ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II LABORATORY MANUAL

I. B.TECH, II SEMESTER ALL BRANCHES

GAYTRI VIDYA PARISHAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN MADHURAWADA, VISAKHAPATNAM.

NAME:

REGD. NO:

BRANCH:

Certificate
Certified record of practical work done by Ms........ of first B.Tech, Second Semester, Branch bearing registered number in the Engineering Physics laboratories of Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering for Women, Madhurawada, Visakhapatnam during the academic year 2012-13. No. of experiments done and certified:
Lecturer in charge Date Examiners: 1. 2.

INDEX
1. Thermistor characteristics (Theory part) Thermistor characteristics (Experimental part) 2. Band gap of semiconductor (Theory part) Band gap of semiconductor (Experimental part) 3. Resistor Capacitor time constant (Theory part) Resistor Capacitor time constant (Experimental part) 4. Zener diode V I characteristics (Theory part) Zener diode V I characteristics (Experimental part) 5. Stewart and Gee Apparatus (Theory part) Stewart and Gee Apparatus (Experimental part) APPENDIX 6. BREAD BOARD 7. Circuit symbols of components 8. Kirchhoffs laws 9. Resistor colour code 10. Least square fit method 11. Abbreviations 12. Tan table for selected values DATA SHEETS 1 23 45 57 8 10 10 13 14 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 25 26 27 28 28 28

S.NO. DATE

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

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REMARKS

T ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY II

THERMISTOR
THEORY: The name thermistor comes from thermally sensitive resistor. They are basically semiconducting materials and are of two distinct classes: 1. METAL OXIDES: They are made from fine powders that are compressed and sintered at high temperature. Mn 2 O 3 (manganese oxide), Ni O (nickel oxide), Co O 3 (cobalt oxide), Cu 2 O 3 (copper oxide), Fe 2 O 3 (iron oxide), TiO 3 (titanium oxide) U 2 O 3 (uranium oxide) etc, are the few examples. They are suitable for temperatures 200-700 K. If the temperature is higher than this range then Al 2 O 3 , Be O, Mg O, ZrO 2 Y 2 O 3 and Dy 2 O 3 (Dy :dysprosium) are used. 2. SINGLE CRYSTAL SEMICONDUCTORS: They are usually Germanium and Silicon doped with 10 16 to 10 17 dopant atoms/cm 3 . Ge thermistors are suitable for cryogenic range 1-100 K. Si thermistors are suitable for 100-250 K. After 250 K the Silicon thermistors will become PTC (positive temperature coefficient) from NTC. The resistivity and the conductivity of the thermistor are related to the concentration of electrons and holes n and p of the semiconductor though the relation, ( ) ... (1)
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R P P P P P P

ordinary metals. Thermistors are available from 1K to 1M. Advantages: They are low cost, compact and highly temperature sensitive devices. Hence are more useful than conventional thermometric devices. Using eq. (2) at some constant reference temperature, say T O = 300K, the resistance will be
R R

( ) Where, ( )

To make the expression to look like a linear relation to determine the values of A and B constants, take natural logarithm on both sides of the above expression, .. (4) The exponential curve now became linear. If we plot the variable , we will get A and B constants from the intercept and slope of the straight line. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the resistance R of thermistor at various temperatures (T), we can plot the graph and obtain the values of A and B. How to vary the temperature T? Using an electric heater we can change the temperature roughly from 30 to 60 . How to measure the resistance R? Using Wheatstones bridge. Wheatstones bridge principle: The circuit shown here is a Wheatstones bridge and it consists of four resistors R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and R4, a galvanometer R1 R2 (G) and a Battery (V). Suppose the G resistance R 4 be unknown. The voltage applied to this circuit by R4 R3 the battery is V only to set up some current and its magnitude has no importance, i.e. whether or 2V or 5V it does not matter at all. Wheatstone bridge gets balanced, i.e. the Galvanometer shows a zero deflection when,
R R R R R R R R R R

The concentrations n and p are strongly dependent on temperature T in Kelvin. Where E a is called activation energy which is related to the energy band gap of that semiconductor. Hence, As temperature increases, the resistance R(T) changes according to the relation, ( [ ]) . (2)
R R

Where R O is the resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T o . Here T o is usually the reference room temperature. B is a characteristic temperature that lies between 2000K to 5000K. The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the ratio of fractional change in
R R R R R R

resistance ( ) to the infinitesimal change in temperature . ..(3) The typical value of is about 0.05/K. It is almost 10 times more sensitive compared with
1

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Or If the resistances R 1 and R 2 are equal, then the bridge will be balanced, i.e. the null deflection in Galvanometer, when R 4 = R 3 . If we choose R 3 as a variable resistor, like a decade resistance box, the unknown resistance R 4 will be equal to the resistance maintained in the box. Measurement of resistance of thermistor: Here in this experiment we employ a 1K (at room temperature) thermistor. We form a Wheatstones bridge with two fixed value resistors each of 1K resistance along with a variable decade resistance box. Two arms of the bridge are formed by 1K resistors and the other two arms, one with thermistor and the other with decade resistance box. The sensitivity of measurement of resistance will be better when all the four resistors here are of same (comparable) magnitude, hence the remaining Rs are 1K each.
R R R R R R R R R R R R

R1=1K

R2=1K
G T

RB 1.5 V

RT

Applications of thermistors: 1. They are used as temperature sensing elements in microwave ovens, heaters and also in some electronic thermometers. 2. Used as sensor in cryogenic liquid storage flasks. 3. Used as compensator for providing thermal stability to transistor based circuits. 4. Used in fire alarms, Infrared detectors as sensor.

THERMISTOR EXPERIMENT
Aim: 1. To study the variation of resistance of a thermistor with temperature. 2. To find the temperature (thermoelectric) coefficient of resistance () of the thermistor. 3. To determine A and B coefficients. Apparatus: Thermistor (1 K), electric heater (max 70 0 C), 1.5 Volt battery or a D.C. power supply, mercury or benzene thermometer (0 110 ), test tube containing insulating oil (edible oil / castor oil), resistors (1k - 2 No.s), Galvanometer (30 0 30), resistance box (1 to 1000 range), connecting wires. Formulae:
P P

( )
R1=1K

R2=1K

RB

1.5 V

Test tube with Coconut oil

2

Electric heater

Procedure: 1. Construct the bridge according to the circuit diagram ( Maintain at least 1000 resistance in the Resistance box before connecting the circuit, i.e. remove the 1000 plug key). 2. The 1 K resistors are already connected on the back panel of the board. Hence no need to connect them again. 3. If a variable D.C. source is given instead of a battery, set the voltage to 1.5 or 2 Volt with the help of a multimeter. 4. The bridge gets balanced (Galvanometer shows 0 deflection) when the resistance of thermistor gets equal to that of the resistance box. Remove the plug keys of resistance box and find out the null point resistance.
U U

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Thermometer

T ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY II

5. Start heating the thermistor by turning on the heater switch on the board. 6. Measure the resistance of thermistor for every two degrees centigrade rise in temperature. Note the readings up to 60 0 C in steps of 2 0 C. 7. At each temperature bridge is not balanced initially and it shows some deflection. It can be made zero by adjusting the resistances in the variable resistance box. Tabulate the readings. 8. Remove the power supply or battery, soon after you complete the experiment. If you forget doing this, it will cause the galvanometer to deflect more causing damage to its restore spring. Graph: A graph is plotted by taking R versus T (K). This graph gives the value of .
P P P P

R1 R2 T1 T2 T in K

ln R

Slope = B

in K-1

Another graph is plotted between ln R and (1/T(K)). The slope of this graph gives B and its intercept on y (ln R) axis gives ln A from which A can be calculated. But it is not possible to find out the intercept from the graph. It can be done with the help of least square fit method as described in the Appendix. Use this method to compute both slope (B) and intercept (ln A) of the straight line. Here assume X as (1/T) and Y as lnR. The intercept C gives the value of ln A and the slope will give B (in K). From the intercept find out the value of A (in ).
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Precautions: 1. Temperature of the thermistor should be less than 70 0 C. 2. Thermistor must be immersed completely inside the hot oil bath. 3. Readings of thermometer must be noted without parallax.
P P

4. Connections should be made properly without any loose contact. 5. Resistance must be varied quickly in the resistance box to get the null point within the 2 0 C intervals. 6. Battery must be disconnected immediately after completion of the experiment.
P P

