptake and yield under laboratory, greenhouse and field conditions with the above concerns taken into cognizance. For instance, various forms of phosphorus can be linked with production be it under unimproved local cultivars or using acid tolerant crops. One aspect is the assessment on the economic and environmental significance of the fixed or the "residual" phosphorus. This can even be regarded as an investment if critically evaluated. Its interaction on crop yield when correlated with other macro- and micronutrients is also an important undertaking. All told, phosphorus calibration and establishment of critical values for various crops under various inputs in diverse agro-ecological settings has to be undertaken for sound service delivery that increase resource use efficiency. No less, is the study on Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi and its place as aid for increased phosphorus uptake. It can even foster the establishment of bacteria that fix atmospheric nitrogen in soils already low in available phosphorus. Currently, it is suspected that such fixation is at a minimum on acid soils given the adverse soil reaction for the microorgnisms. With improvement where judicious starter nitrogen, phosphorus and lime are provided, why then, nitrogen fixation could pay high dividends. The fungi could also offer synergy from the dissolution and availability of soil phosphorous and atmospheric nitrogen fixation. This seeks closer attention than is given now.
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Again, despite the claim that potassium is least deficient in Ethiopian soils, a more critical perspective is necessary on the potassium supplying power of acid soils. As indicated, next to nitrogen, potassium is required by plants in high quantity. Conversely, acid soils are being cropped to both local and improved cultivars with emphasis only on nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, if at all. The latter have substantial demand and a commensurate ' feeding power'but in a setting where there is a disregard of potassium. Unless rectified and amelioration practices take root, the absence of potassium will continue to be the weakest link in the production chain. Since there is diminished expression of crop genetic potential, it can lead to production nightmares. The other frightening picture is that despite their essentiality but imbalance in acid soils, information on micronutrients is pitifully inadequate. Thus, there is the urgency for research on their content, nature, deficiency, availability, and toxicity with synthesized knowledge under different management system. In reference to liming, it has been established that the effect of suitable application can last for several years. Certainly, losses occur and this probably depends on rainfall and fineness of the liming material. The coarser the material, the smaller will be the loss in the first few years. The reverse would be true for finer materials. With the envisaged wider application of liming material and given the abundant but finite source of liming material in the country (83) in a setting where losses occur, the deposits have to be quantified, their quality assessed, and reserve deposits jealously guarded. In the meantime, be it coarse or fine, the resident time of various applications and the magnitude of the loss under those agro-ecologies where divers acid soils occur have to be determined. It must, however, be underscored that it is the quality of the liming material and the acceptance of lime by end users as a cost-effective input for remunerative returns that makes the difference. If so, standards have to be established and the technique of liming has to be demonstrated to users. This has to be supplemented
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with appropriate guidelines that are developed based on soil-plant correlation studies in tune with each farming system. In view of the above considerations, the quality and quantity of data generated have to be improved and the turn-around time minimized. To this end, capacity building is a must. Among these are: human resource development especially skilled and knowledgeable personnel, trial and demonstration sites, upgrading of facilities required such as appropriate greenhouses, laboratory space, equipment, efficient and appropriate analytical techniques etc. Regardless of whether sunset or state of the art technology, these allow for timely delivery of a sustainable quality service; especially if appropriate. This must be augmented with other improved technologies such as the search for varieties adapted to acid soils. These figure prominently in acid soil management as elaborated below. 7.4. Selection of crop species: Admittedly, the national agricultural research system has strove to arrive at packages of technology that would not only overcome nutrient deficiencies but also insure yields that can nearly approach the genetic limits of crops. Regrettably, even for those commodities that are remunerative, there has not been much emphasis on the selection or development of crops that are tolerant to acid soils. Nor was there vigorous effort to screen species for crop improvement program despite a wealth of accumulation n the gene bank, or develop new sources of germ-plasm, or introduce acid tolerant species or varieties adapted from exotic sources. Equally, research has not adequately focused on crops that require minimum inputs such that they would be less costly to farmers. On the other hand, selection of crop adapted to medium or low soil nutrient status and with improved efficiency in the uptake of a particular element in question is possible. It is also possible to evaluate these cultivars to different levels of applied lime with or without fertilizer treatments. Further, selection of species that require minimum high cost inputs but are adapted to native soil
