CHAPTER 7: PHILOSOPHY AND LEADERSHIP

INTRODUCTION
GENERAL OUTLINE
DETAILED OUTLINE
KEY TERMS
ANSWERS TO “QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW”
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ESSAY QUESTIONS
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
ONLINE SELF-ASSESSMENT TOOL
SUGGESTED READING

Introduction
This chapter examines thoughts on leadership from a historical context, beginning
with the views of the Greeks and continuing through a discussion of the views of Thomas
Hobbes and John Locke. Why are the views of pre-industrial theorists important? As we
progress on our journey to form our own conception of leadership, we can learn from the
ideas of philosophers throughout the ages, whose thoughts on leadership continue to
shape the modern debate.

General Outline

The Greeks- The Leader as Harmonizer and Teacher

Plato’s Republic- Ideal Leader in the Ideal City
The Leader as Provider of Resources and Guide to Others
Niccolo Machiavelli- The Pragmatic Leader
Thomas Hobbes- The Leader as Enforcer
John Locke- The Indirect Executive Leader
Leadership Profiles
Niccolo Machiavelli- The Pragmatic Leader
Mahatma Gandhi -The Father of a Nation

Detailed Outline

The Greeks: Leader as Harmonizer and Teacher

Homer's The Iliad, written during the time of the Trojan War, examines leadership
through the depiction and analysis of a warrior. The warrior is distinguished from the
farmer by virtue of his serving a different function. Different characters in this text
represent different components of the ideal warrior. Writes Werner Jaeger, "the ideal of
decisive action and physical prowess belongs to Ajax, cunning and warrior's guile to
Odysseus, the unity of both of these qualities, as well as the possession of many other
attributes belonging to the ideal warrior, are found in Achilles."
 Plato’s Republic – Ideal Leader in the Ideal City

Plato's views were unlike earlier approaches in that they were not driven by wars
or other external threats. His focus was on morality and politics. In describing the
political status quo, Plato's fundamental premise was that it is human nature to be self-
interested. Citizens can be divided into those who are strong and those who are weak.
Those who are strong take advantage of opportunities and obey the law only when they
fear the consequences of being caught. Leaders are the people who possess strength,
cunning, and the ability to cultivate a believable facade that they are looking out for the
interests of others. The public is thus duped into trusting the leader and believing that the
leader is looking out for them, but ultimately the leader is only looking out for himself.
Plato's ideal leader is thus one who is able to rise above these tendencies and act for the
benefit of the whole.

While Plato tended to see leadership qualities as innate, Socrates was more of the
view that, through the proper education, one can gain the wisdom needed to become a
leader. This wisdom was not the sort of wisdom used in day-to-day decisions, but rather
was the wisdom "about the city as a whole and the betterment of its relations with itself
and other states."
The other primary distinction between Socrates and Plato concerns the role of the
leader. To Socrates, the leader most closely resembled a physician, in that the leader
possesses special knowledge or skills from which the populace can benefit. Plato views
the ideal leader as a person with rare intellectual qualities who is able to act as a
harmonizer and as an improver of those whom he or she leads.

The Leader as Provider of Resources and Guide to Others

St. Thomas Aquinas lived in the thirteenth century, an era dominated by the
Church. Accordingly, leadership theory at that time was linked to the notion of a
hierarchical structure, with God resting at the top. This view was developed and
articulated by early Christian authors such as Augustine, Anselm, and Bonaventure.
Aquinas's primary contribution was to integrate these ideas with the newly-recovered
works of Aristotle. His "ideal monarch" was a person who best represented the virtues of
the divine: namely, a concern for the quality of life and the virtue of one's subjects. The
"ideal monarch" is the embodiment of the highest standards and serves to inspire those
subjects who are loyal to him to reach a higher level of happiness and being.

The Leader as Mediator of Individual Self-Interest

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke lived during an era of great political upheaval in
England, both domestically and abroad. Accordingly, their views on leadership were
shaped by an emphasis on legitimate and effective political leadership.

Thomas Hobbes
In Leviathan Hobbes described the natural human condition as being in a state c: war.
Drawing on the works of Galileo and Descartes, he envisioned humans as being in
constant motion in the political world, frequently clashing in an attempt to obtain power
Civil war is seen as the inevitable consequence when a leader is not in control.
Hobbes' solution is found in his Laws of Nature. These laws are based on a
contractual agreement made between members of a society to put aside self-interest in
order to create a peaceful society. The effective leader is thus one who is able to instill
sufficient fear in the populace so that they will resist their self-interested tendencies and
obey the contract.

John Locke

While Hobbes's Laws of Nature are based on reason and rationality, Locke points
out that people are not always reasonable or rational. Locke promotes a system of
government where the executive is subordinate to the legislature. The ideal leader is seen
as one who is able to facilitate participation in major decisions and as one who can
implement decisions made by the legislature. The leader is thus a moderator, £ protector
of rights.