Viva-Voce Questions: 1. Where do you find applications of thermistor? Name a few of them. They are useful in temperature sensing and controlling equipments. Ex. Microwave ovens, Infrared heat sensors, Liquefied gas temperature sensors in cryogenics. 2. Explain the principle of Wheatstones bridge. In the bridge circuit, the potential at the two nodes across which the galvanometer is connected will be same when the four resistors R 1 to R 4 satisfy the relation
R R R R

3. After obtaining the data from this experiment, you will have the values of A and B coefficients. Can you determine
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the temperature of your body? I will provide you only a thermistor and a multimeter. If yes, describe the method. If No, justify your answer. Yes, it is possible. Suppose that you want to measure your body temperature. Just keep it in tight contact with your body (cover it tightly with skin). Use the multimeter to measure the resistance of this thermistor. After few seconds of contact with body, thermistor attains constant resistance. With the known A and B coefficients, we can measure the body temperature by substituting in ( )
( )

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REFERENCES: 1. Physics of semiconductor devices, S. M. Sze, 3 rd ed, John Wiley publications, chapter 14, sensors, Thermal sensors, p.744-746. 2. The art of Electronics, Paul Horowitz, 2 nd ed, Cambridge university press, chapter 15, Measurement transducers, Thermistors, p.992-993. 3. Electronic devices and circuit theory, R. Boylestad, 7 th ed, Prentice hall publications, Art. 20.11 Thermistors, p.837-838. 4. Electronic sensor circuits and projects, Forrest Mims III, Master publishing, p.13, 46-47. 5. Advanced level physics, Nelkon and Parker, 3 rd Ed, Wheatstones bridge, p.829-834.
P P P P P P P P

BAND GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR USING PN JUNCTION DIODE

THEORY: PN junction diode is an example for extrinsic semiconductor. It can be biased in both forward and reverse directions. The current that flow through the diode when its junction is biased with a voltage V will be ( With ) . ni 2 = B = A constant independent of T E G = Energy band gap of semiconductor (in Joule) N A = Acceptor ion concentration (/cm 3 ) N D = Donor ion concentration (/cm 3 )
R RP P R R R R P P R R P P

The term I s is highly temperature dependent. The expression for it can be written as
R R

Where, V = Applied voltage across junction I s = Reverse saturation current, a constant dependent on temperature of junction = A constant equal to 1 for Ge (high rated currents) and 2 for Si (low rated currents) V T = Volt equivalent of temperature = , T = Temperature of junction in Kelvin A = Area of cross section of junction e = Elementary charge = C D p(n) = Diffusion constant for holes (electrons) for holes and for electrons
R R R R R R

( ( ) ( ( (

) ( )

) )( )( ( ) ) )

= Mobility of holes L p(n) = Diffusion length for holes (electrons) p no = Equilibrium concentration of holes (p) in the n type material
R R R R

Experimentally it was observed that the mobility term in the bracket varies as . Hence, (1) is a constant whose magnitude is in nano or pico ampere. Under reverse biased condition applied voltage V will be negative and hence the expression for current through diode will be, ( )

= n po = Equilibrium concentration electrons (n) in p type material

R R

of

= ni
R R

= Intrinsic carrier concentration (/cm 3 )

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Diode will have only the reverse saturation current flowing through it. The negative sign indicates that the current is flowing in opposite direction to that of forward bias. Hence the current I D through diode in reverse bias will be ( ). (2)
R R

Applying natural logarithms on both sides implies, [ ( )] (3)

( ) .
R R

This is the equation of the straight line with ln(I D ) as ordinate(y axis) and 1/T as abscissa (x axis). ln(I0 ) is the y intercept of the graph. If we plot 1/T versus ln(I D ) graph, its slope with x axis gives the value of ( ). By
R R R R

knowing the Boltzmann constant k B we can evaluate the energy band gap of the semiconductor, similarly we can estimate the value of Boltzmann constant if we know the energy band gap of the given semiconductor. Applications: 1. We can use this to make a diode thermometer. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the reverse saturation current through the diode by varying its temperature, we can plot the graph and obtain slope ( ).
R R

Which diode is suitable for this? OA79, Germanium diode, used as envelope detector in amplitude demodulation circuits. Why this OA 79? Why not any other? Because reverse current variation is more in the case of Germanium than with silicon. Hence for a small temperature range of variation (30 0 to 60 0 C), it is better to choose Ge diode than any other silicon diodes. If we want to do this experiment with silicon diodes,
P P P P

we must have an electric heater capable of giving temperatures up to 150 0 C. How to vary the temperature T? Using an electric heater we can change the temperature roughly from 30 to 60 . How to measure the reverse current? Using a moving coil micro ammeter. Biasing the diode: Use a constant voltage D.C. power supply or a battery to bias it in reverse direction. The voltage applied must be very low, 2 Volt. In case of an ideal diode the reverse current does not vary with applied reverse voltage. But in practical diode case, it increases with increase in reverse voltage. This is due to the increase of leakage currents across the junction with applied voltage. At room temperature, the reverse current may be small and different for same type of diodes, but it follows the equation (2). The values of I o may vary from diode to diode. Description of heater: The heater contains an electric heating element attached to a stainless steel container holding some cold water. A test tube containing oil is immersed in the water bath. Oil is an insulator of electricity and hence it is used for heating the diode. This also provides uniform heating of diode. The diode with properly insulated connecting wires is immersed in the oil bath. Thermometer is also kept inside the oil bath to measure its temperature. We cannot directly insert the diode inside the water bath as tap water contains lots of minerals dissolved in it and acts like conductor. This will short circuit the diode. Useful data: From the data sheet of the OA 79 diode: Material of the diode is Germanium. Maximum surrounding temperature is 60 0 C. Maximum allowed reverse current through the diode is 60A.
P P R R P P

BAND GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR EXPERIMENT Aim: To determine the energy band gap of the material of the semiconductor by studying the variation of reverse saturation current through given PN junction diode with temperature.
5

Apparatus: OA 79 Ge diode, heater (max 60 0 C), thermometer, test tube containing insulating oil (edible oil or castor oil), power supply (2V D.C.), connecting wires, micro ammeter (0 - 50 A) and a voltmeter or multimeter.
P P

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Formula: Reverse current through diode is given by (

R R

Where, E G is the energy band gap of the material of the semi conductor diode, T is the absolute temperature of the diode junction and k B = 1.38 x 10 -23 J/K is Boltzmann constant. Circuit diagram:
R R P P

8. Calculate the E G from both slopes obtained from graph and table. Precautions: 1. Readings of thermometer must be noted without any parallax error. 2. Reverse bias voltage must be regulated at 2 Volt throughout the experiment. 3. Diode should be completely immersed inside the oil bath.
R R

VD

+ 2 _V

+
A

+
ID

GRAPH: Plot a graph by taking the values of ln I vs 1/T. Find out the slope of the curve. Do not consider the origin of this graph. Usually we start at 300K and go up to 333K, hence 1/T varies roughly from to . So start at 2.98 and go up to 3.34 by choosing the scale On 1/T axis as Usually I D varies from 2 A to 60 A. So ln I D varies roughly from to 13.2. So start at 9.7 and go up to 13.2 by choosing the scale On ln I axis as
R R R R

Stainless steel container water bath Test tube containing oil

Electric Heater

Slope (E G /k B ) can be calculated from both

R R R R

Caution: Set the applied reverse bias voltage at 2 Volt. Do not increase this value more. Do not heat the diode beyond 60 0 C. Procedure: 1. Build the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. 2. Observe the initial temperature of the thermometer. If it is high (>30 0 C) then replace the water in the heater jar with some cold water and try to reduce the temperature below 30 0 C. 3. Apply the reverse voltage (2 Volt) by adjusting the potentiometer (if a battery is given, then there is no need of doing this adjustment). 4. Switch on the heater. Note down the reverse current in the micro ammeter for say, every 2 0 C rise, in temperature of the diode (if micro ammeter is not available, you can use a multimeter in D.C. current mode under 200 A ranges). 5. Tabulate the readings. 6. Complete the calculations relevant to the tabular form and get the answer for slope. 7. Plot a graph between lnI and 1/T to obtain its slope.
P P P P P P P P

straight line data fit as well as from the graph. Viva-Voce questions: 1. Distinguish intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor. If the semiconductor material consists of no impurities (dopants), then it will be intrinsic (pure) semiconductor. If it contains dopants {acceptor type [p-type] III group elements or Donor type [n-type] IV group elements} then it will be an extrinsic semiconductor. 2. What are the band gaps of Silicon and Germanium? For silicon; (eV = electron volt)