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environment can be undertaken at the laboratory, greenhouse and field conditions. Had these been fully addressed, great strides could have been made towards their productivity. But, there is a paucity of information despite the burning issue to address the multifarious problems of acid soil management that have led to low productivity. True, some research has been undertaken. And, a critical view of the past for the way forward is not meant as a disparagement of hitherto efforts. As a case in point, was the research conducted at Sodo, southern Ethiopia on a Nitosol with a pH of 4.4, This was aimed at the identification of forage germplasm adapted to different edaphic and climatic conditions in Ethiopia (52). Of the several native and exotic Stylosanthes accessions (51) S. guianensis, ILCA 11737, 11776 and S. hamata ILCA 167 appeared to be adapted. However, further agronomic evaluation and animal-feed trials seemed to have not been followed through. Therefore, the available information was not fully utilized not to speak of further screening and evaluation. The exercise could have helped the identification of best-bet accessions given the significance of legume as sources of feed and their role in the long-term maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility. In another case, a liming and fertilizer trial on faba bean at Bedi, (a sub-station of Holetta) with a pH 5.1 revealed that the seeds did not survive long after germination. Yet, local barley relatively adapted to the existing situation did well though yields were low. Conversely, the application of lime significantly increased grain yield of barley by almost ten fold. Further, though yield is low, barley performed better than other crops on strongly acidic sites. But, the application of lime and phosphate fertilizer increased grain yield significantly. As a result three ton lime and 30.3 kg P ha
-1
was recommended (Soil Science
Department Progress Report, 1979/80). In regards to farm yard manure, there was a significant reaction with lime and the highest yield was obtained through the application of three tons of lime and twelve tons of farm yard manure per
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hectare (89). However, fifteen years later, little of the information was popularized. This and many others suggest that closer monitoring and evaluation on R&D generation, adoption and wider dissemination on work related to soils, be it acidic or otherwise, need to be made. Against this background, the current efforts for a systematically coordinated and integrated institutional arrangement where existing ones are being fine-tuned through synchronized capacity building is highly lauded since it paves the way for meaningful output. 7.5. Institutional arrangement: It is now realized that acid soils are too important to be left to the hitherto trial and error approach. To this end, it is encouraging to note that efforts are underway by the government to streamline and systematize the institutional arrangement for a coordinated work on these soils. Under such an arrangement, it is hoped that networks will be established in the process. Then, the evaluation and monitoring of various agricultural technologies and extension methodologies for their appropriate and effective usefulness can be undertaken. On the whole, this allows the various concerned bodies at home and from elsewhere to provide synergy for effective research output in the different agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia. All shall be governed by the standards set under such an institutional arrangement to solve some of the principal difficulties encountered in acid soils and define the scope of the limitation within which they can be utilized. In addition, where inadequate information on proper soil fertility management is the bottleneck, even the one available at hand is as yet not systematically compiled in a manner that users can utilize it. Hence, the institution could document and integrate such information in a usable manner for easy access and retrieval by users. Unequivocally, the implementation of site specific information must be augmented by vigorous extension schemes to make the advisory service more refined, efficient and reliable. At the end of the day, users would have to be knowledgeable on the use of the information and skills
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acquired on how to meaningfully translate the technology into concrete production boost. To this end, awareness will have to be created among the user communities where experience will be shared and alternative options will be demonstrated to ameliorate acid soils. Then, in addition to those touched upon, capability/capacity has to be built by way of short and long-term training for the successful improved management of acid soils to make it a profitable venture. In a final note, the turn-around by the government on the sound management of the inherently poor acid soils with packages of technology is acknowledged with gratification. Under the current correct policy environment, the opportunities they offer for a fast-track development is, indeed, high. This is where social mobilization makes the difference in the protracted effort for their rehabilitation. This is also where the coalition of federal and regional institutions with other stakeholders that have diverse intervention arsenals come in for a decisive win-win struggle against the poverty and environmental degradation merry-go-round. Otherwise, ' the writing is on the wall' since they would degrade fast beyond which time would cease to be not important.