Leadership Profiles

Machiavelli – The Power of Deceiving

Niccolo Machiavelli lived in an era dominated by commercialism and in many

ways his views were the embodiment of this era. Machiavelli was not interested in
imagining any "ideal" cities or societies. Rather, his focus was on providing advice to
leaders in the "real world." His "ideal leader," represented in his text The Prince, is,
above all, practical. The Prince is able to examine situations and to adjust his behavior
accordingly. Thus, at times the Prince is kind-hearted and at other times the Prince is
harsh. In contrast to previous theorists who extolled the "ideal leader" as virtuous,
Machiavelli posits that the possession of virtue may be a hindrance to the Prince, as some
situations call for vice above virtue. The primary characteristic that the Prince must have,
asserts Machiavelli, is an ability to foresee future contingencies in order to bring them
under control.

Mahatma Gandhi – The Father of a Nation

Gandhi was, and still is, respected as one of the greatest leaders of his time. His
ideas have influenced several other leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr. The people
of India called him Mahatma (great soul) and Bapu (Father). He was willing to stand by
his beliefs in withstanding severe criticism, jail time, even physical illness, and was ready
to face death rather than give up his ideals. He was truly the father of Indian
independence.

Key Terms
Ideal leader: The definition of the ideal leader has prompted much thought and debate
throughout history. All of the theorists mentioned in this chapter have weighed in on this
issue, drawing their inspiration from war, politics, philosophy, religion, and capitalism,
among others. This topic is still hotly debated today, with every person having his own
conception of an "ideal leader."

Plato: According to Plato, it is human nature to be self-interested. The population cad

divided into those who are weak and those who are strong. Those who are strong take
advantage of opportunities to gain wealth, influence, etc, and only follow laws when the
fear of being caught and punished is real. A leader is an individual who is cunning
enough to dupe others into entrusting him with power. Thus, leaders tend to be strong,
cunning and have an ability to cultivate a believable facade. All of the above describes
the political status quo. His ideal city would be led by persons who love unchanging
truth, hate untruth, are moderate with money, neither petty nor mean, do not fear death,
have a good memory, and have acquired the virtue of wisdom.

Socrates: Socrates was Plato's mentor and contemporary. Socrates believed that the truly
wise leader was most interested in cultivating the potential of his followers. He used the
metaphor of a physician tending to the sick. The physician possesses special knowledge
and talents and then uses this knowledge to benefit the rest of the society.

Forms: These are defined by Plato as the abstract ideas which are carriers of universal
and immutable truth. According to Plato and Socrates, these ideas can only be accessed
by learned persons who possess inborn wisdom combined with education in mathematics
and philosophy.

Thomas Aquinas: Aquinas's primary contribution to leadership theory is an integration

of the previously suppressed views of Aristotle with the prevailing Christian philosophy
Instead of a hierarchical model, leaders were seen as extensions of God. The role of the
king was thus to be a role model to his subjects, working to cultivate virtue and
embodying the highest standards.

Thomas Hobbes: Hobbes viewed humans as possessing a native desire for power and
viewed the natural human condition as one of universal war. These power drives will
doom a society to conflict and turmoil unless there is a strong government authority and
set of laws to maintain order. His solution is for citizens to form a social contract (Laws
of Nature) whereby citizens agree to seek peace and put aside their selfish concerns in
order to benefit the society as a whole. The role of the leader in this society is to
sufficient fear in the populace, so that they do not break this contract in order to power.

John Locke: Locke envisioned a system of government whereby a legislative branch

creates laws and a subordinate executive branch is responsible for ensuring that these
laws are carried out. Executive leaders are not directly involved either in legislation or in
private matters. Rather, they work to ensure that people's rights are being respected and
that the interests of the community at large are being served.
Laws of Nature: This is Hobbes' solution for creating peace in a populace innately
driven toward war. This proposed document would instruct citizens to put aside their
selfish interests in order to live in a more peaceful society. The cost of entering this
contract would be a reduction in individual freedoms, but the benefit would be living in a
peaceful society, in stark contrast to the great political and social turmoil characteristic of
England during Hobbes's lifetime.

Answers to "For Discussion and Review"

1. What are some of Plato's views on the nature of human beings and the characteristics
of the ideal leader?
Plato views people living in the "political status quo" as being primarily
motivated by self-interest. "Strong" individuals take advantage of situations that can
increase their status, wealth, etc., while "weak" individuals abide by the laws and do not
always look out for themselves first- In this view, the "ideal leader" would possess the
characteristics of strength, cunning, and the ability to cultivate a believable facade. In
contrast, ideal leaders in his ideal city would be persons who have a combination of
inborn leadership traits and acquired wisdom. These leaders would love unchanging truth,
hate untruth, be moderate with money, neither petty nor mean, would not fear death and
have a good memory.

2. How does Socrates' conceptualization of a leader differ from that of Plato?

While Plato and Socrates both view leaders as possessing both inherited traits and
acquired knowledge, the primary difference in their conceptualization of a leader comes
from the role that they ascribe to the leader. Socrates makes the metaphor between the
leader and the physician. Both strive to bring out the full potential of the individual
person whom they are advising. Plato viewed leaders as serving in a more collective
fashion, working to bring people together.