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For Germanium, T is the temperature of the sample in Kelvin. At 300K, E G = 0.72 eV for Ge; E G = 1.1 eV for Si. 3. How do you test the diode for its polarity using a multimeter? There will be a symbol of diode on the multimeters mode changing dial. Turn the dial to diode testing mode. Connect the two leads of the multimeter to the two leads of the diode. If the multimeter shows infinite resistance (it shows a 1 Or OL means out of range, very large), then it is reverse biased and the terminal of diode that is connected to positive (red probe) of multimeter will be the cathode of the diode and the other one will obviously be the anode. Similarly, if the meter shows some finite resistance like few hundred (150, 540 etc), then it is forward biased, i.e. the terminal of diode that is connected to positive (red probe) of multimeter will be the Anode of the diode and the other one will be the Cathode. During this process, multimeter applies some known voltage across its leads and measures its resistance. 4. If I reveal the material of the diode used, can you estimate the Boltzmann constant from this experiment? If yes, describe how do you do it, if no, say why? (Think and answer) 5. Why do we observe small current (of the order of Micro amp) in this experiment? What are responsible for this small current?
R R R R U U U U U U

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Because reverse current is due to the minority carries only. As their number is very small the current is also small. In which biasing of diode are you doing this experiment? Reverse bias. Can you determine the band gap by changing the bias of the diode? If yes, describe how you do it. If no, explain why? (think and answer) If I give you a silicon diode and the same experimental set up (micro ammeter 050range), can you find out its band gap? Justify your answer. No, the reverse current variation is very small of the order of few nano amperes per degree centigrade and hence it not possible to observe the variation in reverse current with the micro ammeter for a temperature range of 30-60 0 C What is the magnitude of reverse current in silicon at moderate temperatures? Few tens of nano amperes. Can you make a diode thermometer using this setup? If yes, say how? If no, say why? Yes, once if we know the value of I 0 (antilog of intercept of lnI vs 1/T graph) from the experiment, we can measure the T. Just bring the diode in contact with the body whose temperature is to be measured and measure the reverse current (I D ) accurately. As we know the I 0 and I D we can determine the T in Kelvin for that body using the relation ( ).
P P R R R R R R R R

References: 1. Electronic devices and circuits, Millman and Halkias, McGraw hill student edition p.126-132. 2. Semiconductor device physics and technology, SM Sze, M K Lee, 3 rd Ed, John wiley, P.107.
P P

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RESISTOR CAPACITOR CIRCUIT TIME CONSTANT THEORY: Resistor and capacitor combination circuits have got great importance in the field of both electrical and electronics engineering. This is the fundamental circuit to understand the working of many complex electronic circuits. Consider a resistor of resistance R and a capacitor of capacitance C. They can be biased with an external D.C. source to start the process of charging. Suppose that switch S is closed. Apply Kirchhoff voltage law (KVL) to the VR R V C VC Put a trial solution,

Going back to differential equation,

(Assuming 0) This implies ( Voltage across capacitor will be, ( ) )

, when capacitor charges to maximum value q 0 , the voltage across it will be VO. Hence,
R R

above circuit of Charging. Where, the sub scripts R and C denote the voltages across the resistor and capacitor. If we assume a current of i(t), a function of time, then from Ohms law, . If the instantaneous charge on the plates of the capacitor is , then , Where, C is the capacitance of the capacitor. Substituting them in above eqn. implies, ; But, is equal to the rate of change of charge in the circuit, i.e. Current will be,

( ( ); ( )

Hence, At t = 0, is , the maximum current flowing through the circuit. Using,

( Differentiate this expression with respect to time t.

R R R R

Where, i 0 is the current in the circuit at t=0, i 0 R represents the initial voltage across the resistor, i.e. V; ( (
( ( )

Voltage V across battery does not change with time,

))
)

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DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR: VR R V C VC

Similarly for discharging of capacitor, KVL gives Proceeding in the same manner as above, we can show that voltage across the capacitor during discharging will be

GRAPHS: C A P A C I T O R

Time = Time constant Voltage across capacitor with time during CHARGING

= Time constant Voltage across capacitor and Resistor with time during DISCHARGING

VC(t) + VR(t) = V at any t V VOLTAGE VC(t) Capacitor VR(t) Resistor TIME

t CHARGING PROCESS Vs. TIME

APPLICATIONS: 1. In electronic circuits, capacitor is a crucial element. Its behavior in electronic circuits can be better understood from this experiment. 2. We can use this circuit to produce time delay in D.C. operated circuits. 3. Capacitor Load resistor combination is used in filter circuits. 4. To set or reset the Digital ICs at the time of start or during their operation. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: To study the charging process, we maintain a constant D.C. voltage across the serial combination of Resistor and Capacitor to study how the voltage changes across the
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capacitor with time by noting down the voltage at capacitor in regular intervals of time. After plotting the graph of voltage vs. time we can compute the time constant for the circuit from charging process. To study the discharging circuit, we first fully charge the capacitor to the maximum value and then discharge it through resistor. Once again the voltage across the capacitor in this process is to be noted in regular intervals of time and graph is to be plotted. Which capacitor is suitable for this? Any electrolytic capacitor with fairly large capacitance. (2200 F, 3300 F, 4700 F etc) Why large capacitance? Because we want to observe this process by means of a manually countable time period, say few tens or hundreds of seconds. If it is a very small capacitance, then it will be difficult to observe the variation of voltage with time, it drops rapidly. What must be the voltage rating of the capacitor? In our lab we often use 12 to 22 Volt D.C. power supplies. Standard capacitors are available from 12V, 16V, 25V, 35V etc. So it is preferred to use at least 25V rating for capacitor. If it has more voltage rating then it

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can also be used safely. But a 12V or 16 V rating for capacitor may not be safe always. Which value of resistor we have to choose? As we wish to study this process slowly, it is better to use a resistor R that gives an RC product of approximately 100 to 400 seconds. If you are using a 3300 F, 25V rating capacitor, it is better to use at least 50K resistor which gives . If we use less value of resistor than this, it will charge or discharge very quickly and it becomes difficult to note down the readings. What should be the minimum wattage (power rating) for resistor?

In the above example, if we use an 18 volt supply, then the maximum current that flows in the circuit will be . So,

Hence any wattage carbon resistor is suitable (1/8 th Watt, 1/4 th Watt or even Watt is OK) How to measure the Voltage? Using a multimeter in D.C. voltage mode. Biasing the capacitor: As we are using electrolytic capacitor beware of the polarity. The positive of capacitor must be connected towards the high potential (positive) of the D.C. source.
P P P P

R C CIRCUIT TIME CONSTANT EXPERIMENT Aim: 1. To study the charging and discharging processes of Resistor and Capacitor series (R-C) circuit. 2. To determine the time constant of the circuit from the charging and discharging curves. Apparatus: Resistors, electrolytic capacitors, D.C. power supply, Multimeter, bread board, connecting wires and stop watch. Formulae: Across capacitor, [ [ ]. While charging ].. While discharging Procedure: Set the multimeter in 20 Volt D.C. voltage mode Charging process: 1. Connect the circuit on the bread board as shown in the above figure (charging). 2. Calculate the theoretical value of the time constant using the above formula. 3. Switch on the circuit. Join the nodes A and B to the multimeter leads. Join the two leads and hold them together . 4. Switch on the stop watch and separate the probes of multimeter simultaneously. Start counting of time. 5. Note the initial reading of voltage across capacitor as zero volts. 6. While joining the ends of the capacitor with a wire, it gets discharged and the voltage across it becomes zero. As the multimeter
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DISCHARGING PROCESS VR R V C A VC B
A: connect this point to +ve (RED) probe of multimeter B: connect this point to ve (BLACK) probe of multimeter

Circuit diagram: CHARGING PROCESS VR R V C A VC B

A: connect this point to +ve (RED) probe of multimeter B: connect this point to ve (BLACK) probe of multimeter 10

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probes are connected to the ends of the capacitor, joining the leads of the multimeter discharges the capacitor to zero volts. You must hold the two leads of multimeter together until you switch on the stop watch. 7. Note down the voltages in regular intervals of time (say 10 or 20 sec) and tabulate them. {it can be decided on the basis of time constant, if time constant is about 220 sec, then we can go in steps of 20 sec; if it is about 100 sec or less, we can go in steps of 5 or 10 sec}. 8. Take the readings until the capacitor charges to maximum voltage (of power supply).
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Set the multimeter in 20 Volt D.C. voltage mode Discharging process: 1. Replace the resistor in the charging circuit with another high value resistor. 2. Disconnect the wire joined to positive of power supply from the resistor.