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8.
EPILOGUE
The manuscript has addressed, some in detail and others in passing, certain essential features on the nature and management of acid soils in Ethiopia. All along the objective has been the conservation-based sound management and sustainable utilizaion of these vital resources in an efficient manner for improved quality of life. That is why their potentials and limitations have been discussed. In the process, it has been asserted that their amelioration and sound management can offer widened scope for a range of commodities under intensification, diversification and specialization. It was also highlighted that as a general principle, yield can be increased through the supply of water and nutrients alone, This is true even in the case of deserts and degraded landscapes where these are limiting. Thus, soil fertility only plays a small, but a key role, especially in acid soils where they limit the range of crops that can be grown on them. On the other hand, if provided with suitable physical environment, if soil fertility would be increased or conserved, where balanced adequate nutrient supplies prevail, or where deficiencies are corrected or toxicities removed acid soils offer high potentials with snowballing effects on crop-livestock production with returns as is economically feasible. Otherwise, true to the principle of the most limiting factor, crop response can be negative and even be devastating if one of the inputs is limiting. Such is the case under poor soil fertility management. Going back a few years, even potentially high-yielding varieties that are expected to bring about bumper yields failed pitifully. They could not result in dramatic increases in production due to the "law of minimum" as articulated by Liebig in 1840, some one hundred and fifty years ago. He stated that: By the deficiency or absence of one necessary constituent, all the other being present, the soils is rendered barren for all those crops to the life of which that one
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constituent is indispensable. In other words, if any essential element is deficient, yield would be as good as the supply of that nutrient in question. It is mere input-output relationship. It is as good as it gets. For certain, it is in tune with the laws of thermodynamic and consistent with conservation principles. That is also the reason why yields would be diminished in acid soils due to the limiting unfavorable soil-plant conditions which emanates from both active and reserve acidity. These would be accompanied by multitude of nutrient stress syndrome such as deficiencies and/or toxicities. Therefore, under Ethiopian condition, without sound soil management, improved seeds did not do as well as traditional varieties that often are adapted to poor soil conditions and require little of such subsidies. The reality is that where improved varieties with high nutrient demand are used on not-so-fertile soils, the law of minimum sets in. It demonstrates that unless sound soil fertility managements are introduced, soil nutrient drain or nutrient mining becomes severe. Then, until the bottleneck is removed, more work may not mean higher yield but actually frighteningly less. In other words, too much of a good thing such as improved seed can be as serious a strain on production under too little soil nutrients. Such was the case in Ethiopia where the use of improved varieties without judicious application of fertilizers led to soil nutrient mining. In contrast, if the level of nutrient input such as fertilizer is beyond the optimum level, the ability of crops to assimilate the additional input can reach saturation, or what is assimilated may not be translated into yield. Instead crops become succulent or lodge, or do not ripen at the right time, or would be vulnerable to diseases and pests. Again, the law of the maximum sets in and performance will decline. Sadly, even some one hundred and fifty years after Liebig, there are some in Ethiopia that are blissfully unaware of these facts of life! Their members have even made their ignorance a national issue either out of ignorance or from sinister motive. Absurd as it is, the claim was that the government sought to
