TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODOLOGIES FOR TEACHING & LEARNING

I. Traditional Teaching strategies Lecturing Discussion Questioning Using audio-visuals

II. Activity based strategies Cooperative learning Simulations Problem based learning Self-learning modules

III. Computer teaching strategies Computer-assisted instructions Internet Virtual reality IV. Distance learning Interactive television Classes via internet

V. Teaching psychomotor skills Approaches Assessment of pscyhomotor skills learning VI. Clinical Teaching Purpose of clinical laboratory Models of clinical teaching Preparation of clinical instruction Conducting a clinical laboratory research

I. TRADITIONAL
1 Lecturing 2. Discussion 3. Questioning 4. Using Audio-visual

1. LECTURING

TYPES OF LECTURES
1. TRADITIONAL ORAL ESSAY

The teacher is the orator and ONLY speaker Expositions done on topic inspirational or information

2. PARTICIPATORY LECTURE
> Begins w/ brainstorming from what students read

3. LECTURE W/ UNCOMPLETED HANDOUTS

Resembles

traditional oral essay but w/ handouts (blank spaces)

4. FEEDBACK LECTURE
> Consists of mini-lectures interspaced w/ 10 minute small group discussions

5. MEDIATED LECTURE uses

media such as films, slides or Web based images + traditional lecture

PURPOSES OF LECTURES

1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Efficient means of introducing learners to new topic and sets the stage of learning Stimulates learners interest Helps to integrate and synthesize a large body of knowledge For clarification of difficult parts (arrythmia, acid-base balances) To advance knowledge when textbooks are not available

ADVANTAGES OF LECTURING
1. 2. 3. 4.

It is economical. Great deal of information shared. Supplies and textbooks become true to life theater Teacher serves as model students see a creative mind at work Helps students develop their listening abilities

DISADVANTAGES OF LECTURING
1. 2.

3. 4.

Puts learners in the PASSIVE ROLE of a sponge Focuses on the TEACHING OF FACTS with little focus on PS, DM, analytical thinking or transfer of learning results in SURFACE learning Does not meet students individual learning needs Students have little attention time span (15 minutes)

ORGANIZING LECTURES

Take time to plan for the objective of a lecture Make an outline HEIRARCHICAL/CLASSICAL LECTURE Ex. Research Design

Ex.

Research Design I. Why we need different research design II. Research Design: A. Research (clinical trials) > Quasi-experimental > Pre-experimental B. Correlation > Ex-post facto > Restrospective

III. Validity and Reliability of Design

DELIVERING THE LECTURE

Plan

your delivery Rehearse Consciously think of the delivery to maximize effectiveness

2. DISCUSSIONS

TYPES OF DISCUSSIONS
1. FORMAL DISCUSSIONS Announced topic Reading, watching movie done in advance 2. INFORMAL DISCUSSIONS Spontaneous

PURPOSES & ADVANTAGES

1. 2.

3.
4.

Learns problem solving method (groups) Opportunity to apply principles, concepts & theories Clarifies information & concepts Assists to evaluate beliefs/positions (professional, societal or ethical issues) > change in attitudes & values

DISADVANTAGES
1. 2. 3.

Takes a lot of time One person/few participants (monopolies) Gathering of uninformed opinions

DISCUSSION TECHNIQUES
1.

Make expectations clear. Students know exactly what they have to do for discussion Ex. Chapter to read, watch a video

2. Set ground rules. > Limitations (e.g. time, no. of speakers, interruptions during speech)

3. Arrange physical space. Circle sitting arrangement 4. Plan a discussion starter. Ask participants to come up with opening questions Study questions handed out prior to meeting

5. Facilitate, do not discuss. Refrain from talking. Watch group progress. Keep everyone engage in discussions. 6. Encourage quiet members to participate. Make eye contact and smile. Give direct, simple questions: Mary, what do you think?

7. Dont allow monopolies. Eye contact. Be blunt when needed.. Weve been hearing a lot fro Sarah. Now, let us hear of the rest of you think. 8. Direct the discussion among group members. > Leaders facilitate.

9. Keep the discussion on track. We seem to have strayed a little fro our topic. Lets pick up on the last topic that Lot was talking about. 10. Clarify when confusion reigns. > Recording may help the group. Let them learn the act of clear selfexpression.