3. Join this wire to the ground. (If there is any charge that is left on the positive plate of the capacitor that will be discharged through the resistor). 4. Join the positive probe of multimeter (attached to the positive of capacitor) with positive of the power supply and hold it . (As we want to study the discharge process, the capacitor must have sufficient charge. So charge it directly by joining the positive lead of capacitor to the positive of power supply). 5. Note down the voltage on the capacitor at this zero time. 6. Switch on the stop watch and simultaneously remove the positive probe of multimeter from the positive of power supply. (this will allow the capacitor to decay through resistor) 7. Note down the values of the voltage across capacitor in the same intervals of time as above until some minimum value of voltage appear across it. (Say about two volts)
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Graph: Plot a graph by taking the voltage across capacitor versus time both for charging and discharging cases. Choose the time axis scale as 1 division = 20 sec and the voltage axis scale as 1division = 1 volt. Use separate graph sheets to plot these graphs. From each graph calculate the time constant of the circuit. On charging graph, the time taken for the capacitor to charge to 63% of the maximum value is its time constant. Similarly on discharging graph, time taken by the capacitor to discharge to 37% of its maximum value is its time constant. Precautions: 1. Do not short the ends of the power supply. This will damage your power supply. 2. Connections on the breadboard must be tight. Avoid loose contacts. 3. Start counting of time immediately after closing the switch wire while charging as well as discharging the capacitor. 4. While charging the capacitor wait for sufficiently long time to reach the saturation value. Do not stop the process at the middle. Viva voce questions: 1. Will you get a different answer to the time constant of RC circuit if we replace the power supply from say 12 Volt to 18 Volt? Justify your answer. As the time constant does not depend on the voltage of the power supply, the answer remains same as RC. 2. While discharging the capacitor, suppose that I forgot to switch on the stop watch. Some time lapsed. Then I have started
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taking readings of voltage across capacitor versus time. Will it give me correct answer for ? Justify. Yes. We will get correct answer. Where ever we start counting of time, there the voltage across capacitor will be the new maximum voltage V. From there the voltage starts falling exponentially. Measure the time elapsed between the instant at which voltage is V and the instant where the voltage became 0.37 V.

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It gives the time constant. 3. During discharging of capacitor if the power supply is turned off, will you get correct answer to the time constant? Justify your answer. For discharging process we do not need any power supply. Hence nothing happens. (Power supply is initially required to charge the capacitor. Once after charging the capacitor, it is not required) 4. Can you find out the value of an unknown resistor/capacitor (either C or R will be given to you, but not both) from this experiment? If yes, describe how you get it. If No, say why it is not possible? Yes. Build the charging or discharging circuit with the given components. Study the voltage variation in small intervals of time. (Because we initially do not know whether to take 5 sec time intervals or 10, 20 seconds). If the voltage falls or increases rapidly, then take the smallest time interval possible. If the voltage is not varying much then accordingly you can decide whether to take 10 sec, 20 sec or even 30 sec time intervals. Measure the time constant using the voltage time graph. This gives R.C product value. As one of them is known, other can be estimated. 5. I have started studying the discharging of a capacitor (R=56K and C= 3300 F, Voltage source is 12V). My aim is only to find out its time constant. I have done the experiment and noted the voltage versus time up to 900 seconds. Is it an efficient way of doing the experiment? RC= 184.8 sec, hence we can stop at roughly around 300 sec range to know the time constant experimentally from graph. So it is waste of time to take the readings up to 900 sec. If the variation in voltage reduces, say during one or two minutes time if the voltage drops by 1 volt, then we can stop. 6. Find out the voltage V O across the resistor after a very long time. What will be the voltage across C after very long time?
R R

VR V VC

After long time (say few tens of minutes), the voltage across the capacitor will be equal to
12

the voltage of the D.C. voltage source. If we measure the voltage V R across R, after long time it will be zero. (Use charging equation) 7. In certain logic integrated circuits (ICs), it is necessary to SET or RESET the output of the circuit. It is something like the reset button of your digital stopwatch which makes the output time Zero. It is required to send a high voltage (something like 12V) pulse for a short duration of time and later it should go down to zero (0 Volt). Can you produce it by using this circuit? If Yes, where to take the output? If yes, suggest where to take the output voltage if I need a low voltage (0 Volt) initially that should go quickly to a high voltage (12Volt). (Think! And answer!) 8. If the answer to above question is Yes, what value of resistance would you suggest in achieving this action, Smaller or larger? Justify your answer. We should take large value of resistor and small value of capacitor. For a given RC, initially the voltage appears entirely across R at time t = 0. If R is small, then this will produce an unwanted spike (sudden extraction of current from the power supply). This is undesirable. Hence if we take large R and small C, these spikes would not exist. 9. Transistors are devices which can be used as electronic switches. You will learn about the action of transistors in later courses. For the time being suppose that the Base of a transistor is a control (something like tap head which controls the water flow) which can turn On or Off the transistor depending on the voltage applied at Base. Suppose that I want to watch a programme on a television after some known time delay, say after 10 minutes (10 60=600 sec). My transistor can work as a switch that can turn the T.V. On or Off depending on the voltage applied at its Base. Can you design an RC network that gives me a voltage of 10 volt after 600 sec? You can choose the resistor of your choice, but capacitor is 3300 F and Voltage source is 15Volt. Decide where to take the output of this RC circuit. (Think and answer) 10. During discharging of capacitor if we plot , where, V is the voltage across capacitor at time t, what will be the shape of the graph? If we take the slope of the graph at any point what does it give?
R R

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It will be a straight line with negative slope During discharging process,

( V = voltage of power supply ( [ [ ] ] [ [ ( ]

) ) )]

11. During charging, if we plot ( ) vs. time t, what will be the shape of the graph? (V(t)=voltage across C, V = voltage of D.C. source) It will be a straight line passing through origin with slope (-1/RC). For charging process, { { ( { { ( ) )} } ( ( { { ) ( )} } } )}

V = voltage of power supply

Y=mX

[ ] vs. time t Hence if we plot during discharging process, we will get a straight line passing through origin with slope -1/RC.

Y=mX

References: 1. Fundamentals of physics, Robert Resnick, David Halliday, Walker, 7 th edition, Art. 28.4, RC circuits, p.882-887. 2. University Physics, Young, Art. 26.4, RC circuits, p.896-900.
P P

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ZENER DIODE VOLT AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS THEORY: Semiconductors are basically of two types. Intrinsic semiconductors: These are in their purest form, without any impurities (Dopants). Extrinsic semiconductors: These are impurity added (Doped) intrinsic semiconductors. Doping is a process of adding impurity atoms to the pure semiconductors. The reason for this doping is only to increase the conductivity of the semiconductors. By adding Group III elements Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium (Trivalent impurity) to the pure semiconductors, it becomes P type. By adding Group V elements Nitrogen, phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth (pentavalent impurity) it becomes N type. P type has excess of holes as majority carriers and N type has excess of electrons as majority carriers. Diode is a semiconductor based electronic component. It is formed by joining a p type section of semiconductor with n type section. It has anode (p type) and cathode (n type). It is a polar device, i.e. its operation will depend on the direction of connection (biasing). The above symbol represents an ordinary P N junction diode. A denotes the positive (high potential end) Anode and K denotes the negative (low potential end) of the diode. Diode acts like a mechanical check valve, that conducts (allows flow of liquid) only when the Anode is at relatively high potential with respect to the cathode. Suppose that A is at 10 Volt potential and K is at 9.3 Volt potential. Then the diode will conduct (closed switch or Forward Bias) a current from anode to cathode in the direction of arrow shown in diode symbol. If the potentials are reversed, i.e. A at 9.3V and K at 10V, it does not conduct, acts like infinite resistance (open switch or Reverse bias). Forward Bias: Anode of the diode will be at a relatively high potential than that of cathode. Reverse bias: Cathode of the diode will be at a relatively high potential than that of Anode.
14