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create a ' dependency syndrome' the through the wider use of fertilizers and other inputs for is own political ends. Without technical qualification but based on erroneous contention, thy tried to look through tinted glasses and blame the government for making the land become ' accustomed' to fertilizers such that, as a result it has refused to give high yields without it. The fact of the matter is that the law of minimum equally woks on the supposedly "miracle seeds" that have high nutrient feeding power to meet increased production. These seeds can only translate their potential into the envisaged production boost only under the right nutrients environment etc. The sought outcome from such ritual denunciation and agitation was the discouraged use of fertilizers at the face of poverty where, for eons, farmers have cultivated denuded, often infertile and fragmented holdings, the size of table-top. But it did not materialize. Testimony to this is the bumper yields since then. They are not some illusionary writing on a wall but real outputs! Again, regardless of what ecological soundness dictates, subsistent has forced farmers to violate their own sound natural resources management systems. Further, the country has over forty percent acid soils that are inherently poor. These only require elementary conservation-based sound management to make the difference between bounty and stark starvation. There is also the need to reverse past reckless deeds that have reduced the livability of our habitat to a point of no return. These and many more constitute our common denominators. Accordingly, they seek our concerted participation under the umbrella of a people-centered sustainable development that also conserves the resource base. It is encouraging to note that there is now the forward look with unwavering commitment to put what would have been the open future into a systematic framework. As a result, under the right policy environment the people are out to change the glaringly sorry state of affairs where traditional agriculture that has always been a gamble in rainfall would be transformed into market-oriented.
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These are being instituted with appropriate introduced or home-grown improved technologies and inputs. Even then, prudence dictates that the various options be tested on a pilot scale under different farming systems. This will help determine whether the requisite conditions exist for people to adopt the new practices and whether the enabling environment for success that avoids serious waste of resources exists. Mountains of evidence also confirm that managed changes can foster the proper environment for sustainable development. Therefore, greater understanding of the several processes involved in acid soils and how to measure them more precisely can help achieve high and efficient production. In the process, there would be increased awareness and appreciation that the appeal of any technology must have to be determined by the extent to which account is taken of its impact to sustain production in an environmentally friendly manner. Until such a time, caution should be exercised to avoid propagating particular changes with expedient disregard of basic knowledge on sound management of resources. Nor efforts should be intensified to increase production on these soils before they are really required or before their concrete merits have been demonstrated. Otherwise, there can be a boomerang effect with undesirable reversals. And, there are the symptoms! That is why policies, strategies and programs must address the principle of interactions for their sound and efficient exploitation with least disturbance to the eco-system. However, the precarious acid soils that occupy close to forty percent of the country have not received the attention they dully deserve. One can even venture to state that they have even been neglected in spite of their accelerated degradation. Its ugly face has been revealed even in once pristine landscapes. But, sound management skills were around the corner! Had this continued, their sustained usefulness could have been dissipated in no time. This poignant view is based on the fact that we have, in the past, mercilessly
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abused our habitat. Given the conjugal bond of people with nature, it is amazing that we ourselves did not end up in the category of endangered species! As a case in point, imagine the scarcity of fuel wood. This has forced the use of farmyard manure and other organic residue. The practice has impinged on the maintenance of soil fertility because they could have been better utilized as amendments for the amelioration of acid and other soils. If continued unabated, there could be continued rural migration to urban centers from these and other sundry causes. This is bound to occur even when security of tenure under appropriate land administration has been instituted. Nor would voluntary resettlement or access to land that has been underway on sites that have rampant acid soils offer solutions unless amended. To avoid the downward spiral, increased access to affordable and sustainable energy has to be designed based on renewable sources with natural resources issues in consideration. In tandem, rural electrification not only accelerates the development of market-oriented enterprises, but can also help meet the challenges to rehabilitate the upset balance between people and their habitat. What is encouraging is that there is the resurgence of increased focus on acid soils. The new development re-orientation has not sought fundamental paradigm shift. That was necessary in as long as the multifaceted issues of poverty, hunger and food insecurity have been addressed through various policies, strategies and action that reinforce a holistic and integrated approach. In accordance with these, the issues that surround acid soils are being answered with an emphatic ' yes' ! It is their major overhaul than only identification of the pieces of the puzzle that is sought to escape the trap laid against their holistic development. Accordingly, steps are being taken for their rehabilitation under a multidimensional broad thrust for rapid and pro-poor sustainable development in concert with nature as protagonist.