11. Tolerate some silence. Silence gives everyone a chance to think. 12. Summarize when appropriate.

3. QUESTIONING
Can
Ask

be a teaching strategy

questions higher order thinking

FUNCTIONS OF QUESTIONS
Places the learners in an active role Simple recall Helps students analyze concepts Evaluate worth of ideas Speculate if 2. Assesses baseline knowledge retention
1.

3. Helps review content enlightens gray

areas

4. Motivates students
Stimulates

thinking & curiosity

5. Guides learners thought process

LEVELS OF QUESTIONS
1. A.

According to WINK classification CONVERGENT Qs

specific, usually short & unexpected answers PURPOSE -- recall and integrate information Ex. What happens to the bronchioles when a client has pneumonia versus an asthma attack?

B. DIVERGENT Qs
Generates

new ideas, draws implications, formulates a new perspective Ex. What might happen if you relocate an elderly person with dementia to another type of residence where he or she is presently living?

2. According to BARDEN
A. LOWER-ORDER QUESTIONS

Recall information, read or memorize

B. HIGHER-ORDER QUESTIONS
> Requires comprehension and critical thinking

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

1. FACTUAL QUESTIONS

Requires simple recall questions Assess learners understanding To check if students are listening

2. PROBING QUESTIONS

Seeks further explanation Ex. Can you explain that?

3. MCQs
Tests

recall or used to begin a discussion

4. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
All

questions that request learners to construct an answer Ex. When shall you use clean versus sterile dressing technique?

5. DISCUSSION-STIMULATING Qs
Uses

various questions to promote the topic Ex. Do you agree with Johns position?

6. QUESTIONS THAT GUIDE PS Guides learners through problem solving thinking Ex. What information do you need to have before we can solve this problem?

7. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Stimulates

thinking Guides learners into asking some of their own questions

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
Supportive

teachers promote questioning

1. Prepare some questions ahead of time Match with objectives

2. State questions clearly and specifically > Ex. Can you give me an example of how respnodeat superior can be practiced?

3. Tolerate some silence. 4. Listen carefully to responses. Dont interrupt. 5. Use the beam, force, build technique. BEAM send Q to the class FORCE call one student at a time BUILD redirect the question to other students

6. Provide feedback. Allow a few seconds of silence and ask, Can anyone add to the answer?

7. Handle wrong answers carefully. I am sorry Edward but its not quite it. Yvette, you are correct in saying that ____, but that is not the best way to go.

STIMULATING LEARNERS TO ASK QUESTIONS

Learners

should be rewarded for asking good questions. Thinking is driven not by answers by good questioning.

HOW TO ENGAGE?
Thank or praise the student for asking questions. Talk to the whole class not only the questioner. This keeps the whole class / group involved.

4. USING VISUAL AIDS

enhance teaching Can add interest to the classroom
Can

ISSUES
Correct

choice? Available? Effective?

FACTORS TO CONSIDER: SELECTING MEDIA

1. Learning objectives Opt for variety 2. Availability of materials / technical assistance 3. Level, ability & number of students

TYPES OF TRADITIONAL AUDIOVISUALS

1.

HANDOUTS Printed materials communicate facts, figures, concepts Saves a lot of time for information

2. CHALKBOARDS/ WHITEBOARDS Useful for mathematical problems

3. OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES (OHP) Saves time, helps organize and illustrates content Costly 4. SLIDES > Used to show pictures, project diagrams, charts and word concepts

ADVANTAGES OF SLIDES: Affordable Easy to store Easy to update/ recognize DISADVANTAGES OF SLIDES: Costly projector bulbs dont last long

5. VIDEO TAPES In-house filming, video-clips Used during: 1) role playing; 2) communication; 3) counseling skills ADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPES: Provides personal touch Standardized exposure in spite of distance Used at learners own pacing

DISADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPES Costly Communication is one way learners become passive

SUMMARY: INTERACTIVE LEARNING

variety of techniques Change tactics every 15 to 20 minutes to recapture students interest
Combine

II. ACTIVITY BASED TEACHING STRATEGIES

1.

Cooperative learning
2.

Simulations

3. 4.