Zener and Avalanche diodes are heavily doped p-n junction diodes. It is their circuit symbol .
U U

The doping levels (amounts of added impurities) are considerably different from those normally found in a rectifier (PN) diode. This diode preferably used in REVERSE BIAS. A rectifier diode cannot be used in the breakdown region as it makes permanent damage to the junction. However, zener and avalanche diodes are designed to use in the breakdown region. These diodes are used for voltage reference and voltage regulator circuits. There are two mechanisms that cause a reverse-biased p-n junction to break down: the Zener effect and avalanche breakdown . Either of the two may occur independently, or they may both occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that break down below 5 V are caused by the Zener effect . Junctions that experience break down above 5 V are caused by avalanche breakdown . Junctions that break down around 5 V are usually caused by a combination of the two effects. A zener diode is produced by moderately doping the p-type semiconductor and heavily doping the n-type material (see Fig below). Observe that the depletion region extends more deeply into the p-type region.
U U U U U U U U

Heavily doped

Moderately doped

N Side

P Side

Depletion region Denotes atoms/ions

Bubbles ( ) denote holes and black dots ( ) denote electrons

A REVERSE BIASED ZENER DIODE

Under the influence of a high-intensity electric field, large numbers of bound electrons within the depletion region will break their covalent bonds to become free. This is ionization by an

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electric field. When ionization occurs, the increase in the number of free electrons in the depletion region converts it from being practically an insulator, to being a conductor. As a result, a large reverse current may flow through the junction. The actual electric field intensity required for the Zener effect to occur is approximately 3 X 10 7 Volt/meter. From basic circuit theory we recall that the electric field intensity E is given by V=Ed where E = electric field intensity (volts per meter) V = potential difference (volts) d = distance (meters) In terms of the p-n junction depicted in above Fig. we note that the applied reverse voltage is V and the depletion region width is the distance d. The narrower the depletion region, the smaller the required reverse bias to cause Zener breakdown. A small reverse bias can produce a sufficiently strong electric field in a narrow depletion region. By controlling the doping levels, manufacturers can control the magnitudes of the reverse biases required for Zener breakdown to occur. Only certain standard zener diode voltages are available. These range from 2.4 to 5.1 V. With lightly doped p-type material, the depletion region may be too wide for the electric field intensity to become sufficient for Zener breakdown to occur. In these cases, the breakdown of the reverse-biased junction is caused by avalanche breakdown (see Fig below).
P P

field strength is not large enough to ionize the atoms in the depletion region, it may accelerate the minority carriers sufficiently to allow them to cause ionization by collision. The specifics may be outlined as follows: 1. The depletion region is too wide to allow an electric field intensity of at least 3 X10 7 V/m. 2. The minority carriers are accelerated by the applied electric field. 3. The minority carriers gain kinetic energy. 4. The minority carriers collide with atoms in the depletion region. 5. The valence electrons of the atoms receive enough energy from the collisions to become free (conduction band) electrons. 6. As a result, the number of free electrons in the depletion region increases to support a large reverse current. This avalanche of carriers is also termed as carrier multiplication" since one minority carrier may ultimately cause many free electrons.
P P

The V- I characteristic curve for a zener diode will be similar to rectifier diode in forward bias condition. Its behavior in reverse bias is different from rectifier diode.

Heavily doped

Moderately doped

N Side

P Side

Depletion region

The black dotted electrons on the P-side are minority carriers that are Feeling forward bias and travelling with high speed, colliding with ions of depletion region causing them to release electrons. Their number increases drastically and an avalanche (flood) of electrons are released (Avalanche breakdown) MECHANISM OF AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN

The depletion region is wider because it extends more deeply into the p region. Reverse saturation current is a current flow across a reverse-biased p-n junction due to minority carriers. Even though the electric
15

Important points from V I characteristics: 1. Cut in Voltage (V ): During forward bias of the diode, if we slowly vary the voltage across the diode, there will be no observable current up to a characteristic voltage known as Cut In or Break in voltage or Knee voltage. The minimum forward voltage to be applied to the diode to make it just conducting is called its Cut in voltage. For Silicon diodes, this cut in voltage will be approximately 0.6 to 0.7
R R

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Volt. For Germanium diodes it will be approximately 0.2 to 0.3 Volt. 2. Break down voltage (V Z ): During reverse biasing of diode, initially there will be no current through the diode. (Exception: if we use a micro ammeter, we can observe some small current, a milli ammeter does not show any current ) As we increase the magnitude of reverse voltage, there will be a characteristic voltage for the diode at which it starts conducting infinitely. Sudden raise of current will be observed at this point leaving the voltage across diode almost constant. This voltage is called the Break down voltage. For voltages less than 5V zener break down is dominant and for voltages greater than 5V, Avalanche breakdown is dominant. 3. Dynamic Resistance (R F and R Z ): During
R R R R R R

described above, we can decide the make of the diode. APPLICATIONS: 1. As voltage regulators for both line regulation and load regulation in D.C. power supplies. 2. Used in generating reference voltages for transistor based and integrated circuits. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: To study the V I characteristics of the zener diode, we must measure the current through the diode by applying various voltages to the diode in both forward and reverse biases. This can be done with a variable voltage D.C. source and a milli ammeter.

VR
RS

mA
VD

FORWARD BIAS

What is the D.C. source? A variable D.C. power supply with zero minimum voltage to at least 15 to 20 V maximum voltage. Its power rating must be sufficient to draw at least 100 mA current at these voltages. In our lab we are going to use a 0 20 V variable D.C. source with 1Ampere maximum current.

VR
forward or reverse biasing of diode there are points at which the current through diode increase rapidly. At these points the variation of current with voltage is non linear, reflecting that these devices are non Ohmic. For Ohmic devices, that obey Ohms law, the resistance does not change with applied voltage and hence they have some fixed value of resistance. But here in the case of diode, the resistance changes with applied voltage. So we define the ratio of differential change in Voltage across the diode with the corresponding differential change in current through it as the Dynamic Resistance . 4. Material of the diode: Depending on the cut in and break down voltages as
U U

RS

mA
VD

REVERSE BIAS

How to choose the diode? The zener break down voltage should not exceed the maximum voltage supplied by the D.C. source. As a rule of thumb, the difference between maximum voltage of the source and the break down voltage of the diode must be greater than at least 5V. If the D.C. source has maximum voltage of 15 Volt, we can use zener diodes of break down voltages up to 10V. The power rating of the diode is specified by the manufacturer. If we want

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY II

more current through the diode, we must use high power rated diodes. In our lab we use either half watt or one watt rated zener diodes. Their voltage ratings usually vary from 5V to 13V. How to recognize its polarity? There will be a ring (band) on the cathode side it will be the negative of diode and obviously the other one will be positive of diode. If the band is not visible, you can test it with a multi-meter. How to test a diode with a multi-meter? There will be a diode symbol on the multi-meter dial knob. Turn it to the diode testing mode. Join the positive (red probe) of multi-meter to one end of the diode and the negative (black probe) to the other end of diode. If the meter shows a low resistance of say few hundred, it means that the diode is forward biased, i.e. the leg of diode connected to positive (red probe) is its positive and vice versa. If the multi-meter shows an infinite resistance, it means that it is in reverse bias, i.e. the leg of diode connected to the positive (red probe) of multimeter is its cathode (negative) and vice versa. How to check whether a diode is working or spoiled? To check whether the diode is working or spoiled use the multimeter test as described above. If the diode shows very low resistance in both directions, it is spoiled. If it shows high resistance only in one direction, it is in good condition. What is the function of series resistance RS? R S is used for limiting (controlling) the current through diode. The value of this resistor can be decided by the power rating of the diode. How to measure the current? In our lab we have milli ammeters of 0 50 and 0-100 range. We can also use the digital multimeter (DMM) in current measuring mode. Fixing the values of components: Apply KVL to the forward bias circuit.
R R R R

Or

This will tell us the maximum current the diode can withstand when a voltage of V D is applied to it. The resistor must be capable of controlling the current to this threshold value. As a rule of thumb, we restrict our self to a threshold current value which is much lower than the value predicted by the above expression for i max . If the predicted value is say 90 mA, then we restrict to of this value, say 20 to 25 mA. Take this value as i max . This is to ensure the durability of the diode. If the applied maximum voltage by the D.C. source is say 20 V, then
R R R R R R

(In forward bias) Suppose that the zener is a half watt rated. Then, . Hence it can withstand 700 mA. But our milli ammeter has only 50 or 100 mA range, it is better to restrict up to 30 mA in forward bias. So, I max is 0.03Amp. Hence, or . The nearest standard resistance value is 680. The power rating of the resistor can be calculated using . Suppose that the maximum current goes up to 30 mA in the resistor, then,
R R

Nearest standard wattage is 1 Watt. If we use a 1K resistor in place of 680, the current drops and even a 1K half watt resistor can withstand the maximum current. So, when we wish to reduce the resistance we must increase its power rating and vice versa. For reverse bias replace V D with the break down voltage of the zener diode, say 5.6V, watt rating, then, .
R R

So, restrict only to 25 mA. or , nearest standard value is 680. So it is better to use 680 or more in both forward and reverse biasing of the circuit.