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Certainly, social mobilization through increased awareness of the immense human potential can help the transformation of the country. It is hoped that such would be the case for the potentials of acid soils to be tapped under sound management. Then, they can even be part of the solution to the burning issue of household food security through intensification, diversification, and specialization that offer ample non-farm opportunities. Where adequate emphasis is given to indigenous knowledge and practices, these could be powerful transformative tools for market-oriented development. Even nonagricultural programs can be successful for meaningful employment to flourish. Therefore, the loud and clear message is that the current tempo on acid soils has to be increased for boost in agricultural production and non-agricultural income that will make our habitat safe for generations to come. This, indeed, seeks good managers as nature it self. It can be done! What is amazing is that some of the sound management considerations for the successful development of the more than forty percent acidic soils are there for the asking! Then, their potentials would not be dissipated and the population would not be caught up in a vicious spiral of damaged livelihood under an exacerbated poverty. Instead, human conditions would be improved with dignity where the community and each person as an individual are respected. If not, the ultimate consequences would be human degeneration that can stand out as social blight. When all is said and done, the aim is to change the vicious circle of poverty and underdevelopment in to a virtuous cycle of development and prosperity in accordance with felt needs. This is where the commitment of the people under the correct policy environment and the right institutional structures makes a difference for the effective execution of programs with efficient coordination of multitude activities. Obviously, the country is out with resoluteness to overcome the poverty trap with the mobilization of domestic resources with lessons learnt and experiences acquired in best practices.
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Further, in a world that is rapidly being globalized, successful holistic development also seeks linkages with consortium of partners. It is envisaged that broad alliances with various stakeholders within a country framework can be forged for new opportunities that reinforce friendlier international markets, as well as provide diverse financial and technical assistance to address the challenges of building a diversified economy in Ethiopia. In this endeavor, the private sector can play a significant and meaningful role by embarking upon new and credible sustainable initiatives to transform acid soils for a win-win growth and development.
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APPENDIX I The chemistry of soil pH: In an ideal solution, pH is related to hydrogen-ion concentration in a straightforward manner. For instance, vinegar contains acetic acid and gives an acidic reaction (pH < 7). Lime contains calcium hydroxide and this gives an alkaline reaction (pH >7). But, soils consist of a solid phase with mineral and organic particles accompanied by the solution phase and soils atmosphere. As is commonly understood, soil is said to be acid when the activity of the hydrogen ions exceeds that of the hydroxyl ions. But, with such a complex media as soils, the issue of acidity is a different matter. Here, soil acidity is associated mostly with the presence of hydrogen and aluminum ions in exchangeable form. It also involves quantity and intensity aspects. The adsorbed aluminum represents the reserve potential acidity or the quantity aspect or total acidity of a soil. It is equivalent to the amount of base such as calcium hydroxide needed to neutralize it through titration to some established end point. The dissociated hydrogen ion is represented by the intensity aspect or active acidity of a soil. It is universally characterized as the hydrogen-ion activity and is expressed as pH. It decreases with increased hydrogen ion concentration from the partial hydrolysis of water due to aluminium ions. Soil pH in turn depends on the soil-water ratio and is not constant. It also varies with the salt concentration. Lowered amount of water or larger soil to water ratio and increased kind and concentration of soluble salts decrease the observed pH value. Further, the cation exchange property of soils, the level of base-saturation and presence of free sodium carbonate affect soil pH. To eliminate such variation in observed pH value due to salt concentration, the values are sometimes determined in N KCl or 0.01 M CaCl2. The pH of a soil, therefore, is only an approximate reflection of the hydrogen-ion concentration of the soil solution, but it does not reflect the total acidity of the system. Therefore, a closer look on the chemistry of soil pH could shade some light on the nature of acidity in soils.