3. How did Thomas Aquinas's work contribute lo our understanding of leadership? What
characteristics did he attribute to the "ideal leader"?
Perhaps Aquinas's most notable accomplishment was the integration of the ideas
of Aristotle (which had previously been suppressed) into the predominant Christian
philosophy. He wrote, "the king...is to be in the kingdom what the soul is in the body,
and what God is in the world." His "ideal leader" serves as a moral and spiritual role
model for the populace, embodying virtue and working to cultivate virtue in his subjects.

4 What are the "Laws of Nature" and how are they beneficial, according to Hobbes?
The Laws of Nature call for people to put aside their selfish interests and join in
an agreement whereby individual liberties may be restricted in order to maintain peace.
Having lived in a particularly turbulent era of England's history, Hobbes believed that it
was human nature to be driven toward power and that the best way to avoid civil war was
to enter a societal contract, enforced by a strong leader, not to pursue individual goals at
the expense of others.
5. How do Hobbes and Locke differ in terms of their views on the amount of control
people have over their lives?
Hobbes and Locke both envision leadership as involving keeping the peace
among the populace. However, Hobbes takes a more cynical view as to how much
control people have over their own lives. He sees a "natural" drive for power which is so
strong in people that the leader must resort to fear in order to keep these power drives in
check. Locke, however, believes that people are more in control of their lives and thus
leaders do not need as much direct involvement in maintaining order. The leader's role is
to ensure that people's rights are being respected. Beyond that, the leader should let
people manage their own affairs.

6. How are the views of each of the individuals presented in this chapter reflective of the
culture and historical time period in which they lived?
This question has no right or wrong answer and is also included as one of the
recommended essay questions for this chapter. Each of the theorists discussed in this
chapter was both shaped by and a changer of history. For example, would Hobbes have
viewed people's inherit tendencies to be warlike if he had not lived in an era of civic and
political turmoil in England? To what extent were Machiavelli”; views shaped by the
mercantile values of the Renaissance and vice-versa? Strong answers to this question
will attempt to place the view of each theorist in its historical context.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is not a characteristic ascribed to the ideal warrior (Achilles),
as represented by Homer in The Iliad?
a. cunning
b. morality
c. decisive action
d. physical prowess

Answer: b

2. According to Plato, it is human nature to be:

a. self-interested
b. generous
c. weak
d. religious

Answer: a

3. Which of the following theorists were contemporaries?

a. Plato and Socrates
b. Hobbes and Locke
 c. Homer and Machiavelli
d. a and b
e. none of the above

Answer: d

4. In describing a "truly wise leader," Socrates compares the role of this leader to the role
of a(n):
a. manager
b. administrator
c. physician
d. lawyer

Answer: c

5. Whose previously suppressed ideas were used by Aquinas to expand upon the
prevailing Christian Platonism?
a. Caesar
b. Socrates
c. Alexander the Great
d. Aristotle

Answer: d

6. According to Aquinas, a king should be to his kingdom what:

a. a manager is to his/her employer
b. God is to the world
c. a parent is to his/her child
d. a captain is to his/her ship

Answer: b

7. Which theorist would be least comfortable describing an "ideal leader?"

a. Machiavelli
b. Socrates
c. Hobbes
d. Aquinas

Answer: a

8. Mary Smith is a manager who always seems able to anticipate situations and bring
them under her control. At times, her employees find her to be ruthless. At other times,
she is seen as tender. She best exemplifies the qualities of an effective leader suggested
by which of the following?
a. Aquinas
b. Conger
 c. Machiavelli
d. Locke

Answer: c

9. The person who is identified with the belief that human beings are like material bodies
in motion, with a native desire for power is:
a. Machiavelli
b. Socrates
c. Hobbes
d. Plato

Answer: c

10. When the founding fathers of the United States organized a government based on the
structure of a strong legislature responsible for enacting legislation balanced by an
executive branch whose responsibility it was to enforce legislation, they were following a
tradition laid out in this textbook by:
a. Locke
b. Plato
c. Caesar
d. Hobbes

Answer: a

Essay Questions

1. Compare and contrast the conceptualization of an "ideal leader" proposed by three of

the following theorists: Socrates, Plato, Aquinas, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Locke.

2. How are the views of each of the individuals presented in this chapter reflective of the
culture and historical time period in which they lived?

3. Imagine Machiavelli as a political consultant in an American presidential race. What

advice might he give to an aspiring candidate?
4. How have some of our conceptions of the “ideal leader" changed over time and in what
ways have they stayed the same?

Teaching Suggestions
How would Plato, Socrates, Hobbes, and Locke describe President Bush, or any
contemporary leader? Ask the class to debate this issue in groups of four with each
student role playing one of these philosophers.
An alternative is to ask these groups to discuss how corporate (or military or
church) leaders function in our society. They might also debate the leadership styles of
the two people profiled in the chapter. (Machiavelli, Gandhi)
Suggested Reading

Koestenbaum, P. (2002). The philosophic consultant: Revolutionizing organizations with

ideas. New York: Pfieffer.