During forward bias V D =0.7 V approximately for silicon diode. If the power rating of Zener is P, maximum current it can hold without being destroyed is i max , then,
R R R R

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ZENER DIODE V I CHARACTERISTICS EXPERIMENT Aim: 1. To study the volt ampere characteristics of the given zener diode. 2. To determine the Cut in, Break down and dynamic resistances of the diode from the characteristic curves. Apparatus: Zener diode (W), Resistors (1 K, W), Variable voltage D.C. power supply, milliammeter (0 50 or 100), Multimeter, bread board, connecting wires. Procedure: FORWARD BIAS: Circuit: RS 1. Connect the circuit in reverse bias as shown in the circuit diagram, i.e. just reverse the ends of the diode in the forward bias circuit. 2. Vary the potentiometer (knob on the power supply) and apply various voltages to the diode in steps of 1 volt starting from zero. 3. Note the value of current in milli ampere as shown by the ammeter (initially you wouldnt get any current, note them as zero). 4. At a characteristic voltage known as Break down voltage, you will get a sudden raise in the current through the diode. Observe this carefully and note down the value. 5. From here onwards note down the voltage that you observe across the diode as function of current through diode in steps of 2 mA by varying the potentiometer.
U U U U

4. From here onwards note down the voltage that you observe across the diode as function of current through diode in steps of 2 mA by varying the potentiometer. REVERSE BIAS: Circuit: RS

mA
VD

REVERSE BIAS

mA
VD

FORWARD BIAS

1. Construct the circuit on bread board according to the circuit diagram for forward bias. Zener diode has a black band on it. It shows the cathode of diode. 2. Vary the potentiometer (knob on the power supply) and apply various voltages to the diode in steps of 0.1 Volt . Note the current in milli ampere as shown by the ammeter. 3. Initially, there will be no current through the diode up to a characteristic voltage, known as Cut-In voltage. Note values of current until this characteristic voltage as zero. Observe carefully for this voltage and note it down.
U U

Graph: Plot a graph by taking the current through diode versus voltage across diode both for forward and reverse biases. Split the graph into four quadrants. Choose the scale on voltage axis (horizontal) as 1 division = 0.1Volt on the positive side and 1 division = 1 volt on the negative side. Choose the scale on current axis (vertical) as 1division = 1 mA on both positive and negative sides. From each curve on first and third quadrants, calculate the slope of the graph near cut in and break down points. These slopes will give the dynamic conductances of diode. Inverse of conductance gives the dynamic resistance of the diode.
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Precautions: 1. Do not short the ends of the power supply. This will damage your power supply. 2. Connections on the breadboard must be tight. Avoid loose contacts. 3. Check the polarity of diode carefully. 4. Do not connect the diode without current limiting resistor. This will burn out the diode in any bias.
U U

Viva voce questions: 1. What is the basic application of a zener diode? It is used as a voltage regulator. 2. I have a silicon made zener diode with V Z =5.2V connected in reverse bias with a series resistor of 100 and a variable D.C. source of 0-20V. Estimate the maximum current flowing in the circuit. Determine the current in the circuit if the diode direction is reversed. Suggest the minimum power ratings for both zener diode and resistor in both connections. In reverse bias,
R R

For resistor, Voltage drop across it will be 105.6= 4.4V

For diode, For resistor, . In forward bias, for Silicon V Z = 0.7 V

R R

For diode, For resistor, . 3. Design a voltage regulating circuit which drives a cell phone charging unit with required output at 5.6 Volt, 300mA with input voltage of 10 Volt D.C. RS

10V

5.6

I max for the zener is 300mA, i.e. 0.3A. Zener voltage rating is 5.6V, for diode,
R R

; This circuit will work with a load (cell phone) of resistance greater than 18.66 . If the load resistance is further reduced, the circuit will not work. 4. What do you mean by dynamic resistance? It is the resistance offered by the diode due to the changes occurred in input voltage. Static resistance of a diode refers to a fixed resistance at a fixed voltage. But dynamic resistance is some kind of average resistance offered by the diode when the input voltage changes between two closely separated voltage levels. 5. Which bias would you suggest for operating the zener diode to exploit to maximum extent? Reverse bias only. 6. Can we use an ordinary PN junction diode to regulate the voltage instead of a Zener diode? Justify your answer. Yes, Junction diode offers a forward drop of about 0.7 Volt (for silicon). Hence by using a combination of forward biased diodes we can achieve voltage regulation even in forward bias. A serial combination of two forward biased silicon diodes will provide a forward drop of 1.4V. 7. What is the basic difference between Zener break down and avalanche breakdown? Zener break down is due to the breaking of bonds in the depletion region because of applied external reverse voltage. Avalanche breakdown is due to the rupture of bonds in depletion region by the collisions of minority carriers that are accelerated by the applied reverse voltage. As the temperature increases, the minority carrier concentration also increases, giving more chance for avalanche breakdown.

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References: 1. Electronic devices and circuits Discrete and integrated, Stephen Fleeman, Prentice hall, Art. 2-8, zener and avalanche diodes, p.32-36 (taken verbatim). 2. Electronic devices, 9 th Ed, Thomas L Floyd, Prentice hall, unit-3, special purpose diodes, p.113-126. 3. Electronic devices and circuit theory, R. Boylestad, 7 th ed, Prentice hall publications, Art, semiconductor diode p.10.
P P P P

STEWART AND GEE APPARATUS MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF CIRCULAR CURRENT CONDUCTOR THEORY: Biot Savarts Law: Consider a current carrying conductor (of arbitrary orientation) as shown in figure. It carries a current of I. The magnetic field at a point P at distance from an element of the conductor will be given by | | | |
P P

The angle between the ds and r is 90 0 . So,

| | Here is the angle between the radius vector r and the length element ds. , is the free space permeability constant. Direction of magnetic field is in the direction of the cross product of ds and r, given by right hand screw rule. Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop: Consider a circular wire loop of radius R located in the yz plane and carrying a steady current I, as shown in Figure. We are going to calculate the magnetic field at an axial point P at a distance x from the center of the loop. Consider element of the wire. Using Biot savarts law, the field at P due to this will be
20

And its direction is indicated in the figure. Also from the figure the angle between vector r and the y axis (smaller angle side) is . So, makes an angle with the x direction. Its components along X and Y directions are and respectively. When we consider the entire elements of the loop, their y components will cancel with each other due to the circular symmetry of the coil and only the x components survive. So, the total field at P due to all elements will be, Throughout the loop the values of and r remains unchanged and hence can be taken outside the integral. is the circumference of the coil. From the figure, Therefore,

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If the coil contains n number of turns, then the field gets multiplied by that factor.