Problem based learning Self-learning modules

STRENGTH:
Students

are involved in creating and storing up knowledge for themselves

1. COOPERATIVE LEARNING

groups of learners work together toward achieving shared learning goal Learners are aware that they are responsible not only for their own learning but also for that of the others in the group.
Small

TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS

A. FORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP

Done in traditional class / distance learning groups Individual or group accountability Most useful in group setting

B. INFORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP

Can

be used in any setting Helps the members to understand and clarify misconceptions as well as to share experiences

C. BASE COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP surveys/focus groups Applied easily to new staff orientation or preceptor programs

ADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

critical thinking varied positions discussions --? Enhances social skill. Helps address learning needs & learning styles Members learn to function as a team.
Promotes

DISADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

> Does

not cover all content/ topics in syllabus

2. SIMULATIONS
representations of reality Exercises that learners engage in to learn in the real world
Controlled

PURPOSES & USES OF SIMULATIONS

1. 2. 3.

4.
5.

Enhances DM & PS skills Enhances interaction abilities Helps student learn psychomotor skills in a safe and controlled setting Chance to apply theories & principles in practice Achieves learning objectives communication skills

6. Ensures attitudinal change Helps discover factors affecting people & situations (exercise, game, role-playing) 7. Helps in mastery of skills 8. Helps evaluate learning (simulation tests)

ROLE OF EDUCATOR IN SIMULATION LEARNING

1. 2.

3.

Planner read carefully, assign reading Facilitator introduce activity, moderator Debriefer summarize what happened, let learners explain what they did and why, point out principles and theories applied

TYPES OF SIMULATIONS

1. SIMULATION EXERCISE
Focuses on process learning Ex. Earthquake drills, fire drills

2. SIMULATION GAMES
> Focuses on CONTENT / PROCESS learning

TYPES -- SIMULATION GAMES

A. CONTENT LEARNING

Focuses on teaching / reinforcing factual information (ex. Crosswords, word games, bingo gaes)

B. PROCESS LEARNING
> Emphasizes problem solving & application of information (ex. Sim City)

ADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES

Teaches

facts & application of information Stimulates learning makes learning

fun
Helps

to evaluate learning Increases interaction among learners

DISADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES

1.

2.
3.

Waste of time Unprofessional Teachers dislike competition which games promote

3. ROLE PLAYING
of drama spontaneous acting out of roles (interaction) Lasts for 3 to 5 minutes (illustrates one aspect of human relationship) Expression of non-verbal and verbal behavior, response patterns and implementation of principles
Form

4. CASE STUDIES > An analysis of an incident or situation on which characteristics and relationships are described, factual or hypothetical events transpire, and problems need to resolved or solved

Steps to follow in case studies: 1. Develop objectives What do you want

learners to learn?
2.
3.

Select a situation Choose a topic & a scenario

that fits the objectives & concept you want to apply. Develop the characters.

4. 5.

Develop the discussion questions. Lead the group discussion.

Note: There is NO ONE RIGHT ANSWER to a case. Many problems are so complex that they have a variety of resolutions rather than a solution.

3. PROBLEM BASED LEARNING

Involves

confronting students w/ real life situations enhances CT & DM

POINTS IN PBL!
SMALL GROUPS ANALYZE THE CASE IDENTIFY THEIR OWN NEEDS FOR INFORMATION SOLVE PROBLEMS. OUTPUT Students will become GOOD PROBLEM SOLVERS in their future work Students become LIFE LONG LEARNERS

DIFFERENCES
PBL
> CONDUCTED IN SMALL GROUPS
> STUDENTS HAVE LITTLE BACKGROUNDS KNOWLEDGE OF SUBJECT MATTER

CASE STUDIES
> USED BY INDIVIDUALS/GROUPS
> STUDENTS HVE MOST OF THE BACKGROUND LEARNING THEORY TO APPLY TO THE CASE

> CASES ARE USUALLY BRIEF & PRESENTING PROBLEMS ARE ILLSTRUCTURES

> CASES ARE OFTEN LONG & DETAILED, AND THEIR PROBLEMS ARE WELLDEFINED

Example of PBL
A small community hospital is confronted with a severe nursing shortage. They are considering a change in the nursing delivery system to a model that involves cross training of personnel and increased use of assistive personnel. Rumors about a change began to circulate around the hospital and many staff seem unhappy.

Identified issues by the group

I. a.

b.
c. d.

NURSING SHORTAGES How often do they occur? How severe do they get? What causes them? What past solutions have been tried and do they work?

II. NURSING CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM a. What is this one called? b. Is it being used anywhere? c. How would it work? d. What might cross-training involve? e. Are there published job descriptions for assistive personnel?