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To begin with the ionization of water according to the scheme: H20 = H+ + OHis defined as: Kw = [H+] [OH-] where the [H+] and [OH-] are the concentrations of the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions expressed as equivalents per litter. (One equivalent of a singly charged ionic species is the weight in grams of that species which contains 6.023x1023 particles). In any aqueous system at 220C, the product of the hydrogen and hydroxyl ion concentration i.e. the ionization constant of water or the value of Kw is 10-14. The equation Kw = [H+] [OH-] can be written in a more useful form by dividing both sides by one and taking logarithms. This yields:log 1/ Kw = log 1/[H+] = log 1/ [OH-] = 10-14 The negative logarithm of log 1/[H+] and log 1/[OH-] are referred to as pH and pOH, respectively. Then, any system where Kw = 10-14 at 220C, neutrality corresponds to pH= pOH = 7. This means that water is neutral (pH 7) so is any substance mixed with water. Otherwise, the solution or mixture it is either acid (pH < 7) or alkaline (pH >7). To illustrate the nature of acidity in soils, assume that the clay particle acts like a large acid radical on which are adsorbed positively charged ions (25, 26, 27). This can be represented schematically as [CLAY]Ca, H, Al, H, K. Because soil colloids have the tendency to either adsorb hydrogen and aluminum ions from solution or release them into the solution to maintain equilibrium, the soil tends to resist an abrupt change in pH. Then, such a soil is said to be
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buffered. In essence, it behaves like a weak acid with a gradual increase or decrease in soil pH. Other soils could have lower buffer capacity and manifest an abrupt, fast and sharp change in pH. When clays are saturated with aluminum and hydrogen ion, they release other ions with a correspondent decrease in soil pH. If the hydrogen ion is neutralized by the addition of a base, the equilibrium will readjust itself, and some of the hydrogen ion held by the clay will dissociate with only a slight change in the active acidity of the system. This process can be continued until the potential hydrogen is neutralized and all of the adsorbed aluminum is precipitated as aluminum hydroxide. As the process is continued, less and less of the hydrogen tends to ionize at any stage during the neutralization process. The result is a gradual decrease in the active acidity with concomitant increase in soil pH. This can be achieved through lime application. Its addition to such soils raises the pH and the lime potential. It also increases the proportion of calcium on the exchange complex and immobilizes by precipitation of iron, manganese and aluminum which may be present in excess. It must also be noted that gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), if the addition is small, will not alter the soil pH though it is frequently used as a source of calcium and sulfur. Seasonal fluctuation in salt content due to fertilizer application or the mineralization of organic matter can markedly change soil pH values. The case of acidifying fertilizers such as urea has been treated earlier. Soils that are strongly acid under aerobic conditions (pH 5 or below) may have pH values near 7 under aerobic conditions. The cause is its neutralization by hydroxyl groups activated by reduction of ferric oxide or hydroxide to the more soluble ferrous form. Fe(OH)3 + electron Fe++ + 3OH-
In aluminum-saturated clays, the neutralization reaction can be represented by:-
Mesfin Abebe
76
2Al Clay + 3 Fe(OH) 2
3Fe-Clay + 2Al(OH)3
As aerobic condition returns, the hydrated ferric iron serves as proton donor, and exchangeable hydrogen accumulates in the soil. This is followed by aluminum on dissolution of aluminum hydroxide or decomposition of other aluminumbearing minerals and the acid condition is regained. An associated process during flooding is the reduction of sulfate to sulfide and the accumulation of part of the ferrous iron as ferrous sulfide. Then, there is need for caution in the drainage of flooded soils since their ' reclamation' could only mean their evermore degradation down the soil acidity gradient. All in good time!
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APPENDIX II The question of lime requirement: It has been repeatedly stressed that the pH as an expression of the hydrogen ion activity does not take into account the activities of other ions such as aluminum, iron and manganese. Since these influence soils acidity, the soil solution will consequently exhibit a greater degree of acidity than would be inferred from soil pH measurement alone. Even then, soil pH, which is easily determined, can be a good indicator of general soil condition. However, as a measure of active acidity in a medium that behaves as a weak acid, pH gives no indication about the amount of lime to be applied. Therefore, pH alone is no criterion for the amount of lime that should be added to a soil. For a more precise determination of soil acidity, buffer curves are prepared that relate a change in soil pH to the addition of a known amount of base. This measurement of potential acidity is the lime-requirement in its loose sense. It is accomplished by the titration of the soil suspension with alkali while simultaneously measuring change in pH. In spite of that, the optimum degree of soil acidity or the lime-requirement' will vary considerably for different crops on different soils. The lime requirement is also related not only to the soil pH but also to the buffer capacity of a soil or its resistance to changes in pH. This is directly correlated with its cation exchange capacity. The larger the clay and organic matter content, the higher the cation exchange capacity and the greater the buffer capacity. And, if the soil is acidic i.e. base unsaturated, it will have a high lime requirement as elaborated below. Neutralization value: Liming materials differ markedly in their reactivity or ability to neutralize acids. Thus, some measure of the reactivity of the liming material is done whenever possible. To this end, pure calcium carbonate (CaCO3) with the molecular weight of 100 (i.e. Ca=40; C=12; 0=16, the, 16 times 3=48) is assigned the neutralizing value of 100 per cent. It is taken as the standard against which other liming materials are measured (101).