magnetic meridian, then there will be two mutually perpendicular magnetic fields, one in the North South direction (Earth) and the other in the East West direction (coil). If we use a magnetic compass near the coil (which is already set in magnetic meridian), it will experience a torque due to the action of the two magnetic fields and will settle ultimately in the resultant direction of the two fields. H = 0.38 Oersted or 0.38 X 10 - 4 Tesla By measuring we can estimate the experimental value of using the above relation. What is the coil? A circular frame holding the coil of variable number of turns is mounted vertically on a platform. The platform can be adjusted to make it horizontal with the help of two leveling screws. The set up has 2 turns, 50 turns and 500 turns of coil for experimenting. We use only the 50 turn coil. How to set up the current in the coil? Using a fixed voltage D.C. source. How to measure the current? Using an ammeter of 0 3 Amp range. How to vary the current the circuit? By using a 20 Rheostat. Why to adjust the current? As we measure the magnetic field as a function of angle, it is necessary to restrict our self to some fixed range (30 0 -60 0 ). Hence it is required to adjust the current to get the desired value of deflection . Why to restrict only to 30 0 -60 0 range? When using the instrument it is important to adjust matters so that the deflection is never outside the range 25 to 65 and preferably it should be between 30 and 60. This is because the value of is to be used in the form tan and an effect which can be called 'error magnification' arises. The matter will be made clear by considering the following examples: Suppose the deflection can only be observed with an accuracy of half a degree. Let us consider how this possible error will affect the values of the tangents of deflections 10. tan 10 30' = 0.1853 and tan 9 30' = 0.1673 thus tan 10 30' - tan 9 30' = 0.0180. Now tan 10 00' = 0.1763.Thus an observation of = 10 0.5 leads to a statement that tan = 0.1763 0.0090. This represents a possible error of over 5% in tan .
P P P P P P P P P P

The direction of this is always either parallel or anti parallel to the axis of the coil. The field B at the centre of the coil can be obtained by putting x = 0,

At

,
( )

Hence, the field B falls to times of its maximum value B o at the center. We can use this point to calculate the radius of the coil, without measuring it physically with a scale, from the experiment.
R R

DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: The variation in B along the axis of the circular coil can be studied experimentally with the help of a Tangent Galvanometer. How to measure B? The coil will produce a magnetic field . There is a huge EARTH magnet that will produce another field , known as the horizontal component of Earths magnetic field. The plane containing the axis of the hypothetical Earth bar magnet is called the MAGNETIC MERIDIAN.

If we place the plane of the coil in the

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STEWART AND GEE APPARATUS EXPERIMENT AIM: To study the variation in magnetic field with distance along the axis of circular current carrying conductor. APPARATUS: Stewart and Gee type galvanometer, battery (D.C. Source 2 Volt - 1Amp), commutator, rheostat, Ammeter and connecting wires. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: magnetic compass consists of a small magnet and an aluminum pointer is fixed perpendicular to the small magnet situated at the center of the compass. The circular scale in the magnetic compass is divided into four quadrants to read the angles from 0 to 90 and 90 0 to 0 0 . A plane mirror is fixed below the pointer such that the deflections can be observed without parallax.
P P P P

PROCEDURE: 1. The circuit should be connected as shown in the diagram. 2. Remove the power connection applied to the circuit. 3. Place the compass exactly at the centre of the coil. 4. Adjust the arms of the magnetometer until the pointer of compass becomes parallel to it. Rotate the compass until the pointer reads 0 0 -0 0 . 5. Suppose that the coil is placed in magnetic meridian and switch on the power to circuit. It will show some deflection. Carefully adjust the rheostat and bring the deflection to 60 0 -60 0 . 6. Interchange the plug keys of the commutator and reverse the current direction in the coil. Note down the deflections of compass. 7. If your coil is exactly in magnetic meridian, then the readings of compass should not differ by more than 5 from their previous values, before interchanging the commutator. If this is not satisfied, once again turn off the power and make the pointer parallel to the magnetometer and repeat this until you get all four deflections within 5 0 variation. 8. Move the compass to 10 cm distance on both east and west directions on the magnetometer and obtain the deflections with both directions of current. 9. If all the eight deflections that you have obtained in above case lie within 5 0 , you can start taking deflections at various positions. Now the instrument should not be disturbed while moving the compass . Otherwise repeat the adjustment by disconnecting the power.
P P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U

2 VOLT D.C.

Rh (20)
S.G. coil

0 to 3 Amp

FORMULA:

Where 0 = 4 X 10 -7 Henry/meter n = No. of turn in the coil i = Current flowing through the circuit x = Distance of the magnetic compass from the center of the coil a = Radius of the coil. If x and a are expressed in centimeter, then the resultant expression will be
R R P P

In gauss, the same formula will be,

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT: It consists of a circular coil in a vertical plane fixed to a horizontal frame at its middle point. The ends of the coil are connected to binding screws. A magnetic compass is arranged such that it can slide along the horizontal scale passing through the center of the coil and is perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The
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10. Start at 0 cm position and obtain four deflections. Vary the position to 2 cm either East or West and obtain four more readings. Tabulate them. 11. Proceed in the same way at 2, 4, 6. cm on both East and West until the deflection falls less than 20 0 . Tabulate the readings.
P P

PRECAUTIONS: 1. The Stewart and Gee apparatus should not be disturbed after the adjustments. 2. Observations are noted down without parallax. 3. The ammeter and rheostat should be kept far away from the deflection magnetometer Tan

Graph: A graph is plotted taking distance of the compass from the center of the coil along X-axis and tan along Y-axis. The shape of the curve is as shown in the figure and is symmetric about Y-axis. The magnetic field is found to be maximum at the center of the coil. The radius of the coil a is determined by measuring its circumference. The current flowing through the circuit i and the number of turns in the coil n are noted. The value of magnetic induction is calculated from the above formula and is compared with the experimental formula B = H tan .

East 0 West Position of compass

Viva-Voce questions: 7. What is the function of rheostat in this 1. What are the magnetic forces acting on experiment? To vary the current in the circuit and to the compass when it is mounted on the bring the deflection to desired value. axis of the coil? Mention their directions. The forces are, due to Earths magnetic 8. Can you determine the radius of the coil field along the geographic north direction without measuring it with a scale? and due to coil along either east or west Yes, consider the tan vs. position graph. direction. Maximum value of tan is obtained at the 2. What is the direction of the magnetic centre. Calculate the value of . field produced by the coil? Draw a horizontal line intersecting the tan Along East or West, i.e. perpendicular to axis at this value. The line intersects the the plane of the coil. graph (curve) at two different points. The 3. Why do we adjust the maximum Tan deflection at 60 ? To restrict the error in the measurement of and hence in the tan to less than 5%, we always adjust the maximum deflection to 60. 4. State Biot-Savarts law. Refer to text. East 2R West 5. Define magnetic meridian. It is the plane containing the axis of the graphical distance between these two points earths hypothetical bar magnet. will give the diameter of the coil and half 6. Why the ammeter should be placed far of it will give the required radius of the away from the coil? coil. If it is sufficiently close to the coil, its horse shoe magnet will influence the resultant deflection of the compass which is an undesirable effect. REFERENCES: 1. Advanced level physics, Nelkon and parker, magnetic fields due to conductors, p.935 2. Fundamentals of physics, Resnick, Halliday, Walker, 7 th ed, Example 30.3, p.942 (for fig).
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A B
1 2 3 4 5 6

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY II

A B

E F

E F

VERTICAL BUSES

VERTICAL BUSES

7.56 57 58 59 60 .

661 62 63 64 65 66 67.

120

C D

C D

G H

G H

BREAD BOARD: The figure shows sets of five holed boxes. Each hole in a five hole box has METAL CONTACT with the remaining four holes in that box. HORIZONTAL BUSES: The series of holes on the top and bottom parts of the bread board are called horizontal buses. For indexing purpose they were named as A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H in the figure. IN PRACTICAL BREAD BOARD YOU WILL NOT FIND ANY SUCH NAMING. A bus: The five hole pairs are joined to each other by a metal strip on the back side of bread board. If you insert a battery positive lead in any of the holes in A bus, the other holes will also have the same potential. Similarly the buses B, C, D, E, F, G and H also have the same hole connections. The above said eight horizontal buses are independent of each other, i.e. A and B do not have any connection, similarly A and E ; B and F etc, are not connected. USUALLY THE A BUS IS RESERVED FOR POSITIVE OF THE D.C. SUPPLY. SIMILARLY C BUS IS RESERVED FOR GROUND (NEGATIVE OF D.C. SUPPLY)
U U

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY II

VERTICAL BUSES: The five holed buses numbered as 1, 2,29,3058,59,60,.120 in the fig. are called VERTICAL BUSES. There is a metal strip on the back side of five holes in each vertical bus. Hence there is no connection between 1 and 2 buses. This is same for all other vertical buses. Hence if we insert any component lead in a vertical bus, the remaining four holes will come in contact with the component. There are two rows of such vertical buses in the middle of the bread board in between the horizontal buses. Vertical buses are used for inserting the components like resistors, capacitors and ICs.