D.

known as A. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING MODULES B. SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULES C. SELF-LEARNING PACKETS INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKAGES

Also

4. SELF-LEARNING MODULES

DEFINITION OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES

A self-contained

unit or package of study materials for use by an individual Audience where this WORKS BEST: Adult learners

Principles in handling adult learners:

1. 2.

3.

Adults are self-motivated to learn (relevant) Adults prior experience is a resource for further learning. Adults are problem focused and readily learn material they can use to solve problems.

COMPONENTS OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES

1.

2.
3.

4.
5. 6.

Introduction and instructions Behavioral objectives Pretest Learning activity Self-evaluation Pretest

TIPS
1. INTRODUCTION & INSTRUCTIONS

Topic for module single topic Ex. Problem of elimination divide this into urinary elimination and intestinal elimination

2. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES

Expected of the learner Objectives over-all objectives / specific

3. PRETEST Optional Pretest diagnostic test / assesses prerequisite knowledge helps evaluate which sections of the module to skip and which ones need to be studied in depth

4. LEARNING ACTIVITIES Most creative portion Designed to help meet objectives Must appeal to people diff. learning styles Ex. Attending short lectures, speeches, demo Watching a video or slide Using a computer program

4. SELF-EVALUATION TOOLS
Assesses

how the students are achieving the

objectives

5. POSTTEST
A self

quiz (MCQ or short answer questions) Retake is okay Determines mastery

DEVELOPING A MODULE
Takes time (weeks/months) Begin with the body (behavioral objectives, pretest, learning activity, self-evaluation, posttest) Last to write introduction & instructions PILOT TESTING have one or two people work at the module for feedback (e.g. unclear objectives etc)

ADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES

flexible do it at your own pacing, done independently Individualized approach helps students Sparks interest in teaching creativity Standardized Reduces travel time Reduces costs
Very

DISADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES

Miss

interactions with people May lead to further procastination lack of structures and deadlines Promotes dishonesty Takes many hours to design and test

IV. COMPUTER TEACHING STRATEGIES

1. 2.

Computer Aided Instruction Computer Managed Instruction 3. Internet

1. COMPUTER-AIDED INSTRUCTION

LEVELS OF Computer Aided Instruction

1. Drill and Practice

Recognition and application of information Ex. Drugs names and actions

2. Tutorials

Useful teaching material at the rule/concept level Forces teachers from learning some basic material

3. Games
Game

mode can teach

4. Simulation
Provides

off real world experiences Provides chances to learn how to solve clinical problems

5. Multimedia presentations
Also

called hypermedia Older form: Interactive videodisc (IVD) program

EVALUATING SOFTWARE: CRITERIA

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Accuracy Up to date? Easy to use computer friendly? Design Interactive? Appearance Graphics? Animation & sound? Feedback rationale? Cost-effectiveness price? Discounts?

2. COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTION

 Any

system of record keeping Use of authoring systems pre-developed software packages that guide the educator t process of development of CAI

3. THE INTERNET
> A mammoth complex of computer connections across continents, connecting many millions of computers

1.

EMAIL (electronic)
Greater collaboration between teachers vs. students and between students vs. students Source of peer support Means to seek referrals, for consultation and for post-discharge follow-up
EX. LIST SERVS a group of people who have similar interests and want to share information and experience regarding their interest in a type of discussion groups

2. NEWS GROUPS
Discussions

groups of people with same interest Messages appear in general mailbox Ex. Sci.med.nursing group discussing all kinds of nursing issues (needs a news render softward) Also used for online support groups Ex. Groups for caregivers of Alzheimers disease

3. World Wide Web

A collection of documents found on Web pages A place to find specialized knowledge and multimedia presentations Ex. MEDLINE for National Library of Medicine

Criteria to choose WWW site 1. Purpose audience? 2. Currency 3. Credibility 4. Content accuracy 5. Design

ADVANTAGES IN HOSPITAL USE Provides home-based care support for the chronically ill Tool for patient care management part of hospital information system Provides patient teaching Supports mastery learning

> Maximizes time on task and helps develop overlearning (beyond mastery, responses becomes automatic) > Provides instant feedback > Develops cognitive residues (skills in researching skills in managing information) > Promotes interactivity, institutional consistency, individualized instruction, time efficiency and cost-effectiveness (savings)

DISADVANTAGES 1. High-cost initial outlay for hardware and software 2. Negative effect personal and professional communication