Laser (read the notes) Coherent: In phase Collimated: Same dir Monochromatic: 1 wavelength

Isotopes: Nuclei that have the same proton number but different number of neutrons. u: atomic mass unit; 1/12th of the mass of a 12C atom. Mass Defect m: The difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleon and the mass of the actual nucleus.

m = ( Zm p + Nmn ) m nucleus = ( Zm p + Nm n ) (m A Zme ) = Zm H + Nmn m A

BE = ( m ) c 2
Fe Coulomb repulsion > nuclear force U BE per nucleon

Conservation of Charge Momentum Mass-Energy Mass number

Fusion H

Fission

Radioactivity is the random and spontaneous decay of an unstable nucleus to a more stable one by emission of particles and/or radiation. Random: Dont know which and when a nucleus will decay Spontaneous: Not affected by other environmental factors Background radiation is systematic error.

Mass no, A

particlesHelium-4 nuclei High Ionising PowerAir range of 3 - 4cm Stopped by paper Low L hazard unless ingestedModerate Ionising Power High speeds (0.5c)Stopped by 5mm of Al Stopped by surface tissuesProduced when excited nuclei returns to ground S state Weak Ionising PowerStopped by few cm of lead Main radiation hazard due to deep penetration Cancer, leukemia, cataracts, hereditary defectsStore in lead containers when C not in use. Handle with a pair of tongs. H

dN = N dt N = N 0 e t A=

Decay Constant is the probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time. Where N is the no. of undecayed nuclei. N Constant half-life

dN = N = A0 e t Activity A, is the rate of decay. (Bq) Where A0 is the activity at t = 0. dt ln 2 t 12 = Half-life is the time it takes for half of N 1 = N0 2
n

a given no. of nuclei to decay.

Where n is the number of half-lives.