A bus is reserved for +ve of the power supply. C bus is reserved for -ve of the power supply, this is also known as ground bus. If the circuit is complex and has many more power supplies, say, a circuit may run with 18 V, 12 V and 9V power supplies with common ground (-ve), we can use the B, E, F, D, G, H buses for those power points. Sometimes many connections are made with a single power point. In that case we can join the A and E buses with a (jumper) wire to use the entire top line as power bus +V CC . Similarly we can join C and G buses for having a long ground bus. If the circuit is much more complex, then we join two or more bread boards together to provide more space for the extra components. But the rule of making a circuit is that its layout must be very clear and understandable to any other person and at the same time it should use minimum space on the bread board.
R R

COMPONENTS AND THEIR CIRCUIT SYMBOLS:

PN JUNCTION DIODE

BATTERY/ D.C. SOURCE

VARIABLE VOLTAGE D.C. SOURCE

GROUND
ZERO POTENTIAL

RESISTOR
(FIXED RESISTANCE)

POTENTIOMETER (VARIABLE RESISTANCE)

Temperature Sensitive Resistor

ZENER DIODE

CAPACITOR
(NON-ELECTROLYTIC)

NO POLARITY, CAN BE USED IN BOTH WAYS

CAPACITOR
(ELECTROLYTIC) HAS POLARITY RHEOSTAT

GALVANOMETER

MICRO AND MILLI AMMETERS

AMMETER

+
INDUCTOR

_
mA

_ + _

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY II

KIRCHHOFFS LAWS (KCL AND KVL): 1. CURRENT RULE OR JUNCTION RULE (KCL): The i2 algebraic sum of all currents meeting at any junction (node) of a i1 circuit is zero. The convention of current direction is that the current is positive if it moves towards the given node or junction and it will be negative, if it moves away from the junction. Here i 1 is positive as the current is approaching the node and the other i3 currents i 2 , i 3 are negative as they move away from the node. 2. VOLTAGE RULE OR LOOP RULE (KVL): The algebraic sum of the voltage drops in any closed loop of the given circuit is zero. It means, V AD +V BA +V CB +V DC = 0. A B i V AD means the potential at point A with respect to the point D. So, V AD = +10. Similarly V DA = 10. 10V Convention: Assume an arbitrary direction in the given loop, i.e. say ABCD. If you are travelling from A to C B, the potential drop will be V AB , equal to V D , the D voltage drop across the diode in forward bias. This is because the voltage at B is less than the voltage at A by a value equal to the forward cut in voltage of the diode (V D ). Similarly from B to C, V BC =+ i R L (by using Ohms law). If you are travelling from C to B, then it will be i R L . Similarly, V CD = +V C , the voltage across the capacitor. If the capacitor is charged, then the positive plate will be at high potential than the negative plate by the value of applied voltage. Hence, the equation will be, +10 V D i R L +V C = 0. If we travel from D to A along DCBA path, then the equation will be, V C + i R L + V D 10 = 0. Hence both equations are one and the same.
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

COLOUR CODES FOR CARBON RESISTORS

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY II

BROWN 1

BLACK 0

RED 2
Third colour band indicates the number of ZEROs.

Error: Gold 5%

The first two colour bands represent the first two digits

Resistance of above resistor will be 10 with two zeros, i.e. 1000 . Gold band indicates 5% error. i.e. 50. Resistance will be (100050) . If you measure the resistance you will find it lying between 950 and 1050

Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Tolerance: (Error in the mentioned value of resistance) No colour : 20% Gold colour : 5% Silver colour : 10%

B B R O Y of Great Britain has Very Good Wife

REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. ELECTRONIC DEVICES 9 th Ed; Thomas L. Floyd; Unit -2, Diodes and applications; Prentice Hall publications. 2. ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS; Jacob millman and Christos Halkias. Mc. Grawhill publications.
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ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY II

LEAST SQUARE FIT

(FITTING THE DATA TO A STRAIGHT LINE) To fit the given data to a straight line the following process is to be adopted. Define a parameter called Residue The standard deviation S of the data point (x i , y i ) from its average value ( , ) will be
R R R R

To minimize the deviation with respect to the constants m and c to have a best fit,

After solving the equations we get and After solving for m and c gives

Where,
R R R R P P

And

If the given function is a polynomial of the form y = x m , then use natural logarithm to transform it in to a linear equation containing logarithmic variables and proceed in the same manner as described above.
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 error in 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 tan () 0.176327 0.267949 0.36397 0.466308 0.57735 0.700208 0.8391 1 1.191754 1.428148 1.732051 2.144507 2.747477 3.732051 5.671282 tan (+0.5) 0.185339 0.277325 0.373885 0.476976 0.589045 0.713293 0.854081 1.017607 1.213097 1.455009 1.767494 2.1943 2.823913 3.866713 5.975764 tan (- 0.5) 0.167343 0.258618 0.354119 0.455726 0.565773 0.687281 0.824336 0.982697 1.17085 1.401948 1.697663 2.096544 2.674621 3.605884 5.395517 % error in tan 5.103143 3.490766 2.715347 2.278461 2.015435 1.857457 1.772394 1.745506 1.77249 1.857676 2.015844 2.279222 2.716881 3.494454 5.115662

refers to the average values of all x i and y i respectively.

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Expt. No

ROLL NO:
Date: ..

BAND GAP OF EXTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTOR USING PN JUNCTION DIODE DATA SHEET
Temperature In C (TC) T (Kelvin) = TC + 273 Current (I) A = ln(I)= ( )2

Total number of observations of made N=

Average =

Average =

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS II LAB

Expt. No

ROLL NO:
Date: ..

Temperature in 0 C

Resistance in

THERMISTOR CHARACTERISTICS DATA SHEET Tempera Xi= Yi= ture in K 1/T (K-1) ln R

Total number of observations of made N=

Average =

Average

From TABLE:

B=

A=

From GRAPH:

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS II LAB

Expt. No

ROLL NO:
Date: ..

RC CIRCUIT TIME CONSTANT DATA SHEET CHARGING PROCESS Resistance Capacitance

Time in sec

R C

= =

RC (Theoretical) Voltage of D.C. source V

Time in sec

= =

VOLTAGE ACROSS
CAPACITOR

VOLTAGE ACROSS
CAPACITOR

VC (in volt)

VC (in volt)

FROM GRAPH: Slope of the graph:

Value from graph =

TIME INTERVAL:
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ENGINEERING PHYSICS II LAB

Expt. No

ROLL NO:
Date: ..

RC CIRCUIT TIME CONSTANT DATA SHEET DISCHARGING PROCESS Resistance Capacitance

Time in sec

R C

= =

RC (Theoretical) Voltage of D.C. source V

Time in sec

= =

VOLTAGE ACROSS
CAPACITOR

VOLTAGE ACROSS
CAPACITOR

VC (in volt)

VC (in volt)

FROM GRAPH: Slope of the graph:

Value from graph =

TIME INTERVAL:
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ENGINEERING PHYSICS II LAB

Expt. No

ROLL NO:
Date: ..

FORWARD BIAS Current limiting resistor RS= Ammeter Reading Voltage (in volt) across
RESISTOR (SUPPLY)

ZENER DIODE DATA SHEET REVERSE BIAS Current limiting resistor RS= Ammeter Reading ID (mA) Voltage (in volt) across
RESISTOR (SUPPLY)

ZENER DIODE

VD

VR

ID (mA)

ZENER DIODE

VD

VR

FROM GRAPH: FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS: CUT IN VOLTAGE (V) : SLOPE OF V I GRAPH IN FORWARD BIAS FORWARD DYNAMIC RESISTANCE

REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS: BREAK DOWN VOLTAGE OR ZENER VOLTAGE (VZ): SLOPE OF V I GRAPH IN BREAK DOWN REGION ZENER RESISTANCE IN BREAK DOWN REGION

Material of diode may be..

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS II LAB

Expt. No

ROLL NO:
Date: ..

STEWART AND GEE APPARATUS

Current through the coil i = .. Ampere Circumference of the coil =
Sl.
Distance

DATA SHEET Horizontal component of earths field H = 0.38 Oersted radius (a) =

No

East

Deflection magnetometer readings E

Tan E

West

Tan W

tan

H tan

Bexp=

BTh

Radius of the coil from the Graph =

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