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The reactivity or the neutralizing value of liming materials, in turn, is related to the molecular composition of the liming material and its purity. Consider the reaction of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) with hydrochloric acid (HCl) represented by the equations:CaCO3 + 2HCl MgCO3 +2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 MGCl2 + H2O + CO2
Both equations illustrate that the reaction of liming materials with acid soils usually results in the formation of water and a slightly dissociated carbonic acid: H2O + CO2 H2CO3
What is more important and significant is that in each of these equations, the molecular proportions are the same. Therefore, one molecule each of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate neutralized two molecules of hydrochloric acid. But, the molecular weight of CaCO3 is 100 as shown above. The molecular weight of MgCO3 is 84 (i.e. Mg = 24; C = 12; and (0) i.e. (16 times 3) = 48). This means that 84 g of MgCO3 will neutralize the same amount of acid as 100 g. of CaCO3. How much effective 100 g of MgCO3 than the same amount of CaCO3 can be demonstrated quite easily based on the simple proportion of : 84/100 = 100/X. Then, the value for X equals 119. In other words, on a weight basis, magnesium carbonate will neutralize 1.19 times as much acid as the same weight of calcium carbonate. Hence, its neutralizing value in relation to CaCO3 is (1.19) times 100 or 119 per cent. Other liming materials can be calculate in the same manner. By the way, for the same degree of fineness, the material that costs the least per neutralizing value should be selected. Limestone conversion factors: The conversion of calcium to calcium oxide or calcium carbonate may be necessary in dealing with liming materials. It may
79
also be desirable to convert magnesium oxide (MgO) or magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) to the calcium carbonate equivalent (104). To perform such a conversion, assume that a limestone material contains 20 percent CaO and 20 percent MgO. Suppose that we wish to convert and express this analysis in terms of the calcium carbonate equivalent or the neutralizing value. Such a conversion is possible because a mole of one gram molecular weight of calcium oxide is 56 g (i.e. Ca = 40; and 0 = 16). This is equivalent to 100 g. of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 = 100). Accordingly, the percentage of calcium oxide is multiplied by 100/56 or the factor of 1.785. Then, the calcium carbonate equivalent in this sample is 20 percent x 1.785 or 35.7 percent. The conversion of magnesium oxide to calcium carbonate can be handled in a similar manner. One mole of each neutralizes the same quantity of acid as elaborated. A mole of one gram molecular weight of magnesium oxide is 40 g (mg = 24; and 0 = 16) and that of calcium carbonate is 100. Then, 40 g. of magnesium oxide will neutralize the same amount of acid as 100 g. of calcium carbonate. Then, all that remains is to multiply the 20 percent magnesium oxide in the sample by the factor of 100/40 or 2.5 and this equals to 50 percent. The total neutralizing value, or calcium carbonate equivalent, for the limestone in question with 20 percent each CaO and MgO is the 50 percent added to the 35.7 percent and this amounts to 85.7 percent. The list of the few limestone conversion factors below are derived in the same manner.
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Limestone conversion factors
Percent Ca Ca Ca Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg MgO MgCO3
Percent to CaO multiply by
Factor 1.40 1.85 2.50 1.67 2.42 3.50 1.67 4.17 2.50 1.19
to Ca(OH)2 multiply by to CaCO3 to MgO multiply by multiply by
to Mg(OH)2 multiply by to MgCO3 to Ca to CaCO3 to CaCO3 to CaCO3 multiply by multiply by multiply by multiply by multiply by
81
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NATURE AND MANAGEMENT

ACID SOILS IN ETHIOPIA

Mesfin Abebe May, 2007

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

FORMATION AND NATURE

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Na+ + Al3+ + 3Si(OH)4

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 5H2O kaolinite

2Si(OH)4 + Al(OH)3 Eq.4. soluble silica gibbsite

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

SOME SOIL-PLANT CONSIDERATIONS

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

CURRENT MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

6. MEASURES FOR CONSERVATYION-BASED MANAGEMENT

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

THE ROAD AHEAD

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

was recommended (Soil Science

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

In aluminum-saturated clays, the neutralization reaction can be represented by:-

2Al Clay + 3 Fe(OH) 2

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia

Limestone conversion factors

Percent Ca Ca Ca Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg MgO MgCO3

Percent to CaO multiply by

to Ca(OH)2 multiply by to CaCO3 to MgO multiply by multiply by

Nature and Management of Acid Soils in Ethiopia